I r>J.*H.4AVENDER. Q CYPKUS: ITS ANCIENT CITIES, TOMBS, AND TEMPLES, A NARRATIVE OF RESEARCHES AX]) EXCAVATIONS TEX YEARS' RESIDENCE IX THAT ISLAND. GENERAL LOUIS PALMA DT CESXOLA, MF.M. OF Till: ROYAL ACADEMY (IF SCIENCES, TURIN; HON. MEM. OF THE KOYAL SOCIETY OF LITKIlATfKK, LONDON, ETC. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. NEW YORK: II A IIP E I! I! ROT HE US, P I' B I. I JS H K 11 S, r i: A N K 1. 1 N ,s(> i' \ u i:. 1878. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by HAH r i; u & I5p. OTIM:KS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. MY DEAR FRIEND, MR. IIIRAAI HITCHCOCK, !N TOKEN OF A FRIENDSHIP OF MANY YEAK? WHICH OFTEN CALLED FORTH ITS TRUEST TESTS. AND NEVER FAILED, PREFACE. - --~>A*>e- MANY American and English friends have repeatedly asked me to publish an account of my researches in the island of Cyprus, and I have acceded to their request, hut not without grave fears in consequence of my literary inexperience and imperfect knowledge of the English language. To some extent, also, the publication of this narra- tive was imposed upon me .as a duty, by the fact that several distinguished scholars had expressed their fears as to whether my excavations had been conducted in a systematic manner, whether the ruins had been left in a suitable condition for future study and investiga- tion, and whether such a journal of the discoveries had been kept as would, from its details of how and where all the most important monuments had been found, prove of interest to science. From reasons of prudence I did not publish anything concerning my diggings so long as I was residing in the Turkish dominions, and I have had no occasion to regret the course I pursued. That the explorations I superintended in that island were carried out sys- Vlll PREFACE. tematically, and all the most interesting facts concern- ing them properly recorded, I hope the following pages will prove. That they were perhaps not conducted in all their details according to the usual manner adopted and advocated by most archaeologists, I am unwilling to dispute, but there were many serious considerations which I was not at liberty to disregard. My firman from the Ottoman Government made it imperative that I should leave the excavated fields in the same state in which I found them, no matter though they had become my property by purchase. Even had this not been the case, I should have hesitated before spend- ing the time and money necessary in clearing out every site where I dug in order to leave it in a condition suitable for future study, knowing that the natives would soon destroy those remains by carrying away the stones for building purposes, as they have clone with the ruins laid bare at Dali by Mr. Lang, according to the approved system. Again, such a system of excavating would have been too expensive for my private means, and I had neither public funds at my disposal nor an organized staff of assistants, as those usually have who superintend ex- plorations of this character and extent. I had to rely solely on my own personal and pecuniary resources, and had to husband them as much as my health and my means required. The result, however, would have been the same in any case, since the ruins of ancient edifices which I brought to lis/ht during mv ten vears' PREFACE. IX excavations, consisted, in almost every instance, only of low foundations of stone walls, and these, when their shape and exact measurement were ascertained, had no further archaeological importance. This disappearance of ancient monuments in Cyprus, renders the identification of its cities and temples ex- tremely difficult, and unfortunately, also, the records of them which exist in ancient authors are so few and unconnected that they mislead as often as they assist. My greatest difficulty in this respect was with the cities of Throni, Leucolla, and Aphrodisium. To enable the general reader to follow with some interest the description of my researches, I have given as an introduction a short account of the island of Cyprus from its pre-historic times, where everything appears to be confusion and darkness, to the present day. Among the modern writers on Cyprus, I have con- sulted Lusignan, Dapper, Mariti, Jauna, Pococke, Danville, La Croix, and Maslatrie, but the one to whom I am most indebted is Engel, who with that ability and thoroughness in his researches which so pre-eminently distinguish in our age the German scholar, has collected in his work, " Kypros," all the best and most reliable information that could be had about the island in classical times. My ignorance of the German language deprived me of the great assist- ance I might have derived from the perusal of this excellent work while I resided in Cyprus. X PREFACE. To the courtesy and superior learning of Mr. A. S. Murray, of the British Museum, I owe my acquaintance with Kngel, and also many valuahle suggestions which I here most gratefully acknowledge. A catalogue of the engraved gems found in the treasure vaults of the temple at Curium is given in the Appendix, and for this I am indebted to the great kindness of Mr. C. W. King, M.A. of Trinitv College, Cambridge, the well-known author of " The Natural History of Gems," "Antique Gems," and other works of similar character. It will be found of eminent value to the student of the glyptic art. In the Appendix will also be found a short description of the different types of vases found in Cyprus, and all the inscriptions which I discovered or have seen at various places during my excursions in the island. These inscriptions are in Cypriote, Phoenician, and Greek, with two or three in Assyrian incised on Baby- lonian cylinders, and a bilingual one in Greek and Latin, on a sepulchral stele. The description of the vases has been prepared by Mr. A. S. Murray, to whom 1 have already stated my obligations.* Although this volume is rich in illustrations, yet it contains but a very small per centage of the Cypriote monuments which I brought to light during my excava- * In this edition, follow! ni; the Index, will be found an interesting summary of (leneral I)i Cesnola's ^reat discove 1 ies, prepared by Mr. John Taylor Johnston, President of the Xe\v York Metropolitan Mu scum ot Art.-- hj;. PREFACE. XI tions in Cyprus. The description of the different locali- ties and of the tombs and temples which will be found in these pages, has been taken from notes written by me on the spot at the time of the excavations, when I en- deavoured to note down what I actually saw and as it appeared to me after a careful examination. I entertain the hcpe that the discoveries which I had the good fortune to make in Cyprus will prove more important as they become more generally known, and that they will justify the kindly expressed opinion of the illustrious discoverer of Nineveh, in saying " they will add a new and very important chapter to the history of Art and Archaeology." L. P. DI CESNOLA. ILSINGTON VII.T.A, LONDON, April, 1877. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION AC 'i CHAPTER I. Appointed American Consul at Cyprus.- Arrival at Lannrca in 1865. Descrip- tion of the town. Larnaca built on the ruins of Citium. Its remains of Phoenician, Assyrian, and Greek art. Foundations of a Phoenician and a Greek temple discovered. Phoenician and Greek inscriptions found in them. Diggings forbidden by the Turkish authorities. Arrest of a Consular employe. His release, and the satisfaction obtained from the Porte . . 41 CHAPTER IL Country life. Cypriote customs. Description of Dali. Former excavations of French archaeologists. Identification of site of Dali with that of Idalium. Accidental discovery of a tomb. Survey of the fields. An extensive necro- polis beneath them. Purchase and lease of ground. Arrival of the Firman. Commencement of diggings. Description of tombs and their contents. Two tiers of tombs. Charge of desecration of a Turkish cemetery. Arrival of the Pasha, and removal of the Cadi of Dali ...... 61 CHAPTER III. Several Consuls obtain Finnans to excavate. Lively competition. Mr. Lang discovers statues and bilingual inscription. Patriarchal custom among Cypriote peasants. Hadji Jorghi. His imprisonment and sad death. Rock-cut tombs at Alambra, with their peculiar pottery.-- Clay figures believed by some to be children's toys. Hills of Ambelliri. Famous bronze tablet of the Duke de Luynes. Village of Potamia. -Discovery of temple and tombs Several small cemeteries discovered east of Dali XIV CON TK NTS. CHAPTER IV. PAGF-: . \tliicno a town of muleteers. Identified by M. de Vogue as (lie site of Golgoi. Sketch of ( iolgoi. Cypriote mode of travelling. L'nsuccessful explorations in lS6~. Discovery of a necropolis east of Golgoi. All important sarco- phagus and other sepulchral monuments discovered there. Two men sent to (lit; in iS>jo Aghios 1'hotios. 1 Jiscovery of colossal head and other sculptuies. Excitement of villagers. Scene of confusion at night . . 105 CHAPTER V. iemovai of sculptures to I.arnaca. Pirn base of ground and recovery of purloined sculptures. Systematic diggings commenced. Discovery of more sculptures. Survey of another field. Discovery of a temple. Portions of it> founda- tions destroyed by French diggers. Many hundred statue.-, found in its area. The Governor-General wants to stop the diggings. Official correspondence with the Pasha. Many inscriptions in Cypriote characters and with bas- reliefs. Difficulty in removing the findings to Larnaca . . . .125 CHAPTER VI. The Cretan revolution. Cypriotes holding Greek passports ordered to leave the island within twenty days. -Protection of the Greek colony of Cyprus. The Greeks of Cyprus and the Hellenic Government thank General Cesnoln. - The Grand \ izier a-ks for his recall without success. Bad faith and abuse of power by the Turks.- Refusal to allow the exportation of the discoveries. The Turks circumvented and the collection shipped .... CHAPTER VII. PAl'HOS. Exploration of the S.I-'., coa-t of Cyprus. Mode of travelling. A modern priest. Ormidia. An extensive necropolis. No traces of dwelling-houses or temples. The >ites of Throni and Leucoila identified by the author. Ruin- of < 'atalima. Mysterious monolithic cone. Discovery of ti\e ceme- teries. Kamago-ta probably the ancient Arsinoe. Criminals. Kattirdj Janni. the Rubin Hood of the Levant. Salnmi.-- pr;.-on and tomb of St. Catlieime. Church of St. P.arnabas. -Two tumuli.- I-'rom Salami- to Cape St. Andivris evidence of Phoenician occupation. -Cemeteries and rum-. Mcdiivval castles CONTENTS, XV CHAPTER VIII. PAOF- Paphos founded by Phoenicians. Temple of Venus mentioned by Homer. Its site near the shore. Other Temple of Venus. Paphos built on nn eminence further inland. City and temple destroyed by earthquakes. Temple rebuilt by Vespasian. -Remains still visible.- -Plan of the great temple. Mosaic pavement. Rock-cut tombs. Site of temple partly occupied by the small villae of Kouklia .-...,.. aor CHAPTER IX. Xo ruins of Arsinoe on site mentioned by Strabo. Garden and bath of Venus. - Neo-Paphos founded by Arcadians. The Turks oppose diggings by force. St. Paul's column. Rock-cut tombs.- Imprisonment of two notable Turks. Cape Acamas. Ruins of ancient town of Soloi, its theatre. Discovery of temple with statues and inscriptions. Lapethus. Discovery of temple with statues and inscriptions. Cerynia now a fortress. Xo remains of ancient city. Scene with the Turks. Abbey of Lapa'is. -Cerynia to Aphrodisitim. Ruins of four ancient towns near the seashore. Harbour and temple of Aphrodisium. Mediaeval castles of I Suffix vento and Kantara. The hermit Simeon. Cythrea. Discovery of two temples. Statues and inscriptions. _ Xicosia. Tombs of the oldest period. The lepers . . . . .217 CHAPTER X. AMATHUS. Amathus founded by Phf their contents. XVI CONTEXTS. PAGE ---Gold armlets with name of king of Paphos. Tombs in neighbouring lulls and plain. Discovery of Temple of Apollo Hylates. Greek inscriptions. - Statues from the neighbourhood.-- Journey to (.'ape Galto. Discovery ol Kuri, its cemetery.- Wild cats and asps. Ruins of Greek convent at Acrotiri. Return to l.arnaca.- End of explorations Departure from the island ............. 293 APPENDICES. THE RIXGS AND GEMS IN THE TREASURE OF CURIUM . 353 OX THE POTTERY OF CYPRUS 393 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS . . 413 INSCRIPTIONS IN THE CYPRIOTE CHARACTER .... 437 INSCRIPTION'S IN THE PIKENlCIAX CHARACTER . . .441 443 THE CESXOEA COEEECTIOX IX THE METROPOLITAN MUSE- UM OF ART, XE\V YORK, BY JOHX TAYEOR JOHXSTOX, ESQ., PRESIDENT OF THE MUSEUM ...... 451 & r ^4 'i> =, .' ; J-s J LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 40 TERRA-COTTA VASE . . . VIEW OF LARNACA . . . . SCULPTURED SLAB IN BERLIN . SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT . . . TERRA-COTTA GROUP . . . TERRA-COTTA STATUETTES . . TOMBS AT LARNACA . . - LID OF SARCOPHAGUS . ALABASTER VASES . . . - SEPULCHRAL CIPPI . . . . SARCOPHAGUS ..... ARCHAIC VASE ..... TERRA-COTTA MASK . . . VASE FROM DALI . . . . TOM us AT DALI . . . . INSIDE OF TOMB . . . . VASE WITH PHOENICIAN INSCRIP- TION ...... GOLD ORNAMENTS (DALI) VASES FROM DALI . GLASS VASES ... DOUBLE TOMBS . . . ROMAN LAMPS BRONZE BOWL, ENGRAVED . TERRA-COTTA FROM SOLI . BRON/.ES FROM I)ALI . COPPER SPEAR HEADS AND TOOLS FROM Al.AMBRA . . . pi. V. TERRA-COTTA FIGURES . . ,, vi. VASES FROM AI.AMMRA ,. vii. PAC.lt VASE FROM ALAMBRA ... 95 TOMBS OF DALI . . . . 96 STONE HEAD .... 98 VASES FROM DALI . . pi. viii. VASES FROM DALI . . . 101 EGYPTIAN GREEN-GLA/.ED VASE . 102 TERRA-COTTA VASES FROM DALI, pi. ix. STATUE OE APHRODITE . . . 106 SCULPTURED STEI..K . . . 110 SARCOPHAGUS FROM GOLGOI . . pi. x. DOG FOUND WITH SARCOPHAGUS 114 ENGRAVED PATERA . . pi. .\i. SCULPTURED STEL.E . . . 117 SCENE AT GOLGOI . . .122 COLOSSAL HEAD . . . . i2T, PHOENICIAN WINE PITCHER . 124 Two STATUES 129 .... 131 STATUE OF PRIEST . . . . 132 ., HERCULES . . pi. xii. SCULPTURED PEDESTAL . . . 136 PLAN OF TEMPLE . . . 139 TERRA-COTTA FIGURE . . . 140 STONE HEADS . . . 141 STATUE 143 BAS-RELIEF OF SERPENT . . 144 Two STATUES 145 SCULPTURED VASE . . . 145 FJAS-RELIEF BANQUET . . . 140 STATUE 149 XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Two TKRRA-COTTAS . . . BAS-RELIEFS WITH CYPRIOTE IN- SCRIPTIONS . . . . STATUE OF PRIEST . . . . Two STATUES . DIANA Two UKADS . . . Two STATUES . . . . KNKEI.IM; WARRIOR . . . TRiri.K GEKYON . VENUS LAMP VUTIVK SCULPTURES . . . SCULPTURED PLINTHS . GREEK STATUK . . . . STATUE p TERRA-COTTA STATUETTES . . BOY WITH GOOSE MODERN PRIEST . . . . Two VASES . . . . MONOLITH TERRA-COTTA COFFIN . Two HEADS HEAD OF CYBEI.E TERRA-COTTA FIGURES . . . RUINS OF TEMPLE OF PAITIOS . FEET IN SCR in ED . . . . TEKRA-COTTA HEAD FRAGMENT OF VASE . . . PLAN OF TEMPLE AT PAPIIOS RUINS OF TEMPLE . . . . KnoDiAN AMPHORA TOM PS CYPEI.E STAIULITE AND Two HE\DS SAMIAN VASE IVORY BAS-RELIEF . . . . STATUE . SIMEON 'iin; HERMIT . . . TLKKA-IOTTAS . TERR \-COTTA VASES . . . SERPENTINE VA-,E I'AC.K 150 152 '53 154 155 I 5 6 157 157 I 5 S J 59 1 60 xiii. 164 176 1 So 181 189 190 190 191 203 205 207 207 2IO 212 214 2 If) 224 229 230 2 3 -33 240 241 247 2 55 256 HEAD HERCULES AND LION . L.XCAVATING TOM US TOMBS AT AMATHUS . SARCOPHAGUS FROM AMATHUS, pi. xiv.-xv. TERRA-COTTA BOATS PLAN OF TOM is DOOR OF TOMB X A NTH us FRIEZE LID OF SARCOPHAGUS ARCHAIC VASE INTERIOR OF TOMB . SARCOPHAGUS ALABASTER VAM;S . TEKRA-COTTA VASE AND STA- TUETTE PORCELAIN FIGURES . . . PATERA FROM AMATHUS Boss THUS INTERIOR OF TOMB STATUE OF VEILED FEMALE . LID OF SARCOPHAGI'S . VIEW OF CURIUM . LARKING .... SKELETON .... FIGURE CARRYING WATER . MOSAIC PLAN OF TREASURE-CHAMBERS GOLD BRACELET Ac, ATE SCEPTRE . GOLD FINGER-RINGS GOLD EARRINGS . GOLD BRACELETS GOLD DIADEMS M ISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS GOLD PATERA GOLD XECKLACE 1 )o., DO , -xxiii. Do., DO. xxiv. II LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX GOLD NECKLACE AND EARRINGS pi. xxv. GOLD OBJECTS FROM CURIUM . 324 CRYSTAL VASE .... 325 GOLD TOP OF VASE . . . 326 GOLD AND SILVER RINGS AND PENDANTS . . . pi. xxvi. GOLD ORNAMENTS FROM CURIUM pi. xxvii.-xxviii. PATERA FROM CURIUM . . . 329 TERRA-COTTA CHARIOT . .331 TERRA-COTTA VASE FROM CURIUM pi. xxix. Two VASES 333 BRONZE TRIPOD . . . 335 BRONZE CANDELABRA . . . 336 PATERA WITH DEER AND PAPY- RUS 337 BRONZE OBJECTS . . . pi. xxx. TERRA-COTTA HEADS . . . 344 STONE FIGURES . ... 344 BRONZE STATUETTE . . . 345 PAGE 34<3 347 347 MARBLE STATUETTE THREE SMALL FIGURES TERRA-COTTA VASE STONE HEADS .... 350 NEMESIS 392 ENGRAVED GEMS . pi. xxxi.-xli. ARCHAIC VASE . ... 394 ARCHAIC VASES . . . pi. xlii. LATER VASES .... pi. xliii. ARCHAIC VASE .... 401 ARCHAIC \JASES . . . . 402 VASES . 404,405,406,408,410,411 BRONZE CALDRON . . . . 412 DESIGNS ON PAINTED VASES pi. xliv.-xlvii. BRONZE BOWL .... 440 INSCRIPTIONS IN CYPRIOTE CHA- RACTER . . . pi. i.-viii. INSCRIBED VASE . . . 442 INSCRIPTIONS IN PHCENICIAN CHARACTER . . pi. ix.-xii. GREEK TERKA-COTTA VASE . 456 CYPRUS; ITS ANCIENT CITIES, TOMBS, AND TEMPLES. INTRODUCTION. BESIDES the natural advantages arising from its size, fertility, and wealth, Cyprus derived from its position, within a day's sail of the coast of Syria, great import- ance in the remote ages when civilisation had only begun to dawn in Greece, but had already advanced to a high degree in Assyria and Egypt. In later times this position between the East and the West gives its history a chequered character of war and conquest. But we must first go back to a period when Greece and the Western nations were of no political importance, and were only of value to the East for the sake of trade. The great traders of this period were the Phoenicians, and it is beyond doubt that in the course of this early commerce the Greeks obtained several important elements of their later civilisation ; their alphabet and systems of weights and measures appear to have been derived from this source, and in recent years it has been argued with great show of reason that the Greeks had also learned from the Phoenicians what has been called the alphabet of art, that is a knowledge of the technical processes of such industrial arts 2 CYPRUS. as weaving, embroidery, pottery, metal-working, and wood-carving."" To a people confined as the Phoenicians originally were to a narrow strip of coast, skilled and largely occupied with metal-working, as they are known to have been in the time of Homer, Cyprus with its unlimited wealth of copper must have presented an attraction which its close proximity would enable them to easily gratify. At what time they may have first settled in the island it is impossible to ascertain from the accumulation of legends which has gathered round and obscured the original facts. This much has been established, that Cyprus was the Chittim + of the Old Testament, though no doubt this name was also at times extended to the \Yestern nations generally. Josephus (i. 7) expressly identifies it with Cyprus, and other writers followed him, while the existence of a town of the name of Citium in the island, is itself a strong corroboration of the statement. What authority Eusebius may have had for saying that the town of Paphos had been founded by Israelites expelled in the time of the first Judge Athaniel we do not know, but the assertion is in direct conflict with the other traditions, and may perhaps be best dismissed. The early Phoenician settlers appear to have retained their connection with the mother country, and in the time of Hiram, King of Tyre, a contemporary of David and Solomon (circa B.C. 1000), we find them revolting * See Brunn, ' Die Kunst bei Homer." and A. S. Murray in the Contemporary /iVr/i'iv. January, 1X74. t Chittim was a son of Javan, grandson of Jnphet, and great grand- son of Xoah, and it has been conjectured that it was this Canaanite race of the Chittim who emigrated to Cyprus and gave the island their name. The biblical CapJitor has also been identified as another name of Cyprus. In early Kgyptian documents it occurs as /v//. />// TOV (pvofifvov tivSovs Kvirpov, Kngel,, ]). 14. t The other more or less poetic names of Cyprus were : Aeria, Aerosa. Akamantis, Amathusia, Aphrodisia, Aspelia, Collinia, Kerastes, Krvptos, Me'inis, Ophiusa, Makaria, Paphos, Sphekeia. and Tharsis. For the various explanations of these names, see Kngel, " Kypros," i., pp. i 1-24. 4 CYPRUS. the Trojan war. The legendary hero of Cyprus was Cinyras, to whom was traced the invention of the hammer, anvil, tongs, and other tools used in metal- working, and it was he who ruled the island when the Trojan expedition started. Like the other Greek princes he was requested to take part in the war, and we have in Homer (Iliad, xi. 19) a description of the armour which he presented to Agamemnon : " Atricles summoned all to arms ; to arms himself disposed : First on his legs he put bright greaves with silver buttons closed ; Then with rich cuirass armed his breast which Cinyras bestowed To gratify his roval guest, for even to Cyprus flowed The unbounded fame of those designs the Greeks proposed for Troy, And therefore gave to him those arms and wished his purpose joy. Ten rows of a/ure mixed with black ; twelve golden like the sun, Twice ten in tin in beaten paths did through the armour run ; Three serpents to the gorget crept that like three rainbows shined, Such as by Jove are fixed in clouds when wonders are divined." ( Chapman's Translation. ) It was said, however, that Agamemnon's armour turned out to be worthless, but this was told rather to reflect on the character of Palamedes, who had been sent to solicit the aid of Cinyras, and had kept for himself the really valuable presents entrusted to him for Agamemnon by the Cyprian king, substituting the worthless armour, and saying that Cinyras would send one hundred ships, none of which ever appeared ; other stories set Cinyras himself in an unfavourable light. The Greeks on their way to Troy had stopped at Cyprus, and been very hospitably received by him; he undertook to supply them with provisions during the war, but did not fulfil his promise, and for this incurred the deep anger of Agamemnon. According to another story, Cinyras had promised Menelaus to send iiftv ships to Troy, but when the time came sent only one. making up the number with small ships made of clay, with crews of clay INTRODUCTION. 5 figures."" Owing to this treachery Agamemnon, on his return from Troy, landed at Cyprus, expelled Cinyras, and settled part of his Greek followers at Amathus. It is not unreasonable to suppose that stories of this kind, which present the Cypriotes as connected with the Greeks but yet faithless towards them, indicate the true position of affairs previous to the time when the Greeks became the more powerful part of the population. The shape of this island was not inappropriately compared by the ancients to that of a deer's skin or a fleece spread out. Eastward it extends in a long pro- montory ending in Cape Dinaretum (now St. Andreas) before which are several small islands known as the " Kleides " or "Keys." On the north coast projects Cape Crommyon (Kormakiti) ; on the west Cape Acamas (St. Epiphanio) ; and on the south Cape Curias (Cape Gatto). Between these main extremities are numerous points or promontories connected by an abundance of bays favourable to shipping. The principal mountain ranges are in the west and south-west, the highest point being that of Mount Olympus (Trodos or Troodos), 6590 feet, nearly mid- way between the towns of Curium in the south, and Soli in the north. From Mount Olympus a view of the whole island can be obtained. Whether it was on this mountain, or on a promontory of the same name, which is said to have been on the north-east side of the island, that the Temple of Venus Acraea stood is not certain. To that temple no women were admitted. Next in height to Mount Olympus is Mount Adelphi (Maschera), 5380 feet, and still in the same range, but farther east- ward, is a hill rising to 4730 feet, the ancient name of which is not determined. In a western prolongation of this chain we have Mount Sta. Croce, 2300 feet, on * See clay boats engraved, p. 259. 6 CYPRUS. which in ancient times was a Temple to Jupiter. This temple was in ruins when the Empress Helen, mother of Constantine, visited Cyprus ; and a tradition, from which the hill derives its present name, asserts that Saint Helen caused a chapel to be erected on the spot, and deposited in it a piece of the cross which she had brought from Jerusalem. An English traveller, John Locke, says that he saw the relic in Cyprus in 1553. There is a ruined Greek convent now on the top of the hill, and on the eastern slope is another convent dedicated to Sta. Barbara. The northern coast is mountainous along its whole extent, from Cape Crommyon to Cape Dinaretum, but the highest points do not exceed 3340 feet. Mount Buffavento is 3240 feet, Mount Pentedak- tylon 2480 feet, and Mount Elias 2810 feet. It is not known from which mountain it was that the volcanic eruption took place in the time of Titus, doing very great damage to the neighbourhood. The island generally seems to have been subject to earthquakes ; Paphos being the particular victim, and next to it Amathus. From the mountains rose numerous streams, but onlv ./ two or three rivers of any consequence. The Pedios, or Pedaios, which enters the sea between Salamis anct Famag,,sta, was, and still is, the most important of these. Its course is eastward, through Nicosia and part of the large fertile plain of Mesaoria, \vhich lies behind the mountain ranges on the north and south sides of the island ; it is called now the Pedia. In 1330 it was swollen by heavy rains and inundated Nicosia, to the destruction of much life and property. For some weeks the plain of Mesaoria was like a lake. The Clarius near Soli, and the Bocarus at Paphos are now dry most of the vear, while the Tetius is only a winter torrent. The Lapethus runs all the year, and the Lycus is a respectable stream. Originally, it is said, the whole island was covered with wood, which first beiran to be cleared and used for INTRODUCTION. 7 the purpose of mining, and afterwards on a large scale for ship building. For the latter the pines, which in historical times grew abundantly, were employed, and in some cases also the cedar, which is said to have surpassed in Cyprus even its dimensions on the Lebanon hills. In the neighbourhood of Paphos and Amathus were grown large quantities of grain, while the island generally is spoken of by ancient writers as possessing in great abundance the largest variety of natural products. The plant Cyprus (Henna Lawsonia alba), from which the island is said to have derived its name, has already been mentioned, and in the preparation of dyes and salves from this and other plants arose a considerable industry in ancient times. The cultivation of hemp and flax was another profitable occupation. But the chief source of wealth was in the copper mines, which yielded not only a finer quality of copper, but also a greater supply of it than any other mines known to the ancients. It was from its prevalence and general use that its proper name of Xa/Wco? Kinrpios Aes Cyprium, came to be shortened into Cyprum, and anglicised into copper. The principal mines were at Tamassus, Amathus, Soli, Curium, and near the promontory of Crommyon. The supply of iron was considerable, while silver and gold were also found, but apparently not in large quantities. There is no doubt that under the original Greek settlers, and for centuries after them, while the unlimited natural resources of the island were being developed, Cyprus had maintained a high character among the Greek islands. But in time the easily acquired products of nature, the wealth arising from trade, the enervating climate,"" and not least, perhaps, the intercourse with the East rendered the people of Cyprus proverbial as the * Of the climate, Martial (ix. 92) says, Infmiein nimio calore Cyprum. Louis IX. spent a winter in Cyprus while on his crusade 1248-9, and lost twenty-six of his nublest knights. 8 CYPRUS. happiest beings on earth as far as luxury and pleasure could make them so, and the natural consequence of this was that there was no excess or refinement oi indulgence which they did not practise. In this the worship of Aphrodite played an important part. To a great extent it decided the character of public and private morality throughout the island, and that the result was highly disgraceful may be seen from numerous passages in the ancient writers.""" Everyone knows the description which Herodotus gives (i. igg) of the custom of Babylonian women at the Temple of Mylitta, the Assyrian counterpart of Aphrodite, and he adds that the same thing prevailed in Cvprus. Later writers entirely confirm what he says, and the pictures which they draw of the grand festivals to the goddess at Paphos leave little for the imagination of man to invent, one would think, in the way of gross indulgence. It may be some defence to say that the prescripts of religion required much of this, but there seems to have been little or nothing to counteract it. There are, for instance, only slight traces of there having existed such means for the athletic training of the youth as are found elsewhere among the Greeks. The mass of the people were apparently also stupid, the nickname of /3oug Kv-pios being an expression similar to (Bouoria and probably it was from his being the acknowledged author that he was brought into relationship with Homer. As to the poetic merits of the Kypria, it is to be observed that Herodotus (ii. 117) does not allege inferiority as his reason for thinking that it was not the work of Homer, but relies on a discrepancy of incident. Aristotle censures it in comparison with Homer for its too great variety of incident. There must have been an important school of Homeric poets in the island about the latter half of the eighth century B.C., to which period this poem is assigned. The Kypria consisted of eleven books, of which we possess now only what is called the argument as preserved by Proclus in Photius, but from this it is possible to gather the main incidents of the poem. The subject of the Iliad is the war of Troy, and the subject of the Kypria is the events which caused and preceded the war of Troy. It is therefore a sort of introduction to the Iliad. At the same time it must not be supposed that these earlier legendary incidents had been invented by the poet. What he did was to collect a great number of local legends which are not in the Iliad, and to preserve them. 14 CYPRUS. To this we now owe much of our knowledge of the legends of the Trojan cycle, and it is certain that the great variety of scenes and events in this poem formed a mine of subjects for the tragic poets and artists of Greece. Besides Stasinos, the probable author of the Kypria and his rival claimant Hegesias, we find Cleon of Curium mentioned as the author of a poem on the Argonauts, to which it is said Apollonius Rhodius had been largely indebted in writing his poem of the Argo- nauts, which now exists. Judging from the reputation of the island for its poetry in the time of Pindar, one would conclude that there must have been many other poets in Cyprus whose names and works have been lost. There is the lyric poet Hermeias of Curium, of \vhose verse Athenaeus has preserved a specimen. Several fragments of the comedies of Sopatios are also to be found in Athenasus. Among the prose writers, of whom there is a considerable number known by name, Clearchos of Soli, a pupil of Aristotle, is the principal figure. His work, entitled Gergithios, was an exposure of the system of sycophants at the Cypriote courts. He was the author also of a book of biographies. There was, however, no more illustrious native of Cyprus than Zeno the philosopher (born B.C. 362), the founder of the Stoic school ; Citium was his birthplace, and it was as proud of him as he was attached to it. The language employed in literary compositions, and indeed the prevailing language of the island in historical times, was Greek. The Phoenician inhabitants, probablv those of Citium and Idalium in particular, had retained their native tongue, and though neither their position in relation to the Greeks, nor the capacity of their language, was calculated to exercise much influence on the current Greek, yet it is noticeable that in the con- siderably large series of words handed down as peculiar to Cyprus a number of them are obviously of Semitic INTRODUCTION. 15 origin (Engel, i. pp. 557~593)- The mixture of colonists from different parts of Greece bringing dif- ferent dialects may have produced the others. That the ordinary Greek alphabet was employed for literary purposes is to be inferred from the familiarity of Greek authors with Cypriote literature, and from their silence as to any peculiarity on this point. It was, therefore, a matter of surprise and deep interest to scholars when inscriptions came to be found written in a hitherto unknown character. The first who rendered important service as regards these inscriptions, was the Due de Luynes, by his publication of " Numismatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes," Paris, 1852, containing all the inscriptions then known, and among them a now cele- brated bronze tablet, with an inscription of thirty-one lines, found at Idalium. In 1855, Professor Roth published a translation of this tablet, making it out to be a proclamation of the Egyptian king Amasis to the people of Cyprus, and assuming the language to be Semitic. But this and all attempts at decipherment failed until a bilingual inscription, in Phcenician and Cypriote, discovered by my English colleague, R. H. Lang, was made known. Mr. Lang had himself made some progress with the correct reading of this docu- ment, when the late Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum, quite independently discovered the same clue, and succeeded in determining the value of forty of the characters or signs of the Cypriote alphabet, or sylla- barium, as it is more properly called. At this stage Dr. Birch, the Keeper of Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, perceiving the language written in this strange character to be essentially Greek, applied the newly found key to the bronze tablet of the Due de Luynes, and published his reading of it in the Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology (vol. i., pt. 2, 1873). The whole subject was next taken up by Dr. Brandis of i6 CYPRUS. Berlin, and investigated with his characteristic patience and thoroughness up to the time of his too early death. His result was published in the Monatsbericht of the Berlin Academy, 1873 ; and to that publication we would refer those who desire a secure foundation for the study of the Cypriote language."" The following table, which represents the alphabet as far as it was made out by him, is taken from the article just mentioned. I. Gutturals. 9. h ta 10. T i(C) 11. T to 1. 2 /: Vr b. JV. y< 2. u 7. rr ^ 3. A ko 8. f\ go 4. r 1 -A- 5.$ -<# II. Dentals d \r da 12. ^ m (?) T do th tha 13. de< the, te *\ -- t/io 14. or s 15. ili 20. ^ ? 25. Jl n/ sn 1C. A, /^ m 21. 4: li - ri 26. lt , , 38. 1C a w 41. A j o u ou (?) 44. o, 47. V v 49. # O u 45. // o 48. '/y Mostly at end 46. ^ o of word and Alternating mthN 1 ? 47. Mr. R. H. Lang believes (Transactions Roy. Soc. Lit., xi. pt. i, New Series, p. 23) that this language and writing had been handed down from the original in- habitants of the island, previous to the advent of the Phoenicians. As regards the race to which these aborigines belonged, he says, " in Genesis we read (ch. x. ver. 4), ' and the sons of Javan ; Elishah, and Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim : ' (ver. 5) ' By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands.' In other words we are told that the inhabitants of Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, Dodanim or Rodanim, were of the Javanian (or as we have it later, Ionian) family. It will be admitted that the Kittim alluded to by the author of Genesis was Cyprus, and if so, then we have the testimony of the most ancient and theological record extant that the original inhabitants of the island were 18 CYPRUS. descendants of Javan and part of the great Greek family, with which, even in our days, the Cypriotes are closely allied. One circumstance which has been generally overlooked adds considerable weight to the testimony of the writer of Genesis, if we suppose him to have been Moses, who was brought up at the court of Pharaoh. In the time of Moses the island was actually a possession of Egypt, having been conquered by the Egyptian fleet under Thothmes III. This testimony, then, with regard to the inhabitants of Cyprus, was probably based on authentic information possessed by the court of Pharaoh. Whence this population came to the island we cannot conjecture." " When treating lately of the Cypriote alphabet in a paper read to the Biblical Society of Archaeology, I had occasion to show its similarity to the alphabet of Lycia, and this circumstance leads me to suggest that an off-shoot of the great Aryan emigration which peopled Lycia, may have crossed the Cilician sea, only about fifty miles broad, and penetrated into Cyprus." Besides the extreme probability of settlers from Cilicia coming to Cyprus as pointed out by Mr. Lang, there is the fact stated by Tacitus ^Hist. 2, 3) that at the time when the Cinyradae came from Phoenicia another priestly family, the Tamiradae, arrived from Cilicia and exercised their prophetic powers in the island. This was pointed out by Engel in 1841, but he, being convinced that the early Cilicians were of the same Semitic stock as the Phoenicians, concluded i. p. 178 that this settlement of Cilicians had not altered the ethnological character of the island. The similarity between the Cvpriote and Lycian alphabets would be a more important fact than it is were the Lvcian language deciphered satisfactorily ; there are certain similarities also in the sculptures of Cyprus and INTRODUCTION. ig Lycia which will be pointed out, but at present they seem rather traceable to an oriental than to a Greek origin. While the two languages of Cyprus Greek and Phosnician remained distinct, it would seem that the religion of the two separate races had become success- fully amalgamated. The goddess of Paphos, whose temple there had been founded, according to tradition, in imitation of a temple of the Tyrian goddess Astarte at Ascalon, and had a perpetual priesthood, tracing their lineage to the Tyrian founder Cinyras, was accepted by the Greeks throughout the island as Aphrodite. She was in the first place the Goddess 01 Love, and considering that however much language or nationality may vary, this passion at least is very constant in mankind, it cannot be surprising that the two races of Cyprus worshipped one goddess in common. Her symbol was a cone, such as stood in the adytum of the temple at Paphos, and whatever its signification may ultimately have been, the likelihood is that it originated in reference to the functions of the Pelasgic Aphrodite as a goddess of fertility. The two originally distinct elements in the religion of the Paphian goddess are indicated by her two titles of Pandemos and Urania, with her separate genealogy for each. As Pandemos she was a daughter of Zeus and Dione, and represented originally a pure Greek conception of a goddess of Nature, and it is in this genealogy that she is known to Homer. As Urania she was the offspring of Uranos, born in the foam of the Sea (Aphrodite), and coming finally to land in Cyprus. As a goddess of the Heavens (Uranos) she reminds us that the principal deities of the Asiatic race to which the Phoenicians belonged, were the Sun and Moon Baal and Mylitta in Babylon. And again, as a goddess born of the sea she reminds us that the goddess Derceto was represented at Ascalon in the 20 CYPRUS. form of a fish. It was apparently under the influence of the Asiatic side of her religion that the prostitution of women in her service became as great at Cyprus as it was at Babylon in the service of Mylitta. The love of Aphrodite for beautiful youths is known from the stories of Adonis, Phaethon, and Cinyras, while on the other hand the love of mortals for her or her image is shown in the story of Pygmalion, who made for himself an ivory figure of the goddess, and poured out his yearnings towards it. On one of her festival days he approached her altar and implored that the figure might be endowed with life. The goddess heard his prayer, the image warmed into life, and bore to Pygmalion the beautiful boy " Paphos." Stones less elevated in character than this are told of love for the statue of Aphrodite at Cnidos. But her chief favourite in Cyprus was Cinyras, whose praise was sung and related far and wide. In beauty of an effeminate sort he was compared with Sardanapalus. His wealth, like that of Midas, was proverbial, but with the differ- ence that he knew how to use it. It was he who had introduced the worship of Aphrodite into Paphos, and settled a hereditary right to her priesthood in his family. Early institutions and inventions, from which the island had benefited, were traced to him, and we have already seen that in the Iliad he appears as a Greek prince, and a wealthy contemporary of Aga- memnon. The genealogy of Cinyras is in inextricable confusion. In one place he is a son of Apollo and Pharmake ; in another a son of Paphos, the off- spring of Pygmalion and the ivorv image ; in a third his father was Theias, who at one time appears as an early king of the island, and at another as King of Assyria, having as children, besides Cinyras, Myrrha and Adonis, who usually are called the children of Cinyras. In the other legends his descent is traced INTRODUCTION. 21 to Cecrops. Again, his wife is given sometimes as Metharme, a daughter of Pygmalion, and at other times Cenchreis. With reference to the colonisation of the island, it will be seen that the Phoenicians had settled on the south coast at the nearest and most convenient points for trade with the mother country, and had founded the three towns of Paphos, Amathus, and Citium, of which Paphos, with its greater celebrity in historical times, claimed to be the oldest ; but probably this claim would be better allowed to Amathus, which traced its foundation to Amath, a grandson of Canaan, and retained such Phoenician peculiarities as the worship of Melkart, the Tyrian Hercules, and human sacrifice to Kronos, of which there is no evidence in Paphos. It was from Amathus, and not Paphos, that Agamemnon drove the Cinyradas, and their seat must have been the chief and probably the first settlement in the island. Citium was always merely a commercial city, as it is to this day, under the name of Larnaca. Whether Lapethus and Carpassia in the north \vere Phoenician towns is doubtful, though, from the remains discovered at those places, the former would appear Greek, while the latter is unmistakably Phoenician, in my opinion. The Greek colonization, according to legend, began with the return of the heroes from Trov. i. Salamis j was founded by Teucer, and named after his native island, where, on his return, his father Telamon would not receive him, and whence he fled with his com- panions to Cyprus, taking with him also his Trojan captives. According to Virgil, he landed first at Sidon, and obtained permission and assistance to settle in Cyprus from Belus, a King of Sidon. Possibly the Salaminians had gone to Cyprus along with the Athe- nian colony under Acamas, though it is given as a 22 CYPRUS. separate event. 2. The towns of Soli and Cythrea traced their foundation to the Athenians. The towns of Lapethus and Cerynia (3 and 4) were said to have been founded by a Lacedemonian colony under Prax- ander, and an Achaean colony under Kepheus. 5. Curium was founded by Arrives, but under whose leadership is not said. 6. A colony of Dryopians is mentioned as having planted a town named Asine, the site of which, however, is not known. 7. Agapenor, returning from Troy with his Arcadian followers, was wrecked on Cyprus, and founded Xeo-Paphos. 8. Golgos or Golgoi was founded by a colony of Sicyonians, under a leader, Golgos, whom the myth calls a son of Aphrodite and Adonis. It will be seen that, with the exception of the Argive colony of Curium, which lies between Paphos and Amathus, the Greek settlers chose the north and west coasts of the island ; and of the west kingdoms of Cyprus, only two \vere distinctly Phoenician. At what time and under what circumstances these two towns had adopted the monarchical form of government of their Greek neighbours, is not known ; but it could hardly have been until after their release from their vassalage to Tyre. The ten kingdoms were Salamis, Soli, Chytri, Curium, Lapethus, Cerynia, Xeo-Paphos, Marium, with Citium and Amathus as Phoenician. In the Iliad we have mention of Cinyras as appa- rently then the only king of the island ; but altogether Cyprus does not seem to have been well known to the author of the Iliad, and was probably not a place of remarkable importance in his day. In the Odyssey, however, more is known of it. There is the visit of Menelaos (iv. 83-4), its supply of copper, for which Athene goes to Tamassus (i. 181), while Odysseus him- self (xvii. 442) gives his experience of the friendliness of Dmetor, a King of Cyprus. INTRODUCTION. 23 On an Egyptian tomb it is stated that Thothmes III. conquered Cyprus ; it appears elsewhere that Belus, King of Tyre, took the island at a later period and destroyed most of its cities ; in B.C. 707, Sargon, the Assyrian monarch, conquered Cyprus, and made its kings his tributaries ; B.C. 594, Apries, King of Egypt, (the Pharaoh Hophra of Scripture), defeated several Cypriote monarchs near Citium, and returned home laden with spoils. Amasis, who put Apries to death, overran the entire island, and imposed, as Herodotus says, a tribute on it. The same historian tells us that during the reign of Psammeticus the Cypriote rulers, tired of Egyptian control, surrendered themselves to Cambyses the Persian, and joined him in the war against the son of Amasis. When Darius became King of Persia, and founded the satrapies, Cyprus, with Phoenicia and Palestine, formed the fifth province. Some time after this, the people of the island, except the King of Amathus, revolted against the Persians, and joined the lonians. Onesilus, brother of Gorgus, King of the Salaminians, and leader of this revolt, besieged Amathus, but was forced to desist by the advance of the Persian general Artabazus, and, united with the lonians, their ships encountered the Persian fleet, mostly Phoenician vessels, off the Kleides (Cape St. Andreas), and after more than one combat, defeated it. Onesilus, at the beginning of the struggle, was equally victorious on land; but was ultimately defeated through the treachery of the Salaminians and of Stephanor (or Stasanor, as he is called by others), King of Curium, who deserted to the Persians. Onesilus and Aristo- cyprus. King of Soli, were slain, the head of the former was cut off by the Amathusians in revenge and placed over one of the gates of their city. Some time after- wards a swarm of bees took possession of the empty skull ; the people of Amathus, alarmed, consulted the 24 CYPRUS. oracle at Paphos, which instructed them to appease the manes of Onesilus by interring his skull and making annual sacrifices in his honour ; these ceremonies were still observed in the time of Herodotus (v. 104-5). The lonians hearing of the defeat of Onesilus and the submission of the Salaminians to Gorgus, returned to defend their own country. B.C. 477, the Athenians and Lacedemonians con- quered part of Cyprus from the Persians ; thirty years later Cimon, with 200 ships, made an effort to capture the remainder of the island, but as he died of disease while besieging Citium the fleet returned to Athens, and all the Athenian conquests were abandoned. Evagoras landed with a small force and endeavoured to conquer the island ; but the kings of Arnathus, Soli, and Citium summoned the Persians to resist him. He then allied himself with King Acoris of Egypt, and the Athenians, and was aided by an Athenian fleet under Chabrias, but some time after this Artaxerxes made peace with the lonians and the Greeks of the isles, and Cyprus seemed to have reverted to the Persians. Evagoras, however, determined not to be left in the lurch by the desertion of his allies, reinforced himself among the Cypriotes, and procured mercenaries to the number of 70,000. He was assisted by the Tynans with twenty vessels, and by the Egyptians with fifty more, so that he had with his own fleet a navy of 200 ships. Artaxerxes sent 300,000 men and 300 ships, under the command of Orontes, his son-in-law, and Tinbazus, the latter having the supreme command. Evagoras contrived to attack near Citium a part of the enemy's fleet which was laden with stores ; he captured many ships and destroyed many others ; but while returning in triumph to Salamis he was met unprepared, behind Cape Peclalium, by the Persian admiral Gaos, with the remainder of the ships; Evagoras and his fleet INTRODUCTION. 25 were utterly defeated and dispersed. The Persian troops under Tiribazus attacked Citium, from which place Evagoras, leaving his son in command, departed secretly for Egypt in search of aid. His journey proving fruitless, he returned and sued for peace from Tiribazus; this was offered on three conditions: ist, that Evagoras should abandon all Cyprus, except his own dominion of Salamis ; 2nd, that he should pay an annual tribute ; and 3rd, that he should acknowledge the Persian monarch as his suzerain. Evagoras ac- cepted the former two of these conditions, but proudly rejected the third, so that hostilities were begun again ; but soon afterwards Tiribazus was replaced by Orontes, who agreed to the terms of Evagoras. And thus ended a contest often years' duration, which cost the Persians 50,000 talents, and left Evagoras in possession of his kingdom as before the war Evagoras was murdered by an eunuch named Thrasidaeus, and succeeded by his son Xicocles, who gave twenty talents to Isocrates in return for an eulogy which he had written in his father's honour. In an eulogy of Nicocles, the same orator treated at length of the reciprocal duties of subjects and kings. In his general oration on Evagoras, Iso- crates leads us to understand that bull-fights, games, races, and other ceremonies occurred during the obsequies. In 350 B.C., nine Cypriote kings revolted against the Persian Artaxerxes Ochus, who ordered Idricus of Caria to send forty ships and 8,000 men under the command of Phocion and Evagoras, son of Nicocles, who had been disinherited by Protagoras. Phocion besieged Salamis by land and sea, his soldiers being attracted by the immense wealth of the city, which was then in the height of its prosperity, but the city resisted to the last, and until Protagoras succeeded in convincing Artaxerxes that Evagoras was betraying him ; so that the latter was removed, and 26 CYPRUS. the submission of the former on favourable terms was accepted. When Alexander, B.C. 335, besieged Tyre, the Kings of Cyprus voluntarily aided him with 120 ships. In return for assistance on this occasion Alexander con- ferred the sovereignty of Citium on Pnytagoras. After the death of Alexander the Kings of Cyprus formed two parties : the Kings of Citium, Marium, Lapethus, and Cerynea, joined Antigonus; while Xicocreon, of Salamis, and all the others favoured Ptolemy Lagos. Ptolemy sent his brother Menelaus, with 12,000 men and 100 ships, to aid his friends in the island ; Seleucus, who commanded the fleet, captured Cerynea and Lapethus, forced the Kings of Amathus and Marium to give hostages to him ; he then went to besiege Pygmalion, King of Citium, in his capital. In the year 312 B.C., Ptolemy came with a large army to reduce to obedience the remaining rulers of Cyprus, and put Pygmalion to death because he had treacherously corresponded with Antigonus, probably after he had given hostages to Ptolemy, and, learning that Stasioscus and Praxippus were preparing to revolt again, sent them both prisoners to Egypt. He destroyed the city of Marium, and trans- ferred its people to Paphos. Before leaving the island to fight Antigonus, Ptolemy made his friend, the King of Salamis (Xicocreon), ruler over all the cities of the dispossessed kings. \Yhile in Cilicia the Egyptian monarch learnt that Xicocles, King of Paphos, was treating secretly with Antigonus, and accordingly he despatched Argaeus and Callicrates to Cyprus with orders to slay Xicocles ; on their arrival Menelaus gave them troops, who surrounded the condemned monarch's palace, entered it, and delivered the orders of Ptolemy to him. Xicocles endeavoured in vain to exculpate himself, but seeing that even his friends had deserted him he fell on his sword, and his wife, Axiothea, slew INTRODUCTION, 2 7 herself on his corpse, after having killed her young daughters with her own hands. The slain king's brothers set fire to the palace, and with it consumed the royal household. Thus the entire family of the kings of Paphos was destroyed. Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, was, B.C. 306, sent by his father to expel Menelaus from Cyprus, and landed there with 15,000 foot and 400 horse, near Car- passia ; with the aid of 100 galleys and other ships he attacked Salamis, having surprised Carpassia and taken Urania by assault. Menelaus opposed the invader with 12,000 infantry and 800 horsemen, and after a short but sanguinary battle was compelled to retreat in disorder to Salamis, his capital. Demetrius took 4000 prisoners, and slew more than 2000 of the native army in this combat, and afterwards strenuously besieged Menelaus in the city, using his land and naval forces for this purpose, blockading the harbour ; the place was, however, well provisioned and strongly fortified, and resisted success- fully. Ptolemy, hearing of the distress of his lieutenant, hastened to Cyprus with 150 galleys and 200 smaller vessels, landing first at Paphos and next at Citium. Demetrius, one of the ablest generals of antiquity, had meanwhile occupied all the important strategic points on the south-east coast of the island, from Cape St. Andreas to Citium, and on learning the arrival of the enemy, left ten galleys to continue the blockade of Salamis, and with the rest of his fleet met that of the Egyptian king between Capes Pyla and Pedalium (Cape Greco), and so thoroughly defeated the latter that Ptolemy returned home at once. Menelaus, thus left to his fate, surrendered at the discretion of the victor. Among the captives taken at Salamis was Leontiscus, son of Ptolemy, whom Demetrius set free. Antigonus, hearing of his son's great victory, assumed 28 CYPRUS. the title of king, and bestowed the same distinction on Demetrius. Ten years after these events Ptolemy Soter retook the island from Demetrius Poliorcetes ; Salamis, where the family of the latter resided during his absence from Cyprus, being the only city which made any show of resistance to this new change. Ptolemy, however, without much effort, took the city, set the royal family free, and loaded Demetrius with gifts, thus returning the generosity by which he had benefited on the former occasion. After this capture, with hardly an intermission, Cyprus remained under the sceptre of the Ptolemies. Engel (i., p. 423) states that the island became independent of Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy Lathyros (B.C. 103), and that at this period the Cypriotes and the Maccabees of Judaea were at war. Cyprus was from this time until long after a depen- dency of Egypt, ruled by one of the Ptolemaic family, with the title of king, or by a viceroy chosen from among the most eminent Egyptians. The last of these potentates was Cleopatra's uncle, who devoted himself so earnestly to the acquisition of riches, that when Publius Claudius Pulcher, a Roman of high family, was taken prisoner by the Cilician pirates in the waters of Cyprus, and sent to the king of the island for his ransom, Ptolemy furnished but two talents for the purpose, which the pirates refused to accept, preferring to set their captive free without a ransom, and on his parole. The Roman determined to revenge himself, and being chosen Tribune obtained a decree from the Roman Senate to dispossess the king and constitute the island a province of Rome. Marcus Cato was commanded to put this decree in force, and despite his conscientious objections to this act of spoliation, was compelled to obey. On this he sent Canidius, his secretary, to Ptolemy in Cyprus to communicate his INTRODUCTION. 29 orders, and to offer him the high priesthood of trie Paphian Venus, with all its honours and riches, instead of the kingdom. On the arrival of the deputy, Ptolemy, not daring to resist, loaded several vessels with his much-loved treasures, and sailed from Salamis, intend- ing perhaps to go elsewhere, or to sink them with him- self into the sea, so as to deprive the greedy Romans of their prey; but his courage failing at the last moment, he returned, shut himself up in the palace, and with all his gold about him, took poison. Thus ended the Ptolemaic dynasty in Cyprus. Cato took possession of the island, and was well received by the inhabitants, who probably feared the Romans as much as their late monarch had done. He found immense treasures in the palace at Salamis, sold the whole for the enormous sum of 7,000 talents, and sent the money to Rome, reserving for himself, it is said, only a statuette of Zeno, the philosopher of Citium. In the year 52 B.C., Cicero superseded Appius as pro-consul of Cyprus and Cilicia, with his official resi- dence at the latter place ; by a letter from him to Sextius Rums, the first Quaestor of the island, it appears that he recommended in the strongest manner the Cypriotes to the care of this officer, particularly referring to the people of Paphos. Strabo tells us that Antony gave the island to Cleopatra, but at the death of the Triumvir, Augustus revoked the gift, and annexed Cyprus to the empire ; he afterwards presented it to the Roman people, who despatched a pro-consul to govern it. It was in the reign of Tiberius that St. Paul visited the island, then under the pro-consul Sergius Paulus, and performed in that officer's presence the miracle on Bar-jesus, the sorcerer (Acts xiii. 14). When St. Paul visited Paphos, he was so badlv treated that he declared the citizens 30 CYPRUS. to be the worst men of the world. This description is said, and with some truth, to be a just one to this day. The Jews, although crushed by Vespasian and Titus in Judea, continued their resistance to the Romans in other provinces. Those of Cyprus formed a numerous army, which was led by Arteminius, and during the reign of Trajan, A.D. 115, committed such direful excesses that very nearly a quarter of a million Cypriotes were, it is said, slain. Two years later these malcontents were utterly defeated by the Romans, and by a decree of the Senate were expelled from the island. So rigidly was this law enforced, that during several succeeding centuries any Jew who was wrecked on the coast of Cyprus was instantly put to death. After this expulsion of the Jews, Christianity increased rapidly in the island, and, under Constantine, this province was one of the richest in his empire. The attempt of the camel driver Calocerus to make himself King of Cyprus, and thus revive the ancient independent position of the island, A.D. 334, was frus- trated by Dalmatius, who captured the ambitious aspirant and sent him a prisoner to Constantine, who ordered the rebel to be flayed alive, and burnt, a sentence which was executed at Tarsus. Numerous attempts of the Arabs to acquire Cyprus were but temporarily successful. The Byzantine Emperors never failed to recover possession of the island from the invaders Phocas, who reigned from 602 A.D. till 610, made Cyprus a province of his empire, and placed it under the command of a duke, or military leader. During the kalifate of Othman, his lieutenant Moavyah invaded the island, and, A.D. 648 g, returned with seventy ships laden with booty. The Arabs retained the island for a short time only. The Emperor Justinian the Second made, we are told, a serious attempt to transfer the INTRODUCTION. 31 population en masse, so as to leave Cyprus a desert ; this was in the year A.D. 691. In A.D. 726, Leo the Third recovered the island for the empire ; it was again in the hands of the Arabs during the reign of the Kalif Haroun-el-Reshid, A.D. 803, who were again expelled in 964 by the Christians. The Duke of Cyprus, being to some extent independent of Byzantium, took advantage of the oft-recurring weakness or necessities of the empire to endeavour to throw off the yoke, but these revolts were never fortunate. Cyprus was a frequent halting-place of the Crusaders on their way from the West to the East, and more than one leader of these expeditions found a grave in this island. Among them was Guelph, the fourth Duke of Bavaria, who in 1101 died in Cyprus; four years later the same fate befell Eric, the first King of Denmark, and in 1148, Amedeus, Count of Maurianne and Savoy, joined this company of the dead. In ngo, Isaac Comnenos, fated to be the last Duke of Cyprus, was so notoriously cruel, that the Byzantine Emperor, Isaac Angelus, on more than one occasion strongly remon- strated with his harsh vassal, . but with little or no success. A new figure now appeared in Cyprus in the person of Richard the First, King of England, who, while on his way to the Holy Land in 1191, ascertained that some of his soldiers, shipwrecked on the island, had been robbed by the subjects of Comnenos, and that his sister, and Berengaria his betrothed bride, had been insulted by the Duke. Richard landed with troops near Amathus, took that city without much difficulty, and entirely destroyed it. A few days later, the English and the Cypriotes met in battle in the plain of Mesaoria, near the ancient Tremithus ; the latter were soon defeated, and the Duke was taken prisoner. Richard loaded his prisoner with silver chains, deprived 32 CYPRUS. him of his dignity, and carrying him away in captivity, sold the island to the Knights Templars. These soldiers of the Cross used their appanage with so little wisdom and restraint, that, induced by the complaints of the natives, King Richard resumed his rights to the island, and sold it again to Guy of Lusignan, a French Crusader, who thereupon, in 1192, founded the new kingdom of Cyprus, having not long before this event lost his kingdom of Jerusalem at the hands of Salaclin, who had in 1187 defeated him in the battle of Tiberias. The Lusignan dynasty held peaceful possession of the island until- 1372, when King Peter the Second entertained several Genoese and Venetians of eminence at Nicosia on his coronation day. These guests quarrelled about precedence, and appealed to the king to decide the point at issue. The Genoese were, it is said, so highly offended by a verdict which was adverse to their pretensions, that they proposed to slay King Peter during the feast to which he had invited them and their rivals. Informed of the murderous intention of his guests, the king caused the malcontents to be thrown from the windows of his palace, or otherwise slain, and ordered that every subject of Genoa should be put to death. This monstrous command was, un- fortunately for Peter, only too faithfully obeyed. The Republic of Genoa, highly exasperated by this treatment of her citizens, immediately proceeded to punish Lu- signan by despatching a considerable fleet to Cyprus, under the command of the admiral Pietro Pregoso. This officer, after several engagements, captured the city of Pamagosta, and carried away Jacopo Lusignan, the king's uncle, and Lieutenant Governor of the island. In 13/4 Peter married Valentine, daughter of Bernabo Visconti, Duke of Milan, and died in the vear 1382. INTRODUCTION. 33 When this event happened, the nobles of Cyprus sent an embassy to Genoa and obtained the release of Lusignan and made him king. The Genoese continued to hold and garrison Famagosta, which they strongly fortified in order to ensure their hold on the island. The son of Jacopo bore the same name, and succeeded his father in 1398. Having been captured by Barsbay, Sultan of Egypt, in 1426, the second Jacopo obtained his freedom on condition of paying tribute to Egypt, thus reviving a practice which obtained more than two thousand years before, and he died in 1452, leaving two children, John or Jano, and Agnes. The latter married a prince of the house of Savoy. The former succeeded his father on the throne of Cyprus, and inherited effeminacy, indolence, and selfishness, the vices of his predecessors. He had, however, been fortunate in obtaining the hand of Helena Paleologos, niece of the Emperor of Constantinople, who by effecting some popular reforms, proved capable of reigning. She died much lamented in Cyprus ; her husband died in 1456, and Carlotta, their daughter, was the last legitimate descendant of the Lusignans. King John of Cyprus, however, left a natural son named James, who while a youth had been made Archbishop of Cyprus. Carlotta married, first, one of the sons of the King of Portugal, and it is said caused him to be poisoned b.ecause he had endeavoured to abrogate certain laws which Queen Helena had made in favour of the Greek clergy. The second husband of Queen Carlotta was Louis of Savoy, who proved unequal to a contest at arms with James, the natural son of King John just mentioned, and a man of great ability, who was highly popular with the natives of the island, and who, becoming impatient at the presence of a stranger on the throne of his father, united in a revolt with 34 CYPRUS. some of the chief persons of Nicosia, with whose aid he intended to expel the Savoyard prince from power and from the island. Carlotta, informed of the object of her enemies, endeavoured to arrest her brother in his own archiepiscopal palace, but he, divesting himself of his priestly robes, fled in disguise to the nearest port, Cerynia, and from thence, assisted by his partisans, passed into Egypt, where he solicited the protection of the Sultan. This ruler assuring himself that the young rebel would, if installed king of the island, pay the tribute already due and continue it, furnished the Cypriote archbishop with money and troops, with which aid James soon returned to Cyprus, and after overcoming the by no means strong resistance of Carlotta's husband, was proclaimed king, with the title of James the Second. Before dismissing his mercenary troops the new monarch captured Famagosta from the Genoese, and compelled them to leave the island. This success greatly increased his popularity among the natives, who naturally disliked to see foreign troops occupying one of their most important cities. He then shrewdly allied himself with Venice as a powerful patron, capable of opposing Genoa. With this purpose, and in order to secure an heir to his throne and thus per- petuate the blood of the Lusignans which he claimed to inherit, this king determined to marry. It is probable that his illegitimate birth indisposed him to seek a bride of royal blood. He had seen the miniature portrait of a niece of Cornaro, a Venetian nobleman at his court, and fell in love with her. He must have had some correspondence with her, as he seemed to have understood the hint given him by the Venetian doge, Christopher Moro, in a letter dated July, 1469, com- plaining of his trifling with the affections of Catherine Cornaro. On the receipt of this letter James asked INTRODUCTION. 35 formally the hand of this noble maiden from the Senate of Venice, a request which with a gravity suitable to the nature of the proceedings was granted. A dowry of a hundred thousand gold ducats was bestowed on the bride. She was adopted as a daughter of the State, and sent to Cyprus with a splendid retinue. The political and matrimonial arrangement which was thus brought about was not fated to endure very lon. In 147^ the new king died, leaving his voun- O I / *-' *-J O v O and beautiful wife to direct the realm in the interest of their unborn heir. Two months subsequent to her husband's decease Catherine gave birth to a son, who received the name of his father, was crowned king of the island, and before he was twelve months old followed his father to the tomb. The royal office, if the testament of King James had been respected, or the wishes of the Cypriotes consulted, would have devolved upon one of his three natural sons, but such a thing would not have suited the Venetian policy, consequently Loredano, with the powerful fleet then wintering in the island, received orders to recognise Catherine without delay as the Queen of Cyprus. Ferdinand, King of Naples and Sicily, also seemed to have a longing eye for Cyprus, and sent ambas- sadors to the young widow, offering her consolation, and at the same time the hand of his son. Catherine, whether or not guided in the matter by the influence of Venice, declined to accept the Prince, and notwith- standing the efforts of other wooers, remained un- married. Catherine thus reigned alone for sixteen years. During that time the Senate of Venice tried in vain to induce her to abdicate in favour of her native country. At last, in 1488, disgusted at so many intrigues, and recognising the impossibility of holding 36 CYPRUS. the crown much longer, she was persuaded by the Venetian Ambassador, Giorgio Cornaro, who was her own brother, to abdicate in favour of Venice. While these events were taking place in Cyprus, the unfortunate but heroic Carlotta died in Rome (1487), bestowing in solemn manner the kingdom of Cyprus on Charles, Duke of Savoy and his heirs, who from that time assumed the title of Kings of Cyprus. The Admiral Francesco Prioli accepted the island in the name of Venice, with ceremonies which had been designed beforehand, to give a popular colour to an accomplished fact. The Cypriote nobility was dis- satisfied, but unable to oppose this change of Govern- ment. Disturbances took place on this occasion at Nicosia and some other places, but they were of no consequence. At Famagosta, in a church now used as a granary and stable by the Turks, I saw in 1874 some frag- ments of a marble slab, which bore an inscription of great interest in connection with the last hours of the long existing realm of Cyprus. On the upper part of the slab is carved in low relief the winged lion of St. Mark and a view of Famagosta ; the other portion had been broken in pieces, and used for the repair of the stable ; though much worn by the animals' hoofs, the inscription could be made out, and ran thus, ' FKANY/.SW DK PRIUI.IS VKXET/E CL.\SSI lMi>F.R<7///V Dm MARCI \vssitluin CVPRI /i'LICITKR KRECTU.M KS/ 1488, 28 The ex-Queen Catherine started for Venice early in 1489, accompanied by Giorgio Cornaro and the three illegitimate sons of her husband, who by order of Venice had to leave Cyprus. INTRODUCTION. 37 The Doge Barbarigo with the whole Senate went to receive Catherine on her arrival at Venice, and during her stay in that city she was splendidly entertained ; the beautiful town of Asolo, with all its dependencies and revenue, was assigned to her in exchange for her realm ; in Asolo she lived for many years, the centre of no little romantic sentiment, and some legends which yet survive. There she ended her days. The Republic of Venice retained Cyprus for only eighty-two years. During this time the island was visited by several calamities. In 1492 and 1542 many of the towns were destroyed by earthquakes. In 1544 locusts made their appearance in such large numbers, that they destroyed all existing vegetation, and for two years the inhabitants had to be fed with j provisions imported from abroad. In 1547 it rained so extraordinarily that the rivers were changed into torrents, and the plain of Mesaoria into a lake ; no crop could be raised that year, and the population suffered as much as from the locusts. But the greatest calamity that threatened Cyprus, was the increasing po\ver of the Turks, and the advance they were making in Asia and Africa. More than once already had Turkish pirates entered some of her ports and ravaged the neighbouring towns with impunity as a prelude of what was soon to follow. Venice, informed of these excursions, decided to send Savorniani with a staff of engineers to repair the fortresses of Cyprus. Famagosta and Cerynia were repaired sufficiently to resist a regular siege, the others were dismantled as beyond repair. The walls of the city of Nicosia were reduced considerably in extent. In 1570 Selim II. asked Venice to cede to him the island of Cyprus, and upon her refusal he began to make extensive preparations to take it by force. This news spread consternation among all the 38 CYPRUS. Christian populations along the shores of the Medi- terranean. Pope Pius V. vainly attempted another crusade by calling Europe to arms ; much time was lost in conferences and negotiations, and no energetic measures were adopted. Venice, trembling, fortified herself at home, and forgot or was unable to send troops to garrison the fortresses repaired by Savor- niani. The Turks lost no time in sending from Rhodes and Negropont a fleet of 360 vessels to con- quer Cyprus. On the ist of July, 1570, the Turks landed in the neighbourhood of Limassol, without any opposition, an army of 100,000 men, composed of 70,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 200 cannon, under the command of Lala Mustafa. While the heavy artillery was being landed, his irregular cavalry scoured the country and ravaged all the towns. In the latter part of July Mustafa Pasha, with his whole army, had begun the siege of Nicosia, garrisoned only by 10,000 men of different nationalities and religion. The defence was badly conducted, yet the Turks spent seven weeks in capturing the city, entering it on the gth of September, after several desperate assaults. For a whole week the city was given up to the ferocity of the captors, and the scenes of horror w^hich followed beggar de- scription. Twenty thousand persons of both sexes were pitilessly butchered, and two thousand youths carried away into captivity. On the I5th of September, Mustafa Pasha started to besiege Famagosta, the last stronghold which still defied the barbarous Osmanli. The place was defended by Venetian troops, who, though only 7,000 in number, resisted for a long time, always in the hope of receiving assistance from their mother country. The efforts of Venice to help Fama- gosta amounted to next to nothing. On the 2gth of July, after a siege of nearly ten months' duration, when INTRODUCTION. 39 all the provisions and ammunition were exhausted, and most of the troops maimed or killed, the heroic com- mander General Bragadino displayed the white flag, and proposed his conditions of surrender. These were eagerly accepted by the treacherous Mustafa ; hostages were exchanged ; Turkish vessels, as stipulated, entered the port of Famagosta, and took on board all those who wished to leave the island ; nothing remained but the formality of delivering the keys of the city to the victor. On the 5th of August General Bragadino, accom- panied by his lieutenants Baglioni, Martinengo, and Quirini, went to the Turkish camp, and was politely received by Mustafa. After the delivery of the keys and when General Bragadino had risen to take leave, the vile Turk asked him for special hostages for the safe return from Candia of the Turkish vessels which were to convey him and his men thither ; Bragadino refused this, as not having been stipulated in the accepted conditions of his surrender. Then Mustafa accused him of bad faith, and of having put to death fifty Turkish pilgrims after he had surrendered, which was indignantly denied by Bragadino. The Pasha, becoming enraged, ordered the four Venetians to be put to death, and in a few minutes General Baglioni, Martinengo, and Quirini were executed in the presence of Bragadino, for whom a more terrible death was reserved ; the executioner cut off his nose and ears : three times he was made to lay his head on the block, as if to be beheaded, then, heavily chained, was thrown into a dark dungeon and left for nine days in that miserable condition. On the tenth day, by order of Mustafa, Bragadino was brought out of prison and made to carry earth tor the repair of the fortifications during several hours, after which, more dead than alive, the heroic soldier 40 CYPRUS. was tied to a stake, and in the presence of the ferocious Mustafa was flayed alive. His skin, stuffed with hay, was sent with the heads of the other three Venetians as presents to the Sultan. The same bloody scenes which had occurred at Nicosia were repeated at Famagosta, though it appears that the rage of the Turks at this place was more par- ticularly directed against the Roman Catholics ; the people on board the Turkish vessels, instead of being brought to Candia, as it had been stipulated, were landed at Constantinople and sold as slaves. Thus Cyprus was conquered, and is doomed to remain a part of the Turkish Empire as long as enlightened Christian Powers uphold, by their jealousies, such an impracticable and monstrous government. Terra cotta Vast from Citium, inscribed KHTHAC. Height 8j|- inches Larnaca (Citium), CHAPTER I. Appointed American Consul at Cyprus. Arrival at Larnaca in 1865. Description of the town. Larnaca built on the ruins of Citium. Its remains of Phoenician, Assyrian, and Greek Art. Foundations of a Phoenician and a Greek Temple discovered. Phoenician and Greek inscriptions found in them. Diggings forbidden by the Turkish authorities. Arrest of a Consular employe. His release, and the satisfaction obtained from the Porte. AT the close of the civil war in the United States, in which I had taken part, I was appointed Consul at Cyprus by President Lincoln a few days before his tragic death. I arrived at my post on the Christmas Day of 1865, after a stormy voyage of fifteen days from Ancona, where I had taken passage on board an Austrian Lloyd steamer for Cyprus, that being the only regular line touching at the island, and that but once in fifteen days. I shall never forget the first impression I had of the town of Larnaca, mv future official residence, while the 42 CYPRUS. [CHAP. I vessel was slowly steaming towards her anchorage. The day was cloudy, and the sea very rough. The anchor was cast at a mile or so from the shore, there heing no harbour, only an open bay. The town from that distance looked the very picture of desolation ; no sign of life, no vegetation anywhere visible, except a few solitary palm trees, with their long leaves droop- ing, as if in sign of mourning. I admit that my first thought was to remain on board, and not to land on such a forlorn-looking island. The captain, an able sailor, who during our extra- ordinarily long passage had been the essence of kind- ness to my family, endeavoured to persuade us that Cyprus was an earthly paradise, and assured us that we should, after a while, like it very much. Has his prediction been realised ? I leave the reader of these pages to judge by the fact, that I am writing this, ten years afterwards, from the same town ; though not quite prepared to accept its distinctive features as paradisaical. I remarked, as we came in sight of Larnaca, that the "stars and stripes" had been hoisted on board the steamer, as a token of respect for the Repre- sentative of the American Republic. Soon after- wards, as if by enchantment, above a row of buildings near the sea-shore, were seen floating the flags of other nations. They had almost the effect of changing the aspect of the town. This was the usual compliment paid by the foreign Consuls to their new colleagues. A large lighter, called by the natives " Mahona," flying the American colours, soon approached our steamer. The craft contained about twenty persons; some armed with antiquated pistols, others with yatagans, and carrying silver-headed batons six feet in length. All had the red " fez," a common head- dress of both the Mussulman and Christian natives of CHAP. I.] LARNACA (CITIUM). 43 the island. This heterogeneous crowd came on deck, entered the cabin, and would in all probability have invaded my state rooms also, had I not promptly come out to meet them. The spokesman, expressing himself in tolerably good Italian, said that he had the honour to present to me the " staff of the American Consulate." I must confess I was not very proud of the personal appearance made by my consular employes. Every one as he approached me, instead of taking my prof- fered hand, \vould kiss the tips of my fingers, or make pretence of so doing. After having gone through this ceremonial, which seemed de rigueur, I was informed that my luggage had been transferred to the lighter ; so I took leave of the captain, assisted my wife and infant into the u Mahona," and sailed towards the shore. The nearer we approached Larnaca the less I liked its appear- ance ; when we reached within four or five yards of the shore, where a large crowd of people was gathering to witness the arrival of the new Consul (always an event in this town) the " Mahona," probably too heavily laden, stuck in the sand, and a surprise of a new kind awaited us. The lighter, in spite of the wild and deafening yells of the boatmen in encouraging one another, could not be made to advance an inch further. A boatman jumped into the water and made a sign to me to alight on his broad shoulders. Other boatmen did the same, and began to land my "staff officers" in this manner. I comprehended at a glance that there was nothing else for me to do but to comply. It was therefore in this undiplomatic style that I was obliged to make my entry into the city of Larnaca. To persuade my wife, however, to accept this biped conveyance, would have been time lost ; she would 44 CYPRUS. [CHAP. J. have returned all the way to New York, rather than submit to such an act of impropriety. She was sure, she said, that there must be a landing somewhere for ladies ; but, alas ! the island of Cyprus does not re- semble her native Manhattan, and landing-places here for the convenience of travellers are quite unheard-of luxuries. A bright idea occurred to one of my employes ; a chair was procured, and held by two boatmen, and the American Consul's wife was invited to sit on it, and be thus landed ! But not even the " sella curulis " of a Roman Senator would have induced her to accept it. Fortunately, however, the " Mahona," having been considerably lightened by the landing of all my em- ployes and our luggage, was made to move once more nearer the shore, when my wife, refusing all aid, sprang lightly to the beach. Once on terra firma, we were welcomed by several foreign Consuls, who had kindly gathered there to receive us, and offer us their hospi- tality ; this we found we should be forced to accept for a time from one of them, as no hotels of any description exist in Larnaca. How pleasant it was to hear that there were no hotels wherein to take shelter, no shops wherein to buy household furniture of any kind, and tnat the only resource left for us was to accept the proffered hospitality of persons utterly unknown to us five minutes before ! Yet how courteous and kindly manners can soften even the asperities of life amid a semi-barbarous people ! And such was my ex- perience at the hands of my Italian colleague, Cava- liere Candido Xegri and his wife, who generously offered us the hospitality of their house. I remember well the pleasant society into which I found myseli introduced among my colleagues at that period ; Ceccaldi and his brother; Lang and his sister, Xegri CHAP. I.] LARNACA (CITIUM). 45 with his accomplished wife, and Simondetti with his young bride. The day after our arrival the Governor, or Caima- kam as he is called, and other local authorities, called officially upon me ; and during a whole week I was occupied continually in receiving or returning calls. Fortunately, by the end of that time, I succeeded in getting together some scanty furniture, which Mr. Lang and the Belgian Consul had kindly put at my disposal, and I took possession of a tolerably good house, in which I am living at the present day. Larnaca, which derives its name from the ancient tombs upon which it is partly built, is a modern town, sprung into existence since the conquest of the island by the Turks, and like some of the ancient cities of Cyprus is divided into two separate districts, about twenty minutes' walk from each other. That portion which lies along the seashore is called the " Marina," while Larnaca proper is about three-quarters of a mile inland. Some forty or fifty years ago all the consulates were in Larnaca; the "Marina" at that period consisting only of a few scattered houses and magazines. But since the pirates of the Greek Archipelago, who used to infest these shores, have ceased to exist, thanks espe- cially to England, the " Marina " has become the commercial centre of the whole island. The shore is now covered for half a mile in extent with private dwelling-houses, possesses an extensive bazaar, several churches and mosques, and is increasing every year, in the same ratio as Larnaca proper becomes depopulated. The foreign Consuls, with one or two exceptions, reside at the " Marina," in a row of buildings a few feet from the sea, almost following one another in succession. The exterior appearance of the houses is rather humble, and without pretension ; but they are spacious, and not 46 CYPRUS. [CHAP. I. altogether deprived of a certain degree of comfort. I am led to believe, from the Greek church of Saint Lazarus still existing in the neighbourhood, which is said by the natives to have been built over the tomb of Saint Lazarus more than a thousand years ago, and which bears evident traces of Byzantine architecture, but above all from tombs of that period which I dis- covered in its immediate vicinity, and the remains of mosaic pavements met with here and there, that previous to the Turkish conquest, not only storehouses, but a town of some importance existed here, though no record of the fact, that I know of, now remains. The population of both districts does not amount to more than 8,000 souls; of these about 3,000 are Mussulmans, and the remainder Christians. There is likewise a sprinkling of the descendants of Europeans. A little north-west of the " Marina," in the intervening fields between the two districts, are to be seen evident remains of the ancient city of Citium. The distance from Citium to Amathus is about forty- eight miles, or twelve hours' ride (as reckoned by the native mode of travelling). Like Amathus, it had been founded by Phoenicians, and it is probable, as already pointed out, that it was owing to the paramount import- ance of this town that its name of Kittim was in early times applied to the whole island. It seems also to have retained its Phoenician character longer than such other towns as Amathus and Paphos, being always a place celebrated for its trade and commerce, and not being under the hierarchical influence which prevailed in those two towns. In the earliest records, as of the refusal to pay tribute to Tyre in the reign of Hiram, and afterwards again in the reign of Elulaeus, Citium is identified with Cyprus, but it is not certain whether we ought to conclude from this that it had taken a leading part in these movements, though such is far CHAP. I.] LARNACA (CITIUM). 47 from improbable. As Tyre sank in importance, Citium, from its position, was well suited to take its place as a centre of commerce between the East and the West. In the time of Sargon (B.C. 707) we find the King of Citium included among the six other Kings of Cyprus who paid hom- age to that Assyrian monarch. This appears from the cuneiform inscription accompanying the has relief of an Assyrian figure on a slab of basalt found in the western outskirts of the " Marina " of Larnaca in 1846, and now in the Berlin Museum. The engraving here given of this slab I owe to the kindness of Professor Lep- sius, who sent me a photograph of it. A King of Citium also appears among the ten Cypriote kings who paid tribute to Esar- haddon. A considerable number of Phoenician inscriptions disco- vered at Citium, and published by Gesenius, are evidence of its having continued to be the re- sidence of Phoenicians, whilst its readiness to take part with the Persians against the Greeks, appears to show that the Phoenician element had preponderated in its popu- lation. It was on an occasion of this kind that it was besieged by the Athenian, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, who lost his life there. Yet it is said by Plutarch, in his life of Cimon, that the people of Citium paid special reverence to his tomb, but they had been directed to do so by an oracle in some time of famine. That Slab with Cuneiform Inscription, In Berlin Museum. ^8 CYPRUS. [CHAP. I. Citium was regarded as a Phoenician town even in the time of Cicero (de Finibus, iv. 20), may be inferred from his calling Zeno, the founder of the Stoics, a Phoenician, to which title he could have no other claim than that of his having been born in Citium, since by parentage he was a Greek. Suidas also calls him a Phoenician. To the Greek part of the population was probably due the legend that the town had taken its name from Citia, a daughter of a king of Salamis, which town or kingdom gradually superseded Citium in importance under the rule of Evagoras. In B.C. 391 Citium, with Amathus and Soli, sent to Artaxerxes for assistance against Evagoras. The Persian monarch arrived with a fleet and an army. For a while the forces were equally matched, and equally destructive of each other, till ultimately the fleet of Evagoras was completely destroyed. At this time Citium was a fortified place of considerable extent, and continued to be so during the sovereignty of the Ptolemies over the island, as appears from Greek in- scriptions of the latter period found here (Engel, i., p. 1067), in which such military titles as ^povpdpyos and ap^tcraj/xaro^^Xa^ occur. Alexander the Great bestowed the sovereignty of Citium on Pnytagoras, the previous king having been Pasicyprus, who it would seem, preferring luxury to the cares of government, had sold his kingship for fifty talents to one Pymatus. After Pnytagoras there are mentioned, as kings of Citium, Xicocreon and Pygma- lion, the latter of whom, on the breaking up of the empire of Alexander, took part with Antigonus. This, however, proved the losing side, and Pygmalion was removed from his kingdom by Ptolemy, the rival of Antigonus. From this time a military officer seems to have taken the place of the old kings of Citium. CHAP. I.] LARNACA (CITIUM). 49 The close harbour of Citium, mentioned by Strabo, is almost entirely filled up, and upon the foundations of a portion of its pier now stands a convent of French nuns ; large stones belonging to the ancient pier are found in the fields east of this convent, and remains of the city walls and of a castle are yet to be met with at a few feet beneath the surface two hundred yards north-east of the convent. The ancient coastline is still marked by a continuous undulating line of rock, formed of agglo- merated pebbles naturally cemented together by time, and mistaken bv Pococke and other European travellers Phanerumene. for the foundations of the walls which encircled the ancient city. The only monument of Phoenician archi- tecture still extant is a sepulchral chapel or tomb, com- posed of four large stones ; the one forming the roof overlaps the others and forms a kind of portico. The natives call this place fyavepw/jLevr) (Phaneromene), and the Greek peasants go there to light in the interior of it candles and lamps in honour of the Panaghia (Holy Virgin) . On the site of a low hill overlooking the salt lake to the west of the " Marina," a number of small terra- cotta figures have been found from time to time during the past twenty years, and a few specimens of them, CYPRUS. [CHAP. I. chiefly, however, very fragmentary, may he seen in the Xew York and British Museums. The typical figure represented in these terra-cottas is a seated goddess draped and wearing a high crown (stephanos), richly ornamented with rosettes and sphinxes, resembling the figure of a sphinx in gold found at Curium, or, as in one instance in the British Museum, with the figure of a dancing Maenad. From the back of the head hangs a veil. In the example here given (which is eleven and a half inches high) she is supported on each side by a female figure, each holding a casket. Supposing the central figure to be Aphrodite, then the two attendants might be either Eunomia and Paidia, as on a painted Greek vase in the British Museum where their names are inscribed, or some other two com- panions, such as Peitho, who are represented on works of art as attending her ; on the other hand, the high crown and the hand raised to the breast would suggest the goddess Demeter, whose worship is known to have existed in the island, and to have been accompanied by a very celebrated festival. This sug- gestion is confirmed by the discovery on this spot of two inscriptions in honour of Demeter Paralia, to whom there appears to have been erected a temple here. In the British Museum is part of a terra- cotta group from Dali, apparently representing the same subject, but only one of the supporting figures remains ; the goddess herself is headless. Amoni>~ Terra-cntta group of Goddess with two Attendants. Hi., ni inches. CHAP. I.] LARNACA (CITIUM). the terra-cottas found here were also a number of other female figures, some seated and others standing, and a large percentage of rude grotesque represen- tations, but mostly with a tambourine in their hands or a lyre. One of these figures is remarkable as Terra-cotta Statuette. Ht. 6 inches. Terra-cotta Statuette. Ht. 8 inches Terra-cotta Statuette. Portrait of a Philosopher? Ht. 10 inches. being a portrait probably of a philosopher. From the fine quality of the clay and the general artistic spirit of these terra-cottas, particularly of the groups of the seated goddess, it seems less likely that they were the provincial work of Cyprus than that they had been imported from Greece, most probably from Athens, be- tween which and Cyprus there existed active intercourse in the 4th century B.C. To this period of Greek art these figures appear to belong. Further, had they been produced by local artists in Cyprus, we should have expected to find in them some Terra-cotta statuette. local peculiarity, for example, of dress, such as we find in the terra-cottas from Tanagra in Bceotia. But this is not the case. Alon a\iov (ri\iov), the story being that Chalcanor had been di- rected by an oracle to found a town on the spot where he should first see the sun rise. It was Count de Vogue, I believe, who identified Dali as the site of the Phoenician city Idalium, during his explorations in Cyprus in 1862. These excavations were afterwards continued by the French Consul at Cyprus, and Mr. Peretie, a well-known numismatist 01 Beirut, in company with a native called Cesare Mattei, of Larnaca, on a small scale and with but indifferent success. Count de Vogue, in a letter addressed to M. Ernest Renan, which afterwards appeared in the French "Revue Archeologique " of October, 1862, declared that nothing more could be found at Dali. Happily, neither Mr. Lang nor I accepted seriously these hasty conclu- sions, otherwise much valuable archaeological informa- tion concerning the island, brought to light by Mr. Lang from a temple, and by me from some 15,000 tombs, might have remained still buried. The day following our installation at Dali, I visited the spot where the peasant, Hadji Jorghi, had found the sculptured remains of which I have spoken, and I per- ceived that he had merely extracted them from a mound of debris, accumulated by former excavations, and that nothing more was to be found there. I then rode on, and inspected an ancient tomb, opened a year before by some of the villagers in search of building stones. They had extracted from it some little terra-cotta vases, which they had given their children to play with, leav- ing within the tomb two others of considerable size, lest their removal should come to the knowledge of the Cadi, and they be imprisoned as a punishment. As I wished to see these vases, I had the earth removed a second time, which was easily done, the tomb being on the slope of a low hill, and only three feet four inches CHAP. II.] FIRMAN TO EXCAVATE AT DALI iIDALIUM). 65 deep. I entered it, and found two large vases, of an archaic form, such as I had not seen before. I was assured that this tomb when discovered was filled to the top with earth. The former position of these vases I was unable to ascertain, as they had been pre- viously overturned and displaced. After two weeks spent in care- fully surveying in every direction the fields surrounding Dali, I became thoroughly convinced that an extensive necropolis lay On the SOUth and WeSt Of it, prO- Terra-cotta Vase. From Dali. Ht. 3 feet 2 inches. bably the ancient burying-ground of Idalium, the tombs, of which had never before been disturbed. I therefore leased about thirty acres of this land, and in these arrangements was greatly assisted by Mr. Cosma, a notable of the place, and for many years dragoman of the Dutch Consulate in Cyprus. I then addressed myself to our Minister, the Hon. Edward Joy Morris, at Constantinople, explaining to him my belief in an important discovery, and the desire I had of thoroughly investigating it. He kindly used the great influence he possessed with the Porte, and ob- tained for me the necessary firman authorising me to pursue my archaeological researches in the island, and this he had renewed at the expiration of each year as long as he remained at Constantinople. It has been my good fortune, during the eleven years of my consular residence in Cyprus, to meet, in our representatives at the Porte, gentlemen of high culture and classical education, who understood and appre- ciated my work, and most cheerfully lent me all their moral and official support, without which my explo- rations could never have been so extensive nor so fifi CYPRUS. [CHAP. II. successful. To my excellent friend, the Hon. George H. Boker, I have in a special manner to render my thanks for the many favours I received from him while he was American Minister at Constantinople. More than once, as he jocularly wrote me, he was obliged to " pinch the tail of the American eagle," in order to force the Turks to do what I required. Once, in sending me a renewal of my firman, and being aware of the extent of my excavations, he wrote me as follows: " I see, dear General, that you intend sinking the island one of these days, with all the holes you are boring everywhere ; pray, before doing so, save, at least, the archives of the American Consulate." I commenced my explorations in the field which con- tained the tomb before referred to. This field sloped gently towards the village from a mastoid or breast- shaped hill, upon which, years ago, was found a bronze tablet engraved on both sides with Cypriote characters. This monument, of very great importance to philology, was purchased by the Duke de Luynes, and bequeathed by him to the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris. The field I mention is situated some two hundred yards west of Dali. The depth of the tombs averaged from 5 to 8 feet only ; and they were all of one shape, that is, a hemispherical cavity cut horizontally in the earth, and measuring about S feet in diameter. Mois- tened clay mixed with triturated straw was used to consolidate the walls and roof of the cavitv, so as to keep the earth from falling in. A platform made of CHAP. II.] TOMBS AT DALI (IDALIUM). 6 7 sun-dried bricks, i|- foot high, was then built around its inner base. The width in no case exceeded the height. Upon the platform the dead were laid, with the head always towards the entrance. These oven- shaped tombs were made to contain in most cases three bodies, yet in many of them the remains of two Inside of a. Tomb, showing the position of the Bodies and Sepulchral Vases. only were remarked, one on the right and the other on the left of the doorway. When the latter was the case, the funeral vases and other mortuary objects composing the furniture of the tomb, were invariably found placed upon the unoccupied portion of the plat- form which faced the door ; but when the three spaces were occupied, the objects were deposited on the ground towards the head of each body. In some few instances a reversed earthenware plate was found placed under the head, serving as a pillow to the dead. As may readily be conceived, tombs,, such as these, made of nothing but earth, were not very substantial, and in many instances were found caved in, with all the con- 68 CYPRUS. [CHAP. II. tents oroken. Yet a very large number remained intact, though all the tombs were filled to within a few inches of their roof with fine earth which had perco- lated through their porous walls. To this earth is due the wonderful preservation of the vases, because having filtered gradually through, it filled and surrounded, little by little, the mortuary objects within ; so that, after many years, the contents of these tombs became, as it were, tightly packed up and preserved in almost as perfect a condition as, when they were first interred. At the end of the summer I had opened several hundred tombs ; they were all of the same character, and, in my opinion, Phoenician. I observed often, that the farther we advanced towards the hill, the deeper lay the tombs ; consequently the slope could not have existed when this field was used as a burying ground. Up to this time, I had found nothing which seemed to me to be purely Greek. f^L-- :7 ^ S=S= ::::::^:^ The vases, of every variety of form, were of a pale cream colour, ornamented generally with concentric circles and other geome- tric designs, painted in a brownish colour, probably made with "terra d' umber," which is found in great abundance in Cyprus; this colour resisted even the effect of muriatic acid diluted in water, thus showing that the colour had been applied before the vessel was baked. One morning, while the work was progressing, in- stead of finding the tombs at the depth of nine and ten feet, as before, we met them at about $\ feet onlv ; and, to my surprise, though their shape and PLATE I. GOLD ORNAMENTS FROM DAI. I. PLATE VASES FROM UAL1. PLATE III. ,. GLASS VASKS FROM DAIJ. CHAP. II.] TOMBS AT DALI (IDALIUM). size did not vary from the others, their contents were entirely different. There were no more earthenware J vases, but glass objects with a beautiful iridescence, the result of their decay. Some were in the form of amphorae, lecythi, plates, bowls, rings, bracelets, amulets, beads, etc. There were also a few gold ornaments, such as earrings in the form of a segment of fruit (?) or of a crescent shape, and leaves of gold which had served as mortuary diadems. In a few instances, fragments of these diadems were found still adhering to the broken skulls. There was always one, and sometimes several terra- cotta lamps. Some of them without doubt were im- ported from Italy ; as not only was the clay of which they were made similar to that of lamps found in Rome, but some of them had the potter's name, FAVSTI, stamped on the back; the greatest number, however, were made in the island, and probably in Dali ; on some of these occurred Greek names, evidently scratched in after the lamps had been baked. For more than three weeks I continued to find only this sort of tomb, with a repetition of the same mortuary objects, clearly indicating the Grseco-Roman period. 7 6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. II. This change was at first incomprehensible. It was true that Idalium possessed, at a later period, a mixed population, and the evidence of the burying-grounds cf two different races was very apparent, yet their close proximity was unusual, and for some time unaccountable to me ; but studying the vases, the terra-cotta idols, etc., in the former tombs, and comparing them with the objects of the latter, I became convinced that the two necropoles had not and could not have been in use at the same period. The terra-cotta vases and the little images of Venus, some of which are like those seen Terra-cotta Lamps. Roman Period. upon Babylonian cylinders, representing Mylitta, were undoubtedly many centuries earlier than the glassware found in the other tombs. It occurred to me that as the slope was evidently posterior to the Phoenician tombs, I might perhaps find the continuation of them beneath the others, and I was not mistaken. We retraced our steps to the spot where the first Graeco- Roman tombs had appeared, and at 2^ feet beneath them we found the uninterrupted line of the Pruunician tombs. Another difficulty now presented itself; the doors of the tombs below very seldom coincided with those above, and often faced in the opposite direction. Much time and labour was therefore lost in demolishing the tomb above, in order to get at the one beneath. The CHAP. II.] CONTENTS OF TOMBS AT DALI (IDALIUM). 77 Phoenician tombs were found less filled up with earth, and in some instances the position in which the bodies had lain upon the platform was ascertained. In one of these tombs I discovered the remains of three skeletons, consisting of the skulls and thigh-bones. I'nwl with Fis/ures of Women. Two of the skulls were in good preservation, but in removing them one was crushed through the careless- ness of the workmen who held it. The other is now in the Royal Academy of Medicine in Turin, with several more which I presented to that institution. The following objects were found standing on the 78 CYPRUS. [CHAP. II. ground and near the platforms : two large vases (2 feet 6 inches high), ornamented with concentric circles and an undulating line round the neck ; ten small vases, mostly with this same form of ornament, but made of a very fine red clay ; four terra-cotta whorls without any trace of design. In the centre of this tomb I remarked for the first time a small quadrangular cavity excavated in the floor opposite the doorway. This cavity was covered by a sun-dried brick, on removing which the following objects were found within : A hatchet and a spear-head in copper, and a circular copper bowl 5^ inches in diameter, and 2\ inches high. This bowl has previously been engraved and described by Mr. Georges Colonna Ceccaldi (Revue Archeolo- gique, xxiv., 1872, pi. 24), who thinks that the enthroned goddess before whom the dance is proceeding may be Isis. He is led to this conclusion chiefly by the lotus flower which she holds in her hand. The dancers appear to be all women, not alternately men and women, as in the u chorus " on the shield of Achilles (Iliad, xviii., 593 fol.), which Hephaestus imitated from the "chorus" made by Daedalus for Ariadne in Crete, or in the archaic representation of a dance on the celebrated Francois vase (Monumenti dell' Inst. Arch. Rom. iv.). It is therefore probable that the goddess here represented was one the conduct of whose rites and ceremonies devolved upon women. Cyprus en- joyed a high reputation from very early times for musical skill both with the flute and the lyre, and there can be little doubt that this skill had been attained and developed chieflv through religious practice such as that illustrated in this bowl. The vases represented on a table in advance of the dancers are ornamented with the designs peculiar to the very archaic pottery found at Idalium and elsewhere, not only in Cyprus, CHAP. II.] CHARGE OF DESECRATION. 79 but in other Greek islands, in the mainland of Greece and in Italy. The bronze bowl may therefore be taken as contemporary with this form of decoration in pottery. It is to be noticed that while the figures of the dancers, the musicians, and the goddess are rudely rendered, the purely decorative patterns are produced with the skill of a workman well accustomed to them. This decora- tive faculty is also shown in the disposition and grouping of the figures, and it may here be remarked that this bowl has altogether less of a Phoenician and more of an early Greek character than the Phoenician bowls of silver, silver-gilt, and gold found elsewhere in Cyprus, to which there will afterwards be occasion to refer more particularly. Thus far I had no annoyance from the Turkish authorities at Dali, though I was aware that the Hodja and Cadi were secretly opposed to my diggings. The latter wrote to the Governor-General of the island that if this sort of work was not soon stopped, all the fields about the village would be made barren, and the Ottoman Government would get no more revenue from them. The Hodja in his mosque said to his brethren that no Mussulman who should work for me would be rewarded in the other world with the ever beautiful houris. But this did not trouble me in the least, and had only the effect of keeping the Mussulmans from the diggings for a short time. I knew that the Governor- General, Said Pasha, had strongly recommended the Cadi of Dali not to interfere with my excavations, saying, he did not care to be involved in any difficulty with me. In addition to the large number of men whom I daily employed at regular wages, others dug without permis- sion from me, on their kismet as they termed it. One day as a party of these independent diggers were returning from their work, carrying two baskets and a large vase, 8o CYPRUS. [CHAP. II. they were encountered by the Cadi, who, in company with the Hodja, was coming from the mosque, the day being Friday. It happened that these diggers were all Greeks. The Cadi stopped them, and enquired what they had in those baskets ? One of them replied, " Human skulls for the American Consul." " Human skulls ! Allah ! " ejaculated the Hodja. The Cadi was horrified. The men being unable to prove that they were regularly in my service were immediately arrested, and the skulls were seized and sent to the Governor- General, as a proof that I was encouraging by rewards of money the Christian population of Dali to desecrate the sepulchres of the faithful ! I knew nothing of what had happened, and the next day was surprised to hear that Said Pasha had arrived in Dali, and wished to see me at once. I sent word to the Pasha that I was slightly indisposed, but that if his Excellency had any com- munications to make to me, I should be happy to receive him at my house. He seemed to have antici- pated my answer, as my messenger found him ready to mount a steed in waiting at the door. Twenty minutes later my cavass announced the coming of the Governor- General, whom I soon perceived with his usual nume- rous retinue, accompanied by the old Cadi and Hodja, winding their way up one of the alleys towards my drawing-room a I fresco. I was not long in learning the object of his visit to me, and heartily laughed at the mistake (real or assumed) made by his co-religionists. Said Pasha, being an intelligent Turk, after hearing from me that these skulls were taken from ancient burying-grounds of people buried long before the Turkish nation and Mohammed existed, joined heartily in my laugh, and took leave of me in a very cordial manner. I after- wards heard that he severely reprimanded the Cadi and the Hodja for having endeavoured to create a CHAP. II.] TOMBS AT DALI (IDALIUM). 8l disturbance which might have had the worst of con- sequences. The intriguing old Cadi, on my recommendation, was immediately removed from Dah, and a small sum of money which I gave to the Hodja for the repairs of his mosque, made him my fast friend for ever. CHAPTER III. Several Consuls obtain Finnans to excavate. Lively competition. Mr. Lang discovers statues and bilingual inscription. Patriarchal custom among Cypriote peasants. Hadji Jorghi. His imprison- ment and sad death. Rock-cut tombs at Alambra, with their peculiar pottery. Clay figures believed by some to be children's toys. Hills of Ambelliri. Famous bronxe tablet of the Duke de Luynes. Village of Potamia. Discovery of temple and tombs. Several small cemeteries discovered east of Dali. THESE discoveries very soon attracted the serious attention of some of my colleagues at Larnaca, who now began to purchase antiquities of the " independent diggers " at a very high valuation, and thus a lively competition was created. The French Consul, Mr. T. Colonna Ceccaldi, also applied for and obtained a firman to excavate, but the most serious competitor I had was Mr. Lang, the director or manager of a branch of the Imperial Ottoman Bank at Larnaca, who was afterwards appointed British Consul for Cyprus. The inhabitants of Cyprus owe much to Mr. Lang tor the establishment of this bank in the island, of which he was the sole promoter, and which proved, as long as he remained the director of it. a great success. It was through Mr. Lang also that the aqueduct, built by an exiled Pacha, was repaired, and the water led in pipes through the city, so that all who wished might avail themselves ol an abundant supply of pure water. Mr. Lan i IO2 CYPRUS. [CHAP. III. bottomed vases with long necks, whorls and tripods in serpentine and in terra-cotta. Some of these vases are identical in character with those found by Dr. Schliemann in his excavations at Hissarlik. These tombs are in my opinion among the oldest found at Idalium. PLATE IX. TKRKA-COTTA VASES, FROM DAM. CHAPTER IV. ATHIENO (GOLGOI). Athieno a town of muleteers. Identified by M. de Vogue as the site of Golgoi. Sketch of Golgoi. Cypriote mode of travelling. Unsuccessful explorations in 1867. Discovery of a necropolis east of Golgoi. An important sarcophagus and other sepulchral monuments discovered there. Two men sent to dig in 1870. Aghios Photios. Discovery of colossal head and other sculptures. Excitement of villagers. Scene of Confusion at nicrht. NOT far from the conical mound mentioned in the preceding chapter, and in a north-easterly direction, runs a pathway, which after traversing several fields, leads into the road from Dali to Athieno (Golgoi). The latter is a village of considerable size, having some pretensions to be called a tow r n. Most of its houses are built of stone, and being whitewashed on the out- side, have an appearance of neatness which is not belied on entering, and which bespeaks the com- paratively wealthy condition of the owners. The ancient Golgoi is reckoned by Pliny among the fifteen towns of importance in Cyprus, but otherwise there is little reason to suppose that it had ever been a large place. To judge from the usual notices of it in ancient writers, it would seem that it had derived what fame it had from its being a prominent centre of the worship of Aphrodite,"' who derived her title of Golgia * Catullus, Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, v. 96. and epig. 37 ; Theo- critus, Id. xv. loo, who calls it Golgos, but the plural form is the list:;:! one. Stephanus By/, says it was also called Golgion. io6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. from it. The town is said (Stephanus, s. v. FoXyo?) to have been founded by a colony from Sicyon under the leadership of one Golgos, from whom it took its name. He is called a son of Aphrodite and Adonis. But while there is no doubt about Golgoi having been celebrated for its worship of Aphrodite, it is not clear from a statement of Pausanias (viii. 5, 2), whether he does not mean that Agapenor, in establishing his colony at Paphos, transferred to it the worship of Aphrodite, which before had existed in Golgoi. If so, it would be singu- lar how Golgoi could have maintained its reputation as a seat of her worship, after the machinery of it had been transferred to Paphos, which also, having been originally a Phoenician settlement, would have had its temple in the ser- vice of Aphrodite perhaps long before the arrival of Agapenor on his return from Troy. The ride from Dali to Athieno usually occupies about an hour and a half, though with a good animal I have on several occasions gone in less than an hour. The inhabitants of Athieno are mostly muleteers by occupation, and own tolerably good saddle mules trained to an easy amble which does not fatigue the rider, and the animal goes faster at this pace than at a trot. The usual trip made by these mule- teers is from Nicosia to Larnaca, transporting travellers and packages from one place to the other, Athieno CHAP. IV.] MULETEERS OF ATHIENO. 107 being midway between these two cities. They can be hired to visit any part of Cyprus, being tolerably well acquainted with all the roads and by-paths of the island. These muleteers are as a class excellent, and trust- worthy, even under the temptation of conveying large sums of money from one town to the other. In fact, I never heard during my residence in Cyprus of a pro- fessional muleteer who had proved unworthy of the trust reposed in him. When a native is obliged to go more than a day's journey on some business which is not urgent, being naturally of a talkative disposition, he prefers the society of a fellow traveller, and will sometimes wait days to obtain a companion. Sup- posing, however, that he must travel alone, and has a journey of some six or seven clays to make, as for instance from Larnaca to Carpas, the following would be his arrangements. He would go to the khan, a kind of inn at which the muleteers stop in Larnaca, and there select a mule to his liking, bargain with the owner of it for a lump sum for the entire trip, or at a rate of so much per day. The latter mode is prefer- able, for should the mule prove unsuitable, the traveller would be at liberty to change it on the road if he found a better. The former method, however, is generally adopted by the natives for the sake of economy. He appoints the hour at which he desires to start, and the muleteer, as a rule, arrives at the traveller's house an hour or two later. A kind of native saddle is placed on the back of the mule, called " stratouri," across which are hung in such a manner as not to incommode the traveller, two large canvas bags, which contain his private effects and some lunch for the first day's journey. Several coloured blankets or quilts, according to the season, are then piled on the " stratouri " to be used as a bed at night. I08 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. The muleteer, who acts also as guide, is mounted upon a small but strong donkey in the same fashion as the traveller, and carries the extra baggage of the latter, besides food for himself, provender for both animals, and often several parcels entrusted for delivery to his care. At first it seemed to me cruel to see such little animals so overloaded, but I became convinced in time that the Cyprus donkey is stronger and resists the fatigue of a long journey better than a mule. When everything is in readiness for departure, the traveller is helped to ascend to the top of his quilts, two rusty stirrups attached to the extremities of a rope are handed him, into which he introduces his feet. By sitting upon the rope he is enabled to keep his equilibrium. Once perched satisfactorily upon his quilts, he opens a yellow cotton umbrella, lights his cigarette, receives the bless- ings of his household, and starts upon his journey. The Cypriotes are in general a frugal people, and when travelling, can accommodate themselves to almost even- exigency. More than once during my excursions in the island I have found, on entering some small village, some wealthy merchant of my acquaintance seated cross-legged on the threshold of a hut, with a straw tray resembling the lid of a basket placed before him. on which were a few black olives, a hard piece of brown bread, and some sour milk, apparently enjoying his repast. The customs of democracy prevail on these occasions, and it is not uncommon to find the muleteer seated opposite the merchant, eating from the same dish and drinking from the same jug, a glass being in the interior of the island considered a useless luxury. Often also the urchins of the house, and the dogs and fowls will come to pick up something from the stranger's table. This mode of travelling is not very agreeable to a Ivuropean, and I did not adopt it. Being CHAP. IV.] SCULPTURES OF GOLGOI. IOQ an old campaigner I soon comprehended what was required to produce a certain degree of comfort, not, however, without considerable cost. In 1866 I went to visit some fields about half-a-mile north-east of Athieno, which were strewn with stone and plaster, and with portions of ancient masonry protruding from the soil, treacherously inviting ex- ploration, but found absolutely nothing except the foundations of small houses not going deeper than two feet below 7 the surface. They did not appear to me to be very ancient. In 1867 I directed excavations a second time there for several \veeks, but with the exception of part of the city wall, found nothing to encourage the continua- tion of my researches. This spot is now called by the natives " Aghios lorgos," but I could discover no traces of any church in the vicinity. I was told that this is the spot which M. De Vogue identified as the site of the ancient city of Golgoi. East of it, near a pathway leading from Athieno to Melussa, is an ancient burying-ground which occupies several acres in extent. Many of its tombs appear to have been opened long ago. I found in several of them stone sarcophagi broken in many pieces. It was here that the French archaeologist found several sculptured re- mains and one or two Cypriote inscriptions which are now deposited in the Museum of the Louvre. From some of these tombs I extracted various mortuary stelae, with bas-reliefs of poor style and execution, and having the figure of a lion in an attitude of repose. On some of them there are two lions back to back, and beneath is sculptured the " mihir " or winged globe. On two others there are sphinxes instead of lions, and the " mihir " is sometimes replaced by the crescent with a disc in the centre. The style of execution of the stelse surmounted by sphinxes is much liner than no CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. that of those with the lions ; even the stone on which they are carved is of a better quality. f . The sarcophagus'" given in the accompanying plate was extracted from one of the tombs in this field, and when found had one of its sides broken. On one end of it is represented a scene from the myth of Perseus and Medusa. The moment chosen by the artist is when Perseus has cut off the Gorgon's head and makes off, having put it into his wallet, so that the sight of it might not turn him to stone, since that was its peculiar property. At the same moment when the head was cut off sprang from her neck the winged horse Pegasus and Chrysaor. The decapitation of Medusa is a not unfrequent subject in Greek art, and the manner of representing it I op of Sepulchral Stele : Two Sphinx c * It was published by Ceccaldi in the "Revue Archeologique," .187^, pi. 2, PLATE X. CHAP. IV.] SARCOPHAGUS FOUND AT GOLGOI. 113 varies considerably. In a fine terra-cotta relief in the British Museum we see Chrysaor issuing from her neck, while Perseus is already mounted on Pegasus ; and in a gold ornament, also in the British Museum, will be seen two Pegasi issuing from her neck, while again in the celebrated metope of Selinus in Sicily, Medusa is holding a small Pegasus to her side while Perseus is drawing his knife across her throat, which is in fact an attempt to give two stages of an incident in one repre- sentation. What the dog which appears beside Perseus on the sarcophagus may mean is not certain."" Possibly it has some sepulchral signification. While the subject of one end is mythological, those of the other end and of the two sides are taken from daily life. On the other end is a chariot drawn by two horses, which may be compared with the chariots on the large sarcophagus from Amathus (engraved, pi. xiv.-xv.). On one side is a banquet scene, probably such as accompanied funeral obsequies. A similar banquet occurs on the celebrated terra-cotta sarcophagus from Cervetri in the British Museum, and is found also on archaic painted vases, as for instance in one from Cervetri in the Louvre (Long- perier, Musee Napoleon III., pi. 71) on which are also chariot races such as were held at funeral ceremonies in early times. It will be noticed also that a dog is tied up to the banquet couches on this vase. The remaining side of the sarcophagus seems to be the most important one, and if that is so, it would have formed the front. The spectacle which it presents of warriors in full armour hunting a Carian bull and a boar seems to be absurd and to require some explana- tion, though no doubt we do find Greek heroes, when hunting the Calydonian boar, armed as in war. Take ''' The figure of a clog, engraved on the following page, was found in the same tomb, along with two steh\\ engraved p. 117. i CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. away the bull or the boar, and there remains a group of two warriors in the attitude of attacking each other, with which we are familiar in the sculp- tures of the pediment of the temple at /Egina, and in numerous painted vases where the design appears to have been originally derived from the composition of pediment sculptures in which the figures lean from each side towards the centre. It is not improbable that the sculptor of the sarcophagus also took his design from the evenly balanced groups of warriors in the centre of a pediment such as that of /Egina, and instead of the fallen hero over whom the combat is going on, placed an animal of the chase. Again, the archer on the left is a figure familiar to the /Egina pediment and on vases where the round surface corre- sponds in a manner with the centralising tendency of a pediment. For the chase he seems to be superfluous. Not only the composition on this side of the sarco- phagus but the figures individu- ally on all sides of it, with their slight and spare proportions, their rigidity in action, and the careful rendering of their drapery and armour, would suit well the stage of sculpture in which the /Egina marbles were executed. At either end of the sarcophagus stood a stele, each sculptured in relief, with a group of two sphinxes confronted with an elaborate floral ornament rising between them. A similar representation of Sphinxes occurs on several other steke or upper parts ol steke which I found in tombs at Golgoi. Two pairs of Sphinxes guard the doorways of the tomb from which the Lvcian relief in the British Museum is taken fen- PLATE X'. SILVER BOWL FOUND AT GOLGOI. CHAP. IV.] SCULPTURED STELAE. graved, pi. xvi.-xvii.). Similar Sphinxes are seen at both ends of the large sarcophagus from Amathus (engraved p. 267), and other instances might be quoted to show that the figure of the Sphinx, like that of the Siren and Harpy, was employed with some sepulchral sig- nification. These sculptures are good examples of bas-relief about the end of its archaic stage, when the relief was kept flat, the composition graceful and Two Stelre found with the Sarcophagus. Height, 4 feet. decorative rather than imitative of reality, and the details very carefully worked out. The silver patera, of which an engraving is given (pi. xi.), was found in one of these tombs during my absence in America, and is in the possession of Mr. Stini, a merchant of Larnaca, who kindly allowed me to take a careful drawing of it. Ten minutes' walk south of this burial ground is a small place called " Aghios Photios," where M. de Il8 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. Vogue is also said to have dug and found some fine stone heads and statues ; but when I visited it, the barley which covered the fields was just coming into ear, and nothing was visible of these excavations. I, however, marked the spot, and decided to revisit it after the crop had been gathered ; but official duties, and other excavations, prevented me at the time from doing so, and for several years I quite neglected Aghios Photios ; till, in the beginning of 1870, two of my diggers came to Larnaca and begged permission to dig at Athieno. Remembering my intention of digging at Aghios Photios, I furnished them with funds to support them and their families in the meantime, and explained to them where I wished them to dig, telling them that in a few clays I would ride over and inspect their work. Nearly a week passed before I heard from them, and I was beginning to doubt their success when one morning, while I was at breakfast, a muleteer was announced as having arrived from Athieno with a message from them informing me that they had discovered an enormous stone head and other sculp- tures, and requesting me to send a cart at once for them, as otherwise they feared the interference of the proprietor of the land upon \vhich they had been found. There was to be a meeting of the consular corps that afternoon, over which as the Doyen I was obliged to preside, and it was impossible for me to leave. I was much perplexed as to what course to pursue, knowing that any delay in the matter, should the sculptures prove as important as the messenger represented them. might afterwards cause me much difficult}', with a hall- starved peasantry ready to sei/e upon any objects likely to afford them a ready return of money. Fortunately at that moment M. Andrea Vondiziano, one of my consular employes, now Russian Consul in Cyprus, CHAP. IV.] DISCOVERY OF COLOSSAL HEAD. ug came in, and upon hearing of my dilemma, kindly volunteered to go to the diggings in my stead, and to report to me the findings. Accordingly one of my mules was at once saddled for him, and he set off without delay, being previously instructed by me in case of any trouble with the Turkish authorities or the owner of the ground, to send me an express, and that I should in that case start for Aghios Photios as soon as possible. In the afternoon, as the Consuls were assembling at the American Consulate, a messenger came from M. Vondiziano confirming the report of the muleteer, and urging me to send him two ox-carts for the transporta- tion of the sculptures, adding that everything was quiet, and that the stone head was colossal, being larger than any he had ever seen. I gave orders for the carts to be sent forward imme- diately, and requested M. Vondiziano to have them loaded without delay, and not to leave until the next morning, when I would come to relieve him. M. Vondiziano, who had frequently served me on like occasions, had one most admirable quality, which is both rare and precious that of carrying out to the very letter whatever instructions he might receive, instead of modifying or distorting them according to his own fancy, as is the almost invariable custom of the natives. Unfortunately, when the two carts arrived at Aghios Photios, it became apparent that the sculptures were too heavy to be raised without additional help, and to obtain this it was necessary to send to the village of Athieno. This step, though unavoidable, afterwards occasioned, as will be seen, much trouble and annoy- ance. The consular meeting was protracted to an unusual hour, much time having been wasted in trivial questions by certain members, who, while suggesting nothing 120 CYPRUS. [CHAl>. IV. themselves, made a point of opposing everything; brought forward by their colleagues. Wherever a con- sular corps resides in the Levant, its controlling power is usually neutralized by the intrigues, jealousy, and strife for personal influence which generally distinguish it, and which the wily Turk knows so well how to use to his own advantage. During the first two or three years of my residence in Cyprus, the principal Consuls were so united as to command collectively that deference from the Turkish local government which they never could have obtained individually. They were gentle- men of high personal character, acquainted with the world, and not easily to be cajoled by Turkish diplo- macy. On the present occasion, however, this happy unity no longer reigned, and some of my new col- leagues, hoping to gain influence with the government by opposing every measure tending to suppress any of their illegal or arbitrary acts, ordinarily rendered futile the object of the meeting, as in this instance. Weaned by the length of time wasted at the meet- ing, I retired early in search of quiet and repose, with the intention of starting before daylight for Athieno. At midnight, however, I was aroused by the tramp of horses' hoofs in the yard, and an excited conversation carried on between some newly arrived persons and my two cavasses. The new arrivals proved to be two mounted couriers from Athieno, who had come within ten minutes of each other, and each desired to see me at once, in order that he might be the first to inform me of what had occurred. The Cypriotes, like all untutored races, deal much in the marvellous, and their imagina- tions are easily fired. It was, therefore, some time before I could get at the gist of their communication, which was that those who went to get assistance in loading the carts from Athieno had spread the news of the ex- CHAP. IV.] SCENE AT AGHIOS PHOTIOS. 121 traordinary find, and that the peasantry had rushed in large numbers to Aghios Photios with spades and pick- axes, all eager to participate in the diggings, and that the owner of the ground and his relations were also at work upon it, that wonderful things were discovered, and that the greatest confusion prevailed. M. Vondizi- ano, rinding himself powerless to control such a crowd, begged me to send one of my cavasses with some " zaptiehs " from Larnaca to keep order and guard over the things found. While we were talking, a third messenger arrived, bringing back the mule I had lent to M. Vondiziano, and informing me that two of the police belonging to Athieno had arrived and claimed all the sculptures in the name of the Sultan, while many peasants had also secretly conveyed objects to their dwellings, hoping to be protected by declaring them- selves in the service of this or that Consul. I saw there was not a moment to be lost, and mounting at once, after a hurried preparation, gave orders to one of my cavasses to follow in the early morning with provisions, my tents, camp-bed, etc. A short distance from Larnaca I met several men riding at a rapid pace, whom I stopped, believing they were other messengers for me, but found that some of them had been sent to the Caimakam or Governor of Larnaca, and that others were muleteers employed occasionally by other Consuls, and who had come to give them also the news of the find. I afterwards heard that two of my colleagues had risen and were actually in the saddle, when they learned that the American Consul was probably by that time already on the spot, when they prudently disrobed again. My mule sped on, vent re a tcrrc, towards Aghios Photios, where I arrived in less than an hour. The scene which presented itself was wild and weird. All Athieno w r as bivouacked on the desert-like plain of 122 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. Aghios Photios, the moon was not yet risen, and large fires were lit at different points, throwing fantastic shadows as men moved about, eagerly gesticulating and conversing. The light falling upon their swarthy faces and parti-coloured dress, gave them the appearance of a band of brigands, which in some measure they were. They numbered more than a hundred, and their shouts, altercations, and attempts at song, made a perfect Pandemonium. I may here be allowed to state that the successful issue of my affair with the Governor of Larnaca had favourably impressed the local authorities towards me. and had become well known to the populace. This now stood me in good stead. As I approached, the news spread of the arrival ot the American Consul, and the uproar and confusion instantly ceased. Having been long accustomed to the control of large bodies of men during my militarv life, I had not much difti- cultv in comprehending the situation. At a little distance the two Turkish policemen were standing guard over the sculptures, and I at once rode towards CHAP. IV.] COLOSSAL HEAD. 123 them, dismounted, and ordered one of them to take my foaming animal in charge and walk it about, which he did without question. I then called the other zaptieh and motioned to him to disperse the crowd and clear a space around the sculptures. He obeyed as promptly as his companion, and these steps had due effect upon the peasants. I then saw for the first time the colossal head. As its massive stony features were revealed to me by the fitful gleams of the fire-lights, there arose a vision of a people whose master-hands had ages ago withered and fallen into dust. But this was no moment for fanciful dreaming. I now ordered the carts to be brought near, had the sculptures carefully placed upon them, and giving my mule to M. Andrea Vondiziano, requested him to escort them on the way to Larnaca until he should encounter my cavass, to whose charge he could deliver them and return to Athieno. Thus I may say that I rather captured than discovered these stone treasures. And this was all accomplished without the dissenting voice of a single person, each one doing what he was requested to do with alacrity without a murmur even from the owner of the ground, who, however, followed me like mv shadow. al Male He Ht. 2 It. I 124 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IV. After the departure of M. Vondiziano I motioned to the zaptiehs to lead the way to the village. Thus in complete darkness, preceded by these two Turks and followed by all the peasants, I walked alone to Athieno. The tread of the now wearied and almost silent pea- sants as they toiled on through the darkness, sounded to my excited ear like the foot-falls of departed spirits, who, roused by the rifling of their monuments, had come to watch the disturber. As we neared the village, however, the moon appeared over the hills, and silver- ing the outlines of the mountains of Karpass soon put to flight all thoughts of disembodied spirits. On reaching the village I went to the house of a muleteer, where I had stopped on former occasions, and dismissing the two policemen with a small present, bade good-night to the crowd which had escorted me thither. Without undressing I wrapped myself in one of the thick native quilts, and stretched upon a hard wooden settle, was soon profoundly asleep. CHAPTER V. Removal of sculptures to Larnaca. Purchase of ground and recovery of purloined sculptures.- Systematic diggings commenced. Discovery of more sculptures. Survey of another field. -Dis- covery of a Temple. Portions of its Foundations destroyed by French diggers. Many hundreds of statues found in its area. The Governor-General wants to stop the diggings. Official cor- respondence with the Pasha. Many inscriptions in Cypriote characters and with bas-reliefs. Difficulty in removing the findings to Larnaca. THE sun had scarcely risen, when M. Vondiziano arrived, bringing satisfactory reports, adding, however, that he had the greatest difficulty in crossing a range of hills in order to reach Larnaca. Information also reached me that the Caimakam of Larnaca, Arif Effendi, accompanied by his Mejiliss, was on his way to Athieno, coming, no doubt, to take possession of the antiquities found on the previous day. Two important steps had now to be taken at once. One was the purchasing of the ground in which the diggings had been com- menced, thus acquiring a right to all objects found therein. The other was the prohibition of all further excavations by unauthorised persons. This was accom- plished in less than an hour's time, though with some little difficulty. The owner of the ground demanded 1,000, which was refused ; but in the meantime, hear- ing of the approach of the Caimakam of Larnaca, and foreseeing what would happen, he came of his own accord to offer it to me for 20, which, as may be 126 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. supposed, I made no difficulty in accepting, and the sale was thus effected without delay. The Caimakam, after having rested an hour on the road at a so-called coffee-house, continued his route directly to Aghios Photios. He expected, from the reports he had re- ceived, to find the whole of Athieno busy in digging out most wonderful things ; but, to his astonishment and that of his suite, he found the place deserted, and that the antiquities also had disappeared. He sent for the owner of the ground and the chief men of Athieno, in order to be informed of what had happened. On learn- ing that the ground had become the property of the American Consul, but above all, that the objects there discovered had safely reached the American Consulate, even before he and his Mejiliss had left Larnaca, he concluded there was nothing left for him to do but to report events to the Governor-General ; and, having made a hearty repast and imbibed several gallons of wine and raki as usual, at the expense of the poor villagers he returned, accompanied by all his retinue, to Larnaca. Some of my men kept me well informed of what was passing at Aghios Photios, and in the meantime I was busy in securing all the objects which the peasants had secreted at their houses in Athieno, knowing that they would be likely to be impri- soned if found digging without a permit. They knew that I had the power of taking those things from them- by force if I chose to use it, and they were therefore very glad when they found that instead, I offered them a liberal sum for the acquisition of each object, though at first they were rather doubtful of my good faith, and it required a good deal of tact and manoeuvring to find out where all the pieces that had been abstracted were, and who had them. Having been privately informed which of the peasants retained the missing objects, and having obtained a pretty CHAP. V.] RECOVERY OF SCULPTURES. 127 accurate description of them, I sent for these men, and resorted to the following little stratagem to get the articles into my possession. I had lying upon a chair a volume of Layard's " Nineveh," and selecting a page upon which was an engraving as nearly resembling the object I knew the man had concealed as I could find, I told him that this book was a book of divina- tion, and that by it I could discover whether or not he had secreted any of the antiquities. Then, boldly turning to the engraving, I pointed it out to him, and demanded its immediate restitution, but with the promise of a good backsheesh if complied with at once. The amazed and convicted peasant would clap his hand on his head, or use some other sign of astonish- ment, calling out, " Panagia mou ! " (my Blessed Virgin !) " he has a book telling him everything! " and shortly after the missing object would be forthcoming. I do not believe Mr. Layard ever imagined that his discoveries in Nineveh would be used in such a novel mode for discovering antiquities in Cyprus ! In this way I got possession of everything that had been found, without much annoyance. Early next morning, having been refreshed by a long night's rest, I went to visit the ground I had purchased, and was not a little surprised to find that it was not the field I had originally pointed out to my two diggers as the place where I wished them to dig, but a piece oi land some 200 yards west of it, and separated from it by a little mound. In this field the crowd of amateur diggers from Athieno of the previous clay had, in their eagerness, dug here and there in such a confused and irregular manner, as to render it impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy whether a temple had existed there or not. I was therefore obliged to have all the excavated earth removed from the surface, in 128 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. order to examine the portions which had been left undisturbed by the peasants. When this had been accomplished, I had borings made in the places where the men had excavated, in the hope of arriving at the foundations of some wall, but reached the virgin earth without meeting any such indications, with the exception of a few stones cemented together in semi-circular form, of which the diameter was 5 feet 7 inches. This was found less than 3 feet below the surface. It is evident that so small an area never could have been that of a temple, even should the whole circle have been completed, of which I found no indication. I examined very particularly the few stones amid the sculptures that were dug up on the previous clay, and convinced myself that none of them had ever been used in building. On my return from America in 1873, I revisited this spot, and studied carefully the whole ground a second time. I employed several men to remove again all the earth which I had ordered to be replaced on the first occasion, from the area within which the sculptures had been found, and again I made many borings until the virgin soil was reached, and satisfied myself that no stone foundations of any structure had ever existed there. I was particularly anxious to investigate this matter thoroughly, as I had seen it stated in print that I had discovered tico temples at Aghios Photios instead of one, and this occasioned much natural but wasted speculation, in regard to i.'/iic/i statues had been found in one temple, and which in the other, and which of the two shrines was the more ancient, etc. As my object in these pages is to give the reader, as far as lies in my power, a simple and truthful narrative of my discoveries, I must be excused if I prefer stating them as they actually occurred, rather than drawing upon my imagination as to how they might have CHAP. V.J STATUES OF EGYPTIAN STYLE. I2Q been ; this I consider the pre-eminent duty of an explorer. It was in this field, as I have before mentioned, that the remarkably well preserved colossal head was found. But no portion of the body belonging to it was dis- covered, with the exception of the base supporting the feet, the left a little in advance of the right, as seen in Egyptian statues. 130 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. Thirty-two statues of various sizes, all more or less mutilated, and twenty-six bases, some with, and some without the feet adhering to them, together with a pro- miscuous mass of fragments of legs, arms, and bodies, were also found in this field. These sculptures belong to a hieratic style of art, in which the Egyptian or Assyrian element predominates, or as in some instances, are blended. None of them can be said to exhibit to any degree the influence of Greek art. Their head- dresses consist either of the pointed Assyrian cap, or of the Egyptian psJicnt. The head, as my friend Mr. Ceccaldi rightly remarked, is the only portion of the body to which the sculptor gave his particular attention. As the type of features represented is neither Egyptian nor Assyrian, but has a strong resemblance to the present inhabitants of Cyprus, it is presumable that these statues were portraits of native Cypriote digni- taries. Their dress consists either of a long robe reaching to the feet, or of a short tunic coming only to the knee. The arms either fall close to the sides of the body, or the right one is folded on the breast, with the hand closed or holding a lotus flower. Among these thirty-two statues was one of semi- colossal dimensions, the body of which is in an admira- ble state of preservation ; the head, arms, and feet were at first missing, but I had the good fortune to recover them from the different peasants who had carried them off. They are now united, and the whole has an im- posing appearance. The head-dress is pointed, and finished at the top by the representation of a calf's or bull's head. The front of the helmet is divided by six straight lines converging towards the top, and has an ornamentation in low relief somewhat resembling a lyre, repeated four times in each of the spaces. The beard, which was once painted red, is elaborately arranged in verv short curls. The hair in front is also curled, and on CHAP. V.] STATUES OF EGYPTIAN STYLE. either side of the neck fall three long tresses. The dress is a long robe falling to the feet, and worn much in the same manner as the peplos on early Greek female figures. Round the neck of the robe, are two rows of stars painted Assyro-Ec;yptian Statue. Ht. 6 ft. 2 in. Statue in Egyptian stylo. Ht. 4 ft 3 J in. in red, probably meant to represent embroidery. The treatment of the folds is not unlike that of archaic Greek drapery. The forearms with the hands are made sepa- rately, and fitted to the figure by means of plugs inserted into square holes about four inches in depth. The right hand holds a cup by its foot between the middle and fore- fingers, while in the left is a dove with wings spread. 132 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. These attributes would seem to indi- cate the office of a high priest of Venus, possibly one of the Cinyradas, as we know that they were not only at the head of the priesthood of the temple at Paphos, but the recognised heads of all the sanctuaries of the island dedi- cated to the worship of Venus ; yet the great development of the breasts and the quasi feminine fea- tures, have led more than one archaeolo- gist to believe that the statue might represent the god- dess herself, who, according to Macro- bius, was at Ama- thus conceived as having a beard ; and in fact, I discovered at a later period two terra-cotta sta- tuettes of a bearded female figure in tombs belonging to that city. Havinir remarked PLATE XII COLOSSAL STATUK OF HPLRCU CHAP. V.] STATUE OF HERCULES. 155 ihat much of the defacement of the statues found here was clue to the unskilful handling of the pick by the peasants of Athieno, when I recommenced the excava- tions I sent for a party of my experienced diggers from Dali, whom alone I permitted to dig, but in order not to displease the former diggers, who were very anxious to work, I employed many of them in removing the excavated earth. I began by opening a trench ten yards from the disturbed ground, and for two days was rewarded only by some pedestals and fragments of statuary ; but on the third day a fine statue of Hercules, of colossal size, appeared, with the skin of a lion's head as head-dress. The legs from the knee downward were at first wanting, but were soon distinguished from their large proportions among a heap of fragments a little way oft', and shortly after my men uncovered its base with the feet attached to it. The right arm of the statue is broken off, and could not be found, further than a portion of the hand containing four arrows. The left arm is raised, and in its hand had held a knotted club, which was disinterred soon afterwards, A portion of a bo\v near the left shoulder is also seen ornamented with the head of an animal. My workmen now came in contact with a quadran- gular block of great weight, which had been partly unearthed and damaged in the previous diggings, and being unable to remove it, requested permission to break it up. Instead of agreeing to this, I insisted on having it turned over for inspection, though from its being roughly hewn on the three visible sides, it did not bear much promise, Imagine therefore my delight in finding a spirited bas relief slightly tinted with red. representing one of the labours of I lercules. This relief is divided bv a horizontal line into two i 3 6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. main fields, and in this respect reminds one of the Assyrian friezes. Apparently on a third field or plain, and not on a pedestal, as M. Ceccaldi says (Rev. Arch. I&72, p. 223), is represented Hercules in colossal pro- portions, advancing from the left. He wears the lion's skin tailing from the shoulders; the right arm is elevated CHAP. V.] PEDESTAL WITH BAS-RELIEF. 137 to the height of the head, but the head itself, and the upper portion of the body, is too much obliterated to be distinguished. In the distance is seen the herdsman's dog, Orthrus, which has here three heads, instead of two as usually supposed ; an arrow pierces its neck between the second and third head. In the lower field is the herdsman Eurytion driving away the cattle of Geryon to prevent Hercules from obtaining them, and thus accomplishing one of the tasks imposed on him by Eurystheus. This relief has been pub- lished by Ceccaldi in the Revue Archeologique, xxiv. (1872), pi. 21, and by Doell, Die Sammlung Cesnola, No. 763- It became evident that this huge stone was the pedestal of the newly discovered statue, and this was confirmed by our finding that it fitted exactly. As it would have been both very difficult and useless to remove so great a mass, I decided on having the sculptured portion sawn oft". This was safely and easily performed by one of my own diggers. Although, after this important discovery, the dig- gings were continued ten or twelve days longer, nothing was found worth recording, nor was the slightest evidence of architectural remains to be seen. Leaving the men, under the superintendence of M. Vondiziano, at work in this field, I took another party with me, and went to survey the field on the other side of the mound which was the object of my previously intended explorations. The diggings superintended by M. de Vogue had commenced at the top of the mound, and extended down its eastern slope into a strip of land not over two acres wide, flanked by a low ridge. On reaching the foot of the mound he proceeded a little southward, to the distance of a few yards only, and then the work was abandoned. The owner of the field which I came 138 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. to survey, was a shrewd Greek peasant, who being anxious to sell it to me at as high a price as possible, began extolling the beautiful things which he said a " mil or do Franccsc" had brought away from thence, and, added he, casting his eyes up to heaven and clasping his hands over his breast, "without paying me anything for them ! " With the exception of the four trenches which were still visible, and the mounds of earth thrown up from them, there was nothing to be seen which would indicate that anything had ever been found there. I succeeded finally in buying the ground for a few hundred piastres, on condition that in case of my find- ing things of value, the price of the ground should be augmented to that paid the owner of the other field. He also stipulated that when my diggings were termi- nated, the ground should revert to him. This being agreed to, I had a bill of sale made out, and after having carefully surveyed the whole area I had purchased, began digging in a regular manner from the foot of the mound, by opening a trench twenty-five feet in length, and advancing thus towards the centre. To attempt to induce the peasants to work with iron spades and wheelbarrows was and always is quite use- less ; they persistently refused them, and therefore the work progressed very slowly, much time being employed in removing the excavated earth by means of the native basket slung over the shoulder bv a rope. After the trench became widened, and had reached a depth of 677 feet, I encountered a stone wall 2 feet 10 inches high, and 2 feet thick. This wall was followed until its ex- tremity at either end was reached. On the north end, the wall turned at a right angle in an easterly direction, but the southern end abruptly ceased after a few feet, though upon examination it seemed intact, and not to have been destrovecl bv former excavations. Leaving oft CHAP. V.] TEMPLE OF GOLGOI. 139 work on this side, we followed the line of the northern wall, and met its eastern angle at a distance of 30 feet. As the western wall, notwithstanding its abrupt termina- tion, already measured over 45 feet, it was evident that the northern wall was the width of the building. In process of time the eastern wall was laid bare, and found to measure 60 feet in length, being double the width. These walls proved to be merely the foundations of the structure. I am convinced that a great number Plan of Temple of GolgoL of the temples built in Cyprus previous to Hellenic influence in the island, were very simple in their architecture, built exclusively of sun-dried bricks, and then thickly plastered within and without, like the houses built there at the present day. The absence of columns and the finding of two stone capitals in this enclosure, may be explained by the conjecture that the custom which prevails to-day in Cyprus, especially in the interior, of forming the columns of the porticos and peristyles of wood, with capitals and bases of stone, obtained at that period. For this purpose, the capitals found among ancient ruins are often employed now, and 140 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. sometimes with ludicrous effect, as for instance in the portico of a Greek convent at Lapethus, where I counted twenty wooden shafts, only five feet in height, supported and crowned by beautifully carved Corinthian capitals, out of all proportion to the petty shafts. It is a pity to see those capitals of fine marble, and excellent work- manship, used for the support of a roof of mud, after having doubtless adorned some important building in ancient times. As soon as I had ascertained the length of the eastern wall or foundation, I increased the number of workmen, and continued the excavations along the whole line at the same time. After removing the seven feet of earth which covered it, a line of oblong pedestals, seventy-two in number, roughly made and of various proportions, became visible. They seemed to occupy their original positions, and were placed close to each other, but without any equality of height. \Ve had scarcely advanced two feet from these when along the whole line appeared a number of statues in calcareous stone, which afterwards proved to be of all sizes, from colossal to the size of statuettes, most of which were lying with their faces downward. Although these figures were so few feet from the surface, yet they were exceedingly difficult to remove, owing to the earth in which they were im- bedded being so mixed with the clay, probablv of decomposed bricks, as to form a concrete mass, almost im- penetrable to the pickaxe. To I'L'ndtT tllC task'()f the dlggCl'S in some measure less difficult, I had water brought and poured on, so as to soften the earth some inches at a time, by which means it was more easily removed. But this was a very slow process, since the water had to be brought from a considerable dis- Terra-cott CHAP. V.] SCULPTURE IN TEMPLE OF GOLGOI. tance, and from a spring which yielded so small a quantity as to require much time in filling the jars. The mode of carrying water in Cyprus to-day is pre- Height, 12 inches. Height, 14 inches. Height, 92 inches Height, 145 inches. cisely the same as that in vogue three thousand years ago, namely, by means of earthenware jars placed in a sort of wicker yoke, which is put on the hack of a donkey ridden by the water-man. This may be seen in the little terra-cotta images belonging to the pro- 142 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. cession found by me at Alambra. I was obliged to employ six men for this purpose alone, and after two weeks of very hard labour succeeded in extricating the first row of sculptures. I particularly remarked the grouping of the statues ; those with conical head- dresses were found side by side, while those showing a strong Egyptian tendency were grouped together. One of these statues, from its greater size, attracted my attention. Its outline could be seen, and it appeared to be intact. Soon after one could perceive that it was a bearded figure with a long robe. I cannot explain how tantalising it was to be able to see these positive evidences of fine sculptures lying there, while knowing the patient industry and length of days necessary before they could be got free from the soil. When the profile of this statue became visible, there were over six feet of cemented earth to be removed from its back, and each blow of the pickaxe made me shiver even in that hot climate, as I thought that the reverberation of the blows alone might injure what promised to be a statue of unusual interest and value. I amused myself for several days in the interim with a wet sponge and a knife in removing the clayey earth around the head, and from time to time made some new and delightful discovery ; first that its hair and beard were beautifully curled, after the Assyrian fashion ; then that the curls, when wet by the application of the sponge, showed traces of red colour; then an almond-shaped eye became visible, with the pupil coloured, also in red. But the most prominent feature which was to give character to the whole face, and either enhance or destroy its beauty, would that be found uninjured ? Alas ! it was too much the ordinary fate of ancient statues to be deprived of this essential feature to hope for better fortune in this instance ; but I worked on slowly and with increasing precaution, re- placing the knife by a piece of soft wood, and applying CHAP. V.] DIFFICULTIES OF EXCAVATING SCULPTURES. 143 the sponge freely. Finally the nose appeared in all its perfection ; but the anxiety to find the rest of the head intact increased, and intensified my fears and hopes. Thus I laboured for days, gradually developing one feature after another, until the whole magnificent head was laid bare, and found unmarred even by a scratch. It had a pointed head-dress, apparently representing knitted work or leather, and ending in a knot. Meanwhile the men were pro- ceeding steadily with their work along the line, and the promise of backsheesh made them ex- tremely careful of their picks. Some statues had already been extracted, but in most cases the head was found severed, as if broken in the fall of the statue from its pedestal. It was quite evident on examination that the breakage was not recent. Four men were busily at work extracting MY statue, and I counted upon seeing it in three days more standing erect in its majesty. At last it was entirely uncovered, and found in admir- able preservation. As with many of the others the head was found to be detached, but this was a small matter, since in course of time it could be firmly replaced. The whole statue is nearly seven feet in height. The Iress, of some heavy material, reached to the feet and Statue in Assyrian style, from Golgoi. Height, 6 feet 5 inches. 144 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. entirely concealed the form, like those in the Assyrian bas-reliefs found by Layard, with the exception of the arms, which are bare and hang down by the sides. The feet also are bare, and stand in a line. Round the bottom of the robe were faint traces of red ornamenta- tion, only visible on being wetted. Of all the statues I discovered, none were so purely Assyrian in character as this. Nearly all the statues along the line were by this time unearthed and placed upright in one of the large Turkish tents which the Pasha had lent me. This pre- caution against rapid evaporation after the moisture they had absorbed was seen to be very necessary, as any fragments which had been incautiously left under the burning sun began to split. In the east wall, near the south-east corner, was an aperture which had probably been an entrance ; near it was discovered a stone vase seven feet in diameter, and only sixteen inches high, which had probably been used to contain water for sprinkling those with who were to enter the building, thus cor- responding to the pcrirrhantcrion at the entrance of Greek temples. In shape it resembled an enor- mous bowl with four handles, and was decorated with a wreath of ivy leaves carved round the upper part near the rim. Unfortunately, it was broken in so many pieces as to be past restoration. On a fragment was carved a snake in bold relief, with the head erect, and under it a dolphin ; on the right of the reptile had been an inscrip- tion of several lines in Cypriote characters, but, unfor- tunately, so worn out as to be no longer decipherable. At the bottom of the vase was a round hole two inches CHAP. V.J STATUES IX EGYPTIAN STYLE. 145 in diameter, for the passage of water. It originally stood outside the temple, and close to the right of the entrance. In the north wall was found precisely the same kind of opening or entrance, and the same peculiarity of position of not being in the centre. Near this aperture also was found a similar stone vase ornamented with ivy leaves and two handles, with- out any inscription, but in a good state of preservation; it is now in the Xew York Museum. In it were found several small jugs, roughly cut out of stone. i. 146 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. AtV,T eleven days of continuous labour with no men on this line of sixty feet we had advanced only nine feet towards the centre, yet 228 sculptures had been un- earthed ; of these, though many were found broken, the surfaces were with but few exceptions remarkably free from defacement of any kind, a matter of much surprise to the archaeologists who examined them in I-Airope. About two hundred of them averaged only two feet in height ; the remainder were either life or heroic size. After this find, though the men kept steadily pro- gressing with their work with the same care and precaution for a whole week, nothing more was dis- covered, except in the immediate vicinitv of the lateral or north and south walls ; this was very unsatisfactory. The Governor-General of the island now gave signs of life. The Caimakam of Larnaca had duly reported to him rny recent discoveries, embellishing them as usual with the oriental tale of gold findings. The Pasha, whose authority at the time of which I write was almost unlimited, had, however, a kind of Council to which he referred all matters of importance, and was expected to a certain extent to act upon its advice. The ^rcat Council, as it was styled, was composed of the highest dignitaries of the island, both Christian and Mussulman, residing in the capital ; prominent among them being the Turkish Chief Justice (Mollah), and the Greek Archbishop of Cyprus. The Pasha communicated the Caimakam's report to the Great Council, and asked what was to be done in the matter. The Council, after due deliberation, advised the Governor-General to stop further excavations, and to apply to Constantinople for instructions. In accordance with this advice I received a few days later an official despatch from his Excellency. informing me of the Council's decision, and enclosing in it, for my consideration, a copy of the Masbatta or docu- ment he had received from the Council on the subject. CHAP. V.] INTERFERENCE OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 147 He added that he had received my letter requesting the loan of twelve tents for the use of my diggers while at Aghios Photios, and that he had given orders that they should he sent to me without delay ; the incongruity of this with the official despatch was thoroughly Turkish. At the time of these discoveries (1869) there was not, as now, telegraphic communication between Cyprus and the capital of the Turkish Empire, and I knew that more than a month would be required before any answ r er concerning my diggings could arrive, should the Porte be disposed, by extraordinary reports of their importance, to suspend or revoke my firman, and there- fore I took the matter quite coolly. Not having time just then to enter into a lengthy correspondence with the Pasha in order to show that neither he nor his Council had any right (though they might have the power) to interfere with my excavations, and that on my part there was not the slightest inten- tion of giving them up, I ignored altogether the first part of his Excellency's letter, and thanked him very profusely for his kindness in sending me the required tents, which had arrived safely, and assured him that my poor diggers were most grateful to him for thus sheltering them from the cold nights. I knew from long intercourse with Turkish officials that the Pasha would take his time to write to me again on the subject, though we were only two hours distant from each other, and indeed, ten days elapsed before I heard from his Excellency again. His next letter acknowledged the receipt of mine, but called my attention to the fact that I had forgotten to mention whe- ther I had received the Masbatta of his Council, and whether I had ceased excavating at Aghios Photios. In cases like this, I always found the Turkish system of epistolary correspondence very convenient and con- sequently allowed another long week to pass before 148 CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. answering. Then I wrote, that I had in fact received the document referred to in his letter, and soon hoped to have the pleasure of informing him that I had dis- continued my excavations at Aghios Photios, but that should I do so it would be merely in order to be agree- able to him, and not in the least as a recognition of any right on the part of the great Council of Nicosia to interfere in the affairs of the American Consul. Thus my weekly correspondence with the Governor- General lasted until my explorations at Golgoi were entirely completed, and then I complied with his re- quest. Pending the official correspondence I hastened to procure a number of ox-carts and camels from Nicosia and Larnaca, for the speedy removal of the objects to my residence, where I knew they would be safe under the American flag. This proved to be no very easy undertaking, as the ground over which the two-wheeled carts of native manufacture had to pass was very uneven, and in some cases deeply ploughed. Besides, there was a steep hill to be got over, which even with the sure-footed mule of Cyprus, one prefers to do on foot. Indispensable repairs also had to be made in the route I had traced, in order that the carts might safely reach the Larnaca road from my encampment. The most difficult obstacle to overcome was that of "ettin^ the carts over the hill, which the ox-drivers CD ir> were unanimous in agreeing was an impossibility. I accompanied the first convoy by this route, and found the best plan was on reaching the top of the hill, to remove the wheels of the waggon, place them upon the camels provided for the purpose, together with a portion of the sculptures, and the waggons being thus lightened, to let them be dragged like sledges down the declivity, when the wheels and the sculptures being replaced, the waggons could without further difficulty CHAP. V.] REMOVAL OF SCULPTURES. I 4 g reach Larnaca. This succeeded admirably, but it was tiresome and expensive Stone l.ns-relief with Banquet. Early in the week follow- ing that of almost pro- fitless excavations, so far as regarded the findings, a votive-tablet in calcareous stone, 15 inches by 10, was discovered, with a sketch of a convivial scene in the lower field, and a religious ceremony in the upper. There were also other tablets, mostly fractured, having has reliefs and inscriptions in Cypriote characters ; eight feet from the eastern wall I found a row of five great square blocks of stone, exactly ten feet apart, which had been either pede- stals or bases of pillars. On one of these blocks were still remaining the feet of two large CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. statues which must have stood back to back, since the heels touched each other. Near the north and south walls many stone pedestals were disposed in the same manner as those found along the eastern wall, and in close proximity were some fine statues in an excellent state of preservation, one of which, life-size, had escaped decapi- tation in its fall, and is crowned with a triple wreath. Its beard is curled after the fashion of the beards in the human-headed bulls from Nineveh with which Mr. Layard has enriched the British Museum, and its dress is disposed in regular folds. In one hand it holds a small round box, and with the other a dove by the wings. The feet were broken oft", but lay near. On it;-, face is a curious smile mingled with cunning, very different from the expression of dignity and repose which characterises the others. \Vhen we had arrived at the centre of the temple a thick layer of ashes was found with some large pieces of carbonized wood, a specimen of which is now deposited in the New York Museum. This layer, as far as I could ascertain, measured ten feet in length and seven in width. From among the ashes I picked up a little alabaster vase and two clay figurines ot horse- men similar to those found in the tombs at Alambra and Dali. As soon as I became aware that all the sculp- tures lay nine feet below the surface, and that nothing would be met with until that depth had been reached, I had the earth removed much more rapidly than at the beginning. The work was thus continued until we approached the western wall, where, trom the idea I PAS RELIEFS WITH CYPRIOTE INSCRIPTIONS. CHAP. V.] EXPLORATION OF TEMPLE. had formed as to the original arrangement of the statues in the temple, I expected to reap another harvest, and I was not disappointed. One morning, however, the men who were digging- near the south wall reported the discontinuance of it as well as of the line of pedestals, while on the opposite side both were still being followed. I jumped into the trench in which the men were working, and after examining the spot with attention, saw that the wall had once existed, but had been destroyed. On return- ing to the surface I perceived that we had met one of the trenches opened by the former explorers, by whom the re- mainder of this wall had been destroyed. It seems strange that having met with this por- tion of it, they did not follow it up, but apparently preferred digging outside the enclosure without obtaining any results. At the end of five weeks from the commencement of our work we found ourselves twenty-two feet from the eastern wall, and had again the pleasure of discovering imbedded in the earth a mass ol statues and heads, some ol which were more than life size. Such surprises give the men new spirits. They be- come weary and disheartened when nothing is found for several days. I was now obliged to re-employ those ( f the water-carriers with whom I had f ()] - the time dis- 152 CYPRUS. pensed, and even to increase their number to ten, as I was anxious on more than one account to hasten the termination of these labours. The Greek Easter-week was fast approaching, and during it no money could induce my Greek diggers to continue working. I was therefore very glad when six days afterwards we reached the western wall. The sculpture found on this side shows a marked Greek character, and includes one of the finest of the statues obtained from this temple. It is of heroic size, and probably represents a priest, holding in one hand a box and in the other a patera. There is an attempt to detach the forearm from the body ; a cylindrical piece of stone has been left to support the arm and connect it with the body. The preservation is perfect. The character and exquisite workmanship of the head attracted the attention of Mr. Kuskin, who visited it on several days, in order to CHAP. V.] SCULPTURES OF COLGOI. 153 make a drawing of it while the Golgoi Collection was in London. Among the many statues of Greek style are two here engraved, which seem to belong to a late period. A fine Greek head, found lying near this wall, is characterised by intellectual features, and the intense individuality of a portrait. It is supposed, not without some reason, to be that of the Cypriote philosopher Zeno. The face is corrugated by deep lines of care and thought, and presents a striking Head of Priest. (?) Head of Zeno. (?) contrast to the smooth and rounded though massive features of the others. I should mention as a peculiarity which occurs in one of the stone statuettes, representing Diana (Artemis) with long drapery, that the cornea of the eyes is cut in ivory and inserted ; the pupils had probably been inlaid with precious stones or enamel, but thev no longer exist. A statuette, about 4,', feet high, representing a muse with a lyre, is remarkable for the graceful position oi the arms holding the instrument. Unfortunately the head had been broken off, and could not be discovered. CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. Another statue of much interest was one which re- presents an Egyptian warrior. The head is covered by a helmet, the top of which terminates in two large lotus flowers ; several necklaces adorn the breast, and on both arms are sculptured armlets. On the front of the dress, halfway clown, is designed an eye about two inches long, beneath which is a head with two snakes issuing from the mouth, under which thev coil. A quiver seems to have been slum;" over the shoulder. Xot less interesting is the portion of a statue of life size repre- senting a warrior in a kneeling attitude, as it drawing a bow. 13 v his side is a quiver embellished with a lion's CHAP. V.I SCULPTURES OF GOLGOI. 155 head in relief, and full of arrows; it is suspended from a belt; beneath the quiver hangs a dagger. The position of this statue is somewhat similar to the figure of Teucer on the coins of Salamis. Near the centre of the wall three very curious groups were found, one of which is 3 feet 5 inches high, while the others are only 7 c/r 8 inches. They each represent the same subject, the triple Geryon. The heads of the largest group seem to have been struck or] purposely with some sharp instrument, and the necks and shoulders are hacked in many places. Two of the backs of these heads only could be found. The three round shields with which this figure is armed are 156 CYPRUS [CHAP. V. ornamented with bas-reliefs of warriors, some of whom are Greek, in the act of fighting. One of these three shields has been damaged by sharp cuts. Below the shields appears a design of two Egyptians righting with two lions. The left legs are represented bare, and The Triple ( advanced as in the act of marching ; the right are in an unfinished state. The smaller groups also seem to have been the subject of some person's antipathy, and are much damaged ; one or two of the heads, however, remain. I must not omit to mention a statuette, probably of CHAP. V.] SCULPTURES OF GOLGOI. Venus, which has this peculiarity, that the base is supported on the heads of two Caryatides, of which, however, only the heads remain. They are of an Egyptian character. The goddess is arrayed in a long robe, the ample folds of which she holds back with one hand, and dis- plays her sandaled feet, while in the other hand she seems to hold a lotus flower. Three graceful tresses fall on either side of her neck, round which are a string of beads or pearls with an amulet as pendant ; a long veil, surmounted by a diadem, hangs from the back of her head. Among other objects of interest were large monolithic lamps in the shape of little temples about I 8 inches square, of which the pediments and columns with Ionic capitals were partly in relief and partly painted in red. They bore traces of having been much used. There were also a number of votive offer- ings, representing eyes, ears, noses, faces, lips, thumbs, feet, and other portions of the human body rudely carved in stone, CYPRUS. [CHAP. V showing them to be from the poorer classes, not unlikely the lepers, of whom there are still some in the island, and of whom I shall have occasion to speak afterwards. These offerings were all found in one spot, as if placed before an altar or some particular divinity supposed to possess the power of preventing or healing certain diseases. Near the north entrance, between the first and second rows of large square blocks or pedestals, was another kind of votive offering con- sisting of little stone groups of women holding and some- times suckling babes, and of cows and other ani- mals similarly occupied with their young. Another group, badly defaced, consisted of four persons, one holding a newly born babe, while the mother, extended upon a sort of chair, her lace still convulsed by pain, has her head supported by an attendant. Another group, in no better preservation, exhibited a like scene in the vaccine race. In the close proximity of these offer- CHAP. V.] SCULPTURES OF GOLGOI. 159 ings was found the base or lower part of a cone in blue granite, which Mr. Georges Ceccaldi recognises as a fragment of the symbol of Venus. A stone arm-chair was also found within the area, and near it two foot-stools of stone, the smaller of which mea- sures 3 feet by 12 inches, and is ornamented only on the front by two large rosettes and a lion killing a stag in low relief. The same subject is represented Foot-stool. Oblong. Lion devouring Bull. Foot-stool. Oblnng. Chimsera. on silver coins of Citium. The larger one has on the front a relief of the Chimera. I was struck with the order which was evident in the original arrangement of the sculptures in this temple, the statues, as I have before remarked, being ranged according to the art or nationality they represented the Egyptian by themselves, the Assyrian in like manner, and the Greek and Roman near the western wall, the tablets with bas-reliefs and inscriptions by themselves, and the different votive offerings chissed i6o CYPRUS. [CHAP. V. according to their nature, and probably placed before their appropriate divinities. That these are the ruins of a temple, the inscriptions and votive tablets place beyond doubt, but in what fashion it was built, it is very difficult to say. Had it not been roofed, the surface of the statues would now show traces of exposure to the elements. Yet how the roof was supported can onlv be conjectured, since but two capitals of columns were found. PLATE XIII. STATUK OF 1'RIKST, WITH HKAD OF HUM.. Height, 7 feet 3 inches. CHAP. VI.] HOW THE TEMPLE WAS DESTROYED. 163 The fact that no gold or silver objects were dis- covered among the ruins would lead to the belief that it had been pillaged and destroyed ; while the car- bonised wood and deep layer of ashes found in the centre would, on the other hand, give rise to the impression that it had been struck by lightning. In that case the cross beams and rafters, if left bare (as is still the custom of the natives, even in their loftiest buildings), would be fired by the electricity, and these pieces of charred wood, to some of which there were still adhering long bronze nails, might be the remains of the roof, which in falling would have thrown down the statues. These coming in contact with the unpaved soil were but little injured. The mud walls, supported only by a foundation of stone 2 feet 10 inches high, would of course soon follow, though not, perhaps, before the priests could remove all the portable objects of value. That the walls fell in, is proved by the mass of clay and triturated straw in which the statues were found embedded. They had become so consolidated by sun and rain as to render their excavation very difficult. Again, the destruction of the temple may have been caused by the shock of an earthquake, such as was in antiquity and still is a not un- frequent occurrence in the island. All, however, is mere conjecture, but the fact that the different epochs of art contained within the temple cover a long line of years. On the Saturday noon preceding the Greek Easter- week, I fortunately and most happily terminated my excavations at Golgoi. The tents were struck, the ground all levelled again, and the diggers having been dismissed, returned to their villages in gay spirits and with their purses well filled. Having lost no time in returning the tents to the Pasha, with my renewed thanks, and the information that I had discontinued my 1 64 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. diggings at Aghios Photios, I returned once more to my family, and the never failing delight of ex- amining and studying my newly discovered treasures, which every day brought to light some new cause of wonder. CHAPTER VI. The Cretan revolution.- Cypriotes holding Greek passports ordered to leave the island within twenty days. -Protection of the Greek colony of Cyprus. The Greeks of Cyprus and the Hellenic Government thank General Cesnola. The Grand Yi/.ier asks for his recall without success. Had faith and abuse of power by the Turks. Refusal to allow the exportation of the Antiquities. The Turks circumvented and the collection shipped. PENDING my excavations at Aghios Photios, the revolution in Candia had occasioned a rupture of the diplomatic relations between Turkey and Greece. The native Cypriotes who possessed Greek passports, (easily obtained by a visit to Athens,) and had been duly recognised bv the Turkish authorities as subjects of the King of Greece, were in a great state of trepidation lest they should be expelled from the island without a day's warning. The Greek Consul had himself come to Aghios Photios several times during my stay there to consult with me and ask for advice in the matter. During the several meetings of the Consular corps, I endeavoured to effect something in behalf of these per- plexed people, but without avail, as the Consuls had received positive orders from their respective Govern- ments not to interfere, though personally some of them were anxious to assist them as much as lay in their power. A few days after my return to Larnaca the Governor-General received an order from the Porte, which he immediately communicated to the Consuls, to 1 66 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. the effect that all Greek subjects residing in Cyprus should leave the island within twenty days. Mr. Georges Menardos, the then Greek Consul in Cyprus, received instructions from his Government to request one of his colleagues to look after the affairs of the Hellenic colony, then to lower the Greek flag and return to Greece. My official instructions were in every way similar to those received by my colleagues, but the American Minister, in a private letter to me, warmly approved of my using any personal influence I might possess with the Turkish authorities to diminish the distress of the Greeks. As Mr. Menardos had begged me to act in the interest of his countrymen during these twenty days, I received the Greek Consular archives, and undertook to wind up all the commercial matters between the Greek and Turkish subjects, which was not a small undertaking. Mr. Menardos had just wedded a wealthy Cypriote lady and did not desire to leave Cyprus, but offered to accept the post of private Secretary to me for the time being, and thus, under another title, he was able to assist me in the affairs of the Greeks. During the week in which the order of the Porte had been promulgated, the Greeks flocked to the American Consulate for information from every part of the island. In the court-yard and the square in front of the Consulate was a crowd of old men, and of women with infants at their breast, asking lor their passports and the pecuniary means with which to leave the island. I had no funds for this purpose, nor was I sufficiently rich to help them with my private means beyond the daily distribution of some bread. It was heartrending to hear of all the distress and ruin which this order if carried out would cause to these unfortunate people, who would be obliged to leave home and lands, and to sell their few household goods and trinkets in order to CHAP. VI.] THE CRETAN REVOLUTION. 167 reach the shores of Greece, where utter poverty would stare them in the face. My own conviction was that the Great Powers would never allow their two proteges to go to war. Why, then, should these poor people be forced to leave all they possessed and go begging in a strange land ? For several clays I was occupied in endeavouring to find some method by which the neces- sity of obeying this cruel order might be averted, and the Governor-General be persuaded to leave these miserable villagers unmolested in their homes. I re- solved to start for Nicosia, and to have a talk with him on the subject. Said Pasha was an intelligent Turk, who spoke French fluently, and was not devoid of all human feeling towards the Christians. His great am- bition was to be a popular ruler, and I knew that to succeed with him I must touch this powerful spring. He knew that I had had charge of the Greek interests in Cyprus since the withdrawal of the Consul of Greece, and that the latter was acting as my clerk. His Excellency had already sent orders to all his Caimakams to act in concert with me in winding up the monetary affairs of the Greeks without delay. The Turkish judges, as might have been expected, were very prompt in settling those transactions in which their countrymen had anything to receive, but threw many difficulties in the way where the opposite was the case. I had caused several of the Greeks to pay their debts, and therefore declared to the local authorities that no Greek should leave the island while any Turk was indebted to him. Said Pacha issued stringent orders to the same effect. For two weeks my four dragomans were constantly employed before the Turkish tribunals in these matters. The number of debts due to the Turkish subjects proved, however, to be considerably the larger. I became aware then, for the first time, of the manner in which these poor creatures were obliged to borrow 1 68 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. money from year to year at an interest of 20 to 25 per cent., in order to live and cultivate their lands, mort- gaging to the money-lender their crops in advance. As the corn at this season had not yet come into maturity, they had no money or means by which to pay their Turkish creditors, and if they were expelled within the twenty days prescribed by the Porte, all their crops would be ruined. The common interest of the debtor and creditor was that the Greeks should not leave the island until after harvest time, and on this I built my hopes, knowing that could this be effected the Governor- General would gain much popularity with a large and influential class of his Ottoman subjects, whose principal occupation is to lend money to the peasants and to receive grain in its stead, with which they carry on an extensive trade in Europe and the Levant. These facts I brought so forcibly before the Pasha on my arrival in Nicosia, that (added to a petition I advised the Turkish money-lenders to send to him on the same subject,) they had the desired effect. I affected at first to be even more anxious than he was that all the Greeks should leave Cyprus within the specified time, and asked him what means of trans- port he had provided for those families ; there were many who were too poor to pay their passage to Greece ! I explained to him how utterly impossible it was for them to pay their debts to his Turkish subjects, and then, appealing to his weak point, told him how much good he had done in the island, which was quite true, and how both Turks and Christians highly esteemed him. I showed him the improbability of the Great Powers permitting a war to take place between Turkey and Greece, and asked why he should execute an order which would injure his popularity, and be the cause of so much harm, and which must soon be revoked ? " I see," said the Pasha, " vou are reallv mv CHAP. VI.J THE GREEKS ORDERED TO LEAVE CYPRUS. l6g friend, but how can I refuse to obey an order which, as you know, is not only for Cyprus, but the entire Empire? What would you have me do 1 " " Ask for instructions at Constantinople," said I. His Excellency smiled ironically, and I saw that he understood. It was at last agreed between us that no steps would be taken by him against the Greeks, even after the twenty days had expired, without informing me previously. News of a prolongation of the time for another twenty days arrived by the next steamer. Before it expired the war clouds had passed away, and not one single Greek subject was obliged to leave the island against his will. But in the .other provinces of the Turkish Empire, the Greeks had not met with such lenient treatment. At Beirut, for instance, the Greek- Consul even was ta.ken out of his bed by force, and placed on board the Austrian steamer which was leaving for Greece by way of Cyprus, Rhodes, and Smyrna, and the next day, when the steamer anchored before Larnaca, he landed and came to pay me a visit. Mr. Molino's astonishment may well be imagined when he saw his colleague, Mr. Menardos, quietly seated at a desk in my chancdlcric, transacting his usual consular business. I may here mention that the Greek colony in Cyprus, and its own Government, afterwards gave me many tokens of their appreciation of the little I did on this occasion for them, and yet I merely paid a family debt of gratitude to that people for their kind and generous treatment of my uncle, Count Alerino Palma, who in the unsuccessful Piedmontese Revolution of 1821, being one of its chiefs, was sentenced to death, executed in effigy, all his property confiscated, and who, taking refuge in Greece, found there both a high position and a home till he died. My successful interference in favour of the G reek- colony of Cyprus, and an imprudent publication in some 170 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. of the Greek newspapers, that in the event of war with Turkey I would accept the proffered command of the Greek cavalry forces, attracted upon my head the thunderbolts of the Grand Vizier, Aali Pasha, who was determined to have me either dismissed, or at least recalled from Cyprus, and an official demand of that nature reached \Yashington some time afterwards. Some spicy correspondence ensued between the United States and the Turkish Government on the subject, but as there had been no act of mine which could be shown to the satisfaction of Mr. Seward to have been per- formed in my official capacity of American Consul, the whole matter dropped. As soon as the Greek question ceased to absorb my time, I began seriously to consider what disposition I should make of all my treasures. My house at Larnaca, and the adjoining warehouses which I rented for the purpose, were literally filled with antiquities. In the absence of a photographer I studied the art of photography, and sent representations of the most important objects of my collection to the museums of Paris and London. The Emperor Napoleon became at once interested, and had decided to purchase the whole ot my discoveries and present them to the Louvre, when the Franco-German war put an end to the negotiations. One of the employes of the Russian Museum at St. Petersburg visited Cyprus, expressly to make a catalogue of my discoveries, which he published on his return home (Doell : Die Sammlung Cesnola). Parties in England strongly encouraged me to send the whole collection to London. Meanwhile it proved the chief attraction to all travellers touching at Cyprus, who would frequently insist upon seeing it in season and out of season, and I was consequently at times not a little annoyed. The well-known Cook's parties would arrive in scores, CHAP. VI.] VISITS OF TOURISTS. 171 and taking possession of my garden and court-yard, persist in seeing the " Museum " of the American Consul. Should I happen to be present, thousands of questions would be asked, some of which would not always admit of an answer. Once an elderly English lady with the proverbial ringlets, who belonged to one of these parties, after attentively examining the Golgoi statues for some time, asked me in the gravest manner if I would be so kind as to explain to her the mysteries of the worship of Venus ! When great numbers were admitted to inspect my discoveries, it was not always possible to keep visitors from handling the small objects which were all lying on tables and shelves, and I am sorry to say that sometimes the objects did not always find their way back to their legitimate places. It is a strange truth that there are people, apparently respect- able, who think nothing of pocketing antiquities not belonging to them, or of breaking off pieces of sculpture in order to carry them away as trophies to their homes. The Governor-General one day, while conversing with me about my discoveries, remarked that as in my firman it was not specified that I could send them away, he not only could not permit me to transport them out of the island, but had received positive orders to forbid their embarkation. I inquired of the Pasha under what custom-house conditions or taxation the Porte would allow me to export them to America. " Under none that I am aware of," said he ; "you have asked for a firman to dig, which has been granted, but not to transport ! I asked him what he had supposed had been my intention in asking for that firman ? That he declared himself unable to say. I had already had reason to anticipate some trouble with the Ottoman Government in regard to the exportation of so great an amount of antiquities, although in the firmans issued 172 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI by the Porte at that time, no stipulations occurred, nor was it in any way implied that the Turkish Govern- ment should be entitled to any findings of the explorer, nor that any special permission would be necessary to export them. But the fame of my success had already reached Constantinople, and the cupidity of the Turk was aroused. No desire for the advancement of science, or love of art, was at the bottom of the embargo put upon the shipment of my collection. I had had proof some years before of the Turk's interest in such matters, when I had requested Mehemet Kaiserly Pasha, the then Governor-General of the Archipelago, to take charge of two large cases of antiquities, which I had destined as a present to the Ottoman Museum. His Excellency promptly accepted the care of them, and promised to see them delivered, but these cases, after travelling as far as the Dardanelles, the official residence of Kaiserly Pasha, never reached Constantinople, and I should not be surprised if he had sent them instead to some dealer in antiquities, as in spite of all the inquiries instituted at my request by the American Legation, no trace of them could ever be found. On a subsequent visit to Constantinople,, I went in company with the American Minister and Dr. Dethier, who has charge of that lumber-room styled the Im- perial Museum, to see if I could recognise among the heaps of objects there any of the pieces I had sent, but failed to find any of them. In Europe or in the United States, the Government would have asked the person who had charge of the cases what he did with them ; but not so in Turkey, when the person is an ex-Cabinet Minister, and may be a future Grand Vizier. Knowing therefore that the collection in my possession had been acquired by me in the most legitimate manner, at a cost of much labour, study, and money, and was as CHAP. VI.l INTERFERENCE OF GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 173 thoroughly my property as any thing ever could be the property of anyone, and that the quibble now put forward by the Turks was only instigated by their usual bad faith, where their interest or passions supervene, I decided to pack up everything, and if need be, to embark them by force, knowing how useless it would be to make any application for justice in the matter to Aali Pasha, with his personal feelings towards me. I applied to our Secretary of the Navy for a man-of- war to convey my collections to the United States, which he very kindly promised to send and gave orders to the commander of the American Squadron in the Mediterranean to that effect, but the opportunity of chartering a vessel, which is of very rare occurrence in Cyprus, happening soon after I had packed all my antiquities, I decided not to let it escape, and there- fore wrote to the Governor-General, that I desired to know whether he intended to prevent the shipment of my collection by force. In reply he sent me a copy of the Grand Vizier's despatch sent to him some months before, when he had asked what action he should take in regard to my discoveries at Aghios Photios. In this despatch he was instructed to prevent their exportation. The Pasha added that he hoped I would not place him in so disagreeable a position. The schooner I had chartered was still discharging her cargo, and for some days would not be ready to receive my 360 large cases. I made sure in the meantime that the action of the Pasha would be confined to a written protest, and resolved to let him protest as much as he pleased. Two or three days after a Turkish ship-of-war arrived unexpectedly in the bay with some political prisoners. This rather disconcerted me, particularly as it anchored almost in front of my residence. Nevertheless, I deter- mined, conic quc conic, to try the experiment, and sent mv confidential dragoman Besbes to the Director of 174 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. the Custom House to request an order from him for the exportation of my cases. He showed him a telegram from the Porte forbidding the American Consul to ship anything, and regretted his inability to oblige me, but his orders were positive, and, moreover, this was the second telegram that had been sent to him on the subject, the latter one having arrived that very morn- ing. I confess this news lent rather a dark view to things. There were my boxes all ready to be shipped, and there was the vessel waiting to receive them. On the other hand there were the two telegrams forbidding it, and there was the Turkish corvette lying very peace- fully just then in full view, but who knew, if I persisted, whether she might remain so ? Who knew what orders the Turkish commander might have received ? There was the protest of the Governor-General. This last, it is true, troubled me the least. I sat pondering moodily, Besbes looking at me through his great blue spectacles with his red -rimmed eyes and impassible aspect (he is one of the ugliest men I think I ever saw, but at the same time one of the most faithful). "Besbes," said I, "these antiquities must and shall go on board the schooner this day ! " Suddenly I saw a sort of twinkle in his eyes, and a curious expression dawned on his lips as he said, looking very meekly at me, " Effendi, those telegrams are to prevent the American Consul from shipping antiquities," and then he stopped. I replied with some heat, " You seem to take pleasure in repeating the in- formation to me- I should think I ought to be aware of it by this time." Besbes did not lose a particle of his equanimity, but only said still more meekly, "There was nothing in those orders about the Russian Consul." I understood then what he meant, though mv Western civilization would never have arrived at this truly oriental solution of the difficulty. " Right," I cried ; CHAP. VI.] EVASION OF TURKISH ORDERS. 175 "go quickly to the Custom House, and tell the Director that I wish to see his two telegrams." Shortly after- wards that official arrived, and very politely requested Besbes to read and to translate them for me. When he had finished I asked, " Have you any orders to pro- hibit the Russian Consul from exporting antiquities ? " He thought for a moment, read his orders over, and declared that they were clearly for the American Consul only, and admitted that he could not refuse to give me the permission should I ask for it in the usual official manner as Consul for Russia. Fifteen minutes after this I had the order in my hand, and all the facchini of Lanarca at work rapidly remov- ing the cases to the lighters. Five hours afterwards all my cases were on board, and the schooner, now laden to the water's edge, left for Alexandria, where they were to be re-shipped for London. As I thought of the heavy cargo, and the sudden squalls which frequently arise in these latitudes at that time of the year, my heart had many misgivings all my treasures were there, and not one piece insured ! My faithful Besbes accompanied the craft, with no protection against the waves or Turkish law but his own ingenuity, and the little Greek flag which floated at the mast-head. One whole month elapsed before I knew the fate either of my cargo or of my more than devoted dragoman. At the end of this time the face of Besbes appeared one morning at the door of my chancellerie, elated by the entire success of his enterprise, and at that moment it seemed to me one of the most agreeable faces possible. My fears of a rough sea and stormy winds had not been groundless. Stress of weather had obliged the captain to put into Port Said for a week, and on his arrival at Alexandria, no steamer being in port for London, Besbes determined not to abandon his charge, but to wait until he could see everything safely transhipped. 176 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VI. Said Pasha said he had heard nothing of the matter until his arrival in Larnaca, shortly after, on his way to Constantinople, whither he had been recalled. In speaking of it he declared that the whole thing had been most cleverly managed, and that it was a pity I had not been born a Turk. CHAPTER VII. Exploration of the S.E. coast of Cyprus. Mode of travelling. A modern priest. Ormidia. An extensive necropolis. No traces of dwelling-houses or temples. -The sites of Throni and Leucolla identified by the author. Ruins of Cataliina. Mysterious mono- lithic cone. Discovery of five cemeteries. Famagosta probably the ancient Arsinoe. Criminals. Kattirdj Janni, the Robin Hood of the Levant. Salamis, prison and tomb of St. Catherine. Church of St. Barnabas. Two tumuli. From Salamis to Cape St. Andreas evidence of Phoenician occupation. Cemeteries and ruins. Mediaeval castles. EARLY in the spring of 1872, I resolved to explore as much as possible of the south-east coast of the island, and for this purpose gave orders to have everything put in readiness by my cavass Mustafa, to whose unwaver- ing and affectionate attention during eight years' service I may here pay tribute. During that time he learned to read and write modern Greek, to keep accounts, and to speak the Italian language fluently. He combined in his person butler, valet, dragoman, and consular guard, and was honest}' itself. The travelling cook whom I employed on these occasions was informed of the length of time his services would be required; the tents were put in order, the beds and bedding aired and prepared, my portmanteau packed, the camp stools, dining table, and a complete dinner service, together with an abun- dant supply of everything necessary for a healthy and even luxurious table, were placed upon mules and donkeys. To this careful attention to comfort, and 178 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. the avoidance as much as possible of change of diet and daily habits, I attribute the continuance of my health during these trying excursions, in the course of the many years I passed in Cyprus. I found it in the end more convenient and less expensive to purchase than to hire animals, and in this way I became the possessor of several fine well-broken mules and two strong donkeys, as high almost as horses, of a breed peculiar to Cyprus. These donkeys are glossy and sleek, with large eyes, and will trot as fast as a mule ; they are besides very intelligent. Thus provided we started in the early morning, and pro- ceeded eastward for two hours, quite close to the sea- shore, to a place called " Palaeo Castro," a name given by the natives to any tumble down building, whether titty or two thousand years old. Here I found the stone walls of an oblong structure, not older than the Venetian occupation of the island. It had been a small fort mounted with three guns, the embrasures of which are still standing. Along the south-east coast are several of these guard-houses, built near the shore on elevated ground, some of which, now dismantled and roofless, are of Turkish construction, and two or three hundred years old. Most of them appear to have been erected for the protection of the neighbouring villages against the Algerine pirates, who not longer ago than sixtv years were daring enough to land and carry off wealthy inhabitants, and to detain them until the required ransom should be paid. In this neighbour- hood is still pointed out the pirates' cave. Contiguous to the fort I found vestiges of an ancient town, traces of the stone wall which encircled it, and small square foundations of dwelling houses. The cemetery is just outside the wall, and near the sea-shore. The tombs are only a few feet below the surface, and of the shape usual everywhere in Cyprus. CHAP. VII.] RESIDENCE AT ORMIDIA. 179 Those which I opened contained Roman lamps, glass, and black varnished pottery of a very common kind. A little east of the fort is a shapeless mound, apparently artificial, which I found to contain two large graves of the earliest period. From one of them I extracted fragments of twenty-seven different skulls, and a number of cylinders in haematite, not engraved ; also a large copper caldron, bearing traces of fire, and many arrow- heads in copper and in iron, but no vases of any kind. This mound seems to have been erected over some fifty or sixty bodies buried in two large oblong tombs, evidently all at the same time, and probably slain in battle. The earth which forms the mound may be that which was dug up in making the tombs. Continuing my journey along the coast, I reached a spot where the road takes a northerly direction. Pur- suing this, I soon came upon a small village called Ormidia, inhabited exclusively by Greek peasants. It was in a pretty little white cottage on the summit of a low hill near the outskirts of this village that I estab- lished in 1873 my summer residence, and this con- tinued to be our summer resort as long as we remained in the island. Its chief attractions were a never-failing breeze at night, good water, and a large garden in the centre of a cleared space, in which spread the branches of a tree capable of shading a hundred persons at a time. Its proximity to the tea-shore gave us the advantage of land and sea breezes, and at the same time afforded a new pleasure in the gathering of shells. In the cool of the afternoon we would wander off to the beach, accom- panied by a couple of men to look after our mules, when we dismounted, and then my wife and little daughters would amuse themselves for hours on the sand, collecting what seemed the choicest among the mvriads of tiny shells which lined the beach. At i8o CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. Ormidia I first remarked that the Greek priests in the interior, who work in the fields like the peasants, wear a conical hat, not unlike those represented in the statues discovered at Golgoi, and it appears to me not improbable that this fashion of hat has been handed down from the times of the Cypriote priests of Venus. Not only this, but there seemed to me also to be a resemblance between the features of the priest who here Modern Priest. attracted my attention and his sculptured predecessors. His name I found was Papa Petro. I wished to have his photograph, and having previously made my pho- tographic preparations, I called him and explained my wish. He begged to be first allowed to go home and array himself in his most imposing garments, and was not a little mortified when I told him that my interest centred exclusively in his head and cap, which he appeared to think, perhaps not without reason, to be the least important of his belongings. CHAP. VII.] ANCIENT NECROPOLIS. 181 In the centre of a triangle formed by the villages of Ormidia, Timbo, and Afgoro, I discovered a very extensive burying-ground, which yielded the largest and most highly decorated vases found in Cyprus. The tombs are of a very ancient date. In 1870-71 and 1875 I undertook some systematic explorations at this place, but without finding the either of temples or ancient habitations. slightest traces Vases from Ormidia. Height, i foot 6 in. Height, over 3 feet. An hour's distance south-west of Ormidia is Cape Pyla, called after a village of that name, and this headland is, I believe, the promontory mentioned by Strabo as Throni ; not that of Dades as Pococke thinks, which is now called Cape Chiti. On the extreme point of this promontory is a large round tower which Pococke describes as an ancient ruin, but which is a mere watch-tower erected for the purpose of signalling the approach either of the enemy or of some piratical craft, and does not date back farther than the reiim of the Lusiirnans. The circumference at the 1 82 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. base measures 86 feet, and the height of what is still standing, 22\ feet ; at this height, which I succeeded in climbing with the aid of two of my men, the vestiges of a doorway are visible. I found that the lower portion of the tower was solid masonry to the height of 18 feet, and that the entrance to it must have been reached from the outside by means of a ladder. It is built of square stones measuring about a foot, many of which have large characters deeply cut on them. Some of these characters resemble Cypriote letters. My object in examining very carefully the vicinity of Cape Pyla was to discover if possible traces of the ancient city of Throni, and I satisfied myself that there had never existed any town or village within a radius of more than a mile. In every direction the ground presents a continuous surface of hard limestone, which has been quarried at several places. In visiting this Cape I took a guide from the village of Ormidia, who conducted me to a large cavern which he called " Spilio Macaria," the entrance of which faces the sea. This cave contains a great quantity of petrified bones, some of which competent authorities have recognised as human. It is about 60 feet above the level of the sea. I say about, because the rock at this place overhangs the sea in such a way as to render measuring it both very difficult and dangerous. A young peasant who came there one day to procure wild honey which he saw in a crevice lost his footing and was drowned. I succeeded however in penetrating into the cave, and found it to be 64 feet in length, 46 feet high, and 21 feet wide. Two of my men entered with me, and we found the petrified bones on the Moor and in the walls, forming a solid mass. My two men worked for about an hour with picks, and were able to detach only a leg-bone and some teeth. The layer of bone- on the floor of the cave seems to be several feet CHAP. VII.] SEARCH FOR SITE OF THROXI. 183 thick. How they ever came there will probably remain a mystery. My guide, who was the nephew of the Greek priest, told me with religious awe that they were the bones of " forty saints," and that to within a few years ago it had been the custom of the peasants of Ormidia, Afgoro, and other neighbouring villages to make a pilgrimage to this cave, accompanied by their priests, on the anniversary of the gth of March, but that the Greek Archbishop of Cyprus, who happened to be in Ormidia collecting his church dues at the time of one of these pilgrimages, had ordered them to be discon- tinued. Difficult as it was to enter this cave it was still more so to get out of it, and had not my guides, who were barefooted and accustomed to walk on the rocks, lent me their assistance, I doubt if I should have been able to come out safely. Continuing my route along the rocky coast, which in places is deeply indented by ancient chariot and waggon wheels, the evidence of great traffic in ancient times, I arrived in an hour at a little place called u Potamos," close to where a branch of the Pedeus empties itself into the sea. Here I found an old ruined Greek church dedicated to Aghios Torsos, and the O *s O ' remains of an early Christian village fringing the stream on either side. A little west of it is another cave, which also contains a quantity of petrified bones and somewhat easier of access, but I did not observe among them any portion of human skulls or teeth. There are tombs in this neighbourhood, but thev are all of the early Christian period. During two years I searched in vain in this locality for the site of Throni, of which Strabo speaks obscurely sometimes as of a promontory, and sometimes as of a city. But at last I discovered it, as I believe, between Cape Pyla and Cape Greco, but nearer the latter, at a spot where extensive 184 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. foundations of houses are still visible. The place is called Torno, which obviously is a corruption of Throni. The town seems to have consisted of two districts like Larnaca. In the district near the shore I found several subterranean rooms, partly cut in the rock and partly built of red bricks. The district farther from the sea had been protected by a wall, the outlines of which I occupied nearly an hour in following. In this part of the town I discovered several stairs cut in the rock and leading to underground, circular rooms, which seem to have been used for storing grain, or possibly, like those near the sea, were cellars of houses which may have once been there. I had passed near this place several times on former journeys without noticing it. No tombs were discovered in the neighbourhood, but within the walls I found vestiges of a circular temple, and in its area brought to light several fragments of statues in cal- careous stone and of Greek workmanship. What finally led me to pay special attention to this vicinity in my search for Throni, was the discovery of some fragments of statues which I made in the church- yard of a small village close by, called " Sotira.'' These fragments, I learned from the priests, had been dug up at a spot called " Torno," by workmen in search of stones to build the church. This being in the vicinity of the promontory called by Strabo, Throni the Greek character of the sculptures found there, together with the similarity of its present name and the fact that no other town is anywhere mentioned as having been built in the neighbourhood, led me to the conviction that these remains could only belong to the ancient Throni. I observed in the course of inv explor- ations that the most reliable as well as rapid mode of identifying a town the site of which has not been pre- served by tradition, is to examine the walls of the churches or mosques in the villages of the district CHAP. VII.] THE LINOBAMBAKI. 185 where history places the site, and to see whether they contain any architectural fragments, as they are certain to do whenever there has been an ancient ruin at hand for the workmen to quarry from. Before visiting Sotira I had examined another village called " Leo-Petro ; " but did not find any of the indications there of which I was in search. Leo-Petro is a mere agglomeration of huts. The inhabitants are very poor, and eke out a scanty living by trafficking in poultry, which they buy in the mountain villages of Carpass and sell in the bazaars of Nicosia and Larnaca. They are nick-named " Linobambaki," that is, linen and cotton, a figurative expression which means a combination of Christian and Mussulman. While to outward appearance they are Turks, and are so recognised by the local authorities, in reality they are Christians whose ancestors, at the time of the Turkish conquest, were forced to declare themselves Mussul- mans and to embrace Islamism in order to save their lives and property. Many, if not all of them, had been adherents of the Latin Church, though it is still fre- quently a matter of dispute between the Greek bishops and the Latin priests as to which Church they rightfully belong to, each church being desirous of claiming them as its adherents. The marriage and baptismal cere- monies of the Linobambaki are performed in secret by a priest of their choice. On the birth of a male child the rite of circumcision is evaded by means of a present of money to the Hodja. They adopt such names for their sons as are common to both Christian and Moslem, such as Ibrahim (Abraham), Moussa (Moses), Yusuf (Joseph), etc. They do not number more than twelve hundred in all, and reside chiefly near Nicosia, Famagosta, and Limassol. Ever}' year they are prosecuted by the ico/il authorities when the conscription takes plac. As 1 86 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. Mussulmans they are obliged to serve in the Sultan's army if drafted, as Christians they would be exempted by the payment of a tax called the " Askerieh," which commences from the day of their birth, and in order that their children may escape military service, the Linobambaki often pay this tax like the other recognised Christian subjects of the Porte. The Turks accept the tax regularly, as if it were the legal and proper exemp- tion, until the young Linobambaki arrive at the age when they are subject to be drafted, whereupon the proof of having paid taxes as Christians is entirely disregarded and they are claimed as Mussulmans. On these occasions they cling strongly to their Christian names as evidence of their faith, but, as may be sup- posed, without avail. Rather than be mustered into the Turkish army many of them abandon their homes, leave the island and never return. In such instances the authorities sometimes throw the father of the con- script into prison, and declare that he shall not be released until his son is produced. Sometimes also they claim a brother of the person drafted, and any amount of litigation and false witnessing ensues. Dur- ing my time there were many disputes arising out of this complicated state of things, and very often my supposed influence with the local government was invoked to obtain a favourable settlement. On one such occasion the relative of an imprisoned Linobambako begged my intercession with A/AZ Pasha, who was then Governor-General of Cyprus. I tele- graphed to him at Nicosia, pointing out the violent and unjust proceeding of the authorities at Larnaca in imprisoning one brother for another. A few hours after, when returning from my usual evening walk with my wife, I met the alreadv liberated man coming to thank me for his release. That the Governor-General had lost no time in acceding to mv request was onlv CHAP. VII.] CONVENT OF STA. NAPA. 187 what was to be expected from a man of so kindly a nature as Aziz Pasha, who also is endowed with a rare nobility of character and principle which claims esteem, whether found in Christian or Moslem. His natural love of justice rendered him popular both with Turks and Greeks, and a favourite with the Consular corps during his administration of Cyprus. Having ascertained the site of Throni, I continued my route eastward towards Cape Greco. Half way between it and the ruins of Throni there is a small village of about fifty houses, inhabited by Greek peasants, built on the side of a rocky hill in close proximity to a large convent. This convent is called Sta. Xapa, and gives its name to the village. It be- longed to the Latin Church before the conquest of the island by Selim II., and was given to the Greeks by Mustafa Pasha, but is now in a dilapidated condition. Its architecture proves that it was built under the Lusignan dynasty. The Royal Crusaders must have richly endowed it, as it still owns thousands of acres of fertile land, much of which lies untilled for the \vant of manual labour. Its possessions extend as far as the village of Ormidia. In the gardens of the convent are two large stone reservoirs, fed, chiefly during the winter months, by the water of a spring, the source of which is some four miles north-east. The water is con- veyed by an ancient aqueduct somewhat similar to those at Amathus, Curium, Citium, and one or two places on the north side of the island. The aqueduct of Sta. Xapa, like that of Citium, has undergone many repairs, and the greater part of the construction, as it now appears, is according to the Roman system ; but while following its course I found several air-shafts, showing that the water had been originally conveyed to Throni in a more direct way, and by the ancient Greek system of tunnelling. I explored some of these shafts, which 1 88 CYPRUS. fCHAi'. VII. were pointed out to me as ancient tombs which had been opened before, and found that the rock beneath had been excavated some sixteen inches square for the passage of the water. This part of the works is now abandoned, and the aqueduct winds its way round several hills to within a few hundred yards of the convent, where it is bridged over by a structure of square stones, many of which have large characters or marks similar to the Cypriote letters. Just before reaching the village of Sta. Napa, and quite at the foot of the hill, are the remains of an ancient town of small size which the natives call " Catalima." I dug at this place, but only for a short time, and brought to light the foundations of an elliptical building in which I found a large Corinthian capital of white marble and a mass of broken tiles and jars. The place bore unmis- takable signs of having been excavated before, probably by the builders of the convent. A similar capital of the same size and quality of marble as the one discovered here, is lying half buried in one of the courtyards of the convent of Sta. Napa, but the Greek priest, who is now the sole tenant of the convent, could give me no information as to when or where it had been dug up. " I found it where it lies," said he, " when I took charge of the convent twenty-two years ago, and I left it there undisturbed." Near it I observed a fine marble basin or fountain, with figures in high relief, much mutilated, which may also have been dug up at Catalima, or more probably at Throni. It is much earlier, in my opinion, than the Christian era. Nothing remains standing of the ancient village once occupying the site of Catalima except a curious mono- lith, so worn by time and exposure to the elements as to make it difficult to say whether it was originally round or quadrilateral. Its present height above ground is six feet seven inches, but digging round it CHAP. VII.] CATALIMA. 189 I found that it extended some way below the surface. There is an oblong hole through the centre, g inches high and 5 inches wide. In this hole was a heap of broken glass, bracelets, some elass earrings, and two or O O 7 - - - c three partially consumed votive candles. I asked my guide, Captain Andrea, a very intelligent Greek who lives at Sta. Napa, why these objects were placed there, and whether any superstition \vas connected with it. He explained that the young girls of his village came there and broke their glass jewellery, either when they got married, or had been betrayed by their lovers. Old women also came to that mysterious monolith to light tapers, in the hope of being cured of bodily ailments. Is it to the relic of a pagan temple dedicated to Venus, or to the relic of some Greek saint, that these women, whether young or old, resort in their distress ? I was unable to determine. I found three similar monoliths, with an oblong hole in each, in different localities further east, towards Cape St. Andrea. One, in the neighbourhood of a little headland called " Elea," near the village of Gastria, lies chipped and half buried in the ground ; the second is beyond a village called Galinoporni, where I re- marked several air-shafts belonging to an ancient aqueduct ; and the third is at Cape St. Andrea, where are the ruins of a small town opposite the u Kleides," and many rock-cut tombs, all opened long ago. I met with none of these monoliths on the northern coast of the island. They may represent the symbolic cone of Venus, under which form she was worshipped in Paphos. The burying-ground belonging to Cataiima, and probably also to Throni, is some ten minutes east of Sta. Xapa towards Cape Greco, and quite close to the i go CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. sea-shore. The greater part of the tombs are roughly hewn in the rock, and shaped like those at Dali. I found in them many terra-cotta coffins, decorated with garlands of flowers painted in red. The lids are formed Terra-cotta Coffin. of three terra-cotta slabs placed side by side, and cemented together by plaster poured upon them after the body had been deposited inside. In these tombs I found also a great many terra-cotta lamps, glass objects, and a few gold ornaments, including the speci- mens of iridescent glass now in the Xew York Museum, which surpass in brilliancy of colour anything of the kind I have ever seen. The summit of Cape Greco has a flat rocky surface, but there are no indications of its having had a temple or other building upon it. East of this promontory, which gradually slopes into the plain of Salamis, and CHAP. VII.] LEUCOLLA. igi where trie sea forms a natural haven, I discovered the ruins of an ancient Greek town. After digging a few days at random, I came upon the foundations of a building, from which I brought out some large heads and fragments of stone sculpture, all bearing a decidedly C"1'issal Stone Head of Cybcle. Found at Leucolla. Greek character. From the geographical situation of these ruins they can be no other than those of Leu- colla, a town which was in a flourishing condition at the time of Alexander the Great, and gave its name to the famous naval battle fought in its neighbourhood between Demetrius Poliorcetes and Ptolemv. Its IQ2 CYPRUS. [CKAP. VII. harbour, some 130 feet below the level of the city, was reached by a road cut in the rock, still partially visible. From the small extent of these ruins, Leucolla must have been a town of no great importance. From this point to Salamis there are no ancient ruins near the sea-shore that can be identified with the city of Arsinoe, said to have had a harbour, and placed by Strabo between Leucolla and Salamis. Famagosta, which occupies the site of Ammochostos, one of the ten royal cities which paid tribute to Esarhaddon, possesses the only harbour between Salamis and Leucolla, and may have been called Arsinoe under the Ptolemies. North-east of Leucolla lies the plain of Salamis, where the army of Darius defeated Onesilos, and where subse- quently another Persian army of more than 300,000 men spent nearly ten years in vanquishing the high- spirited Evagoras. It was also in this plain that Deme- trius, after crossing the mountain range of Carpass, gave battle and defeated Menelaus, the brother of Ptolemy. This plain is reached after a few minutes' descent from the flat-topped promontory mentioned before, now called Cape Greco, and through the little village of Paralimni, built near Lake Para, which is now quite dry, and during the Lusignan and Venetian occupation was used as a rice field. Between Paralimni and the sea-shore are a number of ancient tombs, which obviously be- longed to Leucolla. Their content:; had the same character, and were of the same period as those found in the ruins before referred to. Most of these tombs, however, had been previously opened, and I found in them only fragments of glass and a few Roman lamps. Less than half an hour's ride east of Paralimni. and within a stone's throw ot Famagosta, is Varossia, a thriving little town founded bv the Christian population expelled from Famagosta at the time of its capture by the Ottoman armv. CHAP. VII.] DECAY OF THE OSMANLIS. 193 It has a fine Greek church with a new belfry, which is a fair representative of modern local architecture, a good bazaar, several manufactories of pottery, and some houses built of stone, as good as any in Larnaca or Nicosia, with orange and lemon groves and very exten- sive gardens, studded with mulberry trees for the culti- vation of the silkworm. The appearance of Varossia presents a marked contrast to the gloomy quarters of Famagosta, occupied by the Turks. Indeed, through- out the island the places inhabited solely by Turks are as a general rule dirty, miserable, and showing every sign of decay, and this result is what must be expected from a race who neither know nor care to learn any pro- fession or handicraft by which to earn their livelihood, but prefer to spend their time in idleness at the cafes, drinking and smoking, while their families and house- hold matters are left to take care of themselves as best they can. In Cyprus the race of the Osmanlis is fast disappearing. This I had opportunities of remarking during my residence there, and I have been assured by competent persons that only 40 years ago the capital of the island contained more Turks than Christians ; at the present clay the latter are in a large majority. The crime of abortion is extensively practised among the Turkish population, and the Turkish midwives flourish everywhere. I have spoken of this to Turks who were intelligent and upright enough to condemn the system, but they invariably added that the Turk was too poor to allow himself the expensive luxury of having children ! If such a state of things exists also in the other provinces of Turkey, there is no need of anything but time to rid Europe of this degenerate race. The devoted city of Famagosta, built by the Chris- tians 800 years ago, from the ruins of Salamis, and destroyed by the Turks in 1571, after the terrible siege in which the Venetian soldiers so heroicall defended I Q4 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. their position, once counted its beautiful churches by hundreds, and its palatial dwellings by thousands. Once it had been one of the principal commercial cities of the Levant, with a harbour in which rode large fleets, but which now through neglect has become filled with sand, and is able to float only vessels of small draught. It was just outside the mouth of this closed harbour that the vessels containing the Venetian families and their most precious personal and household effects were sunk by the faithless Mustafa Pasha after he had killed the Venetian generals. As you approach the massive walls of the city, which are nearly 17 feet thick and of solid stone, all taken from the ruins of Salamis, you see how impossible it was to take such a city except by famine or treachery. The walls stand now as impregnable and intact as when raised by the Lusignans. The old bronze guns of the Republic of Venice are still on the bastions in their original place, looking formidably towards the sea and the plain of Salamis, but spiked and out of service since 1571. There are a half dozen rusty iron guns of Turkish manufacture pretty much in the same con- dition. The ruins of Famagosta are not grand and imposing, yet to me they are most beautiful and touching. It is impossible to see the still existing walls of many of its fine mediaeval churches, with frescoes plainly visible on the interiors- here a rectory built in keeping, there evi- dences of elegant homes --without a feeling of intense sadness. Only two out of the three hundred churches which are said to have existed in Famagosta were left standing. The principal one, formerly the Cathedral and now used as a mosque, is paved with mortuary marble slabs engraved with the names and arms of Italian noblemen once buried beneath them, whose bones were exhumed and thrown into the sea bv order CHAP. VII.] FAMAGOSTA. 195 of the fanatical and ferocious Mustafa Pasha the day after he captured the city. The other church, used as a granary and a stable by the Turks, contains also a few tombstones, now all worn out by the horses' hoofs. There I discovered the inscription mentioned in the Introduction, recording the day on which by the abdica- tion of Catherine Cornaro the Venetians became the rulers of Cyprus. Within the city walls resides the Caimakam of the province of Carpass, with the Cadi of Famagosta and the usual Mejilis. There is also a military Governor of the fortress, and a company of artillery. This Governor resides with his troops in a small fort overlooking the sea, and flanked by a large round tower called by the natives " Torre del Moro " (Tower of the Moor). Tradition asserts that in this tower were the head-quarters of the Venetian Lord- Lieutenant of Cyprus, Cristoforo Moro, during the years 1506-1508. In the latter year, on the 22nd of October, Cristoforo Moro was recalled from Cyprus and returned to Venice ; and from documents which I have been allowed to peruse, it would appear that this man was married four times, and that his private life was not very exemplary. This Cristoforo Moro was the "Othello" of Shakespeare, and must not be confounded with his namesake the Doge of Venice, to whom he was not even related, who in July 1469 wrote to the King of Cyprus a stringent letter in regard to Catherine Cornaro, mentioned in the Introduction. The fortress of Famagosta contains some of the worst criminals of the Turkish Empire. Many of them are condemned for life, others are sentenced on an average to from 15 to 25 years' imprisonment, and all are heavily shackled Near the eastern wall, where the prisoners are confined, are two casemates filled with arms taken from the Venetian garrison. On the handles of some of the rapiers I observed the crests of ig6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. the owners inlaid with gold and the Jerusalem Cross. My friend, Mr. Hiram Hitchcock, who accompanied me on one of my visits to Famagosta, had expressed a desire to possess one of these interesting weapons, and I succeeded in obtaining several for him. On that occasion Mrs. Hitchcock and my wife were of the party. On leaving the armoury Mrs. Hitchcock pointed out some trailing crimson flowers which overhung a parapet, remarking on their contrast to the surround- ings. To our astonishment a short broad-shouldered man who had remained always near our part}-, and with whose commanding presence and fine manly face we had all been struck, sprang to the parapet with the agility of a cat, broke off some of the blossoms, and returning presented a spray to each of the ladies with all the grace of a courtier. To their horror, as he did so, they observed for the first time that he was shackled with heavy iron links from the wrist to the ankle. His large sad blue eyes, and hair prematurely streaked with gray, seemed to plead in his favour, and on inquiring his crime we learned that he was no less a personage than the celebrated Kattirdji Janni, the Robin Hood of the Levant. Many are the romantic stories told of this robber chief, who it is claimed never committed a murder or permitted one to be perpetrated by his band 30 long as he was at the head of it. It is said that while in the service of a gentleman in Smyrna, he fell in love with his master's daughter, and having planned an elopement was betrayed by a fellow servant ; he was overtaken and thrown into prison. Escaping from thence into the mountains near the ruins of Ephesus, he entered upon the wild career which finallv brought him to Eamagosta. He and his band would lie in wait for persons whom they knew were transporting large sums of money and kindly relieve them of the trouble of carrying it further ; or they would capture CHAP. VII.] A FAMOUS BANDIT. 197 persons of wealth and detain them until a ransom had been paid. Kattirdji Janni, having very crude notions of right and wrong, would often give this money in alms to the poor, and it is related that he endowed nearly a thousand young Greek girls with marriage dowries. Xo one ever dreamed of informing against him, certain that should he do so some retributive evil would infallibly be his fate. All efforts on the part of the Turkish authorities to take any of the adventurous band proved futile as long as Janni was at its head. At the time of the Crimean War, when a part of the English army was at Smyrna, five hundred soldiers, I have been told, went out, assisted by the Turks, in order if possible to secure him and to destroy his band, but were entirely unsuccessful. The hills around Ephesus and in the neighbourhood of Smyrna are admirably suited to the professional brigand. To give some idea of the boldness of this robber and of the terror in which he was held by the inhabitants of Smyrna, I may give the following incident which I heard of from a relative of the family in which it occurred. One evening, when this family were sitting at supper, they were amazed beyond description to behold twelve men armed to the teeth enter the apartment (houses in the East are all easy of access), headed by this bold outlaw. These uninvited guests, after quietly seating themselves, re- marked, '' We will wait until you have finished, and then we also wish some supper." The family imme- diately rose in great trepidation and gave them whatever they desired. When Kattirdji Janni had finished eating he told his trembling host that he and his family were henceforth free to hunt or travel where they liked with- out fear of being molested, as Kattirdji Janni never forgot a kindness ! At last, tiring of this wild life, or perhaps some better feeling coming over him, he deter- mined to deliver himself up to the Turkish authorities ig8 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. on the promise often held out to him, that he should be exiled in Cyprus, but not otherwise punished. He was taken to Constantinople, and I am inclined to believe that the Turks would have kept their promise, as they too love bold spirits and courage, even in a bandit, but unfortunately, a young Frenchman in some \vay officially connected with the French Consulate at Smyrna had been very badly treated by his band, and on that account the French Ambassador insisted on Kattirdji Janni being imprisoned and treated in a most rigorous manner (this I heard from the robber's lips). He was then taken to a prison, and there, in a small cell, was chained to the wall like a wild beast for seven years. He was afterwards removed to the fortress of Famagosta, where he now resides. Through the intercession of some influential Turk, the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, was induced to have him treated with more lenity, and in 1869 he was allowed the same freedom as other prisoners of lesser note, though shackled with a chain the links of which are five inches long, three wide, and half an inch thick. Through the entreaties of my wife, Aziz Pasha applied in 1875 to Constantinople and obtained authority to have these heavy chains replaced by much lighter ones. Such was the man to whom our ladies were indebted for their Moral souvenirs of Famagosta. Leaving Famagosta and continuing my journey in the plain, I arrived after three-quarters of an hour's ride at the ruins of the ancient city of Salamis. From the position of this city towards the eastern end of the island and facing the coast of Phoenicia, one would expect to find in it more than elsewhere traces of early Phoenician settlements. But this is not so. On the contrarv, Salamis, of all the cities ol Cyprus, is the most famous for its inclination towards the Greeks and for its resistance of the Persians. Its history CHAP. VII.] SALAMIS. igg seems to justify the tradition of its having been founded by a colony of Greeks under Teucer, the son of Telamon, king of the island of Salamis, who, the story goes, refused to receive Teucer on his return from Troy because he had not sought to prevent the suicide of his brother Ajax. Upon this Teucer set sail with his companions, and perhaps also captives from the Trojan expedition, and arriving in Cyprus selected this site for a town, and from affection to his native island called it by its name of Salamis. Accord- ing to Virgil (^Eneid, i. 621), Teucer went first to Sidon and there obtained the authority of the king Belus to settle in Cyprus. But this is not m accordance with the other legends, and it is impossible now to say whether it may not have been an invention of the poet's. Strabo says that the colonists landed on the north coast, and if that is correct, they would probably have crossed over the mountains to Salamis. At this point the island is narrow. The legend says that Teucer married Eune, a daughter of Cinyras, and that from them sprang the line of kings of Salamis. Another characteristic feature of Salamis was its devo- tion to the worship of the great Hellenic god Zeus, who was there styled Splanchnotomos, with reference to the ceremony of inspecting the entrails of victims offered for sacrifice. Of the history of Salamis almost nothing is known till we come to the time of the Persian wars, but from that time clown to the reign of the Ptolemies it was by far the most conspicuous and flourishing of the towns of Cyprus. I have already in the Introduction given a short sketch of how Onesilus seized the government of Salamis from his brother Gorgus, and set up an obstinate resistance to the Persian oppression, under which the island was labouring about B.C. 500. In the end he was defeated bv a Persian armv, and fell in 200 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. battle, and it was about this time, if not also in conse- quence of this defeat, that the dynasty of Teucer was for a period removed from the government of Sal amis. As to the length of this period there is great obscurity. It seems, however, to be certain that with the help of the Persians, a Tyrian named Abdemon had seized the throne, and not only paid tribute to Persia, but endeavoured to extend the Persian power over the rest of the island. To Salamis itself he invited Phoenician immigrants, and introduced Asiatic tastes and habits. So that apparently all previous efforts to give a firm Hellenic character to the town were rendered futile. But meantime there was growing up a spirited boy, who traced his descent from the line of Teucer, and in whom were combined the highest natural gifts. Bodily he had no rival in beauty, or strength, or skill ; mentally he was endowed with all that was necessary for a great leader. Such is in brief the description which the ancients have left us of Evagoras. Abdemon, the Tyrian usurper, saw how the presence ol this youth captivated the people of Salamis, and took measures to be rid of him effectually. But the scheme was discovered and Evagoras escaped to Cilicia, where he gradually collected round his person a band of fifty faithful friends, ready for any service to which he might call them. Crossing from Cilicia they obtained, during the darkness, entrance at one of the gates of Salamis, and amid general alarm and con- fusion, fought their way against great odds to the citadel and seized it. There appears to have been little further resistance. Evagoras became king, and from the beginning to the end of his reign, spared nothing to make Salamis a flourishing and powerful city, among other things fortifying it, and improving its harbour. The ten years of war which followed, with its great victories and equally severe defeats, must have tnec. CHAP. VII.] HISTORY OF SALAMIS. 2O1 even the large resources of such a town. Evagoras died or was killed by a eunuch, B.C. 374. The next period of interest in the history of Salamis, was when, on the partition of the Empire of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy and Antigonus made each extra- ordinary efforts to obtain Cyprus. Ptolemy was repre- sented by Menelaus, who held Salamis. The leader on the opposite side was the son of Antigonus, young Demetrius, who from his conduct of the siege of Salamis on this occasion, obtained the title of " Poliorcetes," by which he has since been known. Menelaus trusted to the fortifications of the town, but Demetrius constructed a colossal engine, known as the " Helepolis" or "city- taker," 75 feet wide, and 150 feet high, moving on four great wheels, having nine storeys, and containing over two hundred men. With this and battering-rams, he succeeded in making a breach in the wall. But the defenders made a stubborn resistance, and during the night managed to set fire to the huge engine of war. Demetrius was now obliged to turn for assistance to his fleet. A naval engagement followed in which he was victorious, and in consequence of this, Menelaus sur- rendered in Salamis. From this time the town appears to have lost its prosperity as well as its high position, and to have gradually declined. A large part of it was destroyed during the revolt of the Jews in the time of Trajan. Afterwards, in the reign of Constantius Chlorus, part of it sank into the sea, from the effects of an earth- quake. This emperor is said to have erected in it many new public buildings, and to have changed its name to Constantia. In the middle ages it was eclipsed by Famagosta. At present it is nearly covered by sand drifted from the sea-shore, where it lies to a depth of some ten feet. The harbour and that portion of the wall fronting the sea, are still easily traced. I measured the length of the 202 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VII. wall, and found it to be nearly 6850 feet. The area of Salamis is thickly overgrown with thistles and tall weeds, which, together with the sand, render the task of inspecting it very difficult. The ground also abounds with snakes, some of which are venomous, such as the asp and others. I spent large sums of money at this place on three different occasions, but with no result in any way satisfactory. The ruins of Salamis furnished building material for some of the mosques and many dwelling-houses in Adrianople. North of Salamis are two tumuli, the base of one of which I reached by means of vertical shafts, and there found a plain white marble sarcophagus, but so damaged as to be worthless. A pickaxe had been left behind by the diggers who had previously opened the tumulus, perhaps some hundreds of years ago. North of these tumuli are shown the prison and tomb of Sta. Catherine, which have all the appearance of having been an early Phoenician tomb, like that of Phaneromene at Larnaca. A little distance further north is the church of St. Barnabas, built, it is said, upon the spot where the body of the saint was discovered, with the Gospel of St. Luke on his breast. This church is held in great veneration, and kept in good repair, although there is now only one of the twelve original monolithic columns standing, their want being supplied by columns made of small stones and plaster, the original capitals being retained in use. Leaving Salamis, I rode eight hours along the sea- shore, and reached the foot of the mountains of Carpass, where I stopped near a village called Gastrudi. It con- sists of about fortv families. A small stream runs near bv. On the north side of a hill east of Gastrudi are the circular ruins of an amphitheatre or temple, and on another, near the sea-shore, a watch-tower. From this point to Cape St. Andreas there are evidences of a dense CHAP. VII.] JOURNEY TO CARPASS. 203 population. Many of the hills near Carpass are crowned with ruined castles, but those which I visited had all been erected in the middle ages. I found on these hills several air-shafts and remains of aqueducts, similar to those met with elsewhere in the island. Along the shore are many cemeteries, the tombs of which are among the oldest in Cyprus. Some are cut in the rock, and others merely excavated in the earth. From Cape St. Andreas as far as the village of lalussa, the ancient remains which I observed seem to belong to a very early period in the history of the island, and have a certain oriental character, but from lalussa along the coast to Kormakiti the ruins are all decidedly Hellenic, consisting of fluted columns of Ionic and Corinthian capitals in pure white marble, which had been imported, traces of piers, docks, artificial harbours, and other remains of public works, evidently Greek. Eight years ago on this side of the island I saw, half way up a hill, two colossal lions, which had probably adorned the gateway of a temple, but the last time I passed one of the lions had disappeared, and the other lay broken in pieces. CHAPTER VIII. PAPHOS. Paphos founded by Phoenicians. Temple of Venus mentioned by Homer. Its site near the shore. Other Temple of Venus. Paphos built on an eminence further inland. City and temple destroyed by earthquakes. Temple rebuilt by Vespasian. Re- mains still visible. Plan of the great temple. Mosaic pavement. Rock-cut tombs. Site of temple partly occupied by the small village of Kouklia. THE site of this very ancient city, where was the great centre of the worship of Venus in antiquity, is now partly occupied by the small village of Kouklia, consisting of about sixty houses. Paphos was said to have been founded by Cinyras, and whether or not he was a mythical character, it is certain that the priesthood and supreme power in Paphos was vested in a familv of Cinyradae, who claimed their descent from an ancestor named Cinyras. The wealth of this priestly family was proverbial, and that their official position continued to be one of high dignity we see from the fact that at a later period when the Roman Senate, at the instigation of Clodius, was induced to issue a decree dispossessing Ptolemy of the kingdom of Cyprus, and sent Cato to execute the order, Cato offered him, in compensation for the throne, the position of high priest. Few cities in ancient times have been so much sung and glorified by the CHAP. VI II.] PAPHOS. 205 poets ; and does it not seem an irony of time to see, to-day, cased in the walls of this miserable village, fine architectural fragments in marble and granite, be- speaking the wealth and high culture of a past age, the cost of one of which must have been far greater than the value of all the modern dwellings at Kouklia ? Although this spot was the scene of great religious events, and was otherwise important in the island, yet neither are there more than a very few ruins existing above ground, nor have the explorations I have directed there at different times succeeded in bringing to light anything of interest. I believe that this absence of ruins can be accounted for in the following manner. Paphos was several times overthrown by earthquakes. The last time the temple was rebuilt, was by Vespasian, on whose coins it is represented, but as nothing is said of the rebuilding of the city, it is to be supposed that it was left in ruins ; probably, therefore, during the long period that Cyprus was under the Roman and the Byzantine rule, a great deal of the decorative and archi- 2O6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. tectural material of Paphos was transported to the other city, called Neo-Paphos, and used for its em- bellishment. In the Acts of the Apostles it is spoken of as the official residence of the Roman Proconsul, Paulus Sergius, and was therefore the capital of the island. By the time of the Lusignan Kings, Palaeo-Paphos had disappeared, and its ruins under their reign were extensively explored in search of statuary and other objects of art, with which to decorate the royal castle built in its vicinity. There is scarcely any ancient tomb to be found of a date previous to the Roman period, which had not been opened centuries ago. The castle before mentioned was built bv Hu^h Lusigrian, o o at a stone's-throw south of the great temple, and is now also in ruins. The only roofed portion of it is a little Gothic chapel, used by its Turkish owner as a stable for his camels and donkeys. I had always thought it more than probable that this mediaeval building was erected on the site of the royal palace of the ancient Kings of Paphos, who having been at the same time high priests of the temple of Venus, would naturally, perhaps, have had their residence in proximity to the temple. I had, therefore, a strong desire to examine the foundations of the castle ; but knowing by long experience that Turks of all classes are adverse to archaeological researches in their grounds, I refrained from even visiting the place, though I went several times to Paphos to dig. I superintended excavations there in 1869, for several months, with a score of diggers, but without discovering anything of importance. I repeated the experiment with the personal assist- ance of Dr. Friederichs, of the Berlin Museum, with a larger number of workmen, but with no better success. Nevertheless I purchased in 18-0 all the area of the temple and that portion of the peiibolos or outside wall which was not occupied by houses. CHAP. VIII.] EXCAVATIONS AT PAPHOS. 20' After spending a large sum without results, I became convinced that only a government with ample funds at Stone Feet with a Cypriote Inscription, from the Temple of Paphos. its command could undertake to remove the many feet of rubbish accumulated there by the successive rebuildings of the temple. "Without accomplishing this preliminary work, which would be both expensive and unremunera- 208 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. tive, no hope can be entertained of unearthing any objects of art belonging to the earliest Phoenician sanctuary. I paid two more visits to the ruins of Palseo-Paphos, one in 1874 and the other in the winter of 1875. On one of these occasions I observed the owner of the castle frequently watching my diggers and ques- tioning them as to whether they were searching for treasure. The invariable answer was in the negative, but this did not seem to satisfy old Osman Aga. On my last exploration in 1875, this Turk, after having dogged me for a few clays wherever I went, became appa- rently convinced that I must be searching for gold, and cautiously approaching me one day, asked if I did not know of any treasure being hidden there, pointing to his ruined castle. This question delighted as well as surprised me, and I told him I did not doubt treasures were buried there, but the treasures I meant were not such as he would have called by that name. His religious scruples, however, vanished when I promised him all the gold found in it. It was amusing to see him standing the whole day watching the workmen very closely, and expecting at every moment to see the coveted treasure brought to light. I had two borings made in the south-east corner of the castle, and found that at thirteen feet below the surface the base of the foundations was not yet reached. The next day my workmen had only fairly commenced their work when I was called out of my tent to see some very large stones which they had laid bare. These stones, upon which I soon perceived that the mediaeval castle had been built, were doubtless the foundations either of the royal palace of the kings of Paphos, or of some other im- portant building. I was, therefore, very anxious to ascertain how deep thev went. My Turkish friend was beginning to betray symptoms of impatience, and CHAP. VI II.] OSMAN AGA. 2OQ seeing his courtyard encumbered with stones and excavated earth, said to one of the diggers that if be- fore sundown the treasure (of which he had promised a small per-centage to them) was not forthcoming he would not allo\v any more digging. Having been informed of this, and knowing that during the day we could not possibly reach the base of those foundations, though we were then at forty-one feet below the surface, I prevented Osman Aga from putting his threat into execution in the following manner. I had in my pocket at the time two gold coins of the Emperor Heraclius, very common in Cyprus, and not worth much more than their weight in gold. I called the foreman apart, and, unobserved, passed to him these two coins, telling him to do what the king of Naples used to do at Pompeii when some royal per- sonage came to visit his excavations, namely, to have previously discovered objects reburied and afterwards with much ceremony to have them rediscovered in the presence of his guests. My foreman comprehended, and in due course of time the coins were handed to the Turk, whose small eyes glittered with pleasure, and of course after that he was ready to have his old castle pulled down in order to find more gold. I am not sure that he did not watch the whole night at the mouth of the shaft for fear that some of the treasure might be surreptitiously extracted. \Ve worked the whole of the next day, and towards evening, at the depth of fifty-two feet, reached the virgin soil. My object having been attained, I concluded the excavations under the castle, to the great disgust of poor Osman, who died some months later fully convinced, I believe, that plenty more of those gold coins could have been found there had I but been willing to continue digging. At the depth of forty-seven feet, I found some broken jars without any traces of colour upon them, and two ZIO CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. feet deeper some fragments of painted terra-cotta vases. The great Temple of Venus was situated on an eminence, which at present is at a distance of about twenty-five minutes' walk from the sea. Some parts of its colossal walls are still standing, defying time and the stone-cutter, though badly chipped by the latter. One of the wall stones measured fifteen feet ten inches in length, by seven feet eleven inches in width, and two feet five inches in thick- The stone is not from ;it a Depth ut~49 feet. ness. Cyprus, but being a kind of blue granite must have been imported either from Cilicia or from Egypt. The temple, as rebuilt by Vespasian, seems to have occupied the same area as the former temple, and was surrounded by a peribolos or outer wall. Of this a few huge blocks only are now extant. On the west side of this outer wall there was a doorway, still plainly visible. Its width was seventeen feet nine inches. The two sockets for the bolts upon which the door swung are of the following dimensions : length six inches, width four ancl a half inches, depth three and a half inches. The south-east wall, I ascertained by excavating its whole length, was 690 feet long. The length of the west side I could only trace as far as 272 leet, its continuance being hidden beneath the houses of Kouklia. The length of the other two sides I was unable to ascertain for similar reasons. The walls of the temple itself, made of the kind of stone previously mentioned, but not in such huge blocks, I was able to trace correctly, by dint of patience ; and though very little is seen CHAP. VIII.] THE TEMPLE AT PAPHOS. 211 above ground, yet, strange to say, the four corner-stones are still standing. The north-east corner-stone is cased in a house of Kouklia, forming part of its wall ; that of the north-west stands in a cross street of the village by itself. Some European travellers have mistaken it from its present shape for the emblematic cone of Venus. The south-east corner stands also by itself in an open field, where the Christian population of Kouklia burn lamps and little wax candles, but in honour of whom, or for what purpose, I did not enquire. The fourth corner- stone likewise forms part of a modern dwelling-house. The temple was oblong and of the following dimen- sions : the eastern and western walls measure 221 feet; and the two other sides 167 feet. I cannot vouch for the exact measurement on account of the difficulties I had to encounter, nevertheless the difference can be of some inches only. The corner stone of the north-west side has a hole in it thirteen inches in dia- meter ; a similar hole also exists in the south-west corner of the outer-wall. As the temple at Paphos possessed an Oracle, these strange holes which go through the entire stone may have been connected with it. This at least was the opinion of Dr. Friederichs when he came to pay me a visit at Paphos. From this spot, if a person stand upon this huge perforated stone he can produce a clear and fine echo of a phrase of three or four words, pronounced in a moderate tone of voice. In the area of the temple, at two feet four inches below the surface I found a mosaic pavement wrought into stars, meanders, and other designs, prettily com- bined for effect, and composed of variously coloured marble tessella?, white, yellow, red, brown, and rose. Also in the court-yard of two private dwellings, always within the boundary of the temple, pieces of the same mosaic pavement were uncovered. Some three feet 212 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. beneath these mosaics, I found several large pedestals of colossal statues, with Greek inscriptions engraved upon them, and other pedestals were seen lying on the ground, probably left there by former excavators. Those which I discovered under the mosaic, are mostly of the same kind of stone as the walls of the temple, but of a finer grain. The inscriptions are all of the Ptolemaic period. From this I argue that Vespasian may after all have only repaired the Temple of Paphos, Sc-iitciou Pert to i Inch . -236. Plan of Groat Temp;,;. or if he rebuilt it entirely, it had been partly with the former stones. I was anxious to ascertain the depth of these foundations, and proved them to be six and a half feet onlv ; but upon having other borings made I discovered another foundation beneath as massive as those of the castle and evidently of the same period. It is strange that while boring these holes, I did not meet with any sculptured remains, and but very few fragments of pottery. CHAP. VIII.] EXCAVATIONS AT PAPHOS. 213 Two Christian churches, now both in ruins (one of which was built within the area of the temple and the other within the boundary-wall), the Lusignan Castle, and the whole village of Kouklia, have been built with the stones of the ancient city. Each house has a sheep-pen, surrounded by a wall composed of these ancient stones, piled one upon the other, without mortar. One of the churches (the one within thj temple area) has several inscribed marbles incased in its walls, which obviously had been so inscribed previous to their being used for building material at the time when the church was erected. All the pedestals I dis- covered within the area of the temple I had deposited in these two churches, as they were too heavy to be removed further. I took however a paper impression from each of them (see Appendix). The neighbourhood of Kouklia is full of ancient tombs opened long ago. From the elevated position which the city of Paphos occupied, its famous temple must have been visible many miles out at sea. Gently sloping from Kouklia towards the shore, there is a fine and fertile plain belong- ing to the castle ; this plain must formerly have been thickly wooded, and was doubtless the grove spoken of by Homer. At the moment I am writing, it is covered with ripe barley, and seems a sea of gold. A few hundred yards from the coast are the remains of another temple, the foundations of which are also oblong. This must have been the Temple of Venus built to commemorate the spot on which for the first time the beautiful goddess is said to have appeared to the Cyprians. It was here that the annual pro- cession of pilgrims, coming from Neo- Paphos to visit the great shrine, stopped to sacrifice before ascend- ing the hill to visit the Sanctuary. Of this temple there are two upright monoliths remaining five leet apart, of the same shape as that described at p. 189. 214 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. The height of these pyramidal stones, though to-day only eleven feet seven inches above ground, is from their base seventeen feet ten inches. The one best preserved measures at the top three feet two inches by one foot four inches, and at the base seven feet nine inches by two feet six inches. These monoliths are of a brownish granite, which is not to be found anywhere in the island. The Ruins of both Temples from the Sea-shore The river Bocarus, now called by another name, still waters the plain, silently flowing a little south of these ruins, and empties itself into the sea. The stream is thickly covered by wild oleanders, myrtle, and juniper, and is the favourite haunt of partridges and francolins. In 1874 I explored these ruins and uncovered several portions of the foundations of two separate fabrics, one of which may have been the habitation of the priests and priestesses of the temple. At a few yards from the monoliths I disinterred two large Doric capitals and fragments of triglyphs and CHAP. VIII.] ANTIQUITIES FOUND AT PAPHOS. 215 columns belonging to them ; one large rectangular stone seven feet by five, probably used for sacrificial purposes, and some pieces of clay ware. Between the two mono- liths and a little west of them, half buried in the soil, there is what appeared to me to be a sepulchral cippus, or it might have been an altar. It is three feet four inches high and two feet in diameter, with a square hole at the top ten inches and a half deep and seven inches wide. This temple \vas small. The artificial plateau upon which it was built, and which reveals the foundations of two separate edifices, is limited to sixty-eight yards. I could not find either in the vicinity of these, or any- where in the plain, any sepulchres coeval with them. Some 750 yards south-east of this temple, beyond the river Bocarus, some peasants of Kouklia by chance, about fifteen years ago, laid bare several vaults, in which they found, according to my informant, " won- derful things," but I was unable to learn what those wonderful things were. I visited the spot and saw that in reality there had been tombs there. I surveyed the ground, and discovered a cluster of fifty occupying about half an acre. These graves had all been opened and ransacked long ago. In one of them I found a large Greek amphora intact, over three feet high, with both of its handles inscribed, and two terra-cotta horsemen. From the head of Helios, stamped upon one handle, and the rose on the other, it is easy to recognise this amphora as having been made in Rhodes, and probably used for the exportation to Cyprus of oil, or other thick liquid, as it would have been too porous for wine. East of Kouklia commences that range of lofty mountains, the highest of which, now called Troodos, was known as Mt. Olympus. Kouklia is one of the poorest villages of Cyprus. Its male inhabitants always 216 CYPRUS. [CHAP. VIII. else- leave their homes in the summer months to go where in search of work and food. The dance, music and song, and the sacred pro- cessions of three thousand years ago have been replaced by the shrill coo-coo-vaie of the owl and wild cries of other night birds, and the piteous bark of famished dogs left behind by no less famished masters, to roam the deserted village in search of carrion. This is the Paphos of to-day ! Amphora with two circular stamps on handles. CHAPTER IX. No ruins of Arsinoe on site mentioned by Strabo. Garden and Bath of A'enus. Neo-Paphos founded by Arcadians. -The Turks oppose diggings by force.---St. Paul's column Rock-cut tombs. Imprisonment of two notable Turks. Cape Acamas. Ruins of ancient town Soloi, its theatre. Discovery of temple with statues and inscriptions. --Lapethus. Discovery of temple with statues and inscriptions. Cerynia now a fortress. No remains of ancient city. Scene with the Turks. Abbey of Lapais. Cerynia to Aphrodisium. Ruins of four ancient towns near the seashore. Harbour and temple of Aphrodisium. Mediaeval castles of Buffa- vento and Kantara. The hermit Simeon. Cythrea. Discovery of two temples. Statues and inscriptions. Nicosia. Tombs of the oldest period. The lepers. HAVING brought my unprofitable researches at Paphos to a termination, I resolved to visit the ruins of Xeo- Paphos and the northern coast, as far as the site of Aphrodisium, and there crossing the mountain range into Mesaoria to return by way of Cythrea to Larnaca. After an hour and a half of an easy ride northward from the ruins of Paphos, our course being along the edge of a plain which stretches down to the sea and across the slopes of hills covered with underwood of juniper, we reached the village of Koloni. In some of these hills are found the "asbestos," specimens of which were shown to me by peasants of the vicinity, and the " diamond of Paphos ; " the latter, however, is but rock crystal of a rather superior quality. These hills yield 2l8 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. fossil shells in large quantities, and earths of different colours, green, carmine and yellow, are met with now and then in the district, but the earth called " terra d' umbra," which is so abundant in the neighbourhood of Larnaca, and forms one of its articles of export, is found nowhere here. \Ye passed on our right the villages of Mandria, Dimi, and Ascelia, represented by small clusters of huts. I observed at three or four places on the route foundations of ancient structures just emerging from the surface, but of small dimensions. The ancient route from Xeo-Paphos to the great Sanctuary of Paphos very probably followed the same line on which we now were, and it is not unlikely that the ruins just mentioned may be the remains of the small shrines which existed along the roadside. Ten minutes' ride from Koloni, in a north-west di- rection, is leroskipo, consisting of a small group of dwelling-houses ; the name being evidently a survival of the ancient Kieroskepis, " Sacred Garden," that is, the well-known Garden of Venus, who in Cyprus, as well as in Athens, was regarded as a goddess of spring time and flowers. Cupid lived with her in Cyprus, and it was from Cyprus that the first flush of spring burst upon the earth. There is a large cave which seems to have been artificially scooped out of the rock, through which a spring makes its way, and after filling the cavern as a reservoir overflows and forms a little rivulet sufficient to water the neighbouring fields ; this is known as the " Bath of Aphrodite." I must say he would be obdurate indeed to the charms of Nature who would not be captivated by the great beauty of the spot. The ground generally slopes gently towards the sea, but here it seems to have been cut into large plateaux or terraces, which are surrounded by a thick grove of olive trees apparently many centuries old. Among the CHAP. IX.] NEO-PAPHOS. 2IQ olives is a sprinkling of carob trees, which with their dark green and lustrous foliage form a striking contrast to the pale hue of the olive leaf. In close proximity to leroskipo are a number of rock-cut tombs, all opened long ago, but no vestiges of buildings are visible. We spent twenty minutes more in our saddles, con- tinuing in the same northerly direction, and then we reached the site where once stood the royal city of Xeo- Paphos. Judging from the great amount of debris scattered over many acres of ground, this city must have contained a population of 20,000 or 25,000 souls. It was originally the settlement of a Greek colonv of o J / Arcadians led by Agapenor, as we learn from the testimony of Pausanias (viii. 5, 2) and Strabo, but whether these Arcadians had found a Phoenician town existing on the spot cannot be ascertained. The original name was Erythras, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, and it was probably from its connection with Paphos proper, from its being the starting point of the processions to the Temple of Venus at Paphos, that the name of Enthral was gradually superseded by Neo-Paphos. In the Iliad (ii. 609) Agapenor is given as the leader of the Arcadians in the Trojan expedition, bringing to it sixteen ships, and we are told by Pausanias (viii. 5, 3) that in the storm which scattered the Greek fleet on its return from Troy, the ships of the Arcadians were driven to Cyprus, where the leader Agapenor founded Xeo- Paphos. Agapenor and his Arcadians were accredited with having introduced copper mining into the district, but there can be no doubt that the mines had been profitably worked by the Phcunicians long before the period of the Greek colonization. A distich handed down by Pausanias says that Laodice, a daughter of Agapenor, dedicated a pcplus to the goddess Athena Alea at Tegea in Arcadia by way of showing her affection for her native countrv. Probablv the 22O CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. pcplos was embroidered, and was a specimen of the high skill in this art which Cyprus had attained in early times. Very few architectural remains are to be found among the heaps of loose stones collected by the owners of the ground, so as to admit of some crops of barley being raised on the fields, and though Xeo- Paphos looks as if destroyed but recently, yet, with the exception of a few columns and insignificant pieces of walls, nothing is now standing of the ancient city. To have made excavations here on an adequate scale, would have been much too costly for my means ; but even had it been otherwise there was an obstacle in the way which rendered the exploration of that locality on my part a matter of impossibility. The ground belonged to several Turks of the town of Ktima, a short distance east of these ruins, where is the official residence of a Caimakam, a Cadi, and a Greek Bishop. The Turks there are more uncouth and fanatical than anywhere else in Cyprus, and I had some evidence of this on several occasions. In 1868, I sent a party of my diggers from Larnaca in charge of a foreman to make some experimental borings there, but they were stoned by the Turks, and compelled to run for their life. In the subse- quent year, after the assurance of the Pasha, and a stringent letter from him to the Caimakam of Ktima to see that my men should not be molested in their diggings, I sent another party, accompanied by my dragoman Besbes ; nevertheless a few days later they were attacked by a Turkish mob, forced to leave their tools behind and run away. My dragoman received in- structions from me to prosecute the ringleaders before the Cadi, but they were so leniently treated by this functionary, that the punishment was more calculated to encourage than to deter them from similar offences ; CHAP. IX.] PUNISHMENT OF TWO TURKS. 221 under these circumstances, and finding that without my continual presence the men would not be unmolested, I had abandoned the idea of further diggings in this district. The Caimakam of Ktima having been informed of my arrival at Xeo-Paphos, sent an officer with four policemen to place themselves at my disposal. After having loitered about in search of sculptures and in- scriptions for a couple of hours or so, I set out for Ktima. We had reached the western outskirts of the town when we met two Turks of the better class. Noticing our cavalcade, one said to the other, " Who is that dog ? ' " Some great giaour, may Allah confound him!" answered the other, and they con- tinued their route. As I was sufficiently acquainted with the Turkish language to understand what they had said, I called the officer of the guard and ordered him to arrest the two cffcndis. The officer, though with evident reluctance, obeyed. It is impossible for me to describe the abject demonstrations of outward repentance which these two Turks showed when they found out that I had understood their conversation. " Consolos Bey, pardon, pardon, Consolos Bey," they exclaimed, and taking hold of my stirrups began kiss- ing my dusty boots, repeating many times the word "pardon;" but it was of no avail. I decided to give a good lesson to them and to the other Turks of Ktima for the former ill treatment of my diggers, so I had them marched off between the four policemen through the bazaar of Ktima, which naturally created a sensa- tion, and as the hour in which the Turkish tribunals are open was passed, they had to be locked up for the night in the common jail. The Caimakam, as soon as he was informed of the occurrence, called at my lodgings and warmly inter- ceded for the liberation of these men from prison, thev 222 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. being, as he said, two "notables" of Ktima. I told the Caimakam that had they been two Turkish peasants, I would have acceded readily to his request, as their ignorance would have pleaded in their favour, but as they were " Turks of distinction " they had no such ex- cuse, and I insisted that they should be punished accord- ing to the Turkish laws ; and my dragoman was in- structed to explain to the Caimakam that if he dared to release them without my consent, I would have him dismissed from his official position. Mehemet Bey had been appointed Caimakam of Ktima chiefly on a letter of recommendation I had given him for the Pasha, and he knew how easily his removal could be obtained. Shortly after his departure, two veiled Hanonms (ladies) were announced as the wives of the prisoners ; they commenced as usual by wailing, kissing the pavement, and begging for the release of their lords and masters. One of them wore a very thin veil over her face (this in Turkey is an evidence of beauty). I felt some pity for the thinlv veiled lady, but nevertheless remained inflexible. In the morning, at the usual hour when the Cadi held his sittings, my dragoman brought the case before his lordship (who was a negro), so forcibly, that after hearing the witnesses for the prosecution, he dispensed with hearing the prisoners, and condemned the two effendis to one month's imprisonment. I remained at Ktima for a week, and in the course of this time was able to convince myself that the ruins of Xeo-Paphos contained no important monuments or fragment of monument worth the trouble I had taken. I could not of course make a regular excavation, with- out obtaining the permission of the owners ot the fields, but I made some slight diggings at two places without hindrance. One of these places was the site of a temple, of which three large granite columns CHAP. IX.] EXCAVATIONS AT KTIMA. 223 were still standing. I discovered the bases of nine other columns at a few inches below the surface, still occupying their original position ; all around are strewn architectural fragments which had belonged to that structure. The other spot is near a broken column of white marble still standing, and about seven feet high, to which it is asserted St. Paul was tied and whipped when he came to preach the Gospel in this city ; but this tradition is, so far as I know, current only among the Greek population of Ktima. In this locality there are also shafts of columns, some blocks of triglyphs, and volutes lying on the ground, probably also the remains of a temple. A silver coin of Ves- pasian, with the Temple of Paphos represented on it (but whether meant for that of Paphos or for a temple of Neo-Paphos is not known) and a few Roman lamps, were all that I found during my week's exploration at Xeo-Paphos. A little to the north-east, and half way between these ruins and Ktima, there is a rocky eminence sloping towards the sea, and called Palaso-C astro, the surface of which is perforated with thousands of ancient tombs, some cut vertically, and others horizontally in the calcareous rock. Some are made to contain only one body, while others are large enough for a score or more. These graves are all evidently pre-Roman. I had the rubbish removed from one of the largest, and found it to be an oblong building, with an atrium supported by three monolithic columns roughly hewn out of the limestone, and with a court-yard in front of it. The tomb is divided into four chambers which communi- cate inside with each other, but have each a separate entrance. They have a large number of niches, seven feet by two, each to contain one body. Near the wall facing the doorway of each chamber there is a low plat- form hewn in the rock, on which apparently stood a 224 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. sarcophagus, but nothing of it now remains. The court- yard contains also several single graves, but all have been opened long ago. This must have been the family sepulchre of a great personage, and possibly of one of the kings of Paphos. On the eve of my departure from Ktima, I had the two Turks released from prison, after they had begged mv pardon in the presence of the Caimakam, the Greek Bishop, and other officials. In this case I was obliged to make a virtue of necessity, for I knew very well that as soon as I was out of the town they would have been released. After that salutary lesson the Turks of Ktima nicknamed me Scitun (the devil), and have had ever since a wholesome fear of him in my person. When in 1876 I visited Nc-o-Paphos for the second and last time, I was in company with two Americans. Professor Isaac H. Hall, who has been the first American to contribute to the decipherment of the Cypnote cha- racters, and General S. W. Crawford, a gallant officer of our regular army. We had scarcely left the heights of Kouklia (Paphos), when we saw a troop ot soldiers, headed by their officers with drawn swords, advancing towards us. At a little distance they formed into line, and on our approaching presented arms. Alter which Yusuf Aga, the captain, advanced and informed us that CHAP. IX.] NEO-PAPHOS REVISITED. 225 he had received orders from the Caimakam of Ktima to proceed as far as Kouklia, and on meeting- the " Consolos Bey " (i.e., the devil,) to escort him to Ktima. I saw that the lesson had borne good fruits. From Ktima to Cape Acamas, the way along the sea-shore is not practicable because of the steepness of the cliffs. That route failing, we took our course over mountains destitute of vegetation, and without meeting with any ancient vestiges. After passing a village called Floraca, the ridges begin to be covered with brushwood, but only as far as the village of Lemba. At this place a peasant conducted me to the sea-shore through a passage in a craggy ravine, to see some rock- cut tombs, which are near a headland called Drepano, but there are no remains of ancient habitations in the neighbourhood, though the quantity of tombs there must have belonged to some ancient town not far off. A few hundred yards east of these tombs, are the crumbling walls of an early Greek church. At Criso- nerki the village priest insisted that on a fiat-topped hill overlooking his village, there were the ruins of a Palieo- Castro, and several inscriptions. Although much fatigued, I nevertheless ascended the steep limestone peak, and found on it the remains of another Greek church dedicated to Aghios Jorgos ; the inscrip- tions were modern names cut with a knife on the limestone, or written with a lead pencil ! This kind of disappointment I have had to experience more than once. From Crisonerki I was obliged to retrace my steps to Lemba, as there is no pathway northward among those rugged hills suitable for mules. After leaving Rhodos and Critoterra, two small miserable- looking villages situated on low tlat hills with an upland plain in front of them, studded with wild olive trees, we soon emerged from a ravine into a plain watered bv a stream, which gives its name to a large village called Q 226 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. Krysoko built on its eastern bank. Half an hour north of this there is another village called Poli, but consider- ably smaller, and situated on the western bank of the stream. This little village occupies a portion of the site of the ancient city of Arsinoe. The scarcity of remains is explained by its proximity to the southern coast of Cilicia, from which, I am told, boats come loaded with timber, and after discharging their cargo it has been the practice of these boatmen to load their crafts with the hewn stones of the district. I was also told that some inscriptions and sculptures were carried away by these boatmen into Caramania. Strabo places in this neighbourhood a temple and a grove of Jupiter, but I could not find any traces of either. The hills west of Poli contain many rock-cut tombs, and in the fields east of the ruins are many oven-shaped tombs, excavated in the earth like those of Idalium, and containing drab-coloured pottery, roughly made without any painting or ornamentation, a few Egyptian scarabsei and amulets in a green glazed clay, and copper coins with two eagles on one side, and the head of a Ptolemy on the other. The rock-cut tombs are all open, but appear to me to be much older than those existing in the fields east of Poli. From this place, following the tortuous windings of the sea-shore, we journeyed west- ward until we reached a secluded thicklv wooded spot, rendered famous by Ariosto, and called " Fontana Amorosa ; " at that place there seems to be a mineral spring, judging from the iron rust seen on the stones washed bv the water. In the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Acamas. between two curiously shaped conical peaks, I discovered the ruins of an ancient town which I do not see mentioned in Strabo, Ptolemy, or other authors. Perhaps thev are only the remains of some ancient village of no importance. Near this Cape we iound several hundred vultures CHAP. IX.] SOLI. 227 feasting upon the carcase of a mule. They took no notice of our approach, and we could have ridden over them if our animals had not been frightened and refused to advance. I had a good opportunity to remark them. They are very large ; some entirely gray, but the greatest number are brown, their heads and necks thickly covered with a white down, and not bare, as those I have seen elsewhere. The smell of musk or something like it which they emitted, almost exceeded the stench of the carrion. On returning from the Cape, I pitched my tents out- side the town of Poli, and remained for two days exploring some tombs while waiting to renew our supply of bread. On the third day we proceeded eastward, always among the mountains, till we reached the village of Pyrgas, where we encamped for the night. Xo ancient vestiges were met with from Poli to this spot. From Pyrgas, continuing to travel among the mountains, we reached a few ware- houses and a Turkish Custom-house near the seashore, called Karavastasi, a few hundred yards south of which is the site of the ancient royal city of Soli or Soloi. According to the story of Plutarch (Vit. Solon. 26) the Athenian legislator Solon, who as we know, spent his latter years in Soli, had on a previous occasion visited Cyprus, and was then the friend and guest of Philocyprus or Cypranor the king of Aipeia, a rocky and comparatively barren place among the hills here. Solon pointed out the fertile and beautiful plain below, and advised his friend to transfer his people to it. Philocyprus took the advice, and named the new town from his friend Solon. This fiction^ very obvious in itself, is done away with by the occurrence of the name of Soli among the Cypriote monarchies which sent presents to Esarhaddon a century before the time ot Solon ; at the same time it would seem that the Greek settlers in this district of the island were in tact chiefly Attic. From the inscribed Assyrian cvlinder on which 228 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. the names of the kings occur, Mr. George Smith (History of Assyria, p. 130) was unable to decipher more than three letters of the name of the King of Soli. He read them to Kin . . . which by conjecture may have been the favourite Cypriote name of Cinyras. In the "Records of the Past," iii. p. 108, this name is read Erill. In historical times Soli was, next to Salamis, the most important city of the island, while its share in the revolt against the Persians, and its stubborn resistance of them, reflect the highest credit upon it. It refused to join Salamis under Evagoras, when along with the Athenians under Conon it entered on a league with Artaxerxes to crush the Lacedemonians. But after- wards (B.C. 391), when in consequence of the con- federacy, Evagoras sought to make himself master of the whole island, Soli combined with Amathus and Citium, sent to the Persian Court to ask Artaxerxes for help against Evagoras, and this they succeeded in obtaining. It is probable that Soli derived considerable wealth from the copper mines near it. The city stood on the left bank of the river Clarios, now a winter torrent, and covered the northern slope of a low hill (detached from a higher range) and extended over the field at the base of the hill to within a feu- hundred yards of the shore, where are still to be seen vestiges of its harbour. Midway up the slope is a semicircular stone structure, which appears to have been a theatre. In a former visit I uncovered at the lower part of it some stone steps or seats which extended round the semicircle. Only the lower part now remains. Eor the past ten years, to my own know- ledge, this ruin has been a quarry to the corn-dealers of Lefca, furnishing all the stones thev required for the construction of their warehouses on the beach at Karavastasi, from which point is shipped all the grain raised in the north-western district of the island. EXCAVATIONS AT SOLI. 22Q On the same slope are the foundations of a circular building with a cave beneath it, which seems to have been a little temple. These foundations consist of huo-e blocks of limestone quarried from the neighbour- o ing: hills. In the area of o this ruin I found, besides several fragments of columns and capitals in marble and granite, an oblong marble o slab with a Greek inscrip- tion (see Appendix), much injured, but containing the names of Soli and of the Pro - Consul Paulus, most probably the Sergius Paulus who is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. In the same area I discovered a headless figure of Cybele in pure white marble. These may be the ruins of a temple of Cybele, whose worship would be at home, so to speak, here in the neighbour- hood of the rich copper-mines of the district of Soli. Most of the stones have been piled up by the owners of the ground in order to raise a field of barley. The slopes of the hills west of Soli and the plain at the foot of them are full of ancient tombs. In this plain the site of each tomb is easily recognised by an unhewn stone, which, in some cases, is just seen emerging from the soil, and in others is found Irom a few inches to three feet below the surface. The tombs on the hills have all been opened long ago. They are very large, and mostly cut out of the limestone of which the hills are formed. Those on the plain contain, in 2^0 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. most cases, only the skeleton of one person, and are ot the usual oven-shaped style. The objects occasionally found in them are terra-cotta jars, of the very lustrous red colour peculiar to the so-called Samian ware, but with rare exceptions they are without any ornament. These must have been the graves of poor people. South-east of these ruins, in a gorge of the mountains, there is an upland plain, on which is built the village of Lefca, the residence of a CHAP. IX.] LEFCA (AIPEIA ? ). 231 Mudir, or local Governor ; the town is surrounded by a great number of gardens full of orange, lemon, pome- granate, and fig-trees, with an abundant supply of water. In this part of the country the soil is very rich, and adapted for almost any kind of cultivation. Many shrubs and climbing plants are seen everywhere growing wild, among which the iris is common. The slopes of the hills are covered with olive-trees, which produce an ex- cellent oil ; the ash and the carob trees are also not unfrequently met with, but the latter spreads specially in largfe bushes, some of which measure 120 feet in cir- o cumference ; the oleander and myrtle grow likewise in thick bushes, among which is seen the anemone and clematis, and a great variety of other wild flowers, with the names of which I am not acquainted. West of the village of Lefca, on the crest of a steep hill, are the ruins of a very ancient town which has been correctly, I think, identified by travellers as Aipeia, of which, according to the story of Plutarch, Soli was a colony, but these ruins are not very exten- sive, and they have to-day no name ; the necropolis belonging to it is on the western slope of the same hill, and continues along the ridge of two other hills con- nected with it. The objects I found in one of the tombs are precisely like those at Soli, namely, jars and vases of a lustrous red colour. From Lefca we soon entered the plain of Mesaoria, and reached Morfou, two and a half hours distant. This is the largest village in Cyprus at the present clay, and numbers from 550 to 600 houses. Its inhabitants are mostly Christians. Just outside the village is a large Greek convent, in the courtyard of which I remarked a number of very fine marble Corinthian capitals, which adorn shafts of wooden columns in support of a roof of mud. Attached to this convent is a school for boys, of whom there are about 200 232 CYPRUS, [CHAP. IX. from six to twelve years of age. The convent has a Gothic church and some walls belonging to a mediaeval building, probably a Latin convent built in the time of the Lusignans. From Morfou I started for Lapethus, a distance of five hours 1 ride, still keeping among the mountains. Midway from Morfou there is an upland plain, and on it a large Greek convent, with a cluster of houses called Aghios Pantelemoni. Here resides the Bishop of Cerynia, a fine old man, who, whenever I passed that way, was kindness itself to me. Having been educated at Venice he has always had a special affection for Italians, and when he happened to know of my coming he would have the bells rung and all his staff of priests sent out to meet and escort me to his residence, where a warm welcome and a patriarchal repast, more abundant than select, were sure to be in waiting. On account of his great age he seldom leaves his apartments, but on these occasions he would insist on being carried down stairs, and be at the door of his convent to receive me, this being considered a high token of esteem. My followers liked to halt at Aghios Pante- lemoni, as they were sure to receive provisions enough to last them for a week. My last visit to the Bishop was in icS~6, accompanied by my two American friends. The presents were more bountiful on this occasion, consisting of seven dozens of eggs, two lambs, six chickens, four pots of honey, twenty loaves of new bread, and sixty little cheeses, with a large bag oi tobacco leaves. Escorted by two mounted priests we started for a little cluster of stone houses high up in the mountains, called Larnaca of Lapethus. The place is so named from the large quantity of rock-cut tombs by which it is surrounded. The ancient city of Lapethus was just on the other side of the range of mountains at the foot of the northern slope, and there is no doubt CHAP. IX.] LARXACA OF LAPETHUS. 233 that these rock-cut tombs must have belonged to it. On the slope of a conical rock, which at a distance seems to be artificial, ten or fifteen minutes' walk from this " Larnaca," there is a bilingual inscription in Greek and Phoenician of the Ptolemaic period, which has been considerably damaged by a tourist who copied it some years ago. In its vicinity I discovered the ruins of a small oblong temple, and the ground is strewn with many fragments of terra-cotta statuettes and stone statues, mostly life-size and of Cypriote workmanship. I dug here for five days in 1872, and laid bare several Iv ry Ba^relief. Height, 5 inches. large granite pedestals, with Greek inscriptions engraved on them (see Appendix). The modern town of Lapethus and its ancient ruins are, as I said before, on the opposite side of the moun- tains, but to get there we were obliged to wind our way 234 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. through several gorges and ravines, at the cost of an hour and a half of our time. Lapethus was one of the ancient kingdoms of Cyprus, and appears to have been founded by one or the other of the two bands of Dorian colonists under Praxander and Cepheus. The modern village of Lapethus is watered by a stream of that name which passes along the centre of the town, and has suffi- cient volume of water to work a mill the whole year round. The inhabitants are chiefly Turks, and get their living by the cultivation of the mulberry and the silk- worm. The village is rather scattered, and appears larger than it is in reality ; it is built a little south of the ruins of the ancient city. Near the sea-shore is a Greek convent called " Acheropiti," and two Latin churches in ruins, which had been built in mediaeval times. In the church of Acheropiti I saw a marble tombstone, on which there is sculptured a knight crusader. There are also the remains of a fine mosaic pavement. The convent yard is encumbered with shafts of columns, fine Corinthian capitals in white marble, and many other sculptured fragments dug up from the ruins of Lapethus. A large pedestal of white marble has a long Greek inscription of the time of Tiberius, whose name is several times mentioned in it (see Appendix). A little south of this convent stands a curious structure, evi- dently very old. The roof has now disappeared. It is built of enormous blocks of stone, and has the ap- pearance of being a mausoleum, though the priest of Acheropiti says it is known as the palace of a king, and in proof, as he thought, showed me in the interior some holes where iron bars and rings had existed, to which captives were chained. It is not improbable that at a later period it had been used as a prison. From Acheropiti we started for Cerynia, which is a fortified town, and the second stronghold of the island. Like Lapethus, the original foundation of Cerynia is CHAP. IX.] CERYNIA. 235 traced to the Dorian colonists under Praxander and Cepheus. It formed one of the royal cities of the isl-and. I passed near this town several times during my northern excursions, but never had the curiosity to enter it. The village itself, with the exception of the citadel, is a small dirty place, almost exclusively inhabited by Mussulmans, who, with the garrison, enjoy a very bad reputation, second only to that of their co- religionists at Neo-Paphos. In 1875, some of these soldiers entered the house of a Greek peasant, and during his absence used violence to his wife and two daughters. They were still pillaging the house when the owner arrived, and on his own threshold was brutally murdered. Some very strong remonstrances made collectively by the Consular corps induced the Pasha to enquire into the matter, and three culprits were arrested and sent to Nicosia in chains to wait their trial. In 1876, when I visited the locality, the wife of the murdered man came to see me, and I learned from her that the soldiers had not yet been judged, and that great efforts were being made to have them set at liberty. I would not have stopped at Cerynia had I been alone, but having with me General Craw- ford, I thought it would afford him pleasure to inspect those old fortifications. As he had preferred con- tinuing his route with the baggage train to stopping at Acheropiti, I instructed Mustafa to go with him to Cerynia, and to select a suitable place on the outskirts for our encampment, while, accompanied by Professor Hall, I made a detour of about an hour, and visited the ruins and the convent above mentioned. On our approaching Cerynia, we met one of our muleteers much excited, saying that a fight had taken place between my men and some Turks of the village, and that the American " milorclo " had sent for the Turkish police. I hurried on to the encampment, and 236 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. found the mules still packed, the tents not pitched, and. General Crawford waiting for my arrival with two policemen. On enquiring what had happened, I soon found that the grove of trees which had been selected by the General for our encampment belonged to a Turk living in a house adjoining it, and he did not wish my men to encamp there. Some high words had passed between my faithful Mustafa and the owner of the ground, and Mustafa, losing his temper, drew his sabre, and with the flat of the blade administered a rather severe punishment. The Turkish women, from their latticed windows, seeing their master so treated, came out in his defence, and began, like true viragos, to fight both with their tongues and by throwing stones at my men, to the amusement of General Crawford, who sat on a stone looking on like an umpire. The muleteers, as brave as their ancestors, soon ran awav, while Mustafa held the ground alone. I did not dismount, but at once proceeded to the residence of the Governor of Cerynia, and had the owner of the ground and his several wives arrested and locked up in the fort. Then I obliged the Governor, Cadi, and the other Turkish offi- cials to come to our encampment to make an apology to the American " milordo " for what had happened, which they did very meekly, and without any opposi- tion. But as I knew the character of the Turks of Cerynia, I requested the Governor to order a strong force of soldiers and police to guard our encamp- ment ; and thus we spent our night at Cerynia, in our tents, surrounded by the soldiers of the Crescent, and it seemed to us to be old times again, when, encamped on the Potomac river, we were on the " qui vive " for some night attack of the Confederates. Early in the morning I had again a visit from the Cadi of Cerynia, preceded by a quantitv of fruits, honey, cheese, etc., as presents ; became to inquire how we had CHAP. IX.] SCENE AT CERYMIA. 237 spent the night, and if he or the Caimakam could do any- thing for us. The Cadi at that place is a young man, but as fanatical, I was told, as the rest of his profession ; how- ever, he behaved himself very properly on the occasion. After breakfast we started to visit the ancient site of Cerynia, which is a little west of the present town, and more inland. For a considerable distance along the western shore of Cerynia there are to be seen here and there large caverns excavated in the rock ; some, though not all, seem to have been tombs. South-east of the town, about an hour's ride from it, and midway up the mountains, stands an imposing mediaeval ruin, called " Lapais." It was an abbey, built by King Hugh III., and belonged to the Latin Church, but was destroyed by the Turks when they captured the fortress of Cerynia. It is a fact worth noticing that all the churches belonging to the Latins were destroyed by the Turks when they took pos- session of the island. In this I have no doubt they were gladly assisted, or at least encouraged, by the Greeks, who detested the Franks even more than the Turks. This abbey occupied one of the most pictu- resque and lovely spots of the whole island ; still standing is a large hall 100 feet long, 32 feet wide, and about 40 feet high, which was probably the refectory of the French abbots ; beneath it is another apartment of like dimensions divided into two chambers, the vault of which is supported by massive columns. In the court- yard, piled the one upon the other, are two large marble sarcophagi of late Roman work, one of which has garlands of flowers, nude figures, and large bulls' heads in bold relief. Both bear evidence of having been used for a long time as troughs. Upon the lintel over the door of the great hall are engraved three shields ; one represents the Jerusalem cross, another the royal arms of the Lusignans, and the third a lion rampant. The 238 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. Gothic chapel of the abbey has been partly repaired with sun-dried bricks and plaster, and is now used by the Greeks living in the neighbourhood as their place of worship ; portions of the courtyard serve as their cemetery. On two high peaks in this range of mountains stood two feudal or royal castles, one called St. Hilarion, and the other Buffavento, which served as state prisons and places of refuge to some of the Latin Kings of Cyprus. They were both dismantled by order of the Venetian Admiral Prioli. Having descended from the abbey into the plain we moved north-eastward, always among fertile and well-timbered slopes, to a village called Acatu ; before reaching it, however, and being then in close proxim- ity to the sea, we came upon the remains of an an- cient town called Mulas, where there are a few broken shafts of columns and large stone sarcophagi lying on the surface and broken. These ruins are not extensive, but they are very difficult to explore, the underwood which covers them being high and very thick. Besides, at the commencement of our operations we met a kiifi or asp, which disappeared under a slab, but the sight was sufficient to deter my diggers from exploring that spot. Acatu, famous for its cheeses, is built on the slope of a conical peak at about twenty minutes' walk from the sea-shore ; the calcareous rock has been scooped by the present inhabitants into small caves as dairy rooms. The fields in the neighbourhood of the village are irrigated by several streamlets, and the slopes of the surrounding hills are well studded with carob and olive trees. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is that of cheese making. They have large flocks of sheep and goats, which find plenty of food among the mountains ; the cheeses, though unpalatable to me, are highly CHAP. IX.] THE SITE OF APHRODISIUM. 239 esteemed by the natives, who consume an immense quantity of them ; the surplus is exported to Port Said, Alexandria, and Smyrna. The priest of the village assured me that the number of cheeses made averages two millions a-year ; it is true they are very small, and do not weigh over half a pound apiece. Continuing my journey from Acatu eastward, I re- marked vestiges of several ancient towns, all situated near the sea-shore ; first at a place called Macaria ; in this neighbourhood there is an old Greek church, built with materials taken from the surrounding ruins. On a previous visit to it in 1869, I was shown by the priest of Acatu, who was acting as my guide, a granite slab with a Greek inscription encased upside down in the wall. When I came again in 1876, and wished to take a paper impression of it, \ve found it had been removed ; but when, or by whom, the priest did not know. The next ruins are called Gastria, after which come the remains of Pergamos, near the village of Flamoudi. Twenty minutes farther east is a head- land called Daulos, where a modern geographer has placed the site of Aphrodisium, but the paucity and small extent of these ruins cannot, I should think, be those of the royal city mentioned by Strabo. It is more probable that this city was further east, some twenty- five minutes' ride from Daulos, where there are visible traces of a close harbour and pier, and a few hundred yards from the shore a plateau presenting the remains of an extensive town, with Corinthian capitals, and fluted columns in marble and blue granite, lying half buried in the soil. This is the only spot which I can identify with Aphrodisium, and it agrees better with what Strabo says: "from Aphrodisium, where the island is narrow, the journey to Salamis is 70 stadia." There is a little village not far back from these ruins, called St. Xikolo. CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. From this point eastward the cliffs abut steeply upon the shore, and on this account the coast journey cannot he performed on mules. We ascended the high peak on which once stood the fortress of Kantara, now called by the natives Castello delle Cento Cam ere. It was dismantled by the Venetians when they took possession of the island. Some of the ruins are still roofed and in a good state of preservation. What a labour it must have been to convey to this height all the stones neces- sary for the construction of such a huge building ! On a lower hill west of Kantara stood a small detached fort, some- thing like an outpost, to guard the approaches. On this spot is a little chapel dedicated to the Panaghia, still in good condition. In the last century some Greek monks were living here, but when the walls of their cells began to fall they left the place and the district. A hermit called Simeon now inhabits the ruins, and has done so, he told me, for the last forty-five years. He is over eighty years of age, and is absolutely alone, not having even a dog, sheep, or goat as his companion ! When I visited the place in 1869 he told me his story in a few words, and it is a sad one. He was born at a village near Con- stantinople. Before he was twenty-five years old his father died and left him a thriving business. At thirty he married a young girl of his village, and everything seemed to go well with him, when one day to his misfortune the youthful and handsome face of his wife was remarked by a powerful Turk living in the neighbourhood. Dis- Stone Statue. 3 feet 10 inches. CHAP. IX.] SIMEON THE HERMIT. 241 honourable proposals were made to him, which he indignantly rejected. Soon after he was arrested by order of this Turk on some false accusation ; his wife disappeared and became an inmate of this Turk's harem ; the hermit's house was burnt, and all his property destroyed. After being kept three years in a prison without trial or judgment, he was at last released on the condition that he should leave Con- stantinople for ever. He was put on board a vessel bound for the Archipelago, and landed at Cyprus a penniless and wretched man for life. Having lost all his manhood, he roamed like a wild beast among the mountains, living on herbs, olives, and wild fruits until he found near Kantara an old rock-cut tomb which became his habitation for a while. Some time after- wards he took possession of this chapel, wherein he sleeps and hoards his provisions, consisting of a little wheat and olives which he raises in the vicinity of his abode. 242 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. Once a year a few Greek devotees of the Panaghia ascend the mountain to visit the chapel, and thus for several hours he is brought into contact with some of his fellow beings, who bring him tobacco, matches, and old clothes as presents. One of these clays the poor octogenarian will breathe his last, untended by an\" human being, like a wild beast, and the pilgrims will find the corpse of poor Simeon. Such has been life for him ! I visited the chapel and saw about a dozen china dishes which had been encased in the walls when the plaster was fresh, and are consequently several centuries old ; no doubt a collector of such articles would be delighted to possess them. Before descending into the plain I asked the hermit what I could give him. Would he like to have money, coffee, sugar, or tobacco ? He preferred matches, which pleased him more than the other things I gave him. After encamping for the night on the outskirts of the village of Tricomo, where I saw no ruins, I was in the saddle early next morning, and travelling west the whole day, reached Cythrea just as the sun was disappearing behind the mountains. Cythrea is a thriving little village surrounded by gardens full of fruit trees, and traversed along its length by the river Pedeus. which in its course keeps several mills busy at work grinding wheat for half the island. The ruins of ancient Cythrea are half an hour's walk east of the village ; they occupy the ridge and slope of a Mat hill, and judging from some foundations of habitations which I laid bare, the city must have ex- tended also into the plain confined between two small streams which a little further on had united and emptied themselves into the Pedeus ; now they are quite drv. The place is strewn with broken pottery, chietlv of a bright red colour, like that found at Soli, many small fragments of sculpture in stone, and also some pieces CHAP. IX.] CYTHREA. 243 of iridescent glass. Here I discovered the site of two oblong temples, one of which I partially explored. The foundations of both consist of very large blocks of limestone. In the peribolos of the one which I ex- plored were found a round altar of blue granite, two heads in marble, and several fragments of stone and terra-cotta with Cypriote characters engraved upon them (see Appendix). On the site of the temple itself I found some fluted columns and several Greek inscrip- tions incised on pedestals of marble and granite, which CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX- from their dimensions must have belonged to life-size statues (see Appendix) . All the fields round the village are irrigated and in a good state of cultivation, for which reason I could not excavate on a large scale without first purchasing the ground. I have, however, very little doubt that if extensive diggings were to be made they would yield good results. The inscribed marbles were too heavy to carry away, and after having copied the inscriptions, I permitted the diggers to take them to their village, Xouni, a few minutes' ride south of this spot, and to keep them until further orders from me. From Cythrea I went to Nicosia, the modern capital of the island. The first rays of the sun were striking the high minarets of Sta. Sophia when we reached the city-gate leading to Famagosta. The drawbridge was not yet lowered, and the few minutes, which we had to wait, I spent in strolling about, examining the moat and walls of the city, where for many centuries was the residence of the Lusignan kings, and on the ramparts of which some of the noblest blood of Italy was shed in defending it from the attacks of the present possessors. Nicosia does not appear to have been a town of much importance in antiquity, when its name was Leucosia. On the roadside were several lepers loudly asking for alms. The condition of these poor outcasts deserves to be mentioned here. They live about a mile from Nicosia, and number about 200, of whom forty are Turks. They have no houses, but live in ancient exca- vated tombs and in a few sheds built by themselves. They are supposed to receive each a loaf of bread a-day from the Turkish Government, but were it not for the Archbishop of Cyprus, who sends them food, I am assured they would have all died long ago, as the local Government does not do anything for them. At every fair or festival in the island thev are to be seen en- CHAP. IX.] LEPERS AT NICOSIA. 245 camped by themselves near the roadside, entreating the charity of the passer-by. The average age of these wretched beings is from forty to sixty ; though I have remarked among them young boys and pretty girls also. When a person becomes suspected of this malady, he is placed under constant watch, and is daily examined by his neighbours. When the faintest symptoms of leprosy appear, all relationship and friendship are at an end, all future intercourse with him ceases, and he is driven from his native place, provided with a quilt and some food, to find his way to the lepers' village, seldom, if ever, with a word of pity, consolation, or hope. As far as I have been able to ascertain, leprosy in Cyprus only exists among the lowest class, and I noticed also that the number of lepers increased in those years when, on account of the drought, there was greater scarcity of food than usual. Two cases were brought to my knowledge of persons having been driven away from their villages on mis- taken symptoms of leprosy. After several months' resi- dence among the lepers they naturally wanted to return, but so much opposition was raised by the villagers among whom their families lived that they were obliged to leave the island in search of a new home. I have seen one instance in which there were three lepers of the same family. A boy nineteen years old, his mother about forty-five, and a little girl. The most disfigured of the three was the boy (it seems that this disease developes itself more rapidly in young people) ; his nose had entirely disappeared, as had also portions of the chin, leaving bare the lower teeth ; both eyes were closed, never to see the light again, and only very small portions of his fingers remained ; yet his mother, who had been among the lepers some eight years longer, was not half so ill-treated by the disease, though she had her hands wrapped in filthy rags, a sign that they 246 CYPRUS, [CHAI-. IX. were too hideous to be shown ; the little girl, fair hut pale looking, had only joined her mother a few weeks before ; she showed me her tiny finders, which were as yet only a little bent and stiff. I know of facts that have happened among these lepers which would make even the most hard-hearted shudder. No distinction of creed exists among them, no religious consolation is given them, and no funeral obsequies are performed over them. Pococke states that Nicosia is built on the site of an ancient city called Tremitus : this latter, however, was farther south, and nearer to Golgoi, where a village called Tremitussa now stands. At this place are the unmistakable remains of an ancient town, and there exists an extensive necropolis, from which I extracted glassware, sepulchral bas-reliefs and pottery of the Roman period. At the close of the fourth century, when Cyprus be- came a province of the Eastern Empire, and Christianity began to spread itself rapidly everywhere, Cyprus had thirteen bishops, among whom is mentioned one of Tremitus and another of Nicosia, showing conclusively that both these cities were in existence at the same time. Nicosia nevertheless seems to have been built upon the ruins of some very ancient town, as in its immediate neighbourhood, at a place called Aghios Paraskeva, exist many tombs, in which I found little clay figures of the Assyrian Mylitta, cylinders in serpentine, scarabs, vases in the shape of animals, and also a large crater with two bigoj and other figures painted upon it, similar to vases found at Amathus and Maroni, the ancient Marium. No objects were found in these tombs of a period later than 500 B.C., nor any indica- tions that at this place there might have been a Greek settlement. Nicosia is enclosed within high massive CHAP. IX.] NICOSIA. 247 walls built under the Venetians, which, like those at Famagosta, are kept by the Turks in tolerably good repair. After sundown no person is allowed either to enter or to leave the city without special permission from the Governor-General. When such a case happens the soldiers are put under arms, then the drawbridge is lowered with as much pre- caution and ceremony as if we were still in mediaeval times ! With the exception of the church of Sta. Sophia, now converted into a mosque, half-a-dozen palaces and a few churches in a dilapidated condition, there is nothing in Nicosia which would attract the atten- tion of an archaeologist. I confess that whenever I had to visit that city I always felt a disagreeable sensation as of personal restraint, not unlike that experienced, I suppose, by a man when he is shut up in prison. It may be said, with some truth, that Xicosia is a very large prison, since the Ottoman Government sends here from every part of Turkey its worst criminals and most obnoxious political offenders. 248 CYPRUS. [CHAP. IX. The population of Nicosia is reckoned at 16,000, two-thirds of which are Christians. It possesses a large and well-stocked bazaar and several silk manu- factories, but the streets are narrow, badly paved, and extremely dirty. The seraglio, where the Pasha re- sides, is a huge quadrangular building two stories high, in sad want of repair, with a large court-yard enclosed by a wall twenty-five feet high ; this was the palace of the Venetian Governors of Cyprus, and probably served in former times as the royal residence of the Lusignan kings. The ground floor is used as a prison, and by dense packing is made to contain as many as a thou- sand convicts, guarded by a strong force of police. In the centre of this square is a forlorn-looking tree, from the branches of which many wretches have been hanged by order of the Governor-General of Cyprus. At the present day the Governor cannot put a man to death without special orders from Constantinople ; when this order arrives he calls a policeman, whose duty it is to pass a rope around the victim's neck, and without more ado to drag him to the fatal tree, where he is left hanging for several hours after his actual death, CHAPTER X. A MATH VS. Amathus founded by Phoenicians. Worship of Tyrian Hercules. Human sacrifices to Ivronos, capture and destruction by Richard king of England. Ruins, city walls, rock-cut tombs. Mode of digging. Stone built tombs at depth of forty-five feet. Fatal accident to Dr. Siegismund. Discovery of large sculptured sarco- phagus, its similarity to Lycian Frieze in British Museum. Uronze shield with repousse work. Silver bo\vl with engraved design. Search for copper mines. Fasula. Discovery of temple statues and inscriptions. False alarm in camp at night. Site of Tamassus. Return to Amathus. Removal of sarcophagus. Visit of the Governor of Limassol. Ruins of Aghios Tychona. Departure for Curium. Ox the south coast, at the distance of twelve hours' ride from Larnaca, and two from Limassol, stood the city of Amathus, which like Paphos and Citium, is known to have been originally a Phoenician settlement, and to have retained even more distinct traces of this origin than did the other two cities, such, for example, as its worship of the Tyrian Hercules, under the name of Malika or Melicertes, as the Greeks called him. A representation of this Melicertes will be found on the sarcophagus found by me at Amathus, and engraved Pis. xiv., xv. A colossal statue representing the same subject was found during my absence from Cyprus at this place, and is now in the Ottoman Museum of St. Irene, at Constantinople. It was said also that in early CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. times the Amathusians had been in the habit of offering human sacrifices to Kronos, which circumstance is obviously to be traced to an origin among the Phoeni- cians, who notoriously offered human sacrifices. Again, the word Amathus fA/za$ovg) appears to be identical with Amathe, the name of a town in Syria, said to have been founded by Amath, a son of Canaan, and it has been suggested by Engel that some of the original settlers at Amathus in Cyprus may have come from Amathe in Syria. There was also a fortified place on the Jordan called Amathus, and while thus there appears in the name itself to be good reason for tracing it to a Phoenician origin, we have also the legend which says that it was Amathus, a son of Hercules no doubt the Tynan Hercules who founded the town. Another legend derives it from Amathusa, the mother of Cinyras, which again would con- cede its Phoenician origin. The purely Greek derivation, however, is from d/xa^dei,?, " sandy," or from Amathus, a son of a Cypriote King- Aeries. The very great antiquity of the city may be gathered from the fact that Tacitus calls it vctiistissiuia, and that its inhabitants believed their first ancestors to have been Autochthones. From the way in which it is associated with the priestly familv of the Cinyradae, who were ac- credited with having introduced the worship of Aphro- dite from Syria into Cyprus, it would seem as if they had first settled at Amathus, and afterwards transferred the centre of their power to Paphos. It was from Amathus, not Paphos, that Agamemnon drove Cinyras HcrcuK CHAP. X.] SKETCH OF AMATHUS 251 on account of his breach of faith, and from this it may be inferred that Amathus was then the seat of govern- ment of Cinyras. Agamemnon, it is said, colonised Amathus with a body of his followers returning from Troy. In time Amathus became eclipsed by Paphos, in which the priestly Cinyradae ruled over temporal as well as spiritual matters. But a branch of this family remained at Amathus, and though they did not there possess temporal power, they seem to have stood next to the king in point of importance, while in religious matters they seem not to have been, like the rest of the island, subject to the priesthood of Paphos. In historical times the Phoenician or oriental spirit of Amathus was several times strikingly displayed, first when Onesilos, heading the strong faction of those who desired to resist the oppression of the Persians, was declared King of Salamis in place of his brother, and called upon the other towns of the island to join him. Amathus refused, and had to sustain a siege from him and his followers, B.C. 500. \Yhen Darius was informed of this he sent an army to overpower Onesilos ; who meantime obtained large reinforcements from the lonians of Asia Minor and their Athenian allies. In the battle which ensued in the plain ol Salamis the Persians were victorious, and Onesilos himself fell. Again, when Evagoras, the King of Salamis, was maintaining with Athenian assistance his apparently hopeless resistance to the Persians, we find Amathus joined with Citium and Soli, sending to Artaxerxes for help against him (B.C. 391). That a contingent from Amathus took part with the Persians in the fearful conflicts which ensued with Evagoras appears to be beyond doubt. This spirit, however, seems to have been changed. 252 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. B.C. 332, in which year we find Androcles, the King of Amathus, present in the Cypriote fleet which supported Alexander in his siege of Tyre. Under the Ptolemies, and in the later history of Cyprus, Amathus appears to have lost the ancient importance which it enjoyed when ruled by its own kings, and when its natural allies the Persians were all powerful. On the hill on which it stood, nothing is now visible but a vast amount of stones, plaster, and broken pottery. Even the hill itself is fast losing its form, while the rock of which it is composed is being cut away to be shipped to Port Sa'icl, bringing to the merchants of Limassol a profitable return. From the great amount of debris which covers the surrounding fields, for the most part untilled, Amathus, it would seem, though small in area, must have been a thickly populated city. Originally the upper part of the hill had been encircled by a wall, remains of which are now scarcely perceptible ; portions, however, of another wall of a later period may especially be observed on the southern side looking towards the sea, and following the sinuous windings of the hill. I found imbedded in this wall pieces of terra- cotta jars and fragments of granite columns, which had been used as building materials. On the southern side, portions of it ran as far as the shore. It is probable that the square-built ruin at the southern end of the hill formed a gateway, since, between the city and the sea-shore, there was, and still is, the high road to Paphos. On the crest of this hill I dug at several places until I came to the solid rock, but failed to discover any sculptured remains of importance. I found, however, sufficient evidence to convince me that most of the building materials of what I call the Phoeni- cian city had been used for the construction of the later Greek buildings. Amathus, when subsequently inhabited by a Greek CHAP. X.] LATER HISTORY OF AMATHUS. 253 population, spread itself in a more south-easterly direction, and nearer to the sea-shore, protected by the second wall which I spoke of, and though at the time of its destruction by King Richard of England it was still the seat of the last Duke of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenos, it had already lost most of its splendour and importance. The following inscription, which is cut in the rock on the east side of the hill, mentions an arch as having been erected here at the private expense of a Lucius Vitellius Callinicus, but there are no traces of it to be found at the present day. AOYKIOZOYITEA AIOZKAAAINIKOZ THNANABAZINTAY THNZYNTHA^IAI EKTOYIAIOYKATEZKEY AZEN (*) It was on the top of this hill that M. de Vogue discovered the large stone vase which is now deposited in the Museum of the Louvre. Near the same spot there are fragments of what seems to have been a similar vase. In the immediate vicinity of the site where these vases were found, I dug up on a former excursion three large shafts of columns, of a hard bluish stone, resembling granite. I left them half buried in the soil, with the intention of examining them on a future occasion ; but when I returned, the columns had disappeared, having been broken up for building purposes. There are thousands of stones on the top and sides of this hill, which would equally well suit the purpose of these builders, but it seems that * After my arrival in Knglund I found that this inscription is published in the ''Corpus Inscript. (hTccarum," Xo. 2644. r.nd in Kngel. i. ]>. 115. 254 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. they are possessed by some infatuation or evil mania for destroying whatever bears the traces of man's handicraft. It is the more to be regretted, since among the ruins very few architectural or sculptured remains are now found. On the side of a rocky hill, west of Amathus, and separated only by the bed of a winter torrent, I saw hun- dreds of tombs cut in the rock ; they had been mostly opened and ransacked long ago. Though tombs are to be met with in different localities at Amathus, it is in the district along the sea-shore that they are found in greatest abundance. Here they are oven-shaped, like those of Idalium, and are excavated in a sandy soil at a depth varying from three to hve feet. Most of them were found to contain only one body. The objects discovered within were glass, always broken but beauti- fully iridescent (this being generally the case when the tombs are near the sea) ; terra-cotta lamps of the first and second century of our era ; large amphorae similar in shape to those found at Pompeii ; no gold jewellery of any value, and now and then, a mortuary stele bearing a Greek name followed by the usual formula of ^prjarr] x^P 6 > anc ^ m sna P e similar to those discovered at Larnaca. Of another kind are the tombs cut in the rock, in the adjacent fields east and west of Amathus. They are oblong, and cut horizontally in irregular tiers ; none are over seven feet in length, and the majority of them scarcely six. They all seem to have been opened, probably centuries ago, and as I said before, are now fast disappearing. A third group of tombs is situated in a field north- east of Amathus, which is encircled by low hills form- ing a natural amphitheatre. They contain sarcophagi made either of white marble, probably imported from Greece, or of calcareous stone from the quarries of Cyprus. CHAP. X.] TOMBS AT AMATHUS. 255 I examined nearly a hundred of these sepulchres, and found them all built of finely cut stones, presenting a much more handsome appearance than any other class of tombs which I have seen in the island. They lie at a depth of 40 to 55 feet below the surface of the soil, and it is very difficult to get at them, owing to the circumstance that the entrances face in different direc- tions ; yet in spite of this difficulty there was not one which had not been previously opened and rifled. Some have only one chamber, others two, and others again four. In building these chambers, huge stones, some measuring twenty feet in length, nine feet in width, 256 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. and three in thickness, have been employed, hut the average size is length, fourteen feet ; width, seven and a half feet ; thickness, two feet. So admirable are the joints of the masonry that in some cases it is difficult to rind traces of them. The tombs are of two different shapes: one with a flat roof and square walls ; and the other having a roof in the form of what we call in the American army, a "field-officer's wall- tent." These tombs, the construction of which must have been very laborious and expensive, may have be- longed to the royal and aristocratic families of the city. Those of but one room have always one. often two, and sometimes three sarcophagi inside. When one only, it is invariably found placed in the centre of the room; when two, they are placed to the right and left of the entrance, with their heads towards its wall. When there are three sarcophagi, two are found placed as before stated, to the right and left, and the third near the wall opposite the door. The position of the sarco- phagi never varies, whether the tombs have one, two, or four chambers. In one composed of two rooms, I counted as many as ten sarcophagi. The entrance room had a flat roof, and the inner one a pointed roof. PLATE XIV. PLATE XV. ENDS OF .STONE SARCOPHAGUS. CHAP. X.] SARCOPHAGI AT AMATHUS. 259 Four sarcophagi were deposited in the first, and six in the second. Their relative positions were the same as that just described. The five extra sarcophagi were superposed upon the other five. All were made of the calcareous stone of Cyprus, without any bas-reliefs. No tombs were discovered with more than four rooms ; and of these with four chambers I found only two. One of them contained the finely sculptured sarcophagus here engraved, plates xiv., xv. This tomb consisted of a square room used as an antechamber, and three lateral rooms, to the right and left, and opposite the entrance door. The sculptured sarcophagus was in the centre of the inner room, facing the entrance, and lay there in a heap broken to pieces by the vandals who centuries ago had opened this tomb, and being perhaps disappointed in not finding the treasure they sought, wreaked their vengeance on this rare gem of art. There is a very striking similarity between the 260 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. sculpture of this sarcophagus and an archaic frieze found at Xanthus in Lycia by Sir Charles Fellows, and now in the British Museum, of which an engraving is here given. It is obvious from the regularly recurring square holes for the protruding dentils, that the Lycian frieze has formed the external decoration of one of those tombs common in Lycia, and this is confirmed by the two doorways with Sphinxes, which belong to the same building as the frieze, and are placed at either end of it. Many doorways similarly formed were found by me at Amathus. On the Lycian frieze is repre- sented a proces- sion advancing to the right, at t he- head of which is a biga. This is fol- lowed by a horse- man, dismounted and standing at Next comes a biga driven and conveying an old man This biira is followed Jj,M,nvay <>{ .1 Tomb. the off side of his horse by a youthful charioteer, bearded, draped and seated. PLATE XVI. CHAP. X.] LYCIAN FRIEZE IN BRITISH MUSEUM. 263 by a mounted horseman, behind whom comes a pro- cession on foot, consisting of first a group of three youths wearing chiton and himation, and carrying a long spear over the left shoulder. These are followed by two youths similarly draped, and carrying shield and spear. There were apparently three figures in this group also, but only part of the third remains, there being here a break in the frieze. How much of the original may be wanting cannot be ascertained. After this break there is a draped youth, standing by the side of a couch or bier, of which only the end remains ; only one foot of the figure which had been laid on it is visible ; at the extreme left stands a youth, apparently a slave, wearing a chiton girt up, and holding in his hand a cloth of some kind. At his feet stands what appears to be a caldron, or it may be a stool. The two slabs which seem to have decorated the ends of the tomb, and have each a doorway cut through them, are triangular at the top. At each side of each doorway is a seated Sphinx. On the triangular top of one of them, which is more complete than the other, are figured two lions confronted. These Sphinxes confronted may be com- pared with those on the stelae found at Golgoi v and engraved p. 115. The figures in the frieze are tall and thin in their proportions, and of a pure Greek type ; their dress, an under chiton of ribbed stuff, and over it a himation wrapped closely around the figure, except on the right shoulder, is also purely Greek and of a slightly archaic time, similar to the draperies on the Harpy tomb ; the bodies of the horses are long, and the legs slim and very carefully modelled ; their manes are hogged, but on the top of the head is a knot in the shape of a crescent, precisely similar to that seen in horses in the Assyrian friezes. Except in this point the Lycian frieze is purely Greek, and of a very refined workmanship. On the Amathus sarcophagus it will 264 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. be seen that the horses have the same top-knot, but much larger, more in the shape of an open fan ; and that the group of a figure holding a parasol over the head of a seated figure is an essentially Oriental motive. The same motive however occurs in the Lycian sculptures from the Nereid monument ; and the oriental personage there represented is supposed to be the Persian Satrap of Lycia. Possibly this is also a Persian Satrap who is figured on the sarco- phagus from Amathus. The other figures, their dress, armour, and horses, are as purely Greek as on the Lycian sculptures. Both processions would seem to have been part of funeral obsequies ; when however we come to the sculptures on the two ends of the sarco- phagus, we meet with what it is difficult, if not impossible, to find an analogy for either in Greek or Assyrian art. On one end there is a nude figure of Venus, as represented in many clay specimens now in the New York Museum, standing to the front and repeated four times, side by side. At the other end are four similarly repeated figures, which have been sup- posed to represent Melicertes the Phoenician Hercules. Or, as Mr. King suggests, they may be the Phoenician Pataiki whom Herodotus (III. 37) describes as being figured in the form of Pygmies. I found the same figure in terra-cotta attached as an upright handle to a lamp on which is a Cypriote inscription. As regards the four figures of Venus, perhaps the nearest approach to them as an artistic composition is the familiar group- ing of the three Graces. It is true that the Graces, as we know them, are three distinct persons ; that is, they are three sisters ; but the number of them varies, as in Athens, where they were only two, and the fact of sisterhood itself points to a unity in the original idea. Whatever the explanation may turn out to be, the quad- ruple representation of Venus and Melicertes on the PLATE XVII. CHAP. X.] SCULPTURE OF LYCIA AND CYPRUS. 267 sarcophagus is at present extremely curious. The lid, which is also in many fragments, has two Sphinxes at each end confronting each other, similar to those on the Lycian frieze. In connection with the close resemblance of this sarcophagus with the Lycian frieze above described, it should be remembered that there is no great distance between the shores of Lycia and those of Cyprus, and that the conditions of art in the one country might reasonably be expected to resemble those of the other in some points, especially as both Lycia and Cyprus had a mixed population, of which a considerable por- tion was Greek. In the still undeciphered language of Lycia there are several letters identical with those of the alphabet of the recently discovered Cypriote, while others differ very little. The border of ornament sculptured at each end of the two sides of the sarcophagus has a strongly Assyrian character, which is also the case with regard to the border of lotus flowers along the top. With reference 268 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. to the Assyrian influence on Lycian art I may quote what is said by Layard (Nineveh, ii. p. 291) : " The Persians introduced into Asia Minor the arts and reli- gion which they received from the Assyrians. Thus the Harpy tomb and the monument usually attributed to Harpagus at Xanthus, and other still earlier remains, show all the peculiarities of the sculptures of Persepolis, and at the same time that gradual progress in the mode of treatment the introduction of action and sentiment and a knowledge of anatomy, which marks the distinc- tion between Asiatic and Greek art. . . . There is one monument, however, from Xan- thus, which particularly deserves notice from its connection with Persian and Assyrian art and religious emblems. I allude to the fragment of a tomb in the British Museum, on which is represented a figure struggling with and piercing a rampant lion. The sculpture is so pecu- liarly Assyrian in its treatment identical representations being found on the monuments and -that there can be no doubt as to its origin." There are also two other monuments, discovered at Golgoi, which present a very striking- resemblance to Lycian art. They are two oblong- steps or stools ; the one having a bas-relief of the Lycian Chimera, and on the other a group of a lion devouring a bull, which ma}- be compared with the group of a lion devouring a stag on one of the archaic friezes from Xanthus. These stools are figured p. 159, and had before been engraved alone with the great sarcophagus in the Atti della Reale Accademia di Torino, vol. xi. pi. 4-5. cylinders of Assyria- CHAP. X.] SARCOPHAGUS AT AMATHUS. 269 In the chambers adjacent to that in which the great sarcophagus was found were two plain sarcophagi, one in white marble and the other in calcareous stone, both of which had been greatly damaged. The discovery of this tomb by previous explorers seems to have been due to mere chance, as an opening was found pierced through the roof, by which the descent had been made. Once inside, the door would be apparent, and would be used as an exit. At what period this had occurred, it is difficult to determine, though some rude figures traced upon the walls, seemingly with lamp smoke, of a brownish colour, and presenting in one case a likeness of a knight, would indicate the presence of soldiers of the army of the Crusaders. Whoever they were, it was evident that they had endeavoured to expel the foul air of the chambers by lighting fires, the ashes of which, along with pieces of carbonized wood, were found on the pavement. The fact that these pieces of unburnt wood became pulverised under the slightest pressure of my fingers, would also indicate that this previous visitation of the tomb had taken place a con- siderable time ago. The roofs of the four chambers are flat, and each is composed of three large stones. The entrance chamber is nine feet seven inches in height, thirteen feet four inches in length, and twelve feet three inches wide. This tomb was discovered at a depth of thirty-nine feet and a half beneath the surface of the soil. The three chambers are each twelve feet nine inches long, seven feet ten inches high, and twelve feet nine inches wide. The pavement is formed of oblong stones from three to four inches thick, and varying from one foot and a half in length, which are as carefully joined together as those of the best modern pavement in Cyprus. The sarcophagi were all placed on the pavement, 270 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. except in one tomb, in which I discovered two sar- cophagi, one of them being of fine white marble, and having sculptured upon it a female head of colossal proportions, in early or archaic Greek style, and the other was of calcareous stone and plain. Both were raised ten inches above the ground, and supported on six flat stones, three at each end. In the wall near the head of the stone sarcophagus, there was a niche live inches in length, the same in width, and seven inches deep, the interior of which had been blackened by the smoke of an earthenware lamp, which it still contained. The usual height of the doorway of these tombs is four feet ten inches, and the width three feet nine inches ; the doorway which forms the entrance of the tomb is closed by a massive stone from the outside. In one instance I found the closing stone unusually large, measuring four feet ten inches in width, by live feet ten inches in height. My men worked nine days at this tomb, having dug to the depth of forty-nine feet, in three different places, before the exact position of the entrance could be ascertained. ^Yhen a corner of the huge stone came in view, and its position assured them that it had never been removed, nothing could exceed their delight. The great size of the stone and its apparently intact condition, raised their hopes very high, and aided by the promise of a liberal reward they laboured for some time with great enthusiasm, believing that the wealth of old Cinyras was contained behind it. Alas ! for a diggers' dream! Thev came suddenly upon a hole in that massive stone, which perfectly accounted for its having remained in situ. The hole was large enough for the passage of a man's body, and had evi- dently been used previously as a mode oi ingress by those who had found the removal oi the colossal stone impossible. CHAP. X.] EXCAVATION OF TOMBS. 271 This discovery was sufficient to change all the brilliant hopes of my diggers to sudden gloom, a characteristic of the variable Cypriote temperament ; nevertheless, eight of them laboured with pickaxes and levers for its removal ; but all effort proved vain, and they were obliged to enter in the same way as their predecessors. Theocharis, one of my chief diggers, speedily divested himself of his superfluous clothing, and, as was his wont, entered first, previously making the sign of the cross. I asked him what was the meaning of this devout act, and he replied that it was his custom to do so upon entering a deep tomb, in order to keep away the evil eye, and that no harm should befall him. The short prayer which he added is, however, not more than occasion requires, as not unfrequently the earth has fallen in upon the men, to their very great danger, and the foreman himself remained once buried for a couple of hours before he could be relieved. Dr. Justus Siegismund, a young German philologist, of great pro- mise, who had helped considerably in deciphering the Cypriote dialect while visiting these tombs in 1876, during my temporary absence from Amathus, was in the act of coming out of one of them, when he fell back into it, and \vas instantaneously killed. The confusion that reigned inside the tomb I am now speaking of is beyond description. I looked in and saw Theocharis, who had lost his right arm when a boy, with his only hand covering his head (a sign of wonderment and great disappointment with him), standing upon a pile of decayed human bones, and fragments of sarcophagi all lying pell-mell. I confess that after so many days of fruitless labour, passed under a scorching sun in a waste where one is deprived of every ordinary comfort, my own disappointment almost equalled that of my diggers. This tomb was composed of two rooms, and 272 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. contained fifteen sarcophagi, all broken to pieces. For- tunately, none of them had been sculptured. They had been originally piled up by threes, but those who opened the tomb before had thrown clown and smashed the upper ones, in order to get at those beneath, and contented themselves with cutting large holes through -CX. those on the ground, without removing them from their places. In this tomb they seemed to have reaped a good harvest, for the large pieces of bones and skulls were separated and heaped together apart from the pul- PLATE XVIII. CHAP. X.] EXCAVATION OF TOMBS. 275 verised remains, which appear to have been passed through a sieve. After the employment of fifteen men for two days in the removal of the fragments of sarcophagi, human remains, and rubbish, I found piled up in a corner of the inner room to the right of the doorway the fragments of sixty terra-cotta vases, having the same characteristics as those found at Paphos, Idalium, Golgoi, and else- where in the island ; besides sixteen alabaster vases, mostly injured by damp and time ; several fragments of a few green glazed opaque g terra-cotta amulets, of Egyptian manufacture; t w o t e r r a - cotta figures of Astarte ; some thirty objects in copper, such as mirrors, discs, pa- terse, bowls, and vases, very much oxidised, ad- hering firmly to each other, and which seem to have been purposely thrown inside a large copper caldron and then smashed, as the latter had entirely lost its original shape. This mass weighed over seventy pounds. Among the fragments of vases were found the remains of a wooden box, handsomely inlaid with bronze. This box, without doubt, was once hidden in Terra-cotta Oen 276 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. an aperture in the roof of the first chamber, which we found had been discovered on the removal of a stone slab lying on the floor, and which, upon replacing it, fitted the mouth of the opening. The measurement of this cavity was two feet three inches long, and four- teen inches high by ten in width. The nicety with which this stone fitted its place in the roof would seem to have defied detection ; but the marauders who had previously ransacked the tomb seem to have been professionals in their work, as it had evidently been Egyptian Porcelain Divinities. removed with care, and by the employment of small tools. In examining the contents of the copper caldron, I discovered an iron dagger, the fragments of a shield engraved with a row of animals, and the remains of a silver bowl, which from its oxidisation must have been mistaken for other metal by the marauders, and thrown into the caldron as if of no value to them. Both these important fragments have been engraved in the French Revue Archeologique (^75), and ably described by my learned friend Mr. Georges Ceccaldi, though I do not agree with him in some of his ex- planations and conclusions about the representations PLATE XIX. PLATE XX. BOSS OK SHIELD, I'(iL'Xl) AT AMATHUS. CHAP. X.] ANTIQUITIES FROM TOMBS. 281 on the silver bowl, between which and the representa- tions on the great sarcophagus it is easy to perceive that there is a great resemblance. The mystic or sacred tree is almost identical with that on the borders of the sarcophagus ; the dress of some of the warriors, their head-dress, the accoutrements of the horses, the shape of the chariots, and the style of execution, show that both belong to the same epoch. I am of opinion that these, as well as the greatest part of the monu- ments I discovered in Cyprus, were made in the island, as this mixture of Greek, Egyptian, and Assyrian, which I call " Cypriote art," is not met with elsewhere in any monument that I am aware of. As to the sarcophagus no doubt can be entertained on this point, since it is cut out of a rough and hard sandstone, which is peculiar to Amathus, and to another locality on the eastern coast of Cyprus. The quantity of objects in copper and bronze found in these tombs, though mostly destroyed by oxidisation, is much greater than that found in the extensive necropolis of Idalium. I observed that in the locali- ties where copper mines are known to have existed, as at Amathus and Curium, the ancient tombs contain a much larger per-centage of works in that metal than elsewhere. The same thing may be said of the few graves I opened in the neighbourhood of Tamassus. The fact that almost all these bronze objects were plain and roughly made, is for me an additional evidence that they were made in Cyprus. From this group of tombs, among the objects left behind or over-looked by those who had entered them before, I extracted curious little rings, some in bronze, and others in silver, the use of which it is not easy to determine ; a few Egyptian and Babylonian cylinders of soft glazed clay, also several rings of solid gold, but roughly made and of no artistic value ; a large quantity of broken jars 282 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. of earthenware and bronze bowls and paterae, all plain, and so oxidised as to fall into a fine green powder at the first touch ; also some copper hatchets and iron arrow-heads, but no inscriptions, glass, lamns, or coins were found. In one of these tombs I observed what I have never seen in any other, namely, a skeleton plant almost black in colour, which embroidered the wall and roof like a network of lace with its delicate tracery. It would seem that Nature, commiserating the spoliation which the tomb had suffered, came with sympathetic hand to lend her own more appropriate adornment. West of these tombs, but facing the east, I dis- covered nine oven-shaped caverns, containing such a quantity of bones that I was extremely curious to examine one thoroughly. Accordingly the earth was removed, and I counted no less than sixty-four human skulls. There was also a promiscuous mass of bones, among which I remarked jaws and teeth of camels, horses, and sheep, or goats. I should here state, that CHAP. X.] CAVES WITH BONES. in the most ancient tombs, whether at Dali, Aghios Photios, Paphos, or Amathus, I have often found teeth of animals, especially of camels ; and even in the richer tombs containing the sarcophagi, bones and teeth of quadrupeds have been exhumed. These nine caverns would have been infinitely too small to contain the amount of bodies indicated, and I believe therefore that they were ossuaries for bones, removed from the rock-cut tombs to make way for other bodies. The very fact that no vases or other objects were found inside, corroborates this view. In the tombs along the sea-shore, of which there are many yet to be opened, no animal remains have been found with the dead bodies, except sometimes pigeon or chicken bones, and egg-shells in clay dishes, which were probably the remains of the funeral repast. Twenty minutes' walk east of these tombs there lies on the western declivity of a low hill, a small village called Aghios Tychona, composed of about twenty- five houses. The inhabitants are chiefly Christians of the Greek creed, with a sprinkling of Mussulmans. The latter bear a very bad reputation, and belong to the lowest class, murder and cattle stealing being their chief occupation. The village is principally built with stones from Amathus, among which are fragments of some few capitals, columns, and other architectural remains. It contains a church dedicated to St. Nicholas, to which is attached a decrepit priest nearly a hundred years old. In the spacious court- yard of the church, which does duty also as a burying- ground, I found inserted in the enclosure wall, a bas- relief in calcareous stone three feet two inches high by twenty-two inches in width, representing a youth holding a dove in his left hand. It is said to have been brought many years ago from the top of the hill of Amathus. It is a rude sculpture, apparently very CVl'RL'S. [CHAP. X. old, and in a poor state of preservation. I observed also several Greek inscriptions and sepulchral stelas which had been found in tombs near the sea-shore, and do not date farther back than the first century of the Christian era. The chief support of the inhabitants of this village is derived from stone cutting, and the breeding of cattle ; to this has come the ancient king- dom of Amathus, which was one of the wealthiest in Cyprus ! I made considerable explorations on the surrounding hills and mountains in search of the ancient copper- mines of Amathus, which were considered the richest and most extensive of Cyprus. I expected to find some scorias or other indications in the neighbourhood of the ancient city, which would enable me to recognise them ; but although I made several excursions for that purpose, and crossed the range of mountains in the plain of Mesaoria, where the royal city of Tamassus is said to have existed, yet I failed to find any traces of them. In the vicinity of Aghios Heraclidion and Petra there are manv ancient tombs, some hewn in the rock, and others merely excavated in the earth, as at Dali. These probably belonged to the inhabitants of Tamassus. An intelligent peasant of Petra told me that he and his father while cutting wood had found a large mound of copper (probably of scoriae) on the north slope of these mountains, but when I asked him to bring me to the spot, he declared that he had forgotten its exact locality. It is more than probable that the Amathus and Ta- massus copper mines were in. this range of mountains, as among the fragments of loose rock Iving on the surface I picked up some which contained a certain quantity of copper. A mineralogist would perhaps be able to detect other indications which would be un- noticed by my inexperienced eye. During my long encampment at Amathus I visited CHAP. X.] THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF AMATHUS. 285 also another range of hills west of these ruins, on the summit of one of which, very difficult of ascent, situated between the two small villages of Aghios Dimitri and Fasuli, I found the ruins of an elliptical structure measuring twenty-seven feet by sixteen. Its area was strewn with pieces of broken statues, upon two of which an eagle was carved. I discovered also on the bases of two life-size statues to which the feet still adhered, Greek characters roughly but deeply cut in the cal- careous stone (see Appendix). I should have liked to explore this spot tho- roughly, as these ruins are not im- probably those of a temple dedicated to Jupiter, but I had brought neither a tent nor provisions with me, and so was obliged to content myself with having the stones on the surface turned over in search of inscriptions. While thus occupied with half a dozen men, we found ourselves sud- denly enveloped in a dense smoke. The slopes of the hill were in a blaze, the thick brush- wood which covered them being all on fire, the strong wind which always prevails on these hills causing it to spread so rapidly that we were in danger of being roasted alive. We ran down the hill in so great a hurry that we forgot the saddle-bags. That the fire was not accidental was very evident, but the motive of the incendiary was unaccountable. During my travels in the island I had always met everywhere with the greatest kindness and respect. The animals which had been left grazing had dashed 286 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. off, frightened by the flames, and it took some time to catch them. While the men were in pursuit of them I sent for the notables of both villages, who represented the local authorities. My object was to ascertain whether the conduct of any of my men had excited the animosity of some peasant. On their arrival they declared that no injury had been done to anyone by my diggers, but that a certain Turk of Aghios Tychona, called Kara Ahmet, who was a professional cattle-stealer and had been involved in the murder of an English subject at Limassol some years before, and had just been released from prison, had been seen prowling round the hill, and was un- doubtedly the author of the mischief. It appeared that he had applied in vain to my chief digger for employ- ment, and imagining that the refusal came from me, determined thus to revenge himself. By the application of a few matches he had fired the hill on all sides and then ran away with my saddle- bags, which were thus preserved, and in which he expected to find money and other valuables, but they contained only a few oranges and some bread. He had however been seen and recognised by the red-haired priest of Aghios Dimitri and by several other peasants. I was determined to have him caught and severely punished, though as he was a desperado, some caution was necessary. I therefore sent my cavass Mustafa to the Caimakam of Limassol, with a request for two policemen, and with an explanation of the reason for which I desired them. Then I despatched my foreman on the swiftest mule I had with me to Aghios Tychona, where this Ahmet lived, to watch his arrival and movements. The latter, as I expected, knowing all the short cuts through the mountains, arrived about the same time, and as he thought safely and unseen, and the saddle- bags with him. CHAP. XJ CAPTURE OF A ROBBER. 287 Mustafa, with the policemen, entered his house shortly after, and he was pinioned and brought before me at Amathus, whither I had returned, for examination ; but refused to make any reply to my questions. I sent him direct to the Governor-General at Nicosia, who kept him in prison for several months. Two of the prisoner's brothers living at Aghios Tychona gave out hints of their intention to be avenged on my cavass Mustafa, who did not feel very comfortable in consequence for some time, though I assured him there was no danger of their making any such attempt. Nevertheless, in view of the bad reputation which these men bore in the village, a few precautionary measures were adopted in our little encampment, which was very near that village. One night as I was just falling asleep, I thought I perceived some movement of my tent, and as the mosquito-net was secured to the transverse pole, I soon became aware that I was not dreaming. Some- one was evidently endeavouring to effect an entrance from beneath. I have always preferred, when travelling in Cyprus, tent life to the poor comforts which the smaller villages offer, though pitching my tents always sufficiently near them to make provisions and provender easily attainable. On these occasions I invariably slept with a revolver under my pillow, though, as I have said, never, excepting on this night, finding a necessity to use it. In this instance, however, I stealthily reached my revolver, and cocking it, waited for further developments. I could clearly distinguish the noise made in the effort to dislodge one of the tent pins, and shortly after a shock-head of black hair intruded itself beneath my tent, while I clearly saw a dark form crouched upon the ground ; I did not wait longer, but pulling the trigger sent a ball whizzing through its brains ; what with the howl that followed, and the detonation of the 288 CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. arm, ail my men flocked round me in a few seconds, confused and frightened ; but their alarm was soon changed to merriment when the robber was found to be a big black dog, which, attracted by the savoury smell of a roasted partridge left from supper, had come uninvited to appease its hunger. The mountains which environ Amathus present a desolate aspect, and a death-like stillness prevails at all hours of the day. The vegetation is very scant, the locust tree alone lending now and then with its thick and lustrous foliage a friendly shade to the traveller. Herds of sheep and goats may be seen in the distance, grazing upon dry grass and the stalk of last year's crop of barley. Before leaving for the west to explore Curium, the removal of the white marble sarcophagus with the female head sculptured in high relief upon its lid, the discovery of which I have before alluded to, occupied much of mv time and thought. With the means at my disposal it was a difficult undertaking. We had no pulleys or other machinery for raising weights, and were obliged to rely solely upon ropes and force of hand. Nine hours of the most arduous labour were consumed in bringing it to the surface. It was then placed upon a low cart made expressly for it, and thence dragged slowly over rough fields strewn with stones by eight oxen and fifty men, both men and beasts working with equal energy, CHAP. X.] THE GOVERNOR OF LIMASSOL. 289 We left the field at noon, and although one can walk from there to the shore in twenty minutes, we did not cover the distance till six o'clock in the evening 1 , having O ' O had to repair the cart, which groaned under the weight, more than a score of times. Notwithstanding this I had the pleasure of seeing it before nightfall safely conveyed on board the " Mahona," which w r as lying in waiting for it, and was soon under way for Larnaca. The Governor of Limassol had been informed early in the day, with the usual oriental exaggeration, that the American Consul was removing some extraordinary object from the ruins of Amathus ; consequently, pend- ing " our march to the sea," two zaptiehs or mounted Turkish policemen arrived, thei.r persons fortified by the customary array of pistols and cutlasses, which the rust of ages has rendered perfectly harmless. They appeared to have received orders only to watch the proceedings, and accordingly never dismounted, but kept at a respectful distance. Once, however, while the cart was undergoing repairs, the curiosity of one of them became too strong for control, and he approached somewhat nearer, but upon my making a sign to my Consular Guard to order him back, he politely bowed, and immediately retired. When the sarcophagus had nearly reached the sea- shore and the policemen saw a boat flying the American colours in readiness to receive it, they galloped away at full speed towards Limassol, and two hours later, just as the sarcophagus was about to be placed on board, an officer of the police of Limassol came dash- ing up with the information that the Governor was on the road to visit the " wonder," and requested me not to ship it until he had an opportunity of seeing it ; to which request, as may be imagined, I paid very little heed, and the sarcophagus went safely on board with- out unnecessary delay : the white sails filled, and the 2QO CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. ' Mahona " glided with a steady motion from the shore just as the Governor of Limassol and his numerous suite approached the spot. At the period of which I speak the Governor of Limassol was a fanatic Turk of the old school, and an intense hater of all Christians. Shrewd as all semi- educated Turks naturally are, when he saw that he had arrived just a moment too late to interfere with my shipment he changed tactics, and dismounting at a certain distance from where I was standing (an oriental mark of respect), advanced towards me with all seeming friendliness and affected humility. After cigarettes had been handed and the usual trivial compliments ex- changed, he began to apologise for the lateness of the hour in making his visit, saying that he had ordered his horse to be saddled the moment he had heard of my presence in his province, and now came to offer me a guard of policemen for my personal safety (mark the incongruity!) while in the neighbourhood of Aghios Tychona, as he heard I had experienced some trouble with some of its inhabitants, and if anything else lay in his power to aid me I had only to command him. Of course I did not believe a word of what he said, yet I thanked him for his polite interest in my welfare ; but replied that I required no other protection than that of my own men, and that throughout all my long wanderings in the island I had never encountered any danger. He did not make the slightest allusion to the now vanished sarcophagus, and after a few more insipid compliments rose and asked permission to leave, which was gladly accorded to him. On the southern slope of a hill not far Irom Aghios Tychona, and where Hammer wrongly placed the site of the Temple of Venus, are still to be seen sufficient remains of a wall to suggest that a building of some kind had once existed there, and I decided to inspect it CHAP. X.] MORNING SERVICE. 2QI more closely should I have a leisure moment before leaving Amathus. Being awakened one morning earlier than usual by the persistent mosquitos I rose, took my gun, and started alone for the place, leaving my diggers near by, still wrapped in their blankets slumber- ing on the hard ground that unconscious sleep which the bed of down does not always bring. In spite of making several detours on the way in search of part- ridges I reached the spot before sunrise. Enjoying the solitude in which I believed myself, and while climbing a jutting rock in order to reach the largest portion of the standing wall, I was startled by the voice of a man reading aloud in a nasal and unbroken tone. I coughed, and the sound immediately ceased, but after a moment proceeded as before. Upon reaching the wall I found a Greek priest reading from a book to some nine or ten stone cutters. I made a sign to the priest (who upon my appearance had stopped) to proceed, and uncover- ins: mv head, waited a little wav off until the praver o "' I was over. Upon its termination the men dispersed, and I approached the priest to make some inquiries, and from the old man's lips gathered the following story. " Formerly a church stood where are now these few ruins- a very long time ago, more than 200 years ago!" The old priest eyed me askance as he said this, fearing my archaeological knowledge might dispute such remote antiquity ; but the building was even more ancient than he imagined, being of the early Byzantine period. " The church was dedicated," he continued, " to Aghios Tychona, who had been killed here, and to this shrine was attributed the miraculous power of curing epileptics. Many years ago there existed one of our Bishops a bad man, God forgive him ! who ordered the -hurch " (in danger of falling, I suppose) "to be pulled down and a new one to be built with the same stones at a little distance, but the Saint would not permit such a CYPRUS. [CHAP. X. desecration, and appeared in a dream to all the villagers of the neighbourhood in the same night, and told them to oppose so sacrilegious a demolition by force, which I assure you they would have done if the Bishop had not desisted. As a punishment the Bishop was afflicted with epilepsy, became crazy, and in a fit destroyed himself." What, however, the " wicked Bishop " was not per- mitted to do, time and the want of repairs have accomplished. A mass of rubbish and stones, with here and there a piece of wall a few feet in height, are all that remain to mark the spot of the " martyred Saint ; " but a Greek priest comes every Monday in the year at break of day to pray among the stones. Before ascending the hill he rings a hand-bell, and those peasants who wish gather there together for prayer. I asked the priest why the church in the village near by, called Aghios Tychona, was dedicated to St. Nicholas instead of to St. Tychona, and he seemed a moment puzzled, then in a grave tone of voice answered that the " Saint" had forbidden it. The early morning, with the earth still bathed in dew the sun just rising, throwing its glories over sea and land, the solemnity of the hour, the profound tranquillity that reigned around, where nought met the eye that told of man, fitted so well with the scene of prayer, and the legend I had just been listening to, that a melan- choly charm invested these simple ruins for the moment, which more pretentious ones at a different hour would have failed to convey ; and I sat down on the base of a broken column to muse on the great lesson so often repealed, of the finiteness of man, while Nature in her grandeur rolls on. "the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever." CHAPTER XI. CURIUM. Curium founded by Argives. Identification of site. Traces of town in plain below. Theatre, several temples. Hippodrome and aqueduct. Cisterns or granaries, public wells. Exploration of one of the temples. Mosaic pavement. Rock-cut vaults containing treasure. Description of their contents. Gold armlets with name of king of Paphos. Tombs in neighbouring hills and plain. Discovery of Temple of Apollo Hylates. Greek inscriptions. Statues from the neighbourhood. Journey to Cape Gatto. Dis- covery of Ktiri, its cemetery. Wild cats and asps. - Ruins of Greek convent at Acrotiri. ---Return to Larnaca. End of explora- tions. Departure from the island. TRAVELLING due west from the ruins of Amathus or Palaeo-Limassol, as the site is now called, after a ride of live hours, mostly through a fertile and well 2Q4 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. irrigated plain, shaded by carob and olive trees, in which are situated the large town of Limassol, and the small but picturesque villages of Kolossi and Episkopi, \ve reach the western shore of Cyprus, near which once existed the royal city of Curium. Built, like an eagle's nest, on the summit of a rocky elevation some 300 feet above the level of the sea, and almost inaccessible on three sides, the city must have defied in former days all foes, whether armed with bow and arrows, or with shield and spears ; and her inhabi- tants must have enjoyed from that eminence with the fine bay stretching away from the foot of their mountain, the lovely scenery which still presents itself on every side. At a short distance one would take this rock for the walls of a huge mediaeval castle in ruins ; but if the traveller coming from Episkopi approach it nearer, he will be surprised at the patience, labour, and ingenuity of the people, who, having selected that excellent spot for their habitation, forced the gigantic rock to take the shape they wished, and to become subservient to their need, and that too with the poor tools at their command, of which traces are still visible. The rock is of common calcareous sandstone, and has been cut, on the east and south sides, into a quite perpendicular face. Forty feet up from the ground a large plateau is cut on the slope, about 100 feet wide, and then scooped 25 feet deep, resembling a moat round a modern fortress. This is all that meets the eye of the traveller when he has approached within a few yards of the rock; but if he ascend the little slope, and from the plateau look into the ditch, he will be astonished at what he beholds. The idea that this ditch was excavated for a defensive purpose alone, in order to render a sudden assault upon the city impossible, is dispelled, and a feeling of admiration arises, when one remarks with CHAP. XL] ASPECT OF CURIUM. 295 what care every inch of available space, both at the base of the rock and in the wall opposite, has been husbanded for the purpose of building another city the city of their dead. Thousands and thousands of rock- cut tombs once occupied this space. Those at the base of the rock resembled perfectly in form and size the tombs at Palaeo-Limassol. In the wall facing- the ditch they were in three regular tiers, but most of them are now destroyed. The first consisted of oven-shaped tombs, forming as it were an arched structure for the support of the upper ones, which were rectangular, much larger, and finished with great care. These were not, as in the first tier, mere cavities made to receive the bodies, but were in reality small sepulchral chambers cut in the rock, in the centre of each of which stood a sarcophagus, which was a part of the chamber itself, and in some instances rose twenty-two inches above the floor, while in others it was sunk below the surface, the edge or rim only appearing. It requires a close examination to convince one that the stone coffin and the sepulchral chamber are of one piece. I was disappointed, however, to find that while the builders had paid much attention to the general plan of these tombs, they had not made them of the same size. In truth, I measured many of them, but did not find two of like dimensions. All differed in this respect from a few inches to a foot. Their average size is the following - height, six feet ten inches; length, eight feet; width, four feet two inches. Not only had the builders honeycombed with tombs the base of the rock, the ditch, and the inner side of the wall, but they had cut their larger sepulchres, consisting of two or more chambers, into the slope of the sur- rounding hills wherever, in fact, they found solid rock. Even the plain below, opposite the southern entrance, extending westward as far as the sea-shore, has not been 2Q6 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. spared ; those are the only tombs which had not been opened long ago. At a later period a Christian village, the church of which, dedicated to Aghios Ermojeni, is still extant, had been built on a portion of this plain, almost at the foot of Curium. In its immediate vicinity I found small square foundations of houses, and some early Christian graves, but digging twenty-seven feet deeper I dis- covered that the whole ground beneath was full of tombs belonging to the early inhabitants of Curium, and occupying at least half a mile in extent. In a dale 200 yards east of this church, and at a depth of twenty-three feet from the surface, I met with a wall made of huge blocks of limestone four feet seven inches thick, cemented with mortar, and going eleven feet nine inches deep ; its length I could not ascertain, as it extended beneath a cotton field belonging to a Turk on one side, and on the otner reached the rock of Curium, where it abruptly ceased. The distance I was able to explore measured thirty-two feet. At another place, about 1000 yards south of this dale, I found a similar wall, but it ran in an opposite direction, also extending beneath fields cultivated and belonging to Turks of Episkopi, who objected to my further exploration on that spot. The tombs in this plain are found at a depth varying according to the distance of the underlying rock, some being as much as iortv feet, while others are onlv seven or ten feet below the surface. None of them had been previously disturbed ; their doors were as hermetically closed as when the last body had been deposited. Unfortunately the roofs of most had fallen in, and the interiors were filled with fragments of rock and earth ; for this reason ie\v objects were got out intact. In the tombs where the roofs were thicker and had not fallen in. the earth had sifted in to the height of several CHAP. XL] TOMBS AT CURIUM. 297 feet, but it was not very difficult to remove. The objects found in them were precisely in the position in which they had been originally placed. In no case were there less than two bodies. The stone slab havinsf been removed from the entrance of one of the o tombs, the first objects found were two earthenware lamps, coarsely and curiously made, lying in the door- way. Inside stood four amphorae of a peculiar shape, upon one of which were traces of Phoenician letters inscribed with black paint ; two of these were on each side of the doorway, and all were in an upright position. Further to the left, where some bones marked the vSpot on which the corpse had lain, was a plain gold ring, in the shape of a modern wedding ring, and two silver bracelets, finishing at the extremities with asp's heads ; also two silver ear- rings, much oxidised, and a bronze mirror with a short handle. On the right-hand side were a bronze cup, almost destroyed by oxidisation, and some earthenware vases with the same kind of ornament as those found at Idalium, namely, concentric circles, zigzag lines, and chequers, but upon a red-coloured ground. From the objects found in this tomb, it is evident that it had contained two bodies, a man on the right, and a woman (probably his wife) on the left. The same peculiarity I remarked here as I had also in some tombs at Idalium and at Ormidia, that the right arm of the skeleton was placed across the breast, the hand resting in a dish at the side of the head. I call the attention of archaeologists to this fact (an exact drawing of the skeleton is seen at page 298), as it is inexplicable to me. I may, however, mention 2g8 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. that among the antiquities discovered by Layard, and no\v exhibited in cases in the British Museum, are several circular bronze bowls, each containing the bones of a hand. But whether he found them in tombs, or under what circumstances, I have not been able to learn. The rock of Curium shows the ravages of time in numerous seams, presenting in some places the ap- pearance of a colossal sponge. Enormous pieces of it, split from top to bottom, are ready to fall at any mo- ment. Blocks, many tons in weight, which had been excavated into tombs, have already fallen, no one knows when, filling up the ditch in several places, and shatter- ing in their fall the tombs beneath. The inhabitants of Episkopi (a village which came into existence during the reign of the Lusignan kings, 1200 A.D., and was held as fief by a brother of Catherine Cornaro) have for generations found in these blocks abundant material for the construction and repair of their dwellings. Curium had been originally the settlement of an Argive colony, as we gather from Strabo (xiv. 683) and Hero- dotus (v. 113), but no special leader is assigned to it, since the explanation of its having been founded by Cureus, a son of Cinyras, as given by Stephanus Byzan- tinus, cannot be accepted. This Argive origin is further confirmed by the importance which Curium attached to the worship of Apollo, and by the fact that among the neighbouring villages or small towns, which appeared to have been leagued with Curium, was one named CHAP. XL] SKETCH OF CURIUM. 2QQ Argos. Possibly Engel is right (i. p. 237) when he conjectures that Dmetor the lasicle, whom Ulysses calls King of Cyprus (Odyssey, xvii. 442), may have been of the Argive family of lasos, and more strictly only King of Curium. With this apparently Greek origin, it is strange that in the revolt raised against the Persians by Onesilos of Salamis, the King of Curium, Stasanor, should have deserted to the Persians (B.C. 498). At an earlier period we find a King Eteandros included among the Cypriote monarchs who paid tribute to Esarhaddon, and whom he directed to send building material for his palace at Nineveh. But on the whole Curium appears to have taken very little part in the public affairs of the island. In the time of Alexander the Great, we find the King Pasicrates sending ships to assist him in the siege of Tyre. The city of Curium had three entrances, one on the south, one on the west, and a third on the north side, near the present road to Paphos ; the first and second are still visible. The southern entrance, a square opening hewn in the rock, is 56 feet wide. A flight of steps led up to the gate, bridge, or whatever else closed this entrance, which is still marked by the fragment of a column standing on its 'Original base. The western entrance faces the bay, and seems to have been the principal one ; but no traces of steps or road leading to it can now be seen. On either side had been a small building (probably watch-towers for a guard), now represented by two shapeless mounds of debris. I explored one of them, and found it exactly 25 feet square ; both were connected with the wall which had encircled the crest of the hill. Entering the city from the southern gateway, and walking a few minutes in a north-easterly direction, one meets with the rums of a semicircular structure, measuring 720 feet in circumference, probably those of a theatre. In the immediate vicinity is a quantity of stones, broken 300 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI, pottery, and other rubbish, with small square foundations underneath, which indicate the business quarter of the city. The area of Curium was much greater than that of Amathus ; and though the foundations of its wall on the north side are only half-an-hour's walk from the southern entrance, yet beyond them there are visible remains of other ancient habitations. Except Xeo- Paphos, there is no place in Cyprus which presents on the surface of the soil so large a quantity of debris. Pococke, who visited Cyprus for a few weeks, speaks of having seen remains of walls at Curium, but they were probably those of the Hippodrome, which are on his route from Paphos. It is singular that the dis- tinguished French archaeologist, Count De Vogue, who in 1862 visited and, as he says, thoroughly explored Cyprus,* does not mention the ruins of Curium. I counted seven spots where shafts of columns, either in marble or granite, are lying half buried in the ground, probably in the same position as when they fell centuries ago ! In one place there are stone steps quite worn out by the busy feet which came and went to a cistern near by, probably a public well, where the Rebeccas of Curium resorted to fill their water jars at evening, and talk over the news and scandal of the day. In another spot a large diota lies broken beneath a rec- tangular stone, as undisturbed as if the crash had occurred but yesterday. Broken lamps, and handles of CHAP. XI.] DISCOVERY OF MOSAIC. 301 a diota inscribed, a large millstone with a copper ring riveted into it, and every where masses of broken pottery strew the ground. Now and then parts of the street pavements are visible, marked with the tracks of chariot wheels, and altogether the scene is one which fires the imagination to conjure up the ancient clays of the city. Hundreds of small mounds mark where ordinary dwelling-houses had stood. The larger ones we may conclude are the debris of public buildings or palaces. I explored some of the larger mounds, near which lay columns, and from the form of their foundations and the fragments of statues which they yielded, I judge them to have been temples. One of these places, where eight shafts of columns of a brownish granite lay imbedded in the ground, at- tracted me more particu- larly, and wishing to measure some of them, I had two removed, and found their diameter to be 22\ inches, and their length 1 8 feet. Under these shafts appeared a mosaic pavement, com- posed of small tesselke of marble and stone, of four different colours-- red, white, brown, and blue, inlaid in different patterns, and forming large lotus flowers. The columns had damaged the pavement considerably in falling, yet the whole design can be easily traced. After their removal the mosaic was found to be entirely broken up at several places, not by the force of the 3O2 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. columns falling upon it, but by some treasure seeker, who, probably after having dug six or seven feet deeper, and having met with the eastern foundation of the build- ing, had broken it up, and rinding nothing beneath, had evidently abandoned the undertaking as unprofitable. This mosaic was laid upon a layer of charcoal about two feet thick, and beneath the charcoal there was a bed of sand about eight inches thick. After carefully surveying the place, I decided to con- tinue the excavations beneath that portion of the mosaic, inasmuch as it sounded quite hollow. In fact, after digging some twenty feet deeper than the treasure hunter had gone, I discovered a gallery excavated in the rock, eleven feet four inches long, four feet ten inches wide, and scarcely four feet high. One end of it evidently communicated with the building above, though only two stone steps, also cut in the rock, now exist. At the other end I found a doorway, carelessly closed by a stone slab. As soon as this stone was removed, there appeared an oven-shaped cavity, filled to within a few inches of the roof with fine earth, which, as usual, had percolated from above. Alter the removal of some three thousand baskets of this earth, another opening appeared in the north wall, which led into an inner room filled in like manner. I descended into the first chamber for the purpose of examining it, and while poking into the remaining earth with my foot-rule, I struck something hard, which turned out to be a bracelet, with several other gold objects in a small heap. This was unusual, as when gold ornaments are discovered in a tomb, they are invariably found mixed with bones, showing that they had been worn by the person buried. I could not even suspect my diggers of having temporarily hidden them there, in order to take them away at their leisure, because when they are removing the filtrated earth from a tomb, thev have no CHAP. XL] TREASURE CHAMBERS OF TEMPLE. 303 light, nor need any inside, and if, by some extraordinary chance, one of them had found those objects, he could have put them into his pocket without fear of detec- tion, as I never had any of my diggers searched, even when strong suspicion existed against any of them. After this discovery, I ordered all the earth to be removed from both chambers ; this is seldom practised when the tomb is composed of one or two chambers only, because when they are filled with earth entirely (and this is unfortunately very often the case), it adheres so tenaciously to the roof that the diggers prefer to remove, by tunnelling, that portion of it from the right and left of the doorway, where they know the objects, if any, are always to be found, rather than to go through the long and laborious process of removing all the earth with baskets. When the second chamber was half emptied, a third one was discovered, and a week later the doorway of a fourth made its appearance. A whole month was spent in simply removing the earth from these four rooms ; but a layer was left in each of them, as usual, about a foot and a half deep. It is between this layer and the pavement that the sepulchral contents are always to be found. This performance my diggers call "trimming the tomb." When this was accomplished the gang was ordered off to some other work. I descended at last, and accompanied by the foreman, and a man carrying a lantern, began to examine dili- gently each room. These rooms had been roughly excavated in the limestone rock, by means of a copper or iron tool scarcely half an inch wide, the traces of which are plainly visible everywhere. Three of the rooms are very nearly of the same size, the fourth is a little smaller. The accompanying plan will show the shape and the relative position of the four chambers. They are beneath CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. the eastern and northern foundations of the mosaic pave- ment. A. Passage facing south, and leading into the rooms : length, eleven feet four inches ; height, three feet eleven inches ; width, four feet ten inches. AA. Passage leading westward : height, two and a-half feet ; width, two feet ; length beyond thirty feet is unexplored. B. Doorways communicating with the rooms ; they are Scale - 32. feel to an Inch Plan of Treasure Chambers of Temple at Curium. all of the same size : height, two feet seven inches : width three feet ; depth of doorway, one foot four inches, c, D, E. Rooms : height fourteen feet six inches ; width, twenty one feet ; length twenty three feet. F. Room on the north-east corner of the mosaic pavement : height, fourteen feet ; width, nineteen feet ; and length twenty feet. G. Two steps cut in the rock, which led into the passage A. After having measured each room and searched in vain for some inscription upon the walls, I retraced my steps to Room c, in which a few weeks before I had discovered the gold ornaments. The layer of earth was searched by my foreman, carefully and delicately, with the point of his knife ; afterwards he passed it twice through his fingers; this done, the man with the CHAP. XI.] TREASURE CHAMBERS OF TEMPLE. 305 lantern took away this earth, again examining it, in case anything had been passed unobserved. The fellow bracelet to that found a month before, was soon discovered not far off, in company with two gold signet- rings having scarabs in agate with Egyptian repre- sentations engraved upon them ; also four pairs of earrings and many gold beads, some of which were still strung alternately with rock-crystal beads upon a gold wire, and had as a pendent a little rock-crystal vase finely cut. I now remarked for the first time the total absence of human remains and sepulchral vases, and concluded that these vaults must have belonged to the building above. Although no statuary or architectural fragments existed above these four rooms, with the exception of the granite columns already mentioned, yet I am con- vinced that the structure must have been a temple to which these vaults must have served as treasure- chambers. \Ve know from Strabo (c. 421) that the treasures at Delphi were kept under the temple, and that during the Holy War Onomarchus set men to search for them, but alarmed by an earthquake they desisted and fled. In the rubbish removed from the surface of the mosaic were found several scarabs and cylinders in serpentine, with rough carvings upon them; a silver ring and three cylinders were also discovered beneath the mosaic pavement, in the direction of the two stone steps near a piece of wood, which may have been from its shape part of a ladder. The pavement in each room was inlaid with blue pebbles on a bed of sand and plaster, as is the practice to this day in Cyprus ; but even with this precaution the vaults must have been always damp, and unfit to be permanent repositories for such valuable objects. I was satisfied by the way in which the stone slab had been carelesslv or hurriedly replaced before 306 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. the entrance, that whatever was to be found in those vaults would be objects which had been left behind under some unexplained circumstance. While reflect- ing thus I was very agreeably interrupted by an exclamation from my foreman, who rising from his reclining position, handed me two gold armlets, weigh- ing over two pounds ; but what to my eyes made them much more valuable, was the inscription in the Cypriote character, beautifully engraved on the inner side of each. The Cypriote inscriptions hitherto found in the western part of the island are read from left to right. That on the gold armlets consists of the following thirteen letters or characters, divided by a perpendicular line into two groups, of which the first is the name of a King of Paphos, who probably offered these armlets to some divinity in that temple. It is as follows : e - te - a - do - ro to - pa - po - ba - si - le - o - s. 'Erea (v) Spov Tou llcu/ou The omission of the v , and also the termination of the genitive o for ov, as in early Greek inscriptions, are peculiarities of the Cypriote dialect, which have already CHAP. XI.] INSCRIBED ARMLETS OF GOLD. 307 been pointed out by philologists. There can hardly be a doubt that this Eteandros, King of Paphos, is the same whose name occurs under the form of Ithuander, in the list of Cypriote kings who brought tribute to the Assyrian monarch Esarhaddon (B.C. 672). This list is engraved on an Assyrian cylinder in the British Museum, and has been published in Mr. George Smith's " History of Assyria," pp. 129, 130, and in the " Records of the Past," iii. p. 108. Mr. Smith, after giving the names of the twelve kings of Palestine who had at this same time submitted to the Assyrian, proceeds with the list of the Cypriote kings as follows : " /Egistos, King of Idalium ; Pithagoras, King of Kidrusi ; Kin . . . . , King of Soli ; Ithuander, King of Paphos ; Erisu, King of Salamis ; Damastes, King of Curium ; Karmes, King of Tamissus ; Damos, King of Ammochosta ; Unasagus, King of Lidini ; Puzus, King of Aphrodisia ten kings of the island of Cyprus.'' All these monarchs sent presents, and Esarhaddon directed them to supply him with building materials for the palace he was building at Nineveh. The " Records of the Past " (loc. cit.) gives a different reading of some of these names : 11 i Ekistuz, King of Edihal = /Egisthus, King of Idalium. " 2. Pisuagura, King of Kittie Pythagoras, King of Citium. "3. Itudagon, King of Pappa= u Dagon is with him,'' King of Paphos. " 4. Erili, King of Sillu = King of Soli. " 5. Damasus, King of Kuri = King of Curium. " 6. Rumitzu, King of Tamisus. " 7. Damusi, King of Amtikhadasta King of Ammo- chosta (modern Famagosta). '- 8, Unassagura, King of Lidini = Anaxagoras ? "9. Butzu, King of Upri .... King of Aphrodisium. 308 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. " The ten Kings of Cyprus which is in the middle of the sea. Altogether twenty-two kings of Syria and the sea-coasts, and the islands, all of them, and I passed them in review before me." The name of Cyprus in the cuneiform inscriptions is Atuan, whence perhaps the Greek name for the island, Akamantis. During the several days employed in exploring Room C, I remained in it the whole time, and every object was discovered in my presence. Scarcely a moment passed without some gold ornament being brought to light. These ornaments include numerous finger-rings, having in the place of a bezel a scarab or scaraboid attached by a swivel. These scarabs and scaraboids are of agate, onyx, carnelian, jasper, sard, chalcedony, and other stones ; they are engraved with designs in intaglio, and had been used as signets. These signet- rings are, some in pure solid gold, and others massive silver ; in a few instances the scarab is encircled in gold, but the ring is in silver and much oxidised. In many other instances the bezel of the ring is of gold, with a design engraved on it in intaglio. A detailed description, along with illustrations of all the important rings, will be found in the Appendix. As specimens of archaic Greek gem engraving, some of the intaglios discovered in this room perhaps surpass in beaut}- and style of execution anything of the kind previously known. It will be seen as a general rule that when the mounting is in solid gold, the engraving on the stone is of indifferent workmanship, and that in fact the artistic value of the ring rises in inverse proportion to its intrinsic value. There are also many gold rings set with stones which have never been engraved, including a large and very fine one with an amethyst and two nude statuettes wrought in gold with some fine granulated work. There is also a CHAP. XL] TREASURE OF CURIUM. 309 number of solid gold rings without any work upon them, and a sceptre or mace in agate. There was found also another class of curiously fashioned rings which have puzzled and still puzzle archaeologists as to their use. They are in the form of coiled snakes, so made that they could not possibly have been worn on a finger, and are of every size ; some have at one end either the head of a lion, goat, gry- phon, or chimaera, while the other extremity finishes in a point not unlikely made to represent a snake's tail. Many of these rings are in solid gold, others are in gold but hollow inside, some in silver gilt, and others again in copper covered with a thin leaf of gold. Signor Alessandro Castellani believes that they have been worn as earrings, and points out that this shape of earring occurs on some of the stone statues found at Golgoi, and also on coins of Tarentum. Some of these rings are finely executed in the so-called Etruscan style, and so competent an authoritv as Mr. C. T. Newton undoubtedly is, considers them to be equal if not superior in their workmanship to the finest JBtruscan jewellery . A large number of earrings were found, mostly in 310 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. pairs and of many different patterns, but those which end in the head of a lion, bull, goat, or chimsera, are the most numerous. Of th~ many gold amulets found, Gold Kings with Chimeras' ami Griffons' Heads. some are in the form of a head of the lion, bull, or calf, but there is one which deserves to be specially men- tioned. It reoresents a Sphinx, and may be compared Ring with Egyptian I >esign. with the figures of that creature which occur as orna- ments on the high crowns worn on some terra-cotta heads found at Citium. Besides the massive gold armlets already described, CHAP. XL] TREASURE OF CURIUM. there are ten or twelve bracelets. Of these, some are in plain solid gold weighing from 200 to 300 Bracelet with Lions' Heads. grammes each ; others have at each extremity a fine lion's head. Two of them consist of gold bands over an inch in width, and have rosettes, flowers, and other designs in high relief, on which are still visible in 312 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. places remains of blue enamel. The most interesting bracelet, however, is one with a large gold medallion in the centre. Within this medallion is an onyx which was originally set in a circle of silver, but the silver was so oxidised that it fell to dust when I tried to remove the earth from the bracelet. From this medallion hang four gold chains, at the extremity of which there is a gold amulet on which is an orna- ment similar to that on the large sarcophagus found at Amathus ; the band of the bracelet is formed by ' a great number of large ribbed gold beads soldered together three by three. Similar bracelets are seen worn by kings on the bas-reliefs from Nineveh in the British Museum. Another large gold medallion was found having beautiful granulated work, and like the other also set with an onyx in the centre, not unlikely representing the pupil of a human eye. This medallion had probably also formed the centre-piece of a bracelet. It has three loops at each side, but no gold beads were found beside it, as in the case of the other bracelet. PLATE XXI. CHAP. XL] TREASURE OF CURIUM. 315 Among the score of fine gold necklaces found in this room, I will mention some here. One is composed of seventy finely wrought gold beads and some twenty- large gold acorns as pendants, with a head of Medusa as a centre-piece. Another is formed of beads having pomegranates and segments of fruits as pendants, and a gold bottle as centre-piece. This bottle can be opened, and probably contained some delicate scent for the use of the Cypriote lady who wore it. A third necklace consists of a quantity of alternate lotus flowers and buds in gold, with an Egyptian head as centre- piece. A fourth has a number of small carnelian and onyx bugles alternating with very fine granulated gold beads and a number of gold amulets as pendants. A fifth is composed of alternate carnelian and gold beads with a carnelian cone (symbol of Venus ?) in the centre. A sixth is made of gold and rock-crystal beads, with a beautiful little vase of crystal as pendant ; nearly the whole of this necklace was found strung on a gold wire in its original order. But the finest necklace is one made of a thick solid gold cord having at both extremi- ties lions' heads of very fine granulated work, and with a curiously made gold knot forming the clasp at the end. Among the diadems some consist of thick gold bands and have concentric circles or lotus flowers embossed on them, while others are of thin gold leaves, with figures of animals and flowers stamped upon them. Of the vessels found in this room the principal one is a gold bowl with repousse work representing two rows of palm trees, antelopes, and aquatic birds. In the design will be seen the same mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian influence which is the characteristic of early Phoenician art. This bowl has been published by Mr. Ceccaldi in the " Revue Archeologique." It appears to be of a much earlier epoch than the armlets of the Paphian king. In this room were also found three CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI alabasti in rock-crystal, a material which seems to have been valued as much if not more than gold. The largest of the three has a funnel and top in gold se- cured by a tiny gold chain to one of its handles. I Gold Patera. believe that this alabastos is quite unique of its kind. I also found a very large rock-crystal ring not engraved, and a seal of the same material witii the design of a man and a quadruped roughly engraved or cut on it. There were found in the same room a number of Babylonian cylinders, three of which have Assyrian inscriptions. On one of them Prof. A. H. Sayce of Oxford Universitv reads the name of r.n earlv Chaldean PLATE XXII. PLATE XXUI. PLATE XXIV. PLATE XXV. GOLD NECKLACE, SPHINX, AND EARRINGS. 7. Kneraved signets \vitli gold swivel S. Egyptian scarab. i:us \\iih silver swivel /. I.adv's silver belt with s<>lc] ornament CHAP. XI.] TREASURE OF CURIUM. 325 king, and gives the date of it between 3000 and 2000 B.C. These objects were all found scattered in this room as if they had been dropped amid hurry and confusion, and from other indications also I am of opinion that this chamber had contained a quantity of treasure which had probably been successfully carried away by the priests, when their temple was on the point of destruction. Room I) contained over 300 articles in silver and silver-gilt, consisting of vases in the shape of the lecythos, cylix, and ce-nochoe, goblets, bowls, and dishes, massive armlets and bracelets, chietiv terminating in PLATE XXVII. GOLD ORNAMENTS. FROM CURIUM PLATE XXVIII. GOLD ORNAMENTS FROM CURIUM. CHAP. XI.] TREASURE OF CURIUM. 329 placed apart by themselves. Unfortunately the upper and the lower one having come more in contact with the earth with which the room was filled, had suffered considerably, and are now broken. The centre one is almost intact, bears traces of gilding, and has a design in embossed or repousse work, which presents a mixture of the Egyptian and Assyrian styles of art, but with the addition of Greek influence, from which it may be inferred to have been executed by Phcenicians or Cypriotes. Repeated in different places will be seen the peculiar form of ornament, having the appearance of a sacred tree, which occurs on the four corners of the sculptured sarcophagus discovered at Amathus. 33 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. There is now known a considerable series of these silver or silver-gilt bowls, found always on the tracks of the ancient Phoenicians, and always presenting a mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian in the subjects of representation and in the artistic treatment. Where hieroglyphics occur on them they are generally false, as if made by persons who did not understand them, and that those persons were Phoenicians there is no doubt. Among the bowls of this class found in 1875 at Palestrina, is one with a Phoenician inscription on it. (Gazette Archeologique, 1877, plate 5.) The other antiquities of the tomb where they were found were of a character which recalls the splendour of the Homeric age, when the iliSo^e? TroAvScuSaAot supplied the Greeks with such vessels. Achilles (Iliad, xxiii. 741) offers a silver vase as a prize in the contests at the obsequies of Patroclus, and this bowl was famous, the poet adds, all the work! over for its beauty; the high antiquity and Homeric splendour of the bowls found at Ca^re in the Regulini-Galassi tomb is also a point which should be considered. These bowls are now in the Vatican, and will be found engraved, Museo Etrusco Vat. i. pi. 63- 66. Another found at Salerno in Italy is published, Mon. dell' Inst. Arch. ix. pi. 44, with an article on it in the Annali (1872, p. 243) by Eignana, who assigns its date to the time of Psammetichus, B.C. 666, or of Assurbampal, B.C. 680-667. Two found at Dali in 1851-1853 are now in the Louvre, and are engraved and discussed bv Eongperier in the Musee Napoleon III. pi. lo-n. I found also one in bronze and one in gold. Of this same class are the bronze bowls found by Eayard at Nineveh. Another silver patera has a thin leaf of gold inside, and on this are several rows of animals executed in a manner which appears to me to be Assyrian ; the silver is considerably oxidised, but the work inside is quite CHAP. XL] TREASURE OF CURIUM, distinct. Another patera, which was found bv itself with several gold leaves inside, is also engraved, and 332 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. is of pure Egyptian workmanship ; at least the repre- sentations upon it are Egyptian. Among the silver vases is a goblet with a row of aquatic birds round its rim ; also several other paterae with Mowers and other ornaments in relief. In Room E were found two bronze lamps, three fibulas of the same metal, fourteen alabaster vases, groups in terra-cotta representing various scenes ot domestic life, horses and warriors, women carrying jars on their heads. Deserving of notice is a little chariot in calcareous stone carrying two bearded men, and drawn by two horses whose trappings are identical with those on the sarcophagus of Amathus. There were also many terra-cotta vases with designs and with figures in relief. One having a cover and four handles is remarkable for its shape and size, as well as for the richness of the designs painted on it. It was found at the entrance of Room D, leading to Room E, broken to pieces, and belongs to the earliest class of Greek vases. One would hardly hesitate to say that this vase must have come from Athens, if he were not assured of its having been found at Curium in Cyprus ; and even then it would still be allowable to assume that it had been imported from Athens in ancient times ; so close in all points, except perhaps its remarkable size and beauty, is the resemblance between it and the earliest Athenian pottery. The characteristic of this class of pottery is that the entire surface ot the vase is so far as possible covered by geometric patterns arranged in parallel rows and sec- tions divided into squares. In addition to these geometric patterns, we have on the same vase occa- sionally animal figures, most generally the horse and the swan, but for what reason the preference is given to these two, it is impossible to determine. It PLATE XXIX. CHAP. XI.] ARCHAIC VASE FROM CURIUM. 333 seems at first sight that while the geometric patterns are executed with precision, as if from long practice, the animal forms on the other hand are exceedinelv o . rude, as if they were the first attempts at drawing figures. The geometric patterns, it will be seen, are such as are most naturally evolved in the processes of working in metal, and in weaving. For instance, the rows of spirals which form a frequent and very graceful element of the design on these vases are nothing more than a simple application of what is seen in a Terra-cotta ocnochoe. Ht. 14 inches. Vase with rude design. piece of gold or bronze wire with its tendency to curl into spirals. The chess-board and other rectilineal- patterns are no less obviously derived from the process of weaving. It is true that an immense number of vases with geometric patterns, and some also on which rude figures of horses and swans are introduced beside the patterns, have been found in Cyprus, and are no doubt of local manufacture. Rut they differ conspicuously from vases of the Athenian class in the adaption of the patterns. Instead of the graceful lines of spirals for instance which may be seen on the Curium vase, we find on the Cypriote pottery almost innumerable patterns of concentric circles disposed in rows, inter- 334 CYPRUS. [CHAP, XI. secting each other and grouped in many ways. But the beauty of the spiral is lost, and in its place we have an entirely mechanical pattern, which has not arisen out of any process of workmanship, such as weaving or metal working, and is therefore not a primary pattern. It is rather a debasement of the spiral, and as such may be of a comparatively later date in the development of the art of potter}-. From the frequency with which the same system of decoration which occurs on the Curium vase is found on early Greek pottery on the one hand, and on the other hand on objects of bronze found in Italy and north of the Alps, it has been argued that it had been brought into the peninsulas of Italy and Greece from the north of Europe. From the fact which appears from comparative philology, that the Aryan races were acquainted before their separation with the processes of weaving and metal working, and from the extreme probability of the patterns in question having been evolved from these processes, it is argued that the Aryans had brought this system of decoration with them in their descent over the Alps and Balkans, down into Italy and Greece, and accordingly the system of decora- tioTi has been named "Indo-European" by Professor Conze. This theory has been recently examined very carefully by Helbig, and the result of his enquiry is given in the " Annali dell' Institute di Correspondenza Archeologica," 1^75, p. 221. Room F. is a little smaller than the other three, and had a doorway on its western wall, which led into a long narrow passage also hewn in the rock, the ter- mination of which it was impossible for me to find. The foul air existing within ; its narrowness, preventing a person either from standing or turning himself; together with the earth which has filtered through its porous roof, render its thorough examination a matter ol CHAP. XL] TREASURE CHAMBER. 335 utter impossibility. Nevertheless I had explored it for 30 feet, when the lights went out, and could not be re- lighted. The heat was great and very oppressive ; crab- like, we crawled back, happy to have escaped suffocation. In that tunnel at different distances I found seven bronze caldrons. Four were broken, I fear by the digger who preceded me, though he asserts that they were already in that condition ; the other three I brought out. They all bear traces of having been placed on the fire, and are much oxidised. The objects discovered in Room F were in bronze, copper, or iron, such as can- delabra of different shapes, from seven inches to four feet high. One of them is ornamented with a nude female figure holding a cone over her head, and for this reason, probably, a represen- tation of Venus ; there were found also lamps, large bowls, having handles in the shape of lotus flowers ; one large bowl, seventeen inches in diameter, with embossed work in an Egyptian style, resembling that of the gold bowl previously described ; a horse bit, a female sandal, spear heads, vases, cups, buttons, mirrors, anklets, bracelets, armlets, an iron dagger, with part of its ivory handle, and a series of bronze ornaments from an iron chair or throne which had collapsed into a heap. These ornaments consist of heads of bulls with ena- melled eyes, large lions' heads, and many other objects, such as legs of antelopes, and lions' claws ; also a short bronze object ending in three heads of bulls, with jewels and pastes in the eyes and foreheads (which 336 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. may have been a sceptre), quadrupeds, birds, tools, maces, weights, statuettes, fibulae, &c. Having carefully ascertained that there was nothing more to be found in these chambers, I endeavoured, by boring at different places, to find the continuation of the tunnel AA, but without success. At twentv-two feet CHAP XL] TREASURE OF CURIUM. 337 below tne surface I struck the solid rock in which the tunnel is excavated. Further northward had stood a large number of oblong buildings, the foundations of which are still visible here and there through the mass of overlying stones. In general they are very Large bronze I'.owl engraved. small, the largest measuring only 33 feet in length by 27 in width. The last ruin on the north of Curium, outside its walls (and, I may add, the only one which has pre- served something of its former shape), is that of the Hippodrome. Parts of its walls are still standing. The greatest length is 1296 feet by 84 in width. The height 33$ CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. of the remaining walls is unequal at some places, being twenty-one feet and at others scarcely eight. There are no traces of chariot carccrcs, and probably there never were any. Compared with the Hippodrome of Olympia, this one is insignificant, being scarcely a fourth of its length. No architectural remains or fragments of statues were to be seen among the ruins which cover the area. Outside the Hippodrome the ground is over- grown with bushes of carob, showing that in ancient times it was thickly wooded. More than once, in visiting the ruins of Curium, I ran the risk of falling into narrow dark pits, made almost invisible by the bushes grown over them. Desirous to know their depth, I threw in some stones, but no sound reverberated ; they seemed bottomless. \Yith the help of a short ladder, at one extremity ot which two strong ropes were firmly tied, one of my diggers, bolder than the rest, offered, in the hope of a reward, to be lowered into one of them. The ladder was introduced into the mouth of the pit, the man holding fast to it, while four men gradually slackened the ropes until he reached the bottom. After all it was not such an abyss, being only about forty feet deep. Some bushes which had grown up inside, together with the quantity of earth washed in by the rain, had deadened the sound of the stones. I confess it required a certain amount of courage to venture for the first time into one of these pits, the favourite resort ot asps and other snakes, in which the site of Curium abounds. Afterwards I descended in like manner into several of them, and measured one which seemed to be among the largest. It gave the following dimensions : depth 37 feet, greatest width 14 feet ; the bottom was rounded something like that of an amphora, and scooped into the solid rock, which afterwards was coated with a PLATE XXX. liRONZE OBJECTS FROM CURIUM. CHAP. XL] EXPLORATION OF CHAMBER. 341 kind of cement like pitch. I came to the conclusion, after having in this way visited several of them, that they might have been cisterns. Yet if so, where did the water come from to fill them ? The occasional rain, which in Cyprus seldom falls more than two or three times a year, would have been too uncertain a source of supply, and also insufficient to fill such depths. They may have been used as granaries. I could find no traces of any aqueduct in the city, but searching outside the walls, a few yards west of the Hippodrome, I found the remains of an ancient aqueduct appearing scarcely two feet above the ground. Exca- vating southward in a direct line with the city, I met with its continuation within the walls. This aqueduct was built in a very economical manner. The rock, whenever found at the desired elevation, was hollowed seven inches deep, and eleven inches wide, so as to allow the passage of a certain volume of water ; and when the rock was wanting, a few blocks of stone were sunk, scooped out, and connected with the others ; thus the aqueduct was continued for miles with little expense, and fully answered the purpose for which it was built. It will be seen also that we have here a characteristic example of the way in which the Greeks adapted their system of water conduits to the physical formation of the districts, cutting tunnels and canals rather than bridging over valleys, as did the Romans. It is in consequence of this that so few remains of ancient Greek aqueducts are now known. The Greeks seem to have followed the analogy of Nature, in which, in their own country, they saw the water collected on the hills, passing for miles along subterranean courses, and issuing fresh and cool at the coast. In exploring it beyond the Hippodrome, the ground being level, the conduit can yet be seen just above the surface for an uninterrupted distance of 210 yards : then it disappears, 342 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. to reappear when the ground is on a level with the Hippodrome."' Following the traces of the aqueduct north of Curium, always among very thick hushes from which start flocks of partridges and francolins, I reached the ruins of the temple of Apollo Hylates, this locality being called at the present day by the; inhabitants of * Mr. .Murray, the writer of the classical port Ton of the article " Aqueduct." in the cjth Edition of the " Encyclopaedia Pritannica," describes what is known of the ancient Greek systems of water supply, of which the most celebrated was that of Samos. constructed while Polycrates was tyrant of that island, the engineer being Eupalinos, who had previously obtained some fame for his water works at Megara. carried out about i;.c. 625. At Samos the difficulty lay in a hill which rose between the town and the water source. Through, this hill Eupa- linos cut a tunnel 8 feet broad. 8 feet high, and 4200 feet long, and built within this tunnel a channel 3 feet broad and 11 inches deep. The water was all the way open to the air, and was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry and thence spread througli the town. In Athens, under the rule of Pisistratus (u.c. 560). a similarly extensive, but less difficult series of works was completed to bring water from the hills Hymettus. Pentelicus, and Parnes. Pentelicus supplied a conduit which can still be traced from the modern village of Chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of fifty or sixty yards. The diameter of these shafts is four to five feet, and the number of them still preserved is about fifty. Some of these conduits continue to supplv Athens to this day. and are described as marvels of enterprise and skill. (See E. C'urtius. " Ueber die Wasser- bauten der lleilenen." in the Archajol. Zcitung. 1847. page TO.) In Sicily the works by which Empedocles, it is sa-id. brought the water into the town of Selinus are no longer visible, but it is probable that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels an.d pipes laid under ground. The system of conduits in Syracuse, which Thucydides says (x. JOG) the Athenians partly destroyed in the Sicilian expedition, still supplies the town with an abundance of drinkable water. An example ot what appears to have been the earliest form ot aqueduct's in (ireece has been discovered in the island of C'os beside the fountain llurinna on Mount (. )romedon. It consists of a bell-shaped chamber built underground in the hill side to receive the water of the spring and keep it cool. A shaft, rising from the top of the chamber, supplies fresh air. CHAP. XI.] ANCIENT AQUEDUCT. 343 the neighbouring villages Apellon. Its ancient name was Kyle, and it was from this that the epithet Hylates was derived. The town itself, some debris of which are seen a little east of the temple, appears to have been insignificant. The mass of stones on the ground shows that the temple had been a magnificent edifice. It probably faced the sea, from which it was only a thousand yards distant, and was entirely surrounded by a forest. This temple was seventy-nine feet in length, and thirty-two in width. Its columns, in white marble and bluish granite, are lying scattered in every direction. They are of different dimensions. The largest measure three feet two inches in diameter ; the next in size two feet ; and the smallest sixteen inches. Portions of the latter stand on their bases. This spot is \vell worthy of systematic explora- tion, but that could not be accomplished without ample funds. I dug along the eastern foundations for several weeks, and laid bare a part of the pavement, but met with no sculptured remains, except a few terra-cotta warriors with helmet and shield, and the fragments of a very large earthenware jar inscribed in Greek letters with a dedication to Apollo Hylates. The latter were found beneath the stone pavement of the temple. Within the area of the temple I found also several mutilated Greek inscriptions, on one of which occurs the name of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Cleopatra, Near the temple are the ruins of a rectangular building which may have been the abode of the priests of Apollo. At this point the view from the west is imposing in the extreme. Rising abruptly from the sea is the promontory, I believe, spoken of by Strabo, from whence, he says, those who touched the altar of Apollo with their hands were precipitated into the sea. What meaning may have been behind this we do not CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI know. Engel (ii. p. 667) thinks it must have been as an act of atonement for bloodshed that persons were hurled from the rock. He points out that the worship of Apollo here was particularly that of a "purifying" god, and remarks also that Cephalos, who was the first to leap from the Leucadian rock to purify himself from the blood of Procris, was connected with the mythology of Cyprus. In a ravine south-east of these rums I came upon a pit lull of broken statues, and in its vicinity a little mound containing a great mass of hands, feet ; and CHAP. XL] TEMPLE OF APOLLO HYLATES. 345 legs, belonging to the same ; it is probable that these statues had come from the temple of Apollo. These fragments were all in calcareous stone, and bore evidence of having been purposely destroyed. Among them were two white marble statuettes about two feet high and a small one of bronze 7^ inches high, probably representing Apollo, of fine Greek workmanship. On some bases of statuettes in calcareous stone found in the mound mention- ed before, the name of Apollo is inscribed in Cypriote characters. In another locality, always in the ravine above mentioned but farther west, I dis- covered some twentv- five statuettes in careous stone, senting a youth seated a f t e r the oriental fashion, and having a number of amulets a- round his neck. On the base of some of them is also inscribed the name of Apollo in Cypriote characters. I may remark here that statuettes identi- cal with these have been found everywhere in the island, at Golgoi, Dali, Amathus, Curium, Carpass, etc., etc. The harvest season having commenced, I was obliged to let my men return to their homes, and give up the cal- repre- Bronzc Figure. 346 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI explorations. I therefore prepared to return to Larnaca. Instead, however, of taking the regular route to Limas- sol, I resolved to keep to the coast, and go around the promontory of Curias. The country from Curium to the Cape is an open and very fertile plain ; yet on account of the torrents from the mountains north of Episkopi, which in winter bring- down and cover the fields with roots, stones, and dead trees, the riding is rendered difficult and slow, and I spent more than two hours in reaching the Cape. On the way, I passed an old Greek church, dedicated to St. George who has now as many shrines in Cyprus as Apollo formerly had temples. It had some large capitals of columns taken from Curium, and some early Christian mor- tuary cippi. East of this church, some ten minutes' ride, is a little village of about fifty houses, all stone-built, inhabited exclusively by Christians, called Acrotiri. Further east of this village arise the commanding ruins of a large Byzantine Greek convent, with a church in a tolerably good condition, dedicated to Aghios Nicholas. This edifice, made of square blocks of lime- stone, is oblong, two stories high, and is erected in the centre of a square, measuring ^85 yards each way, for- merly surrounded by a thick hedge of box-wood. On the lintel of a doorway cut in the eastern wall, to the right of the great entrance, are sculptured five shields, the centre one having the arms of the Lusignan kings. CHAP. XL] GREEK CONVENT. 347 The material used in the decoration, if not in the building of this convent, and the many marble columns strewn over the ground, are all spoils from Curium. Xearing Cape Curias I passed some small ruins, where I observed traces of a few ancient habitations and several tombs, which appeared to me of great antiquity. The guide I took from Acrotiri insisted that this place is called Curi, and that a few years ago a French " Milordo " came expressly from Limassol to visit it, and employed several of his fellow towns- men of Acrotiri to dig at this place ; in fact the ground bears evident traces of having been but recently disturbed. I alighted from my mule, and had some tombs examined, and from the pottery extracted I am sure that they are coeval with the tombs at Curium. Passing the Cape, my mule was startled by the sudden flight from a bush, of what appeared to me to be a cat; and the guide assured me, that both at the Cape, and near to Acrotiri, there are wild cats, which hunt and destroy the asps abounding there. I recollected to have read somewhere, perhaps in Dapper, that the " Caloyers " of the convent of Acrotiri raised and trained a peculiar breed of cats, which they imported 348 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI. from Constantinople, to kill the asps in their neigh- bourhood, and that at the tolling of a particular bell in the convent, these cats would come in to be fed twice a day, and then return to their work of destruction. I suppose that it is in reference to these cats that the ancient promontory of Curias is now known as Cape Gatto, or Delle Gatte. After an absence of nearly six months I arrived once more in Larnaca, and very glad was I to enjoy again the endearments of home. Unfortunately I found my wife very much depressed and out of health. The lonely life she had led for so many years, with the exception of an occasional visit to Europe, and a few months in America, began to show its effects on her constitution, and I felt that it was my duty to bring my explorations to a close. Even had this not been the case, the work of exploring which I had undertaken on my return from the United States in 1873, was to have been carried on at the instance of the Trustees of the New York Museum, but owing to the financial crisis which followed in that city, I had to proceed at my own expense, and this had absorbed almost all my private means. However, I con- sidered myself very fortunate in having been able so successfully to complete my explorations with the re- sources I possessed. The accidental death of Dr. Siegismund, a few months previous, while visiting one of the tombs I had ex- cavated at Amathus, affected my wife very seriously, and she was ever after in dread lest I should suffer a similar fate. It required no small courage and devotion for one brought up in the refinements and luxuries of a great city, to pass more than ten years amid the arid life of a small oriental town, where, with the exception of one or two ladies of the Consular corps, which was continually being changed, there was neither society nor CHAP. XL] DEPARTURE FROM CYPRUS. recreation. The excitement of my discoveries was her sole diversion, and though the cares and solicitudes of a mother prevented her from following me to the more distant scenes of my excavations, yet in many ways more quiet and unpretending' she afforded me very valuable assistance. I saw plainly that she longed to revisit her native land, and great therefore was her delight when she heard of my intention to leave Cyprus soon, for ever, and return to America. In accordance with this resolve I packed up all my recent discoveries and shipped them direct to the New York Museum, with the exception of the gold objects found at Curium, which I decided were too valuable to be risked under any but our immediate care. Having obtained a six months' leave of absence from the American Government, we took our last walk in the environs of Larnaca, where the Marina appears to its best advantage. Passing the Salines, the site of my first excavations, and the ruins of Phaneromene on our right, we were soon in the fields, which were yet in all their vernal glory. Pink and white anemones, dark blue irises, intensely scarlet poppies, golden mar- guerites, and a thousand lovely blossoms, of which I do not even know the names, embroidered the plains with the most brilliant colours imaginable. We crushed the wild thyme and mignonette at every step, and yet they seemed to offer us their incense at parting. A torrid sun would soon leave all a dreary waste. Mount Santa Croce seemed to follow us through all our walk, ever changing in aspect, now cool and brown as clouds floated over it, now glowing crimson in the setting sun. The lighted minarets of Larnaca and the Marina shone in the distance, and as we neared the latter we heard the voice of the Mna::ln calling the faithful to prayer. As we entered our own spacious garden, which had been reclaimed from the sea-shore, with its lovely 350 CYPRUS. [CHAP. XI roses such as bloom only in Cyprus, its vine-covered walls, and the pretty conceits with which my wife's fancy had embellished it, a slight shade of regret passed over us, as we thought how soon neglect might turn the spot, then the admiration of visitors, once more into an unsightly waste, An extensive terrace overlooked the garden, and as we walked on it in the moonlight on that our last evening, a magical charm seemed to have been thrown on the garden and on the rippling gleaming waves of the Mediterranean, so that while gazing on the scene we almost forgot the dark side of life in Cyprus, and a sense of tenderness stole into our hearts for the land we were leaving on the morrow. APPENDICES. THE RINGS AND GEMS IN THE TREASURE OF CURIUM. BY C. W. KING. M.A. TREASURE OF CURIUM. THE Greek islands always appear as the cradle of the art of gem-engraving, in the very scanty notices of the history of that art preserved to us by ancient writers. The earliest of all engravers mentioned by name is Mnesarchus, more known in after times as father of Pythagoras, who, expelled by the Athenians along with his countrymen from one of the islands (probably Lemnos)* settled with them at Samos, some time before B.C. 570, where (as Apuleiust says) " he sought for fame rather than riches by engraving gems in the most skilful manner." In the same island Theodorus, half a century later, immortalised his name by the far-famed signet of Polycrates, so prized by the owner as to be deemed an equivalent for all the other gifts of over-kind Fortune. And by a remarkable coincidence, the only record remaining of the selling-price of an intaglio in ancient times is connected with Cyprus, for Pliny $ relates that in the century following the date of Theodorus, the celebrated musician Ismenias was so taken with the description of an emerald engraved with an Amymonc then on sale in Cyprus, that he sent to buy it at the price named (six pieces of gold, a large sum for those frugal days of Greece^ and complained that the gem was insulted when its price had been beaten down to four ; and truly, if this Amymone equalled in artistic value some of the glyptic works in the collection now to be described. ever\" man ot taste will sympathise in tin: whimsical remonstrance of the ancient 354 APPENDIX. dilettante. In his time, on the mainland of Greece, the signet-rings of the highest class (as appears from Euripides' allusions)* were made entirely of gold, and passages of Aristophanes and Xenophon clearly show that in general they were of base metal, of trifling value, not works of art but articles of household use.t Atteius Capito, the noted antiquary of the Augustan age, makes the same general remark for Italy, that the earliest signets were cut in the metal of the ring, whether that were gold or iron, $ And in Southern Italy, where, at a later period, gem engraving so wonderfully flourished, the cemeteries of the first colonists from Greece (Cumae for example) yield nothing in this way to explorers except poorly executed signet-rings of silver. The same conclusion may be confidently deduced from the appearance of the coinage of different localities, so dissimilar are both manner and technical execution of the dies cut by artists accustomed to work in the ''hard stones," and by those who have had during all their career only to deal with metal. The discovery of the Treasure of Curium is a true revela- tion of the history of the Glyptic Art, in its rise and progress from the earliest times down to the beginning of the fifth century before our era ; and an attempt has been made in the following catalogue so to classify the various families of gems it contains as to illustrate their connection with each other, and trace their development into complete perfection a state, fortunately for us. just attained when the whole accumulation of the donaria of many generations was con- signed in hurried alarm to its long hiding-place. ASSYRIAN ART. Evidences of Assyrian domination were naturally to be looked for in an island whose kings are recorded as doing homage to Assurbanipal, upon his expedition to Egypt, B.C. 620. Of one of those very kings. Eteandros of Paphos. the * Speaking of Agamemnon's and Ph;cdra's signets. + Heing used for securing the receptacles of scores, before locks u ere invented. They could be bought for half a drachma ; sc'-.' Thesmopho- riaxusa-. 425 ; Anabasis, iv. 7. + ' >uoted by Macrobius, Sat. vii. 13. \ Compare the coins struck in Cilicia under the Persian domination, and the contemporary mintages of the mainland of Greece. TREASURE OF CURIUM. 355 votive bracelets are the most valuable historical monument in the Treasure if they do not surpass in interest any former discovery of the kind. Together with them were deposited three cylinders, of high importance on account of their early date and excellent workmanship : one of them designating itself the signet " of the servant of Xarani-Sin," and which it is no very great straining of probabilities to regard as the offering of some Assyrian official stationed in the island, as '' Resident" at the court of some tributary prince. If the more remote Crete was subject to the " Medes" in the joth Olympiad (B.C. 750), when, according to Pliny,* Dipoenus and Scyllis emigrated thence and brought the art of sculpturing stone into Sicyon Cyprus, lying just off the coast of Asia, must naturally have been held yet more firmly in the grasp of the great Assyrian conqueror. In addition to the three cylinders found amongst the donaria, many others were dug up in the debris of the Temple, and amongst the other ruins of Curium. These are all of small size (about an inch long) and of the commonest workmanship, in the cheapest material, green serpentine, the evident signets of plebeians. The only excep- tions are one of superior finish in black haematite, and another yet smaller in fine sard, engraved with a man stand- ing, with arms crossed on his breast; before whom sits a gryphon looking up at him, backed by a god, under whom reclines an antelope. Very remarkable for material is a third in dark blue glass ; but whatever design it may original!}' have borne, is now entirely effaced by the corrosion of its surface. It is possible that these scattered cylinders were not in wear at the time of the destruction of the city, but had been deposited, as memorials, in the foundations of public build- ings at the time of their erection. Such was undoubtedly the Assyrian custom ; for, not to speak of isolated cases, M. Place (Botta's successor in the explorations of Xineveh) found in one part of the city wall, a layer of ' ; many thousand " cylinders, laid there as the building first rose to the level of the platform : on the same principle as we now deposit the current coins of the realm upon similar occasions. * Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 4. 356 APPENDIX. EGYPTIAN AND PHOENICIAN WORKS. "Whenever Homer has occasion to mention any article of ornament or elegance, he invariably assigns its authorship either to some god, or else to the Sidonians, which probably meant the same thing. It is a Phoenician trader who offers for sale to the Queen of Syra a necklet of gold, hung at intervals with amber pendants. Sidonian women stain ivory carvings purple for the decoration of household furniture and of horse trappings : the six-gallon crater, offered by Achilles for a prize at the funeral games, was without its equal in the world, "because it was wrought by Sidonian craftsmen, and carried by Tynan mariners to King Thoas of Lemnos : " and the elaborate corselet of Agamemnon, damascened with gold, tin. and niello the gift of Cinyras of Paphos. could only have been produced by a Phoenician armourer.*" The bronze dishes found in such abundance in the palace cellars at Nineveh, with their curious ornamentation by incised lines, are now known to be importations from Phoenicia : equally so were the magnificent silver paterae of the Temple of Curium, with their impartial mixture of Assyrian and Egyptian types. For the Phoenicians, unequalled as mechanics, had no national style of their own : they were a race totally devoid of original genius, taking for models the sculptures of Assyria or of Egypt, ac- cording as either empire chanced to include their narrow strip of seaboard within its own limits. But they have the merit of being the fathers of European gem-engraving, for they imported their scarabati as articles of trade in their stock of trinkets, wherever they carried their commerce a fact of which the deposits at Tharros in Sardinia, equally with the donaria at Curium, furnish abundant proof. The Phoenicians had the best of reasons for their predilection for the scaralueus form over that of the cylinder or cone universally prevalent with their first instructors in the art of engraving on the " hard stones ; " for the insect was the special symbol of Ptha. " the great artificer," their own Mulciber. " mighty king," sire of their national protectors, the Cabin', "great ones." those waster masons whose worship they spread wherever they planted colonies. It mav be asked with good reason whv so manv scaraba^i TREASURE OF CURIUM. 357 among the gems here catalogued bearing regular Egyptian types, should be assigned to Phoenician rather than to Egyptian artists ; and what are the tests employed for dis- tinguishing the two manufactures ? The distinction rests mainly upon two observations of material, and of execution. Scarabaei, found under circumstances that leave no doubt as to their native origin, as on the fingers and in the mummy cases of deceased Egyptians, are generally cut with the graver in soft stone (steaschist), often coated with blue enamel; or else have been made by stamps in clay vitrified ; and the very small proportion, under similar conditions, that are found in "hard stones " have their devices roughly scratched into the field in away that betrays the most rudimentary stage of the lapidary's art. There is again a distinction of yet greater strength, as indicating a total dissimilarity of ideas in the invention of these signets. In all Egyptian scarabsei the figures of animals, even when exhibited on a larger scale than the other details of the type, are merely parts of one hieroglyphic legend, and are crowded up with a multiplicity of other symbols required for the completion of the sense. On the contrary, in Phoenician work, the hieratic figure whether of god, hawk, or sphinx, becomes the type of the signet, loses its conventional stiffness, is cleared from the crowd of accessories, is drawn correctly, and executed with a precision that proves the mechanical part of the engraver's art to have already been carried to a degree of perfection never afterwards surpassed. Animals, for the most part imaginary, gryphons and sphinxes, but often ac- curately copied from nature, form the great staple of Phoenician art, as the following list (which gives a far more complete view of the whole subject than has hitherto been in anyone's power to present) will abundantly exhibit. The human figure, in a mere mortal sense, they never attempted. It is evident that all their gems served the double purpose of signets and of talismans, all embodying religious ideas; and that even the real animals so often represented only received this honour as being the attributes and by ready transition the emblems of deities whose good graces the wearer hoped in this material \vay to secure for himself. These Phoenician works were evidently the models followed by the primitive Greeks, of whom the first essays in glyptics are the rudely polished and perforated pebbles found in the /Egean Islands (to which attention has only recently 358 APPENDIX. been directed), bearing figures of animals, generally in forced attitudes, of the same kinds as those chosen by the Phoenician artists. The Greeks, however, like the Tyrrhenes of Italy (starting equally from Phoenician rudiments), following their natural genius, soon passed on to the human figure and the subjects of common life ; and some of the gems in this collection, the Three Cypriote Warriors for example, or the Two Combatants, afford most interesting specimens of their apprenticeship in the art. They discarded the scar aba us, or complete figure of the Beetle of Ptha. which had no religious recommendation in their belief, and adopted the simplified scarabcoid, a thick elliptical disk of sard or calcedony, still retaining its perforation, necessary for cither mounting in a swivel ring, or wearing on a string tied round the wrist like the primitive Assyrian cylinder a fashion retained to the present day by some of the hill tribes of Northern India. In the whole Treasure but one gem occurs set in a ring, in our sense of the word, and even that one appears devised as an expedient to remedy a partial destruction of the stone. It is indeed very probable that some of the intagli of mystic de- vices, here classed with the Phoenician, are really the works of Cypriote engravers, for the religion of the island was, to the last, strongly tinctured with the notions of her earliest colonisers. GREEK WORKS. The indisputably Greek works comprised amongst the votive offerings, form only a small proportion of the whole: but those few are of extraordinary merit, and fortunately include incomparable specimens of the two branches of glyphics : engraving in metal, and in "hard stones.'' Of these, the earliest in date are clearly those cut in the actual metal ot the ring, as the Hercules \\ith the Nemean lion, and the very singular type of the Two Sirens with wreaths and lyres: but two of the intagli in the other class equal or perhaps surpass in every point of artistic value any gem work previously known in the archaic style these are the Rape of Proserpine, and the Boreas and Orithyia. Remarkable also for fine execution are the archaic Nemesis with the Serpent: the Victory with gre-at wings in the " Perfect" style, and the Sleeping Mound, and some others; which from the TREASURE OF CURIUM. 359 complete knowledge of drawing they display, cannot be referred to a period much anterior to the concealment of the Treasure, One remark must be made here on the nature of their subjects, for they afford a proof of a still early period of Greek taste : they include no scenes from the Epic Cycle, which in the course of the fifth century before our era became the regular repertory of artists in every branch, and scenes from which have the predominance amongst the finely executed intagli belonging to the later years of the archaic period. Their subjects, again, tell that these were the signets of ladies and coupling this circumstance with the epoch of their style, we may be pardoned for giving the reins for a moment to fancy, and seeing in these priceless jewels the last offerings of despairing matrons to their tutelary goddess, when on the fatal day of Amathus the cowardice of their own Prince, Stasenor, had turned the scale of victory in favour of the Persians, and all hope of earthly aid had vanished with the death of the gallant Onesilos. RINGS, ORNAMENTAL AND SIGNET. The Greeks, as the name records, were the inventors of the finger-ring, 8a/cn;/\ios, as distinguished from the cr^payls, the actual signet, engraved in any material, hard or soft stone, and of any shape cylinder, cone, or scarabanis worn on the neck, wrist, or finger, by cord, wire, or swivel-ring. The Finger-rings, and the settings of the signet-stones, are now to be passed in review, and will be found to offer much that is both novel and interesting to the dactyliologist. The finger-rings are of several patterns, the most ancient being those merely decorative in the Egyptian taste, repre- senting a coiled asp. An elegant idea of a plaited cord of many strands is seen in one example. Many are of the make so commonly found in the cemeteries of Southern Italy, but of less massy proportions, consistently with the inferior opulence of their insular wearers a plain, three-sided shank swelling out into a broad elliptical beasil, in no single instance engraved with any device (which, too, is the case with the Campanian), but polished to the highest degree. Inghirami figures * the sepulchral effigy of an Etruscan lady, wearing rings of this * Monumcnti Etruschi, ' Corrcdo.' B B 360 APPENDIX. identical make on the thumb and ring-finger of the same hand a sure evidence that this particular fashion of ring belongs to the feminine toilette. Then come a few solid gold rings, engraved for the use of signets ; in two of the most elegant, the devices show a Phoenician origin, cultured into beauty by Hellenic taste ; in others, for example the Hercules and Lion, the Greek style appears fully established. It is curious to observe in the engraved metal and gems alike, how much sooner perfection was attained in the animals than in the human figure, \vhich, in these incised designs, still retains the stiffness of the Assyrian sculptures. The settings of the true (r^paylba seem wonderfully uniform and simple to any one acquainted with the variety of elaborate patterns the filigree collets, shanks terminating in animals' heads, or formed as serpents in which the contemporary Etruscans were accustomed to mount their scarabgei. Heavy and light alike, all follow the artless Egyptian plan of a stout gold or silver wire, bent into an elliptical form, tapering towards the ends, which become the pivots on which the collet enchasing the scarabsetis or scarabeoid can be made to revolve. The only improvement upon the model was the omission of the clumsy expedient for securing the gem in its place, by stringing it on a wire, the ends of which were then wound round either extremity of the shank. In another respect, also, they differ from the Egyptian ; their larger diameter shows they were not intended for wearing on the finger ; and the most weighty, in both metals, actually have broad loops affixed to the exterior circumference to receive the cord by which they were suspended from the neck.* Not one example, strange to say, occurs amongst so many Phoenician gems, of the regular Phoenician method of bending the shank back upon itself to form a similar loop; and which prevails so generally amongst the signets from Tharros. It is evident that Egypt had set the fashion in this matter to the nobles of Curium, and the earliest Egyptian signets in the Treasure are closely copied in this particular, for the mountings of the purest Greek intagli. These early Egyptian works must have come to the island by way of trade, for Amasis, who, Herodotus expressly says, was * They explain an item in the list of the donaria of the Parthenon : "Two glass signets, of different colours, set in gold, and having gold chains attached to them." (Chandler's Travels, Part 11., No. IV., 2.) TREASURE OF CURIUM. 361 the first to reduce Cyprus to subjection, reigned only a few years before its final surrender to Cambyses. The silver swivel rings, which for the most part contain the gems of true Greek work, are remarkable for their great size and weight ; the shank in some is of the bigness of the little finger, tapering down to a fine point at the pivots. Some gems have the collet of gold, and the shank of silver ; in others an outward form of richness has been simulated by plating a copper or silver core with gold. All the gems. whether engraved or not, are similarly mounted (with very few exceptions, to be noticed as they occur), the only one found loose being a minute scarabseus of plasma, without device, probably a bead. The settings (to avoid needless repetition) are mentioned in the following list, only in cases where they offer anything of interest. Amongst the gold ornaments the most numerous are cer- tain annular objects, the use of which it is difficult even to conjecture. These are hollow tubes of gold, in some few instances with a copper core, for the most part of about the thickness of a crow quill, bent circularly so as to make two complete turns upon itself. Some few have ornamental tips finishing off the ends ; but the generality leave the sections of the pipe uncovered. Their discoverer imagined them to be " ring-money," on account of their being deposited in such large quantities, coupled with the fact that no coins of any kind were found in the Treasure, where something serving the same use would naturally be looked for. But this explanation is controverted by the circumstance that the ring-money, as represented in Egyptian paintings, equally with that still current amongst the Joliba negroes, is in- variably in the form of single penannular rings. Besides. ring-money is from its nature required to be solid. The hollowness of the articles in question bespeaks ornament, where the largest amount of show was to be extracted from the smallest possible expenditure of the precious metal. A little light, however, seems thrown on the difficulty by two words of Homer, who in describing the brooch fastening Ulysses' mantle, says it was "made with 'double pipes.' biOLiJ.oi.-n, and in front there was a figure in relief." ' * Odyss. xix. 227. ftrnfiuXoi', properly any image in \voocl or metal. Some of the rings in question have leaf-like chasings affixed to them. They were 362 APPENDIX. N'ow this expression is very applicable to a gold tube making a double turn as in this case, and such would be available for securing a robe like the chlamys by its two ends passed through the opening ; after the present fashion for fastening a scarf. Or, there is an alternative the early Athenians (and the same remark necessarily holds good for the lonians also) are described by Thucydides as fastening up the hair over the forehead in a bunch, by means of golden figures of the Cigala ; for which purpose a ring at the back of the insect was the most obvious expedient. Some Greek heads of nymphs which represent the hair fastened in a small tuft at the back, appear as if a ring were used for the purpose. In the famous Turin Isis (with the Ethiopia inscription) the hair, twisted into two long tresses, is passed through a fasten- ing shaped as a mask, upon the breast, and twice again through rings placed at intervals. If the Cypriote ladies ever followed the fashion set by the Universal Mother, the orna- mental ends of these spirals, and the foliated appendages which some of them carry, would have produced considerable effect. To bring the notices of gold work under a single head, the subjects cut in the gold rings will be now described, although in point of date they are more recent than the majority of the gems. GOLD RINGS. 1. Two Sirens (or Harpies, the same type serving for both), birds with women's heads, each holding a lyre and a wreath, placed foot to foot on opposite sides of a large " Greek honey- suckle,"* occupying the middle of the field. Exquisitely engraved on the gold face of a ring, an oblong three-quarters by half an inch, with two strangely shaped incisions on each side, giving it the outline of a Carian shield, which, together with its emblasoning, the ring was probably intended to repre- sent, although the significant device leaves little doubt as to the pacific character of the profession of the fair one who offered it at the shrine. 2. Two lions, regardant and coiichant (heraldically speaking). TREASURE OF CURIUM. 363 facing opposite ways, with very long tails, elevated in symmetrical curves. Below, on a second level, two sphinxes, face to face. A graceful design, engraved with the utmost delicacy on the face of a ring, rive-eighths of an inch square. The form of the ring itself displays equally consummate taste ; the head is slightly indented on two sides, between the two types, so as somewhat to approach a quatrefoil in outline, each member of which is gracefully scooped out at the back, imitating, probably, the calyx of a flower, into which the shank enters after the manner of the stalk. Taking into account the typical signification of the sphinx and the lion in early symbolism, a device of such dignity as this could only have been borne by a lady of royal blood. 3. Hercules encountering the Nemean lion, though not with a club, as in later art, but with a regular lasso which he tightens round its body, while he grasps the mane with his other hand. The model has evidently been the type of the god and lion, so frequent in Assyrian works, but advanced a step by the Greek sense of Nature. The lion is admirably drawn, but the human figure continues stiff and archaic, that branch of design having been the last to reach perfection. Deeply cut in the oval face of a solid gold ring, of the usual Greek pattern. 4. Man and woman, facing each other, both holding up the right hand as if in adjuration. The man is nude, the woman clad in a long tunic, with her hair falling in a full queue down her back. The gesture shows this to be a betrothal ring, from its resemblance to the type, of ascertained meaning, so fre- quent on gems of Roman times. \Yithin a plain " Etruscan border," on the vcsica-pisccs shaped face of a solid gold ring, of small size. SPECIES OF GEMS FOUND IN THE VOTIVE OFFERINGS. The jeweller's stock of gems was evidently very restricted up to the date of the latest contributions to the Sacristy. Many of the finest swivel rings of gold are set with sards and banded agates (sardonyx cut transversely), not engraved, but highly polished on both sides, meant for mere ornament, as precious stones of highest price. Of the latter material are many cylindrical pieces, about an inch long, slightly barrel- shaped, not bored, but with the ends tipped with gold, intended 364 APPENDIX. for the centres of necklaces, of the same fashion as that found in the " House of Holconius " at Pompeii. The estimation in which the species was held, is strikingly manifested by two massy gold bracelets, representing, by embossed work, three rows of beads, which have for their centre a round and an oval sardonyx respectively, of large size, but of very inferior quality. The circumstance reminds us that what was shown in Pliny's days for the veritable ring of Polycrates,* was set with an unengraved sardonyx, "gemma intacta illibata." Not even the common garnet, so frequent in the Cypriote mortuary jewels of later ages, is to be discovered amongst these samples of the primitive wealth of the island ; which in this respect bears a wonderful resemblance to that of the early inhabitants of Assyria. Lapis lazuli must have held the highest place in the scale of value : it only occurs in very small pieces, as an adjunct to the most elaborate earrings. Of plasma (the ancient jaspis) two specimens of fine clear quality are met with in scarabaei, one set in a gold ring, the other not engraved nor mounted ; and two scarabaeoids of a hitherto unknown variety of the gem. to be described in their proper place in the Greek series. In black haematite, besides the cylinders, a truly novel style of work presents itself a frog in full relief, about an inch long, cleverly done and beautifully polished. \Yith it came another carving in the same material, but of less skilful work, supposed to represent a goose's head. Exquisite for taste and finish are two miniature " Sacred Baskets," com- monly seen in the hands of Assyrian gods : the one cut out of haematite, the other oi lustrous sard : with covers and handles added in goldsmith's work, of a gracefulness and delicacy that surpasses all description. Examples of consummate skill in the lapidary's art are the numerous minute Tortoises in full relief, in sardonyx and agate that deeply significant attribute assigned with such good reason to the Feminine Principle of Nature, wherever she was worshipped, and whether named Mylitta, Aphrodite, or Venus. Rock-crystal occurs in the form of a thick hoop ring, lined with gold, an unexpected example at this early date of a fashion hitherto supposed to belong to late Roman times : it has also been used for one or two of the intagli. which shows that Theophrastus was right in number- in . Crane walking : in the field above, a lizard : in front, a plant. Barbarous execution. c. Gryphon, with wings spread : in front, the crux ansata. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES OE GEMS. 389 d. Bull, standing under a tree ; in front a large disk repre- senting the sun : the bull being the attribute of Belus. PLATE XL, u. After long consideration of this singular type, I come to the conclusion that the artist had in his mind Phi- loctetes just stung by the serpent, and clapping his hand, by a natural gesture, to the bitten part. He supports himself upon the "mighty bow" of his late master, Hercules (which accounts for its length, so far superior to that of the ordinary Grecian bow), the hiding-place \vhereofhe had betrayed to the Greeks, in spite of his oath to the dying hero, and therefore received his due reward from the heaven-sent asp. The subject, from the moral it conveys, was a favourite one with the Greco- Italians of this very period, although in other examples the sense is generally better denned by the addition of the actual serpent, and the overturned altars under which the weapons had been buried. Or, if a naturalistic sense seem more in character with the style of art ; we may see here only a shepherd extracting a thorn from his foot ; an equally popular subject with both sculptors and gem-engravers. PLATI^: XLI. Gems, and incised gold signets, from various localities. Those with numbers annexed are described in Gen. di Cesnola's additional list. a. The Head of Baal, found at Curium, noticed at length, in page 386. It may be remarked here, that the characters of the legend bear more resemblance to the Xumidian Punic, than to the Cypriote cuneiform. Semitic scholars, acting up- on this hint, may perhaps succeed in solving the, as yet, puzzling enigma. b. Minerva, grounding arms ; the tall cross behind her, may be intended for a trophy. Slight work of the Roman epoch. c. Xemesis, winged and helmeted, resting her hand upon a yoke, with the same signification as the bridle, so often seen in her hand. Slight work of the same date. LIST OF ENGRAVED GEMS FOUND AT DIFFERENT PLACES IN CYPRUS 1. Silver ring" with engraved carnelian representing a warrior : found in a tornb at Tremitissa, the ancient Tremi- thus. (Mars, leaning on his spear, and grounding his shield, rt$e'ju.eros ra o'-Aa. Rude work ; late Greek). 2. Gold ring, set with a carnelian ; found in a tomb with glass vases at Aphrodisium. (Bacchus leaning against a cippus, caressing his panther. Fine Greek work ; figured PL xli. 2.) 3. Sard, not mounted, from a tomb at Golgos. (Female head, with the hair done up in a small chignon : apparently a paste from a fine Greek intaglio.) 4. Carnelian, not set, from a tomb at Throni. (Esculapius and Hygeia : bold work of the Roman period. PL xli. 4.) 5. Fine gold ring, set with an engraved carbuncle : from a tomb at Golgos. (Goddess, standing, with cornucopia : barbarous style.) 6. Gold ring, with engraved sard ; found with glass vases in a tomb at Idalium. (Nemesis, in the later Greek style. Figured at page 392.) 7. Gold ring, with carnelian ; from Idalium. (Standing figure ; merely scratched in.) 8. Rock-crystal, not set, from Amathus. (Raven, standing before a bay-tree : behind is placed a spray of some other tree. Bold, good Greek work.) (). Bronze ring, with carnelian; from Amathus. (Female centaur, advancing, with hand extended, carrying a branch of a tree on the shoulder. Sketchy, late GreeL) 10. Gold, massive, ring, incised with the '' Ground plan of the Temple of Paphos ; " as antiquaries designate this curious object ; perhaps, a sacerdotal vestment. PL xli. 20. 11. (.old, massive, ring, set with a green iridescent paste. (Tall amphora, of elegant form ; moulded from a fine Greek intaglio.) ENGRAVED GEMS AND RINGS. 391 12. Gold ring, set with a carnelian. (Cupid, condemned to hard labour, leaning on his mattock. Pretty work, in a late Greek style.) 13. Carnelian of unusual appearance ; perhaps carbuncle. (Venus, leaning on a cippus, holding forth an alabastron. Bold, unfinished, Greek work.) 14. Gold ring, set with carnelian. (Goddess standing ; of the usual barbarous work characterising these mortuary rings.) 15. Gold ring, set with a carnelian. (Apollo, leaning on a cippus, holding out his bow. Sketchy, late Greek.) 16. Gold, massive, ring ; set with a cameo of a nude female figure, probably Venus, in paste. The relief is in white upon a blue ground, as in the Portland vase, and is finely executed. (Apparently a Venus Victrix, from an original, in a very grand style.) 17. Gold ring, with carnelian. (Fortune standing, with cornucopia, and rudder : late Greek.) 18. Gold, massive, ring, with incised device. ( " Ground plan of Temple of Paphos," as in No 10, but very sketchy.) 19. Gold ring with sard. (Fortune, with her usual attri- butes : good style.) 20. Gold, massive, ring, with incised device. (A dove flying (?) in very rude outline. PI. xli. 10.) 21. Carnelian, not mounted. (Goddess standing: in the usual sketchy style.) 22. Double gold ring, with the sacred Leaf (or tree) incised upon each beasel. Plate xli. 22. 23. Massive gold ring, with Egyptian device, the orb sup- ported by the double asp, in relief; of very bold and early workmanship. 24. Bronze ring, with carnelian. (A Scorpion an amulet against its bite.) 25. Gold ring, set with carnelian. (Comic Mask, in profile: very slight work.) 26. Double gold ring, incised on each beasel with the sacred Leaf (or tree) as before, but larger, and in a much ruder manner. 27. Gold ring, set with a garnet. (Female figure, standing, with right hand raised in adoration, a wand in the other ; sketch}' rude work, but better than usual in this material.) 28. Silver ring, set with an onyx. (Dog chasing a fawn : the device on the brooch of Ulysses. Neat, late Greek work.) n n 392 APPENDIX. 29. Carnclian scarabcoicl, not mounted. (Hercules the Archer ; PI. xli. 29. Fine, early Greek work, of high merit. The action of the figure is very remarkable ; the arrow being represented as released from the hand, and just quitting the bowstring, which can only be accounted for by the supposition that we have here a copy from a bronze statue, doubtless of great celebrity at the time.) jo. Gold ring, with incised device ; " Temple of Paphos," as before. 31. Gold ring, incised with the good wish, EH AFA0W : of which there are six or seven examples in the collection. (Shown by the form of the letters to belong to the Roman period.) 32. Gold, massive, ring, with incised device (entirely oblite- rated, seemingly by design). 33. Gold, massive, ring, with incised device. (The two sacred Leaves, as before). 34. A seal-ring, gold mounting, in blr.e glass : the back is represented by a lion in high relief, couchant. (Cartouche, containing hieroglyphics, illegible.) 35. Bronze ring, set with an onyx. (Cupid bestriding a dolphin : minute intaglio of the Roman period.) Nemesis, sard., klaliuni. PLATE XXXI. CESNOLA GEMS PLATE w y \ m CUKH'.M TRF.ASURK. ASSYRIAN STYLE PLATE XXXII. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE II. flk >/) ^M^F _ CURIUM 'J'KKASURK. ASSYRIAN bTVLK. PLATE XXXIII. CESNOLA GCMS, PLATE III [C TA^ crcri CURIUM TREASURE. ASSYRIAN STVLK. PLATE XXXIV. CESNOLA GEMS. PLATE IV. > r n '- \ 0) CURIUM TREASURE.- -INCISED IN THK (iol.l). PLATE XXXV. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE V". I CURIUM TREASURE. EGYPTIAN STYLE. PLATE XXXVI. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE VI. CURIUM TREASURE. -PHOENICIAN STYLE. PLATE XXXVII. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE VM. CURIKM TREASURE. PHOENICIAN s'lYMv PLATE XXXVIII. CESNOLA GEMS, PLA^E VII 1 , CTKIUM TREASURE. PHXKXICIAN STYI. PLATE XXXIX. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE IX. CURIUM TREASURE. GREEK STYLE. PLAT:: XL. CESNOLA GEMS, PLATE X. CURIUM TREASURE. GREEK STYL PLATE XLI, CESNOLA GEMS. PLATE XI. (1KMS FROM VARIOUS LOCALITIES IN CYPRUS. ON THE POTTERY OF CYPRUS BY A. S. MURRAY. Among the many vases discovered by General Cesnola in Cyprus which present entirely new features in the history of ancient pottery, there is, perhaps, no class so striking as that represented by the three vases given here (figs, i, 2, 3), and a fourth on p. 55. To begin with the last mentioned, where the design is that of two goats standing confronted, with a decorated pattern between them. This pattern, of which another variety will be seen in fig. 3, is the same, whatever it may signify, as occurs on the patera from Curium (p. 329), where it is also employed to separate groups of confronted figures, and thus performs the same function as the sacred tree on Assyrian reliefs, with which it has indeed so close a resemblance that Helbig, speaking of the patera of Curium (Annali d' Inst. Arch. icS/6, p. 6), calls this pattern simply the Assyrian sacred tree, it is, however, to be observed, that on this patera it occurs five times between groups obviously Egyptian in figure, dress, and subject of representation, on which account one might at first suppose it to be an Egyptian form of ornament. Hut it is not so in any respect. Looking closer at the patera we see that it presents also very distinct Assyrian elements in its design, and thus ; while there is every reason to suppose that the makers of the silver patera and of the vases on p. 55 and No. 3, had borrowed the sacred tree from Assyria, it is no less clear that they had at the same time borrowed very conspicuous elements in their designs from the Egyptians, and had combined these different elements into a peculiar phase of decoration. The one people in antiquity who affected this combination has been made out by 394 APPENDIX. Helbig in his researches, published in the Annali quoted above, to be the Phoenicians, or, as he thinks, with a view to the objects found in Italy and Sardinia, the western branch of that race, whom we know as the Carthaginians. It does not, of course, follow that in all the works of the Phoenicians the two elements of Assyrian and Egyptian art should be equally blended. If it were so, the vase of which we are speaking- (p. 55) could not be called Phoenician, since the animals on it. as well as the tree, have a decided Assyrian character, and altogether there is nothing on it which may not be traced to Assyrian influence. The rosettes placed on the fore and hind quarters of the goats are such as occur frequently on the Assyrian reliefs, while the oblong tablets let into the side of each seem to me to contain an inscription which the painter has only roughly indicated. A precisely similar tablet may be PLATE XLII. Fig. A. Fig. 5- POTTERY. 397 seen on a Cyprus vase in the British Museum, on which it is let into the side of one of the horses in a chariot group, which is very distinctly Assyrian in the attitude of the horse, shape of chariot, charioteer, and bowman, who turns and draws his bow behind, while the horse gallops. Assuming these tablets to represent writing, we must suppose it to be Assyrian writing, and to be analogous to the hieroglyphics which occur on similar oblong tablets on the patera of Curium, and other paterae of the same class. It may be mentioned that cuneiform inscriptions arranged in oblong spaces are of not uncommon occurrence on the sculptures of Assyria. Or, again, these tablets may correspond to the cartouches with hieroglyphics which frequently occur on the silver vases of Phoenician work. We may then conclude that the Cesnola vase (p. 55), and very probably also the vase in the British Museum, are Phoenician products under distinctly Assyrian influence. Of the other three vases, however, i and 2 have each a clearly Egyptian figure as their chief ornament. In both, the dress, the collar, and the type of figure are Egyptian ; not so, the rudely modelled head on the mouth of fig. i, which seems neither Egyptian nor Assyrian, but resembles rather the work of a potter unfettered by any traditional style. The patterns on the sides of both these vases are not Egyptian, nor necessarily even Assyrian, but belong rather to the kind of decoration called by Conze Indo-European, and supposed by him to have been brought into Europe by the Indo-European race. \Yhether he is right, or whether Helbig (Annali d' Inst. Arch. 1875, p. 221) is not more correct in believing these patterns to have been learned by the Indo-European race, after its settlement in Europe, through commerce with the East, it seems to be agreed that the pattern of concentric circles such as on fig. 2 is a pattern which had been developed in the process of metal working. An example of the profuse application of it to bronze work, may be seen in the two discs found at Tarquinii. and engraved in the Monument! d' Inst. Arch. X, pi. 10. The guilloche pattern on the vase fig. i. and the fragment of it between the feet of the figure on vase 2, has had its origin in the process of plaiting, and it may be remarked that the habit of filling up otherwise vacant spaces on vases by means of fragments of patterns (guilloche. wave pattern, meander) is very frequent on the early potter\' of Camirus in the? British Museum (see also Conze, 3Q8 APPENDIX. Anfange d' Gricch. KunsO. As regards patterns which have been evolved out of purely industrial processes, it can hardly be possible to trace their origin to one particular race, unless these processes themselves can also be traced to the same people. One might, perhaps, without much risk, eliminate the Egyptian, but as to the Assyrian and Phoenician, it would be impossible to assign priority to either, seeing that both nations were, from the earliest antiquity, skilled in industrial art. In these two vases there is to be noted also a peculiarity of a considerable class of Cyprus vases, the arrangement of patterns in vertical bands over the vase instead of horizontally round it, as usual on ancient pottery. That the shape of the vase is destroyed by this vertical arrangement need scarcely be pointed out, when one remembers the consistency with which the Greeks adhered to the horizontal bands, and so presented one of many instances in which they appear as knowing instinctively, the right principle of ornament. This is as much the case in the earliest Athenian vases with geometric patterns, as on the latest with designs of figures. Such an application of ornament as that on vases i and 2, may be the result of a mere seeking after novelty. It could hardly have been allowed in any truly vital stage of the art of pottery. Possibly there never was in Cyprus any such vital stage of the art. At any rate, that island has not yielded any specimens which show any special process of development. It has been suggested that the system of decoration by numerous vertical concentric circles so frequent in Cyprus {tottery, may have been adopted to imitate vases of wood in which the grain was visible : but I do not see that a wood vase need show its grain vertically, rather than hori- zontally, in which latter way it would suit the form of the vase. According to the usual explanation of its early stages, vase painting began with geometric patterns (developed in industrial processes* passed to figures of animals and plants (under Oriental influence) and then reached the human figure, at winch point, it is argued the Greeks took up the art seriously, and exhibited their full powers. But in the two vases u and 2), \\ e have a combination of human figure and geometric pattern, that is, a combination of the first and the third stages of the art. At the same time the patterns are drawn very clearly and accurately, while the figures are next to being grotesque, an 1 from this it might perhaps bi- inferred that the potter had had much experience of the former, and little of the latter. PLATE XLIII. POTTERY. 401 which would confirm the opinion that the patterns came before, if not immediately before, the human figure. This pattern, how- ever, of concentric circles arranged in rows lasted for bronze work down to Roman times, and can hardly alone be used as evidence of the antiquity of the vases on which it occurs. Altogether the pottery of Cyprus is singularly wanting in the means of determining its date. In itself, it presents only a very few successive stages; nor can it be positively said to have come under the influences which determined the various more or less well defined stages of Creek vase painting. There are. it is true. in the Cesnola collection the great vase engraved pi. xxix.. and another from Curium with black figures representing Hercules and the Xemean lion, with Greek inscriptions, Xo. 3.2, but these are so distinctly Creek, and so different from the rest of the Cyprus pottery, that we must suppose them to have been F F 402 APPENDIX. imported casually. On the other hand, there is a small class of vases which if they do not show the influence of the Greek Fig. ii. potter, show at least the influence of Greek sculpture. I mean the vases represented by Nos. 6, 7, 8, on each of which is a Fig. 12. bust of a female figure modelled in the round, and holding an cenochoii which forms the spout of the vase. On a vase of POTTERY, 403 this kind now in the British Museum the bust is modelled in a style of perfect freedom, as regards the features, hair, and chiton, such as is understood to have been arrived at, for the first time in Greece, in the time of Pheidias. On these vases the painted ornament is very simple and correct in its application; but the colours, which are bright and contrasted, are not such as we find in Greek vase painting at any stage. Figs. 4, 5,9, 10, n,maybe ruder but need not be much earlier specimens of this class. Together with the vases on which the human figure or parts of it are modelled, should be noticed those in the form of animals, rude in appearance and generally ornamented with simple linear patterns painted on the clay (see p. 98). It is very possible that they belong to an earlier period than the previous class ; but how early is a difficult question. The nearest comparison to them, and, indeed, to the Cypriote vases in general which I have seen, is the pottery found in an Etruscan tomb at Tarquinii, and engraved in the Monumenti d' Inst. Arch. X, pi. io c , where there is one vase in the shape of an animal and painted with rude figures of geese, two paterae with triangles and elementary meander patterns cut out through the clay, and a vase with patterns of circles, all of which, if found in Cyprus would be accepted without the slightest question, so completely in keeping are they with vases in the Cesnola collec- tion. Along with them were found two bronze discs (loc. cit. pi. 10) richly ornamented with rows of concentric circles, identical in aspect with many of the Cyprus vases, though, of course, the pattern correctly applied to the flat surface of a disc, cannot appear equally so on the globular body of a vase. These articles, though found in an Etruscan tomb, cannot be supposed to be of Etruscan fabric in our present state of knowledge. On the other hand there is no difficulty in, and there is plenty of analog} for, assuming them to have been imported from Phoenician traders, and if imported from the Phoenicians it will remain to be settled whether this importation was made at the time of the Carthaginian contact with Italy, or at an earlier period through commerce with the Phoenicians of the East. If Helbig is right in tracing the silver patera: and other antiquities from Caere, Prameste, and elsewhere in Italy to Carthaginian times, there would for the present be a presumption in favour of accepting the same date for the pottery from Tarquinii, and this would necessarily also apply to the vases of the same class from Cyprus, just as the date for the silver patera; from Ca;re and 404 APPENDIX. Praeneste, holds good for the silver paterae from Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus. With the exception of several vases which have been pointed out as either being purely Greek, or as exhibiting the influence of Greek sculpture, the rest of the pottery of Cyprus, though varied to some extent in its ornament, is yet sufficiently homogeneous in its material, colours, shapes, and technical skill, as to be fairly regarded as the work of a people in whom there was no really vital progress in the potter's art. Reference has been made to the results of Helbig as showing this people to have been the Phoenicians, and here I may add that the vase engraved, p. 6S. has a Phoenician inscription burnt in on the clay. It may. therefore, be taken to be a Phoenician production, and. if it is a fair type of any class of vases found in Cyprus, but without inscriptions, we may conclude that the}' also are of Phoenician fabric. It is certainly typical of a considerable class, and considering that this class introduces a POTTERY. 405 different system of geometric ornamentation from that of the concentric circles and guilloches already remarked as pre- sumably Phoenician, \ve obtain altogether a very great prepon- derance in the number of Cypriote vases as claiming to be of Phoenician fabric. This new system of decoration, of which I am speaking, consists mainly of lozenges and chequers arranged in horizontal and vertical bands. On the vases. p. 68 and fig. 29, and on many others, this ornament is kept pure and 'unmixed, and except for the cley, the colours employed, and the shape of the vase, they occasionally resemble closely specimens of the early geometric ware found at Athens. On the other hand, it is not rare to find this 406 APPENDIX. ornament mixed with animal forms, as on vase 15, where, however, it is clear that the hand which traced the figure of the swan could not escape from its habit of drawing geometric lines. The body of the swan is nearly a circle, and its wings are two triangles. On vases 17, 18, and 20, there is rather less of this geometric influence ; but still it is there. The animals generally chosen on Cyprus pottery are swans, or at any rate, aquatic birds. The swan may have had some svmbolic signification which determined its use on the vases Fig. 22. Fig. 23. to the exclusion of other animals, and to some such reason the absence of quadrupeds, for example, may be due. This latter fact, however, deserves attention in view of the prevailing theory, that the early Greek vases on which, besides swans, sphinxes, and other creatures, figures of non-Hellenic animals, such as lions or tigers occur, were due to Asiatic influence brought to bear on the Greek potters through the medium of tlu: Phoenicians. Probably enough this was the case 1 . Yet it is very singular that the Phoenicians should not have reflected in their own pottery this influence which they are supposed to have transmitted. Nor can it well be said that we do not as POTTP:RY. 407 yet know all the stages of their pottery, seeing that we have now so vast a number of vases obtained from cities in Cyprus, occupied by them for many centuries. I have only seen one vase from Cyprus (it is in the British Museum, and was discovered by General Cesnola) which distinctly belongs to the so-called Asiatic class, and it, in its clay, application of ornament, shape, and entire aspect, stands out as a unique thing among the other vases from Cyprus. So there is no resource but to assume that it had been casually imported. The vase 14 is nearly of the same class, and may be admitted to be an imitation, though there is a provincial rudeness about it not found on the others. The vases with lozenges, chequers, and other rectilinear patterns present, as has been said, the nearest approach to the early geometric vases from Athens and other Greek sites. (See Conze, Anfange der Griechischen Kunst, and Hirschfeld in the Annali d' Inst. Arch. 1872, pi. k.) The Athenian vases are, however, frequently much more elaborate, almost rivalling in richness of pattern the great vase engraved pi. xxix. which, indeed, seems to have been an importation from Athens. They abound also in meander and spiral patterns, both of which arc- extremely rare in Cyprus potter\-, Where rows of concentric circles arranged with mechanical stiffness take the place of the rows of spirals drawn so gracefully with a free continuous hand. That concentric circles do occasionally occur along with other ornaments on Athenian vases is not to be denied, but then it is not as in Cyprus, where they were, so to speak, the rage of fashion. That the finer specimens of Cyprus vases with rectilinear patterns (as on p. 68 and fig. 15) belong to the same period as the Athenian rectilinear vases may be taken as tolerably certain, and it is far from unlikely that it was through commerce with the Phoenicians of Cyprus that the Athenians learned this system of ornament, and afterwards developed it, as usual with them, to its highest artistic perfec- tion. "When they gave it up to take to other systems, they retained a few elements of it, such as the meander in sub- ordinate positions, but as a system it was given up by them entirely. The Cypriotes, on the other hand, seem to have- retained it along with their system of concentric circles to the end, and for this reason it would not be allowable to infer the date of their vases from the presence of geometric ornament on them alone. As regards the class of vases with rectilinear 4o8 APPENDIX. patterns and concentric circles incised on the clay found at Alambra along with bronze implements and rude terra- cotta figures, they must be considered to belong to a period when the patterns evolved from the process of bronze working were in fashion, but it is not always necessary to define this POTTERY. 409 Tarquinii. It would indeed be necessary to assume a very early period for such ornamentation on vases, if we could point to later and regular stages in the art of pottery in Cyprus, but only on that condition. No doubt the vases with human figures in an Egyptian style, already described, are manifestly later, but they do not betray a regular development, and one cannot say at what later time they may have been made. Similarly, also, the vase with chariot in the British Museum is an imitation of an Assyrian design ; while the two vases with chariots engraved, p. 247 and p. 268, resemble Greek vases of the third stage, but they, too, are obviously isolated examples of imitation, and all one can argue from them definitely is, that they must have been made when these designs were respectively in fashion in Greece and Assyria. For Greece, that could scarcely have been later than the sixth century B.C., and perhaps this would also be suitable for Assyria, as the latest possible -date. But then the puzzle is to conceive what the Cypriote potters, having thus early shown so much skill, went on doing during the succeeding centuries. They may have lapsed back to a mere system of patterns, and on such a hypothesis one can understand the wonderful exact- ness with which the ornament is executed on many of the vases, but especially on those which have bands of numerous concentric circles placed vertically, or both vertically and horizontally, and intersecting each other with remarkable precision, though, as already pointed out, such ornament is destructive of the form of the vase, and cannot be defended on any principle of decoration applicable to a globular surface. To a vase of the form of fig. 17, vertical bands of circles are appropriate enough, but this form of vase is peculiar to Cyprus, I believe, and, considering its awkwardness, one would think it had been extended sidewards out of mere desire for novelty, or to accommodate the favourite design of vertical circles. Two vases in the British Museum obtained from General Cesnola deserve notice for the advance which they present in the application of geometric decoration, the peculiarity of them being a certain constructive effect as in an architectural design. In one place for instance we have what would be a. set of concentric circles, cut in two segments and separated by the interposition of two triangles intersecting each other and filled with oblique lines : the segment of circles on the one side 4io APPENDIX. balances the segment on the other side, and so on other places of the vases we have similar effects. The colours, which are purple and black on a drab ground, are fresh, and altogether the impression left by these vases is that they cannot belong to the period usually assigned to the early geometric vases. This is confirmed by the occurrence on them of those crosses which Dr. Schliemann calls sitastikas, but which in fact appear to be only the simplest form or element of the meander pattern. These crosses, along with the elements of other patterns, are much used in the so-called Asiatic vases to fill up the spaces, and, as already said, they may be taken to be reminiscences of the earlier system of decoration. But here on the vases from Cyprus, where the system of decoration is geometric, they cannot have any such function, and rather appear to owe their position to ignorance of their original use. Among the vases which strike one as specially late, is that engraved p. 98. representing a serpent eating a fruit from a tree. Then again the vase 30 cannot well be classed as early. The volutes and floral pattern on the body are drawn with a perfectly free hand, while the border of ornament round the POTTERY. 411 shoulder is that which is very familiar on, and may be said to be one of the characteristics of, the Greek black figure vases. Clearly enough the application of a large floral pattern to the body of the vase is entirely inconsistent with the practice of Greek vase painters, but the pattern itself is quite Greek. Round the neck is what at first appears to be a sort of net- work, but on closer inspection it seems rather to represent a broad plait or guilloche, and is thus appropriately placed round the neck where the idea of compression is required to be con- veyed. A vase almost identical with this one was found at Camirus in Rhodes, during the excavations of Salzmann and Biliotti, and is now in the British Museum. At p. 247 is engraved a one-handled vase, with a form of ornament round the neck precisely the same as that which occurs on several vases from lalyssus in Rhodes. These lalyssus vases were found in a tomb, the contents of which were undoubtedly of an early character, though here again we meet the same difficulty as in Cyprus, arising from the absence of distinctly later stages of art from which to make a comparison. The greatest obstacle which I find in accepting the lalyssus antiquities as being of a date earlier than B.C. 600, is the presence among them of a small seated figure in ivory, and a small bron/c goat, both of which seem to belong to a time when Greek sculpture in the round had fairly begun to be a real art, and that cannot well be said to have been the case previous to the date just given. There is, too, a small figure of a sphinx in relief on a 412 APPENDIX. sort of vitrified ware used to make necklaces of, \\hich on its merits, if found by itself, would probably be assigned to not earlier than B.C. 600, while one of the gems, an intaglio in rock crystal, representing a sort of goat, would under the same circumstances very likely be similarly dated. Of course, a particular fashion of pottery may have been retained in constant use, and with hardly any change for centuries in out- lying places, such as lalyssus or Cyprus, far removed from the active centres of progressive art in Greece, where we know of no stagnation, and on that theory it would be perfectly justifi- able to assign the lalyssus pottery to a date perhaps even two or more centuries earlier than the several objects just described, since what is properly meant by the date of a class of pottery is the time at which it came first into use as a distinct fashion. Accordingly, even if the tomb at lalyssus were positively known to have been made not before B.C. Goo, it would yet be allowable to assume for its pottery in the main an earlier date of several hundreds of years. It has been necessary to state this theory here because a certain number of the Cyprus vases are included by Mr. Newton in the argument by which he determines the antiquities found by Dr. Schliemann at Mycenae to be of a date earlier than B.C. 800. That is to say, with the shapes of vases and special forms of ornament from Mycenae, he identifies, in a number of cases, the shapes of vases and form of ornaments from the tomb at lalyssus, and again identifies other vases from this same tomb with vases from Cyprus. PLATE XLIV. Fig. 34- \ Fig. 33 (b). DESIGN'S ON PAINTKD VASES. PLTE XLV. DESIGNS ON PAINTED VASKS. PLATE XLVI. Fig. 38. Fig. 39- DKSIGNS ON PAIN'TKD VASKS. PLATE XLVII. Fig. 40. Fig. 41 DESIGNS ON PAINTED VASKS. GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. i. A^POAITH - F AHMOKPATH2FTOAEMAIOT OAPXOrmNKINTPAAHN KAIHITNHETNIKH THNEATTilNOTTATEPA ... HN o apx^os TMV KtrwpaScoy Kal '"r] yvir] Eiii/tKrj TT/V taurcof ^uyare'pa 'Apia- . . 77 y From Palaeo-Paphos. On a porpliyry pedestal, originally belonging to a statue dedicated to Aphrodite by Demokrates and his wife in honour of their daughter. Demokrates here styles himself the chief (apxs) of the Cinyradse. 2. APOAITH OA^I .......... E OSrrASTKPATOTTO ........ OTON 0E] OT2 ETE PFET A2TE X X ITONTAE ]IMOKP1TONKAAAI2TION 8(,V?; YIa.(fn[a . . . e .... os SracrtKparou TO .... OTGV 6e ovs Ei/epye'ra? T^\VI.TMV rae KaAAtcrrtoi) 414 APPENDIX. From Palseo-Paphos. On a porphyry pedestal, originally belonging to a statue of Aphrodite. In an inscription from Paphos (Corp. Ins. Gr. No. 2620) mention is made of the TtyviTai Trepi Aioi-vcrov KCU Oeovs Euepye'ras, and such was probably their title in this inscription also. OIIAONI MEAAN0UM TnEPTOTTIOT KATArPA4>OT ETXIIN MeAar0i,'a> Kardypac/ios v-tp TOV vlov From Palseo- Paphos. On a small pedestal of red porphyry having the sockets by which a statuette had been attached. 4- API2TAFOPA2 2122ANAPON TONEATTOTTION OriAONIMEAAN0Ii2 ETXIIN 'Aptcrrayopas 2co(raj.'8poy TOV eavrov vlov o-dovi From Palseo-Paphos. On a small column of white marble on which had been a statuette. 5- (a) !22 K:\inorror.MAN ILMOi: APETII^XAI'IX GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 415 APXETIMHNAnEAAEOT20TrATEPA TAITAIAIASAMIONKAIONHSIAOS Ovyarepa. Ta Trauka 2a/u,toz; Kal ' Qv 770-1X0?. From Palseo-Paphos. On a pedestal of blue granite, in scribed on two sides. Length 2 ft. 10 in., ht. 8 in. 6. TONMANTIAPXONKAFI NAAEI POAITH2KAIAIO2IIOAIEOE . . H . . 2 IAA Toy 'A]poa [ ...... ] /a 7r[ai]Sa 8dp.curV, TOV (TTpa T KCU vavdp-^ov Kai ap)(ie'[petos 6vya.Tpos' From Cythrea. On a pedestal of blue granite. The Seleukos here mentioned as general, admiral, and high priest, is probably the Seleucus, son of Bithys, who was commander in Cyprus in the time of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, and in whose honour an inscription by the town of Curium will be found in Engel (i. p. nS), and in the Corpus Inscript. Grsec. No. 2629. The present inscription is a dedication by a town, the name of which is lost, in honour of Olympias, a daughter of Arterno. IT. OT2INTOAA2 ANIEP12SANTHNTII0K12IOSTK AITHNANIEPI2MEM1XTH2TOTEN MOKPATOT2TOTKAIMENE2TPA XAPIOrTOTEcMIBAPXOrAPrrPIO O . . . UTOIXTOY2EP OVCTLV TO \aa TTJ 62> oir re (Cat TWV (mepa>p.era>f Tl/y TOV fl> ~\u.OKpaTOV$ TOV /cat Mez'eirrpa . . . Jroptof TOV a/j?j/5ap)(ou apyvpi.o[v ayaXp-a '? ei]cr^/-ai rf; (ley Oor^pia ec// wt' e , . . Jo-tot KcuVapos Ee/3acrroi) KOI . . . KJouotWoD ^ep . . . From Cythrea. On a fragment of blue granite found in the enclosure! of a temple. 41 8 APPENDIX. 12. AnOAAnNIAAKITHIAPICCTOYC MANPTIAXOCYHEPKAEONOC TOVYIOY ANE0EKENENTYXHI 'A-TTo'AAoort AaKfCrrj " ApLn-crrovs TOV VLOV From Pyla. On a block of limestone. The title mantiarchos (line 2} occurs in \\*addington, No. 2795, but \vritten Mavri- dpxii* according to Ceccaldi (Rev. Arch. 1874), who publishes this inscription. 13- AEONTIOI ERAPXIKO (c) *YXAPOYC a. AfOVTLOl b. From Salarnis. On a pedestal of white marble, now in the Louvre. M. Ceccaldi (Rev. Arch. 1.^74) thinks that the name Psycharous (c} is that of the dedicator of the statue, \vhicli had probably stood on this base. Hirschfeld. Tituli Sta- tuariorum, &c.. p. 202. GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 419 KO00T2 ETIOT 2AAAMINIA XAIPE KoOovs Ei>tot> From Salamis. On a marble slab found in a tomb. TIBEPmiKAl2APISEBA2Tm0Ei2I0EOT2EBA2TOTTmi ATTOKPATOPIAPXIEPEIMEriSTmAHMAPXIKHSEEOrSIAC TOAAEniAETKIOTAEAlOTNA2ONO2AN0TnATOTKAIMAPK or ETPEIATOTAOTnEPKOTnPE2BETTOTKAirAIOT*AABIOT4>H AOTTAMIOT AAPA2T02AAPA2TOT*IAOKAI2APOENrENIKO2IEPETSTOT ENTIirTMNA2I12IKATE2KETA2MENOTTnOAYTOYEKTOTIA IOT TIBEPIOTKAI2AP022EBA2TOTNAOYKAIArAAMATO20ci)IAO HATPI2 KAinANAPETOSKAIAIiPEANKAIAT0AIPET02rTMNA2IAPX O2KAI TOArAAMAIAIOT2ANAAIiMA2INTaiATOY0E12IE(I>HBAPXOT NTOS AIONT2IOTTOTAIONT2IOTTOTKAIAnOAAOAOTOT*IAOKAI SAPO2 AAPA2TO2AAPASTOT4>IAOKAI2APKA0IEPf22EN2YNKA0IE POTNTO^ KAITOYTIOTATTOTAAPA2TOT$IAOKAI2APO2TOTKATAYTO TAI2PEAN KAIAT0AIPETUTrTMXAiIAPXOTTi)XnAIAi2NTIlirEXESII2 TTBEPIOT LIs AnoroxiKor KL 420 APPENDIX. Ti/3epi'cp Kcu'crapi 2 AtiTo/cparopt 'Apxtepet Meyitmo bijfjLap^LK^ fovaias TO AA e/rt Aeu/aou AeAi'ou Xuaoz'os az.'<9i;7rd-oi> KCU 'ErpeiSiou (?) Aourre'pKOV 7rpeAa/3iW 7?Aou TO//IOU "ASpacrro? 'ASpdorot c/uAoKat'crap 6 eryertKos 1 lepet/s T^U er 7co yr/jt/'acrio) KarefTKeyacr/xej'oi; IITTO avrou e/c roC tOtou Tiflepiov Kaicrapos 2e/3aoroi! j-aou Kat ayaA/^aro? 6 0tAo'-arpts Kai Trarupero? KOI Scope'ay KCU av^atperos yr/xracrmp^os /cat TO ayaAp.a i8iois avaXw^acnv rco awrw $ew' J E0 Aiovixriou roS AtoiTrrtou roC Kat 'A~oAAo8o'roi; 'ASpaoros 'AbpaaTOV 0tAoKat(rap Ka^te'paxrei' crv KCLI TOV vlov avTov 'AbpdaTov (ptAoKatVapos roO Kat avrov Kat avOaiptTov yv\j.vaai.ap\ov T>V TTULOMV rrj Ti/Septou LIs or KL From Lapethus. On a pedestal found in the ruins of Lapethus. and now in the courtyard of a Greek convent called Acheropiti. The date of the inscription is A.D. 29, in the sixteenth year of the tribunicia potestas of Tiberius, when Lucius Aelius Xaso was pro-consul of Cyprus. 16. EnEIAHNOTMHNIOSNOTMHXIOT ETEPrETHSOXTHSnOAEilSAIETEAEIAE THNnA2AXEniMEAEIAXnOIOTMEXO2TOYTE EAOHEXnPAEIAHM12ITaiAPXIEPEIKAITOI2IEPET2I TOTnO2EIAI2XO^TOTA(?)APXAKIOTAOTXAI XOTMIiXIllIKAIErrOXOI2iiXAX0TIi2I\ ATEAEIAXTIiXrEP12XEI2TOXAnAXTAXPOXO TYXHITHIAFA0HI roi' FlocretOwz'os ror ' apraKiov bovrai Xoi'p./j2'(.'oj KCU eyyoi'ots cor r (U'cumr dreAetai- -cor yeptar ay nu 1 aT7z'ra \purov 7i'x?/ rf/ GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 421 From Larnaca of Lapethus. On a stone found in a circular ruin. On a projection of the stone is inscribed NOTMHNIO2 NOTMHNIOT. The name Noumenios occurs in a bilingual inscription in Greek and Phoenician from Athens, while the name of the high priest here mentioned, Praxidemos, also occurs in a similar bilingual found previously at Larnaca of Lapethus, and published by Gesenius and De Vogue\ This inscription is a degree conferring on Noumenios and his descendants for all time exemption from handing over to the priests those parts of animals (ye'pa) sacrificed which other persons were obliged to hand over (Hermann, Griech. Anti- quitaten, ii. 35, n). The decree is passed by the chief priest and the priests, and this honour is paid to Noumenios because of his being a benefactor of the city, and because of his having made the whole arrangements both of the chief priest and the priests by word and deed. The title here given to Poseidon is not positively illegible as regards the first letter, which seems to be A. In that case the epithet Larnakios would not only be new but w y ould be extremely curious, since it may have a local signification, and since the name of Larnaca is assumed to be modern. AHMHTP! OAAHNI TIMOAI2POC 18. APIMOKIA TIMOAHPC 19. TIMOAHPOZAEK APIMOKIAABI- EHPIATOI APPENDIX. Nos. 17 ig are from Golgoi, and are incised on limestone; the two first on blocks, and the third on a pedestal, on which there are also some Cypriote characters. No. 17 is a dedication to Demeter and Apollo. Nos, 18, ig arc dedications to Drimokia, perhaps a local name of some goddess. For No. ig see Appendix and pi. i in Mr. Isaac H. Hall's paper on " The Cypriote inscriptions of the Di Cesnola Collection " in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, x. 1875. (r) ONTOENAOZO Ets eo'y, ro //eyi'ora- (r)oy ro s (TO)TOV w Tram 5eo- From Gol^oi. On fragment of limestone column. Below the inscription are two wreaths, within one of which is in- scribed HAIO2, The letters are very late, and i is used for et. M. Ceccaldi (Rev. Arch. 1874) thinks this inscription may be Christian. 2,1. ZUKPATOY ITEYZ I r rom Gol<^oi. On fragment of a marble stele. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1874. GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 423 22. MHAOTXEATilN ......... HKENArA0HlTTXHI . M?7Aoi>xearoH>(?7 Tro'Ai?, ai^)6riKi>, aya.6?] 'x?/. From Melusha. Broken in the middle. The name of the town may have been MryAou^o?, or MrjXov^ta ; the modern name is Melusha ; and the Cypriotes ot the present day pronounce; the x like sh before the vowels e,??, i,v, and before the diphthongs. 23- ONHSArOPASrnEPTII2rrNAIKO2NlKlOr KAITH20rrATPO2 .... TA^POATT-HIMT KIIPOA! v~ep TI)S yvvaiKos Ni/ct'ov K.OL TIJS Ovyarpos . . . . v ' A.(j)pomi AIi> From Melusha. The epithet here applied to Aphrodite, , means a walnut or almond tree. 24. EYXHANEMIAZAPOAAuJ Nl From Leucolla. Graffito on calcareous stone. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1874. 25- XA PITtO NOC From Magrastica. On the foot ot a circular terra-cotta vase. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1874. 26. ENNI MX 1 10 iiNEII IIOAHJ O E PA^ii N f7Tot?7rre. i'j/crr/o a 424 APPENDIX. On a glass cup, the letters in relief. A similar warning (Mr?/cr$)7 6 ayopacrutv) occurs on a glass vase in the Museum of Modena, described by Cavedoni (Annali dell' Inst. Arch. xvi. p. 163). The name of the maker, Ennion, is found on a vase formerly belonging to M. Soph. Xicolaides, of Larnaca, and on a very beautiful glass amphora from Kertsch, engraved Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien, pi. 78. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. Now in the British Museum. 27. a. o. ETTEN MEAAN0ETTYXI From Idalium. On a glass aryballos, the letters in relief. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. Now in the British Museum. 28. a. b. MEFHC MXHC0H EIIOHCEN OAFOPACAC 6 ayopdcras From Marium. On a glass cup, the letters in relief. Compare No. 26, where we read ayopdcrav instead of a Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. 29. APOAAWNIOC TCO TAT KAITHMHTPIAPf TONPEPIBOAONKAIT YMtxJNAYTCONENTOAACEAY EAYTOYTHCCOAIWNrOAEU) EYAPXHCACPANMATE AZAEAPIU) BIBAIO4>YAAKIOYrENOMENOZ UF| -OYTIOY KF ' MHTEYCACTHNBOYAH AHZACTWNEPIPAYAOY VPATOY GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 425 ? TW Trarp . KCU TJJ [J.r]Tpl 'Ap ......... rov 77epi/3oAoi> Kal ........ avTtoi> e^roAa? ea ..... rijs 2oAuov TroAecos . . . yero/aeros KL From Soli. On a pedestal of white marble, found in a circular edifice near the small factory of Karavostasi. The above reading and the following notes are by M. Pierides. YIap.p.aTipa is a surname of Gaea. [eTriorar^s ?] /3y/3Ato0i)Aa- uou Custodian of the Public Records. TL^I-JT^VM is, to be a Censor (rtpjrrjs) ; but what office a Censor "to the Senate" was does not appear. A^/xapx] e^ovo-ios : one of the months of the Cyprian Calendar, corresponding to April 23 May 23. The Proconsul Paulus may be the Sergius Paulus of the Acts of the Apostles (cap. xiii.), as instances of the suppression of one of two names are not rare. 30- AHMOXAPHZ nEPSEYTHI EYXHN From Curium. On a pedestal of calcareous stone, to which is still attached the lower part of a statue. What deity may be meant under the title of Perseute, which occurs in this and the following inscription cannot at present be made out. AHMO TO PATIZ AX nEPZEYTHIEYXHN From Curium. On a pedestal of calcareous stone, H H 426 APPENDIX. 32- AIAPSAXTUXOIEPETS - KAIArOPAXOMO2KAI - ITOI2AAAOJ2 0EOI2 - UAIXOr2A2()T2lA2Eni - A I AYA A22 Q X KAITI I X ETKXTMEX02 TH2AE - EXIINEKTAM>P0XTIAA - EXAOSOT2AXAPA2KAI - TII2E2TIA2METOXOT2 T[I2nOAEfi2EOPTAI2 - HMonAPE2XHTAIAT2ITE -NAXASTPAcpEISKAITOX Eni2KETA2A2TOXTEnP() O2KAIKATATOTTOAOHII2 OMEXOI2TA2ATTA2APXA2 nPEnOT2AX TOI22TEM OXTfl2TTXEIXATTOXKAl - XAP12TIA2 2EHAIXE2AITETON -XPT2iiISTE*AXIiI - OTXEXT12IEni2HMO - ATTOTOMOfll^EX XArPAnTIIXEXA2IIIA - AXArPA*AIEI22TI-IAIIX E2EIAI22IXTHXTE OTOT2KAA02KAIEM -- OTTA2KATAEIA2 -- KCU a Kala yofjai'ofji.o$ KOL KCI ). ro is' aAAots 1 ovcras /cat (1'in'fKTOLl typOl'Tia Ka6 roi> GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 427 - fTTt(TKtv(TaS TOV TC - os /col Kara TOVTO ras atiras rols ore/x Ol'TWS TV)(lV O.VTOV K.O.I ESofe TOO 8?7juw Kal rots crui>e6/aoc] s f-aiverrai re roy /cat orec/jarcoaat ] XP U(T< ? ar/rou ayaA/xa X a ^ K l ^ i; ^' T( rdr(t) T?/? TToAecus TOTTW Kai, ere/ooi;] a^roC o^ouwv e .......... ai'a^eu'at 8e etico] ra yparrr?/^ eV ar TO 8e \ln] r?;^ re ote KaAcos Kaj er o uras Kar' aiai>. From Curium. In the church of Agliios Ermojeni. M. Pieridcs, to whom I owe the above reading of the inscrip- tion, adds the following remarks about it. It is a decree conferring civic honours ; the letters are of the second cen- tury, B.C. The inscription is in two parts, with a space between them; the first, or introductory part (-n-po/Jo'yAevjua) , enumerates the public offices held by the recipient, and the services rendered by him to the town, setting forth his piety and liberality during public festivals, the restorations under- taken at his expense, &c. ; then comes the decree proper, declaring him worthy of public praise, and awarding him a gold crown, apparently two statues, a shield or plate of metal with his portrait, and a decretal stele, in order that " people may know how virtuous citizens are rewarded," &c. apavT(av refers to the offering of first fruits, from which it would appear that in this case the Senate of Kurion, before proceeding to business, had performed a religious ceremony. 33- KOINTONKATAIONONIIpATONEnAPXON nOXTOTK A I BEI0TXI AS AN0TI1 AT( )N KTOPOTAI AH PONOHTOT AIOXT^ tOT t . cor . a - ------ ^~ ^tAcorepay TTJV ^iAtTTTTOU rr]v eauroO ywaua, From ruins of Temple of Apollo Hylates. Published by Sakellarios. 37- APTEMIAIPA AAIA OAYMRIA NOCEYAAIMtONYREPeYrATPIAHC BEPIANHC ITapaAi'a ' vbs Ev8aifx.coz> v-ep 430 APPENDIX From Larnaca. M. Pierides has been enabled to make out the reading ITapaAta in the first line from the Following inscrip- tion in his possession, and found in the same locality, viz. the "Salines:" 'ApreVtot YlapaXia eufci/.ieroj A{>p?/Aios 'Aptorcoy tarpos apfas virep Ovyarpos Avp' 'Or^cn./.uaz-'j/s rfjs xal 'QXvfJi-iavTJs. He states that on the same spot was also found a copper vessel containing from twelve to fourteen hundred gold staters of Philip and Alexander. There may have stood there a temple to Artemis as goddess of the coast (irapaXia), On a small pedestal of red and white breccia. Ceccaldi, Rev. Archeo- logique, 1874. 38. rOZEIAHNIOS HAIOAflPOY From Larnaca. On a stele of white marble, with top in form of a pediment. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875* 39- CMNONAIZHCACBIOTON MAKAPAPT6MIALOPE CWPOCYNHNAIACHN XAIPKAIN0IMNOIC (rai(f)poo~vvr]V Ota crijv, Kai tv From Larnaca. On a round cippus ; distich in hexameter and pentameter. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. 40. 6IKAIMOIPIAIONTEAOC HrecemcYnoKOAnoYC CCOnATPECMNeANtUN XAIPKAIN4>eiMNOIC GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 43! Et Kal noLpibiov reAo? 7/ye (re y?/s VTTO KO'ATTOUS, SojTrarpe tre^fe Qavliv, Kai From Larnaca. On a slab of white marble ; distich m hexameter and pentameter, Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. 41. IVIIA OIVM PI I DONATA H S EST lOYAIAOAYMnOYAFlE AEY0EPAACONATA XPKTHXAIPE 'lov\t.a O\v^ov a~e dpa Acomra, From Larnaca. On a square stone ; bilingual inscription of Julia Donata, a freed female slave of Olympus. In the Latin part of the inscription L is written I, as given by Cec- caldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. 42. 43. KITIAC EPf2C From Larnaca. On two terra-cotta bottles; the inscription red. Ceccaldi, Rev. Arch. 1875. 44- ITA0AOXiriAAAC NOnAEITIIXAPMAnoJAIKONKAl TPIKOrCArujNACraNTAQAOr- All C I N ATT( ) Y I AOIION I AC ATTOJTEKA1TIIIIATPIAI INOTIITOC XAPIN. 432 APPENDIX. upfj.a TI;U>\LKOV KOI ay&vas TTevrd6kov a\d\ri(riv avrov ' re nai rfj From Larnaca. On a slab of white marble ; the letters are of a very late period. The inscription is in honour of an athlete who had been victorious in certain public Barnes, and had brought credit to himself and to his native place. 45- Nil AXEXTAXPH2TOI TOX2EMXOXAX . . . ABAKXIXHAE . AXOXTATH Nil . . . C\cv TOV fV T)(2'atS {jLayeipiKcus ael (f>avi>ra \ TOV aefj.i'01' av bpa Ba.K)(ii', ?)' Pram Larnaca. In very small letters of a late period, with occasional ligatures. The reading here given is by M. Pierides, who is reminded by the fact of the inscription being in honour of a cook that Cyprus has always been famous for persons of culinary skill ; down to recent times Cypriote cooks were in request at the embassies and consulates of the Levant, GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 433 46. AAPOAHIIOY ANTOC NAAZKAAY 47- KYPIA6 XPHCT6 48. TIMWN XPHCTE XAIPE APIN 49- APTI NIA XP 50. KAAAAIWN Y*YXIOYAIC A0ANATOC MAPKAINA XPHCTHXP 52. KPATHAXPHC THXAIP6 53- NACIA HCTH P 54- Ano HOICENEYE 55- IAOKV XPHC XAIP 56. 57- AHMHTPIA nACIKINHXPHCT XPHCTHXP XAIP6 58. A0HNAP XIPOY XPHCT6 XAIP6 59- ANTI HATP6 XPHCT XAIP6 60. HA<|)PO AIT XPHCT6 XAIP6 61. ZOIA IHXPH CTHXEPE OYAEICA0A NATOC 62. AY3 HTE XPhCTEXAIPE A0ANATOC 63- AHOAAU) NIAAHMH IT IOYXPHC THXAIPE 434 APPENDIX. 64. 65- 66. APOAICI IAOKYnPE APTEMEIAWPE XPHCTE XPHCTE XPCT XAIPE XAIPE XP 67. 68. 69. TYXIKh XPYCOfONH ZDIAA XPhCTh ClOPCON XPHCTH XAIPE XAIP6 XAIPE 70. ANAPONIK XPHCT6 XP 7i- 72. 73- ARoAONIAH pnreiNA AHMHTPIANH XPHCTE XPCh XPHCTH XAIPE XP XP 74- 75- 76. nozEwz EYOAIA NIKOnOAl XPHCTE XPHOTH XPHCTE XEPE XAIP6 XEPE 77- AHMHTPIANH XPHCTHXAIPE 80. APTMlAWP XPHCT6XAIP6 83- TEIMION XPHCTE XEPE 78. YHPAriAXPH CTHXAIP6 81. 0IPMEXPHZTE XAIPE 84. MAPKAA XPHCT6 XAIP 79- AHDAACONA XPHCTXP 82. EHhKThTE XPhCTE 85- EUKICUP A+P GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 435 86. EHA0POAEITE XPHCTE XAIPE 89. AWP XPHCT XAIP 87. AHMHTPIWN XPHCT6 XPAI 90. DNHCIME XPHCTE XEPE POAWN XPhCTAI XAIP 91. APTEMIAW PXPHCT XAIP6 MAPKA XPHCT6 XAIP6 95- EyTYXIA KAI GAPZAAEE XEPETE 93 KAPH XPHCT6 XAIP6 96. OAVMHIANC XPHCT6XEP6 98. AHOAU) 94- AAIHE XPHCTE XAIPE 97. nepireiviiA XPHCTH XAIP XHCTE XAIPE Nos. 46-98 arc engraved on cippi, from Larnaca. 99. PHIC HPHACG,! MHAENAHATPIA rALOCCHHIKPO KEIMAIYHOXOONIO KWKYWrONEtONI P COIXAPICEYE[a/^i? EYNACONHAH YNO APKETATE 436 APPENDIX. IOO. APTN:IA(OP KYNT6XPHCTE XAIP6 101. XIANOY AICA0ANA TOC IO2. nACIXPATHXPHCT XAIP Nos. 100 102 found in tomb, with glass objects, at Idalium. 103. YTYXHAXPH CTXP 104. ONHCIKPATHXPHC T XAIP Nos. 99 104 are from Idalium. 105. APTMIAOPXPHCTXAIP From Alambra. On a mortuary stele of calcareous stone. This stele has a head and bust in relief. INSCRIPTIONS IN THE CYPRIOTE CHARACTER. (From the Temple at Golgoi when not otherwise stated.) 1. On limestone with bas-relief. Published by Prof. Isaac H. Hall, Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. x., pi. iv., 13 ; Moriz Schmidt, Sammlung kyprischer Inschriften, pi. xi., 2. Ht. i ft. i in. x i ft. 4 in. X i?> in. 2. On limestone with bas-relief. Hall, ibid., pi. i., i ; Schmidt, ibid. pi. xi., 3. Ht. i ft. 2 in. X i ft. x 2 in. 3. On limestone base of statuette with feet attached, found at Palaeo-Paphos. Schmidt, pi. xvii., i. Ht. 7 in. x 6 in. X4i in. 4. On fragment of bas-relief with three male figures. Hall, pi. v., 21 ; Schmidt, pi. xiii., i. Ht. 7 in. X 4 in. X i in. 5. On fragment of limestone pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xviii., i. Ht. 6 in. x 10 in. X4 in. 6. On votive tablet with bas-relief. Hall, pi. ii., 9 ; Schmidt, pi. xi., 4. Ht. J\ in. x ii-if in. x i in. 7. On votive tablet of limestone. Hall, pi. vii., 29 ; Schmidt, pi. x., 4. 8. On limestone bas-relief. Hall, pi. vi., 23 ; Schmidt, pi. xii., i. Ht. 3 in. x 6 in. x i-if- in. 9. On the headdress of a limestone head. Hall, pi. v., 20; Schmidt, pi. xiii., 4. Ht. 4 in. X 2\ in. 10. On fragment of base of a large limestone statue. Schmidt, pi. xviii., 2. Ht. 4 in. X 7 in. x 4 in. 11. On fragment of limestone vase. Schmidt, pi. xix., 2. Ht. \ in. X 2| in. 438 APPENDIX. 12. On fragment of pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xviii., 3. Ht. 6 in. x i ft. 13. On fragment of large limestone vase with relief of serpent and -Iclphin (engraved p. 144). Hall, pi. iii., n ; Schmidt, pi. xiv., i. Ht. i ft. 1.1 in. x ic in. X 3} in. 14. On rim of small limestone pedestal. Hall, pi. iii., 12. Schmidt, pi. xiii., 2. Ht. 4^ in. X3f in.X3 in. 15. On pedestal of limestone statue. Schmidt, pi. xvi., i ; Ht. gf- in. x ii in. x ic in. 16. On piece of limestone. Hall, pi. i; Schmidt, pi. xv., i. Ht. 8 in. X i ft. 10 in. 17. On circular alabaster box. Schmidt, pi. xix., i. Ht. i-J in. X dia. ii in. 18. On limestone votive object in shape of human ear. Hall, pi. ii., 6; Schmidt, pi. xii.. 2. Ht. 2 in. X ii in. 19. On foot of stone vase (?) Diam. 6| in. X i in. 20. On limestone handle of patera (?) terminating in ram's head. Hall, pi. iv., 18 ; Schmidt, pi. xii., 3. Length 8f in. 21. On tablet representing religious ceremony. Hrdl. pi. vi., 26; Schmidt, pi. xi.. i. Ht. i ft. X i ft. 7 X I in. 22. On oblong alabaster box or small pedestal. Ht. ii in. x 2| in. x i in. 23. On fragment of pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xix.. 5. Length 7 in. 24. On fragment of oblong votive tablet. Schmidt, pi. xix., 7. Ht. 4.) in. X 7 x | in. 25. On fragment of limestone pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xx.. 5. Ht. 8 in X 5 in. X 2 in. 26. On fragment of limestone bas-relief. Schmidt, pi. xix., 6. Ht. 8 in. X 4 in. x i-} in. 27. On fragment of pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xx.. i. Ht. 6 in. x 4 x 2.1 in. 28. On fragment of limestone bas-relief. Schmidt, pi. xix., 8. Ht. 3 in x 4 in. x ii. 29. On fragment of limestone pedestal. Ht. 3^- in. x 7 in. x 4 in. 30. On fragment "f bas-relief. Schmidt, pi. xx., 2. Ht. 5 in. x 7 in. x 2 in. 31. On base of colossal statue. Ht. i ft. 4 in. x i ft. 7 in. X 7 in. 32. On limestone pedestal of statue. Schmidt, pi. xv., 2. Ht. i ft. 2.1- in. x ii in. x nk in. CYPRIOTE INSCRIPTIONS. 439 33. On terra-cotta tile, found at Curium. Ht. I ft. 5 in. x 9a m> 34. On small pedestal with bas-relief. Schmidt, pi. xvii., 2. 35. On fragment of limestone vase found at Pyla. Hall, pi. i., 2 ; Schmidt, pi. xvi., i. 36. On oblong piece of limestone. 37. This inscription is to be read as one line. It occurs on the horizontal moulding of a pediment containing bas-relief of two female figures with their hands raised to their heads, standing between two figures of lions, and two male figures with two smaller lions. Schmidt, pi. xxi., i. 38. On an oval piece of terra-cotta. Hall, pi. vi., 25; Schmidt, pi. xiii., 3. Diam. i\ in. 39. On limestone votive object in shape of human ear. Ht. 2 in. X if in. 40. On fragment of limestone pedestal. Schmidt, pi. xvii., 4. Length 7 in. 41. On fragment of statuette. Hall, pi. vi., 28 ; Schmidt, pi. xvi., 3. lit. 9 in. X 4 in. 42. On base of limestone statuette, found in ruins of Temple of Apollo Hylates, near Curium. Hall, pi. viii., 37 ; Schmidt, pi. xxi., 5. Ht. i ft. 2 in. 43. On limestone statuette, from ruins of Temple of Apollo Hylates, near Curium. Hall, pi. viii., 33 ; Schmidt, pi. xxi., 4. 44. On fragment of terra-cotta vase, from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 3 in. X 5 in. 45. On fragment of terra-cotta vase, from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 4 in. X 6 in. 46. On limestone box from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 65 in. x 3 in. x 4 in. 47. On limestone box from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 3 in. x 2 in. x 4^ in. 48. On fragment of limestone box, blackened by fire, from temple at Cythrea. Ht. 3^ in. X 2\ in. x \ in. 49. On fragment of limestone, blackened by fire, from temple at Cythrea. Ht. 2 in. x ii in. x } in. 50. On fragment of limestone box, coloured red, from temple at Cythrea. Ht. 4^ in. X 2 in. X I in. 51. On fragment of limestone, from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 3 in. X 2 x | in. 440 APPENDIX. 52. On fragment of limestone, from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 2-i- in. X i in. x % in. 53. On fragment of limestone, blackened by fire, from ruins of temple at Cythrea. Ht. 4 in x 2 in. x i in. 54. On fragment of limestone, found at Cythrea. Ht. 2 in. x i in. x ^ in. 55. Incised on carnelian intaglio, with bearded head full face, found at Curium. 56. On terra-cotta lamp, with figure of Phoenician deity, found in a tomb at Carpass. Hall, pi. iv., 17; Schmidt, pi. xxi., 3. Ht. ii in. x 3 in. 57. Deeply cut on fragment of limestone, found in ruins of temple at Cythrea. 58. Deeply cut on piece of limestone, in ruins of the temple at Curium, which had the treasure chambers. 59. Deeply cut in piece of limestone, found with last. 60. On piece of limestone found at Amathus. Ht. 7 in. x 5 in. x 3 in. 61. On fragment of limestone. Ht. 6 in. x 2 in. 62. On fragment of bas-relief, representing a female figure and a child. Ht. n in. x 3^ in. x ^ in. PLATE/ ' *>l 1 W! OO > *- "" 7\ *. X-H? x << >X t id T r . " r "F ^^- X- X- to fo. K- to K< ? >^ n X- Ht N?5 PLATE 2 N? 8 N99 N9 10 in ^k * N'l! A, * 8 N?I2 PLATES N?I3 N9I4- N?I8 N9I9 PLATE! * K< e K< x % ,-" A V ^_v * 5 z * K- 'Z. o K- -v.V 2 o N92I III PLATE 5 N?22 K< HI K< N?29 N? 30 iM)j))iO i > N?3I N938 N?34 Ne^ of Acatu . . . . Cinyradie, -tatues of Cinvradaj (Larnaca), history of PAGK ' CYPRIOTE 139 Cinyras sends armour to Agamemnon 75 history of. 97 Cippi, sepulchral, Larnaca 338 Citiuin founded .... 75 - Assyrian sculpture found at 274 - (Larnaca' 1 , history of . 345 Clarius, river . . . . 238 Cleaning sculptures, mode of. Climate of Cyprus . . . ' Coffin of terra-cotta 56 Coin.-., found at Neo-Paphos 59 Colonna-Ceccaldi, Mr. . 253 Colossal head, Golgoi 30 Assyrian statue, Co'goi . 282 Conscription in Cyprus 337 Constantinople, museum at . 231 Cook's excursionists, invasions of . 33 Copper-mining first introduced . - articles, where abundant 36 mines, traces of . 231 Costume of priests . . . 240 Crawford, Gen. S. \V. . 181 Cresonerki, village of . . Cretan rebellion, the 34 Crusader's tomb, Acheropiti Crusaders, tombs opened by . 36 Crystal unguentarium. Curium . 348 Cuneiform alphabet of Cyprus 218 when and by whom read 183 table of characters . 16 , 296 Curium, temple discovered 82 , history of . . 223 rock-cut fortifications of 229 site described . 235 tombs . . . . . 232 treasure vaults opened 234 view of 41 I Cybele, head of . . . . statue of. at Soli 348 Cylinders in serpentine . . 4s I Cyprus, Henna plant 62 ancient names for 179 Chittim of the Jews . compared in >hape to a deer's >kin name derived 170 I regal government of 45 S. L. coast explored 49 whence colonised 91 "Cyprian Iliad,'' the 238 Cypriote alphabet first made out . I 5 art. it- character 48 inscription.-, found I'AGK 4 2O 54 3 47 46 6 142 7,62 190 223 76 123 143 1 86 172 170 219 277 282 180 224 225 165 234 269 3 2 5 15 i/>. 17 301 298 294 299 295 302 293 191 229 305 149 INDEX CYPRIOTE Cypriote language Cythrea, ruins of . . . DEMETER PARALIA, temple of statuette of . Demetrius Poliorcetes invades Cy- prus ..... Depopulation of Cyprus, causes of Destructive mania of natives . . " Diamond of Paphos' 1 . Dish, placed under hand of corpse Drepano, tombs at . . . . EARRINGS found at Curium . with pendant shrine Echo, remarkable, at Paphos Egyptian remains, Poli . - amulets, Amathus . . - conquest of Cyprus statues, Golgoi . . . - style, statues in the Embargo on sculptures, clever evasion of .... Embroidery, Cypriote Esar-haddon receives tribute from Soli - Cypriote kings tributaries to Eteandros, king of Paphos, bracelets of Evagoras defeats the Persians . king of Salamis Evil eye, how averted Execution, Turkish mode of . Exportation of antiquities forbid- den . . . . . . FAMAGOSTA taken by the Genoese - built with the materials of Salamis . . description of ... siege of .... the ancient Ammochostos . Feet, votive, Paphos Fire-raising on mountain Flute-player, terra-cotta . " Forty Saints," Cave of the Footstools in stone, with bas-reliefs of Chiirux-ra, and Lion killing Hull, Golgoi .... Fortresses dismantled by the Ve- netians . . . . . Friederiehs, Dr. . Funeral procession, on a tomb . PAGE 14 242 52 5 27 193 254 217 298 225 310 297 212 226 274 18 145 i7S 12 306 24 200 271 2 4 8 33 194 ib. & 192 207 286 344 18 159 lALUSSA J>AGE GATTO, Cape, origin of name . 348 Gems, engraved (see Appendix) Genab E fiend i . . . -57 George, St., popular in Cyprus . 346 " ( Jergithios," the . . . . 14 Geryon, Hercules driving off the cattle of, bas-reliefs . . 136 - statue of, Golgoi . . . 156 Glass ware, Dali . . . .71 Gold ornaments, Curium . . . 312 Egyptian patera in . .316 - ornaments, Dali . 73 rings found, Amathus. . 278 - Curium . , 297 - staters, great find of . .56 Golgoi, temple of, how destroyed . 163 - Aphrodite found at . . ib. - cemetery of . . .102 history of . . . 106 - method followed in exca- vating . . . .140 - sarcophagus found at . . 107 - temple discovered . .116 - temple of, described . . 139 Governor-General of Cyprus, dis- pute with . . . . 58 - makes satisfaction . . 59 Greek colonies in Cyprus . . . 21 - sculptures, Golgoi . .152 " Great Council " of Cyprus . . 146 Green-glazed terra-cotta . . 101 HADJI JORCIII, story of . . . 83 Hall, Prof. Isaac II. . . . 224 Hegesias, Cypriote poet . . . 13 Helena Palajologus 33 Helena, St., builds church on Santa Croce . . . . . Hellenic subjects expelled Cyprus . Ilelopolis used at siege of Salamis . Ileraclius, gold of, common in Cyprus ..... 209 Hercules, colossal statue of . . 133 Tynan, of Amathus . . 250 - terra-cotta figure of . . ib. Hierarchy, Cypriote . . . 10 Hilarion, St., village of . . . 238 Hippodrome of Curium . . 338 Hitchcock, Mr. Hiram . . . 196 Human sacrifices .... 250 446 INDEX. PAGE 345 63 64 67 256 ICONOCLASTS Iconoclasts, work of . . . . Idalium (Dali), site of . explored by Count de Vogue tombs, arrangement of . . Immense blocks of stone Intagli found at Curium (see App.) Iridescent glass . . . . Ivory, bas-relief in . JEWS in Cyprus, revolt of the . . 30 Johnson, Aug. J., American Con- sul-General at Beirut . . 58 Johnston, John T., Pres. X. Y. Art Museum 353 KANTAKA, fortress of . Kara Ahmet, an incendiary . . Kattirdji Janni, the bandit, story of King, Rev. C. W. . . x. Kingdoms of Cyprus, the ten . . Koloni, village of . Kouklia, the site of Paphos . . Ktima, fanatical Turks of taught better manners Kufi, Asp LAMP in form of temple . . . Lamps of terra-cotta, Dali of Roman date . . . Lang, Mr., British Consul for Cyprus excavates at Dali quoted . .... Lapai's, the abbey .... Lapethus, river . . . . . - site of . " Larnaca of Lapethus " . Larnaca, appearance of . " Marina " of . . . . name derived the last view of . Latin churches destroyed at the Turkish conquest . Lefca, beautiful vegetation around. Leo-Petro, poultry-breeders at . Lepers, account of ... Leucolia, site of .... - cemetery of . Leucosia, now Nicosia I.iman], siege of . - ( invernnr of, his visit " Lino-bambaki " Christians . 1 .usiunan dynasty . . . . I.U-UM! vase in stone. Golgoi Luynes, Due de, bronze tablet of . 240 286 196 353 2 ^ 217 204 22O 221 2 3 8 157 71 ib. Si 82 18 237 6 2 33 42 ib. 45 350 244 191 192 244 38 289 185 PAPHOS MARBLE SARCOPHAGUS, Amathus. "Masons' Marks", on mediaeval ashlar . . . . . . Mehemet Bey of Ktima . . Mchemet Kaiserly Pasha conveys two cases of antiquities Melicertes, figures of Metallurgy in Cyprus . . . Midnight scene at Golgoi Monolith, perforated, still held sacred . . ... Monoliths of granite, Paphos. Moro, Cristoforo, "Othello"' Morris, Hon. L. J., American min- ister at Constantinople . Mosaic pavement, Paphos Curium Mountains of Cyprus . . . Mulas, ruins at .... Muleteers of Cyprus . . . . Murray, A. S. . . x., 342 Mustafa, consular cavass "Mysteries of Venus," explanation of, demanded . . . . NAPA, Sta, convent of . Napoleon III. intends securing the Golgoi statues . . . . Necklace with Gorgon, Curium Neo-Paphos, site of ... Nicocles, king of Paphos . Nicosia, antiquities of . a Turkish convict prison Nocturnal intruder, a . . (K.NOCHOK, painted, Amathus painted with horseman, archaic ... . . Olympus, Mount .... now Troodes . . . . Onesilos, where slain of Salamis . . . Ormidia, cemetery near . Osman Aga, his buried treasure Ossuaries, formed from relics of battles Oven-shaped tombs . . 66, Ox-head, borne as svmbol great PAGE 270 189 214 195 65 212 301 5 238 105 394 171 187 1 70 317 219 26 246 247 287 273 334 5 215 192 23 181 208 INDEX. 447 PAGE Paphos, measurements of Temple . 210 palace of . . . 206 ruins of temple . . . 210 son of Venus ... 20 temple, view of . 205 Patreci, figures of'. . . 264 Patera, gold Egyptian . . . 316 - in the Egyptian style . 330 - silver, with Phoenician reliefs 329 - silver, with Phoenician reliefs, Amathus . . . . 279 with antelopes and papyri 337 Paul, St. , where flogged . . 223 - visits Paphos . . . . 29 Paulus, Sergius, at Soli . . 229 Pedestals, inscribed, Paphos . . 213 Pegasus and Chrysaor . . .112 Peplos, dedicated to Athena Alea 219 Perforated stones at Paphos . .211 Pergamos, ruins of . . . 239 Perseus and Gorgon, bas-relief on sarcophagus . . . .113 Persians take Cyprus . . . 23 " Phaneromene,'' the, of Larnaca . 49 Phoenician cities in Cyprus . 21 Greek inscription . . . 233 inscriptions on vase . . 68 painted vases . 55 patera, Curium . . . 329 remains at Larnaca . . 49 silver paterce, notices of . 330 tombs, Curium . . . 297 vases, Dali . . . . 68 Phoenicians in Cyprus ... 2 Pit-granaries {African "silos''), at Curium .... 341 Pnytagoras made king of Citium by Alexander . . . . Poli, Egyptian remains at Porcelain dishes used in Gothic wall- decoration . . . . 242 Egyptian amulets in . . 274 Potamia palace, treasure trove at . 98 Potters' stamps . . 21 6 Pottery, Cypriote (see Appendix* Priests of Cyprus, ancient and modern . . . . .180 Ptolemy, last king of Cyprus . . 28 submits to M. Cato . . 29 takes Cyprus . . . . 26 135 SOPHIA PAGE REVOLTS of Cyprus . . . . 23 Richard of England takes Cyprus . 31 sells Cyprus to the Templars 32 to Guy de Lusignan . ib. Rifled tomb, scene in a . . . 272 Rings, gold, of uncertain use . . 309 votive, Curium (see Appendix) Roman tombs . . . . . 179 Romans, the, take Cyprus . . 28 Raskin, Mr. . . . . . 152 "Russian" acts for "American" Consul . . . . . 174 SAID, Pasha, goVernor-general . 167 - his compliment . . . 176 Salamis, battles of . . .192 history of . . . . 199 - ruins of .... 201 sculptures from . . . 202 Samian vase, from Soli . . . 230 Sandwith, Mr., mistake of . . 82 Sarcophagi broken by tomb-robbers 272 cut out of living rock . . 295 Roman, Lapa'i's . . . 237 Sarcophagus found at Amathus . 264 - mode of lifting . . . 288 Phoenician, Larnaca . . 53 Roman, Larnaca . . . 54 with legend of Perseus . 113 Scarabs found . . ... 305 Sculpture in Cyprus . . .II Selim II. invades Cyprus . 37 Sepulchral stelce with lions, and with sphinxes . . .112 with Ionic capitals, Golgoi . 115 Sepulchre, family, sketch of . . 224 Shield, with reliefs in bronze, Amathus . . . 274, 283 Ships, in terra-cotta, Amathus . . 259 Siegismund, Dr. Justus, fate of . 271 Signet-rings, found at Curium . . 308 Golgoi . 117 Signet, immense gold . 310 Silver ornaments, Curium . . 327 bowl, Golgoi . . . 117 Simeon the hermit . . . 240 Sites, ancient, how best discovered 184 Skulls collected, Dali . 79 - at Alambra ... 88 Skeleton tree ... . 278 Soli, site and history of , . . 227 Sophia, btu, of .Nicosia . . . 247 INDEX. SPHINXES Sphinxes over doorways on sarcophagus lid "Splanchnoptes," the . Stasinos, Cypriote poet Statue of young Roman Stolen antiquities, ho\v recovered . Styppax, Cypriote sculptor Sword sent to Alexander from Citium ..... TEMPLARS, the, buy Cyprus . . Terra- cottas found at Larnaca Terra-cotta heads, life size from Soli " Terra d'umbra" found near Larnaca Theocharis, chief digger . Throni, Cape Pyla site of ancient Tomb at Amathus, plan of . Tombs at Dali . . . . constructed of huge blocks . superimposed on Phoenician interments the oldest in Cyprus . . Torch-bearer, terra-cotta figure " Torre del Moro," Famagosta Travelling in Cyprus . . 109, Treasure-vaults, Curium, found . ground plan of Tremitus, now Tremitusa " Trimming the tomb " Tripod in bronze, Curium Turkish population, decay of . system of correspondence . Turks take Cyprus Tyrian religion brought into Cyprus UNGUENTARIUM in crystal YAKOSSIA founded by the expelled natives of Famagosta Vases, remarkable, Cypriote (see Appendix) Vase, with biga race painted with antelopes and cranes .... PAGF. 260 207 I I 13 24O 126 II 10 32 5 242 230 218 271 181 183 260 66 256 72 203 250 195 177 303 34 246 33 335 193 147 39 19 325 192 ZEUS PAGR Vases with early decoration . . 181 - terra-cotta, Alambrn. . . 92 with doulflc spouts . . 95 with incised and coloured decoration . . 93 - of terra-cotta, Dali . . 77 - of the Trojan kind . . 102 Venetian arms preserved at Fama- gosta . . . . . 195 Venice obtains Cyprus ... 36 loses it . . . 39 Venus Acraea, temple of . . 5 - Garden of . . . . 218 - statuette, Golgoi . . .157 terra-cotta figures of, Alam- bra . . . .88 - the Bearded, of Amathus . 132 where she first appeared . 213 - -worship, vestiges of . . 189 Veil, thin, of what an evidence . 222 - of the Temple, Ephesus . 12 Veiled female statue . . . . 285 Vespasian rebuilds Temple of Paphos 205 Vogue, Count de, explores Golgoi 137 - erroneous statement of 30x3 - at Amathus . . 253 Vondiziano, M. Andrea . 116 Votive tablets, Golgoi . . .158 Vultures, numerous . . . . 227 WATER-BOTTLES in terra-cotta . 102 -carrier, figure of . . 300 -conveyance in Greece . . 342 Whorls in terra-cotta and serpentine 102 224 Xanthus, marble frieze from doorway, represented 261, 265 260 ZAPTIEH, Turkish policeman how utilized . Zeno, supposed head of - of Citium Zeus Splanchnotomos of Salamis 121 123 153 H 199 THE CESNOLA COLLECTION IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK. BY JOHN TAYLOR JOHNSTON, ESQ., PRESIDENT OF THE MUSEUM. THE CESNOLA COLLECTION OK CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK. BY JOHN TAYLOR JOHNSTON, ESQ.. PRESIDENT OF THE MUSEUM. THE written and verbal reports made from time to time to the Trustees of the Metropolitan Museum of Art by General di Cesnola, and an examination of the Collections now in the Mu- seum, enable us to arrive at the grand results of his eleven years' work in Cyprus, which may be summarized as follows : He explored and identified the sites of the following ancient royal cities: I. Amathus; 2. Cerynia; 3. Citium ; 4. Golgos or Golgoi ; 5. Lapethus ; 6. Neo-Paphos ; 7. Salamis ; 8. Palaeo- Paphos. He discovered also the ruins of the following royal cities mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy, and other ancient authors: I. Ammochostos (where now stands Famogosta); 2. Aphrodisium; 3. Carpassia ; 4. Curium; 5. Cythrea ; 6. Marium ; /. Soli (or Soloi, as in Greek inscriptions); 8. Tamassus. Likewise sites of the following ancient towns, some of which are mentioned by ancient geographers: I. Arsinoe; 2. Avdimo ; 3. Catalima ; 4. Curi ; 5. /Epcja ; 6. Lcucolla ; /. Larnaca of Lapethus; 8. Melussa ; 9. Mulas ; 10. Pergamos ; 11. Throni ; 12. Tremitus. 452 THE CESNOLA COLLECTION OF CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES. He discovered and explored the following fifteen ancient temples : * One dedicated to Artemis Paralia at Citium. One " Baal Keseph (?) at Citium. One " Venus at Golgos. One " Cybele at Soli. Two Aphrodite at Palaeo-Paphos. One Apollo Hylates near Curium. One " Cybele at Leucolla. One Hercules at Larnaca of Lapethus. One Venus at Cythrea. One, dedication unknown, at Cythrea One " " " Aphrodisium. Two " " Neo-Paphos. One (where "the treasure" was found) at Curium. He discovered and explored the following Necropoli : One at Dali (Idalium), containing about 25,000 tombs (about 150 of which were Greek tombs found over Phoenician ones). Five east of and near Dali, containing about 2500 tombs. One at Alambra " " 82 " One at Golgos " 1500 " One at Mclussa " " 300 " One at Aghios Parascheva " " 2300 " One at Ormidia " " 3000 " One at Timbo " " no " One at Avgoro " 400 " One at Tamassus " " 300 " Three at Citium " " 5900 " Three at Amathus " 1800 " Two at Palaeo-Paphos " " 800 " One at Neo-Paphos " 160 " One at Aphrodisium " " 70 " One at Carpassia " 500 " One at Pala.'0-Castro " 600 " One at Leucolla " " 900 " One at Marium " 1500 " One at (Epeja " 20 " One at Arsinoe " 400 " Two at Soli " " 500 " One at Lapethus " 200 " One at Acrhios Sesomini " " 100 " THE CESNOLA COLLECTION OF CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES. 453 Two at Larnaca of Lapethus, containing about 700 tombs. One at Catalima " 200 " One at Paralimni " 120 " One at Salamis " 600 " One at Curi " only a few " One at Avclimo " about 2000 " One at Maroni " 1000 " One at Tremitus or Tremithus " " 1700 " One at Gallinoporni " 100 " One at Aradippo 70 " One at Pyla " " 200 " One at Limnia " 400 " One at Davlos " only a few " One at Crusoko " about 300 " One at Curium " 400 " One at Maratovno " 100 " One at Potamia " only a few " Two at Cerynia " about 1000 " One at Lemba " only a few " One at Aghios Heraclidion about 500 " One at Petra " " 200 " One at Tricomo " 1000 " One at Aghios Theodoros " " 500 " One at Corno " only a few " One at Episkopi " about 200 " One at Lurigina " 300 " One at Kossi " " 100 " One at Aghios Andronicos " " 300 " One at Pirga " only a few " Total Necropoli, 65. Total Tombs, 60,932. lie discovered the following six ancient aqueducts: One at Citium (west of Larnaca). One at Amathus (northeast of the ruins). One at Curium (north of the ancient city). One at Sta. Xapa (cast of Catalima). One at Carpassia (west of the ruins). One at Lapethus (south of the mountains). The following objects are the results of the explorations; Assyrian Inscriptions (on cylinders) Phoenician " (on marble and tcrra-cotta vases) Cypriote " Greek " Coins (in gold, silver, and copper) Vases 14,240 4 30 62 I0 5 2110 454 T1IE CESXOLA COLLECTION OF CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES. Statues in stone, marble, and terra-cotta 2110 Busts and Heads in marble and terra-cotta 4200 Mortuary Cippi and Stelas 138 Bas-reliefs in marble, stone, and terra-cotta 270 Sculptured Sarcophagi in marble and stone 4 Engraved Gems, Cylinders, and Scarabei 1090 Glass Vases, Bottles, Cups, Plates, Amulets, etc 37 '9 Serpentine Stone, Haematite, and Egyptian Enamelled-ware. . . . 472 Objects in gold * 1 599 " silver 370 " copper and bronze 2107 " alabaster and rock-crystal 146 ivory, bone, lead, and iron 217 Terra-cotta Lamps 2380 Total . About 5000 of these objects were unfortunately lost at sea near the coast of Syria, in 1871, while on their way to America. A large and judiciously selected collection was transferred to the Ottoman government by the explorer as a royalty for the firman granted him. Various specimens were also gratuitously presented by General di Cesnola to the following museums: the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople; the Royal Museum at Munich ; the Egyptian Museum at Turin; the Anthropological Museum at Turin; the Archaeological Society at Athens; the Museum at Perugia ; the Smithsonian Institute at Washington ; and the British and St. Petersburg Museums were permitted to take casts and copies of the inscriptions. Sales were also made of small collections to the Berlin Mu- seum, the Cambridge Museum, the Kensington Museum, and the Boston Museum of Art. These losses and transfers, however, were mainly of dupli- cates, and in nowise detract from the completeness of the grand collections, which comprise about two thirds of all the objects found, including the whole of the inscriptions and statues, and which are now the property of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cyprus, the scene of these discoveries, was the great central meeting-point of the old races. The General entered this field, zealously seeking scientific and historic knowledge ; and pro- ceeded, year by year, in a matchless unfolding of the growth of THE CESNOLA COLLECTION OF CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES. 455 art, and has, by his researches, rescued these treasures from time and an unappreciative race. It is proper to mention some of the conclusions concerning the collections already arrived at by distinguished scholars. These collections contribute to modern knowledge a wider field of art and a greater amount of important material than has ever before been produced by any one discoverer. They form the most complete illustration of the history of ancient art and civilization, revolutionizing some of the theories of art. They contain the first known works of Phoenician art, and in- troduce the Phoenicians as teachers of the Etruscans. They are the key to the origin and development of Greek civilization, and illustrate the international encounter of races and arts in Cyprus, and the manner in which the civilization, religion, and arts of the East were transmitted to and adopted by the Greeks and thus they determine the place of Greece in the history of art. The sculptures, the oldest known, have remodelled the history of that art. The engraved cylinders are among the oldest and rarest. The inscriptions have enabled scholars to complete the Cypriote system (the most perfect of all the wedge-shaped sys- tems, and the most curious of all Asiatic languages), which ceased to be used in the fifth century B.C. The exhibition from Golgos is the greatest find of statuary ever made in a single locality. The collection of Archaic Greek fictile art is the richest that now exists. The Greek and Phoenician glass-ware is magnificent, unique, and the largest in existence. The treas- ures from the temple vaults of Curium are the most precious single discovery of ancient art ever made. The vases present entirely new features in the history of ancient potter}', and the local ceramic art is illustrated for a period of more than 2000 years. The gems are a true revelation of the history of glyptic art, and a book describing the rings alone would be one of great importance in the history of Greek taste. The wonderfully rich handiwork in gold and silver is unsurpassed in design and ex- quisite execution, and the armlets of Etcvandros, King of Cyprus 6/2 years B.C., are the most massive articles of ancient gold jewelry ever found. It is but just to General di Cesnola, as a citizen of the United States, to record the fact that it was owing to his determina- tion not only to keep the collections in one body under his own name, but also, if possible, to secure them for his adopted coun- THE CESNOLA COLLECTION OF CYPRIOTE ANTIQUITIES. try, that the trustees of the museum were successful in their efforts to secure them. Had the General been less resolute on these points, or more mercenary, the collections would have been broken up and the articles sold separately, to his great pecuniary benefit, but to the incalculable loss of science. The obligations of the public to the General for the liberal course pursued by him can hardly be overestimated. 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