[PRICE ONE SHILLING] PHOTOGRAPHIC HANDY-BOOKS, ."No. VII. ZBTT^TOZDsTS MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. COMPRISING PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN WORKING GELATINE DRY PLATES, PRINTING, ETC. FORMERLY PUBLISHED AS THE "A B C OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY/' By W. K. BURTON, C.E. SIXTH, AND ENLARGED EDITION. REPRINTED, WITH ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, FROM THE "PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS." LONDON : PIPER & CARTER, 5, FURNTVAL STREET, HOLBORN, E.C. 1886. P. MEAGHER, PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS MANUFACTURER. MEAGHER'S IMPROVED PORTABLE BELLOWS CAMERA. Specially constructed for use with Dry Plates. This Camera is made as light as possible, con- sistent with rigidity and strength. It is fitted with Single or Double Action Swing-Back, ana the focussing is effected by Screw or Back Adjustment. Prices, with Single Swing-Back and three Double Backs, each carrying two Dry Plates :— forejby^... £7 1 o I For 74 by 5... £7 5 o | For 8* by 6£... £8 10 o | For 10 by 8... £10 5 o 8 bv 5... 7 10 o I 9 by 7 ... 9 10 o | Extending Fronts :-8 bv 5 and under, £1 10/-; 8J by 6J or 9 by 7. £t 15/-; 10 by 8, £2. Double Action Swing-Back, 9 by 7 and under, 15/. extra; 10 by 8, £1 extra. Brass Binding Camera and 3 Backs, up to 9 by 7, £1 8/- extra; 10 by 13, £1 13/- extra. MEAGHER' S IMPROVED POCKET CAMERA. Similar in construction to the Improved Portable Bellows Camera described above. Fitted with Vertical and Horizontal Sliding Fronts, and Back Adjustment for focussing. For Prices with 3 Double Backs, Single Swing- Brass Binding Camera, Platen. without Swing Back. Back extra. and 3 Double Backs. 4f by 31 £500 » £0 15 o £1 10 o by 4} 5 10 d o 15 o 1 Jo o 5 by 4 5 10 o o 15 o 1 10 o 5 by 5 . 600 0150 1 10 o Reversing Frame, from 15/- extra. The wood used in the manufacture of the above Cameras is carefully prepared and selected from a well-seasoned Stock, averaging 50,000 feet, cut into the various thicknesses required. During the past twenty-five years a large number of these Cameras have been exported to India, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, China, and Japan ; and are also in use at the Govern- ment Departments at Chatham, Woolwich, and South Kensington. A large number of satis- factory Testimonials have been received from Amateur and Professional Photographers in all parts of the world. ■ ' v. . DRY-PLATE CAMERAS, &c. No. 1. — 4 J by 31 Improved Pocket Camera, folding bottom, rack adjustment, three double backs, Ross's No. 2 Portable Symmetrical Lens, complete in leather case, with tripod stand s> 10 1 0 If fitted with Dallmejer's 5 by 4 Rapid Rectilinear Lens in place of Ross s Symmetrical Lens ••• ••• 11 6 9 No. 2.-5 by 4 Improved Pocket Camera, as above, fitted with Ross's 5 by 4 Rapid Symmetrical Lens, leather case and stand 11 13 » If fitted with Dallmeyer's 5 by 4 Rapid Rectilinear Lens ... — ... 11 18 o No 3.— 61 by 4f Improved Portable Bellows Camera, single swing back, with three double backs, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens, including leather case and tripod stand 14 11 o Ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's 6 by 5 Rapid Rectilinear Lens 14 j6 o No 4.— 71 by 4J ditto, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens 14 n o Ditto, ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's Rapid Rectilinear Lens 14 16 o No. 6.— 7£ by 5 ditto, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens J5 5 ° Ditto, ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's Rapid Rectilinear Lens 15 o o No 6.-8 by 5 ditto, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens 15 10 o Ditto, ditto, fitted with DaUmever's Rapid Rectilinear Lens ... 15 5 » No. 7.— 8i by 6i ditto, fitted with Ross'i Rapid Symmetrical Lens 17 14 ° Ditto, ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's Rapid Rectilinear Lens 1840 No. 8.-9 by 7 ditto, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens 18 16 o Ditto, ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's Rapid Rectilinear Lena 19 4 o $jo. 9.— 10 by 8 ditto, fitted with Ross's Rapid Symmetrical Lens zi 14 o Ditto, ditto, fitted with Dallmeyer's Rapid Rectilinear Lens ta 4 0 Each Camera is fitted with three double backs only. Discount for Cash with Order, ten per cent. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE of Cameras, Tents, Studio and Field Stands, Printing-Frames, and every other Requisite for the Practice of Photography, sent post free. AGENT for the Abney and Dtrby Dry Plates. Manufactory— 21, SOUTHAMPTON ROW, HIGH H0LB0RN, W.C. BURTON'S MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. COMPRISING PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN WORKING GELATINE DRY PLATES, PRINTING, ETC. FORMERLY PUBLISHED AS THE "A B C OP MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY." By W. K. BURTON, C.E. SIXTH, AND ENLARGED EDITION. REPRINTED, WITH ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, FROM THE "PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS." LONDON: PIPER & CARTER, 5, FURNIVAL STREET, HOLBORN, E.C. 1886. PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION. Various circumstances have combined to induce me to increase the size of this, the Sixth Edition, to a very considerable extent. The change of title — forced on me as explained in the Preface to the Fifth Edition — from the very modest one of the "ABC" to the more imposing one which the work now bears, appeared to me to call for a fuller treatment of the subject. For this reason, whilst trying to retain all possible simplicity of explanation, I have added chapters on what are sometimes considered the more advanced departments of the art, such, for example, as enlarging. The chapters on silver printing have been almost entirely re-written, and a considerable amount of additional matter has been added to the chapter on lenses. The very general introduction of paper as a substitute for glass in the camera has necessitated a chapter treating of paper films for negative work. Then the general tendency on the part of the photographic public to prefer alkaline carbonates to ammonia for development has called for some modification of the chapters on development. In brief, whilst bringing the book up to date, I have tried to so modify it that it need no longer be said of it — as I have heard said of previous editions — that it is too elementary. At the same time I have endeavoured, as before, to avoid technical language as much as possible, so that, whilst I hope that the " Modern Photography " may be more or less useful as a book of reference to more advanced students, I trust it may still retain what efficiency it had as a means of instruction for beginners. CONTENTS. — ♦ — Introduction CHAPTER I. Selection of apparatus CHAPTER II. Chemicals CHAPTER III. The Dark Room ... CHAPTER IV. Exposure of the Plate ... CHAPTER V. First Lesson in Development ., CHAPTER VI. LenseB * CHAPTER VII. The Management of the Camera in the Field, &c. CHAPTER VIII. Instantaneous Photography CHAPTER IX. Portraiture CHAPTER X. Tables to Facilitate Judgment of Exposure CHAPTER XI. Second Lesson in Development CHAPTER XII. Defects and Remedies # iv CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. Intensification of the Negative — Varnishing 93 CHAPTER XIV. Negatives on Paper 97 CHAPTER XV. Printing and Toning with Ready -Sensitized Paper 105 CHAPTER XVI. Sensitizing Albumenized Paper 116 CHAPTER XVII. Defects in Silver Prints, and Remedies — Mounting Prints 120 CHAPTER XVIII. The Platinotype Process — Rapid Printing Paper 125 CHAPTER XIX. Vignetting. — Printing of Skies into Landscape Negatives 130 CHAPTER XX. Transparencies — Lantern Slides — Enlarging and Reducing 134 CHAPTER XXI. Manufactuee of Gelatine Emulsion 143 CHAPTER XXII. The Ammonia Method of Emulsion Making 150 CHAPTER XXIII. Preparing Glass : Coating it.— Drying and Packing Plates ... 154 CHAPTER XXIV. Concluding Remarks 161 Index c ^ xv BURTON'S MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. INTRODUCTION. I wish, at the outset to explain my reason for writing this little book, and the object which throughout I shall attempt to bear in mind. After Archer brought out his collodion process, photography for the first time became a popular amusement with those who had a leaning to art or science, or both. The scientific interest and novelty attaching to the then comparatively new process, combined with a totally false idea of how easy it would be, by means of it, to make a " picture," attracted enormous numbers of those who had some spare time on their hands to take up the subject as amateurs. After a while many of these found that their expectations were scarcely realized, and they found, too, to their surprise, that a mere transcript from nature was not necessarily a picture, but that as much art-culture, if not as much skill, is required to produce such when the tools are the camera and lens, as when they are the pencil and brush. They found, also, that the skill required was greater than they had supposed— that at least a slight knowledge of chemistry and of physics was necessary, or endless troubles would arise. The realization of these facts greatly thinned the ranks of the amateurs. Another era has, however, now arisen in photo- 2 INTRODUCTION. graphy— the era of the dry gelatine process. The skill neces- sary to produce a photograph has been greatly reduced.^ The plate is now no longer prepared by bringing into contact, imme- diately before exposure, two fickle and uncertain chemical pre- parations—the "collodion" and the "bath"— but it may be purchased ready- made, will keep, so far as we know, indefinitely, and may be exposed at any time. True, the artistic feeling is as necessary as ever ; but that uncommon combination, a mind equally artistic and scientific, is required to a less degree than before, and wider scope is given to the former capacity. The consequence of this is, that the number of amateurs is now enormously on the increase. The man who has but a few summer days to spare may take up the camera, and may work it with profit. There will probably be soon— if there is not now— an army of amateurs as great as there was twenty years ago. The ranks are continually being recruited, and greatly by those who have worked no other process before the gelatine one. Wow I come to tne object of this little work. How is the dry-plate aspirant, who takes up the gelatine process as his first, to gain the necessary information to enable him to practise the art ? If he has a pnotographic friend— if his friend and he have coincident spare hours, and if his friend has the ability of con- veying to others the Knowledge which he himself possesses (an ability rarer than is generally supposed)— then the way whereby the would-be photographer is to gain his information is clear. In very many cases, however, the beginner has no such friend ; then, where is he to turn ? True, there are several excellent manuals published on the gelatine process, but these are quite unsuited for beginners ; they presuppose a general knowledge of photography— at least, of the " wet process."* Then there * It must be borne in mind that this was written substantially as it here stands in the beginning of 1882. INTRODUCTION. are the directions contained in the boxes of plates which the tyro will purchase. They also are excellent in their way, but they are necessarily laconic, and they, as well as the manuals, are addressed to those who already are not unacquainted with photographic processes. They constantly refer to the collodion process as a standard, and they use technical language which is unintelligible to the beginner. Let any experienced photo- grapher whose eye this may happen to meet try to cast his mmd back to the times when he was tediously wading through the beginning of whatever was the first photographic process he worked. Can he remember when terms now so familiar to him, such as « detail in the shadows," « density in the high-lights » conveyed no idea to his mind ? Perhaps he cannot ; but such a time there certainly was for him, and now is for every one who first attempts to solve the mystery of the language in which the modern dry-plate manuals and instructions in the plate-boxes are couched. _ I know the case of many who have commenced photography since gelatine became popular, and who, feeling the want which I have attempted to explain-of anything to guide them to a direct knowledge of the working of dry plates-have familiar- ised themselves with the more difficult wet process for the sole purpose of using it as a stepping-stone to the former. In speak- ing of the gelatine process as easier than the collodion, it must be understood that I do so on the assumption that the dry plates are purchased from the manufacturer, not made by the photo- grapher himself . No beginner should attempt to make his own plates. He will find that he has quite enough to do to learn to work those which are made for him by others. In fact, I con- sider that the most experienced photographer who is wise will buy his plates, unless he takes an actual scientific interest in the manufacture. Dry plates can now be had so cheaply that he can scarcely expect to save money by making them This however, is a digression. To return to the subject. What I 4 INTRODUCTION. intend to do is to give instruction in the working of modern dry plates, addressed to the merest beginners. I shall use no technical terms, or only such as I have already explained, and shall assume no knowledge of any photographic process. My endeavour -will he to give such instructions that those beginners who will follow them carefully may, without any other assistance, after a little practice, be able to turn out, with a fair approach to certainty, technically perfect negatives on plates purchased from any trustworthy maker, and to make prints from the negatives, so as to enable him to complete his pictures. I shall avoid theory altogether ; nor do I intend to enter into the question of art. All I propose to do is to teach the A B C of the subject— the purely technical. To the higher branches of photography — the artistic— the aspirant must be guided mostly by his natural gifts ; but he will find much to assist him in many advanced books on photography. In fact, my desire is to produce a manual of photography for beginners, on the assumption that the gelatine process is now the photo- graphic process of the day. The last chapters will consist of concise instructions for the making of emulsions and coating of plates, so that the amateur who chooses, for pure love of so doing, to make his own plates, may do so. Here, again, I intend to avoid all theory, nor shall I enter at all deeply into the question of emulsion making, as the subject has been very fully treated in two different manuals published by Messrs. Piper and Carter.* I intend to devote a chapter to the subject of lenses, and to give a few very simple rules whereby the beginner may gain some idea of the exposure which will be required in different circumstances, and certain tables which will, for most cases, do away with the necessity for any calculation even of the simplest * "Photography with Emulsions," by Captain Abney ; and "Modern Dry Plates," by Dr. J. M. Eder. INTRODUCTION. 5 kind. It is common in manuals for beginners to say that know- ledge of the length of exposure can only be gained by experi- ence. This is partly true, but not entirely. Some idea may be given of how long the cap should be kept off the lens under certain circumstances, and this, I believe, will greatly assist the beginner. The writer remembers how, when he commenced the study of photography, with no assistance but such as he could get from the hand-books, he sought in vain for at least some faint clue to the length of exposure, and to the factors which regulated it. The subj ects of enlarging and lantern slide manufacture will be briefly treated. CHAPTER I. SELECTION OF APPARATUS. The first thing that the photographic beginner has to do, after he has made up his mind that he is going to take up the fasci- nating art -science, is to determine what size of " plate " he will work — that is to say, how large his pictures are to be. As a matter of course, he should begin work upon the smallest plates which he can buy, as the first few results are sure to be far from perfect, and the cheaper the plates spoiled the better. This does not, however, bind him to the smallest size. All photo- graphic cameras are made so that several different sized plates will fit them, and after the first difficulties are over, the tyro is sure to aspire to the production of something larger than the well- known " card " or carte-de-visite. In considering size of plate to be worked, it must be borne in mind that the larger the plate the greater the weight to be carried into the field, the greater the difficulty of manipulation, and the heavier the expense at every turn. This being the case, I sug- gest, as a good size, that known as " half-plate " ; that is, a plate measuring 6£ inches by 4f inches. This allows of pictures being taken of the popular cabinet size, and the apparatus neces- sary can very easily be manipulated in the field. A somewhat larger size can easily be carried by an active man ; but I think that, at any rate, nothing greater than "whole-plate," or 8£ inches by 6^- inches, should be attempted. The smallest size of plates commonly offered for sale is the " quarter-plate," measuring 4J inches by 3| inches, and, as has been said, the beginner should confine himself to this size till he has become SELECTION OF APPARATUS 7 somewhat familiar with the different operations involved in the taking of a negative. Having decided the size, the next thing to consider is, in what manner to purchase the apparatus ; and here let me say em- phatically that the only way in which to be sure of getting reliable photographic requisites is to go to a first-rate dealer, and to purchase them new from him. There is a general idea in the mind of the non-photographic public, probably gained from see- ing numbers of old cameras and lenses exposed for sale in pawn shops and such like, that great bargains are to be made in second- hand photographic apparatus, and that the beginner may "pick up " what he wants very cheaply by a little looking about. There can be no greater mistake. The experienced photographer may pick up an article very cheap ; but the man without technical knowledge is almost sure, if he attempt to do tbe like, to find on his hands goods which will be useless to him when he has somewhat advanced in his art. Having thus advised the reader where to purchase his appa- ratus, there still remains the question, " How ? Is it advisable to go in for a complete set, or to buy each article separately ? " The beginner will be best advised in this matter by the state of his funds. The " sets " made up by most of the chief photo- graphic dealers are most excellent and complete ; but the sum charged for them is greater than many are willing to lay out at once. These may buy at first only such articles as are absolutely necessary to begin with, and may add to their store from time to time as they think fit. I give a list of the articles most neces- sary for working quarter-plates, and afterwards shall say a word on such of them as seem to call for special description : — A camera. A lens. A tripod stand. A focussing cloth. 3 flat dishes or trays of porce- lain or other material. Graduated measure holding £-ounce. Ditto, ditto, 4 ounces. A dozen gelatine J-plates. A dark-room lamp. A chemical balance. 8 SELECTION OF APPARATUS. The Caheka. The general form of the photographic camera must be familiar to all. It consists essentially of a box, at one end of which is held a sensitive plate, whilst at the other is held a lens. An inverted image of any bright object which may be opposite the lens is thrown by it on to the sensitive plate. There is a means of adjusting the distance between the plate and the lens, or, as it is commonly expressed, of focussing. Every camera has, besides this, a piece of ground glass, which can be put in the exact place to be afterwards occupied by the plate, and upon which the image can be seen so as to facilitate focussing. It is also fitted with a " dark- slide." This is a sort of case in which a sensitive plate may be fixed. After the camera has been focussed, the dark-slide is placed in the position before occupied by the ground glass, which latter is removable. The " shutter," or sliding door of the dark-slide, is then removed, and, on taking the cap off the lens, the image falls on the plate. As many dark-slides as are desired may accompany a camera, and thus a number of plates may be carried into the field. Slides are constructed to hold two plates each, and are called " double dark-slides." These are by far the best and most convenient to use for dry plates. Three slides are a common number to accompany a camera. This enables half-a-dozen plates to be carried out. Each dark- slide should be fitted with a set of "carriers." These enable plates smaller than the largest size for which it is constructed to be placed in it.* All modern cameras for use in the field are made so that they can fold up into small coarpass for ease in carrying, and have " bellows bodies," that is to say, can be drawn out and in like a concertina. "We illustrate three of the best modern forms of * See chapter which treats of sensitive films to take the place of glass plates. SELECTION OF APPARATUS. 9 camera, showing in each the camera as in use, and as folded •down for transportation. In purchasing a camera, the photo- grapher should get one which will open to "a considerable distance — if possible, to as much as twice or three times the length of the largest sized plate which it will work. In some part of his career the amateur is sure to aspire to the taking of portraits. His attempts in this direction are likely to he failures, and to cause great pain to his friends ; but nothing is surer than that the portrait fit will attack him. When it comes to this, he will find a camera which opens to a considerable length a great advantage. Even apart from the matter of portraits, a camera opening to a considerable length is desirable, as it is now becoming a generally recognized fact that more artistic pictures are got with lenses of comparatively long focus than with those of very short focus.* * See chapter on Photographic Optics. 10 SELECTION OE APPARATUS. There are various adjustments attached to modern cameras which, although of little use in the hands of the beginner, will be found of great convenience to him when he is more advanced. SELECTION OF APPAEATUS. 11 These are chiefly a vertical and horizontal adjustment of the front on to which the lens is screwed, and what is called a " swing back." This latter provides a means of varying to a certain extent the angle between the sensitive plate and the axis of the lens. Its action will be described in a subsequent chapter. A. leather case, in which the camera and dark slides can fit, should be provided. Various attempts have been made to obviate the necessity of having separate dark slides, and cameras have been constructed so that they either contain a supply of plates themselves, appliances being added to enable these to be brought into position, or so that the plates are contained in a box from which they may be transmitted to the camera without the intervention of more than one dark-slide. Several of these cameras work very successfully. One of the most ingenious is that which has been called, after its inventor, the " Enjalbert." It has all the adjustments of an ordinary camera, and, besides this, a receptacle for containing six or eight plates, any one of which may, by av most ingenious device, be made to take the place of the ground glass. 12 SELECTION OF APPARATUS. The Lens. Next in importance to the camera — if, in fact, it is not more important — comes the lens. As it is intended to devote a special chapter to lenses, I shall not go much into the question just now, hut shall merely advise that what is known as a " single achromatic" lens, of such a length of focus as to enable the largest plate which the camera will hold to be covered, be purchased. The lens should be bought direct from some re- puted maker. The particular form of lens known as the " wide- angle landscape " is, perhaps, the best. The tripod-stand calls for little special remark. Its general form is known to all. In stands of modern construction each leg folds into two, or sometimes into three, so as to make the whole more portable ; and in some cases each leg has a sliding adjust- ment. The chief requirements of the camera-stand are that it should be light, be easy to fit up and take clown, and should be quite rigid when fixed up. The focussing cloth is intended to cover the head and ground glass, thereby shutting out extraneous light, and making it possible to see the image given by the lens sufficiently distinctly to adjust the focus. It should be about four feet square. Velvet or velveteen is the best material to use, but any black and opaque cloth will do. The flat dishes or trays — or, as they are sometimes called, flat baths — are for use in the operation of developing, fixing, &c, to be described in a future chapter. Such dishes, made of so-called porcelain, can be had for a few pence each, and I recommend that these be purchased for quarter-plate work. When the photographer advances to larger sizes, he may indulge in the more expensive and more convenient dishes made of ebonite and other light material. The dry plate can be bought from any photographic dealer. They are extensively advertised in the photographic periodicals ; SELECTION OF APPAEATUS. 13 but I cannot take upon myself to recommend one make in prefer- ence to another. I have found almost all excellent, the cheap as well as the more expensive. The dark-room lamp will be described when we come to the chapter on the " Dark-room." The most convenient balance for photographic use is such a one as druggists weigh out their chemicals in ; but a small pair of scales without stand, such as is sold for about half-a-crown, will do well. For practical photography, weighing apparatus of great delicacy is by no means necessary. A set of grain and drachm weights are required. The system known as " Apothe- caries' weight" is adopted throughout this book, because it is that most generally used for practical chemical and photographic work in this country. It is unnecessary to say that the French decimal system is vastly superior. CHAPTER II. CHEMICALS. Aftee the photographer has provided himself with the neces- sary apparatus and plates, his first consideration must he the purchase of the chemicals which he will require to convert his plates into negatives. A list is given of those which he will need, stating after each ahout the quantity which I think it desirahle that he should possess himself of at first. Afterwards are given a few words describing the general properties of each substance, but not entering into the chemical composition. Each chemical, whether liquid or solid, should be kept in a bottle, which should have the name distinctly labelled on it, if possible, in print. The chemicals required are as follows : — Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce Ammonia of specific gravity -880 3 or 4 ounces Bromide of ammonium ... ... 1 ounce Neutral oxalate of potash 1 pound Sulphate of iron \ ounce Citric acid ... 1 „ Hyposulphite of soda ... 1 pound Alum ••• i >> Methylated spirit ... £ pint Bichloride of mercury ... % ounce Negative varnish ... A few ounces A couple of books of test papers, one of blue litmus, and one of red litmus. CHEMICALS. 15 Pyrogallic Acid is a white, feathery, and extremely light body. It is exceedingly soluble in water. It is a powerful absorber of oxygen, especially when alkaline. "When a solution of it has absorbed oxygen, it turns brown. The Ammonia used in photography is the strongest solution of ammonia gas in which it is possible to make water at atmo- spheric pressure. It is the well-known hartshorn. It is a transparent and colourless fluid. It is powerfully alkaline. When the stock has been purchased, it is advisable to pour it at once into a bottle holding exactly double the amount of the ammonia, and to fill up the bottle with water. If this is not done, the stopper of the smaller bottle may be blown out by the pres- sure of the liberated ammonia gas when the weather is warm. This will destroy the whole, as, on exposure to air, the liquor ammonia rapidly becomes weaker, because the ammonia gas •escapes. Bromide of Ammonium is usually found as a white powder, looking very much like ordinary table salt. It is very readily soluble in water. Neutral Oxalate of Potash is a white crystalline body. It is readily soluble in water. It ought to have neither an acid nor an alkaline reaction ; but often that sold as neutral is somewhat alkaline. Sulphate of Iron, or " copperas," is a greenish crystalline body. It is very soluble in water, but requires considerable time to dissolve. Its solution decomposes readily if it be much ■exposed to the air, on account *of its absorbing oxygen ; after this it is useless for most photographic purposes. It should therefore be kept — after it is dissolved in water — in a closely- stoppered bottle. Citric Acid is met with either as clear colourless crystals, or as a powder. It is soluble in water. Hyposulphite of Soda is a clear, colourless, crystalline body. It is readily soluble in water. 16 CHEMICALS. The Alum used may be the ordinary alum sold by grocers. As it is intended to be dissolved in water, it should be bought in the form of a powder. It does not dissolve in very large quantities in very cold water, and dissolves somewhat slowly. It dissolves readily in hot water when it is in the form of powder. Methylated Spirit calls for no particular notice, as it is well- known to all. That sold as " finish " is not suitable for photo- graphic purposes. Bichloride of Mercury is a whitish crystalline substance. It is sparingly soluble in water, and is an active poison. It is- commonly known as corrosive sublimate. Negative Varnish in appearance is very like the ordinary spirit varnish used for varnishing wood, but differs from it in the resin used in its manufacture. It can be bought from any photographic dealer. That sold as " dry plate negative varnish ' ' is the most suitable. The Test-Papers are for discovering whether a liquid, such as a solution of any salt, is neutral, acid, or alkaline. To use them, we proceed as follows : — Suppose we have a solution of whose condition as regards acidity or alkalinity we are ignorant. A small piece of the blue litmus paper is dipped into the solu- tion. If the paper change its colour to red at once, or after a short time, the solution is acid ; if no change in its colour take place, the solution is either neutral or alkaline. In this latter case, a piece of the red litmus paper is dipped into it ; we now know its exact condition. If the red litmus become blue, the solution is alkaline ; if no change take place it is neutral. I have now enumerated and shortly described the necessary- chemicals, and shall give instructions for mixing one or two of. what are called " stock solutions." These are solutions which may be kept for some time, and which the photographer should have by him. The ones to be described are those to be used in the first lesson in development. CHEMICALS. 17 Stock Solution. No. 1 bottle is to be labelled " Solution of Oxalate of Potash," in large letters, so that it may be read in a very dull light. "We place the whole half-pound of neutral oxalate of potash in a bottle capable of holding from ten to twelve ounces. The bottle is filled up with warm water, the cork is inserted, and the whole is shaken. A part, but not all, of the white crystals, will dissolve. The liquid will be what is called a " saturated solution " — that is, the water will have taken up as much of the salt as it is capable of taking up. "When any of the solu- tion is used, the bottle is again filled up with water, and this may be done repeatedly until all the crystals are dissolved, the bottle being well shaken after each addition, when more oxalate of potash must be purchased. This solution must be tested in the manner described above to discover whether or not it is alkaline. If it is, enough citric acid must be added to make it neutral or very slightly acid. The manner of making a satu- rated solution here described is that usually adopted by photo- graphers, and seems to give good enough results in practice. It is, however, a very rough method. The best way of making a really saturated solution, is to place the crystals to be dis- solved in a muslin bag, and to suspend this within a jug filled with water, so that the bag hangs just a little below the surface of the liquid. No. 2 is to be labelled " Sulphate of Iron Solution." About a half of the sulphate of iron is placed in a half-pint bottle, after which we proceed exactly as with the last stock solution. It is very necessary in this case to keep the bottle always full of solution, and well corked, as the oxygen of the air, if it come in contact with the liquid, in time spoils it. The solu- tion should be of a bright green colour. If it get red, it is useless. No. 3. Ammonium Bromide Solution. One per cent. — Twenty c 18 CHEMICALS. grains of ammonium bromide are weighed out. This is placed in a four-ounce bottle, and made up to four ounces with water. The percentage is not exactly correct, but is quite near enough for the purpose. No. 4. Alum Solution. — Three or four ounces of the alum are placed in a pint bottle. This is filled up with warm water. The whole of the alum will probably dissolve, but some of it will be thrown down again as crystals when the solution becomes cold. As long as these last, more water may be added from time to time, as the solution is used. "When they are all dis- solved, more alum must be added. No. 5. Fixing Solution. — Five ounces of hyposulphite of soda or " hypo " are placed in a pint bottle, which is filled up with warm water and shaken till all is dissolved. Common tap-water may be used for all these solutions, which, stated briefly, are as follows : — No. 1. Saturated solution of oxalate of potash. No. 2. Saturated solution of sulphate of iron. No. 3. One per cent, solution of bromide of ammonia. No. 4. Saturated solution of alum. No. 5. Twenty-five per cent, solution of "hypo." CHAPTER III. THE DARK ROOM. The reader will understand that the plates which he is about to work with are of the most "exalted sensitiveness;" that is to say, a very small amount of light allowed to act on them will produce a change which may be made visible. It must be explained, however, that only certain rays of light have the power of making the change which we mention. All readers who have a little knowledge of physical science know that white light is in reality a combination of light of all the beautiful colours which we see in the rainbow, and that if we pass a ray of white light through a prism, it will be broken up into all these colours. The order of them is — violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Those at the beginning of the list are called rays of high refrangibility ; those at the end, rays of low rcfrangibility. JSow, it is a curious fact that the photographic change which is worked on the ordinary sensitive plate is worked entirely by the rays of high refrangibility, principally by the violet and the blue, which are said to be "actinic;" whilst the red, which is said to he "non-actinic," has no effect at all. "Were it not for this peculiar fact, photography would be almost impossible, because we could find no light in which we could manipulate our plates without their being affected, and consequently destroyed. As it is, however, we only require 20 THE DARK ROOM. to secure some place illuminated by those rays which do not have any photographic action, and we can "work quite freely. In other words, we want a room lighted with only red, orange, or yellow light in which to work. Until quite recently it was supposed that the modern sensi- tive dry plates could not he worked but in the deepest of ruby light. Thanks, however, to Mr. "W. E. Debenham, we now know that it is quite as safe to work in orange, or even yellow light, as in ruby ; that, indeed, if the proper shade of yellow be got, it is probable that more visual light may safely be ad- mitted than when the colour is ruby. Photographers give such an apartment the name of "dark- room," although the term is a misnomer. On the "dark room," then, we propose to give what hints we consider necessary for the beginner. It is scarcely to be expected that the young amateur, taking up the subject of photography for the first time, will have the power of obtaining the exclusive use of a room of considerable size, to convert into a dark room ; but, on the contrary, he will probably have to put up with some temporary arrangement ; nor- is it all necessary, even when he advances considerably, that he should have a permanent dark room, unless he intends to make his own plates. Any room or closet from which all the other rays of light can be shut off may be converted into a dark-room, in which plates may be changed and developed. If a room having a sink and water-tap — if, say, the pantry — can be "annexed" for the time being, the trouble will be greatly reduced ; but it is quite possible to make shift with a pail for a sink, and a water jug instead of the tap. I have said that it is necessary to shut out entirely all daylight. This pre-supposes the use of artificial light for illuminating the anartment with the necessary red or non-actinic light. I think that until such time as the student sees his way to fitting up a permanent dark-room, he will find it best to work with artificial THE DARK ROOM. 21 light. Lamps constructed especially for the purpose of giving " safe light" are sold by all dealers in photographic apparatus. These use either gas, oil, or candles, and all consist of an arrangement whereby the air necessary to support combustion is introduced by passages which will not allow white light to find its way out, the colour of the light being modified by funnels or globes of ruby glass, or shades of ruby, orange, or yellow paper or cloth. The gas and oil lamps are much to be preferred to the candle arrangements, as with the former it is .possible to raise or lower the light at will. All, then, that the photographer has to do, is to find some small room or closet, which he can make quite dark, in which he can have a plain deal table to work upon, and to purchase a " dark-room lamp ' from a photographic apparatus dealer. The description of dark-rooms will not, however, be complete, unless something is said about the fitting up of a permanent photo- graphic room, in which all the operations, including the manu- facture of the plates, may be conducted. On page 22 is given a sketch of such a room. D is a window whereby the necessary light is introduced. It should be about 2 feet long, by 1 foot 6 inches high. It may be glazed in any of several ways. The following will be found to give a good, and at the same time a safe, light. A sheet of orange stained glass is used, and between this and the operator a sheet of " canary medium " — a light yellow paper — is fixed. A moveable screen of orange paper should be so arranged that it may be brought down to cover the window when the light is very intense, or when the process of plate manufacture goes on. A is a sink made of glazed stoneware. The top edge should be about two feet six inches, or two feet eight inches above the floor. B is the operating table. It should be covered with sheet lead, should have a very narrow and low ridge round all the 22 THE DARK ROOM. sides except that next to the sink, should have a very slight incline in that direction, and should have the sheet lead " dressed" over the edge of the sink, so that all spillings may find their -way into it. C is a narrow shelf ahout four inches ahove the level of the tahle and sink, and extending along the whole length of "both of them. On it is placed the lamp when artificial light is used, as when working at night, and the bottles of solutions actually used for the development. The lower edge of the window should be an inch or two above this shelf. There should be a shelf about six inches below the operating-table, on which the flat developing dishes may be kept. Scale of feet lOFI E i3 a table on which the levelling-slab may be placed when the manufacture of plates is commenced. Above it — or, in fact, along all available space of the walls — shelves may be fixed, for carrying bottles, &c. A space is reserved at F for the drying-cupboard, used in THE DARK ROOM. 23 manufacturing plates. Above this latter, and with its lowest edge about three feet higher than the floor, should be fixed an ordinary cupboard, with a door closing light-tight. In this may be placed plates or anything sensitive to light, which would be destroyed if left about ; for it must be understood that any kind of light will in time act upon the sensitive plate. Gr is an arrangement of double doors whereby the photo- grapher may go out or in without letting any light enter. If there be not space for this arrangement, one door may be used, with an opaque curtain a foot wider than this door hung inside it. Provision must be made for ventilating the room without letting in light. There should be at least one common gas jet for lighting up the room when no sensitive plates are about, so that solutions, &c, may be mixed with comfort, and there should be provision made for attaching several rubber tubes with the gas pipes for connecting with Bunsen burners, &c. The photographer will in all probability not build a room, but will adapt one already built to his purposes. In this case he will have to exert his ingenuity to allot his space to the best advantage. "We have enumerated all the appliances for which room ought to be reserved. CHAPTER IY. EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE. Before giving instructions in the actual manipulation of develop- ing a plate, I must define the terms negative, exposure, and development. A negative may he said to he a pictorial representation •which, on looking through it at a hright light, shows all the shades, •which are seen in any object represented, reversed. Thus, •when we look through a negative of a landscape, holding it between us and (say) a gas-light, we see the sky and all objects •which are in reality brightest, represented as black ; whilst the darker parts of the landscape are represented by the bare and transparent glass. If the negative be a portrait, we see the face black, looking like a negro's, whilst a black coat looks white, and so on. The negative is produced by the action of light in the camera, the places where the light has acted most strongly being turned black. The time during which it is necessary for the light to act on the plate to produce the required effect is called the exposure. Now, we have said that the light acts upon the plate and darkens certain portions of it, but it must be understood that this action is not at first visible. A marvellously short exposure is sufficient to impress on a plate all the details of a landscape in such a manner that, by afterwards acting upon the plate with certain chemicals, these details may be made EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE. 25 visible. This operation is called development, and consists essentially in the increasing of the strength of an image so faint as to be invisible to the eye, till it becomes as vigorous as we desire. Anyone, however conversant with photographic opera- tions, will perceive that when once we have obtained a reverse picture, such as we have described, we have nothing to do but to place this in contact with a sensitive film, and allow light to act through the negative, when we shall get a picture with its shades true to nature. The latter process is usually performed with sensitive paper, and is termed printing. Upon correct exposure and development, nine-tenths of the technical success of negative-making depends ; and when once the student has thoroughly mastered the relation of the one to the other, half the battle will be over. He cannot do so with- out practice ; but I hope to give him such assistance in explain- ing the matter as may lead him to the desired end as quickly as possible. Let the beginner select an object upon which he will make his first attempt. If he can resist the temptation to try a por- trait, so much the better. A brightly-lighted landscape, with strong contrasts of light and shade, is the best ; it need not be picturesque. A suitable view can generally be got out of some window, or a very suitable subject is a bust or statue placed either in a well-lighted room or out of doors. "We shall sup- pose in the present instance that the landscape is selected. The camera should point neither towards nor away from the sun. If the sun shine direct into the lens, the plate will be destroyed; if the sun be directly at the back of the camera, the picture will look " flat." Before beginning operations, I wish to explain what is the meaning of correct exposure. Let the student look attentively at the view which he has selected to make his first attempt upon. He will see that, apart from the various colours repre- sented, there is a very great length of light and shade. He 26 EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE. knows that this range is brought about by the fact that diffe- rent objects reflect different amounts of light to his eye. Prob- ably the sky will reflect the most light, and going through the whole range from this he will see that there arc a few little bits of the landscape that appear absolutely black. They do reflect some light, but it is so little, that, by contrast with the brighter objects, they appear to reflect none. Now, let the student con- sider the process which goes on during exposure. He knows that when he has his camera with a dry plate in position, and when he has removed the cap of the lens, a perfect picture of the landscape, with all the shades of light, will be thrown on the sensitive film, and that the light will be acting upon it. It is evident the brighter parts of the picture will first take effect, and afterwards the darker, until the exposure has been pro- longed to such a period that all the shades of light, except those which, as we explained, appear in the landscape abso- lutely black, will have impressed themselves. At this point the correct exposure has been given. Had a shorter time been allowed, some of the darker shades — or, as it is technically called, the detail in the shadows — would have failed to impress themselves, and the resulting negative would have been said to be under-exposed. On the other hand, had the exposure been prolonged, the light emanating from the apparently black parts of the landscape would have impressed the plate, which would eventually appear to be darkened all over, and would be said to be fogged from over-exposure. It is said of a correctly-exposed negative, that it shows all the detail in the shadows without being fogged. Now we pass on to the practical exposure of a plate, and I shall endeavour to show the student how he can tell, by the behaviour of the plate during development, whether he has hit the much-desired correct exposure or not. He will require to light his dark-room lamp, and to get by him the three flat dishes, the two measuring glasses, all the stock EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE. 27 solutions which we gave directions for mixing in a former chapter, and his hox of dry plates. Now he places his camera in position, opposite the view to he photographed ; he removes the cap from the lens, and places his head under the focussing-cloth. He removes the stop from the lens entirely, if it has movable stops, or, if the stops be rotary, turns them till the largest one is in use. This will make the image on the ground-glass comparatively very bright, and, by turning the focussing-screw first one way, then the other, he will easily find in what position the image is the sharpest. When he has discovered this, he places the smallest stop in the lens. "We say the smallest stop, not because it is necessarily the best for the picture which he is going to take, but because it will enable him to give a comparatively long exposure. Having his camera fixed and focussed, let him place the cap on the lens once more, and retire to the dark-room with one of his double dark-slides for the sensitive plate. "When once here, he places the dark-slide open in front of the lamp. Now he lowers the light till there is only just enough to enable him to see. He opens his plate-box and takes out two plates — two glasses must be placed in the dark-slide at once, but one may bea" dummy " if he happen to have but one dry plate ; that is, either a clean plate of glass or a spoilt negative. In placing the plates in the slide, he must be very careful that in each case the side of the plate which appears dull, on account of its having the sensitive film on it, is placed towards the outside. Now, having closed his dark-slide and wrapped his plates up again, the photographer returns to the camera. He should carry the dark-slide under the focussing-cloth, for further security against light ; and in placing the slide in the camera and during exposure should keep the whole apparatus, with the exception of the lens, under the cloth for the same reason. He removes the focussing-screen, and places the dark-slide in the position occupied by it, keeping the side marked " 1 " towards the lens^ 28 EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE. He now withdraws the sliding door, which is the only thing which intervenes between the lens and the sensitive plate. He takes his watch in his hand, and removes the cap from the lens for (say) five seconds, replaces it, slides in the shutter of the dark-slide, and carries the latter off to the dark-room. I have supposed any of the usual view lenses to be used, the landscape to be brightly lighted, the time of year to be spring or summer, the time of day morning or noon, and the plates to be fairly rapid. CHAPTER Y. FIRST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. In the last chapter the photographer was left at that stage where he had accomplished the exposure of a plate, and was about to- commence the development. It should be explained that the developer with which he is going to make his first experiment is that known as ferrous-oxalate. When he has somewhat ad- vanced, I should recommend him in all cases to use the exact developer recommended in the printing instructions contained in the plate-boxes. This will generally be that known as ' 1 alkaline pyrogallic," but the ferrous-oxalate has the advantage of such extreme simplicity that it is most suitable for a beginner, and, mixed as I recommend it, will give good results with any com- mercial gelatine plates of which I have had experience. The photographer has now, let us suppose, returned to his dark-room. He may lay his dark-slide, still wrapped in the cloth, on a shelf, and, turning up the white light, make the following preparations. He lays his three flat dishes in a row along the front edge of the table, the one to the left opposite the red light, the others to the right of this one. I shall call the dishes Nos. 1, 2, and 3, beginning at the left. Into No. 2 he pours two or three ounces of the alum solution ; into No. 3 about the same quantity of the " fixing " or " hyposulphite " solution. Now he takes the four-ounce measure and pours into it exactly 30 FIRST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. two ounces of the potassium oxalate solution. To this he adds half-an-ounce of the sulphate of iron solution. The whole will immediately assume a beautiful ruby-red colour ; to it he adds about 60 minims of the one per cent, solution of bromide of am- monium. He will now have about ounces of the developer. This is an extravagant amount to use for a quarter-plate, and, if the photographer continues to use f errous-oxalate, he must reduce it to one-half ; but at first it is best to use a good dose. Every- thing is now ready. The white light must be entirely extin- guished, and the red or yellow light lowered as much as possible, till there is just enough to see by. The plate which has been exposed must be carefully removed from the dark-slide, and laid — film side upwards — in dish No. 1, which is still empty. ~Now the dish with the plate in it is taken in the left hand, and the measure with the developer in the right. The developer is poured rapidly, but gently, over the plate, the dish being waved or rocked to make the liquid cover any corner which it may in- cline to avoid, and the whole is placed again in front of the red light, where it is kept in constant gentle motion. And now (if everything has been rightly clone) will commence one of the most wonderful of the phenomena of science or nature which man has been given the power to control — a phenomenon which is always new and always beautiful — the " development of the latent image." Let the beginner watch it closely. The plate had no indication of having been acted upon at all before the developer was poured over it. After, perhaps, ten or twenty seconds there is a slight darkening of some part. "When this be- comes distinctly visible the light may be somewhat raised, for the plate has become less easily affected by it. It will now probably be seen that the brighter parts of the landscape have become quite visible. In negative be it remembered. The sky will be represented by blackness. Now is the time when we can tell whether or not the exposure has been correct. If it has b>een, the development will progress with Jbcautiful regularity . FIRST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 31 The bright parts (or high -lights) appear first ; then slowly, but steadily, more and more of the half-tones, or less brightly -lighted parts come out ; and at last every object and shade except the deepest shadows have their counterpart in the negative. In other words, the plates should be darkened to a greater or less extent in all parts except those few which represent the part of the landscape which appears to the eye quite black ; and this should come about in between one and two minutes. If the plates have been under-exposed, it will be longer before the high-lights appear, and very soon after they do the action will stop, no more detail coming out, but large patches of the plate remaining white as before. If, on the other hand, it has been over-exposed, the high-lights will appear a little sooner, and almost immediately afterwards the whole of the plate will be covered with detail, no part remaining white. The final result of incorrect exposure is, with under-exposure, a hard picture with contrasts over-marked, and with deep heavy shadows in which none of the detail which is visible to the eye is represented ; with over-exposure, a flat, uninteresting looking production, showing all the detail which there is in the original, but lacking bold contrast of light and shade. Let us suppose the happy medium to have been hit, if not at the first attempt, after a few plates have been exposed. The development is not of necessity finished when, looking on the surface of the plate, all action seems to have ceased. We have still to wait till the " density " is sufiicent. A little reflection on the principles involved in the process of printing, which was briefly described in a former lesson, will show that not only is it necessary for the production of a har- monious picture to have all the details which are in the original represented, but in the negatives these must be represented by a certain definite amount of opacity — or, as it is usually called — density. It must be understood, then, that as long as the plate lies in the developer, even after, when looking down upon it, 32 FIRST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. all action seems to have stopped, the density continues to in- crease. "We may say at once that the most difficult thing of all to judge of in gelatine dry plate work is when the required density is gained. So difficult is this, that even the most experi- enced photographers may occasionally fail. The reason of this is that the after processes very much modify the apparent density of the negative, and not only that, but in every different make of plate the apparent density is modified to a different degree. We must make it appear far denser than it is eventually to he. It is only by experience that knowledge approaching to exact- ness can be gained on this point. "When I come to the chapters on printing, I shall explain more fully the characteristics of an over-dense, and a "thin" or under-dense negative. Just now I shall merely indicate the manner in which it is usual to judge of the density. The red light must be turned pretty high. The plate must be lifted from the developer, and held, with the film side towards the observer, for a second only, close to the light, and between the light and the photographer. He must rapidly judge whether or not the density : : s correct. It may be roughly said that, as a rule, the densest parts should appear almost, if not quite opaque. If they do not, the plate must be returned to the developer. I shall suppose the correct density to have been gained. The time taken with the developer I have given will probably be from two to five minutes. The developer is now poured back into the measure. If used within an hour or so, one or two more plates may be developed with it. The plate, after deve- lopment, is thoroughly rinsed under the tap, being either held in the hand, or left in the flat dish. After this, as much red light may be admitted as is desired. Then the plate is laid for five minutes in the alum solution, to harden the gelatine film. It is again thoroughly rinsed, and is placed in the fixing solution. It will have been observed that up till this time the plate, looked at from the back, still appeared white. This is because FIKST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 33 the sensitive salt of silver which was not acted upon by light still remained in the film. On placing the plate in the hyposul- phite, this whiteness will gradually vanish. When there is no further appearance of it from the back, white light may be freely admitted. The plate must still be left a few minutes in the fixing solution, however, after which it must be most thoroughly washed. It should remain at least half-an-hour either under running water, or in frequent changes of clean water. After that, it is reared upon edge to dry, when the negative is com- plete. Heat must on no account be used in drying. CHAPTER VI. LENSES. €f all the apparatus which the photographer uses, there is none of so great importance as the lens. "With a had camera, shift ■can he made and excellent work turned out, the only drawback heing more lahour and inconvenience for the operator ; hut with a bad or unsuitable lens, nothing good can be done. This being the case, it behoves us to give a short description of the various lenses in use, saying for what kind of work each is best suited. Before doing so, however, I will give a few general facts with regard to lenses, and especially I shall lay stress on the manner in which it is possible to compare the rapidity of different lenses. It will be necessary to define a few technical terms continually applied to lenses. The focus, or more correctly focal length,* is the distance between that point (generally in the lens) where lines joining points in the object and in the image cross each other, and that point on the axis of the lens where parallel rays of light are brought to converge to a point by the lens. * When the focus or focal length ia talked of, "equivalent focus" always is meant. The term " back focuB," frequently used by opticians, means simply the distance between the back glass of a lens and the ground ijlass. This distance it is never of the smallest importance to know. LENSES. 35 This is possibly a meaningless definition to the beginner, in ■which case he need merely bear in mind that for the purpose of determining exposure, sufficient accuracy is gained in the case of a single landscape lens by taking the focus as the distance between the lens and the ground-glass ; and in the case of a double combination lens of modern construction, by taking the distance between the diaphragm and the ground-glass, a distant object in each being focussed. In the case of the orthoscopic and various other forms of lenses, this manner of determination is not sufficiently accurate even for the calculation of exposures ; the following method of determination will, however, give results of sufficient accuracy. In front of the camera is placed a foot-rule, or other convenient object. The distance between the foot-rule and the lens, and that between the lens and the ground glass, are so adjusted that the image on the ground-glass is of the same size as the object. The distance from the foot-rule to the ground-glass is now measured. This, divided by 4, is the equivalent focal length. Example. — When we draw out a camera till the image on ground-glass is equal in size to the object, we find that the dis- tance from the object to the ground-glass is 32 inches. One quarter of this, or 8 inches, is the equivalent focus. The following method may be adopted when the camera will not rack out to twice the focal length of the lens. It is capable of giving very precise results, but requires a slight knowledge of mathematics. rf=distance from object to ground-glass when a near object is focussed. o=length of object focussed (preferably a measuring rod). ?'=length of the image of this rod on the ground- glass. -F=lesser conjugate focus — That is to say, the distance between the point where the axes of pencils of light in the lens cross each other, and the ground-glass when a near object is focussed. 36 LENSES. /=equivalent focus. F = * * d o + i y_F(i-F) J d Example.— k 5-foot rod is focussed. The length of the image on the ground glass is found to be 6 inches. The distance between the rod and the ground-glass is found to be 10 feet 1 inch. F _ 6ins.XlO ft. lin . _ 6X121 _ 726 _ n 5 ft. 0in.+6ins. 60 + 6 66 / ._1 1(121— 1 1) _ 1210 1Q 1 121 121 Equivalent focus, therefore, is 10 inches. The aperture of a lens is the diameter of the smallest combina- tion forming it, or of whatever stop smaller than this may be in the lens. By full aperture of a lens is meant, in the case of a single achromatic lens, the diameter of the largest stop with which the lens will give good definition in one plane ; that is to say, the diameter of the fixed stop with which the optician fits the lens. In the case of a double combination lens, it is the diameter of the front combination if the two be of equal diameter; of the smaller combination if the two be of unequal diameters ; or of the fixed stop if such be smaller than either of the combinations. In the case of a triplet lens, the " full aperture " is the diameter of the smallest combination, or of the fixed stop if this be smaller than any of the combinations.* By depth of focus is meant the power in the lens to represent sharply objects both near and far from the lens. The larger the aperture or the longer the focus of the lens, the less the depth * The definition of " full aperture " is not strictly correct as described for double and triple combination lenses, but it is accurate enough for all practical purposes. LENSES. 37 of focus. With every lens is supplied a set of stops or dia- phragms. These are simply plates with holes of larger and smaller sizes in them, which are made to slip in front of or between the combinations of a lens. The more depth of focus is required, the smaller stop must be used, and consequently the slower the lens will be. By width of angle is meant the amount of picture which can be included without falling off of definition towards the edges of the plate. Let us suppose that a camera with a certain lens is placed opposite a row of houses. It is necessary, to illustrate this point, to suppose the camera to have a very large ground- glass, larger than there is any chance of the lens covering. It may be found that only the central part of the ground-glass shows a sharp image, all beyond being " fuzzy," or even quite dark. Possibly two houses are represented correctly. Now let us suppose another lens of different make, but of the same focal length, to be substituted for the first. The two houses which gave a sharp image on the ground-glass before, will give a pre- cisely similar image now ; but possibly a house on each side of these will also be defined sharply. In this case the lens is com- paratively a wide angle one. It must be understood that narrow and wide angle lenses give images of the exact same scale if the focal lengths be the same ; the latter form of lens takes in a wide angle only on a larger plate, or on the same sized plate only, by using a lens of shorter focal length. Distortion is a fault met with in some photographic lenses. It causes straight lines near the margin of the object to be re- presented by curved lines in the image. Flatness of field is, roughly speaking, the quality in a lens of having the definition at the edge of the plate good as well as that at the centre. The rapidity does not require to be defined, but I propose to explain the factors which regulate it. Every lens is of different speed from others of another form, and each lens has a number of 38 LENSES. diaphragms varying its rapidity, so that at first sight it might appear a difficult task to put a value on the speed of a lens using any particular diaphragm. The law which governs the rapidity of lenses is, however, so very simple that its application is most easy, and I would try to impress upon the beginner that he should thoroughly master it at the commencement of his practice. If he do so he will find the estimation of the necessary exposure a comparatively simple matter. In changing one stop for another, or one lens for another, he will have nothing to guess except the intensity of the light. We give, further on, a set of tables which almost entirely do away with the necessity for even this small amount of calculation. The method of comparing lenses — one which applies to all lenses — is as follows. State the ratios between the apertures of the lenses and the focal lengths of the lenses as fractions — the aperture as the numerator, the focal length as the denominator. Square the fractions thus obtained, and the resulting figures will give the ratios of the rapidity. It is Usual to state the fractions thus : { / f /„• These fractions refer to lenses, the first of which has an aperture one-fourth of the focal length, the second one-twelfth, and the third one-fortieth. "We shall- take a practical example. We are using a portrait lens 10 inches focus, and aperture 2£ inches ; that is, the focal length ^s four times the aperture, or we may say the lens is working at {. The focal length, be it remembered, is taken at the distance between the diaphragm and the ground glass. "We now substitute a single lens of 12-inch focus with a stop f-inch in diameter. The aperture is now T \ of the focal length. The lens is working at /g. Square these two fractions, thus : — (i) 8 =iV (iV) 8 =*i« The rapidity of the lenses is as tV to ? fa . The exposure required will therefore be as 16 to 256, or aa 1 to 16. Thus, if we had been giving two seconds with the portrait lens, we should have LENSES. to give, on the same subject, thirty-two seconds with the single lens. If the beginner will exercise himself in this rule for a little time, he will find tbat he soon gains wonderful facility in applying it, and that it gives him a very great power in esti- mating the necessary length of exposure. "With the same lens and different stops, the rapidity varies as the square of the diameter of the stop, or as the area of the stop. We shall now go rapidly over the different kinds of lenses most in use, giving the purposes for which each particular form is best adapted. "We have first The Single Lens. 1 It is the one with which I recommend the beginner to provide himself, as it is the simplest form of lens, and is in many re- spects the most generally useful. It is fairly rapid, has a fairly large angle, and gives wonderful definition. Its only drawback is that it gives .slight distortion. If, for example, it be attempted 40 LENSES. to photograph a building of large size with it, the boundary lines will appear slightly curved, and the building will appear barrel- shaped. The Rapid Rectilinear or Ramd Symmeteical is one of the most useful of lenses. It is very rapid, and one should be purchased when the photographer has so far advanced as to wish to attempt instantaneous effects. It gives no distor- tions, and includes about the same angle as the single lens. The Symmetrical or "Wide Angle Rectilinear is a somewhat slow lens, but takes in a wonderfully wide angle, so that it is useful for photographing objects when it is im- possible to get the camera far enough away from them to use the rapid rectilinear. It is quite free from distortion. LENSES. 41 The Pobtbait Lens is intended for portraiture pure and simple. The utmost ingenuity has been spent in the case of this lens to get the greatest possible rapidity, but many other good qualities have been sacrificed. Thus the field is round, the marginal definition bad, and there is very little depth of focus. For its own par- ticular purpose it is, however, admirably adapted. With the very rapid plates which can now be had, it is quite possible to take portraits even indoors with the rapid rectilinear or the single lens, and we do not advise the beginner to purchase a portrait lens. There are numerous photographic lenses sold under names different from any of the above, but all of them will be found to be very similar in action, if not in construction, to one or other of the kinds illustrated. As I am entirely avoiding in these pages all historical reference, I do not describe these lenses, which 42 LENSES. have now almost gone out of use, and are not manufactured ; but I may mention the " orthoscopic," " orthographic," " wide- angle doublet," "instantaneous doublet," and "triplet" lenses as instruments to be occasionally met with, and which, if not quite so good as our more modern instruments, nevertheless- possess excellent qualities. CHAPTER VII. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CAMERA IN THE" FIELD— THE SWING- BACK, RISING FRONT, ETC. If the photographer has diligently perused the preceding chapters, and has gone through the various manipulations -which are described in them, he -will now be ready to sally forth into the field, and, selecting the beauty spots of nature, to transcribe them by the aid of his camera and lens. He may, in fact, make pictures. I have declared my intention of not entering into the question of art in connection with photography, but have referred the reader to more advanced works for guidance in this direction. Yet a few general remarks on the subject may not be out of place, especially in indicating those points wherein the require- ments for a photographic picture differ from those for a painting. The chief of these arises, of course, from the absence of colour in the former. "We cannot have transcribed by the camera the broad contrasts which are frequently brought out by colour alone. "We must trust entirely to form and to light and shade. Very frequently a scene will make a most perfect picture on the camera ground glass, when the experienced photographer knows it will make nothing in the print. Alas ! the colour which makes the picture cannot be reproduced. This makes it all the more necessary in the case of the camera 44 MANAGEMENT OF CAMERA IN FIELD. to have the outline and the shades of light harmonious and well balanced, for on them alone must the picture depend. The piture must not be all on one side, nor yet should it be in each half similar. The most striking object should not be in the centre of the picture, but somewhat to one side or the other, there being an object of secondary interest on the opposite side of the picture — but not symmetrically opposite to balance it. Mr. Norman Macbeth, an eminent painter, has read various papers before photographic societies, propounding the view that if the space occupied by the landscape be divided horizontally and vertically into five or seven equal portions, the primary and secondary points of interest should fall on the intersections of these lines, but not on bi-laterally symmetrical intersections. To illustrate this, I give a set of intersecting lines as described. a A B If, now, the primary point of interest be at A, the secondary point of interest must not be at a, but at B. The horizon line should, as a rule, be about one-third or two- fifths of the height of the picture, either from the top or the bottom. There must not be too large patches of either very dark shade or of light without some small portions of the contrary shade to relieve them. There must not, as a rule, be running in any direction through the picture, long and uninterrupted straight lines. For the rest, there is wanting to a perfect landscape picture MANAGEMENT OF CAMERA IN FIELD. 45- — be it painting, drawing, or photograph — a foreground, a middle distance, a distance, and a principal object. This latter is generally situated in the middle distance. It is in the dis- tance that photography most frequently fails. "What to the eye appears a definite distant landscape, the distance but lending enchantment and softness, comes out in a photograph so dim and faint that it would seem to be almost hidden by a thick mist. The slight haze which, in this country at least, generally appears between us and the distance is exaggerated so as almost to pbscure those things which are quite clear to the eye. A certain amount of haze covering the most distant objects in a photo- graphic landscape is, indeed, necessary to give the idea of dis- tance at all, and on the way in which this is managed will depend, more than on anything else, the success or failure of the picture from an artistic point of view. The difficulty is to be iound in this, that the haze actually seen is always greatly ex- aggerated in the camera. It is therefore necessary to allow for the difference between what is seen in nature and what will be the result in the finished picture. Perhaps the greatest difficulty in landscape photography, how- ever, is that the sky is not, as a rule, rendered at all. An exposure which will suffice to bring out all the detail in a land- scape is such that the sky will be so over-exposed as to show no trace of cloud, but only an even expanse of white. It is neces- sary, to get the sky, to make a special exposure, perhaps about one-tenth of that required for the landscape, and to resort to a "double-printing" process, to be described hereafter. . I shall briefly describe the subjects best suited for the camera. Any landscapes haviDg, apart from colour, broad and well- marked contrasts of light and shade, and decided outline of form, are specially suitable. Trees of all kinds are well rendered, both with and without their leaves ; in the former case the diffi- culty is to get them motionless. A quite windless day is neces- sary. Architectural subjects of all kinds are most perfectly reproduced by the camera. 46 MANAGEMENT OF CAMERA IN FIELD. The most charming effects of any are, perhaps, produced in a scene in which there is water — a quiet pool with reflections of trees, for instance ; shipping in motion, &c, will he treated of in the chapter on instantaneous work. Let us suppose some locality has heen determined on where the photographer is sure to find suhjects such as those which have just been mentioned. I shall describe, as accurately as I can, how he should proceed. First, he has to fill his slides. Let us suppose he has three of these ; they must be packed into a •case which should be made to hold them and the camera. Besides these, he must take his lens, his tripod — and let him be most careful not to leave the screw behind him — his focussing •cloth, and possibly a " focussing magnifier." This is a small •eye-piece to magnify the ground-glass image, and assist him in focussing with precision. It is useful greatly because it in- •creases the light. "When a small stop is used, the ground-glass image is frequently so dull that it can barely be seen. Arrived at the scene of action, the photographer must select his point of view most carefully. 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CO - 30 35 O H rH rH rH X) rH * |o [CO rH rH rH 30 rH O CHAPTEE XL SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT, In the, last lesson on development we considered the ferrous oxalate developer only, this being, as I have said, the best for a beginner. There are some who prefer it to any other, even after long experience ; but the vast majority of English photo- graphers find qualities in the so-called " alkaline pyrogallic " developer which seem to be wanting in the other. The most notable of these is the power to compensate for a certain error in exposure. In considering the subject of exposure in a former chapter,, we assumed that correct exposure is a fixed point, and that a deviation from it would give imperfect results. This is scarcely the case, however, for there is a certain "latitude," which is due to two causes : first, a certain latitude of effect is per- missible. Thus, if the plate be a little under-exposed, there will be somewhat less detail in the resulting picture than is visible to the eye ; but this need not spoil it. Again, if the plate be somewhat over- exposed, the effect will be a slight fog or want of transparency in the shadows of the negative ; but the only result of this will be that what is called a " slow printing negative " will be produced. The latitude in effect is not great, however. It may be said that if two seconds be the best exposure, anything between one and a-half and four seconds will give good results. We have, however, a second 76 SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. method of gaining latitude, and this is by means of the treatment with the developing solutions. Thus, with any developer, simply by leaving the plate for a longer or shorter time in the solution, wo can compensate to a certain extent for under or over-exposure. It is, however, by varying the proportions of the ingredients of the alkaline de- veloper that we gain the greatest latitude. This developer must be described, its constituents being enumerated, and the functions of each of them being described. The essentials are as follows : — First, pyrogallic acid, or, more properly, pyrogallol ; second, liquid ammonia, or occasion- ally some other alkali ; third, a soluble bromide, usually bro- mide of ammonium or of potassium. These three chemicals are dissolved in certain proportions in water, and the result is the alkaline pyrogallic developer. This is used precisely as the ferrous oxalate is ; that is to say, the liquid is poured over the plate, when the image begins to appear, development being watched exactly in the same manner in each case. As usually mixed, the alkaline developer performs its functions more quickly than does the ferrous oxalate ; but this is not the case with all plates. The pyrogallic acid is the true developer, and acts very ener- getically when rendered alkaline. The stronger the developer is in pyrogallic acid — up to a certain point, at any rate — the denser or more opaque will be the negative ; and, as a conse- quence, the stronger will be the contrast between light and shade in the resulting print. The ammonia is used to render the developer alkaline, and the greater the quantity in the solution, the more energetic the action. The eifect of increasing the ammonia is to shorten greatly the time of development, to increase to a slight extent the amount of detail, and up to a certain point to increase the density. A point is reached, however, where the action is so energetic as to reduce or blacken even those parts of the plate SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 77 which have not been acted on by light, and fog is the result. Some plates will stand much more ammonia than others. The use of the bromide is to retard development — to make it slower, so that it may be more under control. Without it the development is very rapid ; and unless the quantity of ammonia be very small, it is difficult to avoid fog. The result of increas- ing the bromide is to make the developer much slower, to keep back a little of the detail, and to increase ultimate density greatly. A little consideration of what has been said will show that by varying the proportions of the constituents enumerated, we have the power of greatly modifying the resulting negative, and have a power of compensating, to a considerable extent, for error in exposure. This is especially the case for over-exposure. It is true that in the case of under-exposure we can correct to a certaint extent, by using an increased quantity of ammonia ; but the fog point is soon reached, and thus it is only slightly that we can correct in this direction. In the case of over- exposure, however, it is different ; bromide may be increased indefinitely. By largely increasing the quantity of bromide the development is rendered slow as regards the appearance of detail, but less so as regards the increase of density. It is thus possible to stop the process in the case of an over-exposed plate before the shadows veil over, and yet to have a sufficiently dense negative. I have said that it is right, in using any particular make of plates, to use the developer recommended in the "instructions;" but it is by no means necessary to mix the "stock solutions" exactly as directed. On analysing any of the sets of stock solu- tions given, it will be found that they consist essentially of the three chemicals mentioned before, made up in solutions of cer- tain strengths, and generally with some preservative, in the case of the pyrogallic solution, to prevent its turning brown by oxidation. In almost every case there is a most needless com- 78 SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. plication introduced, which makes considerahle calculation neces- sary to find what quantity of each chemical really is in an ounce of the final developer. There can he no simpler plan than to mix three solutions, each containing ten per cent, of one of the three ingredients. The developer can then he made up in any proportion without trouble, and that given in any instructions can he used without the intervention of complicated formulae. "We recommend that the solution he mixed in the following manner : — Three ounces of sulphurous acid are mixed with five ounces-'' of water. To this is added one ounce of " pyro." The whole is made up to ten ounces, and is labelled, "Pyro solution ten per cent." One ounce of bromide of ammonium is taken, and is made up with water to ten ounces ; it is labelled " Bromide solution ten per cent." One ounce of ammonia -880, or two ounces of the ammonia diluted with an equal amount of water as recommended before, is taken, and is made up with water to ten ounces. It is labelled "Ammonia, ten per cent, mixture." There is no developer which is suitable for all subjects. Those given in instructions can only be taken as typical. If the photographer expect to excel, he must vary his developer to suit his subject. Thus, when the contrasts in the object to be photographed are very strong — say in the case of an interior with white columns and deep shadows — he must reduce the -amount of pyro., or he will have a negative giving a " chalky " print If the contrasts are naturally weak, as is sometimes the case in open landscape, he must increase the quantity of the pyro and bromide. If he know that he has under-exposed, he must The ounces here mentioned are Avoirdupois ounces of 437 grains. .SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 79 increase the ammonia. If he know that he has over-exposed he must increase the bromide. ' The following will be found to be a good developer for general purposes : — Pyro ••• from 1 to 2 grains ^ mmonia 2* minims Bromide 1 grain To each ounce of developer. This is a more restrained developer than is often recom mended. I find, however, that the increase of the bromide beyond that commonly used does not, in the case of most plates necessitate an appreciable increase in exposure, whilst it gives etter quality of negative, and permits of a considerable & lati- tude m exposure simply by allowing the plate to be a longer or shorter time in the developer. It will be understood that of the three stock solutions described, there is used in each case ten times as many minims as there is given grains or minims in the above formula. I shall now tell how the best result can be got from a plate when there is uncertainty as to whether or not it has had the correct exposure. A developer made as follows should be flowed over it : — Pyro ... I to 2 grains according to subject Ammonia 1 minim Bromide 2 To each ounce of developer. This is a very slow developer, and even if the plate be much over-exposed, the image will not appear for some time. A little experience will enable the photographer to know, by the length of time which elapses between the time of pouring on the deve- loper and the appearance of the image, whether the plate has been over-exposed, correctly-exposed, or under-exposed. If so SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. the exposure appears to be correct, one minim and a-half of ammonia is added to each ounce of developer to bring the strength up to that recommended. If it appear to be over-exposed, deve- lopment is proceeded with, or even, in an extreme case, more bromide is added. If the image be very long of appearing, showing that there has been under-exposure, ammonia may be added to any amount short of that which will produce fog. Good plates should stand eight minims of ammonia with one and a-half grains of bromide without fogging. The greater the quantity of bromide, the larger the amount of ammonia that may be used ; but the quantity of ammonia permissible is not proportionate to the bromide used. Doubling the quantity of bromide will not permit double the quantity of ammonia to be added. It will be understood that a minim of fluid measure corresponds to a grain of weight, so that in using the ten per cent, solutions of pyro and bromide we have simply to take 10 minims for every grain which we require. Of late there has been a great tendency amongst photographers to discard ammonia, and to use in place of it an alkaline car- bonate, or caustic soda, or potash. I have been unable to find any advantage in the use of caustic soda or caustic potash ; indeed, I think that if a caustic alkali is to be used, caustic ammonia (liquor ammonia) is to be pre- ferred to another, but the alkaline carbonates certainly have certain advantages. Thus, green fog — to be hereafter described — seldom makes its appearance when they are used, density is generally more easily attainable, and over-exposure is more readily compensated for. If the photographer cares to try the alkaline carbonates, he may make up a developer containing the usual amount of pyro, and in place of each minim of ammonia, either 6 grains of carbonate of soda (ordinary washing soda), 10 grains of carbonate of potash, or 10 grains of carbonate of ammonia. No bromide is required, except in the case of over-exposure. SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 81 A developer in which carbonate of potash is the alkali used, and which has been termed the "Beach" developer after its inventor, has gained a well-deserved popularity. The features distinguishing this developer from others are the use of sulphurous acid to preserve the pyro and of sulphite of soda in both the pyro stock solution and the alkaline solution. Mr. Beach has several times modified his formula, and I cannot undertake to give the very latest modification, but I can give the quantities which I have used myself, and which have worked satisfactorily. A. — Sulphite of soda 4 ounces Sulphurous acid ... 3 ,, Pyro ... 1 ounce Water up to 10 ounces B. — Carbonate of potash .-. 4 ounces Sulphite of soda 2 Water , up to 10 ounces To mix A, the sulphite of soda is dissolved in about 4 ounces of hot water. The sulphurous acid is added. The whole is poured over the pyro, and the quantity is made up to 10 ounces with water. B is mixed by dissolving the carbonate of potash and the sulphite of soda each in the smallest possible quantity of water, mixing the two and making up to 10 ounces with water. The pyro solution is a ten per cent, one, and is used in the same quantities as any other ten per cent, solution for development. For a normal developer, 20 minims of B to the ounce should be sufficient. No restrainer is used, except in the case of over- exposure, when a little of the ten per cent, solution of bromide of ammonium may be added to the developer. A few words should be said on the development of plates 82 SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. which have received instantaneous exposures, and on which portraits have been impressed. In the case of most subjects which are suitable for instanta- neous work, the brightness of the object is very great, but the contrast of light and shade is comparatively small, as even the shadows reflect a good deal of light. For this reason there is often great difficulty, not only in getting detail in the shadows, but also in getting density. The thing necessary to get both is great patience in continuing development for a very long time with a rather slow developer; that is to say, one in which the quantity of ammonia is rather below than above the normal quantity; that of the bromide above rather than below ; and that of the pyro somewhat high. The dish must be rocked vigorously during the development, which may often with advantage be continued for a quarter or even half an-hour. Carbonate of ammonia has some advan- tages for the development of instantaneous subjects. It makes, without any restrainer, a very slow developer, but one giving great density, and which will, if time be given, bring out as much detail as any other developer. When development is protracted for a very long time, the dish should be covered to protect it from light, except when it is necessary to look at the plate. Concerning portraits, I may say that for the development of those taken out of doors, no particular precaution is necessary. In those taken in an ordinary room, there is always a tendency to hardness or chalkiness, and for this reason it is generally well to keep the pyro, and sometimes also the bromide, somewhat below the normal. With the ferrous-oxalate developer, under-exposure and over- exposure may be corrected to a certain extent, but not so greatly as with the alkaline developer. The developer may be accele- rated by the addition of any quantity up to fifty minims of a one per cent, solution of hyposulphite of soda to each ounce of developer, or retarded by the increase of bromide. SECOND LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 83 It is commonly said that there is difficulty with gelatine plates in getting a sufficiently dense image. Where good plates are used, such a difficulty results from ignorance of the principles of development. The secret of getting "plucky" negatives lies in using an alkaline developer strong in all the constituents, but specially so in bromide, or in using an alkaline carbonate in place of ammonia, and in giving, perhaps, a slightly longer ex- posure than might otherwise be thought necessary. The real •difficulty lies in judging when the density is sufficient. CHAPTER XII. DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. The photographer will certainly not practise the gelatine dry- plate process very long before he comes across some of the defects which are peculiar to it. I intend, therefore, to describe these as accurately as I can, and, where possible, to give a means of either preventing the occurrence of the objectionable phenomenon, or of curing it when it has made its appearance. ^When the error is of a kind due to the preparation of the plates, I shall not enter into the cause of it, but merely, where possible, indicate tjllG CUX6. General fog.— This is probably the commonest of all faults with gelatine negatives. It consists of a veil over the whole plate, showing itself by want of transparency in the shadows. It may be so slight as to be imperceptible, except when the negative is laid face downwards on a sheet of white paper, and, in fact, almost always exists to this extent in gelatine negatives, or may be so dense as to make the time necessary to get a print be measured by days. It is due to one of two causes, which are usually indicated by the terms chemical fog and light fog. The first arises from error in the preparation of the plate. By it is meant that the sensitive film is in such a condition that the silver salt is reduced by the developer without light having acted upon it. I know of no remedy for such a state of affairs. The best way to distinguish chemical fog from light fog is to DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 85 develop an unexposed plate, performing all the operations in total darkness. This is not difficult. If the plate is found to have darkened, the fog is chemical fog, or, what is practically the same thing to the photographer, light fog, brought about by the action of light on the emulsion whilst in the hands of the manufacturer. With the well restrained developer which was given in the last chapter, chemical fog is less likely to make its appearance than in the case of the feebly-restrained developers often recom- mended. The bromide in the developer may even be increased beyond that which was stated ; but this will necessitate a some- what longer exposure. I may state that, in my opinion, bromide of ammonia in the developer begins, in the case of most plates, to have an appreciable actual slowing effect when it is used in the proportion of two-thirds to one-half the quantity of strong ammonia used. "When the bromide equals the ammonia, the slowing effect becomes, as a rule, considerable. Light fog is due to the action of light in one of three ways : first, on account of an unsafe light in the dark-room ; secondly, on account of a defect in the camera or dark slide admitting light ; and thirdly, on account of over-exposure. When the fog is due to light in the camera, this will be recognized by the fact that the portions of the plates covered by the wires or rebates of the dark slides remain free from fog. When this is the case, the camera must be carefully examined by removing the focussing screen, and looking for the smallest defect which might admit light, the camera being placed in direct sunshine, and the head of the observer being covered with the focussing cloth. Light finding its way through defects in the slides generally shows itself in the form of streaks or lines. Should no defect be detected, it may be assumed that over- exposure is the cause of the fog, and a shorter may be tried. If fog from unsafe light in the dark-room be suspected, a plate is placed in the dark slide, one of the shutters is drawn half- 86 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. way, and the slide is laid for five minutes on the tahle where the plates are changed and developed. The plate is then deve- loped, and if one-half darkens, it shows that the light is not safe, and steps must be taken to render it so. Green fog. — This defect is always due to error in the manu- facture of the plates. It generally makes its appearance only in the shadows of the negative. If the negative be looked at by re- flected light, a black object being laid under it, the shadows will be seen to be bright green. On looking through the negative they may appear somewhat pink, or sometimes a sort of "muddy " colour. Green fog makes its appearance only with alkaline pyrogallic development, or, in the case of ferrous oxalate, only when the chemicals are impure, and chiefly when the plate has been under-exposed, and development has been " forced ; " even with the alkaline developer it seldom makes its appearance except when a caustic alkali (as ammonia) is used. A slight amount of green fog is not detrimental to the printing qualities of a negative ; but ( if the defect show itself in an aggravated form, the best means of preventing it is to resort to ferrous oxalate development, or to the use of an alkaline carbon- ate with the pyro developer. Captain Abney has recently given a means of curing plates afflicted with green fog after develop- ment. It consists'in bleaching the negative with a solution of ferric bromide, oxalate, or chloride, and afterwards applying the ferrous oxalate developer. Full particulars of the method will be found in the Photographic News for April 28, 1882. Red fog seems to be an aggravated form of the last-mentioned disease. It appears as a deep red deposit, showing itself by transmitted light in the shadows of the negative. It is rarely * met with at the present time, although it was common in the early days of gelatine plates. It does not make its appearance in plates developed with ferrous oxalate. Probably Captain Abney's cure for green fog would correct this defect also. Frilling consists in an expansion of the film to such an extent DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 87 that it loses its adhesion to the glass, and " frills " off. The phenomenon begins at the edge of the plate, and spreads towards the centre. "When the expansion begins at the centre it is termed blistering. It is due to an error in the manufacture of the plate, but is much aggravated by a developer strong in ammonia, by the use of warm solutions, by the use of too strong a fixing bath, or by the use of very soft water for washing. When it makes its appearance only in the fixing bath or during washing, it may be prevented almost with certainty by placing the plate, immediately after development, in a saturated solu- tion of alum for five minutes. This we advise in all cases ; but where there is no fear of frilling, the plate should be thoroughly rinsed before it is placed in the alum solution. In an extreme case, where ordinary alum is found not to be effectual, chrome alum, which is more energetic in its action, may be used. If the frilling be of so aggravated a form as to show itself during development, it is more difficult to prevent its occurrence. Captain Abney states that coating the plates with plain col- lodion before development is a perfect cure. The addition of twenty per cent, of alcohol to the developing solution will generally stop frilling, but the time taken for development will be greatly protracted. Plates which frill when newly prepared, in many cases, aftc keeping for some weeks or months in a dry place, show no ten dency to the defect. In fact, I have found that the keeping of gelatine plates for some time often improves them in many ways. Want of density or flatness of image is usually due to under- development, or to the use of too weak a developer, and very frequently to over-exposure, combined with one of these. A consideration of the remarks in the last chapter, on develop- ment, will show how sufficient density may be gained in almost any case ; and I may here say that a very common cause of 88 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. want of vigour is to be found in the fact that the ammonia is not so strong as is supposed, and that the development is not protracted for the time which would be necessary to get density with a developer weak iu ammonia. A very short exposure to the air weakens liquid ammouia of *880 specific gravity, because ammouia gas escapes. It will be generally found that the last of the ammonia in a bottle is considerably below the standard strength, simply from the escape of the gas every time the bottle is opened. It is for this reason that the dilution of the ammonia with an equal bulk of water, immediately after pur- chasing it, was recommended. Merely pouring the strongest ammonia from one bottle to another will perceptibly weaken it. There are some plates which will not give a vigorous nega- tive, however they be developed. This is the case with plates on which the emulsion has been too thinly spread. If such plates are to be used at all, an after process of intensification must be resorted to. It will occasionally happen, too, with the best of plates, that an error of judgment is made in develop- ment, and that the process is stopped before density is sufficient. This is another case for intensification. "We shall treat of intensification in a separate chapter. loo great density of image is a fault sometimes met with. It is always due to error of judgment in development. It may be corrected by performing the first part of the process for intensi- fication, afterwards described. This method is objectionable, however, as the results may not be permanent. A much better method is the following : — A solution of hypo- sulphite of soda of the strength used for fixing negatives is made up. A saturated solution of ferricyanide of potassium — red prussiate of potash, not ferrocyanide yellow prussiate — is also mixed. The negative to be reduced is soaked in the hypo solution till the film is soft — the assumption is that the need for reduction has not been discovered till the negative has been dried. It is DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 89 then removed from the dish, into which is poured a few drops of the red prussiate of potash solution. The negative is placed into the mixed solutions, when a perceptible reduction of density will very rapidly take place. If the action cease before the negative is thin enough, a few more drops of the red prussiate solution are added. Great care must be taken not to let the action go too far. Spots of various kinds are liable to be found in the finished negative. They are of various forms, and are produced in various ways. Minute transparent spots or pinholes are caused by dust resting on the plate during exposure. The plate should be brushed with a broad camel's-hair brush before it is placed in the slide. Small transparent spots with irregular outlines are due to defect in the manufacture of the plate, and cannot be corrected by after-manipulation. Small transparent perfectly circular spots, with well-defined outlines, are due to air-bubbles in the developer, and are only produced when too small a quantity of developer is used. Opaque spots are almost always due to defects in the plates, and cannot be corrected by after-manipulation . They may occa- sionally arise from foreign matter in the developer. A yellow veil, or, rather, a yellow stain, in the shadows of a negative, is often found after pyrogallic development, especially if the process has been very prolonged, or if much ammonia has been used. Plates vary greatly in their liability to this defect. With most it will not occur if the instructions with regard to the use of the alum bath, after development, be carefully followed ; but, if it do, it may be removed by placing the negative, after fixing and washing, in the following manner : — Saturated solution of alum ... ... . 10 ounces Hydrochloric acid ... ... ... ^ ounce Some operators make it a practice to treat all negatives with 90 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. this bath. There is much to be said for the practice. Of course the negative must be thoroughly washed, after treatment, with the acid alum bath. Mr. Herbert Berkeley has recently introduced a new developer, which totally prevents any yellow stains from occurring, and which deserves strong commendation. The pyrogallic acid stock solution is mixed with four grains of neutral sulphite of soda to each grain of pyro. The whole is rendered slightly acid with citric acid, for it must be understood that so-called " neutral " sulphite of soda is often really alkaline. Care must be taken to use the sulphite, not the sulphate. The use of sulphite of soda has already been mentioned in connection with Beach's deve- loper. A yellow fog occasionally occurs, and must not be confused with the stain described. It is, in fact, a variety of the colour fogs of which the green and red are the commonest, and is to be treated as such. It is to be distinguished from the stain by the fact that it is yellow only by reflected light, whilst the stain is yellow only by transmitted light. Unequal thickness of film is sometimes found in commercial plates. It arises from careless coating of the glass, and is, of course, incurable by after-treatment. The negative resulting from a plate more thinly coated at one place than at another may be lacking in density at the thin place ; but it should be borne in mind that it need not certainly be so. Plates are generally coated with films considerably thicker than is abso- lutely necessary, and, in the case of a plate unequally coated, the thinnest part may contain enough of the silver salt to give the necessary density. Plates should, therefore, be tried before being condemned for unequal coating. Yarious streaks, scratches, occur in gelatine plates, and are evidently due to defect in manufacture. They call for no particular remark. A tohite powdery deposit is sometimes found on the surface of DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 91 the negative after drying, especially after ferrous-oxalate de- velopment. It is in such a case caused hy lime in the "washing water. It may be removed by dipping the negative in a 1 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid. If the solution of alum used before fixing be acid, and the negative be not sufficiently washed between the alum and the fixing-bath, a deposit of sulpnur will form on the film in a fine powder. This may be removed by gently rubbing the face of the negative with a plug of cotton wool while water is running on it from the tap. Irregular action of the developer, causing zig-zag lines across the plate, may occur if the developer has not been made to flow over the plate in one wave at first. Halation is caused chiefly by reflection of light from the back of the plate. It makes itself evident only when the subject includes very strong contrasts ; for example, when an interior with windows open to the sky is photographed, it shows itself in the form of a halo round the highest lights, and produces a very unpleasant effect, sometimes known as blurring. It occurs only to a small extent with plates that are very thickly coated, or the surfaces of which are " matt," or like ground-glass. In the case of an attempt being made to photograph a very trying subject, such as the interior mentioned, it is well to "back" the plate ; that is, to paint or otherwise cover it at the back with some substance which will absorb light. The following is a good method to adopt. Procure a piece of black carbon tissue, cut out a piece slightly smaller than the size of the plate to be used (there should be about \- of an inch margin all round), moisten the tissue with water, allow it to become as nearly dry as is compatible with its remaining quite limp, then again moisten the black surface, but this time with glycerine ; allow all that will to drain off, and press the tissue against the baok of the glass. It will adhere, and may be removed just before development. It is to be observed that halation scarcely makes its appearance at all where sensitive paper is used in place of glass (see Chap. XIV.). 92 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. Solarisation, or reversal of the image, is a curious phenomenon which may he hrought ahout in any gelatine plate. It consists in a reversed action of light, or, rather, a reversed action of the developer, produced hy excessive action of light. It is found that if light, heyond a certain amount, he allowed to act on a sensitive film, less instead of greater density occurs after develop- ment hy the increase. This peculiar action does not, as a file, give rise to practical inconvenience, but if, for example, the sun he included in a photograph, it will usually he found to be represented by a transparent spot on the negative, and conse- quently by a black spot in the print. Tendency to reversal is much greater in some plates than in others. It is reduced by increase of bromide in the developer. CHAPTER XIII. INTENSIFICATION OF THE NEGATIVE. VARNISHING. At the end of the last chapter I described the conditions which give rise to the occssional necessity for intensifying a negative. The term almost explains itself. It means the increasing of the density of a negative. A good intensifier will increase the density of every part of a negative proportionately ; that is to say, when there is, after fixing, clear glass in the shadows, no darkening will take place there, hut every grade of density, from the finest detail to the densest high-light, will be increased in a proportionate degree. The process ought to be thoroughly at the command of the operator, who should be able to produce any desired increase of density. I may say at once that in my opinion there is no thoroughly satisfactory intensifier for gelatine negatives, and that such a thing is a great desideratum. It does not fall within the pro- vince of this little work to enter into a discussion as to which is the best of the various more or less imperfect methods which have from time to time been published, but I shall give a formula which has, at any rate, the advantage of simplicity, and which will be found to give fairly good results. It is one of the "mercury" intensifies. It has two drawbacks: first, the results are not always permanent ; second, there is great diffi- culty in regulating the amount of intensification given by it. •94 INTENSIFICATION OF THE NEGATIVE. The first objection is much lessened, however, from the fact — not, I believe, generally known — that when a mercury intensi- fied negative fades, it can generally be brought back to its original condition by performing again the process of intensifi- cation. Let us suppose that a negative, on printing, is found to give a poor-looking print, lacking contrast. The following solu- tion is prepared : — Bichloride of mercury. . . ... ... 1 ounce "Water ... 10 ounces The whole of the bichloride of mercury will not dissolve, but the residue may be left in the bottle, and as the solution gets low through unavoidable waste, water may be added. The negative is very thoroughly washed. It is placed in a dish, and the mercury solution is poured over it. It will gradually become whitened or bleached. "When the film is bleached throughout — as indicated by its being white at the back — the solution is poured back into the bottle, and the nega- tive is again most thoroughly washed. On the thoroughness of this washing seems to depend to a great degree the permanency of the results. The negative has now to be treated with ammonia solution, which will blacken it, but the strength of the ammonia solution must be varied according to the amount of density required. Thus, if the print got from the negative previous to treating with mercury was nearly up to the mark, a very weak solu- tion of ammonia must be used ; one or two drops to the ounce of water will be enough. This solution is poured over the nega- tive, which will be seen gradually to darken. "When all action ceases, the process is complete. The negative will now be of a curious orange tinge by transmitted light. If, on the other hand, the negative was one giving a very shadowy print, a mix- ture of ammonia and water in the proportion of one to twenty may be used. On this being poured over the plate, darkening VARNISHING THE NEGATIVE. 95 will take place almost instantly, and the result will be a fine black-coloured negative. Since the last few paragraphs were written, a modification of the mercury developer has been introduced. In this, sulphite of soda replaces the ammonia, with the result, it is said, of a more permanent print. This is of course an advantage, and another is, that a far less thorough washing after bleaching suffices; indeed, a good rinse is all that is necessary. The precise strength of the sulphite solution is not of great consequence. A 10 per cent, solution may be used. It is not, so far as my expe- rience goes, possible to intensify to nearly so great an extent with the sulphite as with ammonia, for which reason, when the negative is very weak, the latter should be used. Vaexishing the Negative. It is advisable to take a trial print from every negative before the process of varnishing is performed ; and, in fact, if ready sensitized paper, which is always quite dry, be used, varnishing is not absolutely necessary at all. It is very advisable, how- ever, and I shall describe the process before entering on the subject of printing. After the negative is thoroughly washed and quite dry, it is taken by that corner which, were it a printed page, would be called the left-hand bottom corner. It is warmed gently over a gas-burner till it is just warm enough to feel pleasant to the touch. If a gas-burner fixed above the level of the operator's head be used, a good criterion of the proper temperature is gained by watching the moisture which condenses on the plate from the water formed by the combustion of the gas. When the moisture at first condensed is dispersed, and no more will condense on a plate, it is just at the right temperature. The plate is now held level, by the corner mentioned, between the finger and thumb of the left hand, whilst the -varnish bottle is held in the right hand. 96 VARNISHING THE NEGATIVE. A large pool of varnish is gently poured on to the centre of the plate. This pool should cover about half of the area of the glass. The plate is gently "tipped," so as to cause the var- nish to flow first to one corner and then to another, beginning at that opposite to the one by which it is held. When the var- nish comes round to the bottom right-hand corner, the plate is tipped slowly up to a vertical position, so that all the excess of varnish may flow back into the bottle. The plate must be rocked from side to side during this part of the process, to pre- vent the formation of crapey lines. "When all the excess of var- nish has flowed off, the plate must be again warmed — this time till it is about as hot as the hand can bear. "When it is cold, it is ready to be printed from. There is a vast difference between plates as to the ease with which the varnish will flow over them. The process is one that should in no case be performed over a choice carpet. ■ CHAPTER XIY. NEGATIVES ON PAPER. In the first negative process which was invented — that entitled the Talbotype, from its originator, Fox Talbot — the sensitive film was supported on paper. It was not till Archer invented the collodion process in 1850 that glass was generally used as a support for the film. The great advantages which the collo- dion process offered over any which had gone before caused it to be adopted in spite of the one drawback — the weight of the glass. From that time till this, however, it may be said that the glass has been used only under protest. It has always been felt that at some time paper, or some such light and flexible substance, would take its place ; nor is it a thing only now for the first time attempted to use paper as a support for a sensitive film. If I am not mistaken, a roller slide for exposing sensitive paper — ■ such as was used in the Talbotype process — is a thing of twenty- five or thirty years old. Coming up to recent times, however, Mr. L. "Warnerke has been the pioneer in this matter of paper coated with emulsion. He brought out a roller slide for the use of collodio-bromide films a good many years ago, and has since given his attention to the preparation of paper coated with gelatine emulsion. Various other manufacturers have done the same, and it may, I think, be safely said that the paper nega- H 98 NEGATIVES ON PAPER. tive will, from this time forward, in some measure supplant the negative on glass. It should be explained that the sensitive paper is, for the most part, paper coated with emulsion precisely as glass is. Mr. Warnerke's paper varies from others in this much, that it is coated on both sides instead of on one only. The advantage of this is, that any grain in the paper tends to be rendered in- visible, because, wherever such grain impedes the passage of light, it prevents this same light from acting on the emulsion on the back of the paper, and thus, after development, an opaque spot in the paper has superposed on it a comparatively transparent spot in the film at the back of the paper. Thus a compensation is gained. The advantages of paper over glass may be summed up in a few words. The paper is enormously lighter, both as regards carriage in bulk, and in the slide or slides ; and the finished negatives xire both lighter and easier to store. It is not liable to breakage. By the arrangement known as the roller slide, to be hereafter described, it is possible to make exposures, one after another, at a rate quite impossible with glass plates. Halation does not make its appearance with paper as with glass. The negatives can be printed from either side. This is a great advantage in many cases. The advantage in the case of cloud negatives will readily be understood by those who have practised the printing-in of clouds, whilst the advantage in the case of the carbon process will be understood by all those who know the difference between single and double transfers. The operation of retouching is greatly facilitated. This can readily be conceived, especially when it is borne in mind that both sides of the paper are amenable to treatment with the pencil. The process of development is much easier than where glass NEGATIVES ON PAPER. 99 is used. It is, in fact, quite possible to develop a dozen films at the same time. On the other hand, additional apparatus is required for hold- ing the paper in position. The drying of the paper is somewhat troublesome, and in most cases, at any rate, it is necessary to resort to a special operation for rendering the paper translucent after the negative is otherwise finished. On the whole, the advantages seem to more than compensate for the drawbacks, at any rate, for out of doors work. It is undoubtedly the case that the present (early in 1886) tendency towards the adoption of paper in place of glass as a support for sensitive films is due to the enterprise of the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company, who have put on the market a roller-slide— or roll-holder, as they call it— of marvellous in- genuity, besides all the requisites for working the process. The roll-holder consists of an appliance which slides into the groove of the camera made for the ordinary dark-slide. When the roll-holder is placed in position, a portion of a continuous roll of sensitive paper is brought into the plane occupied by the ground glass whilst the image was being focussed. Between this paper and the lens there intervenes nothing but a shutter similar to that used with an ordinary dark-slide. In fact, the film on paper simply replaces the film on glass, but with this very great difference, that when it is necessary to replace one film with another, instead of having to reverse the slide or take up another one, we have only to turn a key till a certain indica- tion is given, when by the winding of the exposed paper on to one roller, and the unwinding of an unexposed piece from a second roller, we have a fresh film in position. This process can be repeated till twenty-four films are exposed. The paper is afterwards unwound from the spool (which latter is remov- able),, is cut up into lengths by marks which guiding rollers produce in revolving, and is developed. A second roll of paper may then be placed in the slide. The paper is sent out ready wound on spools to fit the apparatus. 100 NEGATIVES ON PAPER. I cannot give space to describe the appliance in detail, but I give two cuts which will give a very fair idea of it. The first Tig. 2. shows it open for the removal or reception of a spool. The second shows it with the outer case being placed over it. Mr. F. Vergara has recently shown me an exceedingly in- NEGATIVES ON PAPER. 101 genious arrangement for exposing paper carried in sheets of size for two exposures each. The appliance consists of a very- thin and light dark slide. The one I saw was made of cardboard. It was of such a thickness that a dozen would take up only about three inches, and the weight was such that a dozen of moderate size would weigh only two or three pounds. Those who know the American form of double dark slide which does not open like a book, but in which the shutters pull out entirely, will readily understand Vergara's slide. The method of placing the paper in the slide, and there holding it, is the novel feature of the apparatus. The central partition of the slide is made somewhat long, so that it projects at one end, and is so arranged that it can be removed by sliding it endways. A piece of sensitive paper is doubled over the partition as shown in figures 3 and 4, in which Fig. 3. 4 is the partition, and h the paper. Fig. l is, it will be under- stood, a section, fig. 2 a perspective view. The paper once Ftg. 4. folded over the partition, the latter is simply inserted in the slide as shown in section in fig. 5, when all is ready for exposure. 102 NEGATIVES ON PAPER. There is an arrangement in this slide whereby it is possible to use a piece of paper smaller than the largest for which it is made, so that, for example, a half -plate sized piece of paper may be used in a whole-plate sized slide. Paper to be developed is dipped in clean water for a few minutes till all inclination to curl ceases. After that it is placed in a dish, and is developed precisely as a glass plate is. Of course, as in the case of a glass plate, the formula for develop- ment given by the maker of the paper should be used. It is Fig. 5: commonly said that ammonia must not be employed with paper, but that we must use a carbonate, and that, moreover, it is necessary to use sulphite, all this to prevent the occurrence of a yellow stain. I have not found this by any means necessary. In fact, the paper may be developed in precisely the same manner as a glass plate, over or under-exposure being compen- sated for in the same manner ; but undoubtedly a developer in which an alkaline carbonate and sulphite of soda is used — for example, Beach's, described on page 81 — will be found ex- ceedingly suitable. If ammonia be employed without sulphite, the alum bath must be employed, as in the case of plates. "With carbonate developers in which there is sulphite it is not necessary. Several pieces of paper may developed in the same dish if this be somewhat larger in size than the paper. The lowest film is continually lifted and placed on the top. If there be a number of films to develop, and there be doubt as to the correctness of the exposure, it is well to use two separate dishes of developer, No. 1 filled with a very much restrained developer, No. 2 with a normal solution. The films are all placed into No. 1, after soaking in water. Those which show NEGATIVES ON PAPER. an image in this bath before very long, proving that they have been over-exposed, are allowed to remain in it till they are finished, whilst those which do not show for several minutes, or only show the highest lights then, are transferred to No. 2. Ii here they come up too rapidly and show a tendency to veil over in the shadows before density in the lights is sufficient, they may still be returned to No. 1 . If they come up just as they should, showing that exposure has been correct, of course they require no farther development ; whilst if they are under-exposed, as much can probably be got out of them by letting them remain for a long time in No. 2 as by any amount of forcing, by the addition of more alkali. In fixing, it is naturally not so easy to tell when the process is complete, as in the case of a negative on glass. If it be found impossible to see when the process is complete by looking through the paper, the best plan to adopt is to use a fresh fixing bath, and to allow twenty minutes in it, which is certain to be ample time to ensure the removal of the last trace of the silver haloid. ; The negatives, developed, treated with alum, fixed, and washed, may generally be dried in the following manner : — Plates of glass are thoroughly cleaned, * and are either dusted with a little French chalk, or are rubbed with a very little oil. The paper negatives are laid face downwards on these plates of glass, any air bubbles being expelled by pressure of the fingers from behind, or better, by the use of a squeegee, if the photo- grapher possess such ; and the whole is set in a warm place to remain till the paper is dry. Recently, vulcanite sheets have been introduced as drying supports in place of glass. They have the great advantage that the paper never refuses to leave them * For the method of cleaning glass, see Chapter XXIII. at the end o£ the hook. 104 NEGATIVES ON PAPER. as it occasionally does in the case of glass, however much care be taken. Some papers may be printed from immediately that they are stripped from the drying support, others require to go through a greasing process to render them transparent and to remove tie grain. The most approved greasing material at present is "oil vaseline." This is a semi-fluid greasy substance, without colour or smell, but slightly opalescent. The negatives are pinned ace downwards on a clean board, and the oil vaseline is applied to the back with the finger. The paper after twenty-four hours will be transparent, the grain will be gone, and the excess of grease may be removed by rubbing with a clean rag. If oil vaseline be not procurable, the following mixture may be used instead of it : — Ordinary veterinary vaseline 3 parts, heavy lubricating parafline oil 1 part. The vaseline is melted, and the lubricating parafline is poured into it. In all cases instructions, with regard to matters of detail, are issued with the paper. To print from a paper negative, it is placed on a plate of clear glass in the printing frame, when the process proceeds as usual. CHAPTER XV. PRINTING AND TONING WITH READY-SENSITIZED PAPER. The photographer who has followed our instructions to the present point will so far have produced only means to an end ; "the end itself will he nowhere visible. He has made the materials for a picture, but the picture has still to be constructed from these materials. However delightful a negative may be to the photographer as containing infinite possibilities, it is to the common eye by no means a thing of beauty. Every shade is, as has been explained, reversed ; before a natural effect can be produced, these shades must be re- reversed, so as to represent those of nature. This is commonly done by resorting to the process of printing. This process con- sists in the placing in contact with the negative a sensitive film usually supported on paper, and allowing light to act on it through the negative — the effect being, as a little consideration will show, a reversal of all shades. There are many printing processes, all of which may be studied with advantage by the amateur. Each one has certain advantages, and some are especially suited for certain purposes ; but the process which, on the whole, has held its own against all others, and which, for general purposes, seems not likely to be soon superseded, is that known as "silver printing on albumen- 106 PRINTING AND TONING WITH ized paper." We propose to describe this and two other print- ing processes, and to leave our readers to refer to more advanced or more special treatises for instructions in the various other processes. " Ready-sensitized" albumenized paper is now an article of commerce, and its convenience is so great that its adoption is to be recommended to the beginner. I shall therefore here describe the manipulation of such paper before giving instruc- tions in the sensitizing of paper for immediate use. "When the photographer has thoroughly mastered the process of printing, he will probably find that he can gain a higher degree of excel- lence by sensitizing his own paper ; but certainly at first the contrary will be the case. In printing with albumenized paper a printing-frame is used. This apparatus is of various forms, but all these have the same object. They keep the paper in close contact with the negative,, and are so constructed that one-half of the print can be examined at any time, whilst the other is kept in contact with the negative to prevent it from slipping. In frames made at the present day, the necessary pressure on the backs is gained by the use of springs. For small negatives, the frame is usually made exactly to fit the plate. In the case of large negatives — above whole- plate, for example — the frame is generally made somewhat larger than the negative for which it is intended, and is fitted ItEADY-SENSITIZED PAPER. 107 with plate-glass, against which the negative is placed. The pressure of the springs would be liable to break a large negative were it not thus protected. In the case of large negatives it is also necessary to use a pad of felt between the paper and the back of the frame, to ensure contact. Two of the commonest forms of printing- frames are here illustrated. A neat " dodge " is shown at the side of the frame for registering the number of prints taken from any negative. Let us suppose that our beginner has purchased a printing- frame and a certain amount of ready-sensitized paper. He cuts the paper to about the size of the negative he has determined to print from. He places a piece of the paper under the negative in the frame, and lays the whole outside in a bright diffused light. It is not generally advisable to print in direct sunlight. Af iev the operation has gone on for a short time — say, five or ten minutes — the result may be ascertained by taking the frame into a weak light and examining the print, one-half at a time. It must be allowed to print considerably darker than it is finally required to be. The exact amount of depth that is lost in the after-processes can only be learned by experience, but we may roughly say that it is necessary to print for nearly twice as long a time as that required to give a pleasing result in the frame. It is at this stage of proceedings that we for the first time become certain whether our negative is all that can be desired,. 108 PRINTING AND TONING WITH or whether it may be improved by either reducing or increasing the density. It is necessary, to give a good result, that the darkest part of the print should be about as dark as the paper is capable of becoming. It is also necessary that the negative should have such density that while this takes place the high- lights of the print may remain almost or quite white. If there be not such density, either one of two things must occur : either we must stop printing before the shadows are deep enough, and, as a consequence, there is no boldness of effect; or we must allow those parts which ought to remain white to get dark. The consequence is, in either case, lack of contrast. The cure is intensification of the negative. On the other hand, we may find that we have too great density, and that, in consequence, not only the deepest shadows, but some of what ought to be only half-tone, turn as dark as the paper is capable of becoming before the detail in the lighter parts become evident. It sometimes occurs in such a case, also, that the very dark parts assume a peculiar appearance known as bronzing. In the case of an over-dense negative, one of two things occurs : we have large masses of shadow printed so dark that all detail is lost, or we have large masses of light in which detail has not made its appearance. The remedy is reduction of density. Sometimes, however, we find that we have a state of things not quite so bad as we have described, but that a negative shows indications of being a very little too dense or too thin. In this case it is a pity to resort to either intensification or re- duction of density, as these processes are neither of them very completely under control. We may proceed as follows : — "We clean thoroughly the back of the negative, and varnish it cold. After a time the varnish will set with a " matt " surface; that is, with a surface like ground glass. "We now take it, and if the density be too great, we scrape away the varnish from the densest parts, using a pen-knife ; if the density be too little, we READY SENSITIZED PAPER. 109 scrape it away from the transparent parts. This will make a sensible difference in the resulting print ; but if it still lacks* something, we may mark on the matt varnish with a soft pencil, in the case of too great density shading over the transparent portions, in the case of too little over the densest parts. Another method is to stretch a piece of tissue paper on the back of the negative, fixing it with glue at the edges only. This may then be worked on either with the stump or the pencil, the density being supplemented when required. A negative dodged in either of these ways described may never be printed in direct sunshine. It is to be noted that even without intensifying or dodging in any way, a slight amount of compensation for too great or too slight density may be gained simply by selecting a suitable light for printing in. Thus, if a negative be slightly too dense, a better result will be gained by printing in very bright sunlight than in the shade. If, on the other hand, it be slightly too thin, the best result is obtained by printing in a feeble light. The extent to which over and under density can in this manner be compensated for is but slight. I believe that the difference of result to be gained by printing in light more or less bright has been greatly exaggerated by most who have written on the subject. When the desired number of proofs has been printed, the paper should be trimmed to the correct size. This is generally done, in the case of small sizes, with scissors, using " cutting moulds," or^thick plates of glass, which can be had of any size. It is often the custom to trim large prints as well as small by the aid of cutting moulds, but I think the plan is a mistake. It is very seldom that a print is not improved by cutting away a little fore- ground, a little sky, or a little of one side, and to do this makes it impossible to keep to the precise size of any mould. 0 course these remarks apply, strictly speaking, to small as well as to large prints, but the advantage of liberal trimming is far 110 PRINTING AND TONING WITH more conspicuous in the case of large than of small work. More- over, two small sizes, the " carte " and the " cabinet," have got so firmly established, that if a print be anywhere near the size of one of them, it is well to trim it to the precise size. In trimming large prints I advise that the limits of the print be marked with pencil by the aid of a "]" -sc l uare an ^ a drawing board, the operator not hesitating to lop off considerable parts of his print if he think that a better picture will result thereby. The actual cutting may be performed either with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors. One thing to observe in trimming prints is, that the edges must be made parallel to and perpendicular to any vertical line in the subject — for example, the corner of a building — or to the horizon, if it be a sea horizon. Many prefer to trim their prints after they have gone through the various processes of toning, fixing, and washing ; but there are several advantages in trimming before toning. The clippings, if kept, become, when a large quantity has accumulated, of value, on account of the silver in them ; there is a saving of toning solutions, and the trimming is far easier to do before washing, as the paper lies flat ; whereas, afterwards, it is liable to curl up in a way which makes it difficult to manipulate. The following solution is prepared for toning : — Chloride of gold ... 15 grains Acetate of soda ... ... ... l ounce Water up to 15 ounces The chloride of gold is purchased in small sealed tubes hold- ing fifteen or thirty grains each. One of these tubes is placed in a bottle capable of holding the whole solution ; when there, it is broken by striking it with a glass rod, due care being taken not to break the bottle, a performance which is quite possible. The acetate of sodaisthen added, and the water being poured in, the whole is shaken till the acetate dissolves. The solutions READY-SENSITIZED PAPER. Ill must be kept at least twenty-four hours before being used, and must not be exposed to a strong light. It should be labelled " Toning Solution, One Grain to the Ounce." The other solu- tion which is required is one of two ounces of hyposulphite of soda to each pint of water, and should be labelled 11 Fixing Solution for Prints." It will be noticed that the prints as they come from the frames are of a more or less unpleasant colour. The operation which is to be described, and which is called toning, is intended to correct this defect, and to give them the pleasing colour which we are accustomed to see. The process consists in cover- ing the image with an exceedingly thin film of gold. Toning may be said to be at once the easiest and the most difficult of photographic processes. Nothing is easier than to tone, nothing more difficult than to tone well. Anyone can change the colour of a print to a sort of slatey grey ; there are not very many who can be sure of getting at all times a pleasing tone and the exact tint required. The difficulty lies in the direction so common in photographic operation. A certain result is gained, but the after-processes modify this result, so that great experience is necessary to know beforehand what will be the final appearance of the subject. I shall describe as accurately as possible the operations, and for the rest, as in so many cases, the beginner must look to intelligence and experience for complete success. The toning solution mentioned in the first part of our lesson is too concentrated to be used as it is ; it must, therefore, be diluted. The common practice is to use a large quantity of toning solution, and, if it is not exhausted, to keep it for after- use. This is very well for the professional photographer, who tones at regular intervals, but in the case of the amateur I think it is scarcely advisable. The solution once used is very liable to "go bad," the gold being deposited at the bottom of the bottle. I therefore recommend that the beginner estimate the 112 PRINTING AND TONING WITH amount of toning solution that will be necessary, allowing a little margin, and that after he has used it once he throw it away. The waste will he very small — so small that it will not be found worth while to keep the liquid as residue. If the prints be trimmed before toning, one grain of gold is generally sufficient for each sheet of paper measuring 17 inches by 22 inches. One ounce of the stock toning solution is therefore taken for every sheet of paper, and is diluted with twelve or fourteen times its amount of water. Different samples of paper require toning baths of different strengths. As a rule, the best results will be got when it requires about a quarter of an hour to tone to a purple, eight to ten minutes to a chocolate colour. If more time than this is required, the bath should be made stronger; if less, weaker. Some samples of "double albumenized paper" require a bath as strong as one grain of gold chloride to five ounces of water, but an attempt should always be made first with a bath of the strength mentioned in the last paragraph. The prints are now taken one by one, and placed face down- wards, in any dish which is suitable for washing them in ; a common small wooden tub is, perhaps, the best of all. They must be kept from sticking to each other, and be moved about by hand. It will be seen that the water becomes milky, from the nitrate of silver in the paper forming chloride and carbonate of silver with the salts in the washing water. At this point there should be a divergence in the operations, according to the tone which the photographer requires. There are at this present time two favourite tones with photo- graphers. The one is the photographic purple, the colour most commonly seen ; the other is a rich warm brown. This latter colour has been affected by a man who may be said to be one of the first landscape photographers of the day, if not, perhaps, the first, Mr. Payne Jennings. So completely has the brown colour referred to connected itself in the minds of many photographers READY-SENSITIZED PAPER. 113 with Mr. Jennings, that I have frequently heard it talked of as "Payne Jennings' brown." If, then, the photographer wish a " Payne Jennings' brown," his proceedings should be as follows :— The prints are very tho- roughly washed. To effect this, the water must be frequently changed. When all milkiness has disappeared, the prints are laid for a few minutes in a bath containing one ounce of common salt to a gallon of water. They are then washed again with several changes of water. If the purple tone be required, the prints are washed for only a few minutes. If they be in a large vessel, it is sufficient to turn them over once ; that is to say, to remove the bottom print to the top till all have been so treated, and to run off the water. They are now placed for five minutes in a bath containing one ounce of washing soda to the gallon of water, when they receive a final moderate washing. The use of the soda is to neutralise the acid which usually exists in ready-sensitized paper, and which greatly retards toning. It (the soda) will, however, accelerate toning, even when no acid has been used in the pre- paration of the paper. After either of the operations just described has been per- formed, the prints are ready for toning. The washing is best done by the light of a candle or lamp, as such will not affect the paper. The toning must be done in feeble white light, as it is difficult to judge of colours by yellow light. It is best per- formed in a flat white dish at least an inch longer each way than the prints. One print is taken from the washing water, and placed in the toning, first face downwards, it is then turned face up, then again down, repeating the process once or twice, so as to allow the solution to act evenly on it. JSTow another print, and per- haps two or three more, are similarly placed in the solution. It will be noticed that the prints, during washing, turn to a brick red. In the toning they will turn to a brown, and gradually 114 PRINTING AND TONING WITH at any rate, if treated with soda, as described, to a sort of violet or purple. They must be kept in constant motion. The best plan is to keep continually lifting the undermost print, and placing it on the top. At first, only a few prints should be attempted together ; after some practice, a dozen or two may be in the solution at once. When many prints are toned together, it is a good plan to have two dishes of toning, side by side, and to keep lifting the prints out of one into the other, the whole of the prints being turned over in a mass when they are all in one dish. The colour will be noticed gradually to change. In the case of the prints which have been thoroughly washed and treated with salt, the change will be comparatively slow ; it will prob- ably, with no amount of pushing, result in a colour deeper than a brown. In this case, however, the colour attained may be relied on to change but slightly during fixing, &c. ; whereas, in the -case of the soda-treated prints, a certain amount of the tone will be lost. For this reason it is necessary to go a little farther than appears at the time necessary. When it is judged that a print is toned, it is placed in a dish of clear water. It is moved about for a few seconds to get rid of the greater part of the toning solution which is in the pores of the paper, and which would make the toning proceed after it is desired to stop it. When all the prints have passed through the toning bath, they must be washed in several changes of water, being kept moving for about five minutes during each change. Now comes the fixing. The prints are removed from the wash- ing water, and are placed in a flat dish. Sufficient fixing solu- tion to quite cover the prints is poured in, and they are kept moving for about twenty minutes. The tone, especially when it is pretty deep, may be seen to fall off considerably when the prints are first placed in the fixing solution. It will, however, in a great measure, return during fixing and drying. After fixing, it is necessary to wash the prints most thoroughly for READY-SENSITIZED PAPER. 115 not less than twelve hours. This is best done in running water ; hut if such cannot be had, then frequent changes will do. The smallest trace of hyposulphite in the prints may cause them to fade. The thing most necessary to observe during all these opera- tions is, that the paper be at no time allowed to stick together in a mass. If this occur at any stage, prints of a disagreeable colour, with yellow or degraded whites, are sure to result. It is also necessary to observe that the prints be kept throughout all these processes back upwards, otherwise a fine powder will be deposited on the face of them. CHAPTER XVI. SENSITIZING ALBUMENIZED PAPERS. The great convenience of ready-sensitized paper is, that it will keep for a very considerable length of time, either before print- ing, or between printing and toning. The means of preparing such paper is at present a trade secret, and when the amateur prepares his own paper, he will find that it will turn brown after about twenty-four hours. He must therefore do his sensitizing and fixing all in one day. If he has time to do this, he will probably be rewarded by superior results. I shall therefore describe the process of sensitizing. "Salted" albumenized paper is purchased — that is to say, paper coated with albumen which is impregnated with soluble chloride. This paper may be either single or double albumen- ized. The latter has a far lighter surface than the former. It is becoming daily more popular. A "silver bath" is prepared by dissolving nitrate of silver in distilled water. The strength of the bath varies with the paper used. Every dealer in albumenized paper will state what strength of bath is best to use for the particular brand he sells. One containing sixty grains of nitrate of silver to each ounce of solution will suit most papers. Enough of this must be prepared to cover the bottom of the flat dish to be used in sensitizing to a depth of at least ^-inch. The dish should be half an inch larger than the paper in each direction. If much SENSITIZING ALBUMENIZED PAPERS. 117 paper is to be used, it is best to sensitize in large pieces, and to cut it into sizes before printing. Professional photographers usually sensitize a whole sheet at a time. A room lighted by a lamp or gas is the best in which to carry on the sensitizing process. The silver solution is poured into the bath, and a piece of the paper is taken by opposite corners, and with the albumenized side downwards. The paper is so held that it will first touch the surface of the solution in a line between the two corners not held by the hands. Suppose the paper held by the right-hand upper and left-hand lower corners. The left-hand upper corner is allowed to touch the surface of the solution, and the paper is lowered till it touches in a line from the left-hand upper to the right-hand lower corners. Now the two corners held in the hands are slowly lowered, first one and then the other. This sounds elaborate, but it is very simple in practice. If it be carried out properly, there should be no air-bells under the paper, but it is best to lift the sheet from the solution after about a minute, and look to make sure. If there are any, they can be broken by gently moving about the paper whilst one-half is held out of the solution. The time of floating varies with different papers and different strengths of baths. It should be ascertained when the paper is purchased. "With a 60-grain bath from three to five minutes is usually ample. If the paper curls away from the solution at the edges, it may be caused to lie flat by breathing on the back of it. After the specified time has elapsed, the paper u tu&en up by two adjacent corners and withdrawn from the surface of the solution very slowly, so that it drains as it is being lifted. It is now hung up by one comer to dry, a pin or American clip being used to secure it. A small fragment of blotting-paper is caused to touch the lower corner immediately after it is hung up. This will adhere by capillary attraction, and collect a drop or two of solution, which would otherwise fall on the floor. It is usual to allow the paper to^dry hanging up, but the writer 118 SENSITIZING ALBUMENIZET) PAPERS. prefers to leave it hanging for about five minutes only, after- wards to lay it face downwards on blotting-paper to dry, and to roll it up precisely as described for finished prints. It is then ready for printing, toning, &c, to be performed as will be de- scribed for ready-sensitized paper.--' The silver solution gradually becomes contaminated with organic matter. To precipitate this a few drops of a saturated solution of carbonate of soda are added to the 'bath. This will form a fine white precipitate, which will carry down any organic matter, and will, moreover, keep the bath from becoming acid. Should the precipitate become re- dissolved through time, a little more carbonate of soda solution must be added. The silver solution becomes weaker through use, and it is necessary to strengthen it at intervals. Its strength can be ascertained by the use of an " argentometer," which is a cheap form of hydrometer specially graduated for grains of silver per ounce of solution. If, as the solution is used up, the quantity lost be made up from a stock solution 50 per cent, stronger than the bath — a 90-grain solution for a 60-grain bath, for example — the strength of the bath will remain fairly constant. The silver solution should be "sunned" as frequently as possible ; that is to say, the bottle containing it should be placed in strong daylight. This will precipitate any organic impurity which the carbonate of silver, formed by the addition of the carbonate of soda, may not throw down. It is, indeed, a good thing to keep the solution in a strong light whenever it is not in use. It is the custom with some operators to "fume" their sensitized paper. They claim that a more brilliant result is thereby gained, and that toning is more readily performed. This is so, at any rate, in the case of certain brands of paper. The process con- sists simply in exposing the paper to the fumes of ammonia. "With those who print on a large scale, a special box, in which * See page 124. SENSITIZING ALBUMENIZED PAPERS. 119 prints are suspended on netting over liquid ammonia, is generally used ; but the writer has been able to succeed very well with a makeshift apparatus. I shall describe this, and a method which I have found to give very satisfactory results. A box of any kind, measuring a couple of feet or so in length and breadth, and (say) a foot deep, is taken. One of those mill- board contrivances used by dressmakers in which to pack the finery worn by the superior sex will do very well. An ounce or so of the stock solution, consisting of one part strong liquid ammonia and one part water, is sprinkled over the bottom of the box, which is then covered to a depth of several inches with crumpled paper, the sensitized paper is placed on this latter, and the lid is shut down. After things have remained so for a quarter-of-an-hour, the paper will be fumed. Fumed paper prints somewhat more quickly than that which is not so treated. In the toning and other processes, after which follow printing, the operations are essentially the same for paper to be used as prepared for ready-sensitized paper. It is never necessary, how- ever, to use the soda in the washing water. The paper will tone very easily to a purple without any such treatment. If, how- ever, it be wished to get the brown which I have styled " Payne Jennings' " brown, it is desirable to treat the prints with salt as already described, which will make them very red. Paper prepared as just described may be kept for a few days by placing it between sheets of blotting-paper which have been soaked in a strong solution of washing soda, and have been dried. Some of the best printers prefer to use their paper before it is bone-dry. They claim that they get more brilliant results than they otherwise would. The paper may be rolled up before it is absolutely dry if it is to be used within the next few hours ; or if it is to be used within the next few days, it may be placed, still quite damp to the touch, between the sheets of soda-treated blot- ting-paper, which will extract most of the water from it, but will leave a little. CHAPTER XVII. DEFECTS IN SILVER PRINTS AND REMEDIES- MOUNTING PRINTS. Defects and Remedies. The following are the defects most commonly met with in silver prints ; I give the remedy in every case, where I know of one : — TJie Prints are Yellow in the Whites — or, to speak more strictly, in the parts which ought to he white. I leave out of consideration the case where the paper has been kept too long hefore printing, or hetween printing and toning, and has turned hrown, for, of course, in such a case, it is unreasonable to expect pure whites, although the fixing baths will very considerably clear away the discolouration. Yellowness appearing in the whites of the prints after the manipulations of washing, &c, have commenced, may he due to any one of several causes. If the prints be allowed to stick together in masses in the first washing water, yellowness will he the result. The action of too much white light on the print at any stage before the fixing will have the same effect. So will any of a great number of foreign substances — notably hypo — in the toning bath, or in the washing waters used before toning. Lastly, acidity of the fixing bath may produce the yellowresr It is advisable to add to the fixing bath, for silver DEFECTS IN SILVER r BINTS. 121 prints, as much, ammonia as will cause it to smell slightly of the alkali. The remedy in the other cases is evident. Mealiness is a term which should be used only to denote a peculiar mottled appearance of the surface of a print, but which is often used to describe any lack of brilliancy evidently not due to lack of contrast in the negative. The true mealiness is caused by weakness of the silver bath. It is generally accompanied by facie of contrast due to the same cause, and often to loss of brilliancy of the surface of the print, which may be due either to the same cause, or to alkalinity of the bath. Alkalin- ity is a condition of things not likely to arise in the sensitizing bath — on the contrary, acidity is the fault to fear most ; but if "the defect mentioned be observed, the bath may be shaken up, till it is cloudy, with the carbonate of silver produced by the addition of a small quantity of carbonate of soda to it. A satu- rated solution of citric acid may then be added till the carbon- ate of silver is dissolved entirely, or at least partly, when a little more carbonate of soda may be added. Marble-like Markings on the paper are due to scum on the sensitizing bath. They are almost sure to occur in the case of the first piece of paper sensitized, unless the surface of the liquid be cleared by passing the edge of a piece of paper over it. Refusal of the Print to Tone. — The print will refuse to tone, or will tone only slowly to an unsatisfactory colour, if the sensi- tizing bath be acid, or if it be much contaminated with organic matter. The acidity may be prevented by adding the carbonate of eoda as suggested. Organic matter is got rid of by frequent sunning. The toning, and not the sensitizing, bath may, however, be at fault. Sometimes the gold is spontaneously thrown down from the bath. In this case it will be seen in the form of a fine black precipitate clinging to the sides and bottom of the bottle. If the toning bath be acid, it will not tone in a satisfactory manner. Its condition may be ascertained with test paper, and 122 MOUNTING PRINTS. if it be found to be acid, it may be made neutral or slightly alka- line with bicarbonate of soda. A Loss of Tone in the Fixing Bath sometimes occurs when the prints have not been sufficiently washed before the toning opera- tions. Unevenness of Tone almost always has its origin in the sticking of the prints together in the toning bath ; or sometimes from their being allowed to stick together in the washing waters used before toning, whereby they are unequally washed. The remedy, of course, is to prevent them from sticking together in the wash- ing water or the toning bath. Bronzing is an appearance which makes its appearance only in the shadows of prints got from negatives showing very bold contrasts. It is seen on looking at the print from a certain angle. The appearance is that of a metallic lustre in the deepest shadows. It is but seldom that it does not disappear in the fixing bath. If it do not, the fact proves that the sensitizing bath has been too strong. Round White Spots in the prints are due to air-bubbles under the paper during sensitizing. The remedy is evident. Metallic Spots sometimes make their appearance on the paper before it is put into the printing-frame. They are dark, of metallic lustre, of size from that of a pin's head upwards, with irregular outline. They are almost always due to particles of iron in the paper itself, and are, of course, beyond the control of the photographer. Mounting the Pbints. After the prints have been washed, they may be mounted at, once before being dried. There are various methods of mount- ing. The following is that which has been adopted by the writer : — A thin glue is made by soaking one ounce of hard gelatine in ten ounces of water. "When the gelatine is quite. MOUNTING PRINTS. 123 soft, the temperature is raised till it is melted. Five ounces of - metliylated spirit are now added. In mounting, a squeegee — a strip of india-rubber with a wooden handle — is required. This should be somewhat longer than the breadth of the widest print to be mounted. The prints are laid face upwards in a flat dish filled with hot water. A mount is taken and is brushed over with the glue on one side. A print is at once laid on the glued side of the mount. It may easily be slid about to adjust its position. AVhen this is correct, the squeegee is passed quickly over the surface, first in one direction, then in the other. By this means the unnecessary gelatine is driven out. A clean cloth is dipped in hot water, and the gelatine round the edges is wiped away. If, as is customary with carte and cabinet prints, they are mounted with a narrow margin, the adjustment of the paper on the mount may be done by eye; but if, as is customary with large prints, especially landscapes, a wide margin is adopted, the position of two opposite corners of the print should be marked on it with a needle point. Mounted prints should either be rolled or burnished. Eolling consists in passing the prints between two polished metal rollers, or a polished roller and plate. The roller or plate may, or may not, be heated. Burnishing consists in drawing the print over a bar of polished steel, which is always heated, the print being first treated with a solution of four or five grains of Castile soap in an ounce of methylated spirit, rubbed on to the surface of it with a piece of flannel, and being allowed to dry. A far higher polish is given by the burnisher than by a rolling press ; indeed, the polish given by the burnisher is by many considered to be offensive. It is not usual to burnish prints much larger than cabinet size. If the amateur do not possess either a burnisher or a rolling press, he can usually get his prints burnished or rolled by sending them to some neighbouring, photographer. 124 MOUNTING PKINTS. If it be desired to keep prints unmounted, it is somewhat difficult to keep them from curling up as they dry. The writer has found the following to be a convenient manner of drying prints and treating them afterwards. The prints, as they are taken from the washing water, are allowed to drain for a few seconds, then blotted off with clean white blotting-paper, and laid to dry, face dowmvards, on a table covered with a clean cloth or with clean white blotting-paper. "When they have lain till they are dry to the touch, one of them is rolled tightly on a wooden roller, albumenized side outwards. The end of a second print is caught under that of the first, which is nearly rolled up, and so the rolling goes on, each print being caused to catch up another just before this first is com- pletely rolled up. The roll of prints is laid aside for a few days, after which they will show very little inclination to roll up face inwards, as they otherwise would. They may be farther improved by hot rolling with a plate and roller machine. CHAPTER XYIII. THE PLATINOTYPE PROCESS— RAPID PRINTING PAPER, I HA.TJ0 said that silver printing appears still to hold its own against all rivals, and to remain the most popular process. It is. however, by several of these hard run, and, perhaps, by none so hard as by the process known as the Platinotype. This, although of comparatively recent date as a commercial printing process, has nevertheless become a great favourite, and appears to be ever gaining in the estimation of the public. This it does, and certainly not without reason, for it is in many respects the most attractive of all printing processes. It has several very great advantages over the silver process. Firstly and chiefly, the results are permanent ; secondly, they are, to an artistic eye, far more pleasing than those of silver printing — the colour is an engraving black, and the surface is not glazed, but matt, like drawing paper ; thirdly, the process is far more easy to work. The time taken for printing is not quite half what is necessary for albumenized paper. There is no toning, nor is there any prolonged washing. It may be asked why, if there are so many advantages in the process, it does not at once supersede silver ? I can only say that it is rapidly gaining in favour, and may do so, but that, as in most cases where there are advantages, there are certain dis- advantages also. 12(5 PLATINOTYPE PROCESS. In the case of the platinotype process, that of price ceitainly is one. The expense of producing a platinum print is consider- ahly in excess of that of making a silver print. Then, again, public taste has not yet been educated to thoroughly appreciate the beautiful delicacy of the colour of a platinum print. Possibly this is so much the worse for the public, but the fact remains. Farther, a good negative is necessary to get a good platinum print. The same is the case, no doubt, with silver, but with a thin and miserable negative, something more passable may be had in silver than in platinum. All the appliances for platinum printing are to be had from the Platinotype Company, 2G, Southampton Row, HighHolborn, London, W.C., and with them instructions so full and concise are issued, that I need only very briefly describe the process. The one thing which requires great and constant attention is the keeping the paper thoroughly dry. It has to be kept in a metal case with a small quantity of calcium chloride, when not actually in the frames, and when in these, it is necessary to keep a thin sheet of india-rubber behind it. Printing is performed in the usual way, but the image which appears is not brown, or purple, but is of a faint greyish-yellow colour. This at first is puzzling, but one soon learns to judge of the exposure as accurately as with silver. The prints have to be developed by floating them on the surface of a hot solution containing 130 grains of oxalate of potash to each ounce of water. A flat iron dish is the best to operate with. The solution is kept at a temperature of 170° to 180° Pahr., by means of a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner. The process of development is a most beautiful one. The print, before it is developed, is only just visible. It is placed thus on the surface of the solution, and in a few seconds there is removed a picture perfect in colour and gradation of tone. The developed print is transferred to a dish containing one part of hydrochloric acid in sixty parts of water. Hence it RAPID PRINTING PAPERS. 127 passes to a second, and then to a third, similar bath, remaining a few minutes in each. It is then washed for about a quarter of an hour in several changes of water, after which it is finished. Negatives which are just somewhat too dense for silver printing, give excellent results with platinum. Any negative, however, which will give a good silver print, will give a good platinum print. Recently the Platinotype Company have introduced a paper which gives a warmer colour than the one of which we have been writing. The tint got on it is somewhat of the nature of a sepia brown. Rapid Pmnting Papers. The end of the year 1884 saw a great stir in the photographic world, on account of the announcement that a new printing paper was to be brought out, which would require an exposure many hundred times less than albumenized paper. Messrs. Marion and Co. were the first to make the announce- ment. Their lead was rapidly followed by Mr. "Warnerke and Messrs. Morgan and Kidd. It was easy to see, from the appearance of the paper, that it was coated with a gelatine emulsion, and it soon became an open secret that the haloids used were chloride, or a mixture of chlo- ride and bromide of silver. The method of working the paper is briefly as follows : — An exposure is made in a printing-frame in the ordinary manner, except that only a second or two is given in the case of diffused light, or in the case of an ordinary gas light, with a dis- tance between the light and the flame of eight or ten 'inches, something from two or three minutes to half an hour. The image is not visible if exposure has been correct, unless the negative is one with very strong contrasts. In such a case, there may be some slight trace of an image [in the deepest shadows. The absence of a visible image of course makes the 128 RAPID PRINTING PAPERS. timing of the exposure a thing requiring some judgment. There is, however, fortunately, considerable latitude permissible. The paper is developed when it is taken from the frames.. The developer may be either very weak and much restrained ferrous oxalate, ferro-citro-oxalate, or hydrokinone. Mr. Arnold Spiller further mentions that his new hydroxilamine developer gives good results. "With the papers there are, of course, sent out full instructions for mixing the developing solutions, and so forth. The development of the print is an operation requiring con- siderable judgment. The image must be closely watched, and the print must be removed from the bath almost before it has got as dark as it will be finally required. If the exposure has been correct, the colours of the print at this stage will be a dullish red. If the exposure has been too short, it will be a greenish-black ; if too long, the image will be flat and lacking in vigour. Several prints may be developed at one time, but not very many. Whenever the print is taken from the deve- loper it must be washed in several changes of water. After this it is immersed for a quarter-of-an-hour in a saturated solution of alum. It is then washed again, when it is ready for toning. The same formula which is recommended for albumenized paper may be used, but its action is slow with the rapid paper. If, however, it be made of double the strength mentioned on p. 112, and there be added to each pint of it four grains of chloride of lime, the toning will go on rapidly enough. The toning requires to be continued till the surface of the print is quite purple, and if any but a very warm brown tone be required, for some time longer. The time to stop toning is best judged by looking through the print at a light. After the prints are toned, they are washed and fixed in the ordinary manner. It will be noticed that the tone almost entirely vanishes in the fixing bath. It returns to a great ex- tent on drying. RAPID PRINTING PAPER. 129 Mr. Warnerke recommends that toning and fixing be performed in the same hath by adding a little chloride of gold to the hypo- sulphite solution. A considerable saving of time is effected by this method of -working. The prints are washed after fixing just as albumenized prints are. They may be mounted in the usual manner, and rolled or burnished if desired. A very brilliant effect is, however, produced by drying them in optical contact with glass. To perform this operation a piece of glass is thoroughly cleaned. French chalk is then powdered over the face of it, and is rubbed off, as completely as is possible, with gentle friction. A wet print is now laid face downwards on the prepared side of the glass. A squeegee is passed over the back to expel excess of moisture and any air bubbles which may have lodged between the glass and the paper. The glass, with the print mounted on it, is now set on one side to dry. The room in which it is should be warm. If the drying take very long, the print may refuse to strip from the glass ; but if it be pretty rapid, the print will come off with great ease whenever it is dry. The surface will then be found to be very brilliant. If it be desired to mount such prints, the mounting must b e done whilst the print is on the glass, and not yet dry ; that is to say, the card must be fixed to the print, and the whole must be allowed to dry together. "When they are dry, the print and the mount will come away in one piece. CHAPTER XIX. "VIGNETTIN G.— PRINTING OF SKIES INTO LAND- SCAPE NEGATIVES. The effect produced by what is known as vignetting is^ one which is almost universally admired, especially when it is applied to a suitable picture. It is so easy to do it that it is a pity the amateur should not be instructed in the method. innumerable dodges have been invented for producing the vignette effect ; some have been patented, some have been sold as secret processes; but, after all, the simplest way 6f all seems to give as good results as any other. An opening is made in a piece of cardboard or other stiff material. This opening is made of the shape that the image is to be, but a little smaller, and the cardboard is fixed in front of the printing- frame whilst printing is performed in diffused light, or, still better, with a piece of tissue paper over the opening cut in the cardboard. The softness of the vignette depends on the distance between the negative and the cardboard. The greater the distance, the broader the portions through which there is shading off. With most printing-frames it is sufficient to fix the cardboard —with drawing-pins or otherwise— to the front of the frame. It is my practice, if this arrangement does not give sufficient softness of shading, to pinch the edges of the opening upwards with my finger and thumb. PRINTING SKIES. 131 It is often necessary to modify the vignetting board by cutting out bits here and there, or by cutting new boards entirely, a trial p rm t being made after each modification before the most satisfactory results can be got. The negative which lends itself best to the production of vig- nettes is one full of detail, and giving a somewhat soft print. Pointing Skies into Landscapes. A white sky in a photographic print is, almost without exception, from an artistic point of view, an abomination. Few beginners would believe the change that can be wrought by printing a bit of cloud into a sky otherwise quite white. A picture is often made by this simple means. The printing of clouds into skies is by no means difficult. The first requisite is, of course, a selection of cloud negatives. These are easily enough made. Exposures are given on suitable looking clouds, the lengths of time given in the tables under the heading "Sea and Sky," or something a little shorter, being suitable in most cases. The clouds, to be useful, must be well chosen. The most brilliant-looking clouds are almost always such as are near the sun; but although these are often so beautiful that they will make pictures in themselves, they are comparatively little use for the purpose of printing into landscapes, as it is seldom that landscapes are taken looking towards the sun, and it is essential that the clouds printed into a landscape should be lighted from the same point that the landscape is. A series of clouds, then, of all kinds that have any beauty in them, and lighted in all different ways, but especially from the side, should be done. As already mentioned, those taken on paper have the immense advantage that they can be printed from either side, thus virtually being each equal to two negatives one lighted from each side. 132 PRINTING SKIES. Now as to the printing of such clouds into the landscapes. It is almost essential that the skies should be quite white in the first place. If they be not naturally dense enough in the nega- tive, they must be masked by colouring the sky in the negative with some opaque colour, great care being taken in following the horizon line. I shall take first of all the case of a landscape with a horizon pretty nearly straight, as this is the simplest. It is conveni- ent to use a printing frame considerably larger than the negative, so that there is room to make adjustment between it and the print. The print— with sky white— is placed on the negative which has been selected as most suitable, and is so adjusted that the clouds fall into the position which seems best. The back of the printing frame is now adjusted, and the focussing cloth is loosely thrown across one side of the frame, so as to cover the landscape part of the photograph. Printing is done in the shade, and the focussing cloth is slightly shifted from time to time, so that the sky, white at the horizon, gradually darkens a little higher up, the clouds showing. When the sky is printed as dark as is judged necessary, the print is finished. As a rule, none but those who have very considerable artistic taste and knowledge should risk printing in skies other than very light— no more, in fact, than to give an indication of clouds. If dark objects project into the sky they may be disregarded : the clouds printed across them will not show. If, however, light objects project into the sky, it is necessary to mask them, so as to protect them from the light passing through the cloud negative. The best way to do this is to take a print from the landscape negative. This is cut with a pair of scissors, so as to follow the line of demarcation between land- scape and sky, care being taken to cut a shade within the land- scape—that is to say, to cut a trifle off the landscape. This PRINTING SKIES. 133 mask is now fixed with two wafers at its lower corners on to the cloud negative, so as to cover all but what is to he printed into the landscape. The print has now to be very carefully adjusted over this, when all is ready for exposure. Even when the horizon is straight, if it is desired to bring the clouds quite down to it, masking must be resorted to. A simply " graduated " sky— very much better than a blank white one, as good as anything for some subjects— is made by exposing the upper or sky part of the print to light, whilst a sheet of cardboard is held over the landscape part, and is kept in motion so as to graduate the darkening. Cloud negatives can be bought from most dealers, but many will have conscientious scruples in using them, and afterwards exhibiting the prints as their own productions. CHAPTER XX. TRANSPARENCIES— LANTERN SLIDES— ENLARGING AND REDUCING. The particular form of print known as a transparency is a very attractive one. It differs from an ordinary print in as much as it is seen by transmitted, not reflected light. It is usually on glass, and is seen by being hung up against a window, or wherever there may be a strong source of light behind it. A transparency differs from a negative only in as much as the shades of nature are correctly represented, instead of being reversed. Yery good transparencies can be made on the ordinary dry plates used for negatives, especially such as are rather slow. One of these is placed behind a negative in a printing frame, and an exposure, which may vary from five seconds to a minute, according to the density of a negative, is given at a distance of (say) three feet from the gas-burner. Development is performed with ferrous-oxalate developer. That given on page 30 for plates may be taken, but with this difference : we use 60 minims of a ten per cent, solution of bro- mide of ammonium instead of one per cent, solution, and when the developer is mixed, we add an ounce and a-half of waiter to it to dilute it. Development will be very slow. It is necessary to stop it whilst the whites still remain quite pure, and to use fresh mixed " hypo." in fixing. TRANSPARENCIES. 135 Lately gelatino- chloride plates specially prepared for the making of transparencies have become an article of commerce, and give very beautiful results, a variety of tones being obtain- able. Of these plates it is necessary to say but little, as the manner of development is quite similar to that which has been treated of already, whilst the particular solutions to be used are fully described in the instructions which are issued with the plates. In appearance, the plates are much more transparent than gelatino-bromide plates. Indeed, so transparent are they that it is often difficult to tell which side has the film on it. The chloride plates are far less sensitive than the bro- mide, and can consequently be worked in a much more brilliant light. In fact, almost any amount of yellow light may be admitted, or an ordinary uncovered candle may be used if a little care be exercised in working. The writer has always found that he required to give con- siderably longer exposure than that mentioned in the instruc- tions. Undoubtedly the most convenient manner of exposure is by burning a few inches of magnesium wire in front of the nega- tive. In the writer's experience, three inches of wire is a good amount to burn, the distance at which it is held from the nega- tive varying from eight inches to two feet, according to its density, and the colour of transparency required. The longer the exposure, the developer being adapted to it, the warmer will the colour of the transparency be. It is possible to get any colour of image from a black to a claret red. The developer used is ferrous-oxalate, ferrous-citrate, or a mixture of both. It may also be varied by the use of a restrainer, or of a smaller or larger excess of citric acid. The ferrous- citrate gives a warmer colour than the ferrous-oxalate ; and a restrainer added either in the form of chloride of sodium (com- mon salt) or free citric acid gives a still warmer tone, the expo- sure being duly increased. 136 LANTERN SLIDES. In development, the plate should he touched by the fingers as little as possible, as chLoride plates are far more liable to stain than bromide plates. Lantjebn Slides. Slides, for what used at onetime to be called the "magic lantern," but what is now commonly designated by the more imposing title, the "optical lantern," are simply trans- parencies made of a small size to suit the optical apparatus. The usual size is 3fc inches square. If negatives be made of this size specially for the production of the slides, the matter is a very simple one. Gelatino-bromide plates may be used, but gelatino-chloride are very much better. The printing is done by contact, and development is performed precisely as for a transparency, two points being, however, specially borne m mind: first, that the high-lights be kept absolutely clear; second, that the shadows be made a little less dense than would be considered desirable for a transparency to be viewed direct. A slide is usually finished by placing a second piece of glass against the film side of it, and fixing the two together by black paper at the edges. " Needle " paper is the best. When a lantern slide— or, in fact, a transparency of any kind- lias to be made to a reduced scale— smaller, that, is, than the negative— the camera must be used either to produce direct, a Teduced transparency, or to produce a reduced negative from which transparencies can be printed in the usual way. The method of reducing will be shortly explained. Enlarging. The advantages of being able to make enlargements need not be insisted on. They are self-evident. The production of enlargements was, until within the last few years, a thing rarely undertaken by an amateur ; but the introduction of gelatino- ENLARGING. 137 bromide paper for the purpose has made enlarging so simple an affair that there is no reason why any amateur should hesitate to undertake the work. Special appliances are made for producing enlargements. These are simply modified magic lanterns ; that is to say, they are lanterns in which a negative from which it is desired to take an enlargement takes the place of a lantern slide. A negative image is thrown and is received on an easel, on to which is fixed a piece of white paper for focussing, afterwards the sensitive gelatino -bromide paper to receive the exposure. The paper is, after exposure, developed with ferrous-oxalate. The appliance mentioned is very convenient, but it is some- what expensive, and, moreover, will not enlarge but from very small negatives. In a camera and lens every photographer who can darken a room, and has a shutter with a square hole made in it, has all the appliances necessary to produce enlargements of practically any size from any negative which his camera will make. I here illustrate the arrangement. A is a hole cut in the shutter B, so that the back end of the camera C may lie against it, shutting out all light. D is a 138 ENLARGING. board so constructed that it can hold the camera and also an easel or upright board, which latter must be capable of adjustment so as to be approached to, or receded from, the camera. It is not necessary that the easel should slide. An amateur, at any rate, never requires to enlarge to a mathematically-correct extent, and, as a consequence, it is sufficient if the easel E can be fixed to the board at every three, or even at every six inches. In the writer's enlarging room this is managed with pegs in the lower edge of the easel, and holes every three inches along the board D. There is also a support at the back of the easel to keep it steady. F is a reflector consisting of a board or other plane whitened in any way, and fixed at an angle of 45° or thereby with the horizontal. It must be of such a size that, when the camera is out of the way, an observer looking from the position occupied by the lens when the camera is in position, will not see its edges through the hole A. If the dark slide of the camera be of the American pattern, in which both shutters can be withdrawn, the negative to be enlarged may be fixed in the slide, which, again, may be run into its groove in the camera. If the slides be of the English pattern, arrangement must be made to fix the negative in the hole A. In any case it will be found that an image of the negative will be thrown by the lens on to the easel E, and that the distance of the easel from the camera will determine the size. The farther away the easel, the larger the image. The nearer the easel, on the other hand, the smaller will be the image ; but the longer will the camera have to open, till, when negative and image are of the same size, the camera will have to be opened twice as long as when a distant object is being photographed ; and the distance between the negative and the image will be four times the equivalent focus of the lens. The rule for the distance between the lens and the easel may be here given : — ENLARGING. 139 n — the number of timea of enlargement. / = the equivalent foeas. d — the distance between the lens and the easel. «*,.=,.(».+ 1)/ Example: — We wish to enlarge four times with a lens 1 0 inches diameter. d = (4 + 1) 10 = 5 X 10 = 50 inches. The distance from the negative to be enlarged from and the lens is got from the following formula; this distance being called d'. Taking the same example as before, d' = (£) 10 =5 12-5 inches These examples mean, that with a lens 10 inches focus, when we wish to enlarge four times — that is to say, to make our picture four times as large each way — we will have to extend our camera to 12£ inches, whilst we make the distance from the lens to the easel 50 inches. Those who can readily manipulate this very simple equation will find it a great assistance in getting their apparatus approximately into position. Those who cannot, may by the expenditure of a little time, and the use of a foot rule, effect the same object by trial and error. In any case it is necessary to make a final focussing by the camera screw as usual, so as to get the image quite sharp. Any lens may be used, but probably the best is one of the rapid symmetrical or rapid rectilinear type. A stop is used only if necessary to improve marginal definition. I hope I have made the optical arrangement sufficiently clear. The next question is, as to what kind of a film is to receive the impression on the easel ? Undoubtedly, the best thing for the beginner to use is the gelatino-bromide paper specially prepared. f or enlargements. 140 ENLARGING. After focussing, it is only necessary to shut out all light by capping the lens, to pin the sensitive paper on to the easel — the dark-room lamp being used to work by — to make an expo- sure, and to develop with ferrous oxalate ; fix, &c, precisely as for a plate, when the enlargement is complete. Eegarding time of exposure, it is most difficult even to give a hint, so many factors tend to vary it, It is best to pin a small piece of paper on to the easel first, and make a test ex- posure, when, after development, the fragmentary enlargement may serve as some guide. It must be borne in mind that, other things remaining the same, the exposure varies as the square of the distance between the lens and the film, so that it is longer the more times we wish to enlarge. The following may serve as a hint, although it may be taken as nothing more. Enlarging three diameters from a good negative, light good, lens the rapid symmetrical, full aperture (aperture about £), the exposure required was 30 seconds. I have seen beautiful results produced direct on the new rapid paper, but the exposure required is very much longer than for gelatino-bromide paper. It is certainly no exaggeration to say that it is two or three hundred times as long. So much for the making of enlargements one at a time. If a particularly valuable picture be in the possession of the photo- grapher, and he wish to take many enlarged copies from it, he will find the arrangement of taking them, each one separately, exceedingly tedious. He will find it necessary, or almost so, to make an enlarged negative, from which to print in the ordinary way. Put in the fewest words possible, an enlarged negative is got in one of two ways. (1). An enlarged transparency is made by aid of the camera, and from this a negative is taken by con- tact. (2). A transparency is made by contact, and from that an enlarged negative is taken by aid of the camera. EEDUCTION. 141 For various reasons, optical and others, the first method is the better. I shall therefore describe it. The process, to begin with, is precisely the same as that described for enlarging on gelatino-bromide paper, but that a large gelatino-bromide plate takes the place of the paper.* The exposure is made, as already described, and the plate is developed. The exposure must be long enough to impress all the details of the high -lights on the plate. Indeed, no part should remain absolutely transparent as for an ordinary trans- parency. This plate once exposed, developed, fixed, &c, and dried, a negative is got by pressing a second plate against it, and expos- ing by a gas light. This last plate may be either a bromide or a chloride plate. Probably the latter will give somewhat the better result. This negative may be printed from in the ordi- nary manner. A word on the negative best for making enlargements from. It should be a well exposed one, clear in the shadows, and on the whole tending to be thin. A negative which gives a hard print is next to useless for purposes of enlargement. Seductions from Negatives. The manner of reducing negatives will almost be understood by this time. It is best, in reducing, to reverse the arrangement shown in the cut ; to fix the negative from which the reduc- tion is to be made in the hole, and to turn the camera round, with the lens towards it. Indeed, this is the best course to pursue, even in enlargements, when it is not desired to enlarge to a size greater than the dark slide will hold. In making lantern slides it is possible to get the transparency direct by placing a gelatino- chloride plate 3 J inches by 3^ inches * Those familiar with the wet process will find it cheaper, and probab better, to use a wet plate. 142 REDUCTION. in the slide, the negative being placed in the hole in the shutter. The exposure, however, will be considerable. Probably, with a rapid landscape lens, full aperture, never less than about ten minutes.*" If, therefore, it is desired to get several slides from one negative, it is best to produce a reduced negative. To do this a transparency is made by contact. This may be either on a bromide or a chloride plate ; preferably the latter. As in the case of the enlargement, care is necessary to expose long enough to get out all the details in the lighter parts. The transparency is now placed in the hole in the shutter, the camera is adjusted so that its image is 3£ inches in its shortest direction, and exposure is made either on a bromide or a chloride plate. Prom the negative thus produced any number of slides may be made by contact. * Those who can work wet plates will find that they can get excellent results with exposures far less than this. CHAPTER XXL MANUFACTURE OF GELATINE EMULSION. I expressed the opinion, -when commencing these lessons, that the amateur will generally find it best to purchase plates from a manufacturer. He will probably find it both cheaper and more satisfactory to do so than to manufacture them himself, unless he has at his disposal considerable time, and has great patience and a happy temperament, wbich will enable him to bear fre- quent disappointment, when, after going through the tedious process of making an emulsion and coating the plates, he finds that the latter are, from some unknown cause, useless. Nevertheless, I believe that the photographer who make*, himself acquainted with the process of the manufacture of dry plates, and knows how to make an emulsion, will have a more thorough mastery of the working of them than those who have never made their own plates. There are some few who, for the love of the work, prefer to make their own emulsion. These are the real enthusiasts to whom we look to further our know- ledge of photography, and with such the manufacture of plates pays, if it be only in the satisfaction they have in relying on themselves alone. The subject of gelatine emulsions and plates is one on which volumes might be — and, in fact, have been — written, and here, 144 GELATINE EMULSION. of course, the briefest instructions only can be given. If the photographer succeed with these, he may with advantage take up the study of the advanced works which have been written on the subject. A formula and instructions, whereby a slow emulsion of very high quality may be made, are first given. The plates prepared from it are very well suited for landscape work, where great rapidity is no object. They will be found to require exposures from two to four times those given in the tables, pages 71 to 74. Afterwards instructions are given for the making of emul- sions of the very highest degree of sensitiveness. The principal piece of apparatus required is a drying cup- board or box. This is illustrated and described in the next chapter. The other apparatus necessary is as follows : — A large slab of plate glass, marble, or smoothed slate, levelled accurately, so that the plates can be laid on it to set. The larger the slab the better, as more plates can be placed on it at once. Apiece of coarse canvas or " scrim," such as ladies do worsted work on — say two feet square. Several glass beakers or jars for mixing solutions in. Jam pots are suitable, and are better than glass vessels, as the latter are very likely to be broken in the dark-room. The best of all, however, are glazed earthenware pots, known as " shut-over " jars. These have lids with a lip which close light-tight, and are therefore most convenient for dark-room manipulations. Three or four holding half a pint, and two or three holding a pint, may with advantage be purchased. They, as well as various other stoneware vessels useful in photographic work, are to be had of Messrs. James Stiff and Sons, High Street, Lambeth, London, S.E. An ordinary hair-sieve, say six or seven inches diameter. A vessel of such a size and shape that the sieve may stand in GELATINE EMULSION. 145 it, and that when it — the vessel — is full of water, the upper edge of the sieve will stand (say) an inch above the surface of the water. A large glass filtering funnel. Several hock bottles. These, from their deep red or orange colour, are useful for performing the various manipulations in. An ordinary saucepan. A Bunsen ring burner, on which this may stand to boil. The following solutions are prepared, and each is mixed in one of the stoneware vessels. A Nitrate of silver 200 grains Distilled water 3 ounces B Bromide of potassium 160 grains Nelson's No. 1 gelatine 40 ,, Distilled water 2£ ounces A one per cent, mixture of hydro- chloric acid water 200 minims C Iodide of potassium ... ... ... 12 grains Distilled water £ ounce D Hard gelatine, such as Heinrich's ... 300 grains "Water ... ... ... ... several ounces B andD are allowed to stand till the gelatine is thoroughly soaked, as indicated by its being quite soft. All the water is now poured ofi D, and as much water as possible is squeezed out of the gelatine. The pots containing A and B must now be placed in h ot water till the solutions are at about 160° Eahr;, when B is poured into one of the hock bottles. L 146 GELATINE EMULSION. From this time all operations must be performed in a feeble Ted or yellow light. A little of A is added to the solution already in the bottle, and the whole is shaken. Small additions of A are made, so that it is poured in five or six stages into B, the whole being shaken at each addition, and a very thorough agitation being given at the end. C is added, and the solutions, now forming an emulsion, are again shaken. The whole is poured into one of the stoneware pots. This is placed in the saucepan, the lid is placed on the latter, and the water brought as rapidly as possible to the boiling point. A loose cover of some sort should be placed over the vessel during this part of the process, if an otherwise open one has been used, to prevent condensed water from dropping off the lid of the saucepan into the emulsion. The emulsion is allowed to remain for twenty minutes in the boiling water. At the end of this time the gelatine D is placed among the emulsion, and the whole is stirred to mix it. The pot is then put in a cool and dark place to allow the emulsion to set. It will do so in from one to two hours on a moderately cool day ; but it may be left for days if it be desired. This is the best period at which to break the process, which is somewhat lengthy to be performed at one time. "When the emulsion is set quite stiff, or as soon afterwards as it is desired to complete the process, it is removed from the vessel either with a silver spoon, a strip of glass, or with the hands. The sieve must meantime have been placed in its appro- priate vessel full of water. The lump of emulsion is placed in the canvas, the whole is placed under water in the sieve, and the canvas is twisted up so as to cause the emulsion to pass through it in fine shreds into the water. This must now be washed for half-an-hour, either by allowing water to run into the sieve, or by frequently changing the water in the vessel, GELATINE EMULSION. 147 the granulated emulsion being meantime constantly stirred round either by hand, or with a thick glass rod having a blunted end. The object of this washing is to get rid of the soluble nitrates and bromide, whilst the insoluble bromide and iodide of silver— the sensitive salts— remain in the emulsion. At the end of half-an-hour the sieve may be removed from the washing vessel, and be placed in any convenient position, with one side somewhat tipped up, so that all superfluous water will drain off. The draining should go on for at least half-an-hour.* At the end of that time the emulsion is finished, and only requires to be re-melted and filtered. I have found nothing better for this than several folds of fine cotton— such as pocket handker- chiefs are made of. Half-an-ounce of alcohol is now added, and the emulsion is ready to be used for coating the plates. The quantity will be about twelve or fourteen ounces. It may be kept in one of the hock bottles wrapped in brown paper. For an exceedingly rapid emulsion, the following formula may be taken : — A Nitrate of silver 200 grains Distilled water 3 ounces B Bromide of potassium 165 grains Nelson's No. 1 gelatine 30 Distilled water 2£ ounces C Iodide of potassium ... ... ... 6 grains Distilled water ^ ounce * A capital washer, consisting of a vessel for holding the sieve, with provision for admission and discharge of the water, so that it may (the emulsion once being introduced and the lid being closed) be used in day- light, has been introduced by Mr. A. L. Henderson. 148 GELATINE EMULSION. D Hard gelatine, such as Heinrich's ... 250 grains "Water several ounces One of the matters requiring the nicest attention now conies to be done. This is to render the solution B the least bit acid. It must be only perceptibly acid. In fact, it is probable that absolute neutrality, were such attainable, would be the best condition. Alkalinity is dangerous to the quality of the emul- sion. Too great acidity is detrimental to rapidity. Yery often, the salts are themselves acid. Occasionally they are alkaline. Thev must be carefully tested. The silver solution (A) should not change the colour of either blue or red litmus paper. The bromide solution (B) should slowly turn blue litmus slightly red. It should be rendered sufficiently acid to do so by the careful addition of very dilute hydrochloric acid. If the silver (A) solution be perceptibly, or the bromide solution (B) be more than only perceptibly acid, the excess of acidity may be neutralized by the addition of very dilute liquor ammonia. The operations after tbis are the same as for the slow emul- sion up to the time of boiling. It is usual, in giving instruc- tions for the manufacture of a rapid emulsion, to say lw long boiling should be continued ; but there are such extraordinary differences of experience in the matter, that I avoid such a course. Some operators gain sensitiveness in a half or a third of the time which others take, apparently working under pre- cisely similar conditions. I advise experimenters to have re- course to the colour test which I explain. If, immediately after emulsification or the mixing of the chemicals, we take from the vessel, with a glass rod, a drop of the emulsion, place it on a piece of clean glass, and look at a light, such as a candle or gas flame, through it, the glass being held somewhat near the eye, the flame will appear ruby, or, at any rate, orange. The emulsions are said to be "ruby" or " orange " by transmitted light." If we examine it after (say) GELATINE EMULSION. 149 ten minutes' boiling, there will appear a very distinct change of colour. There will be a more or less near approach to blue in the appearance of the flame, and the emulsion is said to be more or less nearly " blue by transmitted light." In practice, the emulsion is stirred (say) every ten minutes during boiling, and a drop of it is examined as described. "When the change from red to blue is quite complete, the emulsion will have reached a high degree of sensitiveness. The expo- sures required for plates coated with it will be as near as pos- sible those given in the Tables, pages 71 to 74. The process may be pushed still further, however, until an emulsion giving plates which will require exposures of only one-half to one- third of these, is obtained. If such be attempted, however, the very utmost care must be exerted at every turning, as this very sensitive emulsion is most ticklish to work with. To make it, boiling is continued for a period altogether twice as long as that required to bring about conversion of the bromide to the blue variety. In the writer's practice, it takes three-quarters of an hour or thereby, as a rule, to get the blue colour, and he has boiled for as long as three hours without spoiling the emul- sion. After boiling is complete, the process is the same as for the slow emulsion. CHAPTER XXII. THE AMMONIA METHOD OF EMULSION MAKING, I have always rather avoided giving anmionia formulae for emulsion making because, although I have been able to get the highest degree of sensitiveness by this method, I have not in my own practice been able to find any means whereby I could be sure of producing an emulsion free from green fog. The intro- duction of the alkaline carbonates in place cf ammonia in the developer has, however, made the appearance of green fog a matter of comparatively little importance. Even if the carbon- ates be not generally used, the photographer may make use of a carbonate developer — such as Beach's — when he finds that he has had the misfortune to get a batch of emulsion showing green fog. The following is a formula which has given excellent re- sults : — A. — Nitrate of silver Water B. — Bromide of potassium. . . Iodide of potassium . . . Nelson's No. 1 gelatine "Water C. — Hard gelatine {dry) ... 200 grains 1 ounce 160 grains 10 „ 40 „ 4 ounces 300 grains EMULSION MAKING. 151 Into A is poured very slowly the strongest ammonia, or the stock solution of one part strong ammonia, one part water. Darkening of the solution will immediately take place. The addition of the ammonia is continued with constant stirring, till the solution just becomes clear again, which will probably occur when about half-an-ounce of strong ammonia has been added. The clear solution now obtained is called ammonia-nitrate of silver. It has to be made up with water to a quantity of two ounces. When the gelatine in B is soft, the whole is heated till the solution reaches a temperature of about 160° Fahr. It is then allowed to cool to 120° (a chemical thermometer must be used in this proeess), when emulsification is performed by pouring A, cold, into B, in three or four operations, with stirring after each. The jar containing the solution is now placed on one side to cool, the gelatine, C (still dry), being placed in a separate jar. When the emulsion is cool, it is poured over the dry gelatine, and will, of course, soften it as it would were it cold water. About twenty minutes will be sufficient for the softening. After the lapse of that time, the jar is placed in water at 120° Fahr., till the gelatine is melted. When the solution is complete, the emulsion is set on one side to get stiff for washing. An emulsion made as described will probably be of average sensitiveness ; that is to say, the exposures given in the Tables, Chapter X., pages 71 to 74, will suit the plate coated with it. If the temperature at the time of emulsification be about 140°, and if, after emulsification, the jar be placed on one side to cool slowly, a rapidity of double the average should be got. If the temperature be 150° in place of 160 e , quite four times the average (or Table) rapidity should be the result ; but when emulsification is performed at this high temperature, it is almost necessary to have recourse to "precipitation with alcohol," otherwise the finished emulsion will be so thin that a good film cannot be obtained. 162 EMULSION MAKING. Before going on to a description of the precipitation, let me say that whilst the emulsion is digesting — or " stewing," as it is generally termed— at 120°, 140°, or 160°, and afterwards till it gets pretty cool, it is necessary to stir it vigorously every five minutes, otherwise fog is likely to make its appearance. To precipitate, the following is the procedure. For the quantity of emulsion given above, fifteen ounces of methylated spirit are poured into a jar capable of holding at least thirty ounces. A glass rod is held in the left hand. The emul- sion, in place of being allowed to set and being washed, is allowed to cool only to about 100° Pahr. The jar containing it is taken in the right hand, and the emulsion is poured in a thin stream into the methylated spirit, whilst this latter is continuously stirred with the glass rod. As soon as the emulsion touches the methylated spirit, it is deprived of almost all its water, and falls down in a thick mass of a consistency somewhat resembling soft india-rubber. If the glass rod be properly manipulated,, the whole of this sticky stuff will cling to it. The greater part is sure to, but it is well to dip the hand into the methylated spirit after all the emulsion has been poured into it, and to remove any which may be, sticking to the bottom. This is added to the lump of emulsion on the point of the rod, when the lump is squeezed just as a sponge is squeeze 1 till all the spirit possible is squeezed out of it. The size oi nass will now be surprisingly small— very little larger than a walnut. This mass is torn up with the fingers into pieces, about ti c size of a pea, which are dropped into a jar of clean water, wh^re they remain for twenty-four hours, the water being changed several times. At the end of twenty-four hours the pieces of emulsion — which will have swelled very considerably — are placed in a small jar, water being poured over them to make the quantity up to eight ounces. Heat is applied to melt the whole. Half an ounce of alcohol (not methylated spirit) is added, and the emulsion is ready to spread on glass. EMULSION MAKING. 153 In coating with this emulsion it is advisable to have it as cool as possible — not much over 100° Fahr. If it will not run on the plate as cold as this, these must be very slightly warmed before the coating operation commences. By the process just de- scribed, emulsions giving plates of a sensitiveness 25 on "War- nerke's sensitometer, and at the same time giving clear shadows and ample density, have been produced many times in succession. This sensitiveness is very high, but it appears that such plates do not keep so well as those of more moderate rapidity. They are liable to show a slight fog after having been stored for a few months. I can recommend Beach's developer for plates prepared in the way just described. CHAPTER XXIII. PREPARING GLASS: COATING IT.— DRYING AND PACKING PLATES. To prepare plates for coating, it is necessary, if they have been used before, to remove the old films ; and whether they have been used or not, to polish them on one side to receive the emulsion. To remove old films, the plates are left to soak for at least twenty-four hours in a mixture of one part of hydrochloric acid to twenty parts of water. Any waste acid will do. The strength of the mixture is not important, so long as it is not too weak, and many acids will do as well as hydrochloric ; the same acid bath will do for a long time. After the plates have been the time specified in the dilute acid, the films may easily be removed by the use of warm water and a scrubbing brush. Whitening is the best material I know of to give such a polish to the glass that the emulsion will flow easily on it. A mixture of ordinary whitening and water to the consistency of a thick cream in made. This is thinly spread on one side of the glass with a cloth, all the plates to be cleaned being thus smeared, and placed against the wall or in racks to dry. When the whitening has dried on them, each plate is taken in the hand. The greater part of the composition is re- moved by a very slightly damped cloth, and the plate is rapidly polished with a perfectly clean and dry one ; a beautiful surface COATING PLATES. 155 is by this means obtained. Care must be taken' to remove all whitening from the edges of the plates. There are several methods of coating plates in common use. The best for those who have the skill is the method used for coating with collodion, which I describe; but probably most of those who have not worked the wet process will find the plan which has been used for some time by the writer, and which is also described, the most convenient. For the ordinary method, the apparatus necessary is as follows : — A small tea-pot. A large flat dish of the nature of a porce- lain flat bath, to catch spillings. A pneumatic holder ; this is an india-rubber ball with sucker attached, the whole forming an apparatus whereby it is possible to pick up a plate. In coating by the ordinary method, it is advisable to have two non-actinic lamps, one placed at the back of the operating table, the other in front of the operator, and above the level of his head.. He can thus see the emulsion on the plate, both by reflected and transmitted light. The flat dish is placed between the lower light and the operator ; the tea-pot, full of emulsion, melted, and at a temperature of 110° Fahr., or thereby, may be placed on this dish, and the plates, polished side doionipards, are placed to the right of the flat dish. The pneumatic holder is taken in the left hand,, which is stretched across the flat dish, to take hold of a plate. The plate is held level, and a pool of emulsion is poured on to it, and guided over it exactly as was described for varnishing a plate in Chapter XIII., page 95. The only difference is that more than half the plate is at first covered with emulsion, and that, instead of the plate being drained, it is only slightly tipped up, so as to let a little of the emulsion return to the tea-pot. After this is done, the plate is gently rocked for a few seconds, till we see by looking through it that the coating has spread evenly. To tell whether the plate has had enough emulsion left on it, we look through it, after it has set, at one of the non-actinic lights. 156 COATING PLATES. If we can see the form of the light through the film, there is not enough emulsion on the plate. The plates, as they are coated, are placed on the levelling- slab to set. Some emulsion is sure to be spilled into the flat dish. It is allowed to set, is then scraped up -with a strip of glass, and is re-melted. For the method of coating, which we recommend to those not skilled in the wet process, the pneu- matic holder is not required. It is advisable, however, to make a small tripod. This is done by gluing three somewhat large- sized shot on to a quarter plate in the form of a triangle, thus — 0 0 0 There is also needed a glass rod about two inches longer than the width of the plate to be coated, and a jam pot or glass measure in which to stand the rod. The dark-room lamp is placed within a few inches of the left hand end of the levelling shelf, and at the back of it. There is to the left of the lamp, room only for the pile of plates, which, in this case, have the polished side upwards. The rod standing in the jam pot is to the right of the lamp ; the teapot with emulsion in it, as before, is in front of the lamp; and further forward still, near the front edge of the slab, is the small tripod mentioned. A plate is taken from the pile, and placed on the tripod. A pool of emulsion, about half covering the plate, is poured from the tea-pot. The glass rod is taken between the fingers and thumb of each hand, and dipped into the pool of emulsion right across the plate. The emulsion will run between the rod and the plate to each edge of the latter. By a motion of the finger and thumb of each hand, the rod is lifted the smallest possible distance from the plate, and is rapidly moved first to DRYING PLATES. 157 one end, then to the other, the tips of the finger and thumh rest- ing on the level tahle as a guide. This, if properly done, will cover the whole plate with emulsion ; and if the plate is small, — half-plate or under — it is sufficient to slide it to the far end of the table to set. If the plate is large, the coating will not be evenly spread unless it is lifted, balanced on the tips of the fingers of the left hand, and rocked gently for a few seconds. By this method plates may, after a little practice, be coated with great rapidity. There is no need to wipe the rod each time it is used. As no excess is poured off the plate nor spilled in this method, it is possible, by using a very small tea-pot, to keep a constant check on the quantity of emulsion going on to the plates. The covering power of the slow emulsion will be found somewhat greater than that of the rapid. With each ounce of the slow emulsion, eight quarters or four half -plates may be coated ; with the rapid, only seven quarters or three halves. The plates will " set " in a few minutes — that is to say, the i IA -e- o j i i * i -e- c a emulsion will stiffen like a jelly — and will not run off the glass, whatever position the plate is placed in. They are now trans- ferred to the drying box. "When dry, they are ready for use. 158 DRYING PLATES. The drying box calls for some description. There are various forms in use. They all have in view the inducing of a current of air among the plates, generally by the burning of a gas jet in a tube or chimney. The fault of most is that the air passages are far too contracted. In many, heat is applied to the incoming air. This is quite unnecessary, if the air passages are sufficiently large and well arranged, and if the box can be placed in a fairly dry place. It is, moreover, a mistake to use artificial heat in drying plates, if it can possibly be avoided, as they are liable to be rendered distinctly slower thereby. A form of box which has been in use by the writer for seve- ral years, and has given complete satisfaction, is here illustrated. It will be seen that the air enters at the top of the box. It is drawn into an air chamber at its lower portion, and hence passes up the large tube with a gas flame burning in it. This tube should be carried either into the open air, or into a chimney. DRYING PLATES. 159 The plates are placed in racks, which were first designed by Mr. Gr. F. Williams. A sketch of one of these is given. Two plates may be placed back to back in each pair of notches, if desired. The racks can be placed on the cross rods shown in the box, the height of which may be adjusted to suit various- sized plates. Boxes and racks as described are made by Messrs. D. Gordon Laing and Son, 2, Duke Street, Adelphi, London, W.C. The plates will take from twelve to forty-eight hours to dry, according to circumstances. "When dry, they may be used at 160 PACKING PLATES. once, or may be packed for use at any future time. No limit is as yet known to the time during which plates will keep if stored in perfectly dry pure air. They are very readily destroyed, however, by damp, gas fumes, &c. Plates may be packed in opaque orange paper, such as is sold by most photographic dealers. The plates may be packed in sets of four and six. Every two plates are put face to face, and have a piece of tissue paper between them. Three packets of four, or two of six, are then taken, and wrapped together in a thickness of opaque orange paper. Two wrappings of brown paper are then put around all, and the package may be handled in any light. For amateurs, who never make a very large stock of plates, the best course is to use grooved light-tight boxes. Such made of wood are very expensive, but pasteboard boxes, which are very handy, are made by Mr. P>. J. Edwards, of 6 and 9, The Grove, Hackney, London, for storing his own plates in. I do not know whether or not Mr. Edwards supplies the market with boxes, but he is generally willing to oblige ama- teurs with a few. The grooves of these boxes are made with paper, and some little practice is necessary before the plates can be slipped in without tearing this. If a little patience be exerted at first, however, all will go well. CHAPTEE XXIY. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Ik conclusion, I have but little to say. I have endeavoured in this little book to give as clear and as practical instructions in the various manipulations connected with negative making and printing as possible. It must be understood, however, that few rules or instructions appertaining to photography are absolute ; they are all varied by circumstances. All that can be clone by written instructions is to guide the intelligence of the beginner. When he ceases to be a beginner, he should depend on his own intelligence and faculty of observation more than on any in- structions. Let the student not be discouraged by failure. Failures he is certain to have. Even the most experienced fail occasionally, the majority more often than they are willing to allow ; and if they do not always succeed, it is unreasonable for the tyro to expect to do so. Nevertheless, he should aim at perfection, and should not be satisfied till he reach it. Let him remember that, at least in landscape work, no amateur need despair of reaching the highest degree of perfection. Amateurs and professionals compete continually against each other, and the former as often as not carry off the palm. The young photographer should, from the first, exercise his faculty for observation, and note the most minute departure M 162 CONCLUDING REMARKS. from received rules. There are few departments of science in ■which there is so wide a field for investigation as in that of photography, and even the veriest tyro, if he observe closely, may add his mite to the mass of knowledge, which has been built up, for the most part, of such mites of observation freely given to " the brotherhood " by those who have made them. Frequently, a fact noticed by one comparatively inexperienced in photography may give the hint to a more experienced investi- gator, who may make good use of it. Another thing to be impressed on photographers is that they should not fear to give others the benefit of their observations merely because it is possible that similar observations have been made before. It is sufficient that a fact is not generally known or appreciated to justify its publication, and the oftener it is published until it is appreciated, the better. I have before remarked that, if the beginner can get the help of a photographic friend, he will find his first labours much lightened. Let me now urge upon him that, whenever he begins to feel his way, he join, if possible, one of the numerous photographic societies which there are in this country. Let him not suppose that he will meet with ridicule or contempt on account of his comparative, ignorance. The writer was for some time deterred from joining a photographic society for such a reason ; but on attending the first meeting, all his fears were dissipated. The terrible "professional" whom he had dreaded to meet, he found to be a most kindly individual, willing — nay, apparently anxious — to give what aid he could to anyone who asked advice or assistance from him. In this respect we believe photographers are different and superior to most other profes- sional men. An amateur architect, engineer, or doctor would by no means meet with the same kindly reception from pro- fessionals, at the gatherings of their societies, that the amateur photographer does at the gatherings of societies composed chiefly of professional photographers. CONCLUDING REMARKS. 163 finally, I repeat the advice, that the reader, while he is still unfamiliar -with the various manipulations, follow to the letter the instructions contained here, or wherever else he seeks for instruction; but that when he begins to feel his way he trust to his own intelligence as his great guide. If he do this, I feel sure that from the time he first succeeds in producing by development something on his plate, till the time when he has arrived at such perfection that he need not hesitate to hang his pictures on the walls at photographic exhibitions side by side with those of the first photographers of the day, he will feel that every step in advance which he makes is a triumph, and will find his work— or play, as he likes to consider it— a more absorbing or delightful one than almost any other that he could have taken up. Let him bear in mind that every operation in photography is but a means to an end (the end being the picture), and that any means that conduces to the end is permissible. Let him remem- ber, whatever may be said to the contrary, that photography is a fine art, or, at least, is capable of being such in the hands of those who have sufficient art feeling in them. It is too common a thing to hear painting compared with photography— of course to the discredit of the latter. This is not right. The two are, in reality, not comparable ; they are different in purpose and in essence. Nevertheless, photography is— silently and slowly, perhaps, yet surely— influencing painting. It is teaching painters the great lesson that without truth there can be no true art. In what I now say, do not let me be misunderstood. I do not mean to say that unless some object be rendered with strict accuracy there is no art ; but I mean this, that unless an object — say a tree or a man— is represented as it is possible for this object to be, then just in as much as it departs from this possi- bility it departs from true art. If a man or a horse is repre- sented in a position that no man or horse ever was in, will be in or could be in, then this is wrong. If a house is shown as it 164 CONCLUDING KEMAKKS. could not stand, or a mountain as no mountain could exist, it is wrong. In this matter painters— let them confess it or not— are being educated by photographers. "We now seldom see portraits of men and women showing proportions between feet, hands, head, and body, such as never were; but we have only to look at portraits of fifty years ago (sometimes by eminent artists) to see that at one time things were different— that almost every man was represented as a monstrosity. In landscape painting the influence of photo- graphy is, perhaps, not so great, but it is there, and will continue to make itself more and more felt. On the other hand, one of the highest phases of art is that which selects or combines, which, without representing a scene exactly as it is, is careful to show it as it might be. The power of thus selecting and combining is one which photography possesses in but a limited degree. I would fain, to the best of my poor ability, carry the reader on to more advanced branches of the art science ; I would with pleasure instruct him in various methods of producing perma- nent prints, besides the one which has been described, and m the delicate manipulation of combination printing from two or more negatives, and in the thousand and one various manners in which the end— a picture— may be produced from the photo- graphic beginning — a negative; but all this is without any limits, and I recommend those who wish to go deeply into the matter to read diligently any of the several excellent and com- plete manuals and text-books on photography which exist. I hope and almost believe that I have filled a little gap in photographic literature — that I have produced the first set of instructions for working modem dry plates which pre-supposed no knowledge of any other photographic process. Piper & Carter, Printers, 5, FurniYal Street, Holborn, London, B.C. INDEX. Abney, 4 Abney, Cure for Green and Red Fog, 86 Acetate of Soda, 110 Acid, Citric, 14, 15 Acid, Hydrochloric, for Cleaning Negatives, 89 Acid, Hydrochloric, for Platinum Prints, 126 Acid, Hydrochloric, in Emulsions, 145 Acid, Pyrogallic, 14, 15 Acid, Pyrogallic, in Developer, 76, 78 Acid, Sulphurous, in Developer, 78, 81 Actinic Rays, 19 Air-bubbles in Developer, 89 Alburnenised Paper, Printing on, 105 Alburnenised Paper, Salted, 116 Alburnenised Paper, Sensitising, 116 Alcohol in Emulsions, 152 Alkaline Pyrogallic Developer, 29, 75 Alum, 14, 16 Alum, Chrome, 87 Alum for Clearing Negatives, 89 Alum Solution, 18, 32 Alum to Prevent Frilling, 87 Ammonia, 14, 15 Ammonia for Emulsion Making, 151 Ammonia for Fuming Paper, 118 Ammonia for Intensification, 94 Ammonia in Developer, 76, 78 Ammonia, Method of Emulsion Making, 150 Ammonium Bromide, 14, 15 Ammonium Bromide in Developer, 76, 78 Ammonium Bromide Solution, 17, 18 Ammonium Carbonate in Developer, 80, 82 Animals in Motion, 52 Angle (of Lens), 37 Aperture, Full, of Lens, 36 Aperture of Lens, 36 Apothecary's Weight, 13 Apparatus, Purchase of, 7 Apparatus, Selection of, 6 Archer, 1, 97 Architectural Subjects, 45, 48, 4 Argentometer, 118 Art in Photography, 163 Back Focus, 34 Backgrounds for Portraits, 58, 59 Backing Plates, 91 Balance, Chemical, 7 Bath, 2 Bath for Sensitising Paper, 116 Baths, Flat, 12 , Beach's Developer, 81, 150, 153 Beakers for Emulsion Making, 144 Bellows Body Camera, 9 clxvi INDEX. Berkeley, Herbert, 90 Bichloride of Mercury, 14, 16, 94 Blistering, 87 Blue Litmus, 14, 16 Boats in Motion, 52 Boiling Emulsion, 148 Box for Drying Plates, 158 Boxes (Edwards') for Packing Plates in, 160 Bromide of Ammonium, 14, 15 Bromide of Ammonium in Deve- loper, 76, 78 Bromide of Ammonium Solution, 17, 18 Bromide of Potassium for Emul- sions, 145, 147, 150 Bromide of Potassium Developer, 76 Bromide of Silver Emulsion on Paper, 127 Bromide, Soluble, in Developer, 76, 78 Bronzing of Prints, 108, 122 Bunsen Burner, 145 Burnishing Prints, 123 Burnishing Prints on Kapid Paper, 129 Cabinet Prints, 110 Calcium Chloride in Photograph Printing, 126 Camera, 7, 8 Camera Case, 11 Camera, Management of, in Field, 43 Camera Stand, 7, 12 Canary Mediums, 21 Canva3 for Washing Emulsion, 144 Carbon Tissue for Backing Plates, 97 Carbonate of Ammonia in De- veloper, 80, 82 Carbonate of Potash in Developer, 80, 81 Carbonate of Soda in Developer, 80 Carbonate of Soda in Sensitizing Bath, 118 Carbonates in Developer, 80 Carriers, 8 Carte Prints, 110 Case for Camera, 11 Castile Soap, 123 Caustic Potash in Developer, 80 Caustic Soda in Developer, 80 Changing Boxes, 11 Chemical Balance, 7, 13 Chemical Fog, 84 Chemical Thermometer, 151 Chemicals, 14 Chloride of Calcium in Platinotype Printing, 126 Chloride of Gold, 110, 129 Chloride of Lime in Toning Bath, 128 Chloride of Silver Emulsion on. Paper, 121 Chrome Alum, 87 Citric Acid, 14, 15 Cleaning Negatives, 89 Cleaning Plates, 154 Cleaning Solution, 89 Cloth, Focussing, 7, 12 Cloud Negatives, 98, 131 Coating Plates, 154 Collodion, 2 Colour Test for Emulsion, 148 Concluding Kemarks, 161 CopperaB, 15 Corrosive Sublimate, 16 Cupboard for Drying Plates, 157 Cutting Moulds, 109 D-Lens for Portraiture, 59 Dark Room, 19 Dark Room Lamp, 7, 21 Dark Room, Temporary, 20 Dark Slide, 8 Dark Slide, Double, 8 Debenhain, W. E., 20 Defects and Remedies, 84 Defects in Silver Prints, 128 Density of Image, Too Great, 88 Density of Negative, 31 Density, Reduction of, in Negatives, 88 Density, Want of, 87 Deposit Powdering on Plates. 90 Depth of Focus, 36 Developer, Irregular Action of, 91 INDEX. clxvii Development, 24, 25 Development, First Lessons in, 29 Development of Gelatino-Chlcride Plates, 135 Development of Paper Negatives, 102 Development of Platinotype Prints, 126 Development of Rapid Printing Paper, 128 Development of Transparencies, 134 Development, Second LeBSon in, 75 Diaphragms, 37 Digesting Emulsions, 152 Dishes, Flat, 7, 12 Distilled Water in Emulsions, 145, 147 Distortion, 37 "Dodging" Negatives for Printing, 108 Double Albumenized Paper, 112 Double Dark Slide, 8 Doublet, Instantaneous, 42 Doublet, Wide Angle, 42 Drop Shutter, 53 Dry Plates, 12 Dry Plate Negative Varnish, 16 Drying Box, 158 Drying Cupboard, 22 Drying of Paper Negatives, 10S Drying Plates, 154 Drying Prints, 124 Drying Sensitized Paper, 118 Dublin Photographic Society, 69 Eastman Dry Plate Company, 99 Ebonite Dishes, 12 Eder, 4 Edwards, B. J., 160 Emulsion, Ammonia Nitrate, 150 Emulsion, Manufacture of, 143 Emulsion on Paper, 127 Emulsion, Preparation of, with Alco- hol, 151, 152 Emulsion Washer (Henderson's), 147 Enjalbert, 11 Enlarged Negatives, 140 Enlarging, 134, 136 Equivalent Focus, 34 Exposure of Gelatino - Chloride Plates, 137 Exposure of Rapid Printing Paper, 128 Exposure of the Plate, 24 Exposure Tables, G 4 to 74 Ferric Bromide, 86 Ferric Chloride, 86 Ferric Oxalate, 86 Ferricyanide of Potassium, 88 Ferro-Citro-Oxalate Developer, 128 Ferrocyanide of Potassium, 88 Ferrous- Oxalate Developer, 29, 75, 82 Ferrous -Oxalate Development for Gelatino-Bromide Paper, 137 Ferrous - Oxalate Developer for Gelatino -Chloride Plates, 137 Ferrous - Oxalate Developer for Rapid Paper, 128 Field, the Camera in, 43 Films, Uneven Thickness of, 90 Filtering Emulsion, 147 Filtering Funnel for Emulsion, 145 First Lesson in Development, 29 Fixing Bath, Loss of Tone in, 122 Fixing Prints, 114 Fixing Prints on Rapid Paper, 128 Fixing Solutions, 18 Fixing Solution for Prints, 111 Fixing the Plate, 32 Fixing Transparencies, 134 Flat Dishes, 7, 12 Flatness of Field (of Lens), 37 Flatness of Image, 87 Floating Albumenized Paper, 117 Focal Length, 34 Focal Length of Lens, Means of Determining, 35 Focus, 34 Focussing, 27, 47 Focussing Cloth, 7, 12 Focussing Magnifier, 46 Fog, Chemical, 84 Fog from Light, 84, 85 Fog, General, 84 Fog, Green, 80, 86 Fog, Red, 86 Fog, Yellow, 90 clxviii INDEX. Foreground in Landscape, 45 Formula for Rapid Emulsion, 148, 150 Formula for Slow Emulsion, 145 Fox Talbot, 97 Frame, Printing, 106 i Frilling, 86 FuU Aperture of Lens, S6 Fuming Albumenized Paper, 118 Funnel for Filtering Emulsion, 145 Gelatine Emulsion on Paper, 127 Gelatine Emulsion, Manufacture of, 143 Gelatine for Mounting Prints, 122 Gelatine, Hard, for Emulsion, 145, 148 Gelatine, Heinrich's, for Emulsions, 145, 148 Gelatine Nelson's, for Emulsion, 145, 147, 150 Gelatine Plates, 7 Gelatino-Bromide Paper for Enlarg- ing, 136 Gelatino-Bromide Plates for Lan- tern Slides, 136, 139 Gelatino-Chloride Plates, 135 Gelatino-Chloride Plates for En- largements, 141 Gelatino-Chloride Plates for Lan- tern Slides, 136 General Fog, 84 Glass Cleaning and Preparing for Coating with Emulsion, 154 Glass Levelling Slab, 144 Glass Eod for Coating Plates, 156 Glue for Mounting Prints, 122 Gold Chloride, 110 Graduated Measure, 7 Graduated Skies iu Landscapes, 133 Green Fog, 80, 86, 150 Group Lens for Portraiture, 59 Groups, 62, 63 Hair Sieve for Emulsion Washing, 144 Halations, 91, 98 Hard Gelatine for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Head-Rest, 58 Heinrich's Gelatine for Emulsions, 145, 148 Henderson, A. L., 147 Hock Bottles for Emulsion, 145 Horizontal Pictures, 47 Hydrochloric Acid for Clearing Negatives, 89 Hydrochloric Acid for Platinotype Prints, 126 Hydrochloric Acid in Emulsions, 145 Hydrochloric Acid in Platinotype Printing, 126 Hydrokinone Developer, 128 Hydrometer, 118 Hydroxilamine, 128 Hyposulphite of Soda, 14, 15 Hyposulphite of Soda for Fixing Prints, 111 Hyposulphite of Soda in the Fer- rous-Oxalate Developer, 82 Image, Flatness of, 87 Image, Reversal of, 92 Indoor Portraiture, 85 Instantaneous Doublet, 42 Instantaneous Exposures, Develop- ment of, 82 Instantaneous Photography, 51 Instantaneous Shutter, 52-55 Intensifications, 88 Intensification of Negative, 93 Interiors, Exposures for, 69 Introduction, 1 Iodide of Potassium for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Iron, Sulphate of, 14, 15 Iron Sulphate Solutions, 17, 18 Irregular Action of Developer, 91 Jars for Emulsion, 144 Jennings, Payne, 112 Keeping Qualities of Plates, 160 Laing, D. Gordon, 159 Lamp for Dark Rooms, 7, 13, 21 Landscape Lens, Exposures with, 72 I Landscapes, Open Exposures for, 72 INDEX. clxix Landscapes with Heavy Foliage in Foreground, Exposures for, 72 Lantern Slides, 134, 136 Lanterns, Optical, 136 Latitude of Exposure, 75, 79 Leather Camera Case, 1 1 Lens, 7, 12 Lenses, 4, 34 Lenses for Portraiture, 59 Lenses, Great Britain Photo- graphic Society's Standard, 64 Lenses (various) Exposures with, 72 Levelling Slab, 22 Levelling Slab for Plates, 144 Light Fog, 84, 85 Lighting the Model, 60 Lime Chloride in Toning Bath, 128 Liquor Ammonia, 76 Litmus Paper, 14, 16 Loss of Tone in Fixing Bath, 128 Lubricating Paraffin, 104 Macbeth, Norman, 44 Magic Lantern, 136 Magnesium Wire for Exciting Gela- tino-Chloride Plates, 135 Management of the Camera, 43 Manufacture of Emulsion, 143 Marble Levelling Slab, 144 Marble-like Marking of Prints, 121 Marion and Co., 127 Markings like Marble on Prints, 121 Masking-out Skies, 132 Mealiness of Prints, 120 Measure, Graduated, 7 Mercury Bichloride, 14, 16, 94 Mercury Intensifies, 93 Metallic Spots in Prints, 122 Methylated Spirit, 14, 16 Methylated Spirit for Precipitating Emulsions, 152 Methylated Spirit in Mounting Solution, 123 Middle Distance in Landscapes, 45 Modern Dry Plates, 4 Morgan and Kidd, 127 Mounting Prints, 120, 122 Mounting Rapid Paper Prints, 129 Negative (Definition of), 24 Negative Varnish, 14, 16 Negatives on Paper, 97 Nelson Gelatine lor Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Neutral Oxalate of Potash, 14, 15 Non-Actinic Rays, 19 Nitrate of Silver for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Nitrate of Silver for Sensitizing Paper, 116 Oil, Vaseline, 104 Opaque Spots in Negatives, 89 Open Landscape, Exposure for, 72 Optical Lantern, 136 Orange Glass, 21 Orange Light, 20 Orthographic Lens, 42 Orthoscopic Lens, 42 Out-door Portraiture, 57 Over-dense Negatives, 88, 108 Over-exposure, 26, 31, 76 Oxalate Developer for Kapid Paper, 128 Oxalate of Potash, 14, 15 Oxalate of Potash in Platinotype Printing, 126 Oxalate of Potash Solution, 17, 18 Packing Plates, 154, 160 Paper, Litmus, 14, 16 Paper Negatives, 97 Paraffin, Lubricating, 104 Payne Jennings, 119 Permanent Printing Process, 125 Photography with Emulsions, 4z Photographic Societies, 162 Photographic Society of Great Britain's Standard for Rapidity of Lenses, 66 Plate Making, 159 Plate Racks, 159 Plates, Dry, 12 Plates, Gelatine, 7 Platinotype Co., 126 Platinotype Process, 124 Pneumatic Holder for Plates 155 Polishing Plates, 154 Porcelain Dishes, 7, 12 Portrait Combination, 59 clxx INDEX. Portrait Lens, 41 Portrait Lenses, Exposures with, 72 Portraits, 8 Portraits, Development of, 82 Portraits, Exposures for, 72 Portraits in an Ordinary Koom, 57-63 Portraits out of Doors, 57, 58 Portraiture, 57 Posing the Model, 60 Potash, Oxalate of, 14, 15 Potassium Bromide for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Potassium Bromide in Developer, 76 Potassium Carbonate in Developer, 80, 81 Potassium Ferricyanide, 88 Potassium Ferrocyanide, 88 Potassium Iodide for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Potassium Oxalate in Platinotype Printing, 126 Powdery Deposit on Plates, 90 Precipitation of Emulsion with Alcohol, 151 Preparing Glass to Receive Emul- sion, 154 Principal Object in Landscape, 45 Printing Frame, 106 Printing on Albumenized Paper, 105 Printing on Platinotype Paper, 125 Printing Paper, Rapid, 125, 127 Printing Ready -Sensitized Paper, 105 Prussiate of Potash, Red, 88 Prussiate of Potash, Yellow, 88 Purchase of Apparatus, 7 Pyrogallic Acid, 14, 15 Pyrogallic Acid in the Developer, 76, 78 Pyrogallic Developer, 29, 75 Pyrogallol in Developer, 76-78 Racks for Plates, 159 Rapid Emulsion, Formula for, 148, 150 Rapid Paper for Direct Enlarge- ments, 140 Rapid Paper for Printing, 125, 127 Rapid Rectilinear for Portraiture, 59 Rapid Symmetrical Lens, 40 Rapid Symmetrical for Portraiture, 59 Rapid View Lenses, Exposures with, 72 Rapidity of Lenses, 37 Rapidity of Lenses, Great Britain Photographic Society Standard, 64 Ready-Sensitized Paper, Printing and Toning of, 105, 111 Rectilinear, Rapid, 40 Rectilinear, Rapid, for Portraiture, 59 Rectilinear, Wide-angle, 40 Red Fog, 86 Red Light, 20 Red Litmus, 14, 16 Red Prussiate of Potash, 88 Reduced Negatives, 141 Reducing, 134 Reduction of Density in Negatives, 88 Reflector in Portraiture, 59 Refusal of Prints to Tone, 121 Remarks, Concluding, 161 Rembrandt Effects, 62 Remedies for Defects, 84 Remedies for Defects in Silver Prints, 120 Rest for Head in Portraiture, 53 Retouching, 98 Reversal of Image, 92 Rising Front (of Camera), 43 Rising Fronts, Use of, 48 Roll Holders, 99 Roller Slide, 97, 98 Rolling Prints, 123 Rolling Prints on Rapid Paper, 127 Round White Spots in Prints, 122 Ruby Light, 20 Salted Albumenised Paper, 116 Saucepan for Heating Emulsions, 145 Scales and Weights, 12 Scott, Dr. J. A., 68 INDEX. clxxi Scratches in Plates, 90 Scrim for Washing Emulsions, 144 Sea and Sky, Exposures for, 72 Sea Scenes, 51 Selection of Apparatus, 6 Sensitised Albumenised Paper, 116 Sensitising Bath, 116 Sepia Tint in Platinotype, 127 Ships in Motion, 52 Shut-over Jars for Emulsion- making, 144 Shutter, Instantaneous, 52-55 Side Swing in Camera, 50 Sieve for Washing Emulsions, 144 Silver Baths for Printing, 116 Silver Nitrate for Emulsions, 145, 147, 150 Silver Nitrate for Sensitizing Paper, 116 Silver Printing, 105 Single Lens, 39 Single Lens for Portraiture, 59 Sink for Dark Room, 21 Skies in Landscapes, 130, 131 Sky Shade, 55 Slate Levelling Slab, 144 Slides for Lantern, 134 Slow Emulsion, Formula for, 145 Societies, Photographic, 162 Soda Carbonate in Developer, 80 Soda for Preserving Albumenised Paper, 119 Soda, Hyposulphite of, 14, 15 Soda in Toning, 113 • Sodium Acetate, 110 Sodium Carbonate in Sensitising Bath, 118 Sodium Sulphite for Intensification, 94 Sodium Sulphite in Developer, 80, 81 Solarisation, 92 Solution of Alum, 18 Solution of Ammonium-Bromide, 17, 18 Solutions of Oxalate of Potash, 17, 18 Solution of Sulphate of Iron, 17, 18 Solutions for Fixing, 18 Solutions, Stock, 17 Spiller, Arnold, 128 Spirit in Mounting Solutions, 123 Spirit, Methylated, 14, 15 Spots in Negatives, 89 Spots, Metallic, in Prints, 122 Spots, Transparent in Negatives, 89 Spots, White, in Prints, 122 Squeegee, 129 Squeegee for Mounting Prints, 123 Stand, Tripod, 7, 12 Standard, Uniform, for Lenses, 64 Stewing Emulsions, 152 Stiff, James and Sons, 144 Stock Solutions, 17 Stops, 37 Stops, Use of, 47 Streaks in Plates, 90 Sulphate of Iron, 14, 15 Sulphate of Iron Solution, 17, 18 Sulphite of Soda in Developer, 81, 90 Sulphur Deposit on Plates, 91 Sulphurous Acid in Developer, 78,. 81 Sunning the Silver Bath, 118 Swing-Back, 11 Swing-Back (of Camera), 43 Swing-Back, Use of, 4S Symmetrical Lens, 40 Symmetrical, Rapid, 40 Symmetrical, Rapid, for Portrait- ure, 59 Tables to Facilitate Judgment of Exposure, 64-74 Talbot, Fox, 97 Talbotype, 97 Teapot for Coating Plates, 155 Test Papers, 14, 16 Thermometer, Chemical, 151 Thickness of Film, Unequal, 90 Toning Albumenized Paper, 119 Toning Rapid Paper, 128 Toning Ready Sensitized Paper, 105 Toning Solution, 111 Transparencies, 134 Transparent Spots in Negatives, 8& clxxii INDEX. Trays (Developing, &c), 12 Trees (Under), Exposures for, 72 TrimmiDg Prints, 110 Triplet Lens, 36, 42 Tripod Stand, 7, 12 Tripod Stand, Management of, 46 Tripod Used in Coating Plates, 156 Under-Exposure, 26, 31, 76 Unequal Thickness of Film, 90 Unevenness of Tone in Prints, 122 Uniform Standard for Lenses, 64 Varnish, Negative, 14, 16 Varnishing of Negatives, 93, 95 Vaseline Oil, 104 Vaseline, Veterinary, 104 Veil, Yellow, in Plates, 90 Ventilation of Dark-Rooms, 23 Vergara's Slide, 102 Vertical Pictures, 47 Vertical Swing in Camera, 50 Vessel for Washing Emulsions, 144 Veterinary Vaseline, 104 Vignetting, 130 Vignetting Boards, 130 Want of Density, 87 Warm Tones on Gelatino- Chloride Plates, 135 Warnerke, L., 97, 98, 127, 129 Washing Emulsions, 146 Washing Platinotype Prints, 127 Washing Prints, 115 Washing Prints on Rapid Paper, 128 Washing Soda for Preserving Albumenized Paper, 119 Washing the Plate, 33 Washing Soda in Developer, 80 Washing Soda in Toning, 113 Wet Process, 2 White Powdery Deposit on Plates, 90 White Spots in Prints, 122 Whitening for Polishing Plates, 154 Wide- Angle Doublet, 42 Wide-Angle Landscape Lens, 12 Wide- Angle Rectilinear, 40 Widths of Angle (of Lens), 37 Williams, G. F., 159 Yellow Fog, 90 Yellow Light, 20 Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 88 Yellow Stains in Negatives, 89 Yellowness of Silver Prints, 120 GENERAL DRY PLATE LIST. © CO © © © © © © o X CM O Ol h« O W N CM CM CO 2 ,y:, 22 cm ° 2 2 2 — X GO CO O © © ©^ L^o © © © co © co © © © ^ O CO © © © © © GO GO CO © © X CO UO O GO CO 1 © eo 1 1 © © © CO © © CO CO 1 1 CO 10 CM CO *Q © tH CO l>- © X CO CO © CO O CO © © © © © 00 © © © o CO O CO O CO CO CO o •O lO lO CO CO CO Ttf l O CO iC CO © X © © r- o O 1 © CO © © CO CO CO © CO CO O CO O CO CO 1 ~ © co co i-i ?q co CO CO CM ">J< CM CO CSI CM eo rfl © tH CO CO" X O O CO CO 1 © © © © © i-H © © © © co © © © © © I-H >* CM CM HHIM W N O) H CM —1 CM CO CO i—l i-l CM CO CM CO CM to t) o ? : - S © b3 g S -.-o 2 m S 'PL, co Q CD pq pq o ^ a> ?3 ~ 2 it " °i CC5 Oj O Pm P-iPm ^-"9-9 te o o > 'J1WJ1 : :tjflg • • • • * I ar2 SPh S : •43 d*-£i fl * 03 w CD 03 <» ■ ^ CD W ftj en ci o3 O c3 "a a a ^ § "g S O O 8 >< t » Ec ja -d ja " 4 -"-* 2%s following charges (including packing) are made when Plates are sent by Parcel Post. 4{ : X3|— 1 doz., 6d. ; 2 doz., 6d. ; 3 doz., 9d. ; 4 doz., 1/- ; 5 doz., 1/3 ; 6 doz., 1/6 ; 7 doz., 1/9. 5X4—1 doz., 8d. ; 2 doz., lOd. ; 3 doz., 1/2 ; 4 doz., 1/6. 6£x4f— 1 doz., 9d. ; 2 doz., 1/3 ; 3 doz., 2/-. 7£X4$— 1 doz., 9d. ; 2 doz., 1/3 ; 3 doz., 1/9. 8£ X 6^—1 doz., 1/3. 10 x 8—1 doz., 1/6. 22 & 23, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. " SWIFT & SON, SEVEN GOLD MEDALS AWARDED. MESSES. JAMES SWIFT & SON, in submitting the List of Camera Lenses on the opposite page to the scientific public, beg to mention the fact of Mr. James Swift having formerly been many years with the late Mr. Andrew and Mr. Thomas Boss, when they were engaged in computing and working out various formulas for Photographic Lenses, which gained them the world-wide reputation attached to their names. J. S., during the period referred to, was also associated in the same firm, with the late Mr. J. H. Dallmeyer, and thereby ob- tained both practical and theoretical knowledge of the method of correcting and testing Lenses for the chemical and visual rays, which (in order to produce a sharp and well defined picture) must both terminate at the same point on the sensitive plate, a quality only to be found by accident in ordinary photographic Lenses. The DEFINITION* of the PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES Manu- factured by SWIFT & SON, they GUARANTEE to be SUPERIOR to any others made, either at Home or Abroad. CATALOGUE FOR STAMP. UNIVERSITY OPTICAL TCORIS, 81, TOTTENHAM COURT ROAD, LONDON. SWIFT & SON, Manufacturing Opticians TO HER MAJESTY'S SCIENTIFIC GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS. SEVEN GOLD MEDALS AWARDED. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. PORTRAIT LENSES. PORTABLE PARAGON LENSES, IMPROVED. No. 1 for Portraits 6J x 4f ... £1515 0 „ 2 „ 8§„ 6| ... 24 6 0 „ 3 „ 10 „ 8 ... 35 4 0 „ 4 „ 18 „ 16 ... 38 5 0 >, 5 „ 22 „ 18 ... 49 12 0 RAPID " CABINET." No. 1 for Cabinets, 14ft. distance 1114 0 » 2 „ 18ft. „ 15 15 0 „ 3 „ 20ft. „ 17 11 0 QUICK-ACTING C.D.V. No. 1 for Cards, 14ft. distance 4 4 0 » 2 „ 16ft. „ 5 17 0 „ 3 „ 19ft. „ 10 3 0 EXTRA RAPID C.D.V. Invaluable for Photographing Children. No. 1 4£ in. focus, dia. 2iin. ... 12 3 0 „ 2 6 in. „ dia. 3fin. ... 22 10 0 UNIVERSAL PARAGON LENSES, FOR PORTRAITS, GROUPS, STUDIES IN STUDIO, & PANEL PICTURES. 8ix 6j 10 „ 8 12 „10 15 „12 18 „16 22 „18 25 „21 28 „24 Group Size. J» 6 10 „ 8 12 „10 15 „12 18 „16 22 „18 25 „20 Dia. of Prices Sack in Rigid Lenses. Focus. Mounts. £ s. 2 ins. 8Jins 10| „ 6 15 24 „ 8 2 2f „ m ,, 11 5 3i „ I64 „ 14 17 4 „ 20 „ 22 10 5 ,, 2* „ 40 10 6 „ 30 „ 49 10 7 ,, 36 ,, 60 0 WIDE-ANGLE LANDSCAPE LENSES. No. Size of Plate. Dia. of Lenses. Equiv. Focus. Price. 1 5 X 4 1& ins. 5-J- ins. £2 19 0 2 a „ 4i l| „ 7 ,, 3 5 0 3 10 64 1* 84 „ 4 1 0 4 „ 8 2* „ 10 „ 4 19 0 5 12 „10 4 „ 12 „ 6 6 0 6 15 ,,12 2| „ I 5 ,, 7 19 0 7 18 „16 3 „ 18 „ 9 9 0 .8 22 „20 ft „ 22 „ 12 12 0 9 25 „21 H „ 25 „ 17 2 0 LANDSCAPES, ARCHITECTURE, COPYING. AND Large Medium Small No. Stop Stop Stop Equiv. covering covering covering Focus. Price. 1 3x3 4 X 3 5 X 4 3 in. £2 14 0 2 4 „ 3 4 4 „ 2 18 6 3 5 „ 4 n„ 4j n» 4* 8 ,, 5 5 „ 6 ,, 3 3 0 4 8 „ 84,, 5 H » f 3 12 0 5 8 „ 5 64 9 7 „ 4 10 0 6 84 „ 64 9 „ 7 9 , 7 10 \\ 8 8 „ 9 ,, !5 8 0 7 10 „ 8 12 ,,io 6 6 0 8 10 „ 8 12 „ 10 13 ,,H 10 „ 12 ,, 7 4 0 9 12 „10 13 „ 11 15 ,,12 8 2 0 10 13 „11 15 „ 12 18 „16 15 „ 18 „ 9 0 0 11 15 „ 12 18 „ 16 22 „ 18 10 16 0 12 18 „16 22 „20 25 ,,21 21 „ 13 10 0 RAPID PARAGON LENSES, FOR GROUPS, VIEWS, INTERIORS, AND COPYING. Size of Size of Dia. of Equiv. Price ill Bigid Setting. View. Group. Lenses. Focus. 4x3 Stereo. J in. 44 in. £3 12 0 5 „ 4 44 x 3i 1 „ 6 „ 3 16 0 6 „ 5 5 ,, 4 1* ,, 74 >, 4 14 6 8 „ 5 n „ 44 S: 9 ,, 5 3 6 84,, 64 s ,, 5 11 .. 5 17 6 9 „ 7 8 4 ,,64 if:; 12 „ 6 15 0 10 „ 8 „ 64 14 „ 7 12 O 12 „10 13 „11 10 ,, 8 2 „ 16 „ 9 9 0 11 „ 9 H „ 18 „ 10 7 0 15 „12 13 ,11 24 ,, 20 „ 13 0 0 18 „16 15 , 12 3 „ 34 „ 24 „ 16 13 0 22 „18 18 , 16 30 „ 34 „ 22 10 O 25 „22 22 ,18 4 ,, 27 0 0 28 „24 25 ,20 44 ,, 38 „ 36 0 0 WIDE-ANGLE PARAGON LENSES. Giving 100° of angle for Photographing Gramppd Positions. Largest 1 Dia. of Dimension Front Hack Equiv. No. of Plate. Combin. Focus. Focus, 7iX 44 84 „ 64 12 „10 15 ,.12 18 „16 22 „20 25 „21 If m - li , ?: 24 , 3 , 3f , 34 in. 4f „ 6* » 74 >, 11 „ 14 „ 17 ,. 4 in. 5,} „ 7 84 » 13 „ 154 „ 19 „ Price £4 10 4 19 0 6 19 0 9 9 0 12 12 0 18 0 0 27 0 0 The above prices are subject to DIVERSITY OPTICAL WORKS, ten per cent, for cash with order. 81, Tottenliam Court Roafl 5 f .a REYNOLDS & BRANSON. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. The PNEUMATIC PHCENIX SHUTTER, fig. 1, is simple and effec- tive. Pressure of India-Rubber Ball allows weighted arm to open B, and at the- same time retains A from falling ; when pressure is removed, A instantly falls and covers lens ; catch is removable at T for quick exposures. The UNIVERSAL SHUTTER, fig. 2, folds to a compact size, and has all the move- ments for Graduated Exposures, Cloud Effects, &c, of fig. 1, but has, in addition, the motions of the ordinary drop shutter for timed exposures. Extra rapidity is obtained by means of an elastic band. PATENT VIEW METER. "Weighs less than one oz., folds compactly to 4 inches in length. Gives angles of view for lenses 3 to 24 in. focus - The novel features of this "View Meter consist in the adaptation of diaphragms, which confer two important advantages : 1st. A Diaphragm proportionate to any size of plate may be used. 2nd. The insertion of a suitable Diaphragm multiplies by two the figures on bar B, thus reducing its length for Long Focus Lenses to one-half. In ordering, please state the largest size plate for which the View Meter is required. 14, COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. THE ONLY MAKERS OF INDIA-RUBBER FILM DRY PLATES. J. M. COPELAND & CO., 15, Barbican, and Australian Avenue, LONDON, E.C. BOULEVARD NATION ALE, PARIS. BRANCHES & AGENCIES. Germany & Italy— L. Moll, Esgen, & Co. Bombay— 3, Hummum St. Calcutta— 5, G-arstins Place. Madras— H. D. St. Ledger, Esq., 113, Armenian St. Sydney — Bkat & Lightner, 24, O'Connell Street. Ruwal Pinde— Htj. Browning & Co. Melbourne— D. & W. Murray. Cape Colony — Bull, Bevan, & Co., Limited. British Columbia— Wood, Caton, & Co., Victoria. Cambridge -Beall & Son, 25, Sydney St. Ipswich— A. Cade, Cornhill. Bristol — M. W. Dunscombe, 10, St. Augustine's Parade. Southampton— F. Shalders, 17, High St. York— J. M. Smith, 13, High Ousgate. Manchester— C. Simms & Co., 53, King Street. Nottingham — A. W. Flowerdew, 25, Bridesmith-gate. WHOLESALE & EXPORT MANUFACTURERS op evert description of Photographic Apparatus and Materials, DRY PLATES, CHEMICALS, LENSES, ETC. Oopeland's Universal Dry Plates, GUARANTEED. Per Dozen.— 4^x3^ 5x4 6£x4£6£x4f 7^x4^ 8Jx6£ 9x7 10x8 12x10 15x12 instantaneous ... 1/6 2/3 3/4 3/6 4/3 6/- 7/6 10/6 15/- 26/6 *Drop Shutter ... 1/11 3/- 4/4 4/5 5/4 8/- 9/9 12/2 18/9 29/9 Barbican, Extra-Eapid 1/3 1/6 2/1 2/3 2/9 4/6 6/- 7/9 10/6 18/- Clifton Plate ... 1/- 1/6 2/- 2/3 2/9 4/- 5/- 7/- 10/- 17/- Derwent, Extra-Rapid 1/- 1/6 2/- 2/3 2/9 4/- 5/- 7/- 10/- 17/- Ilford Plates ... 1/- 1/7 2/2 2/3 2/10 4/3 5/- 7/3 10/6 18/- Do., Extra-Rapid ... 1/3 2/- 2/9 3/- 3/8 5/6 6/6 9/6 13/- 23/- Fry's, Edwards', Wratten's, Marion's, Monckhov6n's, and Bernhardt's in Stock. Most French Sizes also Stocked. Special Quotations for large quantities. Bij the gross, 5 per cent, discount. * These Plates are the only Plates suited to nse in Hot or Extreme Climates, being free from Frilling or Fog, and are Very Rapid and Clean. J. M. COPELAND & CO. 15X12 BARBICAN Dry- Plate Camera. The lightest and most simple Camera in the Trade. Square back, or reversing frame for use either way. Best Mahog- any, Brass- screwed, and Dove- tailed throughout; Swing Back, Rising Fronts, Back-and-Pinion, Folding Tail-hoard. Prices of Camera with Two Double Backs and Carriers:— 8iX k £6 2 0 10 x 8 7 18 6 12 XlO ... 9 5 0 ... £11 15 0 Copeland's Instantaneous Shutter, from 4/6, with Pneumatic arrangement, ball and tube, 27/6. Buby or Green Glass Candle or Oil Developing Lamps, 2/9 each, 23/- per dozen ; larger sizes, to burn petroleum, with one green glass, and one ruby glass, or both same colour, with glass chimneys, free from smoke and smell, 10/6 each ; 108/- per dozen. Copeland's New Portable Patent Folding Lamp. No loose parts, no smoke ; the best folding lamp in the trade. 6/6 each, full size ; 72/- per dozen. Backgrounds, Cloth, in flatted oil or distemper, any design, 8 ft. by 8 ft., or any smaller sizes, complete, with roller, &c, 35/-; a good variety in stock. Sensitized Papers, best only kept, and in all shades. Albumenized Papers, Imperial and Double, at current rates, in colours that do not fade. Copeland's Transparent Paste, for use with paper negatives, free from grease, and no smell ; 2/- per bottle, COPELAND'S VICTORIA DEVELOPER. One solution will work any kind of Plate in th e Trade, or any kind of Paper, free from ammonia, can be used any number of times; 1/- and 1/9 per bottle; already numerous testimonials received for this. LENSES, unequalled for price and quality ; every kind in stock ; each Lens guaranteed. CHEMICALS, guaranteed pure and full strength, at lowest market rates. All order 8 over £1 Carriage Free in England, except certain heavy goods and Chemicals. Eull Catalogue post free Threepence. All goods, except those manufactured to order, sent off same day as order received. Orders of £100 and upwards F.O.B. 15, Barbican, and Australian Avenue, LONDON, E.C. J. M. COPELAND & CO.'S COMPLETE SETS OF Photographic Apparatus, With every necessary Chemical and Accessory for both Developing: and Printing. Camera, with leather bellows, double swing, rising, falling, and cross fronts, fitted with good London Lens, Instantaneous Shutter, Stops, &c, folding tail-board, no loose parts, made in best polished mahogany, brass screwed and dovetailed throughout, and polished mahogany folding tripod stand with revolving head, complete with one double slide. £3 15 0 7 0 0 13 10 0 THESE ABE FIRST-CLASS GOODS, each one GUARANTEED. By the Dozen, for Export, a good Discount allowed. Solid LEA THEE CASES can be supplied at low prices. COPELAND'S PATENT GAS BURNISHER, QUITE NEW, VERY STRONG AND GOOD, f plate, 26/-; whole plate, 35/- ; 10x8,45/-; 15X12,63/-. THESE DO NOT SCRATCH THE PAPER LIKE OTHER MAKES SPIRIT LAMPS SUPPLIED AT SAME PRICE. ASHFOKD'S PATENT SPEING .TRIPOD. STAND. Very rigid ; the only Stand that can be worked on uneven ground • very light and portable, 16s. ' Full size, in polished pine and black wood, 20s. ENLARGING LANTERNS, BEST LONDON MANUFACTURE. 4-inch Condensers, double Combination Lens, triple wick, £2 18s. 6d. Perforated bodies, £3 10s. ; 4-wick, £4« Ditto, 6-inch Condensers, Lens, &c, complete, £6 10s. 15, Barbican and Australian Avenue, LONDON, E.C. Permanent Bromide Paper FOR ENLARGING, COPYING PLANS, AND DIRECT CONTACT PRINTING FROM NEGATIVES. This Paper is uniformly and heavily coated by machinery with silver Bromide mixed with the least possible quantity of gelatine to avoid curling, and to preserve the tooth of the paper for working with crayons, and is made in three grades, viz.: A, 33, O. Pure blacks and whites can be obtained with this paper from suitable negatives. As with albumenized paper, the tone depends somewhat upon the character of the negative. Brilliant negatives give the best results. From good original negatives, enlargements may be obtained with this paper that require no finishing, and superior to albumen prints on account of their permanence. We recommend the rough paper for plain enlargements and contact prints of all kinds on account of the fine artistic effects to be obtained. A— Smooth Surface, Thin Paper. B— Smooth Surface, Heavy Paper. C — Eough Surface, Heavy Paper. TWELVE SHEETS IN EACH PACKAGE These Papers may be used for positive printing or copying drawings by con- tact ; for enlargements plain or work- ing up in crayon, ink, water colours or oils, accordine as the taste or judgment of the operator may suggest. All one price. Size. 4|X3i... 5 X4 ... 7^X5 ... 8 X5 ... 8|X6J... a. d. 0 8 0 11 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 6 Size. 10 X 8 . 12£X10i. 15JX12*. 23 X17 . 25 X21 . 30 X25 . d. 6 0 0 6 Full directions in each package. EASTMAN'S NEGATIVE PAPER ROLL HOLDERS FILM CARRIERS 93 31 FOR SALE BY ALL PHOTO. DEALERS, OR The Eastman Dry Plate & Film Company, 13, SOHO SQUARE. LONDON. W. Factory - Rochester, New York, U.S.A. ZE3I_ &c IE- J". DALE, 26, LUDGATE HILL, E.C., Manufacturers of HIGH-CLASS PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERAS, STANDS, and CABINET WORK. STTTIDIO CAMERAS, PERFECT FORM, EVERY IMPROVEMENT, Short or Long Focus, taking 2 Cartes, 2 Cabinets, Promenade, Whole-plate, and every size. No other Camera necessary in the Studio. Price 135/- and 160/-. Patent Multiplex Back. (PRIZE MEDAL, CALCUTTA AND INVENTIONS' EXHIBITION). ADVANTAGES OVER EVERY OTHER CHANGING BOX OR BACK KNOWN. LIGHTER, CHEAPER, and more perfect than Double Backs. Unrivalled for Studio work, and also for Tourist purposes. Carries 13 plates. Of Highest Finish, with Every Movement to Camera. 100/-, 130/-. and 160/- complete. TOURIST CAMERAS , with all the Latest Improvements. Equal to so-called Patent Camera, and of our own Superior make. DALE'S " PERFECT " SLIDING LEG STAND, 21/. EURNELL'S PATENT ADJUSTABLE SHUTTER. A really effective Shutter for all work. Price from 25/-. Circular post free. RECTILINEAR LENSES; New Series; Very Rapid. CITY DEPOT for Sensitized Paper, Chemicals, Materials, and Appliances, and for " ILFORD," "EDWARDS'" and "LUD- GATE" Plates. -^^^^ NEW COMPLET E 1LLUSTR A TeF?ATAL06UE AN D CIRCULARS FREE. H. & E. J. DALE, 26, IATDG-ATE HILL, LOISTUON, E.C. Faotory-9, KIHIBY STREET, E.C. OPTICIANS BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT TO THE QUEEN. HORNE, THORNTHWAITE, and WOOD, 4-16, Strand, 7 If, Cheapside, London, THE OLDEST ESTABLISHED EXPORT & SHIPP INS PHOTOBRAPHIC APPARATUS & CHE MICAL STORES. SPECIALITIES: WOOD'S TRAFALGAR DRY PLATES, IN TWO RAPIDITIES. Develop Easily, and yield Clean and Crisp Negatives. Negatives Developed, Retouched, and Printed from. COMPLETE SETS from £2 12s. 6d. "A Photograph, and How to Take it." By " One Who Knows." Also, Complete Photographic Catalogue. Post free, One Stamp. HOKNE, THOENTHWAITE, and WOOD, 416, Strand, AND E. G. WOOD, 74, Cheapside, London. "WOOD'S FOR SALE OR HIRE. The "Euphaneroh Lantern," with W Four-wick Lamp, Is unsurpassed for Power, Portability, and Price, £4 4s. THE LANTERN CATALOGUE, Containing fuU List of Slides, Readings, and Apparatus, post free on receipt of One Stamp. "Magic Lanterns: How Used and How Made." By A. A. Wood. Is. E. G. WOOD, 74, Cheapside, E.C., AND HORNE, THORNTHWAITE, and WOOD, 416, Strand, London, W.C. GOLD MEDALS AND HIGHEST AWARDS. LONDON, PARIS, PHILADELPHIA, ANTWERP, SYDNEY, &c. BOSS' POETEAIT & VIEW LENSES, Unsurpassed for Brilliancy of Definition, Flatness of Field, and Depth of Focus. Used by the leading Photographers throughout the World. PORTRAIT LENSES. IMPROVED. No. 3 for Portraits 6^x 4f ... £17 10 0 8kx 6J ... 26 15 0 „ * „ 10 x 8 38 0 0 „ 5 „ 18 xl6 42 10 0 „ 6 „ 22 xl8 54 0 0 BAPID "CABINET." No. 1 for Cabinets, 14ft. distance 13 0 0 ,, 18ft. „ 17 10 0 ,',*3 „ 20ft. „ 19 10 0 EXTRA RAPID C.D.Y. Invaluable for Photographing Children. No. 2a, 4£in. focus, dia. 2jin. ... 13 10 0 „ 3a, 6 in. „ dia. 34in. ... 25 0 0 QUICK-ACTING C.D.V. No. 1 for Cards, 14ft. distance... 5 15 0 „ 2 „ 16ft. „ ... fi 10 0 „ 3 „ 19ft. „ ... 11 10 0 UNIVERSAL. For Portraits, Groups, &c. No. 1 .. 2 .. 3 ., 4 .. 5 .. View Size. 8£x6£ 10x8 12x10 15x12 18x16 22x18 25x21 Group Size. 71 X4* 8ix6i 10x8 12x10 15x12 18x16 22x18 Back Focus. .. 8£in. ,..101in. ,.13£in. ..16Jin. ,..20 in. ..24 in. ,..30 in. Price. 7 10 0 9 0 12 10 16 10 25 0 45 0 55 0 VIEW LENSES. SYMMETRICAL.* For Landscapes and Architecture. No. 1 3 x3 4 x3 5 x4 3in. £3 0 „ 2 4 x3 5 x4 7JX4J 4in. 3 5 „ 3 5 X4 7{x4i 8 x5 5in. 3 10 „ 4 7*X4J 8 X5 8ix6.i 6in. 4 0 .» 5 8 x5 8ix6| 9 x7 7in. 5 0 » 6 8£x6& 9 X7 9 X7 10x8 8in. 6 0 „ 7 10x8 12x10 9in. 7 0 » 8 10x8 12x10 13x11 10m. 8 0 ,. 9 12x10 13x11 15x12 12in. 9 0 „ 10 13x11 15x12 18x16 lain. 10 0 »» n 15x12 18x16 22x18 18in. 12 0 ,. 12 18x16 22x20 25x21 21iu. 15 0 RAPID SYMMETRIC ALS . * For Groups, Views, Interiors, and Copying. The most useful Lens for all Out-door Photography. Size of Size of Equivalent. View. Group. Focus. Price. 4X3. . Stereo. ... 4|in. ... £4 0 0 5x4. . 4 X 3 ... 6 in. ... 4 5 0 6x5. .5x4 ... 7jin. ... ... 9 in. ... 5 5 0 8x5. . 7+X 4J 5 15 0 8^X 6^ . .8x5 ... lOJin.... 6 10 0 9x7. . Six 6J ... 12in. ... 7 10 0 10 X 8 . . 8ix 6| ... 14in. ... 8 10 0 12 xlO . . 10 X 8 ... 16in. ... 10 10 0 13 Xll . . 11 X 9 ... 18in. ... 11 10 0 15 Xl2 . . 13 Xll ... 20in. ... 14 10 0 18 Xl6 . . 15 Xl2 ... 24in. ... IS 10 0 22 xl8 . . 18 X16 ... 30in. ... 25 0 0 25 x22 . . 22 X18 ... 34in. .. 30 0 0 * Furnished with Diaphragms on the Stan- dard System recommended by the Photo- graphic Society of Great Britain. Improved Expanding Bellows Cameras for Lenses of Long Focus. APPARATUS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION. ROSS & 112 (REMOVED FROM 164) CO., Opticians, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON, W. Optical Works— BROOK STREET. [Established 1830.] NO RISK FROM BREAKAGE. No "tackiness" if printed in direct sunlight. No oiling nor Vaseline required, the Tissue being translucent as glass the instant it is fixed. Invaluable for Carbon work the Tissue being printable from either side, reversed negatives are no longer necessary. * Negatives on the Tissue are equal in quality to the finest taken on glass plates. LIGHTNESS and PORTABILITY. A, A? / As perfect & as rapid / as the most sensitive / plate in the market. rv/ / Easy of manipulation, and / no extra operations to perform. ASK FOR YERGARA's Patent DARK SLIDE. One-third the price of the old-fashioned Slide, and more effective, more compact, and half its weight. Filled for two ex- posures by the simple insertion of a shutter. No loose parts, and no hinges. Photographic Apparatus Manufacturer, 26, CALTHORPE STREET, GRAY'S INN ROAD, FOURTEEN PBIZB^EDALShaw^ Cameras and Ohanging-Box Jor Excellence of Design and Workmanship. Silver Medal awarded at the International Inventions Exhibition, 1885. . Gr. HARE'S NEW CAMERA. Invented and Introduced, June, 1882. The Best and most\compact Camera ever Invented. Since its introduction, this Camera has received several important modifi- cations in construction. It stands un- rivalled for elegance, lightness, and general utility. It is specially adapted lor use with the Eastman-Walker Roll Holder. A 6£x4f Camera measures whenclosed 8x8x2^ in., weighs only 3f lbs., and extends to 17in. The steady and increasing demand for this Camera is the best proof of its popularity. " Little need be said of Mr. George Hare's well-known Patent Camera, except that it forms the model upon which nearly all the others in the market are based."— Vide British Journal of Photography, August 28, 1885. Size of Square, with Re- Brass Size of Square, with Be- Brass Plate. versible Holder. Binding. Plate. versible Holder. Binding. 5x4 ... £6 0 0 ... £0 16 0 10X 8 ... £9 16 0 ... £0 18 0 6£X 4J ... 7 2 6 ... 0 16 0 12x10 ... 11 0 0 ... 1 0 0 7|x 5 ... 7 10 0 ... 0 16 0 15x12 ... 13 5 0 ... 1 0 0 8£x 6J ... 8 15 0 ... 0 16 0 These prices include one Double Slide. Since this Camera has been introduced, it has been awarded THREE SILVER MEDALS : at Brussels International Photographic Exhibition, 1883 ; at the Boyal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, Falmouth ; and at the INTERNATIONAL INVENTIONS EXHIBI- TION, 1885. Also Bronze Medal, Bristol International Exhibition, 1883— HIGHEST AWARD. G. HARE'S Improved Portable Bellows Camera Invented and Introduced 1878. This Camera offers many advantages where a little extra weight and bulk is not objected to. It is very solid and firm in construction, and especially suited for India and other trying climates. ILLUSTRATED i'RICE LIST on application at the Manufactory— J3 6, O.A-XjTZEIOIB.IPE STEEET, "W. O- F. W. VEREL & CO.'s The ever-increasing demand for the above well-known brand of Dry Plates shows their superiority over all other makes. They can be thoroughly relied on for uniformity and evenness of coating, and possess all the fine qualities of wet plates. They are made in two rapidities, 30 and 60 times ; the latter, the fastest Plates in the market, are indispensable for all shutter work, and, though so rapid, have lost none of the fine qualities of slower plates, being at the same time easily manipulated. All who have not tried these plates are respectfully requested to do so. Best glass only used. 4iX3J 5 X4 6|X3i 6|X4^ fiix - 7|X4 7X5 30 times. 1/6 perdoz 2/3 3/2 3/4 3/6 3/9 PRICE LIST 60 times. . 2/- perdoz. 3/- 3/6 4/ 4/6 4/9 5/- PER DOZEN. 30 times. 7£X5 . . 5/- per doz. 8hXU .. 6/- 9^X7 .. 7/6 „ 10 X8 ..10/6 „ 11 X9 ..13/- „ 12 X10 ..15/- 15 X12 ..26/6 „ 60 times. 6/- per doz. 8/- 9/- 12/6 15/6 18/- 30'- Is. Od. per doz. 7JX 5 .. .. 3s. 5d. per doz. Is. 7d. „ 8^X 6| .. .. 4s. 3d. „ 2s. 2d. „ 9"X 7 .. .. 5s. Od. 2s. 3d. „ 10 X 8 .. .. 7s. 3d. „ 2s. lOd. 12 X10 .. .. 10s. 6d. 3s. Od. 15 X12 ... .. 18s. Od. Terms, Cash with Order. %W Special Terms to Exporters and Dealers. F. W. VEREL & CO.'S MATCHIaESS DKY PLATES. The above have been prepared to meet the want of a really cheap and at the same time good Plate. They can be recommended to all who want a cheap Plate, and will ba found reliable and rapid. PRICE LIST FOR £.2 ORDERS. 4*X 3± 5X4 6£X 41 7iX 4J 7 X 5 F. W. VEREL & CO.'s CHLORIDE PLATES. These Plates are suitable far TRANSPARENCIES or LANTERN SLIDES, and will be found easily worked. By varying the exposure and development, very beautiful tones can be obtained. PRICE LIST. 3JX3J i\x3i 6*x4J- 8£x6J 1/. 1/6 3/6 6/- per dozen. Sample of any of the above Plates for 12 stamps. This preparation is unequalled and quite indispensable to Photographers. It can be used successfully for local as well as general intensification. GIVE IT A TRIAL. Bottles, post free . . 1/9 and 2/6. OUR PLATES ARE KEPT BY THE PRINCIPAL SEALERS. Works: CATHCART, near GLASG0 W. THE OLDEST WEEKLY PHOTOGKAPHJC PAPER. A WEEKLY RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Published every Friday, price T,d., post free within the United Kingdom, 3^d. Annual Subscription, payable in advance, by post {to all parts of the United Kingdom), 15s./ or per Quarter, 3s. lod. Published by PIPER & CARTER, 5, FURNIVAL STREET, E.C THE PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS Is the oldest weekly organ of Photography and Photographers, containing the fullest and earliest information on all subjects connected with the Art and Science of Photography, as practised in every part of the>world, and, from its large circulation, is a most valuable medium for all Announcements in any way associated with Photography. Scale of Charges for Miscellaneous Advertisements. Five lines and under (average, seven words to line) £030 Above five lines, per line 004 Column, inside page 1 17 6 Half-Page, inside 2 10 o "Whole Page, inside ... 4 10 o Reduction, made for a series. Revised scale for Small PREPAID Advertisements {of four lines) of the following classes : — ONE ( Situations "Wanted \ ONE SHILLING. ( Photographic Businesses to be Let or So'id . ) SHILLING* Each additional line, Sixpence extra. All Advertisements of above class not prepaid will be charged at the ordinary scale. LARGE Advertisements should reach the Publishers (Piper and Carter-, 5, Furnival Street, E.C.) not later than Wednesday Evening. SMALL Advertise- ments cau be received at the Office in Furnival Street up till Thursday noon. PIPER & CARTER, 5, Furnival Street, Holborn, London, E.C. ZELTTS IB -A. 1