= oa Ne ee re i aot ee a ee ee ee : CAMEO UU 2 S>= \ UC TUVOVOGUNOTOOUU TAU UEATOQOAUAUUUOCQO UND AUOTEEOCCOQTOQUUTACQOT TOO TUCUUAARACLUOULOTTIUOLETINTUOITOTTTAINS eg’ OS A ty | REFRACTORY FACTS A ET. | ABOUT OURSELVES “THE Walsh Fire Clay Products Company represents the development of a manu- facturing ideal; it is the result of constant effort on the part of the Mississippi Glass Company to produce refractory material of the highest possible grade. From the year 1890 until 1915, what is now the Walsh organization was Padus to the trade as The Fire Clay Department of the Mississippi Glass Company. Since the time, years before the period mentioned, when its glass-melting pots, furnace blocks and glass-house refractories were ship- ped from Pittsburg to the east bank of the Mississippi River and hauled by wagon to the glass works, the Mississippi Glass Company had made surveys and tests leading to the develop- ment of a more convenient source of supply of fire-clays of the outstanding quality necessary in the economical operation of glass melting fur- naces. When there were found in Missouri, fire-clay areas of extraordinary quality, the Glass Company began to manufacture all the refractories, pots, blocks and fire-brick used in its Own operations. In glass furnace practice, it was observed that improvements in the quality of refrac- tories, of a degree generally considered of slight importance, always yielded increased service that was beyond expectations. Thereafter every effort was directed toward the develop- ment of these so-called “‘slight’’ gains in quality. O TTT TTD HANTADTTATTNY Page seven % KES YAS x MUANAUUUPCOTUNAANCUEATUUU EHTEL ae HUTT TTTERTTTETTTETTTTTTTY| a) I ZG Mig Gy Apis N nr To Other glass manufacturers soon became aware of the high quality refractories made by the Mississippi Glass Company, and the com- pany was called upon to serve them. These demands grew and in 1890 the Fire Clay De- partment was formally -organized. The well- equipped clay manufacturing plant of Thomas Coffin & Company, Ltd., in St. Louis, was secured with its additional force of skilled operatives. In 1900 a second refractories plant was acquired at Vandalia, Mo., which was event- ually enlarged to a daily capacity of 50,000 brick. In 1915, in order to identify the product more definitely, the Fire Clay Department was incorporated under the name, “Walsh Fire Clay Products Company.” As the Mississippi Glass Company name had descended through successive generations, this severance, al- though only in form, was made with reluctance to conform to business expediency. The owner- ship and management remain unchanged. In 1917 to meet the larger demands for “Walsh Brands,’’ and to standardize the im- provements that had been developed, con- struction of the new plant near St. Louis was started. That plant is briefly described and illustrated in this book. “The Proper Material to Meet the Furnace Conditions,’ is the Walsh Slogan; “Better Refractories’’ continues to be the chief objec- tive of the Walsh Organization—the ideal that means satisfaction to users of “‘Walsh” Brands. Co-operation with the _ railroad freight trafhc departments, on the part of the shipper, is always helpful to the consignee. RUTTER AUN VANUACU CALE SEATON UA CUTEA AULA UAH CUUUAT UTTAR TAUNTED TUTTO TU UTES S %, % CAME OC HTTTUTOTTT DLT HDDUADVADNOTHATANATTOUTTTAVIOIDNy Page eight KN (o-/ er Ay WEUVVRP EEUU ORT EEC QU =i U OD Definite information relative to freight movements is furnished, unnecessary delays in transit are prevented, the most advanta- geous routes are specified, rates are checked, not to mention other benefits provided by a well equipped Traffic Department. The Traffic Manager of this Company is an official of seasoned experience in the railroad business. Every order passes through his office before it is sent to the factories for execution. In such matters as handling claims for damages incurred in transit, tracing shipments, or any matters pertaining to shipping, cus- tomers are invited to avail themselves of the expert services of the Traffic Department. AITO TAVCUCTATA TOCCATA Y SUT EEE oe fe S S & o C HOTT UAV TUTTI Page nine Pe EPAITEs Page ten RYU Cee Ui, 4), ‘-, / CIM ETT A LEABY Sal Po ASU al ) , Ks , Wyo 4) UW, Skah GN | \ ity iA : CHAPTER II Why Some Clays Are ietre wie hays CLAYS are the residue of feldspathic rocks that were distintegrated by ages of ‘Weathering,’ which is the convenient term used to describe the action of water, heat and cold. Granite is the most common feldspathic rock, but such formations exist in great variety and quantity. Granite is a mixture of feldspar, the predominating material, and quartz, with small proportions of mica and two or three other rocks whose characteristics and names it is not necessary to consider further. Feldspars Feldspars are essentially _ sili- cates of alumina! combined with smaller quantities of potash, soda or lime. During the weathering action that has been at work for millions of years, these last-named substances have for the most part been dis- solved and separated from the decomposed feldspar. This separation has left a clay material composed of di-oxide of silicon (SiO,) or silica, in chemical combination with alumi- num oxide, (Al,O*) or alumina, and water, together with varying proportions of uncom- bined or “‘free’’ silica (sand), potassium oxide, magnesium oxide, iron (ferric) oxide, and oxide of titanium. Composition Clays vary with the char- Of Fire-Clay acter of the rocks from which they were derived; chemically pure clays do not occur in Nature. Theoretically, pure fire-clay. is the chemical 1 See page 21 Y Gy, ~ & } CUDA OMUATUVDTATOAADDADAUHAALVVALINAD AT UNAAATAS Page eleven hy KA “4 ATTITUDE GO oa eee ecco TET ERP e ec ee CULL QUE = : u ay 4 UNS WIULLELU TCE OE f Hi “iy 5 SS | combination of silica, alumina and _ water according to the formula! Al,O; . 2SiOs. 2H,O. Proportions by weight according to this formula are: alumina 39.45%; silica 46.64%; water 13.91%. This substance pos- sesses unusual heat-resisting qualities. Con- sequently when most of the deleterious ele- ments have been washed out during the dis- integration of the original feldspars and the residue conforms approximately to hydrous silicate of alumina, you have a clay that resists heat to such an uncommon degree that it is called “‘Fire-clay.”’ Plasticity and Most clays become more or Refractoriness less plastic (soft and paste- like) when ground in water. In the United States are large deposits of hard, non-plastic clays which break with a sharp conchoidal fracture; these are termed ‘‘Flint’’ clays. Other clays, called ““Semi-flints,’’ that seem to share equally the characteristics of both the plastics and the flint clays are not uncom- mon. ‘There is no relationship between the hardness and the refractoriness of fire-clays.? Analysis The causes of plasticity in clays are not fully understood by chemists or physicists. In fact, the authorities in the tech- nology of clays agree that chemical analysis alone is not a safe guide for determining either the degree of plasticity or refractoriness. Syn- thetic clays, compounded in the laboratory for purposes of comparative tests, do not behave like natural clays—actual results are frequently the reverse of what had been predicted upon 1 See page 22 2 The fire-clay properties of this Company comprise an extensive’ acreage in several districts. They were acquired, for the most part, by the parent company, The Mississippi Glass Company. Flint, semi- flint and highly refractory plastic clays underlie these lands in abundance. CTE TEC EE OOO EE ee ATEATTTTUTITTTTUOT COUT TATTTTNUO LAC CTCTMMMELECETEDOTITENPAUO OCONEE TNUAMU MC INTENT MMC IILPERCOREOLEL TODO UPECEOOOOPOODOU d Ww SY y Wy soe; O \ AUT AST C) MEE Page twelve eZ p> we) SI WU my) “Wy S/ “/, C the basis of chemical analyses. For these reasons the best authorities of the present day base their conclusions concerning clay products almost exclusively upon physical tests, recog- nizing the fact, however, that the influence of some of the constituent elements of fire-clays has a more pronounced effect upon their refractoriness than others. Iron oxide (Fe:O3;) and oxide of titanium (JT10,.), both of which are nearly always present in fire-clays, are com- paratively inert and harmless within ordinary limits. On the other hand, the oxides of potassium and sodium, commonly termed the alkalies, and magnesium oxide are ‘“‘violent”’ in their action; their presence in excess is regarded as a danger signal to the manufacturer.! Spalling Because of their physical properties, igh-grade fire-clays, to use the commercial term current with those who work with clay products, are more useful generally than other refractories. Silica expands at work- ing temperatures; the better grade of clay refractories, however, are comparatively neutral as to expansion and contraction.2 Since the variation of heat conditions tends to break most brick to pieces in a short time, it is important to select high-grade neutral products. Such materials resist repeated changes of tem- perature with less injury than that imposed upon other classes of refractories. The action of a brick, chipping off or going to pieces from 1 The Walsh fire-clay deposits are notably free from excessive alkali. The following analysis of a Walsh XX brick by the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research (Pittsburgh) is typical: CAM ofa. SSei2 Rime tan .64 Alumina...... 43 .30 Magnesia..... .46 Ferric Oxide.. 2.48 Alkalies...... .15 2 Prof. D. A. Moulton, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, tested 3 samples of Walsh XX brand of brick; at ‘‘cone 33 down”’ the specimen showing an average expansion of | .03 %. PEAT TTTUITECTTTOOUTTTTATTUOTUT ATE TOC EMULE OOOO M ODUM EDOM ATLILM TERENCE ERR U AA OOOU EOI LUO LOODOLL SUC E Eee ~ S & ‘A PUT C TUNNEL Page thirteen & - SEU eh Ny EL Vs ize: S19 SUUTTCCTECTACUUATEUL CUTOUT CUE CCU CUCU Ue nn — the effect of repeated expansion and contraction is called “‘Spalling.”’ Clay is classed as a granular substance, but the true fire-clay, free of foreign materials, is composed of such exceedingly small particles that a specimen mixed with twice its weight of water, passes through a screen of 250 mesh fineness, which contains 62,500 openings per square inch of screen surface.(!) Plastic clays for certain classes of materials are ““Washed”’ by dissolving them in pure water. The solu- _ tion, with the genuine clay held in suspension, is drawn off and evaporated or filtered through filter-presses. This process removes a consid- erable percentage of native impurities. Mining The fire-clay deposits of Missode Methods are mined by various methods; open-pit mining with steam shovels is practicable in some localities; drift mines pre- vail in other sections, and some large areas are exploited by means of shaft mines. The deposits vary to a considerable degree in thick- ness, area and quality. There are in great abundance so-called “‘fire- clays’ suitable for the manufacture of a large variety of products, but some authorities ques- tion the correctness of applying the term “refractory to all such clays.2 Users of refractory materials are rapidly becoming more discriminative, following the lead of a few large consumers who have made extensive investiga- tions and given special attention to the subject. 1 Alfred B. Searles, “‘Clays.”’ 2 Bleininger & Brown—Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 7. Zz MMMM MM Sr er nT nn & Y, SCNT NNT C) TTT HOTATATATTTTIANY Page fourteen QU (=i S La Z Z SUT eee ee ~ ALAA @ TT JELAY By Sa Bis he 2 2 \— \cy tis } Sap . Low? <« Fy CHAPTER III A Short Outline of Chemistry HOSE readers who had the opportunity to study Chemistry during their school days have probably felt the need of reviewing the subject when reading technical articles. Those who have not studied the subject at all will derive more benefit from their study of refractories and their uses, if they have even the slight acquaintance with the principles of Chemistry that can be offered in this brief outline. Our purpose is to promote a better understanding of clay manufacturing and of the uses of refractories. Matter All substance, or matter, is first classified under the headings Solids, Liquids and Gases. Some substances under different conditions, exist in each of these three states. Water for instance is a solid at the temperatures 32 degrees Fahrenheit or lower, a liquid between 32 and 212 degrees, and a gas at temperatures above 212. Many other sub- stances behave in a similar fashion, although at varying freezing and boiling points; mercury freezes at 38 degrees below zero Fahrenheit; iron boils at 4442 degrees Fahrenheit, to cite only two examples. Matter, or Substance, which are used inter- changeably in this outline, could not be under- stood if we should accept, as final, the evidence of our senses. That which may appear to be a dead, inert mass of material, whether a stone, a log of wood, a pool of water, or a body of gas, is in fact only the outward appearance presented by innumerable individual moving particles called molecules (pronounced molly-kiules). Molecules are too small to be visible even by the aid of the most powerful microscopes, but the experience of thousands of able and learned WUT TOTTI TMCNET ITHI PAID Ay A MITT Page fifteen RBS. HOU BG ef a UU FB S S4iny Low’? 4 scientists is proof that the theory of molecules is as practical to the world’s work as meat and potatoes. All substance, then, is made up of countless invisible particles which are in a state of motion or vibration. If the molecules are very close to each other the substance is correspondingly dense and hard; if the distance between them is relatively great, the substance is light, liquid, or gaseous. The study of the activity and con- dition of molecules is called ““Physics.”’ Elec- tricity, Heat, Energy, Motion, Expansion and Contraction are some of the common classi- fications of that science. Molecules do not, however, constitute the final subdivision of matter. A molecule is made up of smaller particles called ‘““Atoms.’’ Upon theories of the action of atoms, the science of Chemistry is based. Substances built up of but one kind of atom are called “‘Elements;’”’ those built up of mole- cules—two or more kinds of atoms—are desig- nated ‘““Compounds.”’ Gold, for example, silver, iron, oxygen, etc., are elements. Sulphuric acid, on the other hand, when analyzed is found to consist of hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, chemically combined; it then, is a compound. There are 83 elements known to science, and as the present list has been of slow scientific dis- covery, it is quite probable that new elements will be discovered as the world grows older. Some elements have names associated with them for ages—gold, silver, copper, iron, etc.; many others have been given Latin names by | their discoverers—radium, platinum, etc. In chemical calculations abbreviations of the full names are used, or abbreviations of the Latin ee eee eT TTT ——————————________ee,>- GUNUAAAUUUETGANUONNLYOVSEANOUUDUUUELUGETUECTOOD AUT OTOUOTAUOUATOCUANUOATOUA CT UGOEALUSOOOUOUUGUUDADUOENUOMEUTOUTEREN DEUS ELETE CUT EAG EET ETOP OEE EAS SS CATANIA ATATATATL ADA LLUEDDLI AVERT ETAUTL O TTT TATA Page sixteen = % S MMC G, y G SUT equivalent; e. g. Iron—Fe (Ferrum), Barium— Ba. The complete list of known elements is given at the end of this chapter. Until recent years it was thought that the atom was in truth the final sub-division of matter. The discovery of radium and radio- activity has now convinced scientists that atoms are merely aggregations of electrons, an electron being a unit of electrical energy. Chemistry, however, is concerned for the most part with the action of atoms, so we need give but little thought to the theory of electrons. Physical and Changes in matter are Chemical Changes either physical or chemi- CAlvasmel o willustrate: the distinction let us consider the familiar changes that take place in water. The change from ice to water, and from water to steam, in no way changes the condition of the molecule, but only the relation of the water-molecules each to the other. You change the form of sugar or salt when you dissolve these substances in water, but this does not change the consti- tution of the sugar-molecule or the water- molecule. Such changes are physical, and not chemical. If, however, two atoms of hydrogen gas are brought, under the right conditions, into con- tact with one atom of Oxygen gas, they com- bine to form a substance altogether different from either—the new substance being water, which is represented by the formula H,O. This is a change on the part of the atoms to form new molecules, and is called a chemical change or reaction. Di PU Page seventeen Of 7x UTE TUE PUTTER TOOLTIP TODPEEIDLITILMDEEOON DL NN MII LOLEELLUILLLLLL wy ITNT) QODTDUU OTA TAT TAT HDAY PANDO SALANADLUVED AT THANTAS 3 TCT Or Elements have the inclination to unite or combine with certain other elements in a thoroughly systematic fashion. These various combinations always take place in exactly the same proportions. The attraction of elements for certain others is called ““‘Chemical Affinity.” Some affinities are stronger than others—for example, the affinity of iron for oxygen at high temperatures is strong; we see roll scale form very rapidly at the hot rolls in the iron or steel mills. This affinity between iron and oxygen is not so strong at atmospheric temperatures; the combination takes place more slowly and results in iron rust. These changes show that 2 atoms of iron combined with 3 atoms of oxygen, chemically to form a new substance which is iron oxide, Fe.QOs3. Valence Elements vary in the number of atoms of other elements which they are able to hold in combination. One atom of hydrogen, for example, will combine with one atom of chlorine, two atoms with one of oxygen, three with one of nitrogen, and four with one of carbon. That property of an element which determines the number of atoms of another ele- ment that it can hold in combination is called “Valence.” This is merely a numerical relation which conveys no information regarding the intensity of the affinity between atoms; yet a knowledge of valence is very important in determining theoretically, chemical reactions and in expressing them intelligibly. In all mensuration, there must be a standard for expressing values. Hydrogen has been selected as the valence standard and given the value I, because scientists have determined that one atom of this element is never able to hold in Ce ee ee eee OO , Ly CAMINO TT O TMT TTT Page eighteen oy ~ —————————————————————EE——————————————————_—__OO gS NDS TTY S S S R V4 AAUVUUUCNCUUAECEAUTTAUATUCHAAAVAVEECUUALAUETEUCTUACUUCUOEO CCEA ET UUCTAUUUU LOCC UU UU TEUT UYU UUAEUUU OTT HUTT EAT E UTTER TEE OTT OUT E CUTM TE TEEPE CEPTS combination more than one atom of any other element. Reference to the table at the end of this chapter will show the valences of the elements. Atomic Why are some substances heavier Weights than others? One cubic foot of iron weighs about twice as much as the same volume of aluminum; while a cubic foot of lead weighs nearly four times as much as the same-sized block of iron. The variations in the weights of different substances are due to the difference in weights of the atoms of the several elements. Atoms being so minute, it is natur- ally impossible to weigh them physically, so in chemistry they are weighed relatively—hydrogen being the approximate unit of weight. The atomic weight of Iron is 56, which means that an atom of Iron (Fe) is practically 56 times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen, which is 1.008 by weight. Chemists are able to break up combinations and to establish new combinations. For ex- ample, by bringing together hydrochloric acid and zinc, the acid combination is broken up to form a new combination, zinc chloride and hydrogen. These processes are called “‘Re- actions.” It is by thus breaking down and building up, and calculating the changes that a chemical analysis is made. Acids and We are accustomed to think of Bases. acids as liquids that have a sour taste and that “‘eat’”’ or corrode other substances. To a chemist these sub- stances have a more clearly defined meaning. Acids always contain hydrogen, among other elements. 2 CAMEO TOE @ TON TTA TATAAATHTATHTATMANY Page nineteen A \< MUU Ki AVE UTA Deli) ey For example, the molecule of hydrochloric acid contains one atom of hydrogen in com- bination with one of chlorine, according to the formula HCI; nitric acid is composed of one atom of hydrogen in combination with one of nitrogen and three of oxygen, according to the formula HNO3; sulphuric acid consists of two atoms of hydrogen, one of sulphur and four of oxygen—H,.SO,. These are just a few of the many acids, known to chemistry. The “opposite” of an acid, so to speak, is an alkali or base. ‘Acids cannot be discussed thoroughly except with respect to the relation they bear to bases. Potassium hydroxide,sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium oxide (lime) are some of the more common bases. A base, you see, has a metallic element in it. When an acid and a base are brought to- gether, each neutralizes the other. The metal in the base takes the place of the hydrogen in the acid, and a new substance called a Salt is formed. At the same time the hydrogen that is liberated from the acid combines withtheoxygen from the base to form water (HO). A salt is a neutral substance, neither acid nor basic. These changes, or reactions, may be illustrated by using the symbols of the elements that took part in the reaction, in the form of a mathe- matical equation: H,SQO, (sulphuric acid) + 2 KOH (Potassium hydroxide) = K2SO, (Potas- sium sulphate, the Salt) + 2H,O. HNO; (nitric acid) + NaOH( Sodium hydrox- ide) = NaNOs (Sodium nitrate) + H,O You will observe, of course, that the total num- ber of atoms of any element on the left side of the equation is equal to the total number of that element on the right side, although the combinations are different. aoe ee ee LCN GY, AUN UAUC ALCAN ANATUATANENTANOUOUUCAUUETECU OTA CUUCVOQOQOOUOGG WUC UONOOAUONOUUUTOOOOUOUCUUOOUUATUODOOECTO OTT T OOOO TOUUDT UTA UT CUO TU TOUTED TUTTTTTTTUUNS A TTTTT ATH TTTTTNUTTTOTTH O TITTTHTTiR TR Page twenty g SUUTTUTEAT LUT U TOL TU CUE eC ee S RULE S Ds | | . CIMINO These reactions are typical of the behavior of all acids and bases. You see now why you have been told to wet an acid stain on your clothes or your skin with ammonia which “kills” the acid; and why soap suds are an antidote for acid poisoning; and why you have taken a pinch of baking soda for an acid stomach—to mention a few time-honored house- hold practices. The litmus test is commonly used to deter- mine whether a substance is basic or acid in character. Litmus dye is blue, and if a solu- tion that is colored blue with litmus, or a strip of paper colored by the solution, is touched with an acid, the color is changed to red. If the colored solution or paper is then treated with a base or an alkaline solution, the blue color is restored. Some substances which do not seem to be acid to the least degree, act like acids when brought into contact with basic substances. Silica (SiO.), the common name for Silicon Di-oxide or quartz-sand, is classed as an acid because it neutralizes basic substances, such as Lime (CaQO), to form a neutral salt called Cal- cium Silicate, CaSiO3, which is a common slag in iron and steel practice. That is why nothing siliceous is allowed to come in contact with the basic materials in the bottom and sides of a basic open hearth furnace when it is hot—the furnace bottom would be fluxed or slagged out. In a blast furnace the silica in the ore and coke ash combine with the basic limestone—and the neutral slag that is formed is in fact a salt. Alumina, Al.O;, or the oxide of aluminum, has the peculiar quality of acting in certain re- actions either as an acid or as a base. e Q ) TTT THATS Page twenty-one LTTTNTTITTTTTTTTTETTT TT ETIU UUM TRUMP T UATE P EPEC UCR IUEUIN NTO T NEE NNT TOPIC INUIT TEDL PIP PL LUULUPRRECA TLE L OA ODLO COO CODOLELULE! > QUT = Z WS Z OD N It is called a neutral compound, and is an im- portant constituent of fire clays. Where basic or acid material is required, alumina serves either purpose. One of the familiar forms of aluminum oxide (or alumina ‘“‘for short’’) is granular corundum or emery. Fire-clays are salts—silicates of alumina; alumina having acted as a base in reaction with silica, Si(OH),. The pure clay substance which identifies fire-clays bears the formula AlI,Os, 2Si02, 2H,O. (This particular silicate is more fully discussed in Chapter II under the heading ‘‘Fire-Clays.’’) Another familiar silicate is Portland cement, which is made of silica, alu- mina, lime, gypsum, etc., in definite propor- tions, but in a diversity of forms, depending upon the locality and raw materials of the manufacturer. Sometimes a slight reaction between the fire-brick linings in manufacturing equipment and the raw materials is a benefit, and the manufacturer makes a point of causing such reaction. For example, the protective coating that forms on the fire-brick lining of a Portland cement kiln is usually started by a reaction between the cement-making ingredients and the brick. A thin layer of the neutral coating forms by the action of silica and alumina as explained above, and it gradually thickens with- out further attacking the brick. The kiln operator makes such a change in his mixture or in his kiln temperatures as will start this reaction. After the coating has started, it pro- tects the brick from further action unless the coating should be removed. V4 ANVUNUAAUEUUUGARUANLSUORTOUUEUUUU ACTA UUOTEU CET AUE OEE TREO UT TEUCTATATOA PAU UERADEATUT ATU TU OUTED UT UUODE DE CDT UU UTED EET RTM SS 4 AULT LTT TODDEADUAANOTODATDOTTANTATATTTTANY Page twenty-two O ne \ gun ana HT ATTACH Lis a a %) Ws Ox: “p> (Sse A glass furnace is simply a reservoir for active chemical operations involving acids and bases. “Glass Sand,’ which is almost pure silica (SiO.), is the acid; salt-cake (sodium sulphate Na2SO,), and soda-ash (Na2CO3) are the principal bases. The salt, then, is a silicate of soda, or plain glass. All the chemicals that enter into a glass ‘““Batch,”’ as the glass-making mass of materials is called, are destructive of the fire-brick materials that build the tank (or reservoir) unless the brick are of extraordinary purity. “Glass House’”’ refractories, therefore, are in favorable repute because they success- fully resist the combined action of the chemicals and the high heats encountered in glass furnaces. Many chemical reactions that long have been familiar, but which many observers have not understood, are quite simple when the elements that are involved are known. For instance, fire-brick in furnaces are often rapidly destroyed when a steam jet is used to prevent clinker from attacking the grate bars. In such cases, it will almost invariably be found that the coal used is very high in sulphur, which is driven off as a gas. The sulphur, the hydrogen of the steam (H.O) and the oxygen of the steam and air, all combine to form sulphuric acid (H.SO,), which is the destructive agent, instead of the heat. Vitrification Vitrification is a term that is used to indicate that the basic impurities in a clay have reacted with the silica to form a salt of glassy nature. If the centers of vitrification in a hard-burned fire brick could be colored for the purpose of making them visible, the surface of the specimen would ee MUTED TEC EO CM ECOU MMU PEPE OU CONC OOUL DEOL DODPPLIIIDPPRIP PROC GDOUDIDODEECLPOOLLLEELLLLS ‘RS Z %, XO = \) CATT INN NOE O QVDDUOAUATAVD EOD OTADOADDEDEDAADVNUSNO HDD TTHLEAS Page twenty-three aX MUU G < A present a speckled appearance, the specks being small and separate. * An over-burned brick is one in which these points of vitrification have become so numerous and so large as to com- pose a large part of the brick, which is then in a “‘Glassified’’ condition. A paving block should be vitrified, as a glassy, non-absorbent texture is an Aahecibenre | ina pavement. Most good building brick are semi-vitrified, vitrifica- tion having progressed sufficiently to give the brick the required degree of cold-crushing strength, without lowering the porosity below a desirable percentage. A well-burned fire-brick of high quality, if examined under a powerful microscope, shows a very low degree of vitrification, but sufficient to impart to the brick the necessary physical strength. ‘‘Reducing Flame’’ These terms are ‘‘Reducing Atmosphere”? 1n frequent use ‘‘Oxidizing Flame’’ in metallurgical operations. As they have some direct effect upon fire-brick that are subjected to their influences, it is well to be familiar with them. A reducing flame is one that tends to reduce or liberate a metal from combination with its oxides. It is a flame that is burning with an insufficient quantity of oxygen, and, therefore, it takes for combustion purposes the oxygen that is combined with the metal (say iron oxide, Fe.O;). This naturally liberates or reduces the metal. All brick clays, building tile, etc., con- tain a low percentage of iron oxide. If the flames within the kiln that burn the brick during their manufacture, do not get sufficient air *The bluish black “Iron Spots’’ so familiar to users of fire-brick, have no relationship to these ‘‘Centers of Vitrification.”’ SS TUTTE TAT EMMITT EOP HORE NOCD ODOC ODOL 700 CEE oe ~ S Ce, G CALHNTU ATID DATO TU THD ADATENT TNL Page twenty-four ) 170000 ATTAIN KR: LAY 3 » meer eeerreePETTTTTHTTTT TTT TTT ‘a WU IY of > (oxygen), the oxygen that is within the brick with the iron oxide and titanium oxide is seized upon, and the metals are partially reduced. This gives the brick a dark color but does not materially affect its quality. The interior of such a kiln would be an example of a ‘“‘Reducing Atmosphere.’ When tests of fire-brick are being made, it is advisable to avoid a reducing atmosphere by giving access to plenty of air, as many experts consider the reducing conditions harmful to the specimen being tested, and the result misleading. An oxydizing flame, reasoning to the con- trary, is given more air than it needs for com- bustion, and the excess of oxygen is com- Minedewith’ the object in the flame, which is then said to be oxidized. A blue or color- less flame is an oxydizing flame—a_ yellow flame is reducing. Combustion The rapid oxidation of carbon- aceous substances is combus- tion, in the commonly accepted sense of the word. Oils and gases are compounds in several different proportions of carbon and hydrogen, which are called hydro-carbons, and also of carbon and oxygen. Complete combustion takes place when carbon is combined with sufficient oxygen to satisfy fully the affinity of these elements for each other. The resulting product is carbon di-oxide or carbonic acid gas, CO. Incomplete combustion consists of the com- bination of carbon with one atom of oxygen instead of two, and the formation of carbon monoxide gas, CO (‘“‘mon”’ meaning one). This reaction liberates heat, but only about one- third the quantity liberated by complete com- TTT CCC CECE AOR MCLEOD CMU EO OLUU OOOO OCCU COCO UL ee CMM MM VCC TTT Ee S S ZB CUE O TTT ATATLTTTTATTTTTANY Page twenty-five OUTIL WUE Ux * IN | BRAND Nal ZA Ay ANTS) S S S KR 52a eee ATT TT TTT bustion and the formation of CO,. Incomplete combustion is the result of incorrect firing methods, of course. Modern boiler furnaces that are stoker fired, and have a sufficient air supply (without an over supply) usually afford complete combustion in the practical sense. Pure hydrogen gas burns with a colorless flame, at a temperature of 3452 degrees F.; it is one of the principal ingredients of producer gas and water gas, as will be noted further on. When H is oxidized the product of combustion is H,O—water. The engineer's problem is to secure com- plete combustion, or the combination of one atom of the carbon with two atoms of oxygen, so that the product of combustion will be COs, (and H.O when gas fuel is used), which goes up the stack. If the waste gases in the stack con- tain about fourteen per cent of CO, and no CO, the practice may be considered perfect. To avoid an over-supply of air, it is impor- tant to avoid a leakage of air through cracks in the walls of the settings. The first precaution is to use fire-brick that are neutral as to expansion and contraction, and also of a per- fection of workmanship that facilitates the building of masonry with close joints. Brick that contract excessively at high temperatures leave numerous small crevices in the walls, and any considerable expansion opens up leaks that lower the efficiency of the furnace. The use of dependable plastic clay cement is most impor- tant in this connection. = OE CANN O UNTO AOOHVTUTNTTTTTTTTTTAN Page twenty-six i TO Sainy Louw, We have been discussing incomplete combustion as something to be avoided, which is correct when maximum heat value is desired from fuel. However, there are important industrial opera- tions that are based upon incomplete combus- tion; namely, the operation of gas producers and water gas machines. Gas Producers In former years, a gas producer was a fire- brick chamber with a closed top, in which coal was burned with about half the air supply that was required for complete combustion. As the result, an atom of carbon combined with an atom of oxygen to form carbon monoxide gas, CO. (This combustible gas is more economical as fuel than raw coal when the manufacturing operation is of sufficient size to justify the equipment.) The modern producers are equipped with a steam jet also; air is impelled into the producer by the steam pressure. The incandescent carbon decomposes the H,O—steam—, appropriates the O to make CO, and liberates the hydrogen (H:) which mixes with the CO gas. A typical analysis of Droaucer gas is as follows: H,.19%:-CO) 27; CH, 2%; CO.; 4%; Nitrogen (N), 52%. .Pro- ducer gas is the least efficient of all the common fuel gases, but has several other advantages that cause it to be widely used in manufacturing plants. The heats in a gas producer are not so high as to be a strain on a high-grade brick, but the texture of the brick should be dense, to resist the action of the steam, and the work- manship of the brick should be practically perfect. nT TE TLL ~ YS QUO EL OC TUTTI Page twenty-seven S S S CMM VUUEVUUAVEASU GU AGUEALTDEQUUTOUUUTED DAU UUEEEEUCOTIEM EAU COTECETE ECE GEE EET TEETER TE EET ET B SO ANAC BRAN J RU — MUM WS A > A blast furnace for the production of pig iron, is in effect (if not by intention) a gas producer. The coke is first burned to COs, but on coming in contact with incandescent coke farther up in the furnace the gas gives up one atom of its oxygen, according to the equation CO.+C=2CO. This carbon monoxide gas is the most powerful reducing agent in the separa- tion of the metallic iron of the ore from its oxides. A large quantity of this combustible gas is taken off from the top of the furnace, and is used to heat .the checker-brick in the hot blast stoves, for firing boilers and driving gas engines. Water Gas he. generator of a water gas set is similar to the gas producer that has just been discussed. A generator is a large chamber which is heated to a much higher temperature than the ordinary gas producer, the minimum temperature required for the production of water gas being about 1800 degrees F. The fuel bed of coke is heated to incandescence by a blast of air. This raises the heat in the generator to the point at which steam is converted to CO and Hz, when a jet of steam is turned into the generator. As this operation reduces the temperature of the fuel chamber, the steam is then turned off while the air blast again is turned on for the purpose of restoring the work- ing temperature. The air blast is usually on for about four minutes. Thus these alternate operations are kept up. The air blast and the products of combustion go off through the stack; only the gas that is made from the decomposition of steam goes to the carburetor —hence the term “Water Gas.” Machines GPODUAALOUOUUGADOUUNATOUENTVUOUUDUUGULUUSTEAT CPU AUEU UA CCU TEUO UT ACUCTOG UT TU ELC UUREMTE EU OTCCCUA UATE ORES STITTTTTTTTLLL RITA R ATTRACT CUTLHLUTETTUUIEROPCCIGLOCRUDPOUORUUCDRRRDIURELUIUC CCC UOPPELOLLP UL OU LCL URDUUUUCCUOCULCALUULLLARLCe 4 \y PT © QUTTTO DUTT DTATTAD HADDAD TATEAE TAT Page twenty-eight RTC LUT TTT 4 S S \Y K ~ TTT Z “p The water-gas, as it comes from the gen- erator does not contain all the desired elements. It is, therefore, conducted into a second large steel chamber, called the carburetor, which is lined with fire-brick and filled with fire-brick checker work. Some authorities state that the brick should be spaced3.1 inches apart togivethe best results. These checker brick have been pre-heated, and are continually re-heated to about 1350 to 1400 degrees F. at regular intervals while the air blast is on (via the generator). Then the air blast is turned off, a spray of pre- heated gas oil (a by-product of petroleum) is injected through a spray in the top of the carburetor, so that the spray of oil will impinge upon the hot brick-work. The oil is thus volatilized or gasified. The resulting oil-gas and water gas is then con- ducted to the super-heater where the various gases formed are amalgamated. The gas leaves the super-heater at temperatures about 1300 to 1400 degrees F. The fire-brick have much to do with the yields and smooth working of a water-gas plant. The carburetor checker brick must be refrac- tory, the better to withstand the heats for considerable periods of time without fusion; they must withstand the frequent fluctuations of temperature without deterioration; they must not absorb the oil or carbon deposit, but must quickly vaporize it. UTE ee Sy S YAIITATTTANATNTTNITT C) TTT Page twenty-nine LAY 5 AS BVO ROU Py “i a MOT : ay aN Jo G aN S/ Pz iN SI Gomhin el Other terms for chemically com- bined water are ‘‘Water of Water Constitution’ and ‘Water of Crystallization.’’ Several rocks have a certain amount of water, HO, held in combination with their characteristic ingredients. The rocks of this character that are most familiar are fire-clays and quartz. Being chemically com- bined, the hydrogen and oxygen do not, strictly speaking, exist as water; the quantities of these elements are present in these rocks, however, in the same proportions that constitute water, H,O. There is no appearance of moisture because of the presence of combined water. At temperatures of about 675 degrees F., combined water is driven off. The expulsion of combined water from fire-clays, which occurs at about 675 degrees F., is called “‘Calcining.’’ The clays thus burned are called “Calcine”’ or “Grog.” A plastic clay so treated loses its plasticity permanently. As fire-clays contain from || to 14 per cent of combined water, the loss of such a large portion of its bulk by calcination causes the mass to contract or shrink. Burned clays or grog do not absorb water and for that reason they are used in the manufacture of brick and tile in which a porous texture is desirable, and also to facilitate drying freshly-molded pieces without injury. When limestone is burned in a lime _ kiln, not only H.O, but also carbon di-oxide, COs, is driven off, leaving “‘quick’’ lime which is CaO. On exposure to the air for a long time, lime mortar slowly combines with the trace of CO, in the air, and thus becomes something like its original substance—limestone. After a_sub- stance has taken up water in chemical com- bination, it is said to be a hydrated compound. UE ge N S SS AVANANUAOUEAUAAUAUU US UERTAAUALUENCATAAUETE UCT TAUEUUCEAATUAOU TT CUUCTOOU UNCTAD AOMEUTCANOTUOUU TUT OUUUDDEU TOOT DE UND TOUT AT UTM TTT TCDD TTD TTT y (7 « AUAUATLUTAUVT ADDER PAVE EDD ADAG EOE ) LOURDES Page thirty hi AX Jas x AQUI EI Ss s 3 Z ws 2 Sy ge rod Sting 10 = = INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS = = 1916 = = _ | Electro- = = we) X chem. - 4 Element a Weight | ¢ equiva- Melting Boiling — = E < lents, g. points points on = WY > per amp.- — — Ke ae = Aluminum. .| Al 27a 3 3368 658.7 1800.0 = = Antimony...| Sb 120.2 3 1.4966 630.0 1460.0 eres = Argon.2 3... A 39.88 OF eee aks —188.0 —186.0 hers. = Arsenic..... As 74.96 3 0.9324 850.0 450.02 a = Barium..... Ba 137237 2 2.5619 85070 05S = = Bismuth Bi 208.0 3 2.5854 7A AW 1440.0 = = Boron:...... B 11.0 Bl ine: 2 ten fect ae 2350) Oe eee ae = = Bromine Br 79.92 I 2.9814 —7.3 58.75 = = Cadmium Cd | 112.40 2 2.0955 320.9 778.0 = = Caesium Cs 132.81 [Se ea eet 2070 i ceo = = Calcium Ca 40.07 2 0.7477 STOLO Saal ewes = cae Carbon... G 12.05 4 0.1118 53600105 ere een = —~ Cerium..... Ce 140.25 AS ee hd 6230 al neta eee = es Chlorine. . Gl 35.46 I 1.3220 —101.5 — 37.6 = - Chromium. .| Cr 52.0 3 0.6476 1520 to, >Fe| 2200.0 i = Cobalt)... .: Co 58.97 2 1.1000 61037 Sen sear = — Columbium .| Cb 93.1 Sig acre AEN & 1950-2200 apa the fae = = Copper..... Cu 63.57 Z 1.1858 1083 .0 2100.0 = = ID vemrociinie ml varie LOZ 998 nlc elec rok amet |hiasiyaie seciesielllmm eos <3 = -— Erbium..... Er 1G 75 Zoe leet le ees Pe ae Renin on Bivnegal Mere [th sacite gt Sees = aaa Europium...| Eu 152 Oa ee | Oe antes Aree a Pe be c8: ce ny oli ceo aoa: = = Fluorine....| F 19.0 I 0.7085 —223.0 —187.0 = = em gemimmer Mees 1 97 oD.) |c ae, Sheree). fake foie oS aie one ello os = = Gallium..... Ga GORD Diy eter era Sri s 30s Eales ee = = Germanium .|} Ge (Aah ia ee Se. I ee een ee 958).0 pelea sys 4 a Glucinum...| Gl oh LIke i ee Ds tty ew S002 0 Gee eae = oer Golda ue. Au [Ff 3 2.4513 LOGS). ODMR pices: — = Helium..... He AOO2 |e OF tere eee —271.9 —268 .8 aa — Holmium i bey. Air | RABE SPCR Mies Bacal Ae cee gg ie, || Semaine a Ne eee enor uiereetn = = Hydrogen H 1.008} 1 0.03759 —259.0 —252.8 — = Indium..... In (Te ive Sa ts ea a a ee [54 o5 Se lcryeeeanise aa = Iodine...... I 126.92 1 4.7303 114.0 184.35 = = Iridium..... Ir 193.1 Awl ary nape ee 230050 saw easercaeake — = Tron ee Fe 55.84 2 1.0404 1530+ 5] 2450.0 — = Krypton....| Kr O2EO2 Meee Me memati aces —169.0 —151.7 = = Lanthanum..| La (VERS a0 alll seoy teeter oie nat ena ee: SIOCO Pes ewe aes = = Bead fae. Pb | 207.20 2 3.8613 327.4 1525.0 = a Lithium..... Li 6.94 | 0.2622 186) Ose —_ a Lutecium...| Lu 175 OB dee es eee ah ae Bons ee toes ek | Ee ee = = Magnesium..| Mg 24.32 2 0.4531 651.0 1120.0 _ ae Manganese..}| Mn 54.93 2, [0255 1260+ 20 1900.0 = ad Mercury....| Hg | 200.6 x 7.4803 —38.7 357.0 = a Molybdenum| Mo 96.0 2 1.7900 250020 Be ltieee _ = Neodymium.) Nd» | 144.3 |... .)........% 840 ORM ees non = = oa 1 In those cases in which a metal has two valences, the valence = pout given corresponds to the electrochemical equivalent, and may not — = necessarily be the commoner one. a} = 2 Sublimes. — = 3 Commercial metal, about 1480° C. = Lop ow ATINATLUTAATI ALIA HLATANLIAGEOTTUUTITN O IOTTUOOUTT HVAT ATTTANUADDOTHULLOOAAIETATATINIANS Page thirty-one Ww Ike QU | ~ S Page thirty-two CALTATUTATATATIATAAATLATMADNTEOTATINING = INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS = 1916 =_ Continued — Electro- = oS rz chem. = Element 2 Weight | ¢ equiva- Melting Boiling — E < lents, g. points points = n > | per amp.- pod r. = Neon ss. Ne | 20.0 Oe eos ae 253, 0 PS ee, = Nickel...... Ni 58.68 2 1.0945 [seve Sy = Niton eee Nt | 222.4 Os EER eee 8 hy aw oo — Nitrogen....| N 14.01 3 0.1745 —210.5 —195.7 — Osmium....| Os 19029. 28 | eras ae eee 2700: 02-7 _ Oxygen..... O 16.00 2, 0.2983 —218.0 —183.0 oo Palladium...| Pd 106.7 2 1.9951 15505 00-5 pete = Phosphorus..| P 31 045) 2e ee cee 44.1 287.0 = Platinum. ..| Pt 195.2 4 .8206 17550 alee aaa = Potassium...| K 39.10 1 1.4584 62.3 667 .0 = Praseody- = mium..... |Pr 140 89 eee ie ee ee 940 -.Q.7 a) Se ees = Radium..... Ra 226.0 7 Ma re eee, 9000.22 = Rhodium....| Rh | 102.9 Sigh | Sige aeons 1940).0 99a eee == Rubidium...} Rb 85 £45) | 56s Se ee oe 38:0 Ae See eee — Ruthenium. "Ru 4910) 07 Fis ee SEF O50) One et eee a Samarium...| Sa 150, 42512204) loots eee 1350: 0 2% |e aeeeene = Scandium...| Sc zt ed ME AAA Laratnetned set 1200.0 (2) | eee = Selenium....| Se 79.2 2 1.477 218.5 690.0 = Silicon.......|| Si 28.3 4 0.2638 1420.0 TNE = Silver= bse Ag 107.88 I 4.0248 961.0 1955.0 oe Sodium..... Na 23.00 | 0.8596 O72) 742.0 = >805,850< = Strontium...| Sr 87 .63 2 1.6333 SCacBay |e = Sulphur... 2155 32.06 2 0.5980 116.5 444, om Tantalum...| Ta LoS ae kee ee ae 285003 335 eee — Tellurium...| Te [2755 7 2.379 451.0 1390. = Terbium....| Tb 1592 yo 5 eee ee | = Thallium....| Tl 204" Qo Forres ee ee 302.0 1700. = Dhorrams 325|) Phe (232.4 3| 20S eee >1700,0< Peale eee = Thulium, |.¢| Fm.) 168.5 °|.40.)0> 5. 52) oe ae ee es Inet eer Ou 118.7 2 2.2188 231.9 2270.0 = Titanium...| Ti 48.1 4 0.4490 {1795.04 15.0]........ = Tungsten...| W 184.0 6 1.1437 3267. Sa ane = Uranium....| U 238.22 Woe Si eee Near Vio. )3 ee = Vanadium...| V S12 Os ee ee eae 1720, 02220. C ean = enon......| Xe | 130.2 (Ulsan ee —140.0 —109.0 = Ytterbium Y¥ be [al Z3 SS Salle ell ben eer 1800207) 3 eee = Yttrium Yt B65 7 TA ee BGs eens, 1:20050:(?))| ee a ZANCM On ee Hd, 65.37 2 1.2194 419.3 918.0 = Zirconium...| Zr 90564 |\ner eek eee 2350::0"42)) Ree = See footnotes on page 31. “7, % AAASUWAUUOU TUNG AQ OUNATUVENTUNENGU UNO LANOTUCTUTOGUUCOTOTOUUUO TU AUVEUANGOOUNUGCOARAEAAUOVUUCUUOOOUUDANUTONOOUOOTOOODO OVA UTOTUUUTEACACUTTUL VOQTUUCEOO UTOOOTTTTTUTL ~ \ MUN Machinery. Page thirty-three Page thirty-four Rn sss sl ssssesssssessssspurutesniemnnee-vv~=cineeeunicet PUCCIO TCTT Tee cy Sites —" le, in the Tipp ing + c PLATE 5—Weighing and Inspec Tee Page thirty-five Gite SUCCES a ME \ Se wy S \ i, CIM EEE TEP OC COCO Saint GCHAR TERSIN, “Following Through” at the Walsh Plant "THE quality of a product depends upon the manufacturing ideals built into it; conse- quently, a knowledge of just how WALSH Fire Brick is made. is helpful when determining the suitability of refractory materials for your own needs. It is naturally difficult to describe adequately the manufacture of fire-brick, but with the help of the illustrations appearing in this chapter, we have attempted to show how fire-bricks are made in the modern WALSH Plant. In recent years the engineering profession has been giving increasing attention to the technology of refractories. A forward move- ment in the manufacture of fire-clay products, as represented by the construction of the new plant, was therefore timely, when it was erected in 1917. Operations were begun in 1918. The initial producing capacity was about 150, 000 brick daily, with ample provision for expansion. Access to the clay deposits under- lying the plant site and adjoining territory is by means of a concrete double shaft. The main entry extends back hundreds of feet past rooms that have already been mined. The entire mine is dry, electrically lighted and electrically equipped. After the face of the clay has been “‘shot down,”’ it is inspected while being loaded by hand into mine cars (Plate 3B). Mines SE oo re as aera eae iawn sna a Sear erree nga CAMMMNMNEOTT CO TTT TUTTI Page thirty-six ss ager omine » we Bea Sone Page thirty-seven PLATE 6—Calcine Kilns. SE ee TORO eee u 2 3 aQ § a A ~ Oo OQ ye! a iss] be o a a =} ia sf To) m% i ~ ea H | Al 7 EM COT A SS Nia 1/2 “NG AS cA g Cz As a comparatively thin section of clay is being mined from a deposit which extends several feet above and below the mine proper, the clay is remarkably free from foreign substances. For years prior to the construction of the WALSH Plant—the third WALSH factory— the company had owned in Missouri large areas of clay lands, representative of the purest in the state. Three varieties of clay; plastic, semi-flint and hard-flint are available in three strata of the mine contiguous to the Vandalia plant. Surveys show that the entire clay body is remarkably free from impurities. Hard-flint clays are also shipped to this plant from exten- sive mines from which the surface earth or “‘“over-burden”’ has been stripped for the pur- pose of mining the clay by daylight or open-pit methods. After the cars are loaded, they are conveyed by “‘Sam,’’ “‘Red’”’ and other well-known Missouri mules to the “‘trip- station” (Plate 4A), where trains are made up for the electric locomotives to haul to the hoists (Plate 4B). Once placed on the hoist, the manufacturing process may be said to have started, for at the top the clay is automatically dumped into the scale hopper (Plate 5), which in turn drops its burden into the first set of roll crushers. Mixing A large part of the crude lump clay is taken to the Calcine Kilns (Plate 6), where it is burned to expel combined water. This burned clay is called ‘‘Grog’”’ or “‘Calcine.”’ It is later ground and screened in the manner described for raw clays, and then mixed with raw clay in the manufacture of refractories. RTT TMP LAER EPP LLP OUP CREUUUCCCROPOCCPRCUURORP TEPID LULCRCOCOIP OPP RPCULLUULLOCLOEULLEDLLO RLM OLO CCL LLLL LLL ~ G \ ALNTTTTTTTATTNNTTTTATTIG( {UVT/T 00007001 ODOODDIATATVLOINIOINTTTONINIENY Page forty ‘uolynqiysiq Ae[Dd peredsigd—6 ALV Id Page forty-one ‘subg M,, Jo Ar0eqG YW—OIl ALVId Pagefforty-two ‘1ohDAUoD [eY-ouoW Aq saqeL SieploW oF ISnoI1g Suleg syeyong pepeoT—II ALW1d Page forty-three D> NN fa MTCC CE ei WOU) Om GB Saingy pow? Because clay is gathered from all parts of the extensive mines, there is always a thorough admixture, but this is made doubly sure by passing it through a roll crusher and distributor, by means of which the material is conveyed to the various crude clay storage bins. The purpose of this careful mixing is to obtain a uniform average analysis and general character of brick-making material. The third and final crushing is by means of “Dry Pans’ (Plate 8B) of which there are now four at the WALSH Plant. Two are soon to be added. Perforations in the pan bottoms pass the granular clay via elevators, to the screens on the top floor, where the various sizes of prepared clay are separated and dis- tributed by conveyors (Plate 9) to the prepared- clay bins. The granular texture of a brick or tile is specified to suit the purpose which it is to serve, and the storage bins at all times contain material screened to meet any requirement. Walsh “WALSH Brands” are made by four processes— Special Hand Processes Made, ‘Tempered,’ ‘Semi- open, and ‘‘Open.”’ Tile and specially de- signed shapes, with but few exceptions, can only be made by hand. The materials are ““‘pugged”’ or mixed with water in “Wet-pans’’ (Plate 10) to the desired consistency, and emptied by auto- matic unloaders into steel buckets which are transported via an electric monorail conveyor to the molders’ tables. Hand Molded The molder’s task is to pro- duce a homogeneous tile or shape, free from interior defects or strains, and with a smooth, sharp finish. POCO aT TTA)” . gS B > CAMMY © MUNN Page forty-four Page forty-five ZALAY BS Sal | TT | I A MOE 4 Wy Special care is required that the shapes be dried properly. Perfectly molded pieces may be ruined during the drying process, although no defect may be apparent to the untrained eye. Plates 12A and 12B show some views of our drying floors. This department is con- stantly under the close superintendence of experts. qd Standard sizes of bricks that must stand unusual “wear and tear,” abrasion, pressure, blast, chemical action, clinker, etc.,are made by the Tempered process. The clays are mechanically pugged with suff- cient water to form a stiff, plastic mass, and are then forced by an auger machine through a die approximately the size of the face of a brick. This dense column of clay is auto- matically cut into “‘clots’’ or blanks, which are immediately formed by presses (Plate 13) into WALSH Tempered Brick. The pressed bricks are stacked in open order on dryer cars and placed in the tunnel dryers (Plate 15A) for drying before being set in kilns for burning. Tempere In former years, if a Tempered brick was too dense for a specific purpose, the consumer was apt to use a _ soft- mud’ brick, which in the standard sizes, was re-pressed on hand presses. The texture of such a brick is friable and lacks the crushing and breaking strength, in most cases, that is the usual requirement in these latter days. As consumers found by experience that coarseness of grain had nothing to do with resistance to heat, they also found that a texture somewhat finer and produced under high pressure, yet sufficiently porous to withstand frequent and wide changes of temperature, provided the physical strength modern engineering demands. Semi-Open — (mee _— _— — _— — tomes — — oe — come — ~_ = mes — Saal od see od — a = ee — A aenill ee ome Cl —— =. owen eel — me cm roe al — a — ao —s Seal Cae = — mee A el =a a oa a Cd <_< — — od mel <= == = = = ome tres! me — = = a ne — od — a rot — — cod owe — — ee ee — ae a oe ws! wat — ~~ fed — — ew =< = — wer ms a oot wet al _ he C) — P) be a Q, ee nn cL a RR tr EFS ne ee eh tnt = pene a: Pe iii isis? a Or eM f = F : z : e en AA SST I Tee Page forty-nine RU At fence Y \ BRAN cl “7, aw So} Qa 9 Such a brick is the ““Semi-Open.”’ Plate 14 illustrates the machines which form brick of this texture. ‘Semi-Open” brick can be readily cut by the mason’s tools, are sharp and accurately finished, and are uniform in size. The proper burning of clay wares required both scientific knowledge and suitable equipment. The equipment for burning at WALSH Plant was evolved by practical fire-brick operators in co-operation with engineering specialists. As “‘green’”’ brick must be bone-dry before burning, tunnel dryers (Plate 15A) are provided. The kilns are fifty- two in number, each with a capacity of 48,000 bricks. Each kiln is equipped with an electric pyrometer which registers its temperatures at a central station in charge of the foreman of this department. Burning Producer gas is used for fuel. The raising or lowering of kiln temperatures, and the general conduct of the kilns while on fire is always under complete control of the operator in the instrument room. This fuel does not discolor the ware, which is “‘Bright”’ in appear- ance after being burned. Plate 15B shows a battery of kilns being charged or “‘Set’’ with bricks as they are brought from the dryer by the electric transfer car. Plate 16A shows this battery after the fires are on. Plate 16B is a view of the discharge side of a kiln battery with the loading tracks. (The square upright objects are gas flues.) ATUTOTTTOTOTTTATTITR TOTTI TC PCP PLOCODIP OPPO CELDE LLULULLLLLLLLLUOLLL RTM ELE ~ Q a wy AiTTATATAMTNMTTATTTG (001 HATTA Page fifty on Right. dj i mM ° B e = = oe | re) 3 vo Ey < | =) LL Shy, fe MM al : LJ PA “yp Yes Sf XK \ a ‘ VOS nr woe Y” Annealing For the purpose of finishing clay products without interior strains, warps, cracks, etc., they must be carefully annealed. The scientific control of the kilns, which is mentioned in a preceding paragraph, makes perfect annealing possible. The kilns are fired in groups and cooled in groups. When burning is completed, one kiln receives the slightly cooler air from the adjoining kiln, and in turn passes it on to the next one. This slow cooling not only eliminates the danger of actual injury to the contents of the kiln, but it toughens and strengthens the product. » AUVAUAVAUUOUUUAEOOUUISUOHNOANUUUYUUOOTAUAYIGOOTUOUOUOTOVUNTOTAN COOGTOUUOTOANUTUURECEUOTOQUUUCUUUO OUD UUOTUEECCUTTEOUDDSV CAT UCETUUM TATE UT UTUL UUTTUA ETE EEL TTS RTT CTT TOP PCC A S Gh & G YT ATTT CO TOTOTON TTT OTAUTUNUU ATU ULV TATTTINNY Page fifty-three ZELAY BS wy / q ~ Y 5 NETO ET Fe yg MR U i Ry) ~ VY \ \\ 4 S ae G SS Sin7 LU? mala A GEA, The Walsh Brands O MAINTAIN that any one brand of brick is suitable for every purpose is just as absurd as to claim that one medicine will cure any ailment. Although space is too limited to give a detailed description of all the varied uses of the WALSH Brands, some of the more impor- tant general purpose uses are given. WALSH Brick of several grades are regularly carried in stock sizes, under the following brands: WALSH Tempered The WALSH ¢ Line WALSH Semi-Open WALSH XX WALSH X Blast Furnace his department is under the and direct supervision of an Rolling Mill executive of wide experience in blast furnace and steel mill practice. The consumer's viewpoint is ours. All the processes that modern practice has approved, are applied to the products of our Iron and Steel Department. Ladle A special product of WALSH clays Lining which is notably successful and long- lived in both iron and steel ladles. Malleable The testimony of our malleable Melting iron customers, as to the number Furnaces of heats rendered by their bungs as well as from the side-walls, must be of interest to foundrymen who have felt the need of a wider market for satisfactory material for these purposes. One customer writes, “The losing of a bung since using your brick is something almost unheard of.’ The side-wall brick withstand the slag action and the wash of the metal exceptionally well. TTTTUTTUTTRUCUUVVARA LHP UG RORARUCECGTACOMCCLOUILCIIIDILIDERO EA CULEREROCROROMARUMMTAURROLIROTIUIICROCCIIPOPPRERULLUULCCLLOIRCOPR CDRA LOCUM ALAC RLLOee 3 Zz ANAAVANU UA OCG CAUOUUASUNEATUUUNAD UU EUAN UUUU CEU TUU OO TUTUEO VND UOT OTAUOU OO UUY CUANDO TOU UMMA UTTU TATE TTT y Zt ¢, 4) GT Page fifty-four yy TOAD ATTATTATTTTTNY RTCA a Ss QUT \ %, Boiler Modern steam engineering has Furnaces created a more urgent demand for urnace material that will stand the high heats required in the newer large installations. The use of fuel oil and powdered coal to an increasing extent, the greater height of the furnace walls, improved automatic stokers, the demand for high efficiency generally —all these factors have focused attention upon fire-brick equal to every requirement. The records made by WALSH Brands in large power plants will interest operating executives. Many sizes and shapes besides those illustrated are carried in stock; tell us your requirements. Special designs will be made to order. Water-Gas_ For the generator a well-burned, Lining low-shrinkage brick of great | strength and toughness is re- quired, because of the frequent removal of clinker and the action of steam. For the carburetor, a checker and lining brick has been developed that is uncommonly durable. Being made from a refractory mixture, the checker work is taken down with but a slight loss of brick. The texture is such as quickly gasifies the oils with the least deposition of carbon. WALSH linings are almost always the means of increasing the yield of gas with reduced consumption of oil. Rotary Kiln These blocks, being practically Linings neutral as to expansion and contraction, hold the coating which is readily taken on by the hot zone liners. The materials for the cooler portions of the kiln are made of refractory clays for safety. Their resistance to abrasion, together with the durability of the hot zone blocks, have made WALSH Liners popular with cement manu- facturers. }u t] Ay S UATE TTD TET COTT OTTO OCCIPUT CDEP IPDOPDIPUDDD URED EDI LEL UCL LLUDEPEDAOLELULEEE LL S fi-~N ann A TTT Page fifty-five / ee ee ee ee ee ee > CAM MMM NOTE CC TTA TTTTTTTTNY AY Kx YAS ——— ZSSHUUMASAEEUASAE LEER EET ESTTTIDUELEEE, (eA 1) WU) ul! Checker Brick— A development for maxi- Open Hearth and mum service under the Glass Furnaces conflicting conditions of most checker chambers. It furnishes great resistance to slags, flue dust and spalling action, and yet provides for proper absorption and radiation of heat. All regular sizes and shapes are carried in stock. Cupola Linings Because the cupola could e ‘‘daubed”’ every morning many foundrymen were accustomed to pay little attention to the quality of the linings. It is a fact, now generally accepted, that the highest grade of fire-clay material in cupolas is real economy. Forging and_ The use of fuel oil in a small Re-heating combustion chamber, with the Furnaces hard driving practiced in most forge shops, has developed a demand for a super-brick for lining these fur- naces. We have been successful in supplying the need. Petroleum This phase of our business is Refineries equal in importance to any on our books. Operators of inter- national repute are consistent users of WALSH Brands. Lead, Zinc Many notably high-grade clays and Copper fail to meet the severe service Smelting requirements of these indus- tries. WALSH Brands have . been developed by many years use in eastern and western plants, and are exceptionally well adapted to these purposes. Page fifty-six & zy CIMINO EEN TOM MOE OOOO Lan YAS f= =A We WU QUIET WA) “yy WS fe Sain, t Low? \a\ as = — iP, “ S — OY VATAULTLAT ERRNO UR ADUREUDRDSGOD EDINA @ MUM NS Page sixty-two Go a AS MMANUAUEEUEREUNECEUUECUTHUEE TAT Cal SMM Or GP LARGER THAN 9° SHAPES Oe LARGE 3) LARGE 9° NP] WEDGE. WN dG) cS Ma aa ot BY) 9°x 63"™ 23” O”» 63" (23"-15') 964 %(23"*13") 9 "« 6"»25° STRAIGHT. N2] FLAT BACK ARCHI. ALSO 9’*6"*3" 9% 6'« (33"- 23°) N°2 FLAT BACK ARCH. ey 9% We me )« 3’ 9”«6"x (S4"- 2°). CUPOLA BLOCKS G*~ ) = Sta Ae" SIZE INSIDE DIA. OUTSIDE DIA. NoA OPEN HEARTH CHECKER, N°B O"*x 6” N22 KEY. ae Nec 9’«(6’-Aie ) x 23" i re "(6°-4 2") x 3” 10z"* 43°* 4 : ALSO 9%(6"-4j2') *3 rs Malo hs 2 ner 127 * ae" x A,’ Rese Cea aero ear oe ooo reece oor o ooo ooo ooo aoe o aan Oy KOS cS CAM (GS) TIT TATU OOOTUAOOTOUATHTIUOHTITTNY S Page sixty-three \ 4 ~ — tons = — —_ — — — — = _ — _ = — -_- — —_ _ —_ _ — a = = _ co = —=— —_ = _ = a -_ _ a — a — = = _ — -_ = = —_— = = -_ = —_ = —_ — oad lea = - -_ -_ _ —_ —_ _— —_ — -_ ms —_ = = — - a _ -_ —_ = —_ = = = _ = —_ = = — = = = — —_ —_ = = — = = =— = = — lal a = a = = — — _ Coal ese = — = -_ =— aS = — —_ — —_ = = — _ = — — — = —_ —= = — = = N ~ \y, Z AUT Page sixty-four Oo". 9" STRAIGHT O%x9'%.32" ALSO 132°.9'x35" 9%9° ARCH 9.94(32 -) ALSO 13294 (32>) FOR ARCHS EM OW: 06) &50 INSIDE DIAMLTER 3 0°DIA ieeichcod ( 132.9032 bel 949% (32-2 a) pied.) srorpa | Sete) ‘ 13229x(32°2% ) avon | CUPOLA BLOCKS (9-).6%4 N° OF DIAMETER N° TO BLOCK INSIDE OUTSIDE CIRCLE 30 : Ae" 36 : 46" A2 x 54” 48 3 60" 54 ; 66" 60 is Ue 66 ‘ 78" 72 ~ &4" Pitta \Y QNDDVOMUTAD DA ADTAADDADDOD ADVAN ADU AEA ADULTS MUTITUMLTTELTI EMMA PRE COCOOCLL DODO OOO OOOO CY ES 2) Mel AAS UML Y (NQNNUAUUUUUUOANEUCATANHOTOAUANONOULANENECOOTAUUUCUCUCUUOECQUUURECUOUOUEULLANUUUOOEEACUUEORECCUUNTOLUOTREEUOOROGOOUUAADETUUUTEAA AOL UUETRAN EEE 1} —= = = — = aaa el C7 Call — bal _— se =a — — = Soe = ae 7 ca =s ee a eee [7 = J om | aan an = = — om = — — I == — —_ — = ase =e = =a = = = a ox Coo ex = J = — J = = = = i = = = = as = =a (ee = = =) os a = ld ca) em —] = —) 7 aan = was — ws oa = ~~ i — iol — ae cel -—s =) fo | = = =I = =) = a = esd = fee ome as mee wes = fea | ceed oe == a — os = ea — mee) = oss = = i om = I — i = ——) i Com y cS, A AUNUUULATROUNDDURRRUUAUST SUNS OUURUNIN @ TOTO Page sixty-five aT i Res ie S UA . Ys VS) ip = = = — — a — — — — — — a —_ — = = ad Se = == — —_ — = — a = — —= = —— — = a — a — a = — —_ a = om — — —_ _ ~ = —_ —_ so = = = — — es = = = = = —_ = bad = —=— = = — _— = —_ = = =a — = ass =a — —_ — -_ — — a3 = os = — — — —_ — — = — — = word — — — — ms ae — -_ al = — —= oa — = — = ed = = fo =e = a —= — — —_ — a —= —= — st _— — = = — -_ — —_ on = — — — — — a VMI I EE CCDC OO S| Z G 4 4 Page sixty-six G ROT | ~ \ WS is N°2277 ARCH TILE FOR FURNACE DOOR N°277A JAMB TILE FOR FUDNACE DOOD N° c58-X — = = — — — — — om — — — = — a — —_— = a om SS =— om = —— —_ wenn — — ee —_ = a = — — eel = —— ad a = ~ ie o > Y Q v D0 @ ou y yy ‘punoisyoeg ut Ae[Q peiedeig—si0o]y BuipjoW SinoT "4g INO Jo 9uQ fo MIIA—Z2 Page seventy-five MELEE PE UTTER LULPL LPL TIT eee SSE OEE PLATE 23—Blocks and Special Shapes Weighing 3000 Pounds Are Not Uncommon. Teen ee PEER UEERECESESEAB SSIS R Page seventy-six STU ee 7 \2 MTT AN WY e iz: Flux Blocks The stock sizes are fifty-three in number, and range from size 6x12x18 to 14x18x24. The most popular sizes are listed as follows: = Trued for Trued for Trued for = = 12” Wall 16” Wall 18” Wall = = 12x12x18 12x16x18 12x18x18 = = 12x12x24 12x16x24 12x18x24 = = 12x12x30 12x16x30 12x18x30 = = 12x12x36 12x16x36 12x18x36 = = 12x12x42 12x16x42 12x18x42 = = 12x12x45 12x16x45 12x18x45 = = 12x12x48 12x16x48 12x18x48 = = 12x18x18 zs a 12x18x24 = = 12x18x30 Miscellaneous = = 12x18x36 = = 12x20x24 12x24x42 12x36x36 = = 12x24x24 12x24x48 12x36x42 = = 12x24x30 12x36x48 = = 12x24x36 = a Tank Trued Bottom Stock = = Blocks for 12” Sizes = = 12x12x24 12x16x30 = = 12x12x30 = 12x1l6x36 SS = 12x12x36 = 12x 18x24 = = 12xl6x24. =12x18x30 = = 12x18x36 = = Refractory Stock Sizes = = Blocks 6x12x18 6x12x30 = = 6x1 2x24 6x12x36 = WM, SS ~ < \) JUVUDUUDUCATADEDEPERD AA RD ODED ADODSLIOEDATONTIEUAS Page seventy-seven 4, ALAMEDA ‘usIsaq ul 9} ed1I}UT yng ‘Aaeazyy ATUC ION P1Y Sedeyg ay} Jo aUI0S—FZ ALV Id Page seventy-eight CUO ch LOMA =) Ss Za S4iny (Ow? A Complete Individual plant conditions Service vary to so great an extent that it would be impracticable to list in this book all the detailed dimensions, weights, etc. of all the articles which we make for glass furnaces. The WALSH Engineering Department, with its specialists in glass furnace practice, is always ready to serve glass manu- facturers. Best results are obtained through these personal efforts of our representatives. We give prompt attention to inquiries for the following items: Arch Blocks Breast Wall Brick A. Q. Jack Arches Blow Furnace Rings Bottom Blocks for Lehr Floor—Refrac- tory Material Bridge Cover Blocks Cap Skew Blocks Checker Tile | Dog House Angle Blocks—Flux Grade Dog House Angle Blocks—Pot Clay rade Dog House Arch Blocks Floaters Gathering Ring Stones Gathering Hoods—Flux Grade Glory Hole Rings Glory Hole Solid Cap Bricks Lehr Tile Mantle Blocks for Flattening Ovens Muffle Tile Natural Gas Burner Blocks Owens Machine Plugs Pillar—Inverted Arch and Eye Brick SoC LEE ET LEE eee ee “1 - 1 S eenT Fervor ao rnp TTT COTTA TOTTI Plugs Continued on Page 8] “y = OS AMMVANNYD ITAL LTVADALDEAMADAGLUTAEDDIING @ TTT TT TU TANTANTHUTTTTOHTATITAN Saas Page seventy-nine As RNA ERE eel Rel etal MS ft aol atl Bd EE a A a A A a at AE SR ERE R A S *Sulsso1qd IO} | Apeasy syoo0[q sutmoyus ‘jue[d stnoT 39 94} Ul IOO[q SuldAiq eB Jo MaIA—G¢Z Page eighty LO WANG MUO LLL a “, Cig: QUEUE \ Z GLASS FURNACE ITEMS Continued from Page 79 Port E. Blocks Pots—Thread Pot Setting Brick Producer Blocks Regenerative Furnace Arch and Skew Recuperator Tile Revolving Furnace Ring— Tank—Gathering Shade Stones Shear Cakes Special Producer Blocks Tank Rings Thread Pots Tuck Stones Thimble Blocks Throat Blocks Clays With the wide variety of special shapes which we furnish to glassmanufacturers, we supply every requirement for clays: Prepared Pot Clay Prepared Flux Clay Bench Clay—Wet or Dry Special Eye Facing Clay Mending Clay—Prepared or unprepared Stopper Clay Missouri Washed Clay Missouri Washed Clay Burned Missouri Picked Pot Clay Raw and Burnt Missouri Raw Furnace Clay Bottom Grade Clay Refractory Grade Clay Jack Brick Grade Clay These materials are not only mined from superior deposits, but are prepared by experts with the co-operation of our glass house engineers. U0 EOE eee eee ZITITITIMUM I eC CEA LODO ~ 7 ~ \> Q \ 8 ALUALULUERDEE ER ELDER EEO C) VUVUDLOUUETUVDTAD TPAD DD ADOO EDEL ADVE EADUEETELES Page eighty-one Page eighty- two Se, PLATE 26—Tank Blocks Set—Ready for Burning. nt a cnr a - ee TITITITIPLIEITIEEDSTUDTEEPU LUO COL ICULOLLLCUULELLELLELLOLLLULLULL LLU LUL LULL Lab POUL LEU Leo PLATE 27—“The End of a Perfect Day’’—Vandalia Mine. _ So TT reTTTeTerrereerrieryrirrrircrireriy Try Thy | SAVOAAAAUOUUERAVADOCAVOQUUNSUOCUCUCOUDORRDVGUCAUTEEL POUT ADV ODEDEGAOD OU ETDEUUUDUUUUTETCEE EDTA TEED Page eighty-three WOO) 7, “py: QQVAMUUULUCTMEA TUN CERON EULA (MAL Ale Wy = Inside No. 2 No. | ; = = Diameter Wedge Wedge ead Boe = = 2 ft. 3 in. 57) ae ee 57 = = ass se: 49 ee eta 60 = = Bree 38 30: 1 68 = = : = SNe aise Ihre ome Wo 91 15 106 = = 6220 ach er ee ae 91 23 114 = = etre ary |r se mas ye 91 30 121 = = TA, Cae eeetearen ae 91 38 129 = ms 7c EEG all Ses eee 91 45 136 = = BS75.0, tee ie ieee eee 91 53 144 = = Sane aes | eee 91 60 151 = = Wah nay era es 91 68 159 E =| 9A Will see 91 76 167 E = 10 25s Oka Hees see 91 83 174 = = Va Ta I 91 91 182 = = LAO ap eee teres 91 98 189 = = 1 1RG Bel Sen eee 91 106 197 = = 1 DENSE D Gol teense 91 113 204 = = Oi sa tne ee = = Ogee oan = i= OT ok eile: A ee) || Aie V Q J PEBRANDSIT =) V7, Zs fs yy aN Wal! i) a: = TABLE OF 9-INCH KEY BRICK = = Continued = : Inside Diameter | ey, Straight} Total = = Patios Oh ake soewine's 113 Aaetta = = ein Face Maw ee tvene 113 9 | 122 = = (SE Oh oe a ee 113 | 13 | 126 = = 14% 00 113 17, F130 = = [4 EPO ea a eae, 113 21 | 134 = = 15552 OF SOG ieee eee 113 25 138 = = Lt Gia, secre me ee 113 30 | 143 = = [GEOR te. ice eae 113 | p34 ees = = LO 005 a atin oe eee 113 [938 iets = = [7c 20M Mest Ss eae 113: AoE ee les = = (7eeY Gi bette 113°, | 4oeeaees = = 18a 0 ties scp ealeeee 113 | 50 | 163 = = 1 Bx 260 Ge. Neen 113 55 | 168 = = 19 75 OS ey ck a cer eoeine te 113 59 he = = 19.225 Gist ga tt eas See ea 113 63 | 176 = = 20S 0 aie ee ae 13 |» 67 |. 180 = = 20316 ek A eee 1133) 7 sae es = = 215050 2° se ah alneteaee 113 |) 7 en eetae = = 2U 6 bs oa: iene 113 80 | 193 = = 2228" Oi aie OMe ag ae 113 | 84 | 197 = = 2225. OANA oe eee 113 88 | 201 = = 2358 080s eer tan (13. eet 2 ee eee = = 233576 eee ee 113 97° | 2210 = WM OF CMT (Sy y VPN @ PDTC Page eighty-eight SUT Eas | el ANN TUTTTT TTT TET CC S 2 mids On ww iz = TABLE OF 9-INCH KEY BRICK = = Continued = = Inside Diameter ee | Key| Straight = = Oi 113 101 = = “G 113 105 = = OH ae: 109 = = oe 113 113 = = Oe 113 117 = = ao 113 122 = = 0 113 126 = = Sat 113 130 = = One 113 134 = = on 113 138 = = dO 113 143 = = ay 113 147 = = aig 113 151 = = pet 113 155 = = Ae 113 159 = = Gr 113 163 = = 0 113 168 = = Sa 113 172 = = 0° 113 176 = = 6." 113 180 = a Oe 113 184 = = 113 189 = 113 193 = lp wy CITT TD C) VUDDDLURUGUEVDEEDEERODADDDEAEDUTEE EDT \ Page eighty-nine RUT f= _! INC ~ \—4\ oar ©) tA Wy AL sIYS/ Ms TABLE FOR STANDARD CIRCLE BRICK 24-in. | 36-in. Circle | Circle Inside Diameter l 48-in. | 60-in. | 72-in. Total Circle | Circle | Circle ee = ct — - 5 bo ” a . « - - Wo i) a a“ lon a — — Donnan bp BB BWW WW WN NH LK KH CeO BONGO le SO, OV SCO EON Ol COON re) Circle brick are also furnished for 96, 108 and 120 inside diameters. All diameters are furnished 214” thick by 414” or 6” wide, and 9” back. Splits | yr thick furnished in above sizes. AUFEUAACUUUCUGACCTUUITUNEATUUAUOEU UCU UU CULO TAU EUOTECUU EEUU UUUCTARA TOUT UU UT CNET TRAEEU CCU UY YES RITTER COOPER S A : S 4, —______ | \) iMTTTTTAATTTANTETTTTLT( OTT TS Page ninety LA v UL ee ANS WU) feoiuleatORTeIRCUE BRICK For Length of Chord Multiply Sine by Diameter eae Sine of roman No. to HalfAngle ae q Circle .58779 tors ile 28 .50000 18.000” 29 43386 | 20.740" 30 .38268 | 23.518” 31 .34202 | 26.314” 32 .30902 | 29.124” 33 P2017 oee 511.945" 34 BGG Le gi 54/73. 35 b23932. | 37.606" 36 22251 40.447” oT. .20791 43 287” 38 .19509 | 46.132” 39 .18428 | 48.833” 40 .17365 517.828" 4] 16459 | 54.681” 42 mi D043: ).57 2933" 43 .14904 | 60.386” 44 .14230 | 63.246” 45 .13617 | 66.094” 46 .13053 | 68.949” 47 .12534 | 71.805” 48 .12054 | 74.664” 49 erOU9Ps| 77.920" 50 Sine of HalfAngle .11196 10811 10453 . 10044 .09802 .09507 509225 .08965 .08716 .08481 .08258 .08046 .07846 .07655 .07472 .07300 .07136 .06976 .06825 .06679 .06540 .06407 .06279 Diameter fo 80. 83 89 91 94 97 103 108 111 7 120 123 DAE. 129. 1310 134. .614" 471" 334" hoy 140 143 r Q’ Chord 385" 248" 86. 099” 605” OLB .667" 560 100. 390 VRIES 106. La 4 lel .856” 114. 570” .449” wane 708” 102” 014” 868” 750” SFU UTE O) CCE yy * \ \) UEC (TTT Page ninety-one CTEM EEE NMED ODODE SY = JE SAY BS ST TT S Po Ww ALJ S = TABLE OF 13144-INCH KEY BRICK = Inside No. 2 No. = Diameter Key Key Stel aete = 6 ft. 0 in. 52.) No 52 = Gaost 48 71 55 = TO ras 42 1679) eee 58 = 7 EEO ay 24°- |. a 61 = SSor0nG 33 32°01 65 zs Sito n 28 400° ae 68 = OR we 23 48” | 71 = Geos 18 56:7 | 74 = [One 40 2 12 6.) 77 = LONG 7 73. ae 80 = Theva 2 81. A 83 = Rarawes baetate rer Ce oe 85: 1.05 85 = Lact Gh Sal ie Pee 85 2 87 = 27h g rn aie an 85 5 90 = VI te a pe one 85 8 93 = 13200: titel e genes 85 1 96 = La cava ne ee 85 14 99 = [4c O + Sen eee 85 17 102 = P46 Sell tae 85 21 106 = Bice ee ee bean 85 24 109 = 15a Ge gl ae 85 27 112 = 16 re 0 Coal eee ey 85 30 115 = 169576 8 |S reer 85 33 118 z S CANNOT Page ninety-two C) TODO ATED a % Ys x GUTTMAN TPE UNM LO wy AUT S WU TABLE OF 13144-INCH KEY BRICK Continued Inside Diameter No. | Key} Straight Total UU EEE ~y YA FUUTTTUD ETD D EDR DDE ===: Page ninety-three y S » PTET HOCOUONANOUTOUUAUEATQOOUUTUUOOUOOUQOTEQOUOOUCQVUOUATEOOSUULEUIUUD FATE ATETUETTOTUT TT UTUUUTTITTTITUYS A “> | fe C LAY PRTTMTITUTC TOTEM COO MOCO ey |, 1 oy MMA ~ eS 22 = TABLE OF 13344-INCH KEY BREE = = Continued = = Inside Diameter No. | Key} Straight Total = = 25°tts 6 in ee a ee 85 109 194 = = 29 SOs ame aa een 85 112 197 = = 2955 GUS Aes mmedeD 85 115 200 = = 30" 0) ee asa nt 85 118 203 = = BO: SSO i ae ee aed 85 121 206 = = 3 [eS O wes tet eee nties 85 124 209 = = Mp 3 8o ter ts 85 127 212 = = Sein Qe 85 131 216 = = GPa gee fen er es 85 134 219 = = 35 OP ene ee 85 137 222 = = $3.65 te oe 85 140 225 = = 34054 eu oe one one 85 143 228 = = 34.08 Osea ta aree 85 146 231 = = 35. 0 eae see 85 149 234 = = oS eee = = TABLE OF 9x 6x 3-INCH KEY BRICK = = Inside No. 2 Key|No. | Key = = Diameter || 9x(6-442) |9x(6-53¢) | Straight Total = = x3? <5 = = 6 ft. 01 47 i 47 2 = ee 44 6:0 | 50 = = 7ESE0 42 12 2a 54 = = 7 sO 38 19. | 57 = = Soanles 34 26° 60 = = Boas 31 32 1 63 = = Oo ea0.ay 27 39), |. re 66 = = Cerdihes 23 46 15. ee 69 = = [Ose Oe 20 $2) 72 = = fi aa 16 59. | 75 oe 7% OE. if = ? : AVUVAUTVNNL DUE DULD DARED DERG LUTE DDAN Page ninety-four ) UTA ATATTTATTTTTTTTANY CTT eee; : Ss ES ere oO Peex.Orxe- NGI KEY eB RIGK Continued LABLE Inside Diameter Heft. 0 in. Pigeon 6 &- ie. (Oa [| Pz ee 6 ce ioe OF lee) ad pee 4 S-O* [4a0°7: [ae Oa iSaee0% (Ome. O8- 16m 62" wan Oe it 6 togeea0 a. LAS 6 Loe Os. Pet wa D0 ean: AUC ET op Dive Ot. Zi Gt IR as ae Pat O37 | 7268 V7 Oats Oo gan O Aa aee (yaw: atest O.32 245 owed (ie Dee OT 262 405. 208} 6°: Jaf oa Wigs Pie. O.5 Cope PR t e O9,- 29 Ot Do eae oO) poe Ol- No. 2 Key|No. | Key}. 9x (6-443) |9x(6-53¢) | Straight pre Be xo OG Tae ie traticc er | Zagat etre UC LOSE cee Oe eco oe eA pile oe are 91 5) 91 6 91 10 9] 13 91 16 91 19 91 22 91 Mey, 91 28 91 a2 91 33 91 38 91 4] 91 44 91 47 91 50 91 54 91 57 al 60 91 63 91 66 91 69 91 iy? 91 76 91 19 9] 82 91 85 91 88 91 91 91 94 91 98 91 101 eh 104 91 107 Total YANN TTA O Page ninety-five \a TOT AS ZG Gz CIT RE a TTY” 2 TTT TTT THTOTTTTANY SY ay Ua i al ia) wy re Js) 2 = TABLE OF GAS FLUE ARCHEBRIGiKs = = FOR BLAST FURNACE, DOWNCOMER = = Shapes Required = = Inside Diameter = rm Openings = = No. 3 | No.4 | No.5 | Straight = = 2 freon. 46 = = See Pas Deore 34 15 = = hepa se ae ees a 16 38 = = Be Os Geahn cree as| yarn cee ae, = = Ne RR ek ate He NEN ae 26 39 ae = By Oe eek eek ae) ae. ee 70 ae = iad sR ere ed eae as, ee 70 6 = “ Ge SOE eee, Ae ae a fee Or ee 70 I] = = G5 OT aii. se Sah De eee 70 16 = = y anaols Vee Ronco tate ae Be ee he 70 ee = = | Bide eatea re ee ee Wate ce |. 70 27 = = a feetam (aihars wnbree.s Weir ey Meat els CHIMP bce SY 28 70 32 = = BT G5 “ess eae Sr eee ae eee 70 38 = = QO OE. gas mie ad ike ee ee 70 43 = = CUPOLA BLOCKS — = Shapes Required = = Inside Diameter = = Cupola Lining = = 30-Inch | 36-Inch | 48-Inch | 60-Inch = = 2 feo 6 ineeeeeee 15 = = Contd Uta eae ae 8 8 = = 3270 tis A ee ame en cae ee 17 oe = ic eaibncs Brides nye An a Ah 12 6 = = SR OS Sag Ween «| eererente 8 I] = = i amas: Bates Sr mm hy eo 4 16 Ss 2 ASS OS 21 = = y Miata Ean Pits. ligt 15 7 = = A 6 Se RS) ohelee lame, ae 10 13 = = t Milite: SUPE ON aon ee okt tic 5 19 = = Be peal, ee a ee 25 a3 > se CATIA TTHTATUHTED HAMID HATE TTT OC TUTTI Page ninety-six LLANE “ip x Its @ MOO pNU | “yy ey A oy dy yisuay snipey arenbs 15 |262|60 OY aN IV yisuo] sniper erenbs 15) 243/51 13 |30 |56 1] yay Z “ON IV yisuo] snipey aienbs 14 13 DD 1 WE EWE 122129° 147 15 |36 6 yay Z ON oy Y4sus] snipey sienbs 13 10 RISE: DU nee 7 |393|45 10 51 yory | “ON YouV Z “ON ory Yasue] snipey: 6 [21313 116 | 2 130 [39 AOE, 17 4144-INCH THICK ARCH Ba Pei0sie9 arenbs yory | “ON yorV Z ON etl NUMBER OF FIRE BRICK REQUIRED FOR ONE COURSE OF RTM LLLP CUCUCCCCCU ODOC CUCU UEC UCPC UCULUU CCC UAL TERE EEE Ee TN TOVVOTOvvnUVudUTOVUN Uy Onan HOOT UUOTOOUATTTT NO ANT AT UTA TT TTTOTTTTTTTTTTNTTANY S S G Sy CAIMMIN NT T Cu TNVT/N 0 TTAVDTONIAD PAN DNINNANNNTIIDTTTAINANY —— Page ninety-seven RVTTUTOTTUTECETTER ECE ET ~ S ; y Gi = = Z 92 apt loot ch | Cc yCrL re by a0 €Z | 9EL 671 /ELZI 9-01 gt 1€1 e21 1407/01 SZl SLL ELL 7291 9°16 BLL ZLLULZL 20S1 «0716 ell 901 eGel 19718 801 101 107.8 \\ VU £01) 4 96 a9 uc#s¢ 46 68 w0-d = Z6 +8 «979 82 407.9 = el 1978 = = = = u07G = — = = Gut — = a — | mar 2] — i Lng = =2|C— = = = 3 a 3 s ? P13 2 = = 2 —|2 2 e as |e es = = = =| = eS < =|¢ = = = = 2)2 = 2 2 2|> 2 = = = Sh ey = =a =] a|}> i=] = me ° Blo ° o © ola Ta) — = = = == = = = = = = 2D Ss Z ~ COTTTTITITINITITTT TERRA TPIT TT UELIDT TT TULILTCLCQAED LIT AIILUNERTLIDI IED EDITETOVIDP IIT IDED ODT IIIVILOTTOPCETIIDI LT UPIVID UE DPIOI LUPO LUEEELLUEL ELLE Lees Page ninety-eight i; ROU S | \ ) TT CG General Information About Fire Brick All Fire Brick should be kept in a dry place. Moisture, especially in cold weather, will greatly injure any brick. To obtain the best results from brickwork, observe the following precautions: Use good fire clay equal in refractoriness to the brick itself, mixing with water to thin paste. Dip brick and rub to make a brick to brick joint. Warm slowly to expel moisture. From 400 to 600 pounds of fire clay are enough to lay one thousand brick. Fine ground fire clay should be used for laying up fire-clay brick. For estimating on fire brick work, use the following figures: | 1 square foot 414-inch wall requires 7 brick. 1 square foot 9-inch wall requires 14 brick. | square foot 13-inch wall requires 21 brick. | cubic foot brick-work requires 17 nine-inch straight brick. | cubic foot fire clay brick-work weighs 150 pounds. 1,000 brick (closely stacked) occupy 56 cubic feet. 1,000 brick (loosely stacked) occupy 72 cubic feet. When keys, wedges or other shapes are used in any considerable quantity, add 10% to the estimated number of squares for the total. Red Brick work is estimated on basis of 21 brick per cubic foot. For lime mortar figure on 9 cubic feet of clean, sharp sand—3 bushels lime per thousand brick. UO CE ATTIC LEE ELLER CUCU PU UULULLL CALUCLATE O CRU UUL UL LUL CLO O ULLAL Le We vy THOTT ETS Page ninety-nine 4 GIMME O This test, and the next two following (Pages 105 and 107), reprinted by courtesy of American Soctety for Testing Mate- rials, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., affiliated with the Inter- national Association for Testing Materials. STANDARD TEST For REFRACTORY MATERIALS UNDER LOAD AT HIGH TEMPERATURES Serial Designation: C-16-20 _ This test is issued under the fixed designation C 16; the final number indicates the year of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. Proposep As TENTATIVE, 1917; ADopTED In AMENDED Form, 1920. Object 1. The object of this test is to determine the resistance of the specimen to deformation at a specified temperature for a specified time, when subjected to a compressive load of 25 lb. per sq. in. (1.765 kg. per sq. cm.). Apparatus 2. The apparatus consists essentially of a furnace and loading device. It shall be constructed in accordance with Figs. 1 and 2. (a) The furnace shall be cylindrical in form, 18 in. (457 mm.) in internal diameter, as shown in Fig. 1 (Plate II). (6) The heating shall be done with gaseous or oil fuel and compressed air, using not less than two burners located tangentially and so arranged that no flame can impinge upon the test specimen. The burners shall be such as will insure a uniform temperature in all parts of the furnace and be under complete control. (c) The method of loading shown in Fig. 1 shall be used, and the details shall be such as will insure accuracy in the applied load and freedom from eccentric loading, both in the original application and during the testing. It is advantageous to make the cross- beams as light as possible, so that the greater portion of the load may be concentrated in the weights. Page one hundred Tasie I1.—TEMPERATURE TO BE ATTAINED AT TIME SPECIFIED. ALL TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE. PIRE «CLAY TIME SILETCA Heavy Moderate Duty Duty ho Be gee eee eee 40 160 160 Sat Se alt ah Be ere i ee 80 280 280 soos: 3 Gd gS an 140 400 400 Re ri as ea Ve 200 500 500 8 hoseo BOTS SA ee 260 620 oes) cy hin 16 Dee © ae 290 720 Gg RNa Me eatery lke ieee sw 300 815 770 sik Sohge CE ee 310 900 850 . 30 Bot 320 980 920 Lc Sec a. ghall aRe C ane cee ee 385 1045 990 Sen aS iE eee ee 490 1100 1050 «6 i8 WSs ee 590 1150 1100 3 tis A ee eee 695 1195 1145 ts co aL 800 1235 1185 5 o na eee 900 1270 1220 wowa ab baie ae 1000 1300 1250 pS hes (ko See 1100 1330 1275 5 re a ae ee 1200 1350 1300 Sco pS ole ae 1250 1350 1300 | Motelaskt hate yates ae 1300- 1350 1300 nic: fee nie | eee a ar 1350 1350 1300 so Se oto © ol eae 1380 1350 1300 52k Ree 1410 1350 1300 = 555 och de) Gilani 1440 1350End 1300 End yooh eck ck 1470 aes tWe eeE ee 1500 Scene ARS 8 on eee 1500 A OLe cE ee) AL eee 1500 Ah Sey SLaree nae Biplane 1500 EE Re ees See e.g 1500 A oldahc Lee Ae tnG Ae eae 1500 1500 End Light Duty 2 160 280 400 500 570 640 700 HS 810 860 905 950 985 1020 1050 1075 1090 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 End (d)The temperature may be measured either with a calibrated plati num-rhodium thermo-couple, encased in a double protecting tube with the junction not more than | in. (25 mm.) from the side or edge of the specimen and approximately opposite the center; or with some form of optical pyrometer that has been calibrated against a thermo-couple in the furnace. used, the cold-end temperature should be kept constant in melted ice. A recording form of indicator is recommended where possible. If the thermo-couple 1s Page one hundred one | | | a rary een Make ihn Iwo Parts Symmetrically about CL. B Fic. 2.—Special Shapes Required for Furnace. —By courtesy of Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering. Test Specimen 3. The test specimen shall consist, whenever possible, of a standard 9-in. brick placed vertically on end. In the case of blocks or shapes, sections approximately 9 by 44 by 214 in. (228 by 114 by 64 mm.) shall be cut, utilizing as far as possible existing plane surfaces. The ends of the specimen shall be either ground so that they are parallel and perpendicular to the vertical axis, or if this is impossible, shall be bedded in a neutral cement, so that the specimen is perpendicular to the base of the furnace. Page one hundred two PLATE II. A.S.T.M. STANDARDS ADOPTED IN 1920. STANDARD TEST FOR REFRACTORY MATERIALS. hi era ang 4 a i * ain : == ee : & = Pe 7 Ir oP FURNACE COVER IN 2 PARTS 6/9, A Ka \ Reale] ies yn [| [Bee ‘ i] % 6" Liam SK /OK 3” sina (et Pee O.E . _¥ Hard wheelsx ‘Hates \~ pan-Plates 1s | Sep | : Tike \ SS ESy Pi ne! oa ' Sy { ®! ‘ey | | ELA 33 SF : Ver Be eae BSN ES aap oed (i Ponies ~ley mi i ’ 7 4 75 i—\—- hain i seeaseeeen 99 OC ORCOGCE H9OOR , Counterweight to x * Balance Lever Nyt ste Ny) i 7 ES Ne | SS Ys ‘1s £§ rs OS a oe ie & & nN ‘ate ‘OkoS ak tig! 1&8 ‘ I of, Ee . ores F EIS SS9 NS Ree: Verret A : ISS WQS 7 eset Fo [o VY////) | Tod ‘1 * HU. llldshA Y Yj Vip Vi: END VIEW OF COLUMN be hf ae =~ 204% - ale 20g le. mee —Iikt->| | fe-- ------------------- --- - 54 53% ----- ie Rey co A SECTION B-B SECTION A-& Fic. 1—Apparatus for Testing Refractory Materials under Load at High Temperatures. (By courtesy of Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering.) 33-2 Oe eee OR ee ee he 8 y wets fo vederen Sani 1 TINS Hern Lipee canon 4 te Ste i SR. RS, Pegs Pe" SEBO APN MAES REI EE a reatetlanmenaaniadiness panies inlets RPDS hit 1 ove: Pah t ney ithe aes os lage “oT a) as 1600 1400 1200 + 1000 c o oO y (J fo) i as) 800 f 4) e/a 4 eS / A ls 2 ofa ¢ i rg RST a a ee 3S Re lige a a. 60 e 0 @o kK Silica ------------ =- Heavy Duty FireClay i Duty —--— Light Duty ----— 400 NOS FERRERS caeaee hours. Fic. 3.—Time-Temperature Curve for Load Test. The test specimen shall be measured before testing, making not less than five observations in each direction to within +0.02 in. (0.5 mm.). The average dimensions shall be reported, and the cross-section calculated. Page one hundred three Starting the Test 4. The test specimen shall occupy approximately the center ot the furnace and should rest on a block of some highly refractory material, having a minimum expansion or contraction. A silicon-carbide brick has been found satisfactory. At the top of the test specimen a block of similar highly re- fractory material should be placed, extending through the furnace top to receive | the® load. Notre—Gross errors which may more than double the contraction will result if the speci- men is not set perpendicular to the base of the support or if the load is eccentrically applied. Heating 5. The rate of heating shall be in accordance with the requirements of Table I and the time-temperature curves of Fig. 3, which give the rate and time of heating suggested for different grades of material. Loading 6. (a) The load is calculated from the average cross-section as deter- mined on the untested specimen and the requirement of the test. It is recom- mended that for general purposes, 25 lb. per sq. in. (1.765 kg. per sq. cm.) be used. (4) The additional masses required to give the desired loading should be equally distributed on each side of the beam. Completing the Test 7. (a) At the expiration of the time of heating, the supply of heat shall be stopped and the furnace allowed to cool, during not less than 5 hours before removing the load and examining the test specimen. d Nore—The specimen shall be examined immediately after the heating is stopped for evidences of cracking and spalling, as such defects may develop later due to the rapid cooling of the furnace. (6) After the test specimen has cooled to the room temperature, it shall be remeasured as before described, and the change in length recorded and reported as percentage of the original length. Nore.—It is recommended that a photograph be made of the specimen before and after testing, as yielding valuable information at a minimum time and expense. Page one hundred four STANDARD TEST For POROSITY AND PERMANENT VOLUME CHANGES IN REFRACTORY MATERIALS Serial Designation: C 20-20 This test is issued under the fixed designation C 20; the final number indicates the year of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. Proposep As TentaTive, 1918; Apvoptep, 1920. Object 1. The object of this test is to determine the porosity and permanent volume changes in refractory materials when heated to series of specified temperatures. Preparation of Test Specimens 2. (a) The sample shall consist of at least seven standard-size bricks. (6) Test specimens measuring 244 by 2% by 14 in. shall be cut so as to remove the original surfaces of the bricks; for this a “cut-off” grinding wheel is recommended. There should be five test specimens for each of the seven heat treatments specified in Section 4 or 35 test specimens for each kind of brick. The test specimens shall be brushed or washed free from all adhering dust and marked serially with a refractory stain, for which 5 per cent cobalt- kaolin mixture is suggested. Procedure 3.. After the test specimens have been cut and cleaned, they shall be dried and the volumes and porosity of each obtained as described in Sections 5 and 6. They shall be heated as specified in Section 4, and the changes in volume and porosity determined. Burning 4, (a) Dry the test pieces prior to placing in the kiln. (6) Raise the temperature as rapidly as is consistent with even heat distribution to 1200° C. From 1200° C. raise the temperature at the rate of 30° per hour, drawing samples at each 50° interval from 1200 to 1500° C. (c) If it is possible and the number of brands being tested warrant, it is best that separate burns to each temperature be made and the kiln sealed and allowed to cool by radiation. In case separate burns cannot be made, the five test specimens from each temperature increment should be covered with hot sand immediately on being drawn; or placed in a supplementary furnace and kept at about 500° C. until all drawings are completed, and then cooled with the furnace sealed to cool wholly by radiation. Method of Obtaining Data 5. (a) The test specimens shall be cleaned from adhering or loosely attached pieces and particles, care being taken not to alter the exterior volume as originally prepared for this test. (6) The test specimens shall be heated if necessary to 110° C. to remove moisture, and their dry weight (D) obtained to 0.10 g. (c) The test specimens shall be placed in kerosene of known density (8) under a vacuum of 24 in. for 4 hours at 25° C. and cooled to room temperature while yet immersed. Page one hundred five (d) When cool, each test specimen shall be weighed suspended in kerosene at 25° C. to determine its Suspended Weight (8S), in grams. (e) The Saturated Weight (W), in grams, of each test specimen shall be obtained immediately after obtaining the suspended weight, by drying lightly with a kerosene-moistened towel to remove the excess kerosene and then weighing in air. (f) The Exterior Volume (V), in cubic centimeters, of each test specimen is obtained by subtracting the suspended weight (5) from the saturated weight (W), and dividing by the density (&) of the kerosene. Thus, WV — 5 (g) The Actual Volume of ee Pores (Vi), in cubic centimeters, is obtained by subtracting the dry weight (D) from ‘the saturated weight (W), and dividing by the density (&) of the kerosene. Thus: (h) The Apparent Specific Gravity (T,) of that portion of the test speci- men which is impervious to liquid is obtained by dividing the dry weight by the difference between the dry and suspended weights, and multiplying by the density of the kerosene. Thus: (1) The True Specific Gravity (T) of the wholly solid or burned clay por- tion is obtained by crushing a portion of the dried test specimen to 120-mesh powder and determining the displacement at 25° C. under 24 in. vacuum, of a 20-g. sample in a 50-cc. straight-wall pyknometer using kerosene, and correcting for density of the kerosene. (7) The Volume of Sealed Pores (V2), in cubic centimeters, is obtained by subtracting the quotient of dry weight (D) divided by true specific gravity (T) from the volume of the impervious portion of the test specimen; or (D5) rb) .) ai (k) The Volume Shrinkage is obtained by subtracting the volumes, that is, the values of ————,, before and after the heat treatment. Basis of Reference for the Data 6. To show progressive changes in the several volumes, refer all volumes back to the original exterior volume of the test specimen as 100. This is done by multiplying all volumes by the factor 100/V, in which V is the exterior volume of the test specimen prior to the subjection to heat treatment. The volume data should be determined for each test specimen and multi- plied by the above factor to reduce all volumes for each test specimen to,terms of 100 original exterior volumes of that test specimen before the average of the five for each heat treatment is calculated. Page one hundred six STANDARD TEST For SOFTENING POINT OF FIRE-CLAY BRICK Serial Designation: C 24-20 This test is issued under the fixed designation C 24; the final number indicates the year of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. Proposep As TEentTATIVE, 1919; Apvoprep, 1920. Object 1. The object of this test is to determine the softening point of fire-clay brick, by comparison of test cones with standard Orton pyrometric cones heated in a suitable furnace. Preparation of Sample 2. A 1-kg. (2-lb.) sample shall be taken by chipping off approximately equal portions from the corners of the brick. These fragments shall be reduced in size by means of rolls or a jaw crusher adjusted to pass a lump 6 mm. (4 in.) in diameter. They shall be mixed thoroughly, and the amount of material reduced to about 250 g. (5 lb.) by quartering. A magnet shall be repeatedly passed through the crushed material until all particles of metallic iron are removed. This portion shall be ground in a porcelain or agate mortar to pass a 60-mesh Standard sieve.!. In order to avoid excessive reduction of the fines, they shall be removed frequently during the process of reduction by throwing the sample on the sieve and continuing the grinding of the coarser particles until all the sample will pass through the sieve. Preparation of Test Cones 3. (a) The sample thus prepared shall be thoroughly mixed and after the addition of sufficient dextrine or glue and water, shall be formed into test cones in a metal mold in the shape of tetrahedrons, measuring 5 mm (3% in.) on the sides at the base and 25 mm. (1 in.) high. 1Diameter of wire 0.185 mm., opening 0.25 mm. Page one hundred seven (6) When dry the test cones may be subjected to a preliminary burn at a temperature not exceeding 1300° C. (2372° F.) for the purpose of sintering them into a firm condition to permit handling, Mounting 4. The test cones shall be mounted on plaques of refractory material of such a composition as will not affect the fusibility of the cones.! They shall be mounted with the base embedded approximately 1 mm. (0.04 in.) in the plaque and the face of one side inclined at an angle of 75 deg. with the hori- zontal. The arrangement with respect to the Orton cones shall be substan- tially as shown in Fig. 1, that is, alternating with the Orton cones in such a way that Orton cones of successive numbers will be placed opposite each other. The plaque may be any convenient size and shape and may be biscuited before using, if desired. Heating 5. (a) The heating shall be done in-a suitable furnace at a rate not greater than 15° C. (27° F.) per minute, nor less *thangl!0 Go 1p eee es minute after cone No. 1 is reached, or as nearly within these limits as possible. (4) That type of furnace in which a neutral or oxidizing atmosphere may be maintained is to be preferred. Excessive reducing conditions should be avoided. Care should be taken that the flame does not strike directly against the cone or cone plaque. The furnace should be tested at intervals for the determination of the uniformity of the distribution of the heat. res. Softening Point 6. (a) The softening of the cone will be indicated by the top bending over and assuming the position shown in Fig. 2. The bloating, squatting or unequal fusion of small constituent particles should always be reported. The softening point shall be reported in terms of Orton cones and shall be that cone which most nearly corresponds in time of softening with the test cone. If the test cone softens later than one Orton cone but earlier than the next Orton cone and approximately midway between, the softening point shall be re- ported thus: Cone No. 31-32. (6) If the test cone starts bending at an early cone but is not down until a later cone, the fact should be reported. 1A mixture of equal parts of a highly refractory clay, such as a good grade of china clay, and fused alumina which will pass a 100-mesh sieve, has been found satisfactory. Page one hundred eight ic Gil i gua LL ILLION FINANCE ay a TULLE EDUC, ws : fs] The 7-Pound Basis In earlier days, the “‘soft-mud’’ method of making brick usually produced a _ coarse- grained, loose texture. A 9-inch straight (i. e., 9x416x2% inches) brick averaged 7 pounds weight, and by custom this became a standard. In figuring the size of tile and other shapes larger than a standard brick, to the equivalent of 9-inch brick, the weight of the larger piece was divided by seven. As most 2144x4l%x9 inch brick that are made by present day methods weigh more than 7 pounds, there is no advantage in adhering to this obsolete standard. For several years this Company has sold tile and special shapes by the ton, and the simplicity of this method and its convenience has won the hearty approval of our customers. Rule for Finding the Radius of the Arc of Any Circle Take one half the base line, square it, and to the product add the square of the rise; divide the sum by twice the rise; the quotient will be the radius of the circle. Example—The base line of an arc is 20 feet; the rise is 5 feet—one half of 20 feet is 10 feet or 120 inches squared equals 14,400 inches—plus the square of 5 feet or 60 inches, 3,600, making 18,000 inches; divided by twice ae rise, or 120 inches, equals 150 inches or 12 feet, 6 inches radius. Qt eEEEEOEOE—E—E—E—E—=——_—_—_—O OOOO ATTUNED Cy Ga ATTAIN”) UNTO AED DAA AATALTHNATTLTATTTTTANNS Yy Page one hundred nine A QMUUNUANACAMOON A UUCURUUTTUETUTETTTf \S & 2. OX . WAU 2 Ps CG (oy) ~ \ K CTT MPO CO CCDC A Rule to Find the True Circle for Any Given Span and Rise Draw line BC through the center and at right angles to the span or base line AA, mak- ing the distance D to B the height of the rise. Draw lines E from B to A, from the center of lines E. draw lines at right angles which will meet on line BC at C, which is the center of the circle. A Rule to Find the Inside Diameter of Any Circle by the Dimensions of a Brick Rule—Double the length of the brick, as representing the thickness of the wall, multiply that product by the size of the brick at the small end, subtract from the size of the brick at the large end, the size of the brick at the small end, divide the product by the difference, and the quotient will be the size of the circle in inches. This rule can be relied on in calculating Cupolas, Arches, Wedges and Keys of any length or breadth. TTTTITL TRACER TCE RERCCT CUCU CCCLULUEDUPELOLIULRORRAORLROROOURRCAPOOUPCEIRAATLCPOPOLILOROCC IEP IEE RUMI LLL OCCU RAP ee N “ip = > CATENIN C) QODIDUUOUETNVDEOOUADDADDAODAUANINVINNOUTADIVIUNS Page one hundred ten RTO » es Example—What is the size circle that a key brick will turn, the sizes of which are 9 inches long, 41% inches wide at large end and 4 inches wide at small end? Solution: 9 inches, length brick 2 4% 18 4 4 inches, small end brick Wier 5| 72.0 144 inches or 12 feet diameter. Colors Corre- = Orton Degree C. sponding to ae aaytes Temperatures aa Be Earliest visible Red (Pouillett, et al) Ol5a 800 Dull Red Ol2a 865 08a 940 Red 05a 1000 Cherry Red Ola 1080 Orange 4a 1155 7 1230 Bright Orange, or Yellow 10 1300 12-13 1370 Steel melts about 1350: 15-16 1445 Dazzling White 19 1315 26-27 1590 Welding heat about 1540 C. It must be remembered in using the above table that the figures are at best but rough approximations, as, when working on a large scale, temperature is of less influ- ence in causing contraction of clay, than the dura- tion of exposure to heat . —Searle: Clayworkers’ Handbook QU EEE eee CTT REAL CINE O TTS Page one hundred eleven UU TEE ee ~ ROU kz G yp UU | Page one hundred twelve Weig ht Anthracite Bituminous of Coal Per Cu. Ft. Per Cu. Ft. Actual weight about..... 93.5 lbs. About 84 lbs. Broken (average)........ 52 to 60 lbs. 47 to 56 lbs. A Ton occupies..........40 to 43 cu. ft. 43 to 48 cu. ft. A ton of Coke occupies 80 to 97 cu. ft. Coke swells in coking about 25 to 50%. —Latta: American Gas Engineering Practice Oil Tar !wo and six-tenths gallons of oil-tar (tar from which the water has been evaporated by means of steam coils) is equal to | bushel of coke as fuel under steam boilers. 6 gallons of tar equals 3 bushels of coal properly fired. It requires about 4 per cent of the steam generated to operate the atomizing oil spray for a boiler. —Latta: American Gas Engineering Practice Pure water at 62° F.=62.355 pounds per Water cubic foot or 814 pounds per U. S. gallon. A cubic foot of water contains 71% gallons. 30 pounds or 3.6 gallons of boiler feed water are required for each H. P. per hour. | gallon =0.13368 cubic feet = 231 cubic inches. | pound of water = 27.681 cubic inches at 39.1° F. To find the pressure of a column of water in pounds per square inch, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Steam rising from water at its boiling point (212° F.) has a pressure equal to atmos- phere (14.7 pounds per square inch). Steam C4 h o, IMM PUVEVENATECUAVOUAVUATO ETH OUE EU ETEEEEE ) {NTT TO OTATIN0 DTUADDOAAATDVOTATTNTOTATILUN FAM TTC PAS TOCUT MNCL Ww On = TEMPERATURES = = Below we give the temperatures of iron, steel and other = = metals, under various conditions, according to the latest z= = scientific investigations. = = Centigrade} Fahrenheit = = Degrees Degrees = = cee . .meltal. - 229 445 = = Ld melts| 322 612 = = Lele re boils} 1040 1904 = = MO. melts 412 775 = = Aine... boils}, 1040 1904: = = PR MMITUT tgs crn. ed ve melts 700 1252 = = oN Vermeeyge onic... melts 957 1775 3 = ESI) melts 1021 1870 = = Son Sa elts ea 029 1885 = = io... melts| 1038 1900 = = Cobattiaen sats sas»... melts 1100 2012 = = Castilron; white........... melts} - 1135 2075 = = PASEMYONG PYAY. ok bc ks melts {222 2230 = = Seed ee or melts) 1300 2372 = = PFGMWIOUSD tats 20k! Msn melts 1500 Zia. = = Nickal 0) rr melts} 1500 2732 = = Pivtmumeee 50. 2,..4...melts} . 2533 4593 = = Glass Furnace, between the pots. . 1375 2507 = : In the pots, refining.......... 1310 2390 = = In the pots, working......... 1045 1913 = = Tanks melted for casting........ 1310 2390 = = Annealing Glassware.......... ae bh = = to 555 to 1000 = = Siemens Crucible Steel aie 1460 | 2660 = = varies from. .........0..0 to 1590 | to 2894 = 7 cS S & ATTTTTTA TULL UATHHTTETTTT O TTT TAN TAT TATTTANY Page one hundred thirteen NAMEN OE ATU ETH { S Gi, N TEMPERATURES It must be understood that these temperatures cannot be obtained on a commercial scale from the flames men- tioned. They are the temperatures of the hottest points in the flames, not that of the flame as a whole.—Searle; Clay-workers’ Hand Book. ww = = Continued = = Centigrade| Fahrenheit = = Degrees Degrees = = BESSEMER PROCESS S = Running the slag. 7... ..4.... 008 1580 2876 = = Running steel into ladle......... 1640 2984 = = Running steel into mold......... 1580 2876 | = Soaking pit furnace, ingot in..... 1200 2192 = = Ingot under hammer............ 1080 1976 = = OPEN HEARTH PROCESS = = Gas from producers.. /..) scene 720 1328 = = Gas entering generator.......... 400 152 es = Gas leaving generator........... 1200 2192 = = Air leaving generator............ 1000 1832 = = Fumes passing to shaft.......... 300 572 = “ End of fusion of charge.......... 1420 2588 = = Refining the steel............... 1500 2732 = = Running into ladle, first........ 1580 2876 = = Running into ladle, last.......... 1490 2714 = =| BLAST FURNACE = = Gray Bessemer = = Front of tuyere................. 1930 3506 = = At‘ tapping -33i 26.62 (one ae ee 1570 2858 = = MAXIMUM FLAME = = TEMPERATURES = = Bunsen Burner, gas fully aerated.. 1871 3400 = = Bunsen Burner, insufficient air. . 1712 3134 = = Acetylene flame:.... 033... .4 en 2548 4618 = = Alcohol sir? “ese Pe ae 1705 3101 = = Hydrogen—free flame and air... 1900 3452 = = Oxy-Hydrogen blow pipe flame.. . 2420 4388 = S = a U4, = > 4, ; \ YY CAT C) TOTO tS Page one hundred fourteen RAO UUTEUYAUT S a \ UY OD AY S \ CUENUAUCUUCUCGCNTUNVACEVNTOUELUEONCTAUUOUOCCCVUCUUCUUOCTUUA ETC TUCCUACU TUT TUU EEUU CEUTUUUCAU CETUS PYROMETERS The Seger-Orton pyrometric cones for standardizing furnace and kiln temperatures and conditions, are means for eliminating guess- work. The cones are pyramid shaped, | to 1% inches high, with approximately a %-inch triangular base, and are compounds with known fusion points. They are used for regula- ting temperatures and conditions, rather than for accurate measurements. The indicated temperatures apply when the cone is affected sufficiently to cause the tip to bend over and touch the base. The Thermo-Electric Pyrometer operates on the principle that an electric current is generated when heat is applied to the coupling of two wires of dis-similar metals. The amount of current may be accurately measured by con- necting the free ends of the wires, by means of copper lead wires, to an electrical indicating instrument, which is calibrated to read in terms of temperature instead of electrical units. The thermo-couple may be made of an iron wire coupled with one of nickel, for instance, and such a device is called a ‘‘Base-metal’’ couple. The Walsh Plant is equipped with a Platinum and Platinum-Rhodium-alloy system, and each kiln is provided with a thermo-couple of these metals encased in a porcelain tube. The kiln is thus heated at the desired rate and is under close observation of the kiln foreman at all times. CA eee x Yi “yy Sy AMMANANIA TAD ED ALDARA ED TE HAN OC PIVdVOT OOO T1V TADOOANDOVDVEODODIINNTHHNINLANY Page one hundred fifteen UUM i, | < nN Saint (0V® QD om fs A ; Is) Cz Ike Platinum-Rhodium Wire Hot Junction Gold- Plated Fiegi of 2-bore Fire Clay Insulator with nee Platinum Wire To Platrnum-Rhodiurm Couple ready To entify it ut into high fusing porcelain Protection tube. Indicator Illustrating the principle of Thermoelectric Pyrometers Bunsen Burner heating wires connected with Indicator. Nork Wire-Thermacouple Hot Junction ne Wela SSS pg gg pA 4 ESS Nork Connector *11. Nork Wire Thermocouple with Insulators and Connector ready to put im Protection Tube Platinum-Alloy Thermo-Couple with insulating. protection tube of porcelain. —Courtesy of Wilson-Maeulen Co., New York RTM TELL ELEC ELEC CCCDPCODCRR COR CO CODD CDOCOLDUERECCOPEPO PE PRORLLLOCOCOUULLLULEE UROL AUADANUAUECCUUGAUTAUEURTARUCUAECT ACUTE CUCU ECE OECTA we ss @ ATHVITVU TATU HVAT ID BTA ANTEN THT © TOTEM Page one hundred sixteen AQUA f= [I WU S : | y; a ie. =| Since the invention of the ‘‘Seger’’ pyrometric cones = = for measuring high temperatures by fusing substances = = with known fusion points, some of the standards that = = were used for this purpose have been corrected by the = = U. S. Bureau of Standards. The Bureau of Standards, = = therefore, has published a revised table of temperatures = = corresponding to these cones, and the revised list is printed = = together with Prof. E. Orton’s list. = — = : : = SOFTENING POINTS OF SEGER-ORTON = = CONES = = = = Cone According to According to = i Numbers Prof. E. Orton Bureau of Standards = = 022 1094° F. 590° C.|. -:1094° F. 590° C. = = 021 1148 620 1148 620 = — 020 1202 650 1202 650 = = 019 1256 680 1256 680 ; = = 018 1310 710 ’ 1310 710 = = 017 1364 740 1364 740 = = 016 1418 770 1418 770 a = O15 1472 800 1472 800 = = 014 1526 830 1526 830 — = 013 1580 860 1580 860 — os 012 1634 890 1634 890 = = O11 1688 920 1688 920 = = 010 1742 950 1742 950 — — 09 1778 970 1778 970 = = 08 1814 990 1814 990 = = 07 1850 1010 1850 1010 — = 06 1886 1030 1886 1030 = a 05 1922 1050 1922 1050 = = 04 1958 1070 1958 1070 = ewes 03 1994 1090 1994 1090 — = 02 2030 1110 2030 1110 = = Ol 2066 1130 2066 1130 = cp o> ¢ PUUUELUTEURDA EYE PDEA EOE (ami Y Page one hundred seventeen QUO < i WU gy ~ \ ~ is y = SOFTENING POINTS OF SEGER- = = ORTON CONES = r= = = (Continued) = = Cone According to According to = = Numbers Prof. Orton Bureau of Standards = = | 2102° F. 1150° C.| —-2102° F. 1150° C, = = 2 2138 1170 2138 1170 = = 3 2174 1190 2174 1190 = = 4 2210 1210 2210 1210 = = 5 | 2246 1230 2246 1230 = = Gey arte 2282 1250 2282 1250 = = 7 wer ois 1270 2318 1270 = = 8 2354 1290 2354 1290 = = 9 2390 1310 2390 1310 = = 10 2426 1330 2426 1330 = = 1 2462 1350 2462 1350 = = 12 2498 1370 2498 1370 = = 13 2534 1390 2534 1390 = = 14 2570 1410 2570 1410 = = 15 2606 1430 2606 1430 = = 16 2642 1450 2642 1450 = = 17 2678 1470 2678 1470 = = 18 2714 1490 2714 1490 = = 19 2750 1510 2750 1510 = = 20 2786 1530 2786 1530 = = 21 2822 1550 as ding = = 22 2858 1570 = = 23 2894 1590 = = 24 2930 1610 sir pes = = 25 2966 1630 ss: ee = = 26 3002 1650 2912 1600 = = 27 3038 1670 2948 1620 = = 28 3074 1690 2975 1635 = = 29 - 3110 1710 3002 1650 = = 30 3146 1730 3038 1670 cn = 31 3182 1750 3065 1685 = = 32 3218 1770 3101 1705 = = 33 3254 1790 3128 1720 = = 34 3290 1810 3164 1740 = = 35 3326 1830 3200 1760 = = 36 3362 1850 3236 1780 = = 37 3398 1870 3272 1800 = = 38 3434 1890 3308 1820 = = 39 3470 1910 3344 1840 = = 40 3506 1930 3380 1860 = = Ss 4, Z, CHT, Page one hundred eighteen ? : mA C) TTT Kaul KD fish. WU S S C4 UTTER EUUO CCL = ATA) ) LAAT Page one hundred thirty-five Ke a / SVU Ts : L SS 24 . 4, WS iN i: = WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS = = Average = = MATERIAL Specific [Per Cu. Ft = = Gravity | Pounds. = — BRICK = Comition red 5+ he ee eee 1.8 to 2.00 100 — = Fire-€lay 7all hs (vidi. Bate ieee ote | ee 150 = = OUICa ye eis) ke bios hoe a ee Ue eee ee 128 = moet Chrome tes fe hain wt ite ak bag Eee 175 es = Magnesia as brick or fused in furnace...]........... 160 = = CEMENT = aa Portland 4.04.50.5 cunck: Oe os ee eae ee | ee 78 = = FINE GROUND CLAYS, SILICA — = CEMENT, ETC. = = Pirescla y ies. genc Seis belo 5 Ge | eee 85 = = Silica ‘cements... sri os ons AZ Sane ate yee 75 = nme Magnesia‘ cement ..605 f4.5 odgs oh te Oe 127 = = Chrome,cement ).c/..5. 6.0) oid he ea ee 135 = ps Grain magnesite (as shipped)..........]........... 112 = — COAL AND COKE = = Anthracite. is fie ok A eee eee 1.4 to 1.7 60 = = Bituminotis 4.3) 37 one ee eee 1e2 tones 49 — = Charcoal tie i Oe ae oe Sees ee 18.5 = -— Ole eek siren aia cec eR es on an ee 1.0 to 1.4 26.3 = eo CONCRETE. = = Cement, fine; Stone, Sand............. 2.2 to 2.4 144 = = Gementi.Slag, etej2ey (4) se ee L.98tor2:3 130 = = EARTH = — Loam,’ dry, loose 6. 62.4... use ee eee 76 = — Loam; packed i."5 he se eee 95 = — Loam,’ soft, loose: mud-...5. cat, 2a eee 108 = = Loam, dense mud..,50\,.5...550 Dee. | eee 125 = == GLASS = os Common; window...4. 5. qs..c one ee 2.4 to 2.6 157 = = Plate 22 o eee ees a ooh eee en eee 2.45 to 2.7Z 172 coal a Crystal ey ose on ie a ee 2.90 to 3.06 184 = = Floor or skylight’) ...4)- \.c.5 6: i ee 158 = = GRAIN Es = COrmsteaci nc ae eRe a ste ces en [ee 45 = = Oats chet cg Sesion Les ae ee ee ae 24 = = Wheat 2.30... 2 chen Ravan pie oo ee ee 48 = = LIME = = Quick, looselumps...44..5-.. 7.050 | 53 = = Quick, ‘fines, 63.3 Bek Gee So oo ee eee 75 = = Stone, large rocks ..-5.. 2... 4.0).) 2) ak ee 168 = =] Stone, irregular lumps. <., 27) .0,4-5 eee 96 = = MASONRY = = Granite or limestone. .),.23)).0). 7. ae | ee 165 = — Mortar, rubbles i524), 20e0s oe |e 154 = ad Dries 254 Fs os et A se 138 = = Sandstone,; dressed)... 54. 3. sid) oo OL eee 144 = = METALS = = Aluminum: * 30) 5005. 3900 St ns ee, | eee 166 i = Brass; cast; ‘rolled 43 7s. ee 7.7 534 = = Bronze;"7.9'te [4% Sno. ease ee 7.4 to 8.9 509 _ = Copper, cast.2-anl bys ak a ke Ue | eee 537 = = Gopper, rolled or wire... ..:. 50) bee |e 555 = = Iron ‘cast; pig h..)0 Pee oe eee if P 450 = aoe lron;;wrought.. «Gee on ee ee 7.6 to 7.9 485 = if we ) OTOL S AUSWALATAIND UTTAR RAVAEUA ADEE TTT Page one hundred thirty-six fe hes NEU i TAN TMU S 7 SS s\ “7 eS a Gz = WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS = = 4 Average = = MATERIAL Specific |Per Cu. Ft. = = Gravity Pounds — —_ METALS—Continued. = = IReacemCaSt hat ry tn ine hres te ie eS Rok eee 708 —= moo Lead, Ore—Galena.................. 7.3 to 7.6 465 = — Sel aCas tae eee ka Sk te knee | as Whe Oe oka 490 = = rec lroll ec amen carta. ots ih ay ME ME ante me Co 35 = = = 7, > S CATENIN TE TOOT C INTE AT AAATAALATATTTTUTTTATIDNS Page one hundred thirty-seven Ke / SVU fx UU “4p | i 4 4% 4M 4% 4M 4% 434 4% 5 5% 5M 5% 5% 5% 534 5% 6 6% 614 6% 614 6% Circum. | Area Diem. | Circum. . 5664 9591 3518 7445 . 1372 SPV AL) .9226 23153 .708 . 1007 .4934 .8861 . 2788 .6715 .0642 .4569 .8496 . 2423 .635 .0277 . 4204 .8131 .2058 ELE 9912 . 3839 . 7766 . 1693 .562 .9547 3474 .7401 . 1328 S320 .9182 .3109 . 7036 .0963 .489 .8817 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES From 1-64 to 100 SO \a\ = Diam | Ss | = Lael .04909 | .000192 a ly .09818 | .000767 = ly, 19635 | .003068 = \% 3927 012272 = 8% 589 027612 = \Y 7854 049087 = 5% .98175 076699 = yA 1.1781 110447 = ee 1.37445 | .15033 = % 1.5708 19635 ~ % 1.76715 248505 = 5% 1.9635 306796 = 11% 2.15985 | .371224 = 34 2.3562 441787 = 13% 2.55255 | .518487 i % 2.7489 601322 = 15 / 2.94525 | .690292 = 1 3.1416 7854 = 1% 3.5343 99402 = 1% 3.927 (2272 = 134 4.3197 | 1.4849 os 1% 4.7124 | 1.7671 = 154 5.1051 | 2.0739 = 134 5.4978 | 2.4053 = 1% 5.8905 | 2.7612 = 2 6.2832 | 3.1416 on 2de 6.6759 | 3.5466 = 2u% 7.0686 | 3.9761 = 23% 7.4613 | 4.4301 = 2% 7.854 4.9087 = 25% 8.2467 | 5.4119 = 234 8.6394 | 5.9396 = 2% 9.0321 | 6.4918 = 3 9.4248 | 7.0686 = 31% 9.8175 | 7.6699 = 3% 10.2102 | 8.2958 = 33% 10.6029 | 8.9462 = 3% 10.9956 | 9.6211 = 35% 11.3883 |10.3206 = 334 11.781 = | 11.0447 = 3% 12.1737 |11.7933 "y we My Page one hundred thirty-eight AVA TET C) TEE SS dAANAUCOCTUCAAEROL COS UUEAEUUANCAUCATUCUOTU CTA AU TATOO TANT UT MUU UU TUN CTU OOTY TUTTE TTT PRTTIMUIUMUIMC UMN MTEC a | HF) O, a > 1) WU ~ Z, <> A yo 4, wv eds) NG eo Sin rious 7 i— = CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF = = CIR GEES = = Continued = = Diam. | Circum. | Area | Diam | Circum. | Area = = 9 28.2744 63.6174 15 47.124 176.715 = — 9% 28 .6671 65.3968 15% 47.5167 179.673 a = 914 29.0598 67.2008 1514 47.9094 182.655 = oon 9% 29.4525 69 .0293 15% 48 .3021 185 .661 = — 91% 29.8452 70.8823 151% 48 6948 188.692 = ae 9% 30.2379 72.7599 15% 49 .0875 191.748 a! poe 934 30.6306 74.6621 1534 49.4802 194.828 = = 9% 31.0233 | 76.5888 15% 49.8729 197 .933 = = 10 31.416 78.54 16 50.2656 201 .062 = = 10% 31.8087 80.5158 161% 50.6583 204.216 = = 10144 32.2014 82.5161 1614 51.051 207 .395 a = 10 3% 32.5941 84.5409 163% 51.4437 210.598 — = 10% 32.9868 86.5903 16% 51.8364 213.825 = — 10% 33.3795 88 .6643 16% 52.2291 2172077 — a 1034 318) 90.7628 1634 52.6218 220.354 = = 10% 34.1649 92.8858 16% 53.0145 223 .655 = = 11 34.5576 95 .0334 17 53.4072 226.981 = oe 11% 34.9503 97.2055 17% 53.7999 230.331 = = 1144 35 343 99.4022 1714 54.1926 233 .906 = a 11% 35.7357 101.6234 17 3% 54.5853 237.105 =a —s 11% 36.1284 103 .8691 171% 54.978 240.529 = am 115% 36.5211 106.1394 175% 55.3707 243.977 — —_ 1134 36.9138 108 . 4343 1734 55.7634 247.45 = = 11% 37.3065 027537 17% 56.1561 250.948 = ses 12 37.6992 113.098 18 56.5488 254.47 = eo 12% 38.0919 115.466 18% 56.9415 258.016 = = 124% 38.4846 117.859 184 57.3342 261.587 =< = 12% 38.8773 120.277 183% 57.7269 265 . 183 = = 12% 39.27 122.719 181% 58.1196 268 .803 = = 12% 39 6627 125.185 18% 5825123 272.448 = = 1234 40.0554 127.677 1834 58.905 276.117 ~ = 12% 40.4481 130.192 18% 59.2977 279.811 = = 13 40.8408 1325733 19 59 6904 283 .529 = bar} 13% 41.2335 135.297 19% 60.0831 287 .272 = i 131% 41.6262 137.887 1914 60.4758 291.04 a = 13 3% 42.0189 140.501 193% 60.8685 294 .832 = = 13% 42.4116 143.139 19% 61.2612 298 .648 — = 13 % 42 .8043 145.802 195% 61.6539 302.489 ore — 1334 43.197 148.49 1934 62.0466 306.355 = = 13% 43.5897 151.202 19% 62 .4393 310.245 — Roe 14 43.9824 153.938 20 62.832 314.16 = cS 14% 44.3751 156 20% 63.2247 318.099 = se 14144 44.7678 159.485 2044 63.6174 322.063 = = 14% 45.1605 162.296 20%% 64.0101 326.051 — —e 141% 45.5532 165.13 20% 64.4028 330.064 = = 145% 45.9459 167.99 20 5% 64.7955 334.102 — - 1434 46 .3386 170.874 2034 65.1882 338.164 = SS 14% 46.7313 173.782 20% 65.5809 342.25 — o \ \Y ANTTTTMTNTTTTNIG( CE TS = Page one hundred thirty-nine QUE U UE LS fe OCCT la) “ yy Me = CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF a = CIRGEES = os Continued we sare = = Diam. | Circum. | Area Diam. | Circum. | Area wa — -~— = PA 65.9736 346.361 27 84.8232 572.557 = = 21% 66 . 3663 350.4974 27% 85.2159 577.87 = = 2114 66.759 354.657 274% 85.6086 583 .209 — = 213% 67.1517 358.842 27% 86.0013 588.571 = = 21% 67.5444 363.051 271% 86.394 593 .959 = = 21% 67 .9379 367.285 27% 86.7867 599 371 = need 2134 68 . 3298 371.543 2734 87.1794 604 .807 = _ 21% 68.7225 375 .826 27% 87.5729 610.268 = — 22 69.1152 380.134 28 87.9648 615.754 = = 22% 69.5079 384 . 466 28% 88.3575 621.264 = = 221% 69.9006 388.822 2814 88.7502 626.798 = = 223% 70.2933 393 .203 28 34 89.1429 632.357 = = 221% 70.686 397 .609 2814 89.5356 637.941 = = 22% 71.0787 402 .038 28 54 89.9283 643 .549 = = 2234 71.4714 406 .494 2834 90.321 649.182 — rn 22% 71.8641 410.973 28% 90.7137 654.84 = = 23 72.2568 415.477 29 91.1064 660.521 = = 23% 72.6495 420.004 29% 91.4991 666 . 228 a = 2314 73 .0422 424.558 2994 91.8918 671.959 = = 23 3% 73.4349 AZO 3135 293% 92.2845 677.714 = _ 231% 73.8276 433.737 291% 92.6772 683 .494 = = 23% 74.2203 438 364 29% 93 .0699 689.299 = = 2334 74.613 443.015 2934 93 .4626 695.128 = = 23% 75.0057 447 .69 29% 93 .8553 700 . 982 = = 24 75.3984 452.39 30 94.248 706 . 86 = = 241% 75.7911 457.115 30% 94.6407 712.163 = = 2414 76.1838 461.864 3014 95.0334 718.69 — — 243% 76.5765 466 .638 30%% 95.4261 724 .642 = = 241% 76.9692 471.436 30% 95.8188 730.618 = = 24% 77.3619 476.259 30 5% 96.2115 736.619 — — 2434 77.7546 481.107 3034 96 .6042 742.645 = = 24% 78.1473 485 .979 30% | 96.9969 748 .695 = = 25 78.54 490.875 31 97 .3896 754.769 = = 25% 1859377 495.796 31% 97.7823 760.869 = = 2514 79.9254 500.742 31% 98.175 766.992 = = 25% 79.7181 505.712 31% 98 .5677 773.14 = = 251% 80.1108 510.706 31% 98 .9604 779.313 = = 25% 80.5035 515.726 31% 99.3531 785.51 = — 2534 80.8962 520.769 31384 99.7458 LOTR IS2 = = 25% 81.4889 525 .838 31% | 100.1385 1912979 os = 26 81.6816 530.93 32 100.5312 804.25 = = 261% 82.0743 536.048 32% | 100.9239 810.545 = ome 26144 82.476 541.19 3214 | 101.3166 816.865 — - 26 3% 82.8597 546.356 323% | 101.7093 823.21 = — 2614 83.2524 551.547 321% | 102.102 829.579 = fae 26% 83.6451 556.763 325% | 102.4947 835.972 — = 2634 84.0378 562 .003 3234 | 102.8874 842.391 = = 26% 84.4305 567.267 32% | 103.2801 848 .833 = = = “y, = My O= f MRE COMMITTED C 1017010000100 0 DTA ADD TNTATATTATTUNY Page one hundred forty ATTIC ECOL A S ee COLAY ps ’ ey fo fe, ) . / Nh = AU (a7) | We TULLE DR AAROT EE EEUE EOE SiR CIES Continued CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF Circum. 103 .673 .065 .458 851 344 .636 .029 eet et et et et et ee ee N—=—=COOCOSD BOOBYNYAR UUVsasawww Nn———ocodsS NWNHRNKRKR—-— Circum. 22e 22 1227 123% 123% 124. 124. 124. CAM MP TOOT @) VUNDODGMUEUUDAODODODDDDDDVOADIVOOVNEN DEAE 8 S Z CIMINO TACTUUUU OCCU TURE TTT EEE Page one hundred forty-one AUTO: \c\ TERROR ea ‘a Gi, Ay S Fa = CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF = = CIRCEES = = Continued s oe Diam | Circum | Area | Diam | Circum | Area = oa 45 141.372 1590.43 51 160.22 2042.82 = = 45% 141.765 1599.28 52 163 .36 2123.71 = — 451% 142.157 1608.16 53 166.50 2206.18 = — 45 3% 142.55 1617.05 54 169.65 2290.21 = = 451% 142.943 1625.97 55 172.79 2375782 = am 455% 143.335 1634.92 56 175.93 2463.01 oes! = 4534 143.728 1643 .89 57 179.07 2551.75 = = 45% 144.121 1652.89 58 182.21 2642.08 = = 59 185.35 2733 .97 = - 60 188.50 2827 . 43 = 4 46 144.514 1661.91 6l 191.64 2922.46 = ae: 46% 144.906 1670.95 62 194.78 3019.07 — oa 46144 145.299 1680.02 63 197.92 3117.24 am — 463% 145.692 1689.11 64 201.06 3216.99 = oe 461% 146.084 1698 . 23 65 204.20 3318.30 = = 465% 146.477 1707 .37 66 207 .35 3421.18 = on 4634 146.87 1716.54 67 210.49 3525.65 = = 46% 147.262 1725073 68 213.63 3631.68 = ~ 69 216.77 3739.28 = - 70 219.91 3848.45 = == 47 147.655 1734.95 oe = 47% 148.048 1744.19 71 223.05 3959.19 = — 4714 148.441 1753.45 72 226.19 4071.50 =— — 473% 148.833 1762.74 73 229 .34 4185.38 —_ = 47% 149.226 1772.06 74 232.48 4300.84 4 — 47 5% 149.619 1781.4 75 235.62 4417.86 = = 4734 150.011 1790.76 76 238.76 4536.45 = = 47% 150.404 1800.15 Lil 241.90 4656.62 = rae 78 245 .04 4778.36 — = 79 248.19 4901.66 =. = 80 251.33 5026.54 == = 48 150.797 1809.56 = — 48 \4 151.189 1819. 81 254.47 5153.00 = 4814 151.582 1828.46 82 257.61 5281.01 — = 48 3% 151.975 1837.95 83 260.75 5410.59 i — 48% 152.368 1847.46 84 263 .89 5541.77 = —_ 48 5% 152.76 1856.99 85 267 .04 5674.50 = — 4834 153.153 1866.55 86 270.18 5808 .80 = — 48% 153.546 1876.14 87 273 .32 5944.67 = ~ 88 276.46 6082.11 oa sa 89 279.60 6221.13 — = 90 282.74 6361.72 — pas 49 153.938 1885.75 _ = 4914 154.331 1895 .38 91 285 .88 6503 .87 = -_ 494% 154.724 1905 .04 92 289 .03 6647 .61 = — 493% 155.116 1914.72 93 292.17 6792.90 — = 4916 155.509 1924. 43 94 295.31 6939.78 = _ 49% 155.902 1934.16 95 298 .45 7088.21 = om 4934 156.295 1943.91 96 301.59 7238.23 = = 49% 156.687 1953.69 97 304.73 7389.81 = — 98 307.88 7542.96 — a 99 311.02 7697 .68 a — 50 157.08 1963.5 100 314.16 7853.97 = Ty, . SS ) TOIT S 4 ALU EEE Page one hundred forty-two yi 4, eae AS ER CUELERSVUNTATTRRLUC ACEH 5 g SUITED LTT? Neg A Zp. S \ h/ PEeeiViArS-OF AN INCH FOR EACH 1-64th 015625 | 33-64 : 915625 03125 17-32 ; ; tL) 046875 | 35-64 ; 546875 .0625 9-16 5625 078125 | 37-64 10123 09375 19-32 ; ; 2935/5 .109375 | 39-64 .609375 eb22 5-8 625 .140625 | 41-64 .640625 15625 21-32 , .65625 .171875 | 43-64 : ; .671875 1875 11-16 .6875 .203125 | 45-64 703125 21875 23-32 7 1875 .234375 | 47-64 ; 134375 P20 oe off) .265625 | 49-64 765625 28125 25-32 ELOLZS .296875 | 51-64 196875 25 13-16 , ; 8125 328125 | 53-64 , , 828125 34375 27-32 84375 359375 | 55-64 859375 375 7-8 875 .390625 | 57-64 ' 890625 40625 29-32 .90625 421875 | 59-64 ' 921875 4375 15-16 0313 453125 | 61-64 ; ; 953125 46875 31-32 .96875 484375 | 63-64 984375 .900 l SUE Eee eee 4, ZITTOTTTITTUTTIIT TITRE CC TMM EU MUTED EEA TROP ETOP TOPCO OOOO CODCOD &S A ATT TTT ATATTTOOTTTTTT O TTT TANT ATTTTTHTTITANY Page one hundred forty-three LAY Bs kez ON RU iss | a A MU S$ I BRANDS P| 7, SS eu FL = METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES = —— +o Cult «»- —— = METRIC WEIGHTS = Milligram (.001 gram) = =). omeeeOna) eee = Centigram (.01 gram) - - - - - 0.1543 grain = Decigram (.1 gram) - - - - - 1.5432 grains = Gram - = & = =) 2) 2037 = Decagram (10 grams) - - - - - 0.3527 oz. avoir. = Hectogram (100 grams) - - - - 3.5274 oz. avoir. = Kilogram (1000 grams) - - - - 2.2046 Ibs. avoir. = Myriagram (10,000 grams) - - - 22.02462 lbs. avoir. = Quintal (100 kilos) - - - - - - 220.4622 Ibs. avoir. = Millier or Ton (1000 kilos) - - -2,204.6223 Ibs. avoir. = METRIC DRY MEASURES = Milliliter (001 liter) - - - - - - 0.061 cu. in. = Centiliter (.0I liter) - - - - 0.6103 cu. in. = Deciliter (.1 liter) - - - - - 6.1027 cu. in. = Liter) capes are ae es » 0.9081 quart = Decaliter (10 liters) - - - - - - 9.0808 quarts = Hectoliter (100 liters) - - - - =- - 2.8377 bushels = Kiloliter (1000 liters) - - - - = = 1.3079 cu. yds. = METRIC LIQUID MEASURES = Milliliter (001 liter) - - - - - - 0.0338 fluid oz. = Centiliter:(.0l iter) “= “= 29230 2ae 0.3381 fluid oz. = Deciliter (.l] liter) - - - - = = = 0.8452 gill = Liter ( -).30 2 @ x oy Se 1.0567 quarts = Decaliter (10 liters) - - - - - = 2.6417 gallons = Hectoliter (100 liters) - - - - - - 26.4170 gallons = Kiloliter (1000 liters) - - - - - - 264.1705 gallons

ae poe VARA” THEE Eee We Y VOU ) TOTO Ts + Page one hundred forty-nine Al op | —~_ a) iy E fe Q 2 =] 5) 2 =] =) 2 jf MEMORANDA VA TTATTATTTTTNTMNNTAATINLTETTATTT , S Z ie “4 i } . ; : U . : S : MMMM TITEL CECE EE ECT CD ma i LO qj a ep) At TS CANUUUUCUUSNUUACHAUUATUCTUUTTEOTHTET Page one hundred fifty - ae ' 6 UU yy) “pp : ‘C4 MEMORANDA CISC LC CITT TEM PPO RPE OOD OCL i a TTT @ HT TOTOOTTT DO DOHTANODODONODATTHAETATTHTTANY Page one hundred fifty-one Ss ssn wena UTTER A \ IN a OS Ta MTR BO pg Fn h AR aN + oS Sa % s TE mo a) a PY) W iy none Sans eK \ €) . 4 MEMORANDA MUU Page one hundred fifty-two NUT N S Rn JO % | RU POURED Eooo TTC G S a a Sas SIM = = = ~MEMORANDA (OUUWAN LAN UOU NA KUCOEA ONO RO CUEOOTEGAUUEOUOCAOSOCGOO CCU AUUUCCU CUT U TA GUCA UEC ATA ATURE NM Z TOON OOOO OC ZG Mp sii | \ CIN C) UUVVDNORYCUTADEDEOTAD DADO ED LANADIIIO ATT TANTS Page one hundred fifty-five < we quits V4 MEMORANDA TUG Ee UCM CCC CCCUCRMUCOOCCCUCORLLLECLULLOLOLU LOMPOC L ELLOS CLULLLLL LLL OLL Nee ER A CC TI TI A IN RTT TLE ELE MIELE ELEM S Z A _ : AUT EET ©) DODDLAD TEE TDPAD ADEE Page one hundred fifty-six \) iN fg Y = OX ie WU Z kel) Gz S Sing Toy J —s et, Mair a ee aa Sgcemiy tui a es bere Be - pie a ay Tish. ' nite ih hate iterate th Sie bat oy Brat sae te tates tie re Bees area ( esta rararahy pedape etre tou foetiticet 3 ; EY Rain tA Hats tte Li Late Nie: i SE got pet th m : ? Roeletyt 2 thy I a 5; atisty a: re isos Hal 42 ae < — < ara oo 4 Sea ae aie al po, : po ean 2 irate iste < Net "4 NW teens ee bare hist cease ty) Pasa vu # iM saa) Eee a ms = Y Pee aitetinetae rasepei toate inca eNO soritaircrtesy eat stig! te te pad ee POPS eS OS Rett