CONTRIBUTIONS 
 
 TO 
 
 THE LITERATURE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 CHARLES LOCK EASTLAKE, P.R.A. 
 
 ETC. ETC. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 1870. 
 
Lately published , 8vo, 12s., 
 
 A MEMOIR OE THE LIFE 
 
 OP 
 
 SIR CHARLES LOCK EASTLAKE, P.R.A., 
 
 WITH A SELECTION FROM HIS CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 COMPILED BY 
 
 LADY EASTLAKE. 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE OF 
 THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 SECOND SERIES. 
 
THIS VOLUME 
 
 IS 
 
 Enscttljctr 
 
 TO 
 
 THE RIGHT HON. SIR RORERT PEEL, BART. 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 BY 
 
 THE EDITOR. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/contributionstolOOeast 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 If the number of books which we possess on the 
 Fine Arts is to be taken as the measure of our 
 knowledge or our taste for painting and sculp- 
 ture, the standard, as compared with that of other 
 countries, must be admitted to be low ; but if the 
 theoretic soundness and practical utility of those 
 which have appeared be taken into the account, 
 we need not fear the comparison. 
 
 While I am not prepared to maintain that it is 
 impossible to derive pleasure from works of art 
 without possessing some critical knowledge, and 
 agree with Lanzi, that the observation of Pliny — 
 de pictore sculptore et fusore judicare nisi artifex 
 non potest — must be understood of certain refine- 
 ments of the art that escape the eye of the most 
 learned critics, yet I think all will admit that the 
 pleasure derived from painting and sculpture is 
 increased by a knowledge of their principles, and 
 especially as regards their province and capacity. 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Keynolcls observes : “ To discover beauties, or to 
 point out faults, in the works of celebrated masters, 
 and to compare the conduct of one artist with 
 another, is certainly no mean or inconsiderable part 
 of criticism ; but this is still no more than to know 
 the art through the artist. This test of investi- 
 gation must have two capital defects — it must be 
 narrow, and it must be uncertain. To enlarge the 
 boundaries of the art of painting, as well as to fix 
 its principles, it will be necessary that that art and 
 those principles should be considered in their cor- 
 respondence with the principles of the other arts, 
 which, ]ike this, address themselves primarily and 
 principally to the imagination. When those con- 
 nected and kindred principles are brought together 
 to be compared, another comparison will grow out 
 of this ; that is, the comparison of them all with 
 those of human nature, from whence arts derive 
 the materials upon which they are to produce 
 effects. This, as it is the highest style of criticism, 
 is at the same time the soundest.” 
 
 A general notion seems to have prevailed, in 
 this country at least, that speculation and action 
 are almost inconsistent, and that the sine qua non 
 for an artist is incessant practice. Although it 
 must be admitted that if the artist is to select 
 between practice and theory, there can be no doubt 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IX 
 
 as to which is best ; yet it must also be admitted 
 that this examination of the general principles 
 relating to the Fine Arts must be beneficial even to 
 artists. Reynolds observes : “ That practice that 
 is tolerable in its way is not totally blind; an 
 imperceptible theory which grows out of, accom- 
 panies, and directs it, is never wholly wanting to a 
 sedulous practice : but this goes but a little way 
 with the painter merely, and is utterly inexplicable 
 to others.” This would seem at least as good a 
 reason for teaching general readers the elements of 
 criticism in the Fine Arts as for teaching the 
 principles of ethics, or any other such branch of 
 knowledge, which from time to time engages the 
 attention of civilised nations, and surely must 
 advance and assist the artist in his practice. There 
 is a prevalent, though erroneous idea, that books 
 relating to the theory of art are more likely to do 
 harm than good to the artist. I shall again fortify 
 my own view by that of Reynolds, who says, “ By 
 whatever studies criticism may gain ground, we 
 need be under no apprehension that invention will 
 ever be annihilated or subdued, or intellectual 
 energy brought utterly within the restraint of 
 written law. Genius wdll still have room to ex- 
 patiate, and keep always at the same distance from 
 narrow comprehension and mechanical perform- 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ance.” It is erroneous to suppose that books on 
 art are peculiar to modern times, and that no 
 treatises appeared till the master-works of modern 
 painting had been produced. In the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, the voluminous works of Lorenzo Ghiberti, 
 Leon Battista Alberti, and Leonardo da Vinci, were 
 written, of which the last two have been published. 
 Of works belonging to the same period, which still 
 remain in MS., or which have been lost, there is a 
 further list, by Pietro della Francesca, Francesco di 
 Giorgio, Baldassar Peruzzi, Domenicho Ghirlandajo, 
 and Raphael : Vasari alludes to the treatises of the 
 last two ; and to the above many others written in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries might be 
 added. There is also a MS. of Filarete, a sculptor, 
 of the fifteenth century, still preserved in Florence ; 
 and as regards technical matters, such as the work 
 of Cennini (which has been published), the list is 
 endless. Many of the writings quoted by Vasari 
 were doubtless quoted by him from historical notices 
 only ; but the works to which we have access are 
 sufficient to show that, both theoretically and 
 practically, written information accompanied the 
 progress of art during its best periods. The same 
 observation holds good with respect to ancient art : 
 and Pliny, like Vasari, appears to have borrowed 
 from writings which were extant in his time. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 XI 
 
 A great step has been made in a right direction 
 by the establishment of the Fine Arts Commission. 
 A new stimulus has been given to the production of 
 works of painting and sculpture ; artists of great 
 merit have been either created or called into notice 
 by the rewards offered ; and the free admission to 
 the exhibition of their productions has tended to 
 extend the general interest of the public in works 
 of art. Attention was first called to the probability 
 that the building the new Houses of Parliament 
 might be the means of advancing the Fine Arts 
 by Mr. Hawes, who moved for a Parliamentary 
 inquiry ; and we are indebted to Sir Robert Peel 
 both for the Commission, and the judicious selection 
 of Mr. Eastlake as the secretary. 
 
 The papers of Mr. Eastlake, printed in the 
 Appendix to the Reports of this Commission, have 
 explained much as regards the condition and true 
 objects of painting and sculpture, partly with re- 
 ference to the general nature of these arts, and 
 partly with reference to the particular application 
 of painting to public buildings. Although these 
 papers have to a certain extent become known to 
 the public through the means of the Athenaeum 
 and other journals, it occurred to me that it would 
 be useful to collect them in a volume, and thus 
 make them more generally accessible, especially as 
 
Xll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 there were some other treatises of the same writer, 
 which had appeared elsewhere, of equal value. On 
 applying to Mr. Eastlake on this subject, he kindly 
 undertook to revise these essays ; and their pub- 
 lication is with his sanction. 
 
 Besides these papers, a fragment “ On the Phi- 
 losophy of the Fine Arts ” is included. This, 
 though begun some years since, has not hitherto 
 been published. 
 
 As regards the papers reprinted from the Appen- 
 dix to the Reports of the Fine Arts Commission, 
 their value was fully admitted when they appeared. 
 With respect to the paper on Basso-relievo, my 
 own opinion of its merit is fully borne out by the 
 testimony of the eminent sculptor Gibson, who 
 observes, in a letter to me, — “ The first time I read 
 our friend Eastlake's essay on Basso-relievo was 
 at Rome. I then thought, and I continue to think, 
 that he has treated the subject more correctly and 
 more learnedly than any other writer whom I have 
 met with. 
 
 “ To a sculptor this is a subject of great im- 
 portance ; and I think that the students in this 
 country would derive much advantage from fre- 
 quently and carefully studying this essay, by 
 which they would become more impressed with 
 the necessity of adhering to the principles 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 established by the Greeks for architectural deco- 
 rations. 
 
 “ It is the Elgin collection which has thrown light 
 
 o o 
 
 upon the subject of ‘Basso-relievo;' and Eastlake 
 has admirably demonstrated the principles of that 
 branch of sculpture." I may add that Mr. Gibson 
 has since stated to me, that he considered the paper 
 on Sculpture quite as valuable and as important 
 as that on “ Basso-relievo." 
 
 In making this collection, I was glad to have an 
 opportunity, in however humble a capacity, of con- 
 necting my own name with that of my friend. 
 Though this is a matter in which the public have 
 no interest, I trust the merits of the papers will be 
 considered as a sufficient apology for my having 
 induced Mr. Eastlake to revise, and Mr. Murray to 
 publish, the present volume. 
 
 H. Bellendeh Ker. 
 
 1848 . 
 
 The reprint of this volume has been thought de- 
 sirable. It is presented to the Public with very few 
 alterations, and those chiefly taken from marginal 
 corrections and paraphrases by Sir Chas. Eastlake in 
 his own copy. 
 
 March, 1870 , 
 

 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 NO. TAGS 
 
 I. — The Fine Arts ....... 1 
 
 II. — On the Criterion of Specific Style. — On the Scrip- 
 tural and Legendary Subjects of the Middle 
 Ages ........ 8 
 
 III. — On the Origin of the Modern German School of 
 
 Fresco Painting . . . . . .21 
 
 IV. — The State and Prospects of the English School, 
 
 considered with reference to the Promotion of 
 Art in connection with the Rebuilding of the 
 Houses of Parliament . . . 31 
 
 V. — Representation as distinguished from Description 53 
 
 VI. — Sculpture ..... ... 63 
 
 VII. — Basso-Rilievo . . . . . 97 
 
 VIII. — Painting. Styles and Methods of Painting suited 
 
 to the Decoration of Public Buildings . .127 
 
 IX. — Life of Raphael , . . . . . . 182 
 
 X. — Notes from Kugler’s Hand-Book. Note on the 
 
 Subjects of the Paintings in the Capella Sistina 275 
 
 XI. — Extracts from the Translation of Goethe’s Theory 
 
 of Colours ....... 292 
 
 XII. — On the Decoration of a Villa : — 
 
 Letter to Charles Lock Eastlake, Esq., R.A., &c., 
 by H. B. K 329 
 
 Mr. Eastlake’s Answer ..... 332 
 
 XIII. — On the Philosophy of the Fine Arts . . . 355 
 
 b 
 

 
 
 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE 
 
 Under this term are comprehended those pro- 
 ductions of human genius and skill which are more 
 especially amenable to the decisions of taste. Of 
 these creations, some have, from the first, been 
 employed to embellish objects of mere utility ; but 
 all are, strictly speaking, independent of necessity, 
 and, as regards their form and means, are addressed 
 to the imagination. Their highest office is to meet 
 ideas of beauty or sublimity, however acquired, by 
 imitative or adequate representation, and, by powers 
 of expression essentially their own, to awaken the 
 nobler sympathies. 
 
 The aptitude of the human mind for receiving 
 such impressions, whether directly from nature or 
 
 * [This article, and the Essay on “ Basso-rilievo,” have been 
 reprinted from the Penny Cyclopaedia , by permission of Mr. C, 
 Knight. — Ed.] 
 
 of 
 
 FINE ABTS 
 
 No. I. 
 
 THE FINE ARTS.* 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 through the medium of the Arts, depends greatly 
 on cultivation, and on the leisure which supposes 
 that first wants are satisfied ; but there exists no 
 state of society, however rude, in which the love of 
 decoration and the sense of grandeur have not been 
 recognised, and in which some attempts at corre- 
 sponding realisations are not to be met with : the 
 difference between such efforts and the most refined 
 productions is a difference only in degree ; the 
 existence of the tendencies to which they owe their 
 origin might be always taken for granted, and it 
 would only remain to regulate their influence and 
 direct their capabilities aright. 
 
 The Arts derive their chief interest from their 
 twofold relation. They represent the impression 
 of nature on human sympathies ; her chosen attri- 
 butes reflected through a human medium. Thus, 
 while nations, like individuals, present ever- varying 
 characteristics, art, as it expands into life, partakes 
 of their diversities, and may be compared to the 
 bloom of a plant, true to its peculiar developing 
 causes, and originally modified by the soil from 
 which it springs. In barbarous or degenerate 
 nations the sense of the beautiful has ever been 
 manifested only in the lowest degree, while a false 
 excitement, founded on the suppression of the 
 feelings of nature, may be said to have usurped the 
 place of the sublime. We may smile at the simple 
 attempt of the savage to excite admiration by the 
 gaudiness of his attire ; but we should shudder to 
 
FINE ARTS. 
 
 o 
 
 contemplate the scenes which his fortitude or ob- 
 duracy can invest with the seeming attributes of 
 sublimity. We mark the decline of taste among 
 the luxurious Romans during the period when 
 the exhibitions of the blood-stained amphitheatre 
 formed their chief amusement. The just value of 
 life, the characteristic of that civilisation which 
 reduces the defensive passions to their due limits, 
 tends to elevate the sources of gratification by 
 pointing out the pleasures of the mind as dis- 
 tinguished from those of sense ; and the perception 
 of the beautiful is in its turn the cause, as it is in 
 some degree the result, of the rational enjoyment of 
 life. 
 
 The tendency of the Arts, when rightly exercised, 
 to purify enjoyment, to humanise and regulate the 
 affections, constitutes their noblest use, and indi- 
 cates the connection between the higher objects of 
 taste and moral influences ; but it will at once be 
 seen that this idea of usefulness is distinct from the 
 ordinary meaning of the term as applicable to the 
 productions of human ingenuity. A positive use 
 results, indeed, indirectly, from the cultivation of 
 the formative arts, in proportion as their highest 
 powers are developed : for it will be found that at 
 all times when accuracy of design has been familiar, 
 and particularly when the human figure has been 
 duly studied, the taste thus acquired from the 
 source of the beautiful has gradually influenced 
 various kinds of manufactures. Again, as illustrat- 
 
4 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 ing science, the Fine Arts may be directly useful in 
 the stricter sense ; but this is not the application 
 which best displays their nature and value. The 
 essence of the Fine Arts begins where utility in its 
 narrower acceptation ends. The abstract character 
 of ornament is to be useless. That this principle 
 exists in nature we immediately feel, in calling 
 to mind the merely beautiful appearances of the 
 visible world, and particularly the colours of 
 flowers. In every case in nature where fitness or 
 utility can be traced, the characteristic quality or 
 relative beauty of the object is found to be identified 
 with that fitness ; — a union imitated as far as pos- 
 sible in the less decorative parts of architecture, 
 furniture, &c. ; but where no utility is found to 
 exist, save that of conveying rational delight and of 
 exalting the mind by ideas of perfection, we recog- 
 nise a more essential or absolute principle of beauty. 
 The Fine Arts may be said to owe their existence 
 to the human recognition of this principle. The 
 question of their utility therefore resolves itself into 
 the inquiry as to the intention of the beauties of 
 nature. The agreeable facts of the external world 
 have not only the general effect of adding a charm to 
 existence, but they appeal to susceptibilities which 
 are peculiarly human ; and, in order to estimate 
 them justly, it becomes necessary to separate the 
 instinctive feelings which we possess in common 
 with the rest of the animate creation, from that 
 undefinable union of sensibility and reflection which 
 
FINE ARTS. 
 
 5 
 
 constitutes taste,— a principle, in a great measure, 
 independent of the passions, yet calculated to 
 connect the attractions of sense with higher 
 impulses, by means of admiration. It is this 
 last feeling which the Arts, in their essential 
 character, aspire to kindle, which not only elevates 
 the beautiful, but reduces ideas of fear and danger 
 to the lofty sentiment of the sublime, and teaches 
 the relation of both to a still purer influence ; a 
 relation which it is the great privilege of Art, as 
 the interpreter at once of nature and of thought, 
 to embody. 
 
 It has been customary to refer all the Fine Arts 
 to a principle of imitation : in one sense this can 
 hardly be objected to, since all owe their satisfac- 
 tory impression to a certain conformity to nature, 
 and employ nature’s principles of congruity and 
 adaptation even where no direct reproduction of 
 reality is apparent. But in a more literal sense, 
 painting, sculpture, and the drama are the only 
 imitative arts ; poetry, music, and architecture, the 
 creative arts : the distinction is easily applicable 
 to the varieties of each class. It is scarcely neces- 
 sary to add, that the Fine Arts are addressed to the 
 two nobler senses only, and that the elements of 
 beauty can be arrested by those arts alone which 
 appeal to the sense of vision. 
 
 With regard to the classification of the Arts, 
 according to their relative excellence, those are 
 generally considered the most worthy in which 
 
6 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 the mental labour employed and the mental plea- 
 sure produced are greatest, and in which the 
 manual labour, or labour of whatever kind, is least 
 apparent. This test would justly place poetry first; 
 but the criterion should not be incautiously applied ; 
 for in architecture, where human ingenuity is most 
 apparent, and even where the design is very sim- 
 ple, a powerful impression on the imagination 
 may be excited from magnitude, proportion, or 
 other causes. In such cases, however, it will be 
 found that we lose sight of the laborious means 
 in the absorbing impression of the effect, and the 
 art thus regains its dignity. It would be an in- 
 vidious as well as a very difficult task to assign 
 the precise order of the various arts according to 
 the above principle ; but it may be remarked, that 
 their union is a hazardous experiment, inasmuch 
 as, from their different modes and materials, they 
 depart in different degrees from nature. The 
 incongruity here alluded to, is sometimes observ- 
 able in attempts to combine the principles of 
 sculpture and painting. The drama itself, which 
 unites poetry with many characteristics of the 
 formative arts, and with music, is in constant 
 danger of violating the first principles of style, 
 viz., the consistency of its conventions ; and in 
 the more intimate union, satisfactory as it often is, 
 of poetry and music, the latter, though the inferior 
 art, is too independent and too attractive to be a 
 mere vehicle, and is commonly allowed to usurp 
 
FINE ARTS. 
 
 7 
 
 the first place. In these instances the combination 
 supposed is arbitrary ; in some cases it is indis- 
 pensable ; but the general unfitness of an art to 
 exhibit itself alone, without the aid of another art, 
 betrays its absolute inferiority. 
 
8 
 
 SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 ON THE CRITERION OF SPECIFIC STYLE.— ON THE 
 SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS OF 
 THE MIDDLE AGES.* 
 
 In tracing the history of painting and the different 
 character of its schools, the unprejudiced observer 
 may be struck with the fact, that an equal measure 
 of the world's approbation has been sometimes 
 awarded to productions apparently opposite in their 
 style and aim. This is not to be explained by the 
 variety of tastes in connoisseurs ; for the claims in 
 question are universally admitted, notwithstanding 
 the influence of individual predilections. The 
 admission supposes the existence of some less 
 mutable criterion ; and it is therefore important 
 to inquire what are the grounds on which this 
 approbation can be said to be consistent. 
 
 Considered generally, the Arts are often assumed 
 to have a common character and end : but the 
 vagueness of this principle offers no solution 
 for the question proposed. The opposite process 
 — the discrimination of the different means by 
 which a common end is arrived at — will be found 
 
 * [Extracted from the Preface to a translation of Kugler’s 
 Handbook of the History of Painting, London, 1842. — Ed.] 
 
SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 9 
 
 to lead to more definite and more useful results. 
 In all the Fine Arts some external attraction, 
 some element of beauty, is the vehicle of mental 
 pleasure or moral interest : but in considering the 
 special form, or means, of any one of the Arts, as 
 distinguished from the rest, the excellence of each 
 is not found to be in proportion to the qualities 
 which it is capable of expressing in common with 
 its rivals, but to those qualities which are unattain- 
 able by them. 
 
 We thus comprehend why various schools have f 
 attained great celebrity in spite of certain defects. 
 It is because their defects are generally such as other 
 human attainments, other modes of expression, could 
 easily supply : their excellencies, on the contrary, 
 are their own, and are unapproachable except by 
 means of the art in which they are displayed. 
 Such excellencies constitute what may be called 
 Specific Style. 
 
 Accordingly, it may always be concluded that pic- 
 tures of acknowledged excellence, of whatever school, 
 owe their reputation to the emphatic display of some 
 qualities that are proper to the art. In histories of 
 Painting these merits are often attempted to be 
 conveyed in words, and the mode in which language 
 endeavours to give an equivalent for the impressions 
 produced by a picture is at once an illustration of 
 the above principles. The description of the pro- 
 gress of time, of motion, the imagined interchange 
 of speech, the comparison with things not present 
 
10 
 
 SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 — all impossible in the silent, quiescent, and im- 
 mutable Art — are resorted to without scruple in 
 describing pictures, yet the description does not 
 therefore strike us as untrue. It will immediately 
 be seen that the same liberty is allowable and 
 necessary when representation enters into rivalry 
 with description. The eye has its own poetry; and 
 as the mute language of nature in its simultaneous 
 effect (the indispensable condition of harmony) 
 produces impressions which words restricted to mere 
 succession can but imperfectly embody, so the finest 
 qualities of the formative arts are those which 
 language cannot adequately convey/' 5. On the same 
 grounds it must be apparent that a servile atten- 
 tion to the letter of description (as opposed to its 
 translateable spirit), accuracy of historic details, 
 exactness of costume, etc., are not essential in them- 
 selves, but are valuable only in proportion as they 
 assist the demands of the art, or produce an effect 
 on the imagination. This may sufficiently explain 
 why an inattention to these points, on the part of 
 great painters (and poets, as compared with mere 
 historians), has interfered so little with their re- 
 putation. In this instance the powers of Painting 
 are opposed to those of language generally ; on the 
 same principle, they would be distinguished in 
 many respects from those of Poetry ; in like man- 
 ner, if we suppose a comparison with Sculpture, 
 
 * See Lessing’s “ Laokoon.” Compare Harris, “ Three 
 Treatises.” London, 1744, 
 
SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 11 
 
 or any imitative art, the strength of Painting will 
 still consist in tlie distinctive attributes which are 
 thus forced into notice. Of those attributes, some 
 may be more prominent in one school, some in 
 another ; but they are all valued because they are 
 characteristic — because the results are unattainable 
 in the same perfection by any other means. 
 
 The principle here dwelt on with regard to Paint- 
 ing is equally applicable to all the Fine Arts : each 
 art, as such, is raised by raising its characteristic 
 qualities : each lays a stress on those means of ex- 
 pression in which its rivals are deficient, in order to 
 compensate those in which its rivals surpass it. The 
 principle extends even to the rivalry of the formative 
 Arts generally with Nature. The absence of sound, 
 and of progressive action, is supplied by a more 
 significant, mute and momentary appearance. The 
 arrangement which, apparently artless, fixes the 
 attention on important points, the emphasis on 
 essential as opposed to adventitious qualities, the 
 power of selecting expressive forms, of arresting 
 evanescent beauties, are all prerogatives by means of 
 which a feeble imitation successfully contends even 
 with its archetype. As this selection and adaptation 
 are the qualities in which imitation, as opposed to 
 nature, is strong, so the approach to literal rivalry 
 is, as usual, in danger of betraying comparative 
 weakness. Could the imitation of living objects, 
 for example, in Painting or Sculpture, be carried 
 to absolute deception as regards their mere surface, 
 
12 
 
 SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 we should only be reminded that life and motion 
 were wanting. On the other hand, relative com- 
 pleteness, or that consistency of convention which 
 suggests no want — the test of style- — is attain- 
 able in the minute as well as in the large view of 
 nature, and may be found in some of the Dutch 
 as well as in the Italian masters. Even the ele- 
 ments of beauty, incompatible as they might seem 
 to be with the subjects commonly treated by the 
 former, are very apparent in their style of colouring 
 and in other qualities. 
 
 The rivalry of the Arts with Nature thus sug- 
 gests the definition of their general style. The 
 rivalry of Art with Art points out the specific style 
 of each mode of imitation. Both relate to the 
 means : and the universal principle of beauty, 
 which the former includes, undoubtedly places an 
 elevated treatment of form, as well as of colour, 
 among the higher attributes of Painting. The end 
 of the Arts is commonly defined not only by their 
 general nature, but by the consideration to whom 
 they are addressed. The necessity of appealing, 
 directly or indirectly, to human sympathies — the 
 conclusion which the latter definition involves — 
 tends to correct an exaggerated and exclusive 
 attention to specific style, inasmuch as the end in 
 question is more or less common to all the Fine 
 Arts. The Genius of Painting might award the 
 palm to Titian, but human beings would be more 
 interested with the inventions of Eaphael. The 
 
SPECIFIC STYLE. 
 
 13 
 
 claims of the different schools are thus ultimately- 
 balanced by the degrees in which they satisfy the 
 mind ; but as the enlightened observer is apt to 
 form his conclusions by this latter standard alone, 
 it has been the object of these remarks to invite his 
 attention more especially to the excellence of the 
 Art itself, on which the celebrity of every school 
 more or less depends, and which, whatever be its 
 themes, recommends itself by the evidence of 
 mental labour, and in the end increases the sum of 
 mental pleasure. 
 
 Next to the nature of the art itself, the influence 
 of religion, of social and political relations, and of 
 letters, the modifying circumstances of climate and 
 of place, the character of a nation, a school, and an 
 individual, and even the particular object of a par- 
 ticular painter, are to be taken into account, and 
 open fresh sources of interest. With the cultivated 
 observer, indeed, these associations are again in 
 danger at first of superseding the consideration of 
 the art as such ; but by whatever means attention 
 is invited, the judgment must be gradually ex- 
 ercised, and the eye unconsciously educated. 
 
 In avoiding too precise a definition of the end of 
 Art, it may nevertheless be well to remember, that 
 so great a difference in the highest moral interests 
 as that which existed between the Pagan and Chris- 
 tian world, must of necessity involve important 
 modifications, even in the physical elements of imi- 
 
J 4 
 
 SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 tation. However imposing the ideas of beauty and 
 of power which the Pagan arrived at by looking 
 around but not above him, by deriving his religion 
 as well as his taste from the perfect attributes of 
 life throughout nature, the Christian definition of 
 the human being, at least, must be admitted to rest 
 on more just and comprehensive relations. It is true 
 the general character of the art itself is unchangeable, 
 and that character was never more accurately defined 
 than in the sculpture of the ancient Greeks ; but 
 new human feelings demanded corresponding means 
 of expression, and it was chiefly reserved for Paint- 
 ing to embody them. That art, as treated by the 
 great modern masters, had not, like Sculpture, a 
 complete model in classic examples, and was thus 
 essentially a modern creation. The qualities in 
 which it is distinguished from the remaining speci- 
 mens of classic Painting are, in fact, nearly identi- 
 fied with those which constitute its specific style. 
 Hence, when carried to a perfection probably un- 
 known to the ancients, and purified by a spiritual 
 aim, the result sometimes became the worthy auxil- 
 iary of a religion that hallowed, but by no means 
 interdicted, the admiration of nature. 
 
 The consideration of the influence of Religion on 
 the Arts forces itself on the attention in investi- 
 gating the progress of Painting, since so large a 
 proportion of its creations was devoted to the ser- 
 vice of the Church — in many instances, we fear we 
 must add, the service of superstition. Yet the 
 
SCKIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 15 
 
 difference or abuse of creeds may be said in most 
 cases to affect works of art only in their extrinsic 
 conditions ; the great painters were so generally 
 penetrated with the spirit of the faith they illus- 
 trated, that the most unworthy subjects were often 
 the vehicles of feelings to which all classes of Chris- 
 tians are more or less alive. The implicit recogni- 
 tion of apocryphal authorities is, however, not to 
 be dissembled. Indeed some acquaintance with 
 the legends and superstitions of the middle ages 
 is as necessary to the intelligence of the contem- 
 porary works of art, as the knowledge of the 
 heathen mythology is to explain the subjects of 
 Greek vases and marbles. Certain themes belong 
 more especially to particular times and places : such 
 are the incidents from the lives of the Saints,* the 
 predilection for which varied with the devotional 
 spirit of the age and the habits of different countries 
 and districts, to say nothing of successive canonisa- 
 tions.! Even Scripture subjects had their epochs : 
 
 * For these, the compilation of the Bollandists might be con- 
 sidered more than sufficient ; but for the wilder fables, from 
 which the subjects of early works of art were often selected, the 
 translations from Simeon Metaphrastes in Lippomano “ De 
 Yitis Sanctorum,” the “Aurea Legenda” of Jacopo della Vora- 
 gine, and the “Catalogus Sanctorum” of Peter de Natalibus, 
 w T ill be found the best guides. 
 
 t In altarpieces, it was common to represent Saints who 
 lived in different ages, assembled round the enthroned Virgin 
 and Child. This is not to be considered an anachronism, since 
 it rather represented a heavenly than an earthly assembly. 
 Such pictures in churches were often the gift and property of 
 
16 
 
 SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 at first the dread of idolatry had the effect of in- 
 troducing and consecrating a system of merely 
 typical representation, and hence the characters 
 and events of the Old Testament were long pre- 
 ferred to those of the New. The cycle from the 
 latter, though augmented, like the Bible series 
 generally, from apocryphal sources, was from first 
 to last comparatively restricted, many subjects re- 
 maining untouched even in the best ages of Art. 
 This is again to be explained by remembering, that 
 while the scenes and personages of the Old Testa- 
 ment were understood to be figurative, those of the 
 New were regarded as objects of direct edification, 
 or even of homage, and hence were selected with 
 caution.'* In general, the incidents that exem- 
 plified the leading dogmas of faith were chosen in 
 preference to others, and thus the Arts became the 
 index of the tenets that were prominent at different 
 periods. 
 
 The selection, or at least the treatment, of sub- 
 jects from the Gospels, may have been regulated in 
 
 private individuals, with whom rested the choice of the par- 
 ticular Saints introduced. The Donor, whose own portrait is 
 frequently seen kneeling in front, or standing behind, would 
 naturally select his own name-Saint, or the patron Saint of his 
 order, or the Saint to whom his family chapel or the church 
 itself was dedicated, or the local Saint most in vogue ; while in 
 some cases all these take part in what was termed the “ Sacra 
 Conversazione.” 
 
 * “ Picturse ecclesiarum sunt quasi libri laycorum,” is the 
 observation of a writer of the twelfth century. — Comestor : 
 Historia Scholastica. (Hist. Evang. c. 5.) 
 
SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 17 
 
 some instances also by their assumed correspond- 
 ence with certain prophecies ; indeed, the circum- 
 stances alluded to in the predictions of the Old 
 Testament are not unfrequently blended in pic- 
 tures with the facts of the New. The subjects 
 called the Deposition from the Cross, and the Pieta 
 (the dead Christ mourned by the Marys and Dis- 
 ciples, or by the Madonna alone), may be thus ex- 
 plained. 4 ' Hence, too, the never-fading accompani- 
 ments of the Nativity ; f hence the “ Wise Men ” 
 are represented as kings, j; and the Flight into 
 Egypt is attended with the destruction of the idols. § 
 Subjects of this class were sometimes combined in 
 regular cycles, which, in the form they assumed 
 after the revival of Art, probably had their origin 
 in the selection of meditations for the Eosary 
 (instituted in the thirteenth century) : among these 
 were the “ Joys” || and “ Sorrows ”11 of the Virgin, 
 
 * Zechariah, xii. 10. 
 
 t Isaiah, i. 3. 
 
 J Psalm lxxii. 10, 11. Certain accessories in pictures of this 
 subject are derived from Isaiah, lx. 6. 
 
 § Isaiah, xix. 1. (See Comestor, Hist. Evang. c. 10.) The 
 incident may have been directly borrowed from an apocryphal 
 source, the “Evangelium Infantiae.” Circumstances adopted 
 from similar authorities were sometimes interwoven with the 
 subjects of the New Testament. 
 
 || 1. The Annunciation. 2. The Visitation. 3. The Nati- 
 vity. 4. The Adoration of the Kings. 5. The Presentation in 
 the Temple. 6. Christ found by his Mother in the Temple. 
 7. The Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin. 
 
 H 1. The Prophecy of Simeon. (Luke, ii. 35.) 2. The 
 
 Flight into Egypt. 3. Christ, while disputing with the Doc- 
 
18 SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 and the principal events of the Passion.* Other 
 themes common at the same time had their appro- 
 priate application ; the history of St. John the 
 Baptist was the constant subject in Baptisteries ; 
 the chapels especially dedicated to the Virgin were 
 adorned with scenes from her life ; j* the hosts 
 of heaven, “ Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, 
 Virtues, Powers,” J were sometimes introduced in 
 
 tors in the Temple, missed by his Mother. 4. Christ betrayed. 
 
 5. The Crucifixion (the Virgin and St. John only present). 
 
 6. The Deposition from the Cross. 7. The Ascension (the 
 Virgin left on earth). 
 
 * The “ Seven Hours of the Passion” were: — 1. The Last 
 Supper. 2. The Agony in the Garden. 3. Christ before 
 Caiaphas. 4. Christ before Herod. 5. Christ crowned with 
 Thorns. 6. Pilate washing his Hands. 7. The Crucifixion (the 
 centurion and others present). The more complete series con- 
 tained in addition to these and other subjects : — The Flagella- 
 tion. The Ecce Homo. The Procession to Calvary, or Christ 
 bearing his Cross. The Entombment. The Descent to the 
 Limbus. The Resurrection. The Life of Christ contained, in 
 addition to many of the above, the Baptism and Transfigura- 
 tion. The Life of the Virgin, though interwoven with that of 
 Christ, formed, for the most part, a distinct series. The sub- 
 jects of all these cycles varied in number, perhaps accordingly 
 as they were separately or collectedly adapted to the divisions 
 of the Rosary and Corona. The “ Speculum Salvationis ” 
 (Augsburg edition) assigns seven to each of the first three 
 series, in the above order. The more ordinary division was 
 five for each. 
 
 t See the “ Evangelium de Nativitate Marhe ” and the 
 “ Protevangelium Jacobi.” The subjects from the history of 
 Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin (painted by 
 Taddeo Gaddi, Domenico Ghirlandajo, Gaudenzio Ferrari, and 
 others), are chiefly in the latter. 
 
 + The orders of angels, as represented by the Italian painters, 
 
SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 19 
 
 cupolas ; but the more customary subjects were the 
 Ascension of Christ and the Assumption of the 
 Virgin.* The subjects of the Old Testament were 
 universally considered as types : their assumed ulte- 
 rior meaning is frequently explained in glosses of 
 MS. Bibles, and in the “ Compendiums of Theo- 
 logy ” which were in the hands of all ecclesiastics. 
 These commentaries contained much that may be 
 traced to the early Fathers ; but during and after 
 the revival of Art they were more immediately 
 derived from the scholastic theologians, f whose 
 
 appear to have been derived from a treatise “ De Hierarchia 
 coelesti” (c. 7-11), which bears the name of Dionysius Areo- 
 pagita, and may be traced to Jewish sources. St. Thomas 
 Aquinas (after Dionysius) gives the nine orders of angels as 
 follows : “ Seraphim, Cherubim, Throni, Dominationes, Virtutes, 
 Potestates, Principatus, Archangeli, Angeli.” Vasari ventured 
 to cover a ceiling in Florence with “ Illustrations ” of a still 
 profounder lore — the Cabala. See his “ Ragionamenti ” 
 (Gior. 1.). Compare Brucker, Hist. Philosophise. 
 
 * This last subject frequently adorned the high altar. The 
 subject of the Death of the Virgin, which occurs in MSS. of the 
 middle ages, as well as in pictures of later date, was gradually 
 superseded by it. For the legend, see the “Flos Sanctorum’ 5 
 (Aug. 25), and the “Aurea Legenda both give the early 
 authorities. 
 
 t The most renowned of these doctors were of the Dominican 
 order (de’ Predicatori) ; the same fraternity afterwards boasted 
 some distinguished painters (Angelico da Fiesole, Fra Barto- 
 lommeo, etc.), and on many accounts may be considered the 
 chief medium of communication between the church and its 
 handmaid, Art. Among the earlier commentaries on Scripture 
 evidently consulted by the painters, was the Historia Scholastica 
 of Comestor, already referred to. 
 
 All information respecting the legends and attributes of the 
 
20 
 
 SCRIPTURAL AND LEGENDARY SUBJECTS. 
 
 writings appear to have had considerable influence 
 on the sacred Painting of Italy and Europe. 
 
 saints will be found in the series of Mrs. Jameson’s works on 
 Sacred Art. The English reader may also consult the first 
 volume of Lord Lindsay’s “Sketches of the History of Christian 
 Art,” London,” 1847. Among French works, the “Essai 
 sur les Legendes Pieuses du Moyen Age,” by Alfred Maury, 
 Paris, 1843, Didron’s “ Iconographie Chretienne,” Paris, 1843, 
 and the “ Manuel d’lconographie Chretienne,” by the same 
 author and Durand, Paris, 1845 (the latter work relating 
 to the Greek Church), will be found useful. There is also a 
 modern French translation of the Golden Legend. Various 
 German writers have of late years contributed to facilitate the 
 study of mediaeval works of art. Among their labours may be 
 mentioned the “ Ikonographie der Heiligen ” (Radowitz), Berlin, 
 1834 ; “ Christliche Kunstsymbolik und Ikonographie,” Frank- 
 furt a. M., 1834 ; “ Die bildlichen Darstellungen im Sanctua- 
 rium der Christlichen Kirchen,” by Dr. J. G. Muller, Trier, 
 1835 ; “Die Attribute der Heiligen,” Hanover, 1843 j and 
 “Die Heiligenbilder,” by Dr. Heinrich Alt, Berlin, 1843. 
 Other German works of the kind will readily be found in pur- 
 suing this study. 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL OP FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 21 
 
 No. Ill 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OP THE MODERN GERMAN 
 SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING.* 
 
 The present German School of Fresco Painters 
 has been formed within the last twenty-five years. 
 Its first essays were in a great measure the result of 
 a general spirit of imitation which willingly adopted 
 all that was associated with the habits of the later 
 middle ages. It is here proposed to review the 
 origin and progress of this spirit in the present 
 century. The historians of modern German art 
 have indeed traced its rise to earlier influences, 
 but all agree that the circumstances about to be 
 noticed greatly promoted the introduction of a 
 reformed taste in Painting. 
 
 The efforts to create a new style of art, in Ger- 
 many, in the beginning of the present century, were 
 intimately connected with the struggle for political 
 independence. The cathedrals and churches on 
 the Rhine had been more or less desecrated and 
 plundered, and the pictures by the early German 
 masters dispersed and sold. The gradual recovery 
 of these ended in the formation of collections of 
 
 * [Extracted from a paper in the Appendix to the Report of 
 the Select Committee on Fine Arts. 1841. — Ed.] 
 
u 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE MODERN 
 
 such works ; this led to a higher appreciation of 
 their merits, indulgently seen as they were by 
 patriots anxious to restore and maintain all that 
 especially characterised the German nation. By 
 men thus inspired, the religion and even the super- 
 stitions of their forefathers were regarded with 
 respect and interest. German artists and writers 
 again, who visited Italy, dwelt on the relation that 
 had subsisted between Germany and Italy before 
 and since the revival of letters, not only in politics 
 but in the Arts. The Tower at Pisa, the church of 
 St. Francis at Assisi, and other buildings, had been 
 erected by Germans ; and it was remembered with 
 pride, that the new life of Italy had been kindled 
 chiefly by the genius of the northern nations. The 
 spirit of the middle ages was thus in a manner 
 revived, and the Germans looked with complacency 
 on that period when the Teutonic nations, unas- 
 sisted (as they assume) by classic examples, pro- 
 duced a characteristic style of architecture, and 
 developed their native feeling in the arts of design 
 and in poetry. In those ages, Architecture, the 
 most necessary of the Arts, and therefore the first 
 in date, had time to develop itself fully, especially 
 in the north ; but before Painting could unfold 
 itself in an equal degree, the thirst for the revival 
 of classic learning, and the imitation of classic 
 models, prevented the free formation of a Christian 
 and national style. The early specimens of art 
 which were most free from this classic influence 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 23 
 
 were thus regarded with higher veneration, and the 
 Germans of the 19th century boldly proposed to 
 throw aside all classic prejudices, however imposing, 
 and follow up, in a kindred spirit, the imperfect 
 beginnings of the later middle ages. This general 
 aim connected the first efforts of Italian art still 
 more with those of their transalpine admirers ; and 
 the German painters who visited Italy recognised 
 the feeling that inspired them in all works which 
 were supposed to be independent of a classic 
 influence. * 
 
 The degrees in which this spirit has prevailed 
 have necessarily varied. With many, the imitation 
 of the earlier masters soon gave place to a juster 
 estimate of the general character of the art. The 
 antique has even, to a certain extent, reassumed its 
 empire ; but, on the other hand, some of the best 
 German artists have unflinchingly maintained the 
 general principles above described even to the 
 present day ; indeed not a few had at first returned 
 to the old faith, and had imbibed with it a still 
 deeper attachment to the works of the early 
 painters. 
 
 It is necessary to bear these facts in mind, in 
 order to understand the particular aim which many 
 (perhaps the best) of the German artists have in 
 view. The veneration for the general spirit which 
 
 * See, as a specimen of many treatises of the kind, Ansichten 
 iiber die bildenden Kiinste, &c., von einem deutschen Kiinstler 
 in Rom. Heidelberg n. Speier, 1820, p. 65. 
 
u 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE MODERN 
 
 prevailed at the revival of art was accompanied by 
 an imitation of the characteristics and even the 
 technical methods of the older painters ; the habits 
 and the productions of medieval Italy were, as we 
 have seen, easily associated with German feelings, 
 and to this general imitation the adoption of fresco 
 painting is partly to be attributed, though it is 
 doubted whether that art was ever practised at 
 an early period, beyond the Alps. Fresco painting 
 was, in short, only one of many circumstances 
 which had acquired interest and importance in the 
 eyes of German painters from the above causes. 
 The predilection for the free examples of Christian 
 art did not exclude the study of better specimens 
 created in the same spirit, but the indications 
 of a classic influence were sufficient to condemn 
 the finest works, and hence the later productions 
 of Eaphael were not considered fit models for 
 study. 
 
 Let us now consider how far we, as Englishmen, 
 can share these feelings and aims. If the national 
 ardour of the Germans is to be our example, we 
 should dwell on the fact that the Arts in England 
 under Henry the Third, in the 13 th century, were 
 as much advanced as in Italy itself; that our 
 Architecture was even more characteristic and freer 
 from classic influence ; that Sculpture, to judge 
 from Wells Cathedral, bade fair to rival the con- 
 temporary efforts in Tuscany, and that our Painting 
 of the same period might fairly compete with that 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 25 
 
 of Siena and Florence. Specimens of early English 
 painting were lately to be seen,- — some relics still 
 exist on the walls of the edifices at Westminster. 
 The proposed embellishment of the new Houses of 
 Parliament might be the more interesting, since, 
 after a lapse of six centuries, it would renew the 
 same style of decoration (though with far superior 
 knowledge) on the same spot. The painters em- 
 ployed in the time of Henry the Third were Eng- 
 lish : their names are preserved. 5 ^ 
 
 Thus, in doing justice to the patriotism of the 
 Germans, the first conviction that would press upon 
 us would be, that our own country and our own 
 English feelings are sufficient to produce and foster 
 a characteristic style of art ; that although we 
 might share much of the spirit of the Germanic 
 nations, this spirit would be modified by our pecu- 
 liar habits ; above all, we should entirely agree with 
 the Germans in concluding that we are as little in 
 want of foreign artists to represent our history and 
 express our feelings, as of foreign soldiers to defend 
 our liberties. Even the question of ability (although 
 that ability is not to be doubted for a moment) is 
 unimportant ; for, to trust to our own resources 
 should be, under any circumstances, the only course. 
 
 * See Smith, “Antiquities of Westminster,” London, 1837, 
 p. 271. He remarks: “of the seventy-six painters who were 
 employed in St. Stephen’s chapel, it is worthy of observation 
 that the whole were natives of this country, with the exception 
 perhaps of two 
 
26 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE MODERN 
 
 Ability, if wanting, would of necessity follow. In 
 the Arts, as in arms, discipline, practice, and oppor- 
 tunity, are necessary to the acquisition of skill and 
 confidence : in both want of experience may occa- 
 sion failure at first : but nothing could lead to 
 failure more effectually than the absence of sym- 
 pathy and moral support on the part of the country. 
 It is sometimes mortifying to find that foreigners 
 are more just to English artists than the English 
 themselves are. Many of our artists who have 
 settled or occasionally painted in Italy, Germany, 
 Eussia, and even in France, have been highly 
 esteemed and employed. 
 
 If, however, we are to look to the Germans, the 
 first quality which invites our imitation is their 
 patriotism. It may or may not follow that the 
 mode of encouraging native art which is now at- 
 
 o o 
 
 tracting attention at Munich is fit to be adopted 
 here. We have seen that a considerable degree of 
 imitation of early precedents is mixed up with the 
 German efforts : this of itself is hardly to be de- 
 fended ; but the imitation of that imitation, without 
 sharing its inspiring feeling, would be utterly use- 
 less, as well as humiliating. The question of fresco 
 painting is, in like manner, to be considered on its 
 own merits, without reference to what the Germans 
 have done, except as an experiment with regard to 
 climate. The fresco painters of Munich generally 
 work on the walls from May to September only : 
 the greater part of the year is thus devoted to the 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 27 
 
 preparation of the cartoons. Five months in 
 
 the year would probably be the longest period in 
 which it would be possible to paint in fresco in 
 London. 
 
 Fresco painting, as a durable and immoveable 
 decoration, can only be fitly applied to buildings of 
 a permanent character. Not only capricious alter- 
 ations, but even repairs, cannot be attempted with- 
 out destroying the paintings. There can be no 
 doubt that the general introduction of such decora- 
 tions would lead to a more solid style of archi- 
 tecture ; at the same time the impossibility of 
 change would be considered by many as an objec- 
 tion. This objection would not, however, apply to 
 public buildings. On the whole, the smoke of 
 London might be found less prejudicial than that 
 of the candles in Italian churches. The Last Judg- 
 ment of Michael Angelo could hardly have suffered 
 more in three centuries from coal fires than from 
 the church ceremonies, which have hastened its 
 ruin. The superior brilliancy (as regards this 
 quality alone) of frescoes which adorn the galleries 
 of private houses, where they have not been exposed 
 to such injurious influences, is very remarkable ; 
 as, for example, in the Farnese ceiling. The oc- 
 casional unsound state of some walls, even in 
 buildings of the most solid construction in Eome, 
 is to be attributed to slight but frequent shocks of 
 earthquake. A ceiling painted by one of the 
 scholars of the Carracci in the Costaguti Palace in 
 
28 ORIGIN OF THE MODERN 
 
 Eome fell from this cause. Such disadvantages 
 might fairly he set against any that are to he ap- 
 prehended in London, "With regard to the modes 
 of cleaning fresco, the description of the method 
 adopted by Carlo Maratti in cleaning Eaphael’s 
 frescoes, when blackened with smoke, happens to be 
 preserved : but, no doubt, modern chemistry could 
 suggest the best possible means. 
 
 The general qualities in art which fresco demands, 
 as well as those which are less compatible with it, 
 have been elsewhere considered. It has been often 
 assumed that it is fittest for public and extensive 
 works. Public works, whether connected with reli- 
 gion or patriotism, are the most calculated to 
 advance the character of the art, for as they are 
 addressed to the mass of mankind, or at least to 
 the mass of a nation, they must be dignified. 
 Existing works of the kind may be more or 
 less interesting, but there are scarcely any that 
 are trivial. This moral dignity is soon associated 
 in the mind of the artist with a corresponding 
 grandeur of appearance, and his attention is thus 
 involuntarily directed to the higher principles of 
 his art. 
 
 The painters employed on an extensive series of 
 frescoes would have to devote a considerable por- 
 tion of their lives to the object. In such an un- 
 dertaking, they ought not to encounter any im- 
 patience or want of confidence on the part of 
 their employers : the trial should be a fair one. It 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 29 
 
 would hardly be possible for the artists to paint any 
 oil pictures while so occupied ; their designs and 
 cartoons would, at least for some time, require all 
 their attention. After a few years, when assistants 
 would be formed, more leisure might be gained ; 
 and it was under these circumstances that Eaphael 
 painted in oil when employed by Julius the Second 
 in Eome. But for the first three years after he 
 began the frescoes in the Vatican, he confined 
 himself entirely to those labours ; and Michael 
 Angelo, as is well known, completed the ceiling of 
 the Cappella Sistina without assistance. 
 
 The more general practice was, however, to 
 employ scholars ; and this is one of the serious 
 considerations connected with the present ques- 
 tion. Owing to the self- educating system of 
 painters in this country, the younger artists are 
 more independent than they are elsewhere, and 
 they might have some reluctance to co-operate 
 in works in which their best efforts would only 
 contribute to the fame of the professor under whom 
 they might be employed. In Italy, and in recent 
 times in Germany, this subordination was not felt 
 to be irksome, and the best scholars were soon 
 entrusted with independent commissions. It is 
 to be hoped that artists thus created in England 
 would be commissioned to decorate private houses ; 
 the result, at all events, would be that the school 
 would gain in design, and probably without 
 any sacrifice of the more refined technical pro- 
 
30 
 
 GERMAN SCHOOL OF FRESCO PAINTING. 
 
 cesses in colouring, in which the English painters 
 now excel their Continental rivals. Some Italian 
 painters, for example, Andrea del Sarto, the Carracci 
 and their scholars, were equally skilful in oil and in 
 fresco. 
 
STATE AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 31 
 
 No. IY. 
 
 THE STATE AND PROSPECTS OF THE 
 ENGLISH SCHOOL, 
 
 CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE PROMOTION OF ART IN 
 CONNECTION WITH THE REBUILDING OF THE HOUSES OF 
 PARLIAMENT. * 
 
 In the Report of the Committee on the Fine Arts, 
 appointed by the House of Commons in 1841, it 
 was observed, that “the chief object aimed at by 
 the appointment of the Committee/' was “the en- 
 couragement of the Fine Arts of this country/' and 
 that, by means of the decoration of the Houses of 
 Parliament, “ encouragement beyond the means of 
 private patronage, would be afforded, not only to 
 the higher walks, but to all branches of art." 
 
 It is here proposed to consider this question with 
 reference to the state and prospects of the English 
 school of painting. And first it is to be observed 
 that, although “ all branches of art " may be en- 
 titled to the consideration of the Commission, 
 historical painting is not only generally fittest for 
 decoration on a large scale, but is precisely the 
 class of painting which, more than any other, re- 
 
 * [Printed in the Appendix to the First Report of the 
 Commissioners on the Fine Arts. 1842. — Ed.] 
 
32 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 quires “ encouragement beyond the means of 
 private patronage/' The want of such encourage- 
 ment has long been regretted, not by professors 
 only, but by all who have turned their attention to 
 the state of painting in England. 
 
 The desire thus manifested would not be entitled to 
 attention if it could be traced to a passing influence, 
 or to a disposition to imitate what had been achieved 
 in other countries, since this could only lead to the 
 adoption of superficial qualities, betraying, sooner 
 or later, the absence of a vital impulse. Such 
 attempts would be the more likely to be ineffectual, 
 if a different style, however humble, really corre- 
 sponding with the national taste, were at the same 
 time cultivated with marked success. The history 
 of art is not wanting in examples of schools and 
 of periods, with regard to which it might be a 
 question whether a sudden demand for historical 
 painting would have been a boon to the artists or to 
 the lovers of art. The Dutch school of the seven- 
 teenth century might be adduced as a case in point. 
 
 But even where the direction of national taste is 
 favourable to the cultivation of historical painting, 
 the peculiar difficulties of that branch of art must 
 sometimes place it in unfavourable contrast with 
 inferior departments more commonly practised, 
 and in which a relative perfection is more com- 
 monly attained. The disadvantages resulting from 
 this contrast are peculiar to modern times : at the 
 revival of art, and during its progress to excellence, 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 33 
 
 the efforts in the higher style were not in danger 
 of being undervalued, or stimulated to injudicious 
 rivalry, by such a comparison. No school ex- 
 clusively devoted to indiscriminate imitation then 
 existed. The present influence of such schools and 
 examples may partly account for and excuse the 
 occasional fastidiousness of modern amateurs with 
 regard to efforts in historical painting, and may 
 render a consistency of style more difficult for the 
 historical artist. 
 
 These admissions respecting the present diffi- 
 culties of the highest style of art cannot, how- 
 ever, render it necessary to vindicate its intrinsic 
 claims ; the sole question for consideration now is, 
 whether in this country, and at this time, there 
 exist grounds for hoping that historical painting 
 could be cultivated with success, and whether it 
 would awaken a more general interest if it were 
 duly encouraged by the state. 
 
 That the actual estimation of this department of 
 art really indicates the tendency of taste in our 
 own nation, is proved by the repeated exertions 
 of individuals in proposing plans for the promotion 
 of the style in question ; by the generous encourage- 
 ment occasionally extended to its votaries by 
 others ; but above all by the efforts of the artists 
 themselves. For it must always be borne in mind 
 that the aims of the artists are not to be considered 
 as accidental predilections apart from the public 
 feeling, but as representing a portion of that feeling. 
 
 D 
 
34 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 However variously modified by other influences, the 
 formative arts must alwajs express the manners, 
 the taste, and, in some measure, even the intel- 
 lectual habits of "the nation in which they are 
 cultivated. 
 
 But to whatever extent the mind or manners of 
 a nation may be communicable to its productions in 
 art, the result is to be looked for rather in general 
 tendencies than in degrees of technical excellence. 
 Again, not all such tendencies can be strictly re- 
 garded as belonging to national taste. Thus, they 
 cannot be so evident in religious subjects, in which 
 a common education, and long consecrated themes, 
 have tended to elevate to nearly the same standard 
 the taste of the civilised world ; nor are they so 
 distinctly manifested even in some subjects of local 
 interest, such as the acts of illustrious individuals, 
 and the commemoration of national events ; themes 
 which patriotism has everywhere supplied, and 
 which presuppose a uniformly ennobling influence. 
 The proper and peculiar tendency, the physiognomy, 
 so to speak, of national taste, is to be detected in 
 more spontaneous aims ; in the direction which the 
 arts have taken, Avhen they have been the free 
 exponents of the intellectual and moral habits of 
 society. 
 
 If, then, it were proposed to compare the English 
 school of painting (as regards its general tendency) 
 with the schools of other countries, it would be just 
 to consider the direction of taste in the latter when 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 35 
 
 art lias not been employed in the service of religion 
 and patriotism, for it is, in a great measure, under 
 such circumstances that painting has been culti- 
 vated in England. If (confining our attention to 
 the comparison suggested) we turn our attention to 
 the history of art in Spain, we find that during the 
 most flourishing period of that school there was a 
 constant demand for altar-pieces. But when not 
 employed on these, and when free to exercise their 
 own taste, or to consult that of the public at large, 
 the artists rarely selected subjects which can be said 
 to be addressed to cultivated spectators. It has 
 been remarked that neither Boelas, Castillo, or 
 Murillo (and the same might be affirmed of other 
 Spanish masters) ever painted a merely historic or 
 my thologic subj ect.* 
 
 It is repeated, the free efforts of the English 
 artists are to be regarded as an evidence of the ten- 
 dency of taste in a considerable portion of the 
 public ; but it remains to observe that both the 
 efforts and the taste may be almost irrespective of 
 the usual relation between demand and supply, 
 since the due encouragement of the higher branches 
 of art may be “ beyond the means of private 
 patronage.” This apparent contradiction of a desire 
 for a particular class of art existing independently, 
 in a great degree, of its usual consequences — the 
 actual employment of those who, with due en- 
 
 * Cean Bermudez, sobre el Estilo y Gusto en la Pintura de 
 la Escuela Sevillana, Cadiz, 1806, p. 125. 
 
36 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 couragement, might respond to it, — is explained by 
 the fact that the decoration of pnblic buildings, with 
 a view to moral or religious purposes, has always 
 been necessary for the complete establishment of a 
 school of historical painting. The history of art 
 shows that whatever may be the extent of general 
 education, the service of religion or the protection 
 of the state is indispensable for the full practical 
 development of the highest style of painting. Thus 
 formed and thus exercised, historic Art lives and is 
 progressive ; but with the aid, however liberal, of 
 private patronage alone, either its aim becomes 
 lowered, or its worthier efforts are not sufficiently 
 numerous to re-act on the general taste. 
 
 To many it may appear unnecessary to assert the 
 capacity of the English painters or of the English 
 public for the cultivation or appreciation of what is 
 called elevated Art. But it must be remembered 
 that while the great stimulus and support of public 
 employment is wanting, the exertions of the artists 
 are gradually compelled into other directions ; and 
 some observers, looking at this result alone, may 
 draw erroneous inferences from it, — may sometimes 
 hastily conclude that pictures of familiar subjects, 
 which have been of late years predominant and 
 deservedly attractive, represent the universal and 
 unalterable taste of the nation. 
 
 Such observers might at the same time remark 
 that the productions in question oftener approach 
 the dignity of history than the vulgarity of the 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 37 
 
 lowest order of subjects, and either by the choice of 
 incidents, or by their treatment, still attest the cha- 
 racter of the national taste. Indeed the evidence of 
 an intellectual aim in familiar subjects, may be con- 
 sidered as a sufficient proof that the artists of Eng- 
 land want only the opportunities which those of 
 other nations have enjoyed, in order to distinguish 
 themselves in the worthiest undertakings. But to 
 place this question in its proper light, it will be 
 necessary to take into consideration the peculiar 
 circumstances under which the English school has 
 been formed. 
 
 The great impediments to the cultivation of the 
 higher branches of Art have been already adverted 
 to. With few exceptions, painting in England has 
 not been admitted into churches, (a subject which 
 it is not intended here to discuss,) nor has it been 
 employed to any extent in the embellishment of 
 public buildings. Other difficulties have existed, 
 owing to accidental circumstances. 
 
 The perfection which the great Italian masters 
 arrived at, was the result, it is true, of slow ex- 
 perience, but happily for them the more ornamental 
 and fascinating qualities of the art were attained last. 
 With the English school it has been the reverse. 
 Its rise in the last century was remarkable for 
 sudden excellence in colouring and chiaroscuro, an 
 excellence so great, as to eclipse contemporary 
 efforts in a severer style, while it gave a bias to the 
 school. The peculiar union of what are called the 
 
38 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 ornamental parts of the art, with those essential 
 to history, which has prevailed in England, not 
 unattended with some sacrifice of more solid 
 qualities, has been generally attributed to this 
 influence. 
 
 This mixed character became more decided in 
 consequence of the circumstances under which the 
 school was developed ; namely, the subsequent in- 
 troduction and prevalence of a style suited to small 
 dimensions. Most of the distinguished English 
 artists in the time of Reynolds painted the size of 
 life. The experiment, as regards private patronage, 
 seems to have been then fairly made, and the 
 gradual change to reduced dimensions was the con- 
 sequence of the insufficient demand for large works, 
 arising from the limited size of English dwelling- 
 houses. 
 
 Hence the execution of small historical pictures ; 
 a practice recommended by the occasional example 
 of the best masters of every school. But where the 
 subject is dignified, smallness of dimensions cannot 
 consistently be accompanied by smallness of treat- 
 ment. Minute imitation is not found in Correggio's 
 Gethsemane, nor in Raphael's Vision of Ezekiel, 
 diminutive as they are. The breadth of manner 
 which is indispensable in such elevated themes is 
 not, however, essential in familiar subjects ; and 
 hence, when specimens of both styles, similar in 
 size, but widely different in their technical con- 
 ditions, are placed together, the impression pro- 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 39 
 
 duced by so marked a contrast is unsatisfactory, 
 without reference to the difference of subject. 
 
 Thus, partly through the influence of the “ orna- 
 mental ” character of the school, and partly to pre- 
 vent this abrupt contrast of treatment in pictures 
 which are to hang together in galleries, (for under 
 such circumstances, the more abstract style appears 
 to disadvantage,) the kind of historic art chiefly fol- 
 lowed is that which admits picturesque materials, 
 thus combining the attractions of familiar subjects 
 with the dignity of the historic style. Under such 
 influences has been formed an interesting portion of 
 the more modern English school, distinguished, on 
 the one hand from the Dutch, and on the other, 
 from the small works of the Italian masters ; em- 
 bracing a great variety of subjects, sometimes 
 scarcely removed from the familiar, sometimes ap- 
 proaching the grandest aim. 
 
 The circumstances that have led to the general 
 adoption of a small size are thus, it appears, acci- 
 dental, and the actual practice of our painters 
 cannot be adduced as a proof of their original 
 choice of such conditions. The frequent efforts on 
 their part, amid various difficulties, to recommend 
 larger dimensions, afford sufficient evidence of the 
 real inclination of the artists. These efforts have 
 not been confined to the ardour of youthful inex- 
 perience ; many of our best artists have returned 
 to, or persevered in, such undertakings to the last : 
 with some, the ambition to encounter the difficulties 
 
40 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 of tliis style was first kindled, even at an advanced 
 period of tlieir career. In the last century all tke 
 principal English artists, notwithstanding Hogarth's 
 success in small pictures, were in the habit, as 
 already observed, of painting the size of life — Rey- 
 nolds (considered as an historical painter), West, 
 Barry, Fuseli, Copley, Northcote, Opie, and others. 
 
 It cannot therefore be admitted that the artists 
 of England are by their own choice confined to 
 small dimensions ; but the questions now are— 
 
 Whether it is possible to afford more favourable 
 opportunities than those which have hitherto ex- 
 isted for the adequate display of historic Art % 
 
 Whether such opportunities will be sufficiently 
 numerous ? for if not, the school, after attaining 
 the excellence which honourable employment will 
 assuredly call forth, may again languish ; and 
 lastly, 
 
 Whether such encouragement will be in danger 
 of diverting the taste and practice of some artists 
 from that domestic art which is now so successfully 
 cultivated ? 
 
 The first of these questions, while it is imme- 
 diately connected with the special object of the 
 Commission, involves the consideration of the 
 abstract relation of dimensions to styles of Art. 
 This subject has been often discussed on grounds 
 independent of technical requisites ; and as very 
 different opinions have been the result, it may here 
 be allowable, without undervaluing the conclusions 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 41 
 
 derived from other considerations, to refer to the 
 mere physical or external conditions which must 
 necessarily affect the question. 
 
 In comparing the treatment of cabinet pictures 
 with that of works of the largest size — for example, 
 where the figures are colossal — it may be observed 
 that the small picture, besides being executed with 
 delicacy, generally exhibits a certain fulness of 
 detail, while the large work is not only less elabo- 
 rate, but is composed of fewer parts. Even assum- 
 ing the same subject, and one requiring a variety 
 of minute accessories, to be represented on a colos- 
 sal and on a small scale, it may be safely affirmed 
 that the degree of detail which would be admissible 
 in the small picture would be objectionable in the 
 larger. In a grander and more ideal subject, where 
 such detail would be inadmissible under any cir- 
 cumstances, the comparison could be less fairly 
 made, but a similar influence would be more or less 
 apparent. Thus, assuming other conditions to be 
 common, the greater space never allows the intro- 
 duction of more detail than the smaller, but gene- 
 rally, if not always, requires less . 
 
 Without at present entering into the examination 
 of this question, as connected with the laws of 
 vision, it may be remarked that, although the in- 
 distinctness arising from distance may be counter- 
 acted by increased dimensions, and by appropriate 
 style and treatment, it must still tend to exclude 
 certain refinements of imitation which are appreci- 
 
42 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 able in pictures requiring to be seen near, — refine- 
 ments capable of conferring an interest on details 
 that may be unimportant in themselves. The in- 
 ference is applicable to the question proposed. The 
 familiar subject, as fullest of accidental circum- 
 stance, must be best displayed in dimensions fitted 
 for near inspection, and, in an advanced state of 
 Art (as regards technical excellence), must be a 
 consequence of the habitual adoption of such dimen- 
 sions. On the other hand, the larger the figures in 
 a picture, the greater the distance at which the work 
 requires to be seen ; and as the absence of minute 
 particulars is felt to be the attribute of distance 
 without reference to the size of objects, so the acces- 
 sories in the larger work of art require to be few 
 and important. Thus, again, increased dimensions, 
 by involving the suppression of detail, suggest sub- 
 jects of corresponding dignity. 
 
 Such appears to be the relation of dimensions 
 to style arid subject, considered with reference to 
 technical results : as regards the question of taste, 
 it may be observed that the involuntary conclu- 
 sions derived from the influence of association agree 
 with the practice of Art. The analogy between 
 grandeur and the absence of detail, and between 
 minute circumstance and familiar incidents, is suf- 
 ficiently apparent. With these analogies, the im- 
 pressions produced by magnitude and its attributes, 
 and by the opposite qualities, respectively corres- 
 pond. 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 43 
 
 The general relation thus defined has often been 
 reversed in works of Art, but not with equally good 
 results, for it may be remarked that large works, 
 when elaborate in detail, and full of accidental cir- 
 cumstance, have the unpleasing effect of magnified 
 cabinet pictures ; on the other hand, diminutive 
 historical works, when treated with that breadth 
 which belongs to the grandest style, give the 
 impression of large works diminished. The last- 
 mentioned inconsistency can hardly be objected to : 
 grandeur of conception and treatment must un- 
 questionably be acceptable in any form ; never- 
 theless the abstract breadth of imitation which is 
 indispensable in elevated subjects is, under the 
 circumstances supposed, a kind of contradiction, 
 inasmuch as the vague generalisation of a distant or 
 ideal effect is submitted to close inspection, and can 
 only be so viewed. The small pictures by Raphael 
 and Correggio, before referred to, are of this descrip- 
 tion ; but the instances of such subjects being 
 treated on so minute a scale are not frequent. 
 
 The extreme conclusions which might be deduced 
 from the above conditions are strictly conformable 
 to the authority of the grandest examples of art. 
 When the representation is dilated to its full mea- 
 sure, details of costume, illusion, and even the more 
 delicate varieties of colour, are no longer fitted for 
 the dimensions. But in proportion as the sub- 
 ordinate excellencies of imitation are excluded by 
 the nature of the existing conditions, the display of 
 
44 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 the nobler qualities, still attainable, becomes more 
 necessary. As the resources of art become circum- 
 scribed, the artist's aim becomes elevated. In the 
 highest style of painting, as in sculpture, the repre- 
 sentation of inanimate substances ceases to be 
 satisfactory when they no longer directly assist 
 impressions of beauty or grandeur : and the styles 
 of art in which the living form can be least dis- 
 pensed with, are precisely those which, by the 
 abstract character of their imitation, render it least 
 objectionable. 
 
 The foregoing considerations may warrant the 
 conclusion that the grandest style of art is best 
 displayed in large dimensions. It will also follow 
 that the treatment of subjects fitted for such dimen- 
 sions, must tend to ennoble the style and taste of 
 the artist. 
 
 Works of such magnitude cannot be often in 
 demand for ordinary dwelling-houses ; hence, while 
 pictures are excluded from churches, the places in 
 which it is possible and desirable to employ the 
 higher branches of art will be the national and 
 municipal public buildings; all localities, in a word, 
 where painting can be displayed to the public in its 
 highest and most didactic form. 
 
 But — to proceed to the second question proposed 
 — will such opportunities and means of encourage- 
 ment be sufficiently numerous and enduring \ The 
 answer can be best anticipated by the exertions of 
 the artists ; it may be reasonably expected that the 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 45 
 
 employment of native talent in a great national 
 building will serve as an example throughout the 
 country, and that the style of Art which will be 
 thus recommended and promoted, may be even 
 adopted in fit situations for the decoration of the 
 mansions and villas of affluent individuals. 
 
 In answer to the third question, namely, whether 
 the encouragement of historical painting may tend 
 to alter the direction of the taste and practice of 
 those artists pursuing a hitherto more thriving and 
 popular branch of Art ? it may be allowable to 
 observe that even such a danger would be no just 
 argument against the employment of deserving 
 candidates for fame in another department. But 
 the long-neglected interests of the historical painters 
 can, it is believed, be promoted without interfering 
 in any degree with the prosperity of the class in 
 question. That school is already formed ; * and the 
 cause to which it chiefly ow T ed its rise, — the pos- 
 sibility of its productions being placed in apartments 
 of ordinary dimensions, — must ensure its duration ; 
 added to which, the societies for the encouragement 
 of Art by subscription and lottery, have generally 
 
 * [The result has been precisely what was foreseen by 
 Mr. Eastlake. Of the principal members of the school 
 ‘‘already formed” scarcely any have come forward. We do 
 not find amongst the competitors the names of Landseer, 
 Turner, Leslie, Mulready, &c., but the call for the production 
 of works in that higher branch, not hitherto patronised, has 
 produced several artists of great promise, hitherto almost 
 unknown to the public. — Ed.] 
 
46 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 in view the acquisition and distribution of compara- 
 tively small pictures. The object now is to find 
 opportunities as fit (they cannot possibly be as 
 numerous) for the development and display of 
 historical painting on a large scale. Whatever may 
 be the influence of the proposed encouragement on 
 the rising generation of artists, it is at all events 
 desirable that inclination should be free ; that the 
 inheritors of that enthusiasm which prompted the 
 best English artists of the last century to offer to 
 decorate St. Pauls Cathedral and other buildings at 
 their own expense, may no longer ask in vain even 
 for space. 
 
 The general tendency of the national talent has 
 been hitherto considered in a great measure apart 
 from the question of the actual qualification of the 
 artists. It may be sufficient, in reference to this 
 part of the subject, to acknowledge that the diffi- 
 culties of the style of Art which is now proposed, 
 may be peculiarly great in England, owing to the 
 habits and circumstances before adverted to ; and 
 that no common energy will be necessary to sur- 
 mount such difficulties. But while the artists are 
 expected to show themselves worthy of entering on 
 that career which is now opening to them, it is but 
 just to remind the enlightened judges of Art who 
 refer to the great works of other countries, that 
 those works were the result of repeated essays, and 
 that considerable time was necessary for the forma- 
 tion of the taste and practice of those who produced 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 47 
 
 them. In justice to the artists, the trial should be 
 as fairly made in England. 
 
 On ordinary occasions the imitative arts may be 
 considered as adventitious embellishments, but in 
 proposing to adorn an important national edifice, 
 where it is essential that a characteristic unity of 
 design should be maintained throughout, painting 
 should appear as the auxiliary of architecture. It 
 was thus that it was employed in the best ages of 
 Greece and Italy, and it was thus that its highest 
 development was ensured. In the present instance 
 the chief decorations in painting will be required to 
 be on an extensive scale. The difficulty of keeping 
 large masses of canvas well stretched during all 
 changes of weather, has been considered an objection 
 to the employment of that material under such cir- 
 cumstances. The evil here alluded to may be seen 
 in its worst form, in the ceiling of the chapel at 
 Whitehall, owing to the surface of the paintings 
 being highly varnished. The fittest kinds of paint- 
 ing, for the decoration of architecture, are those 
 which can be applied, when required, to every 
 surface, curved as well as plane, and for such 
 general decoration, fresco — recommended as it is 
 by the example of the great masters — appears to be 
 better adapted than any other method. 
 
 Its difficulties are not to be dissembled ; they 
 are, however, not the difficulties of the mere 
 method, but arise from the necessity of an especial 
 attention to those qualities which rank highest in 
 
48 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 Art ; qualities which, when not absolutely indis- 
 pensable, are too often neglected. Defects in com- 
 position, form, action, expression, and the treatment 
 of drapery may be redeemed in an oil-painting by 
 various merits ; not so in a fresco. A style of Art 
 thus circumscribed cannot, therefore, be recom- 
 mended for exclusive adoption ; but if studied 
 together with oil-painting, its influence can hardly 
 fail to be beneficial. The great Italian masters, 
 as is well known, practised both methods ; hence 
 their employment, frequent as it was, in fresco, led 
 to no imperfection, but, on the contrary, may be 
 considered to have been mainly conducive to the 
 vigorous character of Italian design. 
 
 The immediate and necessary connexion of this 
 mode of painting with the highest aims of Art fits 
 it to embody those inventions which belong essen- 
 tially to the domain of thought. As a mode of 
 decoration for public buildings it has peculiar re- 
 commendations : no style of painting is more clear, 
 distinct, and effective at a distance. This is partly 
 to be referred to the thorough execution, founded 
 on the intelligence of form, which it requires, and 
 to the brilliancy of the material employed for the 
 lights. But there are other causes of this distinct- 
 
 o 
 
 ness of effect more directly connected with general 
 
 design. With dimensions and distance, and a treat- 
 ed 
 
 ment that depends rather on power of light than on 
 intensity or quantity of shade for its effect, a style 
 arises which developes the elements of composition 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 49 
 
 in some measure distinct from chiaroscuro. The 
 influence of these conditions is apparent in the 
 best Italian frescoes, which, at the same time 
 that they exhibit the happiest adaptation of per- 
 spective and foreshortening, and often the most 
 skilful management of gradations of light, are 
 remarkable for impressive clearness of arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 This style of composition is still more apparent 
 in the celebrated cartoons of Raphael, in which it 
 is carried to the most emphatic simplicity, still 
 combining the picturesque principle of depth, as 
 opposed to the flatness of basso-rilievo. These 
 works were evidently treated with reference to 
 the material in which they were to be ultimately 
 executed, namely, tapestry ; in that material, as 
 wrought in Raphael’s time, powerful effects of 
 light and shade were unattainable, — a defect 
 attempted to be remedied by heightening the 
 relief of some of the objects with gold. The 
 figures are, however, colossal in size, as the works 
 were to be seen at a considerable distance, and 
 the great artist attained distinctness by means of 
 composition almost alone. The principal figures 
 are rendered important chiefly by the place they 
 occupy, and the story is comprehended at the first 
 glance ; thus a skilful arrangement supplies the 
 absence of those modes of relief which might be 
 resorted to in oil-painting ; indeed the effect of 
 light and shade, making every allowance for the 
 
50 
 
 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF 
 
 injuries of time, is far weaker than that attainable 
 in fresco.* 
 
 But assuming this general style of composition 
 to be applicable to fresco, it cannot be objected 
 that, owing to its peculiar fitness in the case re- 
 ferred to, it would in any degree disqualify the 
 artist for the practice of composition in oil-painting ; 
 for the cartoons of Raphael have always been con- 
 sidered to be among the most perfect examples of 
 arrangement and of masterly clearness in telling a 
 story, without any reference to the particular con- 
 ditions which may have influenced the painter. 
 
 In like manner as regards colouring, the practice 
 of fresco has never been found to have any un- 
 favourable influence on that of oil-painting, but 
 rather the reverse. Without referring to particular 
 works as instances of the perfection in both 
 methods, which the Italian masters of different 
 schools — Francia and Raphael, Andrea del Sarto 
 and Guido, Pordenone f and Guercino — attained, it 
 may be sufficient to mention the example of Cor- 
 reggio, in the opinion of Reynolds J the most 
 consummate of painters as regards colour and 
 execution. This great artist painted more in fresco 
 
 * [This subject is again referred to in another paper 
 (No. VIII.), but as the observations are varied, both passages 
 are retained. — Ed.] 
 
 t For a description of Pordenone’s principal fresco, the 
 cupola of S. Rocco at Venice, see Boschini, La Carta del 
 Navegar Pittoresco, Ven. 1660, pp. 90 — 94. 
 
 J Notes on Du Fresnoy, Note LV, 
 
THE ENGLISH SCHOOL* 
 
 51 
 
 than in oil, looking to the quantity of surface 
 covered. In his case it is evident that even the 
 comparative absence of depth and mass of shade in 
 fresco had no unfavourable influence on his practice 
 as an oil -painter ; while the clearness of his colour- 
 ing in his oil-paintings may not unreasonably be 
 attributed in some degree to his experience in the 
 other method.*' And here it may be allowable to 
 express the opinion, that the great skill of the En- 
 glish artists in water colours might be the means of 
 introducing new technical merits, and a new per- 
 fection in the practice of colouring in fresco, which 
 might again directly benefit the school of oil- 
 painters. 
 
 The foregoing are among the considerations 
 which it is considered might induce Her Majesty’s 
 Commissioners to recommend the promotion and 
 encouragement of historical painting in connexion 
 with the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament, 
 while a hope may be here expressed that the 
 example will be followed on other occasions. The 
 
 * The works of Correggio in fresco are here referred to 
 merely to show that the practice of that method has no dis- 
 advantageous influence on the practice of oil-painting ; but the 
 cupolas of Correggio at Parma are by no means favourable 
 examples of the durability of fresco. Their decay appears, 
 however, to have been owing to the former dilapidated state of 
 the roofs and the penetration of damp, as the lower figures are 
 better preserved. The fresco in the tribune of S. Giovanni was 
 destroyed in enlarging that part of the church; part of the 
 principal group, the Coronation of the Virgin, was fortunately 
 saved, and was inserted in the wall of the library at Parma. 
 
52 STATE AND PROSPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 employment of fresco, for a portion at least of the 
 intended works, might be proposed conditionally, 
 since it must necessarily depend on the evidence 
 of inclination and qualification on the part of the 
 artists, to work in that method. 
 
REPRESENTATION AND DESCRIPTION, 
 
 53 
 
 N o. V. 
 
 REPRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED FROM 
 DESCRIPTION,* 
 
 The question respecting the selection of fit sub- 
 jects for painting, in the decoration of an important 
 building, cannot be fairly considered without refer- 
 ring to the nature of the art itself, and the variety 
 of its styles. 
 
 The general nature of the formative arts as dis- 
 tinguished from language or description, from which 
 their subjects are often taken, is too familiar to 
 require much comments It may suffice to advert 
 to those principles of representation which have 
 been derived from such a comparison, and which 
 affect the question proposed. 
 
 In a subject taken from description it is required 
 that the impression conveyed should be as nearly 
 as possible equivalent to that of the written narra- 
 tive ; and this translation (for such it is) can rarely 
 be accomplished without some deviation from the 
 letter of the original, in order to render its true 
 
 * [Extracts from a paper in the Appendix to the Third 
 Report of the Commissioners on the Fine Arts, 1844, and from 
 the notes to the translation of Goethe’s “ Theory of Colours,”— 
 London, 1840.— Ed.] 
 
54 REPRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED 
 
 meaning. It follows, that where it is absolutely 
 impossible for painting, which only represents what 
 passes in a single moment and in one view, to 
 convey an impression equivalent to a given descrip- 
 tion, that description cannot be said to furnish a 
 good subject for representation. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds gives an instance of an ill- 
 adapted subject of this kind which was recom- 
 mended to a painter. “ It was what passed between 
 James II. and the old Earl of Bedford in the 
 council which w T as held just before the Revolution.* 
 This is a very striking piece of history ; but so far 
 from being a proper subject, that it unluckily pos- 
 sesses no one requisite necessary for a picture; it 
 has a retrospect to other circumstances of history 
 of a very complicated nature ; it marks no general 
 or intelligible action or passion,” &c. 
 
 The question here is not whether a good picture 
 
 * Dalrymple’s Memoirs. The following appears to be the 
 incident referred to : — “ As soon as James entered the city, he 
 summoned an assembly of the peers to ask their advice, and to 
 make an apology to them for not having called a Parliament. 
 In passing to the council he met with a shock, perhaps as 
 severe as any he had felt. Meeting the father of the unfortu- 
 nate Lord Russell, the old Earl of Bedford, who had offered 
 100,00(R. for his son’s life, but which the king, when Duke of 
 York, had prevailed with his brother to refuse; he said to the 
 earl, ‘ My lord, you are a good man ; you have much interest 
 with the peers ; you can do me service with them to-day.’ 
 1 1 once had a son,’ answered the earl, sighing, ‘ who could have 
 served your majesty upon this occasion.’ James was struck 
 motionless.” 
 
FROM DESCRIPTION. 
 
 55 
 
 could be made out of two persons in conversation ; 
 but whether the precise story could be told.. It 
 is evident that it could not ; and that the re- 
 presentation could not be equivalent to the de- 
 scription. 
 
 Among the changes which a subject may undergo 
 in being transferred from description to represent- 
 ation, may be mentioned the omission of circum- 
 stances which, however forcible and satisfactory in 
 words, would be disagreeable when presented to 
 the sight. One well-known instance may suffice. 
 In the AEneid the serpent coils itself twice round 
 the neck of Laocoon. Suppose some Maecenas, 
 more conversant in poetry than in art, were to em- 
 ploy a sculptor or painter to copy this description 
 literally ; the admirable lines of Virgil, thus ren- 
 dered, would produce a tasteless work of art.^ 
 
 Not only forms, but colours, however agreeable 
 in description, might be unpleasant to the sight ; 
 and the assumption that poetical allusions of this 
 kind may be literally adopted in pictures has some- 
 times led to false criticism. In this respect, the 
 means of the two arts differ widely. An image is 
 more distinct for the mind when it is compared 
 with something that resembles it. An object is 
 more distinct for the eye when it is compared with 
 something that differs from it. Similarity is the 
 auxiliary in the one case, contrast in the other. 
 
 * See Lessing, “ Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der 
 Mahierei nnd Poesie,” where this subject is fully treated. 
 
56 
 
 HE PRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED 
 
 The poet succeeds best in conveying the impression 
 of external things by the aid of analogous rather 
 than of opposite qualities : so far from losing their 
 effect by this means, the images gain in distinctness. 
 Comparisons that are utterly false and groundless 
 never strike us as such if the end is accomplished 
 of placing the thing described more vividly before 
 the imagination, or of conveying an impression of 
 excellence. In the common language of laudatory 
 description the colour of flesh is “ like snow mixed 
 with vermilion ; ” these are the words of Aretino in 
 speaking of a figure of St. John, by Titian. Nu- 
 merous instances of the kind might be quoted from 
 poets : even a contrast can only be strongly con- 
 veyed in description by another contrast that re- 
 sembles it : as 
 
 “ Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night, 
 
 Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear.” 
 
 Romeo and Juliet 
 
 On the other hand, whenever poets have attempted 
 the painter’s method of direct contrast, the image 
 has failed to be striking, for the mind’s eye cannot 
 see the relation between two colours ; to say 
 nothing of the vagueness of their names. It has 
 been already observed that words, necessarily pre- 
 sented in succession, are, strictly speaking, inade- 
 quate to the expression of harmony, the elements of 
 which must be simultaneous. 
 
 Poets, to avoid competition with the painter’s 
 
FROM DESCRIPTION. 
 
 57 
 
 elements, or rather to attain their end more com- 
 pletely, have often judiciously taken refuge in moral 
 qualities when describing forms and colours. By 
 means of such associations hues which would be 
 far from agreeable to the eye become pleasing. All 
 light, positive colours, light-green, light-purple, 
 white, may be thus recommended to the mind’s 
 eye ; no degree of dazzling splendour is offensive, 
 and no repose is required. 
 
 To insist, therefore, that a work of art should be 
 absolutely faithful to the description from which it 
 is taken (though that description might be excellent 
 in itself, and true to the conditions of eloquent lan- 
 guage,) might be sometimes fatal to its success. 
 
 The restriction of representation to a single mo- 
 ment and a limited space, has suggested various 
 liberties in painting and sculpture, in order to 
 render the impression, as nearly as possible, equiva- 
 lent to that of the story represented. For example, 
 in Raphaels celebrated painting, representing the 
 possessed, boy brought to the apostles while Christ 
 was transfigured on Mount Tabor, the painter has 
 taken the liberty of bringing the figures of the 
 Redeemer, and those who were with him on the 
 Mount during his transfiguration, near, and has 
 reduced the mountain to a hillock. 
 
 This is an instance of a great liberty taken with 
 space, but not with time, since the two events 
 represented may be supposed to have happened 
 together, and it is evident, that in order to be 
 
58 
 
 REPRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED 
 
 equivalent to the description, the scene of the trans- 
 figuration required to he prominent. The ultimate 
 object of the artist in proposing such a subject to 
 himself it is not necessary here to inquire into. 
 
 The liberties taken with time are much more 
 common, but they are only considered excusable in 
 historic art when they greatly increase the force 
 of the impression, and render it on the whole a 
 more intelligible translation of the description. It 
 is to be observed that the great artist above men- 
 tioned, in most of his Scripture subjects, does not 
 depart in this respect from the letter of sacred 
 history. 
 
 The liberties taken with the personal appearance 
 of historical characters are thus defended by Rey- 
 nolds. “ How much the great style exacts from its 
 professors to conceive and represent their subjects 
 in a poetical manner, not confined to mere matter 
 of fact, may be seen in the cartoons. In all the 
 pictures in which the painter has represented the 
 apostles, he has drawn them with great nobleness ; 
 he has given them as much dignity as the human 
 figure is capable of receiving ; yet we are expressly 
 told in Scripture that they had no such respectable 
 appearance ; and of St. Paul, in particular, we are 
 told by himself, that his bodily presence was mean. 
 A painter must compensate the natural deficiencies 
 of his art. He cannot, like the poet or historian, 
 expatiate, and impress the mind with great vener- 
 ation for the character of the hero or saint he 
 
FROM DESCRIPTION. 
 
 59 
 
 represents, though he lets us know, at the same 
 time, that the saint was deformed, or the hero 
 lame. The painter has no other means of giving 
 an idea of the dignity of the mind, but by that 
 external appearance which grandeur of thought 
 does generally, though not always, impress on the 
 countenance ; and by that correspondence of figure 
 to sentiment and situation which all men wish but 
 cannot command. The painter ought to give all 
 that he possibly can, since there are so many cir- 
 cumstances of true greatness that he cannot give 
 at all. He cannot make his hero talk like a great 
 man ; he must make him look like one.” 
 
 The precept here given, in its application to 
 historical painting, properly so called, may require 
 to be received with caution ; and the great authority 
 referred to by Reynolds may be quoted on the other 
 side as having attained the grandeur of his style, at 
 least without losing himself in vapid generalisation, 
 a defect so frequent in the later Italian schools. 
 The rule is chiefly applicable to works of large 
 dimensions, and requiring to be seen at some dis- 
 tance ; but in paintings which admit of nearer 
 view, the power of expression has often triumphed 
 over unpleasing forms. 
 
 The liberties taken with costume are notorious, 
 and are frequent among the great masters. Their 
 sole object seems to have been to be true to the 
 imagination. Even in the instance of Nicholas 
 Poussin — the most remarkable of the older pain- 
 
60 REPRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED 
 
 ters for attention to costume— the air of remote 
 antiquity, the classic probability which he con- 
 trives to give to his works, are addressed quite as 
 much to the imagination as to the erudition of the 
 spectator ; and the artist s materials are selected or 
 modified according to their applicability to this 
 larger purpose, for he is frequently incorrect in the 
 mere scholarship of costume. The rage for classic 
 research in some modern (now nearly extinct) con- 
 tinental schools often led to the reverse of this 
 principle, viz. the habit of addressing the under- 
 standing rather than the imagination. The wea- 
 pons of Homers warriors were chiefly tempered 
 copper,* not steel ; but as few persons are accus- 
 tomed to associate this circumstance with their 
 conception of Homeric battles, the representation 
 (for such representations have appeared) was un- 
 satisfactory, though true. 
 
 The extent of modern antiquarian researches, in 
 increasing information in archaeology, has increased 
 the number of critics ; and to be true, even to the 
 imagination, now, a painter requires to be more 
 attentive to the details in question than the earlier 
 artists were. But the character of art is unchange- 
 able, and the materials of costume are still to be 
 considered subservient to the end of representation. 
 Notwithstanding the gross errors in costume, which 
 are observable in the pictures of the Venetian and 
 Flemish masters, it will be remembered that such 
 
 * Millin, Mineralogie Homerique, p. 133. 
 
FROM DESCRIPTION. 
 
 61 
 
 errors have scarcely weighed in the balance when 
 their merit as artists has been considered ; and that, 
 on the other hand, the most rigid correctness in 
 costume would never of itself be sufficient to con- 
 stitute a fine picture. 
 
 The practice of the great Italian painters re- 
 sembled that of the artists of antiquity. Their first 
 care was to avoid as much as possible a modern 
 appearance and ordinary associations in dress ; and 
 this was frequently extended even to contemporary 
 subjects and portraits. In selecting obsolete cos- 
 tumes they were at least sure that taste could not 
 alter respecting them, or that if any reaction took 
 place it would be in favour of such costumes. The 
 dress being once removed from the immediat e present, 
 they were not particular about the precise period of 
 a subject, and were guided chiefly by the demands 
 of the art. Thus Giorgione appears to have dressed 
 his figures in costumes older than those of the 
 period in which he lived. * Raphael, who willingly 
 introduced the flowing robes of the clergy and 
 religious orders (unaltered from much earlier times), 
 and the armour and habiliments of Swiss guards 
 (uncommon from their foreign appearance), took 
 great liberties with the general costume of the 
 period in which he lived. 
 
 Many of the licences above adverted to are re- 
 gulated by the style of the art ; different subjects, 
 
 * The story of Rembrandt’s collection of old costumes 
 indicates the same taste. 
 
62 REPRESENTATION AS DISTINGUISHED, ETC. 
 
 indeed, suppose different modes of imitation, and 
 even different dimensions. The imitation of the 
 details of dress is one of the points which charac- 
 terise w r orks of art of moderate size ; for the fullest 
 means of imitation which painting can employ are, 
 strictly speaking, most appreciable in such dimen- 
 sions, as coming within the range of most distinct 
 vision ; and hence, the more complete those means, 
 the more the introduction of accidental circum- 
 stances is compatible with due gradation. But, as 
 dimensions and distance increase, or, as the scale 
 of effect which represents the differences of nature, 
 from whatever cause, becomes less full, or less 
 appreciable, the objects represented require to be 
 selected with an especial regard to their importance, 
 beauty, and character. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 63 
 
 No. VI. 
 
 SCULPTURE.* 
 
 The restrictions imposed on the selection and 
 treatment of subjects by the nature of the art itself, 
 are much more rigid in the case of sculpture, which, 
 strictly speaking, has but one style. The principle, 
 that in proportion as the means of representation 
 become circumscribed the imitation of inanimate 
 objects becomes less satisfactory, is here especially 
 applicable. The surface of life, either alone, or 
 with drapery that indicates the form or adorns it, 
 was with the Greek sculptors the chief object of 
 imitation. 
 
 As in considering the claims of painting it is de- 
 sirable to keep the highest style in view, though 
 that style may be seldom attainable or seldom ap- 
 plicable, so in sculpture, a description of the prac- 
 tice of the ancients in their best works may not be 
 out of place here, although it is too certain that 
 modern habits and associations may often render it 
 impossible to conform to the example. 
 
 It will be needless to dwell on the more obvious 
 requisites of sculpture ; the necessity of beauty in 
 
 * [From a paper in the Appendix to the Third Report of the 
 Commissioners on the Fine Arts, 1844 . — Ed.] 
 
64 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 an art which can conceal nothing ; the necessity of 
 balancing the mere weight, and the degree of 
 symmetry in composition which results from that 
 law ; or on the general principles (applicable to all 
 the arts of design) of proportion, breadth, gradation 
 of quantities, and contrast. It is proposed here 
 chiefly to consider its specific style,* as more 
 directly affecting the question of the selection of 
 subjects fitted for it. For this purpose it will be 
 necessary to ascend to its simplest elements. 
 
 The art of sculpture imitates with more or less 
 completeness the real bulk of objects, their sub- 
 stance and form, but it does not imitate their 
 colour. This restriction is the result of a compre- 
 hensive view of imitation ; it is by no means from 
 actual impossibility, but because the end of genuine 
 illusion would be defeated by the attempt. A 
 statue coloured to the life might deceive the spec- 
 tator for a moment, but he would presently discover 
 that life and motion were wanting ; and the imita- 
 tion would be consequently pronounced to be in- 
 complete. Whatever is attempted by the arts, the 
 
 * The general style of the formative arts is the result of a 
 principle of selection, as opposed to indiscriminate imitation. 
 It consists, therefore, in qualities which may be said to distin- 
 guish those arts from nature. The specific style of any one of 
 the arts consists in the effective use of those particular means 
 of imitation which distinguish it from the other arts. Style is 
 complete when the spectator is not reminded of any want 
 which another art or which nature could supply. [See the 
 Essay, No. 11. — Ed.] 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 65 
 
 perfection of style requires that the imitation, how- 
 ever really imperfect with reference to nature, or 
 even with reference to other modes of representa- 
 tion, should suggest no want. The imagination 
 then assents to the illusion, though the senses are 
 far from being deceived. 
 
 As it is -well known that the ancients occasionally 
 added colour to their statues, it will be necessary to 
 consider this difficulty at once. It may be observed 
 that the colours employed were probably never in- 
 tended to increase the resemblance of the object to 
 nature, but that they served only to insure distinct- 
 ness, or were merely for ornament. The gilding of 
 the hair, for instance, however objectionable, would 
 not be condemned on the ground of its being too 
 close an imitation of real hair. So also the colour 
 which was sometimes appropriated to the statues of 
 Mercury, Bacchus, and Pan, would never be mis- 
 taken for flesh. Sometimes the accessories only 
 were coloured. An epigram, ascribed by Heyne to 
 Virgil, alludes to a statue of Amor with party- 
 coloured wings and a painted quiver. But the 
 mixed materials of some of the statues even of 
 Phidias, the gems inserted for eyes, and the silver 
 nails of other figures,* all indicate a practice which 
 
 * See Pausanias, who, in his description of Greek statues, 
 gives a variety of such examples. Three kinds of embellish- 
 ment were sometimes added to complete the work of the 
 sculptor ; three classes of decorators finished the statue — the 
 varnisher, the gilder, and the tinter. Letronne (Lettres d’un 
 
66 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 the taste of modern artists condemns, and which 
 was, perhaps, condemned by the ancient sculptors 
 also. In many cases religious devotion may have 
 interfered to decorate a statue, as paintings of the 
 Madonna are sometimes adorned with real necklaces 
 and crowns. In the instance of the chryselephantine 
 statue of Minerva by Phidias, the Athenians in- 
 sisted that the materials should be of the richest 
 kind. 
 
 Notwithstanding these facts and the difficulty of 
 altogether exculpating the artists, it is quite certain 
 that it was impossible to carry further than they 
 did those judicious conventions in sculpture, which 
 supply the absence of colour. It may therefore be 
 presumed that such supposed absence of colour was, 
 with the ancients, an essential condition of the art ; 
 and it will appear that this condition materially 
 affected its executive style. 
 
 It would indeed soon be apparent that the differ- 
 ences which colours in nature present — for example, 
 in the distinction of the face from the hair, and of 
 the drapery from the flesh — require to be met in 
 sculpture by some adequate or equivalent differ- 
 ences ; hence, the contrasts adopted were either 
 
 Antiquaire a un Artiste. Paris, 1840, p. 399.) quotes a passage 
 from Plutarch (De Glor. Athen.) where these different artists 
 are referred to : ayaXparcov iyaavcrrai, xpvo-arai /cat j 3acpe7s. 
 
 Letronne and Muller are of opinion that the draperies and 
 accessories only were painted and gilt, the undraped portions 
 of the statue being merely varnished. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 67 
 
 greatly conventional or dictated such a choice of 
 nature as was best calculated to supply the absent 
 quality. 
 
 It will first be necessary to inquire what degree 
 of resemblance was proposed in the imitation of the 
 living form. In the fine examples of sculpture the 
 surface of the skin, though free from minute acci- 
 dents, is imitated closely. The polish is, however, 
 uniform ; first, because any varieties in this respect 
 could not be distinguished at a due distance ; and 
 secondly, because a rough surface on marble in the 
 open air is sure to hasten the corroding effect of 
 time by affording minute receptacles for dust or 
 rain, while in interiors the rough portions would be 
 soonest soiled." 
 
 In polishing the marble the ancient sculptors 
 were sometimes careful not to obliterate or soften 
 too much the sharp ridges of the features, such as 
 the edges of the eyelids, lips, &c. These sharp- 
 nesses were preserved, and occasionally exaggerated, 
 in order to insure a distinct light and shade on the 
 features at a considerable distance. Such con- 
 trivances, it is almost needless to say, were in a 
 
 * The Laocoon is often quoted, on the authority of Winkel- 
 mann, as an instance of an antique work finished with the file ; 
 but a careful inspection shows that the marks of the instru- 
 ment are subsequent to the polish. It is probable that such 
 marks are no older than the period when the group was dis- 
 covered, when this mode may have been adopted to clean it. 
 The Farnese Hercules was unfortunately so treated before it 
 migrated from Rome to Naples. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 great measure dispensed with in statues intended 
 for near inspection. Lastly, the marble received a 
 varnish (rather to protect the surface than to give 
 it gloss), the ingredients of which may be gathered 
 from a passage in Vitruvius.* 
 
 These modes of finishing the surface are detailed 
 because it is of importance to remark that this was 
 the extent of the imitation. The varnish, doubtless, 
 would give mellowness to the colour of the marble ; 
 but it may be assumed that a statue thus finished 
 was nearly white. 
 
 The flesh is always the master-object of imita- 
 tion in the antique statues ; the other substances, 
 drapery, armour, hair, or whatever they may be, 
 are treated as accessories, to give value and truth 
 to the nude. It follows that the differences of 
 colour which, as before observed, are met by some 
 equivalent differences in the colourless marble, are 
 solely expressed in the accessories — the principal 
 object imitated being nearest to reality, and never, 
 as it were, abandoning its supremacy in this respect. 
 But it will have been seen that, when all was done, 
 the marble flesh was in itself a convention, owing to 
 the absence of colour ; it was therefore for the artist 
 to take care that the spectator should never be re- 
 minded of this want. 
 
 Drapery, which in nature may be supposed to be 
 different in colour, as it is certainly different in 
 texture from the flesh, was made to differ from the 
 
 * L. 7. c. 9. 
 
SCULPTURE* 
 
 69 
 
 appearance of the flesh accordingly, especially when 
 they were in immediate juxta-position. Thus, 
 although in marble the mere colour of the drapery 
 is the same as that of the flesh, it is generally so 
 treated that the eye is enabled, instantly and at a 
 considerable distance, to distinguish the two, and 
 nature is thus successfully imitated. The requisite 
 contrast is generally effected by means of folds 
 varying in direction and quantity according to the 
 portions of the figure with which they are in con- 
 tact. The difference which the colours of nature 
 exhibit is thus represented by another kind of dif- 
 ference, but which is still in nature. 
 
 Simple and allowable as this principle of imita- 
 tion seems to be, it was rejected by the Italian 
 sculptors of the seventeenth century, as their 
 practice shows. In their works the flesh is often 
 confounded with flat drapery, from a mistaken 
 endeavour to give the breadth which is desirable in 
 painting. It is to be remarked that the broad 
 masses of drapery which occur in the antique are 
 always so contrived as to leave no doubt respecting 
 the substance. For example, when flat masses cross 
 the limbs they cannot easily be confounded with 
 them. 
 
 Again, in nature it is possible for hair to be so 
 smooth as to offer scarcely any difference in surface 
 from the flesh. Indiscriminate imitation has also 
 had its advocates in this particular, and many 
 Italian statues of the period referred to want colour 
 
70 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 to make the hair distinct from the face. The hair 
 in the antique, — whether crisp in its undulations, 
 like that of the Venus of Milo : or soft like that of 
 the Medicean Venus ; or bristled in unequal masses, 
 like that of the Dying Gladiator ; or elaborately 
 true, like that of the Lucius Veras ; or where 
 even, as in the early Greek works, represented 
 by undulating scratches, or by a series of regular 
 curls, ^ — is always more or less rough and chan- 
 nelled so as to present a surface, sometimes from 
 its deep shades almost approaching a mass of dark, 
 opposed to the face. All this is only a judicious 
 choice, and a skilful translation of nature. 
 
 In these, and similar modes of distinction, as the 
 accessories are treated in a relative and compara- 
 tive manner, they cannot possibly be so near to 
 nature as the flesh. This relative effect is gene- 
 rally compatible with the admission of some or 
 more of the proper qualities of the accessories ; but 
 it sometimes happens that, in them, the relative 
 effect alone is studied. Thus, a detached portion of 
 the hair of the Laocoon, or of the Dying Gladiator, 
 would hardly be recognised for what it represents ; 
 the same might be said of detached portions of some 
 draperies. This large principle of imitation is not 
 
 * In coins, resembling* dots or globules. The expression of 
 Burke, “ The artificial infinite is composed of multitude and 
 uniformity,” was the sole principle with the early artists. In 
 the outlines on the vases, sand strewed on the ground is 
 expressed by a line of regular dots. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 71 
 
 to be recognised in less perfect examples of the art. 
 The sculpture of the time of Hadrian, even when of 
 colossal size, and requiring to be seen at some 
 distance, is indiscriminately finished throughout. 
 The master-object of imitation is consequently less 
 effective. 
 
 The possibility of imitating drapery, literally, 
 accounts for some of the practices of the ancient 
 sculptors which, though judicious, have been some- 
 times objected to. Difficult as it may be supposed « 
 to be to imitate a flexible substance in stone, the 
 surface which drapery presents in a quiescent state 
 may be copied in marble so as to produce illusion. 
 For, the surface being completely rendered, we have 
 only to suppose the original drapery to be white in 
 colour, and the imitation in white marble is at once 
 on a level with all absolute facsimiles. The con- v 
 sequence would be, that in a white marble statue 
 with drapery thus literally copied from nature we 
 should immediately discover that the flesh was not 
 of the natural colour — jy discovery which we should 
 never be permitted to make . The flesh, from want- 
 ing colour, sets out with a departure from nature, 
 and the conditions . of imitation require that no 
 other substance should surpass the flesh in resem- 
 blance to its prototype. We should therefore pause 
 before we condemn the occasional squareness, 
 straightness, and parallelism of the folds in some 
 antique specimens, since this treatment not only 
 serves to distinguish the drapery from the undulat- 
 
n 
 
 SCULPTURE, 
 
 ing outline and roundness of the limbs, but gives it 
 that degree of conventional treatment, which pre- 
 vents it from surpassing the flesh in mere truth of 
 imitation. Thus the art is true to its own con- 
 ditions, and this, at whatever cost attained, is neces- 
 sary to constitute style. 
 
 The very different practice of the sculptors of the 
 17th and 18 th centuries, Algardi, Bernini, Puget, 
 Le Gros, and others, justly celebrated as they are on 
 many accounts, can hardly be supposed to have 
 existed without a decided disapproval of the system 
 of the ancients. A French sculptor, about the 
 middle of the last century, pronounced the draperies 
 of the antique to be “without taste, without in- 
 telligence, and without truth.” This criticism of 
 Falconet, often repeated in his Essays, is quite con- 
 sistent with his defence of absolute imitation, which, 
 as has been seen, is most possible or rather only 
 possible, in subordinate objects. 
 
 The restrictions which the above considerations 
 impose on the absolute imitation of drapery cannot, 
 however, extend to the treatment of the hair ; not 
 only because an exact imitation of the substance is 
 here next to impossible, but also because the marble 
 is even more unlike the real colour of hair than 
 that of flesh ; hence, provided it preserve its relative 
 effect, the closest imitation may be attempted with- 
 out any danger of being truer than the marble flesh. 
 Varieties of execution would here only depend (as in 
 the instances before given) on situation, dimensions, 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 73 
 
 the nature of the material, and the character of the 
 subject* 
 
 With reference to dimensions and distance it is 
 to be observed that there might be cases where, 
 from the smallness of figures as compared with the 
 distance at which they could be seen (suppose the 
 pediment of a temple), the conventions in question 
 would be inadequate to produce the apparent dis- 
 tinction of substances without such exaggeration 
 as would be altogether inconsistent with the imita- 
 tion of nature. Under such circumstances the 
 contrivances in question do not keep pace with the 
 distance, and it is probable that these were the cases 
 where the aid of colour was resorted to. 
 
 It must be evident that, without colour, the ex- 
 pedients, however violent, which are intended to 
 correct the indistinctness of distance, must, sooner 
 or later, cease to produce any effect ; and the point 
 at which the Greek sculptors stopped seems to have 
 been defined by the law of never suffering such 
 conventions to interfere with the apparent imitation 
 of nature while the work was seen at the distance 
 which its size required . The consequence is, that 
 works which for two thousand years were placed at 
 such a height that their finer merits could not be 
 appreciated, have been found w r orthy to be en- 
 shrined as gems in modern museums — have been 
 found to combine a perfect intelligence of the 
 specific style of sculpture with an unsurpassed truth 
 of imitation. 
 
74 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 The purpose of the present remarks requires, 
 however, that this specific style should be kept 
 chiefly in view. 
 
 The colour of white marble, which, it appears, 
 may sometimes increase the illusion of drapery, is 
 not the only quality by means of which some sub- 
 stances may resemble nature more literally than 
 the marble flesh can. The qualities of smoothness, 
 of hardness, of polish, of sharpness, of rigidity, may 
 be perfectly rendered by marble. It is not easy to 
 ' conceive a greater accumulation of difficulties for a 
 sculptor aiming at the specific style of his art to 
 contend with, than the representation of a person- 
 age in the modern military dress. The smoothness 
 and whiteness of leather belts, and other portions 
 - of the dress, may be imitated to illusion in white 
 and smooth marble. The polish, the hardness and 
 sharpness of metal, and the rigidity even of some 
 softer materials, are all qualities easily to be at- 
 tained in stone ; yet the white marble flesh is 
 required to be the most like nature, though sur- 
 rounded by rival substances that, in many cases, 
 may become absolute facsimiles of their originals. 
 The consequence of the direct and unrestrained 
 imitation of the details in question is, that the flesh, 
 however finished, looks petrified and colourless, for 
 objects of very inferior importance, even to the 
 buttons, are much nearer to nature. The objection 
 to these details, from their unpleasant or unmean- 
 ing forms, is here left out of the account. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 75 
 
 The boldness with which the ancient sculptors 
 overcame similar difficulties is remarkable. Thus, 
 to take an extreme case, rocks , which in marble can 
 be easily made identical with nature (thereby be- 
 traying the incompleteness of the art in other 
 respects), are generally conventional in fine sculp- 
 ture ; witness the basso-rilievo of Perseus and An- 
 dromeda, and various examples in statues where 
 rocks are introduced for the support of the figure. 
 In order to reduce literal reality to the conditions of 
 art, the substance, in this instance, is, so to speak, 
 uncharacterised ; the same liberty is observable in 
 sculptured armour as treated by the ancients ; 
 sharpness is avoided, and the polish does not sur- 
 pass, sometimes does not equal, that of the flesh. 
 In like manner, steps, or any portions of architec- 
 ture, are irregular and not geometrically true in 
 their lines and angles ; on a similar principle, pro- 
 bably, the inscriptions on the finest antique medals 
 are rudely formed : for it cannot be supposed that 
 the artists who could treat the figures and heads so 
 exquisitely could have been at a loss to execute 
 mechanical details with precision. 
 
 In Canovas monument to the Archduchess Maria 
 Christina at Vienna, (in many respects a fine work 
 of art,) figures are represented ascending real steps 
 and entering the open door of a real tomb, all ex- 
 ecuted with a builder’s precision. It is plain that, 
 to keep pace with the literal truth of these circum- 
 stances, the figures should at least have colour, life, 
 
78 
 
 SCULPTURE, 
 
 and motion. The want of all these is injudiciously 
 made apparent by the comparison in question, and 
 the sculptor would seem to have taken pains to con- 
 vince the spectator that he is looking only at marble 
 statues. 
 
 In the antique, on the contrary, it will generally 
 be found that the employment of conventional 
 methods (as opposed to the more direct truth of 
 representation) increases in proportion as objects 
 are easily imitable, and consequently in danger of 
 interfering with the higher aim. 
 
 The contrivances which are intended to give the 
 impression of reality to the master-object of imita- 
 tion, as exemplified in the best works of the 
 ancients, thus point out the course to be pursued 
 in the difficult treatment of statues in modern 
 costume. The general principle, it is repeated on 
 the authority of such examples, is never to suffer 
 literal truth in the accessories to remind the be- 
 holder of the unavoidable incompleteness in the 
 more important object of imitation. 
 
 The principles of that general style which is com- 
 mon to all the Fine Arts confirm the above view. 
 According to those principles, art, as such, can 
 never be literally confounded with nature. The 
 very existence of imitation (however successful its 
 result may be) depends on the condition that its 
 means should be, more or less, different from those 
 of nature. But sculpture at the outset gives sub- 
 stance for substance. A common quality being 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 77 
 
 thus unavoidable, art is immediately on tlie watch 
 to maintain its independence by laying a stress on 
 all the differences in its power that are consistent 
 with imitation. Accordingly, the form of the sub- 
 stance assumes peculiar beauty ; it is thus removed 
 at least from, ordinary nature. The colour (in the 
 imitation of the human figure) is altogether dif- 
 ferent from nature. Other qualities in the sub- 
 stance being given, the opposite qualities in nature 
 are, in like manner, selected for imitation. The 
 lifelessness , hardness , and rigidity of the material, 
 point out the elastic surface of life and flexible sub- 
 stances, as the fittest objects for the artist's skill. 
 Imitation is complete when we forget that the 
 marble is white, lifeless, and inflexible. But if we 
 are compelled to remember this by the introduction 
 of qualities common to nature and to the marble 
 (mere substance being already common), the first 
 principle of art, as such, is violated. The selection 
 of qualities differing from the nature of the material 
 in which they are imitated has, necessarily, its 
 limits. Flying drapery, foliage, water, clouds, 
 smoke, are opposed, but may be too much opposed, 
 to the artificial substance to render imitation pos- 
 - sible. The spectator is in this case again reminded 
 of the material. 
 
 The ultimate opinion on such questions is in in- 
 voluntary harmony with our impressions respecting 
 the works of nature. In the vast chain of created 
 things the ambiguous links are the least satisfactory 
 
78 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 to us, because they are imperfect approaches to more 
 characteristic examples, and remind us of a com- 
 pleteness which is not their own. There would be 
 as little doubt in art, on such questions, if its 
 various styles were sustained by artists equal to 
 each other in ability. In inquiries like the present 
 this condition is always supposed. It is not the ill- 
 advised license only which is to be allowed to be 
 recommended by genius ; equal powers are to be 
 granted to vindicate the perfection of style. 
 
 The above considerations may now be pursued 
 with reference to bronze : this material is commonly 
 preferred for costume subjects; partly, perhaps, 
 because it may be supposed to differ more equally 
 and consistently from the colours of reality ; but 
 even this may be questionable, for many surfaces, 
 and even hues, will surpass the resemblance of the 
 flesh to nature. It is also to be observed, that 
 certain thin materials which cannot he expressed in 
 marble are capable of being copied to illusion in 
 bronze, and, as usual, at the expense of the master- 
 object of imitation. 
 
 As the details of statues, whether of marble or of 
 bronze, become indistinct at a moderate distance, 
 and especially in the atmosphere of London, it is 
 essential that their general outline should be in- 
 telligible. For this purpose bronze, though from 
 the darkness of its colour possessing less command 
 of light and shade than marble, is preferable, be- 
 cause the encumbering supports that are necessary 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 79 
 
 iii marble may be entirely dispensed with in metal 
 on account of the strength of tlie material, leaving 
 the essential form more distinct. 
 
 A complicated or contorted attitude would thus 
 be considered unfit for bronze figures intended to 
 be seen at some distance, since the mere outline, 
 which would alone be visible, would be unintelli- 
 gible. But, on the other hand, a statue, even in 
 this material, intended for an interior, where it 
 could be nearly and minutely inspected, can require 
 no such restrictions. Thus the bronze (in the 
 Capitol at Borne) of the boy pulling the thorn out 
 of his foot, was evidently intended, from its attitude 
 as well as from its size, to ornament an interior. 
 
 A colossal statue, of whatever material, when in- 
 tended to be seen chiefly at a distance, is treated 
 on the larger principle, and will not generally be 
 found to have its attitude accommodated for a near 
 view also. But when a figure of colossal dimen- 
 sions can only be seen near, common sense seems 
 to demand that the head should be inclined down- 
 wards, otherwise the face must necessarily be 
 foreshortened, and imperfectly seen. Much has 
 been said of the imitation, intended by Phidias, 
 of the Homeric nod in his statue of Jupiter at 
 Olympia ; but when we consider the colossal size of 
 the figure, and the limited distance at which it 
 could be seen in the interior of the temple, we 
 at once see a sufficient reason why the head should 
 look down. 
 
80 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 It has been seen that the differences of colour 
 which nature presents, and by which we are chiefly 
 enabled to distinguish objects, are met in sculpture 
 by more or less conventional means ; but the com- 
 parison of these differences can extend only to the 
 component surfaces of one and the same statue. A 
 figure entirely draped beside one that is not so, 
 like the group called Papirius and his mother (or 
 Orestes and his sister), seems to extend the scale, 
 but in truth, except where the different substances 
 are in contact, the opposition, as a representative 
 of colour, is scarcely apparent. In general, there- 
 fore, it may be affirmed that it is beyond the 
 powers of sculpture to distinguish one entire figure 
 from another by any convention which can re- 
 present a contrast of colour. The difference of 
 complexion between a Hercules and an Omphale, 
 for instance, is not attempted ; hence the limita- 
 I tions of the art in grouping ; for notwithstanding 
 the similarity of colour, it is necessary that the eye 
 should distinguish every figure without effort. 
 
 Even in single figures the distinction between 
 the drapery and the flesh is chiefly expressed where 
 they meet, and are immediately opposed to each 
 other ; in other parts remote from the flesh the 
 drapery often exhibits very nearly the same surface 
 as the nude. Again, where the drapery clings to 
 the form (a contrivance particularly objected to by 
 Falconet), it is the limb, rather than the drapery, 
 which is apparent. There are, however, examples 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 81 
 
 in the antique where the entire surface of the 
 drapery is plaited or channelled, so as to represent 
 a general difference in its whole mass to the 
 surface of the skin. Some figures of Amazons 
 are thus treated ; and in most female statues 
 the drapery, being thin in texture, with minute 
 folds, offers a constantly roughened surface, and 
 insures a general opposition to the nude. Ex- 
 amples of this treatment occur among the Elgin 
 marbles. 
 
 But the powers of the art in these conven- 
 tional contrasts may be said to be exhausted in 
 one figure. The means of distinction that remain i 
 when colour is abstracted, are, difference of form, 
 and difference of place or position (sufficient 
 separation). As regards difference of form, the 
 sculptors of the Parthenon — in addition to the 
 varieties of sex and age, draped and undraped 
 figures — found a resource in the introduction of 
 the horse, the most perfect of quadrupeds ; the 
 forms of which, particularly in the pediments, 
 contrasted agreeably with those of the human 
 figures, and prevented the monotony sometimes 
 observable in the architectural sculpture of other 
 schools. The mere separation of the figures and 
 groups is unavoidable in sculpture applied to 
 the tympana of porticoes or in alto-rilievo ; but 
 while the figures remained white, the ancients 
 thought it necessary to insure the distinctness of 
 the outlines by colouring (generally blue) the 
 
82 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 white marble background on which they were 
 relieved. # 
 
 If such precautions were deemed advisable in 
 sculpture consisting of almost isolated figures, in 
 order to insure distinctness, it is easy to compre- 
 hend why the ancients avoided extensive groups 
 “ in the round/' The same qualities must be con- 
 stantly recurring, and the want of that variety 
 which nature presents would not only be fatiguing 
 to the eye and attention, but the identity of hue 
 would remind the spectator of the material ; a proof 
 that the art would have attempted too much. 
 
 The most unobjectionable mode in which the 
 ancient sculptors treated a group is, perhaps, ex- 
 emplified by the Laocoon. The figures are, in a 
 great measure, distinct, but yet sufficiently united 
 to form a whole. In the group of the Boxers, 
 which belongs to the class called Symplegmata by 
 Pliny, the circumstance of the figures being only 
 two in number (which appears to have been a con- 
 dition of every group of the kind f), does away, in 
 some measure, with the objection ; even here it 
 may be questioned whether the absolute similarity 
 of colour does not remind us that they are of 
 
 * See K. Wiegmann, “Die Malerei der Alten.” Hanover, 
 1836, p. 111. 
 
 t The term Symplegma has been employed by modern writers 
 as meaning a group of any kind ; but it is certain that it was 
 originally applied only to close compositions, such as the Boxers, 
 Hercules and Antaeus, &c. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 83 
 
 marble — a proof that the art has gone to its limits. 
 The group of Dirce tied to the horns of the Bull by 
 Zethus and Amphion (called the Toro Farnese), 
 may be objectionable on the same grounds, though 
 the figures are treated as much as possible as se- 
 parate wholes, so as to give the utmost distinctness ; 
 but the necessity of this very precaution may be 
 considered an evil, except in the application of 
 sculpture to architecture. 
 
 These observations are purposely confined to the 
 specific style of sculpture. It is to be remembered 
 that great excellencies may exist where this style 
 is not rigidly attended to ; and objections to such 
 examples on the above grounds are not to be under- 
 stood to extend to high imitative or inventive 
 merits which belong to the artist of genius. With 
 this explanation it may be remarked that the group 
 of the Rape of the Sabines, by Giovanni da Bologna, 
 is not treated on the same principle which is ob- 
 servable in the Laocoon. In the Rape of the 
 Sabines a very near inspection is necessary even to 
 trace and distinguish the figures. The result is 
 wonder at the power of the artist. In the antique 
 group the subject strikes us forcibly ; but we are 
 not so much reminded of the artist. The group of 
 the Laocoon was not calculated to be seen on every 
 side. Compositions which admit of this are rare in 
 the antique, and belong to the decline of art, for 
 sculpture had passed the period of its perfection 
 before its connexion with architecture ceased. The 
 
84 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 sculptors of the Bernini school considered it de- 
 sirable that a group should have eight points of 
 view. The consequence would be, that no one of 
 the eight could predominate, or be forcible in its 
 impression. 
 
 Thus the Greek sculptors seem to have made 
 every consideration bend to the specific style of 
 their art ; and however narrow the limits, to those 
 limits they confined themselves. It is commonly 
 supposed that the manners and habits of the 
 ancients, and the scantiness of their dress, are suf- 
 ficient to account for the practice of their artists : 
 this may be shown to have been at least an ex- 
 aggerated view. 
 
 “ It is certain,” observes Visconti,"'' “ that the 
 costumes of Greek and Roman statues are not in 
 general those of the time, but belong to an earlier 
 period.” The liberty of representing heroes un- 
 dressed is well known. “No hunter ever went to 
 the chase so little attired as the Meleager of the 
 
 O 
 
 Vatican. No warrior ever appeared in the field like 
 the hero miscalled the fighting gladiator. Achilles 
 was not present at the council of Agamemnon 
 as he is represented in a basso- rilievo of the Capitol; 
 Laocoon did not officiate as a priest naked. The 
 care taken by Ulysses to appear with decorum 
 before the daughter of Alcinous proves that Jason 
 could not have presented himself in a nude state 
 at the court of iEetes, or at that of the king of 
 
 * Opere, vol. iii. p. 47. 
 
SCULPTURE, 
 
 85 
 
 Corinth, when he conversed with Medea or Creusa, 
 although in various rilievi he is so represented/’ 
 “ The statues of distinguished Grecians, Pindar 
 Euripides, Demosthenes, Aristotle, and others, 
 which are undoubtedly iconic, are dressed only in 
 a large mantle, thrown in a picturesque manner 
 over the figure. This costume was never that of the 
 Greeks ; some of the Cynics only had adopted it/’ 
 Even in later times, and when the actual costume 
 is somewhat familiar, “ the statues of Romans, such 
 as Pompey, Agrippa, Augustus, are naked, or with 
 drapery only as an unimportant accessory.” 
 
 “ The ancient sculptors were less free when they 
 represented events of their own time on triumphal 
 arches or other public monuments, but, not to men- 
 tion the introduction of allegorical figures, they still 
 took great liberties with the costume of the period. 
 The details of dress which, from whatever cause, 
 happen to be introduced in the figures on the Trajan 
 column prove how much was suppressed on other 
 occasions. Other works of the time of Trajan, 
 executed perhaps by the same artists, offer not the 
 slightest trace of these details.” In the rilievi 
 in question the soldiers wear a sort of neckcloth 
 (focale), and the upper open part of their tunics 
 is furnished with a row of buttons. 
 
 As the art declined the costume was represented 
 more faithfully. “The Icena (later known by the 
 name of lorum ), though belonging to the ancient 
 Roman costume, first appears in works of art of 
 
86 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 the time of Septimius Severus. The consuls are 
 rudely represented on the ivory diptychs of a later 
 period in all the pomp of their official dress. But 
 in works of a better age no Roman magistrate is 
 ever represented with the prcetexta , no senator with 
 the laticlave * no patrician with the crescent on his 
 sandal; although these were respectively the badges 
 of their rank. The umbo, or knot of the toga, on the 
 breast, is in like manner represented in no statue. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that in statues 
 the principal garments are worn next to the skin, 
 whereas the writers of both languages make men- 
 tion of indusium, subucula, hypobasis and hypo - 
 dytes.” 
 
 It was observed that costumes were imitated 
 more faithfully during the decline of art. It was 
 the same in the ages of its immaturity. In Egypt 
 the dresses were indiscriminately copied; and in the 
 same proportion imitation was imperfect, and taste 
 undeveloped. The example is not without its use 
 in other respects, for when the extreme warmth of 
 the climate is considered, the multifarious Egyptian 
 costumes are sufficient to prove that the civilised 
 inhabitants of Greece and Italy were at least equally 
 clad. The naked colossal statue of Pompey would 
 
 * The stripes and borders of the trabea, and the prcetexta 
 (varieties of the toga), and the latus clavus on the tunic, being 
 only coloured additions to the dress, would hardly be found in 
 good sculpture. They are, however, represented by indented 
 lines on later and inferior works. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 87 
 
 have been as strange to the Romans, had they not 
 been accustomed to similar works of art, as Canova’s 
 naked colossal Napoleon was to the Parisians. In 
 the Panathenaic procession at Athens, as in all 
 processions, the pomp of dress was a main part of 
 the show. But in the sculptured representation of 
 this scene, the elder functionaries have one loose 
 garment becomingly thrown over the naked figure ; 
 and the Athenian cavaliers wear a still lighter 
 
 O 
 
 mantle, which, sometimes flowing from their shoul- 
 ders in the breeze, shows their forms entirely un- 
 draped. The women, however, from motives which 
 the Athenians never lost sight of, are fully but 
 gracefully clad. With this exception the peplon 
 of Minerva was not more shorn of its embroidery, 
 in the marble, than the greater part of the figures 
 were of their real costumes. It is necessary to 
 compare, in imagination, the judicious liberties of 
 the sculptor, producing as they did the finest work 
 of its kind in existence, with the ship bearing the 
 peplon, the veiled women, the dresses of ceremony 
 worn by the official personages, and the armed 
 cavalry accoutred for a field-day. It is necessary 
 to compare the reality with the work of art in order 
 to be convinced that the difficulties of reconciling 
 
 o 
 
 the style of sculpture with costume are not peculiar 
 to modern times. We may be convinced at the 
 same time that the Greeks, having once defined the 
 essential nature of the art (in which was compre- 
 hended the condition of an especial regard to 
 
88 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 decency), pursued it without any other compromise 
 whatever.'* Their definition was rational. Genius 
 laboured in the best direction, and perfection was 
 the result. 
 
 The lapse of ages can make no alteration in such 
 principles. It is still unreasonable to look for all 
 the details of history in the arts which are the sis- 
 ters of poetry ; it is still unquestionable that each 
 must seek its proper excellence in order to assert 
 its rank in the scale of human attainments ; and 
 that in proportion as the sphere is circumscribed, 
 the characteristic aim which constitutes style re- 
 quires to be guarded with especial jealousy. In 
 
 * “The ancient sculptors, 5 ’ observes Visconti, “employed 
 drapery for three reasons, and with three different views — from 
 a motive of decency, as a simple ornament, and as a symbol of 
 characteristic indication. 
 
 “ They employed draperies from motives of decency in the 
 statues of women and goddesses. The sculpture of the ancients 
 j represents no individuals of the sex entirely unclothed, except 
 when the artist has supposed the pretext of the bath, or in the 
 case of the ocean deities; on which account Venus (Aphrodite) 
 and the Nymphs are represented undraped. Other excep- 
 tions are extremely rare. It may even be affirmed that the 
 ancient sculptors were more reserved in this respect than the 
 moderns.” 
 
 The sculpture of the ancients, in addition to the end pro- 
 posed by particular subjects, especially aimed at that depart- 
 ment of moral culture which relates to outward manners and 
 decorum. The artists seem to have considered that beauty 
 would have been incomplete without grace and modesty ; and 
 their statues of gods and heroes, as Winkelmann has shown, 
 never appear in an attitude or occupation which is not calculated 
 to inspire respect. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 89 
 
 considering the question whether art should be 
 sacrificed to mere facts, or these to art, it should 
 be remembered that historical details can be pre- 
 served by other records than by representation, and 
 by other modes of representation than by the 
 highest ; but that the essential objects of the Fine 
 Arts can be attained by no other means except 
 their own. 
 
 It has been the object of the foregoing observa- 
 tions, by a reference to examples in a limited 
 branch of imitation, to invite attention to the 
 modes in which nature may be approached, without 
 sacrificing what has been called the independence of 
 style. The masterworks of sculpture are especially 
 calculated to show that the two aims are quite com- 
 patible. They illustrate the great condition that 
 art, though distinct from reality, should still main- 
 tain an equality with it. The rivalry supposes ex- 
 cellence ; but an excellence attained by different 
 means. This change of means, this adopted form 
 or language, is the universal and indispensable con- 
 dition of the imitation proposed by the Fine Arts. 
 The peculiarities of that new form, the points in 
 which it differs from nature, are supposed to be 
 defined and recognised at the outset. The distinc- 
 tion from reality, which they establish, may vary in 
 degree, as it necessarily does in kind, with each 
 mode of representation ; but it is, in every case, 
 required to be so palpable that whatever illusion 
 
*90 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 afterwards takes place, must be the voluntary illu- 
 sion of the imagination. 
 
 The first question, then, in examining the style 
 of a given art, is — in what does this difference of 
 means, as compared with nature, consist ? The 
 answer may, for the present, be confined to sculp- 
 ture. It is agreed, then, or it is a convention , that 
 a colourless, hard substance shall be the material 
 with which the sculptor shall imitate the perfection 
 of life. His means are, by this primary condition, 
 effectually distinguished from those of nature ; and 
 it remains for him to cheat the imagination (not the 
 senses), into the pleasing impression that an equiva- 
 lent to nature can be so produced. He may, there- 
 fore, imitate the characteristics of life closely ; his 
 select representation, however faithful, is in no 
 danger of being literally confounded with reality, 
 because of the original conventions, viz., the absence 
 of colour, and the nature of his material. But it is 
 not the same with the imitation, in this art, of many 
 other surfaces : as already observed, a rock in sculp- 
 ture and a rock in nature can be identical ; it may, 
 therefore, be sometimes necessary to imitate the 
 reality less closely, or even, in extreme cases like 
 that now adduced, to depart from nature. The 
 reason is obvious : the degree of resemblance to 
 reality which is attainable in the principal object of 
 imitation — the surface of the living figure — is, from 
 the established convention, limited ; and it is desir- 
 able that the spectator should forget this restriction. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 91 
 
 He is, therefore, by no means to be reminded of it 
 by greater reality in other, and necessarily inferior, 
 parts of the work. In painting, it is sometimes 
 objected that inferior objects are more real than the 
 flesh. The defect is great : but there is this differ- 
 ence between the two cases ; in painting, the in- 
 feriority in the imitation of the flesh may be only 
 from want of power in the artist ; in sculpture, the 
 perfect resemblance of the flesh to nature is impos- 
 sible, in consequence of the absence of colour. The 
 literal imitation of subordinate objects is, for this 
 reason, more offensive in sculpture than in painting. 
 A manifest defect in the art seems more hopeless 
 than a defect in the artist. 
 
 Thus, where a difference between the means of 
 art and those of nature already exists (having been 
 originally agreed on), the resemblance to reality 
 may be safely most complete. Where such pre- 
 scribed conventions cease, the resemblance is con- 
 trived to be less direct. The extent to which nature 
 would require to be departed from, in the treatment 
 of some subordinate objects in sculpture, and the 
 constant difficulties that must arise in balancing the 
 claims of such particulars (from the nature of the 
 subject and other considerations), may have been 
 among the reasons which induced the Greek sculp- 
 tors to get rid of them as much as possible. When, 
 however, such circumstances are introduced in fine 
 sculpture, they are so treated as not to surpass 
 the degree of resemblance to nature, which the 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 qo 
 
 V (O 
 
 master object of imitation presents. Hence, the 
 works in question, as has been shown from various 
 examples, clearly teach the principle on which the 
 illusion of the imagination depends. They prove, 
 also, that the recognised conditions of a given art 
 are, in truth, its safeguard, and the source of the 
 artist’s inspiration. For those conditions not only 
 tend to prevent the inferiority of his imitation to 
 reality, but invite him to arrest appearances and im- 
 pressions, which may compensate for the deficiencies 
 of his means. Those means being (in the sculptor s 
 case especially) limited, either the choicest facts in 
 nature, or the completest triumph over the means of 
 the art, are required in order to maintain the equality 
 proposed. But if the circumstances which the work 
 has in common with nature are both trivial in 
 themselves and expressed by the same means which 
 nature employs, then art is in danger of merging in 
 reality, and of suggesting the conviction, that it is, 
 at best, superfluous. When facts are not rare, the 
 language in which they are expressed (if they must 
 be expressed at all) most requires to be new. 
 
 That new language, it is repeated, is supplied by 
 the conditions agreed on— the postulates which are 
 the groundwork of imitation. The finest examples 
 of mere art are those which successfully appeal to 
 human experience and sympathies by means which, 
 outwardly, are in a great measure different from 
 those of nature.* The representation of space on a 
 
 * Compare Reynolds’s 13th Discourse. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 93 
 
 flat surface is thus estimated highly in the mere art 
 of painting : illusion in such a quality, assisted by 
 the conventional treatment of circumstances more 
 easily imitable, cannot be too complete. In like 
 manner a close resemblance to nature is judiciously 
 sought by the sculptor where his material seems to 
 promise it least ; while he suppresses literal imita- 
 tion when the qualities of that material greatly 
 coincide with those of the object to be represented. 
 The principle is the same in all the arts ; for 
 whether directly imitative or not, all set out with 
 restrictions, and all excite wonder and delight when 
 those restrictions cease to be felt as such. It is this 
 which wins our admiration in musical compositions ; 
 when the language of imagination and feeling is 
 recognised in sounds, that, intrinsically and even 
 conventionally, have no meaning ; in poetry, when 
 the free variety of thought and expression compels 
 us to forget an almost unvarying form or rhythm ; 
 and in architecture, when the union of fitness and 
 character (the attribute of the most perfect produc- 
 tions of nature) is accomplished in a new creation. 
 
 In pursuing the analogies here considered, it is 
 necessary to compare mere art with art — the form, 
 as such, of the one, with the form of the other* 
 Thus, in comparing sculpture and poetry together, 
 the parallel conditions are to be sought in the 
 strictly corresponding departments. As sculpture, 
 in reference to nature (to repeat an observation 
 before made), -gives substance for substance, so 
 
94 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 poetry gives words for words. Accordingly, the 
 form of poetry is, by agreement or convention 
 (similar in principle to that which dictated the 
 conditions of sculpture), effectually distinguished 
 from the form of ordinary language. And it will 
 now be seen that the limitations of poetry, in such 
 outward characteristics, are more definite and more 
 comprehensive than those of sculpture ; for, whereas 
 the material of marble may sometimes coincide 
 literally with that of substances in nature, the form 
 of poetry never can entirely coincide with that of 
 ordinary language. This greater liability of sculp- 
 ture to be confounded with reality certainly adds to 
 its difficulty ; since the doubtful cases which may 
 be left to the taste of the sculptor are often settled 
 by an immutable rule for the poet. 
 
 Horace, in describing his journey to Brundusium, 
 intimates that the name of a town is omitted 
 because it was not, by its form, compatible with 
 his verse. ^ It is easy to suppose cases where the 
 omission of certain particulars might be required in 
 sculpture, in accordance with the conventions of 
 that art. But those conventions are less binding, 
 and the modern artist would, perhaps, rather in- 
 fringe a vague rule than suppress a fact. The 
 example above quoted is a strong case ; for there 
 can be no question that, in an historical and anti- 
 quarian point of view, the omission is to be re- 
 gretted. The poet might perhaps be censured for 
 
 * Mansuri ounidulo, quod versu dicere non est. (Sat. v.) 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 95 
 
 not telling liis story in prose ; but having chosen 
 verse, he could not violate its laws. Here, again, 
 the principle is applicable to all the Fine Arts. It 
 is not to be supposed that they can rival science. 
 Whatever knowledge they may themselves require 
 is a means only to another end, and they injudi- 
 ciously remind us of their restrictions if they 
 attempt what ordinary description can do better. 
 
 To conclude : it appears that, of all the Fine 
 Arts (except perhaps theatrical representation), 
 sculpture is most liable to be partially confounded 
 with reality. Of the attributes of material objects, 
 it first possesses substance and form ; and when in 
 addition to these qualities it happens to have colour 
 and surface in common with nature, it is evidently 
 in danger of sacrificing its general consistency, and 
 the illusion which art proposes. Again, in con- 
 sequence of the absence of colour, identity with 
 nature is impossible in the chief object of imitation, 
 the living figure. These two circumstances — the 
 impossibility of absolute resemblance to nature in 
 the principal object, and the extreme facility of 
 such resemblance in many inanimate substances — 
 define the style of sculpture ; a style fully exem- 
 plified in the works of the ancients. On the 
 authority of those works, it has been shown that 
 this art, on the one hand, aims at the closest imita- 
 tion of the living figure in its choicest forms ; for 
 such can best compensate for the want of colour, 
 and enable the art to rival nature. In subordination 
 
96 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 to this, its first aim, sculpture affects tlie imitation 
 of elastic and flexible substances generally. On the 
 other hand, it is distinguished by the greater or less 
 conventional treatment, or by the entire omission of 
 all particulars which are more literally imitable than 
 the flesh. The instances of such conventional treat- 
 ment, including alterations of costume and omis- 
 sions of various circumstances, which are observable 
 in the sculpture of the Greeks, are perhaps the most 
 remarkable liberties, with a view to consistency of 
 style, which the history of art presents. 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 97 
 
 No. YII. 
 
 BASSO -RILIEVO. 
 
 The Italian term basso-rilievo, or the French 
 bas-relief, is commonly applied to any work of 
 sculpture connected more or less with a plane sur- 
 face or background, and in this general sense is 
 opposed to insulated detached figures, or sculpture 
 in the round. In its more particular meaning, 
 basso-rilievo, low or flat relief, is usually appro- 
 priated to figures which have a very slight pro- 
 jection from the ground. Alto-rilievo, on the other 
 hand, is not only rounded to the full bulk, but has 
 generally some portions of the figures quite de- 
 tached; and mezzo-rilievo (a style between the two), 
 although sometimes rounded to a considerable bulk, 
 has no part entirely unconnected with the plane 
 surface or ground. A more accurate definition 
 of the styles to which these designations refer will 
 result from the explanations that follow. The terms 
 used by the Greeks and Komans to distinguish 
 these kinds of relief cannot perhaps be determined 
 with complete accuracy ; and it may be here re- 
 marked, that those writers are mistaken who sup- 
 pose the word Toreutike (ropevTLKr)) to have been 
 applied by the Greeks exclusively to alto-rilievo, 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 since Heyne, and indeed other writers before him, 
 have proved that the term was appropriated to 
 carving, and, chiefly, chasing in metal, in any kind 
 of relief. The Latin word corresponding with it is 
 codatura. The Greeks seem to have employed the 
 term anaglypta to denote works in relief in general. 
 The ectypa scalptura of Pliny (xxxvii. 10.), accord- 
 ing to Mtiller, means sculpture in the concave sense 
 ■ — or Intaglio. The term glypta (from yXv^co, to 
 
 cut into , to hollow out), with other words formed 
 from the same verb, also appears to denote sculp- 
 ture in the concave sense. Herodotus in a passage 
 of his second book (cap. 138.), where we have little 
 doubt that he is speaking of the sunk Egyptian 
 reliefs (which will be mentioned in another part of 
 this article), couples a word formed from the verb 
 yXvcpoi with the word typus ( tvttos ) ; typus itself 
 (perhaps) always means a work in relief, properly 
 so called. (See Herod, iii. 88. Cicero ad Atticum, 
 i. 10.) Italian writers of the time of Vasari, it 
 appears, used the term mezzo-rilievo for the highest 
 relief, basso-rilievo for the less prominent, and 
 stiacciato for the flattest or least raised. 
 
 Whatever may have been the origin of this kind 
 of sculpture, and there is no doubt of its being very 
 ancient, an idea will be best formed of its style, as 
 practised by the Greeks, by supposing it to be 
 derived from the partial insertion of a statue in a 
 perpendicular plane. Alto-rilievo is often literally 
 nothing more than this. Applied to a flat surface, 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 99 
 
 the disposition of the limbs and the actions of the 
 figure become necessarily more or less parallel with 
 that surface, in order sufficiently to adhere to it. 
 The attitude is thus, in a certain degree, adapted 
 or selected. In inserting or embedding a figure in 
 a flat ground, it is obvious, that although it may be 
 buried less than half its thickness, as in alto-rilievo, 
 it cannot be buried more, nor indeed (the structure 
 of the figure strictly considered) quite so much, 
 without ceasing to present the real boundary or 
 profile of the form. In the less prominent kinds of 
 rilievo it is therefore still required that the outline 
 should present the real form, and this principle in 
 its further application excludes, in a great measure, 
 the unreal forms of perspective and foreshortening, 
 which would suppose that the objects are no longer 
 parallel with the surface on which they are dis- 
 played. Attempts at foreshortening, in this kind of 
 sculpture, must in most cases fail to satisfy the eye : 
 the work can only be seen in front, and the appear- 
 ance it presents is therefore required to be at once 
 intelligible, for no uncertainty can be removed by 
 an inspection from another point of view, as in 
 walking round a statue. The substance, or thick- 
 ness, need not, however, be real, provided it appear 
 so. The compression of the substance, which con- 
 stitutes the various degrees of mezzo and basso- 
 rilievo, thus follows the compression or flattening 
 of the action, the characteristic of alto-rilievo. 
 Lastly, the modifications of which this branch of 
 
100 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 sculpture was susceptible were adopted, as we shall 
 see, according to the varieties of light, situation, 
 dimensions, and use. 
 
 The Greeks, as a general principle, considered the 
 ground of figures in relief to be the real wall, or 
 whatever the solid plane might be, and not as 
 representing air as in a picture. The art with 
 them was thus rather the union of sculpture with 
 architecture than a union of sculpture with the con- 
 ditions of painting. That this was founded on 
 rational principles will be evident from the follow- 
 ing considerations. The shadows thrown by figures 
 on the surface on which they are relieved at once 
 betray the solidity of that surface. In the attempt 
 to represent, together with actual projection, the 
 apparent depth of a picture, or to imitate space, 
 figures which are supposed to be remote are re- 
 duced in size ; but although thus diminished in 
 form, they cannot have the strength of their light 
 and shade diminished ; and if deprived of shadow 
 by inconsiderable relief, they cease to be apparent 
 at all when the work is seen from its proper point 
 of view, that is, at a sufficient distance ; having 
 no distinctness whatever in the absence of colour, 
 but by means of light and shade. Indeed, the art 
 thus practised, has no longer an independent style, 
 and only betrays its inferiority by presenting de- 
 fects which another mode of imitation can supply. 
 A passage in Vitruvius proves that the ancients 
 were not unacquainted with perspective ; the same 
 
BASSO-RILIEYO. 
 
 101 
 
 author states that perspective scenic decorations 
 were first employed by Agatharcus at Athens, 
 in the time of iEschylus. However greatly the 
 science may have been improved by the moderns, 
 this may be sufficient to show that the absence 
 of perspective in Greek bassi-rilievi was not from 
 an absolute ignorance of its principles, but from 
 a conviction that they would be misapplied in 
 sculpture. 
 
 In carefully keeping within the limits, however 
 narrow, which defined the style of rilievo, the great 
 artists of antiquity failed not to condense into 
 that style the utmost perfection compatible with 
 it, while the various applications of the works 
 suggested abundant variety in their treatment and 
 execution. The British Museum contains unques- 
 tionably the finest existing specimens of this branch 
 of sculpture in the rilievi which decorated the 
 Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, at Athens. We 
 have here to consider the judicious adaptation of 
 their styles for the situations they occupied ; but 
 in regard to their general excellence as examples 
 of art, it may also be well to remember that 
 these sculptures were the admiration of the ancients 
 themselves. Seven hundred years after they were 
 produced Plutarch spoke of them as “ inimitable 
 works.” 
 
 The figures which adorned the pediment are 
 separate statues, although in their original situa- 
 tion, casting their shadows on the tympanum, they 
 
102 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 must have had the effect of bold alti-rilievi ; the 
 circumstance of their being thus completely de- 
 tached must have given the greatest distinctness to 
 their forms, and as they occupied the highest part 
 of the building, their gigantic size and complete 
 relief made them fully effective at a considerable 
 
 f 
 
 distance. The sculptures which adorned the me- 
 topes, or spaces between the triglyphs, are in alto- 
 rilievo. Those in the British Museum, represent- 
 ing combats with Centaurs, were taken from the 
 south side of the building : the subjects were 
 varied on the other sides, but they mostly related 
 to the warlike exploits of the Athenians. It has 
 been well observed that the subjects of combats, 
 usually chosen for the metopes in Doric temples, 
 afforded opportunities of composing the figures so 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 103 
 
 as to produce diagonal lines, which effectually dis- 
 tinguished the groups from the architecture, and 
 at the same time had the effect of reconciling the 
 vertical forms of the triglyphs with the horizontal 
 lines of the epistylium and cornice. The composi- 
 tions in question all fully occupy the space destined 
 for them, and are calculated, from their treatment 
 and relief, to produce the utmost possible effect. 
 These works, receiving the open light, were 
 thus boldly relieved from their ground to insure 
 the masses of shadow which make them conspi- 
 cuous : the principle, applicable to external archi- 
 tecture, that projection commands shade, was thus 
 extended to external decorations ; and care seems 
 to have been taken to keep the light on the figures 
 as unbroken as possible, especially as the whole 
 series of metopes occupying the external frieze was 
 more or less crossed by the shadow of the cornice. 
 This precaution necessarily limits the attitudes, for 
 many actions equally natural with those adopted 
 would have projected shadows on the figure itself, 
 thus tending to confuse the forms. A statue 
 which can be seen from various points, and some- 
 times in various lights, might thus be unfit as to 
 its composition for that intelligible display in one 
 view and under a constant light which rilievo 
 requires. 
 
 On the principle that high relief is fittest for 
 the open light, the rilievi of the temple of Phi- 
 galeia, which are also preserved in the British 
 
104 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 Museum, are bold in their projections. These 
 works adorned the interior of the cella ; but as the 
 temple was hypsethral, or lighted from the open 
 sky, the principles of external decoration were 
 applicable. Had the temple been imperfectly 
 lighted, a flatter kind of relief would have been 
 preferable, and this leads us to consider the style 
 of basso-rilievo, properly so called, the most perfect 
 existing specimen of which is also in the British 
 Museum. It adorned the external wall of the cella 
 of the Parthenon, within the peristyle or colonnade, 
 and was consequently always in shade : the 
 
 strongest light it could ever receive would probably 
 be the reflection from the pavement below when 
 the sun was highest ; but as reflected lights are 
 uncertain, and may proceed from various points, 
 the sculptures in question were calculated to be 
 equally distinct in whatever direction the light was 
 thrown. Their great elevation, and the peculiar 
 angle at which they were seen, owing to the nar- 
 rowness of the space between the exterior columns 
 and the cella, may also be mentioned in considering 
 the reasons which rendered projection unadvisable. 
 That this confined view was not, however, the sole 
 reason, may appear from the bold relief of the 
 Phigaleian marbles, which, in the interior of the 
 narrow cella of the temple they adorned, must 
 have been seen, on the side walls, at a very incon- 
 siderable distance compared with their height. 
 The Phigaleian temple was built, according to 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 105 
 
 Pausanias, by Ictinus, the chief architect of the 
 Parthenon ; and although the sculptures are infe- 
 rior, as works of art, to the generality of Greek 
 specimens, their style of relief is precisely the point 
 in which the architect may be supposed to have 
 directed their execution. 
 
 As projection commands shade, so flatness com- 
 mands light, and the flattest relief is hence fittest 
 for an invariably dark situation. The same prin- 
 ciple is observable in architecture in the treatment 
 of mouldings in interiors, the form and projection 
 of which differ materially from the corresponding 
 members in the open light, and which are intended 
 to be seen at a distance. The flatness which insures 
 light would, however, be altogether indistinct and 
 formless unless the outlines were clear and con- 
 spicuous at the first glance. The contrivance by 
 which this is effected is by abruptly sinking the 
 edges of the forms to the plane on which they are 
 raised, instead of gradually rounding and losing 
 them. The mass of the relieved figure being some- 
 times very little raised in its general surface, its 
 section would thus almost present a rectangular 
 projection. In many instances the side of this pro- 
 jection is even less than rectangular ; it is under- 
 cut, like some mouldings in architecture which 
 require to be particularly distinct, and thus presents 
 a deeper line of shade. But if the figure can thus 
 command distinctness of outline, notwithstanding 
 the inconsiderable light it may receive, it is obvious 
 
106 
 
 BASSO-PJLIEVO. 
 
 that its lowness or flatness of relief will, in such a 
 light, greatly aid its distinctness : above all, this 
 contrivance gives the work thus seen in an obscure 
 situation the effect of rotundity. Indeed, it is a 
 great mistake to suppose that the flat style of relief 
 was intended to appear flat, and it is a great mis- 
 take to apply it in situations, as in the open air, 
 where it must appear so, and be indistinct besides. 
 The conventions of the arts are remedies, adopted 
 in certain situations and under particular circum- 
 stances, and are supposed to be concealed in their 
 results : their ultimate resemblance to nature, and 
 their successful effect in those circumstances, are 
 the test of their propriety and necessity. 
 
 The absence of all convention in alto-rilievo (as 
 opposed to the flat style) fits it for near situations, 
 if not too near to expose it to accidents. The ex- 
 cellent sculptures which decorate the pronaos and 
 posticum of the Temple of Theseus, although under 
 the portico, are in bold relief. They were not only 
 nearer the eye, and seen at a more convenient angle 
 than the flat rilievi of the cella of the Parthenon, 
 but the reflected light which displayed them was 
 necessarily much stronger. It is also to be remem- 
 bered that only the end porticoes, where the sculp- 
 ture could be more conveniently seen, and was 
 better lighted, were decorated with rilievi ; the 
 side walls of the cella were unornamented, and un- 
 doubtedly bold relief would have been less adapted 
 for them. The Temple of Theseus was built about 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 107 
 
 thirty years before the Parthenon ; and it is not 
 impossible that the satisfactory effect of the flat 
 rilievi on the cella of the latter might have sug- 
 gested a similar treatment, or some modification of 
 it, in the Temple of Theseus, had that building been 
 erected later. 
 
 Lateral portico of the End portico of the Temple 
 
 Parthenon. of Theseus. 
 
 It may be observed in general, that alto-rilievo 
 can seldom be fit for interiors, not only from its 
 liability to accident, but from the difficulty of dis- 
 playing it by the full light which it requires. A 
 superficial light, if in a lateral direction, throws the 
 shadow of one figure on another. Instances of this 
 occur in some of the palaces in Eome where works 
 of sculpture have been injudiciously placed. A 
 room, for example, lighted in the ordinary way 
 will have its walls (at right angles with that 
 occupied by the windows) adorned with a frieze in 
 considerable relief ; the figures nearest the light 
 consequently project their shadows so as to half 
 conceal the next in order. 
 
108 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 The conditions of proximity and distance, as well 
 as the quantity and direction of light, were carefully 
 attended to by the Greek sculptors, and suggested 
 new varieties of relief. The end of the art, as 
 regards execution, is accomplished when the work 
 is distinct and intelligible at the distance whence 
 it is intended to be viewed. Hence the conven- 
 tions which are intended to correct the defects of 
 distance, of material, want of light, &c., are un- 
 necessary where the work admits of close inspec- 
 tion. The style of mezzo-rilievo, which in its 
 boldest examples presents about half the thickness 
 of the figure, is, on many accounts, least fit for a 
 distant effect ; the figure is nowhere detached from 
 its ground ; at a very little distance its shadowed 
 side is lost in its cast shade, and its light side in 
 the light of its ground ; the outline, in short, soon 
 becomes indistinct ; but the semi-roundness of the 
 forms is directly imitative, and thus again the 
 absence of all conventional treatment fits the work 
 for near situations. The style was preferred to 
 alto-rilievo in such cases, as the latter would have 
 been more liable to accidents, and would besides, 
 in a greater degree, have deformed the outline or 
 profile of any object circular in its plan. The 
 figures which adorn sculptured vases are thus in 
 mezzo-rilievo : these works probably ornamented 
 interiors where any indistinctness in their distant 
 effect or in an unfavourable light might be obviated 
 by closer inspection. Two specimens may be seen 
 
BASSO-EILIEVO. 
 
 109 
 
 in the second room of the Gallery of Antiquities in 
 the British Museum. The celebrated Medicean and 
 Borghesan vases, the finest known examples, are in 
 like manner ornamented with mezzo-rilievo. The 
 above considerations are applicable to all works, 
 however unfit for a distant effect, which can, or in 
 their original situation could, only be seen near. 
 Even the mixed style of relief in the sculptures 
 which occupy the internal sides of the Arch of 
 Titus at Borne would hardly be objected to, since 
 the objects represented are distinctly seen, and can 
 only be seen, at the distance of a few feet. The 
 style of semi-relief (much purer than that of the 
 Arch of Titus) adopted by Flaxman in front of 
 Covent Garden Theatre may be defended on the 
 same principle, since the utmost width of the street 
 is hardly a more distant point than a spectator 
 would retire to in order to see them conveniently. 
 The still flatter style which has been introduced on 
 the exterior of several buildings in London cannot, 
 however, be defended on any grounds ; and there 
 can be no doubt, from the reasons adduced, that 
 bold relief is generally fittest for the open light. 
 The mezzi-rilievi on the miniature choragic monu- 
 ment of Lysicrates (casts from them are in the 
 British Museum) may be admitted to have been fitly 
 calculated for their situation, because they must 
 have been seen near ; but there was in this case 
 an additional consideration to be attended to ; the 
 building is circular, and alto-rilievo was avoided in 
 
110 
 
 BASSO-RIL1EVO. 
 
 order to preserve the architectural profile : on the 
 other hand, the frieze of the small temple of 
 Victory, which was rectangular, was adorned with 
 alti-rilievi ; and in this case it appears that they 
 did not even extend to the angles (where they 
 might have interfered with the architectural out- 
 line). The objections to sculpture on monumental 
 columns will be obvious from these considerations. 
 It has been remarked, that in attempting to pre- 
 serve the architectural profile, as in the Trajan 
 column, and its modern rival in the Place Vendome 
 at Paris, the sculpture thus slightly relieved soon 
 becomes indistinct ; but in point of fact this indis- 
 tinctness would not be obviated, at a considerable 
 height, even by alto-rilievo, the figures being neces- 
 sarily small ; while the evil is only increased by 
 substituting the dark material of bronze for marble. 
 
 We proceed to consider the varieties of style in 
 this art as affecting composition. In rilievo, and 
 in sculpture generally, (a colourless material, or a 
 material of only one colour being always supposed,) 
 it is evident that shadow is the essential and only 
 source of meaning and effect. In works placed in 
 the open air, and visible from one point only, as in 
 the case of alto-rilievo, a certain open display of the 
 figure is generally adopted ; the shadows, or rather 
 the forms which project them, are so disposed as to 
 present at the first glance an intelligible and easily 
 recognised appearance, and the impossibility of 
 changing the point of view, or changing the light, 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 Ill 
 
 as before observed, limits the attitudes more than in 
 a statue, and, as will also appear, more than in a 
 basso-rilievo. For in the latter, however distinct 
 the outline, in which the chief impression and 
 meaning of the figure reside, the shadows within the 
 extreme outlines are in a great measure suppressed ; 
 
 it is, in fact, by their being so suppressed that the 
 general form becomes distinct. This is also the case 
 when one form is relieved on another; it will be 
 found that the nearest object is very much reduced 
 and flattened, in order that its shadow may not 
 interfere with the more important shadows of the 
 outlines on the ground, and hence it may often 
 happen that the nearest projection is the least 
 relieved. It will thus be evident that, owing; to 
 this power of suppressing the accidental shades and 
 
112 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 preventing them from rivalling or being confounded 
 with the essential ones, the choice of attitudes 
 becomes less limited, and many a composition which 
 in full relief would present a mass of confusion from 
 its scattered and equally dark shades, may be quite 
 admissible and agreeable in basso-rilievo. 
 
 Accordingly, the attitudes of statues, which are 
 generally unfit for alto-rilievo, frequently occur in 
 the flat style. Visconti even supposes that certain 
 figures in the bassi-rilievi of the Parthenon sug- 
 gested the attitudes of celebrated statues afterwards 
 executed ; as, for instance, the Jason, or Cincin- 
 natus, and the Ludovisi Mars. As a remarkable 
 proof how much the attitudes were limited in alto- 
 rilievo as compared with the flat style, it may be 
 observed, that the contrasted action of the upper 
 and lower limbs, which gives so much energy and 
 motion to the figure, is perhaps never to be met 
 with in the fine examples of alto-rilievo, whereas in 
 the flat style it is adopted whenever the subject 
 demands it. In the following sketch of an early 
 Greek basso-rilievo, representing Castor managing a 
 horse (from the third room of the gallery of the 
 British Museum), the action of the upper and lower 
 limbs is contrasted, as is the case in all statues 
 which are remarkable for energy and elasticity of 
 movement : the statue called the Fighting Gladiator 
 may be quoted as a prominent example. This 
 disposition of the lower limbs, or the alternate 
 action, in which one of the arms would cross the 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 113 
 
 body, never occurs in alto-rilievo, because the 
 shadow of the arm on the body, or, in the instance 
 given, of one of the lower limbs on the other, could 
 then no longer be suppressed, as it is in this case, 
 but would rival the shadows of the whole figure on 
 the ground. Among the metopes of the Parthenon, 
 
 the Phigaleian marbles, and the alti-rilievi of the 
 Temple of Theseus, there is not a single instance of 
 the contrasted action alluded to ; while in the two 
 latter examples, the contrary position, or open dis- 
 play of the figure, repeatedly recurs, even to same- 
 ness. It must however be admitted, that this open 
 display of the figure, although not presenting the 
 most energetic action, is as beautiful as it is intel- 
 ligible, and hence the finest exhibitions of form 
 were quite compatible with the limited attitudes to 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 which the sculptors thus wisely confined themselves. 
 The objections which compelled this limitation being 
 however entirely obviated in basso-rilievo, by the 
 power of suppressing at pleasure the shadows within 
 the contour, we find the fullest advantage taken of 
 the latitude which was thus legitimately gained. 
 
 A better example cannot be referred to than the 
 flat rilievi already mentioned from the cella of the 
 Parthenon. The subject represents the Panathenaic 
 procession, and although no perspective diminution 
 is admitted, several equestrian figures are some- 
 times partly relieved one upon the other. The’ con- 
 fusion which results from the number of similar 
 forms in the repetition of the horses’ limbs, as well 
 as in the actions of the horsemen, must be admitted; 
 but perhaps the subject is thus better expressed 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 115 
 
 than by a simpler arrangement, and this treatment 
 contrasts finely with the single figures. In a pro- 
 cession of horsemen moving two or three abreast, we 
 are at once aware that the figures are similar, and 
 the eye is satisfied, as it would be in nature, not in 
 searching out each individual figure as if it had a 
 separate principle of action, but in comprehending 
 the movement and the mass, for one indicates the 
 whole. Where the figures thus cross each other 
 they are treated as a mass ; the outline of the 
 whole group is distinct and bold, being more or 
 less abruptly sunk to the ground, but the outlines 
 which come within the extreme outline are very 
 slightly relieved. In short, the principle here 
 applied is precisely the same as that observable in 
 a single figure in the same style of relief : the out- 
 line of the whole form is distinct, or rather most 
 distinct where it is most important, and the internal 
 markings are seldom suffered to rival it, but are 
 made subservient to this general effect. The 
 relative importance of the objects is, indeed, the 
 only consideration which is suffered to interfere 
 with this principle ; thus loose drapery is some- 
 times but little relieved on the ground, while a 
 significant form is now and then strongly relieved 
 even on another figure. In comparing the slight 
 varieties of treatment in these rilievi, it is to be 
 remembered that the end porticoes were a little 
 wider than the lateral colonnades. It is undoubt- 
 edly to this circumstance that the difference of 
 
116 
 
 BASSO -RILIE VO. 
 
 treatment alluded to is to be referred ; the figures 
 in the end friezes are more separated from one 
 another, and consequently somewhat more relieved 
 than the compact processions on the side walls. 
 
 The fact that these bassi-rilievi, like most of the 
 sculpture of the ancients, were partially painted, 
 has been purposely left out of the account, because 
 the very contrivances resorted to are calculated to 
 supply the absence of colour. The custom, in the 
 best age of Grecian art, of painting architecture and 
 sculpture may be defended or excused elsewhere ; it 
 may be, however, here remarked, that while the 
 ancient sculptors added colour after having em- 
 ployed every expedient which could supply its want, 
 the moderns, in altogether rejecting it, often fail 
 to make use of those very conventions which its 
 absence demands. 
 
 It appears that the principle of suppressing the 
 relief within the extreme contour which, with the 
 strong marking of the outline itself, mainly consti- 
 tutes the style of basso-rilievo, was employed by the 
 ancients in works of considerable relief, in interiors, 
 in particular lights, and probably at some distance 
 or elevation. The real projection which works, thus 
 strictly belonging to the class of bassi-rilievi, may 
 sometimes present, points out the essential differ- 
 ence between basso and mezzo rilievo. A work, 
 even if in very slight general relief, which has the 
 parts that are nearest, the most relieved, belongs to 
 mezzo-rilievo ; while a work which has the nearest 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 117 
 
 parts least relieved, constitutes basso-rilievo, what- 
 ever its general projection may be. In the former, 
 the outline is thus less apparent than the forms 
 within it ; in the latter, the outline is more ap- 
 parent than the forms within it. The early Greek 
 and Etruscan rilievi, which, however flat, have the 
 nearest parts the fullest, while the outline is scarcely, 
 if at all, rectangular in its section, have thus the 
 principle of mezzo-riiievo. They are even fitted for 
 near inspection, and cannot be said to present any 
 unsatisfactory convention ; for the bulk, however 
 really thin, is proportionate in its relief, and is so 
 far directly imitative, inasmuch as the eye consents 
 to a diminished scale of bulk as easily as to a 
 diminished scale of height, while the indistinctness 
 of the outline has the effect of rounding the form. 
 Such works are, besides, fitted for near examination, 
 because they can scarcely command any shadow. 
 Various specimens may be seen in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 The antique vases of Arezzo were ornamented 
 with figures in this kind of relief. Certain silver 
 vases mentioned by Pliny were of the same de- 
 scription. The Egyptian intaglio, for so it may be 
 called, rather than rilievo, belongs to the same 
 style. The Egyptian artists, instead of cutting 
 away the background from the figure, sunk the 
 outline, and slightly rounded the figure, on the 
 principle of mezzo-riiievo, within the hollow. Thus 
 no part of the work projected beyond the general 
 
118 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 surface, and the architectural profile was preserved. 
 There are, however, many very ancient examples 
 at Thebes of figures slightly relieved from the 
 ground, somewhat on the principle of basso-rilievo 
 as practised by the Greeks — that is, with the 
 nearest parts least relieved, and with outlines rect- 
 angular in the section. Many of them, probably, 
 in their original situations, and when the buildings 
 were entire, ornamented interiors. Some Persian 
 rilievi, in the British Museum, approach the same 
 style. The Egyptian rilievi were painted in bril- 
 liant colours, and would have been ineffective in the 
 open light without such an addition. 
 
 The distinctions of the three styles of relief, 
 according to the Greek examples, may now be 
 recapitulated. In the highest relief, however de- 
 cided the shadows may and must of necessity be, 
 on the plane to which the figure is attached, the 
 light on the figure itself is kept as unbroken as 
 possible, and this can only be effected by a selection 
 of open attitudes ; that is, such an arrangement of 
 the limbs as shall not cast shadows on the figure 
 itself. In basso-rilievo, the same general effect of 
 the figure is given, but by very different means : 
 the attitude is not selected to avoid shadows on 
 the figure, because, while the extreme outline is 
 strongly marked, the shadows within it may be in 
 a great measure suppressed, so that the choice of 
 attitudes is greater. Mezzo-rilievo differs from 
 both : it has neither the limited attitudes of the 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 119 
 
 first, nor the distinct outline and suppressed in- 
 ternal markings of the second : on the contrary, 
 the outline is often less distinct than the forms 
 within it, and hence it requires, and is fitted for, 
 near inspection. Its imitation may thus be more 
 absolute, and its execution more finished, than 
 those of either of the other styles. 
 
 Most of the coins of antiquity are executed on 
 the principle of mezzo-rilievo ; and though often 
 far bolder in their relief than modern works of the 
 kind, are treated in a mode corresponding with 
 their minute dimensions, which require close ex- 
 amination. The outline thus gradually rounds 
 into the ground, and is never abruptly sunk, while 
 the nearest parts are most relieved. Thus, con- 
 ventional methods are always absent in works 
 that admit of close inspection, where the eye can 
 be satisfied without such expedients. The com- 
 paratively strong relief of the heads on the ancient 
 medals is again a contrivance for their preservation, 
 and presents a new variety in the style of rilievo. 
 
 Coins are exposed to friction, and the forms they 
 bear are thus liable to be soon effaced. The earliest 
 means adopted to prevent this was by sinking the 
 representation in a concavity, in which it was thus 
 protected. This plan was soon abandoned, for 
 obvious reasons; and the method ultimately adopted 
 was that of raising the least important parts most. 
 Accordingly, the parts that are rubbed away in 
 many fine antique coins are precisely those which 
 
120 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 can best be spared ; the hair has generally a consi- 
 derable projection, so that the face and profile are 
 often perfectly preserved after 2000 years : a better 
 specimen cannot be adduced than the celebrated 
 Syracusan coin representing the head of Arethusa 
 or Proserpine. In addition to the propriety of its 
 style, this head is remarkable for its beauty ; and 
 is classed by Winkelmann among the examples of 
 the highest character of form. 
 
 The ordinary style of mezzo-rilievo was also used 
 for gems, and indeed for all works in this branch 
 of sculpture which requires close inspection, and 
 needs no conventional contrivance. A flat style 
 of relief, which is sometimes observable in cameos, 
 was adopted only for the sake of displaying the sub- 
 ject on a different coloured ground ; the layers of 
 colour in the stone employed, generally the sar- 
 donyx, being very thin. The difference of colour 
 in the ground has, however, the effect of giving 
 roundness to the figures relieved on it, as if, their 
 whole effect becoming apparent, the internal mark- 
 ings disappeared. The figures on the Portland 
 Vase are treated on this principle ; and as it was 
 intended to imitate a precious stone (for which 
 indeed it was at first taken), the thinness of 
 the outer layer of colour is also imitated. Such 
 works, however, reduced to one colour in a cast 
 or copy, are totally wanting in effect. The im- 
 pressions from intagli, or engraved gems, which 
 were used for seals, are never in the flat style of 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 121 
 
 relief; but however slightly raised, are on the 
 principle of mezzo-rilievo as above defined. The 
 gems of Dioscorides, the finest of antiquity, are in 
 mezzo-rilievo, and often of the fullest kind ; as for 
 instance, the heads of Demosthenes and Io, and the 
 figures of Mercury and Perseus. The same may 
 be observed of other celebrated gems, such as the 
 Medusa of Solon, the Hercules of Cneius, &c. It 
 is supposed that the same artists who engraved on 
 gems, and who frequently inscribed their names, 
 also executed the dies for coins. The latter are 
 among the finest antique works of art ; but of the 
 many thousand existing specimens there are but 
 three or four which bear the names of the artists. 
 
 It was observed, that in the antique coins the 
 least important parts are the most raised, and the 
 reasons which dictated this practice limited the view 
 of the head to the profile ; but as the same reasons 
 were no longer applicable in engraved gems, the im- 
 pressions from which could be renewed at pleasure, 
 the front, or nearly front view of the head was 
 occasionally attempted, and seems to have been 
 preferred by Dioscorides and his school. The head 
 of Io before mentioned, considered with reference to 
 this specific propriety of its style, as well as with 
 regard to its general merits, is placed by Visconti in 
 the first class of antique engraved gems. Thus the 
 most skilful artists of antiquity seemed to consider 
 the style of any one of the arts to consist chiefly in 
 those points which are unattainable by its rivals. 
 
BASSO -RILIE VO. 
 
 122 
 
 It may be here observed also, that they generally 
 limited their representation to the most worthy 
 object, viz. the human figure, when the dimensions 
 on which they were employed were necessarily 
 confined. Indeed the principles of imitation itself 
 were, so to speak, condensed, and true character 
 was often exaggerated as the materials appeared 
 less promising ; so that the genius of ancient art 
 is as conspicuous in minute engraved gems as in 
 colossal sculpture. 
 
 Mezzo-rilievo of the fullest kind was also fitly 
 employed (as well as alto-rilievo, when in situations 
 not exposed to accidents) to ornament tombs and 
 sarcophagi. These works, placed in the open air, 
 decorated the approaches to cities, as sepulchres 
 were always without the walls. The Appian Way 
 was the most magnificent of these streets of tombs 
 in the neighbourhood of Eome, and must have 
 exhibited, literally, thousands of sepulchral monu- 
 ments. Though generally the work of Greek 
 artists, and often interesting from being copies of 
 better works now lost, the haste and inattention 
 with which such prodigious numbers were executed 
 tended to degrade the style of their sculpture. In 
 these rilievi, even in the better specimens, buildings 
 and other objects are occasionally introduced be- 
 hind the figures, thus approaching the spurious 
 style of relief in which the effects of perspective 
 are attempted to be expressed : a great variety, of 
 various degrees of excellence, are to be seen in the 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 123 
 
 British Museum. The greater part of what are 
 called Roman bassi-rilievi are of this kind, and may 
 be considered a middle style between the pure 
 Greek rilievo and the modern Italian. It was from 
 antique sarcophagi, fine in execution, but with these 
 defects in style, that Niccola da Pisa, in the thir- 
 teenth century, first caught the spirit of ancient art. 
 Many of the works from which he is believed to 
 have studied are still preserved in Pisa. D’Agin- 
 court gives a representation of one of the best. In 
 imitating the simplicity of arrangement, and, in a 
 remote degree, the purity of forms which these 
 works exhibited, the artist was not likely to correct 
 the defects alluded to which had been already 
 practised in Italy and elsewhere. Various degrees 
 of relief, background figures and objects, and occa- 
 sional attempts at perspective, are to be found in 
 the works of the Pisani and their scholars ; yet 
 their works, which are to be regarded as the infancy 
 of Italian art, and which undoubtedly are rude 
 enough in workmanship and imitation, are purer in 
 style than those of the succeeding Florentine 
 masters, who attained so much general perfection 
 in sculpture. The rilievi of Donatello are mostly 
 in the style called by the Italians stiacciato (the 
 flattest kind of mezzo-rilievo, according to the defi- 
 nition before given), which he probably adopted, as 
 he worked in bronze, from the facility of casting ; 
 yet in such a style, commanding little distinctness 
 from its inconsiderable projection, he introduced 
 
124 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 buildings, landscape, and the usual accessories of a 
 picture. But this misapplication of ingenuity was 
 carried still further by Lorenzo Ghiberti, in the 
 celebrated bronze doors of the baptistery, or church 
 of San Giovanni, at Florence, which exhibit such 
 skilfully arranged compositions, in which the stories 
 are so well told, and the single figures so full of 
 appropriate action. In these works the figures 
 gradually emerge from the stiacciato style to alto- 
 rilievo. They are among the best specimens of 
 that mixed style, or union of basso-rilievo with the 
 principles of painting, which the sculptors of the 
 fifteenth century and their imitators imagined to 
 be an improvement on the well-considered simpli- 
 city of the ancients. In these and similar speci- 
 mens the unreal forms of perspective buildings, 
 and diminished or foreshortened figures, which in 
 pictures create illusion when aided by appropriate 
 light and shade and variety of hue, are unintel- 
 ligible or distorted in a real material, where it is 
 immediately evident that the objects are all on the 
 same solid plane. Even Vasari, who wrote when 
 this mixed style of rilievo was generally practised, 
 remarks the absurdity of representing the plane on 
 which the figures stand ascending towards the 
 horizon according to the laws of perspective; in 
 consequence of which “ we often see/' he says, “ the 
 point of the foot of a figure, standing with its back 
 to the spectator, touching the middle of the leg/' 
 owing to the rapid ascent or foreshortening of the 
 
BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 125 
 
 ground. Such errors, he adds, are to be seen 
 “ even in the doors of San Giovanni/’ * Lorenzo 
 Ghiberti, like other Florentine sculptors, first learnt 
 the practice of his art from a goldsmith, and the 
 designs of the artists who competed with him for 
 the honour of executing the doors of San Giovanni 
 were submitted to the judgment of goldsmiths and 
 painters as well as sculptors. 
 
 The taste of the Florentines in basso-rilievo was 
 thus greatly influenced by the prevalence of a style 
 most applicable to the precious metals, in which a 
 general sparkling effect is best insured by avoiding 
 uniformly violent relief, which projects considerable 
 shadows, and especially by avoiding unbroken flat- 
 ness. The background is thus filled with slightly 
 relieved distant objects, so as to produce every- 
 where a more or less roughened or undulating 
 surface. The same end seems to have been attained 
 in the antique silver vases, by the introduction of 
 foliage. The style continued to be practised with 
 occasionally greater absurdities than those before 
 alluded to, and perhaps less redeeming excellence, 
 till the close of the last century. The sculptor 
 Falconet says of the antique bassi-rilievi, that 
 “ however noble their composition may be, it does 
 not in any way tend to the illusion of a picture, 
 and a basso-rilievo ought always to aim at this 
 illusion/’ He leaves no doubt as to the literal 
 meaning he intends by citing the Italian writers 
 
 * Introduzione, cap. x. 
 
126 
 
 BASSO-RILIEVO. 
 
 who applied the term quadro indiscriminately to 
 picture and basso-rilievo. Sculpture in this country 
 was indebted principally to Flaxman for the revival 
 of a purer taste in the application of basso-rilievo 
 to architecture. In works of decoration, intended 
 to be executed in the precious metals, in which, as 
 before observed, moderately embossed and general 
 richness of surface is so desirable, in order to dis- 
 play the material as well as the work, he, however, 
 united his own purity of taste and composition 
 with an approach to the mixed style of relief prac- 
 tised by the Florentine masters, who, in this branch 
 of sculpture, perhaps never equalled his shield of 
 Achilles. 
 
STYLES AND METHODS OF PAINTING. 
 
 127 
 
 No. VIII. 
 
 PAINTING* 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS OF PAINTING SUITED TO THE DECORATION 
 OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 
 
 The materials and dimensions of works of art, 
 and the situations and lights for which they may be 
 intended, have been termed external conditions ; as 
 distinguished from what are called the aesthetic 
 elements of art. 
 
 Whatever be the external conditions, it is essen- 
 tial that the visible impression of the work should, 
 under the circumstances, be as complete as possible. 
 To insure this, not only the executive means, but 
 the qualities to be represented, still require to be 
 adapted or selected accordingly as conditions vary. 
 Such adapted methods and resources constitute, in 
 each case, a specific and appropriate style. 
 
 The question respecting the relation of painting 
 to external conditions is not unimportant in con- 
 sidering the tendencies and claims of different 
 schools. In general, the great masters seem to 
 have inquired what the outward resources at their 
 
 * [From Papers in the Appendix to the Second and Fifth 
 Reports of the Commissioners on the Fine Arts. 1843, 1846. 
 
128 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 command could best effect. Such a habit, instead 
 of confining, was rather calculated to enlarge their 
 invention and to vary its forms. The result of 
 their labours is the sufficient ground of the world's 
 admiration ; but their docility cannot be duly 
 appreciated without a reference to the local circum- 
 stances under which they worked. 
 
 An inquiry into the principles which may regu- 
 late such varieties of style appears to be especially 
 requisite when painting is employed in the per- 
 manent decoration of public buildings, and may 
 now be resumed with a more direct object, as par- 
 ticular localities in the new Houses of Parliament 
 approach their completion. 
 
 First, it is to be observed that the adaptation of 
 painting to a peculiar style of architecture is alto- 
 gether a question of taste ; even authority here 
 fails, the greatest Italian masters never having been 
 called upon to paint in a Gothic building. The 
 example which is most applicable may be found in 
 the works of Luca Signorelli, at Orvieto. In those 
 works there can be no doubt that the artist’s object 
 was not to imitate, but to surpass the ruder pro- 
 ductions which may have been executed, there or 
 elsewhere, about the time when Italian-Gothic 
 structures were erected. The Tudor style of Gothic 
 (the style of the Palace at Westminster) is coeval 
 with the highest development of art in Italy ; and 
 buildings erected in the time of Henry VII. or 
 Henry VIII. might have been decorated by the 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 129 
 
 hand of Raphael, had he accepted the invitation of 
 the last-named monarch to visit England.* 
 
 The conditions now proposed to be * considered 
 are Dimensions, Situation, Light, and the Means of 
 representation. 
 
 Large dimensions (in respect to the size of the 
 entire painting) requiring a corresponding point of 
 view— the height at which the work may be placed 
 requiring a distant point of view independently of 
 dimensions — imperfect light — and a method of paint- 
 ing possessing limited technical resources — all these 
 are to be considered as causes of indistinctness , f 
 requiring to be counteracted by such means as the 
 method of art adopted can command ; in short by 
 such means as may appear preferable on general 
 grounds, and which may render that method the 
 fittest. 
 
 DIMENSIONS. 
 
 The relation between the longest dimension of a 
 picture, and the distance from which the work 
 requires to be viewed, may here require to be 
 remembered. Once and a half the extent of the 
 
 * Dallaway’s Walpole, vol. i. pp. 106 — 187. 
 t It is necessary to separate the causes from the remedies of 
 indistinctness. A distant point of view, whether the conse- 
 quence of the size of the work or of its situation, is in itself a 
 cause of indistinctness ; the size of the objects represented, if 
 calculated to counteract this, is among the remedies, but, it will 
 appear, may sometimes be overlooked. 
 
130 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 longest dimension (whether in width or height is 
 immaterial) is the minimum of distance to which 
 the spectator can retire in order to see the entire 
 surface. A circle cannot be embraced by the eye 
 till the spectator retire to a distance equal to once 
 and a half its diameter. 
 
 The law relating to the next condition is a 
 necessary consequence of this. In some cases, the 
 situation of a picture, independently of its dimen- 
 sions, may require that the work should be viewed 
 at a considerable distance. A painting measuring 
 14 feet high (such being assumed to be its longest 
 dimension) would require, according to the fore- 
 going law, to be seen at a distance of 21 feet. But 
 if the lower edge of that painting be 26 feet from 
 the ground, the spectator must retire to the distance 
 of at least 60 feet before the eye can embrace it ; 
 for a painting equal to the whole height (40 feet) 
 would require that distance. 
 
 This is the state of the case with regard to the 
 compartments to be painted in the House of Lords. 
 They are 26 feet from the floor, and may be 
 reckoned to be about 14 feet high.*' 
 
 At the end opposite the throne, the compart- 
 ments are in recesses, and will be less fully lighted. 
 At this end, therefore, all the causes of indistinct- 
 
 * The height of the compartments to the point of the 
 (Gothic) arch is 1 6 feet ; but the picture, properly so called, 
 may be considered to terminate two feet lower. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 131 
 
 ness above enumerated are combined, and may 
 suggest a counteracting treatment in the paintings 
 accordingly. 
 
 If, on the one hand, these considerations may 
 furnish an answer to those who look for finish and 
 minuteness of detail in specimens of fresco-painting 
 intended for such a situation, it will be acknow- 
 ledged, on the other, that the general treatment 
 which may be calculated to correct the consequences 
 of such conditions is a problem requiring some ex- 
 perience to solve. Fortunately, a reference is pos- 
 sible to the example of great artists under similar 
 circumstances. 
 
 The instances are not frequent in which the size 
 of the objects represented on a large surface is too 
 small for the distance which the size of the entire 
 painting requires. Raphael's first work in the 
 Vatican, called the Dispute of the Sacrament, 
 would be such an instance, if the room in which it 
 is painted were large enough for the spectator to 
 retire to the requisite distance. This is not pos- 
 sible ; the whole of the painting cannot be em- 
 braced by the eye at once. The experiment can, 
 however, easily be made with the engraving ; the 
 small size of the figures, as compared with that of 
 the entire work, is then apparent. This imperfec- 
 tion, as is well known, was rectified by the artist in 
 his subsequent works in the Vatican.* 
 
 * In pictures of processions or unconnected incidents, the 
 treatment here referred to cannot be considered a defect. 
 
132 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 SITUATION. 
 
 The next condition — situation, without reference 
 to dimensions — presents greater difficulty. Michael 
 Angelo, after having painted the second compart- 
 ment in the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel — about 
 60 feet high — appears to have found (as is, in fact, 
 the case) that the size of the figures was inadequate 
 to the distance at which they were to be seen. 
 Condivi relates that the artist was on the point of 
 abandoning the work because of some supposed 
 defect in the lime ; but the real cause of his tem- 
 porary dissatisfaction is apparent in the subsequent 
 change in his style ; the figures in the compart- 
 ments last executed being more than thrice the size 
 of those in the first paintings.* Thus, whatever 
 may be the dimensions of the picture (and in 
 
 * The figures in the third compartment correspond in size 
 with those in the first (either for the sake of uniformity or 
 because the scaffolding immediately under the ceiling prevented 
 the artist from making his observations earlier) ; the great 
 change begins in the fourth. It is scarcely necessary to observe 
 that large foreground figures are quite compatible with subjects 
 requiring numerous actors. Michael Angelo’s treatment of the 
 subject of Haman is an example. The figures in the subject of 
 Noah (the first ceiling compartment) might, even with the 
 present composition, have been as large as those in the Creation 
 of Eve. The circumstance of the ceiling subjects last executed 
 requiring fewer figures, is, therefore, not to be considered the 
 only cause of the change in the artist’s style. See Condivi, 
 Yita di Michelagnolo Buonarotti, Firenze, 1746, p. 27. The 
 first edition of this work was published in Rome, 1553, in 
 Michael Angelo’s lifetime. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 133 
 
 ceilings tlie compartments are commonly smaller 
 than the distance would require), the size of the 
 figures must always have reference to the place of 
 the spectator.* 
 
 In this instance, therefore, although the space 
 was scanned by an experienced eye, the means 
 employed to counteract the effect of the existing 
 conditions were miscalculated. The example shows 
 the necessity of simplicity, magnitude, and distinct- 
 ness for works requiring to be seen at a distance, 
 and is also valuable as affording encouragement to 
 our artists, should they think that their first efforts 
 are in any respects not adapted to the place for 
 which they were intended. 
 
 IMPERFECT LIGHT. 
 
 It will appear from the practice of another great 
 painter, that imperfect light required, in like 
 manner, magnitude, and simplicity of parts ; while, 
 at the same time, large masses of deep shade were 
 avoided. The frescoes of Correggio, in the tribune 
 of the church of S. Giovanni in Parma, were re- 
 markable for these qualities. An idea may be 
 formed of their general style by the portion 
 which remains (now in the library at Parma), 
 
 * The subjects in the small gold-coloured medallions in the 
 ceiling of the Sistine Chapel must have been, even at first, 
 almost invisible from below. They are, however, to be 
 regarded as mere decorations. 
 
134 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 representing tlie Coronation of the Virgin. Pun- 
 gileoni remarks,* that the figures generally were 
 considerably larger than life, not so much in this 
 instance on account of their distance from the 
 spectator as because they were seen by a subdued, 
 reflected light. The result was probably satis- 
 factory ; for objects require to be magnified, even 
 when seen near, to counteract the indistinctness 
 arising from want of light. 
 
 MEANS OP EEPEESENTATION. 
 
 A fourth case is that in which the indistinctness 
 to be guarded against arises from the means of 
 representation. Fresco, with its limited scale of 
 colour, cannot produce such varied effects as oil- 
 painting ; but a much stronger instance of defective 
 means and of the excellencies which the necessity 
 of counteracting them may induce, is to be found 
 in the Cartoons of Eaphael. The ultimate works 
 for which the Cartoons served w T ere copies wrought 
 in tapestry— a mode of representation which, in 
 the early part of the 16 th century, was far from 
 exhibiting even the comparative force of colour, 
 and light and shade which it afterwards attained, t 
 
 O 1 
 
 * Memorie Istoriche di Antonio Allegri, Parma, 1817, vol. i; 
 pi 134. 
 
 t The admiration of Italian contemporaries is intelligible; 
 from the novelty of the manufacture at that period. The 
 praises of Paris de Grassis, Yasari, and others, may be com- 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 135 
 
 With a view to such faint transcripts, however, the 
 great artist worked ; he knew that his drawings 
 would be transferred to them, and that in the 
 tapestries alone, possibly, his designs might live.* 
 Distinctness was nevertheless attained, without any 
 sacrifice of such of the proper attributes of painting 
 as were compatible with the means employed ; and 
 without any violation of probability. When we 
 consider the great qualities which were combined 
 with these requisites — when we find that such 
 apparently unpromising conditions had the effect of 
 raising even Raphael above himself, we can hardly 
 refuse to admit that a due employment of limited 
 means of representation may, at least, invite atten- 
 tion to the most important attributes of art. 
 
 In cases like those that have been adduced it is 
 probable that the qualities which might fit the 
 works for the circumstances of place, light, or ma- 
 terials for which they had been calculated, would 
 be looked upon as defects on near inspection. The 
 critics on art who have had the best right to express 
 
 pared with the j lister remarks of Gunn, Cartonensia, London, 
 1832, p. 35. ; and Cattermole, the Book of the Cartoons, 
 London, 1840, p. 21„ 
 
 * Such designs were treated as mere working drawings • 
 they were cut into slips for the execution of the tapestries, and 
 were then thrown aside till again wanted for the same purpose. 
 It was in this mutilated state that the cartoons at Hampton 
 Court were first brought from Flanders. See Quatremere de 
 Quincy and Longhena, Istoria, &c., di Baffaello Sanzio, Milan, 
 1829, p. 386. ; and Trull, Raphael Vindicated, London, 1840, 
 
136 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 opinions founded on mere authority have ever 
 dwelt on the necessity of inquiring what qualities 
 are to he chiefly looked for in the subjects of our ob- 
 servation. # It may be requisite even for persons of 
 cultivated judgment to bear in mind that the ex- 
 cellencies on which the reputation of great artists is 
 founded are sometimes to be sought, not so much in 
 the beauty of parts as in the grand or tasteful 
 arrangement of the combined work, in the har- 
 monious relation of entire masses, and the grace of 
 entire forms. These qualities, which suppose the 
 labour of the mind because they have reference to 
 a whole, have ever constituted the worthiest crite- 
 rion s of merit, in the practice of the arts. 
 
 The influence of conditions, similar to those above 
 considered, on every department of painting, may 
 be traced in the best examples of the art ; for, from 
 whatever cause the sense of vision is imperfectly 
 addressed, the selection both of qualities in nature 
 and of the technical means fitted to represent them, 
 will be influenced accordingly. But, before pur- 
 suing the inquiry, it may be desirable to state the 
 elementary facts connected with visible distinctness, 
 since these, though familiar in reference to nature, 
 are more complex in relation to works of art seen 
 under particular circumstances. 
 
 An object in nature can only be apparent by dif- 
 
 * See Reynolds, Fourth Discourse, and The Idler, No. 79. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 137 
 
 fering in its visible attributes from what surrounds 
 it. The chief causes of this distinctness are — 
 difference of Position ; of Magnitude ; of Light ; of 
 Form; and of Colour/ 1 ' 
 
 Accordingly these attributes constitute the gene- 
 ral resources of the artist ; but it will be for him to 
 inquire which of those means are more especially 
 calculated, under any extraordinary conditions, to 
 produce a result which, in regard to intelligible 
 appearance, shall best satisfy the eye. The nature 
 of the resources themselves will require to be first 
 considered. 
 
 POSITION. 
 
 The relative position of objects — their differences 
 of mere site and direction — considered with reference 
 to the plane of vision, are either parallel with that 
 plane or are at a greater or less angle with it. The 
 differences of position may therefore be said to exist 
 either superficially or in depth. In basso-rilievo, 
 for instance, they are (either in the horizontal or 
 perpendicular direction) superficial. In painting, on 
 the other hand, they are chiefly sought and expressed 
 in (apparent) depth ; one of the great aims of this 
 art being to conceal the flat surface and to represent 
 space. Various practical and other considerations 
 
 * Position is added by Dr. Whewell (Bridgewater Treatise, 
 p. 130.). Abstract magnitude may be allowed to form a 
 separate class, as spheres (for example) of different sizes may be 
 said to differ rather in magnitude than in form. 
 
138 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 tend, however, to limit this attribute in works exe- 
 cuted under conditions which involve indistinctness. 
 Indeed, without reference to such conditions, it is to 
 be remembered that, in subjects of figures, space is 
 considered as a means to an end ; viz. the expression 
 of the story. The area which serves for this is often 
 limited accordingly. On the other hand, in those 
 branches of art where the objects represented are in 
 themselves less interesting the attribute of depth or 
 inward extent becomes indispensable. 
 
 But it must also be apparent that varieties in the 
 position of objects in depth, or in a direction not 
 parallel with the plane of the picture, can be most 
 full in works that admit of near inspection, because 
 the expression of greater or less roundness and of 
 receding space requires all the aid of delicate grada- 
 tion. In proportion as that gradation becomes less 
 appreciable, from distance, want of light, or other 
 causes, the scale of such varieties, whatever be the 
 size of the work, is necessarily limited. This is one 
 of the reasons why landscapes, which especially and 
 necessarily aim at the quality of depth, are unfit for 
 a colossal size ;* but the objection before noticed is 
 also applicable. 
 
 The place or position of objects is to be considered 
 not merely as regards their sites, relatively to each 
 
 * Such works are agreeable only when the indistinctness 
 which is the consequence of their distance from the spectator is 
 corrected by strong artificial light concentrated on the picture. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 139 
 
 other, but as regards the ground plan of each alone. 
 In basso-rilievo, as already noticed, the general direc- 
 tion of the object represented is contrived to be 
 parallel with the plane on which it is displayed ; but 
 the aim and style of painting require that such paral- 
 lelism should rarely occur. * The appearance of 
 objects disposed so as not to be parallel with the 
 plane of the picture is what is called foreshortening. 
 The term is generally applied to figures, and to con- 
 siderable (apparent) deviations from the abstract 
 form ; but painting is, strictly speaking, made up of 
 such appearances. The plane on which figures stand, 
 if seen at all beyond the ground line in pictures, is 
 necessarily foreshortened : all objects exhibiting more 
 than one side are more or less foreshortened. 
 
 The laws of perspective show that the foreshortened 
 side of a building or other object is more rapidly 
 narrowed, as it recedes from the eye, than the side 
 parallel to the plane of vision ; so that one only of 
 the surfaces of objects may be said to be at last 
 visible. Even when the foreshortened portions of 
 remote objects are discernible in the linear sense, 
 they are, unless of gigantic size, rarely intelligible, 
 owing to the flattening effect of distance. Fore- 
 shortened forms are always, in regard to their mere 
 outline, distorted forms ; consequently, when seen 
 
 * It is, however, usual to treat architecture, when introduced 
 in pictures in which figures are the principal objects, according 
 to the rules of parallel perspective* 
 
140 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 only in their mass, they are sometimes not easily 
 recognised. Hence, such appearances are introduced 
 sparingly in pictures which cannot be closely in- 
 spected, or which, from whatever cause, are indis- 
 tinctly seen. Under such circumstances the abstract 
 idea of form becomes more necessary ; and, in pro- 
 portion as gradations of light-and-shade cease to be 
 appreciable, the diversities of colour are more than 
 ever needed. It was probably this necessity which 
 led to the partial introduction of colour in the 
 sculpture and architecture of the ancients. 
 
 The effects of nature above noticed teach that 
 (intelligible) foreshortening is a foreground quality. 
 It may be remarked that, in celebrated pictures, 
 foreshortening is most usual in near objects. In 
 Raphael's Transfiguration, for instance, the apostle 
 in the left corner, and the woman kneeling near him 
 are more foreshortened (in the limbs and extremities) 
 than any other figures. Their action, or what may 
 be called their ground plan, would be found to fill 
 up or bridge the spaces between them and the other 
 figures, in directions not parallel with the plane of 
 the picture. The most distant figures, on the con- 
 trary, approach more nearly the flattened action of 
 basso-rilievo. 
 
 But when the work can only be seen at a consider- 
 able distance, or under any conditions which involve 
 indistinctness, foreshortening is limited even in fore- 
 ground objects ; and the style of the work is at last 
 unavoidably reduced to the expression of abstract 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 141 
 
 and permanent qualities. Examples of paintings 
 seen even under such extreme conditions and treated 
 on a principle calculated to counteract them are not 
 wanting. The facade of many a church in Friuli 
 exhibits a colossal St. Christopher, bearing his usual 
 burden, and occupying the entire elevation of the 
 white wall ; on this the figure is relieved by its local 
 tint, deepened only to represent shadow. The prin- 
 ciple is precisely the same as that of very minute 
 representations, and no other mode could be so 
 effective under the circumstances.^ 
 
 The actors in a picture commonly front the chief 
 object of interest; and as that object, whatever it 
 may be, is generally contrived to be but little re- 
 moved from the foreground, so it is for the most 
 part in the nearer foreground that figures turn their 
 backs to the spectator — an arrangement calculated 
 to give depth to a composition. Among the draw- 
 ings formerly belonging to Colonel Guise, and now 
 preserved in Christ Church, Oxford, there is a 
 sketch attributed to Eaphael, accompanied by some 
 
 * These colossal representations have reference to an ancient 
 superstition among the Italian peasantry. The sight of St. 
 Christopher, the type of strength, at any distance, is supposed 
 to renovate the strength of the labourer. One of the paintings 
 referred to has the following inscription : — 
 
 Christophori Sancti speciem quicumque tuetur, 
 
 Illo namque die nullo languore tenetur. 
 
 One of these rude figures is still visible in the neighbourhood 
 of Cadore, the birth-place and frequent summer residence of 
 Titian. 
 
142 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 explanations. The writer recommends that “ those 
 figures which are nearest to the spectator and to 
 the point of sight should present their backs ; those 
 further removed, their sides, and so on in perspec- 
 tive ; as if a circle were drawn and figures were 
 ranged round it.” * 
 
 The spectator might either view this circle from 
 without, or, if supposed to be himself within it, 
 might see only a semicircle. In the latter case the 
 nearest figures would present their sides to him, in 
 the former, their backs. When the spectator stands 
 before a semicircular composition of figures he may 
 be said to complete the circle himself. This 
 arrangement was adopted by the early Italian 
 painters in their sacred subjects, and, from its 
 fitness, was never abandoned by Raphael. The 
 Madonna di Foligno and the Dresden Madonna 
 are remarkable examples. The St. Francis in the 
 first, and the Pope Sixtus in the other, point to the 
 (real) spectator, and appear to intercede for him. 
 The object, in this semicircular arrangement, appears 
 to have been to mix up the living votary with the 
 divine or sainted personages represented, and to 
 make him feel as if in their presence. 
 
 But in more dramatic compositions, in which the 
 spectator may be interested but not a party con- 
 cerned, Raphael often adopted the picturesque 
 
 * Compare Burnet, “ On the Education of the Eye.” 
 London, 1837. p. 44. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 143 
 
 arrangement above described ; and after him it 
 was unfortunately applied to altar pictures. The 
 precept quoted cannot be understood to refer to 
 such works ; but perhaps for all other subjects it 
 may be considered applicable. It would, however, 
 be limited by the external circumstances more 
 particularly dwelt on in these remarks, inasmuch 
 as the most intelligible views of the figure are 
 fittest for situations or conditions entailing unusual 
 indistinctness. 
 
 The relative position of objects in depth, involv- 
 ing, as it does, perspective appearances, is intimately 
 connected with the question of gradations in magni- 
 tude, the subject next to be considered. 
 
 MAGNITUDE. 
 
 The differences of magnitude are either real/'" as 
 at one and the same distance ; or may be only 
 apparent, as the result of perspective. 
 
 It must be evident that gradations in magnitude 
 will be more full and varied when they comprehend, 
 if only in a limited degree, the perspective diminu- 
 tion of forms. The great Italian artists seem to 
 have considered this essential to distinguish paint- 
 
 * The term “ real magnitude ” is restricted to such super- 
 ficial dimensions as have a permanent relation to each other. 
 Under this category may be classed proportion and symmetry. 
 On the distinction between proportion and symmetry, see the 
 second volume of “ Modern Painters,” p. 67. 
 
] 44 - 
 
 styles AND METHODS 
 
 ing, however severe in style, from basso-rilievo, or 
 abstract outline, in which the varieties of magnitude 
 are real.* But in the works before referred to by 
 Michael Angelo and Raphael this perspective di- 
 minution of figures is confined to narrow limits ; 
 partly because the technical means may have been 
 wanting to mark the relative distances of objects 
 when the work was seen under the conditions 
 required ; but chiefly because figures much reduced 
 in size cannot be consistently rendered expressive 
 as actors or spectators. In the second compartment 
 of the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel before mentioned, 
 the effects of perspective (in the gradual diminution 
 of figures) are expressed without restraint ; but the 
 indistinctness which was the consequence was pro- 
 bably among the causes that induced Michael 
 Angelo to reduce the space in depth in the other 
 compartments (as regards the figures) almost to 
 the conditions of sculpture. j* In Raphael's Trans- 
 figuration, the figures on the Mount are supposed 
 to be distant with reference to those below ; but, 
 had they been so represented, they would have 
 been devoid of meaning and importance ; they are, 
 
 * The style of basso-rilievo, as generally practised by the 
 Italians, was not strictly in conformity with this definition, as 
 they injudiciously endeavoured to represent in it the effects of 
 perspective. [See Essay VII. — Ed.] 
 
 t Reynolds, in his Eifth Discourse, justly observes that 
 Michael Angelo attempted little more in painting than could 
 be attained in sculpture. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 145 
 
 therefore, by a judicious liberty, brought within that 
 range of vision where expression, action, and form are 
 cognisable. 
 
 One great exception is, however, not to be over- 
 looked. Correggio, who was devoted to picturesque 
 gradation under all circumstances, and sometimes 
 at any sacrifice, adopted a different course. The 
 perspective diminution in the cupolas at Parma 
 (to say nothing of the objects being represented as 
 if above the eye) is extreme ; so that even the 
 principal figures are altogether subservient to the 
 expression of space. This was the chief object ; 
 but the grandeur of form and character which 
 the nearer figures exhibit has been justly con- 
 sidered to place these works far above subse- 
 quent efforts of the kind, which, in the hands 
 of the “ machinists,” soon degenerated to mere 
 decoration. 
 
 If the criticisms which the frescoes in the Duomo 
 at Parma called forth on their completion had any 
 foundation/'' it may be inferred that the great 
 distance at which the figures were seen rendered 
 it impossible, in some cases, to discern the nicer 
 gradations of light and shade which are essential 
 to make perspective appearances intelligible. Such 
 considerations must, at all events, operate to restrict 
 
 * Kugler, Handbook of the Italian Schools, London, 1855, 
 vol. ii. p. 419. The principal works of Correggio have been 
 engraved in the most satisfactory manner by the Cavaliere 
 Toschi. 
 
146 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 foreshortening under similar circumstances. But 
 here, again, it is to be remembered that painting is 
 still distinguished from basso-rilievo. The amount 
 of foreshortening which is introduced in the car- 
 toons of Raphael may be considered the just 
 medium. Its effect in rounding and connecting 
 the groups, and in giving a due impression of depth, 
 is in accordance with the truth of those works in 
 other respects, and (even in the tapestries, while in 
 their unfaded state) may have been quite com- 
 patible with distinctness. 
 
 The transition from this picturesque treatment, 
 and still more from the unlimited depth of Cor- 
 reggio's compositions to the flatness of a style 
 resembling that of the early mosaics, is violent 
 indeed. In cases where a gold ground is intro- 
 duced behind the figures, painting really approxi- 
 mates to basso-rilievo and to the conditions of 
 the Greek monochroms, without even the advan- 
 tage of the figures and the ground being of the 
 same quality. Under such circumstances, neither 
 perspective nor foreshortening can be introduced 
 to any extent. The varieties of “ position" are 
 almost confined to one and the same plane, and 
 consequently the relations of “ magnitude ” are 
 real. The splendour of the gilt field, though 
 subdued by being roughened (for this is absolutely 
 necessary), betrays the comparative dulness of the 
 painted surface, and the final outlines on the 
 ground (even making allowance for the gradation 
 
OF PAINTING, 
 
 147 
 
 of real light on a large resplendent surface) are 
 in danger of being too uniformly distinct, unless 
 a darkening colour be partially added to the 
 gold. 
 
 The union of absolute reality with imitation is 
 rarely, if ever, satisfactory, as it is essential that 
 the most important qualities should exhibit the 
 nearest approach to nature. As an accompaniment 
 to painting, there is, therefore, no defence for the 
 gilt ground, when it appears as such. For the 
 rest, it cannot be admitted, on the one hand, that 
 art need be reduced to medieval penury in order to 
 agree with this hard condition, if adopted ; nor, 
 on the other, that even the extreme restrictions in 
 representation which it actually involves, considered 
 in themselves, necessarily suppose incompleteness. 
 An analogous style springs from those restrictions 
 which, in adhering to its own resources, may still 
 have its characteristic perfection. Wherever there 
 is gradation, wherever a greater quality becomes 
 conspicuous by comparison with a less (even if 
 abstract lines alone be the means of representation), 
 we recognise an important principle of art. 
 
 Perhaps the most remarkable examples of this 
 relative completeness or independence of style occur 
 in the outlines and monochroms of Greek vases. 
 In these works, the line being assumed to vary 
 but little in thickness, the means of representation 
 may be said to be reduced to the lowest degree. 
 Yet a certain gradation is still preserved. The 
 
148 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 quality of smoothness in forms is expressed by the 
 omission of internal markings. Without back- 
 ground, the scene is indicated by a significant 
 stenography. A band or other object suspended on 
 an unseen wall indicates an interior ; a flower, a 
 landscape ; a star, the night. Other objects (the 
 presence of which may be inferred or imagined from 
 the position of the figures) are entirely omitted ; 
 thus the ground on which figures stand and the 
 chairs on which they are supposed to be seated 
 are often unseen ; as if that which reduced figures 
 to a mere outline rendered subordinate objects 
 invisible altogether. 
 
 Flaxman has shown that the lano-nage of abstract 
 
 O O 
 
 form (requiring no addition of light and shade to 
 assist its meaning) * can sometimes be employed as 
 emphatically with less convention ; but the same 
 general principles are to be recognised in his 
 designs. 
 
 The consistency which is maintained, even on 
 so limited a scale, is not less apparent in the 
 works of great artists in modes of imitation which 
 afforded ample means of expression. From the 
 restricted branch of art last noticed, in which so 
 much beauty was nevertheless condensed, to ex- 
 
 * Representations which exhibit only the linear effects of 
 distance and foreshortening are merely unfinished pictures, and 
 always convey that impression ; but the treatment of outline 
 above described, however limited in its means of imitation, 
 constitutes an independent style. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 149 
 
 amples of painting, which have exhausted the 
 resources of imitation, the world has always awarded 
 its approbation to that relative completeness of 
 style which suggests no want. 
 
 Thus it appears that the contrivances which are 
 a consequence of distance and extraordinary dimen- 
 sions, are more or less expedient in all modes of 
 imitation in which the organ of sight is less fully 
 informed. The incompleteness in the appearance, 
 as in the case of the absence of colour in sculp- 
 ture, being compensated by greater general distinct- 
 ness, and by a representation unencumbered by 
 accidents. 
 
 The apparent contradiction of the omission of 
 detail, in proportion to increase of size, has been 
 already adverted to, and, bearing as it does on the 
 question under discussion, may be more fully 
 stated on the authority of various examples, as 
 follows : — 
 
 The representation (without reference to its frame 
 or boundary) is required to expand as it recedes 
 from the eye ; this increase of size with distance 
 being indispensable, in order that the work may be 
 duly seen. But this progressive enlargement is 
 confined to significant forms and objects ; things less 
 important are gradually omitted, notwithstanding 
 the general increase of size. On the other hand, 
 the degrees of distance to which the style of highly- 
 finished cabinet pictures may be said to belong are 
 defined by the average range of most distinct vision. 
 
150 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 Beyond and within that limit, whether the pictured 
 plane is made to diminish as it approaches, or to 
 expand as it recedes from the eye, detail is either 
 less compatible with effective representation, or is 
 less perceptible.* 
 
 The following considerations may tend to explain 
 the practice in art to which this statement refers. 
 The scale of mere magnitude still increases with 
 increasing distance as the picture becomes en- 
 larged; and it would at first appear that, at any 
 and every degree of distance, the eye must con- 
 tinue to receive an equivalent impression. This 
 cannot, however, be literally the case ; for the 
 scale of other qualities, such as sharpness and soft- 
 ness, and light and darkness, may be already ex- 
 hausted in a picture requiring to be seen near; 
 consequently, that scale cannot be increased by 
 increased dimensions, while it must be reduced by 
 increased distance. But as it becomes reduced— 
 as sharpness, force, and gradation become impaired, 
 notwithstanding the increase of dimensions, the 
 omission of detail becomes unavoidable ; for it is 
 essential to completeness that the quantity of parts 
 should not surpass the existing technical means 
 of expressing their relative importance* 
 
 * The extreme effects of proiimity and distance corrfespohd 
 in some respects, for works of art may he so small that their 
 leading features only can he intelligible : this effect is equiva- 
 lent to that of distance. Thus, engraved gems often exhibit a 
 grandeur of style fit for colossal figures. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 151 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 The influence of the general conditions before 
 mentioned may next be considered with reference 
 to light-and-shade. The varieties of this source 
 of distinctness, though infinite, are, like those of 
 magnitude, merely differences of degree. The 
 circumstances best calculated to display it will be 
 again considered in examining its relation to 
 colour. 
 
 The example of Correggio which was adduced 
 in adverting to perspective and foreshortening 
 may also appear to recommend the employment of 
 chiaroscuro without restriction, under any circum- 
 stances ; but this, his favourite attribute, was con- 
 fined, in the instances of the cupolas at Parma as 
 compared with his oil pictures, to a light scale, 
 especially in the upper portions of those cupolas* 
 It is evident that a dark effect would have ill suited 
 both the places and the subjects. 
 
 The instances are rare, and not always successful, 
 in which extensive surfaces, whether on canvas or 
 on walls, have been covered with masses of low half 
 light and deep shade. Such masses, as is well 
 known, are especially ill adapted for fresco* on 
 account of its tendency to reflect light only from 
 its surface/* Among larger works of the kind, 
 
 * It may at first appear that all pictures reflect light from 
 their mere surface, but this is not, strictly speaking, the case. 
 One great charm of oil-painting is its power to reflect light 
 
152 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 one of the best specimens is, perhaps, Eaphaehs 
 fresco of the Deliverance of Peter from Prison. 
 But although successful in this instance (as far as 
 the material permitted) the great artist did not 
 resort to the same style on other occasions ; on the 
 contrary, in a subsequent work, the Incendio del 
 Borgo, in which the subject might have justified a 
 free use of chiaroscuro, he did not employ it to 
 any great extent.* The reasons for employing it 
 in the first instance appear to have been acci- 
 dental.! 
 
 Other examples, with all their excellence, and 
 even with the advantages of the richer method of 
 oil painting, are more or less unsatisfactory, from 
 
 from an internal surface, through superposed substances more 
 or less diaphanous. 
 
 * Fuseli, Sixth Lecture. 
 
 t Among the painters whose frescoes, previously executed on 
 the walls of the same apartment, were destroyed to make room 
 for the superior works of Raphael, Vasari mentions Pietro della 
 Francesca. This artist was remarkable for his study of chiar- 
 oscuro, and in that department of art had probably considerable 
 influence on his contemporaries and successors. The subjects 
 of his (two) works here referred to are unknown, but supposing 
 one of them to have exhibited a striking effect of light (like his 
 Vision of Constantine), it is quite conceivable that Raphael 
 would aim at similar qualities in substituting for it a work of 
 his own. See Vasari, Vita di Piero della Francesca, and Vita 
 di Raffaello, and Passavant, Rafael von Urbino, Leipzig, 1839, 
 vol. i. pp. 192. 434, 435. Of Raphael’s fresco, Wilkie ob- 
 serves, “ The St. Peter in Prison, finely as it is arranged, is 
 black and colourless.” See Thoughts on the Relative Value 
 of Fresco and Oil Painting, by B. II. Haydon, London, 1842, 
 p. 31. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 153 
 
 causes independent of the materials. The night- 
 scene of the Martyrdom of S. Lorenzo, by Titian, 
 is heavy in its effect. # Of Tintoret’s darker works 
 it would be unfair to speak, as the shadows have 
 too often become black, either by time or by some 
 mischievous technical process.*)* The celebrated 
 Night-watch, as it is called, by Rembrandt, is 
 generally acknowledged to be overloaded with 
 shade; | and the Santa Petronilla of Guercino is 
 a monument of great but, in that instance, mis- 
 directed powers. These are the most remarkable 
 examples of dark pictures on a colossal scale. The 
 Last Judgment by Michael Angelo, now obscured 
 by time and the smoke of candles, must always 
 have had a solemn effect from the depth of the 
 flesh-colour (a treatment which may be traced to 
 the influence of Sebastian del Piombo), but there 
 are no masses of deep shade. As the work is in 
 fresco, mere blackness would have been the result 
 had such been introduced. 
 
 The unfitness of masses of extreme shade in 
 paintings of considerable dimensions (without re- 
 ference to the material) is explained by the fact 
 that the distance at which the work requires to be 
 
 * Compare Burnet, Practical Hints on Light and Shade in 
 Painting, London, 1838, p. 4. 
 
 t This is the case even with some of the fine works in the 
 Scuola di S. Bocco, in Venice. 
 
 } See Reynolds, Journey to Flanders and Holland ; and 
 Kugler, Handbuch der Ceschichtc der Malerei, vol. ii. p. 178. 
 
154 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 viewed tends to obliterate the fainter lights and 
 reflections in sncli masses, thus changing depth to 
 flat obscurity. 5 * In subjects which require gloom, 
 it is still essential that the indistinctness should be 
 felt to be intentional, and not to be the result of 
 such distance. The size of the work should admit 
 of the spectator being so placed as to see all that 
 the artist intended to be seen. The Notte of Cor- 
 reggio can be thus perfectly seen at the distance 
 which its size requires ; but in looking at the 
 Night-watch of Eembrandt, under like conditions, 
 the spectator is presently compelled to draw nearer. 
 The conclusion is, that the amount of darkness in 
 the latter is too great for its size, and, on the other 
 hand, that moderate dimensions may render such a 
 treatment, if suitable on other accounts, not only 
 unobjectionable, but desirable. The finer grada- 
 tions of low tones can be appreciated only on near 
 inspection. The subject, the intended place of a 
 work, or other circumstances, independently of 
 dimensions,! may interfere with this consideration, 
 
 * It has been before observed, that although an object may 
 be increased in magnitude to any extent, in proportion to its 
 distance, and in order to accommodate the spectator, yet its 
 force of light and shade cannot he increased beyond a certain 
 point, and that point is supposed to be already attained in 
 pictures requiring to be seen near. Not only is force not to be 
 increased in proportion as distance increases, it is unavoidably 
 diminished by it, in consequence of interposed air. 
 
 f In modern exhibitions where no space is lost, and where, 
 consequently, the eye is influenced by the effect of the mass, an 
 entire wall approaches the conditions of a large picture. Hence 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 155 
 
 but it is not the less true that the scarcity of light 
 which would be inappropriate in a colossal picture 
 is quite compatible with the physical conditions here 
 referred to, in regard to works of smaller size. 
 
 The Venetian painters, as compared with those 
 of the schools of Lombardy and the Netherlands, 
 appear, with few exceptions, to have systematically 
 avoided a preponderance of masses of deep shade.* 
 This must be understood as meaning no more than 
 that their treatment of light and shade was calcu- 
 lated for works of large dimensions. From the 
 first, the great Venetian colourists were accustomed 
 to execute frescoes in the open air, and sometimes 
 in situations where the distance at which the paint- 
 ings could be viewed was far greater than their size 
 required-! The elements of distinctness and breadth 
 were thus familiar to them, and, it must be con- 
 fessed, were sometimes transferred to works which, 
 
 the amount of light in the component parts of this decoration 
 is required to be great. A subdued window-light may also 
 have its influence. 
 
 * The relative amount of light, shade, and half-light, in the 
 works of the colourists, as given by Eeynolds, is well known, 
 and it will be remembered that he made his observations chiefly 
 from large pictures. See notes to Du Fresnoy, note &xxix. 
 
 t The circumstance of Titian and Giorgione painting on the 
 fagade of the Fondaco de’ Tedeschi is well known. (The 
 remains of some of the figures there painted by them, now 
 quite obliterated, were etched by Zanetti in the last century : 
 two were engraved by Giacomo Piccino at an earlier period.) 
 Examples of a similar kind by Pordenone and other artists still 
 exist, not only in Venice, but in various towns of Friuli. 
 
156 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 admitting of near inspection, might have suggested 
 a different treatment. 
 
 “ Venetian shade,' ” which, notwithstanding the 
 occasional darings of Tintoret in more capricious 
 directions, is characteristic of the school, and which 
 the praise of Agostino Carracci has rendered pro- 
 verbial,* is the worthy auxiliary of composition on 
 an extensive scale, and is fitted, by combining dis- 
 tinctness with breadth, to correct the uncertainty 
 which arises from distance or want of light ; it is 
 calculated to give place and meaning to form, to 
 display the remembered attributes of colour, and, 
 while it renders force of local hues indispensable, 
 to combine solidity with clearness. The view which 
 the Venetian artists took of nature was consistent 
 with the ordinary destination of their works. 
 
 They appear, in most cases, to have assumed 
 that the objects to be represented were seen by the 
 diffused light of the atmosphere, as opposed to the 
 case where the light is derived from a particular 
 source. The practical result of this is that intense 
 shadow is smaller in quantity, and that the picture 
 is chiefly composed of gradations of half and re- 
 flected light ; brightness thus marking projection,! 
 
 * In liis 'well-known sonnet he speaks of “ la mossa coll’ 
 ornbrar Venezia?io.” 
 
 t The “ central light of a globe” (Fuseli, Second Lecture) 
 would not be the most favourable, with reference to the spec- 
 tator, for displaying the object, or for insuring a balance of 
 pght and shade. The expression is, however, usual and allow- 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 157 
 
 and obscurity, depth. It has often been said that 
 in Venetian pictures (more constantly than in those 
 of other schools) the foreground objects are, rela- 
 tively to their hues, the lightest ; the retiring ones 
 being lower in tone. The diminution of the force 
 of shade in remoter masses, the introduction of 
 accidental cast-shadows, of dark hues near, and 
 bright objects, buildings, or sky in the background 
 and distance, may conceal without altering the 
 artifice. This system of effect in Venetian pictures 
 corresponds with that of general nature, and, like 
 that, is too familiar to be remarked ; * but its appa- 
 rent simplicity conceals a scale of gradation the 
 fulness of which may be more difficult to compass 
 than the pronounced effects of confined light. 
 Hence the unaffected character of “ Venetian 
 shade ; ” and hence, at the same time, its power in 
 
 able, and the Venetians themselves were not more accurate : 
 their technical term for “ lighting up ” with the brush was 
 colmizare , from colmo, summit, most prominent point. See 
 Boschini, la Carta del Navegar Pittoresco. Ven., 1G60, p. 288. 
 
 Light in hollows, or rather slight concavities (called by the 
 French artists sillons lumineux ), is hardly an exception. In 
 some cases, for example in plaster casts, the appearance is 
 assisted by a difference of tint. 
 
 * Thus in some of the vast compositions of Paul Veronese, 
 although every figure keeps its place, the artifice of the grada- 
 tions of light escapes observation, as it does in nature. The 
 Venetians seem to have considered that the office of light is 
 rather to exhibit the qualities of material objects than to 
 display itself. Effects of light are generally confined in their 
 works to the distance, where, as regards figures, form and 
 colour are no longer important. 
 
158 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 marking the essentials of form, while it leaves the 
 general idea of colour unimpaired.* 
 
 If the artists of some transalpine schools may be 
 accused of sometimes employing the effects of a con- 
 fined light for scenes supposed to take place under 
 the broad atmosphere, the Italian painters (for the 
 practice was not confined to the Venetians) must be 
 acknowledged to have as often adopted the opposite 
 course ; viz. that of representing scenes in interiors 
 as if seen under a diffused light. They appear to 
 have thought that objects so illumined are more in- 
 telligible in pictures requiring to be seen at a 
 distance (as was the case with altar-pieces), and 
 that such effects are in themselves more large and 
 beautiful. 
 
 The effects themselves, though derived from the 
 observation of nature in the open air, were produced 
 by various artifices in Italian painting-rooms. The 
 most common (still in use) was that of employing 
 oiled paper instead of, or before, the glass of the 
 window. A Madonna of Raphael’s takes its name 
 (dell’ Impannata) from the oiled paper window, pro- 
 bably that of the painter’s studio, in the background, f 
 
 * Zanetti (Della Pittura Veneziana. Yen. 1771, p. 99.) 
 justly observes, that in the heads of Titian the broader shades 
 do not approach the force of the shadows under the features. 
 Compare Barry, Works, vol. ii. pp. 4-5. 49. 51. 
 
 I The “impannata” strictly means cloth, but the term is also 
 applied to oiled paper. Most of these contrivances, although 
 not without interest as connected with the Italian practice of 
 art, are obviously fit only for a bright climate ; but the 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 159 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, who is careful to distinguish 
 between ombra, “ the diminution of light,” and 
 tenebre , “ the privation of light,” * frequently recom- 
 mends attention to the effects above described, and 
 speaks of the modes (probably then common) of pro- 
 ducing them. He remarks that objects seen in a 
 diffused light are more beautiful than when lighted 
 from a confined source, and that when represented 
 in pictures they are more intelligible at a distance, j* 
 He recommends the mitigated light of evening, or 
 of cloudy weather, in preference to the direct light 
 of the sun, in order that shadows may have due gra- 
 dation.^: He observes, that not only the equal force 
 
 but the hardness of the boundaries of such shadows, 
 
 observation of nature and the technical expedients which were 
 then habitual to the artists had also relation to the due effect 
 of works in vast localities. It was the more essential to 
 preserve the general appearances of nature in colour and light- 
 and-shade, because the forms in votive altar-pieces were often 
 individual. 
 
 * Trattato della Pittura. Roma, 1817, p. 274. 
 
 t lb. p. 357. “ Distinctness of local colour and precision 
 
 of outline, are the peculiar character of objects placed out of 
 the effect of strong (sun) light.” Burnet, Practical Hints on 
 Colour in Painting. London, 1843, p. 18. 
 
 X lb. p. 336. When Reynolds, speaking of Vandyck’s 
 St. Sebastian, now at Munich, observes, that it is painted in 
 his first manner (when he imitated Rubens and Titian), which 
 “ supposes the sun in the room,” he can only mean the reflected 
 or diffused rays, not the direct light, of the sun. The picture 
 which he describes sufficiently proves that the direct light is 
 not imitated. In some of Rubens’s works, however, the effect 
 approaches that of the direct sun-light. 
 
160 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 if imitated in pictures, tends to render objects con- 
 fused when seen at a distance.* The latter appear- 
 ances (hard-edged shadows), he adds, “ are espe- 
 cially condemned by painters.” His contrivance for 
 securing the larger effects which he recommends, is 
 to stretch a linen awning across an open court. In 
 one instance f he suggests that the walls should be 
 blackened ; in another, J that they should be painted 
 flesh colour, and be altogether open to the sky. 
 Elsewhere he mentions the “ impannata” (for ordi- 
 nary lights §) ; and again proposes an expedient, 
 
 * Trattato della Pittura, p. 71. He elsewhere observes 
 that objects represented with masses of intense shade, instead 
 of appearing distinct at a distance, appear “tinted.” Dark 
 shades under such circumstances (having no longer the quality 
 of depth) assume the effect of neutral colours. Ib. 248. 
 
 The unvaried force of shade in many of Guercino’s pictures 
 might exemplify the justness of Leonardo’s remarks on that 
 point, but the works of Paul Veronese often exhibit a modified 
 and agreeable use of cast shadows. In preserving their com- 
 parative sharpness he reduces their force, so as to give the 
 impression of a mitigated sun-light, 
 f Trattato della Pittura, p. 91. 
 t Ib. p. 74. 
 
 § Ib. p. 70. From the documents published by Gaye, it 
 appears that Leonardo adopted a contrivance of this kind while 
 painting his celebrated Battle, on the walls of the Council 
 Chamber, at Florence. “ 31. Dicbr. 1504. Rede di marcho 
 del Forese e compagni, merciai, per piu bullecte e nastri per 
 impannare la finestra dove lavora Lionardo da Vinci. 3. 11. 8.” 
 Carteggio d’Artisti, Firenze, 1840, tom. ii. p. 89. In the 
 accounts relating to Michelangelo’s Cartoon of Pisa, we also 
 find : “ 31. Dicbr. 1504. Francesco et Pulinari di Simone di 
 Salamone del garbo, spetiali, per libr. x. di cera biancha e 
 
OF FAINTING. 
 
 161 
 
 similar in its results, for softening the edges and 
 varying the strength of shadows by lamp-light/* 
 Neither Leonardo nor the Venetians were ever 
 deficient in force ; but the latter, in making the 
 fullest use of the principle thus dwelt on by the Flo- 
 rentine, compensated for their comparatively small 
 amount of “ tenebre,” as nature compensates for it, 
 viz. by intense local colours. This resource never 
 led them to neglect the study of chiaroscuro on their 
 own large, and, it may be added, difficult principles, 
 but only served to conceal its artifice. So intent 
 were they on securing relief, as well as breadth of 
 general effect by means of light and shade, that they 
 frequently defined the perspective depth of their 
 compositions and the place of each figure by means 
 of chiaroscuro alone. Tintoret was in the habit of 
 placing large paintings thus studied, but before any 
 colour was added, in the situation which they were 
 ultimately to occupy, in order to judge of their effect 
 and keeping, f The habits of the Venetian and 
 
 spugne e trementine per incerare finestre . et per il cartone di 
 Michelagnolo, et a Lionardo da Vinci, Lire 10. 6.” Ib. p. 93. 
 
 * Trattato della Pittura. Roma, 1817, pp. 73. 75. 
 t See the introductory “ Breve Instruzione ” in Boschini’s 
 Ricche Minere della Pittura Veneziana. Ven. 1674. Tintoret 
 and Bassan, the darkest of the Venetian painters, are still 
 examples, in their main aim, of the principles of the school. 
 Their study of chiaroscuro was, however, more derived from 
 interior and even from nocturnal effects. Both were in the 
 habit of using small models illumined artificially; less (in 
 Bassan’ s case) for the sake of noting accidents of light than for 
 the purpose of observing its gradation on objects more or less 
 
162 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 other colourists in thus occasionally preparing their 
 pictures may be adverted to hereafter in an inquiry 
 into the early methods of oil-painting.* 
 
 FORM. 
 
 The treatment of form,! which is applicable to 
 pictures intended to be seen at some distance, has 
 been already partly considered in reference to certain 
 works by the great Italian masters. It is further 
 to be observed that the means employed to insure 
 distinctness in this department of painting may, 
 without due caution, tend to confound its style with 
 that of sculpture. It is obvious that forms are most 
 intelligible when they are freest from peculiarities ; 
 lienee, when in any extreme case it may be necessary 
 to counteract indistinctness, it would appear that 
 
 removed from its source. Boschini remarks that, with the 
 Venetian painters, “ every room answered the purpose of the 
 open air;” meaning that they could give the effects of open 
 light, either from contrivances like those above mentioned, 
 or from observation and practice, wherever they might be 
 placed while painting. See La Carta del Navegar, &c., 
 pp. 72. 137. &c. ; and Ridolfi, Delle Maraviglie dell’ Arte. 
 Ven. 1648, vol. ii. p. 55 . 
 
 * See first volume of this work, “ Materials for a History of 
 Oil Painting,” Longman, 1847, and second volume of same, 
 Longman, 1869. 
 
 t The “ differences of form ” can only be classed in their 
 abstract elements, viz. as mere lines. These may vary in 
 position, direction, and extent. Lines are said to be massed 
 by extension ; they may be contrasted in their direction, and 
 are repeated by parallelism. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 163 
 
 a generalised treatment is indispensable. But in 
 sculpture this intelligible appearance can only be 
 produced by means of form ; whereas in painting, 
 colour (which in like manner admits of a gene- 
 ralised treatment) can powerfully contribute to such 
 a result. The representation of figures of unusually 
 colossal dimensions need not be supposed. 
 
 The grandest examples of painted figures on a 
 colossal scale — the Prophets and Sibyls, by Michael 
 Angelo, in the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel— do not 
 exceed fifteen feet. In such representations, as 
 those celebrated works prove, painting can still 
 maintain its complete independence as compared 
 with the sister art. The figures in question though, 
 strictly speaking, abstract conceptions, have the 
 force of character of real beings. It is also to be 
 observed that in the subjects by Kaphael in the 
 Vatican, the treatment of form does not approach 
 the conditions of sculpture ; as a proof of this it is 
 to be remarked that the portraits introduced in 
 those compositions do not appear incongruous. 
 Thus, although it may be admitted that the most 
 
 * It is remarkable that the only ancient example on record 
 of painting thus employed (by command of Nero) was a 
 portrait. The figure, painted on cloth, measured more than 
 100 feet. The extreme modern instance, a consequence of the 
 folly of the artist rather than of his employers, is the cupola of 
 the cathedral at Florence, begun by Vasari, and finished by 
 Zuccaro. One of the figures, if erect, would be about 50 feet. 
 See Pliny, 1. 35. c. 7., and Kugler, Hand-book of the Italian 
 Schools, London, 1855, vol. ii. p. 477. 
 
164 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 intelligible forms are those which are freest from 
 accident, and that such forms must be best calcu- 
 lated for works intended to be viewed at some 
 distance, yet it appears that, even in the most 
 limited styles of painting, the degree of general- 
 isation Avhich is necessary, with a view merely to 
 distinctness, need not be confounded with the more 
 abstract treatment of sculpture. If, again, the 
 subject should require an approximation to the 
 latter, the full display of the proper attributes of 
 painting, which may be compatible with the 
 existing external conditions, is indispensable. A 
 generalised style of colour may be said to leave 
 painting at liberty to vary its forms and characters 
 consistently with the intelligible effect at present 
 assumed to be requisite, and is, therefore, the 
 department of this art in which an approach to 
 abstract treatment can be best adopted consistently 
 with its due independence of sculpture. In general, 
 the region of the “ ideal ” (the largest view of 
 nature) is more safely approached by means of 
 attributes which are exclusively characteristic of the 
 art ; the poetic impressions of each mode of repre- 
 sentation are then of a distinct order. 
 
 But to whatever extent characteristic details in 
 living forms would be admissible in the higher 
 styles of painting, the causes referred to would un- 
 questionably operate to limit the introduction of 
 inanimate objects and accessories, and would in- 
 fluence their treatment. 
 
OF FAINTING. 
 
 165 
 
 It is unnecessary to repeat wliat has been 
 observed on this subject ; a consideration in con- 
 nection with it is, however, not to be overlooked. 
 Next to the great requisite that each mode of 
 representation should rest chiefly on its own re- 
 sources, the works of great artists teach the prin- 
 ciple that the imitation of the noblest object should 
 always be the nearest to nature. In sculpture, and 
 in painting when employed to represent human 
 actors, this noblest object is life, with its attri- 
 butes of action and thought. Rarely in the works 
 of the best Greek sculptors or in those of the ex- 
 cellent modern painters does an inanimate object 
 exceed in truth the representation of the living 
 surface. The contrivances with a view to insure 
 this subordination are, necessarily, most daring in 
 sculpture, in which certain inferior qualities are in 
 danger of being confounded with reality. As before 
 remarked, it will generally be found that the em- 
 ployment of conventional methods (as opposed to 
 the more direct truth of representation) increases in 
 proportion as objects are easily imitable, and, conse- 
 quently, in danger of interfering with the higher aim. 
 
 In painting, the instances are rare in which 
 such absolute identity with nature is possible.* 
 The representation of a flat surface, of coloured 
 
 * Mere form is, or may be, such an instance ; but as, in 
 painting, the imitation of substance and space is more or less 
 incomplete, the literal truth of the mere outline, when attained, 
 is in no danger of confounding the work with nature. 
 
166 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 patterns, and painted objects, are almost the only 
 cases ; and far less artifice is sufficient to reduce 
 them to the conditions of imitation. But as re- 
 gards the necessity of superior truth in the living 
 surface, compared with all other objects, the prin- 
 ciple is the same as in sculpture. The contrivances 
 to insure this superiority, without violating nature 
 or betraying the artifice, are among the distin- 
 guishing merits of fine pictures. Inanimate ob- 
 jects may often form a considerable part of a com- 
 position, and therefore cannot be neglected ; the 
 colourists have contrived to give value to such 
 subordinate materials, by dwelling on a portion 
 only of their qualities, such qualities being jjene- 
 rally selected with a view to give value to the flesh, 
 as if they were merely forced into notice by the ex- 
 isting comparison. In the instances in sculpture 
 where absolute identity with nature is to be guarded 
 against, it has been shown that the substance re- 
 quires to be in a great measure uncharacterised ; 
 in the cases now referred to, the objects are only 
 partially characterise d 4 The principle is, however, 
 the same in both methods : art is permitted, or 
 rather required to be apparent, in proportion as 
 nature is in danger of being too nearly approached; 
 
 COLOUK. 
 
 The general treatment of colour which is calcu- 
 lated to assist distinctness cannot be better exem- 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 167 
 
 plified. than by the practice of the Venetian school. 
 It may be first necessary to recur to the elementary 
 facts before noticed. 
 
 It was observed, that an object in nature can 
 only be apparent by differing in its visible attri- 
 butes from what surrounds it ; its distinctness 
 supposes the presence of some or more qualities 
 which are wanting elsewhere. Thus, the imitation 
 of the appearances of nature is especially conver- 
 sant with differences ; it is opposed to (absolute) 
 equality, and is founded on Gradation and Con- 
 trast. 
 
 The first — a difference of degree — comprehends 
 Magnitude and Light. By means of their varieties, 
 perspective, depth, relief, and roundness, in other 
 words, substance and space, are represented. 
 
 The second — a difference of kind — comprehends 
 Form and Colour; by means of which physical and 
 even moral characteristics are expressed. Position, 
 as a strictly proper and incommunicable attribute, 
 belongs to the same category. 
 
 The possible interchange of these two sources of 
 variety (as regards their effects) is constantly 
 exemplified in nature and in art. An abrupt dif- 
 ference of degree amounts, practically, to contrast ; 
 the full scale of differences of kind involves grada- 
 tion. Contrast itself is imperfect without the 
 auxiliary element, by me ans of which equality even 
 of antagonism is prevented, and one impression 
 predominates. 
 
168 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 The great office of colour is then to distinguish. 
 Each object in nature has its own hue as well as 
 its own form, and hence the origin of the painters’ 
 term “ local colour.” This characteristic difference 
 becomes more strikingly conspicuous at a mode- 
 rate distance, when objects are seen as wholes, and 
 in their largest relations and oppositions ; for, in a 
 nearer view, the eye is necessarily more confined to 
 their component varieties. 
 
 On the contrary, light-and-shade, being common 
 to all substances, and presenting differences of 
 degree only, is less powerful at a distance as a 
 means of distinguishing objects from each other ; 
 but in a nearer view, when its infinite gradations 
 are appreciable, it is sufficient, without the addition 
 of colour, to express the relative position even of con- 
 tiguous objects, as well as of their component parts. 
 
 Accordingly, while chiaroscuro in all its richness 
 and delicacy is indispensable in pictures that are to 
 be viewed near, colour is no less desirable in colossal 
 works, or in such as can only be seen at a distance. 
 
 "When employed under such circumstances by the 
 Venetians, its larger appearance, above described, 
 was selected in preference. The “ local hue,” dis- 
 played and influenced as it must be by what sur- 
 rounds it, was especially dwelt on by them as a 
 means of insuring distinctness. The union of due 
 variety (a union which, in all cases, taste alone can 
 define,) with this integrity of local tint has been 
 considered to be one of the great excellencies of 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 169 
 
 Titian, who, nevertheless, changed his style — ac- 
 cordingly as his works were to be seen in vast halls 
 and churches, or in ordinary apartments — from the 
 most daring force of local colour to the fuller har- 
 mony of broken tints observable in near objects. 
 The abstract treatment is more exclusively the 
 style of Giorgione ; * by him it was first carried to 
 its utmost limits, and was sometimes, perhaps, too 
 indiscriminately employed, without reference to 
 dimensions and distance. 
 
 The general style in question has been well de- 
 fined (making some allowance for the stress on its 
 leading attribute — integrity of colour) by Mengs,f 
 whose observations on this subject are adopted by 
 Fuseli. These writers observe, that “ the breadth of 
 local tint ” referred to was attained by taking the 
 predominant quality in a colour for the only quality ; 
 by painting a complexion, for instance, “ which 
 abounded in low tones, entirely in such tones, and 
 by generalising, in the opposite sense, another near 
 it, of a lighter character ; by painting a carnation, 
 abounding in ruddier tints, entirely in such tints, 
 and by depriving of all such tints its neighbour 
 that had few.” The aim being distinctness, 
 
 * From the scarcity of the works of this great artist, Mengs 
 hesitates to believe that he was the inventor of the deep and 
 glowing style of colour wdiich his Italian eulogists attribute to 
 him ; the latter are, however, safer guides. The early pictures 
 of Titian, and the works of Sebastian del Piombo, especially his 
 portraits, attest the influence of Giorgione. 
 
 t Opere, Roma, 1787. p. 36. Fuseli’s Pilkington. 
 
170 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 qualities that were common to several objects 
 were exaggerated in the one that had most, and 
 comparatively suppressed in the others. The same 
 principle, derived from the observation of nature in 
 her largest aspects, was extended to every visible 
 “ difference of kind." The soft elasticity of flesh 
 (ever a great object of the colourists) was more 
 than usually dwelt on in the neighbourhood of 
 substances which, either from their general nature, 
 or from the character which they were made to 
 assume, were calculated to give it value ; for, not 
 only inflexible and sharp substances, but sometimes 
 drapery, was made to serve this end, independently 
 of colour, by abrupt folds, and crisply-painted 
 lights. The shine on the surface of skin was 
 omitted generally, but most so when polished sur- 
 faces were near it ; while these were allowed to 
 reflect light like mirrors, Gradation supported 
 the comprehensive system ; colours were varied 
 not merely in their hues, but in their mass* degrees 
 of brilliancy, and other qualities : vivid colours were 
 therefore sparingly introduced. Lastly, the same 
 breadth which obliterated differences in detail, obli- 
 terated them also, to a certain extent, and according 
 to the scheme of effect, in opposing masses; thus 
 was insured, yet without the appearance of artifice, 
 that plenitude of impression which the eye requires.* 
 
 * Mengs, Opere, Roma, 1787, p. 36. Compare Zanetti, ib., 
 pp. 87 — 101. Boschini, La Carta del Navegar, Yento 5°. 
 Reynolds, passim. Barry, Works, passim. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 171 
 
 It must be apparent that not all the contrivances 
 above adverted to would be applicable in works 
 intended for a near view. The emphasis on local 
 colours, for example, is in them no longer neces- 
 sary to insure distinctness, and, moreover, might 
 supersede peculiar beauties ; yet the example of 
 the colourists may show how much of this great- 
 ness of style may be sometimes adopted with effect, 
 even in narrow dimensions. 
 
 The system of the Venetians comprehended 
 other methods, which may be considered, in a great 
 measure, peculiar to the school, and which were 
 equally calculated to counteract indistinctness. 
 Among the means adopted by them for securing 
 such a result, their treatment of certain colours, as 
 affected by light and shade, merits attention. The 
 artifice was, as usual, derived from the observation 
 of nature in the open air. At that distance where 
 the entire object acquires its full force of local 
 hue by the opposition of what surrounds it, the 
 intenser appearance or focus of its colour will vary 
 in place, according to the real depth or lightness 
 of its tone. That focus will sometimes be in the 
 illumined parts, sometimes in the “ diminished 
 light,” which we call shadow, accordingly as the 
 particular hue requires more or less light to dis- 
 play it* All forcible colours are most apparent in 
 their brightest parts, even when the light is power- 
 ful. All delicate colours are impaired, and some- 
 times nearly effaced, in strong light, and are then 
 
172 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 most apparent in their shadowed portions, where they 
 become deepened by means of reflection.* But, let 
 the same objects be transferred from the open air to 
 a confined or less vivid light, and the effect, as re- 
 gards light colours, is reversed ; the shadows become 
 dark and, generally, neutral, and the colour is dis- 
 played in the light only. The larger system, though 
 adopted by the Venetian painters from habit and 
 predilection almost indiscriminately, was especially 
 employed by them in works intended to be seen at 
 some distance. Fulness and breadth were in such 
 cases indispensable ; and by a judicious use of the 
 effects in question, they increased colour without 
 sensibly diminishing light. The extreme and. ex- 
 aggerated instances of this treatment were gene- 
 rally in situations which admitted only of a distant 
 view. The abuse of the style was indeed suffi- 
 ciently guarded against by the principle, seldom 
 forgotten in pictures of the school, that colours 
 require in all cases to be more or less subdued and 
 broken, for the sake of general harmony. This 
 object was even partly attained by the practice 
 referred to : the ordinary (and most commonly 
 applicable) principle is, that colours should be 
 neutralised in shade ; but, in the excepted cases 
 above described, where they are most displayed in 
 reflection, they require to be, and are in nature, in 
 
 * Compare Leonardo da Yinci, Trattato, pp. 103. 121. 123. 
 324, &c. Edition of Rome, 1817. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 173 
 
 a great measure suppressed and neutralised in tlieir 
 illumined parts. This is assisted by the colour of 
 the light, which, although assumed to be nearly 
 white, appears comparatively warm on cold light 
 colours, and the contrary on warm ones. Har- 
 mony, therefore, was also promoted by this method. 
 
 The influence of certain conditions on the leading 
 departments of painting has now been considered. 
 In this examination, the effects of distance on ob- 
 jects in nature, and also on their painted represen- 
 tations, have been adverted to. The two are not to 
 be confounded ; but the question respecting their 
 relation presents no difficulty in a practical view. 
 It is quite certain that the most distinct and easily 
 recognised appearances are best adapted for pictures 
 requiring to be viewed at some distance. The 
 machinery of art is selected accordingly. The 
 point, or degree of remoteness in nature, where 
 colour is most distinct (that is, most large and 
 powerful), is not the point where form is so; for 
 figures must, even at such a moderate distance, be 
 considerably reduced by perspective. It is not the 
 point where outline is so ; for, in ordinary cases, 
 outlines are soon blunted by distance. The artificial 
 combination of the breadth of general appearances 
 with due distinctness of form is not dictated merely 
 by the necessities of particular conditions, nor is it 
 confined to particular schools ; it is a liberty which 
 all have taken, and is one great source of what is 
 
174 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 called ideal beauty ; for the “ enchantment ” which 
 “ distance lends ” is thus combined with precision. 
 
 Such are among the expedients adopted by the 
 great painters, in order to counteract indistinctness. 
 The considerations which weighed with them may 
 not only be applicable in similar cases, but may 
 show the necessity of employing the resources of 
 art generally for the same great object, viz., that of 
 satisfying the eye in order to affect the mind. The 
 selection and adaptation of particular resources, 
 with reference to particular conditions ; the view 
 of nature, and the use of art which may be calcu- 
 lated for different circumstances ; have all one and 
 the same immediate end. But the test of a due 
 application and economy of the means fitted for 
 such various cases will be, that their conventions 
 should be unmarked, and that art and its contri- 
 vances should be forgotten in their ultimate im- 
 pression. 
 
 It remains to observe that if the qualities in 
 various departments of art above considered are fit 
 for works executed under the conditions of dimen- 
 sions, situation and light, before enumerated, then 
 fresco-painting (supposing due practice in the 
 method) is calculated to display those qualities. 
 For example, its unfitness to represent large masses 
 of shade is not objectionable, because such a treat- 
 ment is not desirable according to the above con- 
 ditions. In colour, the stress on local hues and the 
 integrity of masses (not incompatible with harmony 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 175 
 
 and due gradation) which have been employed by 
 great painters in works chiefly intended to be seen 
 at a distance, are quite consistent with the resources 
 of fresco ; while in form, distinctness and simplicity 
 are especially adapted for its means. 
 
 It has been already observed that the Venetian 
 painters were in a great measure indebted to the 
 practice of fresco-painting for that comprehensive 
 style of colouring which treats objects and their 
 surrounding accompaniments in their largest rela- 
 tions. The early rivalry in fresco of Titian and 
 Giorgione, on the exterior of an edifice near the 
 Eialto, in Venice, has been already noticed. Their 
 works, chiefly consisting of single figures, were 
 there numerous. Besides that building, the follow- 
 ing houses in Venice were painted on the outside by 
 Giorgione. A facade near Santa Maria Zobenico, 
 another near S. Vitale, two others in the same 
 neighbourhood, the Casa Soranza near S. Paolo, 
 his own house near S. Silvestro, and the Casa 
 Grimani near S. Ermacora. The houses painted in 
 fresco on the exterior, by Tintoret, Paul Veronese, 
 Zelotti, Pordenone, Schiavone, Salviati, and others, 
 would form, in each instance, a longer list. ^ 
 
 The modern revivals of fresco on the continent 
 appear to have chiefly had the Florentine style in 
 view ; it may remain for the English artists to 
 engraft on this and on the maturer Roman taste the 
 
 * See Boschini, Ricche Minere, &c. 
 
176 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 Venetian practice. It was formerly a question 
 whether Venetian colour was compatible with the 
 grandest style of painting ; but that prejudice may 
 be considered extinct. Unfortunately, the best of 
 the Venetian frescoes were painted in the open 
 air, and most of them live only in description.* 
 The frescoes of Pordenone, in Piacenza, and two of 
 Raphael's (the Mass of Bolsena and the Heliodorus) 
 in the Vatican, are probably among the best ex- 
 amples of colour in this method now existing. The 
 last mentioned, according to every hypothesis, were 
 painted under the influence of an artist of the 
 Venetian school. Their date corresponds with the 
 arrival in Rome of Sebastian del Piombo, whose 
 powerful style of colouring may have been emu- 
 lated by Raphael ; and Morto da Feltre appears to 
 have been employed on them.f Both were of the 
 school of Giorgione. 
 
 The resources which have been here dwelt on 
 are to be considered as applicable, in many cases, to 
 one class of conditions only. The different means 
 and aims, which entirely opposite circumstances 
 might require or suggest, have been already occa- 
 sionally noticed, and may now be recapitulated; 
 
 * Some fine remains of Pordenone’s works of this kind still 
 exist. See a Letter from Mr. Hart, R. A. Second Report, 
 p. 44 ; compare Mr. Wilson’s Report, ib., pp. 31. 35. 
 
 t See Alcune Osservazioni Artistiche del Cay. Agricola. 
 Roma, 1839, p. 7. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 177 
 
 with a view to obviate the partial conclusions 
 which a somewhat exclusive view might appear to 
 involve. 
 
 The external conditions, relating to light, situa- 
 tion, dimensions and methods, at first proposed for 
 consideration, were called “causes of indistinct- 
 ness” 
 
 Let those conditions now be reversed. Let the 
 dimensions of the picture and of the objects repre- 
 sented be such that the spectator may best con- 
 template the work at the distance of two or three 
 feet (or whatever distance may be requisite to 
 insure most distinct vision).* Let the picture be 
 opposite the eye. Let the light be altogether 
 adapted. And let the means of representation be 
 oil-painting, the resources of which are all-sufficient 
 for complete imitation. 
 
 On the former principle these conditions may be 
 called causes of distinctness. They are compatible 
 with, and therefore invite the introduction of all 
 (agreeable) qualities which in nature can be appre- 
 ciated only by near inspection. Such qualities now 
 become characteristic of the style ; for the above 
 external conditions — involving a just adaptation of 
 
 * A small picture may contain portions of large or even 
 colossal figures, in which case the distance of the spectator from 
 the work is no longer regulated by the dimensions of the frame, 
 but by those of the objects represented. A distance corre- 
 sponding with the average limits of most distinct vision is here 
 purposely assumed. 
 
178 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 technical means — not only permit, but require, that 
 every excellence which was inadmissible or unat- 
 tainable under other circumstances, should now 
 assert its claims. On the same principle, provided 
 the work can be seen with perfect convenience, the 
 means before employed to counteract indistinctness 
 may now be thrown aside — not merely as unneces- 
 sary, but because they may interfere with the com- 
 plete representation of a new order of facts. These 
 appear to be the general principles of the school of 
 the Netherlands, especially in subjects of figures. 
 The leading qualities which are the result may be 
 thus enumerated. 
 
 The assumed near point of view permits and 
 invites the introduction of a large proportion of 
 low tones, all the gradations of which are now 
 appreciable. These are rendered luminous by in- 
 tense but still transparent shades, and acquire rich- 
 ness from the scarcity of strong light. Accidents of 
 light — not excepting sun-light — are admissible, and 
 often even desirable ; they are no longer in danger 
 of interfering with the intelligible representation of 
 form and colour, and may be necessary to give that 
 degree of interest which the subject itself may not 
 always command. 
 
 The employment of perspective and foreshorten- 
 ing is unrestricted ; the last appears to be avoided 
 in no case in which it would be intelligible in 
 nature. Varieties in the place or “ position” of 
 objects are especially sought in depth. 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 179 
 
 An assemblage of broken, harmonious, and name- 
 less hues is next to be remarked, among which the 
 slightest approach to what is called positive colour 
 is conspicuous. This sobriety has nevertheless the 
 effect (with occasional exceptions in the school) of 
 giving a predominant impression of warmth, and of 
 thus vindicating the general character of colour as 
 distinguished from mere chiaroscuro. 
 
 The varieties of sharpness and softness in the 
 boundaries of forms and in their internal markings, 
 must ever exist where there is a background and 
 light and shade; the relation between them is 
 therefore the same as on a larger scale, but the 
 extreme diminution of figures in cabinet pictures 
 generally induces utmost precision in the sharper 
 parts. Lastly, where each object may be discerned ; 
 without difficulty, yet by means of delicate grada- 
 tions of light can keep its place and thus be easily 
 intelligible, details may be copious and forms alto- 
 gether individual. Thus is again furnished the link 
 between appropriate technical means and the choice 
 of incidents, and hence the predilection with the 
 masters of this style for familiar and even trivial 
 circumstances. On this last point it is however to 
 be remarked, that where so much judgment and 
 well directed skill are present in the work, our 
 respect is commanded even by the unpretending 
 nature of the subjects ; and where these are not 
 offensive, they can hardly be said to diminish the 
 satisfaction of the spectator who is alive to the 
 
180 
 
 STYLES AND METHODS 
 
 ) 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 higher objects of the artist. A greater danger to 
 which this style is liable (in finished pictures where 
 human actors form the subject), is that of making 
 the accessories and inanimate objects truer to nature 
 than the representation of life. This defect is, how- 
 ever, avoided, even in elaborate works, by the best 
 masters of the school. 
 
 To conclude ; the resources, whether abundant or 
 limited, of the imitative arts are, in relation to 
 nature, necessarily incomplete ; but it appears that, 
 in the best examples, the very means employed to 
 compensate for their incompleteness are, in each 
 case, the source of a characteristic perfection and the 
 foundation of a specific style. As it is with the arts 
 compared with each other, so it is with the various 
 applications of a given art ; the methods employed 
 to correct the incompleteness or indistinctness 
 which may be the result of particular conditions 
 are, in the works of the great masters, the cause of 
 excellencies not attainable, to the same extent, by 
 any other means. In the instance last mentioned — 
 the school of the Netherlands — it is apparent that 
 no indirect contrivances or conventions are neces- 
 sary to counteract the effects of indistinctness ; on 
 the contrary, all that would be indistinct in other 
 modes of representation is here admissible with 
 scarcely any restriction. The incompleteness to be 
 overcome, which is here the cause of peculiar attrac- 
 tions, therefore resides solely in the conditions and 
 imperfections of the art itself, which, on near in- 
 
OF PAINTING. 
 
 181 
 
 spection, are in greater danger of being remembered. 
 These are — a flat surface and material pigments ; 
 and these are precisely the circumstances which, by 
 the skill of the artists in the works referred to, are 
 forgotten by the spectator. The consequences of 
 the difficulty overcome are, as usual, among the 
 characteristic perfections of the style. 
 
 The two extremes of “ external conditions,” and 
 their corresponding styles, have been here chiefly 
 considered. The intermediate modes and combi- 
 nations are innumerable ; but in considering the 
 question to what extent and in what respects the 
 extremes of style may be compatible with each 
 other, it will appear, on a review of what has been 
 stated, that the grander view of nature, and of the 
 technical means fitted to represent it, may be satis- 
 factory in reduced dimensions in the department of 
 form rather than in those of colour and light-and- 
 shade; and that, on the other hand, the combination 
 of the usual characteristics of small pictures with 
 large dimensions, if possible in light-and-shade and 
 colour, is impossible in form. The last-named attri- 
 bute being the indispensable medium of the artist’s 
 conceptions, it follows that the interchange of 
 subjects fitted respectively for the two styles can 
 only be admissible in adapting grand subjects to 
 small dimensions, and even then at the risk of the 
 conventions of the grander style being too apparent. 
 
182 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 No. IX. 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL.* 
 
 For more than two centuries every account of 
 the life and labours of Raphael may be said to have 
 been derived, with little material alteration, from 
 Vasari. It would be unjust to so pleasing a narrator 
 to attribute this solely to the indolence of the 
 writers who succeeded him ; indeed modern critics, 
 without excusing the occasional inaccuracies of the 
 Florentine biographer, have acknowledged that his 
 just and artist-like criticism, and the naivete and 
 interest of his details, as far as they go, could 
 scarcely be improved. It was, in short, chiefly 
 owing to Vasari’s well-earned reputation that the 
 task of revising and, what was far more difficult, of 
 completing the valuable outlines he had left, was 
 so long — unfortunately too long — deferred. Of the 
 more voluminous accounts of the Italian painters 
 which have appeared within the present century, 
 the greater part, however embellished by the de- 
 
 * Review of J. D. Passavant’s “ Rafael von Urbino und sein 
 Yater Giovanni Santi, in zwei Theilen mit vierzehn Abbil- 
 dungen. Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1839.” Quarterly Review, 
 No. cxxxi. June, 1840. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 183 
 
 scription of works of art, or enlivened by the con- 
 nexion with general history, can scarcely be said to 
 have contributed any additional facts. To this class 
 belong the lives of Raphael by Duppa, Braun, and 
 Quatremere de Quincy : — the Italian translation of 
 the last, overwhelmed as it is with notes not always 
 remarkable for their importance or correctness, may 
 nevertheless be considered the fullest memoir that 
 had appeared prior to the far superior work of 
 Passavant. 
 
 The credit of instituting a new kind of research 
 in the history of art, as opposed to the habit of 
 copying Vasari, is perhaps due in the first instance 
 to Pungileoni. The first volume of his Life of 
 Correggio, published in 1817, proved that it was 
 still possible to wrest from the mouldering records 
 of convents and similar archives a few important 
 facts and chronological data, with which, as safe 
 links, other materials might be connected. The 
 same writer was equally fortunate in his patient 
 researches at Urbino respecting Giovanni Santi, the 
 father of Raphael, and respecting the great painter 
 himself; but conscious, perhaps, that his life of 
 Correggio had failed to unite a comprehensive spirit 
 of criticism with mere historic accuracy, he con- 
 tented himself with giving the latter results of his 
 investigations in two small pamphlets, as materials 
 for future historians. 
 
 Of the writers on art on this side the Alps, the 
 first who followed the example of Pungileoni in 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 184 . 
 
 original research, while he far surpassed the Italian 
 in philosophic criticism, was Von Rumohr. In the 
 first two volumes of his “ Italienische Forschungen,” 
 after briefly tracing the vicissitudes of art in the 
 dark ages, this writer gives the history of several 
 painters of the Florentine, Sienese, and Umbrian 
 schools. His sources were original documents and 
 the testimonies of early writers employed to verify 
 or correct the accounts of Vasari ; his descriptions 
 and criticisms were fresh from the works themselves 
 in every case where this was possible. Thus a 
 scrupulous spirit of investigation, combined with 
 the views of an enlightened historian and not un- 
 skilful connoisseur, at once distinguish Rumohr 
 from most of the writers on these subjects who ap- 
 peared about the same time ; of the two opposite 
 qualifications of patient research and a generalising, 
 philosophic treatment of materials thus acquired, it 
 must, however, be admitted that the latter is ever 
 active — with or without sufficient data. The third 
 volume was devoted to Raphael and his contem- 
 poraries, but the account is brief, and the method 
 this author had followed with such pains in his 
 former volumes he wanted either leisure or inclina- 
 tion to pursue. We shall have occasion, however, 
 to show, that even in this portion he still appears to 
 advantage in his occasional enlightened remarks on 
 the works of Raphael. 
 
 The same spirit of accurate research, the same 
 conscientious principle as to actual inspection, a 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 185 
 
 still more practised eye, and a still more artist-like 
 feeling, are united in Passavant with a more 
 cautious indulgence of particular opinions and im- 
 pressions. In philosophic criticism he is, perhaps, 
 inferior to Eumohr ; his laborious and well- 
 
 arranged book might be rendered still more com- 
 plete and accurate even in its facts, but on the 
 whole it may safely be said, that no production of 
 the kind has approached it for copiousness and 
 originality of information. The second volume will 
 be found eminently useful, and, with very little 
 correction, may serve as a model for future compila- 
 tions of the kind ; it consists of a catalogue of all 
 Raphael’s works, first arranged chronologically with 
 reference to the periods of their production. The 
 description of each work, with an indication of the 
 gallery or collection, if known, where it exists, is 
 followed by a list of the drawings or preparatory 
 studies for the composition ; these are described in 
 like manner : then follows an enumeration of all the 
 engravings and known copies. A second catalogue 
 contains a list of such works as are known only 
 from description, and of others falsely ascribed to 
 Raphael, or which were only executed by his 
 scholars and imitators from his designs. The just- 
 ness of the grounds on which the author inserts 
 many a highly-prized possession in this category 
 will naturally be challenged by those interested in 
 the decision. A third catalogue is devoted to the 
 drawings alone, arranged according to the countries 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 1 S6 
 
 where the various collections exist. The old en- 
 gravings after Raphael are also enumerated together; 
 and lastly, all the works attributed to the master 
 are classed, according to their subjects, as an index 
 to both volumes. The biography itself, which is 
 thus comparatively a small part of the work, oc- 
 cupies about half the first volume, the rest being 
 composed of incidental memoirs, documents, and 
 extracts. By far the most valuable portion is that 
 relating to the earlier history and productions of 
 Raphael, a subject on which conjecture had too long 
 usurped the place of any attempt at chronological 
 accuracy. 
 
 A circumstance that at once forces itself on our 
 notice, and w T hich we here find treated with the 
 attention it deserves for the first time, is the im- 
 portance of Urbino, both in a political and social 
 point of view, at the period when Raphael began 
 his career. The resources and renown of this little 
 dukedom, improved and upheld by Federigo da 
 Montefeltro, remained ultimately unimpaired in the. 
 hands of his successor Guidubaldo : the state, in 
 short, was represented and its warlike population 
 led to the field by hereditary sovereigns, before 
 Florence had learned to yield even to temporary 
 sway. That a Tuscan writer on art should be silent 
 on the past glories of a neighbouring state is quite 
 natural ; but it seems unaccountable that so many 
 biographers, in following Vasari, should have over- 
 looked the remarkable circumstances by which 
 
/ 
 
 LIFE OF KAPHAEL. 18 ? 
 
 Raphael was surrounded in his youth, — circum- 
 stances which must not only have had an influence 
 on his taste, but which brought him in contact with 
 the most celebrated men of his age, many of whom 
 afterwards served him, at least with the communi- 
 cation of their learning, when he was employed at 
 the court of Rome. 
 
 This inattention is the more surprising since we 
 find that, in speaking of other painters, natives of 
 Urbino, the glories of the Athens of Umbria, as it 
 was called, were not forgotten. Thus Bellori, in 
 his Life of Baroccio, whose descent he traces from 
 a sculptor of that name at the court of Federigo, 
 opens his narrative as follows : — “ Federigo Feltrio, 
 Duke of Urbino, who in his days was the light of 
 Italy in the arts of peace and in arms, among his 
 other noble works, built a most magnificent palace 
 on the rugged declivity of Urbino. This structure 
 had the reputation of being the finest that Italy had 
 seen up to that time. Not only did the duke enrich 
 it with tasteful and appropriate ornaments, but 
 he enhanced its splendour by a collection of antique 
 marble and bronze statues, and choice pictures, and 
 with vast expense got together a great number of 
 most excellent and rare books,” &c. This descrip- 
 tion is evidently copied from the opening of Castig- 
 lione’s “ Cortegiano,” where the expression respect- 
 ing the collection of statues (uiT infinita di statue 
 antiche di marmo e di bronzo) is still stronger. 
 Among the omissions with which Passavant may 
 
188 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 be charged, we must reckon his not having en- 
 deavoured to trace these specimens of antique 
 sculpture, which probably in the end migrated with 
 the ducal library to Rome, and may now be in the 
 Vatican. It would be desirable to know what they 
 were ; for although Raphael was never remarkable 
 for a servile imitation of the antique, we find that 
 he sometimes adopted his subjects, and often im- 
 proved his drapery and his forms, from such 
 examples. 
 
 The influence of classic monuments of art has 
 been too much overlooked, generally, in the early 
 history of painting. In modern times we are ac- 
 customed to consider a direct imitation of sculpture 
 as the evidence of such an influence : in the infancy 
 and gradual development of art, the effect was 
 much less pronounced, but not the less real. Those 
 who, like the Germans, are in the habit of drawing 
 a strong line of demarcation between the classic and 
 Christian taste, are too apt to neglect the consider- 
 ation of this question, and, except in decided in- 
 stances, as in Mantegna's case, of the adoption of 
 antique forms, appear to think that Italian art was 
 as independent in its infancy as it was in its per- 
 fection. We shall not now stay to examine this 
 subject further, but merely remark that, although 
 Rome was ultimately the centre of classic taste, 
 almost every Italian city preceded it in forming 
 collections of antique sculpture. The examples at 
 Pisa, from which the early sculptors of that city 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 189 
 
 caught their first inspiration, the school of Squar- 
 cione at Padua, the garden of the Medici at 
 Florence, and the gallery of Urbino, were all ex- 
 ercising their influence before the treasures of the 
 Roman territory were exhumed. Poggio Braccio- 
 lini, who had himself employed agents to import 
 specimens of sculpture from the Levant to Florence, 
 could only count six statues in Rome towards the 
 middle of the fifteenth century. 
 
 That the account above quoted relating to Urbino 
 was not exaggerated is abundantly evident from the 
 corroborating testimonies of local historians, and, we 
 may add, from the architecture of the palaces of 
 Urbino and Gubbio, considered with reference to 
 its age. Perhaps the most interesting of the his- 
 torians just alluded to is the father of Raphael, 
 Giovanni Santi, who, in a MS. poem preserved in 
 the Vatican, consisting of twenty-three books in 
 terza rima, celebrates the martial and peaceful 
 virtues of the Duke Federigo. The chronicle is so 
 far complete that it ends with the death of its hero 
 in 1482, (the year before Raphael was born,) and is 
 dedicated to his son and successor Guidubaldo I. 
 In the dedication Giovanni Santi speaks of having 
 been early induced to embrace “ the admirable art 
 of painting, the difficulty of which,” he says, “added 
 to domestic cares, would be a burden even for the 
 shoulders of Atlas.” From the expression “ I am 
 not ashamed to be called a professor of this noble 
 art,” coupled with the evidence of no inconsiderable 
 
190 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 possessions, it may be inferred that Giovanni yielded 
 to a strong inclination for the pursuit, having other 
 sufficient means of subsistence. The military ex- 
 ploits and public life of the Duke Federigo are the 
 subjects of histories almost as copious as the rhymes 
 in cpiestion ; but some domestic details lose nothing 
 from appearing in a poetical dress, especially as the 
 poet seems to write better when he trusts least 
 to imagination. The death of the accomplished 
 Countess Battista, # at the age of twenty-six, is 
 among the most touching of his descriptions. This 
 lady, whose acquirements merited the praises of 
 Bernardo Tasso, had pronounced an extempore Latin 
 address, at the age of twenty, to Pope Pius II., 
 and the princes and ambassadors who were with 
 him in Milan, when the learned pontiff, with pro- 
 bably as much truth as gallantry, declared that he 
 was unable to reply to her with equal eloquence. 
 On hearing of her dangerous illness, her husband 
 left the command of the Florentine army, and 
 arrived only to see her expire. The poet describes 
 her embracing her lord for the last time, her causing 
 their infant son Guidubaldo to be placed in his 
 father s arms while the bystanders melted in tears, 
 and concludes — 
 
 * Passavant is wrong in calling her Duchess; the title of 
 Duke was conferred on Count Federigo by Sixtus IV. in 1474, 
 (two years after the death of Battista,) on the marriage of the 
 Pope’s nephew, Giovanni della Rovere, with Giovanna, daughter 
 of Federigo. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 191 
 
 “ Chiuse quel santo, onesto e grave ciglio, 
 
 Rendendo Y alma al ciel divotamente, 
 
 Libera e sciolta dal mondan periglio.” 
 
 The chronicle of Giovanni Santi is in no respect 
 more important than in his occasional allusions to 
 the painters, sculptors, and architects of his time 
 in Urbino and elsewhere in Italy. These notices, 
 corroborated by the testimony of other historians, 
 by the documents brought to light by Pungileoni, 
 and still more by his own researches on the spot, 
 have enabled Passavant to give a sufficiently full 
 account of the artists who constantly or occasionally 
 exercised their talents at Urbino during Raphael's 
 youth, and of others whose works, done at earlier 
 periods, were accessible to him in and near his 
 native city. 
 
 We cannot accompany the historian far in these 
 researches, and must follow his own example in 
 expressing our reluctance to acquiesce in eulogies, 
 where we have not had opportunities of judging for 
 ourselves. Luciano Lauranna, the architect of the 
 palaces of Urbino and Gubbio, undoubtedly deserves 
 to have his name recorded. The style of these 
 buildings resembles, in its tasteful imitation of the 
 antique, that of Leon Battista Alberti, and may 
 thus not have been without its influence on Raphael 
 and his townsman Bramante. Francesco di Giorgio 
 of Siena, to whom the design of the Urbino palace 
 is erroneously ascribed by Vasari, seems to have 
 been employed in the fortifications, and in some 
 
192 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 works of ornamental sculpture, which still adorn 
 the interior and exterior of the palace. In these 
 decorative works, Ambrogio Baroccio, the ancestor 
 of the painter, assisted, and merited the praises of 
 Giovanni Santi, for the taste and spirit of his archi- 
 tectural foliage. The walls of many of the apart- 
 ments were painted with frescoes, which have long 
 disappeared. Baldi, in his “ Descrizione del Palazzo 
 ducale d'Urbino,” speaks of a room, annexed to the 
 library, which contained portraits of celebrated 
 men of all ages : it may be noted that one of 
 Raphael's early sketch-books, preserved in the 
 academy at Venice, contains drawings of this 
 description, probably done from the representations 
 in question.* Even the panelling was here and 
 there of a costly kind ; it appears to have been the 
 work of Maestro Giacomo of Florence, who wrought 
 in tarsia (inlaid wood), a mode of imitation which 
 Vasari includes among the arts of design, and in 
 which original and fine compositions were some- 
 times, perhaps we should say, thrown away. The 
 curious specimens still existing in both the palaces 
 alluded to may have been the work of this artist. 
 The English traveller who paces the grand apart- 
 ments (some of which, in the Gubbio edifice, are 
 
 * This surmise has been since verified by the discovery of 
 several grandly executed pictures of classical and scriptural 
 personages, identified as the same alluded to in Raphael’s 
 sketch-book, which have now passed from the Campana collec- 
 tion at Rome into the Museum of the Louvre. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 193 
 
 now filled with silk-looms !) recognises among these 
 inlaid ornaments the insignia of the Order of the 
 Garter, a distinction conferred on more than one 
 sovereign of Urbino, and of which the Montefeltri 
 were justly proud. 
 
 The history of the painters of Urbino and its 
 neighbourhood might be traced to a much earlier 
 date, from the specimens still existing. These, for 
 the most part, possess but little interest ; but we 
 cannot omit the name, though nothing but the 
 name remains, of the Oderigi, mentioned by Dante 
 (Purg. c. 11.). An appropriate inscription marks 
 the house in Gubbio, where the poet for a time 
 resided, and where it is said he composed part of 
 his great work.* It was in this place he became 
 acquainted with Oderigi, the missal -painter, to 
 which circumstance alone probably the artist owed 
 his immortality. 
 
 To come at once to the painters whose merit was 
 sufficient to attract the attention, or influence the 
 style of the best of their successors, we find that 
 Gentile da Fabriano painted occasionally at and 
 near Urbino, as well as at Pome and other places. 
 
 * The rage in Italy for putting up lapidi , to commemorate 
 all kinds of events, has been sometimes ridiculed ; but we 
 observe, in passing, that none would object to see such a 
 practice somewhat more prevalent than it is in England. 
 Associations which all must cherish are gradually lost from the 
 neglect of this. Many a house in the older streets of London 
 well deserves such memorials. 
 
194 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 A Madonna and Child from his pencil won the 
 admiration of Michael Angelo himself, who, accord- 
 ing to Vasari, used to say that Gentile had a hand 
 like his name. Paolo Uccello, known for his skill 
 in perspective, — and celebrated for the colossal 
 equestrian figure of the English condottiere , Hawk- 
 wood, which he painted on the walls of the cathe- 
 dral at Florence, — appears among the painters who 
 left specimens of their talents in Urbino ; his works, 
 indeed, are no longer to be found there, but the 
 recorded payments, dated 1468, are sufficient proofs. 
 Giovanni Santi, alluding to the wonders of perspec- 
 tive done in his time, observes — 
 
 “ Et si perfectamente hogi riluce, 
 
 Che como scorge la vertu visiva 
 Perfectamente in disegnio reduce. 
 
 Et benche el fin di lei 1’huom si non troya, 
 
 Pur e dela pictura membro intero 
 E invention del nostro secul nova.’’ 
 
 A curious picture by Giorgio Andreoli, errone- 
 ously ascribed to Bramante, is preserved in the 
 church of Sta. Chiara. It represents an architec- 
 tural composition in perspective : the round build- 
 ing with Corinthian pilasters, which forms the chief 
 object, appears to have been a favourite perspective 
 lesson with the artists of the time and neighbour- 
 hood, and occurs, variously modified, in the works 
 of Perugino and Eaphael. A very similar design 
 was afterwards introduced in the architectural 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 195 
 
 decoration of a theatre at Urbino, when the first 
 regular Italian comedy, the Calandra of Cardinal 
 Bibiena, was represented there in 1513 (and not, as 
 Tiraboschi supposes, in 1508). These decorations, 
 the work of Girolamo Genga, a fellow-scholar of 
 Raphael with Perugino, are minutely described in 
 one of Castiglione s letters. 
 
 Pietro della Francesca, one of the most accom- 
 plished painters of his time, deserves more especial 
 attention. He was the guest of Giovanni Santi, in 
 Urbino, in 1469. His portraits of the Duke (then 
 Count) Federigo, and his consort Battista Sforza, 
 forming a dyptich, are now in the gallery at 
 Florence. A single specimen only of his hand 
 remains at Urbino ; but in his native city, Borgo 
 S. Sepolcro, many of his works are still extant. 
 At Arezzo, in the church of S. Francesco, Pietro 
 painted “the History of the Cross,” and among 
 other subjects, “the Vision of Constantine.” “In 
 this,” says Vasari, “ an angel, foreshortened, 
 descends head downwards, with the sign of Victory 
 to Constantine, who sleeps in his tent guarded by 
 some armed figures, dimly seen ; while the light 
 from the angel, which is managed with great skill, 
 illumines the tent, the figures in armour, and the 
 surrounding objects. Pietro,” he continues, “thus 
 taught the importance of copying effects from 
 nature, and contriving them originally — indeed, 
 he did this himself so successfully, that he was the 
 means of other more modern masters following in 
 
196 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 the same track, and attaining the great excellence 
 which we have witnessed in our own times/’ The 
 defeat of Maxentius was also among these subjects ; 
 and Vasari, after praising the picturesque effect of 
 certain portions, goes on to describe the flight and 
 submersion of Maxentius, “ where a group of 
 horses, foreshortened, is so admirably managed, 
 that, considering the time when the work was done, 
 it must be admitted to be of extraordinary excel- 
 lence.” He speaks also of some figures skilfully 
 designed in regard to anatomy, “so little known 
 at the time.” The remains of these frescoes, badly 
 retouched, are still to be seen at Arezzo. The 
 sketch for a portion of “ the Vision of Constan- 
 tine ” is in the Lawrence collection, and when 
 published by Ottley, was ascribed to Giorgione 
 — a remarkable confirmation of the truth of 
 the above eulogy. According to Vasari, Pietro 
 della Francesca and Bramantino da Milano had 
 painted some frescoes in the Vatican. These, the 
 biographer informs us, were destroyed to make 
 way for Raphael’s “Deliverance of Peter,” and 
 the “ Miracle of Bolsena.” What Pietro’s subjects 
 were, it may now be impossible to learn ; but that 
 which occupied the place where the “Deliverance 
 of Peter,” now is, probably exhibited one of 
 those striking effects of chiaroscuro, of which 
 he seems to have given the first examples.* The 
 
 * Vasari was mistaken with regard to Bramantino da 
 Milano ; that artist lived at a later period. It seems that 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 197 
 
 coincidence between liis treatment of such sub- 
 jects (as described by Vasari above, in the “ Vision 
 of Constantine "), and the remarkable effect 
 of light and shade in Raphael's “ Deliverance 
 of Peter," is, perhaps, more than accidental, and 
 Passavant might safely have ventured to allude to 
 it. Lastly, this master was skilled above all his 
 contemporaries in perspective and geometry ; and 
 Vasari goes so far as to say, “ the most important 
 information that exists on such subjects is derived 
 from him." His MSS. were deposited in the ducal 
 library at Urbino, and some of them are now in 
 the possession of the Marini family at Borgo 
 S. Sepolcro. 
 
 The most distinguished contemporary painters 
 of Romagna and Umbria are said to have studied 
 under Pietro della Francesca. Among these, Me- 
 lozzo da Forll and Luca Signorelli confirm such a 
 tradition by their works more than Pietro Perugino. 
 The name of Melozzo da Forll, of whom Giovanni 
 Santi speaks in terms of regard, is associated with 
 an epoch in the art, from his having first attempted 
 that kind of foreshortening when figures are sup- 
 posed to be seen above the eye (di sotto in su) ; and 
 in this respect he is to be considered the precursor 
 
 Pietro della Francesca painted two frescoes ; one, replaced by 
 that of the “ Deliverance of Peter;” the other, by that of the 
 “ Miracle of Bolsena.” (Vita di Pietro della Francesca.) In 
 the Life of Raphael, Vasari speaks but of one finished work by 
 Pietro. 
 
198 
 
 LIFE OF EAPHAEL. 
 
 of Correggio. Vasari, speaking of a work of this 
 nature by him, “ the Ascension/' formerly in the 
 church of the SS. Apostoli at Eome, says, “the 
 figures of Christ and the angels seemed to pierce the 
 roof." * This artist appears to have been employed 
 in a villa of the sovereigns of Urbino. Of the 
 celebrated Luca Signorelli it is unnecessary to say 
 more than that Michael Angelo did not disdain to 
 borrow from his original and well-studied groups at 
 Orvieto. 
 
 In the prominent characteristics of these painters 
 We may trace a more decided connection with the 
 style of Andrea Mantegna than with any Florentine 
 example ; and as some corroboration of this it may 
 be mentioned that Giovanni Santi places Mantegna 
 at the head of the painters of his time 
 
 “ Perche de tucti i membri de tale arte 
 Lo integro e chiaro corpo lui possede 
 Piu che lruom de Italia o dele externe parte.” 
 
 The poet concludes a long eulogy on the same artist* 
 by repeating that 
 
 “ In cio (la pittura) tien lo impero.” 
 
 The physical elements of the art had, in fact, made 
 great progress in the hands of the artists above 
 mentioned. Perspective and geometry introduced 
 a taste for architecture ; and the same love of per- 
 
 % Engraved in Ottley’s “ Florentine School,” Plate xly. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 199 
 
 spective, in its application to form, led to fore- 
 shortening and to depth in composition : with these 
 chiaroscuro necessarily advanced. Instances are 
 quoted, in which some artist, like Luca Signorelli, 
 approached the modern* richness in colour; but 
 for a decided progress in this respect, and still more 
 for expression, and a marked religious feeling, we 
 should rather look to another group of painters 
 in the same neighbourhood, most of them some- 
 what later in date, with Pietro Perugino at their 
 head. 
 
 The period when Pietro della Francesca, and the 
 artists named with him, produced their principal 
 works, was soon after the middle of the fifteenth 
 century. Several were employed at Eome by Pope 
 Nicholas V., about 1455 ; but Signorelli and Peru- 
 gino were also painting in the Vatican much later. 
 The artists in question had been the wonder of 
 their age, yet many of their productions were swept 
 away to make room for the frescoes of Raphael, and 
 afterwards for “ the Last Judgment ” of Michael 
 Angelo. So, in Venice, the Pietro Martire of 
 Titian supplanted the same subject at the same 
 altar by Jacobello del Fiore. Signorelli and Pietro 
 Perugino were, it appears, in Rome when a fresco 
 by the former was destroyed, because a young man 
 
 * “ The modem manner ” is Vasari’s term for the perfection 
 of the art in the hands of Raphael, Titian, and their contem- 
 poraries. 
 
200 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 of five-and-twenty could far surpass it. The vene- 
 rable artists might have witnessed this without a 
 painful humiliation : they had the consciousness of 
 having themselves improved on the works of their 
 predecessors, and of having enabled Raphael him- 
 self to reach the perfection which it was not in the 
 nature of things they should attain. 
 
 For the works of Giovanni Santi, those who are 
 eurious to trace the few that remain will find ample 
 details in Pungileoni and Passavant. We merely 
 observe, that the picture, which was always sup- 
 posed to represent the family of the artist, with the 
 infant Raphael kneeling by his mothers side, is 
 unfortunately proved to be an ex voto of another 
 person, whose portrait, with those of his family, 
 Giovanni has introduced. 
 
 Federigo da Montefeltro’s interest in the pro- 
 motion of the arts was in no respect more con- 
 spicuous than in his being one of the first of the 
 Italian princes to possess a work by Van Eyck, and 
 to employ one of that celebrated painter s followers, 
 Justus van Ghent, on a considerable work in 
 Urbino. The picture in question — a scripture sub- 
 ject, treated in a somewhat fantastic manner * — 
 still exists in the church of S. Agata, at Urbino. 
 In the background the painter has introduced the 
 Duke Federigo, with two of his suite (one being the 
 painters portrait), and a Venetian, Caterino Zeno, 
 
 * Our Lord administering the Eucharist to the Apostles. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 201 
 
 who was at that time at the court of Urbino, as 
 ambassador from Persia. The picture is painted in 
 oil; the date 1474. Other works by the same 
 artist have disappeared. Passavant traces the in- 
 fluence of this early Flemish style in some Italian 
 works of the same time and place ; but J ustus 
 appears to have kept his secret of oil-painting to 
 himself ; at all events, the older Italian painters 
 continued to work in distemper. This circumstance 
 may have produced a misunderstanding between 
 the Flemish painter and Giovanni Santi, and may 
 account for the omission of the name of Justus in 
 Giovanni's catalogue of the celebrated artists of his 
 time.* On the other hand, the poet makes honour- 
 able mention of Van Eyck under the name of “ il 
 gran Joannes." A passage in which he asserts the 
 powers of imitation, as generally developed in the 
 fifteenth century, also seems to have reference to 
 the style of the early Flemish masters : — 
 
 “ Chi serra (sara) quel che possi el chiar colore 
 Lucido e trasparente de un rubino 
 Contrafar mai, o el suo vago splendore 1 
 
 * Sir Charles Eastlake had not seen this picture by Justus 
 van Ghent when these remarks were first written ; his subse- 
 quent inspection of it at Urbino, in 1858, convinced him that 
 its unworthiness in the sense of art was all sufficient to account 
 for the painter’s method not having found followers, and for 
 the omission of his name in Giovanni Santi’s catalogue. 
 
 See further notice in “ Materials for Hist, of Oil Painting,” 
 vol. ii. pp. 15 and 16. 
 
LIFE OF EAPHAEL. 
 
 202 
 
 Chi e quel che possi el sol in sul mattino 
 Dipingere mai, o un spechiar del’ acque 
 Cum fronde e fior vicini allor (al lor) confino ? 
 
 Qual mai si excellente al mondo nacque 
 Che un bianco giglio facci, o fresca rosa 
 Cum quel bel pur che a natura piacque ? 
 
 El 'paragon se trova : ove ogni cosa 
 Vinta riman,” &c. 
 
 The peculiar characteristics of the school of 
 Umbria, represented chiefly by Pietro Perugino, 
 have been ably defined by Eumohr ; but in order 
 to take a just view of this subject, we must first 
 refer to the earlier state of Italian art, and to the 
 causes of its first ramifications. The ancient 
 Christian modes of representation, the technical 
 methods of the middle ages, and the usual range of 
 subjects had been in a great measure set aside by 
 Giotto, whose fame and example decided the ten- 
 dency of the Florentine school for more than a 
 century. With a feeling for richness of compo- 
 sition and dramatic interest, he had rejected or 
 modified the formal but sometimes awe-inspiring 
 types of the older painters. The subjects derived 
 from the legends of modern saints and especially of 
 S. Francesco d 7 Assisi, were preferred by this most 
 original artist and by his followers, less perhaps from 
 a devotional feeling, than from the opportunities 
 such scenes afforded for variety in composition 
 and for the direct imitation of nature. In Siena, 
 on the other hand, and again in Eomagna and 
 elsewhere, the attachment to the ancient types 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 203 
 
 remained in a great measure unchanged * and if 
 modern saints were as frequently represented, the 
 religious feeling which suggested their introduction 
 into altar-pieces was paramount to any aim of art. 
 At the same time, each progressive improvement 
 in imitation was by slow degrees engrafted on the 
 traditional types. 
 
 Among the individual talents that had a share 
 in promoting this tendency in the Umbrian school, 
 Taddeo and Domenico Bartoli of Siena may be 
 especially mentioned. Traces of their influence, 
 both in general treatment and in the religious feel- 
 ing alluded to, are to be met with in Assisi. But 
 in Florence, in consequence of the mechanical imi- 
 tation of Giotto, which so long characterised the 
 school, no remarkable example of this religious 
 spirit appeared till Fra Giovanni Angelico da 
 Fiesole, a Dominican monk, afterwards beatified, 
 poured forth a quantity of works, in which the ex- 
 quisite purity and sanctity of the expressions still 
 excite the liveliest admiration. One of the most re- 
 markable of his paintings represents the coronation 
 of the Virgin. She is surrounded by angels and 
 saints, “ so well portrayed/' says Vasari, “ so varied 
 in mien and in the airs of the heads, that one has 
 incredible delight in gazing on them ; nay, the 
 spectator feels that those blessed spirits, assuming 
 them to appear in human shape, could not look 
 otherwise in heaven than as they are here repre- 
 sented." This picture, which appears to have 
 
204 
 
 LIFE OF KAPHAEL. 
 
 gained the painter the surname of Angelico* is 
 now in the Louvre. The upper portion only is 
 in good preservation. Schorn, in his notes to 
 Vasari, says that the late Mr. Ottley had a similar 
 picture : it is probably an early copy ; but even 
 as such it would be an interesting acquisition for 
 the National Gallery. Two reputed scholars of this 
 artist, Gentile da Fabriano and Benozzo Gozzoli, 
 painted in Perugia and its neighbourhood. In 
 Florence itself, however, the example can hardly be 
 said to have been followed with effect; Masaccio, 
 who had, to a certain extent, a similar feeling, died 
 young, and was outlived by Fiesole himself ; a long 
 interval elapsed before Fra Bartolommeo appeared, 
 and the constantly increasing taste for classic 
 antiquity — a taste carried so far by some men of 
 letters as to induce a disgust for sacred subjects — 
 was with difficulty stemmed even by that painter. 
 The works of Angelico, spread early in the fifteenth 
 century throughout central Italy, are, on the other 
 hand, to be included among the inspiring causes of 
 the devotional tendency of the Umbrian painters. 
 One other, and by no means the least, of these 
 influences was the neighbourhood of Assisi, the 
 shrine of St. Francis himself. The church of Assisi 
 
 * Vasari, speaking of the manners of this holy personage, 
 who refused the archbishopric of Florence, says, with his usual 
 naivete, “ he was never seen out of temper with the monks of 
 his convent ; a most remarkable circumstance (grandissima 
 cosa) which to me seems almost incredible.” 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 205 
 
 is the arena where the early Italian painters con- 
 tended for fame, and where the vestiges of their 
 works are still to be seen. The history of St. 
 Francis, as affording subjects for the pencil, mainly 
 contributed, as we have seen, to form the outward 
 character of some Italian schools from the first. 
 But the influence of the peculiar religious spirit 
 which emanated from this centre was still more 
 important as regards its connection with art : — 
 it suggested a subdued humility of demeanour, 
 contrasting in a fascinating manner with a certain 
 fervour of expression, a soul-felt, unearthly longing, 
 the origin or type of which is to be sought in the 
 legendary visions of the saint. The following 
 passage in Vasari, relating to Raphaels figure of 
 St. Francis in the picture of “ the Madonna di 
 Foligno/’ is applicable to many representations of 
 the saint by earlier painters : it will hardly bear 
 translating : — “ Ne manco Raffaello fare il mede- 
 simo nella figura di S. Francesco, il quale, ginoc- 
 chioni in terra — guarda in alto la nostra Donna, 
 ardendo di carita nell’ affetto della pittura, la quale 
 nel lineamento e nel colorito mostra che e si strugga 
 di affezione, pigliando conforto e vita dal mansue- 
 tissimo guardo della bellezza di Lei e dalla vivezze 
 e bellezza del Figliuolo.” 
 
 The characteristics above described will be found . 
 to present the greatest possible contrast to the 
 principle of ancient or classic art. Instead of 
 action and form we have inward life. The general 
 
206 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 distinction is well pointed out by Fuseli, when he 
 observes, “ The heroism of the Christian and his 
 majesty were internal, and powerful or exquisite 
 forms allied him no longer exclusively to his God ” 
 But the nature of the art itself is unchangeable, 
 and, however modified by the influence of a spiritual 
 religion, must still assert its qualities, if it is to 
 maintain a separate character and aim as compared 
 with other modes of expression. This was gradu- 
 ally felt, and in the end the desired combination 
 was attained in perfection by Baphael. Angelico 
 da Fiesole may be considered the representative of 
 the Christian painters who underrated the physical 
 elements of the art ; and the productions of some 
 of his imitators, no longer informed by his sincerity 
 and intenseness of feeling, have little to recommend 
 them. Vasari, after praising, as we have seen, the 
 works of this extraordinary painter, makes the 
 following judicious observation : — “ I would not 
 that any one should deceive himself, mistaking 
 awkwardness and want of skill in works of art for a 
 devout character, and on the other hand, confound- 
 ing the beautiful and true with the indelicate/' 
 
 The painters who were most remarkable for the 
 qualities we have been describing, united with 
 considerable power of colour, were Nicolo Alunno 
 * of Foligno, Pietro Vannucci, called Perugino, Andrea 
 Luigi of Assisi, and Bernardino Pinturicchio. The 
 first-named is the earliest of the four in whom the 
 impulse alluded to is remarkable ; and although but 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 207 
 
 little anterior to the rest, from the dryer style of 
 his works, and from having only painted in dis- 
 temper, he may be considered the link between the 
 practice of the older painters and the comparatively 
 rich and glowing manner of Perugino. His latest 
 production has the date 1499. Vasari's account of 
 Andrea Luigi, called L'Ingegno, is very contradic- 
 tory in itself ; but it may be safely assumed that 
 this painter assisted Perugino in his works in the 
 Sixtine Chapel, about 1480. Passavant is the first 
 who has pointed out specimens of this artist's 
 productions : one is at Assisi, in its original place • 
 others are at Rome and Orvieto. Bernardino di 
 Betto, called Pinturicchio, of Perugia, was the 
 oldest scholar of Perugino, and was with him when 
 Raphael first studied under the same painter. 
 With regard to Pinturicchio and his master, it is 
 to be observed that many of their later perform- 
 ances scarcely give an idea of the powerful and 
 touching expressions which are so striking in their 
 earlier works. Specimens of this finer manner of 
 Pinturicchio are to be seen at Perugia in the 
 gallery of the academy, at S. Severino, and in 
 Rome. Schorn, in the notes to his translation of 
 Vasari, classes with the best an Assumption, in the 
 church of Monte Oliveto at Naples. Perugino is 
 seen to advantage in Florence, the celebrated picture 
 formerly in Sta. Chiara being now in the Palazzo 
 Pitti. Having been always exposed to the sun in 
 its original place it is now somewhat faded, but 
 
208 
 
 LIFE OF KAPHAEL. 
 
 Vasari speaks of the beauty of the colouring as 
 new in the art when the work appeared ; and in 
 describing the subject — the disciples and others 
 mourning over the dead Saviour — says, “the Marys, 
 having stopped weeping , look on the dead with 
 wonder and love." In order to do justice to this 
 invention, it is necessary to remember the violent 
 contortions and grimaces of the earlier painters in 
 similar subjects. Other fine specimens of the 
 artist are at Lyons, Perugia, and Pome. Many 
 of the scholars of Perugino who witnessed the 
 astonishing progress of Raphael, ended in adopting 
 his manner, to the total neglect of that of their 
 common teacher. One consequence of this imita- 
 tion, as might naturally be expected, was the 
 adoption of many Raphaelesque compositions, and 
 a certain approximation to the manner, and some- 
 times to the higher excellences, of their fellow- 
 scholar. Of these painters it will be sufficient to 
 mention the names of Giovanni called Lo Spagna, 
 Girolamo Genga, and Domenico Alfani. 
 
 From the foregoing sketch it will be gathered 
 that this school had less of the severer elements of 
 the art, less anatomical science, and boldness in 
 design, than was apparent in Luca Signorelli, and 
 the masters who resembled and preceded him. 
 A similar distinction is observable in Florence 
 (although, as before observed, the religious tendency 
 was there short-lived,) if we compare the feeble 
 imitators of Angelico da Fiesole with Verocchio. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 209 
 
 This artist, whose works were chiefly in sculpture, 
 invites our attention to a class of designers, many 
 of whom resembled him in treating both arts : if 
 sculpture suffered by such a connection, painting 
 undoubtedly gained by it, and to this plastic in- 
 fluence the thorough study of anatomy and the em- 
 ployment of chiaroscuro, as conducive to roundness, 
 are greatly to be attributed. The latter quality had 
 been already aimed at by Masaccio early in the 
 fifteenth century, and both attained perfection, as 
 regards their application to form, in the hands o 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo. 
 
 The fact, alluded to by Giovanni Santi, that 
 Perusfino and Leonardo da Vinci were intimate 
 
 O 
 
 friends (“ Due giovin par d’ etate e par d’ amori ”), 
 is almost the only circumstance that corroborates 
 Vasari’s assertion respecting the education of Peru- 
 gino with Verocchio, Leonardo’s master ; for there 
 is scarcely any evidence of such a connection in 
 the style of the Umbrian master. It would be 
 easier to believe that Perugino’s earlier works in 
 Florence may not have been without their effect on 
 Leonardo, whose sweetness of expression is some- 
 times as remarkable as his accuracy and energy of 
 form. Michael Angelo alone never seems to have 
 felt or acknowledged the merit, such as it was, of 
 this placid and expressive school, at least in the 
 instance of those painters with whom he had per- 
 sonal intercourse. His contemptuous treatment of 
 Francia in Bologna, and of Perugino in Florence, 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 is well known ; the quarrel with Perugino, which, 
 according to Vasari, was a bitter one, could not but 
 excite unfavourable prejudices towards Michael 
 Angelo in the mind of Eaphael, who always re- 
 tained the warmest attachment to his early teacher. 
 
 The life of Eaphael divides itself into three 
 periods. The first, to the age of twenty-one (1504), 
 was chiefly passed between Urbino and Perugia, 
 where, at an early age, he was placed with Peru- 
 gino. This period includes his occasional occupa- 
 tions in some of the towns of the Apennines, visits 
 to his native place, a short stay in Florence, 
 and perhaps a glance at Siena. In the second 
 period, Florence was his head-quarters till 1508, in 
 the autumn of which year we find him already 
 occupied in Eome. The third period comprehends 
 his residence in Eome, where, with the exception of 
 a visit to Florence in 1516, he remained till his 
 death, in 1520. 
 
 The years of his education, on which his future 
 habits of mind and general taste so much depended, 
 may be said to have been first investigated by 
 Pungileoni and Eumohr, and now more accurately, 
 but still in some respects imperfectly, by Passavant. 
 Eaphael had lost both his parents before he was 
 twelve years old ; a maternal uncle, whom in one 
 of his letters he styles “carissimo quanto padre/' 
 watched over him with affectionate interest, and it 
 is supposed that a year or two only at most elapsed 
 before he was placed with Perugino. That his edu- 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 211 
 
 cation as a painter had begun even under Giovanni 
 Santi, there can be no doubt ; but the specimens 
 which are shown in Urbino as his boyish attempts, 
 all prove, on examination, to be without the 
 slightest pretensions to authenticity. Of the 
 painters from whom he may have had some addi- 
 tional instruction before he was placed with Pe- 
 rugino, Timoteo Yiti, who seems to have been most 
 attached to him, may have had most influence. 
 This painter had left the school of Francia, in 
 Bologna, and returned to Urbino, his native city, in 
 1495.* A head of a boy, in the Borghese gallery, 
 in Rome, is supposed on good grounds to be the 
 portrait of Raphael, done by Timoteo at this time. 
 If he taught the great artist, he was in a few years 
 his scholar’s scholar, for he followed his young 
 friend to Rome, and there painted under his di- 
 rection. 
 
 Meanwhile, the works by earlier masters, in and 
 near Urbino, which we have before adverted to, 
 were probably not without their influence. Raphael 
 had visited some of the neighbouring towns ; and 
 if the impressions of so early an age are to be 
 reckoned as important, he may have seen the works 
 
 Malvasia, in his account of the Bolognese painters, gives 
 the following extract from Francia’ s Journal, dated 1495 : — 
 “ On the 4th of April, my dear Timoteo (Viti) quitted me. 
 God grant him all happiness and prosperity ! ” It is to be 
 observed that Francia is closely allied, by the character of his 
 works, to the Umbrian school. 
 
212 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 of Angelico da Fiesole at Forano, near Osimo, and 
 those of Gentile da Fabriano at Val di Sasso. That 
 the style of Giovanni Santi himself had left per- 
 manent traces is unquestionable. A certain pecu- 
 liarity in the colouring of some of Raphael's works, 
 even at an advanced period, is quite distinct from 
 Perugino's manner, or from any subsequent influ- 
 ence. A flesh-colour, with white lights and red 
 half-tints, is often observable in the works of Gio- 
 vanni Santi, particularly in the altar-piece of Sta. 
 Croce at Fano. With regard to first impressions, 
 again, it is worthy of mention that Venturini, who, 
 while in Florence, had taught Michael Angelo the 
 rudiments of the Latin language, published a Latin 
 grammar, the first complete work that had appeared 
 of the kind, in Urbino, in 1494. Hence it is within 
 the limits of possibility that Raphael, even as a boy, 
 may have heard of the growing fame of Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 In the choice of a master, the opinions of Gio- 
 vanni Santi were doubtless remembered and attended 
 to. In the interesting allusions to the painters of 
 the time in the poem before referred to, Perugino is 
 mentioned with the best — but his reputation had 
 greatly risen subsequently. Shortly after Giovanni s 
 death, Perugino's fame was at its height : it had been 
 confirmed by the altar-piece still in the church of 
 La Calza, in Florence, the Dead Christ now in the 
 Pitti palace, and the Ascension done for S. Pietro 
 in Perugia, and now in the museum at Lyons. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 213 
 
 With Perugino, therefore, the interesting young 
 painter was placed; and although there has been no 
 possibility hitherto of fixing the precise period, the 
 series of his undoubted works begins before 1500 ; 
 that is, before he was seventeen. His first produc- 
 tions consist of direct copies from Perugino, and of 
 original portions in Perugino's pictures. The earliest 
 known work is a copy from a subject by his master, 
 representing the Infant Christ and St. John embrac- 
 ing : it is in Perugia, in the sacristy of the church of 
 S. Pietro. Many of his earliest drawings are in the 
 sketch-book preserved in the academy at Venice. 
 
 Before Raphael re-visited Urbino, in 1499, on 
 account of domestic affairs, the fortunes of the 
 Duke Guidubaldo had suffered a reverse ; the papal 
 army, which he had commanded, having been 
 defeated, and he himself taken prisoner chiefly 
 through the prowess of Vitellozzo Vitelli, lord of 
 the diminutive territory of Citta di Castello. The 
 Duchess Elizabetta Gonzaga had parted with her 
 jewels, and the faithful liegemen of Urbino, with 
 devoted liberality, had contributed their utmost to 
 effect their sovereigns ransom. At the period of 
 Raphael's visit, the duke was suffering from a more 
 permanent evil, the gout , which according to Casti- 
 glione, had afflicted him from the age of twenty. 
 The hostilities with Vitellozzo Vitelli are adroitly 
 suppressed by Passavant ; for in the following year 
 Citta di Castello was the theatre of Raphaels first 
 occupations on his own account. It is, however, 
 
214 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 to be remembered that these condottieri wars were 
 seldom the cause of lasting animosity ; and if the 
 very soldiers could fight on any side, accordingly as 
 they were paid, the artists might claim the privilege 
 of exercising their talents with the same sublime 
 indifference to politics ; a liberal understanding, not 
 always recognised, we are sorry to say, by the Whig 
 and Tory Maecenases of more modern times. The 
 above consideration seems to have been too much 
 overlooked by the author when he elsewhere con- 
 tends that, in Federigo’s time, it was impossible 
 Leon Battista Alberti could have been employed as 
 the architect of the ducal palace, because he was 
 previously in the service of Sigismondo Malatesta, 
 the foe of Urbino. 
 
 In this visit to his native place, Eaphael, owing 
 to his extreme youth, and perhaps the state of his 
 sovereign’s health and fortunes, does not appear to 
 have been noticed by the court. Some of his first 
 works, done soon after at Citta di Castello, are still 
 preserved ; but the well-known Crucifixion was, a 
 few years since, in the gallery of Cardinal Fesch, 
 and if it is gone where that collection was destined 
 — to Ajaccio, in Corsica — it can scarcely be num- 
 bered among the accessible relics of the master. 4 ' 
 Passavant gives a representation of it among some 
 engravings, which form a rather inconvenient folio 
 
 # It was sold in Rome, with the greater part of the Car- 
 dinal’s collection, in 1844. 
 
 This picture is now in the collection of the Earl of Dudley 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 215 
 
 appendix to liis octavo text. The description of 
 the earliest works of Raphael, from 1500 to 1504, 
 is among the most interesting portions of this 
 biography : the original drawings and sketches of 
 some are still preserved ; and several of these were 
 in the Lawrence collection. Many of the pictures 
 were altar-pieces of considerable dimensions ; as, 
 for instance, the Crucifixion, before mentioned ; the 
 Adoration of the Magi, now in the Berlin Museum 
 the Coronation of the Virgin, now in the Vatican ; 
 and the Coronation of St. Nicholas of Tolentino ; 
 which last disappeared from the Vatican during the 
 occupation of Borne by the French, and has not 
 since been heard of. Of the smaller works of this 
 period, the most charming specimens are the Staffa 
 Madonna, still in Perugia ; the celebrated Sposa- 
 lizio, or Marriage of the Virgin, now at Milan, and 
 well known by Longhi’s beautiful engraving ; the 
 Christ, with the Sleeping Disciples, in Prince 
 Gabrielli's possession, in Rome ; f and the composi- 
 tion called the Vision of a Warrior. The last 
 named, one of the few pictures of this class in 
 England, was together with the original drawing in 
 the collection of Sir Mark Sykes.J 
 
 * This picture was bought, within the last twenty years, for 
 6000 Homan crowns. 
 
 t It has since passed into the possession of Mr. Fuller 
 Maitland, of Stanstead House. 
 
 X The price paid by Sir M. S. to Mr. Ottley was 470£; 
 The picture and drawing are now both in the National Gallery; 
 
216 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 The extraordinary talents of Raphael had already 
 received the homage of his fellow-scholars, and, 
 from the superiority of the portions which he 
 painted in Perugino’s pictures, must have been 
 acknowledged and valued by his master. The 
 grace and fertility of his invention at the age of 
 twenty had already induced some of the older 
 painters with whom he associated to apply to him 
 for designs, and for assistance in various ways. 
 This was especially the case with Pinturicchio, who, 
 having been commissioned by Cardinal Francesco 
 Piccolomini to paint a series of frescoes in the 
 Libreria of the Duomo at Siena, requested Raphael 
 to make the designs. Some of these drawings are 
 still in existence; and the Sienese love to encourage 
 the belief, founded on a vague statement in Vasari, 
 that Raphael prepared the cartoons and painted on 
 the frescoes as well. For this there are no sufficient 
 grounds ; on the contrary, the tasteless alterations 
 from the original designs prove that the frescoes 
 could not even have been executed under Raphael’s 
 eye. Rumohr had already adduced strong proofs 
 on this subject, and they are more than confirmed 
 by Passavant. Indeed a very sufficient reason 
 might of itself be found in the number of works 
 done by Raphael elsewhere about the same time. 
 At the period when Pinturicchio’s work was begun, 
 the Coronation of the Virgin was in progress ; and 
 without staying to consider the sufficient alibi thus 
 established, it is not to be supposed that an artist fit 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 217 
 
 to undertake such commissions on his own account 
 would work under an inferior, though older painter, 
 in a subordinate capacity. Raphael's assistance in 
 the designs had been asked and liberally given : his 
 assistance in the execution could not even have been 
 desired ; for in such a case the whole work would 
 no longer have been Pinturicchio's. At the same 
 time it is probable that Raphael saw Pinturicchio s 
 work when it was completed : the evidence of his 
 having visited Siena is to be found in his sketch- 
 book, preserved in Venice. In it is a drawing from 
 an antique group of the Graces, which stands in the 
 very room where the frescoes in question are 
 painted. This drawing appears to have suggested 
 the little picture of the Graces, done a few years 
 afterwards, and which is now in England.* 
 
 After the completion of the Sposalizio, painted 
 in 1504 for Citta di Gastello, Raphael re-visited his 
 native place. Urbino had suffered painful vicissi- 
 tudes since he had left it. The Duke Guidubaldo 
 had been compelled to abandon his capital, and live 
 an exile in the north of Italy, owing to the trea- 
 chery of Cesare Borgia, the too celebrated son of 
 Alexander VI., and, to use the words of Bembo — 
 “ omnis humani divinique juris contemptor et per- 
 turbator.” But this humiliation was short lived; 
 no sooner was the news of the popes death known 
 (August, 1503), than the cry of “ Feltro ! Feltro 1 ” 
 
 * In the collection of the Earl of Dudley. 
 
218 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 resounded through Urbino ; the citizens flew to 
 arms ; the troops and partisans of Borgia were 
 expelled ; and in the same month Guidubaldo re- 
 turned amid the acclamations of his subjects. The 
 succeeding pontiff, Pius III., the same Piccolomini 
 before mentioned, died after a reign of twenty-six 
 days, and in the elevation of Giuliano della Rovere 
 (Julius II.) the fortunes of Montefeltro were fully 
 established. The heir to the sovereignty of Urbino 
 was at once nephew to the pope and to Guidubaldo, 
 the duke's sister Giovanna having married Giovanni 
 della Rovere in the time of Sixtus IV. Hence the 
 most friendly relations subsisted between Urbino 
 and Rome. 
 
 It was soon after these occurrences that Raphael, 
 at the age of twenty -one, repaired to his native city, 
 having been so circumstanced that the chiefs of the 
 territories where his talents had been so well appre- 
 ciated had all been in the pay of Cesare Borgia. To 
 this disagreeable state of things the biographer shut 
 his eyes, and so, it appears, did Guidubaldo ; for the 
 great artist was now noticed and employed by his 
 own sovereign. The Christ with the Sleeping Dis- 
 ciples, before mentioned, was the largest of three 
 small pictures done for the duke at ‘this time. At 
 this period Raphael became acquainted with some 
 of those distinguished persons who were afterwards 
 so useful to him. Such intercourse had its natural 
 effect in improving and enlarging his taste ; and it 
 is probable that the description of the works of art 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 219 
 
 in Florence, and particularly of some recent and 
 highly celebrated productions of Leonardo da Vinci, 
 increased his desire to see these excellent examples 
 with his own eyes. His eagerness soon became 
 irresistible ; and the Duchess of Sora, Giovanna 
 della Rovere, gave him a letter of recommenda- 
 tion* to the Gonfaloniere Soderini ; a letter, by 
 the way, which seems to have produced no effect 
 whatever. Raphael first saw Florence in the autumn 
 of 1504. 
 
 Vasari makes Raphael leave the frescoes of Pin- 
 turicchio in Siena for Florence, on hearing of the 
 fame of Michael Angelo’s cartoon of Pisa, as well as 
 of Leonardo’s Battle of the Standard. In addition 
 to what has been already stated, it will now appear 
 that the works done in Perugia, Citta di Castello, 
 and Urbino, in 1503-4, sufficiently prove the impos- 
 sibility of Raphael’s immediate co-operation with 
 Pinturicchio. But the inaccuracy of Vasari’s state- 
 ment is evident from another circumstance : the 
 Duchess of Sora’s letter is dated October 1 , 1504* 
 Michael Angelo’s cartoon was not completed and 
 shown till 1506. 
 
 The works of Leonardo were thus the chief objects 
 of Raphael’s curiosity, and soon became, to a certain 
 extent, the objects of his imitation. The friendship 
 between Perugino and Leonardo, already adverted 
 
 * This document is restored to its true reading by Passavant. 
 Owing to the blunders of copyists it had been a source of 
 important chronological errors. 
 
220 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 to, undoubtedly had its influence ; indeed it is pos- 
 sible that Raphael may have seen and known Leon- 
 ardo in Perugia, in 1502, or the beginning of 1503 ; 
 the Florentine artist having repaired thither about 
 that time, at the instance of Borgia, to inspect the 
 fortifications. But the favourite objects of study 
 among the younger artists in Florence were Masaccio's 
 works in the Cliiesa del Carmine. Vasari, in his life 
 of Masaccio, gives an interesting catalogue of the 
 painters, including Michael Angelo, who were in the 
 habit of copying from these compositions, so remark- 
 able for general truth of imitation, for a broad style 
 of drapery, and the massing of light and shade ; 
 qualities in which Masaccio had far surpassed his 
 predecessors, and in which, as Vasari observes, he led 
 the way to what was emphatically called the modern 
 manner. 
 
 The imitation of Masaccio, and the other painters, 
 Lippi and Masolino, whose works are in the same 
 place, is apparent, as is well known, in some of 
 Raphaels latest works in Rome, namely, the Car- 
 toons ; and, as he probably referred to studies exe- 
 cuted in Florence, it is somewhat extraordinary that, 
 among his numerous drawings still extant, none of 
 these studies appear to have been preserved. The 
 most direct proofs of this kind, of his imitation of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, on the other hand, are still to be 
 met with : one was in the Lawrence collection, others 
 are in the sketch-book in the Venetian academy. 
 The Madonna and Child, called the Madonna del 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 221 
 
 Gran Duca, now in the Pitti palace, and the Holy 
 Family, called the Madonna del Duca di Terranuova, 
 now in Naples, were painted during Eaphael’s first 
 short stay in Florence. The works he had under- 
 taken in Perugia, however, soon required his pre- 
 sence, and early in 1505 he was again there. An 
 altar-piece, representing a Holy Family and several 
 Saints, was now completed for the nuns of St. 
 Anthony : it had probably been begun some time 
 before, since some portions of it resemble his earlier 
 works — while others, the female saints for instance, 
 show the influence of his Florentine studies. The 
 picture was surmounted by a semicircle, with addi- 
 tional figures ; while the 'predella was composed of 
 five small pictures. It may here be necessary to 
 observe, that an altar-piece was not completed when 
 one large composition was done ; a smaller painting, 
 sometimes rectangular, sometimes, as in the instance 
 just mentioned, semi-circular, and generally repre- 
 senting the persons of the Trinity, finished the 
 work above. Frequently a frame painted with 
 arabesques and single figures was preferred to a gilt 
 ornament of the kind ; and in almost every instance, 
 the step (gradino, predella) on the top of the altar 
 was adorned in front with small compositions cor- 
 responding in their extent with the width of the 
 great picture. The predella pictures, as may be 
 supposed, were in general slightly painted. 
 
 With regard to the picture above mentioned, the 
 two principal portions are in Naples ; the five pre- 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 m 
 
 della subjects, consisting of three compositions and 
 two single figures, are all in England. The two 
 figures, St. Francis and St. Anthony of Padua, are 
 in the gallery at Dulwich ; of the three compositions, 
 one belonged to Mr. Samuel Eogers, the other two 
 are respectively in the possession of Sir William 
 Miles of Leigh Court, and of Mr. White of Baron 
 Hill. This may serve as a specimen of the kind of 
 research with which Passavant’s history of Raphael's 
 works is undertaken. Another picture, which 
 deserves to be particularly mentioned, is the altar- 
 piece painted for the Ansidei family, to adorn their 
 chapel in the church of the Serviti at Perugia. 
 This work, so interesting from the period when it 
 was done (1505), is now at Blenheim. Of its former 
 three predella pictures one only remains ; this, repre- 
 senting the preaching of John the Baptist, and in 
 which the imitation of Masaccio is very evident, 
 is in the possession of the Marquis of Lansdowne. 
 In the same year Raphael painted his first fresco, 
 that, namely, in the church of the Camaldolesi at 
 Perugia. In composition it resembles the upper part 
 of the Dispute of the Sacrament, as it is called, 
 afterwards painted in Rome : with regard to this 
 resemblance, it is scarcely necessary to observe, that 
 the arrangement was in the first instance adopted 
 by Raphael from earlier masters ; it appears, for 
 example, in Angelico da Fiesole. The increased 
 breadth of manner which is observable in this work 
 may partly have been owing to the larger execution 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 223 
 
 so indispensable in fresco, but Passavant attributes 
 the improvement also in a great measure to the 
 study of Masaccio. 
 
 A commission for an altar-piece for the nuns of 
 Monte Luce, near Perugia, exhibits Eaphael in a 
 new light. The ladies were desirous that “ the 
 best painter” should be employed, and a council of 
 laymen and churchmen decided, according to a 
 document bearing date December, 1505, that “the 
 Master Eaphael, of Urbino,” then twenty- two 
 years of age, was the fittest to undertake the 
 work. However honourable this commission, the 
 impatience of Eaphael to revisit Florence was so 
 extreme that, after having made a finished drawing, 
 which shows his first idea of the subject (the Coro- 
 nation of the Virgin), without proceeding further, 
 he again set out for the Tuscan capital. The 
 drawing in question was in the Lawrence collection. 
 Eleven years afterwards, when Eaphael was in 
 Eome, the contract was renewed, and he bound 
 himself to deliver the picture finished in a year. 
 He again, however, was prevented by his over- 
 whelming occupations : and the picture, but just 
 begun before his death, was finished by his scholars, 
 Giulio Eomano and Francesco Penni. It is now 
 in the Vatican. Eaphael received thirty gold 
 ducats in advance in 1505; but, to make amends, 
 he afterwards, in the zenith of his fame, proposed 
 to paint the picture for less than the poor nuns 
 were ready to give. In this second stay in Florence 
 
224 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 the change in Raphael's style is very evident : the 
 works done soon after his arrival, and which mark 
 the transition, are not among the least interesting. 
 Of two Holy Families presented to the accomplished 
 Taddeo Taddei, in gratitude for the hospitality and 
 kindness the artist had experienced from him, one, 
 in a circular form, is in the Bridgewater gallery ; 
 original studies for the same picture were in the 
 Lawrence collection. Vasari observes that the 
 larger manner which Raphael acquired in Florence 
 is beginning to be apparent in the pictures done for 
 Taddei, while the influence of his education with 
 Perugino is yet traceable : this remark is quite 
 applicable to the work just mentioned. Some of 
 his earliest portraits, such as those of Angelo and 
 Maddalena Doni, in the Pitti palace, were executed 
 at this time. 
 
 Hitherto we have omitted to state the proofs of 
 Raphael's movements and stay in different places, 
 because they admit of no question whatever. We 
 have now, however, to examine a statement of 
 Passavant's, in which, though we are disposed to 
 agree with him, the evidence is not so incontestable 
 as in the other cases. The question relates to 
 Raphael's visit to Bologna; the following are the 
 chief grounds : — When in Rome he corresponded 
 with Francia, as if personally known to him : he 
 might have been favourably prepossessed towards 
 the Bolognese artist from the first, by the accounts 
 of that painter's scholar, Timoteo Viti, but, as he 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 225 
 
 speaks of the sacred character of Francia s Ma- 
 donnas, it is probable that he had had opportunities 
 of seeing several such works at Bologna at the 
 same time when he became acquainted with the 
 artist himself. In the next place it is certain that 
 Raphael painted an Adoration of the Shepherds 
 for Giovanni Bentivoglio, who held the supreme 
 sway in Bologna till the autumn of 1506, when he 
 was expelled by Julius II. An interesting proof 
 of the friendship between Raphael and Francia 
 exists again in a picture now, according to Passa- 
 vant, in the possession of Mr. Allen Gilmore : the 
 design, the biographer observes, unquestionably 
 resembles the taste of Raphael, while the execution 
 is as certainly that of Francia. Traces of similar 
 co-operation in a work by Lorenza Costa, a scholar 
 of Francia, may also be adduced to confirm the 
 supposition that Raphael was in Bologna at the 
 period in question, namely, the earlier part of 1506. 
 In the summer of the same year he was again at 
 Urbino, and had now an opportunity of seeing that 
 court in all its splendour. As he painted several 
 small works, including portraits, for his sovereign 
 on this occasion, it is probable that he remained 
 till the autumn, when Julius II., with twenty-two 
 cardinals and a very numerous suite, passed three 
 days at Urbino on his way to Bologna : and the 
 acquaintance between the discerning pontiff and 
 the future painter of the Vatican may have begun 
 on this occasion. The portraits of the Duke and 
 
226 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 Duchess, and a drawing of Pietro Bembo, done at 
 this period, are lost; of two small Holy Families, 
 one is at St. Petersburg — the other is recognised 
 by Passavant in a Madonna and Child, now in the 
 Marquis Aguado’s gallery at Paris : but we confess 
 the style of that work seems to us to belong to an 
 earlier period. The picture of the Graces before 
 mentioned is more probably of this time ; this 
 specimen was purchased by the late Lord Dudley 
 from Sir Thomas Lawrence. A picture of St. 
 George and the Dragon was sent by Duke Guidu- 
 baldo as a present to King Henry VII. of England. 
 It was taken to this country in the autumn of 1506, 
 with other gifts, by Count Castiglione, who acted 
 as proxy for his sovereign to complete the cere- 
 monies of installing the duke a knight of the 
 garter — (the blue ribbon had been sent, when an 
 embassy from England waited on Pope Julius on 
 his accession) — and perhaps a smaller picture of 
 St. George done by Raphael when at Urbino, in 
 1504, was also a compliment to this country. The 
 last-mentioned picture is in the Louvre ; the larger 
 composition is now in the gallery of the Hermitage 
 at St. Petersburg ; and thus a work of the great 
 artist, expressly destined for a king of England, 
 has been suffered to leave the country. 
 
 The pretensions of Urbino about this time to 
 rank high as a school of taste, learning, and polished 
 manners, have been already adverted to ; and Pas- 
 savant attaches due importance to the influence of 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 22 / 
 
 such circumstances on a mind like Raphael's. The 
 Duke Guidubaldo, who, notwithstanding some re- 
 verses, displayed on many occasions the military 
 talents of his father, had a more cultivated mind 
 than his predecessor. His lady, Elizabetta Gonzaga, 
 of Mantua, scarcely inferior to Battista Sforza in 
 graver acquirements, was celebrated beyond the 
 high-born dames of her age for the grace and 
 dignity of her manners, and was as eminently 
 remarkable for the purity of her mind as for her 
 extraordinary beauty.* Under her auspices the 
 
 * “ Cujus eximia virtute, moribus et paene divina pulchri- 
 tudine, maritus ab omnibus felicissimus et beatissimus habe- 
 batur.” Balthassar Castilionius ad sacratissimum Britannice 
 Begem Henricum De Guidubaldo Urbini Duce. Foro Sempronii, 
 1513. Two years after her marriage, according to Bembo, her 
 husband, “ maerens dolensque uxori aperit putare se magicis 
 impediri, quo minus virum illi ostendere sese potuit, se 
 miserum ac porro infelicissimum nuncupat. Mulier, quae multo 
 ante id quod erat rata, nihil apud yirum questa unquam fuerat, 
 nullum ulli mortalium verbum de ea re fecerat, turn ilium 
 solata hilari vultu orat, sustineat feratque fortunae injuriam. 
 Quod ad se attinet bono animo jubet esse; nihil sese minus 
 eum amare, aut in posterum amaturam affirmat : quern quidem 
 domo pudicitiae suae florem ad ilium attulerit, eum se usque ad 
 rogum perlaturam. Utque dicit, etiam facit.” Perhaps no 
 praises ever bestowed on woman can be compared, both for 
 eloquence and sincerity, with those contained in Bembo’s little 
 volume (De Guido Ubaldo, &c., Romae, 1548), composed, as the 
 writer tells us, when the duchess had lost her beauty through 
 sorrow and misfortune. That her fame was long remembered 
 in England we can hardly doubt — and not improbably 
 Shakspeare may have taken from Bembo’s portraiture a hint 
 for his Miranda, e. g . : — » 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 court of Urbino attained that celebrity as the centre 
 of all that was refined and distinguished, which has 
 been perpetuated in the “ Cortegiano ” of Castig- 
 lione. This nobleman, who stood in relation to 
 Raphael much as Kenelm Digby afterwards did to 
 Vandyck, makes Urbino the scene of his discus- 
 sions on the manners of an accomplished cavalier ; 
 and perhaps he is not less celebrated as Raphael's 
 friend than as the author of the work in question. 
 That the interlocutors of the Cortegiano were really 
 present at the court of Urbino, and that such a 
 dialogue was held at the close of 1506, we learn 
 from the author himself; but we cannot suppose 
 with Passavant that the expressions given to these 
 personages are to be considered as strictly belonging 
 to the period, and as such to be taken as historical 
 materials. Castiglione distinctly says that he was 
 
 “ Itaque multas ssepe hemmas vidi, audivi etiam esse plures, 
 quae certarum omnino virtutum, optimarum quidem illarum 
 atque clarissimarum, sed tamen perpaucarum, splendore illus- 
 trarentur : in qua vero omnes collects conjunctseque virtutes 
 conspicerentur, hsec una extitit ; cujus omnino parem atque 
 similem, aut etiam inferiorem paulo, non modo non vidi ullam, 
 sed ea ubi esset etiam ne audivi quidem.” 
 
 “ for several virtues 
 
 Have I liked several women ; never any 
 With so full soul but some defect in her 
 Did quarrel with the noblest grace she owed, 
 
 And put it to the foil ; but you, 0 you, 
 
 So perfect and so peerless, are created 
 Of every creature’s best.” 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 229 
 
 in England when the discussion took place ; that he 
 composed his book some years afterwards, and that 
 he altered it considerably before it was printed, long 
 after Raphael's death. Hence a comparison between 
 Raphael and Michael Angelo, which is introduced, 
 is by no means to be referred to the supposed date 
 of the dialogues, but, like many other circumstances, 
 is to be understood as suggested by later occurrences. 
 As a proof of this, a picture by Raphael is alluded 
 to which was painted long after he was established 
 in Rome. The real interest and importance of the 
 essay, as connected with the manners of the period, 
 is, on the other hand, quite overlooked by Passa- 
 vant, who prefers quoting a long Platonic reverie 
 which Castiglione puts into the mouth of Bembo. 
 It would perhaps have been more to the purpose if 
 the biographer had descended to minor matters : it 
 would have thrown more light on certain notions of 
 beauty prevalent at the time, if he had taken notice 
 of the remark that the Italian ladies were in the 
 habit of removing the hairs of their eyebrows and 
 forehead (1. 1.) ; thus accounting for the almost in- 
 visible arch over the eyes of Raphael's Madonnas, 
 as well as for their singularly high foreheads. It 
 would have in some degree explained the grave 
 character of the Italian schools, with the single 
 exception of Florence, if he had alluded to the 
 observation of one of these Chesterfields, on the 
 propriety of constantly maintaining a dignified 
 deportment (1. 1.). Elsewhere it is observed, “ that 
 
230 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 the manners of the Spaniards suit the Italians better 
 than those of the French ; for the sedateness and 
 gravity which are peculiar to the former, appear to 
 be much fitter for us than the vivacity of the latter ” 
 (1. 2.). Ladies, it is remarked, seldom show their 
 teeth ; and we may add that scarcely any examples 
 are to be met with in the paintings of the age 
 where this evidence of gaiety is observable ; a direct 
 prohibition with regard to laughing occurs in Lodo- 
 vico Dolce’s “ Dialogo dell* Istituto delle Donne : ” 
 — “Fugga sopra tutto il riso in tutti i luoghi, e 
 nelle occasioni piu tosto lo accenni che ne dimostri 
 effetto ; ” — and is most literally attended to in all 
 Venetian pictures, in which, whatever is the subject, 
 and whatever the figures are doing, the most im- 
 perturbable calmness of expression is observable. 
 The heavy eyelid, the “ santo, onesto e grave ciglio,” 
 which Giovanni Santi attributes to Battista Sforza, 
 is again a universal characteristic of the pictures of 
 the time, and is exaggerated by the religious 
 painters, particularly Francia and Perugino, from 
 whom it was adopted by Raphael in his early 
 works. The exception which the manners of 
 Florence at this time formed to the rest of Italy 
 is alluded to historically by various writers, and is 
 attributed partly to political circumstances, partly 
 to that classic or almost pagan mania for which the 
 Tuscan capital was remarkable at the close of the 
 fifteenth century. Rumohr, with his usual acute-^ 
 nesS, observes a certain gay, cheerful character in 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 231 
 
 Raphael's Madonnas, painted after he was in 
 Florence : it may be said to distinguish them not 
 only from his earlier, but from his later productions. 
 The source of these dimpled expressions, (which 
 had a peculiar charm when judiciously applied to 
 sacred subjects, although it thus reduced them to 
 mere domestic scenes,) was unquestionably Leonardo 
 da Vinci ; and among the works by that original 
 painter which Raphael saw on first visiting Florence, 
 was the smiling portrait of Mona Lisa, now in the 
 Louvre, and the cartoon of the Holy Family, now in 
 the Royal Academy in London. 
 
 On Raphael’s return to Florence at the close of 
 1506, he saw, for the first time, Michael Angelo’s 
 celebrated cartoon of Pisa; and a closer study of 
 anatomy and form is soon after apparent in his 
 own works. To the next year and a half (for in 
 September, 1508, we find him already occupied in 
 Rome) belong some of the most interesting pictures 
 of Madonnas, Saints, and Holy Families. We have 
 only space to refer to a very few. The larger of 
 Lord Cowper’s Madonnas is to be classed among 
 the works of this period ; the smaller appears to 
 have been painted somewhat earlier. The cele- 
 brated “ Belle Jardiniere,” now in the Louvre, is 
 supposed to be the picture which Vasari says was 
 left with the blue drapery unfinished, and was 
 completed by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. Many a copy, 
 with a due want of harmony in the blue drapery, 
 has been brought to light from time to time as 
 
232 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 the picture alluded to by Vasari, but the seal of 
 Raphaels genius has been still acknowledged to 
 be most unequivocal in the Paris picture. The 
 original cartoon, in an injured state, is in the pos- 
 session of the Earl of Leicester. The St. Catherine, 
 in the National Gallery, has an interest from the 
 light, rapid manner in which it appears to have 
 been painted.* Slight as it is, several careful 
 studies for it exist ; a cartoon of the same size is 
 in the Louvre ; a sketch for the head is in the 
 Lawrence collection, and a small drawing for the 
 whole figure is in that of the Duke of Devonshire, 
 at Chatsworth. 
 
 The most elaborate and studied picture belonging 
 to this period is the Entombment of Christ, now in 
 the Borghese palace at Rome. The commission was 
 given by Atalanta Baglioni, soon after Giovanni 
 Paolo Baglioni had regained possession of Perugia 
 (1507). The cartoon was completed in Florence in 
 the presence of the works of Michael Angelo and 
 Leonardo ; the picture, according to Vasari, was 
 done in Perugia. Of the accompaniments of this 
 work, an upper portion is still in the church of 
 S. Francesco in that city ; the small pictures of the 
 predella are in the Vatican. The studies for this 
 altar-piece that still exist are an interesting proof 
 of the efforts made by Raphael to tread in the steps 
 of the great designers then in Florence. Nine 
 
 * Lord Northwick had paid 2000Z. for this picture to 
 Mr. Day. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 233 
 
 drawings of different arrangements for the subject, 
 or particular portions, were in the Lawrence collec- 
 tion. Another still differently composed was in the 
 possession of Mr. Eogers, and seven or eight more 
 exist in various collections on the Continent. In 
 one of those in the Lawrence series the skeleton is 
 drawn within the outline. 
 
 It will have been seen that in several instances, 
 and we might add very many others, the drawings 
 by Raphael for well-known pictures were in the 
 Lawrence collection. A few only of these drawings, 
 it appears, have been purchased by the Prince of 
 Orange : we fervently hope that, before it is too 
 late, the remainder will be preserved for this 
 country. No outlay of money for such purposes, 
 we are persuaded, could be more wisely appro- 
 priated, and, without even considering the certain 
 good which in the end would result to the arts, we 
 venture to think it a narrow economy to deny a 
 rational enjoyment to the constantly increasing 
 class of persons who take an interest in such 
 studies.* The example of Paris shows that a selec- 
 tion of these works might be shown in a certain 
 number of frames, and changed for others from 
 time to time. Should the biography now before us 
 be translated, as we trust it will, a catalogue 
 raisonne of all these works will be at once ready 
 for every hand; the number of those who can 
 
 * See history of the Lawrence drawings in “ Memoir of Sir 
 C. L. Eastlake. London, 1870.” 
 
234 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 relish them will be thus greatly increased ; and after 
 ah, association is the spell by which not only art, 
 but nature herself, becomes lastingly attractive. 
 
 In April, 1508, the Pope's nephew, Francesco 
 Maria della Rovere, succeeded to the sovereignty 
 of Urbino on the death of Guidubaldo ; and Ra- 
 phael, writing to Urbino soon after, desired his 
 uncle to procure him a recommendation from the 
 young duke to the Gonfaloniere Soderini, who was 
 about to have a room in the Palazzo Yecchio 
 painted. From what followed, however, it may be 
 concluded that both the Duke and the Pope himself 
 preferred securing the talents of so great a painter 
 for Rome, for in the summer, or early in the autumn 
 of the same year, Raphael left Florence in haste ; 
 his letter to Francia, dated from Rome in Septem- 
 ber, speaks of his overwhelming affairs there as if he 
 had been already some time regularly at work. The 
 Giardiniera, the Madonna del Baldachino, and other 
 works left unfinished in Florence, were completed 
 by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. 
 
 The biographers of Raphael have often indulged 
 in conjectures as to the immediate cause of his 
 invitation to Rome. Bramante, the Duke of Urbino, 
 and the Duchess of Sora, may all have been instru- 3 
 mental : but Rumohr very justly observes, that as 
 Julius II. had begun his vast plans in architecture 
 and sculpture, and had already assembled several 
 painters round him, nothing was more natural than 
 that he should, of his own accord, invite Raphael, 
 
LIFE OF EAPHAEL. 
 
 235 
 
 now acknowledged to be second to none, to assist in 
 carrying bis projects into effect. 
 
 Whatever may have been Raphaels enthusiasm 
 for his art, his mind received an impulse, unfelt 
 before, under the influence of the vigorous and 
 enterprising J ulius. That pontiff, who even as 
 
 cardinal had directed considerable architectural 
 works, now aimed at a character of greatness in all 
 he undertook, commensurate, at least, with his own 
 high estimate of his power. The plan of rebuilding 
 St. Peter’s was conceived on the scale in which we 
 see it. To leave a mausoleum for himself corres- 
 ponding with the importance of his political history 
 was another of his schemes, and Michael Angelo 
 was selected as a sculptor. The pope persuaded 
 the same great artist, who ever doubted his own 
 powers as a fresco-painter, to undertake the ceiling 
 of the Capella Sistina, and thus were produced the 
 most majestic forms that painting has yet embodied. 
 Lastly, the frescoes of Raphael in the upper stanze 
 of the Vatican might never have existed but for 
 the noble ambition of Julius. 
 
 Six of the frescoes just named, besides the many 
 accompanying smaller subjects, were done in this 
 pontificate ; that is, from Raphael’s arrival in Rome 
 in 1508 to 1513; and when to these are added the 
 numerous altar-pieces, Holy Families, and portraits, 
 painted in the same years, the labour both of hand 
 and mind is more than ever astonishing. The diffi- 
 culty of assigning sufficient time for the unquestion- 
 
236 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 able works of the master is even increased in the 
 following seven years, from Leo’s accession to the 
 death of the painter. The frescoes have been often 
 and well described, and perhaps Passavant may be 
 said to have improved on former writers in his de- 
 scription of the “ Philosophy ” or School of Athens 
 as it is called : in one respect, however, his remarks 
 have disappointed ns. From a wish to exalt Ra- 
 phael as much as possible, he leans to the opinion 
 that the painter chiefly drew on his own stores for 
 the invention of these works. He indeed admits, 
 from the evidence of a letter of Raphael to Ariosto, 
 that the artist consulted his friends respecting the 
 personages to be introduced in these compositions, 
 but, because Pietro Bembo and one or two others 
 came to Rome some years later, he hastily concludes 
 that, till then, no such assistance was at hand. In 
 this he is mistaken ; without giving a catalogue of 
 all the learned and accomplished men * who were 
 in the habit of assembling in the gardens and 
 library of the celebrated Collocci, it is sufficient to 
 
 * From a wish perhaps to exalt the splendour of Leo’s court, 
 Roscoe has not given a very full or favourable account of the 
 men of letters who were in Rome during the Pontificate of 
 Julius ; in this he has been corrected by his Italian translator, 
 Count Bossi, who observes : “ La prova piu luminosa della mia 
 opinione si ha forse nel Pontificato stesso di Leon X., nel quale, 
 siccome brevissimo, le scienze, le lettere, e le arti non avrebbero 
 potuto crescere a tanto splendore, se non avesse preesistito un 
 fundo d’istruzione, che forse in quella capitale non si estinse 
 giammai.” — c. 11. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 237 
 
 mention the names of Inghirami, Sadoleto, and the 
 younger Beroaldo ; for the suggestions of either 
 might fully account even for the extraordinary 
 display of erudition which the first frescoes painted 
 by Raphael contain. It would have been better in 
 short to assume, as every unprejudiced person must, 
 without any derogation of Raphael's powers, that 
 some of the painter s learned friends had given him 
 the leading points of the great arguments he 
 treated, as well as the selection of personages 
 introduced as representatives of remarkable epochs. 
 If the biographer had assumed this, in addition to 
 his very satisfactory account of the pictures them- 
 selves, he would have connected them with the 
 state of learning and the modes of thinking belong- 
 ing to the time when Raphael painted. And here 
 we may obsetve, that the history which a picture 
 pretends to represent, whatever it may be, is in 
 reality a far truer mirror of the age when it was 
 executed. It is when works of art are viewed in 
 this light that they become so precious to the culti- 
 vated spectator, and open sources of interest to him 
 which make ample amends for any defect of connois- 
 seurship in which the artist may consider himself 
 superior. Passavant's description of the figures of 
 Plato and Aristotle in the subject of “ Philosophy ” 
 is strikingly just, but the painters characteristic 
 representation is to be considered as the lively 
 result of the enthusiastic study of these philosophers 
 at the period. In the subject of Jurisprudence, one 
 
238 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 of the four frescoes in the Camera della Segnatura, 
 the invention and treatment appear to us to have 
 been evidently suggested by the Nicomachean 
 Ethics of Aristotle ; for here, as in that philo- 
 sopher’s system, the science of morals is the basis 
 of law. The principal picture, representing Tem- 
 perance, Fortitude, and Prudence, is surmounted 
 by the single figure of Justice : the fifth chapter of 
 Aristotle's Treatise is the best commentary on this 
 arrangement ; the passages are numerous which 
 confirm the view thus taken, but the single ex- 
 pression, “ Justice is not a part, but the whole, of 
 virtue," is sufficient. The inscription, again, which 
 accompanies Raphael’s figure, “jus suum cuique 
 tribuens," exactly corresponds with the more par- 
 ticular definition which follows. Aristotle holds 
 the volume of the Ethics (so inscribed) in his hand, 
 in the subject of “ Philosophy." 
 
 The labours of the painter were to have been 
 confined, in the part of the Vatican where he was 
 employed, to the few walls that remained to be 
 covered ; but no sooner was the first fresco com- 
 pleted than the pope ordered all the works by other 
 artists to be demolished, and the walls prepared 
 afresh for Raphael. This decision must have 
 placed so young a painter, who, as Vasari says on 
 another occasion, “ era la gentilezza stessa," in a 
 very painful situation. In the next room to that 
 in which he was employed, his master Perugino 
 was at this very time at work on the ceiling : in the 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 239 
 
 room on the opposite side the now venerable Lnca 
 Signorelli had just finished an elaborate work as a 
 companion to one of those before alluded to, painted 
 many years previously by his master, Pietro della 
 Francesca. Other works by experienced artists 
 were on the ceilings and walls of the same rooms. 
 Parts of the ceilings in more than one instance 
 were suffered to remain, although the subjects had 
 little reference to the representations on the walls ; 
 hence Passavant is not strictly correct in saying, 
 with Vasari, that Perugino’s work was particularly 
 or exclusively respected. 
 
 Of the Holy Families, painted even while these 
 great works were in progress, we will merely men- 
 tion the round picture lately in England, in the 
 possession of Mr Coesvelt,* and now in that of the 
 Emperor of Eussia — (a specimen, by the way 
 with regard to which, notwithstanding Passavant’s 
 just admiration, some difference of opinion existed) ; 
 the beautiful composition known by the name of 
 the Madonna di Loreto, which, it seems, is lost ; 
 and the Madonna with the Infant Christ and 
 St. John in the possession of Lord Garvagh.f 
 To these may be added the graceful Madonna 
 and Child in the Bridgewater Gallery, J and 
 another traced by Passavant from the Orleans 
 
 * The price paid for it by Mr. Coesvelt was 4000 A 
 
 t It has since passed into the National Gallery. 
 
 X This picture is said to have been first sold in England for 
 3000£. : but Passavant adds a (?). 
 
240 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 collection to that of Mr. Rogers. Of altar-pieces 
 that of Foligno was the principal work of the 
 period ; and in the list of portraits, that of Pope 
 Julius, so excellent and so often copied, stands 
 pre-eminent — it is now in the Pitti palace. A 
 portrait of the Marchese Federigo Gonzaga, of 
 Mantua, is, we believe, in England. But the 
 Camera della Segnatura was scarcely completed 
 before other works were undertaken in three dif- 
 ferent churches. The Isaiah in St. Agostino, after 
 having been once finished, was destroyed, and 
 entirely re-painted, according to Vasari, in con- 
 sequence of Raphael's impressions on seeing the 
 Capella Sistina. The imitation of Michael Angelo 
 is unquestionable in this figure, and in the two 
 accompanying boy-angels; but, except by Vasari, 
 it has never been considered equal to Raphaels 
 own characteristic works; the date ( 1512 ) of this 
 figure is satisfactorily proved by Passavant ; it may 
 be considered to fix the time when Raphael first 
 saw the Capella Sistina. A fresco was designed 
 and executed shortly after in Agostino Chigi's 
 chapel in the Chiesa della Pace ; the Prophets and 
 Sibyls it represents no longer betray a direct 
 imitation of Michael Angelo, but were probably 
 suggested by his subjects. The Sibyls, like the 
 figures of the Virtues in the Jurisprudence, (the 
 last in order of time painted in the Camera della 
 Segnatura,) are treated in a grander and broader 
 style than is observable in earlier works. The 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 241 
 
 Prophets, on the other hand, were evidently ex- 
 ecuted from his designs by some assistant; they 
 were, in fact, the work of Timoteo Viti. The chapel 
 belonging to the same Agostino Chigi, in the church 
 of Sta. Maria del Popolo, was to have been entirely 
 painted by Raphael ; the designs, indeed, were 
 made about the period to which we now refer, but 
 the work was not entirely completed, with various 
 alterations, till long after his death. In the same 
 year a second room was begun in the Vatican : two 
 of the frescoes, the Heliodorus and the Mass of 
 Bolsena, were probably completed before the death 
 of Julius, in February, 1513. 
 
 Vasari, in the introduction to the third part of 
 his work, in a comparative view of the merits of 
 the great painters, after observing that Andrea 
 del Sarto followed Raphael in some respects, re- 
 marks that the Florentine's colouring was “non 
 tanta gagliarda,” less daring and powerful than 
 that of his great prototype. In fact, the Heliodorus 
 and the Mass of Bolsena, in addition to their other 
 excellencies, are the best coloured frescoes the art 
 can boast. The frescoes of Titian at Padua do not 
 approach them in richness and glow ; and when 
 Raphael is spoken of as a great colourist, it is 
 these two works chiefly which are understood to be 
 referred to. Several portraits and portions of altar- 
 pieces have, however, the same powerful charac- 
 ter, and the fine female portrait in the tribune 
 at Florence was formerly attributed to Giorgione. 
 
242 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 Rumohr imagines that the great colourist just 
 named may have seen the fresco of the Mass of 
 Bolsena ; but, unfortunately for such an hypothesis, 
 Giorgione died before it was begun — to say nothing 
 of the improbability of his ever having visited 
 Rome. Having noticed one of this writer’s over- 
 sights, we must injustice quote his fine remark on 
 a portion of this same picture : — “ The upper 
 group, consisting of Julius II., some cardinals and 
 prelates of the court— the first full of boldness and 
 defiance, the latter obsequious and subtle — forms 
 an historical contrast, in the strictest sense of the 
 words, to the German brute force and honest stub- 
 born simplicity of the Swiss attendants. The do- 
 minion of priests and Swiss infantry were the two 
 great moving principles of European politics during 
 the sixteenth century. I doubt whether in any 
 historian they are so intelligibly, so objectively 
 represented, as in this instance.” Passavant, again, 
 makes the important observation that Sebastian del 
 Piombo, the best imitator of Giorgione, first came to 
 Rome in 1511 ; his rivalry with Raphael soon 
 began, and we now see how immediately the latter 
 appears to have appropriated the characteristic 
 excellence of the Venetian. 
 
 In reviewing the exertions of Raphael during the 
 last years of Julius, some circumstances are to be 
 considered affecting not only the style of his art, 
 but his personal character. And first, it does not 
 appear that he saw the ceiling of the Capella Sistina 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 £43 
 
 before 1512. Tlie resemblance of the statue of 
 Apollo, in the “School of Athens,” to one of Michael 
 Angelo's figures destined for the Pope's monument, 
 is the only trace of any direct imitation or influence 
 of the great Florentine up to that period : gratui- 
 tous assertions to the contrary have often been 
 repeated, and many writers, laying undue stress on 
 particular expressions of Vasari, make the Cartoon of 
 Pisa the inspiring cause of this supposed imitation. 
 The real influence of that work has been already 
 pointed out, but the picture of the Entombment has 
 not the remotest resemblance to what is called the 
 manner of Michael Angelo. This exaggerated exal- 
 tation of the Florentine artist, as usual, has induced 
 modern critics to go too far the other way, and to 
 endeavour to show the absolute independence of his 
 rival. As a proof of the reality of Raphael's admi- 
 ration of Michael Angelo’s genius, it will be suffi- 
 cient to mention that several drawings exist copied 
 by Raphael himself from the ceiling of the Capella 
 Sistina : one of these, the expulsion of Adam and 
 Eve, is in the Lawrence collection ; another is at 
 Holkham. 
 
 We now come to a more serious point. Vasari 
 and Condivi both assert that, when Michael Angelo, 
 owing to a misunderstanding with Julius, had 
 retired for a time to Florence, having half painted 
 the Capella Sistina, Bramante used all his influence 
 with the Pope to allow Raphael to complete the 
 undertaking. The testimony of Michael Angelo 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 244 
 
 himself goes further ; for, in a letter of his, dis- 
 covered and published a few years since, he says 
 that all his difference with the Pope “ was owing 
 to the envy of Bramante and Raphael.” Passavant 
 endeavours to show, from a variety of instances, how 
 irritable and overbearing Michael Angelo's conduct 
 was on all occasions, and makes out his case but too 
 well. He contrasts, again, with the harsh spirit of 
 the great Florentine, the milder and more candid 
 disposition of his younger rival, who, as Condivi 
 tells us, declared that “he esteemed himself fortu- 
 nate to have been born in the same age with 
 Michael Angelo." There are, however, some coinci- 
 dences which require explanation, in order fully to 
 justify Raphael from the above charge ; it seems, 
 indeed, unaccountable that his biographer should 
 relate the circumstances to which we are about to 
 allude without any comment whatever. In the first 
 place, Raphael had no sooner seen the Capella 
 Sistina (we take Passavant's own dates), than he 
 painted the Prophet Isaiah ; immediately after, he 
 painted Prophets and Sibyls; he then made the 
 designs for the other chapel of Agostino Chigi in 
 Sta. Maria del Popolo ; in this the ceiling was ori- 
 ginally intended to contain a series of subjects from 
 the Creation to the Fall of Adam; but the mosaics 
 executed from Raphael's own designs are limited to 
 the creation of the heavenly bodies. 4 ' Four statues 
 
 * These have been lately engraved by Mr. L. Gruner, who 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 245 
 
 of Prophets were destined to connect the subjects of 
 the ceiling with compositions from the New Testa- 
 ment intended for the walls. Again, in resuming 
 his works in the Vatican, the subjects chosen for the 
 ceiling in the room of the Heliodorus were all from 
 the book of Genesis. It was probably Raphael's 
 wish to paint Scripture subjects only on the walls, 
 and the first done, the Heliodorus , seems to prove 
 this.* It was, perhaps, to these circumstances that 
 his rival himself alluded when in the letter before 
 mentioned he said, “ Whatever Raphael knew in the 
 art he knew from me." Without staying to refute 
 this, it is at least abundantly evident that Raphael 
 
 has so successfully employed his burin in disseminating the 
 works of Raphael. 
 
 * The precise order of these works is unimportant, except 
 in the instance of the Isaiah, with regard to which, assuming 
 Vasari’s account of the re-painting to be correct, we may even 
 grant an accidental coincidence with Michael Angelo’s subject ; 
 but such a coincidence, even here very improbable, cannot be 
 imagined in the other cases. The order, we repeat, is unim- 
 portant ; but Passavant contradicts himself with respect to the 
 date of the Heliodorus. Having described the subjects of the 
 ceiling, the fresco just named, and the Mass of Bolsena, as if 
 done in the order in which they are here mentioned, he says, 
 “ After the decoration of the room was completed thus far, 
 Julius died.” (Feb. 1531.) — vol. i. p. 198. The expression, 
 “ thus far,” relating to the works above enumerated, generally. 
 Elsewhere, having ascertained that Timoteo Viti painted the 
 Prophets in the Pace, in 1514, and finding that the last 
 payment for the Heliodorus is dated August in the same year, 
 he seems to infer that that fresco was only then finished. 
 —Vol. ii. p. 168. 
 
246 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 sought to contend with Michael Angelo, not only in 
 the same class of subjects, but even in Sculpture ; 
 yet, although he may have been eager to prove that 
 others could treat these subjects, if not with equal 
 sublimity, with more attractive qualities than the 
 Florentine artist, we need not therefore conclude 
 that it was also his object to second the intrigues of 
 Bramante. The history of the practice of painters 
 in the fifteenth century, and even much later, shows 
 that nothing was more common than to take the 
 subject of any renowned work, and repeat it with — 
 or even without — considerable alteration. In his 
 earlier years Raphael frequently adopted the com- 
 positions of his master ; in Florence, the Dei Holy 
 Family is an obvious imitation of Fra Bartolommeo; 
 Leonardo da Vinci's works suggested many a 
 smiling Holy Family ; — and the period at length 
 came when Michael Angelo was to exercise a 
 similar influence. Such imitations, even when very 
 direct, seem to have been considered as the sincerest 
 tribute of admiration ; with an original genius the 
 impulse lasted only for a time, and was a sort of 
 study of the characteristic excellence of a rival ; the 
 practice was a wholesome change of ideas, and the 
 result an enlarged perception of the nature and 
 powers of the art. In fact, in Raphael’s latest 
 works, the original tendency of his mind and taste, 
 however improved and aggrandised, is again promi- 
 nent ; and those who fancy they see in these an 
 inferiority in some respects to his earlier productions 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 247 
 
 may fairly attribute the supposed defects to the 
 necessity of trusting the execution so much to his 
 scholars. After all, the direct imitation of Michael 
 Angelo, as we have seen, is confined to very few 
 instances ; the rivalry, properly so called, began 
 when, in selecting similar subjects, Raphael dwelt 
 not on the qualities which Michael Angelo had, but 
 on those which he had not ; this is remarkable in 
 many of the designs to which we have alluded, but 
 particularly in the Heliodorus. In this noble work, 
 although the artist was far from shunning the 
 qualities in which Michael Angelo was strong ; 
 although form, action, foreshortening are prominent 
 excellencies, yet the genuine characteristics of 
 Raphael are all displayed in still greater perfection. 
 Not only deep devotion in the adoring High Priest, 
 not only expression and colour, not only grace, 
 sweetness, and beauty, but the interest and variety 
 of the picturesque, costume, architecture, the horse 
 —all are combined to win every class of beholders. 
 Thus, as Vasari justly observes, “ he did not throw 
 his time away in vainly endeavouring to acquire the 
 manner of Michael Angelo, but sought to make 
 himself accomplished universally.” 
 
 The other two frescoes in the room of the Helio- 
 dorus were painted in the first year of Leo’s ponti- 
 ficate, and, indeed, have reference to his personal 
 history. The Deliverance of Peter alludes to the 
 Cardinal de’ Medici’s escape from captivity after the 
 battle of Ravenna ; the Attila was suggested by the 
 
248 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 retreat of the French from Italy in the same year. 
 Thus, although it has pleased modern critics to 
 describe all these frescoes as forming part of a pre- 
 conceived and fixed plan, it is evident that accidents 
 of all kinds, the painter s impressions, the change in 
 the government, and the necessity of attending to 
 the suggestions of employers, all had their influence. 
 We must here object to Passavant’s arrangement of 
 his catalogue in the second volume, as regards 
 the two frescoes just mentioned. After dividing 
 Raphael's works done in Rome into two classes, 
 accordingly as the dates fall within the pontificates 
 of Julius or of Leo, he places the Attila and the 
 Deliverance of Peter, painted, as he is well aware, 
 under Leo, with the works belonging to the former 
 period. His only reason for this appears to be a 
 wish to complete his account of one room in the 
 Vatican before he begins another — a useless sub- 
 division, which interferes materially with the 
 accuracy of his chronology. A third room in the 
 Vatican, called the Stanza di Torre Borgia, was 
 painted with more assistance from subordinate 
 hands ; the celebrated Incendio del Borgo is, how- 
 ever, among the finest inventions of the master. 
 Of the works in the Hall of Constantine, chiefly 
 finished by Giulio Romano, Raphael only prepared 
 some drawings for the Vision of Constantine, and a 
 cartoon for the Battle with Maxentius. The other 
 subjects, with the exception of some single figures 
 of Virtues, appear to have been even designed by 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 249 
 
 his scholars. Raphael had intended, stimulated 
 perhaps by the example of Sebastian del Piombo, to 
 paint all the subjects of this room in oil, and the 
 walls were prepared accordingly. Two only of the 
 figures just mentioned were, however, thus com- 
 pleted by Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni, as 
 Vasari, in his life of the former, tells us. The work 
 was then long, interrupted by Raphaels death, and 
 the remaining subjects were ultimately painted in 
 fresco. The number and variety of undertakings in 
 which Raphael was engaged during the last six 
 years of his life — the designs for the Loggie of the 
 Vatican, the drawings for Marc Antonio’s engrav- 
 ings, the frescoes, the Cartoons, altar-pieces, and 
 portraits, the direction of St. Peter’s, architectural 
 designs, and even antiquarian researches connected 
 with architecture — are almost inconceivable, even 
 when due allowance is made for the co-operation of 
 numerous scholars. That some of these works 
 should, even at the time, have been found inferior 
 to those executed entirely by himself, is quite 
 natural. The story of Amor and Psyche painted, 
 after long and unavoidable procrastination, in the 
 villa of Agostino Chigi, was among the works in 
 which this difference was but too apparent ; the 
 Transfiguration, Vasari tells us, was undertaken by 
 Raphael to redeem his reputation ; but, if he had 
 intended to complete that work entirely himself, the 
 intention was frustrated by his death. 
 
 It is difficult to select a few only from the many 
 
250 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 celebrated oil-pictures of his later time. The St. 
 Cecilia, the Dresden Madonna,^ the Madonna del 
 Pesce, the Christ bearing the Cross, called the 
 Spasimo,t the Madonna della Sedia, are but a portion 
 of the works of this class done under Leo's pontifi- 
 cate. Among portraits, that of the Pope himself, 
 with the Cardinals Giulio de' Medici and Lodovico 
 de' Eossi, is now in the Pitti palace, having suffered 
 not a little either from the removal to and from 
 Paris, or from some inexpert picture-cleaner. The 
 Louvre is still rich in portraits by Eaphael : the 
 beautiful Joanna of Arragon, which also seems 
 to have suffered, and the accomplished Baldassare 
 Castiglione, are among them. The well-known 
 Latin epistle, said to be written by Castiglione's 
 wife, Ippolita Torelli, but really his own com- 
 position, alludes, in some very pleasing lines, 
 to this last picture. The lady, left in Mantua 
 two years after their marriage, is supposed to com- 
 plain to her husband, who was at the court of Leo, 
 of his protracted absence. After contrasting the 
 refined enjoyments of Eome with her lonely situa- 
 tion, she generously says — 
 
 " Nec mihi displiceant quae sunt tibi grata, sed ipsa est 
 Te sine lux octilis pene inimica meis ; 
 
 Non auro, aut gemma caput exornare nitenti 
 Me juvat, aut Arabo spargere odore comas, — 
 
 * Purchased in 1754 for 11,000 sequins, 
 t At Madrid — estimated by the French at 7 000£. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 251 
 
 Sola tuos vultus referens, Raphaelis imago 
 Picta manu curas allevat usque meas. 
 
 Huic ego delicias facio, arrideoque, jocorque, 
 
 Alloquor, et tanquam reddere verba queat, 
 
 Assensu, nutuque mihi ssepe ilia videtur 
 Eicere velle aliquid et tua verba loqui. 
 
 Agnoscit, balboque patrem puer ore salutat ; 
 
 Hoc solor lougos, decipioque dies.” * 
 
 The supposition that Ippolita Torelli herself may 
 have written this epistle may have acquired some 
 
 * The beginning of this elegy— 
 
 “ Hippolyte mittit mandata hsec Castilioni, 
 
 Addideram imprudens hei mihi ! pene — suo,” 
 
 is evidently imitated, perhaps improved in thought, from 
 Propertius, 1. iv. el. 3. : 
 
 “ Hsec Arethusa suo mittit mandata Lycotee • 
 
 Quum toties absis, si potes esse meus.” 
 
 Scaliger does not hesitate to prefer the modem poet ; his words 
 are “ Nihil dulcius Elegia, nihil elegantius, tersius, lepidius. 
 Profecto earn mihi unam malim quam magnum numerum 
 Propertianarum. Illius verb Cleopatra non ut ilia vivens reges 
 tantum ac dictatores capere possit, sed omnes animos quorum 
 interest vacare musis. Qui si omnia sic scripsit nulli post Vir- 
 gilium secundus, illius comes haberi mereatur.” — Poetices , 1. 6. 
 The poem of Cleopatra, here alluded to, was composed on the 
 statue in the Vatican, formerly known by that name, but now 
 generally called Ariadne. The lines are still more celebrated 
 than Sadoleto’s on the group of the Laocoon. In his critical 
 observations on Castiglione, Scaliger does not remark that the 
 poet in the above passage has taken the liberty of making the 
 Second syllable of arrideo short. 
 
252 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 probability from the praises of her learning which 
 appear in her epitaph. The example, too, was not 
 uncommon. The instance of Battista Sforza has 
 already been adverted to. The Duchess Elizabetta 
 of Urbino, it appears, sung the subjects of the 
 iEneid in Virgil's words — such at least is the 
 inference to be drawn from Castiglione’s poem “ De 
 Elizabetta Gonzaga canente,” beginning — 
 
 “ Dulces exuviae, dum fata Deusque sinebant, 
 
 Dum canit, et querulum pollice tangit ebur &c. 
 
 A passage that follows,- — 
 
 “ Flebile nescio quid tacite in prsecordia serpit, 
 
 Cogit et invitos illacrimare oculos,” 
 
 is supposed to have been imitated by Tasso, 
 c. 12. st. 66. : 
 
 “ In queste voci languide risuona 
 Un uon so che di flebile e soave, 
 
 Che al cor gli serpe ed ogni sdegno ammorza, 
 E gli occhi a lagrimar gl’ invoglia e forza.” 
 
 One of the few letters by Baphael which have 
 been preserved is addressed to Castiglione. It has 
 often been quoted as a proof of the great painter's 
 recognition of the doctrine of ideal beauty (a 
 question which we leave to its own merits) ; but as 
 it throws some light on the relation which subsisted 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 253 
 
 between two such remarkable persons, we need not 
 apologise for inserting it here. 
 
 “ Signor Conte, — I have made designs in various ways on 
 your Lordship’s idea ; I have satisfied all those who have seen 
 the sketches, but I do not satisfy my own judgment, because I 
 am afraid of not satisfying yours. I send them to you. Our 
 Sovereign, in doing me honour, has at the same time laid a 
 heavy burden of responsibility on my shoulders. This is the 
 direction of the building of St. Peter’s. I have good hope that 
 I shall not sink under it, the more so as the model which I 
 have made pleases his Holiness, and is praised by many intelli- 
 gent judges. But I aspire in thought to something beyond 
 this ; I am desirous of finding out the beautiful forms of the 
 ancient edifices. I do not know whether my soaring will be 
 that of Icarus. Vitruvius gives me considerable light, but not 
 enough. As to the Galatea, I should consider myself a great 
 master if it contained half the qualities which your Lordship 
 mentions in your letter, but in your expressions I at least 
 recognise the friendship you entertain for me. In reply, I 
 observe, that to paint a beautiful individual I should want to 
 see several beauties, with this condition, that your Lordship 
 should be with me to select the best ; as there is, however, a 
 lack both of discriminating judges and of beautiful women, I 
 make use of a certain idea which presents itself to my mind. 
 Whether this has any excellence as regards the art, I do not 
 know; I labour strenuously to attain it. I wait your Lord- 
 ship’s commands.” * 
 
 A report addressed to Leo X. on the state of the 
 ancient edifices (with the description of a method 
 
 * If the style and orthography of this letter have been 
 correctly given in the copies preserved, it follows, as Passavant 
 remarks, that although Raphael wrote in the provincial dialect 
 to his relations, he was quite capable of expressing himself in 
 pure Italian. 
 
254 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 employed by Raphael for measuring tbeir remains), 
 and which, among other observations, contains an 
 interesting critique on gothic architecture, was 
 formerly attributed to Castiglione, but has been 
 proved to be in all essential respects the production 
 of Raphael himself. The letter just quoted affords 
 additional evidence that the intention of measuring 
 the ancient buildings originated with Raphael. 
 The undertaking appears to have excited great 
 attention at the time : it is particularly mentioned 
 by Paolo Giovio in bis very short life of Raphael, 
 and Marc Antonio Michiel, in a letter deploring 
 4 4 the incomparable masters” early death, alludes 
 with peculiar interest to the same subject, adding 
 that Raphael had already completed one region of 
 ancient Rome. In vindicating the indefatigable 
 artist's claim to the authorship of the report re- 
 lating to this investigation, we observe that his 
 pretensions to this kind of merit are not limited to 
 the example in question. Vasari, in the address 
 which concludes the second edition of his work, 
 tells us that the writings of Lorenzo Ghiberti , of 
 Domenico Ghirlandajo, and of Raffaello da Urbino , 
 had been 44 of no small use to him.” Of three 
 sketches for sonnets by Raphael, which have been 
 preserved, from the accident of their being written 
 on the back of drawings, two were in the Lawrence 
 collection, the other is in the British Museum. 
 Passavant has published them all. 
 
 An interesting circumstance remains to be men- 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 255 
 
 tioned connected with the history of the Cartoons. 
 The tapestries copied from these works were 
 intended to decorate the lower part of the walls of 
 the Capella Sistina ; and the Chevalier Bunsen 
 (one of the most accomplished persons who ever 
 taught the lesson of minute diligence) was the first 
 who ascertained the precise order in which they 
 were placed : thus accounting both for the choice 
 of the subjects and the difference of size. The 
 following particulars are first to be borne in 
 mind: — The chapel built by Sixtus IV. in 1453, 
 and afterwards called by his name, was partly 
 painted, during his pontificate, with subjects from 
 the Old and New Testament : these occupied the 
 middle space of the wall under the windows, and 
 extended all round the chapel. Nothing further 
 was done by succeeding pontiffs till the accession 
 of Julius II., the nephew of Sixtus IV. Under his 
 auspices, Michael Angelo painted the ceiling ; and 
 a certain plan having been already defined by the 
 subjects on the walls, the great artist judiciously 
 took up, or rather began, the thread of the whole 
 history, gradually leading the mind of the spectator 
 from the earliest events recorded in Scripture, and 
 from the Prophecies, to the antitypes represented 
 below. It was subsequently suggested to Leo, who 
 readily listened to any scheme that promised a 
 display of magnificence, to adorn the vacant spaces 
 underneath the frescoes done in the time of Sixtus, 
 with tapestries enriched with gold, to be wrought in 
 
256 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 Flanders from Cartoons by Raphael. The subjects 
 were selected accordingly ; and thus still descended 
 in chronological order from the history of Christ, 
 which had been partly treated above by Perugino 
 and the rest, to that of the apostles. On the left 
 of the altar there were four tapestries from the 
 history of St. Peter, and one representing the 
 Stoning of St. Stephen ; on the right were five 
 subjects from the history of St. Paul ; the tapestry 
 forming the altar-piece was the Coronation of the 
 Virgin. The pilasters separating the principal 
 subjects were decorated with arabesques wrought 
 in tapestries of corresponding shapes, and the space 
 underneath was in like manner adorned with 
 smaller subjects, generally two in number, in a 
 uniform colour, heightened with gold. The Stoning 
 of St. Stephen, and the Deliverance of St. Paul 
 from Prison by the Earthquake, were much 
 narrower than the rest, from the circumstance of 
 the Pope's throne interfering on the one side, and 
 the gallery for the choristers on the other. After- 
 wards, when the Last Judgment was painted, the 
 frescoes on that end wall were destroyed to make 
 room for it, and sufficient space no longer remained 
 to hang three of the tapestries underneath it. The 
 Cartoons at Hampton Court, as is well known, are 
 seven in number : the four that are wanting are 
 the Coronation of the Virgin, the Conversion of 
 St. Paul, the Stoning of St. Stephen, and the 
 Deliverance of Paul from Prison. Another series 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 257 
 
 of tapestries, thirteen in number, with subjects 
 from the life of Christ, is still preserved in the 
 Vatican : these were done after Raphael's death, 
 chiefly from the designs of his scholars. Sketches 
 by Raphael for the Murder of the Innocents, and 
 the Adoration of the Shepherds, are all that remain 
 to prove his superintendence of this undertaking. 
 Fragments of the Cartoons also exist. 
 
 With the exception of the account of the Car- 
 toons, and a few additional details, Passavant’s 
 history of the latter period of Raphael's activity 
 has less novelty, and perhaps less chronological 
 order, than the earlier portion. The elegant scholars 
 of Leo's court are, as usual, enumerated, to show 
 how intellectual was the society in which the great 
 artist moved at that time ; but many of these were 
 in Rome, although less conspicuous from not being 
 in immediate relation with the court, in the ponti- 
 ficate of Julius ; and we observe that there is no 
 influence to be traced in Raphael’s later works 
 which can be compared to the extraordinary evi- 
 dence of erudition of every kind so apparent in the 
 frescoes of the Camera della Segnatura. The only 
 remarkable connexion between the literary pursuits 
 of the age and the later designs of the artist has 
 not been noticed by the biographer. We allude 
 to the commentary on the fable of Apuleius by the 
 elder Beroaldo. This book, first printed in 1501, 
 and again in 1512, some years after the learned 
 editor’s death, was a favourite from its style, and 
 
258 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 still more from its hidden Platonism. The circum- 
 stance of the younger Beroaldo being librarian of 
 the Vatican when the frescoes of the Farnesina 
 were done, may perhaps warrant the supposition 
 that the episode of Amor and Psyche was recom- 
 mended to Raphael by him. 
 
 The classic mania may be said to have been 
 propagated by the Medicean popes from Florence to 
 Rome, and by degrees infected the artists as well as 
 the men of letters : indeed, the taste attained its 
 acme in the works of Giulio Romano. Vasari 
 appears to have been quite correct in stating that 
 Raphael sent designers to various parts of Italy, 
 and even to Greece, to collect materials from the 
 antique. An engraving, with the date 1519, re- 
 presenting the sculptured pedestal of the Theodosian 
 column at Constantinople, has the inscription, 
 “Basamento de la colona di Constantinopolo man- 
 dato a Rafelo da Urbino.” The celebrated bas- 
 relief of the Amorini at S. Vitale in Ravenna is 
 engraved, according to Bartsch, from a drawing 
 by the great artist himself — a drawing probably 
 retouched by liirn.^ Raphael was even invited to 
 make designs from the descriptions of Greek paint- 
 ings; and, lastly, in order thoroughly to understand 
 
 * It is remarkable that some fragments of Amorini, precisely 
 in the same style, and probably brought originally from 
 Ravenna, have been preserved in the library at Venice since 
 Titian’s time, and appear to have been as attentively studied 
 by that painter. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 259 
 
 the architecture of the ancients, he employed the 
 venerable and learned Fabius of Ravenna to trans- 
 late Vitruvius into Italian for him. An interesting 
 letter, which Passavant inserts, from Calcagnini to 
 Ziegler, alludes to Raphael's benevolent care of this 
 old man ; and is besides so strong a certificate of 
 the great artist's moral virtues, written as it was 
 soon before his death, that it may be reckoned 
 among the proofs — should proofs be wanting — to 
 contradict the idle story of Vasari respecting the 
 painters inordinate attachment to the Fornarina, 
 the alleged cause of his death. Passavant treats 
 the assertion (first published in 1549, by Simone 
 Fornari, and copied from him by Vasari,) as it de- 
 serves. Earlier biographers make not the slightest 
 allusion to it; and every other circumstance — 
 above all, the unsubdued, or rather increased energy 
 of the painter's mind up to the very end of his 
 career — abundantly contradicts the absurd calumny. 
 
 A description of the compositions finished after 
 the master's death by his principal scholars, Giulio 
 Romano and Francesco Penni, completes the account 
 of Raphael's designs in the Vatican. Perhaps the 
 characteristics of the painters just named, and of 
 other scholars and imitators of the great artist, 
 might have been more fully defined. In alluding 
 previously to the varied occupations of Raphael, 
 the author ably distinguishes his style as an archi- 
 tect from that of Bramante. He confirms the 
 modern opinion that the statue of Jonah was, to a 
 
260 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 certain extent, executed as well as designed by Ra- 
 phael ; and it appears that the statue of the Wounded 
 Child borne by a Dolphin — a subject from iElian, 
 probably suggested by Castiglione — was also partly 
 by the hand of the master himself. A cast from 
 this is in the Dresden Gallery : the marble itself 
 now belongs to this country. # 
 
 The history of the painted porcelain called the 
 Raphael ware was investigated by Giambattista 
 Passeri in the last century, f From his inquiry it 
 appears that the designs really exhibiting the taste 
 of Raphael were painted about twenty years after 
 his death under the auspices of the second Guidu- 
 baldo. At that time Battista Franco, Orazio Fon- 
 tana, Raffaello del Colle, and other distinguished 
 
 * Four statues of Prophets were intended to be placed in 
 the niches of Agostino Chigi’s chapel in S. Maria del Popolo. 
 Two — those of Jonah and Elijah — were designed by Raphael, 
 to be executed by Loren zetto, a Florentine sculptor ; and 
 Passavant gives good reasons in support of the opinion of 
 modern connoisseurs that the Jonah was completed by the 
 hand of Raphael. The works of Lorenzetto, not excepting the 
 Elijah (finished by him after Raphael’s death), are certainly 
 very inferior to it. The remaining two statues were added 
 long afterwards by Bernini. 
 
 The statue of the Child borne by a Dolphin “ was brought 
 to Ireland by the late Earl of Bristol, bishop of Derry, and it is 
 now in the collection at Down Hill.” See the Penny Magazine, 
 July 17, 1841, where a wood-cut of this interesting piece of 
 sculpture is given. (It was seen by the British public in the 
 Great Exhibition of 1851.) 
 
 t “ Istoria delle Pitture in majolica fatte in Pesaro e ne’ luoghi 
 circonvicini.” This work, which had become extremely scarce, 
 was republished in Pesaro in 1838. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 261 
 
 artists famished and executed designs. The name 
 of the last may have given rise to the supposi- 
 tion that Raphael himself assisted. Vasari, in his 
 life of Battista Franco, expressly says that Marc 
 Antonio's engravings after Raphael were occasion- 
 ally copied. 
 
 The biographer would have given still more 
 interest to his work, in the eyes of some readers, 
 if he had bestowed some attention on what may be 
 called the antiquities of Christian art, by occasion- 
 ally tracing and explaining the traditional types. 
 The general adherence of Raphael to the customary 
 modes of representing sacred personages, while he 
 contrived to remove all stiffness and appearance of 
 conventional treatment, would be an interesting 
 subject to illustrate ; and we suspect that most 
 readers frequently want to lie instructed with regard 
 to the history and attributes of certain saints. A 
 Romanist, such as the German biographer appears 
 to be, might have been expected to give full inform- 
 ation on these legendary antiquities, as well as on 
 the ancient modes of representation ; — but our 
 author seems rather to shun these inquiries.* His 
 
 * A passage which we cannot venture to translate shows, 
 however, that he can readily excuse the most absurd super- 
 stitions existing in Italy in the present day : — “Der marmorne 
 altar iiber dem Grab des heiligen Nicolo da Tolentino ist hohl, 
 und hat an entgegengesetzten Enden w T eite runde Offnungen ; 
 durch diese kriechen die Landleute in denselben, und legen 
 sich ofters zu drei und vier neben und aufeinander der Lange 
 nach hinein, und verrichten Gebete, wodurch sie sich mit Gott 
 
262 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 explanations of very common matters are indeed 
 sometimes incorrect. In a picture of the Nativity, 
 the sigla I. H. S. unaccompanied, it appears, by the 
 cross, should undoubtedly be read lesus Hominum 
 Salvator, and not In Hoc Signo. For the rest, the 
 form, though explained in both modes in the Latin 
 church, is to be traced, as is well known, to the use 
 of the three first letters of the name IH We 
 here call to mind that Dr. Waagen, in his otherwise 
 interesting and satisfactory account of the illumi- 
 nated manuscripts in the library at Paris, is at a 
 loss to explain the inscription, 6 i tclXcllos fjnzpav. The 
 seventh chapter of Daniel would have explained 
 both the inscription and the figure it accompanied, 
 for the words happen to be the chief scriptural 
 authority with the earlier painters for representing 
 the Almighty with the attributes of age. 
 
 The influence of early works, considered with 
 reference to their subjects, is also far from having 
 been exhausted. If Michael Angelo could have 
 been inspired, as Vasari admits, by the Last Judg- 
 ment of Signorelli, the subject, at least, of the 
 
 ausgesohnt glauben, und kommen so getrostet am andern Elide 
 wieder heraus. Das ist eine jener mdnchischen Anstalten des 
 Mittelalters. Aber wer diirfte behaupten, dass sie nie einer 
 menschlichen Seele zum Heil gereicht? und wer berechtigt 
 seyn sie abzuschaffen, oluie eine bessere Form zu bieten, an 
 welcbe der reuige Sunder sicb halten und durch die er sich 
 erbauen kann h Das irdiscbe Daseyn ist ein Form, und der 
 darin lebende Mensch bedarf der Formen, wie in der geringsten, 
 so in den hochsten Angelegenheiten.” — vol. i. p. 428. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 263 
 
 battle of Constantine may have been suggested to 
 Raphael by the fresco of Pietro della Francesca at 
 Arezzo. Whatever works of art this city contained 
 must have been seen by Raphael in passing and 
 repassing from Florence to Perugia and Urbino. 
 Again, as drawings by most of the early masters 
 were carefully preserved — many having been in 
 Vasari’s possession, as he himself tells us- — it is 
 quite possible that Raphael may have seen some 
 designs for a chapel painted at Pisa by Traini, a 
 scholar of Orgagna. In one of these compositions, 
 according to Vasari, the doctors of the Church were 
 in consultation, while the upper part of the picture 
 was occupied by the figures of Christ, the evan- 
 gelists, and the heavenly host. The resemblance of 
 this general scheme to the “ Theology,” or “ Dispute 
 of the Sacrament,” is sufficiently evident. “ The 
 figure of St. Thomas Aquinas,” continues Vasari, 
 “ is placed between Plato, who shows him the 
 Timseus, and Aristotle, who shows him the Ethics.” 
 The figures of the two philosophers have the 
 same attributes in the “ School of Athens.”* In 
 the cloisters of Santo Spirito at Florence, the 
 same historian tells us that Stefano, a scholar of 
 Giotto, had painted the Transfiguration in a semi- 
 circle, and underneath it Christ curing a possessed 
 
 * The subject thus treated by Traini has been since pub- 
 lished in Rosini’s Storia della Pittura Italiana. The composition 
 has not the slightest resemblance to Raphael’s “ Dispute of the 
 Sacrament,” but the circumstances introduced are not the less 
 analogous. 
 
 O 
 
264 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 woman (la Indemoniata). We have here perhaps 
 the hint for the combined subject, in some respects 
 similar, which was the last production of the master. 
 Even the points of resemblance with Masaccio, and 
 the other painters of the Chiesa del Carmine, are 
 not particularised by the biographer. The Expul- 
 sion of Adam and Eve from Paradise is copied, 
 with very little alteration, in the Loggie of the 
 Vatican. Several compositions, such as the Ananias, 
 the Lame Man at the Gate of the Temple, Peter 
 and Paul before the Proconsul, the Deliverance of 
 Peter from Prison, and others, probably influenced 
 Raphaels selection of subjects from the lives of the 
 apostles.^ These are among many coincidences 
 which, as throwing light on the gradual progress of 
 the art, might have been adverted to in the history 
 of the painter who represents its maturity. 
 
 Of the ordinary life and habits of Raphael 
 scarcely any record can be said to* remain. His 
 own letters, and the interesting character of him 
 drawn by Vasari, with a few incidental notices in 
 the correspondence of contemporaries, are the only 
 
 * The subject of the Proconsul, always engraved under the 
 name of Masaccio, is satisfactorily proved by Rumohr to be 
 the work of Filippino Lippi, to whom also belong the Martyrdom 
 of Peter, and the smaller subjects of the Apostle in Prison, and 
 his Deliverance by the Angel. The Lame Man at the Gate, 
 and the Temptation of Adam and Eve, are by Masolino da 
 Panicale. Masaccio’s w r orks are the Expulsion of Adam and 
 Eve, the Tribute Money, Peter Baptizing, the Ananias, and the 
 Eutychus Restored to Life. 
 
LIFE OF KAPHAEL. 
 
 265 
 
 written sources now known from which an estimate 
 of his personal character may be formed. No anec- 
 dotes of his student years with Perugino have been 
 preserved ; but we gather that even, at that period, 
 his readiness to assist his fellow-scholars was re- 
 markable. We are almost as much at a loss respect- 
 ing the details of his active and happy life at 
 Florence. Thus deprived of the information which 
 history might have given, a peculiar interest 
 attaches to his early productions, the works of his 
 own hand. In these, at least, he has left une- 
 quivocal traces of the formation of his mind, and a 
 mirror of his character and feelings far more elo- 
 quent than even the eulogies of his contemporaries. 
 In the life of the Florentine architect and sculptor 
 Baccio d’Agnolo, Yasari tells us that the studio of 
 that artist was the resort of many of his profession, 
 as well as of the amateurs of Florence. Here, 
 especially in the winter evenings, interesting dis- 
 cussions took place — (si facevano bellissimi discorsi 
 e dispute d’ importanza). Among the artists who 
 frequented these meetings were Raphael (allora 
 giovane), Andrea Sansovino, Filippino Lippi, 
 Antonio and Giuliano di San Gallo, &c., with 
 many young Florentines and foreigners, and some- 
 times, but rarely, Michael Angelo. To this inter- 
 course, perhaps, Raphael owed his acquaintance 
 with Taddeo Taddei, Lorenzo Nasi, and others : 
 his gratitude to the first has already been men- 
 tioned. In writing to Urbino, in April 1508 , he 
 
266 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 thus recommends to tlie attention of his relatives 
 this friend and patron, in the event of his visiting 
 their city : — “ If Taddei should come, of whom we 
 have often discoursed, I entreat that you will make 
 him welcome, without sparing any expense, and 
 show him every attention for my sake, for in truth 
 I am as deeply indebted to him as to any man 
 living.” An expression in the same letter may 
 confirm the supposition that even in Florence the 
 extent of Kaphael’s commissions latterly required 
 the assistance of scholars. Speaking of a picture, 
 the subject of which he does not mention, he says, 
 “ I have done the cartoon, and after Easter we shall 
 be occupied on the picture.” 
 
 His letter to Francia from Kome is very interest- 
 ing;, but we must content ourselves with a later 
 epistle to his uncle, dated July 1, 1514 : — 
 
 “Dear Uncle and Second Father*, — I have received a letter 
 from you, to me most gratifying, since I find that you are not 
 angry with me ; indeed you would be wrong to be so, for 
 consider how irksome it is to write when there is nothing 
 important to communicate. But now that there is important 
 matter to talk about, I reply. In the first place, with regard to 
 taking a wife,t I answer that, as to the one you first intended 
 
 * “ Carissimo, in locho de Patre.” 
 
 t “ Prima circa a tordona ” (tor donna). Passavant, who is 
 not always correct in his translations from the Italian, has 
 committed a ludicrous blunder in this instance. He reads 
 tordona as one word, and translates it der Azel {the magpie) : 
 the absence of the article might have opened his eyes. In 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 267 
 
 to give me, I am most happy, and thank God constantly that I 
 neither married her, nor any other, and in this respect I have 
 been wiser than you, who wished to give her to me. I am sure 
 you must now yourself be convinced that, had I followed your 
 advice, I should not have been in the position in which I am. 
 At this moment I find that I have property in Rome to the 
 amount of 3000 gold ducats, and an income of fifty gold crowns. 
 His Holiness allows me 300 gold ducats (annually) for super- 
 intending the building of St. Peter’s : this provision is secured 
 to me for life. Other such salaries are in prospect, in addition 
 to which I am paid whatever I choose to ask for my works, and 
 I have begun another room* for His Holiness, which will 
 amount to 1200 gold ducats; so that, dear uncle, I do honour 
 to you and all my relations, and to my native place ; but I 
 cease not to hold you in my heart, and w T hen I hear you named, 
 it is as if I heard my father named. Do not, therefore, com- 
 plain because I do not write ; I might rather complain of you, 
 who have always the pen in your hand, and yet suffer six 
 months to intervene between one letter and another. To return 
 to the subject of the wife, from which I have digressed : you 
 are aware that Santa Maria in Portico [Cardinal Bibiena] 
 wishes to give me a relation (grand-niece) of his, and, on con- 
 dition of obtaining your consent and that of my uncle the 
 priest, I promised to do whatever his Eminence washed. I 
 cannot break my w r ord ; we are more than ever ready to con- 
 clude the affair, and I will soon inform you of all. Do not be 
 offended that this business thus takes its good course; if it 
 should come to nothing, I will then do whatever you wish, 
 and know, if Francesco Buffa has good alliances within his 
 reach, that I can boast some too ; for I can find a handsome 
 
 consequence of mistranslating this passage he is led to give a 
 false meaning to other parts of the letter. 
 
 * Passavant supposes that Raphael alludes to the room of 
 the Heliodorus ; but this was half done under Julius : another 
 room, begun for Leo, can only relate to the Stanza di Torre 
 Borgia; Raphael may only allude here to the preparation of 
 the drawings and cartoons. 
 
268 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 lass (una mamola bella) in Rome, of excellent name, both 
 she and hers ; her friends indeed are ready to give me a dowry 
 of 3000 gold crowns with her. Meanwhile, I live in Rome, 
 where 100 ducats are more worth having (all things con- 
 sidered) than 200 in Urbino ; of this be sure. With respect 
 to residing in Rome, I can no longer remain elsewhere for 
 any length of time, on account of the building of St. Peter’s 
 —for I am in Bramante’s place : but what place in the world 
 is more glorious than Rome ? and what undertaking more 
 honourable than St. Peter’s, — the first temple in the world — 
 the greatest structure that has ever been seen, and which will 
 cost more than a million of gold 1 Know that the Pope has 
 determined to spend 60,000 ducats annually for this building ; 
 he thinks of nothing else. He has associated with me, in the 
 direction, a very learned friar, more than eighty years old ; the 
 Pope sees he cannot live long, and has appointed him as my 
 colleague, as he is a man of great reputation and experience, in 
 order that I may learn from him, if he has any excellent secret 
 in architecture, and that I may become accomplished in this 
 art; he is called Fra Giocondo.* Every day the Pope sends 
 for us, and consults with us for a while about this building. I 
 beg you will go to the Duke and Duchess, and tell them I know 
 
 * Vasari has given his life : he built the bridge of Notre 
 Dame, at Paris, a work w'hich received the praises of Scammozi, 
 and which is alluded to by Sanazzaro in an epigram, beginning, 
 “Jocundus geminum imposuit tibi, Sequana, pontem his 
 grand design for the bridge of the Rialto at Venice was unfor- 
 tunately set aside for the actual one by Zanfragnino (sometimes 
 called Scarpagnino). Vasari says, “Fra Giocondo, veduto 
 quanto pin possono molte volte appresso ai Signori e grandi 
 uomini i favori, che i meriti, ebbe, del veder preporre cost 
 sgcingherato disegno al suo bellissimo, tanto sdegno, che si parti 
 di Venezia, ne mai piu vi voile, ancorche mol to ne fosse pregato, 
 ritornare.” He had previously done a great service to Venice 
 by causing part of the Brenta to disembogue itself at Chioggia. 
 He ensured the safety of St. Peter’s b} 7- constructing the founda- 
 tions on a more extensive plan than Bramante had proposed. 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 269 
 
 they will be pleased to hear that a servant of theirs does himself 
 honour, and commend me to their Highnesses. I commend 
 myself unceasingly to you. Greet all friends, especially Ridolfo, 
 who has so much affection for me.” 
 
 “ El vostro Rafael, Pittore in Roma. 
 
 “ Alii primo Luglio, 1514.” 
 
 Maria Bibiena, to whom Raphael was at last 
 betrothed, died before they were married : — as her 
 epitaph tells us, u ante nuptiales faces virgo est 
 elata.” There seems no ground to conclude that 
 Raphael made any difficulties, and the story about 
 his expectation of a cardinal's hat appears to be 
 one of Vasari’s careless assertions. The readiness 
 expressed in the letter just quoted to fulfil the 
 wishes of others, as if the writer had no feelings of 
 his own, is quite in accordance with the habits of 
 the age and country as regards the important sub- 
 ject in question. This very readiness, however, 
 abundantly shows that Raphael had no objection 
 to marriage in itself, but had been only prudently 
 disposed to wait till his fortunes were established. 
 At what period his acquaintance with the Fornarina 
 began is uncertain : the name of La Fornarina , 
 the only one by which his mistress is known, first 
 occurs, by the way, in comparatively modern bio- 
 graphies, and the stories of the painter’s first sight 
 of this beautiful Trasteverina are still more modern 
 inventions.^ Passavant has unfortunately dis- 
 
 * Missirini’s story is the subject of a letter of his, dated 
 1806 : as he quotes no authority -whatever, and, moreover, has 
 
270 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 covered nothing new respecting so interesting a 
 personage ; the portrait he prefers, and of which he 
 gives an engraving, is that in the Pitti palace ; he 
 
 the reputation of having often circulated such pseudo-traditions, 
 we can only give it as ben trovato. After repeating the re- 
 ceived tradition (confirmed or suggested by the name) that she 
 was the daughter of a baker, and, with the semblance of his- 
 torical accuracy, telling us that the father was “ un fornaro a 
 soccida ” (one who bakes bread sent to him, but who does not 
 sell it), and that he lived in Trastevere, near Sta. Cecilia, the 
 writer thus proceeds : — “ Attached to the house was a little 
 garden, surrounded by a wall low enough to permit a person on 
 the outside to overlook the place by standing on tiptoe. Here 
 the maiden frequently walked, and as her beauty was much 
 talked of, it attracted the curiosity of the young men, and par- 
 ticularly of the students in art, who are always in search of the 
 beautiful : in a word, all were anxious to see her. It happened 
 that Raphael also passed at a moment when the maiden was in 
 the garden, and when, not supposing she w’as observed, she was 
 bathing her feet in the Tiber, for the river bounded the end of 
 the garden. Raphael having raised himself on the wall, saw 
 the young person and gazed on her attentively ; he was always 
 powerfully smitten by beautiful objects, and finding her most 
 beautiful, he presently fell in love with her ; his thoughts were 
 centred in her, and he had no peace till she was his. Having 
 thus bestowed his heart on this person, he found her much 
 more refined, and at the same time more capable of an enduring 
 attachment, than he could have supposed her station promised. 
 His affection for her naturally increased, and at one time he 
 could hardly apply himself to his art, except in her society.” 
 Then follows Yasari’s story, that Agostino Chigi allowed her 
 to stay with Raphael while^he was at work in the Farnesina. 
 According to an older fable which had been long rejected, but 
 which Rurnohr and others have revived, the Fornarina was the 
 daughter of a potter in Urbino or its neighbourhood. As the 
 oven is necessary in such an occupation, the name may have 
 been connected again with this tradition. 
 
LIFE OF EAPHAEL. 
 
 271 
 
 considers the upper part of the picture only to he 
 by the hand of the master. With respect to the 
 autographic portraits of Eaphael himself, that in 
 the gallery at Florence, and a drawing, done at an 
 earlier age, in the possession of Mr. Jeremiah 
 Harman, are justly preferred. Engravings of both 
 are given. 
 
 Having had occasion frequently to allude to the 
 inaccuracy of Vasari’ s historical details, we will now 
 endeavour to do him justice in another respect, 
 by abridging his touching picture of Eaphael’s 
 genius and character : — 
 
 u His death was deeply deplored by the whole court, the more 
 so as the Pope himself, who was much attached to him, wept 
 bitterly. For us who survive him, it remains to imitate the 
 good, nay excellent, method he has taught us, and as his great 
 qualities deserve, and our duty bids us, to cherish his memory 
 in our hearts, and speak of him with the high respect which is 
 his due. For, in fact, through him we have the art in all its 
 extent, colouring and invention, carried to a perfection which 
 could hardly have been hoped, and in this universality let no 
 human being ever dream of surpassing him. Among his ex- 
 traordinary gifts there was one which especially excites my 
 wonder ; I mean that it should have been granted him to 
 infuse a spirit among those who lived around him, so contrary 
 to that which is generally prevalent among professional men. 
 The painters — I do not allude to the humble-minded only, but 
 to those of an ambitious turn, and very many of this sort there 
 are — the painters who worked in company with Eaphael lived 
 in perfect harmony, as if all bad feelings were extinguished in 
 his presence, and every base, unworthy thought had passed 
 from their minds. This friendly state of things was never so 
 remarkable as in Eaphael’s time ; it w^as because the artists 
 were at once subdued by his obliging manners and by his sur- 
 
272 
 
 LIFE OF KAPIIAEL. 
 
 passing merit, but more than all by the spell of his natural 
 character, which was so benevolent, so full of affectionate kind- 
 ness, that not only men but even the very brutes respected him. 
 It is said that if any painter of his acquaintance, or even any 
 stranger, asked him for a drawing which could be of use to him, 
 Eaphael would leave his work to assist him. He always had a 
 great number of artists employed for him, helping them and 
 teaching them with the kindness of a father to his children, 
 rather than as a master directing his scholars j for which reason, 
 it was observed, he never went to court without being accom- 
 panied from his very door by perhaps fifty painters, all clever 
 in their way, who had a pleasure in thus attending him to do 
 him honour. Happy those who were employed under him, for, 
 it appears, that whoever endeavoured to follow his example 
 turned out w T ell : in like manner, those who hereafter shall take 
 his works as models will be honoured accordingly in this life, 
 and, if they resemble him in the excellence of his character, 
 may hope to win the favour of Heaven in another.” 
 
 The attached Castiglione writes thus to his 
 mother, some months after Raphael's death : — 
 “ I am well ; but I cannot fancy myself in Rome, 
 because my poor dear Raphael is no longer here. 
 Che Dio abbia quell' anima benedetta ! ” 
 
 Raphael was buried in the Pantheon (Sta. Maria 
 della Rotonda), in a chapel which he had himself 
 endowed, and near the spot where his betrothed 
 bride had been laid. The immediate neighbourhood 
 was afterwards selected by other painters as their 
 place of rest. Baldassare Peruzzi, Giovanni da 
 Udine, Pierino del Yaga, Taddeo Zuccaro, and 
 others, are buried near. No question had ever 
 existed as to the precise spot where the remains of 
 the master lay ; but a few years since the Roman 
 
LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 273 
 
 antiquaries began to raise doubts even respecting the 
 church in which Raphael was buried. In the end, 
 permission was obtained to make actual search ; 
 and Vasari’s account was in this instance com- 
 pletely verified. The tomb was found as he de- 
 scribes it, behind the altar itself of the chapel 
 above mentioned. Four views of the tomb and its 
 contents were engraved from drawings by Cam- 
 muccini, and thus preserve the appearance that 
 presented itself. The shroud had been fastened 
 with a number of metal rings and points ; some of 
 these were kept by the sculptor Fabris, of Rome, 
 who is also in possession of casts from the skull and 
 the right hand. Passavant remarks, judging from 
 the cast, that the skull was of a singularly fine 
 form. The bones of the hand were all perfect, but 
 they crumbled to dust after the mould was taken. 
 The skeleton measured about five feet seven inches ; 
 the coffin was extremely narrow, indicating a very 
 slender frame. The precious relics were ultimately 
 restored to the same spot, after being placed in 
 a magnificent sarcophagus, presented by the pre- 
 sent Pope. 
 
 Several delegates from different institutions,^ 
 
 * The members of the Academy of St. Luke were interested 
 in this investigation, as they had been long in possession of a 
 skull supposed to be that of Raphael, and which had been the 
 admiration of the followers of Gall and Spurzheim. The repu- 
 tation of this relic naturally fell with its change of name, the 
 more irretrievably as it proved to have belonged to an indi- 
 vidual of no celebrity. 
 
274 
 
 LIFE OF RAPHAEL. 
 
 and other authorities, were appointed to he present 
 when the tomb was opened : among these was the 
 celebrated German painter, Overbeck, one of the 
 worthiest of Raphael's followers ; and to him we 
 are indebted for some details, in a letter addressed 
 to Director Yeit, of Frankfort, in September, 1833. 
 Passavant gives the letter entire, and completes the 
 account from other sources equally authentic. 
 Overbeck's feelings on the first opening of the tomb, 
 and on seeing the actual remains of the object of 
 his homage exposed to view, are expressed in a 
 striking manner ; but he soon after remarks, “ that, 
 alas ! the genius of the great artist remains buried 
 far deeper than his bones." 
 
PAINTINGS IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 275 
 
 No. X. 
 
 NOTES FROM KUGLER’S HAND-BOOK. 
 
 NOTE OX THE SUBJECTS OF THE PAINTINGS IN THE CAPPELLA 
 
 SISTINA. 
 
 The paintings of the Sistine Chapel have been 
 often described, particularly with reference to their 
 style : a few observations are here added on the con- 
 nexion of the subjects. In the general plan Michael 
 Angelo appears to have followed the ordinary series 
 of Biblical types and antitypes familiar in his time, 
 and indeed for centuries previously, by means of 
 illuminated compendiums of the Old and New Tes- 
 taments. The spirit of these cycles of Scripture 
 subjects was the same from first to last : an ulterior 
 meaning was always contemplated ; everything was 
 typical. This was in accordance with the system 
 of interpretation introduced by the earliest fathers 
 of the church, confirmed and followed up by its 
 four great doctors, and carried to absurd excess by 
 some theologians of the middle ages. At first the 
 incidents of the Old Testament were referred, as we 
 have seen, only to the Bedeemer ; but in later times 
 the Madonna was also typified in the heroines of 
 the Jewish history. The cycles of subjects refer- 
 
276 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 ring to both are by some supposed to have existed 
 in MS. illuminations so early as the ninth century 
 (see Heinecken : Idee d’une Collection complete 
 d’Estampes, p. 319). 
 
 The decoration of the Cappella Sistina was begun 
 by various masters, under Sixtus IV., about 1474 : 
 how far the original plan was to have extended, 
 and what its general arrangement would have been, 
 it is useless to inquire ; but, certainly, the addi- 
 tions made at various times by Michael Angelo, 
 and first begun in 1508, however different in style, 
 were contrived by him to correspond sufficiently 
 well in general sequence with the earlier works.- 
 A similar connexion seems to have been intended 
 by Raphael, in decorating the remaining portion of 
 the walls of the chapel, under these frescoes, with 
 the tapestries from the cartoons ; the subjects of 
 which, taken from the Acts of the Apostles, thus 
 still followed in chronological order (see a subse- 
 quent note). We proceed briefly to describe the 
 general arrangement of the series treated or con- 
 
 O O 
 
 templated by his great rival. 
 
 On the wall over and on each side of the 
 entrance-door Michael Angelo had intended to 
 paint the Fall of Lucifer, so as to correspond with 
 the Last Judgment on the altar-wall opposite. The 
 sketches and studies which he had prepared for 
 this work were afterwards badly copied in fresco 
 by one of his assistants, in the church of the Trinita 
 de* Monti, at Rome (Vasari : Vita di M. Angelo). 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 277 
 
 This fresco has long ceased to exist ; some of the 
 drawings may, however, yet come to light.* The 
 subject in question would have formed the begin- 
 ning of the cycle ; j~ that cycle is continued by the 
 subjects, on and immediately under the ceiling, of 
 the Creation, the Fall of Man, &c., the Prophets 
 and Sibyls, the Genealogy of the Redeemer, and 
 four types from Jewish history (see the next note). 
 One of these — perhaps it may be considered the 
 last of the series as to place £ — representing Moses 
 and the Brazen Serpent, may have been in- 
 tended as the immediate connecting link between 
 the subjects on the ceiling and the histories of 
 Moses and Christ, by the older masters, below. 
 Underneath these last again were the tapestries 
 from Raphael's cartoons. These decorations, though 
 moveable, were always arranged in the same order. 
 The central subjects in the lower part of the altar- 
 wall were originally the Assumption and Corona- 
 tion of the Virgin ; the first a fresco by Perugino ; 
 the latter, under it, a tapestry from one of Raphael’s 
 
 * It is possible that some may be in the hands of collectors, 
 but may be erroneously considered to belong to the Last 
 Judgment. 
 
 t The order in which a contemplated series of designs was 
 executed, was determined by various accidents, and had no 
 necessary reference to their chronological sequence. Thus the 
 subject of the Almighty dividing light from darkness, the first 
 of the ceiling series, was the last executed. 
 
 X Vasari calls the Jonah which precedes it, the last of the 
 single figures. 
 
278 
 
 SUBEJCTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 cartoons, now lost.* Both, together with other 
 works, were afterwards removed to make room for 
 Michael Angelo’s Last Judgment. Perino del Yaga 
 ultimately made some fresh designs for tapestries to 
 fill the narrow space which remained underneath 
 that fresco, but these latter were never executed. 
 
 If we now compare this cycle with those fre- 
 quently occurring in illuminated MSS., Italian and 
 Transalpine, we shall find that the order of the 
 subjects generally corresponds. It need not be 
 objected that the designs in these MSS. (which, 
 however, must not be judged by the very inferior 
 inventions of the kind in the first attempts at wood- 
 engraving) were unworthy the attention of a great 
 artist ; it is merely intended to show that the same 
 series of Scriptural types, which appears to have 
 been at least tacitly authorized by the church in the 
 middle ages, was adopted by Michael Angelo. The 
 series here more particularly alluded to is known by 
 the name of the “ Speculum Humanae Salvationis,” 
 a title quite applicable to the general scheme of the 
 Sistine Chapel. MS. copies of the work exist in 
 the British Museum, in the Boyal Library at Paris, 
 and elsewhere. In this compendium the first sub- 
 ject is the Fall of Lucifer ; then follow the Creation 
 of Eve, the Disobedience of Man, the Deluge, &c. : 
 in connexion with the Nativity of the Virgin we 
 find the Genealogical “ Stem of Jesse ; and in con- 
 
 * See note, p. 395. Kugler’s Handbook. 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 279 
 
 nexion with the Birth of Christ the Sibyl shows 
 Augustus the vision of the Virgin and Child ; 
 Esther and Judith appear as types of the Madonna ; 
 and David slaying Goliath prefigures Christ’s 
 Victory over Satan in the Temptation. " r In some 
 of the printed editions the subject of Jonah im- 
 mediately precedes the Last Judgment ; the same 
 connexion is observed in the altar -wall of the 
 Cappella Sistina, and although there was an interval 
 of many years between the completion of the two 
 frescoes, this seems to prove that the entire series 
 was always contemplated. In MS. Gospels, and 
 some editions of the Biblia Pauperum, the subjects 
 of the New Testament are surmounted or sur- 
 rounded by busts of the Prophets. While remark- 
 ing these coincidences we may observe that the 
 story of Heliodorus, so finely treated by Raphael 
 and alluded to by Dante (Purg. c. 20.), occurs in 
 the Speculum Salvationis in connexion with Christ’s 
 Entry into Jerusalem (the Expulsion of the Money- 
 changers). 
 
 In considering the whole cycle of the Cappella 
 Sistina it will be seen that the Bible subjects by 
 Michael Angelo are more abundant than the anti- 
 types by the older Masters, who had occupied one 
 wall with incidents from the life of Moses ; but it 
 would have been impossible to destroy these latter 
 
 * The subject of the Brazen Serpent occurs in the Biblia 
 Pauperum. 
 
280 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 without also removing the opposite series from the 
 New Testament, and this would have involved the 
 necessity of repainting the whole, a labour which 
 Michael Angelo, anxious to complete his under- 
 takings in sculpture, probably wished to avoid. 
 If, however, we assume the possibility of his ever 
 having contemplated the repainting of this lower 
 series, in accordance with the wishes of Julius II., 
 we may then conclude that some of his designs for 
 New Testament subjects (of which a few were 
 copied in a small size by Marcello Venusti) may 
 have been intended for this purpose. 
 
 Even as it is, perhaps no earlier painter followed 
 the order indicated in the cycles that have been 
 quoted, more implicitly than Michael Angelo. The 
 reason of this may have been that on other oc- 
 casions a reference to particular dogmas of the 
 church, and even to the history of particular saints, 
 may have been demanded ; but in the sanctuary of 
 the Christian hierarchy, the most appropriate sub- 
 jects were obviously such as had reference to the 
 scheme of revealed religion as a whole. That this 
 scheme should be expressed in accordance with 
 some superstitions of the age was perfectly natural. 
 The painters who preceded Michael Angelo in the 
 decoration of the chapel had conceived, it is true, 
 a grand cycle in the parallel between the Old and 
 New Law, represented by the acts of Moses and 
 Christ, but their plan seems to have been already 
 exhausted in the space they covered. On the other 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 281 
 
 hand, Michael Angelo's superior learning need not 
 be adduced to account for his adoption of the cycle 
 he selected : — the works which may have suggested 
 it were accessible and familiar to all. Heinecken 
 remarks that MSS. of the Speculum Salvationis 
 appear to have existed in every Benedictine con- 
 vent ; the earliest he saw, was, he supposes, of the 
 12th century. 
 
 The general order observed in these peculiar in- 
 terpretations of Scripture was, as we have seen, 
 closely followed, but in the selection of some sub- 
 jects, as in the general treatment of all the designs 
 in the chapel, Michael Angelo was probably in- 
 fluenced by the desire of displaying the human 
 figure. Every subject he has introduced had, 
 however, in the interpretations alluded to, its 
 symbolical meaning, and generally demanded as its 
 antitype a New Testament subject below. In the 
 sources above-mentioned the type and antitype are 
 confronted, and in many instances the allusions are 
 carefully explained : this is the case in the Speculum 
 Salvationis, and often in illuminated Bibles ; that 
 of Philip de Bouvre, duke of Burgundy (14th 
 century), which is preserved in the Royal Library 
 at Paris, is a curious example, and there are several 
 in the British Museum. 
 
282 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 ON THE FOUR SUBJECTS IN THE ANGLES OF THE CEILING. 
 
 These four subjects represent, it is true, remark- 
 able deliverances of the Jewish nation, but it is 
 obvious that such themes could only be selected to 
 adorn a papal chapel on account of their typical 
 meaning, and in order to explain them it is not 
 sufficient to examine them in a spirit which is the 
 result of our own time and creed ; it is also neces- 
 sary to consider them with reference to the faith 
 they illustrate, as received at the period when they 
 were executed. 
 
 The great argument of the cycles of Scriptural 
 representations, from first to last, was the Fall and 
 the Atonement : to the latter every subject had 
 reference, more or less directly ; but it is to be 
 remembered that certain types in the Old Testament 
 were also considered to relate to the Virgin, and 
 sometimes to the Church. 
 
 The three subjects in the centre of the ceiling — 
 the Creation of Adam, the Creation of Eve, and the 
 Fall and Expulsion from Paradise — were not un- 
 intentionally made so prominent in situation. The 
 Creation of Eve, though occupying one of the 
 smaller compartments, it is to be remarked, forms 
 the central subject of the whole ceiling. It is 
 always made thus important in the cycles of Scrip- 
 tural types, in allusion to the Messiah being born 
 of the woman alone. The four subjects at the 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SIST1NA. 
 
 283 
 
 angles — David beheading Goliath, Judith with the 
 Head of Holofernes, the Punishment of Haman, 
 and the Brazen Serpent — are types of the Redemp- 
 tion ; at the same time they are connected, as in- 
 termediate symbols, with the subjects of the ceiling. 
 In the Speculum Salvationis (c. 13.), the first of 
 these accompanies Christ’s victory over Satan in 
 the Temptation, and is thus explained : — “ Golias 
 iste gygas superbus figuram tenet Luciferi, David 
 autem Christus est, qui temptationem superbiae 
 viriliter superavit.” In the Biblia Pauperum the 
 same subject typifies the Redeemer overcoming the 
 power of Satan by liberating the saints from the 
 Limbus (pi. 28.). The inscription, “Signans te 
 Christe Golyam content iste,” appears, like the sub- 
 ject itself, to allude to the prophecy “ ipse conteret 
 caput tuum,” — “it shall bruise thy head.” * This 
 reading, which is strictly true to the original, occurs 
 in the earliest versions of the Bible ; yet in others, 
 also very ancient, the passage is rendered “ipsa 
 conteret caput tuum,” according to which the woman 
 herself bruises her enemy’s head. The authorized 
 Vulgate agrees with the latter translation ; but 
 if the subject of David and Goliath was intended to 
 refer to the same passage, the conclusion is that 
 both interpretations were recognised in the typical 
 representations of the middle ages. The allusions 
 
 * “ And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and 
 between thy seed and her seed ; it shall bruise thy head, and 
 thou shalt bruise his heel.’ y — Gen. iii. 15. 
 
284 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 in the sense of the Eoman version are of course 
 unequivocal. In the work first quoted a represen- 
 tation of the Virgin surrounded by the instruments 
 of the passion, is the parallel subject to Judith 
 after having beheaded Holofernes, and is thus de- 
 scribed : “ Maria per compassionem vicit adversa- 
 rium nostrum dyabolum ; ipsa enim prsefigurata 
 per Judith quae restitit Holoferni. Tunc impletae 
 sunt in ipsa olim praemonstratae figurae, et quaedam 
 prophetica dicta sacrae scripturae : — c Et tu Sathane 
 insidiaberis calcaneo ejus (Mariae) homines impug- 
 nando ; ipsa conteret caput tuum per passionem 
 te superando/ ” The same prophecy, here distinctly 
 quoted, — “ it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt 
 bruise his heel,” — is the key to the subjects in 
 question, for the two opposite types are as evidently 
 intended to illustrate the concluding words of the 
 same verse : they allude to the permitted and 
 limited power of the Evil One, and the ultimate 
 redemption ; but still with the same double appli- 
 cation to Christ and the Madonna, — ■ the Brazen 
 Serpent surrounded by the suffering Israelites 
 alluding to the former, the retributive Punishment 
 of Hainan* and Triumph of Esther, to the latter. 
 The type of the Brazen Serpent is probably frequent 
 in MS. Bibles ; in the Biblia Pauperum it accom- 
 
 * The circumstance of Haman being represented crucified 
 agrees with Dante’s description of the same subject (Purg. 
 c. 17.) j and appears to be warranted by the original. Compare 
 with Acts, x. 39. 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 285 
 
 panies the Crucifixion (pi. 25.), with the inscriptions, 
 “ Icti curantur serpentem dum speculantur : ” — 
 “ Emit a tristi baratro nos passio Christi.” The 
 intercession of Esther with Ahasuerus is the type 
 of the intercession of the Virgin; the two subjects 
 appear together in the Speculum Salvationis (c. 
 39.) ; the following extract from the description 
 explains their connexion : — “ Tunc ilia prsecipit 
 populum suum ab iniquo Aman defendi. Hester 
 de gente Judseorum paupercula puella fuerat, et 
 earn rex Assuerus pro omnibus eligerat et reginam 
 constituent. Ita Deus pro omnibus virginibus 
 Mariam eligit — Et per ejus interventionem nos- 
 trum hostem condemnavit.” The above allusions 
 to the Madonna had been loim consecrated in the 
 
 O 
 
 church of Eome ; that others far more recondite and 
 fanciful were also common, may be gathered from 
 the examples adduced and condemned by Erasmus 
 in his “ Ecclesiastes.” 
 
 ON THE ORIGINAL SITUATION OF THE TAPESTRIES FROM THE 
 CARTOONS BY RAPHAEL.* 
 
 It was unnecessary to divide the tapestries of the 
 Cappella Sistina into two series ; they form in fact 
 but one, and it is of importance to consider them 
 in this light, as there is a second series (of which, 
 
 * This subject has been already briefly adverted to in the 
 essay on the Life of Raphael, No. IX. of this collection. — Ed. 
 
286 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 indeed, the author* proceeds to speak), done chiefly 
 from designs by Raphael's scholars. The remarks 
 that follow relate to the first entire series alone. 
 
 The general plan of the Sistine Chapel has been 
 already described (Kugler s Handbook, p. 201, note). 
 The whole area, it was observed, is divided into two 
 unequal parts by a white marble balustrade ; the 
 larger of these divisions, corresponding with the 
 sanctuarium in the old Basilicas, was appropriated 
 to the presbytery. The frescoes by Perugino and 
 others on the walls below the windows, but still at a 
 considerable height from the inlaid pavement, ex- 
 tended entirely round the chapel ; the space under- 
 neath them was decorated with imitations of 
 embroidered hangings, to represent the costly orna- 
 ments of this kind used in the ancient Byzantine 
 and Roman churches. These decorations were sepa- 
 rated at regular intervals by painted pilasters adorned 
 with arabesques. Leo the Tenth, soon after his ac- 
 cession, appears to have conceived the plan of orna- 
 menting the Presbyterium, or portion of the chapel 
 within the balustrade, with real hangings. Eleven 
 tapestries were accordingly executed under his aus- 
 pices from cartoons by Raphael, and thus restored, 
 in a far more perfect form, the ancient splendour of 
 the Christian temples. The tapestries were separated, 
 like the painted hangings, by pilasters in the same 
 material, adorned with arabesques, and underneath 
 the large subject were narrower compositions in 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 287 
 
 bronze colour, forming an apparent dado or socle. 
 The new decorations were confined, as before ob- 
 served, to the Presbyterium, thus giving it a more 
 sacred character than the rest of the chapel. 
 
 At the altar was a tapestry representing the 
 Coronation of the Virgin (Passavant, ii. 258.) ; 
 above it still remained a fresco by Perugino, re- 
 presenting the Assumption. On the right (of the 
 spectator, facing the altar), and on a line with the 
 former subject, was the tapestry of the Conversion 
 of St. Paul, and on the left that of the Calling of 
 St. Peter (Miraculous Draught of Fishes) ; the first 
 was under the fresco of the Birth of Christ, the 
 latter under the fresco of the Finding of Moses 
 These above-named six subjects occupied the lower 
 part of the altar wall before Michael Angelo's Last 
 Judgment occasioned their removal, in the time of 
 Paul III. On the right wall, next, and at right 
 angles with, the Conversion of St. Paul, the order 
 of the tapestries was as follows : the Punishment 
 of Elymas, Paul and Barnabas at Lystra, Paul 
 preaching at Athens, and the same apostle in prison 
 during the earthquake. The last tapestry was 
 much narrower than the rest, owing to the occupa- 
 tion of part of the space by the gallery of the 
 choristers. On the opposite wall, beginning at 
 right angles from the Calling of Peter, were Christ's 
 Charge to Peter, the Martyrdom of Stephen, Peter 
 and John Healing the Lame Man, and the Death of 
 Ananias. The circumstance of the Pope's throne 
 
288 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 being on tbis side, again compelled a variety in the 
 dimensions of the tapestries, and the Martyrdom 
 of Stephen is thus of a much narrower form than 
 the rest. These tapestries were copied in the colours 
 of the Cartoons, but were more ornamented, the 
 accessories being enriched with gold ; the bronze 
 coloured designs underneath partly represented 
 scenes from the life of Leo the Tenth. (For the 
 account of the original situation of the tapestries, 
 as above described, with the exception of the Coro- 
 nation of the Virgin, see the interesting Essay by 
 the Chevalier Bunsen in the “ Beschreibung der 
 Stadt Bom.,” vol. ii. book 2. p. 408.) 
 
 It was before observed, that works of art executed 
 under the auspices of the Church of Borne, for the 
 decoration of her temples, may be generally assumed 
 to have reference either to Christ, the Madonna, or 
 the Church. With the Acts of the Apostles the 
 history of the Church strictly begins, and Baphael 
 selected the Acts of St. Peter, those of the Apostle 
 of the Gentiles, and the death of the first martyr, 
 to illustrate the commencement of her power and 
 of her sufferings ; the Coronation of the Virgin 
 might be considered the type of her triumph. The 
 same conditions must be remembered with regard 
 to the smaller subjects from the life of Leo, for to a 
 Bomanist they represented the history of the reign- 
 ing successor of St. Peter, and as such were strictly 
 analogous. The associations connected with the 
 original destination of works of art often add to 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 289 
 
 their interest, or at least explain their intention ; 
 and it must be admitted that the associations in 
 this case are peculiarly important and striking ; it 
 is indeed but doing justice to the painter to be alive 
 to them. The subject of the Calling of Peter, as 
 we have seen, was immediately next the altar ; who- 
 ever recollects, in the Cartoon, the deep humility 
 and devotion in the expression and attitude of 
 Peter kneeling in the boat before Christ, may now 
 also call to mind, that, at the distance of a few 
 paces, the “ Head of the Church” contemplated this 
 scene from the highest of earthly thrones. These 
 associations may be easily pursued by comparing 
 the situation and import of the various subjects. 
 The authority, the miraculous powers, the duties, 
 and the sacrifices of the Church, the propagation 
 of the faith, persecution, martyrdom — such were 
 the warning and inspiring themes which Raphael 
 selected as objects of contemplation for “the suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter.” 
 
 These associations and allusions would only be 
 strikingly apparent when the works were in their 
 original situations ; yet, among the merits or recom- 
 mendations of the Cartoons may be reckoned their 
 being interesting in all places, and to all classes of 
 Christians. But for this circumstance, perhaps, we 
 should not now possess them, for when the treasures 
 of art collected by Charles the First were sold, and 
 such pictures as were deemed “ superstitious” even 
 ordered to be “ forthwith burnt” (Journal of the 
 
 TJ 
 
290 
 
 SUBJECTS OF PAINTINGS 
 
 Commons, July 23, 1645), the Cartoons would 
 hardly have been repurchased by Cromwell, to 
 whom we are indebted for preserving them to the 
 nation, if they could have been considered to come 
 within the proscribed class. 
 
 With regard to the execution of these works, we 
 have seen that Francesco Penni was Raphael’s chief 
 assistant.* The co-operation of other scholars is 
 also to be recognised, yet in almost all the Cartoons 
 the hand of the master is apparent ; most perhaps 
 in the Calling of Peter (the tapestry from which 
 was to occupy so important a place), and least in 
 the Paul Preaching at Athens, and Christ’s Charge 
 to Peter. As designs, they are universally con- 
 sidered the finest inventions of Raphael ; at the 
 time he was commissioned to prepare them the 
 fame of Michael Angelo’s ceiling, in the same chapel 
 they were destined to adorn, was at its height ; and 
 Raphael, inspired with a noble emulation, his prac- 
 tice matured by the execution of several frescoes 
 in the Vatican, treated these new subjects with an 
 elevation of style not perhaps equalled in his former 
 efforts. The highest qualities of these works are 
 undoubtedly addressed to the mind as vivid inter- 
 pretations of the spirit and letter of Scripture ; but, 
 as examples of Art, they are the most perfect ex- 
 pression of that general grandeur of treatment in 
 form, composition and drapery, which the Italian 
 
 * See Kugler’s Handbook. 
 
IN THE CAPPELLA SISTINA. 
 
 291 
 
 masters contemplated from the first, as suited to 
 the purposes of religion and the size of the temples 
 destined to receive such works. In the Cartoons 
 this greatness of style, not without a due regard to 
 variety of character, pervades every figure, and is 
 so striking in some of the apostles as to place them 
 on a level with the prophets of Michael Angelo. 
 
292 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 No. XI. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 GOETHE’S THEORY OF COLOURS. 
 
 [Murray, 1840.] 
 
 “ The translator, aware of the opposition which 
 the theoretical views of Goethe have met with, 
 intended at first to make a selection of such of 
 the experiments as seemed more directly applicable 
 to the theory and practice of painting. Finding, 
 however, that the alterations which this would have 
 involved, would have been incompatible with a 
 clear and connected view of the authors state- 
 ments, he preferred giving the theory itself entire ; 
 reflecting, at the same time, that some scientific 
 readers might be curious to hear the author speak 
 for himself even on the points at issue. 
 
 “Had Goethe contented himself with merely 
 detailing his experiments and showing their ap- 
 plication to the laws of chromatic harmony, leaving 
 it to others to reconcile them as they could with 
 the pre-established system, he would have enjoyed 
 the credit he deserved for the accuracy and utility 
 of his investigations. As it was, the uncompro- 
 mising expression of his convictions only exposed 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 293 
 
 him to the resentment or silent neglect of a great 
 portion of the scientific world, so that for a time 
 he could not even obtain a fair hearing for the 
 less objectionable or rather highly valuable com- 
 munications contained in his book.” 
 
 “ In carefully abstaining from any comparison 
 between the Newtonian theory and that of Goethe, 
 the author may still be permitted to advocate 
 the clearness and fulness of Goethe’s experiments. 
 The German philosopher constantly bears in mind, 
 and sometimes ably elucidates, the phenomena of 
 contrast and gradation, two principles which may 
 be said to make up the artist’s world, and to con- 
 stitute the chief elements of beauty.” 
 
 “ One of the most interesting features of Goethe’s 
 theory, though it cannot be a recommendation of 
 it in a scientific point of view, is, that it contains, 
 undoubtedly with great improvements, the general 
 doctrine of the ancients, and of the Italians at the 
 revival of letters. The translator has endeavoured, 
 in some notes, to point out the connection be- 
 tween this theory and the practice of the Italian 
 painters.” 
 
 The translator’s observations inserted in the 
 appendix “are chiefly confined to such of the 
 author’s opinions and conclusions as have direct 
 reference to the arts ; they seldom interfere with 
 the scientific propositions even where these have 
 been considered most vulnerable.” 
 
294 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 NOTE C. 
 
 Almost every treatise on the harmonious com- 
 bination of colours contains the diagram of the 
 chromatic circle more or less elaborately constructed. 
 
 Red 
 
 These diagrams, if intended to exhibit the contrasts 
 produced by the action and re-action of the retina, 
 have one common defect. The opposite colours — 
 red and green ; yellow and purple ; blue and orange 
 * — are made equal in intensity ; whereas the com- 
 plemental colour pictured on the retina is always 
 less vivid, and always darker or lighter than the 
 original colour. This variety undoubtedly accords 
 more with harmonious effects in painting. 
 
 The opposition of two pure hues of equal in- 
 tensity, differing only in the abstract quality of 
 colour, would immediately be pronounced crude 
 and inharmonious. It would not, however, be 
 strictly correct to say that such a contrast is too 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 295 
 
 violent ; on the contrary, it appears that the con- 
 trast is not carried far enough, for, though differing 
 in colour, the two hues may be exactly similar in 
 purity and intensity. Complete contrast, on the 
 other hand, supposes dissimilarity in all respects. 
 
 In addition to the mere difference of hue, the 
 eye, it seems, requires difference in the lightness or 
 darkness of the hue. The spectrum of a colour 
 relieved as a dark on a light ground, is a light 
 colour on a dark ground, and vice versa. Thus, 
 if we look at a bright red wafer on the whitest 
 surface, the complemental image will be still lighter 
 than the white surface ; if the same wafer be placed 
 on a black surface, the complemental image will be 
 still darker. The colour of both these spectra may 
 be called greenish, but it is evident that a colour 
 must be scarcely appreciable as such, if it is lighter 
 than white and darker than black. It is, however, 
 to be remarked, that the white surface round the 
 light greenish image seems tinged with a reddish 
 hue, and the black surface round the dark image 
 becomes slightly illuminated with the same colour, 
 thus in both cases assisting to render the image 
 apparent (58). 
 
 The difficulty or impossibility of describing de- 
 grees of colour in words, has also had a tendency 
 to mislead, by conveying the idea of more positive 
 hues than the physiological contrast warrants. 
 Thus, supposing scarlet to be relieved as a dark, 
 the complemental colour is so light in degree and 
 
296 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 so faint in colour, that it might he called a pearl- 
 grey ; whereas the theorists, looking at the quality 
 of colour abstractedly, would call it a green-blue, 
 and the diagram would falsely present such a hue 
 equal in intensity to scarlet, or as nearly equal as 
 possible. 
 
 That vivid colour demands the comparative 
 absence of colour, either on a lighter or darker 
 scale, as its contrast, may be inferred again from 
 the fact that bright colourless objects produce 
 strongly coloured spectra. In darkness, the spec- 
 trum which is first white, or nearly white, is fol- 
 lowed by red : in light, the spectrum which is first 
 black, is followed by green (39 — 44). All colour, 
 as the author observes (259), is to be considered as 
 half-light, inasmuch as it is in every case lighter 
 than black and darker than white. The distinction 
 between the differences of degree and the differences 
 of kind is important, since a just application of 
 contrast in colour may be counteracted by an undue 
 difference in lightness or darkness. The mere con- 
 trast of colour is happily employed in some of 
 Guido’s lighter pictures, but if intense darks had 
 been opposed to his delicate carnations, their com- 
 parative whiteness would have been unpleasantly 
 apparent. On the other hand, the flesh-colour in 
 Giorgione, Sebastian del Piombo (his best imitator), 
 and Titian, was sometimes so extremely glowing* 
 
 * “ Ardito veramente alquanto, sanguigno, e quasi fiammeg- 
 giante .” — Zanetti della Pittura Veneziana , Yen. 1771. p. 90. 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 297 
 
 that the deepest colours, and black, were indis- 
 pensable accompaniments. The manner of Titian, 
 as distinguished from his imitation of Giorgione, is 
 golden rather than fiery, and his biographers are 
 quite correct in saying that he was fond of opposing 
 red (lake) and blue to his flesh.* The corre- 
 spondence of these contrasts with the physiological 
 phenomena will be at once apparent, while the 
 occasional practice of Eubens in opposing bright 
 red to a still cooler flesh-colour, will be seen to be 
 equally consistent. 
 
 The effect of white drapery (the comparative 
 absence of colour), in enhancing the glow of Titian’s 
 flesh-colour, has been frequently pointed out : f 
 the shadows of white thus opposed to flesh often 
 present, again, the physiological contrast, however 
 delicately, according to the hue of the carnation. 
 
 It was before observed that the description of 
 colours in words may often convey ideas of too 
 positive a nature, and it may be remarked generally 
 that the colours employed by the great masters 
 are, in their ultimate effect, more or less subdued 
 or broken. The physiological contrasts are, how- 
 
 Warm as the flesh-colour of the colourists is, it still never 
 approaches a positive hue, if we except some examples in 
 frescoes and other works intended to be seen at a great 
 distance. Zanetti, speaking of a fresco by Giorgione, now 
 almost obliterated, compares the colour to “ un vivo raggio di 
 cocente sole .” — Varie Pitture a fresco dei Principali Maestri 
 Veneziani. Yen. 1760. 
 
 * Ridolfh f Zanetti, 1. ii. 
 
29=8 
 
 NOTES FKOM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 ever, still applicable in the most comparatively 
 neutral scale. 
 
 The chromatic diagram does not appear to be 
 older than the last century. It is one of those 
 happy adaptations of exacter principles to the 
 objects of taste which might have been expected 
 from Leonardo da Vinci. That its true principle 
 was duly felt is abundantly evident from the works 
 of the colourists, as well as from the general ob- 
 servations of early writers.' 1 ' The more practical 
 directions occasionally to be met with in the trea- 
 tises of Leon Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci 
 and others, are conformable to the same system. 
 Some Italian works, not written by painters, which 
 pretend to describe this harmony, are, however, 
 very imperfect. j" A passage in Lodovico Dolce's 
 Dialogue on Colours is perhaps the only one worth 
 quoting. “ He,” says that writer, “ who wishes to 
 combine colours that are agreeable to the eye, will 
 put grey next dusky orange ; yellow-green next 
 rose-colour ; blue next orange ; deep [red-] purple 
 
 * Vasari observes, “ L’unione nella pittura e una discordanza 
 di colori diversi accordati insieme.” — Vol. i. c. 18. This 
 observation is repeated by various writers on art in nearly the 
 same words, and at last appears in Sandrart ; “ Concordia, 
 potissimum picturse decus, in discordia consistit, et quasi litigio 
 colorum.” — P. i. c. 5. The source, perhaps, is Aristotle : he 
 observes, “We are delighted with harmony, because it is the 
 union of contrary principles having a ratio to each other.” — 
 Problem. 
 
 t See “ Occolti Trattato de’ Colori.” Parma, 1568. 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 299 
 
 next dark-green ; white next black, and white next 
 flesh-colour.”* The Dialogue on Painting, by the 
 same author, has the reputation of containing some 
 of Titian’s precepts : if the above passage may be 
 traced to the same source, it must be confessed that 
 it is almost the only one of the kind in the treatise 
 from which it is taken, 
 
 NOTE E. 
 
 “ An important consideration suggests itself here, 
 to which we shall frequently have occasion to 
 return. Colour itself is a degree of darkness 
 (< TKLepov ) ; hence Kircher is perfectly right in 
 calling it lumen opacatum. As it is allied to 
 
 shadow, so it combines readily with it ; it appears 
 to us readily in and by means of shadow, the 
 moment a suggesting cause presents itself. We 
 could not refrain from adverting; at once to a fact 
 which we propose to trace and develop hereafter.” — 
 This opinion of the author is frequently repeated ; 
 and as it seems at first sight to be at variance with 
 a received principle of art, it may be as well at 
 once to examine it. 
 
 * “ Volendo 1* uomo accoppiare insieme colori che all* occhio 
 dilettino — porra insieme il berrettino col leonato; il verde- 
 giallo con 1’ incarnato e rosso ; il turchino con V arangi ; il 
 morello col verde oscuro ; il nero col bianco ; il bianco con 
 1’ incarnato.” — Dialogo di M. Lodovico Dolce nel quale si ragiona 
 della qualitd , diversity, e propriety dd colori . Venezia, 1565. 
 
300 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 In order to see the general proposition in its 
 true point of view, it will be necessary to forget 
 the arbitrary distinctions of light and shade, and 
 to consider all such modifications between highest 
 brightness and absolute darkness only as so many 
 minor degrees of light. # The author, indeed, by 
 the word shadow, always understands a fainter 
 light. 
 
 The received notion, as stated by Du Fresnoy,f 
 is much too positive and unconditional, and is only 
 true when we understand the “ displaying ” light 
 to comprehend certain degrees of half or reflected 
 light, and the “ destroying” shade to mean the 
 intensest degree of obscurity. 
 
 There are degrees of brightness, as well as degrees 
 of darkness, which destroy colour.^ In general, 
 
 * Leonardo da Vinci observes : “ L’ ombra e diminuzione di 
 lnce, tenebre e privazione di luce.” And again : “ Sempre il 
 minor lume e ombra del lume maggiore.” — Trattato della 
 Pittura, pp. 274-299. 
 
 N. B. The same edition before described has been consulted 
 throughout. 
 
 t “ Lux varium vivumque dabit, nullum umbra colorem.” 
 
 De Arte Graphicd. 
 
 “ Know first that light displays and shade destroys 
 Refulgent nature’s variegated dies.” 
 
 Mason’s Translation. 
 
 t A Spanish writer, Diego de Carvalho e Sampayo, quoted 
 by Goethe (“ Farbenlehre,” vol. ii.), has a similar observation. 
 This destroying effect of light is striking in climates where the 
 sun is powerful, and was not likely to escape the notice of a 
 Spaniard. 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 301 
 
 colour resides in a mitigated light ; but a very little 
 observation shows us that different colours require 
 different degrees of light to display them. Leon- 
 ardo da Vinci frequently inculcates the general 
 principle above alluded to, but he as frequently 
 qualifies it ; for he not only remarks that the highest 
 light may be comparative privation of colour, but 
 observes, with great truth, that some hues are best 
 displayed in their fully illumined parts, some in 
 their reflections, and some in their half-lights ; and 
 again, that every colour is most beautiful when 
 lighted up by reflections from its own surface, or 
 from a hue similar to its own.* 
 
 The Venetians went further than Leonardo in 
 this view and practice ; and he seems to allude to 
 them when he criticises certain painters, who, in 
 aiming at clearness and fulness of colour, neglected 
 what, in his eyes, was of superior importance, — 
 gradation and force of chiaroscuro, f 
 
 That increase of colour supposes increase of 
 darkness, as so often stated by Goethe, may be 
 granted without difficulty. To what extent, on the 
 other hand, increase of darkness, or rather diminu- 
 tion of light, is accompanied by increase of colour, 
 is a question which has been variously answered by 
 various schools. Examples of the total negation of 
 the principle are not wanting ; nor are they con- 
 
 * Trattato, pp. 103. 121. 123. 324, &c. 
 t lb. pp. 85. 134. 
 
302 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 fined to the infancy of the art. Instances, again, of 
 the opposite tendency are frequent in Venetian and 
 early Flemish pictures resembling the augmenting 
 richness of gems or of stained glass : # indeed, it is 
 not impossible that the increase of colour in shade, 
 which is so remarkable in the pictures alluded to, 
 may have been originally suggested by the rich 
 and fascinating effect of stained glass ; and the 
 Venetians, in this as in many other respects, may 
 have improved on a hint borrowed from the early 
 German painters, many of whom painted on glass.f 
 
 * Absolute opacity, to judge from the older specimens of 
 stained glass, seems to have been considered inadmissible. 
 The window was to admit light, however modified and varied, 
 in the form prescribed by the architect, and that form was to 
 be preserved. This has been unfortunately lost sight of in 
 some modern glass-painting, which, by excluding the light in 
 large masses, and adopting the opacity of pictures (the reverse 
 of the practice above alluded to), has interfered with the archi- 
 tectural symmetry in a manner far from desirable. On the 
 other hand, if we suppose painting at any period to have aimed 
 at the imitation of stained glass, such an imitation must of 
 necessity have led to extreme force ; for the painter would set 
 out by substituting a mere white ground for the real light of 
 the sky, and would thus be compelled to subdue every tone 
 accordingly. In such an imitation his colour would soon 
 deepen to its intensest state; indeed, considerable portions of 
 the darker hues would be lost in obscurity. The early Flemish 
 pictures seldom err on the side of a gay superabundance of 
 colour ; on the contrary, they are generally remarkable for 
 comparatively cool lights, for extreme depth, and a certain 
 subdued splendour, qualities which would necessarily result 
 from the imitation or influence in question. 
 
 t See Langlois, “ Peinture sur Verre.” Rouen, 1832; Des- 
 
GOETHE S THEORY OF COLOURS. 
 
 303 
 
 At all events, the principle of still increasing in 
 colour in certain hues seems to have been adopted 
 in Flanders and in Venice at an early period ; # 
 while Giorgione, in carrying the style to the most 
 daring extent, still recommended it by correspond- 
 ing grandeur of treatment in other respects. 
 
 The same general tendency, except that the 
 technical methods are less transparent, is also to 
 be remarked in some of the painters of the school 
 of Umbria, the instructors or early companions of 
 Raphael, f The influence of these examples, as 
 
 camps, “ La Yie des Peintres Flamands and Gessert, 
 “ Geschichte der Glasmalerei.” Stutgard, 1839. The an- 
 tiquity of the glass manufactory of Murano (Venice) is also not 
 to be forgotten. Vasari objects to the Venetian glass, because 
 it was darker in colour than that of Flanders, France, and 
 England : but this very quality was more likely to have an 
 advantageous influence on the style of the early oil-painters. 
 The use of stained glass was, however, at no period very general 
 in Italy. 
 
 * Zanetti, “Della Pittura Veneziana,” marks the progress of 
 the early Venetian painters by the gradual use of the warm 
 outline. There are some mosaics in St. Mark’s which have the 
 effect of flesh-colour, but on examination, the only red colour 
 used is found to be in the outlines and markings. Many of 
 the drawings of the old masters, heightened with red in the 
 shadows, have the same effect. In these drawings the artists 
 judiciously avoided colouring the lips and cheeks much, for this 
 would only have betrayed the want of general colour, as is 
 observable when statues are so treated. 
 
 f Andrea di Luigi, called L’Ingegno, and Niccolo di Fuligno, 
 are cited as the most prominent examples. See Rumohr, 
 “ Italienische Forschungen.” Perugino himself occasionally 
 adopted a very glowing colour. 
 
304 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 well as that of Fra Bartolommeo, in Florence, is 
 distinctly to be traced in the works of the great 
 artist just named, but neither is so marked as the 
 effect of his emulation of a Venetian painter at a 
 later period. The glowing colour, sometimes bor- 
 dering on exaggeration, which Raphael adopted, for 
 a time, in Rome, is undoubtedly to be attributed to 
 the rivalry of Sebastian del Piombo. This painter, 
 the best of Giorgione's imitators, arrived in Rome, 
 invited by Agostini Chigi, in 1511, and the most 
 powerful of Raphael's frescoes, the Heliodorus and 
 Mass of Bolsena, as well as some portraits in the 
 same style, were painted in the two following 
 years. In the hands of some of Raphael's scholars, 
 again, this extreme warmth was occasionally carried 
 to excess, particularly by Pierino del Vaga with 
 whom it often degenerated into redness. The re- 
 presentative of the glowing manner in Florence 
 was Fra Bartolommeo, and, in the same quality, 
 considered abstractedly, some painters of the school 
 of Ferrara were second to none. 
 
 In another Note (par. 177) some further con- 
 siderations are offered, which may partly explain 
 the prevalence of this style in the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century ; here we merely add, that 
 the conditions under which the effect itself is 
 apparent in nature, are perhaps more obvious in 
 Venice than elsewhere. The colour of general 
 nature may be observed in all places with almost 
 equal convenience ; but with regard to an important 
 
goethe’s theory of colours. 
 
 305 
 
 quality in living nature, namely, the colour of flesh, 
 perhaps there are no circumstances in which its 
 effects at different distances can he so conveniently 
 compared as when the observer and the observed 
 gradually approach and glide past each other on so 
 smooth an element and in so undisturbed a manner 
 as on the canals and in the gondolas of Venice ; ^ 
 the complexions, from the peculiar mellow carna- 
 tions of the Italian women to the sun-burnt features 
 and limbs of the mariners, presenting at the same 
 time the fullest variety in another sense. 
 
 At a certain distance — the colour being always 
 assumed to be unimpaired by interposed atmosphere 
 — the reflections appear kindled to intenser warmth ; 
 the fiery glow of Giorgione is strikingly apparent : 
 the colour is seen in its largest relation ; the 
 macchia, j" an expression so emphatically used by 
 Italian writers, appears in all its quantity, and the 
 reflections being the focus of warmth, the hue seems 
 to deepen in shade. 
 
 As the gondola glides on, a nearer view gives 
 the detail of cooler tints more perceptibly,^: and 
 the forms are at the same time more distinct. 
 
 * Holland might be excepted, and in Holland similar causes 
 may have had a similar influence, 
 t Local colour ; literally, the blot 
 
 J Zanetti ventures to single out the picture of Tobit and the 
 Angel in S. Marziale as the first example of Titian’s own 
 manner, and in which a direct imitation of Giorgione is no 
 longer apparent. In this picture the lights are cool and the 
 blood-tint very effective. 
 
306 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Hence Lanzi is quite correct when, in distinguishing 
 the style of Titian from that of Giorgione, he says 
 that Titian's was at once more defined and less 
 fiery. # In a still nearer observation the eye detects 
 the minute lights which Leonardo da Vinci says are 
 incompatible with effects such as those we have 
 described,! and which, accordingly, we never find 
 in Giorgione and Titian. This large impression of 
 colour, which seems to require the condition of 
 comparative distance for its full effect, was most 
 fitly employed by the same great artists in works 
 painted in the open air or for large altar-pieces. 
 Their celebrated frescoes on the exterior of the 
 Fondaco de' Tedeschi at Venice, to judge from 
 their faint remains and the descriptions of earlier 
 writers, were remarkable for extreme warmth in the 
 shadows. The old frescoes in the open air through- 
 out Friuli have often the same character, and, 
 owing to the fulness of effect which this treatment 
 ensures, are conspicuous at a very great distance. J 
 
 In assuming that the Venetian painters may have 
 acquired a taste for this breadth § of colour under 
 
 * “ Meno sfumato, men focoso .” — Storia Pittorica. 
 
 t “ La prima cosa che de’ colori si perde nelle distanze e il 
 lustro, loro minima parte.” — Trattato, p. 213 ; and elsewhere, 
 “ I lumi principali in picciol luogo son quelli che in picciola 
 distanza sono i primi che si perdono all’ occhio.” — p. 128. 
 
 J See a note in the essay entitled “ Styles and Methods of 
 Painting,” p. 141. — Ed. 
 
 § The authority of Fuseli sufficiently warrants the applica- 
 
goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 807 
 
 the circumstances above noticed, it is moreover to 
 be remembered that the time for this agreeable 
 study was the evening ; when the sun bad already 
 set behind the hills of Bassano ; when the light 
 was glowing but diffused : when shadows were soft 
 
 O O 3 
 
 — conditions all agreeing with the character of 
 their colouring;* above all, when the hour invited 
 the fairer portion of the population to betake them- 
 selves in their gondolas to the lagunes. The scene 
 of this “ promenade” was to the north of Venice, 
 the quarter in which Titian at one time lived. A 
 letter exists written by Francesco Priscianese, giving 
 an account of his supping with the great painter, 
 in company with Jacopo Nardi, Pietro Aretino, the 
 sculptor Sansovino, and others. The writer speaks 
 of the beauty of the garden, where the table was 
 prepared, looking over the lagunes towards Murano, 
 “ which part of the sea,” he continues, “ as soon as 
 
 tion of the term breadth to colour ; he speaks of Titian’s 
 “ breadth of local tint.” 
 
 * Zanetti quotes an opinion of the painters of his time to the 
 same effect : — “ Teneano essi (alcuni maestri) per cosa certa, che 
 in molte opere Tiziano volesse fingere il lume — quale si vede 
 nell’ inclinarsi del sole verso la sera. Gli orizzonti assai 
 luminosi dietro le montagne, le ombre incerte e piu le carna- 
 gioni brunette e rosseggianti delle figure, gl’ induceano a creder 
 questo.” — Lib. ii. Leonardo da Yinci observes, “ Quel corpo 
 che si trovera in mediocre lume fia in lui poca differenza da’ 
 lumi all’ ombre. E questo accade sul far della sera — e queste 
 opere sono dolci ed hacci grazia ogni qualita di volto,” &c . — 
 p. 336. Elsewhere, “ Le ombre fatte dal sole od altri lumi 
 particolari sono senza grazia.” — p. 357 ; see also p. 247. 
 
308 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 the sun was down, was covered with a thousand 
 gondolas, graced with beautiful women, and en- 
 livened by the harmony of voices and instruments, 
 which lasted till midnight, forming a pleasing 
 accompaniment to our cheerful repast.”^ 
 
 To return to Goethe : perhaps the foregoing re- 
 marks may warrant the conclusion that his idea of 
 colour in shadow is not irreconcileable with the 
 occasional practice of the best painters. The highest 
 examples of the style thus defined are or were, to 
 be found in the works of Giorgione f and Titian, 
 and hence the style itself, though “ within that 
 circle” few “ dare walk,” is to be considered the 
 grandest and most perfect. Its possible defects or 
 abuse are not to be dissembled : in addition to the 
 danger of exaggeration J it is seldom united with 
 
 * See “ Francesco Priscianese De’ Primi Principii della 
 Lingua Latina,” Venice, 1550. The letter is at the end of the 
 work. It is quoted in Ticozzi’s “ Vite de’ Pittori Vecelli,” 
 Milan, 1817. 
 
 t The works of Giorgione are extremely rare. The pictures 
 best calculated to give an idea of the glowing manner for which 
 he is celebrated, are the somewhat early works and several of 
 the altar-pieces of Titian, the best specimens of Palma Vecchio, 
 and the portraits of Sebastian del Piombo. 
 
 J Zanetti and Lodovico Dolce mention Lorenzo Lotto as an 
 instance of the excess of Giorgione’s style. Titian himself 
 sometimes overstepped the mark, as his biographers confess, 
 and as appears, among other instances, from the head of 
 St. Peter in the picture (now in the Vatican) in which the 
 celebrated St. Sebastian is introduced. Raphael was criticised 
 by some cardinals for a similar defect. See “ Castiglione, II 
 Cortigiano,” 1. ii. 
 
goethe’s theory op colours. 
 
 309 
 
 a plenitude of light and shade, or with round- 
 ness ; yet, where fine examples of both modes of 
 treatment may be compared, the charm of colour 
 has perhaps the advantage. # The difficulty of unit- 
 ing qualities so different in their nature, is proved 
 by the very rare instances in which the union has 
 been accomplished. Tintoret, in endeavouring to 
 add chiaroscuro to Venetian colour, in almost every 
 instance fell short of the glowing richness of Titian, f 
 
 In the same paragraph to which the present observations 
 refer, the authority of Kircher is quoted ; his treatise, “ Ars 
 magna lucis et umbrae,” was published in Rome in 1646. In a 
 portrait of Nicholas Poussin, engraved by Clouet, the painter is 
 represented holding a book, which, from the title and the cir- 
 cumstance of Poussin having lived in Rome in Kircher’s time, 
 Goethe supposes to be the work in question. The abuse of the 
 principle above alluded to is perhaps exemplified in the red 
 half-tints observable in some of Poussin’s figures. 
 
 The augmentation of colour in subdued light was still more 
 directly taught by Lomazzo. He composes the half-tints of 
 flesh merely by diminishing the quantity of white, the propor- 
 tions of the other colours employed (for he enters into minute 
 details) remaining unaltered. See his “ Trattato della arte 
 della Pittura,” Milan, 1584, p. 301. 
 
 * In the Dresden Gallery, a picture attributed to Titian — at 
 all events a lucid Venetian picture — hangs next the St. George 
 of Correggio. After looking at the latter, the Venetian work 
 appears glassy and unsubstantial, but on reversing the order of 
 comparison, the Correggio may be said to suffer more, and for a 
 moment its fine transitions of light and shade seem changed to 
 heaviness. 
 
 t The finest works of Tintoret — the Crucifixion and the 
 Miracolo del Servo (considered here merely with reference to 
 their colour) may be said to combine the excellencies of Titian 
 and Giacomo Bassan on a grand scale ; the sparkling clearness 
 
310 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Giacomo Bassan and his imitators, even in their 
 dark effects, still had the principle of the gem in 
 view : their light, in certain hues, is the minimum 
 of colour, their lower tones are rich, their darks 
 intense, and all is sparkling.^ Of the great painters 
 who, beginning, on the other hand, with chiaro- 
 scuro, sought to combine with it the full richness of 
 colour, Correggio, in the opinion of many, approached 
 perfection nearest ; but we may perhaps conclude * 
 with greater justice that the desired excellence was 
 more completely attained by Rembrandt than by 
 any of the Italians. 
 
 NOTE L. 
 
 One effect of Goethe's theory has been to invite 
 the attention of scientific men to facts and appear- 
 ances which had before been unnoticed or unex- 
 
 of the latter is one of the prominent characteristics of these 
 pictures. Tintoret is reported to have once said, that a union 
 of his own knowledge of form with Bassan’s colour would be 
 the perfection of painting. See “Verci Notizie de’ Pittori di 
 Bassano;” Yen. 1775, p. 61. 
 
 * That this last quality, the characteristic of Bassan’s best 
 pictures, was held in high estimation by Paul Veronese, is not 
 only evident from that painter’s own works, but from the 
 circumstance of his preferring to place his sons with Bassan 
 rather than with any other painter. (See “ Boschini Carta del 
 Navegar,” p. 280.) The Baptism of Sta. Lucilla, in Boschini’s 
 time considered the finest of Giacomo’s works, is still in the 
 church of S. Valentino, at Bassano, and may be considered the 
 type of the lucid and sparkling manner. 
 
goethe’s theory op colouks. 311 
 
 plained. To the above cases may be added the 
 very common, but very important, fact in painting, 
 that a light warm colour, passed in a semitrans- 
 parent state over a dark one, produces a cold, 
 bluish hue, while the operation reversed produces 
 extreme warmth. On the judicious application of 
 both these effects, but especially of the latter, the 
 richness and brilliancy of the best-coloured pictures 
 greatly depends. The principle is to be recognised 
 in the productions of schools apparently opposite in 
 their methods. Thus the practice of showing the 
 light ground, more or less, through transparent 
 shades, as a means of ensuring warmth and depth, 
 is very common among the Dutch and Flemish 
 painters. The Italians, who attained the same end 
 by a solid but bright under-painting, still speak of 
 internal light as the most fascinating quality in 
 colour. When the light ground is entirely excluded, 
 as in the works of some colourists, the warmest 
 tints in shadows and reflections have been found 
 necessary to represent it. This was the practice 
 of Rembrandt frequently, and of Reynolds univer- 
 sally, but the glow of their general colour is still 
 owing to its being repeatedly or ultimately enriched 
 on the above principle. Lastly, the works of those 
 masters who were accustomed to paint on dark 
 grounds are often heavy and opaque ; and even 
 where this influence of the ground was overcome, 
 the effects of time must be constantly diminishing 
 the warmth of the colouring, for it is found that 
 
312 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 white lead (which enters largely into the composi- 
 tion of pigments) has a tendency to become trans- 
 parent, and thus the dark preparation becomes 
 gradually visible through it. The practice of paint- 
 ing on dusky grounds was intended by the Carracci 
 to compel the students of their school to aim at 
 the direct imitation of the model, and to acquire 
 the use of the brush ; for the dark substratum 
 could only be overcome by very solid painting. 
 The result answered their expectations as far as 
 dexterity of pencil was concerned, but the method 
 was fatal to brilliancy of colour. An intelligent 
 writer of the seventeenth century* relates that 
 Guido adopted his extremely light style from seeing 
 the rapid change in some works of the Carracci soon 
 after they were done. It is important, however, 
 to remark, that Guido’s remedy was external rather 
 than internal brilliancy ; and it is evident that so 
 powerless a brightness as white paint can only 
 acquire the splendour of light by great contrast, 
 and, above all, by being seen through external 
 (comparative) darkness. The secret of Van Eyck 
 and his contemporaries is always assumed to consist 
 in the vehicle (varnish or oil) he employed ; but 
 a far more important condition of the splendour 
 of colour in the works of those masters was the 
 careful preservation of internal light by painting 
 thinly, but ultimately with great force, on white 
 
 * Scanelli, “ Microcosmo della Pittura,” Gesena, 1657, p. 114. 
 
goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 313 
 
 grounds. In some of the early Flemish pictures 
 in the Eoyal Gallery at Munich, it may be ob- 
 served, that wherever an alteration was made by 
 the painter, so that a light colour is painted thinly 
 over a dark one, its opacity presents a strong 
 contrast to the brilliancy of the rest of the work. 
 No quality in the mere vehicle could prevent this 
 opacity under such circumstances. 
 
 It matters not whether the effect in question is 
 attained by painting thinly over the ground, in the 
 manner of the early Flemish painters, and some- 
 times of Bubens, or by painting a solid light pre- 
 paration to be afterwards toned to richness in the 
 manner of the Venetians. Among the mechanical 
 causes of the clearness of colours superposed on a 
 light preparation may be mentioned that of careful 
 grinding. All writers on art who have descended 
 to practical details have insisted on this. From the 
 appearance of some Venetian pictures it may be 
 conjectured that the colours of the solid under- 
 painting were sometimes less perfectly ground than 
 the scumbling colours (the light having to pass 
 through the one and to be reflected from the other). 
 The Flemish painters appear to have used carefully- 
 ground pigments universally. This is very evident 
 in Flemish copies from Baphael, which, though 
 equally impasted with the originals, are to be de- 
 tected, among other indications, by the finely- 
 ground colours employed. 
 
814 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 NOTE M. 
 
 Without entering further into the scientific 
 merits or demerits of this chapter on the “ First 
 Class of Dioptrical Colours,” it is to be observed 
 that several of the examples correspond with the 
 observations of Leonardo da Vinci, and again with 
 those of a much older authority, namely, Aristotle. 
 Goethe himself admits, and it has been remarked 
 by others, that his theory, in many respects, closely 
 resembles that of Aristotle : indeed he confesses* 
 that at one time he had an intention of merely 
 paraphrasing that philosophers Treatise on Co- 
 lours.! 
 
 We have already remarked (Note on par. 150.) 
 that Goethe's notion with regard to the production 
 of warm colours, by the interposition of dark trans- 
 parent mediums before a light ground, agrees with 
 the practice of the best schools in colouring ; and 
 it is not impossible that the same reasons which 
 may make this part of the doctrine generally ac- 
 ceptable to artists now, may have recommended 
 the very similar theory of Aristotle to the painters 
 
 * “ Geschichte der Farbenlehre,” in the “ Nacligelassene 
 Werke.” Cotta, 1833. 
 
 t The treatise in question is ascribed by Goethe to Theo- 
 phrastus ; but it is included in most editions of Aristotle, and 
 even attributed to him in those which contain the works of 
 both philosophers ; for instance, in the Aldine Princeps edition, 
 1496. Calcagnini says the treatise is made up of two separate 
 works on the subject, both by Aristotle, 
 
GOETHES THEORY OF COLOURS. 
 
 315 
 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries : at all 
 events, it appears that the ancient theory was 
 known to those painters. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell on the fact that the 
 doctrines of Aristotle were enthusiastically em- 
 braced and generally inculcated at the period in 
 question ; # but it has not hitherto been observed 
 that the Italian writers who translated, paraphrased, 
 and commented on Aristotle’s Treatise on Colours 
 in particular, were in several instances the personal 
 friends of distinguished painters. Celio Calcag- 
 nini f had the highest admiration for Raphael ; 
 Lodovico Dolce J was the eulogist of Titian ; 
 
 * His authority seems to have been equally great on subjects 
 connected with the phenomena of vision : the Italian translator 
 of a Latin treatise, by Portius, on the structure and colours of 
 the eye, thus opens his dedication to the Cardinal Ercole 
 Gonzaga, of Mantua : — “ Grande anzi quasi infinito e 1’ obligo 
 che ha il mondo con quel phi divino che umano spirito di 
 Aristotile.” 
 
 t In a letter to Ziegler the mathematician, Calcagnini speaks 
 of Raphael as “ the first of painters in the theory as well as in 
 the practice of his art.” This expression may, however, have 
 had reference to a remarkable circumstance mentioned in the 
 same letter, namely, that Raphael entertained the learned 
 Fabius of Ravenna as a constant guest, and employed him to 
 translate Vitruvius into Italian. This MS. translation, with 
 marginal notes, written by Raphael, is now in the library at 
 Munich. “ Passavant, Rafael von Urbino.” 
 
 i Lodovico Bolce’s Treatise on Colours (1565) is in the form 
 of a dialogue, like his “ Aretino.” The abridged theory of 
 Aristotle is followed by a translation of the Treatise of 
 Antonius Thylesius on Colours ; this is adapted to the same 
 colloquial form, and the author is not acknowledged ; the book 
 
316 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Fortius/* whose amicable relations with the Floren- 
 tine painters may be inferred from various circum- 
 stances, lectured at Florence on the Aristotelian 
 doctrines early in the sixteenth century. The 
 Italian translations were later, but still prove that 
 these studies were undertaken with reference to 
 the arts, for one of them is dedicated to the painter 
 Cigoli.f 
 
 The writers on art, from Leon Battista Alberti to 
 Borghini, not to mention later authorities, either 
 tacitly coincide with the Aristotelian doctrine, or 
 openly profess to explain it. It is true this is 
 not always done in the clearest manner, and some 
 
 ends with an absurd catalogue of emblems. The “ Somma 
 della Filosofia d’ Aristotile,” published earlier by the same 
 author, is a very careless performance. 
 
 * A Latin translation of Aristotle’s Treatise on Colours, with 
 comments by Simon Portius, w T as first published, according to 
 Goethe, at Naples in 1537. In a later Florentine edition, 
 1548, dedicated to Cosmo I., Portius alludes to his having 
 lectured at an earlier period in Florence on the doctrines of 
 Aristotle, at which time he translated the treatise in question. 
 Another Latin translation, with notes, was published later in 
 the same century at Padua — “ Emanuele Marguino Inter- 
 prete /’ but by far the clearest view of the Aristotelian theory 
 is to be found in the treatise of Antonio Vidi Scarmiglione of 
 Fuligno (“ De Coloribus,” Marpurgi, 1591). It is dedicated to 
 the Emperor Rudolph II. Of all the paraphrases of the ancient 
 doctrine this comes nearest to the system of Goethe ; but 
 neither this nor any other of the works alluded to throughout 
 this Note are mentioned by the author in his History of the 
 Doctrine of Colours, except that of Portius. 
 
 t An earlier Italian translation appeared in Rome, 1535. 
 See “ Argelatus Biblioteca degli Volgarizzatori,” 
 
goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 317 
 
 of these writers might say with Lodovico Dolce, 
 “I speak of colours, not as a painter, for that 
 would he the province of the divine Titian." 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci in his writings, as in every 
 thing else, appears as an original genius. He now 
 and then alludes generally to opinions of “ philoso- 
 phers," hut he quotes no authority ancient or 
 modern. Nevertheless, a passage on the nature of 
 colours, particularly where he speaks of the colours 
 of the elements, appears to be copied from Leon 
 Battista Alberti, * and from the mode in which 
 some of Leonardo's propositions are stated, it has 
 been supposed f that he had been accustomed at 
 Florence to the form of the Aristotelian philosophy. 
 At all events, some of the most important of his 
 observations respecting light and colours, have a 
 great analogy with those contained in the treatise 
 in. question. The following examples will be suf- 
 ficient to prove this coincidence ; the correspond- 
 ing passages in Goethe are indicated, as usual, by 
 the numbers of the paragraphs ; the references to 
 Leonardo's treatise are given at the bottom of the 
 page. 
 
 * “ Della Pittura e della Statua,” lib. i. p. 16, Milan edition, 
 1804. Compare with the “ Trattato della Pittura,” p. 141. 
 Other points of resemblance are to be met with. The notion of 
 certain colours appropriated to the four elements, occurs in 
 Aristotle, and is indeed attributed to older writers. 
 
 t See the notes to the Roman edition of the “ Trattato della 
 Pittura.” 
 
318 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ A vivid and brilliant red appears when the 
 weak rays of the sun are tempered by subdued and 
 shadowy white.” — 154. 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “ The air which is between the sun and the earth 
 at sun-rise or sun-set, always invests what is beyond 
 it more than any other (higher) portion of the air : 
 this is because it is whiter.”* 
 
 A bright object loses its whiteness in proportion 
 to its distance from the eye much more when it is 
 illuminated by the sun, for it partakes of the colour 
 of the sun mingled with the colour (tempered by 
 the mass) of the air interposed between the eye and 
 the brightness.! 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ If light is overspread with much obscurity, a 
 red colour appears ; if the light is brilliant and 
 vivid, this red changes to a flame-colour.” J— 150. 
 160. 
 
 * Page 237. t Page 301. 
 
 X In the Treatise Be Igne , by Theophrastus, we find the 
 same notion thus pressed : “ Brightness (to \cvkov) seen through 
 a dark-coloured medium (8ia rod fieXavos) appears red ; as the 
 sun seen through smoke or soot : hence the coal is redder than 
 the flame.” Scarmiglione, from whom Kircher seems to have 
 copied, observes : — “ Itaque color realis est lux opaca ; licet id 
 
goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 319 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “ This (the effect of transparent colours on 
 various grounds) is evident in smoke, which is blue 
 when seen against black, but when it is opposed to 
 the (light) blue sky, it appears brownish and red- 
 dening.”* 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ White surfaces, as a ground for colours, have 
 the effect of making the pigments f appear in greater 
 splendour.” — 594. 902. 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “ To exhibit colours in their beauty, the whitest 
 ground should be prepared. I speak of colours that 
 are (more or less) transparent.” J 
 
 e plurimis apparentiis colligere. Luna enim in magna solis 
 eclipsi rubra conspicitur, quia tenebris lux prscpeditur ac veluti 
 tegitur .” — Be Coloribus. 
 
 * Page 122. 
 
 t T a avdrj : translated flores by Calcagnini and the rest, by 
 Goethe, die Bliithe , the bloom. That the word sometimes 
 signified pigments is sufficiently apparent from the following 
 passage of Suidas (quoted by Emeric David, “ Discours His- 
 toriques sur la Peinture Moderne”) avOecn KeKoo-urjfxevai, olov 
 yl/iH/jLvdlcp, (fivKei, kcu tols opolois. Variis pigmentis ornatse, ut 
 cerussa, fuco, et aliis similibus. (Suid. in voc. ’E ^vdea-fievai.) 
 A panel prepared for painting, with a white ground consolidated 
 with wax, and perhaps mastic, was found in Herculaneum. 
 
 X Page 114. 
 
320 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ The air near us appears colourless ; but when 
 seen in depth, owing to its thinness, it appears 
 blue ; # for where the light is deficient (beyond it), 
 the air is affected by the darkness and appears 
 blue : in a very accumulated state, however, it ap- 
 pears, as is the case with water, quite white.”— 
 155. 158. 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “The blue of the atmosphere is owing to the 
 mass of illuminated air interposed between the 
 darkness above and the earth. The air in itself has 
 no colour, but assumes qualities according to the 
 nature of the objects which are beyond it. The 
 blue of the atmosphere will be the more intense in 
 proportion to the degree of darkness beyond it : ” 
 elsewhere — “ if the air had not darkness beyond 
 it, it would be white.” f 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ We see no colour in its pure state, but every 
 hue is variously intermingled with others : even 
 
 * ’Ey [3d0€i Se Oewpovpevov eyyvrdra) (fialverai rut xpwpaTi Kvavoeidrjs 
 8ia rrjv dpatoTTjTa. “ But when seen in depth, it appears (even) 
 in its nearest colour, blue, owing to its thinness.” The Latin 
 interpretations vary very much throughout. The point which 
 is chiefly important, is, however, plain enough, viz. that 
 darkness seen through a light medium is blue, 
 t Page 136—430. 
 
goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 321 
 
 when it is uninfluenced by other colours, the effect 
 of light and shade modifies it in various ways, so 
 that it undergoes alterations and appears unlike 
 itself. Thus, bodies seen in shade or in light, in 
 more pronounced or softer sun-shine, with their 
 surfaces inclined this way or that, with every change 
 exhibit a different colour." 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “No substance will ever exhibit its own hue 
 unless the light which illumines it is entirely similar 
 in colour. It very rarely happens that the shadows 
 of opaque bodies are really similar (in colour) to 
 the illumined parts. The surface of every sub- 
 stance partakes of as many hues as are reflected 
 from surrounding objects."' 55 ' 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ So again, with regard to the light of fire, of 
 the moon, or of lamps, each has a different colour, 
 which is variously combined with differently co- 
 loured objects." 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “We can scarcely ever say that the surface of 
 illumined bodies exhibits the real colour of those 
 bodies. Take a white band and place it in the 
 
 * Page 121. 306. 326. 387. 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 dark, and let it receive light by means of three 
 apertures from the sun, from fire, and from the 
 sky : the white band will be tricoloured.”* 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ When the light falls on any object and assumes 
 (for example) a red or green tint, it is again re- 
 flected on other substances, thus undergoing a new 
 change. But this effect, though it really takes 
 place, is not appreciable by the eye : though the 
 light thus reflected to the eye is composed of a 
 variety of colours, the principal of these only are 
 distinguishable. ” 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “ No colour reflected on the surface of another 
 colour tinges that surface with its own colour 
 (merely), but will be mixed with various other re- 
 flections impinging on the same surface but such 
 effects, he observes elsewhere, “ are scarcely, if at 
 all, distinguishable in a very diffused light. 5 ; f 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 “ Thus, all combinations of colours are owing to 
 three causes ; the light, the medium through which 
 the light appears, such as water or air, and lastly 
 the local colour from which the light happens to be 
 reflected.” 
 
goethe's theoey of colours. 
 
 323 
 
 Leonardo. 
 
 “ All illumined objects partake of tlie colour of 
 the light they receive. 
 
 “ Every opaque surface partakes of the colour of 
 the intervening transparent medium, according to 
 the density of such medium and the distance be- 
 tween the eye and the object. 
 
 “ The medium is of two kinds ; either it has a 
 surface, like water, &c., or it is without a common 
 surface, like the air."* 
 
 In the observations on trees and plants more 
 points of resemblance might be quoted; the passages 
 corresponding with Goethe’s views are much more 
 numerous. 
 
 It is remarkable that Leonardo, in opposition, it 
 seems, to some authorities, j* agrees with Aristotle 
 in reckoning black and white as colours, placing 
 them at the beginning and end of the scale.J Like 
 
 * Page 236. 260. 328. 
 
 t “ De’ semplici colori il primo e il bianco : benche i filosofi 
 non accettano ne il bianco ne il nero nel numero de’ colori.” — 
 p. 125. 141. Elsewhere, however, he sometimes adopts the 
 received opinion. 
 
 J Leon Battista Alberti, in like manner observes : — “ Affer- 
 mano (i filosofi) che le spezie de’ colori sono sette, cioe, che il 
 bianco ed il nero sono i duoi estremi, infra i quali ve n’ e uno 
 nel mezzo (rosso) e che infra ciascuno di questi duoi estremi e 
 quel del mezzo, da ogni parte ve ne sono due altri.” An 
 absurd statement of Lomazzo, p. 190, is copied verbatim from 
 Lodovico Dolce (Somma della Filos. d’ Arist.) ; but elsewhere, 
 p. 306, Lomazzo agrees with Alberti. Aristotle seems to have 
 
324 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Aristotle, again, lie frequently makes nse of the 
 term black, for obscurity ; he even goes further, 
 for he seems to consider that blue may be produced 
 by the actual mixture of black and white, provided 
 they are pure. # The ancient author, however, ex- 
 plains himself on this point as follows — “ We must 
 not attempt to make our observations on these 
 effects by mixing colours as painters mix them, but 
 by remarking the appearances as produced by the 
 rays of light mingling with each other.” f 
 
 When we consider that Leonardo’s Treatise pro- 
 
 misled the two first, for, after saying there are seven colours, 
 he appears only to mention six : he says — “There are seven 
 colours, if brown is to be considered equivalent to black, which 
 seems reasonable. Yellow, again, may be said to be a modifica- 
 tion of white. Between these we find red, purple, green, and 
 blue .” — Be jSensu et Sensili. Perhaps it is in accordance with 
 this passage that Leonardo da Yinci reckons eight colours. — 
 Trattato , p. 126. 
 
 * Page 122. 142. 237. 
 
 t On the authority of this explanation the word ye\av has 
 sometimes been translated in the foregoing extracts obscurity , 
 darkness. 
 
 Raffaello Borghini, in his attempt to describe the doctrine of 
 Aristotle with a view to painting, observes- — “ There are two 
 principles which concur in the production of colour, namely, 
 light and transparency.” But he soon loses this clue to the 
 best part of the ancient theory, and when he has to speak of 
 the derivation of colours from white and black, he evidently 
 understands it in a mere atomic sense, and adds — “ I shall not 
 at present pursue the opinion of Aristotle, who assumes black 
 and white as principal colours, and considers all the rest as 
 intermediate between them .” — II JRiposo, 1. ii. Accordingly, 
 like Lodovico Dolce, he proceeds to a subject where he was 
 more at home, namely, the symbolical meaning of colours. 
 
GOETHES THEORY OF COLOURS. 
 
 325 
 
 fesses to embrace the subject of imitation in paint- 
 ing, and that Aristotle’s briefly examines the phy- 
 sical nature and appearance of colours, it must be 
 admitted that the latter sustains the above com- 
 parison with advantage ; and it is somewhat extra- 
 ordinary that observations indicating so refined a 
 knowledge of nature, as regards the picturesque, 
 should not have been taken into the account, for 
 such appears to be the fact, in the various opinions 
 and conjectures that have been expressed from 
 time to time on the painting of the Greeks. The 
 treatise in question must have been written when 
 Apelles painted, or immediately before ; and as a 
 proof that Aristotle’s remarks on the effect of 
 semi-transparent mediums were not lost on the 
 artists of his time, the following passage from 
 Pliny is subjoined, for, though it is well known, 
 it acquires additional interest from the foregoing 
 extracts : — 
 
 “ He (Apelles) passed a dark colour over his 
 pictures when finished, so thin that it increased 
 the splendour of the tints, while it protected the 
 surface from dust and dirt : it could only be seen 
 on looking into the picture. The effect of this 
 operation, judiciously managed, was to prevent the 
 colours from being too glaring, and to give the 
 spectator the impression of looking through a trans- 
 parent crystal. At the same time it seemed almost 
 imperceptibly to add a certain dignity of tone to 
 colours that were too florid.” “ This,” says. Eey- 
 
326 
 
 NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATION OF 
 
 nolds, “ is a true and artist-like description of 
 glazing or scumbling, such as was practised by 
 Titian and the rest of the Venetian painters” 
 
 The account of Pliny has, in this instance, 
 internal evidence of truth, but it is fully confirmed 
 by the following passage in Aristotle, which, in 
 reference to painting, appears to have been hitherto 
 unnoticed : — “ Another mode in which the effect 
 of colours is exhibited is when they appear through 
 each other, as painters employ them when they 
 glaze (ZvaXetyovres) a (dark) colour over a lighter 
 one ; just as the sun, which is in itself white, 
 assumes a red colour when seen through darkness 
 and smoke. This operation also ensures a variety 
 of colours, for there will be a certain ratio between 
 those which are on the surface and those which are 
 in depth .” — De Sensu et Sensili. 
 
 Aristotle’s notion respecting the derivation of 
 colours from white and black may perhaps be illus- 
 trated by the following opinion on the very similar 
 theory of Goethe : — 
 
 “ Goethe and Seebeck regard colour as resulting 
 from the mixture of white and black, and ascribe 
 to the different colours a quality of darkness 
 (i (TKtepbv ), by the different degrees of which they 
 are distinguished, passing from white to black 
 through the gradations of yellow, orange, red, 
 violet, and blue, while green appears to be in- 
 termediate again between yellow and blue. This 
 remark, though it has no influence in weakening 
 
Goethe's theory of colours. 
 
 327 
 
 the theory of colours proposed by Newton, is 
 certainly correct, having been confirmed experi- 
 mentally by the researches of Herschel, who ascer- 
 tained the relative intensity of the different coloured 
 rays by illuminating objects under the microscope 
 by their means, &c. 
 
 “ Another certain proof of the difference in 
 brightness of the different coloured rays is afforded 
 by the phenomena of ocular spectra. If, after 
 gazing at the sun, the eyes are closed so as to 
 exclude the light, the image of the sun appears at 
 first as a luminous or white spectrum upon a dark 
 ground, but it gradually passes through the series 
 of colours to black, that is to say, until it can no 
 longer be distinguished from the dark field of 
 vision ; and the colours which it assumes are 
 successively those intermediate between white and 
 black in the order of their illuminating power or 
 brightness, namely, yellow, orange, red, violet, and 
 blue. If, on the other hand, after looking for some 
 time at the sun, we turn our eyes towards a white 
 surface, the image of the sun is seen at first as a 
 black spectrum upon the white surface, and gra- 
 dually passes through the different colours from the 
 darkest to the lightest, and at last becomes white, 
 so that it can no longer be distinguished from the 
 white surface/’ *■ — See par. 40. 44. 
 
 * “Elements of Physiology,” by J. Muller, M.D., translated 
 from the German by William Baly, M.D. London, 1839. 
 
328 
 
 NOTES FROM GOETHE ON COLOURS. 
 
 It is not impossible that Aristotle’s enumeration 
 of the colours may have been derived from, or 
 confirmed by, this very experiment. Speaking of 
 the after-image of colours, he says, “ The impression 
 not only exists in the sensorium in the act of per- 
 ceiving, but remains when the organ is at rest. 
 Thus if we look long and intently on any object, 
 when we change the direction of the eyes, a re- 
 sponding colour follows. If we look at the sun, or 
 any other very bright object, and afterwards shut 
 our eyes, we shall, as if in ordinary vision, first see 
 a colour of the same kind ; this will presently be 
 changed to a red colour, then to purple, and so on 
 till it ends in black and disappears .” — De Insomniis. 
 
 N.B. The Editor has not inserted Note V. and the other 
 interesting notes containing observations on the Italian 
 masters, as Mr. Eastlake proposes to treat this subject at 
 length in the 2nd volume of his Materials for a History of Oil- 
 painting. 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 329 
 
 No. XII. 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 TO CHARLES LOCK EASTLAKE, ESQ., R.A., ETC. # 
 
 At length I write to claim the performance of 
 your promise, viz. that you would give me your 
 advice as regards the decoration of the house de- 
 signed by M. de Chateauneuf, the drawings and 
 plans for which you have seen. After some dis- 
 cussion, and a struggle on my part in favour of 
 the Elizabethan, the perpendicular-gothic, or what- 
 ever the style is to be designated, M. de Cha- 
 teauneuf has triumphed, and the Italian, or revived 
 antique, (essentially the Grecian,) has been finally 
 agreed on. 
 
 You are aware how strongly I feel that one of 
 the best modes of advancing the Fine Arts, is by 
 paying greater attention to the interior decorations 
 of our houses, than has hitherto been the fashion in 
 
 * These letters formed part of a little work called “ The 
 Country House,” printed by Lady Mary Fox for the benefit of 
 a school at Kensington. The letter to Mr. Eastlake is added 
 to explain the reason of his communication. — Ed. 
 
3 SO 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 England. The best proof of your own opinion on 
 this subject, is the kindness with which you de- 
 voted much time and labour to the designing and 
 executing for me the Pompeian room so deservedly 
 admired. Entertaining this view on the subject 
 of ornament, makes me the more anxious to take 
 all possible pains in selecting the style of decora- 
 tion, so as the house should prove that its owner is 
 a lover of art, and that it should, as far as is com- 
 patible with a reasonable economy, be considered 
 in some degree as a pattern of what might be 
 accomplished in the matter of decoration. I never 
 think on the subject without calling to mind the 
 principles laid down for the ornamenting a country 
 house, in Mr. Rogerss “ Invitation to a Friend : ” 
 indeed, looking to his intimate knowledge of the 
 whole circle of Fine Arts, and lastly, the specimen 
 of refined taste which his own town house exhibits, 
 my beau ideal of a house is one decorated under his 
 direction ; but as this cannot be obtained, I trust 
 that you, who possess so much of his spirit and 
 refinement, will, as far as may be compatible with 
 your engagements, afford me the benefit of your 
 assistance. Although the subject of decoration, 
 both as regards houses and public buildings, has 
 been hitherto much neglected in this country, I 
 think now every one is becoming fully alive to its 
 importance. The establishment of the Government 
 School of Design, in which, for the first time in 
 England, the art of design, as applied to decoration, 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 831 
 
 is systematically taught ; — the opportunity af- 
 forded by the building of the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment the Committee of the House of Commons, 
 which has already reported on the subject of their 
 decoration ; — and the Eoyal commission entrusted 
 with the further consideration of the subject, — 
 cannot fail to produce within a few years a great 
 alteration in the views and taste of the public. I 
 may here observe, that the School of Design, and 
 the training of young workmen, will mainly tend 
 to assist those who may he inclined to give up the 
 ornamenting their saloons and halls with cheap 
 printed papers, by producing persons who will be 
 able, at a moderate cost, to execute the original de- 
 signs of eminent artists, or to copy the great works 
 of antiquity. Hitherto, except when foreigners 
 were introduced, it has been scarcely possible to 
 obtain the assistance of workmen capable of execu- 
 ting anything beyond the commonest and simplest 
 scrolls or straight lines ; or if such assistance were 
 obtained, it could only be procured at a cost which 
 put any extensive scale of decoration beyond the 
 reach of any but the affluent. 
 
 As regards the style and mode of execution of 
 the proposed decorations, I should, of course, wish 
 to be guided by your judgment. Whether it may 
 be expedient merely to copy or adapt from known 
 examples, such as the baths of Titus, and the 
 paintings of Pompeii, or from the great masters 
 of modern times, such as the designs of Raphael 
 
33a 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 and Giulio Romano ; — or whether an entirely new 
 style, founded on a study of the general principles 
 of art as applied to decoration, should be attempted, 
 is for you to determine. Again, it may be a 
 question, whether in different rooms a different 
 course should be pursued, for the sake of variety. 
 Respecting the vehicle, whether encaustic, fresco, or 
 oil, or all three, should be used, must be determined 
 by you. 
 
 You will observe there is the outer hall, and 
 staircase, the inner hall, the library, the two draw- 
 ing-rooms, and the dining-room, all requiring your 
 attention. 
 
 The library, I should wish to be devoted as far 
 as possible to art, especially as the books it will 
 contain relate principally to painting and sculp- 
 ture. 
 
 I remain, &c., 
 
 H. B. K. 
 
 MR. EASTLAKE’S ANSWER. 
 
 I should willingly refer you to abler advisers if 
 M. de Chateauneuf’s house were as real as it de- 
 serves to be ; * but although the conditions which 
 
 * The object of “The Country House,” from which these 
 letters are extracted, was merely to discuss the merits of the 
 different styles of building applicable to villas, and their 
 decoration. — Ed. 
 
ON THE DECOEATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 333 
 
 you and the architect have proposed to yourselves 
 have led to definite arrangements in the structure 
 itself, a pleasing uncertainty must still exist with 
 regard to the decorations. These depend for their 
 effect on light and other circumstances not always 
 to be reckoned on beforehand ; so that their selec- 
 tion for a building which exists only in imagi- 
 nation must be, to a certain extent, a matter of 
 speculation. 
 
 You refer to a certain “ Pompeian” room; be- 
 lieve me, too much has been said of what you 
 know was a rough experiment to see the effect 
 of a particular kind of decoration for small rooms, 
 and which, as regards its details, can only deserve 
 attention from the skill with which Mr. Harvey 
 executed the animals that are introduced. 
 
 The word “ decoration,” however appropriate to 
 fantastic ornaments, and in some degree to figures, 
 has, as you know, been considered vilifying when 
 applied to works that are addressed to the mind. 
 But, as we have no other term, we must consent 
 to use it in both meanings. It is, indeed, impor- 
 tant to remember, that no works of art, however 
 elevated, can dispense with the appeal, the impres- 
 sive or winning appeal, to the eye. Thus much for 
 our definition of terms. 
 
 As a general principle in decoration, I would 
 recommend that the eye should be solely or chiefly 
 addressed where a passing glance only can be given 
 to the work, and that the attention should be more 
 
331 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 taxed where leisure and surrounding circumstances 
 permit or invite contemplation. The reverse of 
 this would be manifestly wrong ; but the recom- 
 mendation itself is not to be understood too lite- 
 rally. Every display has its legitimate exuberance : 
 the “ over and above ” in decoration can only be 
 that of quality, for mere taste is supposed to define 
 all that relates to quantity. As common poetic 
 description sometimes exalts its subject less by 
 accumulation than by substituting costly or choice 
 materials for ordinary ones, so in art the augment- 
 ing excellence ascends from sense to thought. If, 
 
 O O 7 
 
 therefore, the intention to afford mental pleasure is 
 very apparent even in situations where this may 
 appear superfluous and in a manner thrown away, 
 the impression must of itself be elevating. But 
 the indispensable condition is, that a gradation 
 should still be maintained ; that higher excellence 
 should still be in reserve. What must be the 
 character of works of art to which Raphael's cor- 
 ridor in the Vatican forms the mere approach ? 
 The answer is given by the perfection of the works 
 in the Stanze. All that is to be insisted on, there- 
 fore, is a due gradation in conformity with the 
 principle first proposed. In the remarks that 
 follow, I cannot strictly adhere to the plan of the 
 house, but must often generalise ; the observations 
 submitted, if tenable at all, will, however, be easily 
 applicable to your purpose. 
 
 The pavement of the halls might be enriched, 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 335 
 
 but I can hardly approve the occasional practice of 
 the ancients in placing mosaic “ histories ” under 
 their feet.* The forms and hues employed should 
 be merely calculated to gratify the sight. Among 
 other preliminary considerations, I would also in- 
 clude the nature of the mere surface as well as the 
 distinction of every apartment. A pavement, for in- 
 stance, however decorated, should still express the 
 character of firmness and solidity. For this reason 
 I would banish even the lowest kind of life, (that of 
 plants,) and every approach to perspective. Geo- 
 metrical forms would thus be alone admissible : the 
 variety is infinite ; but even here I would again 
 exclude abrupt and irregular contrasts of colour, 
 which have sometimes the effect of making the 
 evenness of the surface doubtful : the last consi- 
 deration is, indeed, applicable to carpets. With re- 
 spect to the classic fashion of inscriptions on the 
 threshold, I merely remark, that letters are only 
 ornamental in architecture when disposed symme- 
 trically within the space which constitutes their 
 frame-work. 
 
 In approving the common practice of placing 
 statues and bas-reliefs in the principal hall, I do 
 not depart from the spirit of our first principles. 
 A statue has generally the advantage of being seen 
 
 * The passion for this kind of decoration was carried so far 
 that the ornamented floor of the dining-room sometimes repre- 
 sented the scattered fragments of a repast. Plin. 1. xxxvi. c. 25. 
 
338 
 
 ON THE DECOKATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 in various points of view, and thus commands at- 
 tention in situations where paintings could not. 
 Associations of classic taste are naturally connected 
 with the classic materials of marble or bronze ; and 
 architecture, when displayed as such, seems to 
 acquire additional solidity by the presence of 
 sculpture. But works of sculpture of the first 
 excellence should be admitted to the library or 
 drawing-room, and even fragments of rare beauty 
 should be enshrined with like distinction. For the 
 present, however, we are in the hall. I do not 
 recommend mixing mural painting and sculpture : 
 no painted devices should compete injudiciously 
 with the bas-reliefs. But let us suppose that your 
 bas-reliefs are in the outer hall, and that you have 
 only some sculptured vases on detached pedestals 
 in the inner hall or corridor, then by all means 
 decorate the walls of the latter with arabesques : to 
 these we shall return. In the staircase, also, it 
 will be necessary to make your election between 
 the two arts. I will assume that you decide for 
 painting. Few people linger in a staircase; still 
 fewer break their necks to look at a painted ceiling. 
 If the scene affect the eye and the imagination 
 agreeably, this may be considered sufficient. When 
 we see the whole Pantheon on the ceiling and walls 
 of great staircases, this undoubtedly might be 
 defended on the ground that a mere passing im- 
 pression of magnificence is intended : but the exu- 
 berance of quantity rather than of quality is here 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 337 
 
 obvious. In whatever mode the walls of the stair- 
 case are adorned, the decoration should be entirely 
 subservient to the architectural effect. This in- 
 volves a more radical objection to the mythologic 
 crowds before alluded to, because they have fre- 
 quently the effect (and intentionally so) of destroy- 
 ing all idea of the angles of the building. I am of 
 
 o o o 
 
 opinion, on the contrary, that the decorator should 
 dispose his paintings in shapes which shall appear 
 to grow out of and complete the architecture. The 
 inclination of the panelling of the wall to agree 
 with the line of the stairs, may be considered in- 
 compatible with paintings : a horizontal termina- 
 tion, perhaps level with the chief landing-place, is 
 essential, and the triangular spaces or sections of 
 such spaces, between this and the stairs, had better 
 be left nearly plain, and not very light in colour. 
 Of all modes of destroying legitimate illusion, that 
 of introducing painted figures, sometimes the size 
 of life, where living figures must often come in 
 contact with them, is the most effectual. 
 
 The compartment or compartments above that 
 horizontal line might be painted in fresco, certainly 
 not in oil on the wall, nor in the newly-revived 
 encaustic, at least not till it has been further tried. 
 The figures should not extend to the angles of the 
 
 o o 
 
 walls where the staircase turns ; the pseudo or real 
 compartments which form the frames might finish 
 at a little distance from the angle ; the real wall is, 
 in short, never to be lost sight of ; and if ocular 
 
338 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 illusion is attempted at all, it should be rather 
 with a view to complete and enrich the architectural 
 forms than to destroy them. Where the light is 
 unfavourable for painting, the flattest style of bas- 
 relief is still admissible. But as you are especially 
 desirous of having your staircase coloured, I really 
 can propose nothing fitter to gratify the eye and 
 imagination merely, than the more refined but at the 
 same time familiar subjects of the Greek mythology ; 
 such as the personifications of poetry, the progress 
 of the hours and of light, the seasons, and so forth. 
 Such subjects afford the best materials for mere 
 beauty of line and drapery, for composition gene- 
 rally, and, if not too statue-like, for colour ; and 
 even when they suggest no profounder range of 
 thought, (not that their import is necessarily thus 
 superficial,) they leave an elegant impression on the 
 mind. The objection is, that they are old ; but 
 there would be some novelty in treating them as 
 detached compositions, instead of beclouding and 
 peopling the whole space in the style of the seven- 
 teenth century. It is to be remarked, that Raphael 
 and Michael Angelo bounded their compositions of 
 this kind by definite forms, especially on ceilings. 
 Pietro da Cortona and the machinists generally^ 
 were as intent on destroying the connection between 
 painting and architecture as the great masters were 
 to preserve it. 
 
 But this separation of the compositions into com- 
 partments supposes at once a great latitude in the 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 339 
 
 choice of subjects. Miltons smaller poems, and 
 many other English sources, might be preferred to 
 classic inventions ; only it should be remembered, 
 that fresco, from the nature of its means, is privi- 
 leged to aim at the ideal rather than the actual 
 world, and that the character of the decorations 
 required for the place must necessarily influence 
 the selection and treatment of the subjects. Dark 
 effects are equally unfit for the situation and for 
 the powers of fresco. In the ornamented divisions 
 of the compartments, perhaps partial gilding might 
 be employed with better effect than colours ; on the 
 ceiling both might be introduced, (in merely deco- 
 rative forms,) unless your staircase ends in light, 
 in which case your glass must of course be orna- 
 mented, even if colourless. 
 
 Dining-rooms, strictly so called and employed, 
 are generally unadorned with pictures : this hardly 
 seems necessary. In theory we may admit that 
 subjects requiring some contemplation would be 
 out of place in a room exclusively devoted to “ the 
 table but portraits of celebrated individuals, and 
 landscapes, although they cannot be duly examined 
 in such moments, may convey associations, to which 
 the spectator, even if not particularly conversant 
 in pictures, is supposed to be alive at all times. 
 Portraits of the class alluded to, as historic texts, 
 are connected with time; as landscape, especially if 
 founded on actual scenes, may suggest the memory 
 of place. A room used for the purpose in question, 
 
340 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 and for nothing else, is, however, not the place 
 where fine works of art should he bestowed ; and I 
 incline to think that this is the fittest field for 
 small frescoes and arabesques. This, in short, is 
 one of the occasions to please the eye and the 
 imagination merely. Accordingly, in the mode pro- 
 posed, no definite idea is presented to the mind, 
 but an air of elegant and festive splendour sur- 
 rounds the guests. There should, however, be end- 
 less variety ; scarcely a form should be repeated in 
 the details, although an architectural symmetry is, 
 as usual, to be preserved in the masses. 
 
 A dining-room per se is not uncommon ; but a 
 professed and exclusive breakfast room supposes a 
 degree of order in the family migrations, to which 
 the Muses could hardly be expected to accommo- 
 date themselves. Nevertheless, to complete my 
 catalogue, I will suppose one ; or rather I will 
 suppose that one of your drawing-rooms is used 
 chiefly as a morning room. Indeed, without con- 
 demning a family to betake themselves to parti- 
 cular rooms at stated hours, it may be allowable to 
 decorate and furnish apartments on such a suppo- 
 sition, by way of ensuring a marked and agreeable 
 variety of character. Lucullus had even a series of 
 dining-rooms from the “ Apollo ” downwards; and 
 we learn from Vitruvius/'' that the opulent Romans 
 changed the scene of their banquets according to 
 
 De Architect. 1. vi. c. 7. 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 341 
 
 the season of the year. The morning has its own 
 feelings even for those whom affluence frees from 
 
 O 
 
 any kind of labour. The purposes of the day are 
 unfinished — everything is contingent. Under such 
 circumstances the character or subject of pictures 
 is to be adapted to the mind — not the mind to the 
 subject. The open face of nature by sea and land 
 may here enliven the walls, and agree with the 
 excursive feelings of the hour. The chase and its 
 incidents may here triumph. The English pastoral 
 is here strictly in its place. Solemn themes, solemn 
 effects, should not be admitted ; while all that 
 responds to buoyancy of spirit would, on the con- 
 trary, be appropriate. It need not be gravely 
 objected, that accidental or even average states of 
 feeling may be little in unison with the impressions 
 which the arts profess to give ; for the same objec- 
 tion is frequently applicable to all the accompani- 
 ments of civilised life, nay, to the beauties of nature, 
 which so often appeal even to cultivated human 
 sympathies in vain. The occasional contradiction 
 is unavoidable, where, of two conditions, one is 
 permanent, the other mutable. 
 
 Corridors on the ground-floor, or even upstairs, 
 in houses where pictures do not abound, may be 
 fitly decorated with arabesques. The same kind of 
 ornament might be applied to garden pavilions, and, 
 in the present instance, even to your portico next 
 the lake if no statues are there, but not to conserva- 
 tories, where the conventional forms and tints of 
 
342 
 
 ON THE DECOKATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 art would contend injudiciously with nature. In 
 these decorations it is absolutely necessary to set 
 out with an architectural scheme, and subdivide the 
 spaces with some attention to congruity and sub- 
 ordination. In the details, pleasing masses and 
 forms are essential, because here nothing can be 
 concealed ; there is, strictly speaking, no chiaroscuro, 
 no perspective : form and colour are the chief 
 means. The possibility of approaching and even 
 coming in contact with the painted wall, suggests 
 the necessity of a small scale in the objects, and 
 of precision and delicacy of outline ; yet, from the 
 circumstance of the forms and hues being relieved 
 on a light ground, they are at the same time effec- 
 tive at a considerable distance.* Stucco ornaments 
 in very low relief, mixed with the painting, are 
 admissible, (as they can hardly be said to come 
 under the head of sculpture,) but they require a 
 strong light to display them. 
 
 I cannot recommend frescoes for the sitting-rooms 
 of dwelling-houses. The sum of enjoyment to be 
 derived from one or two large paintings is not to 
 be compared to that which the contributions of 
 
 * The best examples of decorations of this kind are now 
 accessible to all, in a recent work by Thiirmer and Gutensohn, 
 containing the arabesques of the Vatican, the Farnesina, the 
 Villa Lanti, and the Villa Madama, edited by Mr. Ludwig 
 Gruner, and published by Mr. Murray. With this work may 
 be classed the publications of Zahn, on the ornamental 
 inventions of Giulio .Romano at Mantua, and on the decorations 
 of Pompeii. 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 343 
 
 various schools can afford, even assuming the highest 
 merit. Some frescoes of the Villa Madama near 
 Eome, from the school of Raphael, show that such 
 works may be beautifully executed in a small size, 
 but they still seem fitter for open galleries than 
 for rooms. I have only ventured to except the 
 dining-room. The impossibility of change in the 
 apartments we live in is an unpleasant feeling ; in 
 a public building, on the contrary, it is satisfactory, 
 and a staircase or a professed dining-room approaches 
 this character. I may here observe, that a stair- 
 case covered with ancient family portraits is seldom 
 agreeable to the eye ; indeed if it were a desirable 
 kind of decoration, centuries must often elapse 
 before the materials would be ready. The first 
 impression on seeing a quantity of portraits in a 
 staircase is, that it is an accidental if not a trouble- 
 some accumulation, and that there is no room for 
 the pictures in better situations. Far be it from 
 me to speak with any disrespect of the taste for 
 family portraits, so peculiar to the English, and 
 so calculated, as Johnson said, to foster their “ do- 
 mestic charities ; ” but I hold it not always necessary 
 to place the portraits of the household in prominent 
 situations. The interest such works inspire is, in 
 most cases, strictly domestic and private. The 
 portrait has, in short, no pretension to be con- 
 spicuous to all eyes till the individual is celebrated, 
 or till the work of art is canonised. These con- 
 ditions, I admit, may often exist from the first 
 
344 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 moment ; but then, d fortiori , a staircase is not 
 the place for such a production. The ostentatious 
 Romans appropriated one of the most public rooms 
 of the house (the tablinum) to genealogies, records, 
 and inscriptions relating to the family history, and 
 covered the remaining space — often the atrium as 
 well — with the portraits and busts of their an- 
 cestors.*' This does not appear to have been the 
 custom with the Athenians. 
 
 We have decided against frescoes in what are 
 called sitting-rooms : your oil pictures are, how- 
 ever, to be selected. I shall consider the library 
 as distinct from the drawing-rooms ; but it is quite 
 possible to blend their character. The library in 
 the ducal palace at Urbino had a room or study 
 adjoining it, decorated with portraits (in this case, 
 by the way, they appear to have been frescoes) of 
 learned men of all ages.| In a library, literally to 
 be used as such, pictures of extensive interest seem 
 to be inappropriate. They may be said to divert 
 the attention from the business or amusement of 
 the place. But the portrait of the poet, or of the 
 sage, is a source of pleasing and elevating associa- 
 tions, and may sometimes command a deep interest. 
 The library may contain the cabinets of gems and 
 medals, the collections of engravings, the terra 
 
 * Juv. Sat. 8. ; Plin. 1. xxxv. c. 2. 
 
 t These portraits, which have been since discovered, see 
 note, p. 192, are not frescoes, though the medium in which 
 they are executed w T ould be difficult to define. 
 
ON THE DECORxiTION OF A VILLA. 345 
 
 cottas, &c. ; or if the drawing-room is ample 
 enough, all these treasures of virtu may be depo- 
 sited there. I prefer a library without coloured 
 decorations ; the wood-work may be carved in flat 
 relief, even to the panels of the walls ; a mode of 
 decoration now beautifully supplied by embossed 
 leather, which need not be dark in colour. What- 
 ever colour appears, except in the portraits, minia- 
 tures, or illuminations hung around, should be in 
 the books ; these should strike the eye, and be, so 
 to speak, in the foreground of the picture. Vases, 
 or busts, may surmount the cases. The ancients 
 preferred the latter ; and many, like Asinius Pollio, 
 collected in their libraries the authentic, and even 
 imaginary, portraits of great men. Among the 
 latter was the bust of Homer.* But the light is 
 generally so unfavourable in the upper part of 
 modern rooms, that busts, when placed so high, are 
 reduced to mere ornaments, and require the addi- 
 tion of names. This, indeed, is not objectionable in 
 any case, for the interest of a portrait commonly de- 
 pends on historical associations. I see no objection 
 even to inscribing both the subject and the name 
 of the master under works of art generally : a 
 volume bears its title and author’s name ; and pic- 
 tures, to many, are as sealed books till inquiry is 
 stimulated or interest quickened by similar means. 
 When the description is too long to admit of this, 
 the words “ See Catalogue, No. — ” might be added. 
 
 * Plin. 1. xxxv. c. 2. 
 
346 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 If colour be admitted anywhere in the library, 
 it might be in subjects on the ceiling, allowable 
 here, if at all, in the region of easy chairs and 
 occasional meditation ; perhaps, too, to a certain 
 extent, in the windows. The introduction of sub- 
 jects on ceilings has not been recommended gene- 
 rally, but in the system of arabesque painting the 
 universal decoration of the walls requires to be 
 carried into the ceiling. Sculpture, from the rea- 
 sons already given, or rather in accordance with 
 the same taste, is quite admissible in the library. 
 Cicero frequently writes to his friend at Athens, to 
 send him any good works in sculpture, fit to adorn 
 the library and residence of a man of letters/'' 
 
 But the choicest works of taste should unques- 
 tionably be in the room most occupied in hours of 
 calm seclusion and leisure ; and in order to find 
 wall enough for the pictures, this may be assumed 
 to be the principal drawing-room. Here, therefore, 
 may be the best specimens of painting, and even of 
 sculpture, if the space permits : here, the chimney- 
 
 * Epist. ad Attic. 1. i. c. 3. 8, 9, 10, &c. It is remarkable 
 that a bas-relief, in the finest Greek style, representing a 
 philosopher reading, was found in the ruins of Cicero’s 
 Tusculan villa. Some English sculptors and myself, during an 
 excursion from Rome, I may almost say, discovered this 
 marble, walled into the staircase of the Episcopal palace at 
 Grotta Ferrata. A mould was afterwards taken from it, 
 through the exertions of Mr. Gibson, and the cast is now 
 common in Rome. The marble was, I think, afterwards 
 removed to the Vatican. 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 347 
 
 piece may be by Flaxman, and the doors of the 
 print-case by Stothard. The pictures cannot be 
 very large, on account of their number and the 
 size of the room. This, the objection which in a 
 great measure excludes the grandest works from 
 our dwelling-houses, was met by the Italians, and 
 by Nicolo Poussin, by reducing the grand to 
 domestic conditions. If you have only small pic- 
 tures, however, you cannot cover the upper part of 
 the walls, for you are not supposed to have any 
 work of art here which can be sacrificed. 
 
 Enlightened connoisseurs see excellence both in 
 the Dutch and Italian schools, but they are often 
 embarrassed in arranging them together. I am 
 convinced, however, from instances I have seen, 
 that this is to be accomplished satisfactorily. It 
 is sometimes argued, that no one reads Milton and 
 Crabbe alternately ; but this is hardly a parallel 
 case. Many go to a gallery to look at a particular 
 picture, and see nothing else ; the eye is blind 
 when the attention is not actively exerted. So in 
 a room, the spectator selects his favourites — his 
 favourites at least for the time, and scarcely looks 
 beyond them. At another moment, he will per- 
 haps direct his undivided attention to works which 
 he passed over on a former occasion. A certain 
 congruity is sometimes to be accomplished, by 
 attending to impressions rather than names and 
 schools. Many an Italian picture would not be 
 out of place with the Flemish and Dutch school ; 
 
348 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 while Vandyck, Ruysdael, Cuyp, and others, might 
 sometimes harmonise in many respects with the 
 genius of the south. The arrangement of pictures 
 comprehends some of the difficulties which the 
 artist experiences, in the production of one ; for a 
 certain balance and repose are as essential for the 
 eye, as an harmonious impression for the mind. 
 Much must, therefore, depend on the nature of the 
 materials ; and the (assumed) different character of 
 your two drawing-rooms may here be an advantage. 
 
 You, I know, will not ask whether the produc- 
 tions of the English school are admissible in this 
 “ Tribune ” as well as elsewhere. Such is the 
 variety of English art, that the more refined Dutch, 
 the Flemish, and the Italian taste, may be recog- 
 nised in it by turns, and no modern pictures har- 
 monise with the scheme of colour and effect which 
 characterise the master-works of former ages so 
 well as the English of the last century. Thus 
 much of schools ; and those we have not mentioned 
 may be tried by the same tests. 
 
 With regard to subjects, the mind as well as the 
 eye, must be respected : the ethos of painting is 
 quite compatible with familiar and homely sub- 
 jects ; and, on the other hand, the greatest Italian 
 masters have sometimes sought for poetic impres- 
 sions in regions where it would be unsafe to follow 
 them. But, with this reservation, you must not 
 be exclusive : various minds, or the same mind in 
 various moods, will like variety of aliment. In 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 349 
 
 other situations, which we have had occasion to 
 consider, the subject has been in a great degree 
 calculated on the probable feelings of the spectator ; 
 here, the subject is independent, because the atten- 
 tion is free, and the whole art appeals by turns to 
 the whole range of thought. The leisure of culti- 
 
 o o 
 
 vated human beings should be so far complimented 
 as to assume that all the strivings of the mind are 
 worthy to be ministered to. It is a mistake to 
 suppose that solemn or even terrible themes are 
 always objectionable ; I believe it will be found 
 that the grander efforts of invention (I speak of 
 works by the ancient masters) are very generally 
 appreciated by the gentler sex. On the other 
 hand, the fondness for humbler subjects is not 
 always referable to the homeliness of the incident 
 represented. The subject often acquires elevation, 
 and commands respect, by the evidence of mental 
 labour and power in the artist. To a true con- 
 noisseur, this skilful application of principles 
 derived from universal nature supersedes the mere 
 subject ; and the idea which he recognises, what- 
 ever may be its vehicle, is grand and poetical. 
 Less experienced observers are often deceived by 
 the title of pictures : “ A Court Yard ” (de Hooghe) 
 sounds unpromising enough ; but when it is seen 
 that the painter has represented daylight with its 
 consequent harmony, and that all is subservient to 
 this, his aim must be acknowledged to be dignified. 
 It is to be observed, too, that the influence of this 
 
350 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 high aim on the part of the artist often extends 
 itself to the treatment of the materials which con- 
 stitute his ostensible subject. It is easy to see 
 from the unaffected feeling, as well as from the 
 relative character of the execution in some (though 
 not all) of the Dutch masters, that the real subject 
 of their meditation was noble. I should like to see 
 a catalogue raisonne on the principle to which I 
 have alluded, distinguishing the title of a picture 
 from the real intention of the artist. Many fre- 
 quenters of the National Gallery criticise Reynolds’s 
 Three Graces, whence it appears they are not 
 sufficiently aware that the personages in question 
 are portraits of three fashionable ladies of the day, 
 under the name of the Graces, &c. If some titles 
 could be translated, what a contrast the real import 
 of the work would present to the actual name ! 
 What a change, for instance, from the modesty of 
 some of Turner s titles, “ Crossing the Brook,” — 
 “ Coal-barges in the Thames : Night,” to the beauty 
 and grandeur of treatment which would require to 
 be approached (for they ought not to be definable) 
 in language ! 
 
 With respect to the colour of the walls on 
 which pictures are hung, opinions differ much. 
 I am quite aware that it is necessary to consider 
 wall, pictures, gold frames, and all, in relation 
 to general effect : the gold, especially, is to be 
 treated as part of the coup-d’ceil. But, though I 
 remember examples of light walls hung with pic- 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 351 
 
 tures, producing an agreeable effect, I prefer a 
 colour which displays the pictures more, and must 
 also maintain, that living pictures are seldom seen 
 to the best advantage against a bright ground ; the 
 quantity of actual light (it may always be assumed) 
 making reflected light unnecessary. My idea is, 
 that the wall should not be so light as the lights of 
 the pictures ; and this supposes a sufficiently low 
 tint. Of such colours, the most agreeable will, I 
 believe, be that which is calculated to give effect to 
 the frames ; either by a difference of degree or of 
 kind — either by a deeper, richer gold colour, or by a 
 red inclining to purple ; of these, the former would 
 look best by night. I need not recommend you to 
 avoid too much unbroken polish in the frames, 
 since this is now very generally disapproved of. 
 
 I have hitherto, as you see, exercised, apparently 
 without scruple, the dictatorial authority with 
 which you have invested me. As a relief, I in- 
 tended to have given you some extracts from an 
 Italian ethical work (printed about the middle 
 of the sixteenth century*) in which there is a 
 chapter on the “ ornamenti della casa ; ” but they 
 would have been, perhaps, little suited to your 
 purpose, and I have already far exceeded the space 
 I ought to occupy. As I may not, however, again 
 have an opportunity of alluding to this work, which 
 
 * Castiglione Saba, Ricordi ovvero Ammaestramenti, &c. 
 Milano, 1559. 
 
352 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 is not unimportant in the history of Italian art, I 
 wish briefly to advert to one or two points. 
 
 The list of pictures given seems to prove that 
 the Italians long remained faithful to the older 
 masters. The names of Titian and Correggio do 
 not appear ! (I hope you will not follow the 
 Catalogue in such defects.) This is not to be ex- 
 plained by supposing that the writer speaks for 
 himself only ; for he repeatedly says, “ Some like 
 
 to ornament their rooms with the works of , 
 
 others with those of ,” and so on, as if profess- 
 
 ing to give a variety of tastes. I can only account 
 for this in one way : the author lived in Milan, 
 and it would appear that the style of Leonardo, 
 closely allied as it was to that of the schools of 
 Central Italy, long continued to influence the 
 Milanese amateurs as well as the Milanese painters. 
 
 I pass over the musical instruments, which, be- 
 side their chief use, “ piacciono assai alb occhio,” 
 especially when made by Lorenzo da Pavia, or 
 Bastiano da Yerona. Donatello, Michael Angelo, 
 Alfonso Lombardi, and Christoforo Eomano, are the 
 s(Mptors he enumerates. The terra cottas are by 
 Paganino da Modena; the bronzes by Verocchio and 
 Pollaiuolo. Beside antique medals, he admires 
 those of Giovanni Corona of V enice, together with 
 the chasings of Caradosso. Among the works of 
 the latter, he mentions a silver inkstand in basso 
 rilievo, “ fatica &’ anni venti sei ! ma certo divina.” 
 Cameos and intaglios should be, he thinks, by the 
 
ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 353 
 
 hand of Pietro Maria Tagliacarne, &c., but above 
 all by Giovanni di Gastello. 
 
 Now for his list of painters : Filippo Lippi, 
 Mantegna, Giovanni Bellini, Leonardo da Vinci, 
 although, he adds, he left but few works. * Then 
 follow the young Lippi, and Perugino, and, 
 heralded with appropriate honours, Raphael, ac- 
 companied by Giulio Romano. Pietro della Fran- 
 cesca, and Melozzo da Forli, are characterised well, 
 as indeed are all the painters. He next mentions 
 some artists, all monks, who wrought in inlaid 
 wood (commesso, tarsia) ; but his highest praises 
 in this department are reserved for Fra Damiano 
 da Bergamo, the artist of the choir of S. Domenico 
 at Bologna. The engravings he speaks of are by 
 Albert Durer and Lucas van Leyden. 
 
 Tapestries from Flanders, carpets from Syria, 
 Turkey, and Barbary, figured leather from Spain, 
 are all admitted to be desirable ornaments : “ Tutti 
 questi ornamenti ancora commendo perche arguis- 
 cono ingegno, politezza, civilita e cortegiania.” 
 The author next describes his own treasures ; but, 
 except a head by Donatello and some rare books, 
 he has nothing to boast of. His tastes are eharac- 
 teristic of the age : though a priest, his ambition is 
 to have a collection of arms and armour, if wrought 
 by a good Italian or German armourer ; and above 
 
 * The author says he was an eye-witness of the Gascon 
 crossbowmen making a target of Leonardo’s model for the 
 equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza. 
 
354 
 
 ON THE DECORATION OF A VILLA. 
 
 all, he aspires to the possession of a large steel 
 mirror, of the kind made by Giovanni della Barba, 
 a German : the mirrors of glass then in use, were, 
 it appears, commonly small and imperfect. The 
 authors judicious observations (to which I refer 
 you) on the chief use of mirrors may reconcile 
 you to their occasional introduction over chimney- 
 pieces, which, for the rest, are by no means the best 
 places for pictures. 
 
 The chapter ends with a pleasing story about a 
 mirror and a lady, and Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of 
 Milan ; a story copied by Addison (though without 
 acknowledging the source) into the Spectator. The 
 incident would not be an unworthy pendant for 
 “Collalto,”* and might have furnished a subject 
 for the graceful pencil of Stothard ; but it is time 
 to make an end. 
 
 1 am, &c., 
 
 C. L. E. 
 
 * See Rogers’s Italy. 
 
PHILOSOPHY OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 355 
 
 No. XIII. 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 (a fragment.) 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 To hint at theories of taste is to invite opposition. 
 The reader who gives his attention to them at all 
 is eager to he an objector : he sets out by fancying 
 that his liberty is in danger, and instinctively pre- 
 pares to resist the supposed aggression. There 
 seems to be an impatience of all controlling prin- 
 ciples in regard to questions in which individual 
 experience, however narrow, can form a criterion 
 of its own ; and in which the influence of habit, 
 for once unchallenged by the moralist, may super- 
 sede the exercise of reason. 
 
 It is not to be assumed that those even who 
 have professed to treat these questions on purely 
 rational grounds have been themselves exempt 
 from temporary and local prejudices, or from the 
 no less enthralling spirit of mere opposition to 
 them. But this tribute, direct or indirect, to the 
 
356 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 force of habitual impressions, even at the expense 
 of philosophic consistency, is itself favourable to 
 the doctrine of a criterion in taste. The existence 
 of relatively leading opinions in the midst of indi- 
 vidual differences suggests the possibility of still 
 more comprehensive judgments, and points to an 
 ultimate standard. 
 
 And, with regard to the variety of theories, it 
 will perhaps be found that misunderstandings, in 
 this as in many other matters, have arisen not so 
 much from upholding erroneous views as from 
 giving exclusive prominence to particular truths. 
 The earlier writers on these subjects appear to have 
 thought it incumbent on them to propound a uni- 
 versal law for the solution of the problems with 
 which they had to deal. The purpose itself may, 
 perhaps, be admitted to prove the general belief in 
 fixed principles of taste ; but the incompleteness of 
 the result, as compared with the ambitious aim, is 
 but too commonly apparent, and this may have 
 interfered even with the just claims of many an 
 enlightened investigator. The diversities of opinion 
 are also partly to be attributed to a needless com- 
 plication of the question : the connection, by many 
 writers, of the ideas of fitness and beauty, as cause 
 and effect, of admiration and love (by Burke), of 
 physical and moral exceflence (by Shaftesbury, 
 Winkelmann, and others), though conceivable in an 
 abstract sense, has furnished but indifferent ele- 
 ments for a process of discrimination. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 357 
 
 But the greatest practical evil has arisen from 
 the confusion of the principles which are essentially 
 proper to the different arts. The often quoted 
 expression of Cicero — “ all the arts which belong to 
 humanity have a certain common bond ” — may 
 represent many truisms of the kind, which, in their 
 misapplication, have been the fruitful source either 
 of false theories or of empty generalisations. The 
 temporary ascendency of any one of the fine arts 
 has commonly involved a partial adoption, by the 
 rest, of its methods and aims ; this tendency, which 
 must ever recur, requires no incitement, but rather 
 the salutary restrictions which a reference to the 
 characteristics of each art might suggest. 
 
 In undertaking an inquiry into this subject, it 
 appeared, therefore, desirable to class the chief 
 propositions according to their direct and definite 
 scope ; leaving their connection, interchange, and 
 analogies, as ultimate deductions, to be considered 
 and employed or not, according to their fitness 
 to elucidate more distinct conclusions. It ap- 
 peared that a subdivision on this principle would 
 render it even more convenient to select for 
 further discussion those branches of the argument 
 which may have received less attention than they 
 deserve. The outline only of such a scheme is 
 here given, but it is believed that the objects and 
 limits of the question have been made apparent.* 
 
 * This observation has reference to the entire essay, a 
 portion only of which is here given. — E d. 
 
358 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The result may at least enable the reader of disqui- 
 sitions on taste, theories of beauty, and essays on 
 the philosophy of the arts, to form a tolerably 
 clear idea of the department to which every such 
 fuller inquiry belongs, and to estimate its preten- 
 sions to completeness accordingly. It will now 
 be asked, to what entire plan is the term “ depart- 
 ment ” to be referred ? what should be the principle 
 of arrangement ? The answer to this question 
 supplies the groundwork of the analysis which has 
 been sketched in the following pages. 
 
 A method sometimes adopted by scientific 
 writers, in classing the sources and forms of 
 knowledge, is especially convenient in defining 
 and arranging the critical inquiries applicable to 
 the arts. The method in question recognises in all 
 impressions extending through sense to thought, 
 the varied attributes and influence of Subject, 
 Object, and Medium. The Subject is the human 
 percipient, the contemplator : the Object is the 
 thing or fact contemplated : the Medium is that 
 which transmits it to the mind. 
 
 For the domain of the arts, this definition is 
 sufficiently comprehensive. It may only be neces- 
 sary to add, that the Medium is partly external; 
 partly, and in a physical sense, belonging to the 
 human percipient. Thus, sounds are conveyed 
 partly by the air, partly by the sense of hearing ; 
 but each is a Medium only and altogether passive. 
 This passive character may be sometimes predi- 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 359 
 
 cable even of higher attributes in the percipient 
 when they fulfil a mediate office. 
 
 It may be further remarked that the Medium, 
 whatever be its limits, and even the Subject, may 
 be considered in and for themselves ; and, under 
 such circumstances, they assume a relatively objec- 
 tive character. The Subject, in its own character, 
 is essentially and alone active. 
 
360 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE OBJECT. 
 
 The “ Object,” in tlie sense above explained, 
 and in reference to the inquiry proposed, may be 
 examined in two points of view, as comprehend- 
 ing, — 1. The characteristics of nature ; 2. The 
 characteristics of art. 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURE. 
 
 The external world, considered in its limited con- 
 nexion with the fine arts, is chiefly known to us by 
 means of two senses — those of seeing; and hearing. 
 To these some have proposed to add the sense of 
 touch ; * but the finer perceptions of surface which 
 that organ can convey, are, for all aesthetic pur- 
 poses, superseded by the perfect exercise of vision. 
 It is also to be understood that in a question 
 concerning the elements of beauty, the impres- 
 sions referable to the sense of hearing cannot be 
 taken into account ; they are, therefore, rarely 
 alluded to in this first chapter. The relation of 
 
 * A. W. Yon Schlegel, Vorlesungen liber Theorie und 
 Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste. Berliner Conversations- 
 Blatt, 1827. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 361 
 
 nature to the formative arts alone is the subject 
 proposed. 
 
 The qualities which constitute the elements of 
 those arts may be reduced to form, colour, and 
 light, as exhibited in the organic and inorganic 
 world. Of these, form may be said to comprehend 
 the most definite and universally applicable prin- 
 ciples, and therefore claims our attention first. 
 
 The definition of any given fact in the outward 
 world, in its relation to the sense of sight, is ar- 
 rived at when that assemblge of qualities which 
 constitutes its distinctness from all other facts 
 is made intelligible. The definition of visible 
 characteristics, with this view, is accomplished, in 
 a great degree, by the comparative anatomist, the 
 botanist, and other votaries of science : such inves- 
 tigators may consequently render more or less ser- 
 vice to the artist. But the paths of the two classes 
 of inquirers soon diverge ; to the painter such re- 
 searches are not an end, but a means : on the one 
 hand, his attention is invited by the infinite variety 
 of nature no less than by her order and method ; 
 and, on the other, his selection of distinguishing 
 facts has a wider application than the mere pur- 
 poses of recognition or the mere fidelity of repre- 
 sentation. He regards the prominent character- 
 istics of objects not as isolated details, but rather 
 in their arrangements and relations. When, there- 
 fore, we here speak of characteristic qualities, in 
 reference to the productions of nature, it is always 
 
362 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 to be understood that the term comprehends the 
 idea of a whole, and that the prominent qualities 
 are supposed to be considered in their relation to 
 the general appearance. This mode of observation 
 may indeed be considered common to the zoologist 
 and to the artist ; but the latter, in one sense, goes 
 further. 
 
 He may conclude, for instance, that the visible 
 qualities in an object which are truly its own, con- 
 stitute the relative beauty of that object. The 
 qualities may, or may not, be intrinsically beautiful, 
 but, such as they are, they represent the outward 
 recommendations of that particular example. At- 
 tributes which are strictly proper to the individual, 
 and which, consequently, are never literally re- 
 peated, have a double use : they establish the 
 relative completeness of the individual, and, by 
 their variety and gradation in a more general 
 view, they serve to define the highest examples of 
 character.* Inferior organisations are, therefore, 
 not only aesthetically admissible, but, in a scheme 
 of order, indispensable. Nature aims at distinctness, 
 
 * “ Keiner sey gleich dem andern, doch gleich sey Jeder dem 
 Hochsten ! 
 
 Wie das zu machen 1 Es sey Jeder vollendet in sich.” 
 
 Schiller. 
 
 Let none be like to another, yet let each resemble the 
 highest ! 
 
 But how to accomplish this ? Say : — let each be complete 
 in himself. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 363 
 
 and attains it not merely by strongly marked dif- 
 ferences, but by imperfect approaches to each lead- 
 ing type, which serve to give it value. It is only 
 by such means that we can measure excellence, the 
 larger differences serving to rectify the results of 
 confined experience — the lesser teaching the process 
 of comparison ; and thus the method of nature 
 appears to have a relation to the mind of the 
 human investigator. The gradations and differences 
 
 o o 
 
 which are presented to us in the visible world 
 render comparison possible ; and comparison, with 
 the aid of such materials, necessarily ends in selec- 
 tion and preference, since nature points out with 
 sufficient clearness where she has most completed 
 her intentions.'* 
 
 To this principle is partly to be referred the 
 unsatisfactory impression which intermediate and 
 almost ambiguous conformations produce — an im- 
 pression derived, in a great measure, from the 
 mere appearance, and which it is important here to 
 separate from the consideration of habits or origin. 
 We feel, with regard to such examples, that even 
 their best qualities are displayed in greater per- 
 
 * Those who have looked into these questions may perhaps 
 conclude that the above view, though sufficiently conformable 
 to Locke’s philosophy, is less consonant to that of Leibnitz 
 and Kant : but the division of this inquiry into its objective 
 and subjective elements, renders it possible to keep the conclu- 
 sions derived from the observation of nature distinct from the 
 doctrine of innate faculties. The latter are, therefore, only 
 slightly alluded to in the above passage. 
 
364 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fection elsewhere ; and, on the same ground, we 
 consider those examples the purest which represent 
 the consummate state of character. 
 
 From the above considerations it will appear that 
 the process of comparison, with a view to the defini- 
 tion of character, supposes a reference to examples, 
 exhibiting a due difference of kind, as well as a dif- 
 ference of degree. Where the difference is too 
 great, a relation is not apparent, and the definition 
 will be too vague ; where it is inconsiderable, the 
 definition will not rise to essentials. The following 
 examples will illustrate this. 
 
 What may be called the representative or arche- 
 typal form in animals, is arrived at not merely by 
 comparing individuals of the same species together, 
 but by comparing them with other creatures which, 
 decidedly, but not radically, differ from them. 
 There can be little doubt that this was the prin- 
 ciple which enabled the Greeks so constantly to 
 arrest the great characteristics of human beauty. 
 Their process in this respect is more especially 
 evident in their representations of what were 
 called divinities. Making every allowance for the 
 powers of gifted artists, and the excellence of 
 models, the supernatural, yet beautiful, treatment 
 of the human form, which some of the finest 
 antique statues present, is only to be explained 
 on the principle above noticed. That form, as 
 the most complete development of its class, can 
 only be so elevated by departing (as far as the 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 385 
 
 verge of possible, or rather, conceivable, nature 
 warrants) from the characteristics of inferior 
 animals. It can be so elevated with perfect success, 
 because it is the only instance in which a type may 
 slightly overpass its own characteristics without 
 encroaching on, or too closely resembling, those of 
 another. 
 
 As regards the study of anatomy, those who 
 hesitate to believe that the ancients were accus- 
 tomed to dissect human subjects still grant, without 
 difficulty, that they dissected other animals. It 
 appears altogether unreasonable, in the presence of 
 the Greek statues, to refuse to the artists who pro- 
 duced them a thorough knowledge of the structure 
 of the human figure ; at the same time it may be 
 admitted that it is precisely the study of com- 
 parative anatomy, which would best enable them 
 to define, and therefore to exaggerate when neces- 
 sary, the human characteristics. Winckelmann 
 supposes that the ancient artists studied the forms 
 of inferior animals with a view to embellish the 
 human figure in another sense, and refers to the 
 heads of Jupiter and Hercules (in which he 
 thought he recognised the characteristics of the 
 
 O O 
 
 lion and the bull), as instances. Sir Charles Bell, 
 who objects to this view, observes in reference to 
 it : “ The theory goes to establish the fact, that the 
 artists studied the form of brutes in comparison 
 with that of man ; and I hold it to be an inevitable 
 consequence of such a comparison, that they should 
 
366 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 discover that the perfection of the human form was 
 to be attained, by avoiding what was characteristic 
 of the inferior animals, and increasing the propor- 
 tions of those features which belong to man.”* 
 
 In fixing the archetypal form of other animals 
 there would be less difficulty. The human being, 
 considered outwardly, can be compared with no- 
 thing above him ; but every other creature has 
 links on either side connecting it doubly with the 
 rest of the animate world. When compared with 
 these, its own proper and peculiar conformation is 
 more easily defined ; but, at the same time, it is 
 less susceptible of exaggeration. The Jupiter of 
 Greek sculpture is more than human ; | but the 
 quadruped is the complete type of its class, no- 
 thing more4 The ancient artists, from their intro- 
 ducing the horse so constantly in their decorative 
 sculpture, appear to have considered that animal 
 
 * Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, p. 63. 
 
 t The angle which the line of the profile forms with the 
 horizon has been estimated at 100° in the heads of such 
 statues ; in nature the same angle is about 85°. The angle of 
 90° is not uncommon in the Greek statues. Blumenbach, 
 Camper, White and others, who have given these comparisons, 
 may have been mistaken in their principle of measurement, but 
 the relative difference between nature and the antique statues 
 may be considered tolerably correct. 
 
 J The author of “ The Anatomy of Expression” (p. 125.), 
 justly finds fault with Giulio Homan o, for giving a human 
 character to his horses. See also “ B. H. Haydon, Comparison 
 of the Head of one of the Horses of Lysippus, with the Head 
 of the Elgin Horse, 1818.” 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 367 
 
 as the most perfect of quadrupeds. The system 
 of comparison above alluded to would tend to this 
 conclusion. 
 
 The first outward general quality which we look 
 for in a brute is, that he should possess nothing 
 strikingly in common with the human being. But in 
 order that this impression should be produced, a 
 relation to the human form must still be apparent, 
 otherwise the process of comparison cannot take 
 place. The non-humanity must be complete ; yet, 
 as the expression intimates, the points of difference 
 must be traceable. A hedge-liog, a sloth, or a bat, 
 would offer a greater contrast, but a contrast with 
 no perceptible relation. An ourang-outang, on 
 the other hand, would be offensively near; and 
 the faculty of comparison (without reference to 
 our human objections) could, in such a case, be 
 hardly called into action. This is the more dwelt 
 on as it may serve as an introduction to the sub- 
 jective discussion, elsewhere undertaken, of the 
 theory of relations — of such, especially, as are 
 adapted to the general range of the human mind, 
 and which, when felt, are an immediate source of 
 agreeable impressions. 
 
 The chief difference in the skull of the brute 
 from that of man, is the length and size of the jaw 
 — the organ which, besides the purposes of tearing 
 or masticating food, serves the animal instead of 
 hands. In ordinary instances the area of the 
 brute's face, in consequence of this length of the 
 
368 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 jaw, is about double that of the cranium ; it is 
 almost triple in some cases, and is nearly four times 
 as large in the horse.* On the other hand, the 
 extreme flatness of the muscle of the jaw, which is 
 so striking in the horses of Greek sculpture, marks 
 the graminivorous as opposed to the carnivorous 
 animal. Again, the horse differs from those qua- 
 drupeds whose heel touches the ground (the plan- 
 tigrades), and who, in that respect, approach the 
 human being. So, with regard to the hand ; with 
 the exception of some of the monkey tribe, no 
 animal besides man has the thumb ; the brute tears 
 but cannot properly grasp. Still, the remote resem- 
 blance to the hand which more or less divided ex- 
 tremities exhibit, is apparent in most quadrupeds, 
 large and small ; but this resemblance disappears 
 entirely in the horse : in the language of com- 
 parative anatomists, he is furnished with one 
 finger only at the extremity of each limb, and 
 walks on the nail of that finger. He thus 
 establishes his “ non-humanity ” beyond all his 
 competitors, yet remains within those limits which 
 render the difference appreciable to the eye. 
 
 It was observed that the brute, unlike the human 
 being, has links on either side, which serve to de- 
 fine his character. Thus, if we compare the horse 
 with quadrupeds generally, we find that he wants, 
 
 * Lawrence, Notes to Blumenbach’s Manual of Comparative 
 Anatomy. Second edition, 1827, p. 17. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 369 
 
 in a greater degree than any other, the power of 
 tearing with his extremities ; that his means of 
 defence are in his heels, and that, in order to direct 
 them, his eye is prominent sideways. The horse 
 may thus be said to represent the antitype at once 
 to the erect animal, and to the varieties of his im- 
 mediate class. If, however, he is emphatically the 
 quadruped, the lion represents the carnivorous quad- 
 ruped, and commands respect for other reasons ; 
 his generosity indeed, is, according to naturalists, 
 a fable ; but the majesty of his appearance is 
 unquestionable. Recommendations which may be 
 referable to moral attributes or associations are, 
 for the present, purposely omitted ; the animation 
 of the courser, without any great power to hurt, is 
 a quality of this description, and is therefore not 
 dwelt on.* 
 
 * The above view is directly opposed to the doctrine, that 
 beauty consists in the “average” form — the theory of Buffier 
 and Reynolds. The example which the latter gives is 
 plausible ; he supposes that the average form of the leaves of a 
 tree would be the archetypal form ; but when he comes to the 
 human races he finds his principle inapplicable. Indeed, it is 
 plain that if the European standard is the best (which a larger 
 comparison proves), that form would rather lose than gain by 
 being mixed up with the Esquimaux, Calmuc, and other races ; 
 the same may be said of the leaves ; the best form would gain 
 nothing by being mixed up with the rest. In his discourses, 
 Reynolds frequently observes, that individual forms (that is, all 
 forms) are more or less defective ; which none will deny : yet, 
 according to his theory, the average of defects would be 
 excellence. This illustrates further the proposition above 
 stated, that the comparison of differences in degree, which are 
 
 B B 
 
370 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The foregoing prominent instances are intended 
 to show that beauty of form greatly depends on 
 character ; and that those examples are most beau- 
 tiful in which the independence and completeness 
 of character are most appreciable. The end or 
 purpose in nature is never to be questioned ; but 
 as human beings, we unavoidably prefer those ex- 
 amples which, besides their outward beauty, possess 
 recommendations derived from moral associations. 
 With respect to the process of comparison which has 
 been here illustrated, it is further to be noticed that 
 gradations in nature do not continue long in the 
 same features or qualities, but constantly change 
 their place. This fact, while it involves the neces- 
 sity of considering characteristics in the mass and 
 the appearance as a whole, shows that it is not 
 possible (as some physiologists have supposed) to 
 establish a scale by following the changes of a 
 single organ. 
 
 A second principle, which the observation of 
 nature teaches, is, that the characteristic qualities 
 of the object are, generally, also those which fit it 
 for its end.* The proposition is thus qualified, 
 
 often infinitely complicated (inasmuch as the points in which 
 one creature excels, another may fall short in), cannot fix 
 essentials. To arrive at the latter, a criterion beyond the 
 minor varieties must be assumed ; they then fall into order, 
 and their highest type is definable. 
 
 * It is not necessary to infer, with Camper and others, that 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 371 
 
 because it cannot be at present affirmed that this 
 correspondence is universally apparent, even to sci- 
 entific observers ; but the increasing knowledge of 
 nature is constantly opening up new facts, by means 
 of which zoologists are enabled, more and more, to 
 trace the connection between the most apparently 
 useless organs and the wants of the creature to 
 which they belong. Whenever these investigators 
 are sufficiently acquainted with the habits of a 
 creature, they find that the form announces those 
 habits : so that, when the structure alone is known, 
 as in the case of fossil remains, the corresponding 
 habits can, to a great extent, be described. 
 
 The imitation of nature, in the largest sense, is 
 in no respect more difficult than in the adaptation 
 of this principle to what may be called a new 
 creation — such as architecture. It is always desir- 
 able that the purpose of a work of this class should 
 be intelligible from its form ; it is, at least, essential 
 that, when that purpose is known, the form should 
 not contradict it. This correspondence of fitness 
 with character is the great problem of creative art, 
 as it is a general excellence in nature. Where the 
 two requisites cannot be combined in a perfect 
 manner, the human artist has to choose which of 
 the two shall predominate. It may be remarked 
 that in such cases the Greeks commonly preferred 
 
 beauty, whether relative or absolute, is the result of such 
 fitness : the two attributes, fitness and beauty, are, in nature, 
 merely correlative. 
 
 b b 2 
 
372 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 character to fitness ; the genius of the moderns 
 prefers fitness to character. The end proposed, in 
 this indirect imitation of nature, is not that useful 
 things shall be abstractedly and absolutely beautiful, 
 but only that they shall express their purpose, and 
 appear what they are : they then cannot fail to be 
 relatively beautiful. This question will be more 
 fully considered in the next division of the subject 
 — the characteristics of art. 
 
 We now come to a higher criterion by means of 
 which the relative beauty, hitherto considered, in 
 the works of nature, and consequently in those of 
 imitative art, may be tested. 
 
 Life is pre-eminently an element of beauty. The 
 word presents at once to the imagination the ideas 
 of movement, of energy, and of bloom ; the fact 
 itself constitutes the greatest and most admirable 
 attribute of nature. The arts may be said to derive 
 their chief interest and effect directly or indirectly 
 from this source, and it will therefore be desirable 
 to trace its connexion with the world which they 
 reproduce. 
 
 The visible effects of life are observable in move- 
 ment, form, and colour : of these, form again invites 
 our attention more especially, as exhibiting the 
 most definite results. What, then, in reference to 
 this attribute, are the chief phenomena of life ? 
 What are its visible indications \ We are first 
 aware that it is a force acting in opposition to cer- 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 373 
 
 tain other forces, which latter in the end overcome 
 it and destroy the machinery which it animated.' 5 ' 
 The presence of this vital energy distinguishes what 
 are called organic bodies* The external forces, 
 such as attraction, chemical combination, heat, elec- 
 tricity, &c., suffice, in the order of nature, to form, 
 as well as to destroy, inorganic bodies, many of 
 which consist in mere molecular aggregation ; but 
 life, whether on the minutest or the largest scale, 
 proceeds only from life.f We next observe that 
 the resistance to the outward forces is maintained, 
 in animals, by absorption, respiration, and digestion ; 
 in vegetables, by the two former alone.:): Up to a 
 
 certain point this nourishment has the effect of 
 developing the structure and force of the creature ; 
 but having attained and passed its acme of vitality, 
 it offers less and less resistance to the externa] forces. 
 
 Thus (if we regard the outward energies as a 
 single principle), a living form, considered merely 
 as such, is the arena where two contending forces 
 dispute the victory, and is also the index of their 
 alternate superiority. If we suppose the passive 
 substance to be represented by a flexible line, that 
 line would exhibit the effects of the opposition above 
 described quite intelligibly. Two contrasting forces, 
 
 * Cuvier, Legons d’Anatomie Comparee. 
 
 t Cuvier, Ibid. Compare Dumeril, Elemens des Sciences 
 Naturelles. 
 
 $ Botanists now hesitate to exclude digestion from the 
 vegetable functions. Compare Lindley, Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
374 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 sometimes nearly balanced, at others exercising an 
 unequal but never sudden stress, would necessarily 
 produce alternating and varying curves ; and the 
 maximum of partial stress which would take place 
 during the brief ascendency of one of the forces 
 would be apparent in a corresponding maximum of 
 curvature, in reference to the entire line. This 
 figurative view is borne out by fact in cases where 
 less complicated operations permit the observation. 
 The external forces of nature are always more or 
 less opposed, not only to life, but to each other; 
 these antagonising impulses are the immediate, ap- 
 preciable, and, in some cases, even controllable 
 causes of a variety of graceful forms, similar to 
 those that have even now been supposed. Attrac- 
 tion is the chief principle which produces these 
 effects, from the bend of the feather to the path 
 of the planet. In a statement which requires no 
 extreme scientific accuracy of expression, such move- 
 ments and curves might be said to indicate the life 
 of inorganic nature. In fact, the ebb and flow of 
 the ocean, and the ceaseless alternations which 
 sustain the freshness of the universe, have been 
 often compared to the pulsations of vitality ; by 
 some of the ancients the energies were even believed 
 to be identical. ^ 
 
 * The principle of regularity is most observable in nature 
 in the changes of time : its appearance in form will be noticed 
 hereafter. It may be remarked, that the circulation of the 
 blood is not even confined, as Cuvier supposed, to vertebrate 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS, 
 
 375 
 
 A variously undulating curve may therefore be 
 proposed as a visible type of life : such a form is 
 constantly found in nature as the indication and 
 concomitant of life itself. It was this which Hogarth 
 detected in various examples, without tracing it to 
 its source. His illustrations are often excellent, but 
 the type itself which he adopted was singularly un- 
 fortunate. His “ line of beauty” constantly repeats 
 itself, and is therefore devoid of variety or elasticity, 
 the never-failing accompaniments of perfect vitality. 
 The wave — often selected as an ornamental type by 
 the ancients — beginning with a scarcely perceptible 
 inflexion and culminating in a volute ; or the flame 
 — a pyramid # or cone bounded by ever mutable 
 curves — would have been more adapted to his 
 purpose. The perpetual change which contrasting 
 forces produce on flexible forms is well exemplified 
 in the movements of the serpent — the emblem of 
 life throughout the pagan world. f 
 
 animals ; it is now known to take place in insecta. Compare 
 Owen, Hunterian Lectures, vol. i. p. 222. 
 
 * “ Satan — Springs upward like a pyramid of fire.” Par. 
 Lost, B. ii. 
 
 t Plutarch (de Iside et Osiride), perhaps repeating the 
 common opinion of the ancients, explains this from the fact 
 that the serpent casts its skin frequently, thus appearing to be 
 renovated. A more obvious reason, though still requiring 
 explanation, is the very ancient identity, in the Semitic 
 languages, of the words equivalent to serpent (perhaps also 
 worm) and life. The frequent use of the symbol in ancient art 
 and mythology is well known. The attribute of Esculapius, 
 the restorer of life, is a serpent ; the serpent on the trunk 
 
376 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The curves that have been alluded to are distin- 
 guished from all those, however fit for the creative 
 arts, which are described or evolved according to 
 a given and uninterrupted law ; for the varieties of 
 line which are the result of growth, of pulsation, of 
 vital tension or expansion, are incalculable from any 
 given portion of such line. Hence, although cor- 
 rectness of imitation alone can seize the character 
 of living forms, it is important to remember what 
 they are not: whenever a line, supposed to be en- 
 dowed with life of any kind, approaches a geometric 
 or regular curve, we may conclude that it is false. 
 An approach to the straight line, serving by its 
 rigidity to give value to the inflected portions, is 
 far more true to nature ; but no apparent angle is to 
 be detected in the outline of the healthy living form. 
 
 From the above definition of the “line of beauty” 
 a more generally applicable conclusion is derived. 
 The line which has no two points of inflexion 
 exactly alike necessarily presents a principal portion 
 
 which supports the Apollo is best explained as characterising 
 the sun, the giver of life. Minerva feeding a serpent typifies 
 the spirit of the universe nourishing the vital energies of 
 nature. In Egypt we find the symbol in architecture : the 
 door of every temple is ornamented with a device consisting of 
 a globe (the sun 1) whence issue serpents, the whole finishing 
 with wings ; this might have been intended to represent, in the 
 pagan sense, the giver of life, life, and motion. Life, as the 
 chief natural good, was the essence of the pagan religion ; and 
 the connection between that religion and the principle of 
 beauty in ancient art is thus intelligible. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 377 
 
 of nearly unvarying continuity, as regards its extent , 
 and a maximum of elevation or depression, as re- 
 gards its direction (the only attributes it possesses) ; 
 so that, however varied, it exhibits both wholly and 
 partially the principle of greater and less, of chief 
 and subordinate qualities. This principle, the source 
 both of nature's unceasing novelty and unity, and 
 the secret of that repose which the eye requires, 
 is applicable to all works of art, creative as well as 
 imitative, and this is the chief sense in which the 
 indirect imitation of nature is to be understood. # 
 The ideas of gradation and culmination thus esta- 
 blish the connexion between the idea of life, and 
 that of beauty ; and are consequently essential 
 elements of art : moreover, it will readily be seen 
 that the principle of culmination represents the 
 abstract nature of character : for both the longest 
 portion of nearly undeviating continuity in a line, 
 and the acme of elevation in the whole curve, are 
 
 * “ The same right judgment which proscribes two equal 
 lights forbids any two objects to be introduced of equal 
 magnitude or force, so as to appear to be competitors for the 
 attention of the spectator. This is common ; but I do not 
 think it quite so common to extend the rule so far as it ought 
 to be extended ; even in colours, whether of the warm or cold 
 kind, there should be one of each which should be apparently 
 principal, and predominate over the rest. It must be observed 
 even in drapery ; two folds of the same drapery must not be of 
 equal magnitude.” — Reynolds, Notes to Du Fresnoy . 
 
 The necessary contradiction of the above principle in archi- 
 tecture, where forms are exactly repeated, will be considered 
 hereafter. 
 
378 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 only conspicuous because they have a character of 
 their own, with the impression of which nothing 
 interferes. 
 
 Two general principles have now been arrived 
 at by means of which opinions respecting beauty of 
 form may be estimated.* The first is, the con- 
 formity of the creature to its archetypal or normal 
 structure. The second and more largely applicable 
 criterion is, the evidence or indication of life (not 
 necessarily accompanied by motion) which forms 
 may present. All the productions of nature are 
 beautiful : the zoologist or the painter who studies 
 any single example finds it to be a world in itself, 
 and discovers in each, as in all, not only the most 
 perfect adaptation of means to ends, but the most 
 picturesque and graceful arrangements. Our ordi- 
 nary impressions, however, are more rapid and com- 
 parative, and the apparent absence or imperfect 
 evidence of life (in the sense above explained), in 
 some creatures, appears to be a chief reason why 
 we do not consider such examples as pre-eminently 
 beautiful. Most of us, and especially artists, are 
 reluctant to approach the criticism of nature. It 
 would, indeed, be easy to select specimens of crea- 
 tures which, from associations of dread or disgust, 
 
 * The remaining and minor principle — the agreement of 
 character and fitness — is most applicable, as already observed, 
 to works of creative art ; it is therefore not further alluded to 
 at present. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 379 
 
 would be universally admitted to be repulsive ; but 
 this would not be consistent with the abstract prin- 
 ciples here attempted to be illustrated. The few 
 examples given are purposely chosen without refer- 
 ence to such impressions ; some, indeed, though 
 not expressive of life, are beautiful in our eyes from 
 other causes. 
 
 The hide of the rhinoceros may be admired for 
 its fitness ; but as it scarcely indicates vitality, it is 
 deemed less beautiful than a skin which exhibits 
 the mutable effects of muscular elasticity. The 
 woolly, shaggy coverings of various animals, how- 
 ever useful, and often agreeable to the eye, are 
 scarcely expressive of life under ordinary circum- 
 stances. The plumage of the denizens of air, how- 
 ever beautiful in itself, is too dense to exhibit the 
 movements of the living surface underneath ; this is 
 compensated, in some instances, by graceful general 
 forms, which their clothing does not at all conceal. 
 The indurated coverings and appendages of some 
 creatures are unchangeable ; though, in many, 
 especially on a minute scale, the absence of ap- 
 parent vitality is compensated by a more regular 
 development of form or colour. In all such cases, 
 the beauty, such as it is, of the skin, plumage, horn, 
 or shell, is more or less independent of life, and 
 may be said to be equally striking apart from the 
 animal. Again, when the living surface, though 
 covered only by a pellicle, exhibits no variety, no 
 qualities of life independent of mere motion, nor 
 
380 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 even the compensating, though inferior recom- 
 mendation, of an architectural symmetry, the crea- 
 ture may be consistently classed with the less 
 beautiful examples. So with regard to structure ; 
 the legs of birds, necessarily light and slender to 
 diminish their weight, are, in their general form, 
 inexpressive of vitality ; this is especially remark- 
 able in the long, stem-like limbs of the grallce — the 
 stork, ibis, and flamingo. The apparent approach 
 to an inferior organisation is often observable on a 
 large scale : the limbs of the elephant and of some 
 other quadrupeds, when motionless, resemble in- 
 animate substances. A similar departure from 
 general character in the vegetable world affects 
 the mind disagreeably, apart from more accidental 
 associations : trees or plants which, from their age 
 or the peculiarity of their growth, exhibit the rugged 
 angularity of still more sluggish substances, or 
 approach the uniform development that sometimes 
 characterises inorganic productions, are less beauti- 
 ful than those which retain the indications of their 
 origin and express their general organic nature. 5 * 
 
 In these instances, again, imperfect indications of 
 life are also imperfect indications of character — of 
 that general character, namely, which belongs to 
 the organic world. It was before remarked that 
 the characteristic qualities of an object constitute 
 the relative beauty of that object, and this holds 
 
 * Compare “ Cicognara, Del Bello, Firenze, 1808, Ragion. 
 primo.” 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 381 
 
 true in a higher sense in proportion to the excel- 
 lence of the attribute. But although the examples 
 above pointed out may be deficient in beauty, inas- 
 much as they fail in a most essential quality, it by 
 no means follows that they may not be agreeable 
 from other compensating causes. Their inferior, 
 relative beauty, depending on their own individual 
 or class characteristics, may be passed over, as its 
 claims have been already considered. The ele- 
 phant, with his objectionable legs and inexpressive 
 hide, may still be supposed to be a very normal 
 specimen, and may be interesting accordingly. 
 But there are more positive sources of agreeable 
 impressions to be recognised in many objects of the 
 description above alluded to, still independent of 
 accidental associations. 
 
 In regard to birds, for example, the graceful 
 forms which they may sometimes want in certain 
 portions of their mere structure, are still described 
 (and though momentarily most impressively) by 
 their movements in air. Their march on terra 
 firma may be admitted to be ungainly ; but many 
 that are restricted in their powers of flight, assert 
 their pretensions to grace by the freedom of their 
 action, especially observable in their flexible necks, 
 when on the liquid element. Again, there are 
 causes of graceful movements and forms, which we 
 have ventured to call the life of inorganic nature ; 
 these, by their operation on flexible substances, 
 produce appearances similar to those of life. The 
 
382 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 longer plumage of birds may bend, the hair and 
 manes of some animals may wave or curl inde- 
 pendent of vitality, since the effects exist apart 
 from it. The beauty of colours also is, or may be, 
 independent of life ; for we find the productions of 
 the inorganic world, and even the most inert sub- 
 stances, often brilliant in their hues. Light is 
 another cause, when, besides its ordinary and uni- 
 versal office, it produces resplendent effects on the 
 glossy coats of quadrupeds or on plumage. 
 
 As observed at the outset, the associations de- 
 rived from the experience of the other senses, and 
 even of the sense of hearing, are purposely omitted 
 in this examination of the abstract question, since 
 the beautiful has relation to the organ of sight 
 alone ; but they are by no means to be left out of 
 the account in tracing the causes of agreeable' 
 emotions generally. Indeed, although the sources 
 of such impressions are thus varied and compli- 
 cated throughout nature, the distribution does not 
 affect the elements of beauty : we recognise only 
 in that distribution a principle of compensation 
 which enhances the variety of nature's works, and 
 multi plies their attractions in our eyes.* 
 
 * “ Though richest hues the peacock’s plumes adorn, 
 
 Yet horror screams from his discordant throat. 
 
 Rise, sons of harmony, and hail the morn, 
 
 While warbling larks on russet pinions float.” 
 
 Beattie , Minstrel. 
 
 The same principle of compensation, or distribution of 
 interest in human eyes, appears to exist in lower forms of 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 383 
 
 The claims of the different races of human beings 
 in regard to external recommendations, may be 
 partly estimated by the two standards before ad- 
 verted to. The first test — conformity to the arche- 
 typal structure, as defined by a comparison with, 
 and departure from, the quadruped- — is decidedly 
 favourable to the European. The second— -the 
 evidence of life — still awards the palm to the 
 European ; and, as soon as it is admitted by Negro 
 philosophers, may be considered conclusive. Ac- 
 cording to that criterion, what is called the white 
 skin is more beautiful than the black, because it 
 more readily exhibits indications of life and indi- 
 cations of emotion. The finer varieties of light and 
 shade are more apparent on a light surface than 
 on a dark one ; and delicate mantlings of colour, 
 whether the result of action or passion, are more 
 perceptible on it for the same reason. Those who 
 are familiar with the black races are well aware 
 that their skin does exhibit changes, from exertion 
 and from the affections of the mind ; but the ques- 
 tion is one of degree only, and it is to be remem- 
 bered that by the term “ white ” we are not neces- 
 sarily to understand the palest examples (for on 
 such the effect of strong light is rather to efface the 
 
 organisation. Insects (says Cuvier) have no voice; but some 
 produce sounds by the action of their wings, or, like the 
 cricket, by other means. The butterfly tribe are mute ; but 
 the unsightly beetle is known to every poet by his twilight 
 song. 
 
384 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 markings), but rather the warmer hue which is 
 common in the south of Europe. 
 
 The abstract idea of form — circumscribed space 
 — supposes such extent to be bounded either by 
 straight or curved lines, or by both. The nature 
 of the curves, which are appropriated to the ex- 
 pression of life, have been already considered. 
 The forms, which are entirely bounded by straight 
 lines, occur only in the inorganic world. The 
 principle of the straight line — equality and im- 
 mutability — is the antithesis to vital elasticity ; 
 and thus, in the largest comparison of the works 
 of nature, it gives value to the forms of life. Un- 
 changeable in itself, it can only serve to build up 
 substances by means of angles, expressing rather 
 the juxtaposition than the organic union of dif- 
 ferent elements. Forms which combine regularity 
 and angularity, such as we find in crystals, may 
 be said to characterise the chief works of human 
 creation ; * these, though powerless to approach the 
 essentials of life (except in the imitation proposed 
 by the formative arts), can still adopt the principle 
 of order. 
 
 The symmetrical arrangement of the limbs, 
 which we find in examples of the higher develop- 
 ment of life, is essential to movement. An unequal 
 number of legs could only produce lameness, “ and 
 
 * Compare A. W. Von Schlegel, Vorlesungen, &c., before 
 quoted. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 385 
 
 there being two sides in the moving organs, there 
 are necessarily two in the sensitive organs, which 
 are mere portions of the same system/' * The at- 
 tention is diverted in nature from this repetition 
 of the limbs by their contrasted arrangement, and 
 by the position of the head ; but the equality dis- 
 appears with the first indication of that movement 
 for which it exists ; and, so far from being un- 
 pleasant, it excites an agreeable feeling of regu- 
 larity as a relief to the intricate forms which so 
 complicated a machine, when put in action, can 
 present. With the exception of some rudimentary 
 organs, I this symmetry stops, in the higher ex- 
 amples of organic forms, where it no longer serves 
 the purposes of locomotion ; but in less perfect 
 organisations, generally on a small scale, it is often 
 independent of such use, and combines the fuller 
 regularity of some inorganic productions with the 
 indications of inferior life. This kind of symmetry 
 is found among zoophytes £ and in flowers ; in 
 
 * Walker on Beauty, London, 1836. This writer, in refer- 
 ence to the point here noticed, successfully refutes Payne 
 Knight, who is unable to see why symmetry should exist in 
 animals and not in trees. 
 
 t The rudimentary forms which occur in animals, are sup- 
 posed by Cuvier to indicate, in some cases, the tendency of 
 nature to connect different genera. It was remarked by an 
 intelligent observer, that they seem to be left by nature to 
 keep up a right of way, 
 
 I “ All the Echini are admirable for the regular and - beau- 
 tiful pattern in which, as in a tesselated pavement, the 
 
386 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 quadrupeds, when it appears at all, the principle 
 is confined to the arrangement of their colours, 
 and does not affect their structure. On the whole 
 it appears that the method of nature, in the great 
 contrast between the organic and inorganic, cor- 
 responds with the system before noticed in con- 
 sidering the separation of classes of animals : the 
 wide diversities are reconciled by an indirect and 
 varied gradation. The march is, on the whole, 
 constant, but not always observed in the same 
 qualities or features ; whence an inexhaustible 
 variety presents itself to our view. It is also to 
 be observed, that the important changes are, in 
 many cases, distinguished by a greater interval ; 
 so that the gradation cannot be said to be literally 
 uninterrupted. 
 
 Colours, viewed under the effects of ordinary 
 light and atmosphere, may be considered according 
 to the same general principles. It is first to be 
 observed, that, like forms, they may or may not be 
 characteristic, and that no object would be im- 
 proved by means, however intrinsically agreeable, 
 which are never its own. Next, as to the idea of 
 life : creatures exhibit the hues with which nature 
 has clothed them in greatest brilliancy during the 
 period of consummate life and health. Bright red, 
 
 numerous calcareous pieces composing their globular crust are 
 arranged.” — Owen, Hunterian Lectures , vol. i. p. 117. 
 
 The regularity of some Stelleridae is no less remarkable. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 387 
 
 which by universal consent represents the idea of 
 life (perhaps from its identity with the hue of the 
 blood) is the colour which most stimulates the 
 organ of sight. The colours of flowers, in like 
 manner, indicate, or rather are, the acme of their 
 vitality. 
 
 In a question concerning beauty, nature can only 
 be consulted in reference to human beings ; but it 
 must not be forgotten that all creatures endowed 
 with sight are assisted by colours in distinguishing 
 obj ects for physical purposes ; for example, carni- 
 vorous animals may be supposed to discern their 
 prey from afar by its means ; in some cases even 
 the comparative absence of colour protects the 
 weaker from the stronger by its indistinctness. 
 
 Considered intrinsically, the physically stimu- 
 lating effect of colours fits them for a high office. 
 The varieties of forms, aided by all the relief which 
 light and shade can give, would be insufficient to 
 enable us to discern objects clearly without the aid 
 of colour. It appears that, throughout nature, 
 colour serves this purpose only ; and, if so, it may 
 be said to approach the abstract idea of distinct- 
 ness : there cannot be a better ground for consider- 
 ing it the chief auxiliary of beauty. As a source of 
 distinctness this adjunct gives importance to objects 
 in nature as it does in art ; yet, in examining the 
 result, we should consider not merely its distribu- 
 tion among objects, but its relation to human 
 vision, — for the question is, how far our attention 
 
 c c 2 
 
388 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 is attracted by it. In many cases, for example in 
 the brilliancy of glowing skies and the splendour 
 of light, the force of the impression does agree 
 with the excellence of the objects and their asso- 
 ciations. But innumerable instances might be 
 adduced from the animate and inanimate world, 
 where the emphasis of colour is lavished on things 
 to us comparatively indifferent. On this point it is 
 to be remarked, that the vivacity of tints, in flowers, 
 birds, and insects for example, is generally unob- 
 trusive, either from the minuteness of the objects, 
 their short duration, or their rapid movement ; 
 and that in climates where such hues occur on a 
 larger scale they are more sustained throughout 
 nature, so that the eye is not startled by them ; 
 they are, under such circumstances, far less con- 
 spicuous than when they are transported to a more 
 monotonous region. 
 
 But while this element of distinctness is not 
 obtrusive, while it gives no undue importance to 
 particular facts in creation, and while it does not 
 distract our attention by multiplying details, its 
 absolute beauty serves an interesting purpose in a 
 more general sense. That purpose has been often 
 acknowledged by writers who have given their 
 attention to higher subjects than taste : it appears 
 reasonable to conclude, and our grateful feelings 
 more than confirm the inference, that there are 
 facts in nature which, besides their connexion with 
 her ordinary economy, have an especial reference 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 389 
 
 to human faculties and sympathies. The song of 
 birds, the bloom of plants, the hues of morning and 
 evening, kindle emotions of admiration and hope, 
 and at once establish the existence of an aesthetic 
 sense independent of adventitious associations, since 
 they speak the same intelligible language to the 
 learned and the unlearned, and to all races of man- 
 kind. To this question we shall return in treating 
 of the subjective elements of taste. 
 
 Light may be considered as the representative of 
 an important element of beauty everywhere traceable 
 in nature ; and it is the more worthy of attention 
 since the fine and scarcely perceptible modifications 
 which it exhibits may serve to correct an exag- 
 gerated stress on distinctness of character. As the 
 type of gradation, it embodies and illustrates the 
 principle that no creature, no form, no colour 
 stands alone in nature ; but that every such result 
 is what it is by means of a chain of degrees attest- 
 ing either its relative or absolute excellence. Light 
 is, therefore, the abstract idea of that “ greater and 
 less ” which has before been illustrated in reference 
 to organic form. It is the antithesis to colour, 
 though its source. Colours, unbroken by the va- 
 rieties of light, differ in kind rather than in degree : 
 but they owe their harmony to gradation, and thus 
 only become adapted to the completeness of nature. 
 The effect of light on forms is the illustration and 
 epitome of the same principle. The boundary is 
 lost and found, and is commonly most relieved 
 
890 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 where it is most significant. The acme of splen- 
 dour is one ; for if repeated in brilliancy, it is 
 smaller in mass. The general appearance teaches 
 that unvaried sharpness, or unvaried softness, are 
 alike untrue ; that equal distinctness is, in its 
 ultimate impression, indistinctness ; and that where 
 all is salient, the prominent fact is still wanting. 
 
 We have now briefly considered the principal 
 aesthetic attributes of the organic and inorganic 
 world : we have traced the influence of two leading 
 principles of beauty — the visible evidence of cha- 
 racter in form, and the visible evidence of the higher 
 character of life : we have endeavoured to separate 
 these from other auxiliary sources of agreeable 
 impressions, such as the effect of colours and the 
 influences - derived from the memory of the other 
 senses. Lastly, all these elements have been kept 
 independent of accidental and remote associations, 
 since a reference to such sources of interest could 
 only serve to complicate the question and render 
 the interpretation of nature less possible. 
 
 A third criterion remains : it is applicable to 
 human beings and to them only. Human beauty 
 is then most complete, when it not only conforms to 
 the archetypal standard of its species, when it not 
 only exhibits in greatest perfection the attributes 
 of life, but when it most bears the impress of 
 MIND, controlling and spiritualising both. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 391 
 
 It is here that Greek art is found wanting : it is, 
 indeed, peculiarly expressive of mind, but not of 
 mind in its truest and holiest relation. Its classify- 
 ing system, applied to the animate creation, was all- 
 sufficient to define and elevate the outward human 
 being (inasmuch as that form can only be compared 
 with inferior organisations), but the definition of 
 the moral attributes required a criterion which 
 nature could not supply. The mere departure from 
 the instinct of the brute was insufficient to consti- 
 tute the moral human being. Still, it must be 
 admitted that Greek art is eminently dignified and 
 graceful, and that the high privilege of its intelligible 
 language is seldom abused. The chief elements of 
 mere beauty — the truly characteristic form, and the 
 fullness of life — are perfectly comprehended and 
 expressed in it ; they were arrested at the cul- 
 minating point and fixed in marble to represent 
 the immortals.^ The majestic mien and aspect, 
 the self-command, whether in gentle or in rapid 
 action, the grace and decorum of the sex, are all 
 comprehended in the definition of the human 
 character which nature supplied ; | but soul is 
 
 * Schelling, liber das Verhaltniss der bildenden Kiinste zu 
 der Natur. Mlinchen, 1807. 
 
 t See Griineisen, tlber das Sittlicbe der bildenden Kunst bei 
 den Griechen. Leipzig, 1833. Compare Jacobs (Yermischte 
 Scbriften, Leipzig, 1829), tlber die Erziehung der Hellenen zur 
 Sittlichkeit, and, Die Hellenische Frauen. These writers and 
 Bottiger take a middle course between the flattering descrip- 
 tions of Barth^lemy and the prejudiced views of De Pauw. 
 
392 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 wanting ; the true attributes of the moral being are 
 never approached. It may be questioned whether 
 the sculpture of the Greeks was not confined in its 
 aim almost as much by the nature of the art as by 
 the conditions of paganism. As it was, the ancients 
 seem to have felt the difficulty of combining ideas 
 of suffering with those of beauty and physical 
 power ; and they generally contrived to restrict the 
 expression of such ideas to the forms of early youth 
 or of age. But, if we may judge from the descrip- 
 tions of subjects and from inferior works which 
 remain, they observed the same principles in paint- 
 ing ; and this tends to show that they had not fully 
 comprehended or developed the powers of that art. 
 The less restricted means, and therefore less exclu- 
 sively abstract treatment of form, which painting, 
 as compared with sculpture, employs, its variety and 
 individuality of character, its command of colour and 
 light as vehicles of expression, and its “ power of 
 dealing with the eyes,”^ constitute a language which 
 leaves it free to assert the claims of the moral 
 human being consistently with the full use of the 
 best attributes of art. It was this high privilege 
 which, during the great epochs of its modern culture, 
 enabled painting more sensibly to define the relation 
 which in all ages has been vaguely felt to exist 
 
 The moral essence of Greek art is to be sought chiefly in those 
 works which adorned temples and public buildings. 
 
 * Sir Edmund Head, Preface to the Translation of Kugler’s 
 Handbook of the History of Painting, part ii. 
 
OP THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 393 
 
 between the beauties of nature and the moral go- 
 vernment of the universe ; for it w T as not till that 
 moral order had been fully revealed and its possible 
 connexion with finite conditions ratified, that the 
 relation could be distinctly felt. 
 
 The conclusion which the foregoing considera- 
 tions appear to warrant may be now briefly stated 
 as follows : Character is relative beauty : Life 
 
 IS THE HIGHEST CHARACTER : MlND IS THE HIGHEST 
 LIFE. 
 
 The first of these positions comprehends all nature. 
 Nothing is improved by departing from its charac- 
 ter : abnormal peculiarities are defects in rocks and 
 mountains, as well as in organised structures. It 
 is scarcely possible for any fact in creation to depart 
 from its own qualities without resembling, though, 
 of course, imperfectly resembling, something else, 
 and thus tending at once to confusion and incom- 
 pleteness. At the same time, it must not be over- 
 looked that the human being, whose characteristics 
 may, in one direction, be exaggerated without en- 
 croaching on other organisations, forms the single 
 exception to this rule. 
 
 And here an important aesthetic element may be 
 noticed, though it strictly belongs to the subjective 
 department of this inquiry. We find that a partial 
 and passing resemblance of things to what they 
 are not, is, within certain limits, and when we are 
 conscious of the illusion, often a source of agree- 
 
394 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 able emotions. The resemblance of clouds to 
 mountains, of rocks to romantic buildings, of 
 bending corn to waves, of sighing winds to 
 voices, may be said to contain the germs of 
 poetry.^ As regards the eye, appearances of this 
 kind are generally the effect of distance, of im- 
 perfect light, or of an imperfect medium. Even 
 under such circumstances we are pleased only 
 with ambiguity, not with literal misrepresentation. 
 In painting the employment of such materials 
 (which, as Cobbett said of metaphors, are edge- 
 tools) is the province of no ordinary inventor, 
 and no inexperienced workman : in sculpture they 
 have no place. | 
 
 This points out the difference between such 
 “ tricks of strong imagination” and the ideal in 
 art. The latter is only a larger and choicer 
 
 * Compare Alison, Essays on the Nature and Principles of 
 Taste, Edinburgh, 1817 ; and the article Beauty (Lord Jeffrey) 
 in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 f This conclusion is not invalidated by the mixed forms, 
 such as Centaurs, &c., of Greek sculpture. The ambiguity 
 above referred to is the temporary substitution of one idea for 
 another, not their permanent juxtaposition. The imagination 
 consents to the mixture of forms, in the latter sense, if they are 
 agreeable. The Centaur, it may be remarked, is only satisfac- 
 tory when the human portion, preserving the upright position, 
 agrees with the ordinary bend of the horse’s neck. There are 
 instances in sculpture w T here this is not observed, and where 
 the conformation at once degenerates to a monster. On the 
 same principle the eye no longer tolerates a Triton, when the 
 piscine portion contradicts the bend of the knees. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 395 
 
 reality ; it changes nature in degree but not in 
 kind ; it transfigures but does not transform : it is 
 founded, as shown in the preceding pages, on the 
 evidence of character and the indications of 
 life — both elements of distinctness, not of con- 
 fusion : the first separating the individual, and 
 subsequently the class, from all others ; the second 
 separating the organic from the inorganic, and 
 ultimately, the intellectual-organic from even the 
 highest mere vitality. 
 
 On the other hand, the confusion of appearances 
 begins when vision is imperfectly addressed, and 
 imagination takes its place. The result, it is 
 repeated, is agreeable only when we are aware of 
 the deception — when we make it for ourselves. 
 The process, whatever may suggest it, is, there- 
 fore, human creation, and may be carried on, from 
 the hints derived from without, in the imagination 
 alone : hence, it is a main element of poetry, and 
 shows that this art, essentially, as well as in its 
 form, belongs rather to the creative than to the 
 imitative class. 
 
 So with regard to the second criterion before 
 mentioned — the indications of life — there is no 
 saying where the recognition of this source of 
 agreeable impressions is to stop. We have seen 
 that there is a pervading force in nature producing 
 effects resembling those of organic life, and that 
 such effects are observable in movements as well as 
 in forms. 
 
396 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Again, although the attributes of mind are ex- 
 clusively human, they, too, have in some degree, 
 their reflections in other departments of creation. 
 The influence of associations, even when founded on 
 the ordinary experience of nature only, is almost 
 unlimited. Dignity and grace, as indications of 
 mental freedom and moral harmony, are attributes 
 of the highest human beauty ; but a healthy orga- 
 nisation and the sense of physical power may be 
 adequate to produce effects, at least resembling 
 them, in inferior animals. We are accustomed 
 to attribute dignity to the still lion, and grace to 
 the movements of various creatures. The imagi- 
 nation does not stop here, but, as our ordinary 
 language proves, invests all nature, whether in 
 repose or in action, with human qualities and 
 passions. 
 
 The influence of resemblances and of voluntary 
 illusion has been adverted to in this place in order 
 distinctly to separate the conclusions which have 
 been suggested by an analysis of the real, from the 
 doctrine of associations ; for that theory, however 
 important and true in its just relation to questions 
 of taste, should not be suffered to interfere with 
 the direct objective interpretation of nature. Its 
 inadequacy to solve certain other difficulties will be 
 noticed elsewhere. 
 
 The influence of the gradually ascending per- 
 manent tests before examined may serve to explain 
 the seeming paradox that objects are seldom recog- 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 397 
 
 nisecl by their essential qualities. * Indeed this is 
 true, in a certain sense, universally ; for the more 
 essential physical characteristics which distinguish 
 animals from each other are internal, while acci- 
 dental and, to our limited knowledge, useless ap- 
 pendages, increase towards the exterior, f It is, 
 however, with the exterior only that we have to do 
 in investigating the question of beauty. It is first 
 evident that the perfection of life, or the state which 
 most nearly approaches it, is of short duration, and 
 that, as regards each individual, it occurs but once ; 
 consequently the period of bloom could with no 
 propriety be called an average state. So with 
 regard to the outward indications of mind ; the 
 sunny glances of thought and feeling are brief, the 
 nights of apathy long, and the most frequent ex- 
 pression in an individual would by no means be 
 the best. The criterion of the zoologist might, for 
 these reasons, fail to satisfy the aesthetic inquirer : 
 in the eyes of the latter the general principle — that 
 any given production in nature is then most beau- 
 tiful when the qualities which it exhibits are most 
 its own — is modified and exalted by the successive 
 application of the higher tests above adverted to. 
 It is plain that we have a right to suppose a bloom 
 of mind as well as an acme of vitality ; they may 
 exist together, but with this difference — that the 
 
 * See this important subject clearly and eloquently treated 
 by the author of “ Modern Painters” (third edition), vol. i. p. 55. 
 
 t Cuvier, Legons, &c., before quoted. 
 
398 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 flower of earthly existence precedes decay and 
 extinction, while the highest development of the 
 inward life is the earnest of immortality. 
 
 To conclude ; it appears that the aesthetic rela- 
 tion between the works of nature and the human 
 mind subsist chiefly by means of gradations in the 
 one and the faculty of comparison in the other ; 
 the mental power of discrimination being assisted 
 by corresponding powers in the organs of sensation. 
 The imperfections in nature are therefore necessary 
 to the distinction of her excellencies, and the same 
 principle appears to comprehend even the painful 
 facts which are sometimes presented to our notice* 
 The comparison may be simultaneous, as in regard 
 to objects or appearances co-existing in space ; or 
 it may be the result of acts of memory, as in re- 
 gard to effects presented in succession and at 
 greater or less intervals of time. The consequence 
 of an interpretation of nature, with the aid of 
 such materials and faculties, uninfluenced by ad- 
 ventitious and sometimes contradictory associations, 
 probably would be, that we should regard those 
 forms and appearances as the most beautiful which 
 are the highest types of their respective classes, and 
 which present the most consummate distinctness 
 
 * “ And his disciples asked him, saying, Master, who did sin, 
 this man, or his parents, that he was born blind 1 
 
 “Jesus answered, Neither has this man sinned, nor his 
 parents : but that the works of God should be made manifest 
 in him.” John ix. 2 & 3. 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 399 
 
 of character (in the various applications of that 
 term before explained), as compared with other 
 examples. 
 
 In the analysis of more immediate agreeable 
 impressions, we should perhaps trace the emotion to 
 a comparison forced, as it were, on the senses and 
 the mind by the power or brilliancy of contrast — as 
 in the effects of magnitude, of colours, and of vivid 
 light — and we should recognise in such effects a 
 more direct interference, so to speak, on the part of 
 nature, with our mental habits. 
 
 In the ordinary comparison of natural objects 
 the attributes last referred to may be considered as 
 auxiliaries only ; in general, they appear to be dis- 
 tributed throughout the visible world to compensate 
 the apparent absence of vitality or other imperfec- 
 tions in form, and to invite attention where other 
 sources of interest are wanting. In the highest 
 aesthetic sense impressions of sublimity are equiva- 
 lent to those of beauty ; and hence, not only the 
 vivacity of colour and of light, but vast magnitude 
 or sometimes even extreme minuteness (though the 
 latter does not come within the range of imitative 
 art) can, by an immediate exercise of the faculty of 
 comparison, excite the feeling of admiration. The 
 emotion is caused not merely by the aspect of in- 
 animate nature, as in the grandeur of mountains, 
 the far-spreading horizon, or the majestic ocean, 
 but by the giant forms of animals and the won- 
 ders of the microscope. With regard to colours, 
 
400 
 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 besides their distribution, above adverted to, on 
 what seems to be a principle of compensation, they 
 emphatically mark with beauty the reproduction of 
 the vegetable world. Together with light, they en- 
 hance the enjoyment of those hours and seasons 
 which may be called the holiday of nature : when 
 the splendour of the dawn or of the close of day, 
 seems to invite the attention of human beings, 
 in their intervals of leisure, before or after their 
 labours ; or when nature, decked in her best, in 
 the genial periods of the year, attracts the observa- 
 tion of her human admirers, who are then most 
 in her presence. But the attributes of magnitude, 
 colours, and light are perhaps more impressive when 
 they appear almost disengaged from form ; when 
 contrast and gradation are exhibited in their abso- 
 lute force and beauty: such are the more transcen- 
 dant and striking effects of the atmosphere and the 
 heavens, when the brilliancy and gradation of light, 
 the magic of colours, and the awful impression of 
 boundless space are combined. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, it appears, first, that 
 the process of comparison, however rapid may be 
 its operations, is essential to the appreciation of 
 beauty : and, secondly, that beauty, in all its 
 highest forms, is calculated to impress on human 
 beings the belief in a perfection greater than this 
 world contains. The almost unconscious mental 
 acts which, assisted by memory, may accompany 
 the exercise of vision, thus constitute the subjective 
 
OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 401 
 
 elements of aesthetic perception — a faculty con- 
 necting the world of sight with that of thought by 
 an idea of excellence derived from both, and there- 
 fore fitted to harmonise, not only with that com- 
 pleteness in nature in which character resides, but 
 also with those higher associations which confer 
 expression on her works through “ the evidence of 
 things not seen/' 
 
 THE END. 
 
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