Digitized by 
 
 the Internet Archive 
 
 
 
 in 2013 
 
 
 
 http://archive.org/details/expressionofemotOOdarw_0 
 
THE 
 
 EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS 
 
 IN 
 
 MAN AND ANIMALS. 
 
 By CHAKLES DABWIN, M.A., F.K.S., &o. 
 
 WITH PHOTOGRAPHIC AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 m 
 
 DZZ 
 
 NEW TOEK: 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 649 & 651 BROADWAY. 
 
 1873. 
 
THE GETTY CENTER 
 LIBRARY 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction .. Pages 1-26 
 
 CHAP. I. — General Principles of Expression. 
 
 The three chief principles stated — The first principle — Serviceable 
 actions become habitual in association with certain states of the 
 mind, and are performed whether or not of service in each par- 
 ticular case — The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated 
 habitual movements in man — Reflex actions — Passage of habits 
 into reflex actions — Associated habitual movements in the lower 
 animals — Concluding remarks 27-49 
 
 CHAP. II. — General Principles of Expression — continued. 
 
 The Principle of Antithesis — Instances in the dog and cat — Origin 
 of the principle — Conventional signs — The principle of anti- 
 thesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously 
 performed under opposite impulses 50-65 
 
 CHAP. III. — General Principles of Expression — 
 concluded. 
 
 The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on 
 the body, independently of the will and in part of habit — 
 Change of colour in the hair — Trembling of the muscles — 
 Modified secretions — Perspiration — Expression of extreme pain 
 — Of rage, great joy, and terror — Contrast between the emotions 
 which cause and do not cause expressive movements — Exciting 
 and depressing states of the mind — Summary .. .. 66-82 
 
 CHAP. IV. — Means of Expression in Animals. 
 The emission of sounds — Vocal sounds — Sounds otherwise pro- 
 duced — Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c, 
 under the emotions of anger and terror — The drawing back ot 
 the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an expression 
 of anger — Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign ot 
 attention 83-115 
 
iv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. V. — Special Expressions of Animals. 
 
 The Dog, various expressive- movements of — Cats — Horses — 
 Ruminants — Monkeys, their expression of joy and affection — 
 Of pain — Anger — Astonishment and Terror .. Pages 116-146 
 
 CHAP. VI. — Special Expressions of Man : Suffering 
 and Weeping. 
 
 The screaming and weeping of infants — Form of features — Age at 
 which weeping commences — The effects of habitual restraint on 
 weeping — Sobbing — Cause of the contraction of the muscles 
 round the eyes during screaming — Cause of the secretion of 
 tears 147-177 
 
 CHAP. VII. — Low Spirits, Anxiety, Grief, . Dejection, 
 Despair. 
 
 General effect of grief on the system — Obliquity of the eye- 
 brows under suffering — On the cause of the obliquity of 
 - the eyebrows — On the depression of the corners of the 
 mouth 178-197 
 
 CHAP. VIII. — Joy, High Spirits, Love, Tender Feelings, 
 Devotion. 
 
 Laughter primarily the expression of joy — Ludicrous ideas — 
 Movements of the features during laughter — Nature of the 
 sound produced — The secretion of tears during loud laughter 
 — Gradation from loud laughter to gentle smiling — High 
 spirits — The expression of love — Tender feelings — De- 
 votion 198-221 
 
 CHAP. IX. — Eeflection— Meditation — Ill-temper — 
 Sulkiness — Determination. 
 
 The act of frowning — Reflection with an effort or with the per- 
 ception of something difficult or disagreeable — Abstracted medi- 
 tation — Ill-temper — Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness and 
 pouting — Decision or determination — The firm closure of the 
 mouth .. .. 222-238 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. X. — Hatred and Anger. 
 Hatred — Rage, effects of on the system — Uncovering of the teeth 
 — Rage in the insane — Anger and indignation — As expressed by 
 the various races of man — Sneering and defiance — 'The uncovering 
 of the canine tooth on one side of the face .. Pages 239-253 
 
 CHAP. XI. — Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — 
 Pride, etc. — Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation 
 and Negation. 
 
 Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed — Derisive smile 
 — Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust — Guilt, deceit, 
 pride, &c. — Helplessness or impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — 
 Shrugging the shoulders common to most of the races of man — 
 Signs of affirmation and negation 254-277 
 
 CHAP. XII. — Surprise — Astonishment — Fear — Horror. 
 Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Opening the 
 mouth — Protrusion of the lips — Gestures accompanying surprise 
 — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection of the hair — Contrac- 
 tion of the platysma muscle — Dilatation of the pupils — Horror 
 —Conclusion v 278-309 
 
 CHAP. XIII. — Self-attention — Shame — Shyness — 
 Modesty: Blushing. 
 
 Nature of a blush — Inheritance — The parts of the body most 
 affected — Blushing in the various races of man — Accompanying 
 gestures — Confusion of mind — Causes of blushing — Self- 
 attention, the fundamental element — Shyness — Shame, from 
 broken moral laws and conventional rules — Modesty — Theory 
 of blushing — Recapitulation .. 310-347 
 
 CHAP. XIV. — Concluding Remarks and Summary. 
 The three leading principles which have determined the chief move- 
 ments of expression — Their inheritance — On the part which 
 the will and intention have played in the acquirement of various 
 expressions — The instinctive recognition of expression — The 
 bearing of our subject on the specific unity of the races of man — 
 On the successive acquirement of various expressions by the 
 progenitors of man — The importance of expression — Conclusion 
 
 348-307 
 
i 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. Page. 
 
 1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell .. .. 24 
 
 2. „ „ „ Henle .. 24 
 
 3« 5) 55 5) )> 25 
 
 4. Small dog watching a cat on a table 43 
 
 5. Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions . . . . 52 
 
 6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind 53 
 
 7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog 54 
 
 8. Dog caressing his master 55 
 
 9. Cat. savage, and prepared to fight 58 
 
 10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind 59 
 
 11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine .. .. 93 
 
 12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens 98 
 
 13. Swan driving away an intruder 99 
 
 14. Head of snarling dog 118 
 
 15. Cat terrified at a dog 128 
 
 16. Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition 136 
 
 17. The same, when pleased by being caressed 136 
 
 18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky 141 
 
 19. Photograph of an insane woman 296 
 
 20. Terror 299 
 
 21. Horror and Agony 306 
 
 Plate L to face page 148. Plate V. to face page 255. 
 
 ,, IL ,, 180. ,, VI. „ 264. 
 
 ,, III. 202. ,, VII. ,, 300. 
 
 ,, IV. ,, 250. 
 
 N.B. — Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have 
 been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original 
 negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. 
 Nevertheless they are faithful copies, and are much superior for 
 my purpose to any drawing, however carefully executed. 
 
ON THE EXPKESSION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. 
 
 INTEODUCTIOJST. 
 
 Many works have been written on Expression, but a 
 greater number on Physiognomy, — that is, on the 
 recognition of character through the study of the per- 
 manent form of the features. With this latter subject 
 I am not here concerned. The older treatises, 1 which 
 I have consulted, have been of little or no service 
 to me. The famous ' Conferences ' 2 of the painter Le 
 Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient 
 work, and contains some good remarks. Another some- 
 what old essay, namely, the 'Discours,' delivered 
 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Cam- 
 per, 3 can hardly be considered as having made any 
 marked advance in the subject. The following works, 
 on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration. 
 
 1 J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the 1 Philosophical 
 Transactions ' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one old authors who 
 have written on Expression. 
 
 2 ' Conferences sur l'exprcssion des differents Caracteres des Passions/ 
 Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of the • Con- 
 ferences ' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, 
 as given in vol. ix. p. 257. 
 
 3 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les 
 diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 
 
2 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in 
 physiology, published in 1806 the first edition, and in 
 1844 the third edition of his ' Anatomy and Philosophy 
 of Expression.' \ He may with justice be said, not 
 only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a 
 branch of science, but to have built up a noble struc- 
 ture. His work is in every way deeply interesting; it 
 includes graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and 
 is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that 
 his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate 
 relation which exists between the movements of expres- 
 sion and those of respiration. One of the most im- 
 portant points, small as it may at first appear, is 
 that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily' 
 • contracted during violent expiratory efforts, in order 
 to protect these delicate organs from the pressure of 
 the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated 
 for me with the greatest kindness by Professor Honders 
 of Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood 
 of light on several of the most important expressions of 
 the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell's 
 work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several 
 foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, 
 for instance by M. Lemoine, 5 who with great justice 
 says : — " Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait etre medite par 
 " quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme, 
 " par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, 
 " car, sous une apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte 
 " de l'esthetique, c'est un des plus beaux monu- 
 
 4 I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published 
 after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections. The 
 first edition of 1806 is much interior in merit, and does not include 
 some of his more important views. 
 
 5 ' De la Physionomie et de la Parole/ par Albert Lemoine, 1865, 
 p. 101. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 " merits de la science des rapports du physique et du 
 " moral." 
 
 From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir 
 C. Bell did not attempt to follow out his views as 
 far as they might have been carried. He does not try 
 to explain why different muscles are brought into action 
 under different emotions ; why, for instance, the inner 
 ends of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the 
 mouth depressed, by a person suffering from grief or 
 anxiety. 
 
 In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater 
 on Physiognomy, 6 in which he incorporated several 
 of his own essays, containing excellent descriptions of 
 the movements of the facial muscles, together with 
 many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very 
 little light on the philosophy of the subject. For in- 
 stance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of frowning, 
 that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by 
 
 6 ' L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c, par G. Lavater. The 
 earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the edition of 
 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M. Moreau. is 
 said to have been published in 1807 ; and I have no doubt that this is cor- 
 rect, because the ' Notice sur Lavater ' at the commencement of volume i. 
 is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works, however, the 
 date of 1805-1809 is given ; but it seems impossible that 1805 can 
 be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks (' Mecanisme de la Physionomie 
 Humaine,' 8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and 'Archives Generales de Me'decine,' 
 Jan. et Fe'v. 1862) that M. Moreau " a compost pour son ouvrage un 
 article important," &c, in the year 1805 ; and I find in volume i. of the 
 edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and 
 another January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred 
 to. In consequence of some of these passages having thus been com- 
 posed in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over 
 Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. 
 This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific- 
 works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in com- 
 parison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from 
 M. Moreau aid from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases 
 from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, torn. iv. p. 228, and torn. ix. p. 279. 
 
4 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 French writers the sour oilier (corrugator supercilii), 
 remarks with truth : — " Cette action des sourciliers est 
 " un des symptomes les plus tranches de Pexpression 
 " des affections penibles ou concentrees." He then 
 adds that these muscles, from their attachment and 
 position, ar,e fitted " a resserrer, a concentrer les princi- 
 rt paux traits de la face, comme ilconvient dans toutes 
 " ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans 
 " ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'orga- 
 " nisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et 
 " a samoindrir, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de 
 " surface a des impressions redoutables ou importunes.' , 
 He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any- 
 light on the meaning or origin of the different expres- 
 sions, takes a very different view of the subject to 
 what I do. 
 
 In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, 
 advance in the philosophy of the subject, beyond that 
 reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in de- 
 scribing the expression of fright, says: — "Le sourcil 
 " qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de l'autre, fait voir 
 " que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au 
 " cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, 
 " et le cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle, nous fait 
 " trouver dans cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du 
 " cerveau en abondance, comme pour couvrir l'ame et 
 u la defendre du mal quelle craint ; la bouche fort 
 g< ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le 
 
 * sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant 
 " respirer, a faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche 
 " s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les 
 
 * organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point 
 " articule ; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent 
 " enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits que ^e cerveau 
 " envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the fore- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5 
 
 going sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the 
 surprising nonsense which has been written on the 
 subject. 
 
 * The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing/ by Dr. 
 Burgess, appeared in 1839, and to this work I shall 
 frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter. 
 
 In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in 
 folio and octavo, of his ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie 
 'Hurnaine,' in which he analyses by means of elec- 
 tricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the 
 movements of the facial muscles. He has generously 
 permitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I 
 desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or 
 quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is 
 possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the 
 importance of the contraction of single muscles in 
 giving expression ; for, owing to the intimate manner 
 in which the muscles are connected, as may be 
 seen in Henle's anatomical drawings 7 — the best I 
 believe ever published — it is difficult to believe in 
 their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest 
 that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and 
 other sources of error, and as it is known that he 
 was eminently successful in elucidating the physio- 
 logy of the muscles of the hand by the aid of 
 electricity, it is probable that he is generally in 
 the right about the muscles of the face. Jn my opinion, 
 Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his 
 treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the 
 contraction of each separate muscle, and the conse- 
 quent furrows produced on the skin. He has also, and 
 this is a very important service, shown which muscles 
 
 7 ' Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band I. 
 Dritte Abtkeiluug, 1858. 
 
6 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 are least under the separate control of the will. He 
 enters very little into theoretical considerations, and 
 seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and 
 not others contract under the influence of certain 
 emotions. 
 
 A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, 
 gave a course of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, 
 and his notes were published (1865) after his death, 
 under the title of * De la Physionomie et des Mouve- 
 ments d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, 
 full of valuable observations. His theory is rather 
 complex, and, as far as it can be given in a single sen- 
 tence (p. 65), is as follows : — " II resulte, de tous les 
 " faits. que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et 
 " la pensee elle-meme, si elevee, si abstraite -qu'on la 
 " suppose, ne peuvent s'exercer sans eveiller un senti- 
 " ment correlatif, et que ce sentiment se traduit 
 " directement, sympathiquemenf, symboliquement ou 
 " metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des or- 
 " ganes exterieurs, qui le racontent tous, suivant leur 
 " mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux avait 
 " ete directement affecte." 
 
 Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and 
 even to some extent habit in the individual ; and 
 therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to give the right 
 explanation, or any explanation at all, of many ges- 
 tures and expressions. As an illustration of what he 
 calls symbolic movements, I will quote his remarks 
 (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing at 
 billiards. " Si une bille devie legerement de la direc- 
 " tion que le joueur pretend lui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous 
 " pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tete et 
 " meme des epaules, comme si ces mouvements, pure- 
 " ment symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet ? Des 
 " mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 7 
 
 " quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante. Et, 
 " chez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accuses 
 " au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des speo 
 " tateurs." Such movements, as it appears to me, may 
 be attributed simply to habit. As often as a man 
 has wished to move an object to one side, he has always 
 pushed it to that side ; when forwards, he has pushed 
 it forwards ; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has 
 pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball 
 travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes 
 it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long 
 habit, unconsciously performing movements which in 
 other cases he has found effectual. 
 
 As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet 
 gives (p. 212) the following case : — " un jeune chien a 
 " oreilles droites, auquel son maitre presente de loin 
 " quel que viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses 
 " yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, 
 " et pendant que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles 
 " se portent en avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre 
 " entendu." Here, instead of speaking of sympathy 
 between the ears and eyes, it appears to me more 
 sfmpJe to believe, that as dogs during many gene- 
 rations have, whilst intently looking at any object, 
 pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; 
 and conversely have looked intently in the direction 
 of a sound to which they may have listened, the 
 movements of these organs have become firmly asso- 
 ciated together through long-continued habit. 
 
 Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, 
 which I have not seen, but in which, as he states, he 
 forestalled Gratiolet in many of his views. In 1807 
 he published his ' Wissenschaftliches System derMimik 
 und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a 
 few sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the 
 
8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 two following sentences will tell as much as can be 
 briefly told : " the muscular movements of expression 
 " are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part 
 " to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this propo- 
 " sition lies the key to the comprehension of all 
 " expressive muscular movements." (s. 25.) Again, 
 " Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly 
 " in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face, 
 i( partly because the nerves by which they are set into 
 " motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of 
 " the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles 
 " serve to support the organs of sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. 
 Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work, he would pro- 
 bably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes 
 a frown from partaking of the nature of pain ; or 
 that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and 
 thus excite the contraction of the surrounding muscles. 
 Many good remarks are scattered throughout this volume, 
 to which I shall hereafter refer. 
 
 Short discussions on Expression may be found in 
 various works, which need not here be particularised. 
 Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has treated the 
 subject at some length. He says, 8 " I look upon the 
 " expression so-called as part and parcel of the feel- 
 " ing. I believe it to be a general law of the mind that, 
 w along with the fact of inward feeling or conscious- 
 " ness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over 
 " the bodily members." In another place he adds, " A 
 " very considerable number of the facts may be brought 
 "under the following principle: namely, that states of 
 " pleasure are connected with an increase, and states 
 * of pain with an abatement, of some, or all, of the 
 
 I 4 The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. 
 The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See 
 also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the ' Emolions and Will.' 
 
INTKODUCTION. 
 
 9 
 
 •< vital functions." But the above law of the diffusive 
 action of feelings seems too general to throw much light 
 on special expressions. 
 
 Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in 
 his 'Principles of Psychology ' (1855), makes the fol- 
 lowing remarks : — tc Fear, when strong, expresses itself 
 " in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations 
 " and tremblings ; and these are just the manifestations 
 " that would accompany an actual experience of the 
 " evil feared. The destructive passions are shown in a 
 " general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of 
 " the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes 
 " and nostrils, in growls ; and these are weaker forms of 
 " the actions that accompany the killing of prey." 
 Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a 
 large number of expressions ; but the chief interest 
 and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the 
 wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but 
 who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly 
 advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir 0. Bell says, 9 
 " It has been maintained that what are called the ex- 
 " ternal signs of passion, are only the concomitants of 
 " those voluntary movements which the structure ren- 
 " ders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also published 10 
 a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in 
 which he insists on " the general law that feeling 
 " passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in 
 " bodily action ;" and that " an overflow of nerve-force 
 '* undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first 
 " the most habitual routes ; and if these do not suffice, 
 * will next overflow into the less habitual ones." This 
 
 8 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121. 
 
 10 « Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series, 
 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series of 
 Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value. 
 
10 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 law I believe to be of the highest importance in throw- 
 ing light on our subject. 11 
 
 All the authors who have written on Expression, 
 with the exception of Mr. Spencer — the great expoun- 
 der of the principle of Evolution — appear to have been 
 firmly convinced that species, man of course included, 
 came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. 
 Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of 
 our facial muscles are " purely instrumental in ex- 
 " pression;" or are "a special provision " for this sole 
 object. 12 But the simple fact that the anthropoid 
 apes possess the same facial muscles as we do, 13 
 renders it very improbable that these muscles in our 
 case serve exclusively for expression ; for no one, I 
 presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys 
 have been endowed with special muscles solely for 
 exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, inde- 
 pendently of expression, can indeed be assigned with 
 much probability for almost all the facial muscles. 
 
 Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a 
 distinction as possible between man and the lower 
 animals ; and he consequently asserts that with " the 
 
 11 Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer 
 has written another, on " Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the ' Fort- 
 nightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published 
 his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit, of the 1 Principles of 
 Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be 
 accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced 
 in my 'Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of. the present 
 volume : my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the 
 date of the year 1838. 
 
 12 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131. 
 
 13 Professor Owen expressly fctates (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) 
 that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the 
 more important muscles which are well known to serve with man 
 for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several • 
 of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in ' Annals 
 an 1 Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 11 
 
 " lower creatures there is no expression but what may 
 " be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of 
 " volition or necessary instincts." He further maintains 
 that their faces " seem chiefly capable of expressing 
 " rage and fear." 14 But man himself cannot express 
 love and humility by external signs, so plainly as 
 does a dog, when with drooping ears, hanging lips, 
 flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved 
 master. Nor can these movements in the dog be 
 explained by acts of volition or necessary instincts, 
 any more than the beaming eyes and smiling cheeks 
 of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell 
 had been questioned about the expression of affection 
 in the dog, he would no doubt have answered that this 
 animal had been created with special instincts, adapt- 
 ing him for association with man, and that all further 
 enquiry on the subject was superfluous. 
 
 Although Gratiolet emphatically denies 15 that any 
 muscle has been developed solely for the sake of ex- 
 pression, he seems never to have reflected on the 
 principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each 
 species as a separate creation. So it is Avith the other 
 writers on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, 
 after speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers 
 to those which give expression to the face, and 
 remarks : 16 " Le createur n'a done pas eu a se 
 " preoccuper ici des besoins de la mecanique ; il a 
 '•' pu, selon sa sagesse, ou — que Ton me pardonne 
 " cette maniere de parler— par une divine fantaisie, 
 u mettre en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plu- 
 " sieurs muscles a la fois, lorsqu'il a voulu que les 
 * signes caractenstiques des passions, meme les plus 
 
 14 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138. 
 
 15 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73. 
 
 16 4 Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31. 
 
12 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " fugaces, fussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de 
 * l'homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une fois 
 " cree, il lui a suffi, pour le rend re universel et im- 
 " muable, de donner a tout etre humain la faculte 
 " instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sentiments par 
 H la contraction des memes muscles." 
 
 Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression 
 as inexplicable. Thus the illustrious physiologist Mnller, 
 says, 17 " The completely different expression of the 
 " features in different passions shows that, according to 
 " the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups 
 " of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the 
 " cause of this we are quite ignorant." 
 
 No doubt as long as m'an and all other animals are 
 viewed as independent creations, an effectual stop is put 
 to our natural desire to investigate as far as possible 
 the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything 
 and everything can be equally well explained ; and it 
 has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression 
 as to every other branch of natural history. With 
 mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the 
 hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the un- 
 covering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can 
 hardly be understood, except on the belief that man once 
 existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The 
 community of certain expressions in distinct though 
 allied species, as in the movements, of the same facial 
 muscles during laughter by man and by various mon- 
 keys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we 
 believe in their descent from a common progenitor. He 
 who admits on general grounds that the structure and 
 habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will 
 look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and 
 interesting light. 
 
 17 4 Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 13 
 
 The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the 
 movements being often extremely slight, and of a 
 fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly per- 
 ceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have 
 found it so, to state in what the difference consists. 
 When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is 
 so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten 
 or rendered almost impossible ; of which fact I have 
 had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another' 
 and still more serious source of error ; for if from the 
 nature of the circumstances we expect to see any ex- 
 pression, w r e readily imagine its presence. Notwith- 
 standing Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a 
 long time fancied, as he states, that several muscles 
 contracted under certain emotions, whereas he ulti- 
 mately convinced himself that the movement was 
 confined to a single muscle. 
 
 In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, 
 and to ascertain, independently of common opinion, 
 how far particular movements of the features and 
 gestures are really expressive of certain states of the 
 . mind, I have found the following means the most 
 serviceable. In the first place, to observe infants; 
 for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell remarks, 
 " with extraordinary force whereas, in after life, some 
 of our expressions " cease to have the pure and simple 
 " source from which they spring in infancy." 18 
 
 In the second place, it occurred to me that the 
 insane ought to be studied, as they are liable to the 
 strongest passions, and give uncontrolled vent to them. 
 I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so I applied 
 to Dr. Maudsley, and received from him an intro- 
 duction to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge 
 
 ' ? ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198. 
 
14 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and who, as 
 I found, had already attended to the subject. This 
 excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent 
 me copious notes and descriptions, with . valuable sug- 
 gestions on many points ; and I can hardly over-esti- 
 mate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the 
 kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic 
 Asylum, interesting statements on two or three points. 
 
 Thirdly, Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have al- 
 ready seen, certain muscles in the face of an old man, 
 whose skin was little sensitive, and thus produced 
 various expressions which were photographed on a 
 large scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show 
 several of the best plates, without a word of explana- 
 tion, to above twenty educated persons of various ages 
 and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what 
 emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be 
 agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words 
 which they used. Several of the expressions were 
 instantly recognised by almost everyone, though de- 
 scribed in not exactly the same terms ; and these may, 
 I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be t 
 specified. On the other hand, the most widely different 
 judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. 
 This exhibition was of use in another way, by convin- 
 cing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagi- 
 nation ; fur when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's 
 photographs, reading at the same time the text, and 
 thus learning what was intended, I was struck with 
 admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few 
 exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them with- 
 out any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much 
 perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been. 
 
 Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the 
 great masters in painting and sculpture, who are such 
 
INTRODUCTION". 
 
 15 
 
 close observers. Accordingly, I have looked at photo- 
 graphs and engravings of many well-known works; 
 but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. 
 The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty 
 is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial 
 muscles destroy beauty. 19 The story of the composi- 
 tion is generally told with wonderful force and truth by 
 skilfully given accessories. 
 
 Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascer- 
 tain whether the same expressions and gestures prevail, 
 as has often been asserted without much evidence, with 
 all the races of mankind, especially with those who 
 have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever 
 the same movements of the features or body express the 
 same emotions in several distinct races of man, we may 
 infer with much probability, that such expressions are 
 true ones, — that is, are innate or instinctive. Con- 
 ventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the 
 individual during early life, would probably have dif- 
 fered in the different races, in the same manner as do 
 their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in 
 the year 1867, the following printed queries with a 
 request, which has been fully responded to, that 
 actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. 
 These queries were written after a considerable interval 
 of time, during which my attention had been otherwise 
 directed, and I can now see that they might have been 
 greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I 
 appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks : — 
 
 (1.) Is astonishment expressed by trie eyes and mouth being opened 
 
 wide, and by the eyebrows being raised ? 
 (2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows 
 
 it to be visible ? and especially how low down the body does 
 
 the blush extend ? 
 
 19 See remarks to this effect in Lessing's ' Laocoon,' translated by 
 W. Ross, 1836, p. 19. 
 
16 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his 
 body and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists ? 
 
 (4.) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to under- 
 stand any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath 
 the lower eyelids ? 
 
 (5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, 
 and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle 
 which the French call the " Grief muscle " ? The eyebrow 
 in this state becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling 
 at the inner end ; and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in 
 the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when 
 the eyebrows are raised in surprise. 
 
 (6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little 
 wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little 
 drawn back at the corners? 
 
 (7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the 
 upper lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side 
 facing the man whom he addresses ? 
 
 (8.) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is 
 chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering 
 brow and a slight frown ? 
 
 (9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by 
 turning up the nose, with a slight expiration ? 
 (10.) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper 
 lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like 
 incipient vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth ? 
 (11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with 
 Europeans ? 
 
 (12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears 
 into the eyes ? 
 
 (13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something 
 being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his 
 shoulders, turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands 
 and open the palms ; with the eyebrows raised ? 
 
 (14.) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips ? 
 
 (15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though 
 I know not how these can be defined. 
 
 (16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken la- 
 terally in negation ? 
 
 Observations on natives who have had little communication with 
 Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on 
 any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on 
 expression are of comparatively little value ; and memory is so deceptive 
 that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of 
 the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement 
 of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 17 
 
 To these queries I have received thirty-six answers 
 from different observers, several of them missionaries 
 or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom I am 
 deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have 
 taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will 
 specify their names, &c, towards the close of this 
 chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks. 
 The answers relate to several of the most distinct 
 and savage races of man. In many instances, the 
 circumstances have been recorded under which each 
 expression was observed, and the expression itself 
 described. In such cases, much confidence may be 
 placed in the answers. When the answers have b^en 
 simply yes or no, I have always received them with 
 caution. It follows, from the information thus acquired, 
 that the same state of mind is expressed throughout 
 the world with remarkable uniformity; and this fact 
 is in itself interesting, as evidence of the close simi- 
 larity in bodily structure ana mental disposition of all 
 the races of mankind . 
 
 Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended, as closely as I 
 could, to the expression of the several passions in some 
 of the commoner animals ; and this I believe to be of 
 paramount importance, not" of course for deciding how 
 far in man certain expressions are characteristic of 
 certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis 
 for generalisation on the- causes, or origin, of the various 
 movements of Expression. In observing animals, we are 
 not so likely to be biassed by our imagination ; and we 
 may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional. 
 
 From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting 
 nature of some expressions (the changes in the features 
 being often extremely slight) ; our sympathy being 
 easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, 
 
18 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and our attention thus distracted ; our imagination 
 deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner what 
 to expect, though certainly few of us know what the 
 exact changes in the countenance are ; and lastly, even 
 our long familiarity with the subject, — from all these 
 causes combined, the observation of Expression is by 
 no means easy, as many persons, whom I have asked 
 to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence 
 it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are 
 the movements of the features and of the body, which 
 commonly characterize certain states of the mind. 
 Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, 
 as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of 
 infants, — of the insane, — of the different races of 
 man, — of works of art, — and lastly, of the facial 
 muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected by 
 Dr. Duchenne. 
 
 But there remains the much greater difficulty of 
 understanding the cause or origin of the several ex- 
 pressions, and of judging whether any theoretical 
 explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well 
 as we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, 
 which of two or more explanations is the most satis- 
 factory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way 
 of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether 
 the same principle by which one expression can, as it 
 appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied 
 cases ; and especially, whether the same general prin- 
 ciples can. be applied with satisfactory results, both to 
 man and the lower animals. This latter method, I 
 am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all. 
 The difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical 
 explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of 
 investigation, is the great drawback to that interest 
 which the study seems well fitted to excite. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 19 
 
 Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may 
 state that they were commenced in the year 1838 ; 
 and, from that time to the present day, I have occa- 
 sionally attended to the subject. At the above date, 
 I was already inclined to believe in the principle of 
 evolution, or of the derivation of species from other and 
 lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's 
 great work, his view, that man had been created with 
 certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of 
 his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed 
 probable that the habit of expressing our feelings by 
 certain movements, though now rendered innate, had 
 been in some manner gradually acquired. But to dis- 
 cover how such habits had been acquired was perplexing 
 in no small degree. The whole subject had to be 
 viewed under a new aspect, and each expression de- 
 manded a rational explanation. This belief led me to 
 attempt the present work, however imperfectly it may 
 have been executed. 
 
 I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, 
 as I have said, I am deeply indebted for information in 
 regard to the expressions exhibited by various races of 
 man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under 
 which the observations were in each case made. Owing 
 to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. 
 Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from 
 Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my 
 queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the 
 Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of 
 all the races of man. It will be seen that the observa- 
 tions have been chiefly made in the south, in the out- 
 lying parts of the colony of Victoria ; but some excel- 
 lent answers have been received from the north. 
 
20 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some* valu- 
 able observations, made several hundred miles in the 
 interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, 
 of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made 
 by himself, and for sending me several of the following 
 letters, namely : — From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of 
 Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, 
 who has had much experience with the natives. From 
 Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langere- 
 nong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the Rev. George 
 Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settle- 
 ment at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, 
 of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where 
 aborigines, old and young, are collected from all parts 
 of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Vic- 
 toria, a police magistrate and warden, whose observa- 
 tions, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From 
 Mr. Templeton Bimnett, of Echuca, whose station is on 
 the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus 
 been able to -observe many aborigines who have had 
 little intercourse with white men. He compared his 
 observations with those made by two other gentlemen 
 long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. 
 Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, 
 Victoria. 
 
 I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. 
 Ferdinand Muller, of Victoria, for some observations 
 made by himself, and for sending me others made 
 by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing 
 letters. 
 
 In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. 
 J. W. Stack has answered only a few of my queries ; 
 but the answers have been remarkably full, clear, and 
 distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which 
 the observations were made. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 21 
 
 The Kajah Brooke has given me some information 
 with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. 
 
 Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful ; 
 for Mr. F. Geach (to whom I was introduced by Mr. 
 Wallace), during his residence as a mining engineer in 
 the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had 
 never before associated with white men. He wrote me 
 two long letters with admirable and detailed observa- 
 tions on their expression. He likewise observed the 
 Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago. 
 
 The well-known naturalist, H.M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, 
 also observed for me the Chinese in their native country ; 
 and he made inquiries from others whom he could 
 trust. 
 
 In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official 
 capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay 
 Presidency, attended to the expression of the inhabitants, 
 but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe con- 
 clusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all 
 emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also 
 obtained information for me from Mr. West, the Judge 
 in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native 
 gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, 
 curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the 
 various tribes of men therein employed during a con- 
 siderable period, and no one has sent me such full and 
 valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, 
 gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to 
 bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much 
 indebted to the Rev. 8. 0. Glenie for answers to some 
 of my queries. 
 
 Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with 
 respect to the negroes, though Mr. Winwood Reade 
 aided me as far as lay in his power. It would have been 
 comparatively easy to have obtained information in 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 regard to the negro slaves in America ; but as they have 
 long associated with white men, such observations would 
 have possessed little value. In the southern parts of 
 the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and 
 Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. 
 Mansel Weale also made some observations on the 
 natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, 
 the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, 
 brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his 
 fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa 
 Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians, 
 answered my queries partly from memory and partly 
 from observations made on the son of King Theodore, 
 who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. 
 Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of 
 the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the 
 Nile. 
 
 On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a 
 catechist residing with the Fuegians, answered some 
 few questions about their expression, addressed to him 
 many years ago. In the northern half of the con- 
 tinent Dr. Kothrock attended to the expressions of the 
 wild Atnah and Espy ox tribes on the Nasse Kiver, in 
 North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews, 
 Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also ob- 
 served with special care (after having seen my queries, 
 as printed in the ' Smithsonian Eeport ') some of the 
 wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States, 
 namely, the Tetdns, Gros ventres, Mandans, and Assina- 
 boines; and his answers have proved of the highest 
 value. 
 
 Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I 
 have collected some few facts incidentally given in 
 books of travels. 
 
 % , 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the 
 latter part of this volume, to the muscles of the human 
 face, I have had a diagram (tig. 1) copied and reduced from 
 Sir C. Bell's work, and two others, with more accurate de- 
 tails (figs. 2 and 3), from Henle's well-known ' Handbuch 
 der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same 
 letters refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but 
 the names are given of only the more important ones to 
 which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend 
 much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear 
 on a dissected face so distinct as they are here repre- 
 sented. Some writers consider that these muscles con- 
 sist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired ; 20 but others 
 make the number much larger, amounting even to 
 fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is ad- 
 mitted by everyone who has written on the subject, 
 very variable in structure ; and Moreau remarks that 
 they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects. 21 They 
 are also variable in function. Thus the power of un- 
 covering the canine tooth on one side differs much in 
 different persons. The power of raising the wings of 
 the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit, 22 variable 
 in a remarkable degree ; and other such cases could be 
 given. 
 
 Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing 
 my obligations to Mr. Kejlander for the trouble which 
 he has taken in photographing for me various expressions 
 and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann. 
 of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of 
 crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one 
 
 20 Mr. Partridge in Todd's • Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' 
 vol. ii. p. 227. 
 
 21 ' La Pliysionomio,' par G. Lavater, torn. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the 
 number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211. 
 
 22 'Mimik und Pliysiognomik/ 1867, s. 91. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 1. Diagram of the muscles of tbe lace, from Sir C. Bell. 
 
 Fig. 2. Diagram from Henle. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 25 
 
 A ... 
 
 Fig. 3. Diagram from Henle. 
 
 A. Occipi to-frontal is, or frontal muscle. 
 
 b. Corrugator supercilii, or corrugator 
 muscle. 
 
 c. Orbicularis palpebrarum, or orbicu- 
 lar muscles of tbe eyes. 
 
 i>. Pyramidalis nasi, or pyramidal 
 muscle of the nose. 
 k. Levator labii superioris alajque nasi. 
 f. Levator labii proprius. 
 
 g. Zygomatic. 
 
 H. Malaris. 
 
 i. Little zygomatic. 
 
 k. Triangularis oris, or depressor an- 
 guli oris. 
 
 L. Quadratus menti. 
 
 m. Kisorius, part -of the Flatysma 
 myoides. 
 
 of a smiling girl. I have already expressed my obliga- 
 tions to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to 
 have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. 
 All these photographs have been printed by the Helio- 
 type process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus 
 guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman 
 numerals. 
 
 I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for 
 the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from 
 
26 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 life the expressions of various animals. A distinguished 
 artist, Mr. liiviere, has had the kindness to give me two 
 drawings of dogs — one in a hostile and the other in a 
 humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has 
 also given me two similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper 
 has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some 
 of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by 
 Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf oT the Cynopithecus, 
 were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means 
 of photography, and then engraved: by this means 
 almost complete fidelity is ensured. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 General Principles of Expression. 
 
 The three chief principles stated — The first principle — Serviceable 
 actions become habitual in association with certain states of the 
 mind, and are performed whether or not of service in each par- 
 ticular case — The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated 
 habitual movements in man — Reflex actions — Passage of habits 
 into reflex actions — Associated habitual movements in the lower 
 animals — Concluding remarks. 
 
 I will begin by giving the three Principles, which 
 appear to me to account for most of the expressions 
 and gestures involuntarily used by man and the lower 
 animals, under the influence of various emotions and 
 sensations. 1 I arrived, however, at these three Prin- 
 ciples only at the close of my observations. They 
 will be discussed in the present and two following 
 chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both 
 with man and the lower animals will here be made use 
 of ; but the latter facts are preferable, as less likely 
 to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will 
 describe the special expressions of some of the lower 
 animals ; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. 
 Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself, how 
 far my three principles throw light on the theory of 
 the subject. It appears to me that so many expres- 
 sions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, 
 
 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1803, p. 138) has 
 drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the latter 
 being " generated in our corporeal framework." He classes as Feelings 
 both emotions and sensations. 
 
28 
 
 THE PKINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 that probably all will hereafter be found to come under 
 the same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly 
 premise that movements or changes in any part of the 
 body, — as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing 
 back of a horse's ears, the shrugging of a man's shoul- 
 ders, or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the 
 skin, — may all equally well serve for expression. The 
 three Principles are as follows. 
 
 I. The principle of serviceable associated Habits. — 
 Certain complex actions are of direct or indirect ser- 
 vice under certain states of the mind, in order to relieve 
 or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c. ; and when- 
 
 # ever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, 
 there is a tendency through the force of habit and 
 association for the same movements to be performed, 
 though they may not then be of the least use. Some 
 actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain 
 states of the mind may be partially repressed through 
 the will, and in such cases the muscles which are least 
 under the separate control of the will are the most 
 liable still to act, causing movements which we recog- 
 nise as expressive. In certain other cases the checking 
 of one habitual movement requires other slight move- 
 ments ; and these are likewise expressive. 
 
 II. The principle of Antithesis. — Certain states of the 
 mind lead to certain habitual actions, which are of 
 service, as under our first principle. Now when a 
 directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is 
 a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance 
 of movements of a directly opposite nature, though 
 these are of no use ; and such movements are in some 
 cases highly expressive. 
 
 III. The principle of actions due to the constitution of 
 the Nervous System, independently from the first of the 
 Willy and independently to a certain extent of Habit — 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS, 
 
 29 
 
 When the sensoriuni is strongly excited, nerve-force 
 is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain 
 definite directions, depending on the connection of 
 the nerve-cells, and partly on habit : or the supply of 
 nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Effects 
 are thus produced which we recognise as expressive. 
 This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be 
 called that of the direct action of the nervous system. 
 
 With respect to our first Principle, it is notorious 
 how powerful is the force of habit. The most complex 
 and difficult movements can in time be performed with- 
 out the least effort or consciousness. It is not posi- 
 tively known how it comes that habit is so efficient 
 in facilitating complex movements; but physiologists 
 admit 2 u that the conducting power of the nervous 
 " fibres increases with the frequency of their excite- 
 " ment." This applies to the nerves of motion and 
 sensation, as well as to those connected with the act 
 of thinking. That some physical change is produced 
 in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually used 
 can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to 
 understand how the tendency to certain acquired move- 
 ments is inherited. That they are inherited we see 
 with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as can- 
 tering and ambling, which are not natural to them, — 
 in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of 
 young setters — in the peculiar manner of flight of cer- 
 tain breeds of the pigeon, &c. We have analogous 
 cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or 
 unusual gestures, to which we 'shall presently recur. 
 
 2 Miillor, 1 Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. 
 See also Mr. H. -Spencer's interesting speculations on the same subject, 
 and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,' vol ii. 
 p. 346 ; and in his ' Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp. 511-557. 
 
30 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 To those who admit the gradual evolution of species, 
 a most striking instance of the perfection with which 
 the most difficult consensual movements can be trans- 
 mitted, is afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth 
 (Macroglossa) ; for this moth, shortly after its emer- 
 gence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its 
 unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the 
 air, with its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and in- 
 serted into the minute orifices of flowers ; and no one, 
 I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to perform 
 its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim. 
 
 When there exists an inherited or instinctive ten- 
 dency to the performance of an action, or an in- 
 herited taste for certain kinds of food, some degree of 
 habit in the individual is often .or generally requisite. 
 We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain 
 extent in the pointing of dogs ; although some young 
 dogs point excellently the first time they are taken 
 out, yet they often associate the proper inherited 
 attitude with a wrong odour, and even with eyesight. I 
 have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to 
 suck its mother only once, it is much more diffi- 
 cult afterwards to rear it by hand. 3 Caterpillars 
 which have been fed on the leaves of one kind of 
 tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather 
 than to eat the leaves of another tree, although Uiis 
 afforded them their proper food, under a state of 
 nature ; 4 and so it is in many other cases. 
 
 3 A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by Hippo- 
 crates and by the illustrious Harvey ; for both assert that a young 
 animal forgets in the course of a few days tiie art of sucking, and 
 cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these assertions 
 on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 4 Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140. 
 
 4 See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts, ' The 
 Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication/ 1868, vol. ii. 
 p. 304. 
 
Chap. I. SEKVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 31 
 
 The power of Association is admitted by everyone. 
 Mr. Bain remarks, that "actions, sensations, and states 
 " of feeling, occurring together or in close succession, 
 " tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that 
 " when any one of them is afterwards presented to the 
 " mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea." 5 
 It is so important for our purpose fully to recognise that 
 actions readily become associated with other actions 
 and with various states of the mind, that I will give a 
 good many instances, in the first place relating to man, 
 and afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the 
 instances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as 
 good for our purpose as more important habits. It is 
 known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it 
 is, without repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain 
 opposed directions which have never been practised. 
 Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the com- 
 mon experiment of rolling a marble beneath the tips 
 of two crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two 
 marbles. Everyone protects himself when falling to 
 the ground by extending his arms, and as Professor 
 Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus, when 
 voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going 
 out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously ; 
 and this may seem an extremely simple operation, but 
 he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows that 
 this is by no means the case. 
 
 When our minds are much affected, so are the move- 
 ments of our bodies; but here another principle be- 
 
 5 'The Senses and the Intellect/ 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. 
 Huxley remarks (' Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit. 1872, 
 p. 30G), " It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental states 
 " be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and vivid- 
 " ness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to call 
 " up the other, and that whether we desire it or not." 
 
32 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap, t 
 
 sides habit, namely the undirected overflow of nerve- 
 force, partially conies into play. Norfolk, in speaking 
 of Cardinal Wolsey, says — 
 
 *' Some strange commotion 
 Is in his brain ; he bites his lip and starts ; 
 Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, 
 Then, lays his finger on his temple : straight, 
 Springs out into fast gait ; then, stops again, 
 Strikes his breast hard ; and anon, he casts 
 His eye against the moon: in most strange postures 
 We have seen him set himself." — Hen. VIII., act 3, sc. 2. 
 
 A vulgar man often scratches his head when per- 
 plexed in mind ; and I believe that he acts thus from 
 habit, as if he experienced a slightly uncomfortable 
 bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to 
 which he is particularly liable, and which he thus re- 
 lieves. Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or 
 gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting in either 
 case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in 
 his eyes or windpipe. 6 
 
 From the continued use of the eyes, these organs 
 are especially liable to be acted on through association 
 under various states of the mind, although there is mani- 
 festly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, 
 who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost cer- 
 tainly shut his eyes or turn away his face ; but if he 
 accepts the proposition, he will nod his head in affirma- 
 tion and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this 
 latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the 
 former case as if he did not or would not see it. I 
 have noticed that persons in describing a horrid sight 
 often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake 
 
 6 Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his discussion on 
 this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening 
 and shutting of the eyes. Engel i3 quoted (p. 323) on the changed 
 paces of a man, as his thoughts change. 
 
Chap. L SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 33 
 
 their heads, as if not to see or to drive away some- 
 thing disagreeable ; and I have caught myself, when 
 thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle, closing 
 my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly at any object, 
 or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows, 
 so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened ; 
 and Duckenne remarks that 7 a person in trying to 
 remember something often raises his eyebrows, as if to 
 see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same 
 remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. 
 I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to recollect 
 a painter's name, and she first looked to one corner of 
 the ceiling and then to the opposite corner, arching 
 the one eyebrow on that side ; although, of course, there 
 was nothing to be seen there. 
 
 In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how 
 the associated movements were acquired through habit ; 
 but with some individuals, certain strange gestures or 
 tricks have arisen in association with certain states of 
 the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are 
 undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one 
 instance from my own observation of an extraordinary 
 and complex gesture, associated with pleasurable feel- 
 ings, which was transmitted from a father to his 
 daughter, as well as some other analogous facts. 8 
 
 7 1 Me'canisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 18G2, p. 17. 
 
 8 1 The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication/ vol. 
 ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is so important for us, 
 that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's permission to give in his 
 own words the following remarkable case: — "The following account 
 " of a habit occurring in individuals of three consecutive generations is 
 " of peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and 
 " therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. 
 " The particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully 
 " into them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A 
 •' gentleman of considerable position was found by his wife to have 
 " the curiuus trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of 
 
34 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 CnAr. I 
 
 Another curious instance of an odd inherited move- 
 ment, associated with the wish to obtain an object, will 
 be given in the course of this volume. 
 
 There are other actions which are commonly per- 
 formed under certain circumstances, independently of 
 habit, and which seem to be due to imitation or some 
 sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything 
 with a pair of scissors may be seen to move their 
 jaws simultaneously with the blades of the scissors. 
 Children learning to write often twist about their 
 tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. 
 When a public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, 
 many of those present may be heard, as I have been 
 
 " raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, np to his forehead, 
 " and then dropping it with a jerk, bo that the wrist fell heavily on 
 " the bridge of his nose. The trick did not occur every night, but 
 " occasionally, and was independent of any ascertained cause. Some- 
 " times it was repeated incessantly foT an hour or more. The gentle- 
 " man's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became sore from the 
 " blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was pro- 
 " duced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, n'ght 
 •* after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove 
 •' the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches, 
 14 and some means were attempted of tying his arm. 
 
 Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never 
 " heard of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the 
 " same peculiarity in her husband ; but his nose, from not being par- 
 " ticularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The 
 " trick does not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when 
 " dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is 
 " apt to begin. It is, as with his father, intermittent ; sometimes 
 " ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part 
 " of every night. It is performed, as it was by his father, with his right 
 " hand. 
 
 " One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She per- 
 " forms it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified 
 " form ; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop 
 " upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand 
 " tails over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also 
 " very intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some 
 f months, but sometimes occurring almost incessantly." 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 35 
 
 assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear 
 their throats ; but here habit probably comes into play, 
 as we clear our own throats under similar circumstances. 
 I have also been told that at leaping matches, as the 
 performer makes his spring, many of the spectators, 
 generally men and boys, move their feet; but here 
 again habit probably comes into play, for it is very 
 doubtful whether women would thus act. 
 
 Reflex actions. — Reflex actions, in the strict sense of 
 the term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral 
 nerve, which transmits its influence to certain nerve- 
 cells, and these in their turn excite certain muscles or 
 glands into action ; and all this may take place without 
 any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often 
 thus accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly 
 expressive, the subject must here be noticed at some 
 little length. We shall also see that some of them 
 graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from 
 actions which have arisen through habit. 9 Coughing 
 and sneezing are familiar instances of reflex actions. 
 With infants the first act of respiration is often a sneeze, 
 although this requires the co-ordinated movement of 
 numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but 
 mainly reflex, and is performed in the most natural and 
 best manner without the interference of the will. A vast 
 number of complex movements are reflex. As good an 
 instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a 
 decapitated frog, which cannot of course feel, and cannot 
 
 9 Prof. Huxley remarks (' Elementary Physiology,' 5th edit. p. 305) 
 that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are natural; but, by the 
 help of the brain, that is through habit, an infiniiy of artificial reflex 
 actions may be acquired. Virehow admits (* Sammlung wisseiischaft. 
 Yortrage,' &c, " Ueber das Riickenmark," 1871, ss. 24, 31) that 
 some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts ; and, of 
 the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from in- 
 herited habits. 
 
36 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I 
 
 consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop of 
 acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a 
 frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper 
 surface of the foot of the same leg. If this foot be 
 cut off, it cannot thus act. " After some fruitless efforts, 
 " therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems 
 " restless, as though, says Pfluger, it was seeking some 
 " other way, and at last it makes use of the foot of the 
 " other leg and succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Notably 
 " we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but 
 " combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence 
 " for a special purpose. These are actions that have 
 " all the appearance of being guided by intelligence and 
 " instigated by will in an animal, the recognized organ 
 " of whose intelligence and will has been removed." 10 
 ' We see the difference between reflex and voluntary 
 movements in very young children not being able 
 to perforin, as I am informed by Sir Henry Holland, 
 certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing 
 and coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow 
 their noses (i. e. to compress the nose and blow violently 
 through the passage), and in their not being able to clear 
 their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to perform 
 these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a little 
 older, almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing 
 and coughing, however, can be controlled by the will 
 only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the 
 throat and blowing the nose are completely under our 
 command. 
 
 When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating 
 particle in our nostrils or windpipe — that is, when the 
 same sensory nerve-cells are excited, as in the case of 
 sneezing and coughing — we can voluntarily expel the 
 
 19 Dr. Maudsley, ' Body and Mind/ 1870, p. 8. 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 37 
 
 particle by forcibly driving air through these passages ; 
 but we cannot do this with nearly the same force, 
 rapidity, and precision, as by a reflex action. In this 
 latter case the sensory nerve-cells apparently excite 
 the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by 
 first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres — the 
 seat of our consciousness and volition. In all cases 
 there seems to exist a profound antagonism between the 
 same movements, as directed by the will and by a reflex 
 stimulant, in the force with which they are performed 
 and in the facility with which they are excited. As 
 Claude Bernard asserts, " L'influence du cerveau tend 
 " done a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a limiter 
 " leur force et leur etendue." 11 
 
 The conscious wish to perform a reflex action some- 
 times stops or interrupts its performance, though the 
 proper sensory nerves may be stimulated. For in- 
 stance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a 
 dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they 
 took snuff, although they all declared that they in- 
 variably did so; accordingly they all took a pi neb, but 
 from wishing much to succeed,.not one sneezed, though 
 their eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to 
 pay me the wager. Sir H. Holland remarks 12 th t 
 attention paid to the act of swallowing interferes with 
 the proper movements ; from which it probably follows, 
 at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to 
 swallow a pill. 
 
 Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the 
 involuntary closing of the eyelids when the surface of 
 the eye is touched. A similar winking movement is 
 caused when a blow is directed towards the face ; but 
 
 11 See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude 
 Bernard, 1 Tissus Vivants,' 18G6, pp. 353-356. 
 
 12 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 85. 
 
88 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as 
 the stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by 
 the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The whole body 
 and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly 
 backwards. These latter movements, however, can be 
 prevented, if the danger does not appear to the imagi- 
 nation imminent ; but our reason telling us that there 
 is no danger does not suffice. I may mention a trifling 
 fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time 
 amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass- 
 plate in front of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, 
 with the firm determination of not starting back if the 
 snake struck at me ; but, as soon as the blow Avas struck, 
 my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or 
 two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and 
 reason were powerless against the imagination of a 
 danger which had never been experienced. 
 
 The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the 
 vividness of the imagination, and partly on the con- 
 dition, either habitual or temporary, of the nervous 
 system. He who will attend to the starting of his 
 horse, when tired and fresh, will perceive how per- 
 fect is the gradation from a mere glance at some unex- 
 pected object, with a momentary doubt whether it is 
 dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the 
 animal probably could not voluntarily whirl round in 
 so rapid a manner. The nervous system of a fresh 
 and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory 
 system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to 
 consider whether or not the danger is real. After 
 one violent start, when he is excited and the blood 
 flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start 
 again ; and so it . is, as I have noticed, with young 
 infants. 
 
 A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 39 
 
 conveyed through the auditory nerves, is always accom- 
 panied in grown-up persons by the winking of the eye- 
 lids. 13 I observed, however, that though my infants 
 started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, 
 they certainly did not always wink their eyes, and I be- 
 lieve never did so. The start of an older infant appa- 
 rently represents a vague catching hold of something to 
 prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before 
 the eyes of one of my infants, when 114 days old, and 
 it did not in the least wink; but when I put a few 
 comfits into the box, holding it in the same position as 
 before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes 
 violently every time, and started a little. It was ob- 
 viously impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could 
 have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its 
 eyes indicated danger tp them. But such experience 
 will have been slowly gained at "a later age during a 
 long series of generations ; and from what we know of 
 inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmis- 
 sion of a habit to the offspring at an earlier age than 
 that at which it was first acquired by the parents. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that 
 some actions, which were at first performed consciously, 
 have become through habit and association converted 
 into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed and in- 
 herited, that they are performed, even when not of the 
 least use, 14 as often as the same causes arise, which 
 originally excited them in us through the volition. In 
 such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the motor cells, 
 
 13 Miiller remarks (' Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 
 1311) on staiting being always accompanied by the closure of the 
 eyelids. 
 
 14 Dr. Maud.slcy remarks ('Body and Mind,' p. 10) that "reflex 
 movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the changed 
 circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the occasion 
 of violent suffering and of a most painful death." 
 
40 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 without first communicating with those cells on which 
 our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable 
 that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by 
 the habit of expelling, as violently as possible, any irri- 
 tating particle from the sensitive air-passages. As far 
 as time is concerned, there has been more than enough 
 for these habits to have become innate or converted into 
 reflex actions ; for they are common to most or all of the 
 higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first 
 acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of 
 clearing the throat is not a reflex action, and has to be 
 learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say ; but we 
 can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to 
 be learnt. 
 
 It is scarcely credible that the movements of a 
 headless frog, when it wipes off a drop of acid or other 
 object from its thigh, and which movements are so well 
 co-ordinated for a special purpose, were not at first per- 
 formed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy 
 through long-continued habit so as at last to be per- 
 formed unconsciously, or independently of the cerebral 
 hemispheres. 
 
 So again it appears probable that starting was 
 originally acquired by the habit of jumping aw r ay as 
 quickly as possible from danger, whenever any of our 
 senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is 
 accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to 
 protect the eyes, the most tender and sensitive organs 
 of the body ; and it is, I believe, always accompanied 
 by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the 
 natural preparation for any violent effort. But when 
 a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly against 
 his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an 
 organ which has never been under the control of the 
 will, partaking in the general reflex movements of 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 41 
 
 the body. To this point, however, 1 shall return in 
 a future chapter. 
 
 The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimu- 
 lated by a bright light, is another instance of a move- 
 ment, which it appears cannot possibly have been at 
 first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit ; 
 for the iris is not known to be under the conscious 
 control of the will in any animal. In such cases some 
 explanation, quite distinct from habit, will have to 
 be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force from 
 strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as 
 in the case of a bright light on the retina causing a 
 sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how 
 some reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve- 
 force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to 
 lessen the primary irritation, as in the case of the con- 
 traction of the iris preventing too much light from 
 falling on the retina, might afterwards have been taken 
 advantage of and modified for this special purpose. 
 
 It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in 
 all probability liable to slight variations, as are all 
 corporeal structures and instincts ; and any variations 
 which were beneficial and of sufficient importance, 
 would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex 
 actions, when once gained for one purpose, might 
 afterwards be modifie I independently of the will or 
 habit, so as to serve for some distinct purpose. Such 
 cases would be parallel with those which, as Ave have 
 every reason to believe, have occurred with many 
 instincts ; for although some instincts have been de- 
 veloped simply through long-continued and inherited 
 habit, other highly complex ones have been developed 
 through the preservation of variations of pre-existing 
 instincts — that is, through natural selection. 
 
 I have discussed at some little length, though as I 
 3 • • 
 
42 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. L 
 
 am well aware, in a very imperfect manner, the acquire- 
 ment of reflex actions, because they are often brought 
 into play in connection with movements expressive of 
 our emotions ; and it was necessary to show that at least 
 some of them might have been first acquired through 
 the will in order to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a 
 disagreeable sensation. 
 
 Associated habitual movements in the lower animals. 
 — I have already given in the case of Man several 
 instances of movements, associated with various states 
 of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but 
 which were originally of use, and are still of use under 
 certain circumstances. As this subject is very impor- 
 tant for us, I will here give a considerable number of 
 analogous facts, with reference to animals ; although 
 many of them are of a very trifling nature. My ob- 
 ject is to show that certain movements were origi- 
 nally performed for a definite end, and that, under 
 nearly the same circumstances, they are still pertina- 
 ciously perform e 1 through habit when not of the least 
 use. That the tendency in most of the following cases 
 is inherited, we may infer from such actions being 
 performed in the same manner by all the individuals, 
 young and old, of the same species. We shall also see 
 that they are excited by the most diversified, often 
 circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations. 
 
 Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or 
 other hard surface, generally turn round and round and 
 scratch the ground with their fore-paws in a sense- 
 less manner, as if they intended to trample down 
 the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their 
 wild parents did, when they lived on open grassy plains 
 or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied 
 animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in 
 
Chap. L SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 43 
 
 this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that 
 the keepers, after observing for some months, have 
 never seen the wolves thus behave. A semi- idiotic 
 dog — and an animal in this condition would be particu- 
 larly liable to follow a senseless habit — was observed 
 by a friend to turn completely round on a carpet 
 thirteen times before going to sleep.* 
 
 Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their 
 prey and prepare to rush or spring on it, lower their 
 heads and crouch, partly, as it would appear, to hide 
 themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush ; and 
 this habit in an exaggerated form has become here- 
 . clitary in our pointers and setters. Now I have 
 noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs 
 meet on an open road, the one which first sees the 
 other, though at the distance of one or two hundred 
 yaids, after the first glance always lowers its head, 
 generally crouches a little, or even lies down ; that is, 
 he takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and 
 for making a rush or spring, although the road is quite 
 open and the distance great. Again, dogs of all kinds 
 when intently watching and slowly approaching their 
 prey, frequently keep one 
 of their fore-legs doubled 
 up for a long time, ready 
 for the next cautious step; 
 and this is eminently cha- 
 racteristic of the pointer. 
 But from habit they be- 
 have in exactly the same 
 manner whenever their 
 attention is aroused (fig. 
 4). I have seen a dog 
 at the foot of a high wall, listening attentively to a 
 sound on the opposite side, with one leg doubled up ; 
 
 Fig. 4. Small dog watching a cat on a 
 table. From a photograph iakeu by Mr. 
 llejlander. 
 
44 
 
 THE PKINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. L 
 
 and in this case there could have been no intention of 
 making a cautious approach. 
 
 Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with 
 all four feet a few scratches backwards, even on a bare 
 stone pavement, as if for the purpose of covering up 
 their excrement with earth, in nearly the same manner 
 as do cats. Wolv«es and jackals behave in the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens in exactly the same manner, yet, as I 
 am assured by the keepers, neither wolves, jackals, nor 
 foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever cover 
 up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these 
 animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we 
 rightly understand the meaning of the above cat-like 
 habit, of which there can be little doubt, we have a 
 purposeless remnant of an habitual movement, which 
 was originally followed by some remote progenitor of 
 the dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has 
 been retained for a prodigious length of time. 
 
 Dogs and jackals 15 take much pleasure in rolling 
 and rubbing their necks and backs on carrion. The 
 odour seems delightful to them, though dogs at least do 
 not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for 
 me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen 
 them roll on it. I have heard it remarked, and I 
 believe it to be true, that the larger dogs, which are 
 probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in 
 carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended 
 from jackals. When a piece of brown biscuit is offered 
 to a terrier of mine and she is not hungry (and I 
 have heard of similar instances), she first tosses it about 
 and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey ; she then 
 repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of 
 
 15 See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in ' Land and 
 Water,' October, 1869. 
 
Chap. L SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 45 
 
 carrion, and at last eats it. It would appear that an 
 imaginary relish has to be given to the distasteful 
 morsel ; and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual 
 manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like 
 carrion, though he knows better than we do that this 
 is not the case. I have seen this same terrier act in 
 the same manner after killing a little bird or mouse. 
 
 Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one 
 of their hind feet; and when their backs are rubbed 
 with a stick, so strong is the habit, that they cannot 
 help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a use- 
 less and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, 
 when thus scratched with a stick, will sometimes show 
 her delight by another habitual movement, namely, by 
 licking the air as if it were my hand. 
 
 Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of 
 their bodies which they can reach with their teeth; 
 but more commonly one horse shows another where he 
 wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other. 
 A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, 
 observed that when he rubbed his horse's neck, the 
 animal protruded his head, uncovered his teeth, and 
 moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse's 
 neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If 
 a hor?e is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish 
 to bite something becomes so intolerably strong, that he 
 will clatter his teeth together, and though not vicious, 
 bite his groom. At the same time from habit he 
 closely depresses his ears, so as to protect them from 
 being bitten, as if ho were fighting with another horse. 
 
 A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the 
 nearest approach which he can to the habitual move- 
 ment of progression by pawing the ground. Now when 
 horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager 
 for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. 
 
4G 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Two of my horses thus behave when they see or hear 
 the corn given to their neighbours. But here we have 
 what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing 
 the ground is universally recognized as a sign of eagerness. 
 
 Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with 
 earth; and my grandfather 16 saw a kitten scraping 
 ashes over a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth ; 
 so that here an habitual or instinctive action was falsely 
 excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by eyesight. 
 It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, 
 owing, it is probable, to their having aboriginally inha- 
 bited the dry country of Egypt; and when they wet 
 their feet they shake them violently. My daughter 
 poured some water into a glass close to the head of a 
 kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual 
 manner ; so that here we have an habitual movement 
 falsely excited by an associated sound instead of by the 
 sense of touch. 
 
 Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other 
 young animals, alternately push with their fore-feet 
 against the mammary glands of their mothers, to 
 excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. 
 Now it is very common with young cats, and not at all 
 rare with old cats of the common an 1 Persian breeds 
 (believed by some naturalists to be specifically ex- 
 tinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or 
 other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately 
 with their fore-feet ; their toes being spread out and 
 claws slightly protruded, precisely as when sucking 
 their mother. That it is the same movement is clearly 
 shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of 
 
 16 Dr. Darwin, ' Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact 
 of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in 
 this work. 
 
Chap. I. 
 
 SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 47 
 
 the shawl into their mouths and sucking it ; generally- 
 closing their eyes and purring from delight. This 
 curious movement is commonly excited only in associa- 
 tion with the sensation of a warm soft surface ; but I 
 have seen an old cat, when pleased by having its back 
 scratched, pounding the air with its feet in the same 
 manner ; so that this action has almost become the 
 expression of a pleasurable sensation. 
 
 Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add 
 that this complex movement, as well as the alternate 
 protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex actions; for they 
 are performed if a finger moistened with milk is place I 
 in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain 
 has been removed. 17 It has recently been stated 
 in France, that the action of sucking is excited solely 
 through the sense of smell, so that if the olfactory 
 nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In 
 like manner the wonderful power which a chicken 
 possesses only a few hours after being hatched, of 
 picking up small particles of foorl, seems to be started 
 into action through the sense of hearing; for with 
 chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer 
 found that " making a noise with the finger-nail against 
 " a board, in imitation of the hen-mother, first taught 
 " them to peck at their meat." 18 
 
 I will give only one other instance of an habitual 
 and purposeless movement. The Sheldrake (Tadorna) 
 feeds on the sands left uncovered by the tide, and 
 when a worm-cast is discovered, " it begins patting the 
 "ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the 
 "hole;" and this makes the worm come to the surface. 
 Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame Sheldrakes 
 
 17 Carpenter, 'Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854, p. COO 
 and Mailer's ' EL m< nts of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 03G. 
 19 Mowbniy on ' Poultry,' Gth edit. 18o0, p. 54. 
 
48 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 *' came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an 
 " impatient and rapid manner." 19 This therefore 
 may almost be considered as their expression of hun- 
 ger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and 
 the Kagu (Bhinochetus juhatus) when anxious to be 
 fed, beat the ground with their feet in the same odd 
 manner. So again Kingfishers, when they catch a 
 fish, always beat it until it is killed ; and in the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with 
 which they are sometimes fed, before devouring it. 
 
 We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth 
 of our first Principle, namely, that when any sensation, 
 desire, dislike, &c, has led during a long series of 
 generations to some voluntary movement, then a ten- 
 dency to the performance of a similar movement will 
 almost certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any 
 analogous or associated sensation &c, although very 
 weak, is experienced ; notwithstanding that the move- 
 ment in this case may not be of the least use. Such 
 habitual movements are often, or generally inherited ; 
 and they then differ but little from reflex actions. 
 When we treat of the special expressions of man, the 
 latter part of our first Principle, as given at the com- 
 mencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good ; 
 namely, that when movements, associated through habit 
 with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed 
 by the will, the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as 
 those which are least under the separate control of the 
 will, are liable still to act; and their action is often 
 highly expressive. Conversely, when the will is tempo- 
 rarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles 
 
 19 See the account given by this excellent observer in * Wild Sports 
 of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142. 
 
Chap. I. SERVICEABLE ASSOCIATED HABITS. 
 
 49 
 
 fail before the involuntary. It is a fact familiar to pa- 
 thologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks, 20 " that when de- 
 " bility arises from affection of the brain, the influence 
 " is greatest on those muscles which are, in their natural 
 " condition, most under the command of the will." We 
 shall, also, in our future chapters, consider another 
 proposition included in our first Principle ; namely, 
 that the checking of one habitual movement sometimes 
 requires other slight movements; these latter serving 
 as a means of expression. 
 
 'Philosophical Translations,' 1823; p. 182. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 General Principles of Expression — continued. 
 
 The Principle of Antithesis — Instances in the dog and cat — Origin 
 of the principle — Conventional signs — The principle of anti- 
 thesis has not arisen •from opposite actions being consciously 
 performed under opposite impulses. 
 
 We will now consider our second Principle, that of 
 Antithesis Certain states of tne mind lead, as we have 
 seen in the last chapter, to certain habitual move- 
 ments which were primarily, or may still be, of service ; 
 and we shall find that when a directly opposite state 
 of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary 
 tendency to the performance of movements of a directly 
 opposite nature, though these have never been of any 
 service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be 
 given, when we treat of the special expressions of man ; 
 but as, in these cases, we are particularly liable to 
 confound conventional or artificial gestures and ex- 
 pressions with those which are innate or universal, and 
 which alone deserve to rank as tiue expressions, I will 
 in the present chapter almost confine myself to the 
 lower animals. 
 
 When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a 
 savage or hostile frame of mind he walks upright and 
 very stiffly; his head is slightly raised, or not much 
 lowered ; the tail is held erect and quite rigid ; the 
 hairs bristle, especially along the neck and back; 
 the pricked ears are directed forwards, and the eyes 
 have a fixed stare : (see figs. 5 and 7). These actions, 
 as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog's 
 
Chap. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 51 
 
 intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a 
 large extent intelligible. As he prepares to spring 
 with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine teeth 
 are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close back- 
 wards on the head ; but with these latter actions, we 
 are not here concerned. Let us now suppose that the 
 dog suddenly discovers that the man whom he is 
 approaching, is not a stranger, but his master ; and 
 let it be observed how completely and instantaneously 
 his whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking 
 upright, the body sinks downwards or even crouches, and 
 is thrown into flexuous movements ; his tail, instead of 
 being held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from 
 side to side ; his hair instantly becomes smooth ; his 
 ears are depressed and drawn backwards, but not closely 
 to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From the 
 drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, 
 and the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It 
 should be added that the animal is at such times in an 
 excited condition from joy ; and nerve-force will be 
 generate 1 in excess, which naturally leads to action of 
 some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly 
 expressive of affection, are of the least direct service to 
 the animal. They are explicable, as far as I can see, 
 solely from being in complete opposition or antithesis to 
 the attitude and movements which, from intelligible 
 causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and 
 which consequently are expressive of anger. I request 
 the reader to look at the four accompanying sketches, 
 which have been given in order to recall vividly the 
 appearance of a dog under these two states of mind. 
 It is, however, not a little difficult to represent affection 
 in a dog, whilst caressing his master and wagging his 
 tail, as the essence of the expression lies in the con- 
 tinuous flexuous movements. 
 
54 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
ClIAP. II. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 55 
 
 Fig. 8. The same caressing bis master. By Mr. A. May. 
 
56 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is 
 threatened by a dog, it arches its back in a surprising 
 manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth and spits. 
 But we are not here concerned with this well-known 
 attitude, expressive, of terror combined with anger ; 
 we are concerned only with that of rage or anger. 
 This is not often seen, but may be observed when two 
 cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well 
 exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy 
 The attitude is almost exactly the same as that of 
 a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which 
 every one must have beheld in menageries. The 
 animal assumes a crouching position, with the body 
 extended ; and the whole tail, or . the tip alone, is 
 lashed or curled from side to side. The hair is not 
 in the least erect. Thus far, the attitude and move- 
 ments are nearly the same as when the animal is 
 prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, 
 it feels savage. But when preparing to fight, there 
 is . this * difference, that the ears are closely pressed 
 backwards ; the mouth is partially opened, showing the 
 teeth ; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with 
 protruded claws ; and the animal occasionally utters a 
 fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or almost all, 
 these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be 
 explained), from the cat's manner and intention of 
 attacking its enemy. 
 
 Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite 
 frame of mind, whilst feeling affectionate and caressing 
 her master ; and mark how opposite is her attitude in 
 every respect. She now stands upright with her back 
 slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather 
 rough, but it does net bristle ; her tail, instead of being 
 extended and lashed from side to side, is held quite 
 stiff and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are erect 
 
Chap.. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 57 
 
 and pointed; her mouth is closed ; and she rubs against 
 her master with a purr instead of a growl. Let it 
 further be observed how widely different is the whole 
 bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when 
 with his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered 
 and wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. 
 This contrast in the attitudes and movements of these 
 two carnivorous animals, under the same pleased and 
 affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it 
 appears to me, solely by their movements standing in 
 complete antithesis to those which are naturally 
 assumed, when these animals feel savage and are 
 prepared either to fight or to seize their prey. 
 
 In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every 
 reason to believe that the gestures both of hostility and 
 affection are innate or inherited ; for they are almost 
 identically the same in the different races of the spe- 
 cies, and in all the individuals of the same race, 
 both young and old. 
 
 I will here give one other instance of antithesis in ex- 
 pression. I formerly possessed a large dog, who, like 
 every other dog, was much pleased to go out walking. 
 He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely before me 
 with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected 
 ears, and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from 
 my house a path branches off to the right, leading to 
 the hot-house, which I used often to visit for -a few 
 moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was 
 always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not 
 know whether I should continue my walk ; and the in- 
 stantaneous and complete change of expression which 
 came over him, as soon as my body swerved in the least 
 towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an 
 experiment) was laughable. His look of dejection was 
 known to every member of the family, and was called 
 
58 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
Fig. 10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind, by Mr. Wood. 
 
60 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
 his hot-house face. This consisted in the head drooping 
 much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining 
 motionless ; the ears and tail falling suddenly clown, 
 but the tail was by no means wagged. With the 
 fall ng of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes 
 became much changed in appearance, and I fancied 
 that they looked less bright. His aspect was that of 
 piteous, hopeless dejection ; and it was, as I have said, 
 laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail 
 in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former 
 joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as 
 it appears to me, in no other way, except through the 
 principle of antithesis. Had not the change been so 
 instantaneous, I should have attributed it to his lowered 
 spirits affecting, as in the case of man, the nervous 
 system and circulation, and consequently the tone of his 
 whole muscular frame ; and this may have been in part 
 the cause. 
 
 We will now consider how the principle of antithesis 
 in expression has arisen. With social animals, the power 
 of intercommunication between the members of the 
 same community, — and with other species, between the 
 opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the 
 old, — is of the highest importance to them. This 
 is generally effected by means of the voice, but it is 
 certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain 
 extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses in- 
 articulate cries, gestures, and expressions, but has 
 invented articulate language ; if, indeed, the word 
 invented can be applied to a process, completed by 
 innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one 
 who has watched monkeys will not doubt that they 
 perfectly understand each other's gestures and ex- 
 pression, and to a large extent, as Rengger 
 
Chap. II. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 61 
 
 asserts, 1 those of man. An animal when going to 
 attack another, or when afraid of another, often 
 makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus 
 increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing 
 its teeth, or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce 
 sounds. 
 
 As the power of intercommunication is certainly of 
 high service to many animals, there is no a priori im- 
 probability in the supposition, that gestures manifestly 
 of an opposite nature to those by which certain feelings 
 are already expressed, should at first have been volun- 
 tarily employed under the influence of an opposite state 
 of feeling. The fact of the gestures being now innate, 
 would be no valid objection to the belief that they 
 were at first intentional ; for if practised during many 
 generations, they would probably at last be inherited. 
 Nevertheless it is more than doubtful, as we shall imme- 
 diately see, whether any of the cases which come under 
 our present head of antithesis, have thus originated. 
 
 With conventional signs which are not innate, such 
 as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages, 
 the principle of opposition or antithesis has been par- 
 tially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought 
 it sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid hob ling- 
 some communication, they invented a gesture language, 
 in which the principle of opposition seems to have been 
 employed. 2 Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb 
 Institution, writes to me that * opposites are greatly 
 '•used in teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively 
 " sense of them." Nevertheless I have been surprise d 
 how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This 
 
 1 ' Naturgesehichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 55. 
 
 2 Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture-language in 
 bis 'Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes 
 some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures. 
 
62 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Chap. II. 
 
 depends partly on all the signs having commonly had 
 some natural origin ; and partly on the practice of* the 
 deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs 
 as much as possible for the sake of rapidity. 3 Hence 
 their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or 
 is completely lost ; as is likewise the case with articulate 
 language. 
 
 Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in oppo- 
 sition to each other, appear to have had on both sides 
 a significant origin. This seems to hold good with 
 the signs used by the deaf and dumb for light and 
 darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future 
 chapter I shall endeavour to show that the opposite 
 gestures of affirmation and negation, namely, verti- 
 cally nodding and laterally shaking the head, have both 
 probably had a natural beginning. The waving of the 
 hand from right to left, which is used as a negative by 
 some savages, may have been invented in imitation of 
 shaking the head ; but whether the opposite movement 
 of waving the hand in a straight line from the face, 
 which is used in affirmation, has arisen through anti- 
 thesis or in some quite distinct manner, is doubtful. 
 
 If we now turn to the gestures which are innate 
 or common to all the individuals of the same species, 
 and which come under the present head of antithesis, 
 it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at 
 first deliberately invented and consciously performed. 
 With mankind the best instance of a gesture standing 
 
 3 See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work, ' The Deaf 
 and Dumb/ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, "This contracting of 
 " natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural expres- 
 " sion requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This 
 " contracted gesture is frequently so shortened ns nearly to lose all 
 " semblance of the natur.il one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, 
 " it still has the force of the original expression." 
 
Chap. II. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 63 
 
 in direct opposition to other movements, naturally 
 assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that of 
 shrugging the shoulders. This expresses impotence or 
 an apology, — something which cannot be done, or 
 cannot be avoided. The gesture is sometimes used 
 consciously and voluntarily, but it is extremely im- 
 probable that it was at first deliberately invented, and 
 afterwards fixed by habit ; for not only do young 
 children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the 
 above states of mind, but the movement is accompanied, 
 as will be shown in a future chapter, by various subor- 
 dinate movements, which not one man in a thousand is 
 aware of, unless he has specially attended to the 
 subject. 
 
 Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it 
 useful to show by their movements that they are friendly, 
 and do not wish to fight. When two young dogs in 
 play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs, 
 it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's 
 gestures and manners. There seems, indeed, some degree 
 of instinctive knowledge in puppies and kittens, that 
 they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too 
 freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and 
 a squeal is the result ; otherwise they would often injure 
 each other's eyes. When my terrier bites my hand in 
 play, often snarling at the same time, if he bites too 
 hard and I say gently, gently, he goes on biting, but 
 answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to 
 say " Never mind, it is all fun." Although dogs 
 do thus express, and may wish to express, to other 
 dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of 
 mind, it is incredible that they could ever have deli- 
 berately thought of drawing back and depressing their 
 ears, instead of holding them erect, — of lowering and 
 wagging their tails, instead of keeping them stiff and 
 
64 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. Ciiaj>. II 
 
 upright, &<?., because they knew that these movements 
 stood in direct opposition to those assumed under an 
 opposite and savage frame of mind. 
 
 Again, when a cat, or rather when some early pro- 
 genitor of the species, from feeling affectionate first 
 slightly arched its back, held its tail perpendicularly 
 upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that 
 the animal consciously wished thus to show that its 
 frame of mind was directly the reverse of that, when 
 from being ready to fight or to spring on its prey, it 
 assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side 
 to side and depressed its ears? Even still less can I 
 believe that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected 
 attitude and " hot-house face," which formed so complete 
 a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and whole 
 bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I 
 should understand his expression, and that he could 
 thus soften my heart and make me give up visiting the 
 hot-house. 
 
 Hence for the development of the movements which 
 come under the present head, some other principle, 
 distinct from the will and consciousness, must have 
 intervened. This principle appears to be that every 
 movement which we have voluntarily performed through- 
 out our lives has required the action of certain muscles; 
 and when we have performed a dire ctly opposite move- 
 ment, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually 
 brought into play, — as in turning to the right or to the 
 left, in pushing away or pulling an object towards us, 
 and in lifting or lowering a weight. So strongly are 
 our intentions and movements associated together, that 
 if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction, 
 we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same 
 direction, although we may be perfectly aware that this 
 can have no influence. A good illustration of this fact 
 
Chap. II. THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 65 
 
 has already been given in the Introduction, namely, in 
 the grotesque movements of a young and eager billiard- 
 player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man 
 or child in a passiou, if he tells any one in a loud voice 
 to begone, generally moves his arm as if to push him 
 away, although the offender may not be standing near, 
 and although there may be not the least need to explain 
 by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we 
 eagerly desire some one to approach us closely, we act 
 as if pulling him towards us ; and so in innumerable 
 other instances. 
 
 As the performance of ordinary movements of an 
 opposite kind, under opposite impulses of the will, has 
 become habitual in us and in the lower animals, so when 
 actions of one kind have become firmly associated with 
 any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions 
 of a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be 
 unconsciously performed through habit and association, 
 under the influence of a directly opposite sensation or 
 emotion. On this principle alone can I understand 
 how the gestures and expressions which come under 
 the present head of antithesis have originated. If in- 
 deed they are serviceable to man or to any other 
 animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they 
 will likewise be voluntarily employed, and the habit 
 will thus be strengthened. But whether or not of ser- 
 vice as a means of communication, the tendency to 
 perform opposite movements under opposite sensations 
 or emotions would, if we may judge, by analogy, 
 become hereditary through long practice; and there 
 cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements 
 due to the principle of antithesis are inherited. 
 
 4 
 
66 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chai*. IIL 
 
 CHAPTEE IIL 
 
 General Principles of Expression — concluded. 
 
 The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on 
 the body, independently of the will and in part of habit — 
 Change of colour in the hair — Trembling of the muscles — 
 * Modified secretions — Perspiration — Expression of extreme pain 
 
 — Of rage, great joy, and terror — Contrast between the emotions 
 which cause and do not cause expressive movements — Exciting 
 and depressing states of the mind — Summary. 
 
 We now come to our third Principle, namely, that cer- 
 tain actions, which we recognise as expressive of certain 
 states of the mind, are the direct result of the con- 
 stitution of the nervous system, and have been from the 
 first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of 
 habit. When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve- 
 force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain 
 directions, dependent on the connection of the nerve- 
 cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, 
 on the nature of the movements which have been 
 habitually practised. Or the supply of lierve-force may, 
 as it appears, be interrupted. Of course every movement 
 which we make is determined by the constitution of 
 the nervous system ; but actions performed in obe- 
 dience to the will, or through habit, or through the 
 principle of antithesis, are here as far as possible ex- 
 cluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from 
 its importance, must be discussed at some little length ; 
 and it is always advisable to perceive clearly our 
 ignorance. 
 
 The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 67 
 
 one, which can be adduced of the direct influence of the 
 nervous system, when strongly affected, on the body, is 
 the loss of colour in the hair, which has occasionally 
 been observed after extreme terror or grief. One 
 authentic instance has been recorded, in the case of a 
 man brought out for execution in India, in which the 
 change of colour was so rapid that it was perceptible 
 to the eye. 1 
 
 Another good case is that of the trembling of the 
 muscles, which is common to man and to many, or 
 most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no service, 
 often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first 
 acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual 
 in association with any emotion. . I am assured' by an 
 eminent authority that young children do not tremble, 
 but go into convulsions under the circumstances which 
 would induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling 
 is excited in different individuals in very different de- 
 grees, and by the most diversified causes, — by cold to 
 the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature 
 of the body is then above the normal standard ; in 
 blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other diseases ; 
 by general failure of power in old age ; by exhaustion 
 after excessive fatigue ; locally from severe injuries, 
 such as burns ; and, in an especial manner, by the 
 passage of a catheter. * Of all emotions, fear notoriously 
 is the most apt to induce trembling ; but so-do occa- 
 sionally great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a 
 boy who had just shot his first snipe on the wing, and 
 his hands trembled to such a degree from delight, that 
 he could not for some time reload his gun; and I have 
 
 1 See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouehet in the 1 Revue 
 des Deux MondeV January 1, 1S72, p. 79. An instance was also 
 brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast. 
 
68 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian 
 savage, to whom a gun had been lent. Fine music, 
 from the vague emotions thus excited, causes a shiver 
 to run down the backs of some persons. There seems 
 to be very little in common in the above several phy- 
 sical causes and emotions to account for trembling ; and 
 Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several of the 
 above statements, informs me that the subject is a very 
 obscure one. As trembling is sometimes caused by 
 rage, long before exhaustion can have set in, and as it 
 sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear that 
 any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts 
 the steady flow of nerve-force to the muscles. 2 
 
 The manner in. which the secretions of the alimentary 
 canal and of certain glands — as the liver, kidneys, or 
 mammae — are affected by strong emotions, is another 
 excellent instance of the direct action of the sensorium 
 on these organs, independently of the will or of any 
 serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest dif- 
 ference in different persons in the parts which are thus 
 affected, and in the degree of their affection. 
 
 The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating 
 night and day in so wonderful a manner, is extremely 
 sensitive to external stimulants. The great physiologist, 
 Claude Bernard, 3 has shown how the least excitement 
 of a sensitive nerve reacts on tne heart; even when a 
 nerve is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly 
 be felt by the animal under experiment. Hence when 
 the mind is strongly excited, we might expect that it 
 would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart ; 
 
 2 Mailer remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. 
 p. 034) that when the feelings are very intense, " all the spinal nerves 
 " become affected to the extent of imperfei.t paralysis, or the excitement 
 " of trembling of the whole body." 
 
 s ' Lecons sur les Prop, des Tissus Vivants,' 186G, pp. 457-4G6. 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 C9 
 
 and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the 
 case. Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this 
 deserves especial notice, that when the heart is affected 
 it reacts on the brain ; and the state of the brain again 
 reacts through the pneumo-gastrio nerve on the heart ; 
 so that under any excitement there will be much mu- 
 tual action and reaction between these, the two most 
 important organs of the body. 
 
 The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter 
 of the small arteries, is directly acted on by the sen- 
 sorium, as we see when a man blushes from shame ; but - 
 in this latter case the checked transmission of nerve- 
 force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly 
 explained in a curious manner through habit. We 
 shall also be able to throw some light, though very 
 little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under the 
 emotions of terror and rage. The secretion of tears 
 depends, no doubt, on the connection of certain nerve- 
 cells ; but here again we can trace some few of the steps 
 by which the flow of nerve-force through the requisite 
 channels has become habitual under certain emotions. 
 
 A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of 
 the stronger sensations and emotions will best serve to 
 show us, although vaguely, in how complex a manner 
 the principle under consideration of the direct action 
 of the excited nervous system on the body, is combined 
 with the principle of habitually associated, serviceable 
 movements. 
 
 When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they 
 generally writhe about with frightful contortions ; and 
 those which habitually use their voices utter piercing 
 cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body 
 is brought into strong action. With man the mouth 
 may be closely compressed, or more commonly the 
 
70 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. 111. 
 
 lips are retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground 
 together. There is said to be " gnashing of teeth " in 
 hell ; and I have plainly heard the grinding of the 
 molar teeth of a cow which was suffering acutely from 
 inflammation of the bowels. The female hippopotamus 
 in the Zoological Gardens, when she produced, her 
 young, suffered, greatly ; she "incessantly walked about, 
 or rolled on her sides, opening and closing her jaws, and 
 clattering her teeth together. 4 With man the eyes 
 stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the brows 
 are heavily contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, 
 and drops trickle down the face. The circulation and 
 respiration are much affected. Hence the nostrils are 
 generally dilated and often quiver ; or the breath may 
 be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face. 
 If the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs 
 all change ; utter prostration follows, with fainting or 
 convulsions. 
 
 A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some 
 influence to the nerve-cell, whence it proceeds ; and 
 this transmits its influence, first to the corresponding 
 nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and then 
 upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column 
 to other nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according 
 to the strength of the excitement ; so that, ultimately, 
 the whole nervous system may be affected. 5 This 
 involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may 
 not be accompanied by consciousness. Why the irri- 
 tation of a nerve-cell should generate or liberate nerve- 
 
 4 Mr. Bartlett, " Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus," Proc. 
 Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255. 
 
 5 See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, ' Tissus Vivants/ 1866, pp. 
 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the same 
 effect in his essay " Ueber das Ruckeninark " (Sammlung wissenschaft. 
 Vortrage, 1871, s. 28). 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 71 
 
 force is not known; but that this is the case seems 
 to be the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest 
 physiologists, such as Muller, Virchow, Bernard, &c. Q 
 As Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks, it may be received 
 as an " unquestionable truth that, at any moment, the 
 " existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in 
 " an inscrutable way produces in us the state we call 
 " feeling, must expend itself in some direction — must 
 " generate an equivalent manifestation of force some- 
 " where;" so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is 
 highly excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, 
 it may be expended in intense sensations, active 
 thought, violent movements, or increased activity of 
 the glands. 7 Mr. Spencer further maintains that an 
 " overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, 
 " will manifestly take the most habitual routes ; and, if 
 " these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less 
 " habitual ones." Consequently the facial and respira- 
 tory muscles, which are the most used, will. be apt to 
 be first brought into action; then those of the upper 
 extremities, next those of the lower, and finally those of 
 the whole body. 8 
 
 An emotion may be very strong, but it will have 
 little tendency to induce movements of any kind, if it 
 has not commonly led to voluntary action for its relief or 
 gratification; and when movements are excited, their 
 
 6 Muller (' Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in 
 speaking of the nerves, says, " any sudden change of condition of 
 " whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action." See Virchow 
 and Bernard on the same suhject in passages in the two works referred 
 to in my last foot-note. 
 
 7 H. Spencer, ' Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c, Second Series, 1S63, 
 pp. 109. 111. 
 
 8 Sir H. Holland, in speaking (' Medical Notes and BehYxions,' 
 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the Jiiljets, remarks 
 that it seems due to " an accumulation of some cause of irritation 
 " which requires muscular action for its relief." 
 
72 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. HI. 
 
 nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which 
 have often and voluntarily been performed for some 
 definite end under the same emotion. Great pain urges 
 all animals, and has urged them during endless genera- 
 tions, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to 
 escape from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb 
 or other separate part of the body is hurt, we often see 
 a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off the cause, 
 though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit 
 of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will 
 have been established, whenever great suffering is ex- 
 perienced. As the muscles -of the chest and vocal 
 organs are habitually used, these will be particularly 
 liable to be ac ted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries 
 will be uttered. But the advantage derived from out- 
 cries has here probably come into play in an important 
 manner ; for the young of most animals, when in dis- 
 tress or danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, as 
 do the members of the same community for mutual aid. 
 
 Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness 
 that the power or capacity of the nervous system is 
 limited, will have strengthened, though in a subordinate 
 degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme 
 suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his 
 utmost muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago ob- 
 served, if two pains are felt at the same time, the 
 severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the ecstasy of 
 their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, 
 been insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors 
 who are going to be flogged sometimes take a piece of 
 lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their 
 utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient 
 women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in 
 order to relieve their sufferings. 
 
 We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 73 
 
 force from the nerve-cells which are first affected — 
 the long-continued habit of attempting by struggling 
 to escape from the cause of suffering — and the con- 
 sciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves 
 pain, have all probably concurred in giving a tendency 
 to the most violent, almost convulsive, movements 
 under extreme suffering ; and such movements, in- 
 cluding those of the vocal organs, are universally recog- 
 nised as highly expressive of this condition. 
 
 As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a 
 direct manner on the heart, severe pain will obviously 
 react on it in like maimer, but far more energetically. 
 Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not overlook 
 the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall 
 see when we consider the signs of rage. 
 
 When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the per- 
 spiration often trickles down his face ; and I have been 
 assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has frequently 
 seen drops falling from the belly and running down the 
 inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of 
 cattle, when thus suffering. He has observed this, when 
 there has been no strusrfiiig which would account for 
 the perspiration. The whole body of the female hippo- 
 potamus, before alluded to, was covered with red-coloured 
 perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is 
 with extreme fear ; the same veterinary has often seen 
 horses sweating from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett 
 with the rhinoceros ; and with man it is a well-known 
 symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in 
 these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some 
 physiologists to be connected with the failing power of 
 the capillary circulation ; and we know that the vaso- 
 motor system, which regulates the capillary circulation, 
 is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the 
 movements of certain muscles of the face under great 
 
74 
 
 THE PKINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 suffering, as well as from other emotions, these will be 
 ' best considered when we treat of the special expressions 
 of man and of the lower animals. 
 
 We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of 
 Rage. Under this powerful emotion the action of the 
 heart is much accelerated, 9 or it may be much dis- 
 turbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from the 
 impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. 
 The respiration is laboured, the chest heaves, and the 
 dilated nostrils quiver. The whole body often trembles. 
 The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched or ground 
 together, and the muscular system is commonly stimu- 
 lated to violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures 
 of a man in this state usually differ from the purposeless 
 writhings and struggles of one suffering from an agony 
 of pain; for they represent more or less plainly the act 
 of striking or fighting with an enemy. 
 #> All these signs of rage are probably in large part, 
 and some of them appear to be wholly, due to the 
 direct action of the excited sensorium. But animals 
 of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when 
 attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their 
 utmost powers in fighting and in defending themselves. 
 Unless an animal does thus act, or has the intention, or 
 at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it cannot pro- 
 perly be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of 
 muscular exertion will thus have been gained in asso- 
 ciation with rage ; and this will directly or indirectly 
 affect various organs, in nearly the same manner as 
 does great bodily suffering. 
 
 The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct 
 
 9 I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me 
 of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogiam of a woman 
 in a rage is given ; and this shows much difference in the rate and 
 other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary state. 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 75 
 
 manner ; but it will also in all probability be affected 
 through habit; and all the more so from not being 
 under the control of the will. We know that any great 
 exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, * 
 through mechanical and other principles which need 
 not here be considered; and it was shown in the first 
 chapter that nerve-force flows readily through habitu- 
 ally used channels, — through the nerves of volun- 
 tary or involuntary movement, and through those of 
 sensation. Thus even a moderate amount of exertion 
 will tend to act on the heart; and on the principle of 
 association, of which so many instances have been given, 
 we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, 
 as great pain or rage, which has habitually led to much 
 muscular action, will immediately influence the flow of 
 nerve-force to the heart, although there may not be at 
 the time any muscular exertion. 
 
 The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily 
 affected through habitual associations, as it is not under 
 the control of the will. A man when moderately angry, 
 or even when enraged, may command the movements of 
 his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating 
 rapidly. His chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and 
 his nostrils just quiver, for the movements of respiration 
 are only in part voluntary. In like manner those 
 muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, 
 will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emo- 
 tion. The glands again are wholly independent of 
 the will, and a man suffering from grief may command 
 his features, but cannot always prevent the tears from 
 coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food 
 is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any 
 outward gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of 
 saliva. 
 
 Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a 
 
76 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 strong tendency to various purposeless movements, and 
 to the utterance of various sounds. We see this in our 
 young children, in their loud laughter, clapping of hands, 
 and jumping for joy ; in the bounding and barking of a 
 dog when going out to walk with his master ; and in the 
 frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. 
 Joy quickens the circulation, and this stimulates the 
 brain, which again reacts on the whole body. The 
 above purposeless movements and increased heart-action 
 may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of 
 the sensorium, 10 and to the consequent undirected over- 
 flow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It 
 deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation of a 
 pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, which leads to 
 purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, 
 and to the utterance of various sounds. We see this 
 in our children when they expect any great pleasure or 
 treat ; and dogs, which have been bounding about at 
 the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not 
 show their delight by any outward sign, not even by 
 wagging their tails. Now with animals of all kinds, 
 the acquirement of almost all their pleasures, with the 
 
 10 How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how the brain 
 reacts on the body, is we ll shown in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxica- 
 tion. Dr. J. Crichton Browne (' Medical Mirror,' 1865) records the case 
 of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a 
 telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first became pale, 
 then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but flushed and very 
 restless. He then took a walk "with a friend for the sake of tranquil- 
 lising himself, but returned staggering in his gait, uproariously laugh- 
 ing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and singing loudly 
 in the public streets It was positively ascertained that he had 
 not touched, any spirituous liquor, though every one thought that he 
 was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested 
 contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol 
 could be elett cted. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, 
 except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of 
 strength. 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 77 
 
 exception of those of warmth and rest, are associated, 
 and have long been associated with active movements, 
 as in the hunting or search for food, and in their 
 courtship. Moreover, the mere exertion of the muscles 
 after long rest or confinement is in itself a pleasure, as 
 we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of young 
 animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we 
 might perhaps expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt 
 to show itself conversely in muscular movements. 
 
 With all or almost all animals, even with birds, 
 Terror causes the body to tremble. The skin becomes 
 pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles. The 
 secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are 
 increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the 
 relaxation of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be 
 the case with man, and as I have seen with cattle, dogs, 
 cats, and monkeys. The breathing is harried. The heart 
 beats quickly, wildly, and violently ; but whether it 
 pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may 
 be doubted, for the surface seems bloodless and the 
 strength of the muscles soon fails. In a frightened horse 
 I have felt through the saddle the beating of the heart 
 so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The 
 mental faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration 
 soon follows, and even fainting. A terrified canary-bird 
 has been seen not only to tremble and to turn white 
 about the base of the bill, but to faint; 11 and I once 
 caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, 
 that for a time I thought it dead. 
 
 Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, 
 independently of habit, of the disturbed state of the 
 sensorium ; but it is doubtful whether they ought to be 
 wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is alarmed 
 
 11 Dr. Darwin, ' Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148. 
 
78 
 
 THE PKINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 
 
 it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in 
 order to collect its senses and to ascertain the source 
 of danger, and sometimes for the sake of escaping 
 detection. Bat headlong flight soon follows, with no 
 husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the 
 animal continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, 
 until utter prostration, with failing respiration and 
 circulation, with all the muscles quivering and profuse 
 sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it 
 does not seem improbable that the principle of asso- 
 ciated habit may in part account for, or at least 
 augment, some of the above-named characteristic symp- 
 toms of extreme terror. 
 
 That the principle of associated habit has played an 
 important part in causing the movements expressive of 
 the foregoing several strong emotions and sensations, 
 we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly, 
 some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily 
 require for their relief or gratification any voluntary 
 movement ; and secondly the contrast in nature between 
 the so-called exciting and depressing states of the 
 mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; 
 but a mother may feel the deepest love for her helpless 
 infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign; or 
 only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle 
 smile and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally 
 injure her infant, and see what a change ! how she 
 starts up with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle 
 and her face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils 
 dilate, and heart beats; for anger, and not maternal 
 love, has habitually led to action. The love between 
 the opposite sexes is widely different from maternal 
 love;, and when lovers meet, we know that their hearts 
 beat quickly, their breathing is hurried, and their faces 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 79 
 
 flush ; for this love is not inactive like that of a mother 
 for her infant. 
 
 A man may have his mind filled with the blackest 
 hatred or suspicion, or be corroded with envy or jealousy; 
 but as these feelings do not at once lead to action, and as 
 they commonly last for some time, they are not shown 
 by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state 
 assuredly does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. 
 If indeed these feelings break out into overt acts, 
 rage takes their place, and will be plainly exhibited. 
 Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, 
 &c, except by the aid of accessories which tell the 
 tale ; and poets use such vague and fanciful expres- 
 sions as " green-eyed jealousy." Spenser describes 
 suspicion as "Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his 
 " eyebrows looking still askance," &c. ; Shakespeare 
 speaks of envy "as lean-faced in her loathsome case;" 
 and in another place he says, " no black envy shall 
 " make my grave ;" and again as " above pale envy's 
 " threatening reach." 
 
 Emotions and sensations have often been classed. as 
 exciting or depressing. When all the organs of the 
 body and mind, — those of voluntary and involuntary 
 movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &c, — 
 perform their functions more energetically and rapidly 
 than usual, a man or animal may be said to be excited, 
 and, under an opposite state, to be depressed. Anger 
 and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they 
 naturally lead, more especially the former, to energetic 
 movements, which react on the heart and this again 
 on the brain. A physician once remarked to me as a 
 1 proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when 
 excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary 
 offences and put himself into a passion, unconsciously 
 for the sake of rein vigora ting himself; and since 
 
80 THE PKINCIPLE OF THE DIEECT Chap. HI. 
 
 hearing this remark, I have occasionally recognized 
 its full truth. 
 
 Several other states of mind appear to be at first 
 exciting, but soon become depressing to an extreme 
 degree. When a mother suddenly loses her child, 
 sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be con- 
 sidered to be in an excited state; she walks wildly 
 about, tears her hair or clothes, and wrings her hands. 
 This latter action is perhaps clue to the principle of 
 antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness 
 and that nothing can be done. The other wild and 
 violent movements ma) r be in part explained by the 
 relief experienced through muscular exertion, and in 
 part by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the 
 excited sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a 
 beloved person, one of the first and commonest thoughts 
 which occurs, is that something more might have been 
 done to save the lost one. An excellent observer, 12 
 in describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden 
 death of her father, says she " went about the house 
 " wringing her hands like a creature demented, saying 
 " 'It was her fault;' 'I should never have left him;' 
 " 'If I had only sat up with him,' " &c. With such 
 ideas vividly present before the mind, there would arise, 
 through the principle of associated habit, the strongest 
 tendency to energetic action of some kind. 
 
 As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing 
 can be done, despair or deep sorrow takes the place of 
 frantic grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or gently 
 rocks to and fro ; the circulation becomes languid ; 
 respiration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. 
 All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon 
 follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As 
 
 12 Mrs. Olipbant, in her novel of ' MUs Majoriianks,' p. 362. 
 
Chap. III. ACTION OF THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 81 
 
 associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to 
 action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion, 
 and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exer- 
 tion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, 
 and aids the mind to bear its heavy load. 
 
 Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or 
 prostration ; but it is at first a stimulant and excites to 
 action, as we see when we whip a horse, and as is shown 
 by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands on ex- 
 hausted dray- bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. 
 Fear again is the most depressing of all the emotions ; 
 and it soon induces utter, helpless prostration, as if in 
 consequence of, or in association with, the most violent 
 and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger, 
 though no such attempts have actually been made. 
 Nevertheless, even extreme fear often acts at first as a 
 powerful stimulant. A man or animal driven through 
 terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful 
 strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the highest 
 degree. 
 
 On the whole we may conclude that the principle of 
 the direct action of the sensorium on the body, due to 
 the constitution of the nervous system, and from the first 
 independent of the will, has been highly influential in 
 determining many expressions. Good instances are 
 afforded by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating 
 of the skin, the modified secretions of the alimentary 
 canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations. 
 But actions of this kind are often combine 1 with others, 
 which follow from our first principle, namely, that actions 
 which have often been of direct or indirect service, under 
 certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or relieve 
 certain sensations, desires, &c, are still performed under 
 analogous circumstances through mere habit although 
 
82 
 
 ACTTON OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Chap. 111. 
 
 of no service. We have combinations of this kind, at least 
 in part, in the frantic gestures of rage and in the writhings 
 of extreme pain ; and, perhaps, in the increased action of 
 the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when 
 these and other emotions or sensations are aroused in a 
 very feeble manner, there will still be a tendency to simi- 
 lar actions, owing to the force of long-associated habit ; 
 and those actions which are least under voluntary control 
 will generally be longest retained. Our second principle 
 of antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play. 
 
 Finally, so many expressive movements can be ex- 
 plained, as I trust will be seen in the course of this 
 volume, through the three principles which have now 
 been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all 
 thus explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, 
 however, often impossible to decide how much weight 
 ought to be attributed, in each particular case, to one 
 of our principles, and how much to another ; and very 
 many points in the theory of Expression remain inex- 
 plicable. 
 
Ch\p. IV. MEANS OF EXPKESSION IN ANIMALS. 
 
 83 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 Means of Expression in Animals. 
 
 The emission of sounds — Vocal sounds — Sounds otherwise pro- 
 duced — Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c, 
 under the emotions of anger and terror — The drawing back oi 
 the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an expression 
 of anger — Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign of 
 attention. 
 
 In this and the following chapter I will describe, but 
 only in sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the 
 expressive movements, under different states of the 
 mind, of some few well-known animals. But before 
 considering them in due succession, it will save much 
 useless repetition to discuss certain means of expression 
 common to most of them. 
 
 The emission of Sounds. — With many kinds of ani- 
 mals, man included, the vocal organs are efficient in 
 the highest degree as a means of expression. We have 
 seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium is 
 strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally 
 thrown into violent action ; and as a consequence, loud 
 sounds are uttered, however silent the animal may 
 generally be, and although the sounds may be of no 
 use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, 
 use their vocal organs except in the extremity of 
 suffering ; as, when a wounded hare is killed by the 
 sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a 
 stoat. Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence , 
 but when this is excessive, and especially when asso- 
 ciated with terror, they utter fearful sounds. I have 
 
84 
 
 MEANS OF EXPKESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas, the 
 agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by 
 the lasso and hamstrung. It is said that horses, when 
 attacked by wolves, utter. loud and peculiar screams of 
 distress. 
 
 Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the 
 muscles of the chest and glottis, excited in the above 
 manner, may have first given rise to the emission of 
 vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by 
 many animals for various purposes ; and habit seems to 
 have played an important part in its employment 
 under other circumstances. Naturalists have remarked, 
 I believe with truth, that social animals, from habitually 
 using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunica- 
 tion, use them on other occasions much more freely 
 than other animals. But there are marked excep- 
 tions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit. The 
 principle, also, of association, which is so widely extended 
 in its power, has likewise played its part. Hence it 
 follows that the voice, from having been habitually 
 employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions, 
 inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c, is commonly used 
 whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited, 
 under quite different conditions, or in a lesser degree. 
 
 The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each 
 other during the breeding-season ; and in not a few 
 cases, the male endeavours thus to charm or excite the 
 female. This, indeed, seems to have been the primeval 
 use and means of development of the voice, as I have 
 attempted to show in my * Descent of Man.' Thus the 
 use of the vocal organs will have become associated 
 with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure which 
 animals are capable of feeling. Animals which live in 
 society often call to each other when separated, and 
 evidently feel much joy at meeting ; as we see with a 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 85 
 
 horse, on the return of his companion, for whom he has 
 been neighing. The mother calls incessantly for bet 
 lost young ones ; for instance, a cow for her calf ; and 
 the young of many animals call for their mothers. 
 When a flock of sheep is scattered, the ewes bleat 
 incessantly for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure 
 at coming together is manifest. Woe betide the man 
 who meddles with the young of the larger and fiercer 
 quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of distress from 
 their young. Eage leads to the violent exertion of all 
 the muscles, including those of the voice; and some 
 animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike terror into 
 their enemies by its power and harshness, as the lion 
 does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I infer that 
 their object is to strike terror, because the lion at the 
 same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog 
 the hair along its back, and thus they make themselves 
 appear as large and terrible as possible. Eival males 
 try to excel and challenge each other by their voices, 
 and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the 
 voice will have become associated with the emotion of 
 anger, however it may be aroused. We have also seen 
 that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent outcries, 
 and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some 
 relief; and thus the use of the voice will have become 
 associated with suffering of any kind. 
 
 The cause of widely different sounds being uttered 
 under different emotions and sensations is a very 
 obscure subject. Nor does the rule always hold good 
 that there is any marked difference. For instance 
 with the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do 
 not differ much, though they can be distinguished. 
 It is not probable that any precise explanation of the 
 cause or source of each particular sound, under different 
 states of the mind, will ever be given. We know that 
 
86 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 some animals, after being domesticated, have acquired 
 the habit of uttering sounds which were not natural 
 to them. 1 Thus domestic dogs, and even tamed jackals, 
 have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any 
 species of the genus, with the exception of the Cants 
 latrans of North America, which is said to bark. Some 
 breeds, also, of the domestic pigeon have learnt to coo 
 in a new and quite peculiar manner. 
 
 The character of the human voice, under the in- 
 fluence of various emotions, has been discussed by 
 Mr. Herbert Spencer 2 in his interesting essay on 
 Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much 
 under different conditions, in loudness and in quality, 
 that is, in resonance and timbre, in pitch and intervals. 
 No one can listen to an eloquent orator or preacher, 
 or to a man calling angrily to another, or to one 
 expressing astonishment, without being struck with 
 the truth of Mr. Spencer's remarks. It is curious how 
 early in life the modulation of the voice becomes ex- 
 pressive. With one of my children, Tinder the age of 
 two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent 
 was rendered by a slight modulation strongly emphatic ; 
 and that by a peculiar whine his negative expressed 
 obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows 
 that emotional speech, in all the above respects is 
 intimately related to vocal music, and consequently 
 to instrumental music ; and he attempts to explain the 
 characteristic qualities of both on physiological grounds, 
 — namely, on " the general law that a feeling is a sti- 
 " mulus to muscular action." It may be admitted that 
 
 1 See the evidence on this head in my ' Variation of Animals and 
 Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, 
 vol. i. pp. 154, 155. 
 
 2 ' Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858. ' The Origin 
 and Function of Music,' p. 359. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 87 
 
 the voice is affected through this law ; but the expla- 
 nation appears to me too general and vague to throw 
 much light on the various differences, with the excep- 
 tion of that of loudness, between ordinary speech and 
 emotional speech, or singing. 
 
 This remark holds good, whether we believe that the 
 various qualities of the voice originated in speaking 
 under the excitement of strong feelings, and that these 
 qualities have subsequently been transferred to vocal 
 music ; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the 
 habit of uttering musical sounds was first developed, as 
 a means of courtship, in the early progenitors of man, 
 and thus became associated with the strongest emotions 
 of which they were capable, — -namely, ardent love, 
 rivalry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes 
 is familiar to every one, as we may daily hear in the 
 singing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that an 
 ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of 
 musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by 
 half-tones; so that this monkey "alone of brute mam- 
 " mals may be said to sing." 3 From this fact, and 
 from the analogy of other animals, I have been led 
 to infer that the progenitors of man probably uttered 
 musical tones, before they had acquired the power of 
 articulate speech ; and that consequently, when the 
 voice is used under any strong emotion, it tends to 
 assume, through the principle of association, a musical 
 character. We can plainly perceive, with some of the 
 lower animals, that the males employ their voices to 
 
 3 ' The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The word3 quoted are 
 from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some quadrupeds 
 much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to pro- 
 duce correct musical tones : see the account of a singing Ilesperomys, 
 by the llev. S. Lockwood, in the ' American Naturalist,' vol. v. De- 
 cember, 1871, p. 7G1. 
 
88 
 
 MEAN'S OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV 
 
 please the females, and that they themselves take 
 pleasure in their own vocal utterances ; but why par- 
 ticular sounds are uttered, and why these give pleasure 
 cannot at present be explained. 
 
 That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to 
 certain states of feeling is tolerably clear. A person 
 gently complaining of ill-treatment, or slightly suffer- 
 ing, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice. 
 Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a high piping 
 note through their noses, which at once strikes us 
 as plaintive; 4 but how difficult it is to know whether 
 the sound is essentially plaintive, or only appears so 
 in this particular case, from our having learnt by 
 experience what it means ! Ilengger, states 5 that the 
 monkeys (Cebus azarae), ^which he kept in Paraguay, 
 expressed astonishment by a half-piping, half-snarling 
 noise ; anger or impatience, by repeating the sound 
 hu hu in a deeper, grunting voice ; and fright or pain, 
 by shrill screams. On the other hand, with mankind, 
 deep groans and high piercing screams equally express 
 an agony of pain. Laughter may be either high or 
 low ; so that, with adult men, as Haller long ago 
 remarked, 6 the sound partakes of the character of 
 the vowels (as pronounced in German) and A; whilst 
 with children and women, it has more of the character 
 of E and I ; and these latter vowel-sounds naturally 
 have, as Ilelmholtz has shown, a higher -pitch than 
 the former ; yet both tones of laughter equally express 
 enjoyment or amusement. 
 
 In considering the mode in whi :*h vocal utterances 
 express emotion, we are naturally led to inquire into 
 
 4 Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in Ids discus- 
 sion on this subject, alludes t;> the whining of the dog. 
 
 5 ' Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 46. 
 e Quoted by Gratiolet, ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 115. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 89 
 
 the cause of what is called " expression " in music. 
 Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long attended 
 to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me 
 the following remarks : — r* The question, what is the 
 "essence of musical 'expression' involves a number 
 " of obscure points, which, so far as I am aware, are as 
 " yet unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, how- 
 " ever, any law which is found to hold as to the expres- 
 * sion of the emotions by simple sounds must apply to 
 " the more developed mode of expression in song, \\hich 
 " may be taken as the primary type of all music. A 
 " great part of the emotional effect of a song depends 
 " on the character of the action by which the sounds 
 " are produced. In songs, for instance, which express 
 " great vehemence of passion, the effect often chiefly 
 " depends on the forcible utterance of some one or two 
 " characteristic passages which demand great exertion 
 " of vocal force ; and it will be frequently noticed that 
 u a song of this character fails of its proper effect when 
 " sung by a voice of sufficient power and range to give 
 " the characteristic passages without much exertion. 
 " This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of effect so 
 " often produced by the transposition of a song from 
 " one key to another. The effect is thus seen to depend 
 " not merely on the actual sounds, but also in part on 
 " the nature of the action which produces the sounds. 
 " Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the ' ex- 
 <J ' pression ' of a song to be due to its quickness or slow- 
 " ness of movement — to smoothness of flow, loudness of 
 " utterance, and so on — we are, in fact, interpreting the 
 u muscular actions which produce sound, in the same 
 " way in which we interpret muscular action generally: 
 " hut this leaves unexplained the more subtle and more 
 " specific effect which we call the musical expression of 
 u the song— the delight given by its melody, or even 
 
 5 * 
 
90 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 " by the separate sounds which make up the melody. 
 " This is an effect indefinable in language — one which, 
 " so far as I am aware, no one has been able to analyse, 
 " and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert 
 " Spencer as to the origin of music leaves quite unex- 
 " plained. For it is certain that the melodic effect of a 
 " series of sounds does not depend in the least on their 
 " loudness or softness, or on their absolute pitch. A 
 " tune is always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly 
 " or softly, by a child or a man; whether it is played 
 " on a flute or on a trombone. The purely musical 
 " effect of any sound depends on its place in what is 
 " technically called a * scale ; ' the same sound producing 
 " absolutely different effects on the ear, according as it 
 " is heard' in connection with one or another series of 
 " sounds. 
 
 " It is on this relative association of the sounds that 
 " all the essentially characteristic effects which are 
 " summed up in the phrase ' musical expression,' depend. 
 " But why certain associations of sounds have such-and- 
 " such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be 
 " solved. These effects mast indeed, in some way or 
 " other, be connected with the well-known arithmetical 
 " relations between the rates of vibration of the sounds 
 " which form a musical scale. And it is possible — 
 " but this is merely a suggestion — that the greater or 
 " less mechanical facility with which the vibrating 
 " apparatus of the human larynx passes from one state 
 " of vibration to another, may have been a primary 
 " cause of the greater or less pleasure produced by 
 " various sequences of sounds." 
 
 But leaving aside these complex questions and con- 
 fining ourselves to the simpler sounds, we can, at least, 
 see some reasons for the association of certain kinds of 
 sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 91 
 
 instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the 
 members of a community, as a call for assistance, will 
 naturally be loud, prolonged, and high, so as to pene- 
 trate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown 7 that, 
 owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human 
 ear and its consequent power of resonance, high notes 
 produce a particularly strong impression. When male 
 animals utter sounds in order to please the females, they 
 would naturally employ those which are sweet to the 
 ears of the species; and it appears that the same 
 sounds are often pleasing to widely different animals, 
 owing to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we 
 ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in 
 the chirping of certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. 
 On the other hand, sounds produced in order to strike 
 terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or 
 displeasing. 
 
 Whether the principle of antithesis has come into 
 play with sounds, as might perhaps have been expected, 
 is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing or tittering 
 sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys 
 when pleased, are as different as possible from the pro- 
 longed screams of these animals when distressed. The 
 deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig, when pleased 
 with its food, is widely different from its harsh scream 
 of pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, 
 the bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by 
 no means stand in opposition to each other ; and so it is 
 in some other cases. 
 
 There is another obscure point, namely, whether the 
 sounds which are produced under various states of the 
 
 1 1 Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 18GS, p. 146. 
 Helmholtz lias also fully discussed in this profound work the relation 
 of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of vowcl- 
 
 EOUM'ls. 
 
92 
 
 MEANS OP EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IY. 
 
 mind determine the shape of the mouth, or whether 
 its shape is not determined by independent causes, and 
 the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they 
 open their mouths widely, and this, no doubt, is neces- 
 sary for pouring forth a full volume of sound ; but the 
 mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an 
 almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter 
 be explained, on the firm closing of the eyelids, and con- 
 sequent drawing up of the upper lip. How far this 
 square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or 
 crying sound, I am not prepared to say ; but we know 
 from the researches of Helmholtz and others that the 
 form of the cavity of the mouth and lips determines the 
 nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are pro- 
 duced. 
 
 It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under 
 the feeling of contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, 
 from intelligible causes, to blow out of the mouth or 
 nostrils, and this produces sounds like joooh or pish. 
 When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there 
 is an instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intel- 
 ligible cause, namely, to be ready for prolonged exer- 
 tion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw a deep and 
 rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows, 
 the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes 
 hereafter to be discussed, are somewhat protruded ; and 
 this form of the mouth, if the voice be at all exerted, 
 produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of the 
 vowel 0. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged Oh ! 
 may be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately 
 after witnessing any astonishing spectacle. If, together 
 with surprise, pain be felt, there is a tendency to con- 
 tract all the muscles of the body, including those of the 
 face, and the lips will then be drawn back ; and this 
 will perhaps account for the sound becoming higher and 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 93 
 
 assuming the character of Ah 1 or Achl As. fear causes 
 all the muscles of the body to tremble, the voice naturally 
 becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from 
 the dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands 
 failing to act. Why the laughter of man and the 
 tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly reiterated 
 sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of 
 these sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by 
 the corners being drawn backwards and upwards ; 
 and of this fact an explanation will be attempted 
 in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the 
 differences of the sounds produced 
 under different states of the mind is 
 so obscure, that I have surceeded in 
 throwing hardly any light on it ; and 
 the remarks which I have made, have 
 but little significance. 
 
 All the sounds hitherto noticed de- 
 pend on the respiratory organs ; but 
 sounds produced by wholly different 
 means are likewise expressive. Rab- 
 bits stamp loudly on the ground as a 
 signal to their comrades; and if a man 
 knows how to do so properly, he may 
 on a quiet evening hear the rabbits 
 answering him all around. These ani- 
 mals, as well as some others, also stamp 
 on the ground when made angry. Por- 
 cupines rattle their quills and vibrate 
 their tails when angered ; and one be- 
 haved in this manner when a live snake "*J£ SfSfS 
 was placed in its compartment. The the Porcupine, 
 quills on the tail are very different from those on the 
 body : they are short, hollow, thin like a goose-quill, 
 
94 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 with their ends transversely truncated, so that they are 
 open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic foot- 
 stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these 
 hollow quills strike against each other and produce, 
 as I heard in the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar 
 continuous sound. We can, I think, understand why 
 porcupines have been provided, through the modifica- 
 tion of their protective spines, with this special sound- 
 producing instrument. They are nocturnal animals, 
 and if they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey, 
 it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to 
 give warning to their enemy what they were, and that 
 they were furnished with dangerous spines. They would 
 thus escape being attacked. They are, -as I may add, 
 so fully conscious of the power of their weapons, that 
 when enraged they will charge backwards with their 
 spines erected, yet still inclined backwards. 
 
 Many birds during their courtship produce diversified 
 sounds by means of specially adapted feathers. Storks, 
 when excited, make a loud clattering noise with their 
 beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise. 
 Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially 
 modified parts of their hard integuments. This stimula- 
 tion generally serves as a sexual charm or call ; but it 
 is likewise used to express different emotions. 8 Every 
 one who has attended to bees knows that their humming 
 changes when they are angry ; and this serves as a 
 warning that there is danger of being stung. I have 
 made these few remarks because some writers have 
 laid so much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs 
 as having been specially adapted for expression, that it 
 was advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced 
 serve equally well for the same purpose. 
 
 8 I have given some details on this subject in my ' Descent of Man, 
 vol. i. pp. 352, 384. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 95 
 
 Erection of the dermal appendages. — Hardly any ex- 
 pressive movement is so general as the involuntary 
 fi erection of the hairs, feathers and other dermal appen- 
 dages ; for it is common throughout three of the great 
 vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under 
 the excitement of anger or terror ; more especially 
 when these emotions are combined, or quickly succeed 
 each other. The action serves to make the animal 
 appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or 
 rivals, and is generally accompanied by various volun- 
 tary movements adapted for the same purpose, and by 
 the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has 
 had such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does 
 not doubt that this is the case ; but it is a different 
 question whether the power of erection was primarily 
 acquired for this special purpose. 
 
 I will first give a considerable body of facts showing 
 how general this action is with mammals, birds and 
 reptiles ; retaining what I have to say in regard to man 
 for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent keeper 
 in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me 
 the Chimpanzee and Orang ; and he states that when 
 they are suddenly frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or 
 when they are made angry, as by being teased, their 
 hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was 
 alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the 
 hair rose all over his body ; he made little starts 
 forward as if to attack the man, without any real 
 intention of doing so, but with the hope, as the keeper 
 remarked, of frightening him. The Gorilla, when 
 enraged, is described by Mr. Ford 9 as having his 
 crest of hair u erect and projecting forward, his nostrils 
 " dilated, and his under lip thrown down ; at the same 
 
 • As quoted in Huxley's ' Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 
 1803, p. 52. 
 
96 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 "time uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it would 
 " seem, to terrify his antagonists." I saw the hair on the 
 Anubis baboon, when angered bristling along the back, 
 from the neck to the loins, but not on the rump or 
 other parts of the body. I took a stuffed snake into 
 the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the species 
 instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I 
 particularly noticed with the Cercopithecus nietitans. 
 Brehm states 10 that the Midas oedipus (belonging to the 
 American division) when excited erects its mane, in 
 order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful as possible. 
 
 With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to 
 be almost universal, often accompanied by threatening 
 movement.*, the uncovering of the teeth and the utter- 
 ance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have seen 
 the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including the 
 tail ; and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous 
 manner by the Hyaena and Proteles. The enraged lion 
 erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along the 
 neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of 
 the cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. 
 With the cat it apparently occurs only under fear ; with 
 the dog, under anger and fear ; but not, as far as I have 
 observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be 
 flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog 
 shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. 
 I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is particu- 
 larly liable to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, 
 as on beholding some object only indistinctly seen in 
 the dusk. 
 
 I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he 
 has often seen the hair erected on horses and cattle, on 
 which he had operated and was again going to operate. 
 
 10 lllust. Tlijierlebeu, 18G1, B. i. s. 130. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 97 
 
 When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair 
 rose in a wonderful manner along its back ; and so it 
 does with the boar when enraged. An Elk which gored 
 a man to death in the United States, is described as 
 first brandishing his antlers, squealing with rage and 
 stamping on the ground ; " at length his hair was seen 
 " to rise and stand on end," and then he plunged forward 
 to the attack. 11 The hair likewise becomes erect 
 on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on some Indian, 
 antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant- 
 eater; and on the Agouti, one of the Rodents. A 
 female Bat, 12 which reared her young under con- 
 finement, when any one looked into the cage " erected 
 the fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding 
 " finders." 
 
 Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their 
 feathers when angry or frightened. Every one must 
 have seen two cocks, even quite young birds, preparing 
 to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these 
 feathers when erected serve as a means of defence, 
 for cock-fighters have found by experience that it is 
 advantageous to trim them. The male Ruff (Ma- 
 chetes pugnax) likewise erects its collar of feathers 
 when fighting. When a dog approaches a common hen 
 with her chickens, she spreads out her wings, raises her 
 tail, ruffles all her feathers, and looking" as ferocious as 
 possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is not always 
 held in exactly the same position ; it is sometimes 
 so much erected, that the central feathers, as in the 
 accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans, 
 when angered, likewise raise their wings and tail, and 
 
 11 The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad, of Nat. Sciences, May, 13G8, 
 pp. 36, 40. For the Capra Afgagrus, ' Land and Water,' 18G7, p. 37. 
 
 12 1 Land and Water,' July 20, 18G7, p. 659. 
 
98 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 erect their feathers. They open their beaks, and make 
 by paddling little rapid starts forwards, against any 
 one who approaches the water's edge too closely. 
 Tropic birds 13 when disturbed on their nests are 
 said not to fly away, but " merely to stick out 
 " their feathers and scream." The Barn-owl, when ap- 
 
 Flg. 12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
 proached " instantly swells out its plumage, extends its 
 " wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with 
 " force and rapidity." 14 So do other kinds of owls. 
 Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. J enner Weir, likewise 
 ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail 
 
 18 Phaeton rubricauda : 'Ibis/ vol. iii. 1861, p. 180. 
 
 14 On the Strix flammea, Audubon, 1 Ornithological Biography,' 
 18(54, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the Zoological 
 Gardens. 
 
Chap. IV. • IN ANIMALS. 
 
 99 
 
 under similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots 
 erect their feathers ; and I have seen this action in the 
 Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an Anteater. 
 Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their feathers, open 
 their mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful 
 as possible. 
 
 Fig. 13. Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
 Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such 
 as various finches, buntings and warblers, when angry, 
 ruffle all their feathers, or only those round the 
 neck ; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers. 
 With their plumage in this state, they rush at eitch 
 other with open beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. 
 Weir concludes from his large experience that the 
 erection of the feathers is caused much more by anger 
 than by fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid gold 
 
100 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 finch of a most irascible disposition, which when ap- 
 proached too closely by a servant, instantly assumes 
 the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He be- 
 lieves that birds when frightened, as a general rule, 
 closely adpress all their feathers, and their consequently 
 diminished size is often astonishing. As soon as they 
 recover from their fear or surprise, the first thing 
 which they do is to shake out their feathers. The 
 best instances of this adpression of the feathers and 
 apparent shrinking of the body from fear, which Mr. 
 Weir has noticed, has been in the quail and grass- 
 parrakeet. 15 The habit is intelligible in these birds 
 from their being accustomed, when in danger, either 
 to squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch, 
 so as to escape detection. Though, with birds, anger 
 may be the chief and commonest cause of the erection 
 of the feathers, it is probable that young cuckoos when 
 looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when 
 approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. 
 Tegetmeier informs me that with game-cocks, the 
 erection of the feathers on the head has long been 
 recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice. 
 
 The males of some lizards, when fighting together 
 during their courtship, expand their throat pouches or 
 frills, and erect their dorsal crests. 16 But Dr. Gunther 
 does not believe that they can erect their separate 
 spines or scales. 
 
 We thus see how generally throughout the two 
 higher vertebrate classes, and with some reptiles, the 
 dermal appendages are erected under the influence 
 of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we 
 
 15 Melopsittacus undulatus. See an account of its habits by Gould, 
 1 Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 18G5, vol. ii. p. 82. 
 
 16 See, for instance, the account which I have given (' Descent of 
 Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 101 
 
 know from Kolliker's interesting discovery, by the con- 
 traction of minute, unstriped, involuntary muscles, 17 
 often called arrectores pili, which are attached to the 
 capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c. By the con- 
 traction of these muscles the hairs can he instantly 
 erected, as we see in a dog, being at the same time drawn 
 a little out of their sockets ; they are afterwards quickly 
 depressed. The vast number of these minute muscles 
 over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing. 
 The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, 
 as with that on the head of a man, by the striped and 
 voluntary muscles of the underlying panniculus car- 
 nosus. It is by the action of these latter muscles, that 
 the hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from 
 the researches of Leydig 18 and others, that striped 
 fibres extend from the panniculus to some of the larger 
 hairs, such as the vibrissa of certain quadrupeds. The 
 arrectores pili contract not only under the above emo- 
 tions, but from the application of cold to the surface. 
 I remember that my mules and dogs, brought from a 
 lower and warmer country, after spending a night on the 
 bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over their bodies as 
 erect as under the greatest terror. We see the same 
 action in our own goose-skin during the chill before a 
 fever-fit. Mr. Lister has' also found, 19 that tickling 
 a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection 
 and protrusion of the hairs. 
 
 From these facts it is manifest that the erection of 
 the dermal appendages is a reflex action, independent 
 
 17 These muscles are described in his well-known works. I am 
 greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given mo 
 in a letter information on this same subject. 
 
 18 ' Lehrbuch der Histologic des Mensehen,' 1857, s. 82. I owe to 
 Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work. 
 
 19 ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol. i. p. 2G2. 
 
102 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 of the will ; and this action must be looked at, when 
 occurring under the influence of anger or fear, not as a 
 power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but 
 as an incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the 
 sensorium being affected. The result, in as far as it is 
 incidental, may be compared with the profuse sweating 
 from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless, it is 
 remarkable how slight an excitement often suffices to 
 cause the hair to become erect ; as when two dogs 
 pretend to fight together in play. We have, also, seen 
 in a large number of animals, belonging to widely dis- 
 tinct classes, that the erection of the hair or feathers is 
 almost always accompanied by various voluntary move- 
 ments — by threatening gestures, opening the mouth, 
 uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the wings and 
 tail by birds, and by the utterance of harsh sounds; 
 and the purpose of these voluntary movements is un- 
 mistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that 
 the co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages, by 
 which the animal is made to appear larger and more 
 terrible to its enemies or rivals, should be altogether an 
 incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of 
 the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that 
 the erection by the hedgehog of its spines, or of the 
 quills by the porcupine, or of the ornamental plumes 
 by many birds during their courtship, should all be 
 purposeless actions. 
 
 We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the 
 contraction of the unstriped and involuntary arrectores 
 fill have been co-ordinated with that of various volun- 
 tary muscles for the same special purpose? If we 
 could believe that the arrectores primordially had been 
 voluntary muscles, and had since lost their stripes and 
 become involuntary, the case would be comparatively 
 simple. I am not, however, aware that there is any 
 
Chap. IV. IN ANIMALS. 103 
 
 evidence in favour of this view ; although the reversed 
 transition would not have presented any great diffi- 
 culty, as the voluntary muscles are in an unstriped con- 
 dition in the embryos of the higher animals, and in the 
 larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper 
 layers of the skin of adult birds, the muscular network 
 is, according to Leydig, 20 in a transitional condition ; 
 the fibres exhibiting only indications of transverse 
 striation. 
 
 Another explanation seems possible. We may admit 
 that originally the arredores pili were slightly acted on 
 in a direct manner, under the influence of rage and 
 terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system ; as is 
 undoubtedly the case with our so-called goose shin 
 before a fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly 
 excited by rage and terror during many generations ; 
 and consequently the direct effects of* the disturbed 
 nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost 
 certainly have been increased through habit and through 
 the tendency of nerve-force to pass readily along accus- 
 tomed channels. We shall find this view of the force 
 of habit strikingly confirmed in a future chapter, where 
 it will be shown that the hair of the insane is affected 
 in an extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated 
 accesses of fury and terror. As soon as with animals 
 the power of erection had thus been strengthened or 
 increased, they must often have seen the hairs or 
 feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the 
 bulk of their bodies thus increased. In this case it 
 appears possible that they might have wished to make 
 themselves appear larger and more terrible to their 
 enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening atti- 
 tude and uttering harsh cries; such attitudes and 
 
 20 1 Lehrbuch der Histologic,' 1857, s. 82. 
 
104 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 utterances after a time becoming through habit in- 
 stinctive. In this manner actions performed by the 
 contraction of voluntary muscles might have been 
 combined for the same special purpose with those 
 effected by involuntary muscles. It is even possible 
 that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of 
 some change in the state of their hair, might act on 
 it by repeated exertions of their attention and will ; 
 for we have reason to believe that the will is able to 
 influence in an obscure manner the action of some 
 unstriped or involuntary muscles, as in the period 
 of the peristaltic movements of the intestines, and in 
 the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we over- 
 look the part which variation and natural selection 
 may have played ; for the males which succeeded in 
 making themselves appear the most terrible to their 
 rivals, or to their other enemies, if not of overwhelming 
 power, will on an average have left more offspring to 
 inherit their characteristic qualities, whatever these 
 may be and however first acquired, than have other 
 males. 
 
 The inflation of the tody, and other means of exciting 
 fear in an enemy. — Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, 
 which either have no spines to erect, or no muscles by 
 which they can be erected, enlarge themselves when 
 alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known 
 to be the case with toads and frogs. The latter animal 
 is made, in iEsop's fable of the ' Ox and the Frog,' to 
 blow itself up from vanity and envy until it burst. 
 This action must have been observed during the most 
 ancient times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedg- 
 wood, 21 the word toad expresses in all the languages 
 of Europe the habit of swelling. It has been observed 
 
 21 ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 105 
 
 with some of the exotic species in the Zoological 
 Gardens ; and Dr. Giinther believes that it is general 
 throughout the group. Judging from analogy, the 
 primary purpose probably was to make the body appear 
 as large and frightful as possible to an enemy ; but 
 another, and perhaps more important secondary advan- 
 tage is thus gained. When frogs are seized by snakes, 
 which are their chief enemies, they enlarge themselves 
 wonderfully; so that if the snake be of small size, as 
 Dr. Giinther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, 
 which thus escapes being devoured. 
 
 Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves 
 when angry. Thus a species inhabiting Oregon, the 
 Tapaya Douglasii, is slow in its movements and does 
 not bite, but has a ferocious aspect ; " when irritated 
 " it springs in a most threatening manner at anything 
 " pointed at it, at the same time opening its mouth 
 " wide and hissing audibly, after which it inflates its 
 " body, and shows other marks of anger." 22 
 
 Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves 
 when irritated. The puff-adder (ChtJio arietans) is 
 remarkable in this respect ; but I believe, after carefully 
 watching these animals, that they do not act thus for 
 the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply 
 for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their 
 surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. 
 The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge them- 
 selves a little, and hiss moderately ; but, at the same 
 time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of 
 their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side 
 of the neck into a large flat disk, — the so-called hood. 
 With their widely opened mouths, they then assume a 
 
 22 See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as 
 quoted in ' Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 512. 
 
106 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to 
 be considerable, in order to compensate for the some- 
 what lessened rapidity (though this is still great) with 
 which, when dilated, they can strike at their enemies 
 or prey ; on the same principle that a broad, thin 
 piece of wood cannot be moved through the air so 
 quickly as a small round stick. An innocuous snake, 
 the Tropidonotus macrojphthalmus, an inhabitant of India, 
 likewise dilates its neck when irritated ; and conse- 
 quently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly 
 Cobra. 23 This resemblance perhaps serves as some 
 protection to the Tropidonotus. Another innocuous 
 species, the Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself 
 out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an intruder. 24 
 Many other snakes hiss under similar circumstances. 
 They also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues ; and 
 this may aid in increasing their terrific appearance. 
 
 Snakes possess other means of producing sounds 
 besides hissing. Many years ago I observed in South 
 America that a venomous Trigonocephalus, when dis- 
 turbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking 
 against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling 
 noise that could be distinctly heard at the distance of 
 six feet. 25 The deadly and fierce EcMs carinaia 
 of India produces " a curious prolonged, almost hissing 
 " sound " in a very different manner, namely by rub- 
 bing "the sides of the folds of its body against each 
 " other," whilst the head remains in almost the same 
 position. The scales on the sides, and not on other 
 parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels 
 
 23 Dr. Giinther, ■ Reptiles of British India,' p. 262. 
 
 24 Mr. J. Mansel Weale, ' Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508. 
 
 23 ' Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the " Beagle," ' 1845, 
 p. 96. I here compared the rattling thus produced with that of the 
 Rattle-snake. 
 
ClIAP. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 107 
 
 toothed like a saw ; and as the coiled-up animal rubs 
 its sides together, these grate against each other. 26 
 Lastly, we have the well-known case of the Rattle-snake. 
 He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, 
 can form no just i lea of the sound produced by the 
 living animal. Professor Shaler states that it is indis- 
 guishable from that made by the male of a large Cicada 
 (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same 
 district. 27 In the Zoological Gardens, when the 
 rattle-snakes and puff-adders were greatly excited at 
 the same time, I was much struck at the similarity 
 of the sound produced by them ; and although that 
 made by the rattle-snake is louder and shriller than 
 the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when standing at 
 some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two. 
 For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the one 
 species, I can hardly doubt that it serves for the same 
 purpose in the other species ; and I conclude from the 
 threatening gestures made at the same time by many 
 snakes, that their hissing, — the rattling of the rattle- 
 snake and of the tail of the Trigonocephalus, — the 
 grating of the scales of the Echis, — and the dilatation 
 of the hood of the Cobra, — all subserve the same end, 
 
 2fi See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. IDG. 
 
 27 The 'American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I 
 cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been deve- 
 loped, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing sounds 
 which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey to the 
 snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may occa- 
 sionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have arrivt d,' 
 viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be devourers, appears 
 to me much more piobable, as it connects together various classes of 
 facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the habit of rattling, 
 for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem probable that it would 
 have invariably used its instrument when angered or disturbed. Prof. 
 Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the manner of development 
 of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion since observing the 
 Trigonocephalus in South America. 
 
108 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 namely, to make them appear terrible to their 
 enemies. 28 
 
 It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous 
 snakes, such as the foregoing, from being already so 
 well defended by their poison-fangs, would never be 
 attacked by any enemy ; and consequently would 
 have no need to excite additional terror. But this 
 is far from being the case, for they are largely preyed 
 on in all quarters of the world by many animals. It 
 is well known that pigs are employed in the United 
 States to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, 
 which they do most effectually. 29 In England the 
 hedgehog attacks and devours the viper. In India, 
 as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks, 
 and at least one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras 
 and other venomous species; 30 and so it is in South 
 Africa. Therefore it is by no means improbable that any 
 sounds or signs by which the venomous species could 
 instantly make themselves recognised as dangerous, 
 would be of more service to them than to the innocuous 
 species which would not be able, if attacked, to inflict 
 any real injury. 
 
 Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted 
 
 28 From the accounts lately collected, and given in the ' Journal of 
 ' the Linnean Society,' by Mrs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes 
 of South Africa ; and from the accounts published by several writers, 
 for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North America, — it does 
 not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of snakes and the 
 sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring prey, by 
 paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the smaller animals. 
 
 29 See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, 
 p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon it; 
 and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig. 
 
 30 Dr. Giinther remarks (' Reptiles of British India,' p. 340) on the 
 destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst 
 the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the 
 peacock also eagerly kills snakes. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 to add a few remarks on the means by which the rattle 
 of the rattle-snake was probably developed. Various 
 animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate 
 their tails when excited. This is the case with many 
 kinds of snakes. 31 In the Zoological Gardens, an 
 innocuous species, the Coronella Sayi, vibrates its tail so 
 rapidly that it becomes almost invisible. The Trigono- 
 cephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit ; and 
 the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends 
 in a bead. In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied 
 to the rattle-snake that it was placed by Linnaeus in 
 the same genus, the tail ends in a single, large, lancet- 
 shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as 
 Professor Shaler remarks, " is more imperfectly de- 
 " tached from the region about the tail than at other 
 " parts of the body." Now if we suppose that the end 
 of the tail of some ancient American species was en- 
 larged, and was covered by a single large scale, this 
 could hardly have been cast off at the successive moults. 
 In this case it would have been permanently retained, 
 and at each period of growth, as the snake grew larger, 
 a new scale, larger than the last, would have been 
 formed above it, and would likewise have been retained. 
 The foundation for the development of a rattle would 
 thus have been laid ; and it would have been habitually 
 used, if the species, like so many others, vibrated its 
 tail whenever it was irritated. That the rattle has since 
 
 31 Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his ' Method of Crea- 
 tion of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil Soc, December 
 15tli, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of the use of 
 the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to this 
 subject in the la>t edition of my ' Origin of Species.' Since the passages 
 in the text above have bucu printed, 1 have been pleased to find that 
 Mr. Henderson ('The American Naturalist/ May, 1872, p. 2G0) also 
 takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely " in preventing an 
 4 - attack from being made." 
 
4 
 
 J 10 MEANS OF EXPRESSION Chap. IV. 
 
 been specially developed to serve as an efficient sound- 
 producing instrument, there can hardly be a doubt ; for 
 even the vertebrae included within the extremity of the 
 tail have been altered in shape and cohere. But there 
 is no greater improbability in various structures, such 
 as the rattle of the rattle-snake, — the lateral scales of 
 the Echis, — the neck with the included ribs of the 
 Cobra, — and the whole body of the puff-adder, — having 
 been modified for the sake of warning and frightening 
 away their enemies, than in a bird, namely, the won- 
 derful Secretary-hawk (Gijpogeranus) having had its 
 whole frame modified for the sake of killing snakes 
 with impunity. It is highly probable, judging from 
 what we have before seen, that this bird would ruffle 
 its feathers whenever it attacked a snake ; and it is 
 certain that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to 
 attack a snake, erects the hair all over its body, and 
 especially that on its tail. 32 We have also seen that 
 some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the sight 
 of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a 
 peculiar sound by the striking together of the hollow 
 quills. So that here both the attackers and the at- 
 tacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful 
 as possible to each other ; and both possess for this 
 purpose specialised means, which, oddly enough, are 
 nearly the same in some of these cases. Finally we can 
 see that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes, 
 whicE were best able to frighten away their enemies, 
 escaped best from being devoured ; and if, on the other 
 hand, those individuals of the attacking enemy survived 
 in larger numbers which were the best fitted for the 
 dangerous task of killing and devouring venomous 
 snakes; — then in the one case as in the other, bene- 
 
 3 2 Mr. des Vceux, in Troc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ficial variations, supposing the characters in question to 
 vary, would commonly have been preserved through the 
 survival of the fittest. 
 
 The Drawing bacJc and pressure of the Ears to the 
 Head. — The ears through their movements are highly 
 expressive in many animals ; but in some, such as 
 man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail 
 in this respect. A slight difference in position serves 
 to express in the plainest manner a different state of 
 mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we are 
 here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely 
 backwards and pressed to the head. A savage frame 
 of mind is thus shown, but only in the case of those 
 animals which fight with their teeth; and the care 
 which they take to prevent their ears being seized by 
 their antagonists, accounts for this position. Conse- 
 quently, through habit and association, whenever they 
 feel slightly savage, or pretend in their play to be 
 savage, their ears are drawn back. That this is the 
 true explanation may be inferred from the relation 
 which exists in very many animals between their manner 
 of fighting and the retraction of their ears. 
 
 All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and 
 all, as far as I have observed, draw their ears back 
 when feeling savage. This may be continually seen with 
 dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies 
 fighting in play. The movement is different from the 
 falling down and slight drawing back of the ears, 
 when a dog feels pleased and is caressed by his master. 
 The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen in 
 kittens fighting together in their play, and in full- 
 grown cats when really savage, as before illustrated in 
 fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their ears are thus to a large 
 extent protected, yet they often get much torn in old 
 
112 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 male cats during their mutual battles. The same 
 movement is very striking in tigers, leopards, &c., 
 whilst growling over their food in menageries. The lynx 
 has remarkably long ears; and their retraction, when 
 one of these animals is approached in its cage, is very 
 conspicuous, and is eminently expressive of its savage 
 disposition. Even one of the Eared Seals, the Otaria 
 pusilla, which has very small ears, draws them backwards, 
 when it makes a savage rush at the legs of its keeper. 
 
 When horses fight together they use their incisors for 
 biting, an 1 their fore-legs for striking, much more than 
 they do their hind-legs for kicking backwards. This 
 lias been observed when stallions have broken loose and 
 have fought together, and may likewise be inferred 
 from the kind of wounds which they inflict on each 
 other. Every one recognises the vicious appear- 
 ance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a 
 horse. This movement is very different from that of 
 listening to a sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse 
 in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears are 
 retracted from habit, though he has no intention or 
 power to bite. But when a horse throws up both hind- 
 legs in play, as when entering an open field, or when just 
 touched by the whip, he does not generally depress 
 his ears, for he does not then feel vicious. Guanacoes 
 fight savagely with their teeth ; and they must do so 
 frequently, for I found the hides of several which I shot 
 in Patagonia deeply scored.- So do camels; and both 
 these animals, when savage, draw their ears closely 
 backwards. Guanacoes, as I have noticed, when not 
 intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive 
 saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. 
 Even the hippopotamus, when threatening with its 
 widely-open enormous mouth a comrade, draws back 
 its small ears, just like a horse. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 113 
 
 Now what a contrast is presented between the 
 foregoing animals and cattle, sheep, or goats, which 
 never use their teeth in fighting, and never draw back 
 their ears when enraged ! Although sheep and goats 
 appear such placid animals, the males often join in 
 furious contests. As deer form a closely related family, 
 and as I did not know that they ever fought with their 
 teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by 
 Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He 
 says, when "two males chance to meet, laying back 
 their ears and gnashing their teeth together, they 
 "rush at each other with appalling fury:' 33 But 
 Mr. Bartlett informs me that some species of deer fight 
 savagely with their teeth, so that the drawing back of 
 the ears by the moose accords with our rule. Several 
 kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens, 
 fight by scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking 
 with their hind-legs; but they never bite each other, 
 an I the keepers have never seen them draw back their 
 ears when angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by kicking 
 and scratching, but they likewise bite each other ; and I 
 have known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist. 
 At the commencement of their battles they lay back 
 their ears, but afterwards, as they bound over and kick 
 each other, they keep their ears erect, or move them 
 much about. 
 
 Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather 
 savagely with his sow ; and both had their mouths open 
 and their ears drawn backwards. But this does not 
 appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when 
 quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards 
 with their tusks; and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether 
 they then draw back their ears. Elephants, which in 
 
 83 ' The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada.' 18G6, p. 53. 
 6 
 
114 
 
 MEANS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract their 
 ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at 
 each other or at an enemy. 
 
 The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with 
 their nasal horns, and have never been seen to attempt 
 biting each other except in play ; and the keepers are 
 convinced that they do not draw back their ears, like 
 horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following 
 statement, therefore, by Sir S. Baker 34 is inex- 
 plicable, namely, that a rhinoceros, which he shot in 
 North Africa, " had no ears ; they had been bitten off 
 " close to the head by another of the same species 
 " while fighting; and this mutilation is by no means 
 " uncommon." 
 
 Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which 
 have moveable ears, and which fight with their teeth — 
 for instance the Cereopithecus ruber — draw back their ears 
 when irritated just like dogs; and they then have a 
 very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the Inuus 
 ecaudatus, apparently do not thus act. Again, other 
 kinds — and this is a great anomaly in comparison with 
 most other animals — retract their ears, show their teeth, 
 and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed. 
 I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and 
 in the Cynopithecus niger. This expression, owing to 
 our familiarity with dogs, would never be recognised 
 as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with 
 monkeys. 
 
 Erection of the Ears. — This movement requires hardly 
 any notice. All animals which have the power of freely 
 moving their ears, when they are startled, or when 
 they closely observe any object, direct their ears to 
 
 S4 ' The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443. 
 
Chap. IV. 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 115 
 
 the point towards which they are looking, in order to 
 hear any sound from this quarter. At the same time 
 they generally raise their heads, as all their organs of 
 sense are there situated, and some of the smaller animals 
 rise on their hind legs. Even those kinds which squat 
 on the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, 
 generally act momentarily in this manner, in order to 
 ascertain the source and nature of the danger. The 
 head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed 
 forwards, gives an unmistakeable expression of close 
 attention to any animal. 
 
116 
 
 SPECIAL EXPKESSIONS: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Special Expressions op Animals. 
 
 The Dog, various expressive movements of — Cats — Horses — 
 Ruminants — Monkeys, their expression of joy and affection — 
 Of pain — Anger — Astonishment and Terror. 
 
 The Bog. — I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) 
 the appearance of a dog approaching another dog with 
 hostile intentions, namely, with erected ears, eyes 
 intently directed forwards,, hair on the neck and back 
 bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright 
 and rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that 
 an angry man is sometimes said " to have his back 
 " up." Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright 
 tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell 
 remarks 1 that, when a tiger or wolf is struok by 
 its keeper and is suddenly roused to ferocity, "every 
 *' muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude 
 " of strained exertion, prepared to spring." This ten- 
 sion of the muscles and consequent stiff gait may be 
 accounted for on the principle of associated habit, for 
 anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and con- 
 sequently to all the muscles of the body having been 
 violently exerted. There is also reason to suspect 
 that the muscular system requires some short pre- 
 paration, or some degree of innervation, before being 
 brought into strong action. My own sensations lead 
 me to this inference; but I cannot discover that it 
 
 1 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190. 
 
CilAP. V. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 117 
 
 is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. 
 Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are 
 suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without 
 any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured, as 
 when a man slips unexpectedly ; but that this rarely 
 occurs when an action, however violent, is deliberately 
 performed. 
 
 With respect to the upright position of the tail, it 
 seems to depend (but whether this is really the case I 
 know not) on the elevator muscles being more powerful 
 than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of 
 the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, 
 the tail is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and 
 trotting before his master with high, elastic steps, 
 generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held 
 nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when 
 first turned out into an open field, may be seen to trot 
 with long elastic strides, the head and tail being held 
 high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from 
 pleasure, throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. 
 So it is with various animals in the Zoological Gardens. 
 The position of the tail, however, in certain cases, is 
 determined by special circumstances ; thus as soon as 
 a horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always 
 lowers his tail, so that as little resistance as possible 
 may be offered to the air. 
 
 When a dog is on the point of springing on his 
 antagonist, he utters a savage growl ; the ears are 
 pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip (fig. 14) 
 is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his 
 canines. These movements may be observed with dogs 
 and puppies in their play. But if a dog gets really 
 savage in his play, his expression immediately changes. 
 This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears being 
 drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only 
 
118 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 snarls at another, the lip is generally retracted on one 
 side alone, namely towards his enemy. 
 
 The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection 
 towards his master were described (figs. 6 and 8) in 
 our second chapter. These consist in the head and 
 
 Fig. 14. Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr. Wood. 
 
 whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous 
 movements, with the tail extended and wagged from 
 side to side. The ears fall down and are drawn some- 
 what backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elon- 
 gated, and alters, the whole appearance of the face. 
 The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains smooth. 
 All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I 
 believe, from their standing in complete antithesis to 
 those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 119 
 
 directly opposite state of mind. When a man merely 
 speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we see the last 
 vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail, 
 without any other movement of the body, and without- 
 even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their 
 affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and 
 to be rubbed or patted by them. 
 
 Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in 
 the following manner : and the reader can judge 
 whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking 
 of animals in general, including the dog, he says, 2 
 " C'est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps 
 " qui recherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque 
 " toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible, 
 " l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces 
 " ondulations se propageant le long des muscles analo- 
 " gues des segments jusqu'aux extreiuites de la colonne 
 u vertebrale, la queue se ploie et s'agite." Further 
 on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower 
 their ears in order to exclude all sounds, so that their 
 whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses 
 of their master ! 
 
 Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting 
 their affection, namely, by licking the hands or faces of 
 their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, and 
 then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs 
 licking cats with whom they were friends. This habit 
 probably originated in the females carefully licking 
 their puppies — the dearest object of their love — for the 
 sake of cleansing them. They also often give their 
 puppies, after a short absence, a few cursory licks, appa- 
 rently from affection. Thus the habit will have become 
 associated with the emotion of love, however it may 
 
 2 De la Physionomie,' 1 8G5, pp. 187, 218. 
 
120 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 afterwards be aroused. It is now so firmly inherited or 
 innate, that it is transmitted equally to both sexes. A 
 female terrier of mine lately had her puppies de- 
 stroyed, and though at all times a very affectionate 
 creature, I was much struck with the manner in which 
 she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love 
 by expending it on me ; and her desire to lick my 
 hands rose to an insatiable passion. 
 
 The same principle probably explains why dogs, when 
 feeling affectionate, like rubbing against their masters 
 and being rubbed or patted by them, for from the 
 nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object 
 has become firmly associated in their minds with the 
 emotion of love. 
 
 The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master 
 is combined with a strong sense of submission, which is 
 akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their bodies and 
 crouch a little as they approach their masters, but some- 
 times throw themselves on the ground with their bellies 
 upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite 
 as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly 
 possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight 
 with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog in the 
 neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful 
 as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When 
 they met on the road, my dog used to run to meet 
 him, w T ith his tail partly tucked in between his legs and 
 hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on 
 the ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed 
 to say more plainly than by w r ords, "Behold, I am 
 " your slave." 
 
 A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated 
 with affection, is exhibited by some dogs in a very 
 peculiar manner ; namely, by grinning. This was 
 noticed long ago by Somerville, who says, 
 
Chap. V 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 121 
 
 " And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound 
 Salutes thee cow'ring, his wide op'ning nose 
 Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes 
 Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.' 
 
 The Chase, book i. 
 
 Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, 
 had this habit, and it is common with terriers. I 
 have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. 
 Kiviere, who has particularly attended to this expres- 
 sion, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect 
 manner, but is quite common in a lesser degree. The 
 upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in 
 snarling, so that the canines are exposed, and the ears 
 are drawn backwards ; but the general appearance of 
 the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir 
 C. Beli 3 remarks "Dogs, in their expression of fond- 
 " ness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin 
 " and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that re- 
 sembles laughter." Some persons speak of the 
 grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, 
 we should see a similar, though more pronounced, 
 movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their 
 bark of joy ; but this is not the case, although a 
 bark of joy often follows a grin. On the other hand, 
 dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters, 
 almost always pretend to bite each other ; and they 
 then retract, though not energetically, their lips and 
 ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in some 
 dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with 
 affection, to act through habit and association on the 
 same muscles, as in .playfully biting each other, or their 
 masters' hands. 
 
 I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and 
 
 3 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140. 
 
122 
 
 SPECIAL expressions: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked 
 antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected 
 and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and 
 chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation 
 of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in 
 an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The ten- 
 dency to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or 
 runs in the breed : greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the 
 Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk 
 with his master that he becomes a nuisance. 
 
 An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the 
 same way as by many other animals, namely, by howling, 
 writhing, and contortions of the whole body. 
 
 Attention is shown by the head being raised, with 
 the ears erected, and eyes intently directed towards the 
 object or quarter under observation. If it be a sound 
 and the source is not known, the head is often turned 
 obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner, 
 apparently in order to judge with more exactness from 
 what point the sound proceeds. . But I have seen a 
 dog greatly surprised at a new noise, turning his 
 head to one side through habit, though he clearly 
 perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly 
 remarked, when their attention is in any way aroused, 
 whilst watching some object, or attending to some 
 sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled 
 up, as if to make a slow and stealthy approach. 
 
 A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, 
 howl, and void his excretions ; but the hair, I believe, 
 does not become erect unless some anger is felt. I have 
 seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were 
 playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of 
 his body trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly 
 that the beats could hardly be counted, and panting for 
 breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner 
 
CilAP. V. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 123 
 
 as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not exerted 
 himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly 
 about the room, and the day was cold. 
 
 Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown 
 by the tail being tucked in between the legs. This 
 tucking in of the tail is accompanied by the ears being 
 drawn backwards ; but they are not pressed closely to 
 the head, as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as 
 when a dog is pleased or affectionate. When two young 
 dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away 
 always keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a 
 dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad creature 
 round and round his master in circles, or in figures of 
 eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. 
 This curious kind of play, which must be familiar to 
 every one who has attended to dogs, is particularly apt 
 to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled 
 or frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out 
 on him in the dusk. In this case, as well as when two 
 young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears 
 as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other 
 catching him by the tail ; but as far as I can find out, 
 dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner. 
 I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all 
 his life, and he applied to other experienced sports- 
 men, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a 
 fox ; but they never had. It appears that when a dog 
 is chased, or when in dal%er of being struck behind, or 
 of anything falling on him, in all these cases he wishes 
 to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind- 
 quarters, and that from some sympathy or connection 
 between the muscles, the tail is then drawn closely 
 inwards. 
 
 A similarly connected movement between the hind- 
 quarters and the tail may be observed in the hyaena. 
 
124 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chat. V. 
 
 Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals 
 light together, they are mutually conscious of the won- 
 derful power of each other's jaws, and are extremely 
 cautious. They well know that if one of their legs were 
 seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms ; 
 hence they approach each other kneeling, with their legs 
 turned as much as possible inwards, and with their whole 
 bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point ; the 
 tail at the same time being closely tucked in between 
 the legs. In this attitude they approach each other 
 sideways, or even partly backwards. So again with 
 deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, 
 tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field tries 
 to bite the hind-quarters of another in play, or when 
 a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the hind- 
 quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not 
 appear as if this were done merely to save the tail from 
 being injured. We have also seen the reverse of these 
 
 % movements ; for when an animal trots with high elastic 
 steps, the tail is almost always carried aloft. 
 
 As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, 
 he keeps his ears directed backwards but still open ; and 
 this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the footsteps 
 of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in 
 this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the 
 danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, 
 with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid 
 of some object in front, the nafcire of which she perfectly 
 knows and does not need to reconnoitre, yet she will 
 for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position, 
 looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without 
 
 * any fear, is similarly expressed : thus, one day I went 
 out of doors, just at the time when this same dog knew 
 that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, 
 but she wished much to accompany me, and at the same 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 125 
 
 time she wished much for her dinner; and there she 
 stood, first looking one way and then the other, with 
 her tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an 
 unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort. 
 
 Almost all the expressive movements now described, 
 with the exception of the grinning from joy, are innate 
 or instinctive, for they are common to all the indivi- 
 duals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them 
 are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the 
 dog, namely the wolf and jackal ; and some of them 
 to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and 
 jackals, when caressed by their masters, jump about 
 for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their 
 master's hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves 
 on the ground belly upwards. 4 I have seen a rather 
 fox-like African jackal, from the Gaboon, depress 
 its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when 
 frightened, certainly tuck in their tails ; and a tamed 
 jackal has been described as careering round his master 
 in circles and figures of eight, like a dog, with his tail 
 between his legs. 
 
 It has been stated 5 that foxes, however tame, never 
 display any of the above expressive movements; but 
 this is not strictly accurate. Many years ago I observed 
 in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the 
 time, that a very tame English fox, when caressed by 
 the keeper, wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then 
 threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The black fox 
 
 4 Many particulars are givdi by GuelcL nst'adt in his account of 
 the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, torn. xx. 
 p. 449. See also another excellent account of th<? manners of this 
 animal and of its play, in ' Land and Water,' October, 18G9. Lieut. 
 Annesley, R.A., hns also communicated to me some particulars with 
 respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and 
 jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself. 
 
 5 ' Land and Water,' November 6, 1SG9. 
 
126 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 of North America, likewise depressed its ears in a slight 
 degree. But I believe that foxes never lick the hands 
 of their masters, and I have been assured that when 
 frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the 
 explanation which I have given of the expression of 
 • affection in dogs be admitted, then it would appear 
 that animals which have never been domesticated — 
 namely wolves, jackals, and even foxes-— have never- 
 theless acquired, through the principle of antithesis, 
 certain expressive gestures ; for it is not probable that 
 these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt 
 them by imitating dogs. 
 
 Cats. — I have already described the actions of a cat 
 (fig. 9), when feeling savage and not terrified. She 
 assumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes 
 her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for striking. 
 The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to 
 side. The hair is not erected — at least it was not so in 
 the few cases observed by me. The ears are drawn 
 closely backwards and the teeth are shown. Low 
 savage growls are uttered. We can understand why 
 the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight 
 with another cat, or in any way greatly irritated, is so 
 widely different from that of a dog approaching another 
 dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore- 
 feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position 
 convenient or necessary. She is also much more 
 accustomed than a dog to lie concealed and suddenly 
 spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with 
 certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to 
 side. This habit is common to many other animals — for 
 instance, to the puma, when prepared to spring ; 6 but 
 
 • Azara, 1 Quadrupedes du Paraguay/ 1801, torn. i. p. 136. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 CATS. 
 
 127 
 
 it is not common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from 
 Mr. St. John's account of a fox lying in wait and 
 seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds 
 of lizards and various snakes, when excited, rapidly 
 vibrate the tips of their tails. It would appear as if, 
 under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable 
 desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force 
 being freely liberated from the excited sensorium ; and 
 that as the tail is left fre% and as its movement does 
 not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled 
 or lashed about. 
 
 All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, 
 are in complete antithesis to those just described. She 
 now stands upright, with slightly arched back, tail per- 
 pendicularly raised, and ears erected ; and she rubs her 
 cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The 
 desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this 
 state of mind, that they may often be seen rubbing 
 themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or 
 against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection 
 probably originated through association, as in the case 
 of dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her 
 young ; and perhaps from the young themselves loving 
 each other and playing together. Another and very 
 different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already 
 been described, namely, the curious manner in which 
 young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately pro- 
 trude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing 
 against and sucking their mother's teats. This habit is 
 so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, 
 that both apparently are derived from actions performed 
 during the nursing period. Why cats should show 
 affection by rubbing so much more than do dogs, though 
 the latter delight in contact with their masters, and 
 why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their 
 
128 
 
 SPECIAL expressions: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats 
 cleanse themselves by licking their own coats more 
 regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their 
 tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the 
 longer and more flexible tongues of dogs. 
 
 Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and 
 
 Fig. 15. Cat terrified at a dog. From life, by Mr. Wood. 
 
 arch their backs in a well-known and ridiculous 
 fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair over the 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 129 
 
 whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. 
 In the instances observed by me the basal part of the 
 tail was held upright, the terminal part being thrown 
 on one side ; but sometimes the tail (see fig. 15) is only 
 a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one 
 side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. 
 When two kittens are playing together, the one often 
 thus tries to frighten the other. From what we have 
 seen in former chapters, all the above points of expres- 
 sion are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the 
 back. 1 am inclined to believe that, in the same manner 
 as many birds, whilst they ruffle their feathers, spread 
 out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as 
 big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, 
 arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and 
 erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when 
 attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus figured by 
 Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens 
 have never seen any tendency to this action in the larger 
 feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c. ; and these have 
 little cause to be afraid of any other animal. 
 
 Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, 
 and they utter, under various emotions and desires, at 
 least six or seven different sounds. The purr of satis- 
 faction, which is made during both inspiration and expi- 
 ration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, 
 and ocelot likewise purr ; but the tiger, when pleased, 
 " emits a peculiar short snuffle, accompanied by the 
 " closure of the eyelids." 7 It is said that the lion, 
 . jaguar, and leopard, do not purr. 
 
 Horses. — Horses when savage draw their ears closely 
 
 7 4 Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. Sec also Azara oil the Puma, 
 in the work above quoted. 
 
130 
 
 special expressions: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 back, protrude their heads, and partially uncover their 
 incisor teeth, ready for biting. When inclined to kick 
 behind, they generally, through habit, draw back their 
 ears ; and their eyes are turned backwards in a pecu- 
 liar manner. 8 When pleased, as when some coveted 
 food is brought to them in the stable, they raise and 
 draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking 
 intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impa- 
 tience is expressed by pawing the ground. 
 
 The actions of a horse when much startled are highly 
 expressive. One day my horse was much frightened 
 at a drilling machine, covered by a tarpaulin, and 
 lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, 
 that his neck became almost perpendicular; and this 
 he did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below, 
 and could not have been seen with more distinctness 
 through the raising of the head ; nor if any sound had 
 proceeded from it, could the sound have been more 
 distinctly heard. His eyes and ears were directed in- 
 tently forwards ; and I could feel through the saddle 
 the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils 
 he snorted violently, and whirling round, would have 
 dashed off at full speed, had I not prevented him. 
 The distension of the nostrils is not for the sake of 
 scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells 
 carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not 
 dilate his nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve 
 in the throat, a horse when panting does not breathe 
 through his open mouth, but through his nostrils ; and 
 these consequently have become endowed with great 
 powers of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, 
 as well as the snorting, and the palpitations of the 
 
 8 Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123. See also 
 p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with reference to 
 their distended nostrils. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 RUMINANTS. 
 
 131 
 
 heart, are actions which have become firmly associated 
 during a long series of generations with the emotion 
 of terror; for terror has habitually led the ho se to the 
 most violent exertion in dashing away at full speed 
 from the cause of danger. 
 
 Ruminants. — Cattle and sheep are remarkable from 
 displaying in so slight a degree their emotions or sen- 
 sations, excepting that of extreme pain. A bull when 
 enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which 
 he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and 
 by bellowing. He also often paws the ground ; but 
 this pawing seems quite different from that of an im- 
 patient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up 
 clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner 
 when irritated by flies, for the sake of driving them 
 away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois 
 when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle 
 through their noses ; and this serves as a danger- 
 signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic 
 regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the 
 ground. 9 How this stamping action arose I cannot 
 conjecture ; for from inquiries which I have made it, 
 does not appear that any of these animals fight with 
 their fore-legs. 
 
 Some species of deer, when savage, display far more 
 expression than do cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has 
 already been stated, they draw back their ears, grind 
 their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the ground, 
 .and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological 
 Gardens, the Formosan deer (Cervus pseudaxis) ap- 
 proached me in a curious attitude, with his muzzle 
 raised high up, so that the horns were pressed back 
 
 » 1 Land and Water,' 18G9, p. 152. 
 
132 
 
 SPECIAL expressions: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 on his neck ; the head being held rather obliquely 
 From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he 
 was savage; he approached slowly, and as soon as he 
 came close to the iron bars, he did not lower his head 
 to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck 
 his horns with great force against the railings. Mr. 
 Bartlett informs me that some other species of deer 
 place themselves in the same attitude when enraged. 
 
 Monkeys. — The various species and genera of monkeys 
 express their feelings in many different ways ; and this 
 fact is interesting, as in some degree bearing on the 
 question, whether the so-called races of man should be 
 ranked as distinct species or varieties ; for, as we 
 shall see in the following chapters, the different races 
 of man express their emotions and sensations with 
 remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of 
 the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in 
 another w r ay, namely from being closely analogous to 
 those of man. As I have had no opportunity of 
 observing any one species of the group under all cir- 
 cumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best 
 arranged under different states of the mind. 
 
 Pleasure, joy, affection. — It is not possible to distin- 
 guish in monkeys, at least without more experience 
 than I have had, the expression of pleasure or joy from 
 that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind of 
 barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one 
 to whom they are attached. When this noise, which 
 the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the lips are pro- 
 truded ; but so they are under various other emotions. 
 Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were 
 pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that 
 assumed when they were angered. If a young chim- 
 panzee be tickled — and the armpits are particularly 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 133 
 
 sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children, — a 
 more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered ; 
 though the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The 
 corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards ; and 
 this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly 
 wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so character- 
 istic of our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some 
 other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the 
 chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their 
 laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. 
 But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. 
 Martin, 10 who has particularly attended to their ex- 
 pression, states. 
 
 Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make 
 a chuckling sound ; and Mr. Martin says that their eyes 
 grow brighter. As soon as their laughter ceases, an 
 expression may be detected passing over their faces, 
 which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called 
 a smile. I have also noticed something of the same 
 kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne— and I cannot 
 quote a better authority — informs me that he kept a 
 very tame monkey in his house for a year ; and when 
 he gave it during meal-times some choice delicacy, he 
 observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly 
 raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of 
 the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that 
 often seen on the face of man, could be plainly per- 
 ceived in this animal. 
 
 The Cebus azarse, 11 when rejoiced at again seeing a 
 beloved person, utters a peculiar tittering (kicherndeii) 
 sound.^ It also expresses agreeable sensations, by 
 
 10 ' Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. i. pp. 383, 410. 
 
 11 Kengger (' S'augethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 4(5) kept these 
 monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of 
 Paraguay. 
 
134 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 CHAr. V. 
 
 drawing back the corners of its mouth, without pro- 
 ducing any sound. Kengger calls this movement 
 laughter, but it would be more appropriately called a 
 smile. The form of the mouth is different when 
 either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are 
 uttered. Another species of Cebus in the Zoological 
 Gardens (G. hypoleucus), when pleased, makes a reite- 
 rated shrill note, and likewise draws back the corners 
 of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of the 
 same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape 
 (Inuus ecaudatus) to an extraordinary degree ; and I 
 observed in this monkey that the skin of the lower 
 eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time 
 it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic 
 manner, the teeth being exposed; but the noise pro- 
 duced was hardly more distinct than that which we 
 sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers 
 affirmed that this slight sound was the animal's 
 laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on this head 
 (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it 
 attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, 
 living in the same compartment. Instantly the whole 
 expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth 
 was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were 
 more fully exposed, and & hoarse barking noise was 
 uttered. 
 
 The Anubis baboon (Cynocephalus aniibis) was first 
 insulted and put into a furious rage, as was easily 
 done, by his keeper, who then made friends with him 
 and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected 
 the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and 
 lips, and looked pleased. When we laugh heartily, a 
 similar movement, or quiver, may be observed more or 
 less distinctly in our jaws ; but with man the muscles 
 of the chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 135 
 
 this baboon, and with some other monkeys, it is the 
 muscles of the jaws and lips which are spasmodically 
 affected. 
 
 I have already had occasion to remark on the curious 
 manner in which two or three species of Macacus and 
 the Cynopithecus niger draw back their ears and utter a 
 slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by being 
 caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners 
 of the mouth are at the same time drawn backwards 
 and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed. Hence 
 this expression would never be recognised by a stranger 
 as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the 
 forehead is depressed, and apparently the whole skin 
 of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are thus 
 raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appear- 
 ance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled ; 
 but this wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the 
 permanent transverse furrows on the face. 
 
 Painful emotions and sensations. — With monkeys 
 the expression of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, 
 such as grief, vexation, jealousy, &c, is not easily dis- 
 tinguished from that of moderate anger ; and these 
 states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other. 
 Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited 
 by weeping. A woman, who sold a monkey to the 
 Zoological Society, believed to have come from Borneo 
 {Macacus maurus or M. inornatus of Gray), said that 
 it often cried ; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper 
 Mr. Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or 
 even when much pitied, weeping so copiously that the 
 tears rolled down its cjieeks. There is, however, some- 
 thing strange about this case, for two specimens subse- 
 quently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the 
 same species, have never been seen to weep, though 
 they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself 
 
136 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS : 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 137 
 
 when much distressed and loudly screaming. Kengger 
 states 12 that the eyes of the Cebus azarse fill with 
 tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is pre- 
 vented getting some much desired object, or is much 
 frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the 
 Callithrix sciureus " instantly fill with tears when it is 
 " seized with fear ; " but when this pretty little monkey 
 in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as to cry out 
 loudly, this did not - occur. I do not, however, wish to 
 throw the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt's 
 statement. 
 
 The appearance of dejection in young orangs and 
 chimpanzees, when out of health, is as plain and almost 
 as pathetic as in the case of our children. This 
 state of mind and body is shown by their listless 
 movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed 
 complexion. 
 
 Anger. — This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds 
 of monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks, 13 in 
 many different ways. " Some species, when irritated, pout 
 " the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare on their foe, 
 " and make repeated short starts as if about to spring 
 " forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural 
 " sounds. Many display their anger by suddenly ad- 
 " vancing, making abrupt starts, at the same time 
 " opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to 
 " conceal' the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed 
 " on the enemy, as if in savage defiance. Some again, 
 " and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, 
 " display their teeth, and accompany their malicious 
 " grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry." Mr. 
 Sutton confirms the statement that some species un- 
 
 12 Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. 
 translat. vol. iv. p. 527. 
 
 13 Nat. Hist, of Mammalia, 1811, p. 351. 
 
 1 
 
138 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS : 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 cover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal 
 them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds 
 draw back their ears. The Cynojpithecus niger, lately 
 referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time de- 
 pressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing 
 its teeth ; so that the movements of the features from 
 anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure ; 
 and the two expressions can be distinguished only by 
 those familiar with the animal. 
 
 Baboons often show their passion and threaten their 
 enemies in a very odd manner, namely, by opening 
 their mouths widely as in the act of yawning. Mr. 
 Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed 
 in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each 
 other and thus alternately opening their mouths ; and 
 this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. 
 Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show 
 to each other that they are provided with a formidable 
 set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could 
 hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, 
 Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put him 
 into a violent passion ; and he almost immediately 
 thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cer- 
 copithecus 14 behave in the same manner. Baboons 
 likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehm 
 with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another 
 manner, namely, by striking the ground with one 
 hand, "like an angry man striking the table with 
 " his fist." I have seen this movement with the baboons 
 in the Zoological Gardens ; but sometimes the action 
 seems rather to represent the searching for a stone or 
 other object in their beds of straw. 
 
 14 Brelnn, ' Thierleben/ B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, 
 s. 61. 
 
Cup. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 139 
 
 Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the 
 Macacus rhesus, when much enraged, growing red. As 
 he was mentioning this to me, another monkey attacked 
 a rhesus, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of 
 a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few 
 minutes, after the battle, the face of this monkey 
 recovered its natural tint. At the same time that the 
 face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, 
 which is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I 
 cannot positively assert that this was the case. When 
 the Mandrill is in any way excited, the brilliantly 
 coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become 
 still more vividly coloured. 
 
 With several species of baboons the ridge of the fore- 
 head projects much over the eyes, and is studded with 
 a few long hairs, representing our eyebrows. These 
 animals are always looking about them, and in order to 
 look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have 
 thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of fre- 
 quently moving their eyebrows. However this may be, 
 many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when 
 angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly 
 move their eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy 
 skin of their foreheads. 15 As we associate in the case 
 of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with 
 definite states of the mind, the almost incessant move- 
 ment of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless 
 expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of 
 continually raising his eyebrows without any corre- 
 sponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish 
 appearance ; so it is with some persons who keep the 
 corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and 
 
 15 Brehm remarks ( l Thierleben,' s G8) that the eyebrows of the 
 Inuus ecaudatus are frequently moved up and down when the animal 
 * is angered. 
 
140 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the 
 time they are not amused or pleased. 
 
 A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending 
 to another monkey, slightly uncovered her teeth, and, 
 uttering a peevish noise like tishrshist, , turned her 
 back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when 
 a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and 
 make a harsh barking noise. A young female chim- 
 panzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious resem- 
 blance to a child in the same state. She screamed 
 loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted 
 so that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her 
 arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her 
 head. She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her 
 back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything within 
 reach. A young gibbon (Rylobates syndactylus) in a 
 passion has been described 16 as behaving in almost 
 exactly the same manner. 
 
 The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are pro- 
 truded, sometimes to a wonderful degree, under various 
 circumstances. They act thus, not only when slightly 
 angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at 
 anything — in one instance, at the sight of a turtle, 17 — 
 and likewise when pleased. But neither the degree 
 of protrusion nor the shape of the mouth is exactly 
 the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds 
 which are then uttered are different. The accom- 
 panying drawing represents a chimpanzee made sulky 
 by an orange having been offered him, and then taken 
 away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, 
 though to a much slighter degree, may be seen in 
 sulky children. 
 
 16 G. Bennett, ' Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol. ii. 1834, 
 p. 153. 
 
 »7 W. C. Md'.tin, Nat. Hist. ofMamm. Animals, 1841, p, 405. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS, 
 
 141 
 
 Fig 18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. 
 
 Drawn from life by Mr. Wood. 
 
142 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS : Chap. V. 
 
 Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed 
 a looking-glass on the floor before two young orangs, 
 who, as far as it was known, had never before seen one. 
 At first they gazed at their own images with the most 
 steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. 
 They then approached close and protruded their lips 
 towards the image, as if to kiss it, in exactly the same 
 manner as they had previously done towards each other, 
 when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. 
 They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put them- 
 selves in various attitudes before the mirror; they 
 pressed and rubbed the surface ; they placed their 
 hands at different distances behind it; looked behind 
 it ; and finally seemed almost frightened, started a 
 little, became cross, and refused to look any longer. 
 
 When we try to perform some little action which is 
 difficult and requires precision, for instance, to thread 
 a needle, we generally close our lips firmly, for the 
 sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by 
 breathing ; and I noticed the same action in a young 
 Orang. The poor little creature was sick, and was 
 amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on the window- 
 panes with its knuckles ; this w r as difficult as the flies 
 buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly 
 compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded. 
 
 Although the countenances, and more especially the 
 gestures, of orangs and chimpanzees are in some re- 
 spects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the whole 
 they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of 
 monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears 
 being immoveable, and in part to the nakedness of 
 their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus ren- 
 dered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their 
 eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely 
 wrinkled. In comparison with man, their faces are 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 143 
 
 inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under 
 any emotion of the mind — that is, as far as I have been 
 able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point. 
 Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the 
 expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the 
 corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and 
 brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed 
 on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpan- 
 zee are said 18 to possess this muscle, but it seems 
 rarely brought into action, at least in a conspicuous 
 manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and 
 placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both a 
 young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to 
 get it out ; but although they grew rather cross, they 
 showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any 
 fi'own when they were enraged. Twice I took two 
 chimpanzees from their rather dark room suddenly into 
 bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us 
 to frown ; they blinked and winked their eyes, but 
 only once did I see a very slight frown. On another 
 occasion, I tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a 
 straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight vertical 
 furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never 
 seen a frown on the forehead of the orang. 
 
 The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting 
 its crest of hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating 
 its nostrils, and uttering terrific yells. Messrs. Savage 
 and Wyman 19 state that the scalp can be freely moved 
 backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is 
 excited it is strongly contracted; but T presume that 
 
 18 Pi of. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soe. 1830, p. 28. On 
 the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. 
 Hirit. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the corrugator mpero.'lii 
 is inseparable from the orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 19 Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845-47, vol. v. p. 423. On tl.e 
 Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 3G5. 
 
144 
 
 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: 
 
 Chap V. 
 
 they mean by this latter expression that the scalp is 
 lowered; for they likewise speak of the young chim- 
 panzee, when crying out, " as having the eyebrows 
 " strongly contracted." The great power of movement 
 in the scalp of the gorilla, of many baboons and other 
 monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power 
 possessed by some few men, either through reversion 
 or persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps.* 20 
 
 Astonishment, Terror. — A living fresh- water turtle 
 was placed at my request in the same compartment in 
 the Zoological Gardens with many monkeys ; and they 
 showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. 
 This was displayed by their remaining motionless, 
 staring intently with widely opened eyes, their eye- 
 brows being often moved up and down. Their faces 
 seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised 
 themselves on their hind-legs to get a better view. 
 They often retreated a few feet, and then turning their 
 heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was 
 curious to observe how much less afraid they were of 
 the turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly 
 placed in their compartment ; 21 for in the course of a 
 few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to approach 
 and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the 
 larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if 
 on the point of screaming out. When I showed a little 
 dressed-up doll to the Cynopithecus niger, it stood mo- 
 tionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes, and 
 advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the 
 turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also 
 moved its lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, 
 which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or 
 please the turtle. 
 
 20 See on this subject, 1 Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 20. 
 
 21 ■ Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 43. 
 
Chap. V. 
 
 MONKEYS. 
 
 145 
 
 I was never able clearly to perceive that the eye- 
 brows of astonished monkeys were kept permanently 
 raised, though they were frequently moved up and 
 down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is 
 expressed by man by a slight raising of the eyebrows ; 
 and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he gave to 
 the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article 
 of food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming 
 an appearance of close attention. It then took the 
 food in its fingers, and, with lowered or rectilinear eye- 
 brows, scratched, smelt, and examined it, — an expression 
 of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would 
 throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly 
 raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the food. 
 
 In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open 
 when it was astonished. Mr. Sutton observed for 
 me a young orang and chimpanzee during a consider- 
 able length of time ; and however much they were 
 astonished, or whilst listening intently to some strange 
 sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This fact 
 is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is 
 more general than a widely open mouth under the 
 sense of astonishment. As far as I have been able to 
 observe, * monkeys breathe more freely through their 
 nostrils than men do; and this may account for their not 
 opening their mouths when tney are astonished ; for, 
 as we shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts 
 in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of 
 quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for 
 the sake of breathing as quietly as possible. 
 
 Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by 
 the utterance of shrill screams ; the lips being drawn 
 back, so that the teeth are exposed. The hair becomes 
 erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr. 
 Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Macacus 
 
14G SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: MONKEYS. Chap. V. 
 
 rhesus grow pale from fear. Monkeys also tremble 
 from fear; and sometimes they void their excretions. 
 I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted 
 from an excess of terror. 
 
 Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to 
 the expressions of various animals. It is impossible 
 to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says 22 that "the 
 " faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing 
 " rage and fear ;" and again, when he says that all theii 
 expressions " may be referred, more or less plainly, to 
 " their acts of volition or necessary instincts." He 
 who will look at a dog preparing to attack another 
 dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing 
 his master, or will watch the countenance of a monkey 
 when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper, will be 
 forced to admit that the movements of their features 
 and their gestures are almost as expressive as those 
 of man. Although no explanation can be given of 
 some of the expressions in the lower animals, the 
 greater number are explicable in accordance with the 
 three principles given at the commencement of the 
 first chapter. 
 
 82 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121. 
 
Chap. VI. EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : WEEPING. 147 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Special Expressions of Man : Suffering and Weeping. 
 
 The screaming and weeping of infants — Form of features — Age at 
 which weeping commences — The effects of habitual restraint on 
 weeping — Sobbing — Cause of the contraction of the muscles 
 round the eyes during screaming — Cause of the secretion' of 
 tears. 
 
 In this and the following chapters the expressions ex- 
 hibited by Man under various states of the mind will 
 be described and explained, as far as lies in my power. 
 My observations will be arranged according to the 
 order which I have found the most convenient ; and 
 this will generally lead to opposite emotions and sen- 
 sations succeeding each other. 
 
 Suffering of the body and mind: weeping. — I have 
 already described in sufficient detail, in the third 
 chapter, the signs of extreme pain, as shown by screams 
 or groans, with the writhing of the whole body and 
 the teeth clenched or ground together. These signs 
 are often accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, 
 pallor, trembling, utter prostration, or faintnes§. No 
 suffering is greater than that from extreme fear or 
 horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, 
 and will be elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, 
 especially of the mind, passes into low spirits, grief, 
 dejection, and despair, and these states will be the 
 . subject of the following chapter. Here" I shall almost 
 confine myself to weeping or crying, more especially in 
 children. 
 
 Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate 
 
148 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 hunger, or discomfort, utter violent and prolonged 
 screams. Whilst thus screaming their eyes are firmly 
 closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled, and 
 the forehead contracted into a frown. The mouth 
 is widely opened with the lips retracted in a peculiar 
 manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form; 
 the gums or teeth being' more or less exposed. The 
 breath is inhaled almost spasmodically. It is easy to 
 observe infants whilst screaming; but I have found 
 photographs made by the instantaneous process the best 
 means for observation, as allowing more deliberation. 
 I have collected twelve, most of them made purposely 
 for me; and they all exhibit the same general cha- 
 racteristics. I have, therefore, had six of them 1 (Plate 
 I.) reproduced by the heliotype process. 
 
 The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent com- 
 pression of the eyeball, — and this is a most important 
 element in various expressions, — serves to protect the 
 eyes from becoming too much gorged with blood, as 
 will presently be explained in detail. With respect to 
 the order in which the several muscles contract in 
 firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to Dr 
 LangstafT, of Southampton, for some observations, 
 which 1 have since repeated. The best plan for 
 observing the order is to make a person first raise his 
 eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles across 
 the forehead ; and then very gradually to contract all 
 the muscles round the eyes with as much force as 
 possible. The reader who is unacquainted with' the 
 anatomy of the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and 
 look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The corrugators of the brow 
 
 1 The best photographs in my collection are by Mr. Rejlander, of 
 Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg. 
 Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former ; and figs.*2 and 5, by the latter 
 gentleman. Fig. 6 i? given to show moderate crying in an older child. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 149 
 
 (comigator sujpercilii) seem to be the first muscles to 
 contract ; and these draw the eyebrows downwards and 
 inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical 
 furrows, that is a frown, to appear between the eye- 
 brows ; at the same time they cause the disappearance 
 of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The 
 orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with 
 the corrugators, and produce wrinkles all round the % 
 eyes ; they appear, however, to be enabled to contract 
 with greater force, as soon as the contraction of the 
 corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, 
 the pyramidal muscles of the nose contract ; and these 
 draw the eyebrows and the skin of the forehead still 
 lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across 
 the base of the nose. 2 For the sake of brevity these 
 muscles will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, 
 or as those surrounding the eyes. 
 
 When these muscles are strongly contracted, those 
 running to the upper lip 3 likewise contract and raise 
 the upper lip. This might have been expected from 
 the manner in which at least one of them, the malaris, 
 is connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will 
 gradually contract the muscles round his eyes, will feel, 
 as he increases the force, that his upper lip and the 
 
 2 Henle (Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) agrees with 
 Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the pyramidalis 
 na?i. 
 
 3 Those consist of the levator Jabii superioris alseque nasi, the levator 
 labii proprius, the malaris, and the zygomatieus minor, or little zygo- 
 matic. This latter muscle runs parallel to and above the' great 
 zygomatic, and is attached to the outer part of the upper lip. It is 
 represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchtnne 
 first showed (' Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, 18G2, 
 p. 39) the importance of the contraction of this muscle in the shape 
 assumed by the f-.atures in crying. Henle considers the above-named 
 musc les (excepting the malaris) as subdivisions of the qnadratus labii 
 mper'.oris. 
 
150 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of 
 the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. 
 If he keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting 
 the muscles round the eyes, and then suddenly relaxes 
 his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes imme- 
 diately increases. So again when a person on a bright, 
 glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is 
 compelled partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip 
 may almost always be observed to be somewhat raised. 
 The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who 
 are forced habitually to reduce the aperture of their 
 eyes, wear from this same reason a grinning expression. 
 
 The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh 
 of the upper parts of the cheeks, and produces a 
 strongly marked fold on each cheek, — the naso-labial 
 fold, — which runs from near the wings of the nostrils 
 to the corners of the mouth and below them. This fold 
 or furrow may be seen in all the photographs, and is 
 very characteristic of the expression of a crying child ; 
 though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of 
 laughing or smiling. 4 
 
 4 Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the contraction 
 of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the furrows on 
 the face thus produced, there seems to be something incomplete in his 
 account ; but what this is I cannot say. He has given a figure (Album, 
 fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by galvanizing the 
 proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is sim larly made to 
 begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of twenty-one per- 
 sons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face instantly recog- 
 nized the expression; but, with respect to the other half, only six 
 persons out of twenty-one recognized it, — that is, if we accept such 
 terms as " grief," " misery," " annoyance," as correct ; — whereas, fifteen 
 persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of them saying the face 
 expressed " fun," " satisfaction," " cunning," " disgust," &c. We may 
 infer from this that there is something wrong in the expression. Some 
 of the fifteen persons may, however, have been partly misled by not 
 expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted . 
 With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which the 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 151 
 
 As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of 
 screaming, in the manner just explained, the depressor 
 muscles of the angles of the mouth (see K in wood- 
 cuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep 
 the mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound 
 may be poured forth. The action of these opposed 
 muscles, above and below, tends to give to the mouth 
 an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen 
 in the accompanying photographs. An excellent ob- 
 server, 5 in describing a baby crying whilst being fed, 
 says, " it made its mouth like a square, and let the por- 
 " ridge run out at all four corners." I believe, but we 
 shall return to this point in a future chapter, that the 
 depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth are less 
 under the separate control of the will than the adjoining 
 muscles ; so that if a young child is only doubtfully 
 inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to 
 contract, and is the last to cease contracting. When 
 older children commence crying, the muscles which 
 run to the upper lip are often the first to contract; 
 and this may perhaps be due to older children not 
 having so strong a tendency to scream loudly, and con- 
 sequently to keep their mouths widely open ; so that 
 the above-named depressor muscles are not brought 
 into such strong action. 
 
 With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and 
 
 muscles of half the face are galvanized in order to represent a man 
 beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same side rendered oblique, 
 whieh is characteristic of misery, the expression was recognized by a 
 greater proportional number of persons. Out of twenty-three persona, 
 fourteen answered correctly, " sorrow, ' " distress," " grief," "just going 
 to cry," " endurance of pain," &c. On the other hand nine persons either 
 could form no opinion or were entirely wrong, answering, " cunning 
 leer," "jocund," "looking at an intense light," "looking at a distant 
 object," &c. 
 
 6 Mrs. Gaskell, ' Mary Barton,' new edit. p. 84. 
 
152 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 for some time afterwards, I often observed that the first 
 sign of a screaming-fit, when it could be observed coming 
 on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the con- 
 traction of the corrugators of the brows ; the capillaries 
 of the naked head and face becoming at the same time 
 reddened with blood. As soon as the screaming-fit 
 actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were 
 strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in 
 the manner above described ; so that at this early period 
 the features assumed the same form as at a more 
 advanced age. 
 
 Dr. Piclerit 6 lays great stress on the contraction of 
 certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow 
 the nostrils, as eminently characteristic of a crying 
 expression. The dejpressores anguli oris, as we have 
 just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and 
 they indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to 
 act in this same manner on the nose. With children 
 having bad colds a similar pinched appearance of the 
 nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as 
 remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant 
 snuffling, and the consequent pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere on the two sides. The purpose of this contraction 
 of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst 
 crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the 
 mucus and tears, and to prevent these fluids spreading 
 over the upper lip. 
 
 After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, 
 face, and eyes are reddened, owing to the return of the 
 blood from the head having been impeded by the violent 
 expiratory efforts ; but the redness of the stimulated 
 eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The 
 
 6 ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, Mecanisme 
 de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 153 
 
 various muscles of the face which have beeu strongly 
 contracted, still twitch a little, and the upper lip is still 
 slightly drawn up or everted, 7 with the corners of the 
 mouth still a little drawn downwards. I have myself 
 felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that 
 whenTtears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading 
 a pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent 
 the various muscles, which with young children are 
 brought into strong action during their screaming-fits, 
 from slightly twitching or trembling. 
 
 Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is 
 well known to nurses and medical men. This circum- 
 stance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal glands 
 being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed 
 this fact from having accidentally brushed with the 
 cuff of my coat the open eye of one of my infants, 
 when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to water 
 freely ; and though the child screamed violently, the 
 other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused 
 with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred ten 
 days previously in both eyes during a screaming- 
 fit. The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll 
 down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly, 
 when 122 days old. This first happened 17 days 
 later, at the age of 139 days. A few other children 
 have been observed for me, and the period of free weep- 
 ing appears to be very variable. In one case, the eyes 
 became slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days ; in 
 another, at 62 days. With two other children, the tears 
 did not run down the face at the ages of 84 and 110 
 days ; but in a third child they did run down at the age 
 of 104 days. In one instance, as I was positively 
 assured, tears ran down at the unusually early age of 
 
 7 Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39. 
 
154 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 42 days. It would appear as if the lacrymal glands 
 required some practice in the individual before they 
 are easily excited into action, in somewhat the same 
 manner as various inherited consensual movements and 
 tastes require some exercise before they are fixed and 
 perfected. This is all the more likely with a habit 
 like weeping, which must have been acquired since the 
 period when man branched off from the common pro- 
 genitor of the genus Homo and of the non-weeping 
 anthropomorphous apes. 
 
 The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age 
 from pain or any mental emotion is remarkable, as, 
 later in life, no expression is more general or more 
 strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has 
 once been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the 
 clearest manner suffering of all kinds, both bodily 
 pain and mental distress, even though accompanied by 
 other emotions, such as fear or rage. The character 
 of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, 
 as I noticed in my own infants, — the passionate cry 
 differing from that of grief. A lady informs me that 
 her child, nine months old, when in a passion screams 
 loudly, but does not weep ; tears, however, are shed 
 when she is punished by her chair being turned with 
 its back to the table. This difference may perhaps be 
 attributed to weeping being restrained, as we shall im- 
 mediately see, at a more advanced age, under most 
 circumstances excepting grief ; and to the influence of 
 such restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of 
 life, than that at which it was first practised. 
 
 With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon 
 ceases to be caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This 
 may be accounted for by its being thought weak and 
 unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous 
 races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING, 
 
 155 
 
 this exception, savages weep copiously from very slight 
 causes, of which fact Sir J. Lubbock 8 has collected 
 instances. A New Zealand chief "cried like a child 
 " because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by 
 " powdering it with flour." I saw in Tierra del Fuego 
 a native who had lately lost a brother, and who alter- 
 nately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed hear- 
 tily at anything which amused him. With the civilized 
 nations of Europe there is also much difference in the 
 frequency of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, except 
 under the pressure of the acutest grief; whereas in 
 some parts of the Continent the men shed tears much 
 more readily and freely. 
 
 The insane notoriously give way to all their emo- 
 tions with little or no restraint; and I am informed 
 by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is more cha- 
 racteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex. 
 than a tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or 
 from no cause. They also weep disproportionately on 
 the occurrence of any real cause of grief. The length 
 of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, 
 as well as the amount of tears which they shed. One 
 melancholic girl wept for a whole day, and afterwards 
 confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was because she re- 
 membered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows 
 to promote their growth. Many patients in the asylum 
 sit for a long time rocking themselves backwards and 
 forwards ; " and if spoken to, they stop their move- 
 " ments, purse up their eyes, depress the corners of 
 " the mouth, and burst out crying." In some of these 
 cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted appears 
 to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but 
 in other cages an effort of any kind excites weeping, 
 
 8 « The Origin of Civilization, ' 1870, p. 355. 
 
158 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VL 
 
 independently of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering 
 from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of violent 
 crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent 
 ravings. We must not, however, lay too much stress 
 on the copious shedding of tears by the insane, as 
 being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain brain- 
 diseases, as hemiplegia, brain- wasting, and senile dec-ay, 
 have a special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping 
 is common in the insane, even after a complete state 
 of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech 
 lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep ; 9 but it is said 
 that this is not the case with cretins. 
 
 Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expres- 
 sion, as we see in children, of suffering of any kind, 
 whether bodily pain short of extreme agony, or 
 mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common 
 experience show us that a frequently repeated effort to 
 restrain weeping, in association with certain states of 
 the mind, does much in checking the habit. On the 
 other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be 
 increased through habit ; thus the Kev. R. Taylor, 10 who 
 long resided in New Zealand, asserts that the women 
 can voluntarily shed tears in abundance ; they meet for 
 this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take pride 
 in crying " in the most affecting manner." 
 
 A single effort of repression brought to bear on the 
 lacrymal glands does little, and indeed seems often to 
 lead to an opposite result. An old and experienced 
 physician told me that he had always found that the 
 only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of 
 ladies who consulted him, and who themselves wished 
 
 9 See. for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot in Philosoph. 
 Transact. 18(34, p. 526. With respect ,to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, 
 ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 61. 
 
 10 ' New Zealand and its Inhabitants/ 1855, p. 175. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 157 
 
 to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and 
 to assure them that nothing would relieve them so 
 much as prolonged and copious crying. 
 
 The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expi- 
 rations, with short and rapid, almost spasmodic inspira- 
 tions, followed at a somewhat more advanced age by 
 sobbing. According to Gratiolet, 11 the glottis is chiefly 
 affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is 
 heard "at the moment when the inspiration conquers 
 " the resistance of the glottis, and the air rushes into the 
 " chest." But the whole act of respiration is likewise 
 spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same 
 time generally raised, as by this movement respiration 
 is rendered easier. With one of my infants, when 
 seventy-seven clays old, the inspirations were so rapid 
 and strong that they approached in character to sobbing ; 
 when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, 
 which subsequently followed every bad crying -fit. 
 The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and 
 partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at 
 least in part due to children having some power to 
 command after early infancy their vocal organs and to 
 stop their screams, but from having less power over 
 their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time 
 to act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after 
 having been brought into violent action. Sobbing 
 seems to be peculiar to the human species ; for the 
 keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they 
 have never heard a sob from any kind of monkey ; 
 though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being 
 chased and caught, and then pant for a long time. 
 We thus see that there is a close analogy between sob- 
 bing and the free shedding of tears ; for with children, 
 
 4 
 
 11 1 De la Physionomic,' 18G5, p. 12G. 
 
158 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but 
 afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows 
 every bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with 
 advancing years. 
 
 On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round 
 the eyes during screaming. — We have seen that infants 
 and young children, whilst screaming, invariably close 
 their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the surrounding 
 muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. 
 With older children, and even with adults, whenever 
 there is violent and unrestrained crying, a tendency to 
 the contraction of these same muscles may be observed ; 
 though this is often checked in order not to interfere 
 with vision. 
 
 Sir C. Bell explains 12 this action in the following 
 manner: — "During every violent act of expiration, 
 " whether in hearty laughter, weeping, coughing, or 
 " sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the 
 " fibres of the orbicularis ; and this is a provision for 
 " supporting and defending the vascular system of the 
 " interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse com- 
 " municated to the blood in the veins at that time. 
 " When we contract the chest and expel the air, there 
 " is a retardation of the blood in the veins of the neck 
 " and head; and in the more powerful acts of expul- 
 " sion, the blood not only distends the vessels, but is 
 " even regurgitated into the minute branches. Were 
 " the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a 
 " resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might 
 " be inflicted on the delicate textures of the interior of 
 " the eye." He further adds, (i If we separate the eye- 
 
 12 1 The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in 
 the 4 Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 
 289. Also ' The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit. 1836, 
 p. 175. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 "WEEPING. 
 
 159 
 
 " lids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and 
 " struggles with passion, by taking off the natural 
 " support to the vascular system of the eye, and means 
 " of guarding it against the rush of blood then oceur- 
 " ring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with 
 M blood, and the eyelids everted." 
 
 Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly 
 contracted, as Sir C. Bell states and as I have often 
 observed, during screaming, loud laughter, coughing, and 
 sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. 
 A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows 
 his nose. I asked one of my boys to shout as lou lly as 
 he possibly could, and as soon as he began, he firmly 
 contracted his orbicular muscles ; I observed this re- 
 peatedly, and on asking him why he had every time 
 so firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite 
 unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or 
 unconsciously. 
 
 It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction 
 of these muscles, that air should actually be expelled 
 from the chest ; it suffices that the muscles of the chest 
 and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst by 
 the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent 
 vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend 
 by the chest being filled with air; it is then held in 
 this position by the closure of the glottis, "as well as by 
 '•the contraction of its own fibres." 13 The abdominal 
 muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its 
 proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents 
 are thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting " the 
 " head becomes greatly congested, so that the features 
 " are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face 
 
 13 See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting, in Todd'a 
 Cyclop, of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p. 318. 
 
160 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. \I. 
 
 " and temples visibly dilated." At the same time, as T 
 know from observation, the muscles round the eyes are 
 strongly contracted. This is likewise the case when 
 the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual 
 force in expelling the contents of the intestinal canal. 
 
 The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if 
 those of the chest are not brought into strong action in 
 expelling or compressing the air within the lungs, does 
 not lead to the contraction of the muscles round the 
 eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in 
 gymnastic exercises, as in repeatedly raising their sus- 
 pended bodies by their arms alone, and in lifting heavy 
 weights from the ground, but there was hardly any 
 trace of contraction in the muscles round the eye-?. 
 
 As the contraction of these muscles for the protection 
 of the eyes during violent expiration is indirectly, as 
 we shall hereafter see, a fundamental element in several 
 of our most important expressions, I was extremely 
 anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be 
 substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht, 14 well 
 known as one of the highest authorities in Europe en 
 vision and on the structure of the eye, has most kindly 
 undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of the 
 many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has 
 published the results. 15 He shows that during violent 
 expiration the external, the intra- ocular, and the retro- 
 
 14 I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having introduced me 
 to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this great physiologist 
 to undertake the investigation of the present subject. I am likewise 
 much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me, with the utmost 
 kindness, information on many points. 
 
 15 This memoir first appeared in the ' Nederlandsch Archief voor 
 Genees en Natuurkunde,' Deel 5, 1870. , It has been translated by 
 Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of ' On the Action of the Eyelids in 
 determin iti n of Blood from expiratory effort," in - Archives of Medi- 
 cine,' edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 161 
 
 ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in Wo ways, 
 namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the 
 arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins 
 being impeded. It is, therefore, certain that both the 
 arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less dis- 
 tended during violent expiration. The evidence in 
 detail may be found in Professor Bonders' valuable 
 memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the head, 
 in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the 
 face of a man who coughs violently from being half 
 choked. I may mention, on the same authority, that 
 the whole eye certainly advances a little during each 
 violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the 
 retro-ocular vessels, and might have been expected from 
 the intimate connection of the eye and brain : the brain 
 being known to rise and fall with each respiration, when 
 a portion of the skull has been removed ; and as may 
 be seen along the unclosed sutures of infants' heads. 
 This also, I presume, is the reason that the eyes of 
 a strangled man appear as if they were starting from 
 their sockets. 
 
 With respect to the protection of the eye during 
 violent expiratory efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, 
 Professor Donders concludes from his various obser- 
 vations that this action certainly limits or entirely re- 
 moves the dilatation of the vessels. 16 At such times, he 
 
 16 Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, " After injury to the 
 " eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal inflammation, we 
 M attach great value to the uniform support of the closed eyelids, and 
 " we increase this in many instances by the application of a bandage. 
 u In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great expiratory pressure, 
 " the disadvantage of which is well known." Mr. Bowman informs 
 me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what is called 
 scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very painful 
 that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most 
 forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the 
 8 
 
162 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 adds, we not unfrequently fee the hand involuntarily 
 laid upon the eyelids, as if the better to support and 
 defend the eyeball. 
 
 Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be 
 advanced to prove that the eye actually suffers injury 
 i rom the want of support during violent expiration ; but 
 there is some. It is "a fact that forcible expiratory 
 u efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially 
 " in sneezing, sometimes give rise to ruptures of the 
 " little (external) vessels " of the eye. 17 With respect 
 to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded 
 a case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping- 
 cough, which in his opinion depended on the rupture 
 of the deeper vessels ; and another analogous case has 
 been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would 
 probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of pro- 
 tecting the eyeball by the contraction of the sur- 
 rounding muscles. Even the expectation or chance of 
 injury would probably be sufficient, in the same 
 manner as an object moving too near the eye induces 
 involuntary winking of the eyelids. We may, there- 
 fore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell's observations, 
 and more especially from the more careful investiga- 
 tions by Professor. Donders, that the firm closure of 
 the eyelids during the screaming of children is an 
 action full of meaning and of real service. 
 
 We have already seen that the contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles leads to the drawing up of the upper 
 lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept widely 
 
 lids by the paleness of the eye, — not an unnatural paleness, but an 
 absence of the redness that might have been expected when the sur- 
 face is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case ; and this 
 paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the 
 eyelids. 
 
 *7 Ponders, ibid. p. 36. 
 
 • 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 163 
 
 open, to the drawing down of the corners by the con- 
 traction of the depressor muscles. The formation of the 
 naso-labial fold on the cheeks likewise follows from the 
 drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief ex- 
 pressive movements of the face during crying apparently 
 result from the contraction of the muscles round the 
 eyes. We shall also find that the shedding of tears 
 depends on, or at least stands in some connection with, 
 the contraction of these same muscles. 
 
 * In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of 
 sneezing and coughing, it is possible that the contrac- 
 tion of the orbicular muscles may serve in addition to 
 protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration. I 
 think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard 
 bones, always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes 
 in sneezing ; though dogs do not do so whilst barking 
 loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young 
 orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always 
 closed their eyes m sneezing and coughing, but not 
 whilst screaming violently. I gave a small pinch of 
 snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a 
 Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing ; but 
 not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries. 
 
 Cause of the secretion of tears. — It is an important, 
 fact which must be considered in any theory of the 
 secretion of tears from the mind being affected, that 
 whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly 
 and involuntarily contracted in order to compress 
 the blood-vessels and thus to protect the eyes, tears 
 are secreted, often in sufficient abundance to roll 
 down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite 
 emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole ex- 
 ception, and this is only a partial one, to the existence 
 of a relation between the involuntary and strong 
 contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears, 
 
164 
 
 EXPKESS10N OF SUFFERING : Chap. VI. 
 
 is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently 
 with their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep 
 until they have attained the age of from two to three 
 or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused 
 with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as 
 already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, 
 from the want of practice or some other cause, come to 
 full functional activity at a very early period of life. 
 With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or 
 wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied 
 by the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are 
 synonymous terms. 18 
 
 ' Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amuse- 
 ment, as long as laughter is moderate there is hardly 
 any contraction of the muscles round the eyes, so that 
 there is no frowning ; but when peals of loud laughter 
 are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expira- 
 tions, tears stream down the face. I have more than 
 •once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm 
 of violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular 
 muscles and those running to the upper lip were still 
 partially contracted, which together with the tear- 
 stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an 
 expression not to be distinguished from that of a child 
 still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears streaming 
 down the face during violent laughter is common to 
 all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a future 
 chapter. 
 
 In violent coughing, especially when a person is half- 
 choked, the face becomes purple, the veins distended, 
 the orbicular muscles strongly contracted, and tears 
 
 18 Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Diet, of English Etymology, 1859, 
 vol. i. p. 410) says, " the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon wop, 
 " the primary meaning of which is simply outcry." 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 165 
 
 run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary 
 coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In 
 violent vomiting or retching, as I have myself expe- 
 rienced and seen in others, the orbicular muscles are 
 strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely 
 down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that 
 this may be due to irritating matter being injected into 
 the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the secretion 
 of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, 
 a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when 
 nothing was thrown up from the stomach ; and, by an 
 odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning 
 from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently 
 observed a lady under a similar attack ; and he is cer- 
 tain that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected 
 from the stomach ; yet the orbicular muscles were 
 strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can 
 also speak positively to the energetic contraction of 
 these same muscles round the eyes, and to tlie coin- 
 cident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal 
 muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction 
 on the intestinal canal. 
 
 Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, fol- 
 lowed by a long and forcible expiration ; and at the 
 same time almost all the muscles of the body are 
 strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. 
 During this act tears are often secreted, and I have 
 seen them even rolling clown the cheeks. 
 
 I have frequently observed that when persons scratch 
 some point which itches intolerably, they forcibly close 
 their eyelids; but they do not, as I believe, first draw a 
 deep breath and then expel it with force; and I have 
 never noticed that the eyes then become filled with 
 tears ; but I am not prepared to assert that this does 
 not occur. The forcible closure of the eyelids is, per- 
 
166 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VI. 
 
 haps, merely a part of that general action by which 
 almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time 
 rendered rigid. It is quite different from the gentle 
 closure of the eyes which often accompanies, as Gratiolet 
 remarks, 19 the smelling a delicious odour, or the tasting 
 a delicious morsel, and which probably originates in 
 the desire to shut out any disturbing impression 
 through the eyes. 
 
 Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect : 
 " I have observed some cases of a very curious affection 
 " when, after a slight rub (attouchement) , for example, 
 " from the friction of a coat, which caused neither 
 " a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular 
 " muscles occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, 
 " lasting about an hour. Subsequently, sometimes after 
 " an interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the 
 " same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secre- 
 " tion of tears, together with primary or secondary red- 
 " ness of the eye." Mr. Bowman informs me that he 
 has occasionally observed closely analogous cases, and 
 that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflamma- 
 tion of the eyes. 
 
 I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in 
 any of the lower animals a similar relation between 
 the contraction of the orbicular muscles during violent 
 expiration and the secretion of tears; but there are 
 very few animals which contract these muscles in a 
 prolonged manner, or which shed tears. The Macacus 
 maurus, which formerly wept so copiously in the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens, would have been a fine case for observa- 
 ticn ; but the two monkeys now there, and which are 
 believed to belong to the same species, do not weep. 
 Nevertheless they were carefully observed by Mr. 
 
 19 ' Dc la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 217. 
 
 4 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 167 
 
 Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they 
 seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved 
 about their cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to 
 observe with certainty. No other monkey, as far as 
 I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular 
 muscles whilst screaming. 
 
 The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. 
 Sir E. Tennent, in describing those which he saw cap- 
 tured and bound in Ceylon, says', some " lay motionless 
 " on the ground, with no other indication of suffering 
 " than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed 
 " incessantly." Speaking of another elephant he says, 
 " AVhen overpowered and made fast, his grief was most 
 " affecting ; his violence sank to utter prostration, and 
 " he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with 
 ** tears trickling down his cheeks." 20 In the Zoological 
 Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively 
 asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down 
 the face of the old female, when distressed by the 
 
 2« 'Ceylon,' 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 3Gt, 37G. I applied to Mr. 
 Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with res-pict to the weep- 
 ing of the elephant; and in consequence received a letter from the 
 Rev. Mr. Glenie, who, with others, kindly obse rved for me a herd of 
 recently capture:! elephants. Tliese, when irritated, screamed violently ; 
 but it is remarkable that they never when thus screaming contracted 
 1he muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed tears; and the native 
 hunters asserted that they had never observed elephants weeping. 
 Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Tennent's 
 distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are by the positive 
 assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is certain that 
 the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet loudly, 
 invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can reconcile these 
 conflicting statements only by supposing that the lecently captured 
 elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened, desired to ob- 
 serve their persecutors, and consequently did not contract their orbicular 
 muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. Those seen weeping 
 by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the enntebt in 
 despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at 
 the word of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged. 
 
168 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 removal of the young one. Hence I was extremely- 
 anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation 
 between the contraction of the orbicular muscles and 
 the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants when 
 screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. 
 At Mr. Bartlett's desire the keeper ordered the old and 
 the young elephant to trumpet ; and we repeatedly saw 
 in both animals that, just as the trumpeting began, the 
 orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, were dis- 
 tinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper 
 made the old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and 
 invariably both the upper and lower orbicular muscles 
 were strongly contracted, and now in an equal degree. 
 It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, 
 however, is so different from the Indian species that it 
 is placed by some naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, 
 when made on two occasions to trumpet loudly, exhi- 
 hibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular 
 muscles. 
 
 From the several foregoing cases with respect to 
 Man, there can, I think, be no doubt that the con- 
 traction of the muscles round the eyes, during violent 
 expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly com- 
 pressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with 
 the secretion of tears. This holds good under widely 
 different emotions, and independently of any emotion. 
 It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted 
 without the contraction of these muscles ; for it is noto- 
 rious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids 
 not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled. The con- 
 traction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as 
 during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. 
 The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though 
 often repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. 
 Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 169 
 
 the several surrounding muscles suffice. As the 
 lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I per- 
 suaded nay own and several other children of different 
 ages to contract these muscles repeatedly with their 
 utmost force, and to continue doing so as long as they 
 possibly could; but this produced hardly any effect. 
 There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, 
 but not more than apparently could be accounted for 
 by the squeezing out of the already secreted tears within 
 the glands. 
 
 The nature of the relation between the involuntary 
 and energetic contraction of the muscles round the eyes, 
 and the secretion of tears, cannot be positively ascer- 
 tained, but a probable view may be suggested. The 
 primary function of the secretion of tears, together 
 with some mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the 
 eye ; and a secondary one, as some believe, is to keep 
 the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may be 
 moist, 21 and likewise to favour the power of smelling. 
 But another, and at least equally important function 
 of tears, is to wash out particles of dust or other 
 minute objects which may get into the eyes. That 
 this is of great importance is clear from the cases in 
 which the cornea has been rendered opaque through 
 inflammation, caused by particles of dust not being 
 removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming 
 immovable. 22 The secretion of tears from the irritation 
 of any foreign body in the eye is a reflex action; — 
 that is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve' which 
 sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells ; these 
 transmit an influence to other cells, and these again 
 
 21 Bergeon, as quoted in the 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' 
 Nov. 1871, p. 235. 
 
 22 !?ee, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell, 4 Philosophical 
 Transactions,' 1823, p. 177. 
 
170 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING I 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 to the lacrymal glands. The influence transmitted to 
 these glands causes, as there is good reason to believe, 
 the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller 
 arteries ; this allows more blood to permeate the 
 glandular tissue, and this induces a free secretion of 
 tears. When the small arteries of the face, including 
 those of the retina, are relaxed under very different 
 circumstances, namely, during an intense blush, the 
 lacrymal glands are sometimes affected in a like manner, 
 for the eyes become suffused with tears. 
 
 It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions 
 have originated, but, in relation to the present case of 
 the affection of the lacrymal glands through irritation 
 of the surface of the eye, it may be worth remarking 
 that, as soon as some primordial form became semi- 
 terrestrial in its habits, and was liable to get particles 
 of dust into its eyes, if these were not washed out they 
 would cause much irritation; and on the principle of 
 the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the 
 lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. 
 As this would often recur, and as nerve-force readily 
 passes along accustomed channels, a slight irritation 
 would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of 
 tears. 
 
 As soon as by this, or by some other means, a 
 reflex action of this nature had been established and 
 rendered easy, other stimulants applied to the surface 
 of the eye — such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory 
 action, or a blow on the eyelids — would cause a copious 
 secretion of tears, as we know to be the case. The glands 
 are also excited into action through the irritation of 
 adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated 
 by pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept 
 firmly closed, tears are copiously secreted ; and this like- 
 wise follows from a blow on the nose, for instance from a 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 171 
 
 boxing-glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, 
 as 1 have seen, the same effect. In these latter cases 
 the secretion of tears is an incidental result, and of no 
 direct service. As all these parts of the face, including 
 the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the 
 same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intel- 
 ligible that the effects of the excitement of any one 
 branch should spread to the nerve-cells or roots of the 
 other branches. 
 
 The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under cer- 
 tain conditions, in a reflex manner on the lacrymal 
 glands. The following statements have been kindly 
 communicated to me by Mr. Bowman ; but the subject 
 is a very intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are 
 so intimately related together, and are so sensitive to 
 various stimulants. A strong light acting on the retina, 
 when in a normal condition, has very little tendency to 
 cause lacrymation ; but with unhealthy children having 
 small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina be- 
 comes excessively sensitive to light, and exposure even 
 to common daylight causes forcible and sustained closure 
 of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When persons 
 who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually 
 strain the waning power of accommodation, an undue 
 secretion of tears very often follows, and the retina is 
 liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In general, 
 morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of the 
 ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act, 
 are prone to be accompanied with excessive secretion of 
 tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to inflamma- 
 tion, but implying a want of balance between the fluids 
 poured out and again taken up by the intra-ocular 
 vessels, is not usually attended With any lacrymation. 
 When the balance is on the other side, and the eye 
 becomes too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacry- 
 
172 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 mation. Finally, there are numerous morbid states and 
 structural alterations of the eyes, and even terrible 
 inflammations, which may be attended with little or no 
 secretion of tears. 
 
 It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our 
 subject, that the eye and adjoining parts are subject to 
 an extraordinary number of reflex and associated move- 
 ments, sensations, and actions, besides those relating to 
 the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the 
 retina of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris . 
 of the other eye moves after a measurable interval of 
 time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to 
 near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made 
 to converge. 23 Every one knows how irresistibly the 
 eyebrows are drawn down under an intensely bright 
 light. The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an 
 object is moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly 
 heard. The well-known case of a bright light causing 
 some persons to sneeze is even more curious ; for nerve- 
 force here radiates from certain nerve-cells in con- 
 nection with the retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of 
 the nose, causing it to tickle ; and from these, to the 
 cells which command the various respiratory muscles 
 (the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so 
 peculiar a manner that it rushes through the nostrils 
 alone. 
 
 To return to our point : why are tears secreted during 
 a screaming-fit or other violent expiratory efforts ? As 
 a slight blow on the eyelids causes a copious secretion 
 of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic con- 
 traction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the 
 eyeball, should in a similar manner cause some secre- 
 
 23 See, on these several points, Prof. Donders 4 On the Anomalies of 
 Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,' 1864, p. 573. 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 173 
 
 tion. This seems possible, although the voluntaiy con- 
 traction of the same muscles does not produce any such 
 effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze 
 or cough with nearly the same force as he does auto- 
 matically ; and so it is with the contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles : Sir C. Bell experimented on them, 
 and found that by suddenly and forcibly closing 
 the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light are seen, like 
 those caused by tapping the eyelids with the fingers ; 
 " but in sneezing the compression is both more rapid 
 " and more forcible, and the sparks are more brilliant." 
 That these sparks are due to the contraction of the 
 eyelids is clear, because if they " are held open during 
 " the act of sneezing, no sensation of light will be 
 " experienced." In the peculiar cases referred to by 
 Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen 
 that some weeks after the eye has been very slightly 
 injured, spasmodic contractions of the eyelids ensue, 
 and these are accompanied by a profuse flow of tears. 
 In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due 
 solely to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles 
 round the eyes. Notwithstanding these latter cases, 
 it seems hardly credible that the pressure of the eyelids 
 on the surface of the eye, although effected spasmodi- 
 cally and therefore with much greater force than can 
 be done voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause 
 by reflex action the secretion of tears in the man} 
 cases in which this occurs during violent expiratory 
 efforts. 
 
 Another cause may come conjointly into play. We 
 have seen that the internal parts of the eye, under 
 certain conditions, act in a reflex manner on the 
 lacrymal glands. We know that during violent 
 expiratory efforts the pressure of the arterial blood 
 within the vessels of the eye is increased, and that the 
 
174 
 
 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 return of the venous blood is impeded. It seems, there- 
 fore, not improbable that the distension of the ocular 
 vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection on the 
 lacrymal glands — the effects due to the spasmodic 
 pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being 
 thus increased. 
 
 In considering how far this view is probable, we 
 should bear in mind that the eyes of infants have 
 been acted on in this double manner during numberless 
 generations, whenever they have screamed ; and on the 
 principle of nerve-force readily passing along accus- 
 tomed channels, even a moderate compression of the 
 eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular vessels 
 would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the 
 glands. We have an analogous case in the orbicular 
 muscles being almost always contracted in some slight 
 degree, even during a gentle crying-fit, when there can 
 be no distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable 
 sensation excited within the eyes. 
 
 Moreover, when complex actions or movements have 
 long been performed in strict association together, and 
 these are from any cause at first voluntarily and after- 
 wards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting 
 conditions occur, any part of the action or movement 
 which is least under the control of the will, will often 
 still be involuntarily performed. The secretion by a 
 gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will ; 
 therefore, when with the advancing age of the indi- 
 vidual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the 
 habit of crying out or screaming is restrained, and there 
 is consequently no distension of the blood-vessels of the 
 eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should 
 still be secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the 
 muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic 
 story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as 
 
CiJAP. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 175 
 
 liardly to be detected. In this case there has been no 
 screaming and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet 
 through habit certain nerve-cells send a small amount 
 of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles 
 round the eyes ; and they likewise send some to the cells 
 commanding the lacrymal glands, for the eyes often 
 become at the same time just moistened with tears. 
 If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the 
 secretion of tears had been completely prevented, never- 
 theless it is almost certain that there would have been 
 some tendency to transmit nerve-force in these same 
 directions; and as the lacrymal glands are remarkably 
 free from the control of the will, they would be emi- 
 nently liable still to act, thus betraying, though there 
 were no other outward signs, the pathetic thoughts 
 which were passing through the person's mind. 
 
 As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I 
 may remark that if, during an early period of life, when 
 habits of all kinds are readily established, our infants, 
 when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud peals 
 of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are 
 distended) as often and as continuously as they have 
 yielded when distressed to screaming-fits, then it is 
 probable that in after life tears would have been as 
 copiously and as regularly secreted under the one 
 state of mind as under the other. Gentle laughter, 
 or a smile, or even a pleasing thought, would have 
 sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears. There 
 does indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, 
 as will be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of 
 the tender feelings. With the Sandwich Islanders, 
 according to Freycinet, 2 * tears are actually recog- 
 nized as a sign of happiness ; but we should require 
 
 24 Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, 1 Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 458. 
 
176 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VI. 
 
 better evidence on this bead than that of a passing 
 voyager. So again if our infants, during many genera- 
 tions, and each of them during several years, had almost 
 daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during which 
 the vessels of the eye are distended and tears copiously 
 secreted, then it is probable, such is the force of asso- 
 ciated habit, that during after life the mere thought of 
 a choke, without any distress of mind, would have 
 sufficed to bring tears into our eyes. 
 
 To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the 
 result of some such chain of events as follows. Children, 
 when wanting food or suffering in any way, cry out 
 loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly.as a 
 call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great 
 exertion serving as a relief. Prolonged screaming in- 
 evitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels of 
 the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously 
 and at last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles 
 round the eyes in order to protect them. At the 
 same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of the 
 eye, and the distension of the vessels within the eye, 
 without necessarily entailing any conscious sensation, 
 will have affected, through reflex action, the lacry- 
 mal glands. Finally, through the three principles of 
 nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels 
 — of association, which is so widely extended in its 
 power — and of certain actions, being more under the 
 control of the will than others — it has come to pass 
 that suffering readily causes the secretion of tears, 
 without being necessarily accompanied by any other 
 action. 
 
 Although in accordance with this view we must look 
 at weeping as an incidental result, as purposeless as 
 the secretion of tears from a blow outside the eye, 
 or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a 
 
Chap. VI. 
 
 WEEPING. 
 
 177 
 
 bright light, yet this does not present any difficulty 
 in our understanding how the secretion of tears serves 
 as a relief to suffering. And by as mucli as the 
 weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much will 
 the relief be greater, — on the same principle that the 
 writhing of the whole body, the grinding of the teeth, 
 and the uttering of piercing shrieks, all give relief 
 under an agony of pain. 
 
178 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: 
 
 Chap. VII 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 Low Spirits, Anxiety, Grief, Dejection, Despair. 
 
 General effect of grief on the system — Obliquity of the eyebrows 
 under suffering — On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows 
 — On the depression of the corners of the mouth. 
 
 After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of 
 grief, and the cause still continues, we fall into a state 
 of low spirits ; or we may be utterly cast down and 
 dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to 
 an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. 
 If we expect to suffer, we are anxious ; if we have no 
 hope of relief, we despair. 
 
 Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief 
 by violent and almost frantic movements, as described 
 in a former chapter; but when their suffering is some- 
 what mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer wish 
 for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may 
 occasionally rock themselves to and fro. The circula- 
 tion becomes languid ; the face pale ; the muscles flaccid ; 
 the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted 
 chest ; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink down- 
 wards from their own weight. Hence all the features 
 are lengthened ; and the face of a person who hears bad 
 news is said to fall. A party of natives in Tierra del 
 Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, 
 the captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by 
 pulling down their cheeks with both hands, so as to 
 make their faces as long as possible. Mr. Bunnet 
 informs me that the Australian aborigines when out of 
 
Chap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 179 
 
 spirits have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged 
 suffering the eyes become dull and lack expression, 
 and are often slightly suffused with tears. The eye- 
 brows not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due 
 to their inner ends being raised. This produces pecu- 
 liarly-formed wrinkles on the forehead, which are very 
 different from those of a simple frown ; though in some 
 cases a frown alone may be present. The corners of the 
 mouth are drawn downwards, which is so universally 
 recognised as a sign of being out of spirits, that it is 
 almost proverbial. 
 
 The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often 
 interrupted by deep sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, 
 whenever our attention is long concentrated on any 
 subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves 
 by a deep inspiration ; but the sighs of a sorrowful per- 
 son, owing to his slow respiration and languid circula- 
 tion, are eminently characteristic. 1 As the grief of a 
 person in this state occasionally recurs and increases 
 into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, 
 and he feels as if something, the so-called globus 
 hystericus, was rising in his throat. These spasmodic 
 movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of children, 
 and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur 
 when a person is said to choke from excessive grief. 2 
 
 Obliquity of the eyebrows. — Two points alone in the 
 above description require further elucidation, and these 
 are very curious ones ; namely, the raising of the inner 
 
 1 The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my own 
 observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet (' De Ja Physionomie,' pp. 53, 
 337 ; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject. See, 
 also, Huschke, ' Mimices et Physiognomiees, Fragmentum Physio- 
 logicum,' 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit, 4 Mimik 
 und Phybiognomik,' 18o7, s. 65. 
 
 2 On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see more espe- 
 cially Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, p. 151. 
 
180 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF I 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down of the 
 corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, 
 they may occasionally be seen to assume an oblique 
 position in persons suffering from deep dejection or 
 anxiety ; for instance, I have observed this movement 
 in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son ; and 
 it is sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary 
 causes of real or pretended distress. The eyebrows 
 assume this position owing to the contraction of certain 
 muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and pyra- 
 midals of the nose, which together tend to lower and 
 contract the eyebrows) being partially checked by the 
 more powerful action of the central fasciae of the frontal 
 muscle. These latter fasciae by their contraction raise 
 the inner ends alone of the eyebrows ; and as the corru- 
 gators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their 
 inner ends become puckered into a fold or lump. This 
 fold is a highly characteristic point in the appearance of 
 the eyebrows when rendered oblique, as may be seen in 
 figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at the same 
 time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made 
 to project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed 
 in melancholic patients who keep their eyebrows per- 
 sistently oblique, "a peculiar acute arching of the upper 
 eyelid." A trace of this may be observed by comparing 
 the right and left eyelids of the young man in the 
 photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.) ; for he was not able to act 
 equally on both eyebrows. This is also shown by the 
 unequal furrows on the two sides of his forehead. The 
 acute arching of the eyelids depends, I believe, on the 
 inner end alone of the eyebrows being raised ; for when 
 the whole eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper 
 eyelid follows in a slight degree the same movement. 
 
 But the most conspicuous result of the opposed con- 
 traction of the above-named muscles, is exhibited by the 
 
Chap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 181 
 
 peculiar furrows formed on the forehead. These muscles, 
 when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be called, 
 for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a 
 person elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the 
 whole frontal muscle, transverse wrinkles extend across 
 the whole breadth of the forehead ; but in the present 
 case the middle fasciae alone are contracted ; conse- 
 quently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle 
 part alone of the forehead. The skin over the exterior 
 parts of both eyebrows is at the same time drawn down- 
 wards and smoothed, by the contraction of the outer por- 
 tions of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows'are likewise 
 brought together through the simultaneous contraction 
 of the corrugators ; 3 and this latter action generates 
 
 3 In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the eyebrows 
 are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the universal 
 opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted on the 
 action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have conversed. 
 Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of the action 
 of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyrarnidalis n<tsi, and frontalis 
 muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every conclusion at 
 which he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it is the corrugator, 
 called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner corner of the eye- 
 brows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part of the orbicular 
 muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see Mtcanisme de la Phys. 
 Humaiue, 18G2, folio, art. v., text and figures 19 to 29 : octavo edit. 18G2, 
 p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the corrugator draws together 
 the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the base of the nose, or a 
 frown. He further believes that towards the outer two-thirds of the 
 eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the upper orbicular 
 muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the fiontal muscle. I 
 am unable to understand, judging from Henle's drawings (woodcut, 
 fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described by 
 Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Dondera' remarks in the 
 'Archives of Medicine,' 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is 
 so well known for his careful study of the muscles of the human frame, 
 informs me that he believes the account which I have given of the 
 action of the corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point of any 
 importance with respect to the expression which is caused by the 
 obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its 
 origin. 
 
182 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 vertical furrows, separating the exterior and lowered 
 part of the skin of the forehead from the central and 
 raised part. The union of these vertical furrows with 
 the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) 
 produces a mark on the forehead which has been com- 
 pared to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly 
 form three sides of a quadrangle. They are often con- 
 spicuous on the foreheads of adult or nearly adult persons, 
 when their eyebrows are made oblique ; but with young 
 children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they 
 are rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be detected. 
 
 These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, 
 Plate II., on the forehead of a young lady who has the 
 power in an unusual degree of voluntarily acting on 
 the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the 
 attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was 
 not at all one of grief; I have therefore given the fore- 
 head alone. Fig. 1 on the same plate, copied from Dr. 
 Duchenne's work, 4 represents, on a reduced scale, the 
 face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a 
 good actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but 
 the two eyebrows, as before remarked, are not equally 
 acted on. That the expression is true, may be inferred 
 from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the 
 original photograph was shown, without any clue to what 
 was intended beiug given them, fourteen immediately 
 answered, " despairing sorrow," " suffering endurance," 
 " melancholy," and so forth. The history of fig. 5 is 
 rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, 
 and took it to Mr. Kejlander for the sake of finding out 
 
 4 I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to have 
 these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype pro- 
 cess from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the 
 furrowing of the bkin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are 
 taken from his excellent discussion on this subject. 
 
Chap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 183 
 
 bv whom it had been made ; remarking to him how 
 pathetic the expression was. He answered, " I made it, 
 " and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few 
 *• minutes burst out crying." He then showed me a 
 photograph of the same boy in a placid state, which 
 I have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of 
 obliquity in the eyebrows may be detected ; but this 
 figure, as well as fig. 7, is given to show the depression 
 of the corners of the mouth, to which subject I shall pre- 
 sently refer. 
 
 Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily 
 act on their gi'ief-muscles ; but after repeated trials a con- 
 siderable number succeed, whilst others never can. The 
 degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether assumed 
 voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different 
 persons. With some who apparently have unusually 
 strong pyramidal muscles, the contraction of the central 
 fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may be ener- 
 getic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the fore- 
 head, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but 
 only prevents their being so much lowered as they 
 otherwise would have been. As far as I have been 
 able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action 
 much more frequently by children and women than by 
 men. They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up 
 persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from 
 mental distress. Two persons who, after some practice, 
 succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found by 
 looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows 
 oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed 
 the corners of their mouths ; and this is often the case 
 when the expression is naturally assumed. 
 
 The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play 
 appears to be hereditary, like almost every other human 
 faculty. A lady belonging to a family famous for 
 
184 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 having produced an extraordinary number of great 
 actors and actresses, and who can herself give this 
 expression " with singular precision," told Dr. Crichton 
 Browne that all her family had possessed the power in a 
 remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency is 
 said to have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. 
 Browne, to the last descendant of the famil} r , which 
 gave rise to Sir Walter Scott's novel of ' Bed Gauntlet ;' 
 but the hero is described as contracting his forehead 
 into a horse-shoe mark from any strong emotion. I 
 have also seen a young woman whose forehead seemed 
 almost habitually thus contracted, independently of any 
 emotion bein^ at the time felt. 
 
 The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought 
 into play ; and as the action is often momentary, 
 it easily escapes observation. Although the expres- 
 sion, when observed, is universally and instantly re- 
 cognized as that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person 
 out of a thousand who has never studied the subject, 
 is able to say precisely what change passes over 
 the sufferer's face. Hence probably it is that this 
 expression is not even alluded to, as far as I have 
 noticed, in any work of fiction, with the exception of 
 ' Bed Gauntlet ' and of one other novel ; and the 
 authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to 
 the famous family of actors just alluded to ; so that her 
 attention may have been specially called to the subject. 
 
 The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the 
 expression, as shown in the statues of the Laocoon and 
 Arretino ; but, as Duchenne remarks, they carried 
 the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the 
 forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mis- 
 take : this is likewise the case in some modem statues. 
 It is, however, more probable that these wonderfully 
 accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the 
 
Chap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 185 
 
 sake of beauty, than that they made a mistake ; for 
 rectangular furrows on the forehead would not have 
 had a grand appearance on the marble. The expres- 
 sion, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as I can 
 discover, not often represented in pictures- by the old 
 masters, no doubt owing to the -same cause ; but a 
 lady who is perfectly familiar with this expression, 
 informs me that in Fra Angelico's ' Descent from the 
 Cross,' in Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of 
 the figures on the right-hand ; and I could add a few 
 other instances. 
 
 Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended 
 to this expression in the numerous insane patients 
 under his care in the West Riding Asylum; and he 
 is familiar with Duchenne's photographs of the action 
 of the grief-muscles. He informs me that they may 
 constantly be seen in energetic action in cases of melan- 
 cholia, and especially of hypochondria ; and that the 
 persistent lines or furrows, due to their habitual con- 
 traction, are characteristic of the physiognomy of the 
 insane belonging to these two classes. Dr. Browne 
 carefully observed for me during a considerable period 
 three cases of hypochondria, in which the grief-muscles 
 were persistently contracted. In one of these, a widow, 
 aged 51, fancied that she had lost all her viscera, and 
 that her whole body was empty. She wore an expres- 
 sion of great distress, and beat her semi-closed hands 
 rhythmically together for hours. The grief-muscles were 
 permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids arched. 
 This condition lasted for months ; she then recovered, 
 and her countenance resumed its natural expression. 
 A second case presented nearly the same peculiarities, 
 with the addition that the corners of the mouth were 
 depressed. 
 
 Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me 
 
186 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF : 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 several cases in the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and lias 
 communicated to me full details with respect to three 
 of them ; but they need not here be given. From his 
 observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol con- 
 cludes that the inner ends of the eyebrows are almost 
 always more or less raised, with the wrinkles on the 
 forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of 
 one young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be 
 in constant slight play or movement. In some cases 
 the corners of the mouth are depressed, but often only 
 in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the 
 expression of the several melancholic patients could 
 almost always be observed. The eyelids generally 
 droop; and the skin near their outer corners and 
 beneath them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which 
 runs from the wings of the nostrils to the corners of 
 the mouth, and which is so conspicuous in blubbering 
 children, is often plainly marked in these patients. 
 
 Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act 
 persistently ; yet in ordinary cases they are sometimes 
 brought unconsciously into momentary action by ludi- 
 crously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a young 
 lady by an absurdly small present ; she pretended to 
 be offended, and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows 
 became extremely oblique, with the forehead properly 
 wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in 
 the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with 
 extraordinary rapidity ; and I noticed that, as often 
 as the young lady was beaten, and could not get out 
 her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely 
 upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed on her 
 forehead. She thus each time hoisted a flag of dis* 
 tress ; and this she did half-a-dozen times in the course 
 of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject, 
 but on a subsequent occasion I asked her to act 
 
Chap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 187 
 
 on her grief-muscles ; another girl who was present, 
 and who could do so voluntarily, showing her what 
 was intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly 
 failed ; yet so slight a cause of distress as not being 
 able to talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring these 
 muscles over and over again into energetic action. 
 
 The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the 
 grief-muscles, is by no means confined to Europeans, 
 but appears to be common to all the races of mankind. 
 I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in re- 
 gard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal 
 hill-tribes of India, and therefore belonging to a quite 
 distinct race from the Hindoos), Malays, Negroes and 
 Australians. With, respect to the latter, two observers 
 answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into 
 no details. Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my de- 
 scriptive remarks the words " this is exact." With 
 respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Era 
 Angelica's picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the 
 Nile, and as he encountered an obstruction, she observed 
 his grief-muscles in strong action, with the middle 
 of the forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched 
 a Malay man in Malacca, with the corners of his 
 mouth much depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with 
 deep short grooves on the forehead. This expression 
 lasted for a very short time ; and Mr. Geach remarks 
 it " was a strange one, very much like a person about 
 " to cry at some great loss." 
 
 In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives 
 were familiar with this expression; and Mr. J. 
 Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has obli- 
 gingly sent me a full description of two cases. He 
 observed during some time, himself unseen, a very 
 young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the wife of 
 one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at 
 
188 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF : 
 
 Chat. VII. 
 
 the point of death ; and he distinctly saw the eye- 
 brows raised at the inner corners, the eyelids drooping, 
 the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth slightly 
 open, with the corners much depressed. He then came 
 from behind a screen of plants and spoke to the poor 
 woman, who started, burst into a bitter flood of tears, 
 and besought him to care her baby. The second case 
 was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness and 
 poverty was compelled to sell his favourite goat. After 
 receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the money 
 in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting whether 
 he would not return it. He went to the goat, which was 
 tied up ready to be led away, and the animal reared up 
 and licked his hands. His eyes then wavered from 
 side to side; his "mouth was partially closed, with the 
 " comers very decidedly depressed." At last the poor 
 man seemed to make up his mind that he must part 
 with his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows 
 became slightly oblique, with the characteristic puck- 
 ering or swelling at the inner ends, but the wrinkles 
 on the forehead were not present. The man stood thus 
 for a minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, 
 raised up his two hands, blessed the goat, turned round, 
 and without looking again, went away. 
 
 On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under 
 suffering. — During several years no expression seemed 
 to me so utterly perplexing as this which we are here 
 considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the 
 central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together 
 with those round the eyes, to contract ? Here we seem 
 to have a complex movement for the sole purpose of 
 expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare 
 expression, and often overlooked. I believe the expla- 
 nation is not so difficult as it at first appears. Dr. 
 Duchenne gives a photograph of the young man before 
 
Cftap. VII. 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 189 
 
 referred to, who, when looking- upwards at a strongly 
 illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief- 
 muscles in an exaggerated manner. I had entirely for- 
 gotten this photograph, when on a very bright day with 
 the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl 
 whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became ex- 
 tremely oblique, with the proper furrows on her forehead. 
 I have observed the same movement under similar cir- 
 cumstances on several subsequent occasions. On my 
 return home I made three of my children, without 
 giving them any clue to my object, look as long and 
 as attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall 
 tree standing against an extremely bright sky. With 
 all three, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal 
 muscles were energetically contracted, through reflex 
 action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their 
 eyes might be protected from the bright light. But 
 they tried their utmost to look upwards ; and now a 
 curious struggle, with spasmodic twitchings, could be 
 observed between the whole or only the central portion 
 of the frontal muscle, and the several muscles which 
 serve to lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids. 
 The involuntary contraction of the pyramidal caused 
 the basal part of their noses to be transversely and 
 deeply wrinkled. In one of the three children, the 
 whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and lowered 
 by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal muscle 
 and of the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that the 
 whole brea f lth of the forehead was alternately wrinkled 
 and smoothed. In the other two children the forehead 
 became wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular 
 furrows being thus produced ; and the eyebrows were 
 rendered oblique, with their inner extremities puckered 
 and swollen ; — in the one child in a slight degree, in 
 the other in a strongly marked manner. This differ- 
 
190 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF : 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 ence in the obliquity of the eyebrows apparently de- 
 pended on a difference in their general mobility, and 
 in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both 
 these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on 
 under the influence of a strong light, in precisely the 
 same manner, in every characteristic detail, as under 
 the influence of grief or anxiety. 
 
 Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the 
 nose is less under the control of the will than are 
 the other muscles round the eyes. He remarks that 
 the young man who could so well act on his grief- 
 muscles, as well as on most of his other facial mus- 
 cles, could not contract the pyramidals. 5 This power, 
 however, no doubt differs in different persons. The 
 pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the 
 forehead between the eyebrows, together with their 
 inner extremities. The central fasciae of the frontal 
 are the antagonists of the pyramidal ; and if the action 
 of the latter is to be specially checked, these central 
 fasciae must be contracted. So that with persons 
 having powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under 
 the influence of a bright light an unconscious desire 
 to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows, the central 
 fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play ; 
 and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to over- 
 master the pyramidals, together with the contraction 
 of the corrugator and orbicular muscles, will act in the 
 manner just described on the eyebrows and forehead. 
 
 When children scream or cry out, they contract, 
 as we know, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal 
 muscles, primarily for the sake of compressing their 
 eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged 
 with blood, and secondarily through habit. I there- 
 
 5 Mecanisme de la Pliys. Humaine, Album, p. 15. 
 
GiAr. VIJL 
 
 OBLIQUE EYEBROWS. 
 
 191 
 
 fore expected to find with children, that when they 
 endeavoured either to prevent a crying-lit from coming 
 on, or to stop crying, they would check the contraction 
 of the above-named muscles, in the same manner as 
 when looking upwards at a bright light; and conse- 
 quently that the central fasciae of the frontal muscle 
 would often be brought into play. Accordingly, I began 
 myself to observe children at such times, and asked 
 others, including some medical men, to do the same. It 
 is necessary to observe carefully, as the peculiar opposed 
 action of these muscles is not nearly so plain in chil- 
 dren, owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as 
 in adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles 
 were very frequently brought into distinct action on 
 these occasions. It would, be superfluous to give all the 
 cases which have been observed ; and I will specify 
 only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was 
 teased by some other children, and before bursting 
 into tears her eyebrows became decidedly oblique. 
 With an older girl the same obliquity was observed, 
 with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered ; 
 and at the same time the corners of the mouth were 
 drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into tears, 
 the features all changed and this peculiar expression 
 vanished. Again, after a little boy had been vacci- 
 nated, which made him scream and cry violently, the 
 surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, 
 and this pleased the child much ; as he stopped crying 
 all the characteristic movements were observed, in- 
 cluding the formation of rectangular wrinkles in the 
 middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a 
 little girl three or four years old, who had been fright- 
 ened by a dog, and when I asked her what was the 
 matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows in- 
 stantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree. 
 
192 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF : 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key- 
 to the problem why the central fasciae of the frontal 
 muscle and the muscles round the eyes contract in 
 opposition to each other under the influence of grief ; 
 — whether their contraction be prolonged, as with the 
 melancholic insane, or momentary, from some trifling 
 cause of distress. We have all of us, as infants, 
 repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and 
 pyramidal muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst 
 screaming ; our progenitors before us have done the 
 same during many generations; and though with ad- 
 vancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed, 
 the utterance of screams, we cannot from long habit 
 always prevent a slight contraction of the above-named 
 muscles; nor indeed do we observe their contraction 
 in ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But the 
 pyramidal muscles seem to be less under the command of 
 the will than the other related muscles ; and if they 
 be well developed, their contraction can be checked 
 only by the antagonistic contraction of the central 
 fascice of the frontal muscle. The result which neces- 
 sarily follows, if these fascia contract energetically, is 
 the oblique drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering 
 of their inner ends, and the formation of rectangular 
 furrows on the middle of the forehead. As children 
 and women cry much more freely than men, and as 
 grown-up persons of both sexes rarely weep except from 
 mental distress, we can understand why the grief-muscles 
 are more frequently seen in action, as I believe to be the 
 case, with children and women than with men ; and 
 with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. 
 In some of the cases before recorded, as in that of 
 the poor Dhangar woman and of the Hindustani man, 
 the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed 
 by bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OE THE MOUTH. 193 
 
 great or small, our brains tend through long habit to 
 send an order to certain muscles to contract, as if we 
 were still infants on the point of screaming out; but 
 this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, 
 and through habit, are able partially to counteract ; 
 although this is effected unconsciously, as far as the 
 means of counteraction are concerned. 
 
 On the depression of the corners of the mouth. — This 
 action is effected by the dejoressores anguli oris (see 
 letter K in figs. 1 and 2). The fibres of this muscle 
 diverge downwards, with the upper convergent ends 
 attached round the angles of the month, and to the 
 lower lip a little way within the angles. 6 Some of 
 the fibres appear to be antagonistic to the great zygo- 
 matic muscle, and others to the several muscles running 
 to the outer part of the upper lip. The contraction of 
 this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners 
 of the mouth, including the outer part of the upper 
 lip, and even in a slight degree the wings of the nostrils. 
 "When the mouth is closed and this muscle acts, the 
 commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a 
 curved line with the concavity downwards, 7 and the lips 
 themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially 
 the lower one. The mouth in this state is well repre- 
 sented in the two photographs (Plate II., figs. 6 and 7) 
 by Mr. llej lander. The upper boy (fig. C) had just 
 stopped crying, after receiving a slap on the face from 
 another boy ; and the right moment was seized for 
 photographing him. 
 
 The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due 
 
 6 Henlc, Handbuch der Anat. dcs Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 148, 
 figs. 68 and GO. 
 
 7 See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr. Duchenne, 
 4 Mecarmme de la Physiouoinie Humaiue,' Album (1862), viii. p. 34. 
 
194 
 
 EXPRESSION OP GRIEF: 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 to the contraction of this muscle has been noticed by 
 every one who has written on the subject. To say that 
 a person " is down in the mouth/' is synonymous with 
 saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of 
 the corners may often be seen, as already stated on the 
 authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with 
 the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some 
 photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of 
 patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has 
 been observed with men belonging to various races, 
 namely with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, 
 Malays, and, as the Eev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me, 
 with the aborigines of Australia. 
 
 When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles 
 round their eyes, and this draws up the upper lip ; and 
 as they have to keep their mouths widely open, the 
 depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise 
 brought into strong action. This generally, but not 
 invariably, causes a slight angular bend in the lower 
 lip on both sides, near the corners of the mouth. The 
 result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on, 
 is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The 
 contraction of the depressor muscle is best seen in 
 infants when not screaming violently, and especially 
 just before they begin, or when they cease to scream. 
 Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous 
 expression, as I continually observed with my own 
 infants between the ages of about six weeks and two 
 or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling 
 against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved 
 in so exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe ; 
 and the expression of misery then becomes a ludicrous 
 caricature. 
 
 The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, 
 under the influence of low spirits or dejection, appa- 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OF THE MOUTH. 195 
 
 rently follows from the same general principles as in the 
 case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne , 
 informs me that he concludes from his observations, 
 now prolonged during many years, that this is one of 
 the facial muscles which is least under the control 
 of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from 
 what has just been stated with respect to infants when 
 doubtfully beginning to cry, or endeavouring to stop 
 crying ; for they then generally command all the other 
 facial muscles more effectual iy than they do the de- 
 pressors of the corners of the mouth. Two excellent 
 observers who had no theory on the subject, one of 
 them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older 
 children and women as with some opposed struggling 
 they very gradually approached the point of bursting 
 out into tears ; and both observers felt sure that the 
 depressors began to act before any of the other 
 muscles. Now as the depressors have been repeatedly 
 brought into strong action during infancy in many 
 generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the prin- 
 ciple of long associated habit, to these muscles as well 
 as to various other facial muscles, whenever in after 
 life even a slight feeling of distress is experienced. But 
 as the depressors are somewhat less under the control 
 of the will than most of the other muscles, we might 
 expect that they would often slightly contract, whilst 
 the others remained passive. It is remarkable how* 
 small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives 
 to the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejec- 
 tion, so that an extremely slight contraction of these 
 muscles would be sufficient to betray this state of mind, 
 
 I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will 
 serve to sum up our present subject. An old lady 
 with a comfortable but absorbed expression sat nearly 
 
rj6 
 
 EXPRESSION OF GRIEF: 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I was 
 looking at her, I saw that her depressores anguli oris 
 became very slightly, yet decidedly, contracted ; but as 
 her countenance remained as placid as ever, I reflected 
 how meaningless was this contraction, and how easily 
 one might be deceived. The thought had hardly 
 occurred to me when I saw that her eyes suddenly 
 became suffused with tears almost to overflowing, and 
 her whole countenance fell. There could now be no 
 doubt that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a 
 long-lost child, was passing through her mind. As soon 
 as her sensorium was thus affected, certain nerve-cells 
 from long habit instantly transmitted an order to 
 all the respiratory muscles, and to those round the 
 mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the order 
 was countermanded by the will, or rather by a later 
 acquired habit, and all the muscles were obedient, 
 excepting in a slight degree the depressores anguli 
 oris. The mouth was not even opened; the respiration 
 was not hurried ; and no muscle was affected except 
 those which drrfw down the corners of the mouth. 
 
 As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involun- 
 tarily and unconsciously on her part, to assume the 
 proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel almost sure 
 that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted 
 through the long accustomed channels to the various 
 respiratory* muscles, as well as to those round the eyes, 
 and to the vaso-motor centre which governs the supply of 
 blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we 
 have indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly 
 suffused with tears ; and we can understand this, as the 
 lacrymal glands are less under the control of the will 
 than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the 
 some time some tendency in the muscles round the eyes 
 at contract, as if for the sake of protecting them from 
 
Chap. VII. DEPRESSED CORNERS OF THE MOUTH. 197 
 
 being gorged with blood, but this contraction was com- 
 pletely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled. 
 Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles 
 been as little obedient to the will, as they are in many 
 persons, they would have been slightly acted on ; and 
 then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would 
 have contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would 
 have become oblique, with, rectangular furrows on her 
 forehead. Her countenance would then have expressed 
 still more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or 
 rather one of grief. 
 
 Through steps such as these we can understand how 
 it is, that as soon as some melancholy thought passes 
 through the brain, there occurs a just perceptible 
 drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight 
 raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both 
 movements combined, and immediately afterwards a 
 slight suffusion of tears. A thrill of nerve-force is 
 transmitted along several habitual channels, and pro- 
 duces an effect on any point where the will has not 
 acquired through long habit much power of interference. 
 The above actions may be considered as rudimental 
 vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so frequent 
 and prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as 
 in many others, the links are indeed wonderful which 
 connect cause and effect in giving rise to various ex- 
 pressions on the human countenance ; and they explain 
 to us the meaning of certain movements, which we in- 
 voluntarily and unconsciously perform, whenever certain 
 transitory emotions pass through our minds. 
 
198 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY: 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 OHAPTEE VIII. 
 Jot, High Spirits, Love, Tender Feelings, Devotion. 
 
 Laughter primarily the expression of joy — Ludicrous ideas — Move- 
 ments of the features during laughter — Nature of the sound 
 produced — The secretion of tears during loud laughter — Gra- 
 dation from loud laughter to gentle smiling — High spirits — 
 The expression of love — Tender feelings — Devotion. 
 
 Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless move- 
 ments — to dancing about, clapping the hands, stamping, 
 &c, and to loud laughter. Laughter seems primarily 
 to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We 
 clearly see this in children at play, who are almost inces- 
 santly laughing. With young persons past childhood, 
 when they are in high spirits, there is always much 
 meaningless laughter. The laughter of the gods is 
 described by Homer as " the exuberance of their celes- 
 " tial joy after their daily banquet." A man smiles — 
 and smiling, as we shall see, graduates into laughter — 
 at meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any 
 trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume. 1 
 Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, 
 could not have acquired any expression through imi- 
 tation, yet when a letter from a beloved friend was 
 communicated to her by gesture-language, she " laughe 1 
 " and clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to 
 " her cheeks." On other occasions she has been seen to 
 stamp for joy. 2 
 
 1 Herbert Spencer, 1 Essays Scientific,' &c, 1858, p. 3G0. 
 
 2 F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman, ' Smithsonian 
 Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p. 6. 
 
Chap. VIII. LAUGHTEK. 199 
 
 Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good 
 evidence that laughter or smiling primarily expresses 
 mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton Browne, to whom, 
 as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the 
 results of his wide experience, informs me that with 
 idiots laughter is the most prevalent and frequent of all 
 the emotional expressions. Many idiots are morose, pas- 
 sionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or utterly 
 stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently 
 laugh in a quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot 
 boy, incapable of speech, complained to Dr. Browne, by 
 the aid of signs, that another boy in the asylum had 
 given him a black eye ; and this was accompanied by 
 " explosions of laughter and with his face covered with 
 " the broadest smiles." There is another large class of 
 idiots who are persistently joyous and benign, and who 
 are constantly laughing or smiling. 3 Their counte- 
 nances often exhibit a stereotyped smile ; their joyous- 
 ness is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle, 
 whenever food is placed before them, or when they 
 are caressed, are shown bright colours, or hear music. 
 Some of them laugh more than usual when they walk 
 about, or attempt any muscular exertion. The joyous- 
 ness of most of these idiots cannot possibly be associated, 
 as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct ideas : they 
 simply feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or 
 smiles. With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, 
 personal vanity seems to be the commonest cause of 
 laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from the 
 approbation of their conduct. 
 
 With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes 
 considerably different from those which suffice during 
 childhood ; but this remark hardly applies to smiling. 
 
 a See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p. 526. 
 
200 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY: 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 Laughter in this respect is analogous with weeping, 
 which with adults is almost confined to mental distress, 
 whilst with children it is excited by bodily pain or any 
 suffering, as well as by fear or rage. Many curious 
 discussions have been written on the causes of laughter 
 with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely 
 complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, 
 exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the 
 laugher, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems 
 to be the commonest cause. 4 The circumstances must 
 not be of a momentous nature : no poor man would 
 laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune 
 had been bequeathed to him. If the mind is strongly 
 excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little unex- 
 pected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert 
 Spencer remarks, 5 " a large amount of nervous energy, 
 " instead of being allowed to expend itself in producing 
 " an equivalent amount of the new thoughts and emo- 
 "tion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its 
 "flow." . . . " The excess must discharge itself in some 
 " other direction, and there results an efflux through the 
 " motor nerves to various classes of the muscles, pro- 
 " ducing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter." 
 x^.n observation, bearing on this point, was made by 
 a correspondent during the recent siege of Paris, 
 namely, that the German soldiers, after strong excite- 
 ment from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly 
 apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. 
 So again when young children are just beginning to cry, 
 an unexpected event will sometimes suddenly turn their 
 
 4 Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 247) has a long 
 and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above 
 given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See, 
 also, Mandeville, ' The Fable of the Bees,' vol. ii. p. 168. 
 
 5 ' The Physiology of Laughter,' Essays, Second Series, 1863, p. 114. 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTER. 
 
 201 
 
 crying into laughter, which apparently serves equally 
 well to expend their superfluous nervous energy. 
 
 The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a 
 ludicrous idea ; and this so-called tickling of the mind 
 is curiously analogous with that of the body. Every one 
 knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their 
 whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The 
 anthropoid apes, as we have seen, likewise utter a re- 
 iterated sound, corresponding with our laughter, when 
 they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I 
 touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of 
 one of my infants, when only seven days old, and it 
 was suddenly jerked away and the toes curled about, as 
 in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter 
 from being tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and 
 this is likewise shown by the minute unstriped muscles, 
 which serve to erect the separate hairs on the body, 
 contracting near a tickled surface. 6 Yet laughter from 
 a ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a 
 strictly reflex action. In this case, and in that of laughter 
 from being tickled, the mind must be in a pleasurable 
 condition ; a young child, if tickled by a strange man, 
 would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and 
 an idea or event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave 
 import. The parts of the body which are most easily 
 tickled are those which are not commonly touched, such 
 as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the 
 soles of the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad 
 surface; but the surface on which we sit offers a marked 
 exception to this rule. According to Gratiolet, 7 certain 
 nerves are much more sensitive to tickling than others. 
 From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself, or in 
 
 J. Lister in ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, 
 vol. i. p. 2GU. 7 ' De la Physionomie,' p. ISO. 
 
202 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY: 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 a much less degree than when tickled by another person, 
 it seems that the precise point to be touched must not 
 be known ; so with the mind, something unexpected — a 
 novel or incongruous idea which breaks through an 
 habitual train of thought — appears to be a strong ele- 
 ment in the ludicrous. 
 
 The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspira- 
 tion followed by short, interrupted, spasmodic contrac- 
 tions of the chest, and especially of the diaphragm. 8 
 Hence we hear of " laughter holding both his sides." 
 From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. 
 The lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is like- 
 wise the case with some species of baboons, when they 
 are much pleased. 
 
 During laughter the mouth is opened more or less 
 widely, with the corners drawn much backwards, as 
 well as a little upwards ; and the upper lip is somewhat 
 raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen 
 in moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile — 
 the latter epithet showing how the mouth is widened. 
 In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate III., different 
 degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been 
 photographed. The figure of the little girl, with the 
 hat, is by Dr. Wallich, and the expression was a genuine 
 one ; the other two are by Mr. Kejlander. Dr. Duchenne 
 repeatedly insists 9 that, under the emotion of joy, the 
 mouth is acted on exclusively by the great zygo- 
 matic muscles, which serve to draw the corners back- 
 wards and upwards ; but judging from the manner in 
 which the upper teeth are always exposed during 
 laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my own 
 sensations, I cannot doubt that some of the muscles 
 
 8 Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some remarks on 
 the movement of the diaphragm during laughter. 
 
 9 4 Mecanisme de la Physiononiie Humaiue,' Album, Legcnde vi. 
 
JP/.M 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTER. 
 
 203 
 
 running to the upper lip are likewise brought into 
 moderate action. The upper and lower orbicular 
 muscles of the eyes are at the same time more or less 
 contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as 
 explained in the chapter on weeping, between the 
 ©rbiculars, especially the lower ones, and some of the 
 muscles running to the upper lip. Henle remarks 10 
 on this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye 
 he cannot avoid retracting the upper lip on the same 
 side; conversely, if any one will place his finger on his 
 lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors as 
 much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn 
 strongly upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid 
 contract. In Henle's drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, 
 the musculus malaris (H) which runs to the upper lip 
 may be seen to form an almost integral part of the 
 lower orbicular muscle. 
 
 Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old 
 man (reduced on Plate III. fig. 4), in his usual passive 
 condition, and another of the same man (fig. 5), naturally 
 smiling. The latter was instantly recognised by every 
 one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has 
 also given, as an example of an unnatural or false smile, 
 another photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, with 
 the corners of his mouth strongly retracted by the gal- 
 vanization of the great zygomatic muscles. That the 
 expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this pho- 
 tograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not 
 in the least tell what was meant, whilst the others, 
 though they perceived that the expression was of the 
 nature of a smile, answered in such words as " a wicked 
 "joke," "trying to laugh," "grinning laughter," "half- 
 
 10 Handlmch der System. Anat. de3 Mcnschcn, 1858, B. i. s. 144. 
 See my woodcut (H. fig. 2j. 
 
204 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY : 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 " amazed laughter," &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the 
 falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular 
 muscles of the lower eyelids not being sufficiently con- 
 tracted ; for lie justly lays great stress on their contrac- 
 tion in. the expression of joy. No doubt there is much 
 truth, in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the 
 whole truth. The contraction of the lower orbiculars is 
 always accompanied, as we have seen, by the drawing up 
 of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6, been thus 
 acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have 
 been less rigid, the naso-labial furrow would have been 
 slightly different, and the whole expression would, as 
 I believe, have been more natural, independently 
 of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger con- 
 traction of the lower eyelids. The corrn gator muscle, 
 moreover, in fig. 6, is too much contracted, causing a 
 frown ; and this muscle never acts under the influence 
 of joy except during strongly pronounced or violent 
 laughter. 
 
 By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners 
 of the mouth, through the contraction of the great 
 zygomatic muscles, and by the raising of the upper lip, 
 the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are thus 
 formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their 
 outer ends ; and these are highly characteristic of 
 laughter or smiling. As a gentle smile increases into 
 a strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel and 
 see, if he will attend to his own sensations and look 
 at himself in a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn 
 up and the lower orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in 
 the lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes are much 
 strengthened or increased. At the same time, as I have 
 repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, 
 which shows that the upper as well as the lower orbicu- 
 lars contract at least to some degree, though this passes 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTER. 
 
 205 
 
 unperceived, as far as our sensations are concerned. If 
 the original photograph, of the old man, with his counte- 
 nance in its usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with 
 that (fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, it may be 
 seen that the evebrows in the latter are a little lowered. 
 I presume that this is owing to the upper orbiculars 
 being impelled, through the force of long- associated 
 habit, to act to a certain extent in concert with the 
 lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connec- 
 tion with the drawing up of the upper lip. 
 
 The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract 
 under pleasurable emotions is shown by a curious fact, 
 communicated to me by Dr. Browne, with respect to 
 patients suffering from general paralysis of the insane? 1 
 u In this malady there is almost invariably optimism — 
 " delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur — insane joyous- 
 " ness, benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest 
 " physical symptom is trembling at the corners of the 
 " mouth and at the outer corners of the eyes. This is a 
 " well-recoirnized fact. Constant tremulous agitation 
 " of the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles 
 " is pathognomic of the earlier stages of general para- 
 " lysis. The countenance has a pleased and benevolent 
 " expression. As the disease advances other muscles 
 " become involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, 
 " the prevailing expression is that of feeble benevo- 
 " lence." 
 
 As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and 
 upper lip are much raised, the nose appears to be 
 shortened, and the skin on the bridge becomes finely 
 wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique longi- 
 tudinal lines on the sides. ■ The upper front teeth are 
 
 11 See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton Browne 
 in ' Journal of Mental Science,' April, 1871, p. 149. 
 
206 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY I 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 commonly exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is 
 formed, which runs from the wing of each nostril to 
 the corner of the mouth ; and this fold is often double 
 in old persons, 
 
 A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a 
 pleased or amused state of mind, as is the retraction 
 of the corners of the mouth and upper lip with 
 the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of mi- 
 crocephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they 
 never learn to speak, brighten slightly when they are 
 pleased. 12 Under extreme laughter the eyes are too 
 much suffused with tears to sparkle ; but the moisture 
 squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter 
 or smiling may aid in giving them lustre ; though this 
 must be of altogether subordinate importance, as they 
 become dull from grief, though they are then often 
 moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to 
 their tenseness, 13 owing to the contraction of the orbi- 
 cular muscles and to the pressure of the raised cheeks. 
 But, according to Dr. Piderit, who has discussed this 
 point more fully than any other writer, 14 the tenseness 
 may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming 
 filled with blood and other fluids, from the accelera- 
 tion of the circulation, consequent on the excitement 
 of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in the 
 appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid 
 circulation, and of a man suffering from cholera with 
 almost all the fluids of his body drained from him. 
 Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens the 
 eye. I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by 
 prolonged and severe exertion during a very hot clay, 
 
 12 C. Vogt, 1 Memoire snr les Microcc'phales,' 1867, p. 21. 
 
 13 Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression/ p. 133. 
 
 14 « Mimik mid Physiognomik,' 18G7, s 63-67. 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTEE. 
 
 207 
 
 and a bystander compared his eyes to those of a boiled 
 codfish. 
 
 To return to the sounds produced during laughter. 
 We can see in a vague manner how the utterance of 
 sounds of some kind would naturally become associated 
 with a pleasurable state of mind ; for throughout a 
 large part of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental 
 sounds are employed either as a call or as a charm by 
 one sex for the other. They are also employed as the 
 means for a joyful meeting between the parents and 
 their offspring, and between the attached members of 
 the same social community. But why the sounds 
 which man utters when he is pleased have the peculiar 
 reiterated character of laughter we do not know. 
 Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be 
 as different as possible from the screams or cries of dis- 
 tress ; and as in the production of the latter, the expira- 
 tions are prolonged and continuous, with the inspirations 
 short and interrupted, so it might perhaps have been 
 expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that the ex- 
 pirations would have been short and broken with the 
 inspirations prolonged ; and this is the case. 
 
 It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the 
 mouth are retracted and the upper lip raised during 
 ordinary laughter. The mouth must not be opened to its 
 utmost extent, for when this occurs during a paroxysm 
 of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or 
 it changes its tone and seems to come from deep down 
 in the throat. The respiratory muscles, and even 
 those of the limbs, are at the same time thrown into 
 rapid vibratory movements. The lower jaw often par- 
 takes of this movement, and this would tend to prevent 
 the mouth from being widely opened. But as a full 
 volume of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice of 
 the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain 
 
208 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY: 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 this end that the corners are retracted and the ripper 
 lip raised. Although we can hardly account for the 
 shape of the mouth during laughter, which leads to 
 wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for 
 the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the 
 quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer that 
 all these effects are due to some common cause. For 
 they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased 
 state of mind in various kinds of monkeys. 
 
 A graduated series can be followed from violent to 
 moderate laughter, to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, 
 and to the expression of mere cheerfulness. During 
 excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown 
 backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed ; the 
 respiration is much disturbed ; the head and face 
 become gorged with blood, with the veins distended ; 
 and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted 
 in order to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. 
 Hence, as formerly remarked, it is scarcely possible 
 to point out any difference between the tear-stained 
 face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter 
 and after a bitter crying-fit. 15 It is probably due to 
 the close similarity of the spasmodic movements caused 
 by these widely different emotions that hysteric patients 
 alternately cry and laugh with violence, and that young 
 children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the 
 other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often 
 seen the Chinese, when suffering from deep grief, burst 
 out into hysterical fits of laughter. 
 
 I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed 
 
 15 Sir J. Reynolds remarks (' Discourses,' xii. p. 100), " It is curious 
 ' : to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of contrary 
 " passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the same action." 
 He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief of 
 a Mary Magdalen. 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTER. 
 
 209 
 
 during excessive laughter by most of the races of men, 
 and I hear from my correspondents that this is the case. 
 One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and they 
 themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with 
 the Chinese. The women of a wild tribe of Malays in 
 the Malacca peninsula, sometimes shed tears when they 
 laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the 
 Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at 
 least with the women, for I hear from the Eajah C. 
 Brooke that it is a common expression with them 
 to say "we nearly made tears from laughter." The 
 aborigines of Australia express their emotions freely, and 
 they are described by my correspondents as jumping 
 about and clapping their hands for joy, and as often 
 roaring with laughter. INTo less than four observers 
 have seen their eyes freely watering on such occasions ; 
 and in one instance the tears rolled down their cheeks. 
 Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Victoria, 
 remarks, " that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous ; 
 " they are excellent mimics, and when one of them is 
 " able to imitate the peculiarities of some absent 
 " member of the tribe, it is very common to hear all in 
 "the camp convulsed with laughter." With Euro- 
 peans hardly anything excites laughter so easily as 
 mimicry ; and it is rather curious to find the same fact 
 with the savages of Australia, who constitute one of 
 the most distinct races in the world. 
 
 In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, espe- 
 cially with the women, their eyes often fill with tears 
 during laughter. Gaika, the brother of the chief 
 Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the 
 words, " Yes, that is their common practice." Sir 
 Andrew Smith has seen the painted face of a Hottentot * 
 woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter. 
 In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are 
 iq 
 
210 
 
 EXPRESSION OF JOY: 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 secreted under the same circumstances. Lastly, in 
 North America, the same fact has been observed in a 
 remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly with 
 the women ; in another tribe it was observed only on 
 a single occasion. 
 
 Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates 
 into moderate laughter. In this latter case the muscles 
 round the eyes are much less contracted, and there is 
 little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh and a 
 broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting 
 that in smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a 
 single rather strong expiration, or slight noise — a rudi- 
 ment of a laugh — may often be heard at the com- 
 mencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling 
 countenance the contraction of the upper orbicular 
 muscles can still just be traced by a slight lowering of 
 the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular 
 and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown 
 by the wrinkling of the lower eyelids and of the skin 
 beneath them, together with a slight drawing up of 
 the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the 
 finest steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case 
 the features are moved in a much less degree, and 
 much more slowly, and the mouth is kept closed. 
 The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly 
 different in the two cases. We thus see that no abrupt 
 line of demarcation can be drawn between the move- 
 ment of the features during the most violent laughter 
 and a very faint smile. 16 
 
 A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage 
 in the development of a laugh. But a different and 
 more probable view may be suggested ; namely, that 
 the habit of uttering loud reiterated sounds from a 
 
 16 Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s. 99. 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 LAUGHTER. 
 
 211 
 
 sense of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the 
 corners of the mouth and of the upper lip, and to 
 the contraction of the orbicular muscles ; and that 
 now, through association and long-continued habit, 
 the same muscles are brought into slight play when- 
 ever any cause excites in us a feeling which, if 
 stronger, would have led to laughter ; and the result is 
 a smile. 
 
 Whether we look at laughter as the full development 
 of a smile, or, as is more probable, at a gentle smile as 
 the last trace of a habit, firmly fixed during many 
 generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we 
 can follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one 
 into the other. It is well known to those who have the 
 charge of young infants, that it is difficult to feel sure 
 when certain movements about their mouths are really 
 expressive ; that is, when they really smile. Hence I 
 carefully watched my own infant's. One of them at the 
 age of forty-five days, and being at the time in a happy 
 frame of mind, smiled ; that is, the corners of the mouth 
 were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became 
 decidedly bright. I observed the same thing on the 
 following day ; but on the third day the child was not 
 quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and this 
 renders it probable that the previous smiles were real. 
 Eight days subsequently and during the next succeeding 
 week, it was remarkable how his eyes brightened when- 
 ever he smiled, and his nose became at the same time 
 transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by 
 a little bleating noise, which perhaps represented a 
 laugh. At the age of 113 days these little noises, 1 
 which were always made during expiration, assumed a 
 slightly different character, and were more broken or 
 interrupted, as in sobbing; and this was certainly 
 incipient laughter. The change in tone seemed 
 
212 
 
 EXPRESSION OF HIGH SPIRITS. Chap. VIII, 
 
 to me at the time to be connected with the greater 
 lateral extension of the mouth as the smiles became 
 broader. 
 
 In a second infant the first real smile was observed 
 at about the same age, viz. forty-five days; and in a 
 third, at a somewhat earlier age. The second infant, 
 when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly 
 and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the 
 same age ; and even at this early age uttered noises 
 very like laughter. In this gradual acquirement, 
 by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in 
 some degree analogous to that of weeping. As practice 
 is requisite with the ordinary movements of the body, 
 such as walking, so i£ seems to be with laughing and 
 weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand, 
 from being of service to infants, has become finely 
 developed from the earliest days. 
 
 High spirits, cheerfulness. — A man in high spirits, 
 though he may not actually smile, commonly exhibits 
 some tendency to the retraction of the corners of his 
 mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the circula- 
 tion becomes more rapid; the eyes are" bright, and the 
 colour of the face rises. The brain, being stimu- 
 lated by the increased flow of blood, reacts on the 
 mental powers ; lively ideas pass still more rapidly 
 through the mind, and the affections are warmed. I 
 heard a child, a little under four years old, when 
 asked what was meant by being in good spirits, answer, 
 " It is laughing, talking, and kissing:" It would 
 • be difficult to give a truer and more practical defini- 
 tion. A man in this state holds his body erect, his 
 head upright, and his eyes open. There is no droop- 
 ing of the features, and no contraction of the eye- 
 brows. On the contrary, the frontal rnuscle, as Moreau 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF HIGH SPIRITS. 
 
 213 
 
 observes, 17 tends to contract slightly ; and this smooths 
 the brow, removes every trace of a frown, arches the eye- 
 brows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the Latin 
 phrase, exporrigere frontem — to nn wrinkle the brow — 
 means, to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of 
 a man in good spirits is exactly the opposite of that of one 
 suffering from sorrow. According to Sir C. Bell, " In 
 " all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, 
 " the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. 
 " In the depressing passions it is the reverse." Under 
 the influence of the latter the brow is heavy, the eye- 
 lids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop ; the eyes 
 are dull ; the countenance pallid, and the respiration 
 slow. In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens. 
 Whether the principle of antithesis has here come into 
 play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of 
 the direct causes which have been specified and which 
 are sufficiently plain, I will not pretend to say. 
 
 With all the races of man the expression of good 
 spirits appears to be the same, and is easily recognised. 
 My informants, from various parts of the Old and New 
 Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on 
 this head, and they give some particulars with respect to 
 Hindoos, Malays, and New Zealanders. The brightness 
 of the eyes of the Australians has struck four observers, 
 and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New 
 Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo. 
 
 Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only 
 by smiling, but by gestures derived from the pleasure 
 of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood 18 quotes Petherick 
 
 17 ' La Physionomie/ par G. Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. iv. p. 224. 
 See, also, Sir 0. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 172, for the quota- 
 tion given below. 
 
 18 A ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, Introduc- 
 tion, p. xliv. 
 
214 
 
 EXPKESSION OF HIGH SPIRITS. Chap. VIII. 
 
 that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general 
 rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads ; 
 and Leichhardt says that the Australians smacked and 
 clacked their mouths at the sight of his horses and 
 bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs. 
 The Greenlanders, "when they affirm anything with 
 " pleasure, suck down air with a certain sound ;" 19 and 
 this may be an imitation of the act of swallowing 
 savoury food. 
 
 Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the 
 orbicular muscles of the mouth, which prevents the great 
 zygomatic and other muscles from drawing the lips 
 backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also some- 
 times held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish 
 expression to the face, as was observed with the blind 
 and deaf Laura Bridgman. 20 The great zygomatic 
 muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have 
 seen a young woman in whom the depressor es anguli oris 
 were brought into strong action in suppressing a smile ; 
 but this by no means gave to her countenance a melan- 
 choly expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes. 
 
 Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner 
 to conceal or mask some other state of mind, even 
 anger. We often see persons laughing in order to conceal 
 their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his 
 mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though 
 there is nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its 
 free indulgence, an affected, solemn, or pedantic expres- 
 sion is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing 
 more need here be said. In the case of derision, a real 
 or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the 
 expression proper to contempt, and this may pass into 
 
 19 Crantz, quoted by Tylor, ' Primitive Culture,' 1871. vol. i. 
 p. 169. 
 
 20 F. Lieber, ' Smithsonian Contributions/ 1851, vol. ii. p. 7. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 2 1 5 
 
 angry contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning 
 of the laugh or smile is to show the offending person 
 that he excites only amusement. 
 
 Love, tender feelings, dfcc. — Although the emotion of 
 love, for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one 
 of the strongest of which the mind is capable, it can 
 hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar means of 
 expression ; and this is intelligible, as it has not habi- 
 tually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as 
 affection is a pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a 
 gentle smile and some brightening of the eyes. A 
 strong desire to touch the beloved person is commonly 
 felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly 
 than by any other. 21 Hence we long to clasp in our 
 arms those whom we tenderly love. We probably owe 
 this desire to inherited habit, in association with the 
 nursing and tending of our children, and with the mutual 
 caresses of lovers. 
 
 With the lower animals we see the same principle of 
 pleasure derived from contact in association with love. 
 Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure in rubbing 
 against their masters and mistresses, and in being 
 rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, 
 as I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological 
 Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled by 
 each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. 
 Mr. Bartlett has described to me the behaviour of two 
 chimpanzees, rather older animals than those generally 
 imported into this country, when they were first brought 
 together. They sat opposite, touching each other with 
 their much protruded lips ; and the one put his hand on 
 the shoulder of the other. They then mutually folded 
 
 21 Mr. Bain remarks (' Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 239), 
 u Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose 
 " effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace." 
 
216 
 
 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 
 
 CiiAr.. VIII. 
 
 each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood up, 
 each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted 
 n p their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with 
 delight. 
 
 We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a 
 mark of affection, that it might be thought to be innate 
 in mankind ; but this is not the case. Steele was mis- 
 taken when he said " Nature was its author, and it 
 " began with the first courtship." Jemmy Button, the 
 Fuegian, told me that this practice was unknown in his 
 land. It is equally unknown with the New Zealanders, 
 Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and 
 the Esquimaux. 22 But it is so far innate or natural 
 that it apparently depends on pleasure from close 
 contact with a beloved person; and it is replaced in 
 various parts of the w 7 orld, by the rubbing of noses, as 
 with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rub- 
 bing or patting of the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by 
 one man striking his own face with the hands or feet of 
 another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark 
 of affection, on various parts of the body may depend 
 on the same principle. 23 
 
 The feelings which are called tender are difficult to 
 analyse ; they seem to be compounded of affection, joy, 
 and especially of sympathy. These feelings are in 
 themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity 
 is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tor- 
 tured man or animal. They are remarkable under our 
 present point of view from so readily exciting the secre- 
 tion of tears. Many a father and son have wept on 
 
 22 Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times/ 2nd edit. 1869, p. 552, gives 
 full authorities for these statements. The quotation from Steele is 
 taken from this work. 
 
 23 See a full account, with references, by E. B. Tylor, ' Researches 
 into the Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51. 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 EXPKESSION OF LOVE, ETC 
 
 217 
 
 meeting after a long separation, especially if the meet- 
 ing has been unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by 
 itself tends to act on the lacrymal glands ; but on 
 such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the 
 grief which would have been felt had the father and 
 son never met, will probably have passed through their 
 minds; and grief naturally leads to the secretion of 
 tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses : — 
 
 " Telemachus 
 Rose, and clung weeping round his father's breast. 
 There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus. 
 
 Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest, 
 And on their weepings had gone down the day, 
 But that at last Telemachus found words to say." 
 
 Worsley's Translation of the Odyssey, 
 
 Book xvi. st. 27. 
 
 So again when Penelope at last recognised her hus- 
 band : — 
 
 " Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start 
 And she ran to him from her place, and threw 
 Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew 
 Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake :" 
 
 Book xxiii. st. 27. 
 
 The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long- 
 past happy days, readily causes the eyes to be suffused 
 with tears; but here, again, the thought naturally 
 occurs that these days will never return. In such cases 
 we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our 
 present, in comparison with our former, state. Sym- 
 pathy with the distresses of others, even with the 
 imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, 
 for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So 
 does sympathy with the happiness of others, as with 
 that of a lover, at last successful alter many hard trials 
 in a well-told tale. 
 
218 
 
 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. VIII. 
 
 Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct 
 emotion ; and it is especially apt to excite the lacrymal 
 glands. This holds good whether we give or receive 
 sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily 
 children burst out crying if we pity, them for some 
 small hurt. With the melancholic insane, as Dr. 
 Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often 
 plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we 
 express our pity for the grief of a friend, tears often 
 come into our own eyes. The feeling of sympathy is 
 commonly explained by assuming that, when we see or 
 hear of suffering in another, the idea of suffering is 
 called up so vividly in our own minds that we ourselves 
 suffer. But this explanation is hardly sufficient, for it 
 does not account for the intimate alliance between sym- 
 pathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far 
 more deeply with a beloved than with an indifferent 
 person ; and the sympathy of the one gives us far 
 more relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly 
 we can sympathize with those for whom we feel no 
 affection. 
 
 Why suffering, when actually experienced by our- 
 selves, excites weeping, has been discussed in a former 
 chapter. With respect to joy, its natural and universal 
 expression is laughter ; and with all the races of man 
 loud laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely 
 than does any other cause excepting distress. The suf- 
 fusion of the eyes with tears, which undoubtedly occurs 
 under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as it 
 seems to me, be explained through habit and associa- 
 tion on the same principles as the effusion of tears from 
 grief, although there is no screaming. Nevertheless it 
 is not a little remarkable that sympathy with the dis- 
 tresses of others should excite tears more freely than 
 our own distress ; and this certainly is the case. Many 
 
Chap. VIII. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 
 
 219 
 
 a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could 
 wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a 
 beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that sym- 
 pathy with the happiness or good fortune of those whom 
 we tenderly love should lead to the same result, whilst 
 a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our 
 eyes dry. We should, however, bear in mind that the 
 long-continued habit of restraint which is so powerful 
 in checking the free flow of tears from bodily pain, has 
 not been brought into play in preventing a moderate 
 effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or 
 happiness of others. 
 
 Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere 
 attempted to show, 24 of recalling in a vague and inde- 
 finite manner, those strong emotions which were felt 
 during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early 
 progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal 
 tones. And as several of our strongest emotions — grief, 
 great joy, love, and sympathy — lead to the free secre- 
 tion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be 
 apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, 
 especially when we are already softened by any of the 
 tenderer feelings. Music often produces another pecu- 
 liar effect. We know that every strong sensation, 
 emotion, or excitement — extreme pain, rage, terror, 
 joy, or the passion of love — all have a special tendency 
 to cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or 
 slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs 
 of many persons when they are powerfully affected by 
 music, seems to bear the same relation to the above 
 trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears 
 from the power of music does to weeping from any 
 strong and real emotion. 
 
 M « The Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 336. 
 
220 
 
 EXPKESSION OF DEVOTION. Chap. VIII. 
 
 Devotion.. — As devotion is, in some degree,. related to 
 affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often 
 combined with fear, the expression of this state of mind 
 may here be briefly noticed. With some sects, both 
 past and present, religion and love have been strangely 
 combined ; and it has even been maintained, lamentable 
 as the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but 
 little from that which a man bestows on a woman, or a 
 woman on a man. 25 Devotion is chiefly expressed by 
 the face being directed towards the heavens, with the 
 eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the ap- 
 proach of sleep, or of a fainting-fit, or of death,, the 
 pupils are drawn upwards and inwards ; and he believes 
 that " when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and 
 " outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised 
 * by an action neither taught nor acquired ; " and that 
 this is due to the same cause as in the above cases. 26 
 That the eyes are upturned during sleep is, as I hear from 
 Professor Bonders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking 
 their mother's breast, this movement of the eyeballs 
 often gives to them an absurd appearance of ecstatic 
 delight ; and here it may be clearly perceived that a 
 struggle is going on against the position naturally 
 assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell's explanation of 
 the fact, which rests on the assumption that certain 
 muscles are more under the control of the will than 
 others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. 
 As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without 
 the mind being so much absorbed in thought as to 
 approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the movement 
 is probably a conventional one— the result of the 
 
 25 Dr. Maudsley has a discussion to this effect in his ' Body and 
 Mind,' 1870, p. 85. 
 
 26 « The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 103, and ' Philosophical Trans- 
 actions/ 1823, p. 182. 
 
Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. 
 
 221 
 
 common belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power 
 to which we pray, is seated above us. 
 
 A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned 
 and palms joined, appears to us, from long habit, a 
 gesture so appropriate to devotion, that it might be 
 thought to be innate ; but I have not met with any 
 evidence to this effect with the various extra-Euro- 
 pean races of mankind. During the classical period 
 of Eoman history it does not appear, as I hear from an 
 excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during 
 prayer. Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood has apparently 
 given 27 the true explanation, though this implies that 
 the attitude is one of slavish subjection. " When the 
 " suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the palms 
 "joined, he represents a captive who proves the com- 
 " pleteness of his submission by offering up his hands to 
 " be bound by the victor. It is the pictorial representa- 
 " tion of the Latin dare manus, to signify submission." 
 Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the 
 eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the influ- 
 ence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly express- 
 ive actions ; and this could hardly have been expected, 
 for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we 
 should now rank as devotional, affected the hearts of 
 men, whilst they remained during past ages in an 
 uncivilized condition. 
 
 27 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor ('Early 
 History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin 
 to the position of the hands during prayer. 
 
222 
 
 REFLECTION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Reflection —Meditation — Ill-temper — Sulkiness — 
 Determination. 
 
 The act of frowning — Reflection with an effort, or with the per- 
 ception of something difficult or disagreeable — Abstracted 
 meditation — Ill-temper — Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness 
 and pouting — Decision or determination — The firm closure of 
 the mouth. 
 
 The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eye- 
 brows and bring them together, producing vertical 
 furrows on the forehead — that is, a frown. Sir C. 
 Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was 
 peculiar to man, ranks it as " the most remarkable 
 " muscle of the human face. It knits the eyebrows with 
 " an energetic effort, which unaccountably, but irre- 
 " sistibly, conveys the idea of mind." Or, as he else- 
 where says, " when the eyebrows are knit, energy of 
 " mind is apparent, and there is the mingling of thought 
 " and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the 
 " mere animal." 1 There is much truth in these remarks, 
 
 1 ' Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 137, 139. It is not surprising that 
 the corrugators should have become much more developed in man 
 than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant 
 action by him under varibus circumstances, and will have been 
 strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have 
 seen how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in 
 protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during 
 violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly 
 and as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow, 
 the corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are 
 uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 REFLECTION. 
 
 223 
 
 but hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called 
 the corrugator the muscle of reflection ; 2 but this name, 
 without some limitation, cannot be considered as quite 
 correct. 
 
 A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, 
 and his brow will remain smooth until he encounters 
 some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is inter- 
 rupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes 
 like a shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may 
 think intently how to obtain food, but he probably 
 will not frown unless he encounters either in thought 
 or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained 
 nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone in- 
 stantly frowns if he perceives a strange or bad taste in 
 what he is eating. I asked several persons, without 
 explaining my object, to listen intently to a very gentle 
 tapping sound, the nature and source of which they 
 all perfectly knew, and not one frowned ; but a man 
 who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were 
 all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, 
 frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and 
 said he could not in the least understand what we all 
 wanted. Dr. Piderit, 3 who has published remarks to 
 the same effect, adds that stammerers generally frown 
 in speaking ; and that a man in doing even so trifling a 
 thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too 
 tight. Some persons are such habitual frowners, that 
 
 as a shade against a too strong light ; and this is effected partly by 
 the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially 
 serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads 
 erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes '/Archives of Medicine,' ed. by 
 L. Beale, 1S70, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into 
 action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for 
 proximity in vision. 
 
 2 ' Mecanisme de la Fhysionomie Humaine,' Album, Le'gende iii. 
 
 3 ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 46. 
 
REFLECTION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 the mere effort of speaking almost always causes their 
 brows to contract. 
 
 Men of all races frown when they are in any way 
 perplexed in thought, as I infer from the answers which 
 I have received to my queries; but I framed them 
 badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed 
 reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Aus- 
 tralians, Malays, Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa 
 frown, when they are puzzled. Dobritzhofler remarks 
 that the Gruaranies of South America on like occasions 
 knit their brows. 4 
 
 From these considerations, we may conclude that 
 frowning is not the expression of simple reflection, how- 
 ever profound, or of attention, however close, but of 
 something difficult or displeasing encountered in a train 
 of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, 
 seldom be long carried on without some difficulty, so 
 that it will generally be accompanied by a frown. Hence 
 it is that frowning commonly gives to the countenance, 
 as Sir C. Bell remarks, an asp.ct of intellectual energy. 
 But in order that this effect may be produced, the 
 eyes must be clear and steady, or they may be cast 
 downwards, as often occurs in deep thought. The 
 countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the 
 case of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who 
 shows the effects of prolonged suffering, with dulled 
 eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste 
 in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some 
 trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these 
 cases a frown may often be seen, but it will be accom- 
 panied by some other expression, which will entirely 
 prevent the countenance having an appearance of in- 
 tellectual energy or of profound thought. 
 
 4 1 History of the Abipones,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59, as quoted 
 by Lubbock, ' Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 355. 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 REFLECTION. 
 
 225 
 
 We may now inquire how it is that a frown should 
 express the perception of something difficult or dis- 
 agreeable, either in thought or action. In the same 
 way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the em- 
 bryological development of an organ in order fully to 
 understand its structure, so with the movements of ex- 
 pression it is advisable to follow as nearly as possible 
 the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression 
 seen during the first days of infancy, and then often 
 exhibited, is that displayed during the act of screaming ; 
 and screaming is excited, both at first and for some time 
 afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing sensation 
 and emotion, — by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &c. 
 At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly 
 contracted ; and this, as I believe, explains to a large 
 extent the act of frowning during the remainder of 
 our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, 
 from under the age of one week to that of two or 
 three months, and found that when a screaming-fit 
 came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction 
 of the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, 
 quickly followed by the contraction of the other 
 muscles round the eyes. When an infant is uncom- 
 fortable or unwell, little frowns — as I record in my 
 notes — may be seen incessantly passing like shadows 
 over its face ; these being generally, but not always, 
 followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For instance, I 
 watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight 
 weeks old, sucking some milk which was cold, and there- 
 fore displeasing to him ; and a steady little frown was 
 maintained all the time. This was never developed into 
 an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of 
 close approach could be observed. 
 
 As the habit of contracting the brows has been 
 followed by infants during innumerable generations, 
 
226 
 
 REFLECTION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 at the commencemeDt of every crying or screaming 
 fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient 
 sense of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence 
 under similar circumstances it would be apt to be 
 continued during maturity, although never then de- 
 veloped into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping 
 begins to be voluntarily restrained at an early period 
 of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at 
 any age. It is perhaps worth notice that with children 
 much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their 
 minds, and which would cause most other children 
 merely to frown, readily makes them weep. So with 
 certain classes of the insane, any effort of mind, however 
 slight, which with an habitual frowner would cause a 
 slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained 
 manner. It is not more surprising that the habit of 
 contracting the brows at the first perception of some- 
 thing distressing, although gained during infancy, should 
 be retained during the rest of our lives, than that many 
 other associated habits acquired at an early age should 
 be permanently retained both by man and the lower 
 animals. For instance, full-grown cats, when feeling 
 warm and comfortable, often retain the habit of alter- 
 nately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes, 
 which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst 
 sucking their mothers. 
 
 Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened 
 the habit of frowning, whenever the mind is intent on 
 any subject and encounters some difficulty. Vision is 
 the most important of all the senses, and during 
 primeval times the closest attention must have been 
 incessantly directed towards distant objects for the 
 sake of obtaining prey and avoiding danger. I re- 
 member being struck, whilst travelling in parts of 
 South America, which were dangerous from the presence 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 ^REFLECTION. 
 
 227 
 
 of Indians, how incessantly, yet as it appeared uncon- 
 sciously, the half-wild Gauchos closely scanned the 
 whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering 
 on his head (as must have been aboriginally the case 
 with mankind), strives to the utmost to distinguish 
 in broad daylight, and especially if the sky is bright, a 
 distant object, he almost invariably contracts his brows 
 to prevent the entrance of too much light ; the lower 
 eyelids, cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time 
 raised, so as to lessen the orifice of the eyes. I have 
 purposely asked several persons, young and old, to look, 
 under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making 
 them believe that I only wished to test the power of 
 their vision ; and they all behaved in the manner just „ 
 described. Some of them, also, put their open, flat 
 hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light. 
 Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the 
 same effect, 5 says, " Ce sont la des attitudes de vision 
 " difficile." He concludes that the muscles round the 
 eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too 
 much light (which appears to me the more important 
 end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina, 
 except those which come direct from the object that 
 is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this 
 point, thinks that the contraction of the surrounding 
 muscles may, in addition, " partly sustain the consensual 
 " movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer support 
 " while the globes are brought to binocular vision by 
 " their own proper muscles." 
 
 As the effort of viewing with care under a bright 
 light a distant object is both difficult and irksome, and 
 
 5 ' De la Physionomie,' pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert Spencer 
 accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting the 
 brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light : see ' Principles of 
 Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 340. 
 
228 
 
 MEDITATION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 as this effort has been habitually accompanied, during 
 numberless generations, by the contraction of the eye- 
 brows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much 
 strengthened; although it was originally practised 
 during infancy from a quite independent cause, namely, 
 as the first step in the protection of the eyes during 
 screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far 
 as the state of the mind is concerned, between intently 
 scrutinizing a distant object, and following out an ob- 
 scure train of thought, or performing some little and 
 troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the 
 habit of contracting the brows is continued when 
 there is no need whatever to exclude too much light, 
 receives support from the cases formerly alluded to, in 
 which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under 
 certain circumstances in a useless manner, from having 
 been similarly used, under analogous circumstances, 
 for a serviceable purpose. For instance, we voluntarily 
 close our eyes wheu we do not wish to see any object, 
 and we are apt to close them, when we reject a pro- 
 position, as if we could not or would not see it; or 
 when we think about something horrible. We raise 
 our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all round 
 us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly 
 desire to remember something ; acting as if w r e endea- 
 voured to see it. 
 
 Abstraction. Meditation. — When a person is lost in 
 thought with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes 
 said, " when he is in a brown study,'' he does not 
 frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids 
 are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner 
 as when a short-sighted person tries to distinguish a 
 distant object ; and- the upper orbicular muscles are at 
 the same time slightly contracted. The wrinkling of 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 MEDITATION. 
 
 229 
 
 the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been 
 observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy 
 with the Australians of Queensland, and several times 
 by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the interior of 
 Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action 
 may be, cannot at present be explained; but here we 
 have another instance of movement round the eyes in 
 relation to the state of the mind. 
 
 The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and 
 at once shows when a man is completely lost in thought. 
 Professor Donders has, with his usual kindness, investi- 
 gated this subject for me. He has observed others in 
 this condition, and has been himself observed by Pro- 
 fessor Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any 
 object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on some 
 distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes 
 even often become slightly divergent ; the divergence, 
 if the head be held vertically, with the plane of vision 
 horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. 
 This was ascertained by observing the crossed double 
 image of a distant object. When the head droops for- 
 ward, as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, 
 owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the 
 plane of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are neces- 
 sarily a little turned upwards, and then the divergence 
 is as much as 3°, or 3° 5' : if the eyes are turned still 
 more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. Pro- 
 fessor Donders attributes this divergence to the almost 
 complete relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which 
 would be apt to follow from the mind being wholly 
 absorbed. 6 The active condition of the muscles of the 
 
 6 Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), " Quand ^attention est 
 " fixes sur quelque image iuterieure, l'ocil regarde dans le vide et 
 " s'associe automatiquernent a, la contemplation dc Pesprit." But this 
 view hardly deserves to be called an explanation. 
 
230 
 
 ILL-TEMPER. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 eyes is that of convergence ; and Professor Donders re- 
 marks, as bearing on their divergence during a period of 
 complete abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind, 
 it almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates 
 outwards ; for its muscles are no longer used in moving 
 the eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision. 
 
 Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain 
 movements or gestures. At such times we commonly 
 raise our hands to our foreheads, mouths, or chins ; but 
 we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we are 
 quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. 
 Plautus, describing in one of his plays 7 a puzzled 
 man, says, " Now look, he has pillared his chin upon 
 " his hand." Even so trifling and apparently unmeaning 
 a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has 
 been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale 
 has seen it with the Kafirs of South Africa; and the 
 native chief Gaika adds, that men then "sometimes 
 " pull their beards." Mr. Washington Matthews, who 
 attended to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the 
 western regions of the United States, remarks that 
 he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts, 
 bring their " hands, usually the .thumb and index 
 " finger, in contact with some part of the face, com- 
 " monly the upper lip." We can understand why the 
 forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought 
 tries the brain ; but why the hand should be raised to 
 the mouth or face is far from clear. 
 
 El-temper. — We have seen that frowning is the 
 -natural expression of some difficulty encountered, or of 
 something disagreeable experienced either in thought or 
 action, and he whose mind is often and readily affected 
 
 7 < Miles Gloriosu3,' act ii. sc. 2. 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 ILL-TEMPER. 
 
 231 
 
 in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly 
 angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by 
 frowning. But a cross expression, due to a frown, may 
 be counteracted, if the mouth appears sweet, from being 
 habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright 
 and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and 
 steady, and there is the appearance of earnest reflec- 
 tion. Frowning, with some depression of the corners 
 of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of 
 peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2) 8 frowns 
 much whilst crying, but does not strongly contract in 
 the usual manner the orbicular muscles, a well-marked 
 expression of anger or even of rage, together with 
 misery, is displayed. 
 
 If the whole frowning brow be drawn much down- 
 ward by the contraction of the pyramidal muscles of 
 the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or folds 
 across the base of the nose, the expression becomes 
 one of moroseness. Duchenne believes that the con- 
 traction of this muscle, without any frowning, gives the 
 appearance of extreme and aggressive haitlness. 9 But 
 I much doubt whether this is a true or natural ex- 
 pression. I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a 
 young man, with this muscle strongly contracted by 
 means of galvanism, to eleven persons, including some 
 artists, and none of them could form an idea what 
 was intended, except one, a girl, who answered 
 correctly, " surly reserve." When I first looked at this 
 photograph, knowing w 7 hat was intended, my imagina- 
 tion added, as I believe, what was necessary, namely, 
 
 8 The original photograph by Ilerr Kindermann is much more 
 expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more 
 plainly. 
 
 9 ' Meeanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legendc iv. 
 figs. 16-18. 
 
232 
 
 SULKINESS. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 a frowning brow; and consequently the expression 
 appeared to me true and extremely morose. 
 
 A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and 
 frowning brow, gives determination to the expression, 
 or may make it obstinate and sullen. How it comes 
 that the firm closure of the mo ith gives the appear- 
 ance of determination will presently be discussed. An 
 expression of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recog- 
 nized by my informants, in the natives of six different 
 regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to 
 Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized 
 with the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in 
 a conspicuous degree, according to Dr. Kothrock, with 
 the wild Indians of North America, and according to 
 Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have 
 also observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili. 
 , Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of Australia, 
 when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms 
 across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen 
 with us. A firm determination, amounting to obsti- 
 nacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by both shoulders 
 being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will 
 be explained in the following chapter. 
 
 With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, 
 or, as it is sometimes called, "making a snout," 10 
 When the corners of the mouth are much depressed, 
 the lower lip is a little everted and protruded ; and 
 this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here re- 
 ferred to, consists of the protrusion of both lips into a 
 tubular form, sometimes to such an extent as to project 
 as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting 
 is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes 
 by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This 
 
 10 Hensleigk Wedgwood on ' The Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 78, 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 SULKINESS. 
 
 233 
 
 expression is remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far 
 as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly during 
 childhood, at least with Europeans, than during ma- 
 turity. There is, however, some tendency to the 
 protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races under 
 the influence of great rage. Some children pout when 
 they are shy, and they can then hardly be called 
 sulky. 
 
 From inquiries which I have made in several large 
 families, pouting does not seem very common with 
 European children; but it prevails throughout the 
 world, and must be both common and strongly marked 
 with most savage races, as it has caught the atten- 
 tion of many observers. It has been noticed in eight 
 different districts of Australia; and one of my in- 
 formants remarks how greatly the lips of the children 
 are then protruded. Two observers have seen pouting 
 with the children of Hindoos ; three, with those of the 
 Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with the 
 Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild 
 Indians of North America. Pouting has also been 
 observed with the Chinese. Abyssinians, Malays of 
 Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New 
 Zealanders. Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he 
 has seen the lips much protruded, not only with the 
 children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes 
 when sulky ; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed 
 the same thing with the men, and very frequently with 
 the women of New Zealand. A trace of the same 
 expression may occasionally be detected even with adult 
 Europeans. 
 
 We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, espe- 
 cially with young children, is characteristic of sulkiness 
 throughout the greater part of the world. This move- 
 ment apparently results from the retention, chiefly 
 11 
 
234 
 
 SULKINESS. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occa- 
 sional reversion to it. Young orangs and chimpanzees . 
 protrude their lips to an extraordinary degree, as 
 described in a former chapter, when they are dis- 
 contented, somewhat angry, or sulky ; also when they 
 are surprised, a little frightened, and even when 
 slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded appa- 
 rently for the sake of making the various noises proper 
 to these several states of mind ; and its shape, as I 
 observed with the chimpanzee, differed slightly when 
 the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered. 
 As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape 
 of the mouth wholly changes, and the teeth are ex- 
 posed. The adult orang when wounded is said to 
 emit "a singular cry, Consisting at first of high notes, 
 " which at length deepen into a low roar. While 
 " giving out the high notes he thrusts out his lips 
 " into a funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes 
 * he holds his mouth wide open." 11 With the gorilla, 
 the lower lip is said to be capable of great elonga- 
 tion. If then our semi-human progenitors protruded 
 their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same 
 manner as do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not 
 an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children 
 should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the 
 same expression, together with some tendency to utter 
 a noise. For it is not at all unusual for animals to 
 retain, more or less perfectly, during early youth, and 
 subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally 
 possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still 
 retained by distinct species, their near relations. 
 
 Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of 
 
 11 Miiller, as quoted by Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, 
 p. 38. 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 DECISION. 
 
 235 
 
 savages should exhibit a stronger tendency to protrude 
 their lips, when sulky, than the children of civilized 
 Europeans ; for the essence of savagery seems to consist 
 in the retention of a primordial condition, and this occa- 
 sionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities. 12 It 
 may be objected to this view of the origin of pouting, 
 that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips 
 when astonished and even when a little pleased ; whilst 
 with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky 
 frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter 
 that with men of various races surprise does sometimes 
 lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great 
 surprise or astonishment is more commonly shown by 
 the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile 
 or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we 
 have lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when 
 pleased, if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed 
 pleasure. 
 
 A little gesture made by sulky children may here be 
 noticed, namely, their " showing a cold shoulder." This 
 has a different meaning, as, I believe, from the keeping 
 both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its 
 parent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk 
 it away as if from a caress, and afterwards give a back- 
 ward push with it, as if to push away the offender. 
 I have seen a child, standing at some distance from 
 any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one 
 shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and 
 then turning away its whole body. 
 
 Decision or determination. — The firm closure of the 
 mouth tends to give an expression of determination 
 
 12 I have given several 'instances in my 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. 
 eliap. iv. 
 
236 
 
 DECISION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 or decision to the countenance. No determined man 
 probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence, 
 also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to 
 indicate that the mouth is not habitually and firmly 
 closed, is commonly thought to be characteristic of 
 feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any 
 kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous de- 
 termination ; and if it can be shown that the mouth 
 is generally closed with firmness before and during 
 a great and continued exertion of the muscular 
 system, then, through the principle of association, the 
 mouth would almost certainly be closed as soon as any 
 determined resolution was taken. Now several observers 
 have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent mus- 
 cular effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, 
 and then compresses it by the strong contraction of the 
 muscles of the chest ; and to effect this the mouth must 
 be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as the man is 
 compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as 
 much distended as possible. 
 
 Various causes have been assigned for this manner of 
 acting. Sir C. Bell maintains 13 that the chest is dis- 
 tended with air, and is kept distended at such times, in 
 order to give a fixed support to the muscles which, are 
 thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men 
 are engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence 
 prevails, broken only by hard stifled breathing. There 
 is silence, because to expel the air in the utterance of 
 any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles 
 of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle 
 to take place in the dark, we at once know that one 
 of the two has given up in despair. 
 
 Gratiolet admits 14 that when a man has to struggle 
 
 13 ' Anatomy of Expression,* p. 190. 
 
 14 'De la Physionoraie,' pp. 118-121. 
 
Chap. IX. 
 
 DECISION. 
 
 237 
 
 with another to his utmost, or has to support a great 
 weight, or to keep for a long time the same forced atti- 
 tude, it is necessary for him first to make a deep inspi- 
 ration, and then to cease breathing ; but he thinks that 
 Sir C. Bell's explanation is erroneous. He maintains 
 that arrested respiration retards the circulation of the 
 blood, of which I believe there is no doubt, and he 
 adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the 
 lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded 
 circulation is necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, 
 and, on the other hand, that a rapid circulation is neces- 
 sary for rapid movements. According to this view, when 
 we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths 
 and stop breathing, in order to retard the circulation of 
 the blood. Gratiolet sums up the subject by saying, 
 " C'est la la vraie theorie de l'effort continu ;" but how 
 far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I 
 do not know. 
 
 Dr. Piderit accounts 15 for the firm closure of the 
 mouth during strong muscular exertion, on the principle 
 that the influence of the will spreads to other muscles 
 besides those necessarily brought into action in making 
 any particular exertion ; and it is natural that the 
 muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so 
 habitually used, should be especially liable to be thus 
 acted on. It appears to me that there probably is some 
 truth in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth hard 
 together during violent exertion, and this is not re- 
 quisite to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the 
 chest are strongly contracted. 
 
 Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and 
 difficult operation, not requiring the exertion of any 
 strength, he nevertheless generally closes his mouth and 
 
 15 ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 79. 
 
238 
 
 DECISION. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 ceases tor a time to breathe ; but he acts thus in order 
 that the movements of his chest may not disturb those 
 of his arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a 
 needle, may be seen to compress his lips and either to 
 stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as possible. So 
 it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chim- 
 panzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its 
 knuckles, as they buzzed about on the window-panes. 
 To perform an action, however trifling, if difficult, implies 
 some amount of previous determination. 
 
 There appears nothing improbable in all the above 
 assigned causes having come into play in different 
 degrees, either conjointly or separately, on various occa- 
 sions. The result would be a well-established habit, 
 now perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at 
 the commencement of and during any violent and pro- 
 longed exertion, or any delicate operation. Through 
 the principle of association there would also be a strong 
 tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind 
 had resolved on any particular action or line of con- 
 duct, even before there was any bodily exertion, or if 
 none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure 
 of the mouth would thus come to show decision of 
 character ; and decision readily passes into obstinacy. 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 239 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 Hatred and Anger. 
 
 Hatred — Rage, effects of on the system — Uncovering of the teeth 
 — Rage in the insane — Anger and indignation — As expressed 
 by the various races of man — Sneering and defiance — The un- 
 covering of the canine tooth on one side of the face. 
 
 If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful 
 injury from a man, or if he is in any way offensive to 
 us, we dislike him ; and dislike easily rises into hatred. 
 Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are 
 not clearly expressed by any movement of the body 
 or features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity 
 of behaviour, or by some ill-temper. Few individuals, 
 however, can long reflect about a hated person, without 
 fe ding and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. 
 But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we 
 experience merely disdain or contempt. If, on the 
 other hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into 
 terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or 
 a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity. 1 Most 
 of our emotions are so closely connected with their ex- 
 pression, that they hardly exist if the body remains 
 passive — the nature of the expression depending in 
 chief part on the nature of the actions which have 
 been habitually performed under this particular state of 
 the mind. A man, for instance, may know that his life 
 is in the extremest peril, and may strongly desire to 
 
 1 See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, ' The Emotions and 
 the Will/ 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127. 
 
240 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 save it ; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by 
 a fierce mob, " Am I afraid ? feel my pulse." So a man 
 may intensely hate another, but until his bodily frame 
 is affected, he cannot be said to be enraged. 
 
 Rage. — I have already had occasion to treat of this 
 emotion in the third chapter, when discussing the direct 
 influence of the excited sensorium on the body, in com- 
 bination with the effects of habitually associated actions. 
 Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner. 
 The heart and circulation are always affected ; the face 
 reddens or becomes purple, with tiie veins on the fore- 
 head and neck distended. The reddening of the skin 
 has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians 
 of South America, 2 and even, as it is said, on the white 
 cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes. 3 Monkeys 
 also redden from passion. With one of my own infants, 
 under four months old, I repeatedly observed that the 
 first symptom of an approaching passion was the rushing 
 of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, 
 the action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by 
 great rage, that the countenance becomes pallid or livid, 4 
 and not a few men with heart-disease have dropped 
 down dead under this powerful emotion. 
 
 The respiration is likewise affected ; the chest heaves, 
 and the dilated nostrils quiver. 5 As Tennyson writes, 
 " sharp breaths of anger puffed her fairy nostrils oat." 
 
 2 Rengger, Naturgesch. der S'augethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s. 3. 
 
 3 Sir 0. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 96. On the other hand, 
 Dr. Burgess (* Physiology of Blushing/ 1839, p. 31) speaks of the 
 reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a hlush. 
 
 4 Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the face under 
 the influence of intense passion : see the edit, of 1820 of Lavater, vol. 
 iv. pp. 282 and 300 ; and Gratiolet, 4 De la Physionomie,' p. 345. 
 
 5 Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 91, 107) has fully dis- 
 cussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit, of 1820 of • La 
 Physionomie, par G. Lavater,' vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal in 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 241 
 
 Hence we have such expressions as " breathing out ven- 
 " geance," and " fuming with anger." 6 
 
 The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and 
 at the same time energy to the will. The body is com- 
 monly held erect ready for instant action, but sometimes 
 it is bent forward towards the offending person, with 
 the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally 
 closed with firmness, showing fixed determination, and 
 the teeth are clenched or ground together. Such 
 gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists 
 clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few 
 men in a great passion, and telling some one to begone, 
 can resist acting as if they intended to strike or push 
 the man violently away. The desire, indeed, to strike 
 often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate 
 objects are struck or dashed to the ground ; but the 
 gestures frequently become altogether purposeless or 
 frantic. Young children, when in a violent rage roll 
 on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming, 
 kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. 
 So it is, as I hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children ; 
 and, as we have seen, with the young of the anthropo- 
 morphous apes. 
 
 But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly 
 different way ; for trembling is a frequent consequence 
 
 confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded 
 nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of 
 the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (' Mimik und 
 Physiognomik,' s 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to allow 
 free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched, 
 does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who 
 attributes it to the sympathy (i.e. habitual co-action) of all the 
 respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to 
 become dilated, although his mouth is open. 
 
 6 Mr. Wedgwood, * On the Origin of Language,' 1SGG, p. 76. He 
 .Jso observes that the sound of hard breathing " is represented by the 
 " syllables puff, huff, whiff, whence a huff is a fit of ill-temper." 
 
242 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 of extreme rage. The paralysed lips then refuse to obey 
 the will, " and the voice sticks in the throat ;" 7 or it 
 is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be 
 much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair 
 sometimes bristles ; but I shall return to this subject 
 in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled emo- 
 tions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a 
 strongly-marked frown on the forehead ; for this follows 
 from the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, 
 together with concentration of mind. But sometimes 
 the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, 
 remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely 
 open. The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer 
 expresses it, glisten with fire. They are sometimes 
 bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their sockets — 
 the result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, 
 as shown by the veins being distended. According to 
 Gratiolet, 8 the pupils are always contracted in rage, and 
 I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case 
 in the fierce delirium of meningitis ; but the movements 
 of the iris under the influence of the different emotions 
 is a very obscure subject. 
 
 Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage 
 as follows : — 
 
 " In peace there's nothing so becomes a man, 
 
 As modest stillness and humility ; 
 
 But when the blast of war blows in our ears, 
 
 Then imitate the action of the tiger : 
 
 Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, 
 
 Then lend the eye a terrible aspect ; 
 
 Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide, 
 
 Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit 
 
 To his full height ! On, on, you noblest English." 
 
 Eenry V., act iii. sc. 1. 
 
 7 Sir 0. Bell (* Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95) has some excellent 
 remarks on the expression of rage. 
 * ' De la Physionomie,' 18d5, p. 346. 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 243 
 
 The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a 
 manner, the meaning of which I do not understand, 
 unless it depends on our descent from some ape-like 
 animal. Instances have been observed, not only with 
 Europeans, but with the Australians and Hindoos. 
 The lips, however, are much more commonly retracted, 
 the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed. 
 This has been noticed by almost every one who has 
 written on expression. 9 The appearance is as if the 
 teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or tearing 
 an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting 
 in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning 
 expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so 
 has Gaika with the Kafirs of South America. Dickens, 10 
 in speaking of an atrocious murderer who had just been 
 caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes 
 " the people as jumping up one behind another, snarling 
 " with their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts.'' 
 Every one who has had much to do with young children 
 .must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when 
 in a passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in 
 young crocodiles, who snap their little jaws as soon as 
 they emerge from the egg. 
 
 A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips 
 appear sometimes to go together. A close observer says 
 
 9 Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 177. Gratiolet (De la 
 Phys. p. 369) says, '* les dents se de'couvrent, et imitent symbolique- 
 ".ment Taction de deVhirer et de mordre/' If, instead of using the vague 
 terra symboliquement, Gratiolet had said that the action was a remnant 
 of a habit acquired during primeval times when our semi-human pro- 
 genitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas and orangs at 
 the present day, he would have been more intelligible. Dr. Piderit 
 ('Mimik,' &c, s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the upper lip during 
 rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures, passion 
 is represented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes," frowning 
 forehead, and exposed grinning teeth. 
 
 10 1 Oliver Twist,' vol. iii. p. 245. 
 
244 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 that he has seen many instances of intense hatred (which 
 can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less sup- 
 pressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English 
 woman. In all these cases there "was a grin, not a 
 " scowl — the lips lengthening, the cheeks settling 
 " downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow 
 " remained perfectly calm." 11 
 
 This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth 
 during paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, 
 is so remarkable, considering how seldom the teeth are 
 used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. 
 J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common 
 in the insane whose passions are unbridled. He informs 
 me that he has repeatedly observed it both with the 
 insane and idiotic, and has given me the following illus- 
 trations : — 
 
 Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an 
 uncontrollable outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy 
 in an insane lady. At first she vituperated her husband, 
 and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next she 
 approached close to him with compressed lips, and a 
 virulent set frown. Then she drew back her lips, espe- 
 cially the corners of the upper lip, and showed her teeth, 
 at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A 
 second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is 
 requested to conform to the rules of the establishment, 
 gives way to discontent, terminating in fury. He com- 
 monly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not 
 ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears 
 and blasphemes, paces up and down, tosses his arms 
 wildly about, and menaces any one near him. At last, 
 as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up towards 
 Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking 
 
 11 < The Spectator,' July 11, 1868, p. 819. 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 ANGEK. 
 
 245 
 
 his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his 
 upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at the 
 corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited. 
 He hisses forth his curses through his set teeth, and 
 his whole expression assumes the character of extreme 
 ferocity. A similar description is applicable to another 
 man, excepting that he generally foams at the mouth 
 and spits, dancing and jumping about in a strange rapid 
 manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a shrill fal- 
 setto voice. 
 
 Dr. Brown also informs me of the case of an epileptic 
 idiot, incapable of independent movements, and who 
 spends the whole day in playing with some toys ; but 
 his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness. 
 When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his 
 head from its habitual downward position, and fixes 
 his eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry scowl. 
 If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick 
 lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large 
 canines being especially noticeable), and then makes a 
 quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at the offend- 
 ing person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne 
 remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid 
 that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted 
 by any noise, to turn his head from one side to the 
 other. If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or 
 other article, be placed into his hands, he drags it to his 
 mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise described 
 to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are re- 
 tracted during paroxysms of rage. 
 
 Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal- 
 like traits in idiots, asks whether these are not clue to 
 the reappearance of primitive instincts — " a faint echo 
 " from a far-distant past, testifying to a kinship which 
 " man has almost outgrown." He adds, that as every 
 
246 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 human brain passes, in the course of its development, 
 through the same stages as those occurring in the lower 
 vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is in an 
 arrested condition, we may presume that it " will mani- 
 " fest its most primitive functions, and no higher 
 " functions." Dr. Maudsley thinks that the same view 
 may be extended to the brain in its degenerated con- 
 dition in some insane patients ; and asks, whence come 
 " the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the 
 " obscene language, the wild howl, the offensive habits, 
 " displayed by some of the insane ? Why should a 
 " human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so 
 " brutal in character, as some do, unless he has the 
 " brute nature within him?" 12 This question must, as 
 it would appear, be answered in the affirmative. 
 
 Anger, indignation. — These states of the mind differ 
 from rage only in degree, and there is no marked 
 distinction in their characteristic signs. Under moderate 
 anger the action of the heart is a little increased, the 
 colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The 
 respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the 
 muscles serving for this function act in association, 
 the wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised to allow 
 of a free indraught of air ; and this is a highly charac- 
 teristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly 
 compressed, and there is almost always a frown on 
 the brow. Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme 
 rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself 
 into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his 
 enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in 
 defiance., He carries his head erect, with his chest well 
 expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. 
 He holds his arms in various positions, with one or both 
 
 12 « Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 51-53. 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 247 
 
 elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by 
 his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly 
 clenched. 13 The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly 
 good representations of men simulating indignation. 
 Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine 
 that he has been insulted and demands an explanation 
 in an angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and uncon- 
 sciously throws himself into some such attitude. 
 
 Kage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly 
 the same manner throughout the world ; and the fol- 
 lowing descriptions may be worth giving as evidence of 
 this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing remarks. 
 There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching 
 the fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who 
 fight with their fists. With the Australians only one 
 of my informants has seen the fists clenched. All agree 
 about the body being held erect ; and all, with two ex- 
 ceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. 
 Some of them allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the 
 distended nostrils, and flashing eyes. According to the 
 Kev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the Australians, is expressed 
 by the lips being protruded, the eyes being widely open ; 
 and in the case of the women by their dancing about 
 and casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks 
 of the native men, when enrage rl, throwing their arms 
 wildly about. 
 
 I have received similar accounts, except as to the 
 clenching of the fists, in regard to the Malays of the 
 Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the natives of 
 South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of 
 
 13 Le Bran, in his well-known ' Conference sur l'Expression ' (' La 
 Physionomie, par Lavater,' edit, of 1820, vol. ix. p. 268), remarks that 
 anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists. See, to the same effect, 
 Huschke, ' Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum, 
 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, « Anatomy of Expression,' p. 219. 
 
248 
 
 ANGER. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 North America ; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they 
 then hold their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away 
 with long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, 
 when enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk 
 distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The 
 Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and 
 woman quarrelling, and made the following entry in 
 his note-book : " Eyes dilated, body swayed violently 
 " backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists 
 " clenched, now thrown behind the body, now directed 
 " towards each other's faces." Mr. Swinhoe says that 
 my description agrees with what he has seen of the 
 Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines 
 his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, 
 pours forth a volley of abuse. 
 
 Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. 
 Scott has sent me a full description of their gestures 
 and expression when enraged. Two low-caste Ben- 
 galees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, 
 but soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest 
 abuse on each other's relations and progenitors for 
 many generations past. Their gestures were very 
 different from those of Europeans; for though their 
 chests were expanded and shoulders squared, their arms 
 remained rigidly suspended, with the elbows turned 
 inwards and the hands alternately clenched and opened. 
 Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again 
 lowered. They looked fiercely at each other from under 
 their lowered and strongly wrinkled brows, and their 
 protruded lips were firmly closed. They approached 
 each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, 
 and pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This 
 protrusion of the head and body seems a common ges- 
 ture with the enraged ; and I have noticed it with 
 degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in 
 
Chap. X. SNEEKING AND DEFIANCE. 249 
 
 the streets. In such cases it may be presumed that 
 neither party expects to receive a blow from the other. 
 
 A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was 
 accused, in the presence of Mr. Scott, by the native 
 overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He listened 
 silently and scornfully to the accusation ; his attitude 
 erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, 
 eyes firmly set and penetrating. He then defiantly 
 maintained his innocence, with upraised and clenched 
 hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the 
 eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also 
 watched two jMechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their 
 share of payment. They soon got into a furious pas- 
 sion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their 
 heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each 
 other ; their shoulders were raised ; their arms rigidly 
 bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands spasmo- 
 dically closed, but not properly clenched. They con- 
 tinually approached and retreated from each other, and 
 often raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands 
 were open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott made 
 similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw 
 quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept their arms 
 rigid and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands 
 pushed somewhat backwards and partially closed, but 
 not clenched. 
 
 Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on 
 one side. — The expression which I wish here to consider 
 differs but little from that already described, when the 
 lips are retracted and the grinning teeth exposed. The 
 difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted 
 in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of 
 the face alone is shown ; the face itself being generally 
 a little upturned and half averted from the person 
 
250 
 
 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 causing offence. The other signs of rage are not neces- 
 sarily present. This expression may occasionally be 
 observed in a person who sneers at or defies another, 
 though there may be no real anger ; as when any one 
 is playfully accused of some fault, and answers, " I 
 " scorn the imputation." The expression is not a 
 common one, but I have seen it exhibited with perfect 
 distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by another 
 person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as 
 1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine 
 on one side. 14 Mr. Rejlander, without my having made 
 any allusion to the subject, asked me whether I had 
 ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck 
 by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig. 1) 
 a lady, who sometimes unintentionally displays the 
 canine on one side, and who can do so voluntarily with 
 unusual distinctness. 
 
 The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into 
 one of great ferocity when, together with a heavily 
 frowning brow and fierce eye, the canine tooth is exposed. 
 A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of some 
 misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to 
 his wrath in words, but it was plainly shown on his 
 countenance, sometimes by a defiant frown, and some- 
 times " by a thoroughly canine snarl." When this was 
 exhibited, " the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth; 
 " which happened in this case to be large and pro- 
 " jecting, was raised on the side of his accuser, a strong 
 " frown being still retained on the brow." Sir C. Bell 
 states 15 that the actor Cooke could express the most 
 determined hate "when with the oblique cast of his 
 
 14 Transact. Philosoph. Soc, Appendix, 1746, p. 65. 
 
 15 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131) the 
 muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles. 
 
jpi,it. 
 
\ 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 SNEERTNG AND DEFIANCE. 
 
 251 
 
 " eyes he drew up the outer part of the upper lip, and 
 " discovered a sharp angular tooth." 
 
 The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a 
 double movement. The angle or corner of the mouth 
 is drawn a little backwards, and at the same time a 
 muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws 
 up the outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the 
 canine on this side of the i'ace. The contraction of 
 this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and 
 produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at 
 its inner corner. The action is the same as that of 
 a snarling dog; and a clog when pretending to fight 
 often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that 
 facing his antagonist. Our word sneer is in fact the 
 same as snarl, which was originally snar, the I " being 
 merely an element implying continuance of action." 16 
 
 I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression 
 in what is called a derisive or sardonic smile. The*lips 
 are then kept joined or almost joined, but one corner 
 of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the de- 
 rided person ; and this drawing back of the corner is 
 part of a true sneer. Although some persons smile 
 more on one side of their face than on the other, it is 
 not easy to understand why in cases of derision the 
 smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to 
 one side. I have also on these occasions noticed a 
 slight twitching of the muscle which draws up the 
 outer part of the upper lip ; and this movement, if fully 
 carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and 
 would have produced a true sneer. 
 
 Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote 
 part of Gipps' Land, says, in answer to my query about 
 
 18 Hensleigh Wedgwood, ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 1865, 
 vol. iii. pp. 240, 243. 
 
252 
 
 SNEEEING- AND DEFIANCE. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 the uncovering of the canine on one side, " I find that 
 " the natives in snarling at each other speak with the 
 " teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a 
 " general angry expression of face; but they look direct 
 " at the person addressed." Three other observers in 
 Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer 
 my query on this head in the affirmative ; but as the 
 expression is rare, and as they enter into no details, 
 I am afraid of implicitly trusting them. It is, how- 
 ever, by no means improbable that this animal-like 
 expression may be more common with savages than 
 with civilized races. Mr. Geach is an observer who 
 may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on one 
 occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The 
 Rev. S. 0. • Glenie answers, " We have observed this 
 " expression with the natives of Ceylon, but not often." 
 Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it 
 with some wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining 
 the Atnahs. 
 
 Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised 
 on one side alone in sneering at or defying any one, I 
 do not know that this is always the case, for the face 
 is commonly half averted, and the expression is often 
 momentary. The movement being confined to one side 
 may not be an essential part of the expression, but may 
 depend on the proper muscles being incapable of move- 
 ment excepting on one side. I asked four persons to 
 endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner ; two could 
 expose the canine only on the left side, one only on the 
 right side, and the fourth on neither side. Neverthe- 
 less it is by no means certain that these same persons, 
 if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously 
 have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, which- 
 ever it might be, towards the offender. For we have 
 seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make their 
 
Chap. X. 
 
 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 
 
 253 
 
 eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when 
 affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of 
 distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the 
 canine on one side of the face being thus often wholly 
 lost, indicates that it is a rarely used and almost 
 abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man 
 should possess the power, or should exhibit any ten- 
 dency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never noticed 
 a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the 
 monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive 
 that the baboons, though furnished with great canines, 
 never act thus, but uncover all their teeth when feeling 
 savage and ready for an attack. Whether the adult 
 anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the 
 canines are much larger than in the females, uncover 
 them when prepared to fight, is not known. 
 
 The expression here considered, whether that of a 
 playful sneer or ferocious snarl, is one of the most 
 curious which occurs in man. It reveals his animal 
 descent ; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in 
 a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to 
 bite him, would try to use his canine teeth more than 
 his other teeth. We may readily believe from our 
 affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male 
 semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, 
 and men are now occasionally born having them of 
 unusually large size, with interspaces in the opposite 
 jaw for their reception. 17 We may further suspect, not- 
 withstanding that we have no support from analogy, 
 that our semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine 
 teeth when prepared for battle, as we still do when 
 feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering at or defy- 
 ing some one, without any intention of making a real 
 attack with our teeth. 
 
 17 ' The Descent of Man/ 1871, vol. i. p. 126. 
 
254 
 
 CONTEMPT. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 CHAPTER, XL 
 
 Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — Pride, etc. — 
 Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation and Negation. 
 
 Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed — Derisive smile 
 — Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust — Guilt, deceit, 
 pride, &c. — Helplessness or impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — 
 Shrugging the shoulders common to most of the races of man — 
 Signs of affirmation and negation. 
 
 Scokn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from 
 contempt, excepting that they imply a rather more angry 
 frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly distinguished 
 from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under 
 the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensa- 
 tion rather more distinct in its nature, and refers to 
 something revolting, primarily in relation to the sense 
 of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined ; 
 and secondarily to anything which causes a similar 
 feeling, through the sense of smell, touch, and even of 
 eyesight. Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is 
 often called loathing contempt, hardly differs from dis- 
 gust. These several conditions of the mind are, there- 
 fore, nearly related ; and each of them may be exhibited 
 in many different ways. Some writers have insisted 
 chiefly on one mode of expression, and others on a 
 different mode. From this circumstance M. Lemoine 
 has argued 1 that their descriptions are not trustworthy. 
 But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the 
 feelings which we have here to consider should be ex- 
 
 1 * De la Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, p. 89. 
 
jpi, r. 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 CONTEMPT. 
 
 255 
 
 pressed in many different ways, inasmuch as various 
 habitual actions serve equally well, through the prin- 
 ciple of association, for their expression. 
 
 Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, 
 may be displayed by a slight uncovering of the canine 
 tooth on one side of the face ; and this movement 
 appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or 
 the smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision ; 
 and this implies that the offender is so insignificant 
 that he excites only amusement; but the amusement 
 is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my 
 queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by 
 his countrymen, the Kafirs, by smiling ; and the Rajah 
 Brooke makes the same observation with respect to the 
 Dyaks of Borneo, As laughter is primarily the expres- 
 sion of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, 
 ever laugh in derision. 
 
 The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne 2 
 insists, or the turning away of the eyes or of the whole 
 body, are likewise highly expressive of disdain. These 
 actions seem to declare that the despised person is not 
 worth looking at, or is disagreeable to behold. The ac- 
 companying photograph (PJate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlan- 
 der, shows this form of disdain. It represents a young 
 lady, who is supposed to be tearing up the photograph 
 of a despised lover. 
 
 The mo^t common method of expressing contempt is 
 by movements about the nose, or round the mouth ; but 
 the latter movements, when strongly pronounced, indi- 
 cate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, 
 which apparently follows from the turning up of the 
 upper lip ; or the movement may be abbreviated into 
 
 2 4 Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende viii. p. 35. Gratiolet 
 also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of the eyes 
 and body. 
 
256 
 
 CONTEMPT. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often 
 slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage; 3 
 and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or 
 expiration. All these actions are the same with those 
 which we employ when we perceive an offensive odour, 
 and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as 
 Dr. Piderit remarks, 4 we protrude and raise both lips, 
 or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by 
 a valve, the nose being thus turned up. We seem 
 thus to say to the despised person that he smells offen- 
 sively, 5 in nearly the same manner as wo express to 
 him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our 
 faces, that he is not worth looking at. It must not, 
 however, be supposed that such ideas actually pass 
 through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but 
 as whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour 
 or seen a disagreeable sight, actions of this kind have 
 been performed, they have become habitual or fixed, 
 and are now employed under any analogous state of 
 mind. 
 
 Various odd little gestures likewise indicate con- 
 
 8 Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of Smell 
 (' Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' vol. liii. p. 268), shows that when we 
 wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal inspiration, 
 we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short snifTs. If " the 
 " nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that, so far 
 " from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The contraction 
 " does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the posterior 
 " portion." He then explains the cause of this movement. When, on 
 the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I pre- 
 sume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils. 
 
 * ' Mimik un 1 Physingnomik, ' ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. p. 155) 
 takes nearly the t-ame view with Dr. Piderit respecting the expression 
 of contempt and disgust. 
 
 Scorn implies a strong form of contempt ; and one of the roots oi 
 the word ' scorn ' mean3, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Diet, of English 
 Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned 
 is treated like dirt. 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 DISGUST. 
 
 257 
 
 tempt; for instance, snapping ones fingers. This, as 
 Mr. Tylor remarks, 6 " is not very intelligible as we 
 " generally see it ; but when we notice that the same 
 " sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object 
 " away between the finger and thumb, or the sign of 
 " flipping it away with the thumb-nail and forefinger, 
 " are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, 
 " denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it 
 " seems as though we had exaggerated and conven- 
 " tionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose 
 " sight of its original meaning. There is a curious 
 " mention of this gesture by Strabo." Mr. Washington 
 Matthews informs me that, with the Dakota IncHans of 
 North America, contempt is shown not only by move- 
 ments of the face, such as those** above described, but 
 "conventionally, by the hand being closed and held 
 " near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly 
 " extended, the hand is opened and the fingers sepa- 
 " rated from each other. If the person at whose ex- 
 " pense the sign is made is present, the hand is moved 
 " towards him, and the head sometimes averted from 
 * him." This sudden extension and opening of the 
 hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away 
 a valueless object. 
 
 The term ' disgust,' in its simplest sense, means some- 
 thing offensive to the taste. It is curious how readily 
 this feeling is excited by anything unusual in the 
 appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del 
 Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold pre- 
 served meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and 
 plainly showed utter disgust at its softness; whilst I 
 felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked 
 savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A 
 smear of soup on a man's beard looks disgusting, though 
 
 8 ' Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, i>. 45. 
 12 
 
"258 
 
 DISGUST. 
 
 Chap. XL 
 
 there is of course nothing disgusting in the soup itself. 
 I presume that this follows from the strong association 
 in our minds between the sight of food, however circum- 
 stanced, and the idea of eating it. 
 
 As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in con- 
 nection with the act of eating or tasting, it is natural 
 that its expression should consist chiefly in movements 
 round the mouth. But as disgust also causes annoyance, 
 it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by 
 gestures as if to push away or to guard oneself against 
 the offensive object. In the two photographs (figs. 2 
 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Kejlander has simulated this ex- 
 pression with some success. With respect to the face, 
 moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways ; by the 
 mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel 
 drop but ; by spitting ; by blowing out of the protruded 
 . lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such 
 guttural sounds are written ach or ugh ; and their utter- 
 ance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms 
 being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders raised 
 in the same manner as when horror is experienced. 7 
 Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the 
 mouth identical with those preparatory to the act of 
 vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper 
 lip strongly retracted, which w 7 rinkles the sides of the 
 nose, and with the lower lip protruded and everted as 
 much as possible. This latter movement requires the 
 contraction of the muscles which draw downwards the 
 corners of the mouth. 8 
 
 It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching 
 
 1 See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Introduction to 
 the ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. 
 
 8 Duchenne believes that in the e version of the lower lip, the corners 
 are drawn downwards by the depressores anguli oris. Henle (Hand- 
 buch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, 13. i. s. 151) concludes that this is 
 effected by the musculus quadratus menti. 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 DISGUST. 
 
 259 
 
 or actual vomiting is induced in some persons by the 
 mere idea of having partaken of any unusual food, as 
 of an animal which is not commonly eaten ; although 
 there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to 
 reject it. When vomiting results, as a reflex action, 
 from some real cause — as from too rich food, or tainted 
 meat, or from an emetic — it does not ensue immediate ly, 
 but generally after a considerable interval of time. 
 Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so 
 quickly and easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion 
 arises that our progenitors must formerly have had the 
 power (like that possessed by ruminants and some 
 other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which dis- 
 agreed with them, or which they thought would disagree 
 with them; and now, though this power has been 
 lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is called into 
 involuntary action, through the force of a formerly well- 
 e.tablished habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea 
 of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything 
 disgusting. This suspicion receives support from the 
 fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the 
 monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst 
 in perfect health, which looks as if the act were volun- 
 tary. We can see that as man is able to communicate 
 by language to his children and others, the knowledge 
 of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have 
 little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection ; 
 so that this power would tend to be lost through 
 disuse. 
 
 As the sense of smell is so intimately connected v th 
 that of taste, it is not surprising that an excess' ely 
 bad odour should excite retching or vomiting in some 
 persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting 
 food does ; and that, as a further consequence, a 
 moderately offensive odour should cause the various 
 
260 
 
 DISGUST. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 expressive movements of disgust. The tendency to 
 retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened 
 in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though 
 soon lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence 
 and by voluntary restraint. For instance, I wished to 
 clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not been suffi- 
 ciently macerated, and the smell ma rl e my servant and 
 myself (we not having had much experience in sucli 
 work) retch so violently, that we were compelled to 
 desist. During the previous days I had examined some 
 other skeletons, which smelt slightly ; yet the odour did 
 not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several 
 days, whenever I handled these same skeletons, they 
 made me retch. 
 
 From the answers received from my correspondents it 
 appears that the various movements, which have now 
 been described as expressing contempt and disgust, pre- 
 vail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Kothrock, 
 for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with 
 respect to certain wild Indian tribes of North America. 
 Crantz says that when a Greenlander denies anything 
 with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives 
 a slight sound through it. 9 Mr. Scott has sent me 
 a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo 
 at the sight of castor- oil, which he was compelled occa- 
 sionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the same 
 expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have 
 approached close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges 
 says that the Fuegians "express contempt by shooting 
 '* ut the lips and hissing through them, and by turning 
 " u A * the nose." The tendency either to snort through 
 the nose, or to make a noise expressed by ugh or ach, is 
 noticed by several of my correspondents. 
 
 Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt 
 
 9 As quoted by Tylor, ' Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 169. 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 DISGUST. 
 
 261 
 
 or disgust ; and spitting obviously represents the rejec- 
 tion of anything offensive from the mouth. Shakspeare 
 makes the Duke of Norfolk say, " I spit at him — call 
 " him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, 
 Falstaff says, " Tell thee what, Hal, — if I tell thee a 
 " lie, spit in my face." Leichhardt remarks that the 
 Australians " interrupted their speeches by spitting, and 
 " uttering a noise like pooh ! pooh ! apparently express- 
 " ive of their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks 
 of certain negroes " spitting with disgust upon the 
 " ground." 10 Captain Speedy informs me that this is 
 likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach 
 says that with the Malays of Malacca the expression 
 of disgust " answers to spitting from the mouth ; " and 
 with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges " to spit 
 " at one is the highest mark of contempt." 
 
 I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on 
 the face of one of my infants at the a*ge of five months, 
 when, for the first time, some cold water, and again 
 a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was 
 put into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and 
 whole mouth assuming a shape which allowed the 
 contents to run or fall quickly out ; the tongue being 
 likewise protruded. These movements were accom- 
 panied by a little shudder. It was all the more comical, 
 as I doubt whether the child felt real disgust — the eyes 
 and forehead expressing much surprise and considera- 
 tion. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty 
 object fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that 
 lolling out the tongue universally serves as a sign of 
 contempt and hatred. 11 
 
 10 Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, 1 On the 
 Origin of Language,' 186G, p. 75. 
 
 II This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist, of Mankind, 
 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and be adds, " it is not clear why this should 
 be so." 
 
262 
 
 GUILT. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and 
 disgust are expressed in many different ways, by move- 
 ments of the features, and by various gestures ; and that 
 these are the same throughout the world. They all 
 consist of actions representing the rejection or exclu- 
 sion of some real object which we dislike or abhor, but 
 which does not excite in us certain other strong emo- 
 tions, such as rage or terror ; and through the force of 
 habit and association similar actions are performed, 
 whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds. 
 
 Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, 
 Slyness, Guilt, Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, 
 (Sec. — It is doubtful whether the greater number of 
 the above complex states of mind are revealed by any 
 fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or 
 delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as lean- 
 faced, or Mack, or pale, and Jealousy as " the green-eyed 
 monster;" and when Spenser describes Suspicion as "foul, 
 ill-favoured, and grim," they must have felt this diffi- 
 culty. Nevertheless, the above feelings — at least many 
 of them — can be detected by the eye ; for instance, con- 
 ceit ; but we are often guided in a much greater degree 
 than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the per- 
 sons or circumstances. 
 
 My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the 
 affirmative to my query, whether the expression of guilt 
 and deceit can be recognised amongst the various races 
 of man ; and I have confidence in their answers, as they 
 generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognised. In 
 the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost 
 always referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid 
 looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen looks. The 
 eyes are said " to be turned askant," or " to waver from 
 " side to side," or " the eyelids to be lowered and partly 
 
Chap. XI. PRIDE. 2G3 
 
 44 closed." This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer 
 with respect to the Australians, and by Gaika with re- 
 spect to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes 
 apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of 
 blushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the 
 gaze of his accuser. I may add, that I have observed 
 a guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in some of 
 my own children at a very early age. In one instance 
 the expression was unmistakably clear in a child two 
 years and seven months old, and led to the detection 
 of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my 
 notes made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in 
 the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner, impossible to 
 describe. 
 
 Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by move- 
 ments about the eyes ; for these are less under the 
 control of the will, owing to the force of long-continued 
 habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. 
 Herbert Spencer remarks, 12 " When there is a desire to 
 " see something on one side of the visual field without 
 " being supposed to see it, the tendency is to check the 
 (i conspicuous movement of the head, and to make the 
 44 required adjustment entirely with the eyes ; which 
 44 are, therefore, drawn very much to one side. Hence, 
 44 when the eyes are turned to one side, while the face is 
 44 not turned to the same side, we get the natural 
 44 language of what is called slyness." 
 
 Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, per- 
 haps, is the most plainly expressed. A proud man 
 exhibits his sense of superiority over others by holding 
 his head and body erect. He is haughty (haut), or 
 high, and makes himself appear as large as possible ; so 
 that metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up 
 
 12 1 Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552. 
 
2G4 HELPLESSNESS : Chap. XI. 
 
 with pride. A peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about 
 with puffed-up feathers, is sometimes said to be an em- 
 blem of pride. 13 The arrogant man looks down on 
 others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to 
 see them ; or he may show his contempt by slight 
 movements, such as those before described, about the 
 nostrils or lips, Hence the muscle which everts the 
 lower lip has been called the musculus superbus. In 
 some photographs of patients affected by a monomania 
 of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton Browne, the head 
 and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly 
 closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, 
 follows, I presume, from the proud man feeling perfect 
 self-confidence in himself. The whole expression of 
 pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility ; so 
 that nothing need here be said of the latter state of 
 mind. 
 
 Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders. — 
 When a man wishes to show that he cannot do some- 
 thing, or prevent something being done, he often 
 raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At 
 the same time, if the whole gesture is completed, 
 he bends his elbows closely inwards, raises his open 
 hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers separated. 
 The head is often thrown a little on one side ; the 
 eyebrows are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across 
 the forehead. The mouth is generally opened. I may 
 mention, in order to show how unconsciously the fea- 
 tures are thus acted on, that though I had often inten- 
 tionally shrugged my shoulders to observe how my 
 
 13 Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and lias some 
 good observations on the expression of pride. Ste Sir 0. Bell (' Anatomy 
 of Expression,' p. Ill) on the action of the musculus superbus 
 
VI. 
 
2G4 
 
 with pride. A 
 with puffed-up 
 blem of pride, 
 others, and wit 
 see them ; or 
 movements, su 
 nostrils or lips 
 lower lip has 
 some photogra 
 of pride, sent 
 and body wer 
 closed. This 
 follows, I presu 
 self-confidence 
 pride stands in 
 that nothing r 
 mind. 
 
 Helplessness, 
 When a man \ 
 thing, or pre^ 
 raises with a 
 the same tim( 
 he bends his 
 hands, turning 
 The head is c 
 eyebrows are e 
 the forehead, 
 mention, in or< 
 tures are thus 
 tionally shrugs 
 
 13 Gratiolet (De 
 
 good observations c 
 of Expression,' p. 1 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 
 
 265 
 
 arms were placed, I was not at all aware that my eye- 
 brows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at 
 myself in a glass ; and since then I have noticed the 
 same movements in the faces of others. In the accom- 
 panying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has suc- 
 cessfully acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders. 
 
 Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the 
 men of most other European nations, and they shrug 
 their shoulders far less frequently and energetically than 
 Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all 
 degrees from the complex movement, just described, to 
 only a momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of 
 both shoulders ; or, as I have noticed in a lady sitting in 
 an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of 
 the open hands with separated fingers. I have never 
 seen very young English children shrug their shoulders, 
 but the following case was observed with care by a 
 medical professor and excellent observer, and has been 
 communicated to me by him. The father of this gen- 
 tleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. 
 His wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my 
 informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her 
 shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in 
 England, and the nursemaid is a thorough English- 
 woman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. 
 Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her 
 shoulders at the age of between sixteen and eighteen 
 months ; her mother exclaiming at the time, " Look at 
 " the little French girl shrugging her shoulders ! " At 
 first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head 
 a little backwards and on one side, but she did' not, as 
 far as was observed, move her elbows and hands in the 
 usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and 
 now, when she is a little over four years old, she is never 
 seen to act thus. The father is told that he sometimes 
 
266 
 
 HELPLESSNESS : 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with any- 
 one ; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter 
 should have imitated him at so early an age ; for, as he 
 remarks, she could not possibly have often seen this 
 gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit had been ac- 
 quired through imitation, it is not probable that it 
 would so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by 
 this child, and, as we shall immediately see, by a second 
 child, though the father still lived with his family. 
 This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian 
 grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. 
 She also presents another and very curious resemblance 
 to him, namely, by practising a singular trick. When 
 she impatiently wants something, she holds out her 
 little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the 
 index and middle finger: now this same trick was fre- 
 quently performed under the same circumstances by her 
 grandfather. 
 
 This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged 
 her shoulders before the age of eighteen months, and 
 afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of course pos- 
 sible that she may have imitated her elder sister ; but 
 she continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She 
 at first resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less 
 degree than did her sister at the same age, but now in a 
 greater degree. She likewise practises to the present 
 time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when im- 
 patient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers. 
 
 In this latter case we have a good instance, like those 
 given in a former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick 
 or gesture ; for no one, I presume, will attribute to mere 
 coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was com- 
 mon to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who 
 had never seen him. 
 
 Considering all the circumstances with reference to 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 
 
 267 
 
 these children shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly 
 be doubted that they have inherited the habit from 
 their French progenitors, although they have only one 
 quarter French blood in their veins, and although their 
 grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There 
 is nothing very unusual, though the fact is interesting, 
 in these children having gained by inheritance a habit 
 during early youth, and then discontinuing it ; for it is 
 of frequent occurrence with many kinds of animals that 
 certain characters are retained for a period by the 
 young, and are then lost. 
 
 As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a 
 high degree that so complex a gesture as shrugging 
 the shoulders, together with the accompanying move- 
 ments, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain 
 whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could 
 not have learnt the habit by imitation, practised it. 
 And I have heard, through Dr. Innes, from a lady who 
 has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her 
 shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in 
 the same manner as other people, and under the same 
 circumstances. I was also anxious to learn whether this 
 gesture was practised by the various races of man, espe- 
 cially by those who never have* had much intercourse 
 with Europeans. We shall see that they act in this 
 manner ; but it appears that the gesture is sometimes 
 confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders, 
 without the other movements. 
 
 Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the 
 Bengalees and Dhangars (the latter constituting a dis- 
 tinct race) who are employed in the Botanic Garden at 
 Calcutta ; when, for instance, they have declared that 
 they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy 
 weight. He ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree ; 
 but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a lateraJ 
 
268 
 
 HELPLESSNESS ! 
 
 Chap. XL 
 
 shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott know- 
 ing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and in- 
 sisted on his trying. His face now became pale, his 
 arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were 
 widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he looked 
 askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted 
 his elbows, extended his open hands, and with a few 
 quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability. 
 Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India 
 shrugging their shoulders ; but he has never seen the 
 elbows turned so much inwards as with us ; and whilst 
 shrugging their shoulders they sometimes lay their un- 
 crossed hands on their breasts. 
 
 With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and 
 with the Bugis(true Malays, though speaking a different 
 language), Mr. Geach has often seen this gesture. I 
 presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query 
 descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, 
 hands, and face, Mr. Geach remarks, " it is performed 
 " in a beautiful style." I have lost an extract from a 
 scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by 
 some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago 
 in the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy 
 informs me that the Abyssinians shrug their shoulders, 
 but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab 
 dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as describe 1 in 
 my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he 
 attended, would not go in the proper direction which 
 had been pointed out to him. 
 
 Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the 
 wild Indian tribes of the western parts of the United 
 States, "I have on a few occasions detected men using 
 " a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the demon- 
 " stration which you describe I have not witnessed." 
 Fritz Muller informs me that he has seen the negroes 
 
Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 
 
 269 
 
 in Brazil shrugging their shoulders ; but it is of course 
 possible that they may have learnt to do so by imitating 
 the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this ges- 
 ture with the Kafirs of South Africa ; and Gaika, judging 
 from his answer, did not even understand what was 
 meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also doubtful 
 about the Chinese ; but he has seen them, under the 
 circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, 
 press their right elbow against their side, raise their 
 eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm directed 
 towards the person addressed, and shake it from right 
 to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four 
 of my informants answer by a simple negative, and 
 one by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has 
 had excellent opportunities for observation on the 
 borders of the Colony of Victoria, also answers by a 
 " yes," adding that the gesture is performed " in a more 
 "subdued and less demonstrative manner than is the 
 " case with civilized nations." This circumstance may 
 account for its not having been noticed by four of my 
 informants. 
 
 These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the 
 hill-tribes of India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, 
 Arabs, Negroes, 'Indians of North America, and appa- 
 rently to the Australians — many of these natives having 
 had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans — are suffi- 
 cient to show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied 
 in some cases by the other proper movements, is a ges- 
 ture natural to mankind. 
 
 This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable 
 action on our own part, or one that we cannot perform ; 
 or an action performed by another person which we 
 cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, " It 
 " was not my fault ;" " It is impossible for me to grant 
 i( this favour ;" " He must follow his own course, I can- 
 
270 
 
 HELPLESSNESS t 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 " not stop him." Shrugging the shoulders likewise ex- 
 presses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist. 
 Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are some- 
 times called, as I have been informed by an artist, " the 
 " patience muscles." Shylock the Jew, says, 
 
 " Signor Antonio, many a time and oft 
 In the Rialto have you rated me 
 About my monies and usances ; 
 Still have I borne it with a patient shrug." 
 
 Merchant of Venice, act i. sc. 3. 
 
 Sir C. Bell has given 14 a life-like figure of a man, 
 who is shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is 
 on the point of screaming out in abject terror. He is 
 represented with his shoulders lifted up almost to his 
 ears ; and this at once declares that there is no thought 
 of resistance. 
 
 As shrugging the shoulders generally implies " I 
 " cannot do this or that," so by a slight change, it 
 sometimes implies " I won't do it." The movement 
 then expresses a dogged determination not to act. 
 Olmsted describes 15 an Indian in Texas as giving a 
 great shrug to his shoulders, when he was informed that 
 a party of men were Germans and not Americans, thus 
 expressing that he would have nothing to do with 
 them. Sulky and obstinate children may be seen 
 with both their shoulders raised high up; but this 
 movement is not associated with the others which 
 generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent ob- 
 server 16 in describing a young man who was deter- 
 mined not to yield to his father's desire, says, "He 
 " thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and 
 " set up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good 
 
 14 1 Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166. 
 
 15 ' Journey through Texas/ p. 352. 
 
 16 Mrs. Oliphaut, ' The Brownlows,' vol. ii. p. 206. 
 
Chap. XL 
 
 SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 
 
 271 
 
 " warning that, come right or wrong, this rock should 
 " fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would ; and 
 " that any remonstrance on the subject was purely 
 " futile." As soon as the son got his own way, he 
 " put his shoulders into their natural position." 
 
 Kesignation is sometimes shown by the open hands 
 being placed, one over the other, on the lower part of 
 the body. I should not have thought this little gesture 
 worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle re- 
 marked to me that he had two or three times observed 
 it in patients who were preparing for operations under 
 chloroform. They exhibited no great fear, but seemed 
 to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had 
 made up their minds, and were resigned to the inevi- 
 table. 
 
 We may now inquire why men in all parts of the 
 world when they feel, — whether or not they wish to 
 show this feeling, — that they cannot or will not do 
 something, or will not resist something if done by 
 another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often 
 bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their 
 hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads 
 a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening 
 their mouths. These states of the mind are either 
 simply passive, or show a determination not to act. 
 None of the above movements are of the least service. 
 The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the principle 
 of unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems 
 to come into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, 
 who, when feeling savage, puts himself in the proper 
 attitude for attacking and for making himself appear 
 terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate, 
 throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude, 
 though this is of no direct use to him. 
 
 Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, 
 
272 
 
 HELPLESSNESS : 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 and will not submit to some injury, holds his head erect, 
 squares his shoulders, and expands his chest. He often 
 clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the 
 proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles 
 of his limbs rigid. He frowns, — that is, he contracts 
 and lowers his brows, — and, being determined, closes 
 his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless man 
 are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. 
 In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the 
 left side to have just said, "What do you mean by 
 " insulting me?" and one of the figures on the right 
 side to answer, " I really could not help it." The help- 
 less man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his fore- 
 head which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, 
 and thus raises his eyebrows ; at the same time he re- 
 laxes the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw 
 drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail, not 
 only in the movements of the features, but in the position 
 of the limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may 
 be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless or 
 apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, 
 he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative manner. 
 
 In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows 
 and clenching the fists are gestures by no means uni- 
 versal with the men of all races, when they feel indig- 
 nant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it 
 appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is 
 expressed in many parts of the world by merely shrug- 
 ging "the shoulders, without turning inwards the elbows 
 and opening the hands. The man or child who is 
 obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great mis- 
 fortune, has in neither case any idea of resistance by 
 active means ; and he expresses this state of mind, by 
 simply keeping his shoulders raised ; or he may possibly 
 fold his arms across his breast. 
 
Chap. XL 
 
 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION, ETC. 
 
 273 
 
 Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or 
 disapproval: nodding and shaking the head. — I was 
 curious to ascertain how far the common signs used by 
 us in affirmation and negation were general throughout 
 the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent 
 expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of 
 approval with a smile to our children, when we approve 
 of their conduct ; and shake our heads laterally with a 
 frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the first act 
 of denial consists in ^refusing food ; and I repeatedly 
 noticed with my own infants, that they did so by 
 withdrawing their heads laterally from the breast, or 
 from anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting 
 food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their 
 heads forwards. Since making these observations I 
 have been informed that the same idea had occurred 
 to Charma. 17 It deserves notice that in accepting or 
 taking food, there is only a single movement forward, 
 and a single nod implies an affirmation. On the other 
 hand, in refusing food, especially if it be pressed on 
 them, children frequently move their heads several 
 times from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads 
 in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head 
 is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, 
 so that these movements might likewise come to serve 
 as signs of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this 
 subject, 18 that " when the voice is exerted with closed 
 " teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the letter n or 
 " m. Hence we may account for the use of the particle 
 " ne to signify negation, and possibly also of the Greek 
 " fjurj in the same sense." 
 
 17 1 Essai sur le Langage,' 2nd edit. 1846. I am much indebted to 
 Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an extract 
 from the work. 
 
 18 ' On the Origin of Language,' 18G6, p. 91. 
 
274 
 
 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least 
 with Anglo-Saxons, is rendered highly probable by the 
 blind and deaf Laura Bridgman "constantly accom- 
 " panying her yes with the common affirmative nod, 
 " and her no with our negative shake of the head." 
 Had not Mr. Lieber stated to the contrary, 19 I should 
 have imagined that these gestures might have beer, 
 acquired or .learnt by her, considering her wonderful 
 sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of 
 others. With microcephalous idiots, who are so de- 
 graded that they never learn to speak, one of them 
 is described by Vogt, 20 as answering, when asked 
 whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining 
 or shaking his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dis- 
 sertation on the education of the deaf and dumb, as well 
 as of children raised, only one degree above idiotcy, 
 assumes that they can always both make and under- 
 stand the common signs of affirmation and negation. 21 
 
 Nevertheless if wo look to the various races of man, 
 these signs are not so universally employed as I should 
 have expected ; yet they seem too general to be ranked 
 as altogether conventional or artificial. My informants 
 assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the 
 natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the 
 Guinea coast, and, according to Gaika, by the Kafirs of 
 South Africa, though with these latter people Mrs. 
 Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a nega- 
 tive. With respect to the Australians, seven observers 
 agree that a nod is given in affirmation ; five agree 
 about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or not 
 
 19 4 On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman Smithsonian Contribu- 
 tions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11. 
 
 20 * Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 27. 
 
 21 Quoted by Tylor, ' Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, 
 
 p. as. 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 AND NEGATION. 
 
 275 
 
 by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen 
 this latter sign in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says 
 that in Gipps' Land a negative is expressed by throwing 
 the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue. 
 At the northern extremity of the continent, near Torres 
 Straits, the natives when uttering a negative "don't 
 ' 4 shake the head with it, but holding up the right 
 " hand, shake it by turning it half round and back 
 " again two or three times." 22 The throwing back of 
 the head with a cluck of the tongue is said to be used 
 as a negative by the modern Greeks and Turks, the 
 latter people expressing yes by a movement like that 
 made by us when we shake our heads. 23 The Abys- 
 sinians, as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a 
 negative by jerking the head to the right shoulder, 
 together with a slight cluck, the mouth being closed ; 
 an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown 
 backwards and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The 
 Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I 
 hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say " yes," also 
 throw the head backwards. According to the Kajah 
 Brooke, the Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by 
 raising the eyebrows, and a negation by slightly con- 
 tracting them, together with a peculiar look from the 
 eyes. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. 
 Asa Gray concluded that nodding in affirmation was 
 rare, whilst shaking the head in negation was never 
 used, and was not even understood by them. With the 
 Esquimaux 24 a nod means yes and a wink no. The 
 New Zealanders " elevate the head and chin in place 
 " of nodding acquiescence." 25 
 
 22 Mr. J. B. Jukes, 4 Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p. 248. 
 
 23 F. Lieber, ' On the Yocal Sounds,' &c. p. 11. Tylor, ibid. p. 53. 
 
 24 Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313. 
 
 25 Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 53. 
 
.276 
 
 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from 
 inquiries made from experienced Europeans, and from 
 native gentlemen, that the signs of affirmation and 
 negation vary — a nod and a lateral shake being some- 
 times used as we do ; but a negative is more commonly 
 expressed by the head being thrown suddenly back- 
 wards and a little to one side, with a cluck of the 
 tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck 
 of the tongue, which has been observed with various 
 people, I cannot imagine. A native gentleman stated 
 that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being 
 thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend par- 
 ticularly to this point, and, after repeated observations, 
 he believes that a vertical nod is not commonly used 
 by the natives in affirmation, but that the head is first 
 thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then 
 jerked obliquely forwards only once. This movement 
 would perhaps have been described by a less careful 
 observer as a lateral shake. He also states that in 
 negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and 
 shaken several times. 
 
 Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their 
 heads vertically in affirmation, and shake them laterally 
 in denial. With the wild Indians of North America, 
 according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and 
 shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, 
 and are not naturally employed. They express affirma- 
 tion "by describing with the hand (all the fingers 
 " except the index being flexed) a curve downwards 
 " and outwards from the body, whilst negation is ex- 
 " pressed by moving the open hand outwards, with the 
 " palm facing inwards." Other observers state that 
 the sign of affirmation with these Indians is the fore- 
 finger being raised, and then lowered and pointed to the 
 ground, or the hand is waved straight forward from the 
 
Chap. XI. 
 
 AND NEGATION. 
 
 277 
 
 face ; and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole 
 hand shaken from side to side. 26 This latter movement 
 probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of 
 the head. The Italians are said in like manner to 
 move the lifted finger from right to left in negation, as 
 indeed we English sometimes do. 
 
 On the whole we find considerable diversity in the 
 signs of affirmation and negation in the different races 
 of man. With respect to negation, if we admit that 
 the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is 
 symbolic of the lateral movement of the head ; and if 
 we admit that the sudden backward movement of the 
 head represents one of the actions often practised by 
 young children in refusing food, then there is much 
 uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, 
 and we can see how they originated. The most marked 
 exceptions are presented by the Arabs, Esquimaux, 
 some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a 
 frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning 
 often accompanies a lateral shake of the head. 
 
 With respect to nodding in affirmation, the excep- 
 tions are rather more numerous, namely with some of 
 the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians, Dyaks, 
 Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are some- 
 times raised in affirmation, and as a person in bending 
 his head forwards and downwards naturally looks up 
 to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to 
 raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen 
 as an abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, 
 the lifting up the chin and head in affirmation may 
 perhaps represent in an abbreviated form the upward 
 movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards 
 and downwards. 
 
 26 Lubbock, ' TJie Origin of Civilization/ 1870, p. 277. Tylor, ibid, 
 p. 38. Liebcr (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of (he Italians. 
 
278 
 
 SURPRISE. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Surprise — Astonishment — Fear — Horror. 
 
 Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Opening 
 the mouth — Protrusion of the lips — Gestures accompanying 
 surprise — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection of the hair 
 — Contraction of the platysma muscle — Dilatation of the 
 pupils — Horror — Conclusion. 
 
 Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into sur- 
 prise ; and this into astonishment ; and tin's into 
 stupefied amazement. The latter frame of mind is 
 closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eye- 
 brows being slightly raised ; and as this state increases 
 ' into surprise, they are raised to a much greater extent, 
 with the eyes and mouth widely open. The raising of 
 the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should 
 be opened quickly and widely; and this movement 
 produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The 
 degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened corre- 
 sponds with the degree of surprise felt ; but these 
 movements must be co-ordinated ; for a widely opened 
 mouth with eyebrows only slightly raised results in a 
 meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has shown in 
 one of his photographs. 1 On the other hand, a person 
 may often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising 
 his eyebrows. 
 
 Dr. Duchenne lias given a photograph of an old 
 man with his eyebrows well elevated and arched by the 
 galvanization of the frontal muscle ; and with his 
 
 1 ' Me'canisme de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p. 42. 
 
Chap. Xli. 
 
 SURPRISE. 
 
 279 
 
 mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses sur- 
 prise with much truth. I showed it to twenty-four 
 persons without a word of explanation, and one alone 
 did not at all understand what was intended. A second 
 person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some 
 of the others, however, added to the words surprise or 
 astonishment, the epithets horrified, woful, painful, or 
 disgusted. 
 
 The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expres- 
 sion universally recognised as one of surprise or aston- 
 ishment. Thus Shakespeare says, " I saw a smith stand 
 " with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." ('King 
 John,' act iv. scene ii.) And again, "They seemed 
 " almost, with staring on one another, to tear the cases 
 " of their eyes ; there was speech in their dumbness, 
 " language in their very gesture ; they looked as they 
 "had heard of a world destroyed." (< Winter's Tale,' 
 act v. scene ii.) 
 
 My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to 
 the samB effect, with respect to the various races of 
 man ; the above movements of the features being often 
 accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently 
 to be described. Twelve observers in different parts of 
 Australia agree on this head. Mr. Winwood Eeade 
 has observed this expression with the negroes on the 
 Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer yes 
 to my query with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa ; 
 and so do others emphatically with reference' to the 
 Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various 
 tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With 
 the latter, Mr. Stack states that the expression is more 
 plainly shown by certain individuals than by others, 
 though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal 
 their feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the 
 Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely, when aston- 
 
280 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 ished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and beating 
 their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen 
 in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered 
 not to smoke; but they often disobey this order, and 
 when suddenly surprised in the act, they first open their 
 eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug 
 their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is in- 
 evitable, or frown and stamp on the ground from vexa- 
 tion. Soon they recover from their surprise, and abject 
 fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their muscles ; 
 their heads seem to sink between their shoulders ; their 
 fallen eyes wander to and fro ; and they supplicate 
 forgiveness. 
 
 The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has 
 given 2 a striking account of stupefied amazement 
 together with terror in a native who had never before 
 seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached 
 unseen and called to him from a little distance. " He 
 " turned round and saw me. What he imagined I 
 " was I do not know ; but a finer picture of fear and 
 " astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of 
 " moving a limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and 
 " eyes staring. . . . He remained motionless until our 
 " black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly 
 " throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga 
 " bush as high as he could get." He could not speak, 
 and answered not a word to the inquiries made by 
 the black, but, trembling from Jaead to foot, " waved 
 " with his hand for us to be off." 
 
 That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinc- 
 tive impulse may be inferred from the fact that Laura 
 Bridgman invariably acts thus when astonished, as I 
 have been assured by the lady who has lately had 
 
 2 'The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 281 
 
 charge of her. As surprise is excited by something 
 unexpected or unknown, we naturally desire, when 
 startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as possible; 
 and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the 
 field of vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved 
 easily in any direction. But this hardly accounts for 
 the eyebrows being so greatly raised as is the case, and 
 for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation 
 lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes 
 with great rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. 
 To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted energetically. 
 Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as 
 possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and 
 the energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes 
 so widely that they stare, the white being exposed all 
 round the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the eyebrows 
 is an advantage in looking upwards ; for as long as- they 
 are lowered they impede our vision in this direction. 
 Sir C. Bell gives 3 a curious little proof of the part 
 which the eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a 
 stupidly drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and 
 the eyelids consequently droop, in the same manner as 
 when we are falling asleep. To counteract this ten- 
 dency the drunkard raises his -eyebrows ; and this gives 
 to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented 
 in one of Hogarth's drawings. The habit of raising the 
 eyebrows having once been gained in order to see as 
 quickly as possible all around us, the movement would 
 follow from the force of association whenever astonish- 
 ment was felt from any cause, even from a sudden 
 sound or an idea. 
 
 With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, 
 the whole forehead becomes much wrinkled in traris- 
 
 8 ' Tl.c Anatomy of Expression,' p 106. 
 13 
 
282 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 verse lines ; but with children this occurs only to a slight 
 degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each 
 eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They 
 are highly characteristic of the expression of surprise 
 or astonishment. Each eyebrow, when raised, becomes 
 also, as Duchenne remarks, 4 more arched than it was 
 before. 
 
 The cause of the mouth being opened when astonish- 
 ment is felt, is a much more complex affair ; and several 
 causes apparently concur in leading to this movement. 
 It has often been supposed 5 that the sense of hearing 
 is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched 
 persons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature 
 and source of which they knew perfectly, and they 
 did not open their mouths. Therefore I at one time 
 imagined that the open mouth might aid in dis- 
 tinguishing the direction whence a sound proceeded, 
 by giving another channel for its entrance into the ear 
 through the eustachian tube. But Dr. W. Ogle 6 has 
 been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on 
 the functions of the eustachian tube ; and he informs 
 me that it is almost conclusively proved that it remains 
 closed except during the act of deglutition ; and that in 
 persons in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the 
 sense of hearing; as far as external sounds are con- 
 cerned, is by no means improved; on the contrary, it 
 is impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered 
 more distinct. If a watch be placed within the mouth, 
 but not allowed to touch the sides, the ticking is heard 
 much less plainly than when held outside. In persor.f, 
 
 4 ' Me'canisme de la Physionomie,' Album, p. 6. 
 
 5 See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (' Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 88), 
 who h is a good discu-sion on the expression of surprise. 
 
 6 Dr. Muiie has also given me information leading to the same con- 
 clusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 283 
 
 in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is 
 permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing 
 is injured ; but this may be accounted for by mucus 
 accumulating within the tube, and the consequent 
 exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the 
 mouth is not kept open under the sense of astonish- 
 ment for the sake of hearing sounds more distinctly ; 
 notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths 
 open. 
 
 Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, 
 quickens the action of the heart, and with it the 
 respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet remarks 7 
 and as appears to me to be the case, much more 
 quietly through the open mouth than through the 
 nostrils. Therefore, when we wish to listen intently to 
 any sound, we either stop breathing, or breathe as 
 quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same 
 time keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons 
 was awakened in the night by a noise under circum- 
 stances which naturally led to great care, and after a 
 few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely 
 open. He then became conscious that he had opened 
 it for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible. 
 This view receives support from the reversed case 
 which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after 
 exercise, or on a hot day, breathes loudly ; but if his 
 attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his 
 ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as 
 he is enabled to do, through his nostrils. 
 
 When the attention is concentrated for a length of * 
 time with fixed earnestness on any object or subject, 
 all the organs of the body are forgotten and neglected ; 8 
 
 7 ' De la Pbysionomie,' 18G5, p. 234. 
 
 8 See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254. 
 
284 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 and as the nervous energy of each individual is limited 
 in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the 
 system, excepting that which is at the time brought into 
 energetic action. Therefore many of the muscles tend 
 to become relaxed, and the jaw drops from its own 
 weight. This will account for the dropping of the jaw 
 and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, 
 and perhaps when less strongly affected. I have noticed 
 this appearance, as I find recorded in my notes, in very 
 young children when they were only moderately sur- 
 prised. 
 
 There is still another and highly effective cause, 
 leading to the mouth being opened, when we are 
 astonished, and more especially when we are suddenly 
 startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration 
 much more easily through the widely open mouth 
 than through the nostrils. Now when we start at any 
 sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the 
 bddy are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into 
 strong action, for the sake of guarding ourselves against 
 or jumping away from the danger, which we habitually 
 associate with anything unexpected. But we always 
 unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, 
 as formerly explained, by first taking a deep and full 
 inspiration, and we consequently open our mouths. If 
 no exertion follows, and we still remain astonished, we 
 cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as quietly as 
 possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly 
 heard. Or again, if our attention continues long and 
 earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and 
 the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened, remains 
 dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same 
 movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amaze- 
 ment is felt. 
 
 Although when thus affected, our mouths are gene- 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 285 
 
 rally opened, yet the lips are often a little protruded. 
 This fact reminds us of the same movement, though 
 in a much more strongly marked degree, in the chim- 
 panzee and orang when astonished. As . a strong ex- 
 piration naturally follows the deep inspiration which 
 accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as 
 the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which 
 are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted 
 for. But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard ; 
 thus Laura Bridgman, when" amazed, rounds and pro- 
 trudes her lips, opens them, and breathes strongly. 9 
 One of the commonest sounds is a deep Oh ; and this 
 would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from 
 the mouth being moderately opened and the lips pro- 
 truded. On a quiet night some rockets were fired 
 from the ' Beagle,' in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse 
 the natives ; and as each rocket was let off there was 
 absolute silence, but this was invariably followed by a 
 deep groaning Oh, resounding all round the bay. Mr. 
 Washington Matthews says that the North American 
 Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the 
 negroes on the West Coast of Africa, according to 
 Mr. Winwood Keade, protrude their lips, and make 
 a sound like heigh, heigh. If the mouth is not much 
 opened, whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a 
 blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is produced. Mr. 
 R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from 
 the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat 
 rapidly turning head over heels : " he was greatly 
 " astonished, and protruded his lips, making a noise 
 " with his mouth as if blowing out a match." Accord- 
 ing to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter 
 
 9 Lieber, ■ On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,' Smithsonian 
 Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7. 
 
286 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 the exclamation korki, "and to do this the mouth is 
 " drawn out as if going to whistle." We Europeans 
 often whistle as a sign of surprise ; thus, in a recent 
 novel 10 it is said, " here the man expressed his aston- 
 " ishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle." 
 A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, " on 
 " hearing of the high price of an article, raised her 
 " eyebrows and whistled just as a European would." 
 Mr. Wedgwood remarks that .such sounds are written 
 down as whew, and they serve as interjections for sur- 
 prise. 
 
 According to three other observers, the Australians 
 often evince astonishment by a clucking noise. Euro- 
 peans also sometimes express gentle surprise by a little 
 clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen 
 that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly 
 opened; and if the tongue happens to be then pressed 
 closely against the palate, its sudden withdrawal will 
 produce a sound of this kind, which might thus come 
 to express surprise. 
 
 Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person 
 often raises his opened hands high above his head, or by 
 bending his arms only to the level of his face. The flat 
 palms are directed towards the person who causes this 
 feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. 
 This gesture is represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate 
 VII. fig. 1. In the * Last Supper,' by Leonardo da Vinci, 
 two of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted, 
 clearly expressive of their astonishment. A trust- 
 worthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife , 
 under most unexpected circumstances : " She started, 
 " opened her mouth and eyes very widely, and threw 
 " up both her arms above her head." Several years 
 
 10 ' Wenderholrae,' vol. ii. p. 91. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 287 
 
 ago I was surprised by seeing several of my young 
 children earnestly doing something together on the 
 ground ; but the distance was too great for me to ask 
 what they were about. Therefore 1 threw up my open 
 hands with extended fingers above my head ; and as soon 
 as I had done this, I became conscious of the action. I 
 then waited, without saying a word, to see if my children 
 had understood this gesture ; and as they came running 
 to me they cried out, " We saw that you were astonished 
 '* at us." I do not know whether this gesture is common 
 to the various races of man, as I neglected to make 
 inquiries on this head. That it is innate or natural may 
 be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgrnan, when 
 amazed, " spreads her arms and turns her hands with 
 
 extended fingers upwards ; " 11 nor is it likely, con- 
 sidering that the feeling of surprise is generally a brief 
 one, that she should have learnt this gesture through 
 her keen sense of touch. 
 
 Huschke describes 12 a somewhat different yet allied 
 gesture, which he says is exhibited by persons when 
 astonished. They hold themselves erect, with the fea- 
 tures as before described, but with the straightened 
 arms extended backwards — the stretched fingers being 
 separated from each other. I have never myself seen 
 this gesture; but Huschke is probably correct; for a 
 friend asked another man how he would express great 
 astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this 
 attitude. 
 
 These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the prin- 
 
 11 Lieber, 1 On the Vocal Sounds,' &c, ibid. p. 7. 
 
 12 Huschke, 'Mimiees et Physiognomices/ 1821, p. 18. Gratiolet 
 (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this attitude, which, 
 however, seems to me expressive of fear combined witli astonishment. 
 Le lirun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 2D9; to the hands of an 
 astonished man being opened. 
 
288 
 
 ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 ciple of antithesis. We have seen that an indignant 
 man holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, turns 
 out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and closes 
 his mouth ; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in 
 every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an 
 ordinary frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of 
 nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms sus- 
 pended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat 
 flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to 
 raise the arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the 
 fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the 
 fingers, — or, again, to straighten the arms, extending 
 them backwards with separated fingers, — are move- 
 ments in complete antithesis to those preserved under 
 an indifferent frame of mind, and they are, in conse- 
 quence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man. 
 There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in a 
 conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well 
 fitted for this purpose. It may be asked why should 
 surprise, and only a few other states of the mind, be 
 exhibited by movements in antithesis to others. But 
 this principle will not be brought into play in the case 
 of those emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, 
 or rage, which naturally lead to certain lines of 
 action and produce certain effects on the body, for 
 the whole system is thus preoccupied ; and these 
 emotions are already thus expressed with the greatest 
 plainness. 
 
 There is another little gesture, expressive of astonish- 
 ment, of which I can offer no explanation; namely, the 
 hand being placed over the mouth or on some part of 
 the head. This has b?en observed with so many races 
 of man, that it must have some natural origin. A 
 wild Australian was taken into a large room full of 
 official papers, which surprised him greatly, and he 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 289 
 
 cried out, cluck, cluck, cluck, putting the back of his 
 hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs 
 and Fingoes express astonishment by a serious look and 
 by placing the right hand upon the mouth, uttering 
 the word mawo, which means ' wonderful.' The Bush- 
 men are said 13 to put their right hands to their necks, 
 bending their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade 
 has observed that the negroes on the West Coast of Africa, 
 when surprised, clap their hands to their mouths, saying 
 at the same time, " My mouth cleaves to me," t. e. to 
 my hands ; and he has heard that this is their usual 
 gesture on such occasions. Captain Speedy informs me 
 that the Abyssinians place their right hand to the fore- 
 head, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington 
 Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonish- 
 ment with the wild tribes of the western parts of the 
 United States " is made by placing the half-closed hand 
 " over the mouth ;' in doing this, the head is often bent 
 " forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes 
 " uttered." Catlin 14 makes the same remark about the 
 hand being pressed over the mouth by the Mandans 
 and other Indian tribes. 
 
 Admiration. — Little need be said on this head. Ad- 
 miration apparently consists of surprise associated with 
 some pleasure and a sense of approval. When vividly 
 felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows raised ; the 
 eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as 
 under simple astonishment ; and the mouth, instead of 
 gaping open, expands into a smile. 
 
 Fear, Terror. — The word ' fear ' seems to be derived 
 
 13 Huschke, ibid. p. 18. 
 
 14 ' North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105. 
 
290 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 from what is sudden and dangerous ; 15 and that of terror 
 from the trembling of the vocal organs and body. 
 I use the word ' terror ' for extreme fear ; but some 
 writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which 
 the imagination is more particularly concerned. Fear 
 is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to 
 it, that both lead to the senses of sight and hearing 
 being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and 
 mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. 
 The frightened man at first stands like a statue mo- 
 tionless and breathless, or crouches down as if instinc- 
 tively to escape observation. 
 
 The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it pal- 
 pitates or knocks against the ribs; but it is very doubt- 
 ful whether it then works more efficiently than usual, 
 so as to send a greater supply of blood to all parts of 
 the body ; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during 
 incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, how- 
 ever, is probably in large part, or exclusively, due to the 
 vaso-motor centre being affected in such a manner as to 
 cause the contraction of the small arteries of the skin. 
 That the skin is much affected under the sense of great 
 fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in 
 which perspiration immediately exudes from it. This 
 exudation is all the more remarkable, as the surface 
 is then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat ; whereas, 
 the sudorific glands are properly excited into action 
 when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the 
 skin stand erect; and the superficial muscles shiver. 
 In connection with the disturbed ^action of the heart, 
 the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act im- 
 
 15 H. Wedgwood, Diet, of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862, p. 35. 
 See, also, Gratiolet (' De la Physiononrie,' p. 135) on the sources of 
 fcucb words as ' terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,' &c. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 291 
 
 perfectly ; the mouth becomes dry, 16 and is often opened 
 and shut. I have also noticed that under slight fear 
 there is a strong tendency to yawn. One of the best- 
 marked symptoms is the trembling of all the muscles 
 of the body ; and this is often first seen in the lips. 
 From this cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, 
 the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may alto- 
 gether fail. " Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox 
 " faucibus haesit." 
 
 Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand de- 
 scription in Job : — " In thoughts from the visions of the 
 " night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon 
 " me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. 
 " Then a spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my 
 " flesh stood up. It stood still, but I could not discern 
 " the form thereof : an image was before my eyes, there 
 " was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal 
 " man be more just than God? Shall a man be more 
 " pure than his Maker ?" (Job iv. 13.) 
 
 As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, 
 as under all violent emotions, diversified results. The 
 heart beats wildly, or may fail to act and faintness 
 ensue ; there is a death-like pallor ; the breathing is 
 laboured ; the wings of the nostrils are widely dilated ; 
 " there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a 
 " tremor on the hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of 
 " the throat ; " 17 the uncovered and protruding eye- 
 balls are fixed on the object of terror ; or they may roll 
 
 10 Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 54) explains in 
 the following manner the origin of the custom " of subjecting criminals 
 " in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The accused is made to 
 " take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to throw it out. If 
 " the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be guilty, — his own 
 " evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating organs." 
 
 17 Sir C Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 308. 
 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 88 and pp. 104-109. 
 
292 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 restlessly from side to side, hue illuc volvens oculos 
 totumque pererrat. 18 The pupils are said to be enor- 
 mously dilated. All the muscles of the body may 
 become rigid, or may be thrown into convulsive 
 movements. The hands are alternately clenched and 
 opened, often with a twitching movement. The arms 
 may be protruded, as if to avert some dreadful danger, 
 or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Eev. Mr. 
 Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified 
 Australian. In other cases there is a sudden and un- 
 controllable tendency to headlong flight ; and so strong 
 is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized with a 
 sudden panic. 
 
 As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream 
 of terror is heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the 
 skin. All the muscles of the body are relaxed. Utter 
 prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. 
 The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles 
 cease to act, and no longer retain the contents of the 
 body. 
 
 Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an 
 account of intense fear in an insane woman, aged thirty- 
 five, that the description though painful ought not to 
 be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams 
 out, " This is hell ! " " There is a black woman!" " I 
 " can't get out ! " — and other such exclamations. When 
 thus screaming, her movements are those of alternate 
 tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her 
 hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi- 
 flexed position ; then suddenly bends her body forwards, 
 sways rapidly to and fro, draws her fingers through 
 her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her 
 
 18 See Morcau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit, of 1820 of 
 Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 293 
 
 clothes. The sterno-cleidomastoid muscles (which 
 serve to bend the head on the chest) stand out pro- 
 minently, as if swollen, and the skin in front of them is 
 much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the 
 back of her head, and is smooth when she is calm, now 
 stands on end ; that in front being dishevelled by the 
 movements of her hands. The countenance expresses 
 great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face 
 and neck, down to the clavicles, and the veins of the 
 forehead and neck stand out like thick cords. The 
 lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth 
 is kept half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The 
 cheeks are hollow and deeply furrowed in curved lines 
 running from the wings of the nostrils to the corners of 
 the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and ex- 
 tended. The eyes are widely opened, and beneath them 
 the skin appears swollen ; the pupils are large. The 
 forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and at 
 the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly fur- 
 rowed in diverging lines, produced by the powerful and 
 persistent contraction of the corrugators. 
 
 Mr. Bell has also described 19 an agony of terror and 
 of despair, which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst 
 carried to the place of execution in Turin. " On each 
 " side of the car the officiating priests were seated ; 
 " and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was 
 " impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy 
 " wretch without terror; and yet, as if impelled by 
 " some strange infatuation, it was equally impossible 
 " not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of horror. 
 " He seemed about thirty-five years of age ; of large 
 " and muscular form ; his countenance marked by 
 
 19 ' Observations on Italy,' 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ' The Anatomy 
 of Expression,' p. 168. 
 
294 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Cuap. XII. 
 
 " strong and savage features ; half naked, pale as death, 
 " agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish, 
 " his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat^ breaking 
 a out on his bent and contracted brow, he kissed in- 
 " cessantly the figure of our Saviour, painted on the 
 " flag which was suspended before him ; but with an 
 " agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever 
 " exhibited on the stage can give the slightest con- 
 " ception." 
 
 I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man 
 utterly prostrated by terror. An atrocious murderer of 
 two persons was brought into a hospital, under the 
 mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself; and 
 Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, 
 while he was being handcuffed and taken away by the 
 police. His pallor was extreme, and his prostration so 
 great that he was hardly able to dress himself. His 
 skin perspired : and his eyelids and head drooped so 
 much that it was impossible to catch even a glimpse 
 of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down. There was no 
 contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost 
 certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he ob- 
 served it narrowly, as it had been dyed for the sake of 
 concealment. 
 
 With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various 
 races of man, my informants agree that the signs are 
 the same as with Europeans. They are displayed in 
 an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of 
 Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified 
 turn pale and shake ; and Mr. Brough Smyth states 
 that a native Australian " being on one occasion much 
 " frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approach- 
 " ing to what we call paleness, as can well be con- 
 " ceived in the case of a very black man." Mr. Dyson 
 Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ERECTION OF THE HAIR. 
 
 295 
 
 by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips ; 
 and by the perspiration standing on the skin. Many 
 savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as 
 Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With 
 the Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the 
 shaking " of the body is much experienced, and the eyes 
 " are widely open." With savages, the sphincter muscles 
 are often relaxed, just as may be observed in much 
 frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when 
 terrified by being caught. 
 
 The erection of the hair. — Some of the signs of fear 
 deserve a little further consideration. Poets continual ly 
 speak of the hair standing on end ; Brutus says to the 
 ghost of Caesar, " that mak'st my blood cold, and my 
 " hair to stare." And Cardinal Beaufort, after the 
 murder of Gloucester exclaims, " Comb down his hair ; 
 " look, look, it stands upright." As I did not feel 
 sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied 
 to man what they had often observed in animals, I 
 begged for information from Dr. Crichton Browne with 
 respect to the insane. He states in answer that he has 
 repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence 
 of sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is occa- 
 sionally necessary to inject morphia under the skin of 
 an insane woman, who dreads the operation extremely, 
 though it causes very little pain ; for she believes that 
 poison is being introduced into her system, and that her 
 bones will be softened, and her flesh turned into dust. 
 She becomes deadly pale ; her limbs are stiffened by a 
 sort of tetanic spasm, and -her hair is partially erected 
 on the front of the head. 
 
 Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the 
 hair which is so common in the insane, is not always 
 associated with terror. It is perhaps most frequently 
 
296 
 
 •FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have 
 destructive impulses ; but it is during their paroxysms 
 of violence that the bristling is most observable. The 
 fact of the hair becoming erect under the influence both 
 of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we have seen 
 * in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases 
 in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, before 
 the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, " the hair 
 " rises up from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland 
 " pony." He has sent me photographs of two women, 
 taken in the intervals between their paroxysms, and he 
 adds with respect to one of these women, " that the 
 " state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion 
 * of her mental condition." I have had one of these 
 photographs copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed 
 
 Fig. 19. From a photograph of an insane woman, to show the condition of her hair. 
 
 from a little distance, a faithful representation of the 
 original, with the exception that the hair appears 
 rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraor- 
 dinary condition of the hair in the insane is due, not 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 ERECTION OF THE HAIR. 
 
 297 
 
 only to its erection, but to its dryness and harshness, 
 consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to act. 
 Dr. Bucknill has said 20 that a lunatic " is a lunatic to 
 " his finger's ends ; " he might have added, and often 
 to the extremity of each particular hair. 
 
 Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation 
 of the relation which exists in the insane between the 
 state of their hair and minds, that the wife of a medical 
 man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute 
 melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, 
 her husband and children, reported verbally to him 
 the day before receiving my letter as follows, " I think 
 
 " Mrs. will soon improve, for her hair is getting 
 
 " smooth ; and I always notice that our patients get 
 " better whenever their hair ceases to be rough and 
 " uq manageable." 
 
 Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condi- 
 tion of the hair in many insane patients, in part to 
 their minds being always somewhat disturbed, and in 
 part to the effects of habit, — that is, to the hair being 
 frequently and strongly erected during their many 
 recurrent paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling 
 of the hair is extreme, the disease is generally per- 
 manent and mortal ; but in others, in whom the brist- 
 ling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health 
 of mind the hair recovers its smoothness. 
 
 In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals 
 the hairs are erected by the contraction of minute, un- 
 striped, and involuntary muscles, which run to each 
 separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood 
 has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs 
 me, that with man the hairs on the front of the 
 head which slope forwards, and those on the back 
 
 20 Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, ' Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 41. 
 
298 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 which slope backwards, are raised in opposite directions 
 by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp 
 muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erec- 
 tion of the hairs on the head of man, in the same 
 manner as the homologous panniculus carnosus aids, or 
 takes the greater part, in the erection of the spines on 
 the backs of some of the lower animals. 
 
 Contraction of the jplatysma myoides muscle. — This 
 muscle is spread over the sides of the neck, extending 
 downwards to a little beneath the collar-bones, and 
 upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion, 
 called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) 
 fig. 2. The contraction of this muscle draws the 
 corners of the mouth and the lower parts of the cheeks 
 downwards and backwards. It produces at the same 
 time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the 
 sides of the neck in the young ; and, in old thin per- 
 sons, fine transverse wrinkles. This muscle is some- 
 times said not to be under the control of the will ; but 
 almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his 
 mouth backwards and downwards with great force, 
 brings it into action. I have, however, heard of a man 
 who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his 
 neck. 
 
 Sir C. Bell 21 and others have stated that this muscle 
 is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; 
 and Duchenne insists so strongly on its importance in 
 the expression of this emotion, that he calls it the 
 muscle of fright. 22 He admits, however, that its con- 
 traction is quite inexpressive unless associated with 
 widely open eyes and mouth. He has given a pho- 
 
 21 * Anntomy of Expression,' p. 168. 
 
 22 Mecanisuie de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Legende xi. 
 
CHAP. XII. CONTRACTION OF THE PLATYSMA. 
 
 299 
 
 tograph (copied and reduced in the accompanying 
 woodcut) of the same old man as on former occa- 
 sions, with his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth 
 opened, and the platysma contracted, all by means 
 
 Fig. 20. Terror, from a photograph by Dr. Duchenne. 
 
 of galvanism. The original photograph was shown to 
 twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, 
 without any explanation being given, what expression 
 was intende d : twenty instantly answered, " intenso 
 
300 
 
 FEAR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 " fright " or " horror ; " three said pain, and one ex- 
 treme discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another 
 photograph of the same old man, with the platysma 
 contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eye- 
 brows rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The 
 expression thus induced is very striking (see Plate VII. 
 fig. 2) ; the obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appear- 
 ance of great mental distress. The original was shown 
 to fifteen persons ; twelve answered terror or horror, 
 and three agony or great suffering. From these cases, 
 and from an examination of the other photographs 
 given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks 
 thereon, I think there can be little doubt that the con- 
 traction of the platysma does add greatly to the expres- 
 sion of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought hardly to 
 be called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly 
 not a necessary concomitant of this state of mind. 
 
 A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest 
 manner by death-like pallor, by drops of perspiration on 
 his skin, and by utter prostration, with all the muscles 
 of his body, including the platysma, completely re- 
 laxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle 
 quivering and contracting in the insane, he has not 
 been able to connect its action with any emotional con- 
 dition in them, though he carefully attended to patients 
 suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other 
 hand, has observed three cases in which this muscle 
 appeared to be more or less permanently contracted 
 under the influence of melancholia, associated with 
 much dread ; but in one of these cases, various other 
 muscles about the neck and head were subject to spas- 
 modic contractions. 
 
 Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London 
 hospitals about twenty patients, just before they were 
 put under the influence of chloroform for operations. 
 
pi, r/i. 
 
Chap. XII. CONTRACTION OF THE PLATYSMA. 301 
 
 They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. 
 In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly 
 contracted ; and it did not begin to contract until the 
 patients began to cry. The muscle seemed to contract 
 at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration ; so that 
 it is very doubtful whether the contraction depended at 
 all on the emotion of fear. In a fifth case, the patient, 
 who was not chloroformed, was much terrified ; and 
 his platysma was more forcibly and persistently con- 
 tracted than in the other cases. But even here there 
 is room for doubt, for the muscle which appeared to 
 be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. O^le to con- 
 tract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after 
 the operation was over. 
 
 As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a super- 
 ficial muscle on the neck should be especially affected 
 by fear, 1 applied to my many obliging correspon lents 
 for information about the contraction of this muscle 
 under other circumstances. It would be superfluous 
 to give all the answers which I have received. They 
 show that this muscle acts, often in a variable manner 
 and degree, under many different conditions. It is 
 violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat 
 less degree in lockjaw ; sometimes in a marked manner 
 during the insensibility frum chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle 
 observed two male patients, suffering from such diffi- 
 culty in breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, 
 and in botli the platysma was strongly contracted. 
 One of these men overheard the conversation of the 
 surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to 
 speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In 
 some other cases of extreme difficulty of respiration, 
 though not requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. 
 Ogle and Langstaff, the platysma was not con- 
 tracted. 
 
302 
 
 FEAK. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the 
 muscles of the human body, as shown by his various 
 publications, has often seen the platysma contracted in 
 vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and 
 adults under the influence of rage, — for instance, in 
 Irishwomen, quarrelling and brawling together with 
 angry gesticulations. This may possibly have been 
 due to their high and angry tones ; for I know a 
 lady, an excellent musician, who, in singing certain 
 high notes, always contracts her platysma. So does a 
 young man, as I have observed, in sounding certain 
 notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he 
 has found the platysma best developed in persons with 
 thick necks and broad shoulders ; and that in families 
 inheriting these peculiarities, its development is usually 
 associated with much voluntary power over the homo- 
 logous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can 
 be moved. 
 
 None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light 
 on the contraction of the platysma from fear ; but it 
 is different, I think, with the following cases. The 
 gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act 
 on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive 
 that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled. 
 Evidence has already been given showing that this 
 muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of 
 opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is ren- 
 dered difficult by disease, and during the deep inspira- 
 tions of crying-fits before an operation. Now, when- 
 ever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound, he 
 instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the 
 contraction of the platysma may possibly have become 
 associated with the sense of fear. But. there is, I 
 believe, a more efficient relation. The first sensation 
 of fear, or the imagination of something dreadful, com- 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 DILATATION OF THE TUPILS. 
 
 303 
 
 monly excites a shudder. I Lave caught myself giving 
 a little involuntary shudder at a painful thought, and 
 I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted ; so 
 it does if I simulate a shudder. I have asked others 
 to act in this manner ; and in some the muscle con- 
 tracted, but not in others. One of my sons, whilst 
 getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he 
 happened to have bis hand on his neck, he plainly 
 felt that this muscle strongly contracted. He then 
 voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former 
 occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. 
 Mr. J. Wood has also several times observed this 
 muscle contracting in patients, when stripped for exa- 
 mination, and who were not frightened, but shivered 
 slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been 
 able to ascertain whether, when the whole body shakes, 
 as in the cold stage of an ague fit, the platysma con- 
 tracts. But as it certainly often contracts during a 
 shudder ; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies 
 the first sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its 
 action in this latter case. 23 Its contraction, however, is 
 not an invariable concomitant of fear ; for it probably 
 never acts under the influence of extreme, prostrating 
 terror. 
 
 Dilatation of the Pupils. — Gratiolet repeatedly insists 24 
 that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror 
 is felt. I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of 
 this statement, but have failed to obtain confirmatory 
 
 2t Duchenne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as he attributes 
 the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear (frisson de lu 
 peur); but ho elsewhere compares the action with that which causes 
 thti hair of frightened quadrupeds to fctand erect ; and this Can hardly 
 be considered as quite coirect 
 
 24 * De la Physionomie,' pp. 51, 25G, 346. 
 
304 
 
 HORROR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of 
 an insane woman suffering from great fear. When 
 writers of fiction speak of the eyes being widely dilated, 
 I presume that they refer to the eyelids. Munro's state- 
 ment, 25 that with parrots the iris is affected by the pas- 
 sions, independently of the amount of light, seems to 
 bear on this question ; but Professor Donders informs me, 
 that he has often seen movements in the pupils of these 
 birds which he thinks may be related to their power of 
 accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner 
 as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for 
 near vision. Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils 
 appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness. 
 No doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the 
 dark ; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to account 
 for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It 
 seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's state- 
 ment is correct, that the brain is directly affected by 
 the powerful emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils ; 
 but Professor Donders informs me that this is an ex- 
 tremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly 
 throwing light on the subjpct, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley 
 Hospital, has observed in two patients that the pupils 
 were distinctly dilated during the cold stage of an ague 
 fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation 
 of the pupils in incipient faintness. 
 
 Horror. — The state of mind expressed by this term 
 implies terror, and is in some cases almost synony- 
 mous with it. Many a man must have felt, before 
 the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at 
 the thought of an impending surgical operation. He 
 who dreads, as well as hates a man, will feel, as Milton 
 
 As quoted in White's ' Gradation in Man.' p. 57. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 HORROR. 
 
 305 
 
 uses the word, a horror of him. We feel horror if we 
 see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant 
 and crushing danger. Almost every one would experi- 
 ence the same feeling in the highest degree in witness- 
 ing a man being tortured or going to be tortured. In 
 these cases there is no danger to ourselves ; but from 
 the power of the imagination and of sympathy we put 
 ourselves in the position. of the sufferer, and ft el som - 
 thing akin to fear. 
 
 Sir C. Bell remarks, 26 that "horror is full of energy ; 
 " the body is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by 
 " fear." It is, therefore, probable that horror would 
 generally be accompanied by the strong contraction of 
 the brows ; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes 
 and mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would 
 be raised, as far as the antagonistic action of the 
 corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne has * 
 given a photograph 27 (fig. 21) of the same old man as 
 before, with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows 
 partially rais d, and at the same time strongly con- 
 tracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in action ; 
 all effected by the means of galvanism. He considers 
 that the expression thus produced shows extreme terror 
 with horrible pain or torture. A tortured man, as long 
 as his sufferings allowed him to feel any dread for the 
 future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme 
 degree. I have shown the original of this photograph 
 to twenty- three persons of both sexes and various ages ; 
 and thirteen immediately answered horror, great pain, 
 torture, or agony ; three answered extreme fright ; so 
 that sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Du- 
 chenne's belief. Six, however, said anger, guided no 
 
 26 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 109. 
 
 2 ' ' Mecauisnie de la Physionomie,' Album, pi. 65, pp. 44, 45. 
 
 - 14 
 
306 
 
 HORROR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 doubt, by the strongly contracted brows, and overlooking 
 •the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On 
 the w hole, the evidence indicates that we have here a 
 
 Fig. 21. Horror and Agony, copied from a photograph by Dr. Ducherme. 
 
 fairly good representation of horror and agony. The 
 photograph before referred to (PL VII. fig. 2) likewise 
 exhibits horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows in- 
 dicate great mental distress in place of energy. 
 
Chap. XII. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 307 
 
 Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, 
 which differ in different individuals. Judging from 
 pictures, the whole body is often turned away or shrinks ; 
 or the arms are violently protruded as if to push 
 away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, 
 as far as can be inferred from the acting of persons 
 who endeavour to express a vividly-imagined scene of 
 horror, is the raising of both shoulders, with the bent 
 arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These 
 movements are nearly the same with those commonly 
 made when we feel very cold; and they are generally 
 accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a deep expira- 
 tion or inspiration, according as the chest happens at 
 the time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds 
 thus made are expressed by words like u~h or ugh. 2 * 
 It is not, however, obvious why, when we feel cold or 
 express a sense of horror, we press our bent arms 
 against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder. 
 
 Conclusion. — I have now endeavoured to describe the 
 diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from 
 mere attention to a start of surprise, into extreme 
 terror and horror. Some of the signs may be accounted 
 for through the principles of habit, association, and 
 inheritance, — such as the wide opening of the mouth 
 and eyes, with upraised eyebrows, so as to see as 
 quickly as possible all around us, and to hear dis- 
 tinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we 
 have thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover 
 and encounter any danger. Some of the other signs 
 of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least in 
 
 28 See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction 
 to his ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. 
 lie shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred to have 
 piobably given rise to many words, such as ugly huge, &c. 
 
308 
 
 FEAR AND HORROR. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 part, through these same principles. Men, during 
 numberless generations, have endeavoured to escape 
 from their enemies or danger by headlong flight, or 
 by violently struggling with them ; and such great 
 exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the 
 breathing to be hurried, the chest to heave, and the 
 nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions have often 
 been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result 
 will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, 
 trembling of all the muscles, or their complete relaxa- 
 tion. And now, whenever the emotion of fear is 
 strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, 
 the same results tend to reappear, through the force of 
 inheritance and association. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the 
 above symptoms of terror, such as the beating of the heart, 
 the trembling of the muscles, cold perspiration, &c, are 
 in large part directly due to the disturbed or interrupted 
 transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal 
 system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind 
 being so powerfully affected. We may confidently look 
 to this cause, independently of habit and association, in 
 such cases as the modified secretions of the intestinal 
 caifel, and the failure of certain glands to act. With 
 respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we 
 have good reason to believe that in the case of animals 
 this action, however it may have originated, serves, 
 together with certain voluntary movements, to make 
 them appear terrible to their enemies ; and as the same 
 involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by 
 animals nearly related to man, we are led to believe 
 that man has retained through inheritance a relic of 
 them, now become useless. It is certainly a remarkable 
 fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the 
 hairs thinly scattered over man's almost naked body 
 
Jhap. XII. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 309 
 
 are erected, should have been preserved to the present 
 day ; and that they should still contract under the 
 same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause 
 the hairs to staud on end in the lower members of the 
 Order to which man belongs. 
 
310 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Self-attention — Shame — Shyness — Modesty : Blushing. 
 
 Nature of a blush — Inheritance — The parts of the body most 
 affected — Blushing in the various races of man — Accompanying 
 gestures — Confusion of mind — Causes of blushing — Self- 
 attention, the fundamental element — Shyness — Shame, from 
 broken moral laws and conventional rules — Modesty — Theory 
 of blushing — Eecapitulation. 
 
 Blushing is the most peculiar and the most tuman of 
 all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it 
 would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to 
 make us believe that any animal could blush. The red- 
 dening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation 
 of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which 
 the capillaries become filled with blood ; and this de- 
 pends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. 
 No doubt if there be at the same time much mental agi- 
 tation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is 
 not due to the action of the heart that the network of 
 minute vessels covering the face becomes under a 
 sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause 
 laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning 
 by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so 
 forth ; but we cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess 
 remarks,^ by any physical means, — that is by any 
 action on the body. It is the mind which must be 
 affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the 
 
 1 ' The Physiology or Mechanism of flushing,' 1839, p. 156. I 
 bhall have occasion often to quote this work in the present chapter. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 311 
 
 wish to restrain it, by leading to self-attention actuall) 
 increases the tendency. 
 
 The young blush much more freely than the old, 
 but not during infancy, 2 which is remarkable, as we 
 know that infants at a very early age redden from 
 passion. I have received authentic accounts of two 
 little girls blushing at the ages of between two and 
 three years ; and of another sensitive child, a year 
 older, blushing, when reproved for a fault. Many 
 children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a 
 strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental 
 powers of infants are not as yet sufficiently developed 
 to allow of their blushing. Hence, also, it is that idiots 
 rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me 
 those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush, 
 though he has seen their faces flush, apparently from 
 joy, when food was placed before them, and from 
 anger. Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are 
 capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for in- 
 stance, thirteen years old, whose eyes brightened a 
 little when he was pleased or amused, has been de- 
 scribed by Dr. Behn, 3 as blushing and turning to one 
 side, when undressed for medical examination. 
 
 Women blush much more than men. It is rare to 
 see an old man, but not nearly so rare to see an old 
 woman blushing. The blind do not escape. Laura 
 Bridgman, borri in this condition, as well as completely 
 deaf, blushes. 4 The Rev. B. H. Blair, Principal of the 
 Worcester College, informs me that three children 
 
 • 2 Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on women 
 blushing more freely than men, as stated below. 
 
 3 Quoted by Vogt, ' Me'moire sur les Microcephales,' 18G7, p. 20. Dr. 
 Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush. 
 
 4 Lieber 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. ; Smithsonian Contribu.ions, 
 1851, vol. ii. p. G. 
 
812 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 born blind, out of seven or eight then in the Asylum, 
 are great blushers. The blind are not at first conscious 
 that they are observed, and it is a most important 
 part of their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to 
 impress this knowledge on their minds ; and the im- 
 pression thus gained would greatly strengthen the ten- 
 dency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention. 
 
 The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess 
 gives the case 5 of a family consisting of a father, 
 mother, and ten children, all of whom, without excep- 
 tion, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. 
 The children were grown up ; " and some of them were 
 " sent to travel in order to wear away this diseased 
 " sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest avail/' 
 Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. 
 Sir James Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, 
 was struck at her singular manner of blushing; a big 
 splash of red appeared first on one cheek, and then 
 other splashes, variously scattered over the face and 
 neck. He subsequently asked the mother whether 
 her daughter always blushed in this peculiar manner ; 
 and was answered, u Yes, she takes after me." Sir J. 
 Paget then perceived that by asking this question he 
 had caused the mother to blush ; and she exhibited 
 the same peculiarity as her daughter. 
 
 In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole 
 parts which redden ; but many persons, whilst blushing 
 intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow hot and 
 tingle ; and this shows that the entire surface must be 
 in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes 
 to commence on the forehead, but more commonly on 
 the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and neck. 6 
 In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 182. 6 Moreau, in edit, of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 313 
 
 commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, 
 over the parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased 
 into a circle ; between this blushing circle and the 
 blush on the neck there was an evident line of demar- 
 cation ; , although both arose simultaneously. The 
 retina, which is naturally red in the Albino, invariably 
 increased at the same time in redness. 7 Every one 
 must have noticed how easily after one blush fresh 
 blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is 
 preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin. According 
 to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally 
 succeeded by a slight pallor, which shows that the capil- 
 lary vessels contract after dilating. -In some rare cases 
 paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions 
 which would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a 
 young lady told me that in a large and crowded party 
 she caught her hair so firmly on the button of a passing 
 servant, that it took some time before she could be 
 extricated ; from her sensations she imagined that she 
 had blushed crimson ; but was assured by a friend that 
 she had turned extremely pale. 
 
 I was desirous to learn how far down the body 
 blushes extend ; and Sir J. Paget, who necessarily has 
 frequent opportunities for observation, has kindly at- 
 tended to this point for me during two or three years. 
 He finds that with women who blush intensely on the 
 face, ears, and nape of neck, the blush does not com- 
 monly extend any lower down the body. It is rare to see 
 it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades ; 
 and he has never himself seen a single instance in which 
 it extended below the upper part of the chest. He has 
 also noticed that blushes sometimes die away down- 
 wards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular 
 
 7 Burgess, ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p. 177 
 
314 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Cuap. XIII. 
 
 ruddy blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed 
 for me several worn en whose bodies did not in the least 
 redden while their faces were crimsoned with blushes. 
 With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly- 
 liable to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several 
 times seen the blush extend as far down as the collar- 
 bones, and in two instances to the breasts. He gives 
 me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, 
 who suffered from epilepsy. On the morning after her 
 arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, together with his 
 assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The mo- 
 ment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her 
 cheeks and temples ; and the blush spread quickly to 
 her ears. She was much agitated and tremulous. He 
 unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to ex- 
 amine the state of her lungs; and then a brilliant 
 blush rushed over her chest, in an arched line over the 
 upper third of each breast, and extended downwards 
 between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of 
 the sternum. This case is interesting, as the blush did 
 not thus extend downwards until it became intense by 
 her attention being drawn to this part of her person. 
 As the examination proceeded she became composed, 
 and the blush disappeared ; but on several subsequent 
 occasions the same phenomena were observed. 
 
 The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, 
 with English women, blushing does not extend beneath 
 the neck and upper part of the chest. Nevertheless Sir 
 J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case, 
 on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked 
 by what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed 
 all over her abdomen and the upper parts of her legs. 
 Moreau also 8 relates, on the authority of a celebrated 
 
 8 See Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 315 
 
 painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body 
 of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, 
 reddened when she was first divested of her clothes. 
 
 It is a rather curious question why, in most cases 
 the face, ears, and neck alone redden, inasmuch as the 
 whole surface of the body often tingles and grows hot. 
 This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining 
 parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the 
 air, light, and alternations of temperature, by which 
 the small arteries not only have acquired the habit of 
 readily dilating and contracting, but appear to have 
 become unusually developed in comparison with other 
 parts of the surface. 9 It is probably owing to this 
 same cause, as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have 
 remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under 
 various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary 
 heat, violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c. ; and on 
 the other hand that it is liable to grow pale from cold 
 and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy. The 
 face is also particularly liable to be affected by cuta- 
 neous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This 
 view is likewise supported by the ^act that the men of 
 certain races, who habitually go nearly naked, often 
 blush over their arms and chests and even down to 
 their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs 
 Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or 
 is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists, 
 and hands, — that is, over all the exposed portions of 
 her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether 
 the habitual exposure of the skin of the face and 
 neck, and its consequent power of reaction under 
 stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to -account 
 
 9 Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. vol. iv. 
 p. 293. 
 
316 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 for the much greater tendency in English women of 
 these parts than of others to blush ; for the hands are 
 well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have 
 been as much exposed to the air as the face or neck, 
 and yet the hands rarely blush. We shall presently 
 see that the attention of the mind having been directed 
 much more frequently and earnestly to the face than 
 to any other part of the body, probably affords a suffi- 
 cient explanation. 
 
 Blushing in the various races of man. — The small 
 vessels of the face become filled with blood, from the 
 emotion of shame, in almost all the races of man, 
 though in the very dark races no distinct change of 
 colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all 
 the Aryan nations of Europe, and to a certain extent 
 with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has never 
 noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly 
 affected. With the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has 
 often observed a faint blush on the cheeks, base of the 
 ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken 
 eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he 
 has detected them m a falsehood, or has accused them 
 of ingratitude. The pale, sallow complexions of these 
 men render a blush much more conspicuous than in 
 most of the other natives of India. With the latter, 
 shame, or it may be in part fear, is expressed, according 
 to Mr. Scott, much more plainly by the head being 
 averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned 
 askant, than by any change of colour in the skin. 
 
 The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been 
 expected, from their general similitude to the Aryans. 
 Thus with the Jews, it is said in the Book of Jeremiah 
 (chap. vi. 15), "Nay, they were not at all ashamed, 
 " neither could they blush." Mrs. Asa Gray saw an 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 317 
 
 Arab managing his boat clumsily on the Nile, and 
 when laughed at by his companions, " he blushed 
 " quite to the back of his neck." Lady Duff Gordon 
 remarks that a young Arab blushed on coming into 
 her presence. 10 
 
 Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he 
 thinks it is rare; yet they have the expression "to 
 " redden with shame." Mr. Geach informs me that the 
 Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of 
 the interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly 
 naked, and he particularly attended to the downward 
 extension of the blush. Omitting the cases in which 
 the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed 
 that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 
 24 years, reddened from shame; and with another 
 Chinese, when asked why he had not done his work in 
 better style, the whole body was similarly affected. 
 In two Malays 11 he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms 
 blushing; and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush 
 extended down to the waist. 
 
 The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack 
 has seen hundreds of instances with the New Zea- 
 landers. The following case is worth giving, as it 
 relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured 
 and partly tattooed. After having let his land to an 
 Englishman for a small yearly rental, a strong passion 
 seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become the 
 fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to 
 draw all the rent for four years from his tenant, and 
 consulted Mr. Stack whether he could do so. The man 
 
 10 ' Letters from Egypt,' 1865, p. G6. Lady Gordon is mistaken when 
 she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush. 
 
 11 Capt. Osborn (' Quedah,' p. 199), in speaking of a Malay whom 
 he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man 
 blushed. 
 
318 
 
 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his 
 driving himself about in his carriage for display amused 
 Mr. Stack so much that he could not help bursting out 
 into a laugh ; and then " the old man blushed up to the 
 " roots of his hair." Forster says that " you may easily 
 "distinguish a spreading blush" on the cheeks of the 
 fairest women in Tahiti. 12 The natives also of several 
 of the other archipelagoes in the Pacific have been 
 seen to blush. 
 
 Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on 
 the faces of the young squaws belonging to various 
 wild Indian tribes of North America. At the opposite 
 extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the 
 natives, according to Mr. Bridges, " blush much, but 
 " chiefly in regard to women ; but they certainly blush 
 " also at their own personal appearance." This latter 
 statement agrees witli what I remember of the Fuegian, 
 Jemmy Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about 
 the care which he took in polishing his shoes, and in 
 otherwise adorning himself. With respect to the Ay- 
 mara Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. 
 Forbes says, 13 that from the colour of their skins it is 
 impossible that their blushes should be as clearly 
 
 12 J. K. Forster, ' Observations during a Voyage round the World,' 
 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (' Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. 
 translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in the Pacific. 
 See, also, Dampier 4 On the Blushing of the Tunquinese ' (vol. ii. p. 40) ; 
 but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes Bergmauu, that the 
 Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after what we have 
 seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Both, who denies 
 that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately, Capt. 
 Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered my 
 inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Kajah Brooke has 
 never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo ; 
 on the contrary, under circumstances which would excite a blush in 
 us, they assert " that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.'' 
 
 13 Transact, of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 319 
 
 visible as in the white races ; still under such circum- 
 stances as would raise a blush in us, " there can always 
 " be seen the same expression of modesty or confusion ; 
 " and even in the dark, a rise of temperature of the 
 " skin of the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the 
 "European." With the Indians who inhabit the hot, 
 equable, and damp parts of South America, the skin 
 apparently does not answer to mental excitement so 
 readily as with the natives of the northern and southern 
 parts of the continent, who have long been exposed to 
 great vicissitudes of climate ; for Humboldt quotes 
 without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, " How can 
 " those be trusted, who know not how to blush ?" 14 
 Von Spix and Martius, in speaking of the aborigines 
 of Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be said 
 to blush ; " it was only after long intercourse with the 
 " whites, and after receiving some education, that we 
 u perceived in the Indians a change of colour express- 
 " ive of the emotions of their minds." 15 It is, however, 
 incredible that the power of blushing could have thus 
 originated ; but the habit of self-attention, consequent 
 on their education and new course of life, would have 
 much increased any innate tendency to blush. 
 
 Several trustworthy observers have assured me that 
 they have seen on the faces of negroes an appearance 
 resembling a blush, under circumstances which would 
 have excited one in us, though their skins were of an 
 ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, 
 but most say that the blackness becomes more intense. 
 An increased supply of blood in the skin seems in some 
 manner to increase its blackness; thus certain exan- 
 thematous diseases cause the affected places in the 
 
 14 Humboldt, ' Personal Narrative,' Eng. tmnslat. vol. iii. p. 229. 
 
 15 Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, 
 vol. i. p. 271. 
 
320 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 negro to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder. 16 
 The skin, perhaps, from being rendered more tense by 
 the filling of the capillaries, would reflect a somewhat 
 different tint to what it did before. That the capil- 
 laries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, 
 under the emotion of shame, we may feel confident ; 
 because a perfectly characterized albino negress, de- 
 scribed by Buffon, 17 showed a faint tinge of crimson 
 on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked. Cica- 
 trices of the skin remain for a long time white in the 
 negro, and Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportu- 
 nities of observing a scar of this kind on the face of a 
 negress, distinctly saw that it " invariably became red 
 " whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with 
 "any trivial offence." 18 The blush could be seen pro- 
 ceeding from the circumference of the scar towards the 
 middle, but it did not reach the centre. Mulattoes are 
 often great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their 
 faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that 
 negroes blush, although no redness is visible on the 
 skin. 
 
 I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the 
 Kafirs of South Africa never blush ; but this may only 
 mean that no change of colour is distinguishable. Gaika 
 adds that under the circumstances which would make a 
 European blush, his countrymen " look ashamed to 
 " keep their heads up." 
 
 16 jSee, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz, 4 Introduc- 
 tion to Anthropology,' Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 135. Moreau gives a detailed 
 account (• Lavater,' 1820, torn. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of a Mada- 
 gascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to exhibit her 
 naked bosom. 
 
 17 Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, 
 vol. i. p. 225. 
 
 18 Burge.ss, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33. I have 
 received similar accounts with respect to mulattoes. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 321 
 
 It is asserted by four of my informants that the 
 Australians, who are almost as black as negroes, never 
 blush. A filth answers doubtfully, remarking that 
 only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of 
 the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state 
 that they do blush; 19 Mr. S. Wilson adding that this 
 is noticeable only under a strong emotion, and when 
 the skin is not too dark from long exposure and 
 want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, " I have 
 "noticed that shame almost always excites a blush, 
 which frequently extends as low as the neck." Shame 
 is also shown, as he adds, "by the eyes being turned 
 " from side to side." As Mr. Lang was a teacher in 
 a native school, it is probable that he chiefly observed 
 children ; and we know that they blush more than 
 adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, 
 and he says that the aborigines have a word expressive 
 of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who 
 has never observed the Australians to blush, says that 
 he has " seen them looking down to the ground on 
 " account of shame ;" and the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, 
 remarks that though " I have not been able to detect 
 " anything like shame in the adult aborigines, 1 have 
 " noticed that the eyes of the children, when ashann d, 
 " present a restless, watery appearance, as if they did 
 " not know where to look." 
 
 r lhe facts now given are sufficient to show that blush- 
 ing, whether or not there is any change of colour, is 
 common to most, probably to all, of the races of man. 
 
 Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing. — 
 Under a keen sense of shame there is a strong desire 
 
 10 Barrington also says that the Australians of New South Wales 
 blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 130. 
 
322 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 for concealment. 20 We turn away the whole body, 
 more especially the face, which we endeavour in some 
 manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure 
 to meet the gaze of those present, so that he almost 
 invariably casts down his eyes or looks askant. As 
 there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to 
 avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made 
 to look direct at the person who causes this feeling ; 
 and the antagonism between these opposite tendencies 
 leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I 
 have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which 
 they are very liable, have thus acquired, as it ap- 
 pears, the oddest trick of incessantly blinking their 
 eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An intense blush 
 is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of 
 tears; 21 and this, I presume, is due to the lacrvmal 
 glands partaking of the increased supply of blood, 
 which we know rushes into the capillaries of the adjoin- 
 ing parts, including the retina. 
 
 Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the 
 foregoing movements; and it has already been shown 
 that the aborigines in various parts of the world often 
 exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, 
 or by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out 
 (ch. ix. 6), " 0, my God ! I am ashamed, and blush to 
 " lift up my head to thee, my God." In Isaiah (ch. 1. 
 
 20 Mr. Wedgwood says (Diet, of English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, 
 p. 155) that the word shame " may well originate in the idea of shade 
 " or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German scheme, 
 " shade or shadow." Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362; has a good 
 discussion on the gestures accompanying shame ; but some of his re- 
 marks seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 
 134) on the same subject. 
 
 21 Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as quoted by 
 Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of tears during 
 intense blushing. Mr. Buhner, as we have seen, speaks of the "watery 
 eyed " of the children of the Australian aborigines when ashamed. • 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 323 
 
 6) we meet with the words, " I hid not my face from 
 " shame." Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) " that the 
 " Koman players hang down their heads, fix their eyes 
 " on the ground and keep them lowered, but are unable 
 " to blush in acting shame." According to Macrobius, 
 who lived in the fifth century ('Saturnalia,' b. vii. c. 11), 
 " Natural philosophers assert that nature being moved 
 " by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veilj 
 " as we see any one blushing often puts his hands before 
 " his face." Shakspeare makes Marcus (' Titus An- 
 dronicus,' act ii. sc. 5) say to his niece, "Ah! now 
 " thou turn'st away thy face for shame." A lady 
 informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a 
 girl whom she had formerly known, and who had 
 become a wretched castaway, and the poor creature, 
 when approached, hid her face under the bed-clothes, 
 and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often 
 see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and 
 still standing up, bury their faces in their mother's 
 gown; or they throw themselves face downwards on 
 her lap. 
 
 Confusion of mind. — Most persons, whilst blushing 
 intensely, have their mental powers confused. This 
 is recognized in such common expressions as " she 
 " was covered with confusion." Persons in this con- 
 dition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly 
 inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, 
 stammer, and make awkward movements or strange 
 grimaces. In certain cases involuntary twitchings of 
 some of the facial muscles may be observed. I have 
 been informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, 
 that at such times she does not even know what she is 
 saying. When it was suggested to her that this might 
 be due to her distress from the consciousness that her 
 
324 
 
 BLUSHINU. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 blushing was noticed, she answered that this could 
 not be the case, " as she had sometimes felt quite 
 " as stupid when blushing at a thought in her own 
 " room." 
 
 I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance 
 of mind to which some sensitive men are liable. A 
 gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that he 
 had been an eye-witness of the following scene : — A 
 small dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely 
 shy man, who, when he rose to return thanks, rehearsed 
 the speech, which he had evidently learnt by heart, in 
 absolute silence, and did not utter a single word; but he 
 acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His 
 friends, perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded 
 the imaginary bursts of eloquence, whenever his ges- 
 tures indicated a pause, and the man never discovered 
 that he had remained the whole time completely 
 silent. On the contrary, he afterwards remarked to 
 my friend, with much satisfaction, that he thought 
 he had succeeded uncommonly well. 
 
 When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and 
 blushes intensely, his heart beats rapidly and his 
 breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail to affect 
 the circulation of the blood within the brain, and per- 
 haps the mental powers. It seems however doubtful, 
 judging from the still more powerful influence of anger 
 and fear on the circulation, whether we can thus satis- 
 factorily account for the confused state of mind in 
 persons whilst blushing intensely. 
 
 The true explanation apparently lies in the intimata 
 sympathy which exists between the capillary circula- 
 tion of the surface of the head and face, and that of the 
 brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for 
 information, he has given me various facts bearing on 
 this subject. When the sympathetic nerve is divided 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 325 
 
 on one side of tbe head, the capillaries on this side 
 are relaxed and become filled with blood, causing 
 the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same 
 time the temperature within the cranium on the 
 same side rises. Inflammation of the membranes of 
 the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears, 
 and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit 
 appears to be the contraction of the vessels of the brain, 
 and the first outward manifestation is an extreme pallor 
 of countenance. Erysipelas of the head commonly in- 
 duces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe 
 headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, 
 depends, I presume, on the same principle. 
 
 Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients 
 the vapour of the nitrite of amyl, 22 which has tbe sin- 
 gular property of causing vivid redness of the face 
 in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing re- 
 sembles blushing in almost every detail : it begins at 
 several distinct points on the face, and spreads tilt it 
 involves the whole surface of the head, neck, and front 
 of the chest ; but has been observed to extend only in one 
 case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina become 
 enlarged ; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there 
 was a slight effusion of tears. The patients are at first 
 pleasantly stimulated, but, as the flushing increases, they 
 become confused and bewildered. One woman to whom 
 the vapour had often been administered asserted that, 
 as soon as she grew hot, she grew muddled. With 
 persons just commencing to blush it appears, judging 
 from their bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their 
 mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only 
 when the blushing is excessive that the mind grows 
 
 22 See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this subject in. t&o 
 West Kiding Lunatic Asylum Medical Keport,' 1871, pp. 95-98. 
 
326 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIIi. 
 
 confused. Therefore it would seem that the capillaries 
 of the face are affected, both during the inhalation of 
 the nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part 
 of the brain is affected on which the mental powers 
 depend. 
 
 Conversely when the brain is primarily affected, the 
 circulation of the skin is so in a secondary manner. 
 Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as he informs me, 
 scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of 
 epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on 
 the thorax or abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil 
 or other object, or, in strongly-marked cases, is merely 
 touched by the finger, the surface becomes suffused in 
 less than half a minute with bright red marks, which 
 spread to some distance on each side of the touched 
 point, and persist for several minutes. These are the 
 cerebral maculse of Trousseau; and they indicate, as 
 Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the 
 cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as 
 cannot be doubted, an intimate sympathy between the 
 capillary circulation in that part of the brain on which 
 our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face, 
 it is not surprising that the moral causes which induce 
 intense blushing should likewise induce, independently of 
 their own disturbing influence, much confusion of mind. 
 
 The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blush- 
 ing. — These consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; 
 the essential element in all being self-attention. Many 
 reasons can be assigned for believing that originally 
 self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation 
 to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause ; the 
 same effect being subsequently produced, through 
 the force of association, by self-attention in relation to 
 moral conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting 
 
ClIAP. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 327 
 
 on our own appearance, but the thinking what others 
 think of us, which excites a blush. In absolute 
 solitude the most sensitive person would be qu.te 
 indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame or 
 disapprobation more acutely than approbation ; and 
 consequently depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether 
 of our appearance or conduct, causes us to blush much 
 more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly praise 
 and admiration are highly efficient : a. pretty girl 
 blushes when a man gazes intently at her, though she 
 may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating 
 her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive per- 
 sons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the 
 question will be discussed, how it has arisen that the 
 consciousness that others are attending to our personal 
 appearance should have led to the capillaries, espe- 
 cially those of the face, instantly becoming filled with 
 blood. 
 
 My reasons for believing that attention directed to 
 personal appearance, and not to moral conduct, has been 
 the fundamental element.in the acquirement of the habit 
 of blushing, will now be given. They are separately 
 light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, con- 
 siderable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes 
 a shy person blush so much as any remark, however 
 slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice 
 even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, 
 without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient 
 to stare hard at some persons to make them, as Cole- 
 ridge remarks, blush, — " account for that he who 
 " can." 23 
 
 With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess, 24 
 
 23 In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in ' Table Talk,' 
 vol. i. 24 Ibid. p. 40. 
 
328 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 " the slightest attempt to examine their peculiarities 
 " invariably" caused them to blush deeply. Women 
 are much more sensitive about their personal -appearance 
 than men are, especially elderly women in comparison 
 with elderly men, and they blush much more freely. 
 The young of both sexes are much more sensitive on 
 this same head than the old, and they also blush much 
 more freely than the old. Children at a very early 
 age do not blush ; nor do they show those other signs 
 of self-consciousness which generally accompany blush- 
 ing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think 
 nothing about what others think of them. At this early 
 age they will stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and 
 unblinking eyes, as on an inanimate object, in a manner 
 which we elders cannot imitate. 
 
 It is plain to every one that young men and women 
 are highly sensitive to the opinion of each other 
 with reference to their personal appearance; and 
 they blush incomparably more in the presence of the 
 opposite sex than in that of their own. 25 A young 
 man, not very liable to blush, will blush intensely at 
 any slight ridicule of his appearance from a girl whose 
 judgment on any important subject he would disregard. 
 No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other's 
 admiration and love more than anything else in the 
 world, probably ever courted each other without many 
 a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, 
 according to Mr. Bridges, blush " chiefly in regard to 
 u women, but certainly also at their own personal 
 " appearance." 
 
 Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered 
 _ — _ 
 
 25 Mr. Bam (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 65) remarks on 
 " the shyness of manners which is induced between the sexes .... 
 u from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on either 
 " side of not standing well with the other." 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 329 
 
 and regarded, as is natural from its being the chief seat 
 of expression and the source of the voice. It is also the 
 chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout 
 the world is the most ornamented. 26 The face, there- 
 fore, will have been subjected during many generations 
 to much closer and more earnest self-attention than any 
 other part of the body ; and in accordance with the 
 principle here advanced we can understand why it 
 should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure 
 to alternations of temperature, &c, has probably much 
 increased the power of dilatation and contraction in the 
 capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet this by 
 itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much 
 more than the rest of the body ; for it does not explain 
 the fact of the hands rarely blushing. With Europeans 
 the whole body tingles slightly when the face blushes 
 intensely ; and with the races of men who habitually 
 go nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger 
 surface than with us. These facts are, to a certain 
 extent, intelligible, as the self-attention of primeval man, 
 as well as of the existing races which still go naked, will 
 not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as 
 is the case with the people who now go clothed. 
 
 We have seen that in all parts of the world persons 
 who feel shame for some moral delinquency, are apt to 
 avert, bend down, or hide their faces, independently 
 of any thought about their personal appearance. The 
 object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for 
 the face is thus averted or hidden under circumstances 
 which exclude any desire to conceal shame, as when 
 guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, 
 probable that primeval man before he had acquired 
 
 28 See. for evidence on this subject, ' The Descent of Man/ &c., 
 vol. ii. pp. 71, 341. 
 
 15 
 
330 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 much moral sensitiveness would have been highly sen- 
 sitive about his personal appearance, at least in refer- 
 ence to the other sex, and he -would consequently have 
 felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his 
 appearance ; and this is one form of shame. And as 
 the face is the part of the body which is most regarded, 
 it is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal 
 appearance would desire to conceal this part of his 
 body. The habit having been thus acquired, would 
 naturally be carried on when shame from strictly moral 
 causes was felt ; and it is not easy otherwise to see why 
 under these circumstances there should be a desire to 
 hide the face more than any other part of the body. 
 
 The habit, so general with every one who feels 
 ashamed, of turning away, or lowering his eyes, or rest- 
 lessly moving them from side to side, probably follows 
 from each glance directed towards those present, bringing 
 home the conviction that he is intently regarded; 
 and he endeavours, by not looking at those present, and 
 especially not at their eyes, momentarily to escape from 
 this painful conviction. 
 
 Shyness. — This odd state of mind, often called 
 shamefacedness, or false shame, or mauvaise honte, ap- 
 pears to be one of the most efficient of all the causes of 
 blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly recognized by the 
 face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down, 
 and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many 
 a woman blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps 
 a thousand times, to once that she blushes from having 
 done anything deserving blame, and of which she 
 is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sen- 
 sitiveness to the opinion, whether good or bad, of 
 others, more especially with respect to external appear- 
 ance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 331 
 
 our conduct or character, but they may, and often 
 do, criticize our appearance : hence shy persons are 
 particularly apt to be shy and to blush in the presence 
 of strangers. The consciousness of anything peculiar, 
 or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on the 
 person, and more especially on the face — points which are 
 likely to attract the attention of strangers — makes the 
 shy intolerably shy. On the other hand, in those cases 
 in which conduct and not personal appearance is con- 
 cerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence 
 of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree 
 value, than in that of strangers. A physician told me 
 that a young man, a wealthy duke, with whom he had 
 travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl, when 
 he paid him his fee ; yet this young man probably 
 would not have blushed and been shy, had he been 
 paying a bill to a tradesman. Some persons, however, 
 are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to 
 almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-conscious- 
 ness, and a slight blush is the result. 
 
 Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness 
 on this head, causes shyness and blushing much more 
 readily than does approbation ; though the latter with 
 some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are 
 rarely shy ; for they value themselves much too highly 
 to expect depreciation. Why a proud man is often 
 shy, as appears to be the case, is not so obvious, unless 
 it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks 
 much about the opinion of others, although in a dis- 
 dainful spirit. Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely 
 shy in the presence of those with whom they are quite 
 familiar, and of whose good opinion and sympathy 
 they are perfectly assured; — for instance, a girl in 
 the presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire 
 in my printed paper whether shyness can be detected 
 
332 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentle- 
 man assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his 
 countrymen. 
 
 Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in 
 several languages, 27 is closely related to fear ; yet it is 
 distinct from fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no 
 doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly be 
 said to be afraid of them ; he may be as bold as a hero 
 in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles 
 in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is 
 extremely nervous when first addressing a public 
 assembly, and most men remain so throughout their 
 lives ; but this appears to depend on the consciousness 
 of a great coming exertion, with its associated effects 
 on the system, rather than on shyness; 28 although a 
 timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such occasions 
 infinitely more than another. With very young children 
 it is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness ; 
 but this latter feeling with them has often seemed to 
 me to partake of the character of the wildness of an 
 untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a very early 
 age. In one of my own children, when two years and 
 three months old, I saw a trace of what certainly 
 appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself after 
 an absence from home of only a week. This was 
 shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a 
 few minutes slightly averted from me. I have noticed 
 on other occasions that shyness or shamefacedness and 
 real shame are exhibited in the eyes of young children 
 before they have acquired the power of blushing. 
 
 27 H. Wedgwood, Diet. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 184. 
 So with the Latin word verecundus. 
 
 28 Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will/ p. 64) has discussed the 
 " abashed " feelings experienced on these occasions, as well as the 
 stage-fright of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently attri- 
 butes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 333 
 
 As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we 
 can perceive how right are those who maintain that re- 
 prehending children for shyness, instead of doing them 
 any good, does much harm, as it calls their attention 
 still more closely to themselves. It has been well 
 urged that " nothing hurts young people more than to 
 " be watched continually about their feelings, to have 
 " their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their « 
 " sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the un- 
 " merciful spectator. Under the constraint of such 
 " examinations they can think of nothing but that they 
 " are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or appre- 
 hension." 29 
 
 Moral causes : guilt. — With respect to blushing from 
 strictly moral causes, we meet with the same funda- 
 mental principle as before, namely, regard for the 
 opinion of others. It is not the conscience which raises 
 a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight 
 fault committed in solitude, or he may suffer the 
 deepest remorse for an undetected crime, but he will not 
 blush. " I blush," says Dr. Burgess, 30 " in the presence 
 " of my accusers." It is not the sense of guilt, but the 
 thought that others think or know us to be guilty which 
 crimsons the face. A man may feel thoroughly ashamed 
 at having told a small falsehood, without blushing ; but 
 if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly 
 blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres. 
 
 On the other hand, a man may be convinced that 
 God witnesses all his actions, and he may feel deeply 
 conscious of some fault and pray for forgiveness ; but 
 
 29 ' Essays on Practical Education/ by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, 
 new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187) insists strongly 
 to the same effect. 30 Ibid. p. 50. 
 
334 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. 
 
 this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes, 
 ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference 
 between the knowledge by God and man of our actions 
 lies, I presume, in man's disapprobation of immoral 
 conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his depre- 
 ciation of our personal appearance, so that through 
 association both lead to similar results ; whereas the 
 •disapprobation of God brings up no such association. 
 
 Many a person has blushed intensely when accused 
 of some crime, though completely innocent of it. Even 
 the thought, as the lady before referred to has observed 
 to me, that others think that Ave have made an unkind 
 or stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, 
 although we know all the time that we have been com- 
 pletely misunderstood. An action may be meritorious 
 or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he 
 suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. 
 For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a 
 beggar without a trace of a blush, but if others are 
 present, and she doubts whether they approve, or 
 suspects that they think her influenced by display, she 
 will blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the 
 distress of a decayed gentlewoman, more particularly of 
 one whom she had previously known under better 
 circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her 
 conduct will be viewed. But such cases as these blend 
 into shyness. 
 
 Breaches of etiquette. — The rules of etiquette always 
 refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. 
 They have no necessary connection with the moral 
 sense, and are often meaningless. Nevertheless as they 
 depend on the fixed custom of our equals and superiors, 
 whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered 
 almost as binding as are the laws of honour to a 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 335 
 
 gentleman. Consequently the breach of the laws of 
 etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or gaudier ie, any 
 impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite 
 accidental, will cause the most intense blushing of 
 which a man is capable. Even the recollection of such 
 an act, after an interval of many years, will make the 
 whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the power 
 of sympathy that a sensitive person, as a lady has 
 assured me, will sometimes blush at a flagrant breach 
 of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may 
 in no way concern her. 
 
 Modesty. — This is another powerful agent in exciting 
 blushes ; but the word modesty includes very different 
 states of the mind. It implies humility, and we often 
 judge of this by persons being greatly pleased and 
 blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise 
 which seems to them too high according to their own 
 humble standard of themselves. Blushing here has tlje 
 usual signification of regard for the opinion of others. 
 But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy ; 
 and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see 
 with the nations that go altogether or nearly naked. 
 He who is modest, and blushes easily at acts of this 
 nature, does so because they are breaches of a firmly 
 and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown 
 by the derivation of the word modest from modus, a 
 measure or standard of behaviour. A blush due to this 
 form of modesty is, moreover, apt to be intense, because 
 it generally relates to the opposite sex ; and we have 
 seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus in- 
 creased. We apply the term 'modest,' as it would appear, 
 to those who have an humble opinion of themselves, 
 and to those who are extremely sensitive about an 
 indelicate word or deed, simply because in both cases 
 
33(3 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 blushes are readily excited, for these two frames of 
 mind have nothing else in common. Shyness also, from 
 this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the 
 sense of humility. 
 
 Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have 
 been assured, at any sudden and disagreeable recol- 
 lection. The commonest cause seems to be the sudden 
 remembrance of not having done something for another 
 person which had been promised. In this case it may 
 be that the thought passes half unconsciously through 
 the mind, " What will he think of me ?" and then the 
 flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. 
 But whether such flushes are in most cases due to the 
 capillary circulation being affected, is very doubtful ; 
 for we must remember that almost every strong emo- 
 tion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, 
 and causes the face to redden. 
 
 The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute 
 solitude seems opposed to the view here taken, namely 
 that the habit originally arose from thinking about 
 what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great 
 blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude ; and some 
 of them believe that they have blushed in the dark. 
 From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the 
 Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt 
 that this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, 
 therefore, erred when he made Juliet, who was not 
 even by herself, say to Borneo (act ii. sc. 2) : — 
 
 " Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face ; 
 Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek, 
 For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night." 
 
 But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause 
 almost always relates to the thoughts of others about 
 us —to acts done in their presence, or suspected by them; 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 337 
 
 or again when we reflect what others would have 
 thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless 
 one or two of my informants believe that they have 
 blushed from shame at acts in no way relating to others. 
 If this be so, we must attribute the result to the force of 
 inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind 
 closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a 
 blush ; nor need we feel surprise at this, as even sym- 
 pathy with another person who commits a flagrant 
 breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, 
 sometimes to cause a blush. 
 
 Finally, then, I conclude that blushing, — whether 
 due to shyness — to shame for a real crime — to shame 
 from a breach of the laws of etiquette — to modesty 
 from humility — to modesty from an indelicacy — depends 
 in all cases on the same principle ; this principle being 
 a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly 
 for the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to 
 our personal appearance, especially of our faces ; and 
 secondarily, through the force of association and habit, 
 in relation to the opinion of others on our conduct. 
 
 Theory of Blushing. — We have now to consider, why 
 should the thought that others are thinking about us 
 affect our capillary circulation? Sir C. Bell insists 31 
 that blushing " is a provision for expression, as may be 
 " inferred from the colour extending only to the surface 
 " of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. 
 " It is not acquired ; it is from the beginning." Dr. 
 Burgess believes that it was designed by the Creator 
 in " order that the soul might have sovereign power of 
 " displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions 
 
 31 Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95. Burgess, as quoted below, 
 ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, Do la Pkys. p. 94. 
 
338 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 " of the moral feelings; " so as to serve as a check on 
 ourselves, and as a sign to others, that we were violating 
 rules which ought to be held sacred. Gratiolet merely 
 remarks, — "Or, comme il est dans l'ordre de la nature 
 " que letre social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus 
 " intelligible, cette faculte de rougeur et de paleur qui 
 " distingue l'homme, est un signe naturel de sa haute 
 " perfection." 
 
 The belief that blushing was specially designed by 
 the Creator is opposed to the general theory of evolu- 
 tion, which is now so largely accepted ; but it forms 
 no part of my duty here to argue on the general ques- 
 tion. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult 
 to account for shyness being the most frequent and 
 efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes the 
 blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, with- 
 out being of the least service to either of them. They 
 will also find it difficult to account for negroes and 
 other dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change 
 of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible. 
 
 No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a 
 maiden's face; and the Circassian women who are 
 capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher price in 
 the seraglio of the Sultan than less susceptible women. 32 
 But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selec- 
 tion will hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as 
 a sexual ornament. This view would also be opposed 
 to what has just been said about the dark-coloured 
 races blushing in an invisible manner. 
 
 The hypothesis which appears to me the most pro- 
 bable, though it may at first seem rash, is that atten- 
 tion closely directed to any part of the body tends to 
 
 32 On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague ; see Burgess, 
 ibid. p. 43. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 339 
 
 interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the 
 small arteries of that part. These vessels, in conse- 
 quence, become at such times more or less relaxed, an I 
 are instantly filled with arterial blood. This tendency 
 will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention 
 has been paid during many generations to the same part, 
 owing to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed 
 channels, and by the power of inheritance. Whenever 
 we believe that others are depreciating or even con- 
 sidering our personal appearance, our attention is 
 vividly directed to the outer and visible parts of our 
 bodies; and of all such parts we are most sensitive 
 about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during 
 many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the 
 moment that the capillary vessels can be acted on by 
 close attention, those of the face will have become 
 eminently susceptible. Through the force of associa- 
 tion, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we 
 think that others are considering or censuring our 
 actions or character. 
 
 As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention 
 having some power to influence the capillary circula- 
 tion, it will be necessary to give a considerable body 
 of details, bearing more or less directly on this subject. 
 Several observers, 33 who from their wide experience 
 
 33 In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to consider 
 the influence of mental attention on various parts of the body, in his 
 ' Medical Note3 and Keflections,' 1839, p. 64. This essay, much en- 
 larged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his * Chapters on Mental 
 Physiology,' 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At neaily 
 the same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed the 
 same subject : see ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' 18139, 
 July, pp. 17-22. Also his ' Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,' 
 1840, p. 110; and 'Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 18G0, p. 5327. Dr. Car- 
 penter's views on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great 
 physiologist Muller treated (' Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. 
 
340 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 and knowledge are eminently capable of forming a 
 sound judgment, are convinced that attention or con- 
 sciousness (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks 
 the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part 
 of the body produces some direct physical effect on 
 it. This applies to the movements of the involuntary 
 muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when acting 
 involuntarily, — to the secretion of the glands, — to the 
 activity of the senses and sensations, — and even to 
 the nutrition of parts. 
 
 It is known that the involuntary movements of the 
 heart are affected if close attention be paid to them. 
 Gratiolet 34 gives the case of a man, who by continually 
 watching and counting his own pulse, at last caused 
 one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other 
 hand, my father told me of a careful observer, who 
 certainly had heart-disease and died from it, and who 
 positively stated that his pulse was habitually irre- 
 gular to an extreme degree ; yet to his great disap- 
 pointment it invariably became regular as soon as my 
 father entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks, 35 
 that " the effect upon the circulation of a part from the 
 " consciousness suddenly directed and fixed upon it, 
 " is often obvious and immediate." Professor Lay cock, 
 who has particularly attended to phenomena of this 
 nature, 36 insists that " when the attention is directed 
 " to any portion of the body, innervation and circula- 
 " tion are excited locally, and the functional activity of 
 " that portion developed." 
 
 vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the senses 
 Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the nutrition of 
 parts, in his ' Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 39 : I 
 quote from the 3rd edit, revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28, See, 
 al-o, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287. 34 De la Phys. p. 283. 
 
 35 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 111. 
 
 36 ' Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 1310, p. 327. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 341 
 
 It is generally believed that the peristaltic move- 
 ments of the intestines are influenced by attention being 
 paid to them at fixed recurrent periods ; and these 
 movements depend on the contraction of unstriped 
 and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the 
 voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is 
 known to be influenced by the expectation of an 
 attack, and by the sight of other patients similarly 
 affected. 37 So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning 
 and laughing. 
 
 Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of 
 them, or of the conditions under which they have been 
 habitually excited. This is familiar to every one in 
 the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for in- 
 stance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. 38 
 It was shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest 
 and long-continued desire either to repress, or to in- 
 crease, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual. 
 Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of 
 women, of the power of the mind on the mammary 
 glands ; and still more remarkable ones in relation to 
 the uterine functions. 39 
 
 37 1 Chapters on Mental Physiology,' pp. 104-106. 
 
 38 See Giratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. 
 
 39 Dr. J. Crichton Browne, from his observations on the insane, is 
 convinced that attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or 
 organ may ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition. 
 He has given me some extraordinary cases ; one of these, whieh 
 cannot here be related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of 
 age, who laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that 
 she was pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted pre- 
 cisely as if she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to 
 surfer extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. 
 The result was that a state of things returned, continuing for three 
 days, which had ceasid during the six previous years. Mr. Braid 
 gives, in his ' Magic, Hypnotism,' &c, 1852, p. 95, and in his other 
 works, analogous cases, as well as other facts s!. owing the great in- 
 fluence of the will on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone. 
 
342 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 When we direct our whole attention to any one 
 sense, its acuteness is increased; 40 and the continued 
 habit of close attention, as with blind people to that 
 of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of 
 touch, appears to improve the sense in question per- 
 manently. There is, also, some reason to believe, 
 judging from the capacities of different races of man, 
 that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary 
 sensations, it is well known that pain is increased 
 by attending to it ; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to 
 believe that pain may be felt in any part of the body 
 to which attention is closely drawn. 41 Sir H. Holland 
 also remarks that we become not only conscious of the 
 existence of a part subjected to concentrated attention, 
 but we experience in it various odd sensations, as of 
 weight, heat, cold, tingling, or itching. 42 
 
 Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind 
 can influence the nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget 
 has given a curious instance of the power, not in- 
 deed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the 
 hair. A lady " who is subject to attacks of what is 
 " called nervous headache, always % finds in the morning 
 " after such an one, that some patches of her hair 
 " are white, as if powdered with starch. The change 
 " is effected in a night, and in a few days after, the 
 " hairs gradually regain their dark brownish colour." 43 
 
 40 Dr. Maudsley has given (' The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 
 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious statements with 
 respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by practice and atten- 
 tion. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus been rendered 
 more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a finger, it is likewise 
 improved at the corresponding point on the opposite side of the body. 
 
 41 'The Lancet,' 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof. Laycock, 
 ' Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110. 
 
 42 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp. 91-93. 
 
 43 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 3rd edit, revised by Prof. 
 Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 343 
 
 We thus see that close attention certainly affects 
 various parts and organs, which are not properly under 
 the control of the will. By what means attention — 
 perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers 
 of the mind — is effected, is au extremely obscure 
 subject. According to Muller./ 4 the process by which 
 the sensory cells of the brain are rendered, through 
 the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and dis- 
 tinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which 
 the motor cells are excited to send nerve-force to the 
 voluntary muscles. There are many points of analogy 
 in the action of the sensory and motor nerve-cells ; for 
 instance, the familiar fact that close attention to any 
 one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion 
 of any one muscle. 45 When therefore we voluntarily 
 concentrate our attention on any part of the body, the 
 cells of the brain which receive impressions or sensa- 
 tions from that part are, it is probable, in some un- 
 known manner stimulated into activity. This may 
 account, without any local change in the part to which 
 our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sen- 
 sations being there felt or increased." 
 
 If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we 
 cannot feel sure, as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked 
 to me, that some slight impulse may not be uncon- 
 sciously sent to such muscles ; and this would probably 
 cause an obscure sensation in the part. 
 
 In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and 
 lacrymal glands, intestinal canal, &c, the power ol 
 attention seems to rest, either chiefly, or as some phy- 
 siologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor system 
 being affected in such a manner that more blood is 
 
 44 { Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 938. 
 
 45 Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very interesting 
 manner. See his ' Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110. 
 
344 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 allowed to flow into the capillaries of the part in ques- 
 tion. This increased action of the capillaries may in 
 some cases be combined with the simultaneously in- 
 creased activity of the sensorium. 
 
 The manner in which the mind affects the vaso- 
 motor system may be conceived in the following 
 manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an im- 
 pression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a 
 certain part of the sensorium ; this transmits nerve- 
 force to the vaso-motor centre, which consequently 
 allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that 
 permeate the • salivary glands to relax. Hence more 
 blood flows into these glands, and they secrete a copious 
 supply of saliva. Now it does not seem an improbable 
 assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a sensa- 
 tion, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely con- 
 nected part of it, is brought into a\ state of activity, in 
 the same manner as when we actually perceive the 
 sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain will be 
 excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly 
 thinking about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and 
 they will transmit in the one case, as in the other, nerve- 
 force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results. 
 
 To give another, and, in some respects, more appro- 
 priate illustration. If a man stands before a hot fire, 
 his face reddens. This appears to be due, as Mr. 
 Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action 
 of the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the 
 vaso-motor centres. 46 In this latter case, the heat affects 
 the nerves of the face; these transmit an impression 
 to the sensory cells of the brain, which act on the 
 
 46 See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor 
 system, in his interesting Lecture before the Eoyal Institution, as 
 translated in the 1 Revue des Cours Seientifiques,' Sept. 25, 1869, 
 p. 683. 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 FLUSHING. 
 
 345 
 
 vaso- motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries 
 of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become 
 filled with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable 
 that if we were repeatedly to concentrate with great 
 earnestness onr attention on the recollection of our 
 heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which 
 gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in 
 some slight degree stimulated, and would in conse- 
 quence tend to transmit some nerve-force to the vaso- 
 motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries of the face. 
 Now as men during endless generations have had their 
 attention often and earnestly directed to their personal 
 appearance, and especially to their faces, any incipient 
 tendency in the facial capillaries to be thus affected 
 will have become in the course of time greatly strength- 
 ened through the principles just referred to, namely, 
 nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, 
 and inherited habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a 
 plausible explanation is afforded of the leading pheno- 
 mena connected with the act of blushing. 
 
 Recapitulation. — Men and women, and especially the 
 young, have always valued, in a high degree, their 
 personal appearance ; and have likewise regarded the 
 appearance of others. The face has been the chief object 
 of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, 
 the whole surface of his body would have been attended 
 to. Our self-attention is excited almost exclusively by 
 the opinion of others, for no person living in absolute 
 solitude would care about his appearance. Every one 
 feels blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever 
 we know, or suppose, that others are depreciating our 
 personal appearance, our attention is strongly drawn 
 towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The 
 probable effect of this will be, as has just been ex- 
 
346 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 plained, to excite into activity that part of the senso- 
 rium which receives the sensory nerves of the face ; 
 and this will react through the vaso-rnotor system on 
 the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during 
 numberless generations, the process will have become 
 so habitual, in association with the belief that others 
 are thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their 
 depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries, without 
 any conscious thought about our faces. With some 
 sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their 
 dress to produce the same effect. Through the force, 
 also, of association an 1 inheritance our capillaries are 
 relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one 
 is blamiug, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or 
 character ; and, again, when we are highly praised. 
 
 On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that 
 the face blushes much more than any other part of the 
 body, though the whole surface is somewhat affected, 
 more especially with the races which still go nearly 
 naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark- 
 coloured races should blush, though no change of 
 colour is visible in their skins. From the principle 
 of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born 
 blind should blush. We can understand why the 
 young are much more affected than the old, and women 
 more than men ; and why the opposite sexes especially 
 excite each other's blushes. It becomes obvious why 
 personal remarks should be particularly liable to cause 
 blushing, and why the most powerful of all the causes 
 is shyness; for shyness relates to the presence and 
 opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less 
 self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral 
 delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not guilt, but 
 the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a 
 blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in 
 
Chap. XIII. 
 
 BLUSHING. 
 
 347 
 
 solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush ; 
 yet he will blush under the vivid recollection of a 
 detected fault, or of one committed in the presence of 
 others, the degree of blushing being closely related to 
 the feeling of regard for those who have detected, 
 witnessed, or suspected bis fault. Breaches of con- 
 ventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted 
 on by our equals or superiors, often cause more intense 
 blushes even than a detected crime ; and an act which 
 is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly 
 raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from 
 humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, 
 as both relate to the judgment or fixed customs of others. 
 
 From the intimate sympathy which exists between the 
 capillary circulation of the surface of the head and of 
 the brain, whenever there is intense blushing, there will 
 be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This is fre- 
 quently accompanied by awkward movements, and some- 
 times by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles. 
 
 As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an in- 
 direct result of attention, originally directed to our 
 personal appearance, that is to the surface of the body, 
 and more especially to the face, we can understand the 
 meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing 
 throughout the world. These consist in hiding the 
 face, or turning it towards the ground, or to one side. 
 The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to 
 look at the man who causes us to feel shame or shy- 
 ness, immediately brings home in an intolerable man- 
 ner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. 
 Through the principle of associated habit, the same 
 movements of the face and eyes are practised, and 
 can, indeed, hardly ' be avoided, whenever we know 
 or believe that others are blaming, or too strongly 
 praising, our moral conduct. 
 
348 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Concluding Eemarks and Summary. 
 
 The three leading principles which have determined the chief move- 
 ments of expression — Their inheritance — On the part which 
 the will and intention have played in the acquirement of various 
 expressions — The instinctive recognition of expression — The 
 bearing of our subject on the specific unity of the races of man — 
 On the successive acquirement of various expressions by the pro- 
 genitors of man — The importance of expression — Conclusion. 
 
 I have now described, to the best of my ability, the 
 chief expressive actions in man, and in some few of 
 the lower animals. I have also attempted to explain 
 the origin or development of these actions through the 
 three principles given in the first chapter. The first 
 of these principles is, that movements which are ser- 
 viceable in gratifying some desire, or in relieving some 
 sensation, if often repeated, become so habitual that 
 they are performed, whether or not of any service, 
 whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a 
 very weak degree. 
 
 Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit 
 of voluntarily performing opposite movements under 
 opposite impulses has become firmly established in us 
 by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain 
 actions have been regularly performed, in accordance 
 with our first piinciple, under a certain frame of mind, 
 there will be a strong and involuntary tendency to the 
 performance of directly opposite actions, whether or not 
 these are of any use, under the excitement of an oppo- 
 site frame of mind. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 349 
 
 Our third principle is the direct action of the excited 
 nervous system on the body, independently of the will, 
 and independently, in large part, of habit. Experience 
 shows that nerve-force is generated and set free 
 whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The 
 direction which this nerve-force follows is necessarily 
 determined by the lines of connection between the 
 nerve-cells, with each other and with various parts 
 of the body. But the direction is likewise much in- 
 fluenced by habit ; inasmuch as nerve-force passes 
 readily along accustomed channels. 
 
 The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man 
 may be attributed in part to the undirected flow of 
 nerve-force, and in part to the effects of habit, for these 
 actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. 
 They thus pass into gestures included under our first 
 principle ; as when an indignant man unconsciously 
 throws himself into a fitting attitude for attacking his 
 opponent, though without any intention of making an 
 actual attack. We see also the influence of habit in 
 all the emotions and sensations which are called ex- 
 citing; for they have assumed this character from 
 having habitually led to energetic action; and action 
 affects, in an indirect manner, the respiratory and 
 circulatory system ; and the latter reacts on the 
 brain. Whenever these emotions or sensations are 
 even slightly felt by us, though they may not at the 
 time lead to any exertion, our whole system is never- 
 theless disturbed through the force of habit and asso- 
 ciation. Other emotions and sensations are called 
 depressing, because they have not habitually led to 
 energetic action, excepting just at first, as in the case 
 of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ulti- 
 mately caused complete exhaustion ; they are con- 
 sequently expressed chiefly by negative signs and by 
 
350 
 
 CONCLUDING BEMAEKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 prostration. Again, there are other emotions, such 
 as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to 
 action of any kind, and consequently are not exhibited 
 by any strongly marked outward signs. Affection 
 indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation, 
 excites the ordinary signs of pleasure. 
 
 On the other hand, many of the effects due to the 
 excitement of the nervous system seem to be quite 
 independent of the flow of nerve-force along the chan- 
 nels which have been rendered habitual by former 
 exertions of the will. Such effects, which often reveal • 
 the state of mind of the person thus affected, cannot 
 at present be explained ; for instance, the change of 
 colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief, — the 
 cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear, 
 — the modified secretions of the intestinal canal, — and 
 the failure of certain glands to act. 
 
 Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible 
 in our present subject, so many expressive movements 
 and actions can be explained to a certain extent through 
 the above three principles, that w r e may hope hereafter 
 to see all explained by these or by closely analogous 
 principles. 
 
 Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any 
 state of the mind, are at once recognised as expressive. 
 These may consist of movements of any part of the 
 body, as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of 
 a man's shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exuda- 
 tion of perspiration, the state of the capillary circu- 
 lation, laboured breathing, and the use of the vocal 
 or other sound-producing instruments. Even insects 
 express anger, terror, jealousy, and love by their stimu- 
 lation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial 
 importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a 
 still higher degree in an indirect In an ner. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMAEY. 
 
 351 
 
 Few points are more interesting in onr present sub- 
 ject than the extraordinarily complex chain of events 
 which lead to certain expressive movements. Take, 
 for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering 
 from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly 
 from hunger or pain, the circulation is affected, and 
 the eyes tend to become gorged with blood : conse- 
 quently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly 
 contracted as a protection : this action, in the course 
 of many generations, has become firmly fixed and in- 
 herited : but when, with advancing years and culture, 
 the habit of screaming is partially repressed, the 
 muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, when- 
 ever even slight distress is felt : of these muscles, the 
 pyramidals of the nose are less under the control of 
 the will than are the others, and their contraction can 
 be checked only by that of the central fasciae of the 
 frontal muscle : these latter fasciae draw up the inner 
 ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a 
 peculiar manner, which we instantly recognise as the 
 expression of grief or anxiety. Slight movements, such 
 as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible 
 drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the 
 last remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and 
 intelligible movements. They are as full of signifi- 
 cance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary 
 rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and 
 genealogy of organic beings. 
 
 That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man 
 and by the lower animals, are now innate or inherited, 
 — that is, have not been learnt by the individual, — is 
 admitted by every one. So little has learning or imi- 
 tation to do with several of them that they are 
 from the earliest days and throughout life quite be- 
 yond cur control ; for instance, the relaxation of 
 
352 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 the arteries of the skin in blushing", and the increased 
 action of the heart in anger. We may see children, 
 only two or three years old, and even those born blind, 
 blushing from shame; and the naked scalp of a very 
 young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream 
 from pain directly after birth, and all their features 
 then assume the same form as during subsequent years. 
 These facts alone suffice to show that many of our most 
 important expressions have not been learnt ; but it is 
 remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, 
 require practice in the individual, before they are per- 
 formed in a full and perfect manner; for instance, 
 weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of 
 our expressive actions explains the fact that those born 
 blind display them, as I hear from the Rev. R. H. 
 Blair, equally well with those gifted with e esight. 
 We can thus also understand the fact that the young 
 and the old of widely different races, both with man 
 and animals, express the same state of mind by the 
 same movements. 
 
 We are so familiar with the fact of young and old 
 animals displaying their feelings in the same manner, 
 that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is that a 
 young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress 
 its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending 
 to be savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten 
 should arch its little back and erect its hair when 
 frightened and angry, like an old cat. When, how- 
 ever, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, 
 which we are accustomed to look at as artificial or 
 conventional,— such as shrugging the shoulders, as a 
 sign of impotence, or the raising the arms with open 
 hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder, — we 
 feel perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are 
 innate. That these and some other gestures are in- 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMAIIY. 
 
 353 
 
 herited, we may infer from their being performed by- 
 very young children, by those born blind, and by the 
 most widely distinct races of man. We should also 
 bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in 
 association with certain states of the mind, are known 
 to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been 
 afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, 
 for more than one generation. 
 
 Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural 
 that we might easily imagine that they were innate, 
 apparently have been learnt like the words of a lan- 
 guage. This seems to be the case with the joining of 
 the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in . 
 prayer. So it is with kissing as a mark of affection ; 
 but this is innate, in so far as it depends on the plea- 
 sure derived from contact with a beloved person. The 
 evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding 
 and shaking the head, as signs of affirmation and nega- 
 tion, is doubtful; for they are not universal, yet seem 
 too general to have been independently acquired by all* 
 the individuals of so many races. 
 
 We will now consider how far the will and conscious- 
 ness have come into play in the development of the 
 various movements of expression. As far as we can 
 judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those 
 just referred to, are learnt by each individual ; that is, 
 were consciously and voluntarily performed during 
 the early years of life for some definite object, or in . 
 imitation of others, and then became habitual. The 
 far greater number of the movements of expression, 
 and all the more important ones, are, as we have F6en, 
 innate or inherited ; and such cannot be said to dep; n I 
 on the will of the individual. Nevertheless, all those 
 included under our first principle were at first volun- 
 1C 
 
354 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 tarily performed for a definite object, — namely, to 
 escape some danger, to relieve some distress, or to 
 gratify some desire. For instance, there can hardly 
 be a doubt that the animals which fight with their 
 teeth, have acquired the habit of drawing back their 
 ears closely to their heads, when feeling savage, from 
 their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this 
 manner in order to protect their ears from being torn 
 by their antagonists ; for those animals which do not 
 fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage state 
 of mind. We may infer as highly probable that we 
 ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the 
 muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is, 
 without the utterance of any loud sound, from our 
 progenitors, especially during infancy, having expe- 
 rienced, during the act of screaming, an uncomfortable 
 sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some highly ex- 
 pressive movements result from the endeavour to check 
 or prevent other expressive movements ; thus the obli- 
 quity of the eyebrows and the drawing clown of the 
 corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to 
 prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to check it 
 after it has come on. Here it is obvious that the con- 
 sciousness and will must at first have come into play ; 
 not that we are conscious in these or in other such 
 cases what muscles are brought into action, any more 
 than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary 
 movements. 
 
 With respect to the expressive movements due to 
 the principle of antithesis, it is clear that the will has 
 intervened, though in a remote and indirect manner. 
 So again with the movements coming under our third 
 principle ; these, in as far as they are influenced by 
 nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, 
 have been determined by former and repeated exer- 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 355 
 
 tions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this 
 latter agency are often combined in a complex manner, 
 through the force of habit and association, with those 
 directly resulting from the excitement of the cerebro- 
 spinal system. This seems to be the case with the in- 
 creased action of the heart under the influence of any 
 strong emotion. When an animal erects its hair, as- 
 sumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, 
 in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious combi- 
 nation of movements which were originally voluntary 
 with those that are involuntary. It is, however, 
 possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as 
 the erection of the hair, may have been affected by the 
 mysterious power of the will. 
 
 Some expressive movements may have arisen spon- 
 taneously, in association with certain states of the mind, 
 like the tricks lately referred to, and afterwards been 
 inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this 
 view probable. 
 
 The power of communication between the members 
 of the same tribe by means of language has been of 
 paramount importance in the development of man; 
 and the force of language is much aided by the expres- 
 sive movements of the face and body. We perceive 
 this at once when we converse on an important sub- 
 ject with any person whose face is concealed. Never- 
 theless there are no grounds, as far as I can discover, 
 for believing that any muscle has been developed or 
 even modified exclusively for the sake of expression. 
 The vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which 
 various expressive noises are produced, seem to form a 
 partial exception ; but I have elsewhere attempted to 
 show that these organs were first developed for sexual 
 purposes, in order that one sex mi^ht call or charm the 
 other. Nor can I discover grounds for believing that 
 
356 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 any inherited movement, which now serves as a means 
 of expression, was at first voluntarily and consciously 
 performed for this special purpose, — like some of the 
 gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and 
 dumb. On the contrary, every true or inherited move- 
 ment of expression seems to have had some natural and 
 independent origin. But when once acquired, such 
 movements may be voluntarily and consciously em- 
 ployed as a means of communication. Even infants, if 
 carefully attended to, find out at a very early age that 
 their screaming brings relief, and they soon voluntarily 
 practise it. We may frequently see a person volun- 
 tarily raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or 
 smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acqui- 
 escence. A man often wishes to make certain gestures 
 conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his ex- 
 tended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, 
 to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, 
 to show that he cannot or will not do something. The 
 tendency to such movements will be strengthened or 
 increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly 
 performed ; and the effects may be inherited. 
 
 It is perhaps worth consideration whether move- 
 ments at first used only by one or a few individuals to 
 express a certain state of mind may not sometimes 
 have spread to others, and ultimately have become 
 universal, through the power of conscious and uncon- 
 scious imitation. That there exists in man a strong 
 tendency to imitation, independently of the conscious 
 will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extra- 
 ordinary manner in certain brain diseases, especially at 
 the commencement of inflammatory softening of the 
 brain, and has been called the " echo sign." Patients 
 thus affected imitate, without understanding, every 
 absurd gesture which is made, and every word which 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 357 
 
 is uttered near them, even in a foreign language. 1 In 
 the case of animals, the jackal and wolf have learnt 
 under confinement to imitate the barking of the clog. 
 How the barking of the dog, which serves to express 
 various emotions and desires, and which is so remark- 
 able from having been acquired since the animal was 
 domesticated, and from being inherited in different 
 degrees by different breeds, was first learnt, we do not 
 know ; but may we not suspect that imitation has had 
 something to do with its acquisition, owing to dogs 
 having long lived in strict association with so loqua- 
 cious an animal as man ? 
 
 In the course of the foregoing remarks and through- 
 out this volume, I have often felt much difficulty about 
 the proper application of the terms, will, consciousness, 
 and intention. Actions, which were at first volun- 
 tary, soon become habitual, and at last hereditary, 
 and may then be performed even in opposition to the 
 will. Although they often reveal the state of the 
 mind, this result was not at first either intended or ex- 
 pected. Even such words as that " certain movements 
 serve as a means of expression " are apt to mislead, as 
 they imply that this was their primary purpose or 
 object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have 
 been the case; the movements having been at first 
 either of some direct use, or the indirect effect of the 
 excited state of the sensorium. An infant may scream 
 either intentionally or instinctively to show that it 
 wants food ; but it has no wish or intention to draw 
 its features into the peculiar form which so plainly 
 indicates misery ; yet some of the most characteristic 
 expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act 
 of screaming, as has been explained. 
 
 1 See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on 'Aphasia,' 1870, 
 p. 110. 
 
358 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. 
 
 Although most of our expressive actions are innate 
 or instinctive, as is admitted by everyone, it is a dif- 
 ferent question whether we have any instinctive power 
 of recognising them. This has generally been assumed 
 to be the case ; but the assumption has been strongly 
 controverted by M. Lemoine. 2 Monkeys soon learn 
 to distinguish, not only the tones of voice of their 
 masters, but the expression of their faces, as is asserted 
 by a careful observer. 3 Dogs well know the difference 
 between caressing and threatening gestures or tones ; 
 and they seem to recognise a compassionate tone. But 
 as far as I can make out, after repeated trials, they 
 do not understand any movement confined to the 
 features, excepting a smile or laugh ; and this they 
 appear, at least in some cases, to recognise. This 
 limited amount of knowledge has probably been gained, 
 both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating 
 harsh or kind treatment with our actions ; and the 
 knowledge certainly is not instinctive. Children, no 
 doubt, would soon learn the movements of expression 
 in their elders in the same manner as animals learn 
 those of man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, 
 he knows in a general manner what he is doing 
 and what he feels; so that a very small exertion 
 of reason would tell him what crying or laughing 
 meant in others. But the question is, do our chil- 
 dren acquire their knowledge of expression solely 
 by experience through the power of association and 
 reason ? 
 
 As most of the movements of expression must have 
 been gradually acquired, afterwards becoming instinc- 
 
 2 * La Physionomie et la Parole,' I860, pp. 103, 118. 
 8 Kengger, 1 Naturgeschichte der S'augethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, 
 8. 55. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 359 
 
 tive, there seems to be some degree of a priori proba- 
 bility that their recognition would likewise have become 
 instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in 
 believing this than in admitting that, when a female 
 quadruped first bears young, she knows the C|V of dis- 
 tress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many 
 animals instinctively recognise and fear their enemies ; 
 and of both these statements there can be no reasonable 
 doubt. It is however extremely difficult to prove that 
 our children instinctively recognise any expression. I 
 attended to this point in my first-born infant, who could 
 not have learnt anything by associating with other 
 children, and I was convinced that he understood a 
 smile and received pleasure from seeing one, answering 
 it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt 
 anything by experience. When this child was about 
 four months old, I made in his presence many odd 
 noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look savage ; 
 but the noises, if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, 
 were all taken as good jokes ; and I attributed this at 
 the time to their being preceded or accompanied by 
 smiles. When five months old, he seemed to under- 
 stand a compassionate expression and tone of voice. 
 When a few days over six months old, his nurse pre- 
 tended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed 
 a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth 
 strongly depressed ; now this child could rarely have 
 seen any other child crying, and never a grown-up 
 person crying, and I should doubt whether at so early 
 an age he could have reasoned on the subject. There- 
 fore it seems to me that an innate feeling must have 
 told him that the pretended crying of his nurse ex- 
 pressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy 
 excited grief in him. 
 
 M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate 
 
3(50 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV 
 
 knowledge of expression, authors and artists would not 
 have found it so difficult, as is notoriously the case, to 
 describe and depict the characteristic signs of each 
 particular state of mind. But this does not seem to 
 me a valid argument. We may actually behold the 
 expression changing in an unmistakable manner in a 
 man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I know 
 from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. 
 Tn the two photographs given by Duchenne of the same 
 old man (Plate III. figs. 5 and 6), almost every one re- 
 cognised that the one represented a true, and the other a 
 false smile ; but I have found it very difficult to decide 
 in what the whole amount of difference consists. It 
 lias often struck me as a curious fact that so many 
 shades of expression are instantly recognised without 
 any conscious process of analysis on our part. No one, 
 I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly expres- 
 sion; yet many observers are unanimous that these 
 expressions can be recognised m the various races of 
 man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne's 
 photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows 
 (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it expressed 
 grief or some such feeling ; yet probably not one of 
 these persons, or one out of a thousand persons, 
 could beforehand have told anything precise about 
 the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends 
 puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the fore- 
 head. So it is with many other expressions, of which I 
 have had practical experience in the trouble requisite 
 in instructing others what points to observe.' If, then, 
 great ignorance of details does not prevent our recog- 
 nising with certainty and promptitude various expres- 
 sions, I do not see how this ignorance can be advanced 
 ' as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and 
 general, is not innate. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 361 
 
 I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail 
 that all the chief expressions exhibited by man are the 
 same throughout the world. This fact is interesting, 
 as it affords a new argument in favour of the several 
 races being descended from a single parent-stock, which 
 must have been almost completely human in structure, 
 and to a large extent in mind, before the period at which 
 the races diverged from each other. No doubt similar 
 structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often 
 been independently acquired through variation and 
 natural selection by distinct species ; but this view will 
 not explain close similarity between distinct species in 
 a multitude of unimportant details. Now if we bear in 
 mind the numerous points of structure having no rela- 
 tion to expression, in which all the races of man closely 
 agree, and then add to them the numerous points, 
 some of the highest importance and many of the most 
 trifling value, on which the movements of expression 
 directly or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable 
 in the highest degree that so much similarity, or rather 
 identity of structure, could have been acquired by 
 independent means. Yet this must have been the case 
 if the races of man are descended from several abori- 
 ginally distinct species. It is far more probable that 
 the many points of close similarity in the various races 
 are due to inheritance from a single parent-form, which 
 had already assumed a human character. 
 
 It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, 
 how early in the long line of our progenitors the various 
 expressive movements, now exhibited by man, were 
 successively acquired. The following remarks will at 
 least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed 
 in this volume. We may confidently believe that 
 laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was 1 
 practised by our progenitors long before they deserved 
 
362 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Ciiap. XIV. 
 
 to be called human ; for very many kinds of monkeys, 
 when pleased, utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous 
 to our laughter, often' accompanied by vibratory move- 
 ments of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the 
 mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling 
 of the cheeks, and even by the brightening of the 
 eyes. 
 
 We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from 
 an extremely remote period, in almost the same manner 
 as it now is by man ; namely, by trembling, the erec- 
 tion of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely opened 
 eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the 
 whole body cowering downwards or held motionless. 
 
 Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused 
 screams or groans to be uttered, the body to be con- 
 torted, and the teeth to be ground together. But our 
 progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expres- 
 sive movements of the features which accompany 
 screaming and crying until their circulatory and respi- 
 ratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes, 
 had acquired their present structure. The shedding 
 of tears appears to have originated through reflex 
 action from the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, 
 together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged 
 with blood during the act of screaming. Therefore 
 weeping probably came on rather late in the line of 
 our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact 
 that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do 
 not weep. But we must here exercise some caution, for 
 as certain monkeys, which are not closely related to 
 man, weep, this habit might have been developed long 
 ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is 
 derived. Our early progenitors, when suffering from 
 grief or anxiety, would not have made their eyebrows 
 oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 363 
 
 until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to 
 restrain their screams. The expression, therefore, of 
 grief and anxiety is eminently human. 
 
 Rage will have been expressed at a very early period 
 by threatening or frantic gestures, by the reddening of 
 the skin, and by glaring eyes, but not by frowning. 
 For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired 
 chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to 
 contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, 
 anger, or distress is felt, and there consequently is a near 
 approach to screaming; and partly from a frown serving 
 as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems pro- 
 bable that this shading action would not have become 
 habitual until man had assumed a completely upright 
 position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a 
 glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, 
 would probably have exposed their teeth more freely 
 than does man, even when giving full vent to his 
 rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost 
 certain that they would have * protruded their lips, 
 when sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than 
 is the case with our own children, or even with the 
 children of* existing savage races. 
 
 Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately * 
 angry, would not have held their heads erect, opened 
 their chests, squared their shoulders, and clenched their 
 fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and 
 upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with • 
 their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the 
 antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a 
 sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been 
 developed. From the same reason astonishment would 
 not then have been expressed by raising the arms with 
 open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from 
 the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been 
 
364 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 exhibited by a widely open mouth ; but the eyes would 
 have been opened and the eyebrows arched. Disgust 
 would have been shown at a very early period by 
 movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting, 
 — that is, if the view which I have suggested respecting 
 the source of the expression is correct, namely, that 
 our progenitors had the power, and used it, of volun- 
 tarily and quickly rejecting any food from their 
 stomachs which they disliked. But the more refined 
 manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering 
 the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if 
 the despised person were not worth looking at, would not 
 probably have been acquired until a much later period. 
 
 Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most 
 strictly human ; yet it is common to all or nearly all 
 the races of man, whether or not any change of colour 
 is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small 
 arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, 
 seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention 
 directed to the appearance of our own persons, especially 
 of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready 
 flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels ; and 
 afterwards to have been extended by the power of as- 
 sociation to self-attention directed to moral conduct. 
 It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable 
 of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is 
 shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex 
 take in displaying their beauty before those of the 
 opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any 
 animal, until its mental powers had been developed to 
 an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, 
 would have closely considered and been sensitive about 
 its own personal appearance. Therefore we may con- 
 clude that blushing originated at a very late period in 
 the long line of our descent. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUM MAE Y. 
 
 365 
 
 From the various facts just alluded to, and given in 
 the course of this volume, it follows that, if the struc- 
 ture of our organs of respiration and circulation had 
 differed in only a slight degree from the state in which 
 they now exist, most of our expressions would have been 
 wonderfully different. A very slight change in the 
 course of the arteries and veins which run to the head, 
 would probably have prevented the blood from accu- 
 mulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; 
 for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this 
 case we should not have displayed some of our most 
 characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water 
 by the aid of external branchia3 (though the idea is 
 hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth 
 and nostrils, his features would not have expressed his 
 feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands 
 or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have 
 been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, 
 and the eyes would have become brighter or duller 
 according to the state of the circulation. If our ears 
 had remained movable, their movements would have 
 been highly expressive, as .is the case with all the 
 animals which fight with their teeth ; and we may 
 infer that our early progenitors thus fought, as we 
 still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we 
 sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth 
 when furiously enraged. 
 
 The movements of expression in the face and body, 
 whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves 
 of much importance for our welfare. They serve as 
 the first means of communication between the mother 
 and her infant ; she smiles approval, and thus encourages 
 her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We 
 readily perceive sympathy in others by their expres- 
 
366 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 sion ; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our plea- 
 sures increased ; and mutual good feeling is thus 
 strengthened. The movements of expression give vivid- 
 ness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal 
 the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than 
 do words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount 
 of truth the so-called science of physiognomy may 
 contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago re- 
 marked, 4 on different persons bringing into frequent 
 use different facial muscles, according to their disposi- 
 tions ; the development of these muscles being perhaps 
 thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, 
 due to their habitual contraction, being thus rendered 
 deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by 
 outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the 
 other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, 
 of all outward signs softens our emotions. 5 He who 
 gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage ; he , 
 who does not control the signs of fear will experience 
 fear in a greater degree ; and he who remains passive 
 when overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of 
 recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow 
 partly from the intimate relation which exists between 
 almost all the emotions and their outw T ard manifesta- 
 tions ; and partly from the direct influence of exertion on 
 the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the 
 simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our 
 minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge 
 of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, 
 says : — 
 
 " Is it not monstrous that this player here, 
 But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, 
 
 ♦ Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, torn. iv. p. 211. 
 5 Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 66) insists on the truth of 
 this conclusion. 
 
Chap. XIV. 
 
 AND SUMMARY. 
 
 367 
 
 Could force his soul so to his own conceit, 
 That, from her working, all his visage wann'd ; 
 Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect, 
 A broken voice, and his whole function suiting 
 "With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing ! " 
 
 Hamlet, act ii. sc. 2. 
 
 We have seen that the study of the theory of ex- 
 pression confirms to a certain limited extent the con- 
 clusion that man is derived from some lower animal 
 form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub- 
 specific unity of the several races; but as far as my 
 judgment serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. 
 We have also seen that expression in itself, or the 
 language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been 
 called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of 
 mankind. To understand, as far as is possible, the 
 source or origin of the various expressions which may 
 be hourly seen on the faces of the men around us, not 
 to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess 
 much interest for us. From these several causes, we 
 may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has 
 well deserved the attention which it has already received 
 from several excellent observers, and that it deserves 
 still further attention, especially from any able physio- 
 logist. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abstraction, 228. 
 
 Actions, reflex, 35 ; coughing, sneez- 
 ing, &c., 35 ; muscular action of 
 decapitated frog, 35 ; closing the 
 eyelids, 37 ; starting, 38-40 ; con- 
 traction of the iris, 41. 
 
 Admiration, 289. 
 
 Affirmation, signs of, 273. 
 
 Albinos, blushing in, 313, 327. 
 
 Alison, Professor, 31. 
 
 Ambition, 262.^ 
 
 Anatomical drawings by Henle, 5. 
 
 Anatomy and Philosophy of expres- 
 sion, 2. 
 
 Anderson, Dr., 107, n. 26. 
 
 Anger, 246 ; in monkeys, 137. 
 
 Animals, special expressions of, 116. 
 See Expression. 
 
 , habitual associated movements 
 
 in the lower, 42—45 ; wolves and 
 jackals, 44 ; horses, 45 ; cats, 46 ; 
 chickens, 47 ; sheldrakes, 47 ; fla- 
 mingo, kagu, and kingfisher, 47, 
 48, 
 
 Annesley, Lieut., R.A., 125, n. 4. 
 Antithesis, the principles of, 50 ; dogs, 
 
 50, 57 ; cats, 56 ; conventional 
 
 signs, 61. 
 Anxiety, 178. 
 
 Ape, the Gibbon, produces musical 
 sounds, 87. 
 
 Arrectores pili, the, 101, 103. 
 
 Association," the power of, 31 ; in- 
 stances of, 31, 32. 
 
 Astonishment, 278 ; in monkeys, 144. 
 
 Audubon, 98, n. 14. 
 
 Avarice, 262. 
 
 Azara. 126, n. 6, 129, n. 7. 
 
 Baboon, the Anubis, 96, 134, 138. 
 Bain, Mr., 8, 31, 200, w. 4, 291, ». 16, 
 328, n. 25. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel, 114. 
 
 Barber, Mrs., 22, 108, n. 28, 269, 289. 
 
 Bartlett, Mr., 44, 48, 113, 124, 138. 
 
 Behn, Dr., 311. 
 
 Bell, Mr., 293. 
 
 , Sir Charles, 2, 9, 49, 116, 121, 
 
 158, 173, 213, 220, 222, 305, 337. 
 
 Bennett, G., 140, n. 16. 
 
 Bergeon, 169, n. 21. 
 
 Bernard, Claude, 37, 68, 70, n. 5. 
 
 Billiard-player, gestures of the, 6. 
 
 Birds ruffle their feathers when angry, 
 97 ; when frightened adpi ess them, 
 100. 
 
 Blair, the Rev. R. H., 311, 352. 
 Blind, tendency of the, to blush, 312. 
 Blush, the tendency to, inherited, 
 312. 
 
 Blushing, 310; inheritance of, 312; 
 in the various races of man, 316; 
 movements and gestures which ac- 
 company, 321 ; confusion of mind, 
 323; the nature of the mental 
 states which induce, 326 ; shyness, 
 330 ; moral causes : guilt, 333 ; 
 breaches of etiquett e, 334; modesty, 
 335 ; theory of, 337. 
 
 , the physiology or mechanism 
 
 of, 5, 310, n. 1. 
 
 Blyth, Mr., 97. 
 
 Bowman, Mr., 160, n. 14, 161, n. 16, 
 171, 227. 
 
 Brehm, 96,129, 138, n. T4, 139, n. 15. 
 Bridges, Mr., 22, 248, 261, 318. 
 Bridgman, Laura, 198, 214, 267, 274, 
 
 285, 311. 
 Brinton, Dr., 159, n. 13. 
 Brodie, Sir B., 342. 
 Brooke, the Rajah, 21, 209. 
 Brown, Dr. R.,' 108, n. 29. 
 Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 13, 76, n. po, 
 
 155, 185, 199, 205, 244, 292, 295, 
 
 314, 341, n. 39. 
 Bucknill, Dr., 297. 
 Bulmer, Mr. J., 20, 209, 251, 285 
 
 321. 
 
BUNNETT. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 309 
 
 Bunnett, Mr. Templeton, 20, 178, 
 269. 
 
 Burgess, Dr., 5, 310, 320, 337. 
 Burton, Captain, 261. 
 Button, Jemmy, the Fuegian, 216, 
 318. 
 
 C. 
 
 Camper, Pierre, 1 and n. 3. 
 
 Canine tooth, uncovering the, 249. 
 
 Carpenter on the principles of Com- 
 parative Physiology, 47, n. 1 7. 
 
 Cat, the, 46, 126 ; preparing to fight, 
 56 ; caressing her master, 56 ; 
 drawing back the ears, 111; lash- 
 ing the tail, 126; movements of 
 affection, 127 ; when terrified, 128 ; 
 erecting the tail, 129 ; purring, &c, 
 129. 
 
 Catlin, 289. 
 
 Caton, the Hon. J., 97, n. u. 
 Cebus azarae, the, 133. 
 Chameleons, 105. 
 Cheerfulness, 212. 
 Chevreul, M., 6. 
 Chimpanzee, the, 95, 132. 
 Cistercian Monks, the, 61 ; gesture- 
 language of, 61. 
 Cobra-de-capello, the, 105. 
 Conceit, 262. 
 
 Contempt, 254 ; snapping the fingers, 
 257. 
 
 Cooke, the actor, 250. 
 Cooper, Dr., 105, n. 22. 
 Cope, Professor, 109, n. 31. 
 Coughing. 164. 
 Crantz, 260. 
 
 D. 
 
 Darwin, Dr., 30, n. 3, 46, n. 16, 40. 
 Deaf and dumb, opposites used in 
 
 teaching them, 61, 62, n. 3. 
 Deceit, 262. 
 
 Decision, or determination, 235 ; 
 
 closing of the mouth, 236. 
 Dejection, 178. 
 Defiance, 249. 
 Depression of mind, 80. 
 Dermal appendages, erection of, 95; 
 
 in the chimpanzee and orang, 95 ; 
 
 lion, &c, 96 ; dog and cat, 96 ; 
 
 horses and cattle, 96 ; elk, 97 ; bat, 
 
 97 ; birds, 97 ; under the influence 
 of anger and fear, 1 00. 
 Despair, 178. 
 
 Devotion, the expression of, 220, 221. 
 j Diagrams of the muscles of the face, 
 
 24, 25. 
 ! Dickens, Charles, 243. 
 I Dilatation of the pupils, 303. 
 ! Disdain, 254. 
 
 I Disgust, 257; spitting a sign of, 261. 
 Dog, the, sympathetic movements of, 
 7 ; turning round before lying down, 
 42 ; pointing, 43 ; scratching, &c, 
 45 ; various gestures of, 63 ; bark- 
 ing a means of expression, 85; 
 whining, 88 ; drawing back the 
 ears, 111; various movements of, 
 116; gestures of affection, 119; 
 grinning, 120; pain, 122; atten- 
 tion, 122; terror, 122; playing, 
 123. 
 
 Donders, Professor, 160, 166, 229, 
 304. 
 
 Duchenne, Dr., 5, 11,14, 133, 150, a. 
 4, 182. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ears, the, drawing back, &c, 111 ; in 
 fighting, dogs, cats, tigers, &c, 
 111; horses, 112; guanacoes, &c, 
 112; moose-deer, 113; rabbits, 
 113; wild boars, 113: monkeys, 
 114; erection of the, 114. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria and R. L., 333. 
 
 Elephants, 113; weeping, 167. 
 
 Emission of sounds, 83. See Sounds. 
 
 Engelmann, Professor, 229. 
 
 Envy, 262. 
 I Erection of the dermal appendages, 
 95-104. 
 
 Erskine, Mr. H., 21, 33, 187, 268, 
 276. 
 
 Etiquette, breaches of, 334. 
 Expression, anatomy and philosophy 
 of, 2. 
 
 , general principles of, 27 ; the 
 
 three chief, 27 ; of serviceable asso- 
 ciated habits, 29 ; of ant ithesis, 50 ; 
 action of the nervous system, 67. 
 
 , means of, in animals, 83 ; emis- 
 sion of sounds, 83-94 ; erection of 
 the dermal appendages, 95-104; 
 
370 EXPRESSIONS. 
 
 inflation of the body, 104-111; 
 drawing back the ears, 111-114; 
 erection of the ears, 114. 
 
 Expressions, special, of animals, 116; 
 dogs, 116-126; cats, 126-129; 
 horses, 129-131 ; ruminants, 131- 
 132 ; monkeys, baboons, chimpan- 
 zees, 132-146. 
 
 , special, of man, 147 ; suffering, 
 
 114; weeping in children, 148; 
 contraction of the muscles round 
 the eyes during screaming, 158 ; 
 secretion of tears, 163 ; grief, 178 ; 
 obliquity of the eyebrows, 179 ; 
 grief-muscles, 181 ; depression of 
 the corners of the mouth, 193 ; 
 joy, 198 ; high spirits, cheerful- 
 ness, 212; love, tender feelings, 
 215 ; devotion, 220. 
 
 Eyebrows, obliquity of the, 179. 
 
 Eyes, the, contraction of the muscles 
 during screaming, 158. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fear, 81, 289 ; description of, by Job, 
 291. 
 
 Feelings, tender, 216 ; excited by 
 sympathy, 217. 
 
 Fighting, mode of, in animals, 111 ; 
 all carnivora fight with their canine 
 teeth, 111; dogs, cats, 111 ; horses, 
 guanacoes, &c, 112; moose-deer, 
 113; rabbits, 113; boars, 113; 
 elephants, 113; rhinoceros, 114; 
 monkeys, 114. 
 
 Forbes, Mr. D., 232, 318, 336. 
 
 Ford, Mr., 95. 
 
 Forster, J. R., 318. 
 
 Foster, Mr. Michael, 343, 344. 
 
 Fox, the, 125. 
 
 Freycinet, 175. 
 
 Frogs, 35, 104. 
 
 Frowning, the act of, 3, 223 ; men of 
 all races frown, 224 ; in infants, 
 225 ; to assist vision, 226 ; to ex- 
 clude the bright light, 227. 
 
 Fyffe, Dr., 304. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaika, Christian, 22, 209, 255, 295, 
 320. 
 
 Galton, Mr. F., 33, n. 8. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES. 
 
 Garrod, Mr. A. H., 74, n. g. 
 Gaskell, Mrs., 151, n. 5. 
 Geach, Mr. F., 21, 187, 252, 261, 268, 
 317. 
 
 Gesture-language, 61. 
 
 Gestures, 32, 62 ; inheritance of ha- 
 bitual, 33, n. 8 ; accompanying 
 blushing, 321. 
 
 Glenie, the Rev. S. O., 21, 167, 252. 
 
 Goose-skin, 101, 103. 
 
 Gordon, Lady Duff, 317. 
 
 Gorilla, the, 95, 143. 
 
 Gould, 100, n. 14. 
 
 Gratiolet, Pierre, 6, 32, 119, 227, 
 229, n. 6, 236, 243, n. 9, 338. 
 
 Gray, Professor, and Mrs. Asa, 22, 
 268, 316. 
 
 Green, Mrs., 20. 
 
 Grief, 80; expression of, 178; obli- 
 quity of the eyebrows, 179 ; depres- 
 sion of the corners of the mouth, 
 193 ; in monkeys, 135. 
 
 Grief-muscles, 181-193. 
 
 Gueldenstadt, 125, n. 4. 
 
 Guilt, 262 ; causes blushing, 333. 
 
 Gunning, Dr., 162. 
 
 Gunther, Dr., 100, 105, 108, n. 30. 
 
 H. 
 
 Habit, force of, 29. 
 Hagenauer, the Rev., 20, 194, 26 r 
 321. 
 
 Hair, change of colour in the, 67 
 
 342; erection of the, 101, 295. 
 Haller, 88. 
 
 'Handbuch der Anatomie des Men- 
 
 schen,' 5, n. 7. 
 Hares, 83. 
 Harvey, 30, n. 3. 
 
 Hatred, 239 ; rage, 240 ; anger, indig- 
 nation, 246 ; sneering, defiance, un- 
 covering the canine tooth, 249. 
 
 Heart, the, sensitive to external emo- 
 tions, 68 ; re-acts on the brain, 69 ; 
 affected by rage, 74. 
 
 Helmholtz, 88, 91. 
 
 Helplessness, 264. 
 
 Henderson, Mr., 409, n. 3 r. 
 
 Henle, 149, n. 2, 193, n. 6, 203. 
 
 Herpestes, the, 98, 108, 110. 
 
 High spirits, 212; definition of, by a 
 child, 212. 
 
 Hippocrates, 30, ». 3, 72. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
HOLLAND. 
 
 INDEX. MECANISME. 371 
 
 Holland, Sir Henry, 36, 37, 71, n. 8, 
 
 339, n. 33, 340. 
 Homer's description of laughter, 198. 
 Horror, 304. 
 
 Horse, the, 45 ; nibbling, pawing of, 
 45 ; scream in distress, 84 ; fight- 
 ing, 112; expression of fear, plea- 
 sure, &c, 130. 
 
 Humboldt, 137, 319. 
 
 Humility, 262. 
 
 Huschke, 287. 
 
 Huxley, Professor, 31, n. 5, 35, n. 9. 
 Hyaena, the, 123. 
 
 I. 
 
 Idiots, expression of joy in, 199 ; 
 
 blushing, 311. 
 Ill-temper, 230. 
 Impotence, 264. 
 Indignation, 246. 
 
 Infants, expression in, 13 ; crying of, 
 
 148 ; weeping, 153. 
 Inflation of the body, &c, 104 ; in 
 
 toads and frogs, 104 ; chameleons, 
 
 &c, 105; snakes, 105-111. 
 Inheritance of habitual gestures, 33, 
 
 n. 8 ; blushing, 312. 
 Innes, Dr., 267. 
 
 Intercommunication, power of, with 
 social animals, 60 ; deaf and dumb, 
 61 ; dogs and cats, 63. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jealousy, 79, 262. 
 
 Jerdon, Dr., 108. 
 
 Job, description of fear by, 291. 
 
 Joy, expression of, 75, 198 ; in young 
 
 children, 76 ; dogs, horses, 76 ; 
 
 monkeys, 132 ; laughter, 198 ; high 
 
 spirits, cheerfulness, 212 ; love, 
 
 tender feelings, 215. 
 Jukes, Mr. J. B., 275. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kangaroos, 113. 
 
 Kindermann, Herr, 23, 148, n. 1. 
 King, Major Ross, 113. 
 Kissing, 216. 
 Kolliker, 101. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lacy, Mr. Dyson, 20, 232, 243. 
 
 Lane, Mr. H. B., 20. 
 
 Lang, Mr. Archibald G., 20. 
 
 Langstaff, Dr., 148, 152, 314. 
 
 Language, gesture, 611. 
 
 Laughter, 93, 133,164; in monkeys, 
 132 ; joy expressed by, 198 ; in 
 children, 198; in idiots, 199; in 
 grown-up persons, 199 ; caused by 
 tickling, 201 ; sparkling eye, 206 ; 
 tears caused by excessive, 208 ; 
 among Hindoos, Malays, &c, 209 ; 
 to conceal feelings, 214; incipient, 
 in a baby, 211. 
 
 Lavater, G., 3, n. 6. 
 
 Laycock, Professor, 340. 
 
 Le Brun, 1, 4, 247, w. 13. 
 
 Leichhardt, 261. 
 
 Lemoine, M., 2, 359. 
 
 Lessing's Laocoon, 15 n. 19. 
 
 Leydig, 101, 103. 
 
 Lieber, Mr. F., 198, n. 2, 274. 
 
 Lister, Mr., 101, 201, n. 6. 
 
 Litchfield, Mr., 89. 
 
 Lizards, 105. 
 
 Lock wood, the Rev. S., 87, n. 3. 
 
 Lorain, M., 74, n. 9. 
 
 Love, maternal, 78 ; of the opposite 
 sexes, 78 ; expression of, 215 ; kiss- 
 ing, a mark of, 216 ; excites tears, 
 216. 
 
 Low spirits, 178. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, 155, 216, n. 22. 
 M. 
 
 Man, special expressions of, 147. See 
 
 Expression. 
 Mankind, early history of, 257, n. 6. 
 Marshall, Mr., 155, n. 9, 199, n. 3. 
 Martin, W. L., 133, 137, 140, n. 17. 
 Martius, 319. 
 
 Matthews, Mr. Washington, 22, 230, 
 
 257, 268, 276, 289. 
 Maudsley, Dr., 36, n. 10, 39, n. 14, 
 
 245, 342, n. 40. 
 Mauvaise honte, 330. 
 May, Mr. A., 26. 
 
 ' Me'canisme de la Physionomie Hu- 
 maine,' 33, n. 7. 
 
372 
 
 MEDITATION. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 RUMINANTS. 
 
 Meditation, 228 ; often accompanied 
 
 by certain gestures, 230. 
 Meyer, Dr. Adolf, 275. 
 Mind, confusion of, while blushing, 
 
 323. 
 Modesty, 335. 
 
 Monkeys, 60 ; power of intercommu- 
 nication and expression of, 60, 88, 
 96; their special expressions, 1 32 ; 
 pleasure, joy, &c, 132 ; painful 
 emotions, 135 ; anger, 137 ; redden 
 with passion, 138 ; screaming, 140 ; 
 sulkiness in, 140 ; frowning in, 143 ; 
 astonishment, terror in, 144. 
 
 Moose-deer, the, 113. 
 
 Moreau, M., 3, 314. 
 
 Movements, symbolic, 6 ; sympa- 
 thetic, 7. 
 
 , associated habitual, in the lower 
 
 animals, 42 ; dogs, 42-45 ; wolves 
 and jackals, 44 ; horses, 45 ; cats, 
 46 ; chickens, 47 ; sheldrakes, &c, 
 47, 48. 
 
 Mowbray on Poultry, 47, n. 18. 
 Muller, Dr. Ferdinand, 20. 
 
 , Fritz, 12, 29, n. 2, 68, n. 2, 71, 
 
 n. 6, 268. 
 Music 219. 
 
 N. 
 
 Negation, signs of, 273. 
 
 Nervous system, direct action of the, 
 *66 ; change of colour in the hair, 
 67, 342 ; trembling of the muscles, 
 67 ; secretions affected, 68 ; perspi- 
 ration, 73; rage, 74; joy, 75; 
 terror, 77 ; love, 78 ; jealousy, 79 ; 
 grief, 80. 
 
 Nicol, Mr. Patrick, 14, 185, 300. 
 
 0. 
 
 Ogle, Dr. W., 256, n. 3, 271, 294, 306. 
 Oliphant, Mrs., 80, n. 12, 270. 
 Olmsted, 270. 
 
 Owen, Professor, 10, n. 13, 87, n. 3, 
 143, n. 18. 
 
 P. 
 
 Paget, Sir J., 68, 117, 312, 342. 
 
 Pain, outward signs of, in animals, 
 69 ; in man, 69 ; in the hippopota- 
 mus, 70 ; induces perspiration, 73 ; 
 depression, 81. 
 
 Parsons, J., 1, n. r. 
 
 Perspiration caused by pain, 73. 
 
 Physiology of laughter, 9. 
 
 ' Physionomie, de la, et des Mouve- 
 ments d'Expression,' 6. 
 
 Piderit, Dr., 7, 23, 152, 206, 223, 237, 
 256. 
 
 Pigs employed to destroy rattlesnakes, 
 108. 
 
 Platysma myoides muscle, contraction 
 
 of the, 298. 
 Plautus, 230. 
 Porcupines, 93. 
 Pouchet, M. G., 67, n. 1. 
 Pride, 263. 
 
 Psychology, principles of, 9. 
 
 Puff-adder, the, 105. 
 
 Pupils, dilatation of the, 303. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Queries regarding expression, &c, 15. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbits, 83, 93, 113. 
 
 Rage, 74, 240; trembling a conse- 
 quence of, 241 ; Shakespeare's de- 
 scription of, 242 ; snarling with the 
 teeth, 243. 
 
 Rattlesnake, the, 107, 109. 
 
 Reade, Mr. Winwood, 21, 279, 289. 
 
 Reflection, 222 ; deep, generally ac- 
 companied with a frown, 224. 
 
 Reflex actions, 35. 
 
 Rejlander, Mr., 23, 148, n. 1, 183, 202, 
 250. 
 
 Rengger, 60, 88, 133, n. 11, 137. 
 Resignation, 271. 
 Retching or vomiting, 159. 
 Revenge, 262. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J., 208, n. 15. 
 Rhinoceros, 73, 114. 
 Riviere, Mr., 26, 121. 
 Rothrock, Dr., 22, 232, 252, 260. 
 Ruminants, their emotions, 131. 
 
SALVIN. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 VOICE. 
 
 373 
 
 s. 
 
 Salvin, Mr. F., 44, n. 15. 
 
 Sandwich islanders, 175. 
 
 Savage and Wyman, Messrs., 143. 
 
 Schmalz, 274. 
 
 Scorn, 254. 
 
 Scott, Sir W., 121. 
 
 , Mr. J., 21, 187, 248-250, 260, 
 
 267. 
 
 , Dr. W. R., 62, 3. 
 
 Scream, as a call for assistance, 91. 
 Secretary-hawk, the, 110. 
 Secretions, affected by strong emo- 
 tions, 68. 
 
 Senses, the, and the Intellect, 8, n. 8, 
 31. 
 
 Shaler, Professor, 107, 109. 
 
 Shame, gestures of, 321; description 
 
 of, in Isaiah, Ezra, &c, 322. 
 Sheldrake, the, 47. 
 Shrugging the shoulders, 264. 
 Shyness, 330. 
 
 Signs of affirmation and negation, 273 ; 
 
 conventional, 61. 
 Slyness, 263. 
 
 Smiling, 204, 211; in infants, 212; 
 
 in savages, 213. 
 Smith, Sir Andrew, 209. 
 Smvth, Mr. Brough, 20, 285, 294. 
 * Snakes, 105-111. 
 
 Snapping the fingers, 257. 
 Sneering or snarling, 249. 
 Sobbing,, peculiar to the human 
 
 species, 157. 
 Somerville, 121. 
 
 Sounds, the emission of, efficient as a 
 means of expression, 83 ; between 
 the sexes, 84 ; to animals when 
 separated, 84 ; of rage, 85 ; the 
 bark of a dog, 85 ; tamed jackals, 
 86 ; pigeons, 86 ; human voice, 86 ; 
 as a means of courtship, 87 ; music, 
 89 ; in young infants, 92 ; of sur- 
 prise, contempt, and disgust, 92 ; 
 rabbits, 93 ; porcupines, 93 ; in- 
 sects, 94 ; birds, 94. 
 
 Speedy, Captain, 22, 261, 268. 
 
 Spencer, Mr. Herbert, 9, 10, n. 11, 27, 
 n. 1, 71, 86, 200, 227, rc. 5, 263. 
 
 Sphinx-moth, the humming-bird, 30. 
 
 Spitting, a sign of disgust, 261. 
 
 Spix, von, 319. 
 St. John, Mr., 47. 
 
 Stack, the Rev. J. W., 20, 233, 248. 
 317. 
 
 Stuart, Mr., 280. 
 
 Suffering of body and mind, 147. 
 
 Sulkiness, 232 ; expression of, prevails 
 throughout the world, 233; in mon- 
 keys, 140; in young orangs, &c, 
 234. 
 
 Summary, 348. 
 
 Surprise, 278. 
 
 Suspicion, 262. 
 
 Sutton, Mr., 95, 139, 145, 167, 259. 
 Swinhoe, Mr., 21, 208, 248, 317. 
 Sympathy, 217. 
 
 T. 
 
 Taplin, the Rev. George, 20, 187, 247, 
 321. 
 
 Taylor, the Rev. R., 156. 
 
 Tears, cause of the secretion of, 163; 
 
 laughing, coughing, 164; yawning, 
 
 165; reflex action, 170. 
 Tegetmeier, Mr., 100. 
 Tendencies, inherited or instinctive, 
 
 30. 
 
 Tennent, Sir J. Emerson, 167. 
 Terror, 77, 289 ; in an insane woman. 
 
 292 ; in murderers, 293 ; dilatation 
 
 of the pupils, 303. 
 Thwaites, Mr., 167. 
 Tickling, 201. 
 Toads, 104. 
 
 Trembling, induced by fear, 67 ; by 
 delight, 67 ; by fine music, 68; by 
 rage, 68 ; by terror, 77. 
 
 Turner, Professor W., 101, n. 18. 
 
 Tylor, Mr., 61, n. 2, 257, 261, n. 11. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vanity, 262. 
 
 Variation of animals and plants under 
 
 domestication, 33, n. 8. 
 Vaso-motor system, the, 69. 
 Virchow, 35, n. 9. 
 Voeux, Mr. des, 110, n. 32. 
 Vogt, C, 206, n. 12, 274. 
 Voice, the human, 86. 
 
374 WALLICH. INDEX. YAWNING. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wallich, Dr., 23, 202. 
 Weale, Mr. J. P. Mansel, 22, 230, 233, 
 286. 
 
 Wedgwood, Mr. Hensleigh, 104, 164, 
 n. 18, 221, 232, n. 10, 241, n. 6, 
 273. 
 
 Weeping, 147 ; the period of first 
 shedding tears in infants quite un- 
 certain, 153 ; in savages, 155 ; in 
 the insane, 155; checking or in- 
 creasing the habit of, 156 ; scream- 
 ing and sobbing of infants, 157. 
 See Tears. 
 
 Weir, Mr. Jenner, 98. 
 West, Mr., 21. 
 Wild-boar, 113. 
 Wilson, Mr., 19. 
 
 , Mr. Samuel, 20, 320. 
 
 ' Wissenschaftliches System der Mi- 
 
 mik und Physiognomik,' 7. 
 Wolf, Mr., 26. 
 
 Wood, Mr. J., 181, n. 3, 297, 302. 
 
 , Mr. T. W., 25. 
 
 Wrinkles, 204. 
 
 T. 
 
 Yawning, 134, 165. 
 
 THE END. 
 
THE DESCENT OF MAN, 
 
 AND 
 
 SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHAS. DARWIN, M, A., F. R. S. 
 
 • Two Vols., 12mo. 
 WITH ILLTJSTR ATIOITS. 
 
 Price, $4.00 
 
 In these volumes Mr. Darwin has brought forward all the facts and 
 arguments which science has to offer in favor of the doctrine that man 
 has arisen by gradual development from the lowest point of animal life. 
 He had originally intended this work as a posthumous publication, but 
 the extensive acceptance of the views unfolded in his book on the " Origin 
 of Species " induced him to believe that the public were ripe for the most 
 advanced deductions from his theory of " Natural Selection." Aside from 
 the logical purpose which Mr. Darwin had in view, his work is an original 
 and fascinating contribution to the most interesting portion of natural 
 
 history. 
 
 From the London Spectator. 
 
 "For our part, we find Dr. Darwin's vindication of the origin of man a far more 
 wonderful vindication of Theism than Paley's ' Natural Theology,' though we do 
 not know, so reticent is his style, whether or not he conceives it himself." 
 From the Citizen and Round Table. 
 
 " Even the charge of atheism, which was so violently urged against Mr. Dar- 
 win, is now rarely heard, and theologians, whose orthodoxy is unquestioned, have 
 ventured to admit that it is possible to believe both in Christianity and the Dar- 
 winian theory at the same time." 
 
 From the Charleston Courier. 
 
 "No one can rise from an ordinarily attentive consideration of Mr. Darwin's 
 treatise, without being impressed, not only with the extent and depth of the 
 knowledge which he has attained upon the subject under treatment, and his lomj, 
 unwearied labor in collecting facts, but also with his possession of qualities 
 equally rare— the true scientific temper, the transparent candor, and the truth- 
 eeeking soberness, with which he expresses to you his conclusions, and the pro- 
 cesses by which he reaches them. 
 
 " Whether you like his discourse or not— though you may refuse to acquiesce 
 In his conclusions — still you are compelled to bear your witness, that this man 
 *ias not been laboring to find facts to support a preconceived theory, but that the 
 'Jieory is the irrepressible outgrowth of his accumulated facts.' 1 '' 
 From the Evening Bulletin. 
 
 " This theory is now indorsed by many eminent scientists, who at first com- 
 bated it, including Sir Charles Lyell, probably the most learned of living geolo- 
 gists, and even by a class of Christian divines like Dr. McCosh, who think that 
 certain theories of cosmogony, like the nebular hypothesis and tLe law of evolu- 
 tion, may be accepted without doing violence to faith." 
 
 Sent free, by mail, to any address in the U. S., on receipt of the price. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers. 
 
JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY 
 
 Ol" THE COUNTRIES VISITED 
 
 DURING THE VOYAGE OF H. M. S. BEAGLE BOUND 
 THE WOBLD, UNDER THE COMMAND OF 
 CAPTAIN FITZROY, R. N. 
 
 By CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., 
 
 Author of "Origin of Species," etc., etc. 
 
 One vol., l£2mo. 519 pages. Frice, clotli, $S.OO. 
 
 " This volume contains, in the form of a journal, a history of our voyage and a 
 sketch of those observations in Natural History and Geology which, I think, will pos- 
 sess some interest for the general reader. 1 '— From the Author's Preface. 
 
 • 
 
 " I have too deeply enjoyed the voyage not to recommend any naturalist, although 
 he may not expect to be so fortunate in his companions as I have been, to take all 
 chances, and to start on travels by land if possible, if otherwise, on a long voyage. He 
 may feel assured he will meet with no difficulties or dangers, except in rare cases, 
 nearly so bad as he beforehand anticipates." — Extract. 
 
 " An intensely interesting work, written in a style that is a model of brevity and 
 clearness."— Wisconsin State Journal. 
 
 " Darwin was nearly five years on board the Beagle. A keen observer and a genu- 
 ine philosopher, he has brought back to us a precious freight of facts and truths. 
 The work has been some time before the public, and has won a high place among read- 
 ers of every class. It is not so scientific as to be above the comprehension of intel- 
 ligent readers who are not scientific. Some facts and species, new even to the scien- 
 tific, are brought to light. Darwin's transparent, eloquent style richly illuminates 
 his observations. The weightier matters to which we allude are interspersed among 
 more familiar observations, such as would naturally be made by a traveller passing 
 through new and wonderful scenes. It is an instructive and interesting book."— 
 Northwestern Christian Advocate. 
 
 J>. AFPLETOJN & CO., 
 
 549 & 551 Eroadway, New York. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES, 
 
 By CHARLES DARWIN. 
 
 A new American edition of "The Origin of Species," from the latest Eng. 
 lish edition, and from an entirely new set of stereotype plates, has just been 
 published, with the author's most recent corrections and additions. 
 
 In the whole history of the progress of knowledge there is no case so re- 
 markable of a system of doctrines, at first generally condemned as false and 
 absurd, coming into general acceptance in the scientific world in a single 
 decade From the following statements, the reader will infer the estimate 
 that is now placed upon the man and his works by the highest authorities. 
 
 "Personally and practically exercised in zoology, in minute anatomy, in 
 geology ; a student of geographical distribution, not on maps and in museums 
 only, but by long voyages and laborious collection ; having largely advanced 
 each of these branches of science, and having spent many years in gathering 
 and sifting materials for his present work, the store of accurately-registered 
 facts upon which the author of the 'Origin of Species' is able to draw at 
 will is prodigious." — Prof. T. H. Huxley. 
 
 "Far abler men than myself may confess that they have not that untiring 
 patience in accumulating, and that wonderful skill in using, large masses of 
 facts of the most varied kind — that wide and accurate physiological knowl- 
 edge — that acuteness in devising, that skill in carrying out experiments, and 
 that admirable style of composition, at once clear, persuasive, and judicial, 
 qualities which, in their harmonious combination, mark out Mr. Darwin as 
 the man, perhaps of all men now living, best fitted for the great work he 
 has undertaken and accomplished." — Alfred Russell Wallace. 
 
 In Germany these views are rapidly extending. Prof. Giekie, a distin 
 guished British geologist, attended the recent Congress of German Natural- 
 ists and Physicians, at Innspruck, in which some eight hundred savant* 
 were present, and thus writes : 
 
 "What specially struck me was the universal sway which the writings 
 of Darwin now exercise over the German mind. You see it on every side, in 
 private conversation, in printed papers, in all the many sections into which 
 such a meeting as that at Innspruck divides. Darwin's name is often men- 
 tioned, and always with the profoundest veneration. But even where no al- 
 lusion is specially made to him, nay, even more markedly, where such allusion 
 is absent, we see how thoroughly his doctrines have permeated the scientific 
 mind, even in those departments of knowledge which might seem at first 
 sight to be farthest from natural history. 'You are still discussing in Eng- 
 land,' said a German friend to me, ' whether or not the theory of Darwin cun 
 be true. We have got a long way beyond that here. His theory is now our 
 (jommoD starting-point.' And, so far as my experience went, I found it to 
 be so." 
 
 D. APPLETON <fe CO.. PuMiefoovq. 
 
THE FIRST VOLUME OF 
 
 The International Scientific Series. 
 
 • FORMS OF WATER, 
 
 IN CLOUDS, BAIN, RIVERS, ICE, AND GLACIERS. 
 By Professor JOHN TIffDALL, LL. D,, F. R. S. 
 
 One volume, izmo. Cloth. Price, $1.50. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " In this attractive volume we have the first instalment of the ' International Scientific 
 Series,' a work devoted to the popular exposition of physical and social science, and to the 
 phenomena of life and mind. In the volume now published, Professor Tyndall has pre- 
 sented a noble illustration of the acuteness and subtlety of his intellectual powers, the 
 scope and insight of his scientific vision, his singular command of the appropriate language 
 of exposition, and the peculiar vivacity and grace with which he unfolds the results of in- 
 tricate scientific research." — New York Tribune. 
 
 ** In some respects this book differs from any popularization of science we have ever 
 met The author treats his reader as a companion. They take delightful rambles to- 
 gether. At one time they stroll beside the river and trace it to its source. They discuss, 
 as friends, the origin of clouds, through the action of the sun's heat upon the surface of the 
 sea and other bodies of water, causing an invisible vapor to rise to the regions of the atmos- 
 phere, where the cold condenses it and renders it visible. Tyndall acts as guide to his 
 reader through Switzerland. They visit the glaciers of the Alps together. The one listens 
 to the other's eloquent explanation of these wonderful phenomena." — The World. 
 
 " In the domain of physics, as what was once termed natural philosophy is now usually 
 called, Professor Tyndall has no superior. In addition to this, he is at the head of modern 
 writers on science. His books, like his lectures, are popular because they are interesting. 
 The reputation of the author is security for their accuracy; let us hope, too, that the world 
 has outgrown the fallacy that a' popular presentation of scientific facts necessarily involves 
 untruth." — The Sun. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., 
 
 549 & 551 Broadway, New YorTc. 
 
THE INTERNATIONAL 
 SCIENTIFIC SKRIES. 
 
 D. APPLETON & Co. have the pleasure of announ- 
 cing that they have made arrangements to issue a com- 
 prehensive series of books, under the above title, from 
 eminent men of different countries. Although not spe- 
 cially designed for the instruction of beginners, these 
 works will be adapted to the non-scientific public, and 
 will be, as far as possible, explanatory in character and 
 free frgm technicalities. The character and scope of the 
 works will be best illustrated by a reference to the names 
 and subjects in the following list: 
 
 Professor JOHN TYNDALL, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 THE FORMS OF WATER IN RAINS AND RIVERS, ICE 
 AND GLACIERS. 
 
 WALTER BAGEHOT. 
 
 PHYSICS AND POLITICS. 
 
 Dr. EDWARD SMITH, F.R.S. 
 
 FOOD AND DIETS. 
 
 Professor T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 BODILY MOTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS. 
 
 Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 
 
 1 
 
International Scientific Series. 
 
 Professor RUDOLPH VIRCHOW (of the University of Berlin). 
 MORBID PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION. 
 
 Professor ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D. 
 
 RELATIONS OF MIND AND BODY. 
 
 Professor BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 
 
 Dr. H. CHARLTON BASTIAN, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 THE BRAIN AS AN ORGAN OF MIND. 
 
 HERBERT SPENCER, Esq. 
 
 THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 Professor WILLIAM ODLINGr, F.R.S. 
 
 THE NEW CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Professor W. THISELTON DYER, B.A., B.Sc. 
 
 FORM AND HABIT IN FLOWERING PLANTS. 
 
 Professor W. KINGDON CLIFFORD, M.A. 
 
 THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF THE EXACT SCIENCES 
 EXPLAINED TO THE NON-MATHEMATICAL. 
 
 Mr. J. N. LOCKYER, F.R.S. 
 
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 
 
 W. LAUDER LINDSAY, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
 
 MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. 
 
 Dr. J. B. PETTIGREW, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 WALKING, SWIMMING, AND FLYING. 
 
 Professor A. C. RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 EARTH SCULPTURE : Hills, Valleys, Mountains, Plains, Rivers, 
 Lakes ; how they were Produced, and how they have been Destroyed. 
 
 Dr. HENRY MAUDSLEY. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY IN DISEASE. 
 
 Professor MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D. 
 
 PROTOPLASM AND THE CELL-THEORY. 
 
International Scientific Series. 
 
 Rev. M. J. BERKELY, M.A., F.L.S. 
 
 FUNGI: their Nature, Influences, and Uses. 
 
 Professor CLAUDE BERNARD (of the College of France). 
 
 PHYSICAL AND METAPHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF LIFE. 
 
 Professor A. QUETELET (of the Brussels Academy of Sciences). 
 SOCIAL PHYSICS. 
 
 Professor H. SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Professor WURTZ. 
 
 ATOMS AND THE ATOMIC THEORY. 
 
 Professor D. QTJATREFAGES. 
 
 THE NEGRO RACES. 
 
 Professor LACAZE-DTJTHIERS, 
 
 ZOOLOGY SINCE CUVIER. 
 
 Professor BERTHELOT. 
 
 CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Professor JAMES D. DANA, M.A., II.D. 
 
 ON CEPHALIZATION ; or, Head Domination in its Relation to 
 Structure, Grade, and Development. 
 
 Professor S. W. JOHNSON, M.A. 
 
 ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Professor AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M.D. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ITS RELATION TO THE* 
 BODILY FUNCTIONS. 
 
 Professor W. D. WHITNEY. 
 
 MODERN LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 
 Other eminent authors, as Wallace, Helmholtz, Parks, Milne- 
 Edwards, Rosenthal, and H/eckel, have given strong encouragement 
 that they will also take part in the enterprise. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 549 and 551 Broadway, N. Y. 
 3 
 
THE DESCENT OF MAN. 
 
 DAEWIN. 
 
 The Descent of Man, 
 
 AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. By Charles Daju 
 win, M. A., F. R. S., etc. With Illustrations. 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth. 
 Price, $2.00 per vol. 
 
 Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ; 
 
 Or, the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. Nen 
 and revised edition. By Charles Darwin, M. A., F. R. S., F. G. &, 
 etc. With copious Index. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00 
 
 ST. GEORGE MIYART. 
 
 On the Genesis of Species, 
 
 By St. George Mivart, F. R. S. 12mo, 316 pages. IUtstrated, 
 Cloth. Price, $1.75. 
 
 SPENCER. 
 The Principles of Biology, 
 
 By Herbert Spencer. 2 vols. $5.00. 
 
 HUXLEY. 
 Man's Place in Nature. 
 
 By Thomas H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S 1 vol., 12mo, Cloth. 
 Price, $1.25. 
 
 On the Origin of Species. 
 
 By Thomas H. Huxley, LL. D., F. R. S. lvol.,12mo. Cloth. frice,$l. 
 
 Hereditary Genius: 
 
 An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences. By Franckj Galton 
 New revised edition. 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00. 
 
 EIGOTIER. 
 
 Primitive Man. 
 
 Illustrated with thirty Scenes of Primitive Life, and 233 Figures of 
 Objects belonging to Prehistoric Ages. By Louis Figuier, authof 
 of " The World before the Deluge," " The Ocean World," etc 1 
 vol., 8vo. Cloth. Price, $4.00. 
 
 LUBBOCK. 
 Origin of Civilization, 
 
 AND THE PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAN. By Sir Join 
 Lubbock, Bart., M. P. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth. Price $2.00. 
 
 Either of the above mailed to any address within the United States, ob 
 wceipt of price. 
 
 0. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 Nos. 649 & 551 BROADWAY, N. Y. 
 
- 
 
 THE WORKS OF 
 
 Prof. JOHN TYNDALL, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 L 
 
 HEAT AS A MODE OF MOTION. 
 
 One vol., i2mo. Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 " My aim has been to rise to the level of these questions from a basis so elementary that 
 a person possessing any imaginative faculty and power of concentration might accom- 
 pany me." — From Author's Preface. 
 
 II. 
 
 ON SOUND. 
 
 A Course of Eight Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution of Great 
 Britain. One vol. With Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00. 
 " In the following pages I have tried to render the science of Acoustics interesting to 
 all intelligent persons, including those who do not possess any special scientific culture." 
 From Author's Preface. 
 
 III. 
 
 FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE FOR UNSCIENTIFIC 
 PEOPLE. 
 
 A Series of Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. One vol., i2mo. 
 Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 " My motive in writing these papers was a desire to extend sympathy for science be- 
 yond the limits of the scientific public. . . . From America the impulse came which in- 
 duced me to gather these ' Fragments,' and to my friends in the United States I dedicate 
 them." — From Author's Preface. 
 
 IV. 
 
 LIGHT AND ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Notes of Two Courses of Lectures before the Royal Institution of Great 
 Britain. One vol., i2mo. Cloth, $1.25. 
 
 " In thus clearly and sharply stating the fundamental principles of Electrical and Op- 
 tical Science, Prof. Tyndall has earned the cordial thanks of all interested in education."— 
 From American Editor's P repack. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 849 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 
 
THE WORKS OF 
 
 Prof. JOHN TYNDALL, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 v. 
 
 HOURS OF EXERCISE IN THE ALPS. 
 
 One vol., i2mo. With Illustrations. Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 " The present volume is for the most part a record of bodily action, written partly to 
 preserve to myself the memory of strong and joyous hours, and partly for the pleasure of 
 those who find exhilaration in descriptions associated with mountain-life." — From Author's 
 Preface. 
 
 VI. 
 
 FARADAY AS A DISCOVERER. 
 
 One vol., i2mo. Cloth, $1.00. 
 
 " It has been thought desirable to give you and the world some image of Michael 
 Faraday as a scientific investigator and discoverer. ...... I have 
 
 returned from my task with such results as I could gather, and also with the wish that 
 these results were more worthy than they are of the greatness of my theme." — The 
 Author. 
 
 VII. 
 
 FORMS OF WATER, IN CLOUDS, RAIN, RIVERS, ICE, 
 AND GLACIERS. 
 
 This is the first volume of the International Scientific Series, and is a valu- 
 able and interesting work. One vol., i2mo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS TO MOLECULAR PHYSICS IN THE 
 DOMAIN OF RADIANT HEAT. 
 
 A Series of Memoirs published in the " Philosophical Transactions " and 
 " Philosophical Magazine." With Additions. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 849 & 581 Broadway, N. Y. 
 
A New Magazine for Students and Cultivated Readers. 
 
 T H E 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, 
 
 CONDUCTED BY 
 Professor E. L. YOUMANS. 
 
 The growing importance of scientific knowledge to all classes of the 
 community calls for more efficient means of diffusing it. The Popular 
 Science Monthly has been started to promote this object, and supplies a 
 want met by no other periodical in the United States. 
 
 It contains instructive and attractive articles, and abstracts of articles, 
 original, selected, and illustrated, from the leading scientific men of differ- 
 ent countries, giving the latest interpretations of natural phenomena, ex- 
 plaining the applications of science to the practical arts, and to the opera- 
 tions of domestic life. 
 
 It is designed to give especial prominence to those branches of science 
 which help to a better understanding of the nature of man ; to present the 
 claims of scientific education ; and the bearings of science upon questions 
 of society and government. How the various subjects of current opinion 
 are affected by the advance of scientific inquiry will also be considered. 
 
 In its literary character, this periodical aims to be popular, without be- 
 ing superficial, and appeals to the intelligent reading-classes of the commu- 
 nity. It seeks to procure authentic statements from men who know their 
 subjects, and who will address the non-scientific public for purposes of ex- 
 position and explanation. 
 
 It will have contributions from Herbert Spencer, Professor Huxley, 
 Professor Tyndall, Mr. Darwin, and other writers identified with specu- 
 lative thought and scientific investigation. 
 
 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY is published in a large 
 octavo, handsomely printed on clear type. Terms ; Five Dollars per annum t 
 or Fifty Cents per copy. 
 
 OPINIONfi OF THE PRESS. 
 
 "Just the publication needed at the present day." — Montreal Gazette. 
 " It is, beyond comparison, the best attempt at journalism of the kind ever made in this 
 Country." — Home Journal. 
 
 " The initial number is admirably constituted." — Evening Mail. 
 
 " In our opinion, the right idea has been happily hit in the plan of this new monthly." 
 —Buffalo Courier. 
 
 " A journal which promises to be of eminent value to the cause of popular education in 
 this country." — N. Y. Tribune. 
 
 IMPORTANT TO CLUBS. 
 
 The Popular Science Monthly will be supplied at reduced rates with any periodi- 
 cal published in this country. 
 
 Any person remitting Twenty Dollars for four yearly subscriptions will receive an ex- 
 ba copy gratis, or five yearly subscriptions for $20. 
 The Popular Science Monthly and Appletons* Journal (weekly), per annum, $8.00 
 Payment, in all cases, must be in advance. 
 Remittances should be made by postal money-order or check to the Publishers, 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 
 
New Scientific Works. 
 
 The Beginnings of Life: 
 
 Being some Account of the Nature, Modes of Origin and Transformation 
 
 of the Lower Organisms. By H. Charlton Bastian, M. D., F. R. S. 
 
 2 vols., 8vo. With upward of 100 Illustrations. Price, $5.00. 
 
 *' His preliminary chapters on the correlation of the vital and physical forces, on the 
 nature and theories of life, on organized and organizable matter, on the relations of the ani- 
 mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and on cell-phenomena and cell-doctrines, form the 
 clearest and most readable exposition of these subjects that we have yet seen, and they have 
 a value quite independent of the special inquiry to which they are an introduction." — Pop- 
 ular Science Monthly. 
 
 " It is a book which will make its mark, and must produce a powerful sensation."— 
 
 Nature. 
 
 The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and 
 Ornaments of Great Britain. 
 
 By John Evans, F. R. S., F. S. A., Honorary Secretary of the Geological 
 
 and Numismatic Societies of London, etc. 1 vol., 8vo. With 2 
 
 Plates and 476 Woodcuts. Price, $5.00. 
 
 " We congratulate all those who are interested in these researches — and they are now 
 many — on the ample and valuable additions which the author has made to this new and in- 
 teresting chapter in the history of our race." — Nature. 
 
 Town Geology. 
 
 By the Rev. Chas. Kingsley, F. L. S., F. G. S., Canon of Chester. 1 
 vol. Cloth. Price, $1.50. 
 
 An interesting and valuable book. The high standing of the author is a sufficient guar- 
 anty for the excellence of the work, and will secure for it an extensive circulation. 
 
 A Hand-Book of Chemical Technology. 
 
 By Rudolf Wagner, Ph. D., Professor of Chemical Technology at the 
 University of Wurtzburg. Translated and edited, from the eighth 
 German edition, with extensive Additions. By Wm. Crookes, F. R. S. 
 With 336 Illustrations. 1 vol., 8vo. 761 pages. Cloth, $5.00. 
 
 The several editions of Professor Rudolf Wagner's " Handbuch der Chemischen Tech- 
 nologic " have succeeded each other so rapidly, that no apology is needed in offering a 
 translation to the ptblic. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 549 &° 55 1 Broadway ; New York. 
 
The Colored Plates illustrating this edition of the work, requiring great care 
 in printing, were executed in London. 
 
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, 
 
 In its Application to Terrestrial Substances, and the Physical 
 Constitution of the Heavenly Bodies, 
 
 Familiarly explained, by Dr. H. Schellen, Director der Realschule 
 I. 0. Cologne. Translated from the second enlarged and revised 
 German edition, by Jane and Caroline Lassell. Edited, with 
 Notes, by William Huggins, LL. D. With numerous Woodcuts, 
 Colored Plates, and Portraits ; also, Angstrom's and Kirchhoff's 
 Maps. 455 pages, 8vo, cloth. Price, $6.00. 
 
 Front the Chemical News. 
 
 " This admirable work does credit to, or should we say is worthy of the 
 author, the translators, and the editor. The first part treats on the artificial 
 sources of high degrees of heat and light ; the second on Spectrum Analysis 
 in its application to the heavenly bodies. We must approve the method fol- 
 lowed in the translation, and by the editor. In many translations the views 
 of the author are suppressed, in order that the views of the translator or 
 editor may be expounded; but here Dr. Huggins, however leniently such a 
 fault might have been looked upon with him, has permitted the author's 
 views to remain intact, clearly stating his own and wherein lies the differ- 
 ence." 
 
 From the Chicago Post. 
 
 "The object of this volume is to introduce the general reader into a new 
 realm of science, and acquaint him with the particulars and the results of 
 the most brilliant discovery of the present century. Whoever has an appre- 
 ciative sense of the beauties and wonders of Nature, illuminated by science, 
 will find this volume a rich mine of enjoyment which he will do wisely to 
 explore." 
 
 From the Philadelphia Age. 
 
 " The contents are formidable in appearance, but the average reader will 
 find its exposition easily intelligible. To many the revelations of this book, 
 so marvellously minute, and yet so unerringly accurate, will be as wonder- 
 ful as the stories of the 1 Arabian Nights.' " 
 
 From the Boston Globe. 
 
 M Certainly, as regards mere knowledge, the Spectrum Analysis has let 
 us into many secrets of the physical universe, which Newton and La Place 
 would have declared impossible for man's intellect to attain. The science 
 is still in its infancy, but it is prosecuted by some of the ablest, most pa- 
 tient, and most enthusiastic observers, and some of the keenest thinkers, 
 at present existing on our little, insignificant physical globe." 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 549 & 551 BROADWAY, N. Y. 
 
WOEKS OF HEEBEET SPENCER, 
 
 PUBLISHED BT 
 
 D A.PPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 I. — FIRST PRINCIPLES. 
 {New and Enlarged Edition.) 
 Pari L — The Unknowable. 
 Par^ Q.— Laws of the Knowable. 
 
 859 pages. Price, $2.50 
 
 II. — THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY. — VOL. I. 
 Pari I. — The Data op Biology. 
 Part £1. — The Inductions of Biology. 
 Part ill. — The Evolution of Life. 
 
 475 pages. Price, $2.50 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.— VOL. II. 
 Part IV. — Morphological Development. 
 Pari V. — Physiological Development. 
 Pari VI. — Laws of Multiplication. 
 
 565 pages. Price, $2.50 
 
 III.— THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 Pari I. — The Data of Psychology. 144 pages. Price, - . $0.7fi 
 
 Part II. — The Inductions of Psychology. 146 pages. Price, - $0.75 
 Part III. — General Synthesis. 100 pages^ } p . 
 
 Part IV.— Special Synthesis. 112 pages. J- * rice, - - $1.00 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 L— ILLUSTRATIONS OF UNIVERSAL PROGRESS. 
 Thirteen Articles. 451 pages. Price, ..... $2.50 
 
 II.— ESSAYS : 
 Moral, Political, and ^Esthetic. 
 Vms Essays. 886 pages. Price, ... . $2.50 
 
 III.— SOCIAL STATICS: 
 Or the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, akd the 
 First of them Developed. 
 423 pages. Price, $2.5( 
 
 IV. — EDUCATION : 
 
 iNTEl LECTUAL, MORAL, AND PHYSICAL. 
 
 188 pages. Price, $1.25 
 
 V.— CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES. 
 M) pages. Price, ... . $0 2fi 
 
 VI.— SPONTANEOUS GENERATION, &c. 
 i6 pages Price . , . : $0/28 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY MAIN 
 
 NH 451 E96 D22 1873 BKS 
 c. 1 Darwin. Charles. 180 
 
 The expression of the emotions in man an 
 
 3 3125 00336 2452