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ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIOUS FASCIA 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HUMAN BOHY; 
 
 The DiscoTeries of the Manner in which the Pericardium is formed fi'om the Superficial 
 Fascia; the Capsular Ligament of the Shoulder Joint from the Brachial Fascia; and the 
 Capsular Ligament of the Hip Joint from the Fascia Lata. 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF SOME IRREGULARITIES OF STRUCTURE 
 
 AST) 
 
 MORBID ANATOMY; 
 
 WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW 
 
 ASTATOMICAZ. TABLE. 
 
 ♦- 
 
 BY JOHN D. GODMAN, M. D. 
 
 LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY; 
 
 EDITOE OP THE JOUBNAt OF FOREIGN MEDICIKE ; PROFESBOB OP PHT9IOL06Y 
 TO THE PHILADELPHIA MUSEUM ; MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OP NATURAL 
 SCIENCES ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETIES OF PHILADEL* 
 PHIA, MARYLAND, BALTIMORE, LEXINGTON, CINCINNATI, PITTSBURG, &C. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 H. C. CAREY & I. LEA.—CHESNUT STREET. 
 
 Ts2l 
 
EASTERN DISTRICT OP PENNSYLVANIA, TO AVIT : 
 
 BE n' REMEMBERED, that on the eighteenth day of 
 A $ June, in tlie forty-eighth year of the Independence of the 
 
 ■' II 'C United States of America, A. D. 18‘24, 
 
 L. S. , 
 
 * 
 
 !l 
 
 ' I H. C. CAREY AND I. LEA, 
 
 !i: sir Sr*!?;* 
 
 of the said district have deposited in this office the title of a book, the rigfit 
 whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, To wit: 
 
 “ Anatomical Investigations, comprising descriptions (J various fasciae of the 
 Human Body: The Discoveries of the Manner in which the Pericardiiyn 
 is formed from the Superficial P'ascia ; the Capsular Ligament of the 
 Shoulder Joint from the Brachial Fascia; and the Capsular Ligament of 
 the Hip Joint from the Fascia Lata. To which is added an account 
 of some irregularities of structur.- and Morbid Anatomy; with a description 
 of a new Anatomical Table. By John I). Godman, M. D. lecturer o^_ 
 Anatomy and Phisiology; editor of the Journal of Foreign Medicine; 
 professor of Physiology to the Philadelphia Museum ; member of the 
 Academy of Natural Sciences ; honorary member of the Medical Societies 
 of Philadelphia, Maryland, Baltimore, Lexington, Cincinnati, Pitts- 
 burg, Sc.” 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, “An 
 Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, 
 and Bofvks, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times 
 therein mentioned; — And also to the act, entitled, “An Act supplementary to 
 an Act, entitled “ An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the 
 copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such 
 copies during the times therein mentioned,” and extending the benefits thereof 
 to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints. 
 
 D. CALDWELL, 
 
 derh of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
STTOENTS OF MEDICINE 
 
 IN PARTICULAR, 
 
 AND LOVERS OF IMPROVEMENT GENERALLY, 
 
 TBESE EIBST FBUITS OF THE 
 OP STUDYING AND TEACHING 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOK. 
 

 ' / 
 
 Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/anatomicalinvest01godm 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The following investigations were begun without 
 reference to any system, and without the slightest 
 wish to support any preconceived opinions. The 
 conclusions drawn were unavoidable, even at first 
 inspection, and their correctness was more firmly 
 established by every subsequent examination. The 
 researches were originally made, in every instance, 
 in the presence of a class of students, most of whom 
 had attended two courses of anatomical lectures, and 
 were considerably experienced in dissecting. They 
 were stationed as near as possible to the table and 
 requested to suffer nothing to pass them as ascer- 
 tained, of which they were not entirely satisfied by 
 the demonstration. They saw every touch made 
 with the knife, and were thoroughly able to judge 
 of the difference between what really existed, and 
 what might have been accidentally produced. The 
 results of all the investigations made in the presence 
 of the class, and before the members of the profes- 
 sion especially invited to witness them, exactly cor- 
 responded with the descriptions here given. There 
 was no ambiguity either in the continuation, extent, 
 or density of the Fasciae and processes. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 \ f 
 
 It is much easier to demonstrate the whole of 
 these structures, than to convey an accurate idea of 
 them by description, as to the repetition of techni- 
 cals, and the reader’s want of precise recollections 
 of the parts referred to, necessarily give an ap- 
 pearance of obscurity to a minute anatomical detail. 
 
 The mode of teaching anatomy by a pure Analy- 
 sis, which it has been my happiness first to intro- 
 duce and establish by the fairest experiment, is the 
 only method which can free us from the trammels 
 of long reigning prejudice, or the dominion of an- 
 cient errours, that have become prescriptively es- 
 tablished by frequent repetition in systematic 
 works.” By this method the teacher is always 
 placed in the condition of a learner, and no autho- 
 rity is accredited but demonstration — no book is va- 
 lued until its descriptions have been tested by a rigid 
 scrutiny, in direct comparison with the structure as 
 fairly exposed, and competently observed. This 
 appeal from hooTcs and authorities to nature, dis- 
 perses the clouds which have too long involved the 
 science of Anatomy — removes the difficulties that 
 have impeded the advances of the inquiring student, 
 and opens the way to improvement, discovery, and 
 truth. In order to satisfy such as may not have 
 read the exposition of this method, which was pub- 
 lished a few months since, the following extract may 
 be advantageously presented. 
 
INTROUUCTIOK. 
 
 vii 
 
 lu consequence of a careful investigation of tbe 
 modes of teaching anatomy, I have been induced to 
 resort solely to the method of Analysis or decompo- 
 sition. The subject is placed before the learner 
 untouched ; the knife is not used to clear obstruc- 
 tions from the way of the teacher, 'previous to the 
 lecture. The student sees the relation of parts — 
 the Anatomy, as it is left by the hand of nature : he 
 observes the manner in which they are to be suc- 
 cessively removed — he sees the situation and com- 
 pany with which they are always to be found, and 
 perceives that in this mode of examination there are 
 no difficulties to impede his progress, but inatten- 
 tion or neglect. The body is decomposed by the 
 knife in his sight, and he soon acquires a clearness 
 of information on the connexion of parts existing in 
 the living system, which enables him at any mo- 
 ment to recollect what is to be encountered in any 
 portion of the frame. The physiology he learns 
 does not consist of a collection of scraps and frag- 
 ments relative to each part separated, but it is the 
 whole that can be learned, from the whole in combi- 
 nation. Should the teacher even be inadequate to 
 the task of telling him all that is necessary, yet as 
 the student sees the veritable anatomy for himself, 
 his subsequent reading is always aided by recol- 
 lecting the actual condition of the structure.” 
 
 In fact we believe no cause has acted more pow- 
 
1 . 
 
 Viii INTRODUCTION* 
 
 erfully in retarding the advancement of the science 
 of medicine, than the injudicious mode of teaching 
 anatomy synthetically. In this way, we can easily 
 account for the limited and unphilosophical views 
 of physiology and pathology which have been given 
 to the world. One teacher acquires a habit of pay- 
 ing an exclusive attention to the nerves, and all his 
 views are nervous — another scrutinizes the arteries, 
 and all the theories he forms are injiammatory ; a 
 third studies the veins, and congestions and en- 
 gorgements are the night-mares that oppress him ; a 
 fourth pores over the absorbents, and he is in conti- 
 nual dread, lest the balance of the system should 
 be destroyed ; a fifth looks entirely to the muscles 
 and his mind can perceive nothing but alternations, 
 of laxity and tension, of tonic and clonic contrac- 
 tions, of debility and spasm I’’ 
 
 — — In teaching anatomy by the analytic me- 
 thod, the teacher has not so good an opportunity of 
 making the parts loole beautiful as in the ordinary 
 modes of instrnction. He must of necessity show 
 the structure exactly as it is ; and must be content 
 with the advantages his class receives from correctly 
 understanding the subject. While learning the re- 
 lation of parts, the class is in general too usefully 
 and agreeably employed, to think of the sights they 
 might have, were the lecturer at liberty to prepare 
 tliem before hand, at the trifling expense of destroy- 
 
li^TliObUCTlON. IX 
 
 itig a few fasciae arteries, veins, nerves, tendons or 
 muscles ! It is true, that in this mode of teaching, 
 the lecturer will find it no easy task to commit a 
 lesson to memory, and he may occasionally err in 
 his descriptions ; yet as he opens the faultless vo- 
 lume of nature before the eyes of his class, an error 
 in Ms speech does not place a veil over their sight ; 
 nor does an inaccuracy in his detail, produce any 
 inaccuracy in tlieir perceptions. 
 
 The discoveries now announced are the immedi- 
 ate fruits of the adoption of this method of teaching, 
 and their importance may be gathered from a con- 
 sideration of the following particulars. The fasciae 
 of the human body have heretofore been considered 
 very numerous, and in a great degree independent 
 of each other. One fascia has frequently been de- 
 scribed under many different names. By these re- 
 searches all the fasciae liave been reduced to three, 
 all of which are fairly continuous at certain points. 
 We show that all the fasciae heretofore described, 
 (with the exception of the temporal, palmar and 
 plantar aponeuroses) are offsets or processes from 
 these three fasciae. The first and most striking ad- 
 vantage is the simplification of what has till now 
 been unnecessarily esteemed complex. By explain- 
 ing the connexion of the processes with the parent 
 
 * See the Introductory Lecture on “Analytic Anatomy,” published by 
 the class, Feb. 182..t. 
 
 B 
 
X 
 
 INTRODUCTION.- 
 
 fascise, and pointing out their relations with tlic 
 different structures, we are enabled to form a clearer 
 idea of the natural and morbid condition of the 
 parts ; this is an advantage only to be appreciated 
 by those who know liow miserably inaccurate the or- 
 dinary conclusions relative to functions are, when 
 drawn from the knowledge of the structure, obtain- 
 ed in the usual synihetic manner. 
 
 The discovery of the formation of the Pekic a in- 
 dium from the fascia siiperficialis removes a great 
 stumbling block from the path of the student, who 
 is inevitably bewildered when he tries to compre- 
 hend bow a delicate serous membrane, the 
 can form a strong fibrous capsule such as the Pe- 
 ricardium, as is usually taught. 
 
 Py demonstrating that the sheaths of the vessels 
 are formed not from mere cellular substance but by 
 processes of a dense fibrous membrane, which of- 
 fer an equal resistance to the dilatation of the blood- 
 vessels, a great difficulty is removed, which has long 
 existed relative to tlie physiology of the circulation ; 
 so much has been said about the elasticity of the 
 vessels tiiat many have been induced to believe them 
 entirely free from the ordinary laws of hydrostatics. 
 The formation of the sheath shows us, that they 
 must be when distended, nearly in the condition of 
 rigid tubes ; this enables us to perceive satisfactorily 
 bow an impulse given by the heart can effect with 
 
INTUOUUC no\. 
 
 XL 
 
 the slightest loss of power, the whole coliimii of 
 blood from the centre to the circumference of the 
 system, and does away the necessity of looking for 
 other causes than the heart to propel the circulating 
 fluids. 
 
 Among the most interesting parts of these re- 
 searches, is the demonstration of the manner in 
 which the capsular ligaments of the great joints are 
 formed. I am by no means anxious to claim great 
 merit for proving the continuity of fasciae, and the 
 connexions thus produced between diflerent parts — 
 although Bichat contented himself with asserting 
 that the fibrous membrane may be traced into the 
 periosteum. But I do expect the thanks of anato- 
 mists and physiologists for having pointed out the 
 mode in wdiich the capsular ligaments are made up 
 •from the coverings of the muscles, and thus render- 
 ing their natural conditions more intelligible and 
 opening the way to new views of their possible si- 
 tuations resulting from disease or accident. I am 
 sure of receiving the grateful applause of every un- 
 prejudiced student for having in this part of the 
 science substituted simplicity for complexity and 
 regularity for confusion. 
 
 Nor is it pretended that this subject is exhausted ; 
 other investigators may make such discoveries as 
 ■will entitle them to correct and modify some of the 
 details herein advanced. But we have repeated 
 
ii\Tli0JJUCT101s. 
 
 xii 
 
 tlie examinations too frequently, and in the presence 
 of too many critical judges, to have any fear for the 
 general principles proposed. With a full assurance 
 that a repetition of these dissections will convince 
 even the most prejudiced, they are offered to the 
 professional world, and we await with pleasure, the 
 decisions of such as examine for themselves. Those 
 who do not examine, have no right to offer any de- 
 cision, whatever notions they may entertain. In 
 matters of probability men may judge from a state- 
 ment of the reasons for and against a conclusion ; 
 hut when facts are announced, whose existence can 
 be established or denied by demonstration and ex- 
 periment alone, he who neither experiments nor de- 
 monstrates must be silent, or speak in vain. We 
 ask no man to voucli for’^ the truth of what is 
 here advanced — we Avish all to examine, and their 
 testimony will be favourable. 
 
 The novelty of these descriptions will, perhaps, 
 be the greatest impediments to their general accep- 
 tation, for it has been very correctly remarked by 
 an illustrious anatomist,* that there are many per- 
 
 * Que de personnes s'efirarouchent de la seule announce 
 d’idees nouvelles ? Si j’ai la conviction qu’on m’ait attaque sans 
 in’avoir cotnpris, je me dispenserai de reponcire. Car, a quoi bon 
 se tourmenter' pour prouver, qu’on a eu raison '■ Le temps met 
 cliaqup chose a sa place”. 
 
 flEOFrnoY 8 VINT Hii.aire. 
 
iNTHODUCTlOxN. xlu 
 
 SOUS who become furious at the mere auuuuciatiou 
 of new ideas like him, however we shall wait 
 patiently, convinced that time fixes every thing in 
 in its place. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Fascia Siiperjlcialis, 
 
 Various parts of the human body are so imper- 
 fectly and obscurely describedj as often to excite a 
 doubt of their true nature. This evil is of great 
 magnitude, and results from various causes, none of 
 which are so active as a habit, becoming too gene- 
 ral, of considering the structure of individual tex- 
 tures insulated from all others and independent of 
 their relations — as concerned in a single disease or 
 connected with a particular operation in surgery. 
 
 Hence small portions of the same membrane arc 
 known by different names, and very minute de- 
 scriptions are given of each separately, so as to 
 convey to the mind an idea of several distinct mem- 
 branes, where there is in reality but one. Even if 
 this conclusion be not drawn by the uninstructed, 
 it is very certain, that every person, from mere 
 reading, infers that these membrane.^, fasciae, &c. 
 are extremely difficult to be understood, and that a 
 
AM ATOAllCAL IM V KS-TItiATlOMSa 
 
 iB 
 
 Ihorough knowledge of them can scarcely be ac- 
 ([Hired. Some pupils are so strongly impressed 
 with this idea, that they avoid the examination of 
 siicli parts, and pass them hy, as things on which 
 much time may he spent, without the attainment of 
 aiij' e([uivalent good. 
 
 The tihroLis membrane Avliich covers the whole 
 of the trunk, and a very considerable part of the ex- 
 tremities of the body, is one of the really important 
 and perfectly simple structures, wdiich has been 
 made difficult, solely by considering it in frag- 
 ments, and describing those with most tedious mi- 
 nuteness — though without any compensating clear- 
 ness of arrangement, or accuracy of detail. With 
 a 1 ope of exhibiting this part of anatomy more 
 advantageously to the student, and of removing 
 some of the obstacles before mentioned, these in- 
 vestigations are begun — and should the effort be 
 followed by any success, the author Avill be en- 
 couraged to extend his attention to other parts of 
 equal importance, which hitherto have been offered 
 to the learner under a similar veil. 
 
 ily making a crucial incision through the integu- 
 ments of the abdomen, from the ensiform cartilage 
 to the pubis, and from the crest of one ileum to the 
 other, going no deeper than the loose cellular sub- 
 stance, we may reflect the integuments on all sides, 
 so as to leave the fascia siiperficifdis untouched- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 17 
 
 If we then lightly make another crucial incision^ 
 we divide the fascia sujperficialis, and encounter a 
 layer of cellular substance, more delicate than that 
 which lies between the integument and fascia, yet 
 in general very distinctly perceptible. By dis- 
 secting cautiously, the fascia may be reflected in 
 every direction, though it can be done with more 
 ease where it lies over the tendon, than where it 
 covers the muscular fibre. 
 
 Let us first examine the inferior part, which we 
 shall find descending towards the top of the thigh, 
 slightly connected by the intervening cellular tex- 
 ture to the tendons of the abdominal muscles, until 
 it reaches Poupart’s ligament, to the external or iliac 
 portion of which it is more closely attached. As 
 we approach the os pubis, near which it covers the 
 spermatic ring and cord, the handle of the knife 
 may be used to separate it from the tendons — and 
 by looking mnder the fascia, when thus raised, 
 without reflecting it, we obtain the fairest view of 
 the real character and situation of the spermatic 
 cord. The fascia receives a very considerable 
 thickening near the pubes from the lamina of cellu- 
 lar substance exterior to it — and it is continued 
 over the corpora cavernosa penis, as well as sends 
 down a strong sheet into the scrotum, which has re- 
 ceived the name of Camper’s ligament. This por- 
 tion descends obliquely in the direction of the 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 AXATOMICAL IN VESTIGATIONS. 
 
 cord, which it covers, and of the testicle, which it 
 surrounds. The external portion passes down- 
 wards, over the whole of Poupart’s ligament, to 
 the upper part of the thigh, lying immediately 
 under the integuments, and over the cluster of 
 lymphatic glands and vessels, which fill up the de- 
 pression below Poupart’s ligament. As it ap- 
 proaches the top of the thigh, it gradually becomes 
 thinner, and loses its regularity of texture, verging 
 to the appearance of common cellular tissue : it 
 may still be traced some distance down the inner 
 part of the thigh, until it is lost in common cellular 
 texture, lying in contact with the fascia lata and in- 
 teguments. We may next raise the fascia superfi- 
 cialis from over the crest of the ilium, and pursue 
 it backwards to the spine, and we may follow it 
 downwards covering the whole of the gluteal mus- 
 cles, where it is strengthened by large additions of 
 cellular texture. As we approach the tubera 
 ischii, the fascia becomes more closely attached to 
 the surface, and in many instances seems to termi- 
 nate there. This, however, is not the case, as it 
 may be followed across covering the whole of the 
 perineum, forming the strong fascia, which presents 
 to the knife immediately after the first incision in 
 lithotomy. We trace it from the perineum up- 
 ward, until we lose it on the under surface of the 
 penis, where it mingles with the covering which 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 19 
 
 this organ derives from the anterior part of the 
 fascia. 
 
 Returning to the central part of the abdomen, 
 we prosecute our dissection upwards. We raise 
 the fascia superficialis from the tendinous sheath of 
 the rectus with facility, but find it so closely adhe- 
 rent to the proper coat of the muscular fibre, as to 
 require some care for its separation. This, how- 
 ever, may be efiuected with comparative ease, and 
 we lift it from over the lower part of the sternum 
 and pectoral muscle, and from the superior part of 
 the external oblique. We trace the fascia with 
 great facility towards the spine, and find it giving 
 a strong covering to the muscles of the back. 
 
 When we raise the anterior part to within a 
 hand’s breadth of the clavicle, we see the platysma 
 myoides is on the outside of the fascia, and in im- 
 mediate contact with the integuments, stretching 
 obliquely upwards to the angle of the jaw, its an- 
 terior fibres ascending to the angle of the mouth, 
 and the posterior in many instances rising to the 
 zygoma, and connecting itself with the outer part 
 of the orbicularis oculi.* 
 
 Having removed the platysma carefully, we then 
 
 * As this first section was sometime ago published, I have 
 thought it best not to change it materially in this work. The 
 truth of this description will not be afiected by the slight raodifica- 
 tions made after other more careful researches. 
 
A X A I' O M I C A L 1 N Y E S r 1 G A T I O X S . 
 
 20 
 
 obtain a view of the superficial facia covering the 
 whole of the neck, ascending in front to the edge 
 of the chin, where it is lost in cellular and muscu- 
 lar substance. As we pass towards the angle of 
 the jaw, we find it rising higher, (though thin,) 
 covering the masseter muscle, attaching itself to 
 the zygoma with firmness, and extending towards 
 the ear, so as entirely to overlay the parotid gland, 
 and prevent us from obtaining any distinct idea of 
 its precise figure. From the back and upper part 
 of the zygoma we see it passing up on the outside 
 of the temporal fascia, and including in its sub- 
 stance the anterior auris and attollens aurem. The 
 portion covering the shoulders and back of the 
 neck continues over the occipital belly of the occi- 
 pito-frontalis, and may be traced over this muscle, 
 and continuous with the lateral portion until the 
 muscle becomes united with the scalp. 
 
 After gaining this view of the exterior of the 
 superficial fascia, let us return to the anterior part, 
 and make a careful incision from the centre of the 
 sternum to the centre of the chin. Then we reflect 
 the superficial fascia towards the shoulder, and 
 thus uncover the sub-maxillary glands and bellies 
 of the digastric muscles above, and the sterno- 
 cleido-mastoideus, throughout. Tracing the fascia 
 to the posterior edge of this muscle, we shall find 
 it to split, or form two portions, the anterior of 
 
ANATOMICAL IN VESTIGATIONS. 
 
 21 
 
 which (the part reflected) doubles immediately 
 around the sterno-cleido-mastoidens, and goes for- 
 ward again towards the trachea, and anterior part 
 of the neck, covering the muscles of the os hy- 
 oides, &c., the trachea, and thyroid gland. Be- 
 low it may be traced the edge of the clavicle, and 
 above the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage. The 
 other part runs outwards and backwards from the 
 posterior edge of the mastoideus — extending down- 
 wards, attaching itself to the acromion and spine of 
 the scapula, ivhere it gradually blends with the 
 general superficial fascia on the back. Thus the 
 sterno-cleido-mastoideus is enclosed in a distinct 
 sheath, the same fascia forming both the deep and 
 superficial covering of the neck. This part of 
 anatomy, although it may have been known, has 
 never been described with precision, and 1 may 
 claim the merit of a discovery with much less dan- 
 ger of losing my title than has occurred in the case 
 of others. Even Colies, with all his minuteness, 
 has not attended to this really beautiful arrange- 
 ment, which enables us to understand the anatomy 
 and pathology of this region with much more clear- 
 ness, than if we considered these to be distinct 
 structures. 
 
 The last part of the 'fascia superficialis to be 
 traced is that which we find extending from the 
 pectoral muscle and clavicle over the deltoid, and 
 
22 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 surroimding the muscles of the arm, continuing 
 over the elbmv, exterior to the fascia of the biceps 
 muscle, down to the back of the fingers. 
 
 After the general examination of the extent and. 
 relations of the fascia superficialis, we may with 
 great profit attend to the different modes in which 
 it may affect the conclusions of the physician or 
 the operations of surgery. In doing this, for the 
 sake of regularity, we may begin with the superior 
 portion. Here we may observe that the manner in 
 which it is attached to the zygoma and covers the 
 parotid gland will prevent us from readily dis- 
 covering a fluctuation. The peculiar arrangement 
 of the fascia, which encloses the mastoideus, en- 
 ables us to understand why a suppuration of this 
 gland always breaks anterior to the muscle, and why 
 the matter does not find its way among the deeper 
 seated parts of the neck. If Vv^e consider that 
 the portio dura, or respiratory nerve of the face, 
 comes out through the parotid after having passed 
 through the foramen auditorium internum, we 
 shall not be surprised at the extreme pain in the 
 ear produced by an inflammation of the gland which 
 must violently compress this nerve through the agen- 
 cy of the fascia superficialis and the surrounding 
 bony structure. The anterior portion covering the 
 submaxill ary gland will exert a pressure of the same 
 kind, though by no means so great, as the surround- 
 
xiNATOM£CAL. INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 23 
 
 ing parts are very different in character. Over the 
 pectoral and other muscles, this fascia will neces- 
 sarily exert a similar influence when tumours form 
 or suppurations ensue. By attending to the differ- 
 ences in the strength and degree of attachment of 
 this fascia in various situations, we may form a 
 tolerably correct idea of the course that matter 
 would follow. Certain diseases convince us clearly 
 of this, as may be learned from the following dis- 
 section made during the last winter, A patient 
 died of infiltration of urine, succeeding to a rup- 
 ture of the urethra in perineo. The urine had 
 gradually made its way upward, and had passed 
 into the scrotum, which was in a state nearly ap- 
 proaching to putrefaction. The urine had follov/ed 
 the course of the cord, and had separated the fascia 
 superficialis from the tendon of the external ob- 
 lique, considerably above the crest of the ilium. 
 Here the attachment was too close to permit its 
 passage farther. Below it was bounded by the at- 
 tachments to the tubera ischii, and on the upper 
 and inner part of the thigh by the attachment to 
 the fascia lata. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to dwell on the 
 importance of the anterior portion of the fascia to 
 the surgeon. In hernia it is frequently very much 
 thickened, and its appearance entirely altered by 
 inflammation. In scirrhus of the testicle it may 
 
24 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 also be changed in character, and by this change 
 add materially to the unfavourableness of our prog- 
 nosis. Whenever we are to operate in this region, 
 we should recollect that the fascia superficialis 
 comes into view as soon as we have divided the in- 
 teguments and a portion of cellular substance. 
 
 That part of the fascia superficialis which covers 
 the gluteal muscles is also well worthy of consid- 
 eration. Sometimes the matter of lumbar abscess 
 makes its way out of the ischiatic notch, following 
 the cellular substance surrounding the vessels. In 
 one case, which fell within my own observation, 
 the appearances presented by a collection of matter 
 were such as to deceive several skilful surgeons as 
 to the real nature of the case. It appeared to be a 
 circumscribed, or an encysted tumour. There was 
 nothing in the history of the case to induce a sus- 
 picion of its real nature, so that it was resolved to 
 remove it with the knife. A crucial incision was 
 made and the flaps dissected back, so as to disco- 
 ver the surface of a large sac, occupying nearly the 
 whole extent of the buttock. When the operator 
 began to cut round the base of the tumour, the na- 
 ture of the disease was at once seen. An opening, 
 made by the knife, let out a vast quantity of flaky 
 matter peculiar to scrofulous abscesses, and the 
 patient, in a few weeks, exhibited signs of hectic, 
 soon succeeded by colliquative diarrhoea and death. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 25 
 
 This case will point out the propriety and impor- 
 tance of making a small puncture with a needle or 
 a lancet in every tumour of doubtful character, as 
 advised by Pott in the case of diseased testicle, 
 and by Abernethy as a general rule. Had it not 
 been for this posterior portion of the superficial 
 fascia, the matter of this abscess M'ould have found 
 its way down to the extremity of the limb, as it 
 would have been entirely external to the fascia 
 lata. It is solely by the acquisition of a thorough 
 knowledge of the relations of parts, that a surgeon 
 or physician can properly decide on the true cha- 
 racter of diseases. 
 
 The fascia superficialis is neither very vascular 
 nor sensible. Its arteries are derived anteriorly 
 from the extreme branches of the intercostal, mam- 
 mary and epigastric arteries — posteriorly, from the 
 branches which nourish the muscles of the back. 
 There are in front two veins descending from the 
 navel to the top of the thigh, running over Pou- 
 part’s ligament, which are the only vessels worthy 
 of notice, though they are not very important. 
 They help to return the blood sent out by the su- 
 perficial arteries, and empty into the great vein be- 
 low the ligament. The nerves of this fascia are 
 very few, although it is perforated in many places 
 by the extreme branches of the intercostal nerve. 
 It cannot be supposed that a fascia of this kind is 
 
 I) 
 
26 ANATOMICAL INVES'ITGATIONsi. 
 
 possessed of any remarkable degree of sensibility, 
 or that it is supplied with a greater number of 
 nerves than is required to maintain it in proper 
 relation with the rest of the system. 
 
 I am well aware that in many cases the fascia 
 superficialis does not, at first view, appear continu- 
 ous to the entire extent herein described. That in 
 certain situations it is more closely attached to the 
 subjacent parts than in others, is also well known 
 —yet as we frequently find subjects in which the 
 closest of these attachments offer no obstruction to 
 the raising of the fascia as above pointed out, we 
 see no reason why it should not be described as a 
 general fascia, which it really is, instead of a num- 
 ber of disconnected fragments, scarcely reducible 
 to order, and almost unintelligible. By the for- 
 mer method we avoid confusion, and assist the 
 learner to form correct opinions of its general cha- 
 racter and uses : by the latter, a needless perplex- 
 ity is occasioned, and the advances of the student 
 are injuriously retarded. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 27 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Fascim of the JV* 2ck. 
 
 One of the most interesting arrangements obser- 
 ved, is that of the facia superficialis, on the front 
 and lateral parts of the neck. The first section 
 contains a description of the manner in which the 
 sterno-cleidomastoideus is included by the external 
 and internal layer of the superficial fascia, which 
 last has heretofore been considered to be the deep 
 seated fascia of the neck. By my more recent ex- 
 aminations, the correctness of what was advanced 
 relative to the sheath of the mastoideus was 
 throughout confirmed — But I have been led to re- 
 mark that the arrangement of the fascia below this 
 muscle is very diiferent from what is usually repre- 
 sented, and that its true character has not hitherto 
 been made known. 
 
 In order to make the description as clear as pos- 
 sible, it will be necessary to repeat a small part of 
 what was before stated concerning the fascia, as it 
 passes from over the thorax to ascend on the neck, 
 and also .slightly to modify the description. 
 
2b 
 
 anatomical investigations. 
 
 If we begiu about midway between the clavicle 
 and fifth rib, to raise the fascia superficialis to- 
 wards the clavicle, we shall find when we arrive at 
 the origin of the platysma myoides, that a layer of 
 the fascia, which is thin and delicate, goes over 
 the surface of this muscle, while a stronger and 
 denser layer, continuous with the part raised from 
 the thorax, runs underneath the platysma, and ex- 
 tends upwards to the zygoma. By this the masse- 
 ter muscle and parotid gland are covered, and their 
 figures concealed. Should we now commence in 
 the centre and dissect the platysma myoides care- 
 fully ofiF, we have a fair view of the external layer 
 of the fascia superficialis, leaving out of the ac- 
 count the slight covering of the platysma myoides. 
 
 Next make an incision over the centre of the 
 trachea, extending from the base of the os hyoides 
 to the top of the sternum through this external 
 layer. It may then be raised easily, towards the 
 outside of the neck, until w;e have fairly laid bare 
 the whole of the sterno-cleidomastoideus. If we 
 cut off the origins of this muscle, and raise it care- 
 fully from its bed tovVards its insertion, without 
 cutting the fibre of the muscle or the subjacent fas- 
 cia, we shall see that the portion of fascia traced 
 from the front of the neck over the last named 
 muscle, splits just at the outer edge of the mas- 
 toideus, sending one layer outwards and back- 
 
ANATOMICAL, INVESTIGATIONS. 29 
 
 wards, (over the muscles of the neck and head) 
 while the other runs inwards and forwards towards 
 the centre of the trachea, and thus forms the lower 
 part of the sheath for the mastoideus. This layer, 
 immediately under the mastoideus, covers the inter- 
 nal jugular vein, the omo-hyoldeus, and near the 
 centre of the neck lies over the sterno-hyoideus. 
 Thus far my researches were extended in the for- 
 mer essay, but it will be seen that the subsequent 
 inquiries have led to a more extensive acquaintance 
 with the true character of the fascia of the neck, 
 and enable us to understand the manner in which 
 the sheath for the great vessels is formed. To be 
 convinced of the fact that all the fasciae of the neck 
 are processes of the fascia superficialis — to be as- 
 sured that there are sia? distinct layers, or processes 
 of this fascia on the front of the neck, and that the 
 sheath for the vessels is formed by horizontal slips 
 stretching from the anterior to the posterior por- 
 tion, above, below, and between the jugular vein, 
 carotid artery and eighth pair of nerves, it will be 
 sufficient to pursue the following order of exami- 
 nation. 
 
 Suppose the superficial layer, or portion covering 
 the mastoid, to be turned back as far as the outer 
 edge of this muscle, and the muscle raised so as 
 to exhibit the continuity of the outer and second 
 layer. Then make an incision over the sterno 
 
30 anatomical investigations. 
 
 hyoideus (through the second layer,) from its ori- 
 gin to its insertion, and raising this layer towards 
 the outer part of the neck, we shall find it form- 
 ing a beautiful sheath for the omo-hyoideus, pre- 
 cisely analogous to that made by the superficial 
 portion for the mastoideus, but being oblique to suit 
 it to the position of the omo-hyoideus. Tracing 
 this layer to the outer edge of this muscle, we raise 
 the muscle from its bed, without injuring the subja- 
 cent fascia, and then we have this under portion, 
 lying over the thyroid gland, and immediately co- 
 vering the sterno-thyroideus muscle. 
 
 Let an incision next be made through this third 
 layer, over the sterno-thyroideus in its length, and 
 we raise the fascia as far toward the outside of 
 the neck as to the carotid artery, and then we shall 
 see how beautifully the process for the omo-hyoi- 
 deus sets off from this third layer, which is on a 
 level with the jugular vein, and continuous with 
 the sheath of the mastoid muscle. 
 
 There is yet another distinct process going off 
 from the fascia, where it touches the lower edge 
 of the carotid artery. This fourth process runs 
 forwards and inwards, covers the thyroid gland, 
 and stretches across the front of the trachea under 
 the sterno-thyroideus. If this layer be turned back 
 towards the carotid artery, and the vein and artery 
 be raised by pulling the superficial fascia upwards, 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 Si 
 
 we see a perpendicular process of the fascia, reach- 
 ing from the under surface of the vessels to the 
 muscles lying immediately on the bodies of the 
 vertebrsB. This perpendicular process is double. 
 One part goes outward and backward, till it reaches 
 the transverse processes of the vertebrae where it 
 is attached or inserted, while the inner portion goes 
 immediately over the rectus internus, capitis major 
 and longus colli, across the bodies of the verte- 
 brae, extending under the oesophagus, and is con- 
 tinuous with the corresponding layer of the oppo- 
 site side. 
 
 The formation of the sheath for the great ves- 
 sels of the neck now remains to be described, and 
 may be easily understood, when it is recollected 
 how the layers of the fascia are disposed. A co- 
 vering is formed over the jugular vein by the fas- 
 cia, where it is passing under the mastoideus. 
 Then another slip passing from the anterior to the 
 posterior division of the fascia, runs below the vein, 
 and separates the jugular from the artery and par 
 vagum, and the lower portion is formed by a con- 
 tinuation of the fascia under the carotid artery. 
 From the centre of this lower part of the sheath, 
 the double perpendicular process descends. 
 
 To demonstrate this most satisfactorily and ea- 
 sily, make an incision through the fascia under 
 the mastoideus, in the course of the internal jugular 
 
32 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 vein — ^raising this covering of the vein, we should 
 then take an inch or two of the vein from its bed, 
 without wounding the parts below, and we shall 
 see the slip of fascia separating the vein from the 
 artery and par vagum. In like manner, if we cut 
 through this partition and carefully raise the ar- 
 tery, removing an inch or two of the vessel, we 
 then perceive the lower part of the sheath lying 
 immediately under the par vagum and artery. By 
 breaking through the lower part of the sheath, we 
 may separate the layers of the perpendicular, or 
 fifth and sixth processes. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 33 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Formation of the Pericardium from the Fascia 
 Superficialis. 
 
 The layer of the fascia superficialis, imme- 
 diately covering the thyroid gland, described as 
 the fifth process [p. 31.] passes under the sternum 
 to the surface of the arteria innominata where it is 
 joined by the outermost layer of this fascia, co- 
 vering the lateral and back parts of the neck. To- 
 gether they form a covering for the artery as it is 
 passing between the scalenus anticus and medi- 
 us. — Over the subclavian artery, from its inferior 
 edge, the fascia extends outwards and downwards, 
 running immediately below the subclavius muscle. 
 Near the external edge of this muscle, we find the 
 fascia superficialis continuous with that portion of 
 the brachial fascia, which extends to the thorax 
 under the pectoralis major. 
 
 We now cut away the cartilages of the four 
 upper ribs on each side, and remove the sternum 
 
 E 
 
34 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 from the clavicles, having divided this bone trans- 
 versely below the fourth rib. We are thus ena- 
 bled to separate the upper part of the mediastinum 
 and bag of the pleura from the pericardium. We 
 then trace the fifth process or thyroid layer, (in 
 union with the outer part,) of the fascia superfi- 
 cialis down to that part of the arch of the aorta, 
 where the serous membrane of the pericardium is 
 reflected to form the immediate covering of the 
 heart. Then we clearly perceive, that the Peri- 
 cardium is formed from the Fascia SuperjicialiSf 
 which is uninterrupted and entirely continuous with 
 the capsule of the heart. The serous membrane 
 being cut through, we can raise the fascia from the 
 surface of the aorta, down to the commencement of 
 the fleshy fibres of the heart, with as much ease as 
 we can elevate the outer or floating portion. 
 
 However, singular it may appear that this ar- 
 rangement should not have been discovered until 
 this time, it is by no means as singular, as that 
 anatomists during so long a time should have re- 
 mained contented to believe that a serous mem- 
 brane like the pleura, could form a strong fi- 
 brous membrane like the pericardium ! 
 
 If the descriptions here given appear difficult to 
 those who have studied anatomy in the usual mode, 
 we are sure that their surprise could only be equal- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 35 
 
 led by their pleasure on witnessing the facility 
 with which all these arrangements may be demon- 
 strated and the beautiful simplicity of these struc- 
 tures incontestibly established. 
 
36 
 
 ‘INATOMTO AT. INVKSTKi ATIONS. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Jlrrangement of the Brachial Fascia and formation 
 
 of the Capsular ligament of the shoulder joint. 
 
 When we have removed the integuments and 
 superficial fascia from the muscles of the shoulder 
 and arm, we find a strong fibrous membrane co- 
 vering the biceps, which has been hitherto consi- 
 dered as the peculiar fascia of that muscle. If we 
 cut through this fascia directly over the centre of 
 the biceps, in its length, and raise the portions to- 
 wards the outside and inside of the arm, we per- 
 ceive that this muscle is enclosed in a sheath very 
 analogous to that formed for the sterno mastoideus 
 in the neck, and the sartorius on the thigh. There 
 is this difference, however, the fascia is. not simply 
 continuous beneath the muscle, but the outer and 
 inner portions run towards each other, under the 
 muscle and in the centre both portions penetrate 
 its substance, where the two distinct heads may be 
 said to cease and the single fleshy belly to begin. 
 On the outer edge of the biceps, along the line of 
 the humerus, we find the fascia attached to the 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 3T 
 
 bone, and where this attachment is cut through, we 
 then see that it is continuous over the whole of the 
 triceps, where its strength is increased. 
 
 Returning to the opening made over the centre of 
 the biceps we may pass a knife handle under it, on 
 the short head of the biceps, towards the scapula. 
 This will lead us to remark, the manner in which 
 this fascia as it passes along under the edge of the 
 deltoid muscle is attached thereto, and also sends a 
 delicate portion over the edge of the pectoralis 
 major. But on raising the pectoralis major with- 
 out removing the instrument passed under the fas- 
 cia, we shall find the main sheet of fascia passing 
 to the thorax, covering the pectoralis minor, going 
 under the subclavius and clavicle into the neck, 
 where it is continuous, with the fascia superficialis 
 as before -mentioned. If we have pressed the knife 
 handle upwards directly in the course of the short 
 head of the biceps, we find the instrument reaching 
 to the coracoid process, and by cutting the fascia 
 open, thus far we see it continuing to the edge of 
 the glenoid cavity, forming all of the fibrous part 
 of the capsule of the shoulder joint. 
 
 To render the demonstration still more conclu- 
 sive, cut through the deltoid muscle transversely 
 immediately over the shoulder joint, being careful 
 not to injure the subjacent fascia. Having cleared 
 away the deltoid from about the joint, we return to 
 
38 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 the outer portion of the fascia, where it covers the 
 biceps. There we find the fascia continuing over 
 the inside of the arm to the triceps as before stated, 
 and dissecting up this stronger portion, we shall 
 be surprised and pleased to see how distinctly it 
 runs up to the edge of the glenoid cavity and under 
 the scapular portion of the deltoid, forming the 
 whole of the capsular ligament. When the fascia 
 is laid open, we have a beautiful view of the re- 
 flection of the synovial membrane and are tho- 
 roughly satisfied that there is no distinct or inde- 
 pendent capsular ligament, but that this fascia 
 forms the whole of what has been hitherto so cal- 
 led. 
 
 The fascia is attached strongly to the neck and 
 inferior costa of the scapula at the upper part, but 
 when this attachment is cut through we find the 
 fascia forms a continuous sheet with the strong 
 covering of the infra spinatus muscle. 
 
 The sheath for the brachial vessels is formed in 
 a manner analogous to the formation of the cervical 
 and femoral sheaths, that is by slips of the brachial 
 fascia passing over the surface, between and below 
 the vessels and nerves. 
 
 Kesuming our examination of the brachial fas- 
 cia, towards the elbow we find it continuing over 
 the bend of the arm, receiving a considerable 
 thickening from the lower extremity of the biceps 
 
ANATOMICA'L INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 39 
 
 and then being laid over the whole of the fore-arm 
 forming distinct sheaths for the muscles, through- 
 out analogous to the arrangement of the fascia 
 lata. On the outside of the arm the attachments of 
 the brachial fascia to the radius and ulna are 
 strong, and the texture of the whole of the portion 
 on the back of the forearm becomes much more 
 dense, as it is employed in forming distinct 
 sheaths for the muscles in precisely the same way 
 as on the inside of the fore-arm. 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Arrangement of the Fascia Lata. 
 
 In examining this fascia, after having studied 
 the arrangement of the fascia of the neck, the ob- 
 server will be surprised and delighted to find that 
 there is a most striking similarity existing between 
 them, not only in the manner in which they relate 
 to the muscles, but in the formation of the sheath of 
 the vessels. 
 
 To begin this examination, we remove the in- 
 tegument and fascia superficialis from the pos- 
 terior part of the nates, and are enabled to see how 
 far the fascia lata extends on the ilium from the 
 part which may be properly considered as its ori- 
 gin ; being all the edge of the ilium not occupied by 
 the origin of the glutseus maximus, out to that por- 
 tion of the border of the ilium giving origin to the 
 tensor vaginae femoris, immediately behind the an- 
 terior superior spinous process. The tensor va- 
 ginae is fairly enclosed between two layers of the 
 fascia lata, which joining at the interior and infe- 
 rior parts of the muscle, form that strongest part of 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 41 
 
 the fascia denominated the iliac portion, or part 
 covering the haunch. 
 
 This iliac portion advances very little at the up- 
 per part, before it again separates into two layers, 
 the one going over the sartorius muscle, and the 
 other under it. The superior layer is thinner than 
 the common fascia, and allows us to see the mus- 
 cular fibre through it — while the fibres of the mus- 
 cle on the outer part of the thigh, are entirely 
 hidden by the thickness and opacity of the fascia. 
 In consequence of the separation mentioned, a 
 beautiful sheath is formed for the sartorius, resem- 
 bling in every particular that formed by the super- 
 ficial fascia in the neck for the sterno-cleido-mas- 
 toideus. 
 
 If we cut through the layer covering the sarto- 
 rius, in the direction of the muscular fibre, a short 
 distance from its outer edge, and then raise this 
 external portion towards the ligament of Poupart, 
 we find that it reunites with the inferior layer just 
 beyond the internal edge of the tensor. Let us 
 now cut for the tenth of an inch through this union 
 and we shall see the fascia again separating into 
 two layers, having a considerable interspace, which 
 in many subjects contains an appreciable quantity 
 of fatty matter. This part of the fascia is situated 
 anterior to the upper part of the sartorius, and 
 would be contained in a triangle made by drawing 
 
 F 
 
42 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 a line from the middle of the symphysis pubis to 
 the sartorius, having the ligament of Poupart for 
 the opposite side of the triangle, and the muscle 
 for its base. Having made the opening required, 
 we may then push the handle of the knife up to the 
 lower border of Poupart^s ligament, below the an- 
 terior superior spine of the ilium, and by continuing 
 the pressure downward and inward, we may carry 
 the instrument entirely to the extremity of that du- 
 plicature which is called the falciform process ^ 
 semilunar process, or Hey’s ligament, without 
 using any violence. By this last view we are made 
 acquainted with the manner in which the pubic 
 portion comes up under the vessels to join the parts 
 described. 
 
 Were our examinations to cease here, they would 
 be of comparatively little value, however interest- 
 ing the research might prove to the individual. 
 But 1 flatter myself that the discovery of the pecu- 
 liar arrangements of this fasciae, will lead us at 
 once to a better acquaintance with its physiology. 
 The outer layer, or that part which may be consi- 
 dered as the continuation of the external part of the 
 sheath of the sartorius, is continuous with the ten- 
 don of the external oblique muscle, which is thus 
 enabled to act very advantageously on the fascia. 
 The fascia lata is provided with a muscle whose 
 peculiar business is to tighten this great sheath of 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 4^ 
 
 ihe thigh ; as the tensor vaginae femoris is situated 
 nearly in a line with the external condyle of the 
 femur, >yhich is by no means so low, or rather so 
 long as the internal, of necessity, in tightening the 
 outer part of the fascia to the greatest degree, it 
 must relax the inner portion (covering the gracilis, 
 adductors, &c.) at the upper and inner part of the 
 thigh, which is by no means within its sphere of ac- 
 tion. The arrangement mentioned, the continnity 
 (of the external layer of the iliac portion) of the 
 fascia lata with the tendon of the external oblique, 
 compensates for the defect that would otherwise 
 exist, and tightens the part of the fascia lata co- 
 vering the upper and inner part of the thigh. In 
 saying that the fascia is continuous with the tendon 
 of the external oblique, we do not say that no con- 
 nexion exists between the internal and external 
 layers, just where the outer one joins the tendon of 
 the oblique. But this union is effected by a very 
 delicate portion, not much more than perceptible,’ 
 while the junction between the outer layer of the 
 fascia, the continuity with this tendon, is fair 
 and strong, perfectly visible and palpable. To 
 prove how thoroughly this arrangement serves the 
 the purpose mentioned, it is only necessary to make 
 a slight pressure on the external oblique, or to pull 
 its tendon with the forceps when the subject is 
 
44 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 placed oil its back, and the integuments and fascia 
 superficialis are removed. We shall then be con- 
 vinced that a very slight contraction of the muscle 
 is capable of affecting the state of tension of the fas- 
 cia lata on the inner part of the thigh. 
 
 The arrangement of the internal layer forming 
 the under part of the sheath for the sartorius is very 
 interesting, and in relation to the formation of the 
 sheath for the vessels, precisely similar to that of 
 the third layer of the superficial fascia in the neck. 
 At the outer edge of the sartorius the fascia splits, 
 to send one portion outwards and backwards over 
 the surface of the muscles, white the inner portion 
 doubling inwards and forwards, runs under the 
 sartorius muscle. It may be considered as the 
 continuation of the external layer — and after thus 
 forming the sheath of the sartorius, it runs onward 
 to cover the great artery of the thigh, just at the 
 inner or pubic side of which, the iliac and pubic 
 portions of the fascia are united. 
 
 We may now with great facility raise the layer 
 going over the artery. Then we may raise any 
 portion of the artery from its bed, leaving the pro- 
 cess between the artery and vein — after this we can 
 raise this portion, cut and lift up a part of the fe- 
 moral vein, and show the lower part of the sheath 
 strong and fair, going beneath it. From the lower 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 45 
 
 part of the sheath, we find a single perpendicular 
 process going down to be fixed into the linea as- 
 pera. 
 
 The fascia lata forms all the sheaths for the mus- 
 cles of the thigh, and continues to form the sheath 
 of the vessels after the artery has passed through 
 the tendon of the triceps. The pubic portion near 
 the ligament of Poupart, passes under the great 
 vessels, and is connected or rather continuous with 
 the fascia transversalis or interna. This part 
 of the investigation must be left until we give a 
 description of the researches made relative to the 
 internal fascia. 
 
 However difficult the study of the fascia lata may 
 appear from the description, it is by no means so 
 difficult to comprehend when it is examined with 
 the knife. When studied in the manner here di- 
 rected, the satisfaction derived from the clearer 
 understanding of the physiology of all the neigh- 
 bouring parts, will more then compensate for the 
 difficulties surmounted by the application necessary 
 to see all that is described. The important infiu- 
 ence exercised by the processes of this fascia (form- 
 ing sheaths for the vessels and muscles) over va- 
 rious surgical diseases and operations, can only be 
 perceived by one who is thoroughly acquainted 
 with its true character, extent and connexions. 
 The establishment of the fact that there is but one 
 
46 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTICATIONS. 
 
 fascia forming all the processes about the neck, and 
 another all those of the thigh, and that in both the 
 sheath for a particular muscle as well as the sheath 
 for the great vessels are formed in the same man- 
 ner, is a circumstance of very interesting character 
 and may lead us still farther in our researches 
 concerning the various parts they surround or se- 
 parate. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 47 
 
 SECTION VL 
 
 Arrangement of the Fascia Interna Abdominis, and 
 formation of the capsular ligament of the Hip 
 Joint, from the Fascia Lata. 
 
 The fascia which is at present to be described 
 has hitherto only been examined at particular points 
 and under different names, in consequence of which 
 much confusion has been produced and the diffi- 
 culties of acquiring an accurate knowledge of its 
 relations needlessly augmented. The fascia trans- 
 versalis, fascia iliaca, fascia prostrata, fascia pel- 
 vica, are all parts of the same fascia, which bears 
 a sufficiently close resemblance to the fascia super- 
 ficialis in the manner of its application to the whole 
 of the cavity of the abdomen and pelvis, to justify 
 us in bestowing on it the name of fascia interna 
 ABDOMINIS, in contra- distinction. 
 
 The FASCIA INTERNA, lies between the inner 
 surface of the abdominal muscles and peritoneum. 
 To examine it most satisfactorily, after having re- 
 moved the external portion of the sheath of the 
 rectus below the navel, and raised this muscle from 
 
48 
 
 anatomical investigations. 
 
 its bed, make an incision from the umbilicus to 
 the anteriour superiour spinous process of the 
 ilium, through the abdominal muscles. This cut 
 brings us down to the strongest part of the fascia 
 interna. We then clear off the abdominal muscles 
 without wounding the fascia so as to expose all the 
 iliac and hypochondric regions, and to the edge of 
 the sheath of the rectus near the median line of 
 the body. If we make a small hole through the 
 fascia interna, midway between the spine of the 
 ilium and umbilicus, we may introduce a knife han- 
 dle between this fascia and the peritoneum and se- 
 parate them from each other throughout the lateral 
 and back parts of the abdomen, till we have passed, 
 over the liver to the under surface of the diaphragm. 
 Having thus raised the fascia interna, we may by 
 blowing into the opening inflate the sac and exhibit 
 it fairly detached from the peritoneum. Making 
 an incision through the fascia in the same direc- 
 tion as the first cut through the muscles and cutting 
 from the crest of the ilium to the last rib, we turn 
 this upper flap over and follow it towards the cen- 
 tre, under the inner portion of the sheath of the 
 rectus. Here we find it more closely attached than 
 at any other part both to the tendon of the trans- 
 versalis and the peritoneum, yet by careful dissec- 
 tion it may be fairly separated from both, without 
 wounding either, so as to show its continuity en- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 49 
 
 tirely across the anterior part of the inner surface 
 of the abdominal muscles. 
 
 The fascia interna is attached with firmness to 
 the whole of the crest of the ilium from the anterior 
 superior spinous process backwards ; it also is fixed 
 to the transverse processes of the loins, where it 
 forms the covering of the quadratus lumborum, and 
 also separates this muscle from the external mus- 
 cles of the back. 
 
 Returning to the lower portion of the fascia in- 
 terna we raise it from the anterior superior spine of 
 the ilium to the pubis, and in doing this we have a 
 beautiful view of the internal abdominal ring, the 
 space by which the spermatic cord goes through 
 this fascia to emerge on the pubis after passing 
 through the tendon of the external oblique or ex- 
 ternal abdominal ring. This is the portion of the 
 fascia interna, heretofore called fascia transvevsdlis, 
 and whose real character is of so much importance 
 to the surgical practitioner. This part of the fas- 
 cia interna fills the vacancy that would otherwise 
 exist between the inferior edges of the internal ob- 
 lique and transverse muscles and the edge of the 
 pelvis, and was called fascia transversalis because 
 it was thought to be continuous with the transverse 
 muscle. 
 
 Below the internal abdominal ring the fascia in- 
 terna touches the ligament of Poupart to which 
 
50 ANATOMICAL IN VESTIGATION S% 
 
 it is attached, but it does not cease there, being; 
 continued down on the great vessels of the thigh. 
 It is usually stated that the fascia interna is here 
 so arranged as to descend in the form of a funnel 
 for a certain distance before and behind the great 
 vessels ; to be reflected at the distance of three- 
 fourths of an inch below Poupart’s ligament and 
 thus to prevent any communication between the 
 pelvis and top of the thigh. This is very far from 
 the true state of the fact ; the fascia interna is 
 indubitably continuous with the fascia lata femoris, 
 both on the superior and inferior surface of the 
 great vessels, concerning the sheath for which we 
 have spoken in a preceding section, and the com- 
 munication is prevented by cellular attachments. 
 To be convinced of this, let us return to the crest 
 of the ilium, and cut through the attachment of the 
 fascia interna to the bone. We find this attachment 
 to be a short perpendicular process, which when 
 cut through leaves the continuity of the fascia in- 
 terna and the covering of the internal iliac muscle 
 uninterrupted. This last portion is what has been 
 heretofore named the iliac fascia. We raise the 
 fascia interna from over the iliac muscle towards 
 the edge of the psoas magnus, where it separates 
 so as to form a sheath for this muscle and after- 
 wards goes to the common iliac artery, below, and 
 directly in a line with which the fascia interna is 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 01 
 
 attached to the linea ileo pectinea and to the bodies 
 of the lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 Now cut up the pubic extremity of Poupart’s 
 ligament and reflect it carefully towards the ante- 
 rior superior spine. Then follow the iliac portion 
 of the fascia interna downwards till it passes under 
 the vessels and together with the superior portion 
 forms the funnel shaped process of Professor 
 CoLLES.^ We now find this lower or iliac part of 
 the internal fascia is perfectly continuous with the 
 fascia lata, and we may be still more clearly satis- 
 fied of this, by cutting across and removing about 
 an inch or so of the femoral artery, which exhibits 
 this continuity without turning the fascia interna 
 from its place. The cellular attachments which 
 prevent the communications between the pelvis and 
 top of the thigh are also now made evident. 
 
 From the pubic extremity of Poupart^s ligament 
 we find the fascia interna passing into the pelvis 
 where we shall presently find it forming the ante- 
 rior ligaments of the bladder and triangular liga- 
 ment of the urethra, while a process which goes 
 down over the levator ani and obturator internus, 
 forms the fascia of the prostrate gland. 
 
 But the most interesting and surprising part of 
 the arrangement of these fasciae is the manner in 
 
 * See his excellent treatise on Surgical Anatomy. 
 
52 
 
 ANATOMICAL. INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 which the great capsular ligament of the thigh 
 bone, is formed from i\iQ fascia lata femoris, which 
 we could not well explain until the fascia interna 
 had been described. If we trace the fascia lata 
 upwards from between the vastus externus and glu- 
 teus maximus, we follow it over the great tro- 
 chanter, and see it extending over the edges of 
 the glutaeus medius and minimus. This will give 
 us the external layer of the outer part of the cap- 
 sule. If we cut up the head of the rectus femoris 
 (from the anterior inferior spiuous process) we shall 
 find the lower part of its sheath forming the outer 
 layer of the anterior part of the capsule. Raising 
 this portion, and then cutting through the lower 
 part of the sheath of the femoral vessels, (so as to 
 get between the parts going towards the inner and 
 outer parts of the thigh,) we raise the outer portion 
 to the capsule so as to show how it forms the mid- 
 dle part of its thickness. If we now return to the 
 pubis and cut through the pubic portion of the fas- 
 cia down to the bone, we raise this part, (which is 
 continuous with the fascia interna,) towards the 
 joint, and thus uncover the anterior part of the 
 joint, with the exception of the delicate synovial 
 membrane. Thus we are satisfied that this power- 
 ful capsule derives all its strength from the succes- 
 sive additions of the fascia lata, and has no exist- 
 ence as a separate or independent ligament. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 SECTION vn. 
 
 Irregularities of Structure, 
 
 Departures from the ordinary structure in the 
 human body are much more numerous and frequent 
 than is generally imagined. But as few persons 
 are exclusively devoted to anatomical research, the 
 opportunities of collecting a sufficient number of ob- 
 servations to lead to any important general conclu- 
 sion are rare, and the facts are seldom recorded, 
 because they are observed at distant periods and 
 excite but a temporary interest. 
 
 If we were now in possession of a carefully ob- 
 served and fairly written statement of all the aber- 
 rations which have been examined since anatomy 
 has been correctly studied, we should doubtless be 
 enabled to draw some general conclusion of practical 
 utility, no less than to explain many pathological 
 circumstances which still continue to be mysterious. 
 Previous to the systematic essay of Dr. Duncan on 
 the malformations of the urinary and genital organs, 
 published in the Edinburgh Journal it was sup- 
 posed that each irregularity had an individual and 
 
54 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 appropriate character, which made the case merely 
 an object of curiosity. By an examination of his 
 paper it will be seen that a very striking similarity 
 existed in the cases he observed as to the manner 
 in which nature* accommodated the system to the 
 defective organization. Almost all the cases re- 
 lated in the periodical papers since Dr. Monro’s 
 essay are similar to some of those he has described, 
 or are species of the same genera. 
 
 In order, therefore, td induce others to commu- 
 nicate the results of their experience, I shall at- 
 tempt to arrange the instances of irregularity which 
 I have witnessed in various parts of the body, 
 hoping that those who are possessed of similar ob- 
 servations will be induced to contribute them for 
 the general good. 
 
 I. — The Osseous System. 
 
 In tjiis system, there is seldom any irregularity 
 of structure. All the departures from the ordinary 
 arrangement in the cases I have examined were the 
 the results of accident or constitutional disease. 
 These accidental appearances, or results of morbid 
 action are very numerous, and to be considered in 
 another place. ■ 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 56 
 
 II. — The Muscular System. 
 
 We observe a considerable number of interesting 
 and peculiar irregularities in this department. 
 Some muscles, as the pyramidales the palmaris 
 longus, zygomaticus minor and plantaris are fre= 
 quently deficient, and the proper motions or ac- 
 tions do not appear to be injured in consequence. 
 It does not often happen that any attempt is made 
 by nature to compensate for their absence ; in one 
 case, however, where the palmaris longus was de- 
 ficient, I found a considerable strip of muscular 
 substance arising from the annular ligament, just 
 above the wrist, and ascending one third of the fore- 
 arm, to be attached to the common fascia. 
 
 In one instance, instead of the usual arrange- 
 ment, the muscle corresponding to the serratus 
 major anticus, whose office is to draw the base of 
 the scapula downwards, inwards, and forwards, 
 took its origin by two distinct portions from the la- 
 teral conversity of the second, third, and fourth, and 
 from the sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs, and these 
 portions v^re inserted separately into the inferior 
 angle of the scapula, and into the base, from the 
 superior angle only to the extremity of the spine, 
 leaving an interspace of three inches. 
 
56 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 The biceps brachii flexor in three bodies exami- 
 ned about the same time was found to have an ad- 
 ditional slip or third head coming off from the infe- 
 rior third of the os humeri along the line extending 
 to the inner condyle. This slip was half an inch 
 in breadth, and was inserted into the fascia, going 
 from the tendon of the biceps over the flexor and 
 pronator muscles, arising from the inner condyle. 
 In these three cases the origin and insertion of this 
 slip was precisely similar. In a fourth and fifth 
 case presented a few days after, a distinct and beauti- 
 ful fleshy belly arose about half an inch above the ori- 
 gin of the brachialis internus, fairly separated from 
 it and the biceps by cellular substance. This ex- 
 tra portion continued distinct until near the elbow 
 joint, when it was inserted into the under surface of 
 the common tendon of the biceps. 
 
 The MUSCLE of the THYROID GLAND, was 
 found in the Philadelphia anatomical rooms, twice 
 during the winter and four times during the month 
 of March (1824.) The first instance was observed 
 by a member of my class, Mr. Alfred Hartwell, of 
 N. C. In four of these cases the muscle was on 
 the left side, arising from the upper edge of the 
 left lobe, and going up to be inserted into the os 
 hyoides halfway between the base and appendix of 
 that bone. In the other two instances the muscle 
 
J. Drayton Sc ■ 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57 
 
 arose from the centre of both lobes, through their 
 whole extent, and was inserted directly into the 
 centre of the base of the os hyoides. 
 
 This singular muscle arising from a gland and 
 inserted into a hone, was first described by Soem- 
 mering, and is said to occur once in five hundred 
 subjects. l)r. Horner mentions in his Anatomy, 
 that he has not met with it in an experience of 
 many years. From the results of our observations 
 during the last session, I am inclined to believe 
 that it occurs at least in three cases out of five, if it 
 is not to be found in every case. That it may be 
 very easily overlooked when it is confined to the 
 left side, is not surprising when we observe that it 
 runs almost directly in the same course with the 
 thyrohyoideus, from which it is separated only by 
 very delicate cellular substance, and the portion 
 extending below the origin of the muscle last-men- 
 tioned so nearly resembles in colour the ordinary 
 appearance of the membrane covering the gland, or 
 the gland itself. Certain it is, that since our atten- 
 tion has been called to the subject, this muscle has 
 been found in every body examined for the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 The most singular sport of nature, in the muscular 
 system, which has fallen under my notice, is one 
 which occurred in a subject very carefully dissected 
 by one of my class, Mr. Isaac Brinckerhoff of N. Y. 
 
 H 
 
58 A^fATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 This muscle arose from the fascia coveriug the 
 latissimus dorsi and teres major, just within the 
 border of the axilla, and ascended to be inserted by 
 a beautiful tendon into the coracoid process of the 
 scapula, between the insertion of the pectoralis 
 minor and the shorter head of the biceps. A deli- 
 cate sheet of silvery tendon extending from its in- 
 sertion over to the edge of the biceps. This mus- 
 cle which was about two inches long crossed the 
 axilla beneath the brachial plexus, as may be seen 
 in the admirably correct delineation of it by Mr. 
 Rembrandt Peale, (p. 8.) What purpose it served 
 it is not very easy to perceive ; it could have tight- 
 ened the fascia over the latissimus and teres, but 
 this is not very necessary as w'e never see any in- 
 strument particularly designed to produce such an 
 effect. It is nevertheless singular, that a structure 
 so purely accidental should be formed with such 
 perfect symmetry and regularity. 
 
 III. — The Arterial System. 
 
 The irregularities of the arterial system have 
 been more attended to, than those of any other part 
 of our structure. The most remarkable instance I 
 have met with was in an infant subject dissected by 
 Mr. Robert Yqyung of Indiana, Pa. The arteries 
 instead of going off from the arch of the aorta in 
 

 The Anomalous Muscle 
 
 J^esmur 
 
 M Jlruycoa 
 
 
 Ik & 
 
 
 
 
 ■-•■ 7'''' ' ' 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 
 lllfs 
 
 
 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59 
 
 i;he usual manner, came olf thus ; 1st, the right caro- 
 tid artery, 2d, the left carotid artery, 3d, the left 
 vertebral artery, 4th, the left subclavian, 5th, the 
 right subclavian. The right carotid artery crossed 
 over the trachea to get to the right side of the 
 neck ; the right subclavian arose from the hacTc part 
 of the aorta after it had described its curvature, 
 running behind the oesophagus and trachea towards 
 the edge of the clavicle. The left vertebral artery 
 not less singular in its origin, began from the arch 
 of the aorta just behind and below the left carotid, 
 instead of being given off by the left subclavian ; 
 the only instance I ever saw of such an origin to 
 this vessel, though I have read of two or three 
 cases somewhat resembling it ; this subject was in- 
 jected and the drawing was made very carefully ; 
 there were possibly some singularities in the ve- 
 nous system, but my attention was not called to this 
 subject until the rest of the structure was removed 
 to exhibit the arteries, (plate 8, fig. 1, 2.) 
 
 During this winter, (1823-4,) we found three 
 instances in which the arteria innominata gave 
 off the right and left carotids and the right subcla- 
 vian artery. This distribution cannot be exceed- 
 ingly rare, since we have found it so often during 
 a single session, and moreover, in subjects injected 
 for the purpose of making anatomical preparations 
 
(H; ANA I'OAIIOAL lA’ VESTRiATION S. 
 
 alone, comprising a very small part of the whole 
 number of subjects dissected. 
 
 If the operation of tying up the arteria inno- 
 minata were performed on a patient, in whom the 
 arteries were thus distributed, what would be the 
 immediate consequence ? The whole amount of the 
 circulation would at once be cut off from the right 
 arm, from the upper and central parts of the right 
 side of the thorax, from the w hole of the anterior 
 of the neck and the parts about the tongue, tlie 
 whole of the face and scalp, and from the whole of 
 the anterior part of the brain. The only blood which 
 would flow directly to the brain would be by the 
 left vertebral artery, which as it ascends to the 
 brain through the long canal formed in the trans- 
 verse processes of the cervical vertebrae, could 
 scarcely be dilated sufficiently to carry the whole 
 quantity of blood necessary to this organ. The 
 inosculations of the left ascending thyroid — of the 
 lower intercostals, of the epigastric, with the inter- 
 nal mammary — and of the dorsal branches with the 
 cervical vessels, would form nearly the whole 
 chance of the preservation of the arm, neck and 
 face, allowing that one vertebral artery could con- 
 vey blood enough for the brain. The possibility 
 of this distribution should at last make us cautious 
 of recommending this operation, without having 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 61 
 
 most attentively examined all the chances of its 
 failure ; even though ever so correctly performed. 
 
 In one instance there was found a singular com- 
 munication existing hetweeii the right colic artery 
 and the hepatic, a trunk as large as the original 
 artery continuing from the one to the other. 
 
 A very interesting case of high bifurcation of the 
 femoral artery, was met with during the month of 
 March, in an adult subject, whose vessels were in- 
 jected. What renders this case more peculiar is 
 that we find the same distribution on both sides, 
 the profunda femoris being given off at a very short 
 distance below Poupart’s ligament, and the circum- 
 flexa externa arising as a large distinct trunk from 
 the femoral, all these branches lying immediately 
 under the fascia lata. On the left side of this body, 
 the arteria obturatoria was given off by the Epi- 
 gastric. The dissection from which Mr. Lesueur 
 made his drawing was very carefully prepared by 
 Messrs. Price and Comstock, members of the class. 
 
62 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 MORBID ANATOMY. 
 
 Oseous System. 
 
 One of the most singular appearances met with 
 during this season, is the distorted pelvis of which 
 views are given in plate 5. 
 
 It seems to have arisen from the dislocation of 
 the pubic bones, by means of which one is made to 
 project beyond the other, so as to give a sharp pro- 
 minence both on the outer and inside of the pelvis. 
 The degree in which this displacement affected the 
 diameters of the pelvis is very accurately figured 
 by Mr. Lesueur’s drawing. The right kidney lay 
 considerably within the ilium over the iliac muscle. 
 The left was not so low but considerably lower 
 than ordinary. The cartilage at the symphysis al- 
 though so much distorted appeared to be very little 
 different from the natural condition, and no idea 
 could be formed of the cause producing the defor- 
 mity. The womb of this subject was also diseased 
 as will be hereafter described. 
 
I)^a^vll ic En^'d t/y JJ)TitytO}t . 
 
t 
 
ANATOMICAL INVEST1GATI0>'S. ' QS 
 
 Plate 6, gives a representation of a very interest- 
 ing case of exostosis, occurring in the body of an 
 old woman apparently 65 years of age. A part of 
 the large mass near the lower extremity projected 
 through an immense ulcer of a very disagreeable 
 appearance. The whole extent of these bones is 
 covered by the sharp irregular spines, which give 
 to the fibula a considerable resemblance to a sta- 
 lactite. In other respects this subject showed no- 
 thing extraordinary, nor had we an opportunity of 
 forming any opinion as to the cause producing the 
 diseased appearance of the bones. It may have 
 been owing to the efiTects of venereal taint. 
 
 In another instance, the lower part of the femur, 
 the tibia and fibula were enlarged and gibbous 
 through their whole extent, and in this case, there 
 was suflBcient reason to believe that the immediate 
 cause of the evil was the venereal disease. 
 
 A highly interesting result Avas obtained by exa- 
 mining the body of a female who had perished by 
 falling into the fire during an epileptic fit. The 
 viscera of the chest, abdomen, &c. were perfectly 
 natural. Within the head a bony tumor was found 
 growing from the internal surface of tlie scull cap, 
 about half an inch from the longitudinal sinus, and 
 which encroached on the brain nearly half an inch. 
 On separating the hemisphere so as to examine the 
 falx a large irregular ossification, was found upwards 
 
B4 ANATrtM^CAL INVESTIGAtlONS. 
 
 of three fourths of an inch in length projecting on 
 both sides so as to press considerably on the brain. 
 In the course of the longitudinal sinus, several 
 spiculsB very singular and pointed, presented their 
 cutting edges tovrard the brain. A view of those 
 ossifications is given in the plate. One side of 
 this scull was much less convex than the other, as 
 if it had been flattened in early life by long con- 
 tinued pressure. 
 
 I have dissected the head of a black man whose 
 scull was as well shaped as the generality of per- 
 sons of colour. He had been lunatic during several 
 years previous to his death, and on dissection, the 
 falx of the dura mater was found to contain three 
 considerable patches of ossification. The mem- 
 branes of the brain, showing evident appearances 
 of having been inflamed shortly previous to death, 
 but it was not possible to determine whether the 
 ossification had been the immediate exciting cause 
 of the inflammation. 
 
 Muscular System. 
 
 The only morbid appearance observed in this 
 system, was the change of the gastrocnemius and 
 soleus of one leg, into a substance somewhat re- 
 sembling a mixture of ligament and cartilage, hav- 
 ing no trace throughout of proper muscular struc- 
 
■' ■■ ^^ ■ ■■ ¥(> 
 
 
 rfyn- 
 
 
 - ^■■■.' ' > ■ ' ’ 
 
 ' * 0 ' 
 
 ' ' )*!*■■- 
 
 ■ 'h'. '■' 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 65 
 
 Cure. Ill colour it differed but little from the 
 common appearance of the tendo achillis, when it 
 has been for a short time exposed to the air. 
 
 Arterial System. 
 
 The most frequent alteration observed in the ar- 
 teries was the deposition of bony matter in their 
 coats. This generally was found in greatest quan- 
 tity in the aorta. In one instance it extended to 
 the arteries of the brain and indeed throughout the 
 body. But in the brain all the vessels down to 
 such as were not much larger than a bristle or 
 horse hair, Avere almost entirely bony.^ 
 
 Venous System. 
 
 The veins were in many instances in a varicose 
 state especially in the inferior extremities. The 
 vessels were much more varicose when they were 
 seated between the skin and fascia of the leg. Af- 
 ter passing under the fascia, the veins were seldom 
 as much diseased as where they were not subjected 
 to this pressure. In two cases of varicose veins of 
 
 * In a case of general or at least very extensive ossification of 
 the capillary vessels, how could the circulation be continued, ac- 
 cording to the notions of those who think the capillaries possess' 
 the power of propelling their contents,. independent of the heart? 
 
 I 
 
66 ■ ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 the leg, encysted melicerous tumours were found 
 near to that part of the adductor which is perforated 
 by the artery. 
 
 Respiratory System. 
 
 Many cases of tuberculous lungs were examined 
 and a great variety of appearances indicative of 
 their different states remarked. In several in- 
 stances the whole hemisphere was found hepatized 
 or resembling the liver in texture, while only a 
 small part of the opposite hemisphere remained fit 
 for the purposes of respiration. 
 
 In one case a body was examined which exter- 
 nally exhibited no peculiarity, and the whole body 
 seemed plump and fieshy, on examining the chest, 
 on the left side instead of lung was found a large 
 irregular sac, apparently made up of the pericar- 
 dium and pleura massed together, filled with a 
 bloody and offensive fluid. There was no pecu- 
 liarity in the right lung. 
 
 From the appearance of the sac and the state of 
 the lung we should hardly suppose that the changes 
 could be effected in a short time, yet the quan- 
 tity of fat and the general fulness of the body 
 seemed to indicate any thing rather than long con- 
 tinued disease. 
 
ANATOMICAL IN V ESTIGATfONS. 
 
 67 
 
 Disiestive System. 
 
 Diseased appearances of the stomach were not 
 very frequent. Effusions and adhesions were of- 
 ten found in different parts of the belly. In some 
 cases there were well marked evidences of general 
 inflammation of the bowels. One of these cases 
 was very interesting on account of the great ex- 
 tent of the mischief produced in consequence of 
 the inflammation. 
 
 The M'hole of the abdominal viscera were so 
 massed together as to render it almost impossible 
 to separate the parts without cutting through them. 
 The liver was uncommonly enlargetl, the left lobe 
 compressing the stomach and the right thrusting the 
 bowels towards the centre of the abdominal cavity. 
 The convex surface of the liver had elevated the 
 diaphragm to the greatest degree it was capable of, 
 and it was evident from the slight effects produced 
 by very considerable pressure, that the motion of 
 the diaphragm must have been almost entirely sus- 
 pended for some time before death. Throughout 
 the whole of the ajbdomen, and between the lamina 
 of the mediastinum there were tubercles resembling 
 glands in appearance, from the size of a small pin’s 
 head, up to the magnitude of a large Walnut. The 
 lungs were very much compressed, not only by the 
 
68 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 enlargement of the liver and elevation ot the dia- 
 phragm hut hy the large quantity of fluid elfused in 
 the cavity of the chest and pericardium. The 
 brain also contained a considerable quantity of 
 fluid, but gave no well marked traces of inflamma- 
 tion. In such a case, it is wonderful that life 
 should have been continued during a period sufli- 
 ciently long to allow these changes to take place. 
 I have dissected one subject, a mulatto female, 
 about 24 or 25 years of age, ift wliom sometliing of 
 a similar displacement of the thoracic and abdomi- 
 nal viscera, had been produced by tight lacing. 
 The ribs and cartilages were so much drawn in 
 as to give quite a conical appearance to the lower 
 part of the chest. 
 
 On inspecting the cavity of the abdomen tlie liver, 
 stomach and spleen, were much elevated and the 
 diaphragm so much pushed up as to encroach con- 
 siderably, on the lungs. When the upper part of 
 the thorax was examined, a very large portion of 
 the apex of the lungs extended above the clavicles, 
 under the scaleui, within the triangle of the pleura 
 which under ordinary circumstances is quite small. 
 It seemed as if the system had made an efibrtto com- 
 pensate for the loss of space in the thorax produced 
 by the encroachment of the abdominal viscera on 
 its cavity. The impcuiiinent thus produced to the 
 proper passage of the blood througli the lungs, the 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 69 
 
 hindrance of the motions of the diaphragm, and the 
 disturbance caused in the stomach and liver, must 
 convince every candid examiner of the pernicious 
 tendency of this preposterous mode of dressing. 
 
 Excretory System, 
 
 In an old female subject, an appearance of pus 
 in the vagina led to the scrutiny of the uterus as 
 being the probable seat of an abscess. But instead 
 of an abscess, there was a fistulous opening through 
 the posterior wall of the uterus, and this opening 
 was found to be continuous with a long fistulous 
 tube extending from tlie pelvis of the right kidney. 
 At the commencement of the ureter a calculus had 
 become so fixed as to prevent the flow of urine, 
 though it did not entirely fill up the ureter. The 
 consequence had been the ulceration of the pelvis 
 of the kidney and the eventual establishment of this 
 outlet through the vagina. It is not difficult to 
 suppose that a case of this kind must have been 
 attended with a great deal of distress, and it is very 
 probable that all the treatment was directed to the 
 uterus. This must have been totally ineffectual 
 as the cause was so little connected ivith this organ. 
 We have no diagnostic which could enable us to 
 determine wdtli any thing like certainty, the true 
 seat of such a disease. 
 
70 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 Genital System. 
 
 Several highly interesting cases of diseased 
 womb were met with ; two of them we have been 
 enabled to preserve. The first occurred in the 
 body of a female whose distorted .pelvis is figured 
 in plate 5^ and a sketch of the diseased womb is 
 given in another plate. At first sight this womb 
 appeared to be double, but on examination this ap- 
 pearance was discovered to be owing to two fieshy 
 tumors growing from its sides, and lying between 
 the layers of the lateral ligaments, about two inches 
 in length by one in breadth. They had no open- 
 ings into their substance. Some small fleshy bo- 
 dies hung from the internal surface into the cavity 
 of the womb, resembling polypi by their slender 
 necks and broad pendulous extremities. 
 
 The other case, figured in plate 5, is a globular 
 tumor growing out of the posterior wall of the ute- 
 rus, nearly filling its cavity. Previous to mak- 
 ing an incision through the walls, this uterus had 
 all the external appearances of being impregnated, 
 or containing an ovum, six weeks developed. 
 
 Some bodies about the size of a small rifle ball 
 were found between the layers of peritoneum form- 
 ing the broad ligaments. Externally they were 
 quite smootli, hard and white, and when closely 
 

 
 #■ 
 
w. ,,, 
 
 '■V ■ 
 
 
 
 " %, . i;.r 
 
 ; %.’ ■ • { ip .;; 
 
 
 
 *r ^ , - 
 
 ■■ ' ?(=;; V 
 
 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 71 
 
 examined were seen to be entirely composed of 
 bony matter. A substance in every respect simi- 
 lar was found in the neighbourhood of the emul- 
 gent vein of the right side in the same subject. 
 
 If we recollect how small a proportion of the 
 bodies which annually die are dissected — and how 
 small the number of those dissected are thoroughly 
 examined, we need not feel surprised that so many 
 irregularities of structure are presented, or that 
 anomalies should occasionally be observed. Per- 
 haps a more universal and careful examination of 
 the dead will hereafter convince us, that what have 
 heretofore been recorded as irregularities, may 
 occur too frequently to permit us even to consider 
 them as exceptions to a general rule. It is much 
 to be hoped that physicians will improve every op- 
 portunity of making careful examinations by dis- 
 section, and thus fix pathology on the only basis 
 which can withstand the destructive infiuence of 
 change and time. In our large cities very praise- 
 worthy efforts to collect such knowledge are daily 
 made, but to be useful, the practice should be uni- 
 versally diffused. 
 
72 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 THE HYMEN. 
 
 No better proof can be given of the imperfect 
 manner in which observations are made, or the 
 precipitancy with which conclusions have been 
 drawn concerning structure, than is exhibited in 
 the history of opinions relative to this membrane. 
 Some persons have found it in almost every in- 
 stance, others have never been able to see it — one 
 party has declared it inseparable from the condi- 
 tion of youth and virginity — another, that it never 
 had an existence. Among foreign writers the dis- 
 cussion has been for a long time kept up, and in 
 this country opinion is not altogether settled. A 
 paper was read to the Medical Society of Phila- 
 delphia by a gentleman of large experience, during 
 the last session, in which the very existence of this 
 membrane was denied, and the origin of the gen- 
 eral opinion ingeniously accounted for. Three 
 days after the reading of this paper a female sub- 
 ject about twelve years of age was brought to the 
 rooms. On examination, the hymen was found 
 
mi 
 
 Tacjt 
 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 73 
 
 very perfect, aud corresponding in all things to the 
 descriptions heretofore given by anatomists. In 
 consequence of the doubts which had been excited 
 by Dr. Rousseau’s paper relative to its existence, 
 
 I had a drawing made of it in its recent state by 
 Mr. 0. A. Lesueur, (whose name is synonymous 
 with TRUTH in all that pertains to graphic delinea- 
 tion,) and the whole genital apparatus was care- 
 fully preserved in spirits by Mr. Leyburn the at- 
 tentive student to whom the subject belonged.^ 
 This was the third instance in which the hymen 
 w.as found entire during this session. The first 
 was in the body of a black girl between fourteen 
 and sixteen years of age, and the second in the 
 body of a female infant about three years of age. 
 As the last two cases occurred sometime previous 
 to the reading of the paper that reiterated the 
 doubts of the existence of the hymen, no drawing 
 was made, nor were the parts preserved. 
 
 Although there can be no doubt of the regular ex- 
 istence of the hymen, still its existence is not proof 
 positive of spotless chastity, as women have been 
 impregnated without rupture of this membrane and 
 
 * The preparation made by this young gentleman of the whole 
 subject is one of the most admirable display, of the arterial systems 
 in its minuteness, that I have ever seen. The cabinets of Phi- 
 ladelphia, New York, and Baltimore, which I have examined con- 
 tain no preparation that can be compared with this as a whole. 
 
 K 
 
74 
 
 ANATOMICAL IN VliS'iTGATlONS. 
 
 many instances are recorded in which pregnancy 
 was produced notwithstanding the existence of an 
 external malformation, utterly forbidding the in- 
 troduction of the male organ. This fact, unfortu- 
 nately for some ingenious theorists on generation, 
 is too well established, to sutfer their speculations 
 to he credited.* 
 
 ■* The Hymen (so named from the Greek word a mein- 
 brane,) is formed by four angular duplicatures of the membrane of 
 the vagina, 4he union of which may be discovered by corresponding 
 lines on the hymen. At the upper ‘ part there is a semilunar va- 
 cancy, intended for the transmission of the menses, so that it as- 
 sumes the form of a crescent; a circumctance which afifords the 
 true explanation of the origin and meaning of the symbol so charac- 
 teristically assigned to Diana. In some rare cases, the hymen is 
 an imperforate circular membrane, attached to the edge of the 
 orifice of the vagina in every part, so as to close the canal com- 
 pletely. The girls, in whom this fault of confirmation existed, 
 were called by the Greeks the physicians who have written 
 
 in Latin amongst us have given them the name of Imperforates, 
 clauses^ or velatce; and the Italians that of Coperchiate. The 
 Rotpans had no appropriate word to denote this malformation, and 
 they were therefore obliged to express it by some circumlocution: 
 it is thus that Cicero {De Divinat. lib, ii.) speaks of a dream, 
 where a woman was seen “ quee obsignatam habebatnaturamf’ and 
 that Pliny {Hist. JVat. lib. vii. c. 16.) relates, Cornelia, the mother 
 of the Gracchi, “ concreti genitali nata fuerat.^’ In many cases 
 the membrane appears never to have been formed; while, in others, 
 *ts extreme tenuity has occasioned its rupture and destruction in 
 early lifer it may, moreovei*, have been destroyed by disease, by 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 75 
 
 111 additiou to what we have demonstrated rela- 
 tive to the hymen in t|ie human female, it may he 
 of advantage in ending all doubt on this subject, to 
 
 noxious habits, or by acrimonious discharges. This extreme un- 
 certainty has led many authors, of no inconsiderable eminence, 
 to deny its existence ; while others have acknowledged its occa- 
 sional presence, but have attributed its formation to disease. 
 Graaf, Penius, Buffon, Dionis, declare that, by dissection of girls 
 of all ages, they have never been able to discover it; on the other 
 hand, the reality of this membrane has been maintained by 
 Berenger de Carpi {In Isagoge Anatomica,) Vesalius (De Corp. 
 Huma. Fabric, ^v. c. 15,) Fallopius {In Observat. Anatom,.') 
 Voleherus Coiterus {In Tabul. Anatom.,) Varolius {Anatom. 
 lib. iv. c. 4,) B-iolanus (Anthropog. lib. i. c. 16,) Bartholin 
 {Anat. lib. i. c. 31,) Weisus {Observat. lib. i. et de Lamiis lib. 
 iii. c. 20,) Spigelius {De Hum. Corp. Fabrica,) lib. viii. c. 
 18,) Diemerbroeck {Anatom, lib. i. c. 16,) Swammerdam {De 
 Uteri Mulieb. Fabrica,) Techmeyer {Institut. Medicin. Legal et 
 Forens. c. iv.,) and all the more learned and able anatomists of the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Heister ( Compend Anatom. 
 and Ephem. JVat. Curios. Cent. viii. Observ. 69,) Frederick 
 Ruysch {Thes. Anatom, iii. no. 16; vi. no. 1; vii. no. 60,) Mor- 
 gagni {Adversaria Anatom, i. 29; iv. 23,) and Winslow {Exposit. 
 Anatom, no. 653,) all describe this membrane, and assert that they 
 have found it in every young girl they have had occasion to examine. 
 Astruc {on the Diseases of Women, vol. i. p. 123,) in referring to 
 the above learned authorities, observes that “ the inference must 
 necessarily be, that those who deny ever to have seen it, must either 
 have examined only such girls as had lost their virginity, or prepos- 
 sessed with the false notion that the hymen must always close the 
 entrance to the vagina entirely, they have mistaken it at the time 
 
76 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 subjoin the following statement of the existence of 
 this membrane in inferior aijimals, from a work of 
 high authority in natural liistory. 
 
 This singular character does not exclusively 
 belong to the female organs of the human species. 
 It is now ascertained that all female mammiferse, 
 previous to copulation this sign of virginity present 
 in different degrees ; and hence, it is not as Hal- 
 ler supposed for a moral reason that the mem- 
 brane has been given to women. A strong fold of 
 the lining membrane of the vagina has been ob- 
 served in female elephants, before they have brought 
 forth. Steller has made the same observation on 
 the females of the seal and the lamantin of the 
 
 it was before their eyes, and have even sometimes given the de- 
 scription of it, without mentioning the name.” After this literary 
 history of the question, we may very safely conclude that the hymen 
 is a perfectly natural structure, occurring in the virgin, and that by 
 sexual intercourse it is ruptured; after which it is shrivelled into 
 several small excrescences at the orifice of the urethra, called the 
 canmctilce myHiformes. But, since it is liable to such variations 
 in appearance, and to accidental rupture, from the slightest causes, 
 its absence can never be received as evidence of defloration; nor 
 can its presence be considered as an unequivocal proof of virginity; 
 for it has been asserted by indisputable authority, that it is not al- 
 ways ruptured in coiiu. Ruysch has said, that, if the coitus take 
 place immediately after the menstrual excretion, this membrane is 
 not IJruptured, (Observ. Anuf. Chiriirg. xxii.) See Lond. Med, 
 and Phys. Journal, p. 211. vol. li. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 77 
 
 north, (rytina.) Carnivorous animals such as cats, 
 dogs, the hyena and otter have a strictured circle or 
 hymen separating the vulva, from the vagina pro- 
 per. The female bear and coati present a divided 
 membrane, — in the daman, (hyrax capensis) it is a 
 circular fold. The ruminants and solipeds, (such 
 as mares and asses) previous to engendering have 
 an analogous membrane. Among the apes and 
 monkeys, the hymen consists of two crossing mem- 
 branes placed on each side of the canal of the va- 
 gina, their extremities being supported on a longi- 
 tudinal roll which extends through the upper and 
 lower part of the vagina. The same circumstance 
 is remarked in the American apes as in the coaitis, 
 marikinas, wistitis and other sagouins.” \jJ\Toiiveaii 
 Dictionnaire d’histoire J^Tatiirelle. p. 515. 
 
78 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 VENA AZYGOS DORSALIS. 
 
 In plate 7, is given a very correct representation 
 of a vein not figured nor described in any book of 
 Anatomy to which I have had access, and for which 
 I have proposed the name of azygos dorsalis from 
 its peculiar character. 
 
 This vein lies immediately under the integuments 
 of the back, and emerges at a short distance above 
 the origin of the trapesius muscle. It ascends 
 external to the trepesius as a distinct trunk, re- 
 ceiving branches from both parts of the muscle un- 
 til it has risen as high as between the third and 
 fourth dorsal vertebrae. Then it separates into two 
 trunks, which diverge an inch or more from the 
 spine, and penetrate the muscle immediately above 
 the second dorsal vertebra and empty their blood 
 into the subclavians by means of the deep seated 
 cervical veins. The ordinary veins of the back 
 send their blood more directly to the heart by pour- 
 ing it at once into the branches of the intercostals 
 terminating in the vena azygos, interna. 
 
ANATOiMICAI. INVESTIGATIONS. 79 
 
 The drawing of this vein, made by Mr. W. B, 
 Fahnestock^ a member of the class gives a very aC” 
 curate idea of the situation and character of this 
 vessel. 
 
80 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATlONa. 
 
 SECTION XL 
 
 Description of the Table invented for the Philadel- 
 phia Anatomical Rooms. 
 
 This beautiful and most excellent table was 
 devised by Mr. Coleman Sellers of Philadel- 
 phia, October 1823; after having seen how ina- 
 dequate the common table was for showing with 
 any advantage to the class, almost all the necessary 
 views in anatomy. Anatomical tables have hith- 
 erto been made so as to turn on a pivot, to allow 
 the subject to be presented to every part of the 
 room. When it is necessary to elevate the whole 
 ora part of the subject on the common table, blocks 
 of wood are employed, and if it be required to 
 change the position during the time of lecturing it 
 cannot be done without much inconvenience. 
 
 Mr. Sellers^ Anatomical table is six feet in 
 length and is supported on one strong column of 
 wood about six inches in diameter. This upright 
 is bored to receive the strong iron pivot more than 
 two feet long which is fixed to the floor by strong 
 screws. The top of the table is formed of four 
 
INVExVTKlJ i(>]' tke PIJlLx\l)ELPHlA 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 8i 
 
 parts, jointed in such a manner as to allow their 
 positions to be readily changed. In the centre 
 both sides are hinged to a strong transverse piece 
 of timber, and at six inches from one end, and at 
 eighteen inches from the extremity at the opposite 
 end, there is a hinge which allows these portions to 
 be raised to a level with the general surface of the 
 table or to be depressed to any degree in the quad- 
 rant of the circle described by folding it down to 
 the extent permitted by the hinge. The larger and 
 smaller divisions are sustained on strong and ea- 
 sily managed iron racks, which keep the part 
 raised in whatever portion it may be left. The 
 smaller racks at the extremities are governed by a 
 thumb piece, which when slightly touched throws 
 the rack off its rest and allows the leaf to descend. 
 To raise the greater racks bearing the larger parts 
 of the table it is only necessary to push them 
 slightly with the foot, by which stooping is ren- 
 dered unnecessary. 
 
 Besides the general and partial elevation, and 
 depression of the extremities, this table may be 
 elevated or depressed laterally to any useful de- 
 gree. 'This is effected by a broad and strong joint 
 formed in the lower part of the transverse piece of 
 timber to which the extremities of the table are 
 hinged. The table is kept at any degree of lateral 
 elevation or depression by a very beautiful and 
 
82 
 
 AKATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 simple mechanism. A small piece of mahogany 
 is hinged to the side of the table, and at the 
 angle it forms with the supporting column, the 
 lower part being mortised to the proper distance 
 to allow this piece to traverse on a wood screw 
 by which it is firmly held at whatever degree of 
 elevation or depression is required. Both extremi- 
 ties of the table are perforated in various places by 
 small parallel mortises through which straps with 
 buckles are passed, for the purpose of keeping the 
 subject in its place whenever the position of the 
 table is changed. 
 
 The great superiority of this table over every other 
 consists in the facility with which the subject may 
 be moved in various directions, so as to give the 
 class better views not only of different parts, but 
 various views of the same parts ; and doing away 
 the necessity of the clumsy blocks commonly used, 
 and the unpleasantness of calling in assistants to 
 drag the subject into a different position. Another 
 very decided advantage, is, that we can with 
 this table exhibit almost every part of the body in 
 its natural situation. Thus, we do not show the 
 muscles destined to move the arm and trunk with 
 the subject stretched horizontally, but sitting up in 
 an unconstrained position. By this the student is 
 saved the trouble of reversing every thing demon- 
 strated, in his mind, in order to get some idea of 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 33 
 
 its natural relations. By depressing both extre- 
 mities to the utmost, and having the subject pla- 
 ced directly over the centre, we can with this ta- 
 ble give views of the abdomen, thorax and pelvis, 
 altogether impossible with the ordinary table. In 
 demonstrating the brain or other parts about the 
 head, we cannot with blocks do more than raise 
 the head in a very unsteady manner to a cer- 
 tain degree, with this table it may be raised at 
 pleasure, so as not only in an instant to be de- 
 pressed, but depressed to the slightest degree, mo- 
 ving the fourth of an inch at each time to accommo- 
 date the head to the immedi^rte section made. 
 
 When we are demonstrating the organs of sense, 
 or other parts, where we do not use the whole sub- 
 ject, then by elevating both leaves of the table to 
 a certain degree, and depressing the extremities 
 until they are brought level, we are thus furnished 
 with two very convenient stands at the ends of the 
 table, for our specimens or preparations, while the 
 basin, sponge, towel, &c. may be placed in the 
 centre. This arrangement is the more excellent as 
 it brings the specimens nearer to the eye of the 
 student, and saves the teacher from the fatigue and 
 unpleasantness of stooping. 
 
 The strength of this table is very great and far 
 beyond any weight to which it is to be subjected. 
 The motions are so easy and the positions may be 
 
84 
 
 AIn ATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 varied Avith so much facility, that they sometimes^ 
 are changed ten or twelve times during a single lec- 
 ture, to accommodate to particular parts of the 
 class. The circular motion is so easy, that with 
 a large subject on the table, the slightest touch 
 is suflBcient to carry it round the circle. A full 
 view of the table is given in the accompanying 
 plate. 
 
 The following sketches wilt give a good idea of 
 some of the various positions that this table may 
 be placed in. Their uses will be readily under- 
 stood by any one acquainted with the objects a 
 teacher of anatomy has in view. 
 
 [Mr. John James, Jr. No. 24 N. 5th Street, who made this, 
 has the model and can furnish similar tables at a short notice.] 
 
A TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MINUTE ANATOMY 
 
 OP THE 
 
 © ST ^9 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN 
 0 £ 
 
 ANTONIO SCARPA, M. D. 
 
 Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pavia; 
 
 BT JOHN D GODMAN, M. D. 
 
 LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
A TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MINUTE ANATOMY 
 
 OF THE BONES. 
 
 Although the osseous system has for a long 
 time been carefully studied, and every thing pecu- 
 liar to it is thought to be well known — ^though we 
 possess both learned and laboured treatises on 
 the human bones, with most beautiful engravings, 
 delineating them as is said, <^^to the life’’ — and 
 though there are many anatomical teachers, who 
 (on account of the immense quantity of minutas 
 gradually accumulated) hang over them during 
 whole months, exhibiting to their auditors all their 
 inequalities, and pursuing every individual de- 
 pression and spiracle to its termination — neverthe- 
 less, without sneering or arrogance, it may be 
 stated that an addition may be advantageously mad^ 
 to our knowledge of their minute anatomy. Re- 
 linquishing and rejecting the hypothesis pub- 
 
88 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 lished by Gagliardi, concerning the corrugated la- 
 mina, and the quadruple order of hooks joining 
 these lamina together, as well as what Havers has 
 written relative to the spiracles conveying an oily 
 fluid into the bones, we shall find that the more 
 recent doctrines relative to their minute anatomy, 
 are neither more correct, nor more useful. Teach- 
 ers say, as with one voice, announcing it as a 
 thing thoroughly investigated and clearly esta- 
 blished, that the bones are composed of fibres, 
 layers, or tables, placed upon, or so connected and 
 joined with each other, as to have their strata in- 
 termingled. They say, moreover, that the fibres 
 are stretched out in cylindrical bones according to 
 their length, but in flat bones are disposed from the 
 centre to the periphery, and lastly, that the strength 
 of the bones depends on the size, number, and 
 length of the layers. Those who attempt to sup- 
 port this doctrine, seem to have very slightly stu- 
 died the nature and truth of the fact, when they 
 produce calcined'^ bones, which split into leaves 
 and tables, and add the testimony of surgeons who 
 
 * In my experiments to test the accuracy of Scarpa’s observa- 
 tions, I found that the apparent lamination of bone was never 
 produced, except when the surface was suddenly and unequally 
 heated. Bones calcined with a slow and steady fire, never gave 
 me the least appearance of tables. 
 
 J. ]). O. 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 89 
 
 daily see caries removing layers and plates from 
 the sound bone — thus yielding their belief to de- 
 ceptive appearances, instead of making anatomical 
 researches. 
 
 An attentive examination of the minute structure 
 of the internal surface of young, as well as of the 
 .harder part of adult bones, will convince any one 
 from the first step that the former doctrines have 
 been too hastily advanced and too rashly adop- 
 ted. A careful observer would find, that the whole 
 of what is called fibre in bone, is a mere mistake, 
 and the short lines to which name of fibre is incor- 
 rectly given, occupy a very small space, and join at 
 different angles with other very short tracts of the 
 same kind, and by their successive apposition, ea- 
 sily impose on the careless observer, as if they 
 were filaments continued throughout the substance 
 of the bone. By the use of good microscopes, 
 every one will readily perceive that these tracts are 
 branched * — unite with the nearest portions at an- 
 gles of different degrees of acuteness, and being in- 
 terwoven in a multiplex way, constitute a reticular 
 
 * Malpighi formerly observed the same thing, Anat. Plantar. 
 “ These filaments are not all parallel to each other, and hence 
 short appendices are given off, without being bound together, form 
 a wet, differing very little from the nature of bark, the area of 
 which being larger, and the whole compages of fibres expanding, 
 swells with an osseous juice. 
 
90 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 structure, which may be plaiuly seen throughout 
 the whole superficies of a bone, whether it be fiat 
 or cylindrical. 
 
 In relation to the layers and tables stratified in 
 bones, every proper observer will understand and 
 confess, that calcination is too rude a process, to 
 to give anatomists any right to conclude that bones 
 naturally are formed of many strata, or by the 
 coalescence of superimposed layers. Although 
 tliese are the hardest organs of animals, yet they 
 are not throughout the whole of tlieir peculiar 
 structure of the same density, and held together at 
 all points by an equally cohesive force ; v hen acted 
 on by heat, they must necessarily separate une- 
 qually and split in strata, although this is very far 
 from being the natural structure of the bone. Be- 
 cause during life caries separates plates from the 
 bone, it is not therefore fair for anatomists to assert, 
 that the bones are naturally formed by superim- 
 posed tables — since sometimes the softest parts of 
 the human body, and particularly the skin, is re- 
 moved in gangrenous crusts and layers, from the 
 supposed sound parts, while there is nothing better 
 ascertained in the whole human structure, than that 
 the substance and texture of the skin ditters as 
 much as possible from lamination. 
 
 Not only is the outer surface of the bone, which 
 may be easily seen by any one, of this character, 
 
AXAT(JM1GAL IX VES'l KiATiOXS. Si 
 
 but 1 pronounce and affirm that even the greatest 
 part of the whole osseous system is reticular or 
 cellulous. To demonstrate this I do not impose a 
 very severe task on myself. It will be sufficient to 
 show all the bones split, as Cheselden did, and I 
 was accustomed to do during many years, before 
 my class. By this simple method of treating the 
 whole skeleton, it is made evident at a glance even 
 to the most inexperienced, that the largest portion 
 of the bones is cellulous or reticular — the residue 
 being a hard concrete and stony substance which 
 surrounds the reticular structure like a bark. 
 The quantity of this cortical matter in proportion to 
 the spongy part is very small in the scapula and 
 ilia, and is still smaller in the bodies of the ver- 
 tebrae, when a large mass of spongy substance is 
 but slightly covered by a thin bony crust. The 
 lower jaw clavicle, and especially the sternum and 
 ribs are in great part spongy. The bones of thfe 
 carpus, metacarpus, tarsus and metatarsus, and 
 joints of the finger and toes, have a quantity of 
 spongy, loose, and cellular texture, so far exceed- 
 ing their external crust, that the bones of the hand 
 and feet may without impropriety be termed spongy. 
 In relation to the rest of the joints, it is very com- 
 monly known, that the middle of the cylindrical 
 bones, as the arm and thigh bones, the radius, ulna, 
 tibia, and fibula, are very hard and firm, but as we 
 
92 
 
 A X A 1 () M 1 C A L 1 N V E STl (4 AT I O N S. 
 
 gradually approach their extremities, the texture 
 becomes looser, and they swell out in light and 
 spongy protuberances covered by a thin external 
 osseous sheet. Not only do we observe this in all 
 the bones of the skeleton, but in the cartilages, as 
 those of the ribs and of the larynx, which some- 
 times, though rarely do ossify. When these are 
 split through the middle, there will be perceived 
 nearly the same proportion as in the true bones, 
 between their external compact crust and their re- 
 ticulated alveolar substance. 
 
 The whole controversy, therefore, relative to the 
 minute anatomy of the bones, as far as I can judge, 
 returns to this — not whether the structure of the 
 greatest part of the bones is generally cellular or 
 not, (as this is sufficiently proved by the sections 
 made with the saw before-mentioned,) but whether 
 the hard and almost rocky walls of the bones, and 
 their compact external crust no less than their in- 
 ternal substance, partake of this cellular texture. 
 That I may answer this question as satisfactorily 
 as possible, I have thought it best first to investi- 
 gate the subject synthetically, and then analyti- 
 cally. Hence 1 began by examining the bones in the 
 first rudiments of animation, that is, when the car- 
 tilage first changes, and the earliest traces of the 
 future bone begin to appear at the same time. 
 Then 1 deprived the hardest bones of an adult of 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 93 
 
 their earthy particles, and reduced them to their 
 original softness and pellucidness, thinking, as was 
 proved by the experiment, that however entire the 
 maturity of these bones might be, their minute 
 structure would exhibit the same order and rela- 
 tion as was seen in the embryos. I therefore re- 
 peated Haller’s experiments on the formation of 
 bone, in the incubated egg, the chief of which I 
 subjoin entire, as they are recorded in my notes. 
 
 Eighth Day of Incubation. 
 
 The femur and tibia were properly formed, but 
 entirely cartilaginous, flexible, pellucid, in w'hich 
 no dissimilar point could be observed with the 
 most powerful glasses. When dried they had the 
 appearance of desiccated gum. 
 
 JV*inth Day. 
 
 A yellowness begins to appear about the middle 
 of the femur and tibia. The cartilage in Wrai julace 
 begins to be somewhat wrinkled and crisped, but 
 the rest light and pellucid. 
 
 Tenth Day. 
 
 The femur and tibia much more yellow and 
 wrinkled in the middle than yesterday. These 
 
94 
 
 ANATOMICAL IN VESTIGATiOXS. 
 
 twinkles magnified by a good microscope, exhi- 
 bited a very beautiful network, the lines mutually 
 concurring at acute angles — yet this network was 
 still cartilaginous and flexible, differing in nothing 
 from the rest of the cartilage of the future bone, ex- 
 cept in opacity, yellowness, and a slight degree of 
 roughness. 
 
 Eleventh Day. 
 
 In the middle of the femur and tibia the rough- 
 ness, or network, begins to harden. Being dried 
 both sustain themselves by the middle, while the 
 rest of the cartilage of the tibia and fibula collap- 
 ses and appears like a gummy substance. The 
 middle portion, which is not destroyed by drying, 
 is a bony, rough reticulated crust, which is only a 
 little thicker in the middle than at the extremities. 
 Moreover, near the lower part of the tibia and fi- 
 bula, red spots begin to appear, which show the 
 situation of the inferior nutritious artery. 
 
 » Twelfth Day. 
 
 About the middle of the tibia, the network, or 
 original ossification, is terminated by two red points, 
 one above and the other below. The superior nu- 
 tritious artery begins to be visible. The bone 
 
ANATOMICAL/ INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 95 
 
 when dried, preserves its cyiindric form in the 
 middle. 
 
 Fourteenth Day'. 
 
 The opake, reticular, and anteriorly osseous 
 middle of the femur and tibia, is perceptibly ex- 
 tended towards the extremities, and terminates in 
 both directions in 'zones, very full of red blood, 
 surrounding both ends. These very delicate be- 
 ginnings of ossification are very plainly discovera- 
 ble by microscopes of ordinary power, and show 
 that the structure of the bone is by no means fi- 
 brous, but altogether reticular, cellulous, and floc- 
 culent, and is manifestly formed from very short 
 lines or tracts running together at acute angles. 
 
 Fifteenth Day. 
 
 The whitish, reticulated osseous substance is 
 much more extended towards the epiphyses. The 
 zones of blood-vessels situate at the extremities of 
 the ossification, were broader and exhibited a more 
 vivid redness. The reticulated osseous structure 
 was very conspicuous to the naked eye. Splitting 
 the femur and tibia in their length, the internal 
 part of the bony tube was formed of reticulated 
 matter— the walls of the tube throughout their 
 
96 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 whole length were downy or flocculent, having no 
 vestige of tables or lamina arranged over one ano- 
 ther. But the blood-vessels which went from the 
 zones^ from the beginning, both in giving and re- 
 ceiving the little twigs, follow precisely the same 
 order, and exhibit the reticular structure. 
 
 Sixteenth Day. 
 
 The reticular osseous structure of the femur and 
 tibia reaches nearly to the epiphyses — even on the 
 cartilage which tips the extremity of the bone, a 
 rough surface is visible, which is the rudiment of 
 the future bone — and nothing is wanting to change 
 this roughness into real bone, but the deposition 
 of earthy particles. The redness of the zones 
 is greater than on the fifteenth : from either ex- 
 tremity of the bone, towards the middle it is in- 
 creased and expanded, so that the whole bone 
 seems suffused, as with a sanguineous dew. The 
 femur being split through its length, gave no indi- 
 cation in any part of the bony tube of a lamellated 
 structure, but every where appeared flocculent, re- 
 ticulated and cellular. 
 
 -Eighteenth Day. 
 
 The reticulated osseous crust occupies the whole 
 of both bones, except a small part of the cartilage 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 97 
 
 on the extremities of the tibia and fibula. The su- 
 perior and inferior vascular zones are very much 
 expanded, and nearly meeting and intermixing 
 with each other in the centre, tinge the whole femur 
 and tibia with redness. Both bones being split 
 in their length, their walls throughout appear al- 
 veolar and cellular, and also stronger than in the 
 sinuosity of the femur of the opposite side. The tube 
 of both bones was here and there interrupted and con- 
 fined by cartilaginous partitions. The internal pe- 
 riosteum, exhibited the appearance of many blood- 
 vessels collected together, and was intensely red. 
 But near the epiphyses, the cartilage which remain- 
 ed of the diaphysis of the whole bone, was elongated 
 in the form of a cone in the medullary tube, or 
 bony pipe, which cone gradually terminated in a 
 point near the middle of the bone. Through this 
 cartilaginous cone on the extremities of the bones, 
 some vessels passing from both %ones, reach to the 
 epiphyses with a bifurcated termination. The front- 
 tai bones were still very flexible, and almost carti- 
 laginous, yet were in no point fibrous, being in all 
 parts manifestly reticulated. 
 
 Tioenty-jirst Day. — A chicken near being hatched. 
 
 The femur and tibia were not so red externally, 
 as on the former days. In the middle of both 
 
 N 
 
98 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 bones the reticular structure was more close and 
 compact than usual, and the lines appeared to 
 run together at more acute angles than on the 
 first days after incubation— -hence it happens that 
 those small tracts concurring at acute angles 
 readily deceive superficial observers, as if they 
 were fibres extended in the length of the bone. 
 The femur and tibia being vertically divided, the 
 internal periosteum presented, covered by an oily 
 mucus, and he medullary tube was filled, by small 
 cartilaginous tubercles. But in the extremities of 
 the same bones, the cartilage which rose in the 
 form of a cone through the bony tube, was changed 
 to a pellucid sponge of cartilaginous elasticity, 
 grooved by oblong depressions and sinuses. It ne- 
 cessarily follows, from the evolution of this conical 
 cartilage, and from the separation of the same into 
 pits and cells, that the proportion of these protu- 
 berances is very much increased at the diaphysis 
 of the bones, on account of their greater amplitude 
 and the swelling of this conical cartilage^ which 
 far exceeds the diameter of the bony tube. 
 
 A chicken two days before being hatched. 
 
 There was nothing of cartilage in the extremi- 
 ties of the femur and tibia, except the epiphyses. 
 When the periosteum was removed, the blood- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 99 
 
 vessels appeared every where mixed and inter- 
 woven with the bony net-work. Both bones being 
 divided as usual, the internal periosteum was very 
 red, and the vessels of the marrow, bedewed with 
 much oily mucus, were extended from the extremi- 
 ties toward the centre of the bone. In the middle 
 of the femur and tibia, where, from the commence- 
 ment of the ossification, the whole external surface 
 of the bony tube was downy and flocculent was 
 now seen a hardened covering, manifestly drawn 
 and crowded together in tracts and areolae of reti- 
 cular structure. The cartilaginous cone which I 
 saw on the former days in both extremities of the 
 bone, drawn out into depressions and little cir- 
 cles, and very tumid, I find has become a fragile, 
 bony sponge, forming the protuberance of the bones. 
 Moreover, I again see red vessels pass from both 
 extremities of the bone to the epiphyses, to form 
 the ossification of their cartilaginons appendages in 
 the usual way. 
 
 Thus far the observations were made on the in- 
 cubated egg, and the original structure of bone in 
 human embryons when about twenty-eight lines 
 long. For in these, as in the chick about the four- 
 teenth day of incubation, the middle of the femur 
 and tibia, which scarcely equalled two-thirds of the 
 whole length of the bone, was osseous— the re- 
 
100 
 
 ANATOMICAL IN VESTIGATION S. 
 
 raaiiider was cartilaginous. The external surface 
 of both bones stripped of the periosteum, and exa- 
 mined with the best glasses, appeared beautifully re- 
 ticular, very short braucbiug lines running toge- 
 gether at acute angles, altogether resembling the 
 first evolutions of the bones in the incubated egg. 
 The embryon bone split through the middle, exhi- 
 bited the downy and flocculent substance both in- 
 ternally and externally. Although the frontal and 
 occipital bones were so pellucid and flexible that 
 they appeared entirely cartilaginous, yet the mi- 
 nute structure was manifestly reticular — both the 
 whole of the scapulse and ilia were spongy, being 
 still unprovided with any harder external cove- 
 ring. 
 
 The conclusions which are to be drawn from 
 these observations, unless I am very much de- 
 ceived, are the following ; 
 
 1. That the cartilages were the models of the 
 future bone, and all the parts of the bone visible, 
 existed in the form of cartilage. 
 
 2. The reticular or cellulous bony structure 
 which first began to appear about the middle of the 
 cylindrical bones, was always immediately prece- 
 ded by a wrinkling of this part. 
 
 3. That the cartilaginous model is changed to 
 bone by the action of the sanguiferous vessels and 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 101 
 
 the addition of earthy matter, in the rugose cartila- 
 ginous tracts, by which means the osseous net- work 
 is made. 
 
 4. In the incipient state of ossification, the 
 Avhole height and thickness of the bony pipe of the 
 cylindrical bones, both without and within, is light, 
 downy and cotton like, having no trace of hard co- 
 vering externally. 
 
 5. When the ossification is perfected, the walls 
 of the cylindricial bones receive an increase of 
 density about the middle of the bone, with a di- 
 minution of breadth, as the reticular texture is more 
 closely drawn together than before, and compacted 
 in the tracts and alveoli. What forms the exter- 
 nal crust or cortex of the bone, is nothing more 
 than the light, reticulated cellulous structure brought 
 into a hard body near the surface of the bone ; and 
 this, both in the cylindrical and flat bones, does 
 not appear about their middle or centre, before the 
 entire ossification of the cartilaginous model. 
 
 6. The sponginess, which is greatest in the ex- 
 tremities of long bones, is by no means derived, as 
 many anatomists teach, from those lamina, or ta- 
 bles, which pass from the walls of the bony tube 
 and go into the medullary cavity, but it is to be 
 referred to the primordial cartilage, which at first 
 stretches the cones upwards through the medullary 
 
102 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 cavity, and at length the areolse and cancelli being 
 removed, expands more fully, and swells very much 
 like tuberous sponge in the extremities of the long 
 bones. 
 
 7. Finally, the original more minute texture of 
 the cylindrical and flat bones, both in the incuba- 
 ted egg and the very early human foetus, (when in- 
 deed both the bones, scarcely begun, are still flexible 
 and light,) are nothing but a slightly reticulated or 
 cellular substance — and moreover, if sometimes 
 distinct little spots, remote from the centre of ossi- 
 fication, occur in the progress of ossification, they 
 are at length consolidated and peculiarly inter- 
 woven with the portions next them, the whole bone 
 being thus formed of retiform structure. 
 
 In the next place, since we find this to be the 
 fact in the first evolution of bone, let us consider 
 the more minute structure of the bones in detal — 
 especially the nature of the corticil substance of 
 the bone, which is most manifestly made up from 
 the compacted osseous net-work. This, which has 
 been detected by the synthetic method, I felt sure 
 of confirming by analysis, as the hard external of 
 bones could be wholly cleared of their earthy par- 
 ticles, and then might be gradually loosened, until 
 their peculiar structure could be fairly shown. 
 
 Therefore I kept the tibia of an adult, in dilute 
 
ANATOMICAL. INVESTIGATIONS. 103 
 
 muriatic acid sufficiently long to extract the earthy 
 particles — by this process, common to anatomists, 
 the very hardest bones are converted into a cartila- 
 ginous substance of great flexibility and translu- 
 cency, without in the slightest degree changing 
 their natural forms. When I had reduced these 
 bones to this state, I mascerated the cartilaginous 
 residue in pure water, in the same manner as is 
 done when we wish to reduce membranes, viscera, 
 skin, tendons, or aponeuroses to cellular substance. 
 By a long- continued experience, I have at length 
 learned to reduce the external covering of the tibia 
 of an adult to a downy reticular texture, similar to 
 that which is found in the extremities of the bone, 
 except that the close and much compressed texture 
 of the cortex, appears loose and dissolved, in the 
 meditullium and tuberosity of the same tibia. In 
 fact wdien the parenchyma of the tibia was cut per- 
 pendicularly, no vestige was found either externally 
 or internally of fibres, not the slightest indication 
 of lamination, or plates, in the thickness of the bony 
 tube — but the whole of the hardest crust of the tibia 
 throughout its extent, appeared to be formed of 
 cellulous structure, so disposed in cancelli and tracts 
 of net-work, that what belonged to the superficies 
 of the tibia was much compressed and gathered on 
 itself. The cancelli gradually relaxed, and en- 
 
104 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 largeil more and more, until they were swelled out 
 to that sponginess found in the medullary cavity 
 and extremities of the bone.^ 
 
 I have with much pleasure observed that the 
 compact substance of the tibia now under conside- 
 ration, is of a cellulous reticular structure, when 
 this cortex has been deprived of its earth and mois- 
 ture, and afterwards placed in oil of turpentine. 
 For on account of the high degree of pellucidness 
 of a bone thus treated, the slight net- work of which 
 it is ultimately composed, may be clearly seen — 
 and the naked eye, can discover without error, 
 that the very hard crust of bone is really of a cot- 
 ton-like texture, and made up of very short branch > 
 ing tracts, variously joined and interwoven. 
 
 The same circumstances were manifested by a 
 section of the very hardest portion taken from the 
 middle of an adult tibia, suspended in spirits of 
 wine after the earthy matter was removed, and 
 carefully examined by reflected and refracted light. 
 The soft cellulous texture was shown, in which 
 small cones of the same soft substance of different 
 
 * I have repeated all Scarpa’s experiments on adult bones, and 
 have examined in the same manner the very hardest parts of the 
 cylinder of the thigh bone. The results have been so uniformly 
 similar to those above related, that it is not possible to avoid adop- 
 ting the author’s conclusions. 
 
 J. D. O 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 105 
 
 figures adhering together, formed here and there 
 larger and smaller areolae, nearly like the soft cel- 
 lular texture. 
 
 The reticular structure is not only to be seen in 
 the cylindrical, but also in the compact tables of the 
 flat bones in adults. Thus the internal and exter- 
 nal crust of the frontal and occipital bones, being 
 made flexible and pellucid, and suspended in oil 
 of turpentine, the whole is found to be in every 
 part reticular. So great is the resemblance of this 
 crust to the structure of cellular texture, that it 
 might readily be mistaken for a membrane reduced 
 to a cellular web, by long continued maceration. 
 However, I have remarked the form of the cells in 
 in the crust of flattened bones, to be different from 
 those peculiar to the net- work of cylindrical bones ; 
 that, for instance, the areolae in flat bones are more 
 oblong than in the cylindrical — as if the cellulous 
 spaces and areolas of tlie flat bones had been drawn 
 in different directions, while the bones were yet 
 soft and cartilaginous. Hence analytic examina- 
 tion of the cortex of hard adult bones, shows that 
 there is almost the same disposition of principles in 
 the construction of the hardest parts of their bones, 
 as in the embryo at their first evolution j and the con- 
 version of cartilage into bone — that all the bones, 
 even the very hardest, are composed of a collection 
 of small tracts, which extend through very short 
 
 O 
 
106 
 
 ANATOMICAL IN VKSTIGA'ITON S, 
 
 spaces, and unite at different angles, forming a 
 net work. It is not from conjecture, therefore, but 
 the force of positive observation, that we declare 
 the opinion hitherto taught in anatomical schools, 
 that bones are formed by tables, lamina, and fila- 
 ments, is unfounded, and must be rejected as un- 
 true — and we aflSrm, that all the bones, whatever 
 be their figures, are in their minute structure cellu- 
 lous and reticular, sometimes very close and com- 
 pact, as in the cortex of very hard bone — at others, 
 loose and free, as in the cavities and tuberous ex- 
 tremities of cylindrical bones. Those short tracts 
 which anatomists have mistaken for bony fibres, can 
 neither be followed in the length nor breadth of the 
 bone, nor do they ever attain any notable length. 
 
 In fact, as often as I attentively examine the mi- 
 nute cellular texture under consideration, and ob- 
 serve that it is very close and compact at the 
 surface, and grows gradually looser and looser as 
 it approaches the internal part, and the spaces and 
 cells become very much larger, and at length form 
 the spongy structure of the meditullium, and extre- 
 mities of the bones, I cannot avoid concluding that 
 there is in this construction of the bones, a great 
 resemblance with the texture of the true skin of 
 animals. For this corium, which is beyond doubt 
 of a cellular texture, where it covers the external 
 surface, has its cells drawn together and closely 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 compressed, is very firm and compact, but its in- 
 ternal surface, has its cellular structure more and 
 more relaxed and enlarged, till at length by the in- 
 troduction of air it is easily swollen, the and sub-cu- 
 taneous net- work is loosened and enlarged. Thus 
 in bones I see a cellulous net-work, very close and 
 firm on the outer surface of the bone forming a hard 
 crust, and the same substance gradually becoming 
 loose toward the centre of the bone, enlarging and 
 swelling out to an osseous sponge. 
 
 Since then it is demonstrated, that the minute 
 structure of the crust and meditullium of bone is 
 entirely. of the same cellular structure, it will not be 
 difficult unless I am much mistaken, to understand 
 why the cylindrical bones of very young foetuses, 
 which in the beginning throughout the whole extent 
 of the walls of the long tube, are equally liglit and 
 cotton-like, should with increase of age be exter- 
 nally covered by a hard and compact crust — also 
 why it happens that the cortex of the bone is uni- 
 formly in inverse proportion to the meditullium, or 
 what is more remarkable, why the cortex should 
 be thick and very hard where the spongy substance 
 is in smallest quantity — and on the contrary, the 
 cortex is slightest where it covers the greatest 
 quantity of spongy texture. From what I have ad- 
 vanced relative to the commencement of ossification 
 in the incubated egg, and in the human fcetus, it 
 
10b 
 
 A N A T U M i C A C 1 N V E S 1 ' 1 G A T I O N S . 
 
 appears, that perhaps, a greater quantity of osseous 
 substance does not exist in the middle of cylindri- 
 cal bones than in their extremities, that, such is the 
 condition of the cartilaginous model of the future 
 bone, that the portion of this cartilage belonging to 
 the extremities, which hardens latest, is more ex- 
 tended and spread out over larger spaces, alveoli 
 and depressions, than the middle portion of the 
 cartilaginous model. Therefore, since the texture 
 of the cortex and meditullium is entirely the same 
 as before stated, reticular and cellidoiis, nature in 
 her own way and at the proper place, as in the 
 middle of the cylindrical bones, constriuges and 
 compacts it to form a hardened cortex — but in 
 other parts, as in the tuberous extremities of bones, 
 she loosens and spreads the same material like a 
 sponge. In fact, no one should think this compac- 
 tion and change of a lax cellular texture into a 
 solid and hard body to be the only example occur- 
 ring in the animal economy, and merely contrived 
 and designed for giving strength to the bones, since 
 nature employs exactly the same means in all ani- 
 mals, and in all organs composed in a great degree 
 of soft cellular texture, for keeping them in their 
 places, and giving them more solidity and strength. 
 If this should appear doubtful, nature herself 
 teaches, that the soft membranes of the embryon 
 are changed and hardened into firm tunics, elastic 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 109 
 
 ligaments, and tendons, articular capsules, and vas- 
 cular coats. Those who have hitherto supposed 
 the minute structure of bones to be formed in strata 
 and tables, have been accustomed to support their 
 notion by imagination, fancying that the middle of 
 of every cylindrical bone, when it is hardest and 
 firmest, is composed of numerous tables, and as we 
 gradually recede from this tabulated centre towards 
 the extremities, tliat they become diminished in 
 length, and those that are turned towards the me- 
 dullary cavity, become so inclined, that at length 
 meeting together in the middle of the bone, they are 
 in a multiplex manner admixed and interwoven with 
 each other, and changed into the spongy substance 
 of the meditullium and tubers. The whole of this 
 hypothesis falls of itself, if the facts are properly 
 weighed, which we have demonstrated relative to 
 the minute primordial celliilo-reticular textures of 
 bone. Moreover, even this tabular structure ad- 
 mitted, it would be impossible to understand how 
 the same strata of bone could be driven, as Haller 
 thinks by the dilatation of the arteries, from the 
 superficies of the bone towards its medullary tube, 
 till at length by their meeting, the form and condi- 
 dition of a spongy mass is produced. 
 
 But although the natural course and order of os- 
 sification is, that the cellulo-reticular substance 
 which is placed in the middle of the !)ones, should 
 
110 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 change with the maturation of the animal, gradually 
 contracting its cells, and hardening the little por- 
 tions of cellular texture — and while solidifying, the 
 cellulo-reticular structure of the extremities and 
 tuberosities, should at the same time extend the can- 
 celli, and enlarge the net- work, so as to increase 
 the whole size of the bone — nevertheless, observa- 
 tions furnished by pathology are not wanting, to 
 show that a faculty and aptitude exists in the very 
 hardest cortex of adult bones, which enables them 
 under certain circumstances, like the cellulous 
 structure of the extremities, to swell and enlarge 
 beyond their natural condition. 
 
 Although 1 had suspected that this remarkable 
 power of nature in relaxing and enlarging the ex- 
 ternal covering of the hardest bones, was often re- 
 sorted to by her in curing diseased bones, yet I 
 never was so clearly and undeniably satisfied of it, 
 as in the case of a puppy, whose leg I had freely 
 broken. I opened the tibia of this dog, down to 
 the miditullium, and by this opening, introduced a 
 probe and destroyed the marrow of the bone, fil- 
 ling up the cavity with lint, not without much in- 
 jury to the inner wall of the tube. On the follow- 
 ing day the whole leg swelled violently. About 
 the sixth day, a free discharge of pus ensuing, the 
 tumefaction of the soft parts about the wound sub- 
 sided — the tibia at the same time was found to he 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 very tumid, and gradually to increase in size, until 
 about the fortieth day, it had the appearance of a' 
 great exostosis. The dog was killed, and this 
 tibia was examined by cutting through its length, 
 when the whole of the cortex was found to be ex- 
 panded to cellulous texture, and moreover, the walls 
 of the tibia of this puppy that were scarce half a 
 line in thickness, were now changed into a spongy 
 substance, of more than six lines in thickness 
 throughout the length of the bone. 
 
 Similar circumstances are frequently found in 
 the human race, as when any cause injures 
 the meditullium of bones leaving the corticil part 
 untouched, or when the nutrition and increment 
 of the bone from the internal texture is injuri- 
 ously hindered by the presence of some foreign 
 body. For in either case nature provides for the 
 preservation of the continuity and strength of the 
 diseased bones, relaxes with great eifort their com- 
 pact external surface, which enlarging to a spongy 
 consistence, and being prolonged internally, com- 
 pensates for the loss of the meditullium — or swel- 
 ling outwards increases the height and breadth of 
 the bony tube — or, at length by surrounding the 
 injured bone with the sponginess from the cortex, 
 receives and contains it in a sort of sheath. This 
 spongy sheath in the beginning is light, flexible, 
 and cotton-like, but gradually hardening by the 
 
112 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 acquisition of earthy matter, itjcomes at last to per^ 
 form the office of the sound bone — the primitive 
 bone wastes away, and at length loses its continuity 
 with the osseous case. 
 
 We may reasonably demand of those who teach 
 that the hard w alls of bones are made from many 
 plates or tables superimposed, how they can re- 
 concile such facts with their hypothesis. For it is 
 certain and manifest under the circumstances men- 
 tioned, that the bones neither separate into layers, 
 nor, properly speaking, does nature generate a 
 new bone to replace the miditullium, or to include 
 the injured internal wall in the bony sheath, but 
 only allows the compact and much compressed tex- 
 ture of the outer part of the bone to become freely 
 enlarged and expanded. 
 
 But while engaged in writing this essay, 1 have 
 before me another most excellent example of this 
 change and transition of the compact substance of 
 the bone into a cellular mass, furnished by the 
 bones of children, in whom the hardest parts of 
 the bone, and especially of the joints, are reduced 
 by disease to the softness of wax, and become 
 almost pellucid. In consequence of this disease, 
 the bones being deprived of their earthy particles, 
 or the necessary deposit of earth withheld, grow at 
 last so soft and pellucid, as to be easily cut with a 
 knife, exactly like those bones which have long 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 113 
 
 ?)eeii macerated in diluted mineral acids. Diseased 
 bones of this kind have their substance like carti- 
 lage, very light and flexible, and more delicate and 
 spongy within than it is possible to describe. 
 Having cut one of them through its length and sus- 
 pended it in spirits of turpentine, it was translu- 
 cent like jelly, exhibiting the minute structure 
 throughout reticulated, and particularly evinced 
 and conflrmed the fact of the cellular nature of 
 the external crust of bone. 
 
 While speaking of bones deprived of their 
 earthy matter by disease, it presents a fair oppor- 
 tunity for observing what happens sufficiently often, 
 that bones from some peculiar virus may become 
 diseased, not throughout the whole body, as in ge- 
 neral rachitis, with softening, but are deprived of 
 their earth in a particular spot, and are affected by 
 a local rachitis, making them soft within certain de- 
 fined limits. Where this occurs, the cellular tex- 
 ture of the' bone loses its character and rigidity as 
 bone, at the point whence the earthy matter is re- 
 moved, and assumes the flexibility and ductility of 
 cartilage, becoming subject to distension and swel- 
 ling, like the soft organs, such as membranes, ten- 
 dons, ligaments, vessels, and other parts composed 
 of cellular substance. Under such circumstances, 
 if the softened bone is exposed by the want of an 
 outlet to the action of acrimonious fluids, it swells, 
 
 P 
 
114 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 becomes violently distended and red, and soon 
 forms an irregular fungous mass, similar to excre- 
 scences of diseased flesh.'^ The phenomena of 
 spina ventosa and psedarthrocace, are well known 
 to surgeons, the bones at first softening so slightly 
 as by no means to allow of the introduction of a 
 probe — at length becoming a sort of fieshy matter, 
 the skin is burst up and presents a wretched spec- 
 tacle — the tumour bleeds on the slightest touch, 
 and pours out a fetid discharge. This change of 
 the bone into a substance similar to fiesh, and its 
 easy distension, shows that there is much simili- 
 tude between the cellular texture of the substance 
 of the bone, and the common cellular texture, whose 
 great ductility and the facility with which it forms 
 fieshy tumours, is equally well known to physio- 
 logists and pathologists. 
 
 * In one case to which I was called, there was an enlargement of 
 the tibia about two hand-breadth’s below its head, with a large open- 
 ing through wich an ill-looking fleshy mass could be seen within, and 
 from this opening a very unpleasent discharge was kept up. The 
 patient about fifteen years old, sufferred greatly, was extremely 
 emaciated, and had regular hectic paroxysms. A probe could be 
 passed in any direction through the diseased part of the tibia. 
 When the foot was raised it was evident that both bones were 
 fairly softened, and might be bent almost to any degree. Am- 
 putation was recommended — some delay was occasioned. The pa- 
 tient began to take bark freely for the debility, and in a very 
 short time entirely recovered. 
 
ANATOMICAI. INVfiSTK^-ATIONS. 115 
 
 Sometimes it happens fortunately, that the bones 
 swell to an extraordinary size, from the softening 
 of their cellular strncture, without injury to the ani- 
 mal. In fact, we think in opposition to the com- 
 mon opinion of surgeons, that this peculiar soften- 
 ing and germination, like fleshy substance from 
 bones, is determined and promoted by a salutary 
 effort of nature, to repel injuries done to the bone, 
 or to restore the continuity when it has been bro- 
 ken. After fractures we see the points of broken 
 bones first grow soft by the absorption of the earthy 
 matter^ — -afterwards from these points, already of a 
 cartilaginous flexibility, we perceive a red sub- 
 stance to sprout forth, called by Celsus caruncula — 
 and this caruncle extending according to the dis- 
 placement of the broken bones, assuming various 
 sizes and forms, connects the points together and 
 fills up the vacancies caused by any loss of sub- 
 stance. In the living state this caruncle is red, 
 but after death, being freed from blood and mace- 
 rated, has the appearance and character of cartila- 
 ginous substance.. In the living body this carun- 
 cle is well supplied with blood-vessels, which de- 
 positing earthy particles, gradually impart greater 
 consistence, and proper osseous character, when 
 the name of callus is bestowed on the mass by'the 
 surgeon. 
 
116 anatomical investigations. 
 
 In relation to the organic nature of callus, my 
 own experiments, after those of IIetlkf, Hai lerj 
 Bonn and Bohmer, do not allow me to doubt. 
 Those who have hitherto fore taught that callus was 
 something similar to gluten concreted with earthy 
 matter, always appear to me to have very rude no- 
 tions of the animal economy, and have not re- 
 marked that callus once formed in young animals, 
 grows as it advances in age in the same proportion 
 as the other bones, and is changed in colour by the 
 use of madder, just as they are. The blood-ves- 
 sels of callus may be minutely injected : and in 
 short, callus when acted on by mineral acids, is 
 deprived of earthy matter and resolved into a car- 
 tilaginous substance similar to the other undoubted 
 bones. Such teachers, moreover, seem not to have 
 observed, if it has happened before them, that when 
 bones formerly joined and restored by callus are 
 seized by rickets and softening, this callus, like 
 the other bones of the animal, becomes softened 
 and preternaturally tumid. 
 
 1 have removed from the surface of the tibia in a 
 full grown man soon after death, a portion of callus 
 almost four inches long and one broad, still soft, 
 altpgether cartilaginous and easily cut with a 
 knife— this specimen is preserved in spirits of wine. 
 Its external surface has the appearance and form 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 417 
 
 of the osseous crust — but the internal surface that 
 adhered to the tibia, exhibited a most beautiful net- 
 work, which at first sight could not be distinguished 
 from common cellular substance. By examining 
 this structure with a microscope of high power, it 
 Avas plainly demonstrated to be cavernous, and al- 
 together cellular, have many very minute earthy 
 particles in it, especially in its external surface, 
 Avhich was firmer and more rigid than the opposite 
 side. 
 
 It is wonderful to see the celerity with which 
 the soft caruncle, filled with blood-vessels, shoots 
 forth on the bones of birds that have been stripped 
 of periosteum, first changing to cartilage, afterwards 
 into a light downy bone, delicately reticular both 
 externally and internally. 
 
 I have made the same experiments on the bones 
 of kittens, Avhich though not effected with the same 
 celerity, yet terminated in a similar manner. 
 
 The tibia of a cat, from which a soft callus had 
 grown after the periosteum had been removed 
 from two-thirds of the whole circumference of the 
 bone, was macerated in muriatic acid until the 
 whole bone became pellucid and fiexible. By 
 placing this bone in oil of turpentine, I found that 
 the caruncle, or rudiment of the future callus was 
 continued from the cartilaginous model of the bone, 
 and was nothing more than a germination and intu- 
 
118 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 mescence of the cartilaginous substance of the tibia. 
 I have seen the same thing plainly in the tibia of 
 an adult man, who had suffered a vast laceration of 
 the soft parts and periosteum, two months before 
 death — the caruncle was sufficiently produced, and 
 part of it had begun to change to bone. When the 
 whole tibia was freed from earthy particles by the 
 aid of mineral acid, and rendered pellucid, it ap- 
 peared that the perfect callus, as well as the ca- 
 runcle, formed one and the same substance with 
 the whole parenchyma of the tibia — that is, the 
 cartilaginous nucleus of the tibia was expanded into 
 the callus, and was prolonged and stretched out 
 uncommonly. 
 
 In another cat whose tibia was deprived of a 
 long and broad portion of periosteum, a recently 
 formed callus swelled out — when I had filled the 
 arteries very minutely with red wax, this callus 
 was handsomely tinged red, and the colour was 
 distinct from that of the rest of the tibia. But 
 when 1 had removed the earthy matter by acids 
 from the whole tibia, and rendered it soft and pel- 
 lucid, and examined it opposite to the light, I dis- 
 covered an immense number of blood-vessels scat- 
 tered through the callus. 
 
 Besides the proofs heretofore given, that the 
 callus is formed by the intumescence, or germina- 
 tion, of the parenchymatous cellular texture of the 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 119 
 
 bones, we may add, that whether Ave consider the 
 formation of callus and the process of ossification, 
 or look to the minute structure when the bone is 
 perfected, ive shall find all the circumstances of 
 the original ossification and formation of callus are 
 alike, '['he caruncle does not harden by the whole 
 quantity of earth being deposited at once, but re- 
 ceives the earthy substance as in the formation of 
 bone in the incubated egg, where the blood-vessels 
 appear, carrying red blood, and supplying at the 
 same time the necessary earthy particles. Since 
 this condition of the vessels takes place unequally, 
 as well in the cartilaginous model of bones as in 
 the rudiment of future callus^ it hence necessarily 
 happens, that in both, small distinct spots appear at 
 the commencement of ossifi^cation without any order, 
 which finally unite together in the cartilaginous 
 model of the embryon, or after fractures cover up 
 and take place of the caruncle. As soon however 
 as the caruncle is wholly ossified we find the callus, 
 like the original ossification in the incubated egg, 
 entirely cotton-like, reticular, spongy, and equally 
 light and delicate throughout its whole extent. It ap- 
 pears as if forcibly compressed, and becomes more 
 and more condensed until it hardens and is covered 
 with an external crust or bark, which substance, as 
 in the bones of erabryons near the full time, in- 
 
120 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 creases more in length in proportion to the diminu- 
 tion of the cellulo-reticular structure. 
 
 The origin of exostosis, is undoubtedly similar 
 to the formation of callus. For in such cases, the 
 surface of the bone being, for ever so small a dis- 
 tance, deprived of the periosteum, becomes sof- 
 tened, is followed by a germination of the caruncle 
 from this spot, which is lengthened and increased 
 from the fluids circulating in it — hardens finally by 
 the deposition of earthy matter, and produces a tu- 
 mour whose minute structure does not differ, in the 
 slightest degree, from that peculiar to the bones, if 
 we except this circumstance, that the tumour is 
 sometimes harder than the bone itself, in conse- 
 quence of the greater quantity of earthy matter it 
 has received. I speak now of the true and legiti- 
 mate exostosis, which may have been originally 
 caused by some virus — and although this has, by 
 treatment or spontaneously, been removed, still 
 the exostosis does not cease, because the caruncle 
 shooting from the surface of the softened bone, ob- 
 tains the nutritious gluten along with the earth 
 from the common cement, and assumes the osseous 
 character. A few years since I had occasion to re- 
 move the tibia and fibula near the knee, where a 
 great exostosis swelled out, in a man of about forty 
 years. I amputated the leg at the usual distance 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 121 
 
 from the patella, through the exostosis. The 
 wound in a short time was healed without being af- 
 fected by the exostosis — the cut bones adhering to 
 the integuments were covered by a firm cicatrix. 
 
 Caries is separated from the sound bone almost 
 always in the same way that callus is formed. At 
 the extremities of a bone suffering under caries, the 
 earth is absorbed by the action of the proper ves- 
 sels, and from this spot the caruncle shoots forth, 
 which being treated with bland and emollient ap- 
 plications, separates the carious bone in every di- 
 rection, and throws it off from the sound. When 
 this happens, the caruncle which, as we have de- 
 monstrated, is very vascular, before it wholly ossi- 
 fies, forms anastomoses with the surrounding soft 
 parts, and even with the skin itself. On this ac- 
 count, after the cure has been entirely effected, we 
 find about this caruncle, that the integuments are at- 
 tached to the subjacent bone, and that there is a 
 dense concave cicatrix formed thereby. 
 
 Therefore, in addition to the anatomical re- 
 searches and observations made relative to the for- 
 mation of foetal bones, and their structure in adult 
 animals, various morbid affections, the chief of 
 which 1 have mentioned above, show that the mi- 
 nute structure of the hardest of these organs differs 
 very slightly from the structure and properties of 
 cellular texture, if we except that the common 
 
 Q. 
 
122 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS^ 
 
 cellular substance is very soft and juicy, and 
 the cellular texture of bones in consequence of the 
 earth it receives, begins early to harden and has its 
 strength and density increased by the daily addi- 
 tion of earthy matter. It is nevertheless equally 
 certain, where the cellular texture of the bone is 
 first deprived of its earthy particles, it becomes 
 flexible and ductile, like many other parts of ani- 
 mals which are called soft and distensible, having 
 as great an aptitude to swell or enlarge as the com- 
 mon cellular substance. As sometimes it happens 
 in ulcers which are treated by an unskilful sur- 
 geon, by oily and relaxing remedies longer than is 
 proper, the cellulous subcutaneous texture swells 
 and rises above the skin like a fungus tumour, 
 so it naturally occurs when the cellular texture of 
 hone is deprived of its earthy matter, the same 
 vital action forms and germinates the caruncle^ 
 which sometimes only unites the points of a broken 
 bone, and at others, wonderfully replaces the ma- 
 terial that has been lost. The celebrated Haller 
 formerly taught, that the cellular texture was the 
 great foundation of the animal structure, because 
 all the membranes without exception, the vessels 
 which are hollow membranes, the greatest part o-f 
 the viscera, tendons, aponeuroses, ligaments and 
 integuments of the whole body, are made of this 
 cellular texture. This is not only true, but an ad- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 123 
 
 dition of the boues may be made to this catalogue, 
 on the authority of the most careful observatious. 
 
 I have taken care to examine the minute anatomy 
 of the bones in other animals, as in amphibia, rep- 
 tiles, and fishes. In the great whale called balsena 
 mysticetes, the cellulo-reticular structure is most 
 fully evident, both in the bones of the head and 
 shoulder blades, and in the cortex of the lower jaw, 
 and the longest of the ribs. There is no great 
 acuteness of sight requisite to detect the same 
 structure in the bones of the delphinus phocaena, 
 because the reticular structure in this animal is 
 more visible, since there is but a small quantity of 
 earthy matter concealed in it. The same structure 
 is very manifest in the bones of the sea turtle, and 
 in reptiles of every kind. In cartilaginous fishes, 
 as the shark, frog-fish, sting-ray, and others of the 
 same kind, whose bones contain even less earth 
 than those of the dolphin, the reticular texture of 
 the cortex is also far more conspicuous. In the 
 scaly fishes, as in the pike, although the bones are 
 very hard and contain much earth, yet the cellulous 
 texture is very perceptible, and the branching tracts 
 concur at acute angles, wonderfully and beautifully 
 reticulated. 
 
 The salutary changes which we have mentioned 
 heretofore as occurring in the bones, being effected 
 and continued by the vital power and action of the 
 
-124 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 
 
 vessels, it follows, evidently, that the hones, 
 besides the great quantity of lymphatic vessels, 
 are also possessed of a vast number of blood- 
 vessels, and are really more vascular than any 
 one not accustomed to minute anatomy can have 
 any idea of. The celebrated Albinus, indeed, 
 taught a long time since, that a vast number of ves- 
 sels passed from the periosteum into the cortex, 
 through the numerous spiracles of Havers, and 
 these vessels, with others of the same character 
 running through the medituliium, properly called 
 nutritious arteries, anastomosed, and passing by 
 particular openings through certain parts of the 
 bony crust, enter the medullary cavity, bestowing 
 the most minute ramifications on the marrow and 
 its membranes. But Albinus, when he wrote 
 this, thought that the blood-vessels immediately 
 after entering the pores of the cortex, went in right 
 lines between the strata of plates and tables. This 
 I certainly know to be far from the truth, and fo- 
 reign to the structure of the bones and the real dis- 
 tribution of the blood-vessels. When I had filled 
 the vessels of the bone in a young and immature 
 foetus with most minute injection, I found the ves- 
 sels of the periosteum immediately on entering the 
 pores of Havers, not going oflT in right lines, but 
 giving and receiving frequent branches, encircling 
 the reticulated structure of the cortex, and joining 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 125 
 
 each otKeV at the shortest intervals, following the 
 course of the osseous net-work. Where the cortex 
 of the bone internally began to loosen to the spongy 
 substance of the meditullium, the blood-vessels of 
 the cortex also inclined to the centre, and their 
 trunks joined at certain places, with those going 
 to the marrow, as before stated. This seems to be 
 a wise provision of nature, that at the same time 
 the external crust of the bone is supplied with a 
 large quantity of blood, a full and manifold com- 
 munication should exist by these almost innumera- 
 ble anastomoses, between the external and internal 
 structure. I pointed out the mode of distribution 
 of the blood-vessels in bones, as shown by injec- 
 tions, in the incubated egg of the sixteenth day? 
 when the red zones which surround both the ex- 
 tremities of the tibia, being broadly expanded, meet 
 in the centre of the bone. Under these circum- 
 stances, even should the external periosteum be re- 
 moved, the cortex of these delicate bones is suffused 
 with so great a redness by the abundance of vessels, 
 that it seems to be covered with a sort of sangui- 
 neous dew. 
 
 Since the bones enjoy vitality, are nourished and 
 grow' like other parts, it is in perfect agreement 
 with analogy to believe, that besides the great 
 number of blood-vessels, they are supplied with 
 nerves, although these can scarcely be demon- 
 
126 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 strated, not only on account of ther tenifity, but 
 perhaps^ — because, as in many other parts, the 
 very small nerves enter the foramina of bones in 
 coalescence with the arteries. But if pathological 
 observations may be allowed any w'eight, I may 
 state, that I have more than once produced a sense 
 of pain by scraping and abrading living bone. I 
 have also observed that the caruncle which shoots 
 from the substance of bones is endowed with sensi- 
 bility, and have lately had a most excellent opportu- 
 nity of confirming this statement. On a part of the 
 tibia of a man, five inches long and one broad, that 
 had been removed by the natural process — I wet the 
 caruncle with camphorated spirits of wine, of which 
 the patient, who was by no means timid, complained, 
 much — sliortly after, 1 wet the point of a soft pen- 
 cil with spirits of sal ammoniac, and when it was 
 applied to the caruncle, the patient cried out. Now 
 that the caruncle, which is nothing but the bone 
 itself deprived of earthy matter, is entirely insensi- 
 ble and destitute of nerves, it is altogether absurd 
 to assert. 
 
 The following questions may be asked relative 
 to the minute anatomy of the bones. Is the diploe 
 present in the cranial bones of the foetus or not? 
 Are the pituitary sinuses altogether wanting in the 
 bones of the foetus at full time ? that is, are the 
 frontalf cethmoidal, maxillary^ and sphenoidal si- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 421 
 
 mises present? relative to which anatomists are 
 yet undecided. 
 
 In relation to the first question, if any one atteii- 
 tentively examines a perpendicular section of the 
 cranial bones in an immature foetus, with the aid of 
 a good glass he will find a very singular and re- 
 markable circumstance. The reticulated cellulous 
 texture of the foetal cranium on the inside is already 
 solid, smooth and compact, and has already formed 
 that table which is called vitreous — but the external 
 surface of the cranium still remains light, reticular 
 and flocculent, as it were surrounded by an osseous 
 down. After birth, and especially in childhood, 
 this reticular down is in greater quantity, the can- 
 celli and areolse are more and more drawn together, 
 and solidified into a thin crust under the pericra- 
 nium. This crust, moreover, envelopes the whole 
 reticular substance of the cranium, and whatever 
 remains after the formation of the two tables is con- 
 fined between them and receives the name of dijploe- 
 If the ossification advanced beyond the middle, 
 the portion of the reticulo-cellular substance be- 
 tween the two tables would be added to either the 
 external or internal, and then the adult cranial 
 bones would be entirely without dijploe, but would 
 constantly acquire a hardness and thickness beyond 
 what is common. Wherefore, so far is it from fact 
 that the diploe is wanting in the foetus, that it 
 
428 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 should rather be stated that all the external surface 
 immediately under the pericranium is nothing hut 
 diploe. 
 
 In relation to the pituitary sinuses of the nose, 
 among the dissectors who affirm these cavities to be 
 entirely wanting in the foetus at nine months, (for 
 many anatomists are of this belief,) some teach that 
 these receptacles in adults are to be attributed to 
 the action of absorbent vessels. For, say they, the 
 material is absorbed from the middle of the frontal, 
 sphenoid and maxillary bones, and is replaced at 
 the margin forming new and large cavities. I 
 freely confess that there is much excellent testi- 
 mony to prove the great power which the absorbent 
 vessels possess in removing both fluids and solids. 
 Nevertheless, granting all this power to the absor- 
 bents, 1 do not understand why they do not equally 
 remove the whole substance of the bone, as well as 
 make local excavations at certain points. But pas- 
 sing over these disquisitions and doubts, we cannot 
 withhold our admiration at some of the recent wri- 
 ters on osteology, who deliver it as thoroughly in- 
 vestigated and certainly established, that these 
 sinuses are wanting in the foetus at birth* — not re- 
 
 * What would Scarpa think of the positive assertions made very 
 recently, and worst of all, republished in Philadelphia, that the 
 frontal sinuses do not exist in every individual— and that “ a gen- 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 129 
 
 collecting that the celebrated Albinus has described 
 many of these sinuses in the foetus of nine months, 
 and illustrated them by plates. In fact I have be- 
 fore me, in a foetus of this age, the mthmoid cells as 
 delineated by Albinus, and also the maxillary and 
 spheno-basilar sinuses proportionably as distinct as 
 in the adult. The spheno-basilar sinus, at this 
 tender age, is not only begun, but it is already 
 fairly divided into two parts by an interseptum. 
 The frontal sinus is the only one whose rudiments 
 are obscure in the foetus of nine months, yet it is not 
 entirely wanting — but at that age the frontal sinus 
 is not sufficiently distinct from the sethmoid cells, 
 as is shown by the flatness above the nose in the 
 foetus, and the formation of a continued series be- 
 tween the frontal sinus and aethraoid cells in the 
 adult. 
 
 The pituitary sinuses of the nose, like many 
 other parts which are delineated in the embryon, 
 are only evolved with the increment of the whole 
 body. For the purpose of effecting this, in addition 
 to the remarkable powers through whose action the 
 nutrition and increase of the animal organs are 
 
 tleman of the medical profession, who had finished his studies at 
 Edinburgh , dissected carefully at Paris for “ seventeen months,'” 
 and could not find the frontal sinus, except in a single instance, 
 and that in the head of a “mad woman!!” See Combe’s Essays 
 on Phrenology, p. 83 passim. J. D. G. 
 
 R 
 
130 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 kept up, I think that faculty of the animal economy 
 by which the primordial, light, reticular, and cellu- 
 lar texture, at certain places and different periods 
 of time becomes more condensed, or relaxed and 
 spongy, as may be necessary, does much in the 
 increment and evolution of the pituitary sinuses. 
 Indeed, in the first instance, it follows from 
 mechanical necessity, that the cavity surrounded 
 by the osseous sponge, which is contracted and 
 changed into a hard thin crust, should be increased. 
 This is certainly manifest in the cylindrical bones, 
 which are spongy and cotton-like throughout their 
 whole extent in the embryon, and as soon they 
 begin to harden and form their cortex in the middlc;> 
 the tube of the bone becomes apparent. 
 
 In addition to the causes stated above, it is very 
 probable that another circumstance takes place in 
 the increment and evolution of the pituitary si- 
 nuses — that is, as the body increases, the capacity 
 of these sinuses gradually enlarges, and the extent 
 of the spongy bone surrounding them is increased, 
 at the same time its thickness is diminished, until 
 this bony sponge forms the walls of the pituitary 
 sinus. There will be less doubt in relation to this, 
 if skulls of all ages, from the foetus at birth to the 
 adult, be carefully examined, in which it is very 
 manifest that the amplitude of these sinuses are in 
 the inverse ratio of the spongy celliilous substance 
 
ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 ISi 
 
 oF the bone, which in the foetus surrounds these ca- 
 vities. But to these causes promoting the increment 
 of the pituitary sinuses that may be properly called 
 jprimary, I think that those secondary cases should 
 be added, depending from the change of figure and 
 position which the surrounding bones of the em- 
 bryon are subject to. 
 
 The convexity of the superior and middle turbi- 
 nated bones being increased towards the septum 
 narium, favours the expansion of the sethmoid cells, 
 and the appearance of the molar teeth in tlie child, 
 with an increased convexity of the alveolar process, 
 aids much in developing the maxillary sinus — in 
 proof of which, the maxillary cavity is much les- 
 sened when the molares fall out, and the alveolar 
 arch is removed. When the root of the nose and 
 and outer surface of the frontal bone is raised in 
 children, this causes the sethmoid cells to be raised 
 upwards along with them, so that the superior cells 
 get a new place and name, and are called frontal 
 sinuses. Should any one suppose the air during 
 respiration to be impelled throughout these sinuses, 
 I should not be much disposed to object.* I will 
 
 * The air has access to the sinuses during respiration, when they 
 are not diseased — ^but it is not necessarily changed at every breath- 
 ing, as is evinced by the occasional retention of a peculiar odouj 
 which is proved by its re-appearance after a lapse of time, and oui 
 removal from the spot where it w'as first experienced. J. D. G. 
 
132 
 
 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 end this essay by pointing out the propriety, ia 
 similar researches, in order to understand the most 
 iut'eresting articulations of the body, of employing 
 a recent subject in which the bones are held toge* 
 ther by their own peculiar ligaments. Experience 
 has taught me that dissectors have often fallen into 
 error, from want of a recent subject before them to 
 examine and correct their notions. 
 
 In dried bones, for instance, deprived of their 
 ligaments, any one would say, judging from the 
 appearance of the head of the bone and the aceta- 
 bulum, that a man could readily move the thigh 
 bone ill every direction — could flex, extend, adduct, 
 or draw one thigh to the other. Noth withstanding, 
 I venture to assert, that it is most certain we have 
 not the power of extending the femur, that is, to 
 carry it behind the perpendicular line of the whole 
 body. If we stand on one foot, and attempt to 
 move the thigh behind the perpendicular jine of the 
 body, we find that we are altogether unable to ac- 
 complish it, and if we appear at all to succeed, it is 
 only in proportion as we bend the trunk forwards 
 above the hip joint. The unequal thickness of the 
 capsular ligament of the hip joint, and the peculiar 
 disposition and insertion of this ligament into the 
 neck of the femur, prevents the extension.^ 
 
 * By reference to the description given in the previous part of 
 of this volume of the manner in which the capsular ligament of the 
 
ANATOMICAL IN'VESTIGATION S. 
 
 133 
 
 The capsular ligament below the psoas magnus 
 and iliacus interna s is very thin, and is thinnest 
 behind, where it is covered by the quadratus fe- 
 moris. But on the outer part where the capsular 
 ligament is thickest and densest, it does not go di- 
 rectly downwards, but passes obliquely from the 
 outer part of the brim of the acetabulum, and is in- 
 serted in the interior surface of the root of the neck 
 of the thigh bone.f On account of this insertion, 
 as we attempt to carry the femur backwards, the 
 anterior, which is firmer and denser than the pos- 
 terior part, is strained to the utmost and forcibly 
 extended, preventing entirely the tension beyond 
 the perpendicular line. That this principally de- 
 pends on the unequal thickness of the capsular li- 
 gament, is shown and proved by opening this liga- 
 mentous capsule on the side of the foramen ovale, 
 and thence introducing a knife so that the round li- 
 gament may be divided — nevertheless, although in 
 the most recent subject, we cannot perceptibly move 
 
 hip joiut is formed from the fascia lata, the reader will be better 
 able to perceive the correctness of Scarpa’s assertions, inasmuch as 
 he will find another reason. for their truth in the connexion which 
 all the muscles of the thigh have with the capsule. He will also 
 he well prepared to understand the cause of the inequalities in the 
 thickness of this ligament. J. D. G. 
 
 t See Weitbrecht, Syndesmologia, Tab. xviii. fig. 53. God- 
 man’s Jinalomical Invesligalions^ Sec. v. 
 
1S4 ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 it backwards beyond the perpendicular line. . How 
 much these facts will assist in more clearly under- 
 standing the circumstances which in health to per- 
 tain to the mechanism of standing, walking, leap- 
 ing, or in disease, to the diagnosis and removal of 
 luxations of the thigh, it is unnecessary for me to 
 point out to any one at all acquainted with the sub- 
 ject. 
 
ERRATA, 
 
 Pag« 6,— 3d line from top{ after “ than” strike out “ to.” 
 
 16, — 4th line from the bottom, for “ ileum” read ilium. 
 
 45, — 9th line from the bottom, for “ then” read than. 
 
 A!T , — for “ prostrata” read prostatx. 
 
 51, — 3d line from bottom, for “ prostrate” read prostate. 
 
 55, — 6th line from bottom, for “ conversity” read convexity, 
 73, — 2d line of the note, for “ display” read displays. 
 


I 
 
 Godman 
 
 1824