aRisteef pug aaeSpieAsigest Sine oa > Fee ee | Be Fy ; C = Ai beige. htt EL ee - hg gta hs eaere4 wie = ie Ee \ ; ny ta A - : Be : Seve enash cae Came ito, esses s : = 7 eae : = ; ree ~ corer oe ; Sled ate a ‘ : - ’ = ; Daten. : ; ; $ : Soiees Saka : | y < set ; ee a : “ : ae, pie 5 f Se oe 7. “s - SS :3= = 3 iz : 3 ree —— x SF . tondl S, c= + 3 oe, = rere 3 or Sint te 7S Sure Sze aah Re Re . — oak - re Smee FS, the eS, ; 7 , : - ‘ ~ - ase ee Se pees wy os ay ; ’ . : : 5 ele =e =e CAC ee ES ees - = ce i ‘ Sores S i es Ae, eG Rae aa ai a ie : ; as. oe eh eee eer os Sf _ iy wes ges . re 2. ae gine Met o oo + ‘ S get It Pore RN ten ie Nfs pes <= é ; "7 3 = f com of we s 7 + a ‘s oy + = wa a A ta Soe z =e Spe DB ean a as Tay Sie DRT ge Fae Tow = a Be ings AY Atitee eet Rey pas ti te? ; ‘ af wente oa f\r . re ese Bi i ao ne ALS + gin ae ed etn Ny, Pa ae fire en NY x = ae tie MET pd FAL th sess 1 ay Pats i 4 Maga Catt a ee re re é ¥ 5s ty poy AQureee rel mae the Vprd-ea cy ape _ PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Vou. XI. — No. 1 _ INDIAN BURIAL PLACE AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS BY CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY ‘WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY EARNEST A. HOOTON FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1924 PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Vou. XI. — No. 1 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS BY CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY EARNEST A. HOOTON FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1924 a ¥ al bore sv hae * ¥ oe en | 4 ; E et * y ¢ ‘ t : : ie " ‘ . 7 . * = x a . COPYRIGHT, 1924 BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIV NOTE Accounts of a number of explorations carried on by the late Professor Frederick W. Putnam, or under his direction, remained unpublished at the time of his death. Two of the most important of these, dealing with the archaeology of Ohio, have since been brought out as parts of Volume VIII of this series, and it is hoped that others will follow. The exploration of the small burial place at Winthrop, while merely an incident in Professor Putnam’s work, is thought worthy~f record owing to the early historic period to which the burials belong, and to the rarity of such dis- coveries in Massachusetts. CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS April 18, 1924 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE AT WINTHROP MASSACHUSETTS In April, 1888, workmen, excavating for the narrow gauge railroad at Winthrop, Massachusetts, just across the harbor from Boston, unearthed three or four Indian skeletons. The skull of one of these lay in contact with pieces of thin copper, evidently parts of a copper vessel which had been placed over the head. The greater part of the skull was deeply stained by the metal which had preserved portions of the hair and scalp, and what appear to be parts of the brain and its membranes, also fragments of matting and other wrappings. As soon as Mr. C. A. Hammond, superintendent of the road, heard of the discovery, he secured the skulls and such other bones as had not been destroyed, and presented them to the Peabody Museum. On August 21, Mr. Hammond wrote to Professor Putnam as fol- lows: ‘We are now obliged to make further excavations in the pound ! where relics have been found, and have already unearthed another skeleton, and more to follow, but I do not want to proceed further . . . until you can see the situation and give us some ad- vice.”’ Professor Putnam was unable to go to Winthrop at the time, and arrangements were made for Mr. Hammond to discontinue the work on the road at that point for a few weeks. On November 22, the work of excavating the burials was begun under Professor Put- nam’s personal direction, and was continued for three days. Five graves were carefully opened. As these were the only ones within the line of the roadway which needed immediate attention, and as the weather meanwhile had become too cold to work to advantage, further investigations were postponed. On March 30, 1890, excava- tions were continued by Professor Putnam, and graves 8, 9, and 10 were opened. This burial place was located on the southern slope of a low sandy hill on the site now occupied by Centre Station of the Boston, Revere Beach, and Lynn Narrow Gauge Railroad. Its 1 Built by act of the authorities of Boston dated February 23, 1634. 1 2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE locality is shown on the accompanying sketch-map, plate 1, which indicates only the streets in the immediate vicinity of the station. The positions of the skeletons are illustrated in figure 1. They were found at an average depth of about two feet, and artifacts were found in all of the graves opened by Professor Putnam, with the exception of number 3. The pound in which the burials were discovered was built for the protection of cattle owned by the settlers of Boston. On the 23rd of February, 1634, the authorities voted that ‘‘there shall be a little house built and a sufficiently payled yard to lodge cattle in of Ficure 1 Burial Place at Winthrop: sketch-plan showing position of graves. nights at Pullen Poynt Neck before the 14th day of ye next second month 2 At the time of the discovery of the burials (1888), the place was traditionally known as ‘‘The Pound.” In 1902, Mr. Charles W. Hall wrote as follows regarding it: The house and palisaded yard thus erected were certainly the first built by the Massachusetts settlers within Winthrop territory. William Cheeseborough, Constable of Boston, and cattle guard at Pullen Point Neck, must have had his ‘‘corral’’ and house somewhere between the Court Park section and the Town Hall, as the natural water supply for the cattle was the swamp that formerly stood near the site of Winthrop Centre Station.? From the above we may definitely assign to the burial place a date some time previous to 1634; and judging from the artifacts un- earthed, it seems probable that the period is very near the begin- 1 Charles W. Hall, History of Winthrop, 1902, p. 19. 2 Ibid. PEABODY MusEuM PAPERS Vou. XI, No. 1, Puate 1 WINTHROP HIGHLANDS CENTRE STATION SITE . OF BURIAL PLACE Map of Winthrop, Massachusetts, showing location of Burial Place. Only the streets in the vicinity of Centre Station are indicated. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 3 ning of the seventeenth century. This locality was in the territory of the Massachuset Indians, and the burial place undoubtedly be- longs to that tribe. The rarity of Indian cemeteries of the proto-historic period in Massachusetts makes the interments here recorded of unusual in- terest. The majority of Indian skeletons which have been un- earthed in this Commonwealth belong to a somewhat later date, and are usually unaccompanied by artifacts. The first burials unearthed by the workmen are not located on the plan, as their exact positions were not recorded. As already —~= be —_ SS SEE Sas ae ——_- aS SU SS == (SS —- > SSeS SS s a Ful uf FIGURE 2 Section of bulrush mat showing weave. Found in contact with copper bowl covering skull of the first skeleton unearthed. (1/1.) stated, the skull, which lay in contact with the copper vessel, and the adhering portions of the grave wrappings were sent to the Mu- seum with the other bones. No pipes, beads, or other ornaments were noticed, such articles being easily overlooked. This skull was that of an adult male, and, judging by the frag- ments of wrapping adhering to the copper, the burial was the result of careful preparation. The grave had apparently been lined or the body covered with birch-bark, and well-preserved pieces formed the outer portion of the adhering mass. The original pieces of bark had been sewed together with split roots. It is possible that this may have been a portion of a bark mat such as were used for portable 4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE lodge coverings by the Algonquian tribes inhabiting the birch-bark area; but the sewing does not correspond to that occurring in ex- amples of these bark mats in the Museum from the more eastern Algonquians. Within this outer covering of birch-bark was a layer of what appears to be the bark of the cedar, and within this, and in contact with the copper vessel covering the head of the skeleton, was a piece of woven bulrush mat which had been perfectly pre- served by contact with the metal. The type of weaving shown in this mat is illustrated in figure 2. The warp cords are in pairs and are undoubtedly of twisted bast; the woof is of selected rushes. According to both Roger Williams and John Josselyn, the interiors of the more permanent Indian habitations of New England were lined with ‘‘embroidered mats or with mats of rushes painted in several colors.”’ The mats of the Ojibwa of the Great Lakes area FIGURE 3 Incisors of beaver, used as chisels, Grave 1. (1/ 1.) are doubtless very similar to those of the Indians of this region. The color of the groundwork of the Ojibwa mats is the natural brownish-yellow of the dried rushes, and pleasing patterns are pro- duced in considerable variety by weaving in rushes dyed in various colors. Both Williams and Josselyn undoubtedly refer to mats which were woven in colors, not embroidered or painted. This specimen is of special interest, as it is probably the only example extant from New England. Mats from Algonquian tribes in general are usually about 3 feet wide by 5 to 7 feet long, with cross-stripes, lozenge-shaped figures, or other designs, usually in red, yellow, and black. Although coarser, they resemble some of the well-known commercial floor-mattings from China and Japan. The metal object which lay in contact with the skull appears to *‘sqUIOdMOIIV DUO PUL JUIUIOTAUIT UOIT YIM UBUL B JO UOJ[OYs SUIMOYS ‘T OABIDH :COIyZUIAA 7B d0V[g [VIN Z ALVTg ‘T ‘ON ‘TX “I0A suddvg Waasnayy AGodvag “ AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 5) have been a basin about 12 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep, made from sheet-copper. It had become corroded in places and was broken into numerous pieces. The largest fragment is about 7 by 4 inches. Many of the smaller pieces were apparently overlooked by the workmen. The edge of the basin was not turned over or wired, but was roughly cut and made smooth, probably by grind- ing. This may possibly have been made by an Indian workman by cutting a disc of the proper size from a sheet of copper and beating it into concavo-convex form. Similar large drinking cups of this metal were seen by Brereton in possession of the Indians of south- ern Massachusetts in 1602. Grave 1. This was opened by Professor Putnam. It was 30 inches deep, and contained the skeleton of a man in a flexed position. Ly- ==> SS _— en Fira ar a ia SSS al FIGURE 4 Bone arrowpoints, Grave 1. (1/2.) ing parallel to the spinal column, in the position shown in plate 2, was a much corroded implement or bar of iron, 233 inches long, ¢ of an inch wide, and } of an inch thick, one end of which tapered to a chisel-like edge. Over this implement were five bone points and an incisor of a beaver such as were commonly hafted and used as chisels or knives (figure 3). On the opposite side of the body was another group of five bone points and a second beaver tooth. Both groups of points are illustrated in figure 4. The position of the first group is shown in the photograph. It seems probable that these points were all that remained of two groups of arrows. It will be noticed that in the first group the points lay nearly parallel with each other, with the 6 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE tips in one direction, as would be the case had they been attached to shafts. The relative positions of the individual points in the second group are not recorded. It is interesting to note in this connection that the Virginia Indians used a beaver tooth, properly hafted, for notching the feathered end of their arrow shafts.1 Many varieties of arrowpoints were used by the New England Indians, including flint, bone, the hollowed tips of deer antler, eagle claws, tails of the horseshoe-crab, and triangular points of sheet- brass. At the time of the arrival of the colonists, sheet-brass points Figure 5 One of the lumbar vertebrae of skeleton from Grave 1, showing brass arrowpoint which had been shot through the abdomen of the Indian. (2/3.) had almost wholly replaced those of flint. The arrows were care- fully made. Elder twigs were a favorite wood for the shaft, into one end of which was inserted a foreshaft of heavier wood, to which the point was attached. Higgeson, writing in 1629 of the arrows of this region, says that some were headed with bone, some with brass.? These two varieties of arrowpoints were found in the grave we are describing. The one of brass had caused the death of this Indian. It was found half buried in the forward portion of one of the lumbar vertebre, and is 1 Captain John Smith, Voyages and Discoveries, Arber Edition, vol. 1, pp. 364, 365. 2 New England’s Plantations, Massachusetts Historical Collections, 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 123. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS fi shown in position in figure 5. The arrow had been shot into the abdomen as the Indian was facing his opponent. The only other artifacts recovered were a bead-like object of sheet-copper, one end somewhat larger than the other, and a bone point or awl, which was apparently in the earth used for filling the grave, Grave 2. This was dug to the depth of 25 feet and had been lined with matting. It contained the flexed skeleton of a woman. At its left side lay an unworked shell of Fulgur canaliculata, a species not Y 4 7 Lie 2S ? 2 ose ‘ we ~ A Se WASSSS Es ps SS SSS 8 ~ FIGuRE 6 Shell of Fulgur canaliculata probably used as a drinking cup, Grave 2. (2/3.) uncommon on the Massachusetts coast. This was probably used as a drinking cup or dipper (figure 6). About a foot from the skull were the three pottery vessels which are illustrated in figures 7 and 8. Near the left shoulder were also about twenty beads, approxi- mately 4 inches in length and } inch in diameter, examples of which are illustrated in figure 9, and also what appears to be a piece of a skin garment in which the body was wrapped. Each bead was made of a section of a twig, probably elder, with the pith removed, and neatly covered with thin sheet-copper, the salts of which had pre- served the two-ply twisted cord with which the beads had been 8 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE fastened together. These beads had not been strung end to end as a necklace, but seem to have been fastened side by side into a sort of band, similar to that taken from the Indian skeleton found near Fall River in 1831, and later made famous by Longfellow as the skeleton in armor. Beads similar to these, made of sheet-copper or brass, were quite common among the New England Indians at a very early date, and many have been taken from graves. Sheets of FIGURE 7 Pottery vessel, Grave 2. (1/2.) copper and brass were undoubtedly sold to the Indians of this re- gion by European fishermen and explorers many years before the arrival of the colonists. As early as 1524, Verrazano saw many plates of wrought copper in possession of the Indians of southern New England. These were undoubtedly of European origin. Brere- ton in 1602 saw among the Indians of Massachusetts: . a great store of Copper, some very red, and some of a paler colour [brass]; none of them but have Chaines, Eare-rings, or Collars of this metall; AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 9 they head some of their Arrows herewith much like our broad Arrow heads, very workmanly made. Their Chaines are many hollow pieces semented to- gether, each piece of the bignesse of one of our reeds, a finger in length, ten or twelve of them together on a string, which they weare about their neckes: their Collars they weare about their bodies like Bandolieres a handfull broad, all hol- low pieces, like the other, but somewhat shorter, foure hundred pieces in a Col- lar, very fine and evenly set together. Besides these they have large drinking cups made like Sculls [bowls], and other thinne plates of Copper, made much like our Boare-spear blades, all of which they so little esteeme as they offered if We iW ey ‘te iS fee Gas Wik, geceee Ce h i ‘fs € Peckecece cece V7 0") tlle fies fei Figure 8 Pottery vessels, Grave 2. (1/2.) their fairest Collars and Chaines for a Knife, or such like trifle, but we seemed little to regard it. The twisted cord on which the copper beads found with this skeleton were strung is larger and coarser than is commonly used for this purpose, and the material from which it is made has the ap- pearance of sinew. The three pottery vessels belong to the later Algonquian group. The clay from which they are made is of good quality and is tem- pered with crushed burnt shell. Cooking vessels having nearly globular bodies like these were usually suspended over the fire. The older pots with pointed bottoms belonging to the archaic group of primitive New England pottery, sherds of which are common in the older shell-heaps, were supported by hearth-stones or were set a few inches into the ground, instead of being sus- pended. The decoration upon these three vessels is characteristic 1 Brereton, Account of Gosnold’s Voyage, Mass. Hist. Coll., 3d Series, vol. vi, p. 91. 10 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE of the pottery of this region, and consists of incised lines or de- pressed markings, probably made with pointed or notched sticks or similar tools. On the body of the largest vessel, and also on the one illustrated in figure 10, are faint impressions of cord-wrapped paddles such as were used in pottery making over an extensive area east of the Mississippi River. The round-bottomed pottery of the later New England Algon- quians has many characteristics of Iroquoian ware. The Iroquois were excellent potters, and while the clay vessels of the two peoples are as a rule easily distinguished, the influence of the work of these FIGURE 9 Tubular beads of elder wood covered with thin sheet-copper, Grave 2. (1/1.) New York tribes was marked on the fictile art of the natives of the southern portion of New England. The so-called “‘Red Paint”’ people, the oldest New England In- dians of whom we have knowledge, made no pottery. The earliest New England potters were undoubtedly the Algonquian tribes whose refuse is found on many of the older village sites inland, and especially in the ancient kitchen-middens or shell-heaps of our tide- water region. The broken pottery from these sources shows that the bottoms of the pots were more or less pointed. These vessels could not stand upright without being supported by a tripod of stones, or by being set with the pointed bottom an inch or two in the earth. This older type of pottery extended southward along our coast to Virginia, where it was used as late as the latter part of the sixteenth century. Hariot describes its use as follows: After they set them upon a heape of earth to stay them from fallinge, they putt wood under which being kyndled one of them taketh great care that the fyre burn equallye rounde abowt. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 11 The more or less globular bodies of the pots from these graves, however, taken in connection with their restricted necks, seem to indicate that they were intended principally for suspension by means of a band encircling the vessel below the rim, to which cords or thongs were fastened. The rounded bottoms suspended a few inches from the live coals would expose a large surface to the direct heat, without obstructing the draft or deadening the fire. In ‘‘Mourt’s Relation” we have a description of an Indian wigwam at Cape Cod in 1620. In the midst of this mat-covered house was the fireplace, where were found “four little trunches [crotched sticks] knockt into the ground and small sticks laid over on which they hang their pots and what they had to seeth.”’ } The few other references to the earthenware of the Indians of eastern Massachusetts are as follows. Gookin in 1674 writes: The pots they seeth their food in, which were heretofore and yet are in use among some of them are made of clay or earth, almost in the form of an egg with the top taken off. But now they generally get kettles of brass, copper or iron. These they found most lasting than those of clay, which were subject to be broken, and the clay or earth they were made of was very scarce and dear.» Morton tells us: They have earthen potts of divers sizes, from quart to a gallon, 2 or 3, to boyl their vitels in, very strong though they be thin like our iron pots.’ Champlain found pottery in use along the Massachusetts coast, and says that ‘‘ when the natives eat Indian corn they boil it in earthern pots which they make in a different way from ours.” 4 Of the many New England potsherds examined by the writer, only one or two show indications that the vessel of which they formed a part may have been made by the coiling process. It seems doubtful if this method, so common in the West, was used to any great extent by the northeastern tribes. The following, as quoted by Laverdiére, from Sagard’s ‘‘ History of Canada,” writ- ten in 1636, doubtless refers to Iroquoian potters; the description may apply as well to the Algonquian potters of New England: 1 Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (London, 1622), Cheever’s Reprint, p. 39. 2 Gookin, Mass. Hist. Coll., 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 151. 3 Thomas Morton, New English Canaan (1637), Prince Scciety Reprint, p. 159. 4 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 1, p. 86. 12 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE They are skilful in making good earthen pots which they harden very well on the hearth, and which are so strong that they do not, like our own, break over the fire when having no water in them. But they cannot sustain dampness nor cold water so long as our own, since they become brittle and break at the least shock given them; otherwise they last very well. The savages make them by taking some earth of the right kind, which they clean and knead well in their hands, mixing with it, on what principle I know not, a small quantity of grease. Then making the mass into the shape of a ball, they make an indentation in the middle of it with the fist, which they make continually larger by striking re- S > RS ‘ ass . ASS RES a pmesS Fase SSS oe PSG SST 5 Resa {Ses TRO Figure 10 Pottery vessel, Grave 4. (1/2.) peatedly on the outside with a little wooden paddle as much as is necessary to complete it. These vessels are of different sizes, without feet or handles, com- pletely round like a ball, excepting the mouth, which projects a little.! Grave 8. Skeleton of a child about one year old, at a depth of 2 feet. No artifacts were found with it. Grave 4. A shallow grave containing the skeletons of a man, a woman, and two children, in the pesitions shown in plate 3. Frag- ments of the pottery vessel, illustrated in figure 10, lay near the 1 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 11, p. 86, note. ‘JassoA Ar0}30d usyorg B pus ‘UdIpPpIyO OMY puv ‘UBUIOM ‘UBUT B JO SUOJOTOYS SuUIMOYS ‘fF oABIHH :doIyIUIM 3B s0¥[J [VlINng @ ALVTg ‘T ‘ON ‘TX “I0A suddvVq Waasay Adoavag AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 13 head of the woman. Beneath her head were 80 blue and white tu- bular glass beads, 3 to 3 of an inch long and of various diameters, also a few copper beads of about the same size. There were also found in this grave 148 white beads made from the columella of one of the larger univalves, probably Fulgur carica or Fulgur canalicu- lata, and a few small discoidal beads of mussel shell (plate 4). The white beads are of ancient type and were made before the common white and purple wampum became the vogue among the Indians of New England and the Middle States. This later commercial wampum, made principally from the shell of the quahog, was in- troduced into New England by the Dutch about 1628. Grave 5. A much decayed skeleton of a man lay 2 feet below the surface. The earth at this point was less sandy than the other FiGurReE 11 Spoon made of antler, Grave 9. (1/2.) sections of the cemetery, and the dampness caused a more rapid disintegration of the bones. The only artifacts found were a few tubular white shell beads and five tubular glass beads which lay beneath the jaw. Graves 6 and 7. Unearthed by workmen. Exact locality unre- corded. No artifacts found with skeletons. Grave 8. Skeleton of man, 2 feet below the surface, in the usual flexed position, and facing southeast. The only implement re- covered was a bone awl lying about 4 inches back from the verte- bral column. Grave 9. This contained the skeleton of a child, two to three years old, at a depth of 14 inches, and judging by the objects found, it must have been a girl. Near the head were fragments of a pot- tery vessel of about the size and shape of the one illustrated in figure 7; also the antler spoon shown in figure 11. Nearby lay the 14 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE stone pestle (figure 12) with its upper portion carved to represent the head of an animal, also the small water-worn stone (figure 13) which resembles the ordinary polish- ing or sharpening stone although it shows no sign of use. As one end of the stone somewhat resembles an animal head, it seems not unlikely that this may have been a toy. Near the knees of the skeleton was found the small pottery vessel illustrated in figure 14. This also was probably a toy. The only other artifact recovered was a bone point, which may have been thrown into the grave with the earth when covering the body. The pestle is of considerable interest as it represents a type not uncommon among the Algonquian tribes of New England and the eastern sections of the Middle States, but rare in the adjacent regions. Although no object of European provenience was found in this grave, the burial undoubtedly belongs to the same period as the others in this cemetery, which would indicate that pestles of this general form, with or without the terminating animal head, were used up to about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Judging from the collections from Massachusetts in the Peabody Museum, about five per cent of the more carefully wrought stone pestles terminate at one end in a knob or a more or less carefully sculp- tured head of an animal. The best example of this type known to the writer was found in the Kennebec Valley, and has a finely wrought human head at the upper extremity. These pestles are of various lengths, up to about 28 inches, and are commonly about 2 to 24 inches in diameter. They are usually made of a variety of metamorphosed slate, and are generally gray or greenish in color. Figure 12 Stone pestle, Grave 9. (1/2.) Prasopy MusEuM Papers Vou. XI, No. 1, PLatse 4 Burial Place at Winthrop: Blue and white tubular glass beads (at left); tubular beads of shell, and small discoidal beads of mussel shell, all from Grave 4. (1/1.) AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 15 They were probably used with wooden mortars made by burning a hole in the end or the side of a section of a tree trunk. There is an old Indian mortar and pestle from Nantucket in the Peabody Mu- seum. The mortar is made from a section of an oak tree trunk. It is about 20 inches high, 9 inches in diameter, and has a cavity about 10 inches deep. This is probably similar to the larger mortars used in prehistoric times in New England. With such mortars the longer FIGurE 13 Water-worn stone remotely resembling a small animal, Grave 9. (1/2.) stone pestles were probably used. It is also probable that long wooden pestles similar to those still common among the Algon- quians of the Great Lakes region were used in these mortars. The pestle that accompanies the old mortar above mentioned is about 30 inches long, and is of wood with the excep- tion of the lower portion, which consists of a short piece of an ancient stone pestle fitted to the wooden handle and bound with an iron band. The smaller stone pestles were probably used in wooden mortars of relative size, and were doubtless for preparing maize foods, “medicine,” and other substances. Schoolcraft figures, on plate 21 of the fourth Fiaure 14 volume of his work, a woman grinding corn. Toy pottery vessel, Grave 9. (1/2.) There is an ancient stone pestle, with a head Lay d at its upper end, suspended by a cord from the limb of a tree which serves as a spring-pole. A very broad and shallow mortar of stone is shown below. In connection with this picture are two views of the stone pestle drawn to a much larger scale. On page 175, un- der the caption ‘‘ Relics from New Hampshire,” is the following reference to this illustration: The mode of pounding maize by suspending a stone pestle from the limb of a tree as practised by the ancient Pennacooks of the Merrimack Valley in New Hampshire is represented in plate 21. The pestle is commonly ornamented by 16 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE the head of a man or quadruped, neatly carved from greywacke, or compact sandstone, the mortar being also of the same material. This reference has been widely quoted. It seems apparent, how- ever, that Schoolcraft was describing a stone pestle found in the habitat of the Pennacook Indians in the Merrimack Valley which he figures separately, and that his accompanying drawing showing a woman using this same pestle is wholly ideal. Stone mortars of Indian origin, such as is shown in this drawing, if they occur at all in New England, are extremely rare. Referring previously to the use of the spring-pole in connection with the mortar and pestle, Schoolcraft says (vol. 111, page 467): After the introduction of the iron axe consequent on the discovery, stumps of trees were excavated to serve the purpose of a mortar, a practice which com- Figure 15 Spoons: the larger is made of sheet-brass, the smaller of sheet-copper, Grave 10. (1/2.) mended itself to the early back settlers who improved on the idea by attaching the wooden pestle to a spring-pole loaded in such a manner as to lift the pestle from the block with but little effort. It seems doubtful, therefore, if the spring-pole was used by the New England Indians in ancient times. Grave 10. Skeleton of a child two to three years of age, probably a boy. Near the foot of the grave were fragments of a pottery ves- sel. Near the extremity of the forearm lay a deposit consisting of two spoons, the larger made of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet- copper (figure 15); 5 pendants and a disc having two perforations, all of sheet-brass (figure 16) ; a terra-cotta pipe (figure 18) ; the rem- nants of a bag of coiled netting which had evidently contained the pipe; and what may have been the remains of a second bag, prob- ably of dressed skin, which perhaps had held the metal spoons. With these objects were several seeds, resembling those of a variety of the Cornus, having the ends ground down to the cavity, thus AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS li? forming a perforation for the purpose of stringing for use as beads. With the skeleton were also several glass beads, both blue and white, of the same kind as those shown in plate 4; and the iron adze blade illustrated in figure 17. Roger Williams says that ‘“‘generally all the [Indian] men throughout the country have a tobacco bag with a pipe in it hang- ing at their back.”’ It was doubtless such a bag which was placed in this grave. It was of coiled netting (figure 19), a style of fabric used principally for bags by various tribes of both North and South America, and also found among the natives of Africa and the Pacific Islands. The foundation for the mouth of these bags was a cord over which the first coil of the bag was looped, as indicated in the drawing. This looped coiling was continued spirally downward, the Figure 16 Pendants and disc of sheet-brass, Grave 10. (1/2.) lower portions of the bag being drawn in gradually until the center of the bottom was reached. The texture is shown more open in the illustration than in the original, for the purpose of making the tech- nic clearer. This is the first record of the occurrence of this fabric among the natives of New England. So little remains of what appears to be a second bag that it is im- possible to tell the material of which it was made. It was probably of dressed skin, however, and was apparently ornamented with the brass pendants and disc (figure 16); beads made from seeds; and a double fringe of hair, a section of one layer of which is shown in figure 20. The tobacco pipe is of a type evidently fairly common at the be- ginning of the seventeenth century, and probably also at a much earlier date. It is of terra-cotta, and of a form occurring among the eastern Algonquians from Virginia northward, to and including the southeastern portion of New England. This specimen has its stem 18 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE covered with a piece of sheet-brass, very neatly joined. The ma- jority of these pipes, however, are without this metal reinforce- ment. Gosnold in 1602 saw among the Indians in the vicinity of Buzzards Bay, southern Massachusetts, pipes ‘‘steeled with cop- per.”’ Brereton’s account is more explicit. He says: the necks of their pipes are made of clay, hard dried . . . the other part is a piece of hollow copper very finely closed and cemented together.! This is a very good description of the pipe from this burial. There are two other terra-cotta pipes in the Museum from Mas- sachuset Indian graves in the vicinity of Boston, having bowls also bound with sheet-brass. It is probable that the stems of both were originally covered with the same material, for one still retains a narrow band of brass just below the bowl, and the lower portion of the other had evidently been cut down to fit a tapering metal stem. Figure 17 During this period, stone tobacco ane poet pipes with figures of men or beasts in relief upon them were also in use by our Indians. This is shown by the accounts of contemporary writers, and by archeological investigations. The platform pipe, however, frequently found in this region seems to belong to an earlier period. The two spoons found near the bag containing the pipe were neatly made, the larger of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet-cop- per. The concavo-convex form of the bowls may have been pro- duced by hammering that portion of the unfinished spoon into a corresponding depression in a block of wood with a round-faced hammer of some kind, a method followed by our sheet-metal work- ers in making various objects, up to quite recent times. The edges of the spoons are ground smooth. If they were originally cut with heavy shears, or if they were finished with a file, all traces seem to have been removed by grinding. The edges of the brass pendants appear to have been finished in the same manner, but the perfora- tions in the pendants were doubtless produced with an iron punch, as the bur upon the under side is very marked. The copper basin found with the first burial described was doubtless shaped by the 1 Brereton, op. cit. p. 88. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 19 same process as were the bowls of the spoons. The metal handles of the spoons are very short, and it seems reasonable to suppose that they were originally attached to longer handles of wood. On the whole, it seems probable that the basin and spoons were made by Whites who possessed only crude tools, although it is possible that they were worked out of sheet metal by the Indians. The occasional finding of tobacco pipes in graves of young chil- dren is an interesting indication of the affectionate forethought of the parents for the future comfort and welfare of the departed boy. It seems to indicate a belief in the continued growth and maturity Figure 18 Terra-cotta tobacco pipe with stem covered with sheet-brass and wound with sinew, Grave 10. (2/3.) of the spirit, for it is hardly probable that these very young chil- dren were users of tobacco at the time of their death. Throughout the century following the discovery of Newfound- land by Cabot in 1497, ships from various nations of Europe visited the northeastern coast of America, and had more or less communi- cation with the natives. Verrazano, the Florentine explorer, reached the eastern coast of America in 1524, and turning north- ward explored the bays and inlets to about the latitude of eastern Maine. He gives an accurate account of the Indians of southern New England, and describes their habitations, dress, canoes, agri- culture, etc. He writes as follows of the copper found among them: We saw many plates of wrought copper which they esteem more than gold, which for the color, they make no account of, for that among all other is ac- counted the basest. They make most account of azure and red. The things they esteemed most of all those which we gave them were bells, crystals of azure color, and other toys to hang at their ears and about their necks.! This copper must have been obtained from previous explorers of whom we have no account; for although an occasional implement 1 Relation of John Verrazano, Hakluyt’s Divers Voyages, Hakluyt Society Reprint, p. 65. 20 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE and a few small beads have been found, wrought from native cop- per, nothing in the way of metal plates or large beads has been re- covered in New England which was not made of European copper or brass. It has been suggested that much of the sheet metal was obtained from wrecked ships. It seems much more probable that it was acquired in trade with the early fishermen and explorers, many of whom undoubtedly skirted our New England shores in the six- teenth century. In 1535, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence. It ap- v N ) Nh wal i s } 14 I" 1 Wy a yak AW nil | i i i | WAY APN IW | ! il | | | | ] i | aN Ins FicurEe 19 Figure 20 Section of bag of coiled netting, the lower Section of layer of fringe, enlarged drawing showes the technic more probably a part of bag, clearly, Grave 10. (1/1.) Grave 10. (1/1.) pears that the English trade “out of England to Newfound land was common and frequented”’ as early as 1548.! In 1578, Anthonie Parkhurst wrote a letter to Richard Hakluyt, a portion of which is as follows: Now to answer some part of your letter touching the sundry navies that come to Newfoundland or Terra nova, for fish: you shal understand that some fish not neere the other by 200. leagues, and therefore the certaintie is not knowen; and some yeres come many more than other some, as I see the like among us: who since my first travell being but 4. yeeres, are increased from 30. sayle to 50. which commeth to passe chiefly by the imagination of the Westerne men, who thinke their neighbours have had greater gaines then in very deed they have, for that they see me to take such paines yeerely to go in proper per- son: they also suppose that I find some secret commoditie by reason that I doe search the harbors, creekes and havens, and also the land much more than ever any Englishman hath done. Surely I am glad that it so increaseth, whereof soever it springeth. But to let this passe, you shall understand that I am in- formed that they are above 100. saile of Spaniards that come to take Cod be- sides 20. or 30. more that come from Biskaie to kill Whale for Traine. These be better appoynted for shipping and furniture of munition, then any nation say- 1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vit, p. 9. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 21 ing the Englishmen, who commonly are lords of the harbors where they fish, and do use all strangers helpe in fishing if need require, according to an old cus- tome of the countrey, which they do willingly, so that you take nothing from them more then a boat or twaine of salt, in respect of your protection of them against rovers or other violent intruders, who do often put them from good har- bor, &c. As touching their tunnage, I thinke it may be neere five or sixe thou- sand tunne. But of Portugals there are not lightly above 50. saile, whose tun- nage may amount to three thousand tuns, and not upwarde. Of the French nation and Britons, are about one hundred and fiftie sailes, the most of their shipping is very small, not past fortie tunnes, among which some are great and reasonably well appointed, better then the Portugals, and not so well as the Spaniards, and the burden of them may be some 7000. tunne. Their shipping is from all parts of France and Britaine, and the Spaniards from most parts of Spaine, the Portugals from Aviero and Viana, and from 2. or 3. ports more. The trade that our nation hath to Island maketh, that the English are not there in such numbers as other nations.! From the above we learn that at this date there were evidently nearly 400 European vessels engaged in taking fish or whales, and probably a portion of them incidentally trading for furs, in an area 600 miles in diameter in the vicinity of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. The New England coast was doubtless within this 600 mile area, and there seems to be no reasonable doubt that it was visited by many of these ships and that there was more or less inter- course between these vessels and the natives. This seems to be the most reasonable explanation of the origin of the quantities of cop- per and brass objects recorded by early writers as in possession of the Indians of this region, and it doubtless explains their presence in early proto-historic graves of the tidewater region. It may also ex- plain the presence of certain unusual forms of porcelain and glass beads. In September, 1907, the attention of the writer was called to the finding of an Indian cemetery on the slope of a hill in Ipswich, Massachusetts, where the land was being graded. One or two graves were uncovered, and with the burials were found a terra-cotta pipe similar to the one illustrated in figure 18, but without the brass binding on the stem; a bracelet of small beads of sheet-copper strung alternately with blue glass beads; a necklace of small white porcelain beads of oval form; and the bronze brazier shown in figure 21. Only a few fragments of bone were recovered. Obtaining permission, in behalf of the Museum, of the owner of 1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vim, pp. 9-11. 22 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE the estate, Mr. F. B. Harrington, investigations were carried on at the burial place for several days. A few additional graves were opened, but no artifacts were found. In each of these graves the skeletons had disintegrated, leaving nothing but a whitish paste in the damp soil in place of the bones. This, upon drying, turned to powder. Not a tooth was recovered. The bodies had been interred in a soil composed largely of clay, which allowed the water to FIGURE 21 Bronze brazier from an Indian grave at Indian Hill, Ipswich, Massachusetts. (1/3.) percolate but slowly; consequently the disintegration of the bones was probably more rapid than it would have been had they been buried in sand or gravel. Not being able to determine the provenience of the brazier from collections in our colonial museums, inquiries were made at the British Museum, at the Museum at Hull, England, and at the Museo de Anthropologia, Madrid. No reply has come from Madrid. From the first institution, the following was received: AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 23 We have two or three bronze (not brass) braziers with a general similarity to the one of which you enclose a photograph. One has projections rising from the rim in a similar manner, presumably to support a vessel placed above, but they have no curves and are not so “spiky.’’ We have no precise data to help us in dating, but regard our specimens as late 15th or early 16th Century. From the Hull Museum we received the following: In reply to your letter of the 5th instant, the object shown on the photograph seems to bea brazier, is probably late 16th Century in date, and appears to be of Spanish origin. If the last identification is correct, the specimen must have been obtained from a Spanish or Portuguese ship which communicated with the Massachuset Indians during the latter half of the six- teenth century. No exhaustive study has been made of the various types of glass and porcelain beads which have been recovered from Indian graves of eastern New England. When this is done it may throw addi- tional light on the intercourse of the natives with the sixteenth century fishermen and traders. Previous to the arrival of the colonists, the most valued articles obtained from the Whites were probably glass beads, and sheet-cop- per and brass. There seems to be no evidence that European cloth was sold to the Indians during this period. After the colonists be- came established, many well-made brass and copper kettles of vari- ous sizes and forms were obtained by barter, in addition to sheets of these metals, which were still in demand. The Indians also were able to procure European cloth, cast brass spoons, glassware, crock- ery, etc., and an occasional object of pewter, all of which have been found in graves dating about 1625 to 1670. During the latter part of the seventeenth century, however, a considerable change took place in the burial customs of this section, especially among the so-called Christianized Indians, and most of such graves which have been opened contain no artifacts and the skeletons are usually in a horizontal position. The long cultivation of the fields of this Commonwealth, the grading of lands, and the many excavations preliminary to building houses and roads, have brought to light relatively few Indian graves as compared with many sections of this country. These graves have usually been found singly or in small groups, and many 24 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE were without artifacts. Their discovery has usually been under conditions which did not allow careful investigation by experienced excavators, therefore it is hoped that the foregoing account will prove of special value to those interested in the archzology of our northern Atlantic seaboard. Knife with antler handle, and blade probably made from a piece of brass kettle. Found with an Indian skeleton on Hermon Street, Winthrop, in 1886. The handle is of a type originally used for flint blades. (1/2.) NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS » By EARNEST A. HOOTON These remains from the Winthrop cemetery consist of incom- plete skeletons of seven adult males, four adult or sub-adult fe- males, and five infants. Two of the skeletons of males are well preserved, as is also the skeleton of one female. But none of them is complete. Several skeletons are represented only by calvariae or skull fragments. In connection with the cranial measurements and indices, the most important morphological features of the various crania are described. Following this, a brief consideration of the salient char- acters of the long bones accompanies the table recording their measurements and indices. 60380, Grave 1. Thisis the skeleton of a young adult male. The brain case is of good size and very dolichocephalic (71.4). Itis also hypsicephalic (75.0) and akrocephalic (105.1). The frontal region is of medium breadth, but low and retreating; the sagittal region has a very pronounced median elevation; the temporal regions are flat, with moderate supramastoid crests, and the occipital region is moderately convex, and has a slight torus. The serration of the sutures is simple, and obliteration has begun externally only in the obelion region of the sagittal suture. There are a few small Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture, and one in each of the squamous sutures. There is also a very small bone in the right side of the coronal. The pterions are of the usual medium H-form, and there are no parietal foramina. One small right re- tromastoid foramen, and one small and one medium left foramen were observed. The mastoids are of medium size. The brow-ridges are large and divided into median and lateral portions. There is a moderate depression at nasion. The nasal bridge is narrow, of medium height, and concavo-convex in profile. The moderately broad nasal aperture shows lower borders of fair development and a large nasal spine. The orbits are low and broad, with a medium inclination of their horizontal axes. There 25 26 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE are no infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow. Malars and zygomata are very large. Only a slight alveolar prog- nathism is apparent. The dentition is complete, but seven of the molars have been lost in life. The crowns of the teeth are much worn, and the quality is a little below the average for Indians. The palate is elliptical in shape and has a medium torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with well-developed postglenoid processes. The styloids are very large. The middle lacerate foramina are of medium size, and the depres- sion of the petrous parts of the temporal bone is about average, as in typical Europeans. A complete pterygo-spinous foramen occurs on the right side, and indications of one are found on the left side. There are no dehiscences in the floor of the auditory meatus. The muscular impressions on the skull are well marked. The mandible is large, with a well-developed chin eminence, stout ascending rami, and everted gonial angles. The mylo-hyoid ridge and genial tubercles are well developed. This is a typical Eastern Indian dolichocephal. The facial index is mesoprosopic, and the gnathic index shows no prognathism. The orbits are chamaeconch, the nose is leptorrhine, the palatal index is brachyuranic, and the capacity (1480 cc.) is above average for Indians. 60388, Grave 8. This is the skeleton of a middle-aged adult male. The frontal region is low and retreating, but broad. The sagittal region has a slight elevation and the breadth is narrow. A slight postcoronoid depression is noticeable. The temporal region is flat, with a small supramastoid ridge. The occipital region is of medium convexity, with traces of a torus. The serration of the sutures 1s simple. Obliteration is far advanced in the sagittal suture, the external thirds of the coronal suture are closed, and obliteration is beginning in the lambdoid. There is one medium Wormian bone in the lambdoid suture. The pterions are of a medium H-form. There is one small parietal foramen on the right side and one medium on the left. On the left side there are one medium and two small retromastoid foramina, and on the right side one medium and three small. The mastoids are large. The brow- ridges are prominent and divided into medium and lateral por- tions. There isa small depression at nasion, and the nasal bridge is of medium height and breadth. In profile it is concavo-convex. AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 27 The nasal aperture is broad, with a moderate development of the lower borders and the nasal spine. The orbits are low and oblong in shape, with the horizontal axes slightly inclined. There are no infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow. The malars and zygomata are large, but alveolar prognathism is slight. The dentition is complete, and the teeth are moderately worn and of fair quality. Several abscesses, caries, and traces of pyorrhoea are evident. The number of cusps of the molar teeth cannot be counted, nor is it possible to ascertain the presence or absence of shovel incisors. The palate is parabolic in shape, with a moderate torus. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and show a medium postglenoid process. The styloids are small. The middle lacerate foramina are large, and the depression of the petrous portions of the temporal bones is about the average for Europeans. The pos- terior lacerate and postcondyloid foramina are ordinary. The foramen magnum is hexagonal. Partially formed pterygo-spinous foramina are present. The mandible is large, with a well-developed mental process. The mylo-hyoid ridge is submedium in development, but the genial tubercles are average. Slight traces of a mandibular torus may be noticed. 60379, Unearthed by workmen. The calvaria is that of a middle- aged male. The frontal breadth is very narrow, and the maximum breadth occurs at the level of the parietal tuberosities. The skull is high, short, and of rather small breadth. It is subbrachycephalic (78.09), and appears to be the result of the admixture of a dolicho- cephalic element with a brachycephalic element. The frontal region is of medium height, but narrow and very re- ceding. In the sagittal region there is a slight median elevation and a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal region is protube- rant, with a slight supramastoid crest. The occiput shows a moder- ate convexity. The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is about one-half obliterated, and occlusion has begun in the coronal. The lambdoid suture is open. There is an apex bone in this suture and a small Wormian bone in the right squamous suture. The pterions are of the usual H-form. One small parietal foramen occurs on the right side, and two medium retromastoid foramina on the left side. The mastoids are of medium size. The brow-ridges are moderately 28 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE developed and confined to the medial portions of the orbits. The facial portion is missing. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and there are no post- glenoid processes. The base of the skull shows no unusual features. There is a medium sized dehiscence in the floor of the left auditory meatus. The mandible is of medium development and size, except that the mylo-hyoid ridges and genial tubercles are poorly marked. 45651, Unearthed by workmen. This is the partially mummified skull of a young adult male subject. The scalp, hair, and integu- ment are preserved on the right half of the cranium. This condi- tion is probably due to the fact that the skull was covered with a brass vessel, for the mummified tissues and the adjacent bony parts show green copper stains. The skull is subbrachycephalic (79.35), hypsicephalic (81.52), and akrocephalic (102.74). The frontal region of the skull is medium in height, breadth, and slope. The sagittal region shows a slight median elevation. The temporal regions are rather flat. The occipital region is steep, with traces of a torus. The sutures are simple, and obliteration has be- gun dorsally in the pterion regions. The half of the skull uncovered shows no Wormian bones. ‘The left side shows one large, one medium, and one small retromastoid foramen, and the mastoid process is of medium size. The brow-ridges are limited to the median halves of the supraor- bital region and show average development. The nasion depression is slight. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo- convex in profile. The nasal aperture is broad, with indistinct lower borders and a small spine. There are traces of subnasal grooves. The orbits are oblong, with no inclination of their hori- zontal axes. On the left side an infraorbital suture is about one-half complete. The suborbital fossae are medium; the malars and zygomata are large. Alveolar prognathism is very slight. The dentition is complete, and the wear of the teeth is slight. The teeth are of good quality. The cusps of the upper molars show a 4-3-3 formula, and the lower molars 5-4—?. The third molars are much reduced in size. Traces of shovel incisors may be observed. Observations and measurements on the palate and teeth are in- complete, because the mandible cannot be disarticulated without destroying the mummified tissues. The palate is parabolic, with a slight torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with marked postglenoid AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 29 processes. The styloids are rudimentary. The other features of the skull base, so far as observable, are ordinary. Incomplete pterygo- spinous foramina are present. The mandible is large, with a prominent chin, and a medium de- velopment of other morphological features. The hair preserved is straight and black, but rather fine in qual- ity. The interior of the skull still contains the dried mass of the brain tissues. 60377, Unearthed by workmen. Fragmentary calvaria of a mid- dle-aged male. The length-breadth index is subdolichocepha- lic (75.81). The frontal region is of medium breadth, but low and retreating. The sagittal region has a slight median elevation. The temporal region is moderately convex, as is also the occipital region. The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is half obliterated, and, in the coronal, obliteration has begun in the lateral portions. The lambdoid suture also shows beginnings of ex- ternal obliteration. There are no Wormian bones. Two very small parietal foramina are found on the right side, and there are one small right and two small left retromastoid foramina. The mas- toids are of medium size, but the brow-ridges are small and divided into medial and lateral portions. Thefacial portion is fragmentary. The nasal aperture is broad. It has no lower borders; the nasal floor slopes off into an alveolar clivus without definite transition. The nasal spine is rudimentary. The orbits are oblong, low, and horizontal. There are no infraorbital sutures. The suborbital fossae are shallow. There is a moderate degree of alveolar progna- thism. The dentition is complete and the crowns of the teeth are mark- edly worn. Three molars have been lost in life, and there are traces of five alveolar abscesses, but the general quality of the teeth is good. The cusps cannot be counted. Evidently the third molars are much reduced in size. The palate is of the usual parabolic shape. The base of the skull shows a medium development in all features. The mandible is large and heavy, with thick everted gonial angles and extensive attachments of masticatory muscles. The mental prominence is submedium in development. Other features are ordinary. 30 60383, Grave 4, Eastern skeleton. INDIAN BURIAL PLACE Skeleton of a middle-aged male. The skull is fragmentary, but seems to have been about 192 mm. long and approximately 140 mm. broad. It was, then, pro- nouncedly dolichocephalic. The frontal region of the calvaria is MEASUREMENTS OF CRANIA Deformations eee Glabello-Occipital length . Maximum breadth ....... Basion-Bregma height Min. Frontal diameter ... Total Facial height ...... Upper Facial height ...... Bizygomatic diameter .... Bigonial diameter ........ Height of Symphysis ..... Bicondylar width ........ Min. breadth of Ascending RGIS eli in se oe ae Height Ascending Ramus . Condylc-Symphysea! length Height of Orbits: right ... Breadth of Orbits: right... letteeer, INasalcheig htme: a eee a Nasalibreadth a. nee Basion=Alveon! 0% 0o.tae a5 Basion-Nasion :2.4+.... Palate: External length .. External breadth . Maximum circumference . (above brow-ridges) Arc: Nasion-Opisthion.... Ave Transverse cies eicr Foramen magnum: length breadth Thickness of Left Parietal (above squamous suture) Capacit yeu cir eee: 60388 Male mid. 60379 Male mid. 45651 Male y. ad. 184 146 (150) (98) (117) 70 140 107 35 60377 Male mid. (186) 141 98 60384 | 56669 Female |Female sub.ad. | y. ad. 167 169 133 133 142 137 85 91 110 v4 68 71 (124) ? 97 ? 33 2 113 ? 37 2 50 2 100 ? 31 ? 31 36 38 2 36.5 38 51 50 24 25 98 101 103 102 53 53 64 59 476 485 351 345 301 298 33 39 30 32 3 3.6 1310 1280 60378 Female mid. oi i i i ee Cr) 505 370 312 35 35 5.3 1410 rather low, but of medium breadth and slope. The sagittal region has a slight median elevation. The temporal regions are flat, and the occipital region is protuberant, with a well-marked inion. The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture shows oblitera- tion beginning dorsally, and the lambdoid suture shows considera- AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS ol ble ventral occlusion. There are a few small Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture. There are no parietal foramina, and the mastoid processes are rather small. The brow-ridges are of medium size and divided into median and lateral portions. The facial portion is de- tached and fragmentary. On the right side is a complete infraorbi- tal suture. The malars are large, but the zygomata show only medium development. The dentition is complete and moderately worn. The teeth are of fair quality, showing a few caries and traces of several alveolar abscesses. The cusp formula of the lower molars is 5-5-4. The mandible is large, with a prominent mental process, CRANIAL INDICES Catalogue number ...:...| 60380 | 60388 | 60379 | 45651 | 60377 | 60384 | 56669 | 60378 SORE ena ett sci B, e Male | Male | Male | Male | Male |Female |Female |Female Length—Breadth ......... 71.35| 72.19] 78.09 | 79.35 | (75.81)| 79.64] 78.70] 78.65 Height-Length .......... COOKE TAO) Ci2da SOl.On = 2 85.03} 81.07] 76.40 Height-—Breadth ......... 105.11) 103.70} 99.28} 102.74] ? 106.76 | 108.01| 97.14 CramoleNModulemses... «2. 157.6 | 154.00) 151.6 | 160.0 ? TAiveomeleOromnlodes Ota aeial ee cer oe ck 85.71| 89.19 de toa | Ks 88.71 ? Rg Wpper Baecial’. os si... es 53.74 | 51.35 i OOOO? 54.84 ? ? Repro GAG aries: cts so aoe eee. 93.69)) | 91.23 ? 96.26; ? 95.15| 99.02 % @Mrprraiserte tice. cj. oh. s 78.89 | 78.26 ? ? ? 81.58 ? ? teint wer trs ee aie t 78.89| 78.26 ? (4236 |e Or 84.93} 97.74 ? IN iced ig bras ley = Seer eee 44.83) 51.92 ? HO, OAN ar 47.06} 50.00 2 Palato-Maxillary ........ 120.69 | 118.03 a ? 117.24) 120.75) 111.382 Y a well-marked mylo-hyoid ridge, but small genial tubercles. The ganial angles are everted. 60387, Grave 5. These are fragments of the skull of a middle- aged male. The teeth are well worn. The palate shows a well-de- veloped torus. The fragmentary mandible was large, with promi- nent mental process and strongly everted gonial angles. The mylo-hyoid ridge and genial tubercles are poorly developed. The fragments show strong muscular attachments. No measurements could be taken, nor were sufficient portions preserved to permit repair of the skull. 60384, Grave 4, Western skeleton. Skeleton of a sub-adult female about eighteen years of age. The skull is in a good state of preservation. The frontal region is narrow and of medium height and slope. There is a slight median frontal crest. The sagittal region is moderately arched, with a o2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE slight postcoronoid depression. The skull is rather narrow. It is subbrachycephalic (69.64), hypsicephalic (85.03), and akrocephalic (106.76). The temporal region is rather flat, and the occipital curve is steep. The sutures are of a simple pattern and have remained open. There are no Wormian bones. The pterions are a narrow H in shape, and there is but one small left parietal foramen. One medium retromastoid foramen is found on each side, and the mastoid processes are small. The brow-ridges are undeveloped, and there is no nasion depres- sion. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo- convex. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with dull lower borders and a small spine. The orbits are oblong and horizontal, and there are no infraorbital sutures. Suborbital fossae are shal- low, malars of medium size, and zygomata small. There is a moder- ate alveolar prognathism. The dentition is complete, the teeth of excellent quality and but slightly worn. The molar cusp formula is -s,- Shovel-shaped incisors are present. There is but one caries, and one alveolar abscess. On account of reduction and rotation of the third molars, the palate is elliptical in shape, with a slight torus. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth, with traces of the post- glenoid tubercle. The styloids are undeveloped. The middle lacer- ate foramina are small, but the petrous parts show a moderate de- pression. The posterior lacerate foramina are large. There are no other features of the skull base of particular note, except that post- condyloid foramina are absent and there are no dehiscences in the floor of the auditory meatus. The mandible is of medium size, but with a rather low and broad ascending ramus and a shallow sigmoid notch. 60381, Grave 2. Fragmentary skull of a young adult female. Al- though measurements cannot be taken, the subject was certainly dolichocephalic. The frontal region shows medium height, breadth, and slope. The calvaria is narrow in the sagittal region and shows a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal regions are flat and the occiput is protuberant. The sutures are simple in pattern and obliteration has not begun. There are no Wormian bones, no parie- tal or retromastoid foramina. The pterions are of the usual H-form. The mastoid processes are small. There is a medium development of the supraorbital ridges, which are divided into median and lat- eral portions. No depression occurs at nasion. The nasal bridge is AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 33 broken away. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with sharp lower borders and a medium-sized spine. Traces of subnasal grooves were noticed. The orbits approximate to a square form and show slight inclination of their horizontal axes. Malars and zy- gomata are broken. There seems to have been a moderate degree of alveolar protrusion. The dentition is complete, and the teeth are but slightly worn. The quality is fair. The dental cusp formula for molars is 555. There are no shovel-shaped incisors. Four alveolar abscesses have left their traces in the dental arch. The palate is parabolic, with a high roof. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and have no postglenoid processes. Styloids are undeveloped. The skull base is fragmentary, and the vault has suffered considerable post-mortem deformation. The mandible is of medium size and shows poor de- velopment of the mylo-hyoid ridge and the genial tubercles. 56669, Unearthed by workmen. ‘This is the calvarium of a young adult female. Its description is very similar to that of No. 60384. It is also subbrachycephalic (78.70), hypsicephalic (81.07), and akrocephalic (103.01). In features of the skull vault it is almost identical with the previously described female skull. The orbits, however, are high and rounded; the suborbital fossae are pro- nounced and there is marked alveolar prognathism. Most of the teeth have dropped out, but it is evident that the dentition was complete and that the third molars were much reduced. ‘Traces of one alveolar abscess were noted. The palate is parabolic. The base of the skull presents the usual low relief found in the crania of female Indians. There is no accompanying mandible. 60378, Unearthed by workmen. Skeleton of a middle-aged female. The facial portion of the skull is broken away and the mandible is fragmentary. The calvaria is subbrachycephalic (78.65), hypsi- cephalic (76.40), and metriocephalic (97.14). It is of good size and capacity (1410 cc.). The morphological features are those of an average Indian female, with points of sex distinction well marked. 60385, Grave 4. These are the bones of the ‘‘child nearest the mother.” Since the milk dentition is complete the child must have been twenty months to three years of age. 60386, Grave 4. These are the bones of the “‘infant by the side of the other child.” In this case also the milk dentition is complete. o4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE The child was then within the limits of age stated in the case of the preceding subject. 60383, Grave 3. Bones of an infant. The first milk molar is erupted but the second is unerupted. The age of the infant was then twelve to twenty-one months. 60382, Grave 10. Bones of a child. The first lower milk molar has erupted, the lower canine is almost erupted, and the second milk molar is unerupted. The age of the child at death was prob- ably between sixteen and twenty-four months. The orbits of this child show somewhat dubious traces of symmetrical osteoporosis. This is a nutritional disease of obscure nature, especially common in crania of Peruvian and Central American Indians. The writer has seen it in ancient Indian crania from the Southwest; but has never before observed it in crania of Eastern Indians. 60389, Grave 9. Skeleton of a child. The milk dentition is complete and shows a certain amount of wear. The child was aged three to five years. Here again the left orbit shows signs of an osteoporitic condition. Lone BONES The femora of this series display ordinary Indian characteristics and do not merit individual descriptions. The middle shaft section is usually prismatic, the linea aspera is well developed, and there is a marked pilastter. Curvature is medium. Some form of a third trochanter is generally present. Platymeria is pronounced. Tor- sion of the femoral head is medium to pronounced. The tibiae have strongly retroverted heads. The externa! tibial condyle is usually more or less convex. Platycnemia is marked. The shaft form is usually a lateral prism. ‘‘Squatting facets” on the anterior lip of the inferior articular surface are usual. The other long bones present no features of special interest. The long bones of three male skeletons and three female skeletons were sufficiently preserved to permit their utilization for the cal- culation of stature. For this purpose the well-known formulae of Pearson have been utilized.! The tibio-femoral index in this group, as in many other Indian groups, is extremely high. Stature calculated on the tibiae, conse- 1 Pearson, Karl, On the Reconstruction of the Stature of Prehistoric Races, Philosophical Trans. 192, A, 1899, p. 196. 35 69°28 é 9L ZL Z Z9G S&S StS M FI CT EH 0Z IZ tH eal Og 11g Ss 19°99 LOL on 61 0z O S'8z LZ = op 2629 = SS"'OL, = ST SI S G'9Z ecz 4 = 96¢ 9¢g Ay a, 19°99 06°29 os 8°06 ~=—s-« ISB se Gz ¥G a 9G 9G Zi og Ig = 0z C'6I OF OF H 1&F d x 9GF : WeT VASTY o[emo T8E09 é é é GS FL é é o é é 9T c €&%@ é ESE é IL'49 é GG é FE é FL°L9 é 1G é its é ESE 68°€9 TL°¢9 99°68 49°98 9% 9G 66 O€ 9¢ cg €% €%G bead GP (9FF) (SEF) é é WeOT +4qsY o[BUl8 8L809 6S°08 é 6269 @ é é é G 1G 1G cI CT FOE 908 62°49 09°39 SI 0G 68 GS =-"S9 se°¢9 LE LI GS 9G ecs 9g é 19°99 é =='88. é GG é GS é O€ ie 0G é GP OEP é C&P é V9T = F4SQT af eUld J y8Eo09 é é 10'S é é é StS FPG GG é ST é FILE é €¢9°09 I¥V'E9 €Z 9G 8€é IF 98°39 é GG é cE é é é G3 1s eoeL €9°06 cT'98 6G 8G GE GCs FE vE 96 GS OF oY 9EF SEF betel SEV WET 2YqSY AD TANG LLE09 6SC8 TZ°€8 6°69 STZ £66 (£62) é GLE LG LG LG LG GPE SVE O19 L6°8S &G &G 16 6€ 09° s9 TL’¥9 {6S GG 9€ VE GOV 90P 68 'S9 ase) ¢go°68 0S" 28 O€ 86 oss G& G’6E OF 9G 96 SP 8P 687 SSP GSP I8V OT 345TY s[BIA 88€09 €6°98 é é é é é é é é é é é é é Og’ LS é &@ é IP é EVsol é GG é GUS é TOF A GF'89 OL'F9 GS3'rs O8'16 83 8Z €& GOS Sé 6 9G GS LV OF 69P SOP SOP O9PF VOT W4sIY en 0809 Lapuy [vioway-01QuT, LapuUy 1DLOULaAy-OLBULN FT Pe te a ee) eon. he) wi YYSusy| WINUIIXB JT Dury Y}SUs, UINUIIXV AT snipoy B1918'T IOTIO}SOJ-010}UY JooUIBIP 8TPPLAL YYSuUs, WINUIIXBINY SNLAUN FT BIUIOUDAYC[T JO xo9puy ae TICRO Citas OE Oks a cn [e10}e'T IOLI9}SO q-010]UV woul -B1O} JUSIIJNU JO [BAI] 7B JoJOUTVICT erie Geen se Coro XepuU] O[PPT Sead rat Re aRee ratio seu eure pees [e1oyery IOTI9}SOq-010JUY JoyouIBIp APPA outds snurur y4sue'T mqQuL BlLIOUIA}e[ J JO xopuy Aer One ue ALONE OTe Xopuy o[PPI pean accG Ook cao MS abitoe [e19}eT IOLI9}S0 J-0.10}UY JoyPUTBIP YFBYS eTPPUAL 5 caren ca cCatnn el DOOR On whee [e107 eT] IOTI9}SO qF-010}UV IoJOUIBIP IIIeJUBYPOI}QNEG poo peep jo JoJOUIvIP WINUITXB IAL Ot BO he RA tat eer . “Y}su9] UIMNUITXB IAT Yysue] IvpApuoo1g Inula wis, oe) ohis wo: € ue SHNO@ ONOT 4O SHOIGNI GNV SLINHYNGYOASVAWN 36 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE quently, is somewhat higher than when calculated from the lengths of other long bones. In the present instance, formulae utilizing the lengths of both femur and tibia have been utilized, or, when neces- sary, the mean stature has been deduced from the results arrived at by using formulae for separate bones. No. 60380, an extremely dolichocephalic male, must have had a stature in life of about 171.5 cm. On the basis of femora the stature of this subject is 168.5, but the tibia yields a stature of 174.4 cm. No. 60388, another dolichocephalic male, was about 174.3 cm. tall. Here again the tibia yields too high a stature (175.1 em.). No. 60377, a mesocephalic male, had a much lower stature, only 163.6 em., reckoned on the basis of the femur. The tibiae are missing. If these had been present the estimate of stature would have been raised to about 165 cm. No. 60384, a sub-adult female, had a stature of about 157.5 cm. No. 60378, a rather large female, had a stature of about 161.8 cm. No. 60381, a young adult female, was about 158 cm. in stature. Pelvis. The pelves show the usual marks of sex differentiation. With the exception of that of No. 60378, they were too fragmentary for the taking of measurements. MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES OF PELvis oF No. 60378, FEMALE mm. mm. Pelvis as a whole Ossa Innominata Breadth Maximum ... 257 Height Superior Strait right .. .... casera 200 Breadth Maximum .- 124 left: 2.5.3 eee 201 Sagittal diameter ... 115 Breadth Distance between right’... 6. ae ee 148 Ischiatic Spines ...... (95) left: ..3'o. dee ? Height of Sacrum ....... 106 Sacral Index 33 eee 116.03 Breadth of Sacrum ..... 123 Index of Right Pelyioz indexers tee eee 78.— Innominate Bone ...... 74.— Brim ndext wt eer 92.74 The brim index of this pelvis is so high that one might judge it to be that of a male, were it not for the morphological features, which are clearly female. The ischiatic notch is broad; the preauricular sulcus is well marked; the subpubic angle is large; and the ascend- ing ramus of the ischium and the symphysis pubis are characteris- AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS Oo” tically female. The condition of the pubic symphysis indicates the ninth phase of Todd’s age gradations. Vertebrae. In general the vertebrae of these skeletons present no features of special interest. Marginal exostoses occur on the vertebrae of No. 60377, a middle-aged male. In the case of 60383, another middle-aged male, the vertebrae seem to be carious. One suspects tuberculosis, but it is scarcely safe to attempt a definite diagnosis. SUMMARY In addition to the usual tall dolichocephalic type of Eastern Indian there is present in this series a mesocephalic type due to admixture of a short brachycephalic stock. The evidence of this admixture is to be seen in the shortening of the skull, the increase of breadth across the posterior portions of the parietals, increase of the skull height, shorter face, and broader, lower nose. The meas- urements of some of the mesocephals and subbrachycephals are such as to make one suspect some occipital deformation. This, however, is not apparent from the contours of the occipital bones. In the short series from Winthrop this mixed type actually pre- dominates. PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Vou. XI, No. 2 OFFICIAL REPORTS ON THE TOWNS OF TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP Il, AND THE COUNCIL OF THE INDIES, IN 1580 TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES BY ZELIA NUTTALL TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1926 KRAUS REPRINT CO. Millwood, New York 1974 PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Vou. XI, No. 2 OFFICIAL REPORTS ON THE TOWNS OF TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II, AND THE COUNCIL OF THE INDIES, IN 1580 TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES BY ZELIA NUTTALL TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1926 KRAUS REPRINT CO. Millwood, New York 1974 COPYRIGHT, 1926 BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher KRAUS REPRINT CO. A USS. Division of Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited Printed in U.S.A. NOTE THE remarkable acumen of the Spanish authorities in send- ing out a questionnaire to many of the settlements through- out the Spanish domain in America is amply justified by the wealth of material collected by this means. The replies to this list of questions returned by the various towns are all important but special interest centers on that sent by San Juan Teotihuacan on account of the famous ruins at that site. Mrs. Nuttall early discovered the great importance of this manuscript and has kindly translated it for the present paper. The Museum is greatly indebted to Clarence L. Hay, Esqr., for its publication. CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director. CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, February 8, 1926. " Lad? A Te i * i } Oe mo ; : a a r * Lian x" } Ni aoeaee: ih hie of J y 4 : i rt 7 , } * * — q he t ios fis age ioe detent ale Te OAD lotr? etiouseliten aah te Vasnt 07. ones tt val bafitatr “rlej cous as AOLTSE: ifs nis Hi ieee : i Oi wey I ait’ AL MAY eed sae a tabi le oxen 20 WSS BBO ee ees ms ‘’ 7 cya: va rete Fe in Yeavcees wae jody fe ae enc oust 451) 16 tabopon sa aid) to songrroamy soeKg-ads howe ont hia negra sti swi- dr Pedeean Mcriet. ty, ¥ * we » + heli fabeat: vitensg of — Si i solasritl oyanpucim yy 22 ei oe ‘ ir ek ji, sive. ? 4 ae * Jif ¢ Ws ‘tae yk ASS REPR. i“ 7 (RP ro 4; e <2 “ ed er, A a ‘ian = -~ — Eee LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES _Puate 1. Map or TEQuIzISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN Puate 2. A Part or THE Map By ALONSO DE SANTA CRUz (circa 1570) FIGURES ieee LACE-NAMES OF TExXCOCO.....0 sos sles eee ew, 49 ee Pr cone AME OF ACOLMAN ..... .. ... . 64 wren) Syal} atuah zo o@vol fee eee ae 3 ! 4 » wa TUES ~ INTRODUCTION In 1900, Sefior Don Pedro Torres Lanzas, the distinguished Direc- tor of the Archivo de Indias in Seville, in Volume I of his valuable Inventory of the Plans and Maps contained in the Archives, published the title of the *‘ Map of the towns of Acolman, San Juan Teotihuacan, Tequizistlan and adjoining towns by the Corregidor Don Francisco de Castafieda, accompanied by a descriptive Relacién [dated 1580], of each of said towns, made in compliance with His Majesty’s Instructions.” ! Separated from its Relacién for years, the Map was, and still may be, exhibited in one of the treasure filled show-cases of the Archivo. It thus came about that, in 1911, on registering the contents of a ‘“‘Legajo”’ attractively labelled ‘‘Indiferente Gen- eral,’ I came across the Relacién by mere chance, and after read- ing it with intense interest, copied it forthwith, as a document of utmost importance that should be generally known. I had not seen the Torres Lanzas Inventory and was unaware at the time that, in 1905, Sefior Francisco del Paso y Troncoso had actually published the Relacién with the Map, in Volume VI of his “‘Papeles de Nueva Espajia,” etc.;? for this, like others of his important and valuable publications, was and is, unfortunately, practically unobtainable and inaccessible to students. In the monumental work on the ‘‘ Population of the Valley of Teotihuacan,”’ recently issued by Sefior Manuel Gamio,’? the Map is reproduced, but the Relacién, while referred to, is not described 1 See ‘‘ Relacion descriptiva de los Mapas, planos, etc., de Mexico y Floridas existentes en el Archivo General de Indias, por Pedro Torres Lanzas.” Sevilla, 1900. Tomol, p. 26. This document is registered in the Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, as follows: Indiferente Gen- -eral — Descripciones poblaciones y derroteras de viajes. Nueva Espafia. Afios 1521-1818. Estante 145 — Cajén 7 — Legajo 6. The text of the questionnaire is translated from the ‘‘ Memoria”’ published in “‘ Relaciones de Yucatdn.’”’ Coleccién de Documentos Inéditos . . . publicada por la Real Academia de la Historia, Segunda Serie, Tomo XI. 2 ‘*Papeles de Nueva Espaiia publicados de orden y con fondos del Gobierno Mexicana, Segunda Serie. Geografia y Estadistica. Tomo VI. Relaciones Geogrdficas de la Diocesis de Mexico. Manuscritos dela Real Academia de la Historia de Madrid y del Archivo de Indias en Sevilla. Afios 1579-1582.”” Madrid, 1905. Text, pp. 209-230. 3 ‘La Poblacién del Valle de Teotihuacan.” Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento. Direc- cién de Antropologia. Mexico, 1922. 45 46 OFFICIAL REPORTS as a source of invaluable and authentic information, nor is it de- servedly utilized and recorded. | It therefore seems opportune that a publication be made, in English, and in extenso, of the Relacién, for the benefit of Ameri- canists. This document is one of the many that were drawn up and sent from Mexico to Spain in obedience to a remarkable decree, dated May 25, 1577, issued by King Philip II and distributed broadcast throughout his New World possessions. This decree reads: ‘Instructions and memorandum for the drawing up of the re- ports which are to be made for the ‘ Description of the Indies’ His Majesty is having made, to facilitate the good government and ennoblement of the same. ‘Firstly: The governors, corregidors, or mayors to whom the Viceroys or Audiences or other government officials and adminis- trators send these printed instructions and memorandum are first of all to make a list and memorial of the towns inhabited by Spaniards or by Indians within their jurisdictions, in which only the names of these towns are to be entered, written clearly and legibly. This is to be immediately sent to said government offi- cials so that it can be returned to His Majesty and the Council of the Indies jointly with the reports drawn up in each town. “Said printed instructions and memorandum are to be dis- tributed throughout all towns of Spaniards and Indians in each jurisdiction in which there are Spaniards, sending them to the Councils, or, if these are lacking, to the parish priests or to the monks in charge of religious instruction, with direct orders to the councils or a recommendation from His Majesty to the priests and monks, that within a short time they answer and fulfil their obligations. “The reports made are to be sent to the above officials, with the printed instructions, so that, as they go on receiving them they can redistribute them to other towns to which none have been previously sent. ‘““In the towns and cities where the governors or mayors or other officials reside, these are either to write the reports accord- ing to the instructions, or to have this done by persons with a knowledge of the affairs of the country. The persons charged with the drawing up of the report of each town are to give answers. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 47 to the questions in the memorandum and observe the following order and form. “Firstly: On a separate sheet, as a superscription to their re- port, they are to write the.day, month and year dates, with the _ name of the person or persons who participated in making it; also , the name of the governor or other person who sent them the said instructions. “‘ After carefully reading each paragraph of the memorandum, they are to write down separately what they have to say, answer- ing each one of the questions it contains, one after the other. Those questions to which they have nothing to answer are to be omitted without comment, passing on to those that follow, until all are read. The answers given are to be short and clear. What is certain is to be given as such, what is not is to be recorded as doubtful, so that the reports may be exact and in strict conformity to the instructions and memorandum.” The latter consists of a series of most carefully formulated, penetrating and comprehensive inquiries, and constitutes a ‘‘questionnaire”’ so remarkable for its acumen that I have adopted the plan of presenting the questions in the order established by the royal questionnaire and, after each one, in succession, the answers to it sent in from the four towns. | The combined evidence is thus presented in a concentrated and more interesting form, that will facilitate the survey and study of the fresh data presented concerning one of the most important archaeological regions in America. The Relacién was supplemented by the interesting map that is - reproduced as Plate 1. The reproduction in Plate 2 is from a photograph of the same district containing the four towns, as represented in the famous map of Mexico and its surroundings made by the cosmographer of King Philip II, Alonso de Santa Cruz, about 1570. As the main purpose of this publication is that of placing the valuable record within the reach of students, I have confined my- self in my notes to drawing attention to certain important points and elucidating a few statements that are obscure or misleading. Descriptions of the towns of Tequizistlan, Tepechpan, Acolman, and San Juan Teotihuacan, and their dependencies, were composed by the illustrious Sefior Francisco de Castafieda, the Corregidor of 48 OFFICIAL REPORTS said towns, for His Majesty, in obedience to the royal instructions transmitted to him by the illustrious Sefior Gordian Cassasano, accountant and administrator of the Royal Revenue of this New Spain. The description of each town is signed by those persons present who could sign. A list of said towns and those subordinate to them accompanies each description. The towns included in the circuit and jurisdiction of Tequizistlan are as follows: Firstly: Tequizistlan, chief town, with its subordinates Totol- zingo and Acaltecoya. Secondly: Tepechpan, chief town, with its subordinates San Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santiago Saqualuca, Santa Ana Tlachahualco, San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo Teopancalca, San Pedro Tulamiguacan, San Xriptoual Culhuacazingo, Santa Maria Maquix- co, Sant Jhoan Tlacaleco, San Bartolome Atocpan, San Xeronimo Chiapa, Santa Maria Suchitepec, its subordinates, and San Juan Cuyoa. Thirdly: Acolman, the capital, with its subordinates Santiago Atla, San Miguel Jumetla, San Agustin Tonala, los Tres Reyes Yzquitlan, Santa Maria Chiapa, San Matheo Tuchatlauco, San Lucas Tlamazingo, San Juan Tepehuizco, Santiago Nopaltepec, San Juan Tlaxinea, San Martin Huiznahuac, San Felipe Sacatepec, San Tomas Atlauco, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santa Maria Atenpa, San Marcos Quacyocan, San Pedro Tepetitlan, San Antonio * Huiztonco, Santa Maria Tlatecpa, San Bartolome Quauhtla- pecco, San Juan Chicnahuatecapa, San Martin Aticpac, San Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa Maria Astatonacazco, Santa Maria Atenpa, Santa Maria Saguala, and San Juan Atlatongo. Fourthly: San Juan Teotihuacan, with its subordinates San Lorenco Atezcapa, San Miguel Tlotezcac, San Matheo Tenango, San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa Maria Coatlan, San Francisco Magatlan, San Martin Teacal, San Pedro Tlaxican, Santiago Tol- man, Sant Andres Oztocpachocan, Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio Tlaxomolco, San Agustin Ohuayocan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San Miguel Tlaguac, San Luis Xiuhquemecan and Juan Tlaylotlacan. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 49 THE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS THERETO QUESTION I In the towns with Spanish inhabitants the name of the district or province is to be stated, also the meaning of the name and the reason it is so named. TEQUIZISTLAN The town of Tequizistlan is the capital of the jurisdiction. It is in the district of Texcoco, and was in ancient times an indepen- dent town that rendered allegiance to its natural lords until Neza- FR ? a b 3 Cc Ficure 1. PLAck-NAMES OF TExcoco. hualcoyotzin, lord of Texcoco, became an ally and confederate of Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and with tyranny subjugated said district, incorporating it into Texcoco:and Mexico. The natives were unable to explain the meaning of the name Texcoco.! 1 Evidence that the primitive town of Texcoco, like the residence and hill garden of Neza- hualcoyotl, was situated in or among the rocky foot-hills is furnished by the hieroglyph of the town, of which several variants are recorded in the native picture-writings and are retained in the arms of the town granted by Philip II and still in use. Its main element is a rocky hill, ‘‘ Texcalli,” that conveys the first syllable of the name. In the ‘‘ Code en Croix’’ of the Aubin-Goupil Collection, the rocky nature of the hill is graphically rendered and this is surmounted by an earthen pot with two handles (a Comitl) that conveys the syllable ‘‘co’’ —an affix that signifies ‘‘in’’ (Fig. 1,a). In the Codex Mendoza, the hill is ingeniously formed by three signs for ‘‘ Tet] ,’’ stone, form- ing three peaks, between which — “‘co,’’ = in — are two conventionalized drawings of a popular medicinal rock-plant (a Senecio), either of the names of which, ‘‘ Texcotli’”’ or ‘Texcapatli,” conveys the first two syllables of the name, while “ Tetl’’ acts as a determinative (Fig. 1,5). A third variant occurs in the ‘‘ Histoire de la Nation Chichiméque”’ (Catalogue Raisonné de la Collection Goupil, E. Boban. Atlas. Planches 2 and 3), where, in a conical hill (covered with a design consisting of diagonals and dots), the pot ‘‘Comitl”’ is figured above the sign for stone, “Tetl.’? In this case two duplications of sound occur, that is: ‘‘ Texcalli” or hill, and ‘‘ Tetl”’ or stone. The duplication of ‘‘co’’ was obtained by placing the ‘‘Comitl’’ in (co) the hill (Fig. 1,c). Of the three examples given, this is the only one in which the vowel ‘‘co”’ is duplicated and the full name ““Texcoco”’ is conveyed. Inthe others, it was evidently considered sufficient to record ‘‘Texco”’ only. For the etymology of the names of the other towns dealt with in this document, see the answers to Question XIII farther on. " 50 OFFICIAL REPORTS TEPECHPAN The town of Tepechpan and its dependencies are held by Geronimo de Baessa, citizen of Mexico City. It is in the province of ‘Texcoco and was an independent town until Nezahualcoyotzin, lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over it and made it a subject of Texcoco. ACOLMAN Acolman is in the district of Texcoco and was an independent town where the Chichimecs had their metropolis until Nezahual- coyotzin, lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over them, as will be told farther on. TEOTIHUACAN The town of San Juan is in the district of Texcoco. In ancient times it was the capital of a province because the surrounding towns, which were Otumba, Tepeapulco, Tlaquilpa and others, acknow]l- edged it as such in heathen times, until .Nezahualcoyotzin, lord of Texcoco, conquered them in war and tyrannized over them. + QUESTION II Who was the discoverer and conqueror of said province and by whose order or mandate was it discovered? Give the year of its discovery and conquest and all that can be readily learnt about it. TEQUIZISTLAN As it is publicly known that it was Don Hernan Cortés, the Ma:- ques del Valle, who discovered New Spain in 1519, reference is here made to the description which will be written in the City of Mexico. TEPECHPAN The discovery of said town in New Spain was made in 1519 by the Marques del Valle, Hernan Cortés, as is referred to in the description of the town of Tequizistlan. 1 The important facts established by the above answers to Question I are that Tequizistlan and Tepechpan were ‘‘independent towns,” that Acolman was ‘‘the Chichimec metropolis,” and that Teotihuacan was ‘‘the capital of a province’’ until all four towns were conquered by the allied lords of Mexico and Texcoco. The date of this conquest, etc., will be given in the note pertaining to the answers given to Question XIV. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 51 ACOLMAN As is publicly known, the discoverer of this town and of New Spain was Hernan Cortés, the Marques del Valle. The order and mandate and the year of its discovery are not set down here because in the description to be made in the City of Mexico these will be stated by the person in charge. TEOTIHUACAN The Marques del Valle was the discoverer of this land. QUESTION III State in general the climate and quality of said province or dis- trict; whether it is cold or hot, dry or damp, with much water or little and at what season there is more or less; and the prevailing winds, whether violent and from what quarter and at what season of the year. TEQUIZISTLAN Its temperature is cold and damp on account of its being situated near the great lagoon in the midst of canals. The rains fall gener- ally from May until the end of September. The winds blow from the South from January to the end of March in which month it blows with such violence that it causes many natives to suffer dangerously from headaches. From April onward, until the rains begin, the North wind generally blows with great strength at sun- set. This does less harm to the natives than the South wind. TEPECHPAN The temperature and quality of the climate of the capital Tepechpan is cold and damp, for the greater part of it lies low among canals. All of its dependencies are in a cold, dry region. Rains fall generally from the first of May to the end of September. South winds are prevalent from Christmas until the end of March and are very violent during the whole of this month, causing ill- ness among the natives. From April onwards the North wind blows and is less harmful, for in the day time it is temperate. All night it blows violently but as at this time the natives have re- tired into their homes it does not harm them. 52 OFFICIAL REPORTS ACOLMAN The capital town of Acolman is cold and damp on account of being situated among canals and of having bad night dews. Its dependencies are in a cold region and lack water because the only water they have is rain water in basins or pools. From the middle of December until the end of March the South wind gives the na- tives headaches and pains in their bodies. In March it blows with great force. When the rains begin, the North wind blows and is unhealthy for the natives even if it blows temperately. TEOTIHUACAN The region in which said town and its dependencies lie, is cold, excepting its capital which is cold and damp on account of being situated among canals and fountains all proceeding from flowing springs. In winter from Christmas to March the South wind blows, with greater violence in March. It is unhealthful for the natives. From March to the end of October the North wind blows but does no harm to the natives because it 1s tempered. QUESTION IV State whether the country is level, rough, flat or mountainous; with many or few rivers and fountains, with abundance or scarc- ity of water; whether fertile or lacking in pasture; with an abundance or scarcity of fruits and sustenance. TEQUIZISTLAN Its entire district consists of a level plain open on all sides without any trees. Towards the East there is a high range of mountains. It lacks wood. The natives drink water from wells. It lacks fodder but yields an abundance of maize and beans, cactus fruits, cherries and agaves, of which the natives make good use. ‘TEPECHPAN The land is flat and in Tepechpan and its dependencies there are very few trees. All the natives drink stored rain water al- though the river named San Juan passes through the town. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 53 ACOLMAN The capital Acolman is situated in’ a plain at the foot of a mound. It is level and has no fountains. A river called ‘“‘de San Juan” runs by said town and is divided into three canals with which they irrigate a great piece of land nearly a league long and half a league wide. It is prolific in fodder and sustenance. TEOTIHUACAN The capital, San Juan, and all its subordinate towns lie in a plain and the farthest of the latter is situated at a distance of two leagues from the capital. Towards the North, a league distant, is a great mountain which the natives name Tenan, which in Spanish means ‘‘mother,”’ because many small hills issue from it.! 1 The second half of this name, ‘‘nan,’’ is an abbreviation of ‘‘ Nantli,’’ mother, while the first, ‘‘te,” is a contraction of ‘ Tetl,’’ stone; thus the ancient Nahuatl name of the mountain signified ‘‘Stone Mother,” or ‘‘ Mother of Stone.’’ The native explanation that the moun- tain was so named “‘ because many small hills issue from it’’ and because “‘it had given birth 10 many other mountains” (see answer to Question X XI) is shown to be strikingly appropriate by the report on the geology of the mountain recently published by Sefior Ezequiel Ordofiez, the distinguished ex-Director of the Geographical Institute of Mexico, in the monumental work already cited on the Valley of Teotihuacan issued by the Department of Anthropology. Sefior Ordofiez writes that the mountain, an extinct volcano, ‘‘does not now show its crater which had once vomited such great volumes of lava and loose stones, doubtlessly because the residue of the last lava flow had consolidated and obstructed its mouth. Before becoming extinct, however, it gave birth to a number of small subordinate volcanoes which, like parasite volcanoes, are scattered Over its eastern, northern, and western slopes, and look very fresh.” From the foregoing, it may be inferred that the native name ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ dated from a period when the dying volcano gave periodical birth to the small craters, possibly in compara- tively recent times. Compare note 1 on p. 74. Additional light is thrown on the ancient association of the mountain with the production of stone by other facts recorded by Sefior Ordofiez and also reported upon by the energetic and painstaking young geologist, Sefior Diaz Lozano, in the same monumental work. Both geolo- gists point out, as a characteristic of the now extinct volcano, the enormous quantities of loose stones and volcanic bombs which it cast forth with great force and scattered over the adjacent plains. Sefior Ordofiez states that the first inhabitants of the Valley of Teotihuacan must have found it thickly strewn with loose stones which would have constituted an inducement for them to settle there and build a city. Close by, moreover, was an inexhaustible supply of loose basal- tic stones of a portable size, for between the base of the ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ and the site of the ancient metropolis there are vast areas covered with basaltic agglomerations which can easily be detached and there are also great caves or pockets entirely filled with loose stones. One of these caves is two hundred and ten feet long, sixty feet wide and forty-five feet high — others are three hundred feet long and nine feet deep. Besides this loose portable material the mountain furnished different kinds of basalt which were shaped and worked at a later period, a peculiar basalt whose structure furnished very compact and hard, thin, flat stone slabs which the primi- tive builders used as flags for flooring, in making drains and as supports for cornices. Pointed fragments of this hard stone were also employed as chisels by the ancient sculptors; besides all this valuable building material the same mountain had produced the immense quantity of the very light, porous loose fragments of lava, of various colors, which are so extensively em- ployed by the ancient constructors. The entire appropriateness of the name bestowed upon the prolific mountain by the ancient builders is therefore amply demonstrated, as well as its 54 OFFICIAL REPORTS Another hill, medium sized, shelters the southeastern portion of the plain. In the territory of the subordinate towns there is a lack of water and the natives drink stored rain water. In the capital there is an abundance of water and many springs close together | that feed a large river on which the natives have a mill. The water of said river irrigates two leagues of land, which is the whole length of its course. It passes by the towns of Acolman, Tepechpan, Tequizistlan, and the boundary of Texcoco, and emp- ties itself into the lagoon. This region yields an abundance of fodder and food supplies. | QUESTION V State whether the district is inhabited. by many or few Indians and whether in former times it had a greater or lesser population; the causes for the increase or diminution and whether the inhabi- tants live in regular towns permanently or not. State also what is the character and condition of their intel- ligence, inclinations and modes of life; also whether different languages are spoken throughout the whole province or whether they have one which is spoken by all. TEQUIZISTLAN In ancient times, before the Conquest, it was densely populated and had more than four thousand tribute-paying inhabitants. After the Conquest many died from an illness like itch or mange all over the body. Since then they have always had illnesses. The Indians think that these have increased because they now have more luxury than in former times and because, before the unquestionable antiquity; for all indications point to the name having been invented at a re- mote period when small craters were still being formed and when the vast agglomerations of portable building material had been discovered and exploited by the founders of the great me- tropolis, that owed its existence to the vast amount of portable stones so conveniently at hand. The ancient name ‘‘ Tenan”’ is quite unknown to the present inhabitants of the region, as I found on making many inquiries. Nor is the old name recorded in the recent publication men- tioned above. In a document dated 1608, published in this same work (Part III, p. 573), the name of the mountain is given as ‘‘ Temiztepetl,’’ called ‘‘ Cerro Gordo,” and the latter Spanish name is the only one by which it is known by the natives nowadays. The fact that the ancient name “Tenan,’’ which appears to hark back to the nebulous period when Teotihuacan was founded, is in the highly developed and ancient Nahuatl tongue furnishes a valuable indication that the occupation of the Valley by Toltecs, a Nahuatl-speaking race, long ante-dated the arrival of the Aztecs in historical times. , TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 55 Conquest, they used to go naked and sleep on the ground and eat cactus leaves, cooked agave leaves and other plants yielding scant nourishment. Now they live well, eat delicate viands, baked bread, chicken, and beef and mutton, and wear clothes and sleep high [that is, in beds] covered at night with blankets. Any excess makes them ill, especially the drinking of pulque, which is gen- eral amongst them and is drunk from their childhood. Previous to the Conquest, when they did not drink nor were permitted to do so and were punished for drinking, they died old. Nowadays they do not live as long.!_ This town has no streets nor have its dependencies, which are scattered about. The inhabitants are of medium intelligence. Their inclination is toward cultivating their lands excepting in one dependency which lies on the shore of the lagoon, in which the natives live on fishing and catching ducks and other birds with nets. They speak the Nahuatl language. TEPECHPAN At the present time this town and its dependencies have nine hundred and fifty tribute payers. In former times, and a short time before the Conquest, it was densely populated. The inhabi- tants have dwindled on account of the diseases they have had, which, according to the native belief, proceeded from their having less work and more luxury than before the Conquest, and also from the drinking of pulque and because at present the natives eat fowl and other birds whereas formerly they ate cactus leaves and the pulpy agave leaves and other herbs of little sustenance. The town is not a regular but a scattered one. The foremost or chief natives are of medium understanding and the rest are rude and dull. They are inclined to cultivate the land and maintain themselves by this exclusively. The Nahuatl tongue is commonly spoken, with the exception of some few natives who speak the Otomi tongue. ACOLMAN In past times it had many inhabitants. The natives were not able to tell us anything more certain than that in every house there lived six or seven married couples, besides unmarried youths. They died of the illnesses which spread amongst them. At the 1 For interesting evidence concerning the relative health and longevity of the natives before and after the Conquest, see the answers to Question XV and notes thereto. 56 OFFICIAL REPORTS present day according to the list of tribute payers, it has nineteen hundred of these. It is built without order and is not a regular town. Its inhabitants are well disposed although dull of under- standing. They live by cultivating the soil. The language they generally use is the Nahuatl. A few speak Otomi. TEOTIHUACAN The natives say that in ancient times this town was thickly pop- ulated by a great number of inhabitants. At present it has besides the ordinary population, according to appraisement, one thousand and six hundred payers of tribute. The natives say that many of them died during an epidemic which occurred a year before the discovery of New Spain. The town was not founded on a regular plan, but consists of a number of scattered houses. The inhabi- tants of said town are a polished people of a good understanding ! who always live on the produce of their land. They speak Nahuatl generally, but a very few of them speak the Otomi and Popoluca tongues. QUESTION VI State the latitude in which these towns of Spaniards lie if this has been taken or if known or if there is any one who knows how to take it. State on what days of the year the sun does not cast a shadow at noon. TEQUIZISTLAN This town lies in a straight line directly north of the City of Mex- ico at a distance of three leagues, therefore its latitude would be ten minutes higher than that of said city. In the middle of May and at the end of June the sun casts no shadow at noon. TEPECHPAN The latitude of the town of Tepechpan is about twelve minutes higher than the City of Mexico as its distance is about three 1 Attention is drawn to the significant fact that whereas the inhabitants of Teotihuacan are described as ‘‘a polished people of a good understanding,” those of two of the.other towns are entered as ‘‘of medium intelligence,” and those of Acolman as ‘‘ well disposed although dull of understanding.” The higher degree of culture was evidently a survival from the time when Teotihuacan was the capital of a province, the residence of the ruling intellectual class and a great religious centre. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 57 leagues to the North of said City. In the middle of May and at the end of June the sun casts no shadow because the sun is at the zenith and shadows are under one’s feet and do not incline in any direction. ACOLMAN Acolman lies due north from the City of Mexico at a distance of a little more than three leagues; the difference in the latitude is nine minutes. In the middle of May and almost at the end of June the sun casts no shadow at noon and the shadow is underfoot. TEOTIHUACAN On account of the lack of the necessary instrument it was not possible to determine the latitude of the town, but, judging by that of the City of Mexico, it must be a little over twenty degrees. At the end of the month of May and in June the sun casts no shadow at noon.! QUESTION VII? State the distance in leagues between each city or town occu- pied by Spaniards and the city in which resides the Audiencia to whose jurisdiction it belongs or the residence of the governor to whom it is subject — also the direction in which said cities and towns lie from each other. QUESTION VIII Give also the distance in leagues between each city or town oc- cupied by Spaniards and those of the adjoining district, stating in what direction they lie; whether the leagues are long or short, the country level or broken and mountainous; whether the roads are straight or winding and good or bad for travel. QUESTION IX State the name and surname that every city or town has or had and the reason, if known, why they were so named; also who was 1 In the Valley of Mexico and at Teotihuacan the sun is in the zenith twice a year: on May 17th at about 11.33 a.m., on its journey northward, and on July 26th, at about 11.43 a.m., on its return southward, at legal time (that is, the local mean time of the 105th Meridian). 2 The following six questions are grouped together, and others will be similarly treated when the answers to them sent in from the four towns are more or less incomplete or are fur- nished by one town and not by another. 58 OFFICIAL REPORTS their founder, who named them, and by whose order or mandate he made the settlement; the year of its foundation and the num- ber of inhabitants at that and at the present time. QUESTION X State the situation of said town, if it lies high or low or in a plain, and give a plan or colored drawing of the streets, squares and other places, the monasteries to be marked, which can be easily sketched on paper, as well as can be done. It is to be noted which parts of the town face North and South. QUESTION XI In the case of Indian towns it is only to be stated how far they are from the capital, in what district and jurisdiction they lie, and which is the nearest centre for the teaching of religious doc- trine. The names of all of the chief towns in its jurisdiction are to be given as well as those of their respective dependencies. QUESTION XII State also the distance between the other towns of Indians or Spaniards that surround it and the directions in which they lie and whether the leagues are long or short and the roads level or straight or mountainous and winding. TEQUIZISTLAN! The distance between the town of Tequizistlan and the City of Mexico, where the Royal Audiencia resides, is -of five leagues of road, three running from North to South and two from East to West. The town lies at the Northeast of the City of Mexico. It lies in a low plain, among canals, very close to the lagoon. It is 1 Sefior Troncoso has drawn attention to the fact that in a document dating from the middle of thesixteenth century, the name of this town is given as “‘ Tecciztlan”’ (op. cit., Vol. VI, p. 226 note). This is confirmed by the use of the great marine conch shell —“ Tecciztli’’— as the hiero- glyph to designate the town in the Alonso de Santa Cruz map, although the Spanish rendering of the name as ‘‘ Tequizistlan,’’ is written alongside. (See Plate 2, upper left corner.) The native informants were evidently aware that the local name was derived from some sort of shell. The gratuitous and plausible explanation they volunteered, however, about the name having origi- nated from the abundance of small fresh-water shells found in the canals is obviously wrong, and may have been inspired by the wish to appear ignorant of the name, even, of the marine conch shell that was so intimately associated with the cult of the moon and the water gods in their ancient, forbidden and persecuted religion. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 59 the capital of the district of the Corregidor and is a league distant from Acolman, the centre for the teaching of religious doctrine. Its dependencies are Totoltzinco and Acaltecoya. It lies to the Northeast of the City of Mexico, separated from it by a distance: of five leagues of straight and level road running from North to South for three leagues and from East to West for two leagues. A straight and level road leads to the City of Texcoco which lies to the Southeast at a distance of two leagues. These leagues are medium ones. TEPECHPAN The town of Tepechpan is at a distance of five leagues from the City of Mexico where the Audiencia and Royal Chancery reside and is separated by a level road which runs directly from North to South for three leagues and two from East to West. It lies to the Northeast of the City of Mexico. The town is situated in a plain on the southern slope of a small hill. The plain is open to all sides. It has, to the Northwest, a small mountain which shelters it, and at the North the hill at whose base it lies protects it also some- what. It is exposed towards the East. It belongs to the jurisdic- tion of Tequizistlan and is at a distance of a quarter of a league from said town and from Acolman where the monks who teach the Doctrine reside. Within three quarters of a league are its dependencies, Santiago Zaqualuca, San Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santa Ana Tlachahualeo, San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo Teopancalco, San Pedro Tulamihuacan, San Cristobal Culhuaca- zingo, Santa Maria Maquiteco, San Juan Teacalco, San Bartolome Atoecpan, San Geronimo Chiapa and Santa Maria Suchitepec. The town Tepechpan is at a distance from the City of Mexico of five medium leagues by level road, which runs for three leagues from North to South and two from East to West. It les North- east of the City of Mexico. At the Southwest of the town of Tepechpan lies the town of Texcoco two long leagues distant by a straight and level road. At its South lies the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a league distant by a straight road and at its North the town of Acolman, its reli- gious centre, three quarters of a league distant by a straight, level road. Towards the West it has the town and district of Chico- nauhtla, two short leagues distant by a straight and level road. 60 OFFICIAL REPORTS ACOLMAN The town of Acolman falls under the jurisdiction of the City of Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of five long leagues of level road, three and a half of which run almost due North to South and a league and a half to the Northeast. At its Southwest lies the town of Texcoco at a distance of two and a half leagues of straight, level road. It belongs to the jurisdiction of the district of Tequizistlan and is the chief seat of religious instruction. Its dependencies are San Pedro Tepetitlan, San Antonio Huiztonco, San Miguel Jumetla, Santa Maria Tlatecpa, Sant Ana Atenpa, San Bartolome Quauhtlapeco, San Juan Chico- nauhtecapa, Santiago Atla, Tres Reyes Yzquitlan, San Agustin Aticpac, San Martin Tonala, San Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa Maria Ostonocazeca, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santo Tomas Atlauhco, San Marcos Quauhyoca, San Felipe Sacatepec, San Martin Huiznahuac, Santa Maria Atenpa, San Juan Tlaxicaya, Santiago Nopaltepec, San Matheo Tochatlauco, San Lucas Tla- mazingo, Santa Maria Saquala, Santa Maria Chiapan, San Juan Tepehuizco and San Juan Atlatonco. To its South it has the town of Tepechpan, three quarters of .a league distant; to the North-northeast the town of San Juan Teotihuacan, one league distant; to the Southwest the town of Texcoco, nearly two and a half leagues distant; to the West the town and district of Chiconauhtla, a long league and a half distant. TEOTIHUACAN The town of San Juan Teotihuacan lies to the Northeast, of the City of Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of six long leagues of level country. The said town of San Juan is separated from the city of Texcoco by three long leagues of straight road and level country. Its distance from Acolman is one league; from Tequizistlan two leagues both lying almost directly South. Tequizistlan is the capital of the Corregimiento. Its subordinate towns are: San Lorenzo Atezcapa, San Miguel Tldtezcac, San Matheo Tenango, San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa Maria Aguatlan, San Francisco Magatlan, San Pedro Tlaguican, San Martin Teacal, Santiago Tolman, San Andres Oztolpachun- can (szc), Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio Tlajomulco, San Agustin TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 61 Ohuayucan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San Miguel Tlalguac, San Luis Xiuhquemeccan, San Juan Evangelista Tlaylotlacan. Its distance from Otumba is two leagues to the Northeast by a straight road. The town of Tepetlauztuc lies to the Southwest at a distance of two and a half leagues of level ground. QUESTION XIII State what the name of the Indian town means; why it was so named; what there is to know about it and what its name is in the language which the native inhabitants actually speak. TEQUIZISTLAN Tequizistlan means “‘ place where shells abound ”’ and, accord- ing to the natives, it is so called because there are many shells in the canals of said town. The sole language they speak is the Nahuatl. ‘TEPECHPAN ! Tepechpan in the Indian language means ‘‘a town set on a large rock” and is named thus because it was founded near a rocky hill. The language spoken by the natives of the chief town and its de- pendencies is the Nahuatl, with the exception that some few of them speak Otomi. . ACOLMAN 2 Acolman in the Nahuatl language means “shoulder and arm.” ‘The Indians could give no reason why it was thus named. The language they generally speak is the Nahuatl; a few speak Otomi. 1 “ Tepexitl’’ —a large rock; ‘‘Pan’’— upon. In the original document the name of this town is written ‘‘ Tepexpan ’’ — a spelling ‘that is more correct than ‘‘ Tepechpan,’’ now in use. 2 The name of the town of Acolman, expressed by a rebus consisting of a shoulder and arm combined with the sign for water, is an interesting specimen of the native picture writing. The shoulder — ‘‘ Acolli’’ — conveys the first two syllables of the name and the sign for water — ‘** Atl”? — serves as a determinative by duplicating the vowel ‘‘a.’’ The hand — ‘ Maitl’? — furnishes the syllable ‘“‘ma,”’ and thus ‘‘ Acol-ma”’ was conveyed, this being the ancient name, as can be seen in the Plan (Plate 1) where it is spelt ‘‘ Aculma,” the u and o being interchange- able in the Nahuatl tongue. The fact that the same hieroglyph served also to express the tribal name “‘ Acolhua”’ and the name of the province “Acolhuacan’’ is revealed by its use in combina- tion with the sign for Texcoco in the Codex Mendoza, the Codex Osuna, and in the arms of the town conferred upon it by Philip IT. This combination was probably assumed after the Conquest of Acolman, the ancient metrop- olis of Acolhuacan, by Nezahualcoyotl, when Texcoco became the capital of the province, and the name Acolhuacan was applied to the whole territory subjected to the Texcocan rulers. In the famous map of Alonso de Santa Cruz, the familiar rebus consisting of an arm and water designates the town of Acolman (see centre of Plate 2 and compare with Fig. 2, from 62 OFFICIAL REPORTS TEOTIHUACAN In the language of the Indians the name of the town of San Juan is Teotihuacan, meaning ‘‘temple of gods,’ because in this town there was the oracle where the Indians of Mexico and those of all other surrounding towns idolatrized.! QUESTION XIV State to whom the Indians belonged in heathen times and what dominion was exercised over them by their lords; what tribute they paid and the form of worship, rites and customs they had, good or bad.? Codex Mexicanus, Collection Goupil-Aubin Planche, 24, op. cit.) the name of which is, however, . not written also in Spanish characters as in the case of the majority of other places. It was probably for this reason, and for the misleading error of the map-maker, who wrote the name ““Tequizistlan’’ close by (in the wrong place and for the second time) that it was overlooked by Sefior Arreola in the recent Mexican government publication already cited. On page 370 of Tomo I, Volume IT, he actually affirms: ‘‘ Alonso de Santa Cruz does not even register the town of Acclman.’”’ (‘‘Alonso de Santa Cruz no registro siquiera el pueblo de Acolman.’’) It is interesting to note that in 1697 Gemelli Carreri wrote that he had visited ‘the town of Acolman or Aculma,’’ which shows that both pronunciations were still in use at that time. The fact that, in the Codex Mendoza, the identical sign composed by an arm and water is used to designate the town of ‘‘ Coliman’’ — Colima — is interpreted by Orozco y Berra and Pefiafiel, in Nombres Geogrdficos, as implying that this locality, near the Pacific Coast, was con- quered by the Acolhuas. They were evidently not aware that Ixtlilxochitl, the native historian whose statements are of great weight, having been approved of by the six most learned and aged caciques of his time, relates that the Acolhuas ‘‘ were from beyond the provinces of Mich- oacan,’’ and that in the year One Flint (1063 a.p.) three Acolhua lords, whose names he gives, ““accompanied by many vassals, among them the nation of Otomis, having heard of the greatness of Xolotl, the Chichimec lord and leader, of his having seized all the country and that he was colonizing it, came to offer him obedience and ask him for lands where they could colonize. He was much pleased to see them, for they were a civil people, well governed, and giving them lands fer colonizing, he also gave two of them daughters of his in marriage; to the principal lord named Acolhua he gave his oldest daughter, and the town of Atzcapotzalco as the capital of his state, with more lands and provinces for his vassals; to the second, with a daughter, the town of Xaltocan (on an island in the lake of Xaltocan); and to the third ‘ Acol- huatitlan Acolhuacan.’ In this way he obliged them, telling them that they only needed to recognize him as their lord and sovereign, and need not pay him any tribute whatsoever.” (See Obras Historicas de . . . Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero, Mexico, 1891, Tomo I, p. 94, also p. 268 and Tomo II, p. 40.) Archaeological evidence, obtained in recent years, strikingly confirms the truth of the above history, for a remarkable similarity exists between the type of the clay figu- rines I and several fellow-archaeologists have found near Atzcapotzalco (in my case at a depth of 16 feet under a gravel-bed) and those unearthed in the present states of Michoacan and Col- ima. Both are characterized by thesame type of long, narrow faces and square brows, etc., the clay being, in both cases, of a fine, light-colored variety. 1 Without entering here into what would be a fruitless discussion of the many different etymologies of the name that have been published from time to time, the newest being contained in the recent publication of the Mexican Government, attention is drawn to the interesting ex- planation given here that Teotihuacan owed its name and designation as a ‘‘temple of gods” to a famous oracle that was there. Further mention of this oracle will be found in the answer to Question XIV. 2 Attention is drawn here to the curious fact that in the following answers from the town of Tequizistlan it is stated that ‘‘they adored the idol Huitzilopochtli”; in the answer from TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 63 TEQUIZISTLAN In ancient times the Indians came from Chicomoztoc in the land of the Chichimecs and peopled the town of Tequizistlan and the other districts. They had as their lord Izcuin, who wore a cloak of coarse agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. Every day they contributed some rabbits and snakes for his sustenance and he had Indian servants who guarded and served in his house. He did not eat fowl. Besides the above they gave him skirts and shoulder capes of coarse agave fibre. He did not use cotton; nor did the natives take him aught beyond what has been stated. They adored the idol Huitzilopochtli and every eighty days they sacri- freed thereto the Indians who were condemned to death for crimes they had committed. They lived and were condemned to pun- ishments according to the law of Nature. TEPECHPAN The Indians affirm that in heathen times they formed an in- dependent republic. They paid no tribute to their lords but only acknowledged them as such by giving them daily, hares, rabbits, snakes, quail and domestic fowl. They were Chichimecs until some years later a cacique of somewhat greater culture, named Axoquauhtzin, became their ruler. To him they contributed, every eighty days, four loads of coarse agave-fibre cloths, each load containing twenty cloths and eighty sandals; also four loads of the finer cloths made of agave fibre called ‘‘ayates.’’ Later on, fifty years previous to the reign of Montezuma, lord of Mexico, the lordship of Tepechpan was held by Tencuyotzin, to whom the natives of said town began to yield tribute. Every eighty days they brought him fifty cotton cloths four legs (piernas) wide and eight arm-lengths long; and also thirty other cotton cloths four arm-lengths long and four legs wide; also forty other cloths for wearing worked with rabbits’ wool and twenty loads of cocoa from Soconozco, each load containing twenty-four thousand cocoa beans; also forty skirts and as many shoulder capes (for women); _ twenty loads of chili peppers and as many of seeds. Tepechpan, that ‘‘they had no idols and worshipped the Sun daily’’; in the answer from Acol- man, that ‘‘they adored Tezcatlipoca’’; and in that from Teotihuacan, that ‘‘their principal idol was Huitzilopochtli,’’ but that ‘‘for greater veneration, this had been placed on the hill of Chapultepec,” a statement that may have been made for the purpose of warding off any search for this idol being made at Teotihuacan. 64 OFFICIAL REPORTS They had no idols and worshipped the sun, offering it daily, snakes, butterflies and some game birds. The man who first found any kind of the above creatures, at whatever hour of the day it might be, cut off its head and, turning towards the sun, offered it so that the sun should protect him that day. They had no other rite or custom and occupied themselves with hunting. ACOLMAN In ancient times, when they were heathens, the natives of Acol- man, those of Coatlinchan in the district of Texcoco, and those of Atzcapotzalco named Tepanecs, knew no alien lord and only ren- dered obedience to their native lords until about twenty years, more or less, before the Marques del Valle arrived and conquered New Spain, one Nezahualco- yotzin, lord of Texcoco, allied himself with Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and tyrannized over the whole region. Afterwards the natives of the town began to render tribute to the lord of Texcoco, but only to the extent of furnish- ing him with fighting men in war time. To their native lords they had formerly paid, as tribute, a load of coarse agave-fibre cloths, twenty in a load and another load of thin agave-fibre cloths; a load of women’s shoulder capes of thin agave fibre; a load of petticoats of the same and some fowl (they did not know how many). Every day they con- tributed a load of dried agave leaves to be used for fuel, and an- other load of the wood of the wild cherry tree. Their lord had, in his house, Indians who guarded and served him. They adored Tezcatlipoca. When they returned from warfare and brought some prisoners they assembled by order of the lord and held a festival, taking those who were to be sacrificed to a great temple which is in the said town. They were decked with rich cloths, carried flowers in their hands and danced. until they reached the summit of the pyra- mid temple where they tamely submitted to being stripped and thrown backwards on a large stone on the edge of which they were stretched, their head and legs hanging and their breast taut. A FiGcure 2 PLACE-NAME OF ACOLMAN 1 Instead of ‘‘twenty years, more or less,”’ read ‘‘ninety years,” the final Conquest of Acolman and Teotihuacan and adjacent country by Nezahualcoyotl and his cousin Montezuma the Elder having taken place in 1429. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 65 cut was made across the body below the ribs with a flint knife and the heart was torn out. This was carried in a painted gourd bowl to the idol and was cast before it. Old men were specially ap- pointed for this office and they took the dead body and placed it in a bath. After it was well washed with hot water they cooked and ate it, dividing it between the chieftains and captains. They lived according to the law of Nature. | The Indians who distinguished themselves in warfare, took prisoners and killed enemies, were authorized to wear on their heads in peace times as a mark of distinction, white feathers stuck on with paste. In the month of March they celebrated a feast which they named Tlacaxipehualiztli which means ‘‘the flaying of a person.”’ It was ordered that during twenty days the slaves who were to be sacrificed danced every day, singing sad songs, carrying certain shields and flowers in their hands and wear- ing a kind of wide shirt sewn together at the sides and named “‘xicalco.”’ When, at the end of the twenty days, they were to be sacrificed they were taken to the summit of the pyramid temple where the idol was. After the heart had been torn out and offered to the idol, the corpse was thrown to the base of the pyramid and beaten with rods until the skin became raised.!. Then they flayed it and an Indian clothed himself with it and ran about the neighboring towns showing himself and begging for alms. He was given maize and huauhtl: and other things, all of which was given to the owner of the sacrificed slave who, twenty days after the sacrifice, took the flayed skin and buried it publicly in the temple of the idol. Inviting all the lords on the day of the burial, they consumed all the edibles which had been collected as alms. On the day when the slave was sacrificed the lords arrayed themselves and danced all day long and partook of the flesh of the victim. On the day when the skin was buried they beat a drum in the temple of the idol, at the sound of which all Indians who were working in their fields ran and shut themselves up in their houses. For the Indian who had worn the skin ran all over the country and if he found anyone working in the fields he shaved the top of his head and thus made him a slave. If he found no living soul, instead of. hair 1 According to Sefior Troncoso y Paso, this method of treating the skin before flaying the body was also used by the Indians of Teutitlan. It was probably the method generally em- ployed in the gruesome rite. 66 OFFICIAL REPORTS he had to cut agave leaves to bring back to the temple. They ob- served the custom of burning incense every twenty days in a cir- cular building nearly two yards high. The vassals daily burnt in- cense in their homes. The festivals they observed every twenty days had different names. One of them was named Suchimanaloya, which means ‘“‘the gathering of flowers,” ! it being the custom to gather, on that day, many flowers in the hills and plains and to place them where they burned incense without any further rite or ceremony. An- other festival was named Hueytozoztli, its ritual being that, three days previously, they gathered some of the earliest maize shoots and tied them in bunches with bean-blossoms. On the feast day they carried these to the house of the owner of the field in which they had been gathered and laid them on a clean mat. In front of said bunches they placed as an offering, a small basketful of pinole which is made of roasted and ground maize, and a basket of tamales and on the top of the basket a cooked frog ? with its limbs stretched out. It was their intention thereby to appease their idol so that it would give them a good harvest. When the said feast day had passed the owner of the field in which said maize shoots had been gathered, ate the offerings. They had another festival named Toxcatl, the ceremonial of which was to take maize from the fields and roast it and when it popped and burst to string the pop-corn for necklaces and chaplets which they wore on their necks and heads. ‘The old people danced, rejoicing at the good year conceded to them. Another festival was named Etzalqualiztli and its ritual was that. they took maize, beans, huauhlli, and all kinds of seeds they cultivated and made tamales of them all mixed together. Small groups consisting of five, six or ten persons went dancing through the streets and into houses and the palaces of the lords where they offered each other the aforesaid tamales as a sign of festivity and rejoicing. They had five other festivals named Tecuilhuitontli, Hueytecuil- huitl, Miccailhuitl, Hueymiccailhuitl and Ochpaniztli in which 1 This seems to have been a local name for the festival that is usually named ‘‘ Tozoztli’’ — the feast that followed it being designated as ‘‘ Huei-tozoztli’’ or ‘‘ the great Tozoztli.”’ 2 The frog was the emblem of the goddess of water, and she was worshipped under this form. An “extremely beautiful Temple of the Frog, the goddess of Water’ is mentioned by Ixtlilxo- chitl (Obras Histéricas . . . ed. Chavero, Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 37) as having been built by the Toltecs in the ninth century of the Christian era by Mitl. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 67 the only ceremony observed was the burning of incense in front of the idol. They had another festival named Tepeilhuitl which means ‘‘the feast of the mountains,” the ritual of which was that whenever an Indian, on going to fetch fuel, found any piece of wood or branch which was crooked or twisted, he brought it to his house and when this festival arrived, covered it with the dough named tzoalli, placed it on a clean rush mat, and when the festival was over, ate the dough. They had another festival named Que- cholli, the ritual of which was to take dry canes and make arrows of them, decorating them with feathers. Early in the morning of this day all the common people assembled arrayed for warfare and went hunting. They then danced with the produce of their hunt such as rabbits, rats or snakes, and ate them with tamales made of maize and the sweet juice of the agave. They had another festival named Panquetzaliztli, in which the boys of the town aged ten years or less, wearing rich mantles, danced in honor of the idol in the temple square. During the other two festivals named Atemoztli and Tititl, the sole ceremonial was the burning of incense before the idol. Another festival was named Izcalli and its ritual was that after midnight they took their children and holding their heads between the palms of their hands lifted them repeatedly so that they should grow rapidly. At the same time they also feasted and drank. In another festival, named Quahuitlecua, their ritual was that the chieftain took many folded sheets of paper and joining them together made [something] like a lance. He then went to the top of some hill where they had their idols, followed by all the common people and there they offered the papers and burnt incense and covered the idols with cotton mantles, leaving them there until time destroyed them. TEOTIHUACAN In heathen times its people constituted a republic which recog- nized no authority but that of its natural lords who were [of the race] named Chichimecas, until Netzahualcoyotzin, lord of Tex- coco, made war and tyrannized over the whole territory, killing sons of Tetzotzomoctzin, lord of Atzcapotzalco, to whom all ren- dered allegiance. After the death of Tetzotzomoctzin the said Netzahualcoyotzin made himself powerful by making an alliance 68 OFFICIAL REPORTS with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They divided between them- selves the lands of the towns of Teotihuacan and Acolman. The inhabitants of Teotihuacan, in recognition of their overlordship, paid them as tribute, every eight days, some blankets made of coarse agave fibre, named zchtzlmates, and some loads of agave leaves, named metlonilt. Their principal idol was Huitzilopochtli which for greater vener- ation was placed on the hill of Chapultepec in the City of Mexico. Aside from this there were other minor idols'in the town of San Juan which was the temple and oracle to which the inhabitants of all neighboring towns flocked. In the said town there was a very high pyramid temple which had [stairs with] three landing places [terraces] by means of which one ascended to the summit.!. On its summit was a stone idol they named Tonacatecuhlli, made of a very hard, rough stone all of one piece. It was eighteen feet long, six feet wide and six feet thick, and faced the West.? In the level space in front of said temple, there was another small one, eighteen feet high, on which was an idol smaller than the first, named Micttlantecuhtli, which means Lord of the Under- world. This faced the first and was seated on a large stone six feet square. A little farther to the North was another [pyramid] temple slightly smaller than the first, which was called ‘‘the Hill of the Moon,” on the top of which was another great idol nearly eighteen feet high which they named the Moon. Surrounding this [pyramid] temple were many others, in the largest of which were six other idols called ‘‘the Brethren of the Moon,” to all of which the priests of Montezuma, the lord of Mexico, with the said Montezuma came to offer sacrifices, every twenty days.° 1 This positive statement that the pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan consisted of three stages is confirmed by therepresentations of both pyramids in the accompanying Map (Plate 1) and in that made by the famous cosmographer Alonso de Santa Cruz (see Plate 2, lower right- hand side). 2 The stone idol described here is the ‘‘image of the Sun’? mentioned by Gemelli Carreri who in 1697 was shown a fragment of it that had been thrown from the summit of the pyramid of the Sun and had, on account of its great size, stayed half way down. Ixtlilxochitl, the native historian, who resided at Teotihuacan, states that Tonacatecuhlli signified ‘‘God of Sustenance”’ (‘‘ Tonacayotl’?—human sustenance or the fruits of the earth, and ‘*‘ Tecuhlli’’—lord) and that this was one of the principal gods, in the figure of the sun, the other being his wife, in the figure of the moon. (Obras Histéricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero, Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 39.) 3 This statement that Montezuma and his priests came to Teotihuacan every twenty days is of extreme importance and interest, for it reveals that this ancient Toltec capital continued to be a great religious centre down to the time of the Spanish Conquest. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 69 During the entire year they observed eighteen festivals, or one festival every period of twenty days. Each festival had its differ- ent ceremonials as is set forth in paragraph fourteen of the descrip- tion of Acolman to which I refer. Every four-year period closed with a feast on the number twenty but in the bissextile year there were five days in excess and they then held a feast in a large square that was situated between the two pyramids. In the centre of this square there was a small plat- form about twelve feet high on which they punished evil-doers and delinquents. 3 QUESTION XV State how they were governed; with whom they carried on war- fare; how they fought; the clothes and costume they wore and now wear and whether they used to be more or less healthy than now and the reason that is known for this.! 1 Tt is an interesting and instructive fact that, in reports from a number of towns, situated in different parts of Mexico, the answers to Questions V and XV unanimously and invariably relate that previous to the Conquest the natives enjoyed bettcr health and longer lives and that the physical deterioration since then was due to the living in towns, the use of more cloth- ing, a greater license and independence, and the indulgence in a meat diet and pulque. The following reports from towns pertaining to the diocese of Oaxaca, corroborate these and are particularly explicit and illuminating: “The oldest inhabitants state that the reason why the natives are more shortlived nowadays than in heathen times is because anciently they did not sleep in towns or settlements; and ate naught but dry tortillas made with great labor and care.: Thus they lived strong and healthy and when they married they were at least over thirty years of age and thus led healthy lives. After the Spaniards came they built houses and lived in peace and tranquillity; ate an abun- dance of different foods; wore clothes and indulged themselves. The boys marry at twelve and fifteen, and all these things, as it is reasonable to suppose, cause them to be more short- lived nowadays.’ (Town of Chichicapa.) ‘* . . . In olden times the natives lived a hundred years or more and now they die young and what they say and explain and communicate to each other on the subject is that the reason for this is that anciently the children were put to work at the age of six or seven. As there were so many wars there was no time to cultivate much and so they ate little, slept in the open and were fitted to live in constant labor. After the Spaniards came they wore clothes, slept in houses, ate and drank and indulged themselves much. In those days an Indian married at forty and now at twelve or fifteen. . ...”’ (Town of Ocelotepec.) “|, . They used to fight with the natives of other neighboring towns for no cause or reason whatsoever, only for the exercise and they ate the flesh of those they captured alive in battle, and not that of those killed in warfare. ... They ate tortillas or tamales and some chile and no more. Once a year when they celebrated their harvest, they killed a hen, chicken, dog or rabbit (if able to catch it) or other game and ate it, offering first of all to their idol the first fruits of all they caught or killed — for in all things they were subjected to strict laws. ... They say that notwithstanding the hard work they used to suffer under, they used to be health- ier . . . they say an Indian used to live more than a hundred and twenty years and now it is a great deal if the age of eighty is reached, although the natives now lead such an easy life and are the masters of their properties which formerly they were not, for no one then dared eat any- thing they raised under pain of fine or death.” (Town of Iztepexi.) “|, . Their ordinary food used to be tortillas and chile and beans and if anyone hunted a deer, rabbit or mouse they ate it although usually they presented it to their native lord who 70 OFFICIAL REPORTS TEQUIZISTLAN The natives of this place had no government. All they under- stood was to hunt and to cultivate very little land. They had never been at war or quarrelled with anyone until Nezahualcoyot- zin, the lord of Texcoco, conquered the district and allied himself with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They made vassals of the . natives of this town and distributed among their sons the lands they owned. They fought with bows and arrows, and clubs gar- nished with obsidian points. They had shields made of hard cane. Their war costume was of the skin of rabbits and other animals and feathers of birds, and in time of peace they went naked and only used coarse mantles of agave fibre and loin cloths. The chiefs wore sandals. Nowadays all in general wear cotton mantles, shirts and trousers and the women cotton shirts and shoulder capes. Some use woollen mantles. They sleep high and cover themselves with woollen blankets. In ancient times their food consisted of snakes, cactus and cooked agave leaves and some herbs of little nourishment with which they lived heathily. Nowadays they are accustomed to eat game birds and domestic fowl, baked bread, also other products of the lagoon, with which they are not as healthy as in olden times because they have more luxury now than they had then. TEPECHPAN According to what the natives say, they governed themselves according to the law of Nature. For many years they lived in peace, without being at war with anyone until, two hundred years before the time of Montezuma, they had some encounters with the lords of Mexico who wanted to subjugate them, whereas they would give them some of it or some other food or clothing as a compensation, because only the lords had permission to eat turkeys, quail, deer and other game. Nowadays everybody eats tortillas, chile, beans, gourds and deer although they cost excessive prices, also other meats of our cattle or of the game they kill. . . .””. (Town of Tepeucila.) “They use at present the same foods they used to but have many meats, as they eat sheep, ewes and cows, there being no town which does not have its community ranch and private ones, thus having meat in abundance. ... As the reason why, in ancient times, they lived much longer, all dying old then and young nowadays, they say it must be because they work less now than they used to, having then to render personal service not only to the caciques and lords but also to the ‘ Tequitlatos’ who were those who were in charge. Alsc because nowadays they marry in boyhood, whereas formerly they did so at the age of thirty or forty. . . .’”’ (Town of Miahuatlan.) TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 71 defended themselves so as not to receive their evil customs. They became confederates by means of a marriage. A hundred and twenty years later a lord of Atzcapotzalco near Mexico, named Maxtlaton, with despotism killed Tencoyotzin, lord of Tepechpan, in order to increase his dominion, for which reason they waged war against Atzcapotzalco and joined the Mexicans and made war on those of Soconusco and Tlaxcala and Huejotzinco and the province of Michoacan. The chieftains wore a loin cloth named maztli, no shirt, and man- tles worked with designs, also bracelets and labrets of stones named chalchthwtes. Ordinary men went naked with a loin cloth only and a mantle of agave fibre. Nowadays they generally wear cotton mantles, shirts and loose trousers; only a few wear loin cloths. The commonest foods they have always used and still use are maize, beans, squashes, huauhtlz and chili peppers. After the arrival of the Marques del Valle they ate fowl. The natives state that before he came they had never had any remark- able illness but that about a year before his arrival, a great num- ber of them died of a disease like small-pox which broke out all over their bodies. Since then they have never been free from ill- ness, they do not know why. ACOLMAN The lord of Acolman used to govern his Indians and punished those who committed crimes. If any chieftain committed a crime this was investigated by the lord of 'Texcoco. | The people of Acolman carried on war with those of Tlaxcalla and the mountain range of Metztitlan, and fought them with bows and arrows, wooden sabres with obsidian points, and wore cotton mantles. In time of peace the chieftains always wore fine loin clothes, mantles of agave fibre, and sandals, excepting at festivals when they wore mantles worked with designs. When they went out, in order to protect themselves from the sun, each carried a feather fan. All vassals wore only a mantle of coarse agave fibre and a loin cloth. Nowadays all generally wear cotton shirts and mantles and trousers; they cover themselves at night with blankets, whereas in ancient times they only covered themselves with the mantle they wore in day time. The chieftains used to eat game birds and some domestic fowl. The commoners only ate the cooked (2 OFFICIAL REPORTS leaves of the cactus or agave and other wild herbs. Nowadays all generally eat maize bread and chicken and beef or mutton. Previous to the Conquest, in olden times, they were very healthy but nowadays they suffer from disease and do not live as long. The natives believe that it is on account of the little work and much feasting that they now have. TEOTIHUACAN They governed by means of some laws they had, in accordance with which they punished malefactors. One of these laws decreed that those who committed adultery and were found in delicto fragranti, were handed over to the relatives of the offended party and were beaten to death publicly within two days. If by chance the offended one forgave the crime the pair were not punished be- yond the fact that the wife was separated from her husband. If the latter returned to her he incurred penalty of death for he was regarded as having consented to the adultery committed. This law only applied to the wife who had been received by the husband after negotiations with her relatives followed by the celebration of a wedding, during which the bride and groom were anointed with a yellow pitch or wax named jahualt. The woman who had re- ceived a man without this ceremony was a concubine and not a wife and even if she committed adultery she was not punished. The person who stole ears of corn, squashes or beans, even though he were a child, was condemned to pay for each stolen ear or squash, a woollen blanket named quachtli. If he had no means of paying he incurred the penalty of death and his head was publicly pelted with stones as a warning to others. Adults who stole cloth- ing, feathers, stones or other articles of value incurred the death penalty if the stolen goods were not restituted. In the latter case the thief became a life-long slave. When an Indian man and wo- man, married according to the customary ceremonies, happened not to treat each other well and often quarrelled, the chieftain or elder of the quarter in which they lived, summoned them and in- quired what was the reason of their disagreement. If, being a regular wife, she complained that her husband did not provide her with necessaries, or that, instead of supporting himself by working in his corn-fields or farm he amused himself, this constituted a cause for separation, as was also the case when the wife was lazy TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73 and did not serve her husband. An equal division of property was made when a separation took place. The slave who escaped from his prison and made a public decla- ration that he had done so before the elder of his quarter, was ac- quitted of his imprisonment and set free by said elder. If war -captives, while being led to the temple to be sacrificed to the idol, were by chance able to escape and reach the summit of the pyramid where the idol was, and get behind this, he was acquitted of said death and sacrifice. . The inhabitants of Teotihuacan used to carry on warfare with the people of Huejotzinco and Atlixco and used to fight with bows, arrows and wooden sabres edged with sharp obsidian points (ma- cana). The usual costume of the chieftains in time of peace con- sisted of a mantle of fine agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. In war time the chieftains and others who had distinguished them- selves in warfare wore a cotton armor and various devices; some disguised themselves as herons, or ducks, or eagles. Others dis- guised themselves by wearing the skins of pumas, jaguars, wolves (coyotes), deer or other animals. The common Indians only car- ried bows and arrows and wore no device whatsoever. They went naked excepting for a loin cloth and coarse mantle of agave fibre. Nowadays they all wear cloaks, cotton shirts and trousers; they sleep on beds and cover themselves with woolen blankets. They eat good food, boiled maize, domestic and wild fowl, beef and mutton. In ancient times most of them sustained life on the boiled leaves of the cactus and agave, or roots, or mice, snakes and other reptiles, and were healthier because of this and because they were more accustomed to exercise and hard work than nowadays. ‘The natives realize that the luxury they now live in and the little work they do is the cause of illness, because they now fall ill whenever they make any exertion, especially on account of the pulque which they are accustomed to drink from childhood and which does them much harm. QUESTION XVI It is to be stated, about all towns of Spaniards or Indians, whether it is situated in a mountain, valley or open plain, and the name of the mountain or valley. The district is to be recorded with the meaning of everything in the native tongue. 74 OFFICIAL REPORTS TEQUIZISTLAN This town is situated in a plain, among canals and close to the lagoon. Towards the North it is open on all sides but there is a small mountain there. which is named Tlahuilquitl because the natives say that in ancient times they saw fire come out of said mountain and that it illuminated a great part of the country; therefore they call it the ‘‘mountain of light.’”’?! To the Northwest there is another large mountain within its boundaries. It is named Yelocotl because it has plentiful game, so the Viceroys of this New Spain have used it as a hunting ground. TEPECHPAN The town is situated in a plain at the base of a rough hill and is open to all sides. Near it, at a distance of a quarter of a league, in the confines of Texcoco, there is a medium-sized, round hill which is named Tlahuilquitl, thus named because the natives say that in said hill there used to be fire which gave light at night; therefore they named it ‘‘the mountain of light.” AcoLMAN Acolman is situated at the foot of a hill, in a plain open to all sides. At a distance of about half a league there is a mountain named Tlahuilquit! and another big mountain named Yelocotl. The meaning of these names is given in the descriptions of Tequi- zistlan and 'Tepechpan. TEOTIHUACAN This town is situated in a vast plain wherein there are many springs, as has been declared above. QUESTION XVII State whether the town is situated in a healthful or unhealthful place and if unhealthful the cause for this, also the kinds of illnesses that are prevalent and the remedies employed for curing them. 1 It is interesting and important to learn that, within the memory of man, a small volcano in this vicinity was still active. Compare with the evidence presented in note 1, p. 53, tending to prove that the name “‘ Tenan” was given to the large volcano in the same region while it was periodically active. The name ‘“‘ Yelocotl’’ may be derived from ‘‘ Yeloa”” = a crowded place, or “‘ Yeltia’’ =to flee or cause to flee. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73 TEQUIZISTLAN The situation of this town is unhealthful on account of being very damp. Its inhabitants suffer from fever and cure themselves with nettles and a kind of lily, which afford them some relief. TEPECHPAN The situation is healthful. The usual illness is fever which pro- ceeds from their working in their seed lands. They cure themselves with cooling things. Those that are to die only live eight days. ACOLMAN It is a place of medium healthfulness and has bad night dews. The prevalent illness among the Indians is headache which they cure with cooling herbs. TEOTIHUACAN It is a healthful region although the natives sometimes suffer from headache and fever, which maladies they cure with herbs and roots of cooling qualities. QUESTION XVIII? How far or near is any remarkable mountain or mountain range; in what direction does it lie and how is it called? QUESTION XIX State what principal river or rivers pass close to the town; at what distance they do so; how abundant they are and whether there is anything remarkable about their sources, their water, its water-supply and the land it irrigates, also whether it is employed or could be employed for irrigation on an important scale. QUESTION XX Cite the remarkable lakes, lagoons and fountains and any notable things there may be in the district of the towns. 1 As the answers to Questions X VIII to X XI, and from XXIII to X XVII, are either omitted or scant, these questions are grouped together. In the case of Question XXXII and others to which no answers are given, the questions are printed as being interesting in themselves and completing the questionnaire. 76 OFFICIAL REPORTS QUESTION XXI Mention the volcanoes, caves and all other remarkable and ad- mirable works of nature there may be in the district, which are worthy of being known. TEQUIZISTLAN At the East of this town the river named San Juan passes in a deep canal at a distance of two arquebuss shots and it irrigates nearly half a league. TEPECHPAN To the East of the town at a distance of half a long league, at the confines of Texcoco, is a range of mountains, the names of which are not given as they are not. very noteworthy. There is no river or fountain, only the river of San Juan passes through the town, dividing into two canals which irrigate the land of said town for a distance of half a league. ACOLMAN The river named San Juan passes through the town of Acolman, dividing into four canals, each conveying the measure of two oxen of water and irrigating nearly a league of land. TEOTIHUACAN Towards the North lies a big mountain which the natives name Tenan and it has given birth to many other mountains. On the eastern slope of the aforesaid mountain, about half way up, is a chasm in which one hears a great noise which appears to proceed from the interior, at a distance of twenty yards. This seems to be the noise of the water which descends from the said mountain. The natives are convinced that it is water, because in the whole plain that extends between the town of San Juan and the confines of Texcoco there is no river nor spring other than the one at the head of the town of San Juan which the natives associate with the water which makes a noise in the mountain. In said plain, for a circumference of a league, between the head of the town of San Juan and Otumba, there are many large and small caves, some as extensive underground as an arquebus shot.. From these they extract the saltpeter with which gun powder is TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 77 made in His Majesty’s Munition House in the City of Mexico. Thirty Indians are usually employed every week in extracting said saltpeter and the train of mules which conveys it to the City of Mexico is famous. QUESTION XXII Describe the native trees that commonly grow wild in said dis- trict, and the profit gained from their fruits and wood. State what they are or might be good for. QUESTION XXIII Mention whether the cultivated trees and fruit trees in the district brought there from Spain or elsewhere do well or not. QUESTION XXIV Mention the grain and seeds and other plants and vegetables which have served or serve as food for the natives. QUESTION XXV State what plants have been introduced there from Spain and whether wheat, barley, wine and the olive flourish; in what quantity they are harvested and whether there are silk-worms or cochineal in the district and in what quantities. QUESTION XXVI Mention the herbs or aromatic plants with which the Indians cure themselves and their medicinal or poisonous qualities. QUESTION XXVII Describe the native animals, birds of prey and domestic fowl and those introduced from Spain and state how they breed and multiply. TEQUIZISTLAN They have trees of the native cherry and a quantity of agave plants which yield sweet juice and fibre. When cooked the leaves furnish food and when. dried supply fuel. They have no other 78 OFFICIAL REPORTS fruit trees, for the earth contains saltpeter and they could not grow. The seeds they sow are maize, chia, huauhtli, and beans, also some wheat, about fifty fanegas [bushels] more or less. ‘They breed dogs from Spain and some native ones which multiply. Of the wild native animals there are coyotes, and some hares and rabbits. TEPECHPAN Within the confines of this town there are some quince and peach trees and some native cherry trees. In one of the dependencies named Maquizco they grow a quantity of pear, peach and quince trees which give fruit at Christmas. Throughout the whole dis- trict there grow quantities of agaves which yield sweet juice and fuel. The natives cultivate and gather for their food maize, beans, squashes, peppers, chia, and huauhilt. Of Spanish vegetables they have lettuce, radishes, onions and parsley. They have wheat which, although the quantity is small, serves as provision for the natives. They have raised quantities of dogs of those brought from Spain and a few of the native ones. Of wild animals there are coyotes. ACOLMAN They have a quantity of the native cherry tree which produce much good fruit. They have walnut, pear, and quince trees and vines in the orchard of the monastery of this town. Of agave and cactus plants, which are the principal food of the natives, there is an abundance. They cultivate maize, beans, chia, and huauhtl, on which they live. They have no other vegetables out of careless- ness, for they would grow well in this district. They cultivate wheat with and without irrigation, and it does very well, but they only sow a small quantity. TEOTIHUACAN They have an abundance of the native cherries, of the edible cacti and agaves which sustain them, and which they sell in the neighboring towns. In said town and its confines they harvest much maize, beans, huauhili, and chia for their maintenance. They also raise some Spanish vegetables. The natives sow but little wheat although what is raised is very good. | TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 79 QUESTION XXX State whether there are salt works in or near said town and from where they get their supplies of salt and of all other things they need for sustenance and clothing. TEQUIZISTLAN In ancient times they used to make salt in this town with which they provided the City of Mexico. For the past thirty-eight years they have given up doing so because the number of inhabi- tants have decreased and because the water of the lagoon has risen and covered the salt beds from which they extracted the salt. TEPECHPAN They lack salt and procure what they need from the City of Mexico or the town of San Cristobal Ecatepec or from Exqui- payaque, a dependency of Texcoco. For their clothing they pro- cure cotton from the estate of the Marques del Valle. ACOLMAN The salt they use is brought from the towns of Tequizistlan and Acatepec and Mexico; the cotton which they use for clothing themselves is brought fda the land of the Marques del Valle and from the mountain of Meztitlan. TEOTIHUACAN There are no salt beds in said town or its dependencies, so all that is consumed there is brought from the City of Mexico, from the town of San Cristobal or from the mountain range of Meztitlan and the hot lands. The cotton they use for clothing 1 is brought from the region of Panuco. QUESTION XXXI Describe the form and construction of their houses and the ma- terials for building them that are found in the towns or the other places from which they are brought. TEQUIZISTLAN The houses and constructions in which they live are generally built with stone foundations and adobe walls covered with flat 80 OFFICIAL REPORTS roofs. The stone needed for building is to be had in the neighbor- hood. The timber required is brought from the woodland of Tex- coco, distant four leagues. TEPECHPAN All of the houses in this town and its dependencies are generally built with stone foundations, adobe walls and flat roofs. ACOLMAN All of their houses and structures have stone foundations, adobe walls and flat roofs. They have an abundance of stone. TEOTIHUACAN All the inhabitants of this town and its dependencies live in houses built of stone and adobe, with flat roofs. The houses of the principal personages are curiously and elaborately constructed.! QUESTION XXXII Describe the fortresses in said towns and the strongholds there are in their vicinity and within their confines. QUESTION XXXIII . Describe the trade and traffic and dealings with which the Spanish and native inhabitants of the town support themselves and state with what produce and how they pay their tributes. TEQUIZISTLAN The Indians live by farming. They have the custom of buying cotton brought from the Marques del Valle and of this they spin and weave skirts and mantles (mantas) with designs, that they sell. The natives of Acaltecoya, subordinate to Tequizistlan, deal in fish and game birds and pay their tribute with these. 1 In a document dated 1563 mention is made of the great palaces then occupied by Alonso Bazan, a descendant of the Kings of Texcoco, who was the native lord and encomendero of Teotihuacan. TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 81 TEPECHPAN The inhabitants of this town live by cultivating their lands and raising hens and have no other trade or dealings. They pay their tribute to their Encomendero in agaves, money and maize as is generally done by the other towns in New Spain. ACOLMAN The inhabitants live by farming and raising hens and have no other trade or dealings. With their profits and the sweet juice of the agave, they pay their tribute in money and in maize. TEOTIHUACAN The natives incline to farming and its produce is their principal means of support. They raise Spanish and native fowl for nourish- ‘ment and have no other trade. QUESTION XXXIV State the diocese of the archbishopric or bishopric or abbey to which the town belongs; the district in which it is situated and its distance in leagues. State in what direction from it lies the cathedral town and the capital of the district and whether the leagues are long or short; the roads straight or winding and the country flat or rough. QUESTION XXXV Mention the cathedral or parish church or churches in each town with the number of beneficiaries and prebends in each; if the town contains any chapel or noteworthy endowment, state whose it is and who was its founder. QUESTION XXXVI Mention the monasteries of friars and convents of nuns of each order there may be in each town; when and by whom they were founded and the number of friars and nuns therein. Mention also anything noteworthy there may be in the towns. 82 OFFICIAL REPORTS QUESTION XXXVII Mention also the hospitals, colleges and pious institutions there may be in said towns and by whom and when they were instituted. TEQUIZISTLAN This town belongs to the diocese and archbishopric of the City of Mexico which lies to its Southwest at a distance of five leagues of level country. 'The boundary of the district of Tequizistlan lies to the North of the City of Mexico at a distance of a quarter of a league. TEPECHPAN Tepechpan pertains to the diocese and archbishopric of Mexico ~ and lies in the district of the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a league to its North, and five leagues from the City of Mexico, wherein the cathedral stands. ACOLMAN The town belongs to the archbishopric of the City of Mexico where the cathedral of the diocese stands, at a distance of five long leagues of level country. In Acolman there is a monastery of friars of the order of Saint Augustine, in which there is a school in which grammar is taught. Twenty-four monks reside therein and five priests for the administration of religious doctrine to the natives. They have a very grand church with a vaulted ceiling and a very sumptuous portal of carved stone; also a good orchard within the monastery walls, in which they gather quantities of Spanish walnuts and cherries, of native cherries and plums. This monastery was founded in 1539, the provincial of the order of Saint Augustine being the reverend father Friar George Davila. TEOTIHUCAN The town of San Juan and its dependencies pertain to the diocese and bishopric of the City of Mexico and is two leagues distant from Tequizistlan, the headquarters of the Corregidor. In San Juan there is a monastery of Franciscan friars who administer the doctrine to the natives. They have a good church and fair house in which three priests and a lay brother generally reside. The TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 83 monastery was founded in 1566, the provincial of the Franciscan order being Friar Miguel Navarro and the guardian of said town Friar Francisco Perez. PARAGRAPH L And after the said description has been written down, it is to be signed by the persons who helped to make it. It is to be sent without delay with this instruction, to the person who may have. forwarded it. : TEQUIZISTLAN The description of this town was written therein on the twenty- second of February, 1580, and was signed by the Corregidor Fran- cisco de Castafieda and those who knew how to write, namely Juan de Vera, Antonio de San Francisco, .................. [an illegible name followed by the word fiscal, that is prior or censurer]. Benito Martinez, clerk. TEPECHPAN Description written in the town of Tepechpan on the twenty- third of February, 1580, and signed by the Corregidor Francisco de Castafieda, and those who could sign: Juan de Vera; Don An- tonio de Herrera; Rodrigo de Sandoval. Brentto Martinez, clerk. ACOLMAN The description of the town of Acolman, under the encomienda of Francisco de Solis, citizen of Mexico City, was written in said town on the twenty-sixth of February, 1580, those present while it was being drawn up being: the Corregidor Francisco de Cas- tafieda, Benito Martinez, Alonso de Solis, Francisco de Miranda, and Juan de Vera, Spaniards; Don Diego Vazquez, Governor, Don Guillermo de San Francisco, Alcalde, Lucas de Molina, Don Cristobal de Santiago, Pablo Zihuatecpanecatl, Regidors; Don Juan Bautista, Diego Atecpanecatl, and Antonio de Santiago, chieftains and natives of said town.! 1 The above entry appears as a superscription to the report from Acolman and the signatures follow separately at the end. 84 OFFICIAL REPORTS Signed by the Corregidor Francisco de Castafieda and those present who could write, who were Juan de Vera; Guillermo de San Francisco, Alealde; Diego Vazquez, Governor. BrEniTO Martinez, clerk. TEOTIHUACAN The description of the town of San Juan Teotihuacan, under the charge or encomienda of Don Antonio Bagan, Chief Alguazil of the Holy Office of the Inquisition,! was written in said town on the first of March, 1580, there being present Don Cristobal Pimen- tel and Luis de San Miguel, Alcaldes; Antonio de San Francisco, Mateo Juarez, and Antonio de los Angeles, Regidores; Andres Dalbiz, Don Lorengo and Francisco Quaunochtli, chief Indians of said town; Alonso de Servantes and Juan de Vera, Spaniards. It was translated by Francisco de Miranda; interpreted and signed by the Corregidor and those who knew how to write: Francisco de Castafieda, Andres Dalbiz, Damian Bravo, Gabriel de i Cruz, Francisco de Miranda. Benito Martinez, clerk. 1 It is deeply significant and illuminating to find that absolute authority, civil and ecclesi- astical, was wielded in Teotihuacan, the ancient religious centre, by Don Antonio Bagan, who, like his brother Don Francisco before him, was an Inquisitor of high rank, being Chief Con- stable of the Holy Office. There can be no doubt that much of the destruction and covering up of the ancient monuments in Teotihuacan must be attributed to the Inquisition, whose officers systematically and ruthlessly carried out the policy of exterminating idolatry, initiated by Cortés and Bishop Zummaraga, a task in which they were enthusiastically aided by the native Catholic neophytes. PraBopy Museum Papers Vou. XI, No. 2, PLATE 1 rosé ame ling Pig ti ae 2 Map of Tequizistlan, Tepechpan, Acolman, and San Juan Teotihuacan PMys Er ree + =u 7 EL 9 Re fo EP SACS EY HIER 2 OES. | (OLGT 00.129) znId ByuBg ep osucty Aq deur 91} Jo yed y @ aLvig ‘% ‘ON ‘TX “I0OA SUadVg WAAAY AGOavag “ Pe * 7. Se Ae Sou ee ae u Yet Pee : Nae pe a ee ee ee 3 pha aes E PR Se - & x x " y ; pi a morers OF THE PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY VoL. XI, No. 3 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD BY LESLIE C. DUNN BASED UPON DATA COLLECTED BY ALFRED M. TOZZER CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1928 PRINTED AT THE HARVARD UNIVERST’ ae NOTE At the time when Dr. Tozzer gathered the data which are analyzed in this paper practically no measurements had been undertaken on living Hawaiians. Later Dr. Louis Sullivan made most extensive anthropometrical investiga- tions in Hawaii. His lamented death came before his data could be worked up. It has thus seemed worth while to pub- lish the results of the investigation of the present data al- though they are far less adequate than those collected by Sullivan. Dr. Hooton, who suggested this investigation, has given amply of his time and attention throughout its analysis, and has seen it through the press owing to the absence of _ Dr. Dunn in Europe. The publication is made possible through the kindness of George P. Castle, Esq., of Honolulu, and of Dr. Tozzer. CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Dvrector CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, December 15, 1927 CONTENTS re ee eo PE ee a, 91 Me Vee ee ig Ale eee a 91 Pe eeecneevinterial... 60. Ss ne as ee we ee miele ae 92 ireimeuieo the Niaterial . 6°... . a... ee ned eae eG a OD Meee eo rce SuD|eCtGesy 2 ew ee 95 Perera ele 8 a ea ea Se ee ey / eee tcoueory.in await... 28.2. 2 Ve ee ek. 98 BAH Eel AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE Native HawallAns etree ecmcntis fe ee al U0 ieetevegence ancts Analysis. 9. 2 2... et Pe. 100 Peper es mogychorm. fo 2, Oe, eae aoa 1 ne AC eo a Pea Ng tage = 101 Pee eMC t,o es ee a ee 103 Pmeinoemec ouliine Leight... .°. 0. 2k ee ee 103 iyetieigit of phoulder: . . . . .°. . Ee ee ee 104 Sembee tenrOrmArin = oS PP OA 105 Bell errch rm engin oy ko a wee a 106 DIMI ei Se ma See eg 106 Conclusions from bodily dimensions ........ 108 By Cephalic and Wacial Characteristics. . ..... =... =. 108 Me er eleionie ss a OE. Pee aa (1 me ee TCACthice ss. 2 oy oe we Re ee mee til CANES eo a ge eel 113 Mey ee ercomatic diameter 2-2. ges bk ee a 114 femevasion-wienton Height 2, 2.0. 4). 2 +8 2 21D Pee is clgde< a ke 115 VIT- Nasal Height, Breadth and Shape ......... 117 Conclusions from dimensions of head and face. . . . 119 en Oneviensurable Characteristics . . 0. i... 2°. 6: eo. 119 Pee Color. 3 Te We ara MON eee ee esi Y pe eee 2 a i ee 120 meee COLON) aa oe a oe RO ee ee ees MMSE Ae CTs Wars. ay te. yee eo ee ee ae 11 em sow OTT eet ee se eS a She Uo ‘gh ge nm. en ee 122 Vaemeiongvolen) ee NOS6. 5 ltr ct eet eae ae 4 Hair’ 0g ea) See Sie Eye Color at ac). 6 Skin: Color. —. 2...) 8 Sa ae Other Tratts 2. 2 0 = ae eee Second: Generation «=. 2-7 °2 4.04) ee Backeross Generations ... ew) Comparison of Mensurable Traits ‘> 42 pt ash ee Hybrids of Hawaiians and South Europeans. . . . Other Hawaiian-White Mixtures. .... . General Summary and Discussion ..... . . ; ; oe Appendix .. . iat Pb wih a age ae ee Tables of Raw Data. Le oy oe ee” Bibliography AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD INTRODUCTION Ir is the purpose of this report to present and discuss a large body of detailed evidence bearing on the physical consequences of racial hybridization in the Hawaiian Islands. The study was under- taken and the data were collected and analyzed in the hope that the results would contribute towards a solution of the important problem of race mixture. We have regarded this problem chiefly as a biological one, the solution of which depends on the acquisi- tion of knowledge concerning the inheritance and interrelationship of the specific traits which differentiate races. The most needed contributions at present appear to be detailed descriptions of racial traits and of their behavior in inheritance. This is particularly true of the great problem presented by the population of the Hawaiian Islands. Here, as is evident from the data presented by several observers, e.g. (1, 2, 3) +, a great natural experiment in racial hybridization is taking place, in which the blood of the native Hawaiian people is being mingled with that of most of the chief racial groups of the world. This amalgamation of diverse races is, aS our own observations and those of others show, of comparatively recent origin. The racial elements con- tributing to the hybrid population are still present in Hawaii together with the progeny of various crosses between them. A tempting opportunity is therefore offered for anthropologists and geneticists to study the inheritance of racial traits. PLAN OF THE STUDY It was this opportunity which in 1916 prompted Professor A. M. Tozzer and Professor E. A. Hooton of Harvard University to make plans for studying the races and hybrids of Hawaii. The writer, as a student of genetics, was called upon to collaborate in 1 The titles of papers which are referred to by number in the text will be found in the bib- liography at the end. 92 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF the plans, and to undertake the analysis of the data relating to the descriptions of the pure races and of their hybrids. Our plans called for (1) the accumulation of anthropometric data for as many subjects of known race or mixture as could be measured; (2) data on the fertility, longevity, mental capacity, etc. of subjects of pure and mixed races; (3) analysis of these data with the objects of dis- covering the mode of inheritance of specific traits; the effect of crossing on physical traits, growth, fertility, vigor, etc. and the differences between various racial crosses in these respects. We also hoped to obtain from these data some light on the vexed question of the racial origins and affinities of the population of Hawaii and of other Polynesian peoples as well. It is not surprising that so ambitious a plan remains unfulfilled; for, with the time and resources at our disposal, we were able to accomplish only a part of what we set out to do. It soon became evident, for example, that the data on hybrid peoples had value directly in proportion to the completeness of our knowledge of the parent races. There proved to be almost no data of value on the physical traits of living native Hawaiians, and it became our first task to make good so far as we were able this deficiency in our knowledge. We also realized that the behavior of racial traits in inheritance, or even the descriptions of racial hybrids could only be established from observations on a relatively large number of subjects from each cross. We therefore limited our efforts to ob- taining anthropometric descriptions of living native Hawaiians, and of the descendants of crosses between Hawaiians on the one hand, and members of the Chinese and white races on the other, since these crosses offered the largest amount of material and the clear- est differences in parental traits. It is principally this evidence which will be presented in the reports which follow. A general interpretation of the evidence and its relation to other racial crosses has not been attempted, since our own and other com- parative data are not as yet complete enough to justify general- izations. COLLECTION OF THE MATERIAL The field work for this study was undertaken by Dr. Tozzer, who spent the summers of 1916 and 1920 in and about Honolulu. Prior to beginning the actual work of observation, a standard HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 93 schedule of measurements to be taken was drawn up by Dr. Hooton, and a technique of measurement decided on and practised which should conform throughout to the reeommendations of the current international agreement. (4) The provisions of this agreement, therefore, serve as a description of the methods employed in this The following measurements were taken: study. Body i Py. 3. A, 5. 6. Head 76 8. 9. Face 10. ET 12 13 14 15: Weight.* Stature. Height of Acromion. Height of Dactylion Chest circumference. Sitting height. Length. Breadth. Minimum frontal diameter. * Bizygomatic diameter.* Bigonial diameter.* . Nasion-menton height. . Nasion-prosthion height. . Nasal height. Nasal breadth. The following observations were made: ie 8. 9, 10. NED OV o9 PS Skin color (on an unexposed part). Head hair: color, form. Eye color. Eyelids: obliquity of opening, epicanthus. Brow ridges: degree of development.* Forehead: height, breadth, slope.* Nose: height and breadth of root, height and profile of bridge, inclination of septum. Prognathism. Thickness of lips. Dynamometric pressure. * Measurements taken on only a portion of the series. Measurements of the circumference of the chest and of the mini- mum frontal and bigonial diameters of the head were made only on those subjects measured in 1916. Most of the measurements were made on fully clothed subjects, and in some cases shoes were worn. A deduction of from 2 to 4 cm. was made from the 94 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF height, acromic height, and dactylic height measurements of sub- jects wearing shoes, depending on the height of the heels worn. Skin color was recorded for relatively few of the subjects because of the unsatisfactory color scales available and because of the difficulty of finding unexposed areas of skin on which to judge the normal skin color of the subject. Even on those subjects for which observations are recorded, the color determination is of doubtful accuracy because of the possible tanning of the skin. In 1916 skin colors were recorded in terms of Broca’s color scale; in 1920 the better scale of von Luschan (Hautfarben-Tafel made by Puhl and Wagner, Rixdorf) was used. Comparison was in all cases made with the volar surface of the forearm in the least exposed part. Hair colors were distinguished by name only and the following terms used in recording: black, very dark brown, dark brown, brown, light brown, reddish brown and yellow. Hair form was recorded as straight, wavy (slight or medium), curly, frizzy, kinky and wiry. The eye colors recognized were black, very dark brown, dark brown, brown, light brown, hazel, blue, and light blue. Strength was measured by means of Collin’s Dynamometer and the squeeze pressure recorded in kilograms. In addition to the information noted on the face of the schedule, each subject was questioned concerning his parentage, and the race of his father, mother and other known ancestors was recorded on his schedule, together with any additional or confirmatory evidence concerning his pedigree. Such additional evidence was obtained from school or other public records, relatives, friends, etc. An effort was made also to get information concerning the relative fecundity and viability of the various races and hybrids; and to this end, the number of children, in the case of parents, or of brothers and sisters in the case of unmarried subjects; was sought for and recorded. The absolute amount of information obtained in this way was too meager to be of use and is not reported here. The choice of the subjects to be observed was governed in the 1916 observations by a desire to obtain data on pure Hawaiians and on crossbred subjects in general. In 1920 a particular effort was made to increase the series of pure Hawaiian observations, and to obtain data on hybrids involving Hawaiian as one element in the cross. The series obtained cannot be regarded as a random HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 95 sample of the Hawaiian population, as far as the frequency of pure races or of hybrids other than Hawaiian are concerned. It does give a fair sample of the frequency and the stage of mixture be- tween Hawaiian and other races, since all available persons who had any Hawaiian blood were measured. In respect to social, occupational, and local groups, it is improb- able that a purely random sample of the population was secured. The chief departure of our sample from a random one is its inclu- sion of a relatively large number of subjects from each of a few occu- pational groups. The individuals measured may roughly be classi- fied as follows: fishermen, police, stevedores, teachers, members of Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. and kindred organizations, school stu- dents, workers in pineapple factories, and attendants at an Ha- waiian church. The fishermen, police, stevedores, and possibly the teachers, are from selected groups, probably above the average in general size. The school and church attendants probably constitute arandom sample, while the factory workers may deviate somewhat, owing to occupational selection. Size characters and variability in general may thus be somewhat higher than normal in a sample in- cluding a greater proportion of the larger-sized individuals of the population. Most of the Hawaiians and part Hawaiians measured were na- tives of the island of Oahu, on which Honolulu is situated, although in the groups of stevedores and students at the summer school are included a number of natives from other islands in the Hawaiian eroup; Maui, Molokai, Hawaii, and Kauai. A key to the occupa- tional groups and nativity of the subjects is given in Appendix Table I. TREATMENT OF THE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECTS The completed schedules were turned over to the writer for analysis and were immediately classified and grouped for study. All subjects reporting themselves as of one pure race were provi- sionally grouped together; and, if no evidence from other records or from physical traits appeared to contradict the statement of pedi- gree, they were regarded as members of that racial group. Con- siderable care was exercised by the original observer to exclude doubtful persons from pure race groups, and additional precau- 96 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF tions have been taken by the writer to exclude any subject with characters obviously abnormal for his supposed group. Such exclusion must be used with care however and is usually not ap- plicable to quantitative characters which are so variable in the purest races. Several eliminations from the pure Hawaiian group were made on the basis of eye color, hair form, and other evidences of mixture, chiefly with a white race or negro. The cross-bred subjects had to be classified almost wholly on the basis of their own statements, although in many cases these state- ments could be verified. No check on these statements was avail- able in the physical appearance of the subjects, however, since the inheritance of most the racial traits involved was unknown. Hy- brids were classified according to the race of their parents and the number of generations intervening since the original cross. Using as an example the hybrids between Hawaiians and Chinese, the following classes were recognized: 1. F; Hawaiian x Chinese — The direct result of a cross be- tween Hawaiian female and Chinese male, the subject’s pedigree reading: mother Hawaiian, father Chinese. 2. F, Hawaiian X Chinese.— The result of a cross between two IF’, hybrids; the subject’s pedigree reading mother one-half Ha- wailan, one-half Chinese; father one-half Hawaiian, one-half Chinese. The classification of this generation may contain a few errors; since, unless we know the race of all four grandparents, there is a possibility that the parents are themselves second genera- tion hybrids. Because of the comparatively recent introduction of Chinese in large numbers, this is not highly probable. There is also the possibility that “one-half,’’ as a description of a racial element in a parent, is merely a guess, and indicates only admix- ture of the race named. The number of such hybrids is not large and few wide conclusions are drawn from this generation. 3. BC F, X Hawaiian. — The result of a backcross of an Fy hybrid to a pure Hawaiian, the subject’s pedigree reading: father one-half Hawaiian, one-half Chinese; mother pure Hawaiian. 4. BC F; < Chinese.— The result of a backcross of an F; hybrid to a pure Chinese, the subject’s pedigree reading: mother one-half Hawalian one-half Chinese; father pure Chinese. 5. Other mixtures. — In this category are placed those hybrids between two races which have been produced by crosses other HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 97 than those outlined above, but in too small numbers to be classified separately. After such classification, the pure race and hybrid groups were subdivided on the basis of sex, and again on the basis of age. Males of 20 years and older and females of 18 years and over were classi- fied as adult. Means and other constants for quantitative char- acters have been calculated from these adult series of each sex. In summarizing descriptive, non-mensurable characters the im- mature subjects have also been included. ‘STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The original data have been tabled separately by race, sex and age, and are to be found in the appendix, Tables I to V. The principal ratios or indices calculated for each individual have been incorporated in these tables. From these raw data, the frequency distributions, which are presented by separate measurements in the text tables, have been formed. With the numbers available it has been necessary to use rather coarse groupings in seriating the data for statistical treatment. In general, that grouping has been used which by actual test gave the smoothest graduation, except that for any one measurement, the classification was determined for the males (or the large group), and applied arbitrarily to the females (or the small comparable group). From the grouped frequencies of the larger distributions have been calculated the mean, the standard deviation, the coefficient of variation, and the probable errors of each of these constants, by the usual formulae as given in treatises on statistical methods (5,6, 7). In the case of distributions containing few (less than 20) individuals, the constants have been calculated from the un- grouped material. The variation constants for indices and proportions have been calculated by Pearson’s formulae. (8) M, = 7" (1 — V3 —171,2V1V2) is for the mean 2 and ¢ = = 4/ Vi —V3-— 2r1,2V1V2 for the standard deviation; 2 where M; is the mean of the first variable such as head breadth, M, the mean of the second such as head length, Vi and V2 the 98 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF coefficients of variation (divided by 100) of the first and second variables respectively, and ri, 2 the coefficient of correlation be- tween the variables. Although the means of indices as calculated by the use of this formula have not differed significantly, in the present study, from the means as usually calculated directly from the frequency distributions of indices, the method here used in- volves less labor and is probably more accurate than deducing variation constants of indices from the array of individual indices without regard to the correlation between the component variables. In order to obtain comparative data from cranial material, we have in several cases reduced cranial to cephalic indices by means of the correction factor proposed by Craig (9). Other methods are noted as used. The separate seriation of measurements by sex and age has resulted in many small and irregular distributions, and we have not tried to combine them by reducing both sexes to a common scale or by correcting the observations on immature subjects to an adult basis. Larger distributions and smoother graduations might have been obtained by this method, yet I believe that there is a basic objection to such a practice. If corrections for age or sex are to be applied, they must be calculated as the differences be- tween the means of two distributions. One must be taken as the standard, and a certain proportion of this standard added to each individual of the distribution to be corrected. This results in no addition whatever to the original data, but only in multiplying the distribution by a portion of itself, along with the errors which attended the original measurements. The resulting amplified distribution appears larger than the standard; its probable error is lowered by the larger number of individuals in it, although the number of original observations remains unaltered. These changes are probably wholly fictitious and likely to be deceptive and it seems a much sounder procedure to face the paucity of numbers and practise the rigid conservatism in drawing conclusions which this condition dictates. RactAL FREQUENCY IN HAWAII A racial classification of all of the subjects observed is given in the table on page 177, and the detailed data on all subjects measured will be found in the appendix tables. 3 HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 8) About a third of the 508 subjects measured were pure Hawaiians, while all except a few of the remainder were descendants of crosses between native Hawaiians and other races. The few individuals not included in these classes were scattered among various pure races of the table (A), and mixtures either unknown or not involving Hawaiian (EK). The hybrid groups involving Hawaiian as one element have been broken up into (B); those in which only one other race beside Hawaiian was involved, producing a dihybrid combination; (C) those involving two other races besides Hawaiian (trihybrids); and (D) those in which more than two other races participated. The diliybrid groups were by far the most numer- ous, comprising 247 of the whole 295 crossbred subjects. The trihybrid mixtures were few, only forty-five in number, while numbers of individuals with four races represented in the ancestry were practically negligible. On the whole the more races involved in the ancestry of an individual, the fewer representatives are found, and, incidentally, the less reliable the pedigree as given. A preliminary discussion of the frequency and approximate dates of origin of the principal racial crosses in Hawaii has already been published. (10) A fuller treatment of this matter, leading to a general picture of racial hybridism in Hawaii, will be given in the parts of this study devoted to the data on the hybrid subjects. At present our chief concern is with the principal and perhaps most interesting single race involved; i.e., the native Hawaiians. 100 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF PART I AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE NATIVE HAWAIIANS PRELIMINARY STATEMENTS Our description of the physical anthropology of the native Hawaiians rests on observations of 158 subjects, concerning whose pedigree there seemed to be no reasonable doubt. Several pre- sumptive Hawaiians were excluded from this classification because of conflicting pedigree records, or by the possession of certain features falling far outside the normal range of variability of the bulk of the Hawaiians observed. Of these 158 subjects, 85 were males and 73 were females. Adults were separated from immature subjects for analysis of all characteristics affected by age, and the constants for pure Hawaiians were calculated from the records of 74 males of age 20 and over, and of 34 females of age 18 and over. The numbers of immature subjects were too small to be treated in separate age groups, nor could they furnish information concern- ing the changes of the various bodily measurements during growth. Observations taken on these immature subjects have been used in establishing racial norms for such characteristics as hair color and form, skin color, eye color, etc. The groups on which we must depend for our most reliable in- formation concerning the mensurable physical characteristics of the Hawaiians are these two small groups of 74 males and 34 fe- males. Permanent racial standards cannot, of course, be estab- lished on such small samples as these. Nevertheless, since there are no other data on living pure Hawaiians, the constants here given may be used as temporary standards of comparison, until they are supplemented by more extensive evidence. Tue EVIDENCE AND ITS ANALYSIS The raw data for the study of the anthropometry of the Ha- walians are given in Appendix Table I, together with the chief indices and derived measurements calculated for each individual. The grouped distributions and constants for each dimension are given separately in the text tables accompanying the discussion, HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 101 and all the constants have been summarized in Table 22. These data include for each subject the weight, height, shoulder height, dactylic height, sitting height, head length, head breadth, face width (bizygomatic diameter), face height (nasion-menton), height of upper face (nasion-prosthion), nasal height, and nasal breadth. ‘The cephalic index, the facial index, the nasal index, the index of sitting height, the arm length (shoulder height minus dactylic height) and the index of arm length are given in italics in the appendix tables. The descriptive characters are given as re- corded and will be discussed in a later section. GENERAL BODY FORM I. Stature (Table 1). The Hawaiians are a tall people. The mean height of the males, 171.3 cm., places them in the same class with the Tahitians (173.3),! the Samoans (171.7) and the Mar- quesans (174.3) and it is with these groups that they are most nearly related racially. ‘They are only slightly shorter than the white population of the United States (171.9), and approach closely the height of the taller North American Indians (Sioux 172.4). The females are shorter, averaging 162.6 cm., or 94.9 per cent of the male height. The sexual difference in height is rather less than that observed among races of similar height. The frequency distributions of these samples of the Hawaiians are given in Table 1. The height measurements have been grouped in two centimeter classes; but, even under this treatment, the graduation is not good and the distributions are irregular and give a poor approximation to a normal curve. Distinct indications of bimodality are absent, and it is probable that the irregularities are due to paucity of numbers rather than to the presence of more than one racial type in respect to stature. That the material studied is homogeneous is witnessed further by the comparatively short range of variation in height, 26 cm. in both sexes, and by the values of the dispersion measures, standard deviation and coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation is the more suitable for use in comparing these Hawaiians with other races, since it is stated in per cent and not in terms of the particular unit of measurement used. Its value for the height of Hawaiian males 1 Comparisons are made, unless noted to the contrary, with data compiled by Martin (13). SSOF PSS | CLOFIGTI | LTOFETES | FE “*" |** ** sapeure gy STO0+Z9'S | 8OOFS8ET | ITOFIOSS | 69 g VS 0 BTR A aie oe aa! ee 66h ine om as ores =a gg [°° °° yueo s9g oD ‘a's uve] T879.L SUOT}ELIOG . LHDIG_T DNILLIG JO XHGN[T ‘SNVIIVMVET GYOg ‘ef aIaV, GSO 80°€ |Z2'0F 99'S |TEOF SES) TE 2 fis oy T T T € “** sorTBuleT 610 L2°E |LZT OF S6'S |FC OF IT'06) 69 € G 0 g L II 8 OT "Th soreyAr ee +e (ta * 96 G6 6 &6 26 16 06 68 i RS Bae ee) ‘a's Eve WN T#99.L SUOTPBLIOS LHDIG}]T PNILLIG “SNVIIVMV]T Gung ‘Z WIAV], 66 0 3S'G/ (82 OF 80 FOTOS GS COL te Per pe Vt Se ee stro") goreura dT LVOF 6S |8G'0 00'S |OF OF TE TLL | O24 T T Sj b Tee ee Bere er eb a ae: “" 16'G8T |G°EST |G TST |6°6LT [6° LAT |6°SLT |6°SLT |G TLT |6°69T |6° LOT |6°SOT |6°S9T |G LOT |6°6ST |6°LST |6°SCT 6 SST | 6 IST Se a's wae -- |-ser |-cer |-ogr |-szt teeter cess amg AD ‘a's Wea [2701 ‘ SUOT}BIIIG (SHOHG LOQOHLIM) FUOLVLG “SNVIIVMVA GUNG ‘[ WAV, HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 103 is but slightly greater than 2.9 per cent. This does not differ significantly from the variability of 3.05 per cent for Samoan males as determined by Sullivan (11). It is significantly less than the variability of pure Sioux males — 3.3 per cent (Sullivan 12) and of the modern Egyptians studied by Craig (9), the variability of various groups of the latter (comprising over 9000 individuals) ranging from 3.26 to 4.43 per cent. The Hawaiians are less vari- able in height than either of the last named homogeneous types. II. Sitting Height (Table 2). The mean absolute value of this measurement is of significance only as a record. Its chief impor- tance lies in its indication of bodily proportion and it must thence be stated as a percentage of the total stature. The data are pre- sented in this form in the next section. The frequency distribution itself shows a greater irregularity, a greater relative range and a higher variability than does the distribution of total stature. This may be due in part to the inherent error of the observation,! but a portion of the increased variability is probably real, since other segments of stature not susceptible to such error, show the same increase in variability. This conclusion is borne out by a comparison of the Hawaiians with the large series of Sioux studied by Sullivan (12). The coef- ficient of variability of sitting height of the Sioux males is 3.95 per cent, which is greater than the variability of the same meas- urement in the Hawaiians (8.27 per cent), and greater also than the variability of the Sioux in total stature (3.3 per cent). We have found no comparable data on the sitting height of other Polynesian peoples. The mean sitting height of the females is 95.8 per cent of the mean sitting height of the males. Thus the sexes differ less in sitting height than in total stature. III. Index of Sitting Height (Table 3). This index gives the sitting height as a proportion of total height and is an indication of the relative length of the trunk as compared with the rest of the body. The races of mankind in which this proportion has been studied differ relatively little in this respect. Its value ranges from a mean of 46.5 in the long legged Australians to slightly over 54 in Ainos and certain negroes (BaBinga). The Hawaiians fall in about the center of the range with a mean relative trunk 1 Sitting height is difficult to measure accurately because of the varying thickness of fat and integument on the buttocks. 104 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAIIANS length of 52.6 for the males and 53.13 for the females. The sexual difference in this index is not significant. The individual differences in respect to this index among the Hawaiians are relatively small, as can be seen in the frequency distribution in Table 3. Of the males 44 or 63.8 per cent are characterized by indices between 52 and 53.9. It is an extremely compact distribution and is markedly asymetrical. The frequency curve descends slowly from the mode toward the lower limit of 49.5 and very rapidly toward the upper limit of 56.9. It would appear from this that the limit of variation in the direction of short leggedness is much more rigid than in the opposite direction. A negative skewness indicates that the same is true of the sitting height index in Sioux males. The variation constants for this index are lower than those for any other of the physical characteristics of the Hawaiians, although the differences between stature and sitting height in this respect are probably not significant. IV. Height of Shoulder (Table 4). This measure is chiefly of value in determining the absolute and relative arm length, by subtraction from it of the dactylic height. The distribution in its irregularity and variability resembles that of sitting height. In this segment the variability also exceeds that of the total stature. The mean shoulder height of the females is 95 per cent of that of the males, a sexual difference similar to that noted in sitting height. The variability of the two sexes is the same and there is no sexual difference in the proportion of shoulder height to stature (males 81.8 per cent, females 81.9 per cent). V. Length of Arm (Table 5). The length of arm in the Ha- wailans (acromion to dactylion III) varies through a rather wide range, 21 cm. in the males and 14 cm. in the females. The mean is 77.76 cm. in the males, 72.07 cm. in the females. The arm length of the Hawaiians is practically the same as the arm length of the Siouan tribes (Sioux males 77.0 cm., females 71.8 cm.). In the male distribution there is some indication of a positive skewness while the small numbers in the female distribution preclude a comparison on this point. Certainly, however, this is the most variable of any of the bodily measurements yet considered. Much of this variability may be accounted for by the fact that it is an indirect measurement, liable to error (possibly cumulative) from two sources — the acromic and the dactylic measurements — neither of which is entirely accurate. GEOF LIP | SSOFOO'E | SEOFLOGL | SE es ea! Sore LOOT LOF | IC OF SOS 4 620F OF-2L |) 69 5) 1 I Senn eee Wie ai (RC ek aa De 2s PA ar es er aa EE oe le a} a SoTSIA ee a a ee See Feo). 98) S838) 88) |.28. | ts) OS. 1-62 etn oy, ee ‘as uve [2IOL SUOT}BIIOG HLONG]T Way ‘SNVIIVMVE, Gung ‘¢ aAIAvVy, 94° 0+ ZE'F [SEO SEP OS OF OTEET | PE T ae TAS Et j SG cS) tie ae) g I € pal T ~ Se[ eure 61'OF 92'S 9S OF 19°F |LEOFST OFT | OL | G G v v SG |& i SL =} OFS 19k 8 Sos ee dae ee a kes = SOTERA ee one os "** | OGL | Q°SPl] ZFT | S'ShT| PRI |G'SHT| TPL | SGT] SET] S9ET] SET | Gest] SET | GOST) GST; GF L4sT| 9ZT|FvST) Esty °°” “AO ware) ‘a'g uUvdT T2301 SUOTIBIIIG ‘UN@TOOHY FO LHDIGH +‘SNVIIVMVA] GuOg ‘fp WAV, 106 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF HAWAIIANS The sexual differences in this measurement are somewhat greater than in the other bodily measurements, since the female mean is but 92.7 per cent of the male. The males are apparently somewhat more variable in respect to arm length. VI. Index of Arm Length (Table 6). The ratio of arm length to total height is 45.28 per cent for Hawaiian males and slightly less (44.33 per cent) for Hawaiian females. The means for Sioux males and females are 44.6 and 44.9 respectively. The distribu- tion of this proportion is irregular in both sexes, although the total range of variation is very small (42 to 48 per cent in males; 41.5 to 46 per cent in females). This range of variation resembles the variation in racial means for this character in all races measured since the mean index varies only from 43.2 for Javanese to 48.5 for certain pygmy races. The variability of the index as measured by the coefficient of variability is likewise low—3.34 for males; 3.27 for females as compared with 3.29 and 3.75 for Sioux males and females. As in the case of sitting height, the proportion is much _ less variable than the absolute dimension, indicating correlation between the part and the total stature. In the case of arm length the correlation with stature is very high (0.80+0.03). It is note- worthy that a dimension of the appendicular skeleton should show a closer relation to height than actual segments of height, such as sitting height. VII. Body Weight. The weights of a portion of the subjects were obtained, the measurements being recorded to the nearest pound, and in some cases, to the nearest five pound class. The distribu- tion of weight in each sex was highly variable and irregular. Be- cause of the small size of the sample, and the error attending the observations (variability of clothing, coarseness of the unit of measurement, etc.) the data are thought not to be comparable in accuracy to the measurements given above. They have, there- fore, not been given statistical treatment. We have been content to calculate the averages for a series of 60 adult males and 16 adult females. The averages are: males 170.3 pounds (7726 grams); females 153.1 pounds (6942 grams). These averages place the Hawaiians among the heavier races of men. The index of bodily Full weight < 100 oe stature ® statures of the sixty male subjects for which both measures are available and has been found to be 1.53 which is considerably has been calculated from the weight and 68°0= IL’P 69°0= €F'8 16°0* 62'8L1 29 T 4 1 re v OT g ZL ro imei Fore © a Bedi ah So[BUl9 | LZ0* 68°F | 670068 |0L'0* GF ZS8T FL T G g L 8 eI FI FI v 0 oe Be et co ee Sole] Mie eae y ae ¥' 0% S61 F61 O6T 98T o8T SLT PLT OLT 99T Uta c cc ee “way ee) ‘a's UBdT 1719,.L SUOT}BIIOG HLONG]T Gvay{ ‘SNVIIVMVE, Geog *y AIavy, LZOF LOE | SLOFSHI | LLOFES HR | ZS | Ps rn v y 8 a dhl SSCA sEE ab cae a So[BUl8,T 610+ Fes | 6OOFIST | ZL0F8aSr | 69 g 9 g 6 II z FI 9 ab Aen p | Me a Raed ats oe a sole Bee cae Rigs i @Lp |) LP Gor] OF qcr | GP Grr | +P OCH) oles) tra as eae que Jaq Be) ‘a-38 uBveyl [®30], SUOT}VIIGG HLONGT Way 40 XHaNnyT ‘SNVIIVMAV]]T BUOg ‘9 FIAvy; 108 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF higher than the averages for the males of European races |Martin (13), p. 248]. This tendency toward bodily fullness (stoutness) has been noted by many observers of the Hawaiians and other Polynesians and has been frequently attributed to their diet, mode of life and admiration for corpulence. In view of Davenport’s recent investigations (15), however, the Hawaiians may have an inherent racial tendency toward stoutness. Conclusions from Bodily Dimensions. On the whole, the means of the main bodily dimensions of living Hawaiians accord well with those given for other Polynesians (cf. Martin (13); Deniker (20); Sullivan (11)). The measures of variation (range, standard devia- tion, coefficient of variation) are of the same order of magnitude as those obtained from larger samples of other well defined races, for example with those of the 697 pure Siouan subjects collated by Sullivan (12). Wherever significant differences occur, these are found to be in the direction of lesser variability and greater homo- geneity on the part of the Hawaiians. CEPHALIC AND FACIAL CHARACTERISTICS I. Head Length (Table 7). (a) Dvzstribution. The graduation of this distribution is fairly regular for the males and poor for the females even with the rather coarse class intervals of 4 mm. which it has been necessary to use. Variation in head length has usually been found in larger samples of other races to be described by a normal curve of error and our data approximates this type although a slight positive skewness is in evidence. The male curve is mono- modal and a large majority of the individuals fall in the modal and two greater classes. The female curve shows some evidence of bimodality in the concentration of frequencies in the classes 170-173 and 178-81, although in view of the small numbers this is probably not significant. (b) Mean. The mean head length of the males is 182.42 mm., of the females 178.79 mm., giving a sexual difference of 3.63 mm., which is barely significant. The female head length is about 98 per cent of the male length, indicating relatively less difference in this respect than between the sexes of other races. These mean head lengths are to be compared with other Poly- nesian material as follows: HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 109 TABLE 7a. COMPARATIVE DATA ON CEPHALIC FEATURES OF POLYNESIAN PEOPLES Be ee lenctte jnendth| doe Authority Fis Wall.'. .°.°: 74 M 182.4 | 162.0 | 83.4 |This paper Bamoa: i... ; 68 M 196.6 | 154.8 | 81.3 |Sullivan (11) tepraier a: | 95 M 191.0 | 154.8 | 81.1 Seer (tts) Marquesas ....| 84 M 193.2 | 153.2 | 79.4 cee Tbe) Higa. Go. & 18 M 185.8 | 139.1 | 77.3?) von Luschan(16)Crania PGWOlb eee ee. 135 | M&F | 175.2 | 139.8 | 81.77)/Otis (19) Crania ! 1 Chiefly from Kaui but including a few from Maui. 2 Cephalic index derived from cranial index by means of Craig’s correction (addition of 2.5 units to cranial index). The first five series refer to present inhabitants and are probably comparable. They differ somewhat, but agree in showing a signifi- cantly greater head length than the earlier data for crania of pre- vious inhabitants. A portion of this may be due to a difference in the technique of measurement. The racial classification of the cranial series is less certain than that of the living subjects, and evidence from the former is less reliable. (c) Variability. Both measures of variability are very high when compared with the same constants for other races as listed below: Standard Coefficient of i ead myo: Deviation (mm.)} Variation (%) SoU. co YQ |Male Female | Male Female Hawaiian ........| 74 34] 8.90 8.43] 4.89 4.71 | This paper UO UE ee ee hesece|p.09) ).22°1.2.98. 2:85 | Sullivan (11) Egyptian (19 dists.) | 9892! | 5.09-6.65?2 | 2.95-3.49? Craig (9) = ED 2 539 1561 6.16 5.09 | 3.16 2.72 | Sullivan (12) 1 Males only. 2 Range by districts. No standard deviation for head length as high as that found for our Hawaiian series is listed by Martin (138, p. 705) for eight races. The range of variation of the Hawaiians is likewise very great. The comparative data for males only are given below: 110 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF Race No. Range (mm.) Authority Hawaiian. joie see oe eee 74 41 (162-203) This paper Samoans, =) wees Meee ee 68 29 (174-203) Sullivan (11) Marquesan.. tae. oe eee 84 32 (178-210) | Sullivan Hawaiian (skulla)}2. -.4eu 60 32 (162-194) Allen (17) Hawatiar (skulls); >. 2 18 20 (175-195) | von Luschan (16) LODRRE Acai eas ol Oe ee 95 37 (176-213) Sullivan Hawatiit:-o- 2.5 a eee 109 30 (163-193) Otis (19) In general our series shows a greater range of variation in head length than any of the other series quoted. Its lower limit coin- cides with Allen’s skull series, and its upper limit with Sullivan’s series from Samoa. ‘The technique used in the measurement of our own and Sullivan’s subjects was the same, and this comparison is the more enlightening. The chief difference here is the presence of a number of absolutely short headed subjects with head lengths of 162-174 mm. in our series and their complete absence from Sullivan’s series. All of these shorter headed individuals appear in the series measured in 1920. The range of the subjects in the 1916 series was from 174-203, and is identical with Sullivan’s Samoan series. ‘The abnormally high range and variability in the head length of our whole series appear to be due to the addi- tion of about 124 per cent of very short headed subjects in the data secured in 1920. All except two of these short headed subjects were stevedores and half of them came from the island of Maui. Both of these groups have somewhat shorter heads than the gen- eral Hawaiian population (33 stevedores average 177.7, 10 males from Maui average 177.0, general average 182.4), so we are unable to decide whether the difference is racial or due to occupational selection. The slight difference in variability existing between the sexes in respect to head length is not significant in the present sample. II. Head Breadth (Table 8). (a) The distribution of head breadth in both sexes is in general similar to the distribution of head length. The graduation is irregular, though in general the curve is smoother than that for head length.. A positive skewness is in evidence in the distributions of both sexes, slight in the females, more pronounced in the males. Both distributions are undoubtedly HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 111 monomodal, indicating that in all probability the different head breadths encountered are variations of one main type. (b) The mean of this type is 152.03 mm. for the males and 150.26 mm. for the females. The sexual difference is 1.77+0.81 mm., which indicates that in the subjects measured the heads of females were not significantly narrower than those of the males. The fe- male width is 98.8 per cent of the male width. For comparison we may refer to Table 7a above. The head breadth of the Ha- waiians of our series agrees closely with the head breadth of living Samoans, but is considerably greater than the head breadth of the earlier series of crania. (c) Head breadth in these subjects, as is in general the case, is less variable both relatively and absolutely than head length (the coefficient of variation for the males is 3.80). Nevertheless the constants of variation are extremely high for an island people. The Hawaiians are more variable in head breadth than the Sa- moans reported by Sullivan (11) (coefficient of variation for males 2.88). The coefficient of variation of head breadth of modern Egyptians (Craig (9)) varies in districts from 3.04 to 3.59 per cent. For Sioux Indians Sullivan (12) gives the variability for females 3.47, males 3.20. Martin lists variabilities in head breadth for eight races. ‘The male values range from 2.76 (Aino) to 4.21 (French); females from 2.47 (Tasmanians) to 3.78 (English). These Hawaiians are apparently more variable in head breadth than any races for which figures are given, with the exception of the composite English and French. The range of the Hawaiians in head breadth is 24 mm. (144-165) for the males and 23 mm. (138-161) for the females. This range is somewhat less than that met with in other racial groups, since the average range in head breadth of 13 races listed by Martin (p. 663) is about 29 mm. for males. The agreement between our data and the skull measure- ments in respect to range and variability of head breadth is no better than in the case of head length, but the comparability of the material is too uncertain to allow conclusions to be drawn con- cerning changes in the physical features of the Hawaiians. The range of the 1916 subjects was from 148 to 165 mm. with a mean of 158.78+0.45, while that of the 1920 subjects was from 140 to 163 with a mean of 150.01+1.01. The difference between the means of the two series is 8.77 +1.10, which is eight times its error, and is undoubtedly significant. IVO*ZO'S | 99°O* 28°9 |6L°0F 12981 | FE T I ¢ ¢ P ie 6£'0F 88'S | 9FOFEZS G9'0F6LOFT | SL | T if ¢ T ig 9 8 Tre bear os er ila £ BSI] OST SS OSE 2PT | PEL TPL Ber | eet Ae) cGuacs uvoyy [e1OL SUOT}BLIIG (UHLANVIG OILVWODAZIG) GOV JO HLGIAA “SNVIIVMVET GUNG ‘OT AIavy, "s'e2 ATTENPV x Eh 0 99°F ZE'O* 26'S Ch'O* OL'F8 bE I v 9 ¢ 6 ¢ Z I «I "7+ + sopeureg 1Z'0* 08° LVOFLVE | SOF FES PL I l 9 8 ZI 91 GT L ioe 2a bet Pot sole Ae ae pam 26 06 88 98 ¥8 Z8 08 SL 9L 2A tee bee ee quad Jog “AD ‘a's wea 1¥10.L SUOT}ELIOG XHQNJ OFIVHdGD ‘SNVIIVMVET GUOg ‘6 AIA, Ze'0* 16'S 8h 0F 88g | 89'0* 9Z°0S1 rE Z 7 T 9 9 8 2 ME 7 7 Sopeure 1Z'0= 08" SEOFLLS | SFO*F EO'SST PL I 9 8 OL OL ST BI Jak. ok Yes ar yin Caren tale | oi sale pss ae mee POL TOL SSI CST ZS 6FT OFT ‘WIN ‘AO ‘a's way [POL SUOT}BIIEg ee ee a a a a ar eee eee HLdvaug Gva_{T ‘SNVIIVMVH Guog ‘8 AIAVI, HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 113 III. Cephalic Index (Table 9). (a) The distribution of head shape as measured by the length-breadth index departs from the expected normal curve especially among the males. The positive skewness is greater than in either the length or breadth measure- ments and the distribution appears truncated at the dolichocephalic end. Only two males and one female can be said to be dolicho- cephalic (index under 75.9). Forty-three males (58 per cent) and 19 females (56 per cent) are grouped in the relatively short space of three classes from 80-85.9. In the males the main part of the curve, i.e. about 78, is monomodal, and the two dolichocephalic individu- als are separated from the main distribution by a zero class, in- dicating a possibility that they may be discontinuously variable from the rest of the subjects and a distinct type. The same is true of the one female dolichocephal. (b) The mean cephalic index plainly places these Hawaiians among the brachycephalic races. The mean cephalic index for related races is given in Table 7a. The females, as is generally the case, are slightly shorter headed than the males, the sexual difference in mean index being 0.8 per cent; or the male index is about 99 per cent of the female. (c) Variability. All types of head shape were encountered among these Hawaiians from dolicho to extreme brachycephalic. The actual range of indices (males) was from 74 to 93 per cent, which is quite similar to the range of the related Samoan males 74-89 per cent (Sullivan). The concentration of head shapes in the brachycephalic part of the range is chiefly responsible for the rather low value of the dispersion measures. Data from other representative racial types are given below: Group 7 ak Sex Pei i Authority PLAWUAUATISG cy. ac. 5... 74 Male 3.80 This paper OORT CTR aie en 68 . 4.341 Sullivan (11) PPO MAIIN oe ees ss. 9892 c 3.06—-4.35 Craig (9) OTS ea 537 x 4.03 Sullivan (12) 1 These constants have apparently been calculated from the arrays of indices without regard to the correlation between the components of the index. This produces a somewhat higher apparent variability than the method employed in this paper. Cf. p. 97. 114 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF The conclusion seems warranted that, although extremely variable in the absolute dimensions of the head, the Hawaiians measured are relatively conservative and constant in head shape. It prob- ably follows that the variability found in the absolute dimensions was due to variation in the degree of growth attained, nourish- ment, etc. rather than to a mixture of types of head form. _ The females were somewhat more variable in head form than the males, although the difference is not certainly significant. IV. Maximum Width of Face (Bizygomatic Diameter). Table 10. (a) The frequency curve of variation in width of face is normal for the males between the classes 123-150. The graduation is regular, a single mode is in evidence, and there is only a slight nega- tive skewness. But above the class 150 there is a distinct tendency toward the formation of another mode about the class 153. The ten subjects with very wide faces occur in the 1916 data. They re- semble the other 1916 subjects in being much larger in all cephalic and facial dimensions than any of the 1920 subjects. The female frequencies are irregular and the curve describing their variation in facial width appears also to be bimodal, as though the larger group were made up of two or more groups differing in width of face. (b) The mean width of face (males 140.19 mm., females 136.71 mm.) places these Hawaiians among the broader faced races. This dimension ranges in average value for the various races for which data are available from 116 to 153 mm. (Martin, p. 793); The Hawaiians fall in the upper part of the range together with other Polynesians and with the Mongoloid types in general. They agree in this character with the Samoans (males 145.9 mm., females 136.5 mm.). We have not found other comparable data for Poly- nesians. The sexual difference in face width is greater than in the other head characters measured, and is statistically significant. The female bizygomatic diameter is 97.5 per cent of the male diameter. (c) The variability of the Hawaiians in face width is very great. The coefficient of variation for the males is 5.88 per cent as com- pared with 3.59 per cent for the face width of Samoan males and 3.65 for Sioux males. The males are somewhat more variable than the females. HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 115 V. Anatomical Height of Face (Nasion-Menton Height). Table 11. (a) A repetition of all of the remarks made concerning face width would serve equally well for face height. There is a tend- ency toward bimodality in the upper part of the range in both sexes. (b) The mean values indicate that these Hawaiians have not only very broad but also very high faces. Racial averages for this trait vary from 103 to 131 mm. (males, Martin, p. 793), and the Hawaiians with a mean height of 122.72 mm. are near the upper limit of inter-racial variation. They resemble the closely related Samoans who have a face height of 131 mm., the greatest racial value for this trait which I have found. The faces of the Hawaiians are therefore absolutely large and massive, although smaller than those of the Samoans. The sexual difference in this dimension is marked and significant, the female face averaging only about 94.7 per cent as high as the male. (c) The variability in height of face is the same as the variability in width of face. This group is more variable in face height than the Samoans (C. V. males 5 per cent), or the Sioux (C. V. males 5.12 per cent). The variability of the sexes is, in view of the prob- able errors involved, about the same. Data for the nasion-prosthion height are also given (Table 12), but call for no discussion since this measurement enters into none of the proportions used. VI. Facial Index (Table 13). (a) The distribution of the index measuring the shape of the face is continuous and fairly regular in the males, and in spite of the tendency towards the formation of minor modes in the curves of variation in face width and height, the curve describing variation in shape of face has but one mode, and this falls in the same class (86-87.9 per cent) with the mean. Variation in shape of face appears to be described by a normal curve of error, indicating a degree of homogeneity in the material. (b) The mean indices (males 87.67 per cent, females 85.07 per cent) indicate an average meso- to leptoprosopic type, although all types of face form were encountered. Of the males 17 or about 23 per cent had relatively broad euryprosopic faces (index below 84), 22 or about 30 per cent fell in the meso group, 24 or nearly 33 per cent were leptoprosope, while the remainder or about 14 per cent had extremely narrow faces of the hyperlepto type (index SEQTZOY | chOrees 1 SOF LOSS | FE @ igs a3 ie G 6 ¢ LZ 8 v g G T ei Nin er cams hE § €e°0= 16S 620 8S | TVOFLOL8 | EL T T 4 4 € II él 9T 9 ZL iS 4 _ Degen ROSIN. ea: <- Sa me OOT | O86 | 0°96 | O'F6 | 0°26 | 0°06 | O88 | O'9S | O'F8 | O'Z8] OOS | OSL | O'9L | OFZ | 7U99 19q ‘ACO eS uveyl 1®79.L SUOT}ELIOG X@QNJ IVIOV,[ ‘“SNVIIVMV]T GYOg ‘eT Wavy, Lo’O* G69 S8OF09V | EGOFLI99 | PE G € 4 EEA Se aR ts om ah hey Meld OF OF ITA | 820 90'S | OFOFOTIL| FZ 9 OT US Oe ete sh i ae tes ee a AN er re aes eh BL a) 09 Pe ay ATW ‘Chis uve 1879.1 SUOT}VLIGG LHDIG}] NOIHLSOUG NOISVN ‘SNVIIVMV]T GUOg ‘ZI Wavy, 97 0+ 89'S SOF 879 |SL0F IC OTT FE cs =e “i ag g gi G € IT il 9 fe Team | te aa bid bach & 6¢°0* 88'S OF OFCSL [LO 0F SL SCT bL G G i L v Or als UE 8 9 4 “4 T ey ha eg mT a hd iy eee ae = OFT LET VET [él 8cI ScT cGl 6IT OTT €IT OIT LOT POT pay Ge Oia Se “UN DD nd ha Use [870.1 SUOT}BLIOG (NOLNEW-NOISVN) SOV dO LHDIGFT ‘SNVIIVMVA, Geog ‘TT @1avy, HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 117 above 93). In mean and distribution they resemble the Samoans (average index 89.9) although they have relatively as well as ab- solutely somewhat narrower faces than the Samoans. The fe- males had significantly broader faces than the males, the female index being about 98 per cent of the male. (c) The chief peculiarity of variation in the shape of the face is the extremely wide range through which the index varies. The range is (male) from 74 to 100, and includes the whole range of racial face shapes so far encountered among the races of men. (The range of racial means as collated by Martin, p. 796, is only from 80 to 97.2 per cent.) The variability measures are not, however, banormally high. The coefficient of variability (males 5.91) is but slightly greater than the same constant for Samoan males (5.42), and less than that of Sioux males (7.58). This is probably due to the clustering of frequencies about the modal value, since over 61 per cent of the male subjects had indices between 84 and 92.9. The males were more variable than the females in shape of face. VII. Nasal Height, Breadth and Shape (Tables 14-16). (a) The measurements of these soft parts are much less accurate than the data for other characteristics described; and, aside from general indications, call for little discussion. Variation in height of nose is the most regular, but there is little approach to a normal curve in any of these dimensions. All are characterized by a wide range and higher variation constants than any of the other facial or cephalic measures. (b) In mean height and breadth of nose the Hawaiians resemble the Samoans, although the nose is absolutely shorter, and the index, which measures the shape of the nose, significantly higher than that of the Samoans (Hawaiian males index 82.9; Samoan males 73.6). The Hawaiian nose is typically mesorrhine and relatively broader than the Samoan. Only the broader types of nose were found, no true leptorrhine types occurring in our sample. Seventy per cent of the subjects were mesorrhine, and the remainder were chamaerrhine, except for two subjects with indices of 100 and 102. The males appeared to have somewhat larger and relatively broader noses than the females. (c) Variation in the dimensions and shape of the nose is high. The variation constants are in general greater than for the corre- sponding measurements of the Samoans, and less than those of the Sioux. PL0*96'8 | score. | Es'08e'0s | Fe | I “+ sopeure.y zoorze6 | erores. | 190+ F6%8 | FL | T ‘1+ SOTBIAL cae oo eid SOO See uth es "AO ‘a's uvayy [®1O.L SUOT}BIIOG XHQN[ TVSVN ‘SNVIIVAV], GUOg ‘QT WIA], zo'O* es", | 970* 60'S | 90+ FEOF | FE Toe) BAR ee a1 Oe aie Sa sige rn hyo meio. restates GeO Ze'9 | STO 08'S | 220+ Z2'FF | FL ies es MUN tem Bs] eds pe ee ead Shinn ee Coen EB alka sev Ss ae iar “ cp | vy | ert 2p | it op] ee:N. ge! ze.| oe | ¢e * UAL Ch epscen tale Cho uve =| [BIOL SUOT}ELIAG HLGVaadg IVSVN “SNVITV MV FL Huo J ‘CT alav T zoo 192 | zeoroee | sroresIs| FE % a ef g f f L ¢ 9 € rahe soTBU9 J eForegL | esorzlb | zeor6ses | FL Z f 8 L OT ZI eI eI Z g iol pape Peas sore IN] = ahs ay a *9 z9 09 gg 9¢ #¢ ze 0¢ Sh OF PF >= age Bae &: e9 19 6¢ 1g gg eg te 6F LF CF Dee ee ee ASS ‘as uUvaT [e1OL SUOT}BIIOG LHDIG}T ‘IVSVN ‘“SNVHVAV]] Geog ‘FI WAV, HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 119 Conclusions from Data on Dimensions of Head and Face. The data on the dimensions and shape of the head and face of the Hawaiians agree fairly well with Sullivan’s descriptions of the Samoans, but not with previous observations on Hawaiians, de- rived from cranial material. The heads measured were large and predominantly brachycephalic. Only three subjects were found to be dolichocephalic, and these appeared to be discontinuous vari- ates from the rounder headed type. The Hawaiian faces were found to be broad and massive like those of Mongoloid peoples. The dimensions and shape of the Hawaiian face are similar to those of the Samoan, but are somewhat narrower and less massive. The absolute dimensions of both head and face appeared to be abnormally variable; while the range, distribution and dispersion measures of the shape indices were not abnormal, but indicated rather a degree of homogeneity in the material. This difference is interpreted as due to a considerable environmental variation in growth as expressed in the absolute dimensions, while the form attained may be regarded as innate or racial. As we concluded from the comparison of bodily proportions, these presumably racial traits are relatively conservative in variation in the Hawai- ijans measured, and they may be regarded as a fairly homogeneous group racially. NON-MENSURABLE, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HAWAIIANS Several of the physical traits of the Hawaiians which are not susceptible of exact mechanical measurement were classified roughly and entered on the schedules. The descriptive terms used are explained on p. 94. Such traits included hair color, hair form, eye color, skin color, nose form, incidence of the Mongolian (epi- canthic) fold and of prognathism. For a portion of the subjects, descriptions of eyebrows, brow ridges, forehead, malars, face shape, lips, chin, teeth and ears were also obtained, but the records are thought to be too scattered and difficult of classification to con- tribute materially to this description of the Hawaiians. I. Hair color (Table 17). Although few grades of hair color were distinguished, this characteristic apparently varies but little among the one hundred and fifty-four subjects observed. Ninety- one per cent of these Hawaiians had black hair. About six per 120 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF TABLE 17. DISTRIBUTION OF HAIR CouLoR IN PuRE HAWAIIANS Red- Color White | dish | Brown | #2"* | Black | pe g| Total Brown Prequeney..@ cu. ste, Gee 1 2 1 9 141 3 157 cent of the subjects had dark brown hair, while only three or less than two per cent had hair of a lighter shade. Of these two had distinctly reddish hair. This variation is qualitatively different from the normal black or dark brown pigmentation, and the red haired subjects probably represent a recessive blonde type intro- duced originally by a remote cross with a European race. These subjects were typically Hawaiian in their other traits, and there is no reason for questioning their immediate pedigrees. Such red- dish brown hair is occasionally seen on persons regarded as pure Hawaiian and designated by the native name Ehu. There is no reason to believe that their blood is not as pure as that of the darker haired natives and they should be included in a description of the Hawaiian type. II. Hair form (Table 18). It is in hair form that the Hawaiians depart most widely from the uniformity which one might expect TABLE 18. DISTRIBUTION OF Hatr ForM IN PURE HAWAIIANS Form Straight} Wavy | Curly | Frizzy | Crinkly | Kinky eat a Total Frequency ...... 13 92 44 3 2 1 2 157 in an island race. The predominant forms are plainly wavy and curly, themselves quite variable and intergrading with each other. To the general wavy-curly type may probably be assigned also the kind of straight smooth hair which occurs among the Hawaiians. The Hawaiian straight hair is very similar in texture to the wavy type and continuous intergradations connect the two types. It is not to be confused with the heavier, straighter and coarser Mongolian type of straight hair. All except six of the one hun- dred and fifty-five subjects fell in one of these three related classi- HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 121 fications, the most frequent hair type being wavy (fifty-nine per cent). Three individuals were reported as having frizzy, two crinkly, and one kinky hair — variations in hair form which are in the opposite direction from straight. These forms, on account of their rarity and the greater change they involve in hair form, are much less likely to be normal to the Hawaiian type. All six were females, and it is possible that in some of the subjects arti- ficial deformation of the hair may have disguised its true form. One “‘ kinky ” subject departed seriously from the average in arm length, while the observer noted of one of the girls described as “‘erinkly ”’ haired that she ‘‘ looked like a Negro.”’ The observer, in absence of other evidence to the contrary, accepted them as Hawaiians, and although it is likely that one or two may have some negro blood, we have included them in the Hawaiian series. Their omission would cause no significant change in the averages of the physical characteristics of Hawaiian females. III. Eye color (Table 19). Eye color, like hair color, varied but little among the one hundred and fifty-six subjects observed. The TABLE 19. DistRIBUTION OF EyE Cotor In PurRE HAWAIIANS Brown- : D Very Color Ticks is mee Brown ay Dark Roo Total Blue Brown Frequency...... alte 1 18 67 61 7 2 157 1 Recorded as ‘‘almost blue.” eyes of all except two were some shade of brown, the classes medium and dark brown including seventy-eight per cent of the whole group. The individual recorded as “ brownish blue ”’ was typically Ha- walian in other respects and was entered as “ Khu.” This case may be interpreted as a further instance of segregation of the reces- sive blonde Ehu type, this time with respect to eye color only, since the hair was dark brown. The other exception described as ‘almost blue ”’ in eye color may be a quantitative variant from the brown type or a segregate from an earlier cross. In other traits he agreed with the Hawaiian type. IV. Skin color (Table 20). The descriptions of the skin color of these Hawaiians are admittedly approximate and, in the only 122 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF TABLE 20. DESCRIPTION OF SKIN COLOR von Luschan’s Broca’s Scale 1 Grade No. Scale Frequency Cade Frequency Male Female Lis oan hoe Sn eee 1 1 12) Has Se ee eee 1 1 185 Sa Wer: eee tee tee ay 2 VAD eacran rt te comin eee ee 1 3 lbs TARO ae ea Oa ee 2 3 1G 3h) Sete et eke cee 2 WEE EO Teed et ene tis 2 183.06 aie eee ee eee 1 LOG wats take gy aoe ee 1 Totalicn fick) oe eee és 14 1 The grades of Broca’s scale have been placed opposite similar grades on von Luschan’s scales. The colors in the two scales are not of the same quality, and it is unwise to combine observations recorded on the two scales. form in which it was practicable to collect such data, not suscepti- ble of quantitative treatment. ' The 1916 series of fifty-three females and twenty-two males were described in terms of Broca’s scale as reprinted by Hrdlicka (1904). Most of the subjects had skin colors corresponding to Broca’s numbers 24, 47, and 23. The modal grade for both sexes was 24. Only three females had skin colors darker than 23 (grades 25 and 40). The males had in general somewhat darker skins than thé © females. Twelve or nearly half of them were described by the grades 25, 39, and 40. In 1920, von Luschan’s better scale was used, and although only twenty subjects (six males and fourteen females) were described on this scale, the results agreed well with the earlier descriptions. On von Luschan’s scale, the skin colors varied from grade 11 to grade 19, the modal grades being 14 and 15 which, aside from the yellow or red component of the color, are about equivalent to Broca’s grade 24. The average skin color of the Hawaiians is apparently a light yellowish or reddish brown — of about the tone of café au lait. V. Nose form (Table 21). In addition to the data yielded by measurements of the nose, descriptive notes were made of the HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 123 TABLE 21. DeEscription oF Nose Form — PurE HAwWaAItAns Root Bridge Septum Normal| De- Straight Con- Con- | Straight] Down pressed cave vex ROS Ci oh 46 27 43 14 15 40 2 Penmics ..>s.2:.| 11 20 15 9 5 14 1 general form of the nose with especial reference to root, bridge, and septum. The records were made in the terms used in Table 21. The root of the nose was found to be more frequently normal than depressed in the males; but in two-thirds of the females the root was depressed. The form of the bridge was straight in about half the subjects in both sexes. Departures from the straight- bridged type were as frequently in the direction of convexity as toward the concave type. The septum was either straight or directed slightly upward, while in only three subjects did it slope downward. VI. Incidence of the Mongolian (epicanthic) fold. Out of one hundred and fifty-eight subjects observed, only four were found to exhibit this peculiarity of the eyelids, and in these subjects it was described as slight. Although it is somewhat difficult to dis- tinguish this trait in the reduced form in which it occasionally ap- pears, we fee) fairly safe in saying that the typical Mongolian fold does not occur among the Hawaiians. VII. Incidence of Prognathism. Observations of twenty-two adult males and fourteen adult females with special reference to prognathism indicate it is absent in the majority of the Hawaiians observed. Slight prognathism was noted in two males and four females. VIII. Other traits. Observations of other traits listed on the schedule (p. 93) were made on a portion of the subjects observed in 1916. A brief summary of the more important of these is given below. Only adult subjects are included. 124 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF (a) Brow ridges: Classification Males Females Absent io.a a)ek ek aa ae eee Pee 14 Presents 0s 1 cae kaw ta he eee eee 2 re Ne) bid 0) Sane a CPM ES 2 Se eee. f 3 Prominent) 2% 5..00 eee eee ee 11 Total 26) ee aalece ik ee 20 1% (b) Thickness of lips: Classification Males Females Medium ov) ou oe oe ee ee 11 9 Thick... 66-0 2 2 See ee ee 9 8 Totaloc ei tn fee eet Be eee ee 20 i (c) Strength as measured by grip of hand (recorded in kilograms). Right Hand Left Hand Males Females Males Females Number isaac oe ees 58 30 19 We AVerages sh on wetce etree 53.8 29.8 52.6 26.3 (d) Forehead: Height Breadth Slope Class Males | Females Class Males | Females Class Males | Females LOW 1 1 | Medium| 15 15 | Vertical me 10 Medium | 10 11. | Broad 5 2 | Slightly 9 4 receding Hiphe. 9 5 aay e .. | Receding 10 3 Low f LOtaLA AA cau ih ae 20 17, wipag 20 17 ee GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HAWAIIANS The general picture of the average Hawaiian which may be reconstructed from the foregoing description portrays a tall heavy individual, inclined to be stout; with limbs and trunk of medium length. The head is large, and both absolutely and relatively short. It is generally brachycephalic in shape. The face is both broad and high with prominent cheek bones, and its shape ap- 125 HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD L190 G69 VL 0+ 96'8 ou OGG Ls GOOF IO 880+ 69 F 9F'0* 8G°¢ 1V0+c0°S Sv OF 99'P of O= 16'S 650+ TL'7 L601 SCO Ly LZ 0+ GSE 6 0+ F8'S SZ'0+ 80° &6 0 88'S ce) SEO0F09F | ESO LT'99 VE OP Us 1 EZ 890062 | €8'0+8E'08 VE oo 0+ GE'6 Go 0+ 60'€ | 960+ F6 0F VE CE O0FGE9 6&§ OF 06S | SV OF ECTS VE &V' 0+ 692 cE OFE6E | SVOFZL0°S8 VE €€' 0+ 16¢ CO+879 | SZ0+I12 911 VE 660 88'¢ 99°0+ 289 | 62 0F TL 9ET VE 6€ 0+ 88'¢ GE O+G6'E | SV OTOL PS VE IG 0+ 08'S Sv 0+88'S | 89°0+ 9G 0ST VE 1G 0+08'§ 690+ €7'8 | 2460762821 VE 16 0+ 68°F CLOFGVT | LI OFEE FP £& 610+ PEE 607106) So0+L0 cL 6é L160 2197 CS OFsGEV | OF OFOT EST VE 610+ 94'E CLOFI¢T | ZVOFEL es VE CT O+69C 66 OF 99'S | [EOF GE98 VE 6T OF LEE SEO+S89T | T9069 Z9T V§ LL O0¥G6OG ‘a's UROTN oN 5 sol VUE, NPV SNVIIVMV], ONIAIT 4O SLNGNAYOSVAT, YOL SLNVLSNOD) NOLLVIUVA GONV SNVOJ ‘ZZ DIAV 86 0+ 90'S CY OS elon STO 08% SCOFCIP 660 8T'¢ OV OF GGL 9V OF G68 LO 21-8 of OF 11S 670+ 06'8 600F Ig 1 1G 0+ €9'€ 92 0 Lo'P 800 881 LTO G6 66 0 00°¢ 158 OF OF OL TZ 190+ 7628 G6 OF GG FV CG 0 O8ia2 V0 29°28 LGO* GL°661 G9'0+ 61 0FI GZ OF DUP ES CF 0+ $0 ZEST OL OF GP CSI GLO*FS8G GP . 62079222 LEO GT OVI LE 010 68 v6 0 IT'06 OVOFISTZI Uva sore WMP ‘tu “ZYysIoy UOTY}So1d-uoIseN At sie eee ete a ay whee te 1S) Feld io! Oe, Feige) ek wie vente «hse eye fe etches eee) e fie C6 4e el ie) -@ (ie eh Pey Bremen e\ ners! ‘WI ‘YIpBaIq ISON ‘UU ‘JYySIoYy OSON % ‘xoputl [BIBT “WU ‘JY sIoyY WOPUSUI-UOIS’ Ny % ‘xoputl [eseN a “UIUL ‘IoJOUIVIp O1yVULOSAZIG reek) Me ei ariel) ye ery % ‘xeput orpeydag ‘UU ‘YIpBoiq pBoF] "UU “YSUd] PBoPT A echt Oe ce % ‘YySuoy WIR jo xopuy era, el sen fe wy We os)’ iat 1s wi neers se ‘ud “YYSud] ULIY Mcrae cA “UD ‘Coruto010%8 jo JYUSIoF] x a eee DG % ‘Vystoy SUI}IS jo xopuy CPiae lars: Waa sk ac toner in heme a 660) ‘VYysoy SUIYYY te ag ‘onyeyg UWOIsusTIICT 126 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF proaches the square rather than the oval. The forehead is of medium height or higher, and in the male is generally receding. Brow ridges are present and frequently prominent. The nose is farge and relatively broad and flat, although the root is more fre- quently of the straight European type than depressed as in negroid or Mongoloid races. The lips are but little thicker than among European races, and the teeth are usually very good. Prognathism is absent, and the chin is slightly receding. The skin is light brown with a creamy or yellowish tinge. The hair is black, wavy or curly and generally abundant. The eyes are brown, large and straight as among Europeans. I. Homogeneity of Type. As in all the races of men so far measured, all of these general traits as well as the various dimen- sions and proportions of the body and its parts are very variable. A comparison of one measure of variability for a number of traits of these Hawaiians with the corresponding traits for several other groups is given below (Table 23). TABLE 23. COMPARISON OF THE COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION IN HAWAIIANS AND OTHER COMPARABLE Groups. MALES Hawaiian Samoan Sioux South Chinese Number 22 ae are ae ' 69-74 67-70 540 64 Statirene Goes ae ee 2.92 3.05 o.20 3.43 Headilengint ass ace ce tes 4.89 2.98 3.16 3.58 Head breadtic ao «ance 3.80 2.88 3.47 3.91 Bizygomatic diameter ...... 5.88 3.59 3.65 3.24 Nasion-menton height ...... 5.88 5.00 5.12 4.69 Nose hewitt « nee te 7.69 6.09 6.75 Bee Nose- breadth #400 wee oe 6.32 5.91 8.07 Cephaheindexs..9.5.97 3.80 4.34 4.03 oon Facisl index. 45. oe see 5.91 5.42 5.78 5.70 Nasal index Sn a2 2e eee 9.32 7.96 10.25 The Hawaiian series appears to be the most variable of all of the racial groups compared. It exceeds the Samoan group in variability of all except two of the traits given, viz., stature and cephalic index. It exceeds the Sioux series in all except four of the traits given; viz., stature, cephalic index, nose breadth and nasal index. It is more variable than the South Chinese series in HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 127 head length, face breadth and height, cephalic index and facial in- dex. The actual amount by which the Hawaiian exceeds the other series given is not great, except in the case of face breadth and not all of the differences in variability among these races are statisti- cally significant. The excess in variability of the Hawaiians, while not great, is general and calls for some explanation. Some of the reasons for the greater variability of the Hawaiians may be inferred from a comparison of the Samoans and Hawaiians. These two groups are strictly comparable in numbers, in race, in time and in technique of measurement. Both are from island populations which because of the greater amount of inbreeding brought about by isolation, are usually rather conservative in their physical traits. The chief difference between the Samoan and Hawaiian series is in their relative amount of recent contact with foreign stocks. The Samoans are to a greater degree unaffected by European or Oriental immigration and by the more complex social and economic conditions induced by the influx of foreign cultures. Their environment is less variable, and since many of the absolute dimensions of the body depend to some extent on the degree of growth attained, and thence on such environmental varia- tions as nourishment, health, etc., it may be that their greater conservatism in physical traits is in part due to this fact. Greater social, economic and physical inequalities have been brought about in Hawaii by the introduction of more of the machinery of civilization, and this greater variability in the environment may induce a greater variability in the less stable physical character- istics. Wherever industrial methods are present, there is always the possibility of occupational variation in physical traits. In addi- tion to this general cause of variation it has been already noted that our sample has been drawn chiefly from a few groups such as steve- dores and factory workers and is probably more variable in size characters than a strictly random sample. Contact with foreign stocks likewise produces the possibility of actual physical mixture between races, and such mixture leads generally to increased variability. We have tried to exclude from our Hawaiian series all progeny of recent crosses between Hawaiians and other races. We may, however, have included subjects de- scended from remoter crosses, and may thereby have obtained variabilities in excess of those normal to the race. 128 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF The values of the dispersion measures of the various traits are not however entirely reliable as guides in estimating homogeneity of type. They are greatly increased not only by environmental variation but by the presence of a few individuals which depart widely from the average, or by the departure of the distribution from the normal. The distribution itself, and the range of varia- tion are better guides to homogeneity. Distinct evidences of bimodality are absent in the distributions of most of the Hawaiian traits. Even in such traits as head length, head breadth, face height and face breadth, in which the variability of the Hawaiians is greater than that of other groups, we find no evidence of the presence of more than one chief type. And since the proportions between these parts, especially in the case of the length-breadth index of the head, are relatively less variable, and show fairly normal and regular distributions, we may ascribe much of the variability in the dimensions to the degree of growth attained rather than to lack of homogeneity. The Hawaiian group as a whole then, while somewhat more variable than we might expect a pure island race to be, has none the less a unity which argues a large amount of antecedent pure breeding. II. Racial Affinities. The Hawaiians have long been recognized as belonging to the Polynesian race, which is widely distributed in the Pacific area. Their nearest relatives are undoubtedly the peoples of the Marquesas and Samoan Islands. Their physical characteristics agree in general with those of the Samoans de- scribed by Sullivan. These differences are however to be noted: although of the same height as the Hawaiians, the Samoans exceed them somewhat in nearly all of the other physical dimensions recorded; the Samoan head appears to be both longer and broader than the Hawaiian, while in shape it is relatively narrower; the proportion of very short headed (index 85 and over) individuals is much higher among the Hawaiians; the Samoan face is larger and both absolutely and relatively broader than the Hawaiian; the nose of the Hawaiians, while smaller, is relatively broader than that of the Samoans; the frequency of straight hair is much higher among the Samoans than among the Hawaiians, although the general type of hair is similar. The differences between these groups are small and the resemblances many. The present data indicate that both belong to one large racial group — the Poly- nesian. HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 129 We have made no attempt to deduce the affinities or origins of this large group from the present data. Sullivan has tentatively classified the various traits of the Samoans as resembling the European, Negroid or Mongoloid races of man, and concludes that their physical traits resemble most closely those of Mongoloid peoples. In so far as the Hawaiians resemble the Samoans, and in so far as Sullivan’s racial classification of traits is cogent, the same might be inferred from our data. Resemblances, however, as Sullivan rightly notes, do not always represent closeness of relationship, but may arise by independent variation, or may be produced by other than inherent causes. Another kind of data, in addition to careful description of individual and group character- istics, is needed for explanations of racial origins or affinities. Such data should consist of descriptions of the behavior of the characters of a race, such as the Polynesian, when crossed with several of its putative parent races such as the Mongoloid or the European. When truly heritable traits (and these are the only traits of evo- lutionary significance) can be observed in a number of genera- tions, the amount of similarity or divergence between races may be inferred from the characters and variability of the hybrids. We have obtained a small amount of such evidence for hybrids between Hawaiians as one parent race and Chinese and Europeans as the other. Further discussion of the racial relationships of the Hawaiians and Polynesians may then be deferred until such evi- dence is presented. 130 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF PART II DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER RACES IN HAWAII AND OF DESCENDANTS FROM CROSSES OF HAWAIIANS WITH OTHER RACES CHINESE AND CHINESE-HAWAIIANS From the standpoint of the student of race mixture, the most in- teresting cross which is taking place in Hawaii is that between the native Hawaiians and the Chinese. In numbers of hybrids pro- duced, and in the general effect on the character of the Hawaiian population, this cross is not so important as that between Ha- waiians and Europeans. The interest and scientific value of the Hawalian-Chinese cross inheres in the first place in the relative purity of the races involved. The past history and present char- acteristics of both the Hawaiians and the Chinese indicate that both races have undergone a period of relatively pure breeding in the immediate past, during which time racial traits have become well defined and less variable than in more widespread and mobile races. The source of the Chinese participating in this mixture is distinctly local, since most of the Chinese in Hawaii have been imported as coolies from Canton ‘Province and belong to the rela- tively conservative South Chinese type. Secondly, this cross has taken place in recent times, the first Chinese to reach Hawaii in significant numbers having arrived in the decade 1870-80. The cross has been made practically always in one direction, i.e. Chinese male by Hawaiian female. In ap- pearance, mentality, temperament and customs, the Chinese and Hawaiians present what appear to be well marked contrasts. There seems to be little or no social disapproval of marriages between - these races; and both of the parent races and the hybrids live on what is practically a social parity. For these reasons the results of the cross should be simpler and offer fewer difficulties in inter- pretation than crosses involving Hawaiians and members of other races. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTH CHINESE The description of the South Chinese which follows is based on our observations of twenty pure South Chinese living in and near 131 HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 9¢°0= 02'S 82'0* 69 7 IZOFVGE GE 0 * 66'S 660 16E IZ O0+8G'€ OZ OF EVE v9-9S “ACO TE OF EST ve Or 19S 6G 0 99° 96 0+ VE Sf. Doss 68°0+ GG'9 ca Us VSS ¥d-08 ‘a's G6-EL ScI-IOL OGT—-661 v6-GL VOI-LEl V6I-99T CLI-8F1 v9-9¢ osury SOLIOS SUIS TT "PoyEINITBD ¢ ‘UVOU SUISBTT ¢ *SUOT]VUITXOIdde 918 ‘S[VNPIAIPUL U9} ATUO JO UOTJVIAVG Pivpuv, 9Y} UO pesBq Suteq ‘sIOLI9 sjqeqoid oT, 20°62 Ev 0= 76 8 SPO 8F 6IT TV 0+ 99 0FT L¢°0= 66'T8 6F O= SP 6FT cC'O+= [E'SsI 0'SF eV GL Sl OF eG SS e8'G8 9P OF LE TOT V9-9¢9 ueay “S}UIUIBINSBIUT POdNOISUN OY} UOT] VSVIIAV OTJOUIYLIV OY} PoYV[NOTVo 9IOJo1OYy} OAVY IAA L' 16-222 CP-8E 99-6 0'26-6'62 CST-91T 6F1-1E1 S8-E2, SSI-OFI 00Z-PLI ¥ 9F-6 CF 81-89 181-831 G'9G-Z TS ¥6-18 T2Z1-SST OT esuByy ‘S SOL SB VSOUTYD YINOG QOO‘ET JO JUSTO UBS SOATS YOVQSTOM » St=0'62 VO+ETH LO ECG OT+G'88 GL*L Scr CTL 6&T LOT 62 C Lee Gri 9T+L S81 GO+OSP VO EFL LD 2 S61 $.0-= Leo LO=S8L8 TIL+o 991 2OT y UvoYT SOTIOS ST, < Bie s (a els ike ele © Saw O iene) > 0 So a* 0 ere 1s el eee Ohm PVle, (eae Sie (6 . sew woe ae ene Mee, mae lel ue SiGe el es. Bh a) vaya: Neto oie ee ie) Tp) *dnois 4Npev ut popnypoul used Svy GT SB osv SuTy1Oded yoofqns 9uQ z ‘ON[VA O][}}T] ODABY o[dures B [[BUIS OS UO posBq S}UISUOD UOT}VIIBA 7 °° *Y% ‘xoputl [esen wu ‘YpBIIg [BSeN ‘uu ‘YYSTIoY [VSVN "°*% “xepur [vey ‘UU “VY SToy WO}PUIW-UOISB N or ay Fe Mietrerl en, st ote) elie min “UU ‘Io}JOUIVIP OT}BULOSAZIG 4) velge, (9. 8) \s.. aha e Seeks, Lele \e/h ce) cat ee eo) fe iat (ov If ° ] = 1.53. The aver- age weight of North Europeans is much less, probably about 150 pounds (the average weight of white drafted soldiers in the U. 8. Army 1917 was 144 pounds) while they are less corpulent, with an average height-weight index of about 1.30 — 1.85. The hybrids of our sample exceed both parent races both in weight (male average 194 pounds) and in the height-weight index (1.68). The Norfolk Island hybrids are also characterized by a relatively great weight (169 pounds). The weights of both the Hawaiian and Norfolk sub- jects include clothes and are probably accurate only to within 5 or 10 pounds, yet both sets of data indicate large size as a characteris- tic of the Polynesian-white mixtures. Before concluding that such corpulence as characterizes the Hawaiians is a heritable, dominant - trait in racial crosses we must consider (1) that our sample of hy- brids is very small and may not be representative of the average Fi type; (2) that body build is undoubtedly conditioned in part by environmental factors such as nutrition, occupation, and the rela- 154 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF tive ease or difficulty of getting a living, and that the corpulence of both the hybrids and the Hawaiians may be due to the action of a common environment rather than to heredity; (8) that the large size of the hybrids, since they exceed even the heavy Hawaiians, may be due to hybrid vigor or heterosis. These possibilities may be discussed more profitably after the evidence from more hybrids of later generations 1s presented. Head. One of the chief differences between the Hawaiians and North Europeans is in absolute and relative length of the head. The Hawaiians have characteristically short heads (average 182 mm.) while the head of the average North European is longer (190 mm. or more; 192 for Goring’s English prisoners and 198 for von Luschan’s English scientists). In breadth there is little difference between the Hawaiians (152 mm.) and the North Europeans (about 150 mm.). These dimensions produce a typically brachycephalic head in the Hawaiians, while the North Europeans are predomi- nantly dolichocephalic or mesocephalic. The absolute size of the hybrid head is greater in both dimensions than that of the Ha- waiians. The hybrids, like the Hawaiians, are predominantly bra- chycephalic, with a mean index of about 83, which is the same as the Hawaiian index. This condition holds not only for the adult male hybrids now under discussion but for all of the F; hybrids. In a total of 36 hybrids only 1 case of dolichocephaly was found (index 75),‘1 subject was mesocephalic (index 79) while the remaining 34 were brachycephalic with indices resembling those of the Ha- waiians. It is evident that the F; hybrids resemble the more bra- chycephalic of the parent races. Our Hawaiian-white hybrids differ in this respect from the Norfolk hybrids, since the latter have on the average absolutely long heads (average 195.6 mm.) while their heads are no broader than those of our F individuals (Norfolk breadth 155.5 mm.). The resulting head shape of the Norfolk Is-— landers is mesocephalic (index 79.5) and the series includes many with dolichocephalic heads. The average head dimensions and the distribution of head shape among the Norfolk Islanders have un- doubtedly been affected by the reappearance through segregation of the recessive European type (long head, low index), and are thence not strictly comparable with our F; type. In the present case the inheritance of head shape is probably uncomplicated by differences in general body size, since the Hawaii- 155 HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD *syoofqns oUIU JO OSVIOAYV | 6GL -G'c9 Ty > 6 99 — OV 6°96 —€°08 9¢I-— OTT cGTI— Lél VL8 —6°08 991— OFT 68I- P9T LV?r -6' TP vL-— G9 Soo S215 68.— 98 6sT— L2T LOI— 9ST esuey &'89 Oos VCS £98 9°OTT VSET 0°S8 VLbL 9ELT [Sy TOL L°eS G28 OVET 9°C9T uUvdI saTBUlas FINPV OT SET = FT'6 hee Tor O9" Se F VL +687 06 659 Ja Ls OT LOS OV. Y E1983 6ST #818 Vicees0: Ve GPUS SE ema ail! Sa ees VL 67 U3 Ee Gue ‘I'9g 0°86-S"02 6y — OF Lea oy. 676 —6°82 Lel— OL T¢8 GZI- TOT OT Ed Reete | L 96K 06 -8'S2 CVs I9I- 281 © OST S6I- Z9T S°SLT g°9G —G'0G vee 76°— 18 £98 GLI- OST 9°S9T €e2- -Z11 Test asUuByy OSBIOAV UBVIIVMBET soyBulay FE foe Nethsat ener a ree yale eaa ‘t+ - OF ‘xapul peseN S celbiiwes ay ate CMO) tir es -WIUI ‘yy pverq OSON ASR ae ecw Tet cn OR ae: sete ee ees Sen ‘qysIoy OSON nate Nise aks pean eee oie ae ‘xOpul [CIO qT COST ie aa “UIUI ‘qustoy U0} UIUI-WOISB NY See Aone Fan Gar oom, wun ‘ J9}oUIvIpP oryemosAzIg ci eee ue erecta? oie oats % ‘xopul oeydey 6 @ es eo aie epee = wi © 60016 16 wu ‘yypReiq pee oe ere pi ante 9) ies). Sais! Sitlsr '?-uTUT ‘yy sus] pro re a ei ce % “Qystey SuryyIs jo xopuy Hee) AUNT of pte ETE OO che Sita. cs ac "m2 ‘qysIoy SUI}IG "**"uT9 ‘8In984g rac: Cg eer tat cee cee rn CAC eo ww Ae ce Malas Sq] ‘VYSIOM adoolg GLH F/E GNV NVIIVAV]T F/T GNV dooTg GLIHMA F/T ONV NVIIVMV] f/g DNINIVLNOO SHIVA] GIUGAT] HLIM SHIVNGY NVIIVMV] dO SLIVUT, AIAVUOSNAJ] JO SHDVUGAY AO NOSTUVdWOD) “9G AIAV], HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 167 reasons it cannot be certainly attributed to the inheritance of slighter body build from the white parent: (1) the F, (¢ Hawaiian) and # Hawaiian groups show no tendency to deviate in the direc- tion of the lighter European average (2) the weights of the + Hawaiians are derived from only five subjects all of whom were under 25 years of age, or before maximum weight is attained. TaBLE 37. DESCRIPTIONS OF NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF 33 OFFSPRING OF Backcross MATINGS BETWEEN F, (HAawatlaNn X North EvROPEAN) AND PurRE HawallIANs TIRIRCDION oh. Sik... Black 21, Dark brown 9, Reddish 1, no record 2 ASP TOU oe, o- Wavy 23, Curly 6, Straight 3, no record 1 Hye color......... Brown 16, Light brown 7, Dark brown 9, Hazel 1 RIM COIOr. fs... Broca’s grades. .24—7 von Luschan’s grades .... 8-1 25-5 9-1 47-3 10-1 39-2 12-2 13-1 14-1 15-2 cg 2 INOee fOTM. . 5666s - OS a ETERS LENE, Rs SRN alr ieee a Pea 3 2 GUL ANT iL Mott SI gia ta eens as rf 7 REO IIRC HOCH Cont AWE te bh aite ast eat Soils 3 11 HO PM CERI OT Gre oe yer eas ce tar) aces 8 10 BOLING et eters soca a der arate ven ie 1 8 ro) Sco, ae Mir Reg Ag ag ae: Ale i ai + 2 peering) Mestre lib. Go ds ee tees Se ta 10 re CRS on ORae LOO Nr One PLEATS Cau Ran & 3 13 LN Lo ae Thick 9, medium 8 Prognathism....... Absent 13, slight 2 Brow ridges....... Absent 13, slight 2, prominent 1 The cephalic index falls from 84.2 in the Hawaiian females, to 82.6 in the ? Hawaiians, to 79.9 in the { Hawaiians. .The tendency indicated is toward longerheadedness in those individuals with more white blood. In attempting to establish whether this ten- dency is significant we have tabulated the cephalic indices of all of the 2 Hawaiian and + Hawaiian subjects (exclusive of Portuguese mixtures), combining the observations on subjects of age 13 and over and of both sexes. This is not strictly justifiable, but the sexual difference in the index is so small, it changes so little between age 13 and maturity, and the distribution of age and sex is so 168 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF TABLE 38. DESCRIPTION OF NON-MENSURABLE TRAITS OF 19 OFFSPRING OF Backcross MATINGS BETWEEN F, (HAWAIIAN X NortH EvROPEAN) AND PURE WHITES Hairicolory yaaa Black 1, Dark brown 5, Brown 8, Light brown 3, Light yellow 1, no record 1 Hair form.........Wavy 7, Straight 6, Curly 1, no record 5 Eye: color a. ees Dark brown 3, Brown 4, Light brown 3, Hazel 1, Blue 6, no record 2 kin Coloma. sveess) Broca’s grades. .23-6 24-1 “light’”’—2 of *, Nose form......... Root, high: 2. yc bs Het seure ons 5 1 Straight.....5 sae) vos. eee 4 3 depressed... 2.2... wa. An oe 1 1 Bridge, straight: : i. ..2) | 7 5 CONCAVE 5. si.hs «21g tec eo 2 CONVEX wiojs5r,0 ss ne as 1 Septum, straight. ......2...12 7. 6 2 UP) oo ead ao we. Ar 3 3 down os. bot. ey oe 1 Lips ate ee ee ee Thick 2, medium 6, thin 1 Prognathiam.; 2.5 Absent 8 Brow ridges Absent &, slight 3, prominent 1 similar in the groups to be compared as to result in but little dis- tortion of the data. The results are given in Table 39. In spite of the small differences between the means of the adult indices, the ? Hawaiians and + Hawaiians do show distinct differ- ences in the frequency of different headforms. Longer or medium heads are more frequent in those with most white blood, while the short or round head forms are most frequent in those with most Hawaiian blood. | The difference in mean nasal index between the subjects with 3 and with { Hawaiian blood is probably significant although based on very few observations of the latter type. Examination of the individual indices of all subjects of both sexes and of age 13 and over shows that over 35 per cent of the + Hawaiians had narrow TABLE 39, PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION oF CEPHALIC INDEX No. —74.9 75-79.9 80-84.9 85-89.9 90- o/4:Hawaian sc .<. tne aeons (29) nary 38.0 34,5 24,1 3.4 1/4 Hawatian 3.29. fw sae (19) 21.0 58.0 15.8 5.2 HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 169 noses with index of 65 or below while only 10 per cent of the 2 Ha- waiians had such narrow noses. This index (65) marks the approxi- mate lower limit of variation in shape of nose among the pure Ha- waiians, since only three immature subjects out of 157 pure Ha- wallans had noses as narrow as this. The appearance of narrow noses in the generation arising from a backcross of F; hybrids with the European parent type is probably due to the segregation of the narrow Kuropean nose form as a recessive, which agrees with the evidence from the F, generation. The possible differences in the relative height and width of the face in the different hybrid groups has also been tested by examin- ing the individual facial indices of all of the subjects. In the “BC < Hawaiian” (# Hawaiian) group about one third of all of the sub- jects have indices of the high or leptoprosopic type (above 88 per cent), while in the ‘BC X white” (4 Hawaiian) group nearly half have high faces of this type. The difference in the mean facial in- dex of the two groups is small, as is also the difference between the two parent types, but there seems to be some tendency for the slightly narrower, higher face of the European to be recessive in inheritance. In Table 40 appears a comparison of the backcross generations with the Hawaiian and F, generation in respect to hair form and color and eye color. The generations are arranged in the table in order of decreasing amount of Hawaiian blood, and the per cent of each generation falling into each descriptive class is given. In this table the conclusions already indicated by the F; and F, data are confirmed and in addition there is evidence of segregation of several North European recessive traits. In general, the frequency of the typically Hawaiian condition of the trait decreases with the in- creasing proportion of white blood. Thus in hair color the frequency of black hair falls from about 90 per cent among the Hawaiians to about 5 per cent among those subjects with 4 Hawaiian and ? white blood, while the frequency of lighter shades of hair rises cor- respondingly with the increase in proportion of white blood. One clear blonde segregate occurs in the ‘‘BC X European” group, while the presence of individuals with light brown hair in this group and their absence from all the others indicates that this color also appears as a recessive introduced by the European ancestor. The red-brown hair which appears in 3 of the groups is of the Hawaiian 170 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF TasLE 40. COMPARISON OF THE COLOR AND FORM OF THE HAIR AND OF THE CoLoR oF EYES IN HAWAIIANS AND IN HYBRIDS OF HAWAIIANS AND NortH EUROPEANS Percentage Distribution of Hair Color Ha- Dark Light Red waiian No. Black Brown Brown Brown Brown Yellow Hawailan.'.... 44 cdnctos5, 4/4) - bt ee UGae Ge is BG. By Xhawetian) 3/4 ol 67.0 29.0 °° 2a eee 3.2 peaches sta, ence a re ees 2/4 25° 44.0 32.0° 20,00 ee 3.7 SF BC F, X North European. 1/4 17. 5.6 27.8. 444 16.7 eee Hair Form Hawaiian No. Curly Wavy Straight Hawaiian.) eee ee 149 29.5 61.7 8.7 BO lps @ Hawaiians enee. 3/4 Ape 18.7 71.9 9.4 | Eee PEN eed sce iae Ne 2/4 23 17.4 70.0 12.6 BC F, X North European. 1/4 14 Gl 50.0 42.9 Eye Color Dark Light Hawaiian No. brown Brown brown Hazel Blue Hawaleans sc ce eee 4/4 155 43.9 43.2 11.6 6 6 BC Fy, XS Hawatian: 7.7 +. 3/4 33 27.3 48.5 olie Oa ork Hits Sed ON es 2/4 25 8.0 48.0 36.0 4.0 4.0 BC F, X North European. 1/4 17 17.6 .. (23:6 17.6 5.9 35.3 (‘Khu’) type and has apparently not been introduced by the im- mediate European cross. In hair form, the frequency of the Ha- wallan curly type decreases, and of the European straight type in- creases with decreasing amount of Hawaiian blood. The eye color becomes progressively lighter in passing from Hawaiians to those with only + Hawaiian blood, culminating in the appearance of blue and hazel eyes in over 40 per cent of the “‘BC X European” group. The lighter colors of hair and eyes, and the straighter hair form in- troduced by the European ancestors are apparently behaving in this as in other crosses as recessives, although it is evident that dominance is not complete in respect to any of them. The descriptions of other non-mensurable traits of the backcross groups are given in Tables 37 and 38. There are too few of these to permit of any conclusive statements. The skin colors of the “BC X Hawaiian”’ group are apparently similar to those of the pure Hawaiians, while of the 9 observations of the ‘‘BC X white”’ group, 2 were recorded as “light,” presumably of the European HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 171 type, while 6 were somewhat lighter than the modal shade for Ha- walians. Several subjects in each backcross group were described as having the high nasal root of the European type. The presence of this type in the ‘‘BC X Hawaiian” group with 2 Hawaiian blood confirms the F’; evidence that the high nasal root behaves as a dom- inant. The Hawaiian type of low or depressed nasal root was rare in the ‘““BC X white” group and more frequent in the ‘BC x Hawaiian” group. HyYBrips oF HAWAIIANS AND SoutH EUROPEANS The number of subjects descended from matings between Ha- waiians and Portuguese or Spanish is too small for detailed analy- sis (20 with some Portuguese blood, 5 with some Spanish blood), although the physical features of this group differ somewhat from those of the Hawaiian-North European hybrids. The chief argu- ment for considering the Portuguese hybrids separately was the frequent evidence of negro admixture in subjects reporting them- selves of Portuguese descent. The Portuguese in Hawaii, as has been noted, have come chiefly from the Cape Verde Islands and many of them are thought to be either negroes or negro-Portuguese hybrids. In our material several negroid traits appear in ‘“ Portu- guese’’ and Spanish hybrids. No. 313, % Spanish, ? Hawaiian (Table IV, BC X Hawaiian female), for example, was noted by the observer as possibly part negro and the description confirms this suspicion. This woman had very long arms (arm index 49.6, the highest in our material), a very small head, a small, narrow, long face and dark skin. No. 442 (2 Portuguese, ? Hawaiian), showed less distinctly negroid features, but had a low broad nose (index 94) and kinky black hair. No. 432, (4 Portuguese, ? Hawaiian), had a typically negroid nose, with a high index, low root and upturned septum. In addition to these subjects 5 others representing crosses of Hawaiian and negro were observed. Their measurements are given in Appendix Table VI. In the case of 3 of these the negro ancestor was traced to the Cape Verde Islands and was said to be “Portuguese.’’ Each of these had kinky black hair; one had long arms (index 47.2) with a relatively short trunk (index 50.2) and a narrow high face. Other negroid features similar to those noted among the Portuguese hybrids were in evidence. 172 | AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF The principal peculiarities of the Portuguese hybrid group as a whole as compared with the North European hybrids, are their smaller size, the greater frequency of individuals with relatively long arms, sometimes combined with a rather short trunk, and their narrower and frequently higher faces. Thus 4 mature males F; Portuguese X Hawaiian averaged 155 pounds in weight and 166 cm. 1n height, compared with 194 pounds and 173 em. for the North Kuropean F; group. The face width of the Portuguese group was 134 mm. while the northern group averaged 145 mm. The nar- rower face seems to obtain throughout the whole group of Portu- guese hybrids, although because of somewhat greater facial height, the facial index is about the same as in the northern group. We have no good evidence from which to form an estimate of the phy- sical features of the Portuguese parents. Our own material includes descriptions of 9 Portuguese observed in Hawaii, although only 4 of these were adult, all females (see Appendix, Table VI). From these and other observations (cf. Martin), it is apparent that the Portu- guese parents are shorter (average height males about 165 cm.), and smaller than the North European parents or the Hawaiians. In bodily proportions they probably do not differ significantly from the North Europeans or Hawaiians; in head shape they are meso- cephalic (average head index about 78-80). Their nose form, where not affected by negro mixture, is probably similar to that of the North Europeans, i. e. index about 65, with high root and straight bridge. The shorter stature and size of the Portuguese-Hawaiian hybrids indicates the absence of dominance which obtains in most dimensional characters; while the narrower face is probably an expression of their generally smaller size, since the facial index is about the same for the Portuguese as for the North European hybrids. OTHER HAWAIIAN-WHITE MIXTURES Observations were made of a number of Hawaiian-white hybrids which could not be classified in any of the groups discussed above, chiefly because of the greater complexity or incompleteness of the pedigrees. The original data on these are given at the end of Ap- pendix, Table IV. For the most part these subjects represent a more advanced stage of race mixture than the F, or backcross groups, and they form a rather variable group, showing many dif- HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 173 ferent combinations of Hawaiian and European traits. The pedi- gree of No. 290, for example, indicates that she probably is of the third hybrid generation. She resembles a pure Hawaiian in most of the traits observed. Likewise No. 33, although half white, probably is of the third hybrid generation, and appears to be a typical Ha- walian. No. 167 on the other hand is 2 white, yet has a low broad face, and resembles the Hawaiian type in body build, but has the high nose and lighter hair and eyes more characteristic of the Euro- pean type. The occurrence of different combinations of traits in this heterogeneous group bespeaks some measure of independent segregation of the heritable features of each racial type. Aside from this, the group does not add anything to our knowledge of the in- heritance of the traits in question. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The European and Hawaiian types which have intermarried in Hawaii are very similar in bodily dimensions and proportions, ex- cept for the greater corpulence of the Hawaiians. The F, hybrids and those with ? Hawaiian blood resemble the Hawaiians in this respect, although there is not enough evidence on the weight either of the European type when living under Hawaiian conditions or of hybrids of later generations to permit the conclusion that the ten- dency to corpulence is inherited as a dominant, or that it is due to diet and habits of life. There is distinct evidence of the inheritance of the brachyceph- alic head shape of the Hawaiians as a dominant, and of the re- appearance of the European type of head as a recessive in later hybrid generations. The Hawaiians have broader noses than the Europeans, and this characteristic appears likewise in the hybrids. It possibly depends on dominant factors, although the size of a soft part such as the width of the nostrils must depend to some extent on the relative fleshiness of the face, and thus indirectly and partial- ly on the same environmental conditions which conduce to greater corpulence. The shape of the root of the nose probably is affected less or not at all by such conditions, and the differences between the lower and frequently depressed root of the Hawaiian nose and the higher, narrower root of the European type probably depend on heritable factors. In this trait there is good evidence of the domi- 174 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF nance of the higher European type. It is possible that these two parts of the nose are affected by different factors, since the broader nostrils of the Hawaiian and the higher root of the European ap- pear together in some of the F; hybrids, indicating that the Ha- waiian condition of the one part (nostrils) may be dominant; while of the other part (root) is probably recessive. The darker hair color, wavier hair form, and darker shade of eyes and skin of the Hawaiian type are partially dominant. Straight hair, and blondness of hair, eyes, and skin reappear as recessives in segregating generations (F, and backcross). As a whole, the F; hybrids bear a closer resemblance to the Hawaiian than to the European parent type, and it seems that in the traits observed, the Hawaiians contribute to the cross relatively more dominant factors than the Europeans. Such evidences of the dominance of the factors contributed by this or that parent type are, however, of relatively minor importance, since in most of the traits observed dominance was incomplete, the hybrid occupying a position intermediate between the parental conditions of the trait. The more significant features of the results are the evidences of segregation of “‘racial”’ characters such as nose form, head form, hair and skin color in di- verse combinations in the F, and backcross generations. The evi- dences of Mendelian inheritance in such traits do not extend to the ratios obtained, and this is not to be expected from the data at pres- ent available. Factorial analyses supported by clear segregation ratios can be expected to appear only in data involving large num- bers of F; or backcross progeny, obtained from complete family records in which the description of each trait in each ascendant is known. Nor do the data throw much light on the important question of the relative number of hereditary differences between the Hawai- ians and Europeans. In the dimensional traits such as stature and length of parts, there appears to be very little difference; in the shape of the nose there is a distinct and apparently wide difference, yet from the behavior of nose shape in inheritance, this seems to be determined by relatively few factors, so that the divergence may have been brought about by only a few hereditary changes. In general those features in which the Hawaiians differ most markedly from the Europeans (color of skin, hair and eyes, form of nose and face) are those in which the Hawaiians and Chinese are most alike. HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 175 Thus the chief divergence of Hawaiians and Europeans is in the more Mongoloid features of the Hawaiians. These are few in the present case, possibly because some distinctly Mongoloid features were not observed (such as relative hairiness of head and body). The data thus appear to show relatively fewer differences between the Hawaiian and European than between the Hawaiian and Chi- nese, and indicate for the Hawaiians a position (in respect to num- ber of hereditary differences) intermediate between Europeans and Mongoloids, with somewhat closer affinity to the European. In any event, the number of differences between the Hawaiian on the one hand and the Europeans or Chinese on the other appear to be definitely fewer than those between the European and the Chinese. Finally, it should be remembered that the criteria for judging the number and importance of racial differences, viz., the results of factorial analysis of the separate traits, can at present be applied only in a fragmentary and tentative way, because of inadequate evidence on inheritance and ignorance of the effects of diverse en- vironments on most of the traits commonly observed. The results of study of the Hawaiian-Chinese and Hawaiian- European crosses confirm the already considerable evidence that (1) all physical characters of the kind observed are quite variable even in pure racial groups; (2) this physical variability is somewhat increased in the hybrids, chiefly through the formation of different combinations of characters, although the hybrid groups cannot be distinguished from the “‘pure”’ types merely by increased variabil- ity in single traits; (3) there are few or no constant or infallibly dis- tinguishing marks of any of the races or hybrid groups studied. From the observations recorded, all of these types appear to have much in common, and the heritable physical differences are fewer than one would have been led to expect from a knowledge of the previous geographic isolation of the groups and of the absence of recent intercrossing between them. So far as the measurements go, there appear to be no absolute criteria of race or of stage of mixture. The results of crosses between ‘‘races’’ show that “race” as it ap- plies to a congeries of physical characters, must be used only in a relative or comparative sense, since ‘‘races”’ as such do not segre- gate from crosses, but break up into their separate component fea- tures. Thus from the crossing of races in Hawaii there emerges a heterogeneous population which does not contain distinctly Ha- 176 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF waiian, or Chinese, or White individuals, although many may re- produce the Hawaiian, or Chinese or white condition of one or a number of traits. Such a group departs from its parent types not so much in “racial” traits, but rather by exhibiting in its physical features the potentialities for the development of a future more uniform type which may be more or less Hawaiian, or Chinese, or white, depending on combinations of circumstances which cannot at present be foretold. HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 177 RactaL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECTS A. Pure Races B. Hawaiian-‘‘White’’! Hybrids C. Hawaiian-Chinese Hybrids 1a | BOs ply wee ee ence ho hic 28 Chinese. .... Maas coe Ce a aes oes SU Ho eee ee chy hee: 6 Portuguese.. 9 | Backcross X Hawaiian 42 | Backcross X Hawaiian 28 Japanese.... 8 | Backcross X White.... 23 | Backcross X Chinese. 5 Korean..... 4 | Other mixtures....... 16 | Other mixtures....... 8 Filipino. .... 2 Totals . .203 147 75 D. Fi Hawaiian E. Tri-Racial Hybrids F. Multiple and Other Hybrids Negro .... 5 | Haw. Chinese White. .27 | Haw. Port. Tahitian White . 1 Japanese... 4 | Haw. Indian White... 4 | Haw. Chinese Negro White.. 1 Samoan... 3 | Haw. Malay White... 2 | Haw. Indian Japanese White 1 Filipino... 1 | Haw. Japanese White. 2 | Part Hawaiian............. 8 Indian.... 1 | Haw. (other)? White . 6 | Non-Hawaiian hybrids...... (i Hindu.... 1 | Haw. Japanese Samoan 1 | Unclassified and omitted.... 8 Totals 15 42 26 (Save lll highs" 6 See eg a 508 1 Including Portuguese and North European. sO dh 2 Including one each of Syrian, Hindu, Tahitian, Negro, Portuguese (negro?) and Filipino and ‘‘East Indian.” 3 Probably part Negro. Nativity oF HawaliaAn SUBJECTS Subjects listed as pure Hawaiians are natives of Oahu except for the following: Ma.LEs FEMALES Subject No. Native of Subject No. Native of he 2 rn Maui 286 alae wee Maui Ua. AR a Molokai DST oe es Molokai DE a Hawaii , 289 Fee Be oe Hawaii a, 2 Maui 204 eae eee Kauai | 08, 50 Hawaii ZOO rere Molokai od Ev: ee - BOA aie eres Maui _ tn e SLi t Bee ed Hawail ne, he < 3185 eapee wes Hawaii SG Ls 2 an Maui SLO eee ee Kauai ie, 4 Hawail BZA eee Maui SS 0 6 Maui SOL eee ene Hawail a?) er ‘ EL «ce ar 3 ST 50 Hawaii S00) Se Hawaii SSE ee Kauai Pe Lae aah lle are Maui Ale ee os a NS Maui RES eer ey aera Gata ee Kauai Lat 2) a Maui ie ee a eae Kauai 178 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF OccUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUBJECTS DESCRIBED IN Subject No. 401-425 501-506 23- 56 88- 98 57- 61 86- 87 137-138 163-168 17-182 62- 85 115-122 153-162 123-127 139-143 145-146 144 147-152 175-177 194-231 234-273 277-332 334-342 343-400 426-500 APPENDIX, TaBLEs I-IV Occupation Unclassified subjects measured at gathering places such as churches, beaches, homes, etc., probably representing a random sample of the population in respect to occupation. School boys and girls — Hameameha school Palama settlements Students — Mills Schools Y. W. C. A. and Kindred settlements Y. M. C. A. — Swimmers Fishermen Policemen Students — Girls’ Industrial School Students — Summer school Stevedores Workers in pineapple factories HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 179 Nore to Tasue IV, AppEnprIx In this and the following tables, information on the parentage of each subject is given in the column headed “pedigree.” The following abbreviations are uesed to designate race (or nationality) of the parents. Am ... White American | spies sre Korean She ae Chinese INA craks Malay Ca.... Canadian N..... North European Titec. English Ne.... Negro ese: Filipino No.... Norwegian tea tee French tae Te? Portuguese ee German Nets ia ee Samoan ai Hawaiian eles Maes Scotch | ea eM Amerindian Sw.... Swedish |S Nem pee East Indian sh Phe Spanish iti he oie Irish 4 ERS Tahitian HDs oes Japanese We as White (usually North European) este, Jewish The mother’s race is given before the line; the father’s after. Thus HE/H indicates that the mother was 1 f2 Hawaiian, 1/2 English and the father was Hawaiian. APPENDIX TABLE I. RAW DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANTHROPOMETRY OF PURE HAWAIIANS Adult Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. ; Height | Height : Index | Index Ceph- cee Age Mites Stature vy oe se Seen (oe Length Shing Length| Breadth Tides 41 43 ... | 170.8 | 140.4 | 59.5 | 87.0 | 80.9 | 47.36 | 50.94 | 186 | 161 86.56 142 71 ... | 162.0 | 135.0 | 59.0 | 83.5 ete RAY we ea | BSS EGE 87.98 193 42 ..-» | 169.5 | 139.5 | 60.0 | 85.0 | 79.5 | 46.90 | 50,15) 1759 tes 88.57 99 42 ite tee Ee eee We tke Pon Pe: east T94 168 84.02 140 47 ... | 160.8 | 132.5 | 60.3 | 86.8 | 72.2 | 44.90 | 53.98 | 182 | 161 $2.97 141 60 185 | 170.2 | 138.0 | 62.2 | 87.8 | 75.8 | 44.53 | 51.59 | 198 | 158 79.80 143 28 185 | 178.4 | 147.0 | 66.0 | 93.2 | 81.0 | 45.40 | 52.24 | 192 | 159 82.81 146 59 216 | 176.9 | 147.8 | 64.8 | 90.4 | 83.0 | 46.92 | 51.10 | 199 | 163 $1.91 148 35 185 | 185.5.| 151.2 | 62.8 | 96.4 | 88.4 | 47.65 | 51.97 | 195 | 154 75.97 150 48 230 | 176.7 | 147.0 | 66.1 93.1 80.9 | 45.78 | 52.69 | 192 | 159 $2.81 151 23 202 | 170.4 | 140.5 | 64.9 | 91.4 | 75.6 | 44.37 | 53.64) 187 | 160 $5.56 152 41 200 | 173.5 | 141.5 | 62.3 | 93.2 | 79.2 | 45.65 | 53.72 | 201 | 163 $1.09 175 25 147 | 170.5 | 140.0 | 62.2 | 89.7 | 77.8 | 45.63 | 52.61 | 188 | 165 87.76 176 A7 ... | 181.8 | 148.8 | 67.4 | 96.0 | 81.4 | 44.77 | 52.80 |) 190 | 159 &3.68 183 yard ... | 169.5 | 135.5 | 59.8 | 86.5 | 75.7 | 44.66 | 51.08) 178 | 152 $5.39 186 29 147 | 175.0 | 141.7 | 60.9 | 88.8 | 80.8 | 46.17 | 50.74 | 203 | 155 76.35 187 32 169 | 170.8 | 138.9 | 62.2 | 87.7 | 76.7 | 44.91 | 51.35 | 186 | 163 $7.63 1884 43 175 | 175.0 | 143.2 | 62.5 | 91.8 | 80.7 | 46.11 | 52.46 | 188 | 155 82.45 1924 43 bet LOOLG EL S22 sl 5G) 83.5 | 74.1 | 46.14 | 51.99 | 194 | 156 80.41 279 Q7 168 | 176.9 | 145.6 | 64.4 | 92.2 | 81.2 | 45.90 | 52.12 | 186 | 150 80.64 282 21 160 | 166.4 | 136.0 | 60.5 | 87.4 | 75.5 | 45.37 | 62.52 | 185 | 150 81.35 283 22 160 | 172.4 | 142.2 | 65.5 | 89.3 | 76.7 | 44.49 | 51.80 | 176 | 147 83.52 53.19 | 191 | 156 | 81.67 52.71 | 199 | 159 | 79.90 as | L7G | 154 Sie 56.05 | 175 | 147 | 84.00 53.94 | 169 | 141 | 83.43 55.03 | 181 | 150 | 82.87 52.40 | 176 | 145 | 82.39 54.35 | 163 | 146 | 89.57 53.99 | 183 | 156 | 85.24 53.79 | 180 | 159 | 88.33 49.77 | 173 | 147 | 84.97 284 43 150 | 169.0 | 139.2 | 65.5 | 89.9 | 73.7 317 35 270 | 169.4 | 139.8 | 63.6 | 89.3 | 76.2 333 53 -s» | 176.5 | 146.4) 63.8 \o 2a eoaek 343 ? 182 | 164.5 |.132.3 | 59.2 | 92.2 | 73.1 344 25 135 | 165.0 | 136.5 | 61.9 | 89.0 | 74.6 345 36 151 | 167.9 | 136.4 | 60.5 | 92.4 | 75.9 346 28 168 | 164.3 | 133.2 | 61.0 | 86.1 | 72.2 349 25 138 | 165.4 | 134.5 | 60.9 | 89.9 | 73.6 351 43 185 | 165.4 | 137.3 | 59.5 | 89.3 | 77.8 352 32 145 | 167.7 | 135.4 | 63.3 | 90.2 | 72.1 355 21 140 | 172.4 | 138.7 | 59.1 | 85.5 | 79.6 43.61 44.98 47.08 4A AA 45.21 45.20 43.94 44.50 A704 42.99 46.17 1 Husband of No. 5 (Fi Hawaiian X Chinese); father of Nos. 6-15 (Backcross Fi X Hawaiian). 2 Father of No. 4. Bodily measurements of this subject not included in averages because of age. The symbols used in describing the hair and eye colors of the Hawaiians are as follows: Br—1 = light brown; Br +1 = dark brown; Br + 2 = very dark brown. we wg LX APPENDIX TABLE I. RAW DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANTHROPOMETRY OF Face Measurements in Mm. Facial |Nasion Index Pros- uo 76 67 80 12 75 69 64 79 76 78 67 66 79 80 74 73 7 74 68 Th 60 75 70 71 65 3 Husband of No. 17 (Hawaiian); father of No. 20. Bigo- nial ae Diam. 130 120 119 128 126 132 141 135 127 141 142 145 127 142 124 128 131 129 130 Nasa Ht. 56 62 50 59 60 58 52 52 58 61 56 54 59 59 61 53 53 64 57 53 52 46 53 60 55 49 55 50 52 55 PURE HAWAIIANS Adult Males Nasal Bth. 42 44 4] 46 45 47 4] 48 44 AA 39 48 46 41.5 Nasal Index % 75.00 70.96 82.00 77.96 75.00 81.03 78.85 92.31 75.86 12.13 69.64 88.88 77.96 81.35 72.13 81.13 79.24 68.75 80.70 79.24 86.54 90.22 88.68 81.67 94.54 91.84 74.54 86.00 86.54 72.73 81.48 82.69 72.88 td 15 14 12 15 19 Black Br+1 Black “ Descriptive Hair Form Curly “ Wavy “ Straight Wavy Curly Wavy Curly “ Wavy Curly “ Wavy “ Curly Wavy Curly Wavy “ “ Straight Curly Eye Color Brown ce Br+2 Br-1 Br-1 Br—-1 Br-1 Br+1 Br-1 “ Brown Br-1 Br+1 Brown Br+1 Br+2 Brown « Br+1 Br+1 Br+1 Brown Br+1 Br+1 Br+1 Br+Blue Br+1 Br+1 4 Nos. 188 and 192 are twins. * Skin colors on Von Luschan’s scale are given in italics; those on Broca’s scale in Roman type. Strength Toa its 38-37 49-42? 55-49 51-46 39-34 40-45 61-55 53-47 63-66 52-48 58-60 61-59 48-54 62-55 49-49 62-62 53-52 54-48 52-43 56 54 69 56 56 42 46 46 182 APPENDIX TABLE I (continued) Adult Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. : Index | Index Ceph- elie: Height | Arm | of Arm| of Ht ale Subject ‘Ny. | Age Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting |Length|Breadth] tndex | tal No. 356 | 38 134.7 | 61.6 | 87.9 | 73.1 | 44.46 | 53.47 | 177 | 150 358 | Qi 138.3 | 56.2 | 91.2 | 82.1 | 47.70 | 52.99 | 174 | 146 359 | 42 133.2 | 58.4 | 88.0 | 74.8 | 45.33 | 53.33 | 177 | 142 360 | 25 136.8 | 61.9 | 85.8 | 74.9 | 45.12 | 51.69 | 168 | 142 361 | 30 138.6 | 59.2 | 88.2 | 79.4 | 47.35 | 52.59 | 175 | 147 363 | 30 140.9| .... | 88.8-| .c.. | ctu. 1698s eee 366 | 50 142.1 | 60.4 | 90.0 | 81.7 | 47.64 | 52.48 | 181 | 151 368 | 39 136.3 | 60.4 | 89.2 | 75.9 | 45.61 | 53.61 | 178 | 145 371 23 140.8 | 65.1 | 90.3 | 75.7 | 43.91 | 52.38 | 185 | 1592 372 | 59 140.7 | 59.2 | 91.2 | 81.5 | 46.97 | 52.56 | 184 | 155 373 | 31 138.2 | 60.3 | 84.0 | 77.9 | 46.12 | 49.73 | 183 | 152 374 | 26 137.5 | 61.4 | 91.6 | 76.1 | 44.53 | 53.60 | 184 | 151 375 | 35 146.9 | 64.3 | 89.5 | 82.6 | 46.40 | 50.28 | 180 | 147 377 | 28 143.8 | 62.2 | 93.2 | 81.6 | 46.39 | 52.98 | 188 | 152 379 | 29 138.6 | 63.2 | 90.1 | 75.4 | 44.22 | 52.84] 176 | 149 380 | 46 135.2 | 60.6 | 86.0 | 74.6 | 44.17 | 50.92 | 190 | 142 381 | 39 140.1 | 63.7 | 91.5 | 76.4 | 44.78 | 53.63 | 185 | 150 384 | 45 138.9 | 62.6 | 92.5 | 76.3 | 44.91 | 54.44 | 180 | 156 386 | 25 141.1 | 66.9 | 91.6 | 74.2 | 43.06 | 53.16 | 181 | 143 389 | 30 140.6 | 63.1 | 91.0 | 77.5 | 45.53 | 53.47 | 182 | 151 392 | 27 136.3 | 66.6 | 88.0 | 69.7 | 41.96 | 52.98 | 173 | 150 393 | 31 144.9 | 67.5 | 95.2 | 77.4 | 43.12 | 53.04 | 181 | 148 3945 | 23 135.5 | 59.9 | 91.5 | 75.6 | 44.29 | 53.60 | 171 | 151 396 | 37 145.2 | 62.0 | 93.5 | 83.2 | 47.30 | 53.15 | 182 | 149 397 | 20 134.9 | 60.2 | 87.5 | 74.7 | 44.94 | 52.65 | 169 | 156 402 | 42 137.6 | 60.3 | 89.9 | 77.3 | 45.74 | 53.19 | 190 | 151 404 | 39 140.2 | 63.4 | 91.9 | 76.8 | 45.12 | 53.99 | 171 | 150 406 | 67 131.6 | 60.5 | 87.68| .... | .... | ... 2) 370 1 Tee 407 | 28 139.8 | 63.5 | 90.5 | 76.3 | 44.75 | 53.08 | 183 | 154 409 | 49 140.1 | 61.7 | 91.0 | 78.4 | 45.85 | 53.22 | 176 | 147 410 | 60 136.8 | 60.5 | 90.4 | 76.3 | 45.80 | 54.26 | 187 | 157 412 | 69 143.2 | 64.8 | 92.5 | 78.4 | 44.49 | 52.50 | 190 |'154 413°) *41 136.8 | 64.4 | 87.1 | 72.4 | 43.33 | 52:12 | 177 | 149 415 | 58 151.2 | 68.0 | 96.1 | 83.2 | 45.66 | 52.74 | 178 | 151 416 | 25 138.1 | 61.0 | 86.1 | 77.1 | 45.73 | 51.07 | 183 | 144 419 | 62 147.8 | 61.7 | 90.4 | 86.1 | 48.42 | 50.84 | 178 | 149 420 | 65 139.9 | 61.4 | 92.0 | 78.5 | 46.09 | 54.02 | 179 | 146 422 | 66 139.0 | 60.1 | 84.9 | 78.9 | 46.85 | 50.41 | 177 | 146 423 | 36 146.5 | 63.9 | 95.4 | 82.4 | 46.14 | 53.41 | 180 | 152 424 | 64 126.48| 50.66 | 76.99] .... | .... | .... | 174 | 146 9 | 33 149.0 | 69.0 | 92.0 | 80.0 | 44.25 | 50.88 | 198 | 159 5 Red Hawaiian “ Ehu.” § Measurements omitted from averages. APPENDIX 183 TABLE I (continued) Adult Males Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive — a ee oo fae BLS Nasal | Nasal ney Skin Hair Hair Eye Diam, | ton % thion | piam.| Ht. | Bth. 1 Color Color Form Color Strength Ht. Ht. rt. 136 117 | 86.03 | 62 AT 44 | 93.62 Black Wavy Brown 59 144 119 | 82.64 | 67 49 45 | 91.84 ‘ Curly Br+1 57 187 114 | 83.21 | 64 45 44 | 97.78 i Brown 58 128 114 | 89.06 | 62 A6 38 | 82.61 : Wavy Br+1 55 135 110 | 81.48 | 70 oo 41 | 78.85 e a Brown 82 138 113 | 81.88 | 64 49 46 93.88 a Straight Br+1 64 141 118 | 83.69 | 73 59 | 45) | 76.27 _ Curly Brown 65 136 122 | 89.70 | 68 49 46 93.88 : g " 54 139 121 | 87.05 | 68 50 42 84.00 ? Br+1 51 145 119 | 82.07 | 70 51 48 | 94.12 : - Br+1 39 136 122 | 89.70 | 71 Ba e477 8 . Wavy Brown 61 137 1221 89.05 | .72 49 AT 95.92 ~ Curly Br+1 54 135 | 114 | 84.44 | 64 48 | 48 |100.00 . Wavy Brown 61 141 129 | 91.49 | 78 59 42 | 71.19 : Curly Br+1 55 131 119 | 90.84 | 71 52 39 75.00 : Wavy Brown 51 132 125 | 94.70 | 67 53 47 | 88.68 : : Br+1 40 133 127 | 95.49 | 70 49 44 | 89.79 % 2 Brown 43 139 119 | 85.61 | 69 55 45 | 81.82 : Curly . 45 129 122 | 94.57 | 71 55 41 | 74.54 A Wavy Br+1 57 136 | 120 | 88.23 | 72 53.) 43 | 81.13 a Curly | Brown 49 128 119 | 92.97 | 73 55 41 | 74.54 : Wavy : 43 136 122 | 89.70 | 79 55 Aa TOcO0 lee. : . Curly : 52 141 121 | 85.81 | 75 57 42 |73.68| ... | Red Br. 3 : 62 133 112 | 84.21 | 67 51 42 | 82.35 Black Wavy Br-+1 Al 138 | 114 | 82.61 | 70 52°} 41 |'78.85 e Curly Brown 57 188° | 133 | 96:38 | 77 57 | 46 | 80.70 , Wavy Br+1 136 | 118 | 86.76 | 66 51 | 44 | 86.27 . Straight | Brown 141 121 | 85.81 | 67 50 51 |102.00 ry Wavy Br-1 141 118 | 83.69 | 67 49 46 93.88 e x Br+1 135 124 | 91.85 | 71 58 | 48 | 82.76 re : Br+1 vere och oes) FL 53 | 45 | 84.90 . “ Brown 137 138 |100.73 | 76 61 4A 7213 White . as 137 120 | 87.59 | 65 51 43 | 84.31 Black - 141 126 | 89.36 | 77 58 43 74.14 . . Br+1 133 117 | 87.97 | 66 50 44 | 88.00 a Curly Brown 139 121 | 87.05 | 62 53 44 | 83.02 : . Blue? 142 123 | 86.62 | 72 55 46 3.64 ‘ Wavy Br-1 130 | 121 | 93.08 | 65 49 | 42 | 85.71 2 : a 136 118 | 86.76 | 65 53 43 | 81.13 - Curly Br.+1 132 129 | 97.73 | 65 52 51 | 98.08 § Wavy Brown 155 134 | 86.45 | 83 63 45 | 71.43 Curly s 7 Recorded as ‘‘almost blue.” 184 APPENDIX TABLE I (continued) Immature Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. ; Height | Height | ,, . Index | Index Subject) Age |Weight| Stature of ‘Ac: ot Dac. Sittene | Length | Lenath | Sitting (Length| Breadth ee Ibs. % % Diam 29 | 17 176.0 | 145.0 | 69.0 | 94.0 | 76.0 | 43.18 | 53.41 | 185 123 30 |- 17 165.5 | 133.0 | 60.4 | 83.7 | 72.6 | 43.87 | 50.57 | 183 120 32 18 155.9 | 127.5 | 57.8 | 83.0 | 69.7 | 44.71 | 53.24 | 185 115 34 | 15 167.3 | 139.8 | 58.0 | 88.0 | 81.8 | 48.89 | 52.60 | 190 133 45 | 15 154.0 | 122.0 | 53.0 | 77.0 | 69.0 | 44.80 | 50.00 | 173 116 52 | 16 166.4 | 135.0 | 60.9 | 87.0 | 74.1 | 44.53 | 52.28 | 196 125 53 18 175.7 | 145.5 | 63.0 | 89.2 | 82.5 | 46.95 | 50.77 | 184 127 54 | iv |... | 154.7] 126.0] 58.0 | 79.5 | 68.0 | 43.96 | 51.39 | 183 121 123 | 19 | 150 | 155.2 | 133.3 | 58.2 | 89.2 | 75.1 | 48.39 | 57.47 | 182 123 13d eis 159.9 | 122.0] 51.9 | 73.6 | 70.1 | 43.84 | 46.03 | 171 110 494 16 159.8 | 131.1 | 58.7 | 81.3 | 72.4 | 45.31 | 50.88 | 169 Adult Females 168 43 ... | 162.5 | 1388.0 | 59.5 | 89.7 | 73.5 | 45.28 | 50.89) 181 | 159) Peres as 17 ~Jadult | ... | 164.5 | 134.5 | 63.3 | 84.0 | 71.2 | 43.28 | 51.06 | 180 | 161 89.44 | 115 18 | 21 |... | 151.5 | 124.0 | 53.7 | 81.0 | 70.3 | 46.40 | 53.46] 180 | 159 | 88.33 | 117 57 | 21 |... | 164.9 | 133.1 | 62.4 | 84.3 | 70.7 | 42.87] 51.12| 195 | 144 | 73.85 | 112 87 | 23 |115 | 166.8 | 137.5 | 64.0 | 85.8 | 73.5 | 44.06 | 51.44) 189 | 158 | $3.60 | 118 91 19 ... | 163.7 | 1383.1 | 63.2 | 87.3 | 69.9 | 42.70 | 53.33 | 192 | 153 | 79.69 | 124 101 | 46 |... | 164.2] 133.5] 61.9 | 90.6 | 71.6 | 43.61 | 55.18 | 181 | 154 | 85.08 | 115 104 48 ... | 169.2 | 140.8 | 64.2 | 87.3 | 76.6 | 45.27 | 51.59) 177 | 148 | 83.62) 114 105 | 67 |... | 161.5 | 133.2 | 61.8 | 87.8 | 72.4 | 44.83 | 54.36] 185 | 151 | 81.62 | 112 106 | 18 |... | 162.5] 132.3] 58.5 | 85.9 | 73.8 | 45.41 | 52.86] 184 | 152 | 82.61 | 193 107 53 ... | 166.2 | 135.3 | 62.0 | 88.4 | 73.3 | 44.10 | 53.19 | 184 | 151 82.07 | 117 108 | 47 |... | 156.6 | 128.6 | 61.0 | 82.4 | 67.6 | 43.17 | 52.62] 186 | 155 | 83.33 | 108 110 | 30 |... | 165.7 | 134.5 | 58.9 | 85.9 | 75.6 | 45.62 | 51.84] 178 | 145 | 81.46 | 116 112 31 ... | 162.3 | 129.8 | 59.8 | 88.1 | 70.0 | 43.13 | 54.28 | 196 | 154 | 78.57 113 153 23 147 | 163.6 | 134.5 | 62.0 | 83.1 | 72.3 | 44.19 | 50.79 | 183 | 159 | 86.89 | 115 161 19 158 | 160.0 | 131.9 | 59.6 | 86.4 | 72.3 | 45.19 | 54.00} 198 | 161 81.31 | 115 162 18 ... | 161.7 | 132.5 | 60.2 | 86.6 | 72.3 | 44.71 | 53.55 | 180 | 149 | 82.78 | 118 286 | 35 | 235 | 167.0 | 137.6 | 68.0 | 91.0 | 69.6 | 41.68 | 54.49| 171 | 152 | 88.89 287 51 160 | 160.9 | 131.5 | 60.5 | 86.0 | 71.5 | 44.44 | 53.45 | 175 | 147 | 84.00 289 22 158 | 163.9 | 135.0 | 61.8 | 87.9 | 73.2 | 44.66 | 53.63 | 179 | 148 | 82.68 294 23 140 | 157.9 | 197.1 | 65.6 | 87.7 | .... | ...5 | 65,640 es Oe 299 35 150 | 167.9 | 139.3 | 65.4 | 89.3 | 73.9 | 44.01 | 53.19 | 172 | 145 | 84.30 304 30 180 | 162.1 | 131.5 | 64.2 | 89.4 | 67.3 | 41.52 | 55.15 | 171 | 146 | 85.38 311 27 145 | 163.0 | 131.9 | 61.7 | 92.4 | 70.2 | 43.07 | 56.69 | 169 | 149 | 88.16 8 Sister of 6’ No. 4 (Hawaiian); mother of Nos. 17 and 18 following. APPENDIX : 185 TABLE I (continued) Immature Males Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive : Nasion iq] |Nasion! p; mB | Mens | nes | Foe | al |Npzal] Neel | Indes Be | EtG, (suena ‘ rt. lft. 144 115 | 53 41 | 77.36 Wavy Br+1 53-40 140 105 | 65 | 43 | 66.15 Br+1 39-40 139 112 | 57 39 | 68.42 y Brown | 30-29 147 122 | 55 40 | 72.73 i Br+1 56-50 137 110 | 48 | 40 | 83.33 Curly Brown | 26-24 144 122 | 56 39 | 69.64 v3 Br+1 54-54 145 121 | 61 39 | 63.93 Wavy Br.+1 A5 144 117 | 56 41 73.21 Curly Br+2 33-35 141 118 | 62 39 | 62.90 Wavy Br+1 52-58 136 1200) 48> 7-88. 1°79.17 Straight | Brown | 25-24 128 48 | 40 | 83.33 Straight | Br+1 34 Adult Females 144 122 | 84.72 | 64 112 | 52 39 | 75.00 | 47 Black | SI. curly Br+1 30-29 “ 142 114 | 80.28 | 63 112 | 54 39 | 72.22 | 24 : Wavy 27-25 140 109 | 77.85 | 65 | 112 | 47 42 | 89.36 | 40— V. curly Br+2 35-33 Soar eeoe.0o } fo 19113 | 52°) 41 «| 78.85] ... Wavy Brown | 25-19 142 124 | 87.32 | 71 123 | 55 42 | 76.36 | 24 2 ; Br+1 34-27 143 127 | 88.81 | 74 118 | 55 40 | 72.72 | 24 : Curly Br+2 29-34 148 127 | 85.81 | 72 123 | 57 45 | 78.94 | 23 ¥! 4 Brown | 25-24 146 121°} 82:87 | 70 124 | 57 4] 71,92 | 47— ‘ Wavy . 27-22 151 122 | 80.79 | 67 129 |. 50 44 | 88.00 | 47— Me Crinkly y 24-21 135 115 | 85.18 | 59 122 | 47 4] 87.23 | 47— = Frizzy Br+2 29-27 141 123 | 87.23 | 72 123 | 57 44 | 77.19 | 47— ¢ Wavy Br-+1 37-31 145 114 | 75.62 | 68 127 | 55 40 | 72.72 | 24 ey Crinkly re 22-18 133 125 | 93.98 | 72 117 | 49 are )75.01.) 23 Ks Straight | Br—1 35-26 144 ee oO.1 71 124 | 52 41 | 78.84 | 47— : Wavy Br+1 39-30 144 118 | 81.94 | 67 120 | 52 4] 78.84 | 23 _ : “ 26-17 141 125 | 88.65 | 71 116 | 53 39 | 73.58 | 47 . Frizzy § 30-31 138 113 | 81.88 | 62 118 | 49 40 81.63 | 24 ” Straight ic 35-33 133 113 | 84.96 | 61 Pe. [ae 49 {102.08} 17 fs Wavy i 32 138 120 | 86.96 | 67 a8 4) OF 48 | 88.89 | 14 - Wavy es 41 131 109 | 83.21 | 60 ue ho Sea 80.07 | 1G s Curly Brown 27 129.5} 111 | 85.71 | 60 ae, MBS Soap elie |. 16 : Wavy < 25 130 109 | 83.85 | 65 a ak 40 | 78.43 | 15 4 Br+1 s 207) 113 | 87.60 | 66° |... | 51 -| 43 | 84.81 | 15 : ‘ Brown 27 131 113 | 86.26 | 67 fd et 44 | 93.62 | 17 . 5 Br+1 Q4 186 APPENDIX TABLE I (continued) Adult Females Bodiiy Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. : Heicht.| Haicht ; Index | Index Ceph- | Min. Subject K Weicht| Statur vee rie Height | Arm | of Arm of Ht. Lenaitl Beewase alic | Fron- No. ge elg Ph cmon tylion Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting |4©™8 rea Index tal lbs. % % % Diam. 312 36 145 | 155.9 | 127.7 | 56.2 | 86.2 | 71.5 | 45.86 | 55.29! 170 | 148 | 87.06 318 29 190 | 166.0 | 138.0 | 64.2 | 86.4 | 73.8 | 44.46 | 52.05 | 172 | 148 | 86.05 319 48 ... | 164.0 | 136.2 | 63.3 | 85.9 | 72.9 | 44.45 | 52.38) 166 | 151 | 90.96 322 20 ... | 165.6 | 135.7 | 62.6 | 86.9 | 73.1 | 44.14 | 52.47) 164 | 144 | 87.80 324 20 174.1 | 145.0 | 64.7 | 89.2 | 80.3 | 46.12 | 51.23 | 175 | 146 | 83.43 331 18 112 | 154.7 | 126.4 | 59.0 | 82.4 | 67.4 | 43.57 | 53.26 | 167 | 146 | 87.42 338 26 126 | 160.4 | 131.3 | 60.6 | 85.9 | 70.7 | 44.08 | 53.55 | 181 | 188 | 76.24 427 30 138 | 157.5 | 128.6 | 59.9 | 83.4 | 68.7 | 43.62 | 52.95 | 179 | 145 | 81.00 459 35 ..« | 163.9 | 186.2 | 56.3 | 84.4 |..... | ....9) SUaOo Tie aie 464 46 ... | 155.3 | 127.2 | 59.3 | 82.0 | 67.9 | 43.72 | 52.80 | 180 | 154 | 85.55 Immature Females 20° 13 ... | 153.5 | 121.3 | 56.9 | 76.5 | 64.4 | 41.95 | 49.84 | 173 | 152 | 87.86 | 116 gi? 7 ... | 124.0 | 97.8 | 44.0 | 61.2 | 53.8 | 43.39 | 49.35 | 169 | 140 | 82.84] 11] 94 17 ... | 162.7 | 132.2 | 58.7 | 84.9 | 73.5 | 45.17 | 52.18 | 186 | 149 | 80.11 } 118 oii 14 ... | 157.1 | 125.4 | 54.8 | 80.6 | 70.6 | 44.50 | 51.30 | 186 | 146 | 78.49 | 112 113 9 ... | 128.5 | 102.6 | 46.4 | 62.3 | 56.2 | 43.73 | 48.48 | 172 | 146 | 84.88] 105 114 8 ... | 182.9 | 107.9 | 49.4 | 69.5 | 58.5 | 44.02 | 52.29 | 173 | 149 | 86.13 | 108 178 13 ... | 147.1 | 118.5 | 51.4 | 74.4 | 67.1 | 45.61 | 50.58 | 175 | 142 | 81.14) 103 195 13 ... | 185.7 | 108.0 | 47.2 | 72.4 | 60.8 | 44.80 | 53.35 | 174 | 149 | 85.63 | 112 199 17 ... | 171.3 | 139.4 | 61.3 | 88.0 | 78.1 | 45.59 | 51.57 | 182 | 152 | $352 1120 200 15 ... | 154.1 | 123.8 | 56.2 | 81.0 | 67.6 | 43.87 | 52.56 | 168 | 143 | 85.12 | 112 201 15 ... | 151.5 | 123.3 | 55.8 | 80.4 | 67.5 | 44.55 | 53.07 | 165 | 143 | 86.67 | 110 206 17 ... | 156.4 | 126.5 | 56.7 | 82.0 | 69.8 | 44.62 | 52.43 | 177 | 158 | 89.27 | 116 208 15 ... | 163.4 | 133.2 | 58.9 | 87.4 | 74.3 | 45.47 | 53.49 | 178 | 149 | 83.71 | 115 210 LZ ... | 154.8 | 123.8 | 54.9 | 84.4 | 68.9 | 44.51 | 54.52 | 175 | 153 | 87.43 | 113 212 16 ... | 151.6 | 122.7 | 53.8 | 82.9 | 68.9 | 45.45 | 54.68 | 179 | 144 | 80.45 | 118 216 16 ... | 153.2 | 122.2 | 55.1 | 79.8 | 67.1 | 43.80 | 52:09) 177 | T44 eerie ie 218 15 ... | 150.2 | 120.7 | 50.8 | 82.1 | 69.9 | 46.54 | 54.66 | 180 | 156 | 86.67 | 117 220 17 ... | 163.3 | 185.2 | 62.8 | 86.9 | 72.4 | 44.383 | 53.21 | 182) 162 eo ioena iy 224 17 ... | 161.5 | 130.1 | 57.3 | 84.7 | 72.8 | 45.08 | 52.45 | 170 | 140 | 82.35 | 112 229 17 ... | 159.0 | 128.7 | 57.3 | 85.0 | 71.4 | 44.90 | 53.46 | 171 | 154 | 96.06 | 107 235 16 ... | 162.1 | 132.8 | 60.9 | 88.3 | 71.9 | 44.60 | 54.47) 178 | 152 | 85.39 | 117 236 16 ... | 151.5 | 120.9 | 53.8 | 81.9 | 67.1 | 44.29 | 54.06 | 177 | 156 | 88.147) 110 237 16 ... | 152.0 | 121.8 | 52.9 | 80.3 | 68.9 | 45.33 | 52.83 | 171 | 148 | 86.55 | 110 240 16 .». | 152.5 | 123.8 | 54.3 | 79.3 | 69.5 | 45.57 | 52.00 | 171 | 152 | 88.89 | 112 241") 16 ... | 154.0 | 123.5 | 55.3 | 78.6 | 68.2 | 44.29 | 51.04] 180 | 151 | 83.89 | 111 242 16 ... | 153.7 | 122.8 | 56.2 | 84.0 | 66.6 | 43.33 | 54.65 | 175 | 148 | 84.57 | 107 9 Daughter of Q No. 19 (Hawaiian). 10 Daughter of Q No. 17. 11 Nos. 241 and 247 are sisters. Nasion Men- ton Ht. APPENDIX TABLE I (continued) Adult Females Face Measurements in Mm. Index Facial |Nasion| Bigo- Pros- a thion . Ht Diam. nial Nasal Nasal |} Nasal Skin Bth, Index %, Color Hair Color Descriptive 187 Eye Color Strength rtemtes a nf ff ft sf ef ff | Ef St 109 108 113 114 127 101 114 113 109 116 80.74 72.31 86.33 93.23 84.38 82.71 90.40 84.25 84.29 80.14 87.41 86.96 86.76 86.03 83.09 79.29 84.56 81.29 78.68 82.76 84.44 84.17 84.78 84.40 87.21 58 64 66 65 69 59 63 69 62 60 67 55 71 74 68 67 65 61 68 70 74 70 70 72 64 66 70 64 60 TA 67 70 68 72 72 98 100 115 109 101 107 113 111 119 123 130 122 122 133 123 129 123 128 123 138 123 119 124 127 118 50 41 53 54 48 54 50 43 60 54 50 57 54 50 51 49 51 53 49 49 57 48 54 54 56 54 4] PL.1iy 24 38 | 76.00 | 13 42 | 85.71 | 14 38 | 74.51 | 15 39 4).70.91"| 12 38 | 86.36 | 13 98° 0179,17 ) 11 38 | 80.85 39 | 88.64 47 | 87.04 lmmature Females 34 | 68.00 | 23 34 | 82.93 | 40— 40) | 75.47 | 47— 40 | 74.07 | 24 ot 117.08. | 47 — 36 | 66.67 | 47 37 =| 74.00 | 47 41 | 95.35 | 23-4 38 | 63.33 | 47 38 | 70.37 | 23 34 | 68.00 | 47 39 | 68.42 | 23— 35 | 64.81 | 23 41 | 82.00 | 47— 39 | 76.47 | 24 43 | 87.76 | 24 44 | $6.27 | 24 39 | 73.58 | 24 39 =| 79.59 | 24 37 =6| 75.51 | 24 40 | 70.18 | 24 37 =| 77.08 | 24 39 | 72.22 | 23 41 | 75.93 | 47 43 | 76.79 | 24— 35 | 64.81 | 24 Br+1 Black (% Br+1 Black Br+1 Black “ Red Br Black Wavy Straight Wavy Curly Wavy Frizzy Curly Wavy Curly Wavy Straight Wavy Curly Wavy a9 “ “ Straight Wavy “ Br+1 Brown Br+1 “ & “ Brown Brown Br+1 Brown Br+2 Br+1 Brown Br+1 “ Brown Br+1 Brown Br+1 “ Brown Br+1 Brown “ “ Br-1 Br+1 Brown Br+1 Brown Brown Br-1 32 29 27 27 33 21 31 19-13 10-9 25-23 22-25 T= 7 14-10 19-14 18-12 44-37 26-23 25-17. 22-25 39-35 28-21 22-20 24-23 24-17 31-28 30-31 25-17 32-30 31-26 21-19 24-20 29-27 20-26 188 Subject No. 243 246 Q4'711 256 257 258 261 266 267 268 270 429 Age Weight] Stature lbs. 153.0 157.5 155.3 132.2 151.5 154.2 145.0 153.9 147.0 151.8 ava Wlov.g 118 | 155.5 APPENDIX TABLE TI (continued) Immature Females Bodily Measurements in Cm. romion 125.1 125.8 127.8 107.5 122.4 122.8 115.4 124.4 120.8 124.8 127.8 124.4 ght of Dac- Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting tylion 0; % 55.5 53.4 57.9 45.2 54,2 53.4 50.4 55.0 55.5 56.6 58.5 56.9 Height 84.9 81.8 83.0 69.2 17.9 83.4 15.6 80.6 78.4 85.3 85.1 80.7 Arm 69.6 72.4 69.9 62.3 68.2 69.4 65.0 69.4 65.3 68.2 69.3 67.5 Index Index of Arm| of Ht. 45.49 45.97 45.01 A713 45.02 45.01 44.83 45.09 4442 44.93 44.00 43.41 55.49 51.94 53.44 52.34 51.42 54.09 52.14 52.37 53.33 56.19 54.03 51.90 Head Measurements in Mm. ee ag Breadth trace % 85.44 86.11 THLE 97.62 87.57 84.66 90.12 90.29 90.06 92.09 84.62 83.43 Min. Fron- tal Diam. 107 111 113 110 109 111 111 111 110 108 115 a APPENDIX 189 TABLE I (continued) Immature Females Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive : _ |Nasion ial |Nasion| Bigo- Bizygo- /Mfen”| Facial tne?) Bigo- | vaca | Nast | Nase an cn Diam. ie % re Thiam, | 2t-*| Bth. % Color trengt Ue i —_——_— |———<_<—— |__|. | |S | Ss YS | ) J Ss S | 142 114 | 80.28 | 65 124 | 47 41 87.23 Black 21-20 143 119 | 83.22 | 71 125 | 49 35 | 71.43 e 93-22 139 122° | 87.77 | 75 123 | 58 45 | 77.59 Br+1 29-21 134 111 | 82.84 | 66 120 | 50 37 =| 74.00 cs 22-17 Por tdi) 7o0 | 66 | 119 | 49 | 37 | 75.51 Black 20-20 139 118 | 84.89 | 72 118 | 55 39 | 70.91 NN 31-28 137 112 | 81.75 | 66 121 | 49 38 | 77.55 Brown | Straight 20-15 140 113 | 80.71 | 66 122 | 49 42 | 85.71 Black Wavy 29-20 145 115 | 79.31 | 64 133 | 49 41 83.67 Curly 26-24, 143 117 | 81.82 | 68 130 | 51 40 | 78.43 Straight | Br—1 20-22 Paoeeter iis) 54.1770 | 125 | 50 | 37 | 74.00 Wavy Brown | 34-27 127 ... | 85.83 | 58 ee ae oo 6) 88.10 190 Subject No. Age TABLE II. PURE CHINESE APPENDIX Adult Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. Height | Height Weight} Stature of Ac- |of Dac- lbs. romion | tylion Height Index Arm | of Arm Sitting |Length | Length Jo Index of Ht Sitting Length| Breadth] [pdex Ceph- alic To Min. Fron- tal Diam. 63 64 73 169 172 173 174 365 369 126 170 295 332 118 122 20 20 20 50 51 35 45 34 32 16 12 19 15 18 16 39 22 22 16 18 137 144 126 110 153 130 110 101 118 103 94 100 164.3 | 1383.5 | 58.0 | 86.2 | 75.5 | 45.95 171.0 | 187.5 | 63.2 | 87.6 | 74.3 | 43.45 169.3 | 135.5 | 62.8 | 93.8 | 72.7 | 42.94 160.8 | 131.2 | 56.5 | 87.3 | 74.7 | 46.45 159.4 | 128.5 | 57.2 | 90.0 | 71.3 | 44.73 169.2 | 135.3 | 60.6 | 90.3 | 74.7 | 44.15 154.9 | 126.0 | 57.5 | 81.1 68.5 | 44.22 165.9 | 135.5 | 59.2 | 85.7 | 76.3 | 45.99 170.0 | 137.3 | 58.9 | 88.8 | 78.4 | 46.12 Immature Males 162.0 | 133.0 | 60.0 | 83.7 | 73.0 | 45.06 127.0 | 101.0 | 46.6 | 65.7 | 54.4 | 42.83 167.4 | 136.5 | 59.8 | 87.0 | 76.7 | 45.82 154.0 | 184.0 | 54.9 | 80.5 | 79.1 | 51.36 163.4 | 1382.3 | 57.4 | 82.3 | 74.9 | 45.84 160.1 | 132.0 | 63.5 | 88.4 68.5 | 42.79 Adult Females 153.6 | 125.3 | 54.9 | 80.8 | 70.4 | 45.83 151.4 | 124.1 | 59.4 | 81.8 | 64.7 | 42.73 84.9 | 70.7 | 44.19 160.0 | 134.0 | 63.3 Immature Females 157.9 | 126.1 | 57.9 160.2 | 131.5 | 60.2 86.5 86.9 68.2 | 43.19 71.3 | 44.51 51.67 51.73 51.97 52.27 50.37 55.21 52.60 54.03 53.06 54.78 54.24 184 185 200 190 197 190 194 181 174 178 169 192 182 179 195 176 165 164 186 178 158 145 152 152 153 144 146 138 133 143 149 (ith 83.78 73.00 81.05 74.11 82.10 81.44 77.35 82.18 88.76 85.80 79.16 83.51 85.47 73.84 82.95 | 83.64 81.10 76.88 83.70 115 122 123 112 115 119 117 120 119 121 112 123 116 119 115 112 APPENDIX 191 TABLE II. PURE CHINESE Adult Males Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive Facial |Nasion Bigo- Nasal ; - : Nasal | Nas Sk Hai Hai E E Kade | | el |e] pe] Index |ahin| Ba | Bi | Ese, senate 96.96 | 80 110 | 56 41 Lovee Black | Straight} Brown |36-37| 0 85.41 | 76 118 | 55 40 72.73 | 47 ‘: , Br-+1 | 48-48] 0 92.19 | 74 115 | 55 40 | 72.73 | 23 Me . Brown | 58-60 | + 84.24 | 71 134 | 55 45 81.82 |24— = a by 41-37 | — 85.29 | 64 116 | 52 43 82.69 | 24 ” : Br—1 |34-20| 0 93.75 | 74 1221-52 42 80.771 °23 e ‘ Brown | 40-39| — 00.57 | 71 125 1 G1 44 86.27 |23— “ % Br—1 |38-41} + 91.60 | 72 49 38 TT Oo : > Brown 54 + 56.76 | 66 45 41 91.11 ne MY 32 0 Immature Males 141 VO 1.35.11 1-70 120 | 54 40 74.07 i < Black |44-31| 0 130 113 | 86.92 | 68 114 | 47 36 TOMO hess a by = 9-8 0 149 119 | 79.86 | 72 114 | 53 39 73.08 | 23 * | Brown | 58-48} ++ 110 110 |100.00| 70 112 | 55 39 70.91 |47— Ys : Br+1 | 24-25} 0 141 12) | 85.81 | 71 121 | 54 39 Vee ee ri 3 Brown | 47-45 | + 126 125 | 99.20 | 72 mo Un es a Mars 42 79.24 | 4 4 L, Br+2 | 43-28) + Adult Females 135 114 | 84.44 | 67 127 | 52 A] 78.85 | 23 Y i Brown | 30-25} + 125.5 | 102 | 81.27 | 62 40 36 90.00 Br+1 ~ ce celia: 27 + 127 100 | 78.74 | 59 45 34 75.55 Black i Br+1 rAd 0 Immature Females 135 118 | 87.40 | 69 107 | 47 34 72.34 | 23 is = Br+1 |23-20| + 137 117 | 85.40 | 70 116-1781 34 66.67 | 23 $ : Brown |25-21| + 1 In describing the eye fold the following abbreviations are used: -++ present; — absent; 0 no record; = slight. 192 APPENDIX TABLE III. F, HAWAIIAN X CHINESE HYBRIDS BETWEEN HawallaAN AND SoutH CHINESE Adult Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 1 Brother of No. 28. 70.5 Se | Age ae Height | Height | sont] Arm | of Acm | of He ee | ode eight) Stature |v nion tylion | Sitting | Length | Length | Sitting Length| Breadth) Index tal lbs. % % % Diam. 184 Q1 123 | 157.8 | 129.2 | 65.9 | 82.3 | 73.3 146.45 | 5215 ies $2.51 | Lil 370 48 171 | 176.2 | 144.5 | 67.3 | 93.5 | '77.2 | 43.81 | 53.06 | 165 93.33 378 ieee 110 | 157.1 | 126.7 | 60.0 | 86.5 | 66.7 | 42.46 | 55.06 | 176 80.11 411 48 167 | 171.5 | 1389.4 | 64.5 | 92.2 | 74.9 | 43.67 | 53.76 | 176 88.07 Immature Males 22 15 166.7 | 136.0 | 62.0 | 82.2 | 74.0 | 44.39 | 49.31 | 183 | 158 86.33 | 117 28 15 157.5 | 127.5 | 56.0 | 79.4 | 71.5 | 45.40 | 50.41 | 166 | 156 93.97 | 116 31! 19 169.0 | 137.5 | 66.3 | 91.5 | 71.2 | 42.13 | 54.14 | 188 | 162 86.17 | 127 56 t hg 165.0 | 135.9 | 61.8 | 85.3 | 74.1 | 44.91 | 51.70 | 176 | 157 89.20 | 125 75 17 ... | 160.4 | 180.5 | 58.5 | 80.7 | 72.0 | 44.89 | 50.31 | 170 | 153 90.00 | 113 155 16 126 | 158.8 | 129.0 | 62.3 | 86.2 | 66.7 | 42.00 | 54.28 | 177 | 152 85.87 | 119 166 19 162 | 176.8 | 143.5 | 61.8 | 91.6 | 81.7 | 46.27 | 51.81 | 200 | 155 77.50 | 121 354 19 132 | 160.7 | 132.6 | 60.6 | 86.9 | 72.0 | 44.80 | 54.07 | 171 | 148 SO;55 1 vies 471 17 112 | 153.6 | 124.6 | 54.8 | 81.7 | 69.8 | 45.44 |'53.19 | 174 | 138 79.31 485 bee 105 | 165.1 | 135.5 | 64.2 | 84.0 | 71.3 | 43.19 | 50.87 | 165 | 144 87.27 Adult Females 5* 40 . | 161.0] 132.0 | 61.8 | 84.5 | 70.2 | 43.60 | 52.48 | 175 | 152 86.85 | 120 88 18 . | 157.8 | 125.2 | 54.3 | 83.8 |} 70.9 | 44.93 | 53.107 173 (aise 88.43 | 114 120 Q1 114 | 160.8 | 131.9 | 62.6 | 86.5 | 69.3 | 43.1 | 53.79 | 182 | 148 81.31 | 107 196 18 ... | 161.6 | 129.5 | 59.2 | 84.7 | 70.3 | 43.5 | SAD IFS aioe 87.86 | 118 292 19 110 | 160.7 | 131.0| 61.3 | 84.9 | 69.7 | 43.37 | 52.83 | 163 | 133 81.59 300 39 115 | 155.4 | 126.9 | 61.5 | 89.9 | 65.4 | 42.08 | 57.85 | 162 | 145 89.51 320 23 96 | 148.0 | 121.2 | 57.3 | 81.5 | 63.9 | 43.17 | 55.07 | 157 | 136 86.62 Se 24 154 | 168.7 | 138.0 | 62.2 | 90.4 | 75.8 | 44.93 | 53.59 | 169 | 149 88.16 340 32 102 | 150.3 | 124.3 | 56.7 | 82.0 | 67.6 | 44.98 | 54.56 | 162 | 145 89.51 452 28 122°} 157.7 | 128.9 ee 85.6 Meese 49.52 | 54.28 | 172 | 137 79.65 502 35 139 | 150.9 | 120.6 | 55.8 | 79.0 | 64.8 | 42.94 | 52.35 | 164 | 142 86.58 Immature Females 262 14 ... | 149.6 | 121.2 | 54.3 | 78.5 | 66.9 | 44.72 | 52.47 | 179 | 146 81.56 | 109 443 We 134 | 151.2 | 121.3 | 54.5 | 84.1 | 66.8 | 44.18 | 55.62 | 165 | 136 82.42 435 We 100 | 154.5 | 124.8 | 54.3 | 82.3 45.63 | 53.27 | 161 | 140 86.95 2 Wife of No. 4 (Hawaiian), mother of Nos. 6-15 (Backcross F: Hawaiian). Face Measurements in Mm. TABLE III. APPENDIX F, HAWAIIAN X CHINESE HYBRIDS BETWEEN HawallAN AND SoutH CHINESE Adult Males Descriptive 193 : Nasion ia] |Nasion| B; rogue (Mex: [index | foe | nual | Net Nesal| Index | hin EEN UE Veena ae Ht. HE. 139 117 | 84.17 | 70 119 | 52 43 82.69 Wavy | Brown |36-29| — 143 116 | 81.12 | 66 54 36 66.67 - Br-1 39 st 130 111 | $5.38 | 63 48 38 79.17 Straight | Brown 4] 0 136 119 | 87.50 | 72 53 AO | 75.47 Curly y 0 Immature Males 143 116 | 81.11 | 81 112 | 58 45 77.59 | 40 uy Straight} Brown |35-32| 0 138 118 | 85.50 | 69 hid) OS 37 69.81 | 23 Sl wavy . 45-38 | 0 146 138 | 94.52 | 87 111 | 58 JBea| Co.ne | 23 i - . 51-44] 0 149 119 | 79.86 | 70 1S} 53 42 79.24 | 47 rs Wavy Br+1 |40-41] — 138 119 | 86.23 | 71 108 | 49 37 75.01 | 23 # Straight} Brown | 29-28| 0 144 113 | 78.47 | 68 120 | 49 Oley 10-01) 20 % Slwavy| Br+1 |32-28) = 148 126 | 85.13 | 73 128 | 52 41 78.85 Br+1 | Straight] Brown |54-47| + 129 | 109 | $4.50 | 65 50 | 40 | 80.00 Blak {| “ | Brti | oO | + 128 | 101 | 78.91 | 61 44 | 88 | 86.36 : ‘ é 49 | + 128 | 107 | 83.59 | 56 43 | 87 | 86.05 Brt+1 | “ | Brown = Adult Females 138 109 | 78.98 | 63 113 | 49 36 73.47 | 47 | Black 5 Brown | 22-20} — 136 111 | 81.60 | 68 Pioeical 42 82.35 | 47 : Br+1 | 26-25) = 134 115 | 85.82 | 68 117 | 49 39 79.59 | 24 3 - Brown | 28-23| = 144 115 | 79.86 | 67 123 |. 51 ~|-36 70.59 | 24 y Wavy Br+1 1-9 | — 124 101 | 81.45 | 62 AS 3 83.72 1-16 “Y Wiry Brown 29 0 126 99 | 78.57 | 63 49 39 79.59 8 Ky Straight} Br-+-1 20 0 124 102 | 82.26 | 62 45 36 80.60 | 15 if F : 26 0 136 117 | 86.03 | 65 50 40 80.00 | 14 ms “ A3 a 127 107 | 84.25 | 62 43 40 93.02 | 10 . Brown 20 0 127 117 | 92.12 | 65 46 36 =| 78.26 . o Br+1 + 127 109 | 85.83 | 68 47 of Coeds 2 4 Brown ob Immature Females 132 106 | 80.30 | 61 |_116 | 45 43 95.55 | 24 : Wavy | Brown | 23-20} 0 123 107 | 86.99 | 56 39 39 {100.00 sd Straight} Br-++1 0 126 109 | 86.51 | 67 46 oi 80.43 3 Wavy 0 en 194 Subject No. 61 315 446 160 250 479 158 193 383 73 10° 297 326 339 453 63 93 42 191 461 472 466 469 Age 21 38 18 17 16 15 25 adult 19 23 19 23 20 20 23 Weight} Stature lbs. 120 168 123 ‘175 175 163 128 149 129 145 100 102 132 121 165.4 158.0 149.0 173.0 163.0 166.8 160.7 153.0 160.5 167.4 153.6 153.9 111.5 141.4 165.0 115.5 152.4 160.9 172.2 156.5 APPENDIX TABLE III (continued) F, Hawaman X CHINESE Adult Females Bodily Measurements in Cm. Height | Height Index of Ac- | of Dac-| els Arm_ | of Arm romion | tylion | Sitting | Length | Length J 126.8 | 62.3 130.2 | 61.7 131.2 | 60.7 64.5 | 40.72 68.5 | 42.84 70.5 | 44.15 Immature Females 135.3 | 63.6 | 86.3 | 71.7 | 43.35 127.5 | 57.3 | 86.2 | 70.2 | 44.43 121.0 | 55.5 | 76.9 | 65.5 | 43.96 Bacxcross F; X Hawatrran Adult Males 141.0 | 63.2 | 85.3 | 77.8 | 44.97 133.5 | 59.3 | 86.6 | 74.2 | 45.52 135.0 | 58.9 | 85.9 | 76.1 | 45.62 | Adult Females 128.5 | 57.8 | 85.9 | 70.7 | 43.99 122.5 | 55.0 | 83.0 | 67.5 | 44.12 130.4 | 60.0 | 84.3 | 70.4 | 43.86 137.4] 59.3 | 88.9 | 78.1 |.46.65 125.4 | 58.0 | 83.9 | 67.4 | 43.88 125.8 | 58.8 | 82.6 | 67.0 | 43.53 Immature Males 139.8 | 63.5 | 89.5 | 76.3 | 44.49 112.0 | 49.9 | 75.5 | 62.1 | 43.92 132.0 | 59.0 | 85.0 | 73.0 | 44.24 90.5 | 42.1 | 64.5 | 48.4 | 41.90 124.8 | 54.7 | 77.3 | 70.1 | 46.00 130.8 | 58.2 | 82.9 | 72.6 | 45.12 139.4 | 61.8 | 87.0 | 77.6 | 45.06 128.5 | 55.8 | 81.7 | 72.7 | 46.45 Index of Ht. Sitting (7) 52.53 53.91 51.97 52.18 54.56 51.61 49.31 53.13 51.50 53.45 54.25 52.52 53.11 54.62 53.67 52.19 53.39 51.51 55.84 50.72 51.52 50.52 52.20 Head Measurements in Mm. Length] Breadth} [ydex 184 178 170 178 186 195 i 183 175 170 159 165 195 195 178 161 or fi 176 172 161 139 148 141 150 155 138 163 147 147 151 140 151 141 135 142 149 145 158 145 146 136 138 138 Canuc alte % 79.43 86.55 82.46 81.52 87.08 81.18 91.57 79.03 75.38 84.83 76.50 86.29 82.94 84.91 86.06 76.41 74.36 88.76 90.06 85.38 id Bee | 80.23 85.71 Min. Fron- tal Diam. 107 116 114 137 118 127 E165) 125 122 ty 100 8 Children of 2 No. 5 (F; Hawaiian X Chinese) X oO No. 4 (Hawaiian). APPENDIX 195 TABLE III (continued) F, Hawattan X CHINESE Adult Females Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive Bizygo- Nasion| Facial i i pe Nasal : : : Men- Nasal | Nasal H H E E Dh ton ee ion ; Ht. | Bth. ome Catce pect Color [Strength pola ie 130 109 51 35 68.63 Black | Straight] Br+1 |26-19| — 131 111 ea ea? | 42 | 82.35 * ‘ . 20 0 125 110 Ar 37 ab ror? “ : sf 0 Immature Females 135 | 113 | 83.70 | 68. | 105 | 48. | 34 | 70.83 |23—| Brown | Wavy | Br—1 | 28-23] — 144 122 | 84.72 | 75 126 | 57 45 | 78.95 | 23 | Black y Brown | 32-28} + 119 101 | 84.87 | 57 Bek 130 S623) C2 Bic... « cf Br+1 + Bacxcross F; X Hawattan Adult Males 154 116 | 75.32 | 69 PT NEGS 43 | 78.18 | 23 3 Curly 9 60-43 | — 147 126 | 85.71 | 73 132 | 52 43 | 82.69 | .. Me Wavy | Brown |48-36| + 142 124 | 87.32 | 67 ee be 46 | 88.46 | .. = Curly Br+1 45 + Adult Females 143 101-7 77.62 | 68 =| 104 | 51 40 | 78.43 |40— i S Brown | 25-20} — 139 106 | 76.26 | 61 107 | 46 40 | 86.96 |40— = “ Br+1 | 22-23) — 135 109 | 80.74 | 64 in Pes 4 41 78.85 | 13 . Straight | Brown 206 4. 130 112 | 86.15 | 66 ese Ae 389 | 82.98 | 15 ¢ Wavy | Br+1 29 0 126 103 | 81.75 | 61 PE 4 38 | 90.48 | 12 us Straight o 25 4. 130 116 | 89.23 | 63 ee eou 42 |84.00] .. a Wavy M: “- Immature Males 142 118° 83.11 | 71 Basia, [Oo 40 75.47 |46—| Black Curly | Brown | 50-49] — 139 107 | 76.98 | 62 ... | 45 44 97.78 | 40 = Straight; Br-+1 /|21-18/ — 140 113 | 80.71 | 68 ee GOT 40 70.17 | 39 : Wavy Br+2 | .. + 125 100 | 80.00 | 65 SOS ents} 33 86.84 | .. . Br+1 A 127 116 | 91.34 | 71 Peeniou 41 B20 i. “s Curly : fe, + 126 | 106 | 84.13 | 64 pe i45 |) 88° 8444 7. : Wavy | Brown | 38 | + 129 114 | 88.37 | 69 ‘cual ey 36 1ODa lt X, > Straight} Br+1 + 129 109 | 84.50 | 62 ee Bey 4] ff Od | Rae 5 . s + 196 APPENDIX TABLE III (continued) Immature Females Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. Height | Height Index | Index Ceph- | Min. j : Height | A f A f Ht. li Fron- oh chee Age | Weight} Stature ie oa Sitting lees ek Siege Length] Breadth ica tal lbs. % % % Diam 118 9 Behe 103.0 | 44.3 | 70.3 58.7 | 44.64 | 53.46 | 190 71.05 | 106 123 5 ae 83.5 | 33.8 | 58.2 | 49.77 | 46.23 | 54.14 | 176 77.84 1 101 133 10 — 104.0 | 46.0 HAeS 58.0 | 44.44 | 54.64 | 167 88.62 | 114 95 14 Se 128.5 | 59.6 83.6 68.9 | 44.17 | 53.59 | 167 87.43 | 116 995 ili PN 121.8 | 52.4 78.5 69.4 | 45.39 | 51.34 | 170 87.65 | 111 227 17 ae 125.5 | 57.3 84.8 68.2 | 43.89 | 54.57 | 190 77.89 | 106 239 17 Pea 131.2 | 61.7 87.3 69.5 | 438.01 | 54.02 | 171 89.47 | 112 Q45 16 Soap 128.8 | 57.7 87.0 71.1 | 44.55 | 54.51 | 174 94.25 | 113 951 15 as: 124.8 | 54.3 81.2 | 70.5 | 45.90 | 52.86 | 173 82.08 | 103 959 ily Lee 122.0 | 52.8 80.5 69.2 | 46.13 | 53.67 | 171 84.80 | 112 Q71 13 as 121.4 | 51.0 76.0 70.4 | 47.41 | 51.18 | 182 78.57 | 118 Bacxcross F, X CHINESE Males 80 15 ... | 145.4 1117.9 | 49.9 74.6 68.0 | 46.77 | 51.31 | 178 | 148 83.15 | 117 376 29 150 | 170.9 | 140.2 | 64.0 91.0 76.2 | 44.59 | 53.25 | 173 | 153 88.44 Females 964 16 16622 a1 e561 84.1 69.6 | 44.85 | 54.19 | 175 | 148 84.57 | 112 428 16 90 | 147.3 | 119.2 | 57.0 76.9 62.2 | 42.23 | 52.21 | 166 | 1382 79.52 ‘455 16 Pe MILD eo ALe3 Te topes’ 76.4 67.7 | 44.77 | 50.51 | 164 | 139 84.76 OrserR HawatAN-CuHinese Mixtures 4 Males 395 34 136 | 172.8 | 141.0 | 65.1 92.5 75.9 | 43.92 | 53.53 | 171 | 146 85.38 353 18 135 | 168.0 | 138.2 |} 59.9 85.6 78.3 | 46.61 | 50.95 | 174 | 134 77.01 Females 969 14 ... | 158.0 | 128.9 | 57.8 | 82.8 71.1 | 45.00 | 52.41 | 181 | 146 80.66 | 116 335 18 138 | 173.3 | 142.3 | 67.8 | 88.7 | 74.5 | 42.99 | 51.18 | 171 | 141 | 82.46 440 18 110 | 156.9 | 127.3 | 56.6 | 84.1 | 70.7 | 45.06 | 53.60 | 172 | 139 | 80.81 474 16 121 | 160.5 | 130.3 | 59.1 | 83.3 | 69.3 | 43.18 | 51.90 | 180 | 1387 | 76.11 488 18 135 | 165.4 | 133.6 | 58.0 | 86.9 | 75.6 | 45.71 | 52.54 | 180 | 143 | 79.44 500 17 ... | 158.0 | 128.2 | 58.9 | 81.4 | 69.3 | 43.86 | 51.52 | 169 | 144 | 85.21 4 Ancestry doubtful; probably $ to } Chinese. APPENDIX 197 TABLE III (continued) Immature Females Face Measurements in Mm. Descriptive kd hae ee eae ae Nasal | Nasal hee Skin Hair Hair Eye Eye Diam. a %, Gas Dame) fl. | Bth. gy, |Color| Color Form Color [Strength Fold 123 101 64 47 35 74.47 | 40 | Black Kinky | Br+1 /|14-12} — 127 98 57 3 | 41 34 82.93 | 23 = Straight | Br+2 deed (aN os 137 | 100 61 46 | 38 | 82.61 | 23 : 3 Brown |10-9 | — 138 107 66 55 37 67.27 |47— “s Wavy . 23-20 | -+- 139 114 66 51 40 78.43 | 23 i 23—10)) -— 142 114 69 53 40 | 75.47 |23—| Red br - Br—1 |30-32| 0 142 111 70 53 39 73.59 | 24 | Black | Straight] Brown |30-27| — 142 120 73 55 38 69.09 | 24 | Br+1 Curly . 28-25 | = 129 113 73 52 38 | 73.08 | 24 | Black Wavy i 17-16| = 138 113 69 A5 37 82.22 | 23 | Br+1 a Br—1 |19-13| + 133 _| 117 72 51 | 41 | 80.39 | 23 a Straight | Brown | 26-23) + Bacxcross F, * CHInesEe Males 140 116 | 82.86 | 69 112 | 53 38 71.70 |39—| Black Wavy . 33-34] — 141 112 | 79.43 | 69 ee 53 43 Olek Omens x Curly Br+1 48 — Females 142 109 | 76.76 | 65 128 | 48 36 75.00 | 24 . Straight} Br-++-1 |31-25; + 122 115 | 94.26 | 60 peer Ie Ac 38 88.37 ee ape Power + 122 107 | 87.70 | 58 Ber ad st SOMMER Wire ore al etree Black | Straight} Br-+1 -+ OrgaEeR HawarAn-Cutnese Mrxturss 4 Males 131 118 | 90.08 | 68 hee 52 36 6923 sae . Brown 56 oe 127 125 | 98.438 | 79 are 53 AA 83.02) .. - Wavy es 42 + Females 141] 112 | 79.43 | 65 122 | 46 41 89.13 | 24 “ Straight . 29-23) + 129 107 | 82.95 | 61 oe AT 42 89.36 | .. is “ Br+1 -+ 125 105 | 84.00 | 61 ne A 39 OT ebO MOR. Y Wavy Br+1 -+ 121 111 | 91.73 | 66 Be 46 39 oeiliel IL oe is Straight Br+1 + 128 113 | 88.28 | 67 ee apes 37 Ves ri Al ures sat “ Br+1 + 120 | 105 | 87.50 | 60 ee ao leoo iat. |) Black ‘s St 198 APPENDIX TABLE IV. HAWAIIAN WHITE HYBRIDS Adult F,; Males Bodily Measurements in Cm. Head Measurements in Mm. 4 a i] oO x3) Pedigree | # ae ee a = (5 5 ® pal falls a> 2 “oS © = a -eq = [sf] mo ws i) 3 o dg 2 o om 6 = & or) q uv Org pet ee s 5,0 80 On vo os vu i OF is Fa ne