DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from Duke University Libraries https://archive.org/details/forestfiresinnor01holm I NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, State Geologist ECONOMIC PAPER No. 33 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1912 NATIONAL AND ASSOCIATION COOPERATIVE FIRE CONTROL J. S. HOLMES, Forester RALEIGH E. M. UZZELL & CO.. STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS 1913 GEOLOGICAL BOARD. Governor Locke Craig, ex officio Chairman , Raleigh. Frank R. Hewitt Asheville. Hugh MacRae Wilmington. Henry E. Fries Winston-Salem. W. H. Williamson Raleigh. Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist Chapel Hill. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Chapel Hill, U. C., July 1, 1913. To His Excellency , Honorable Locke Craig, Governor of North Carolina. Sir: — I herewith submit for publication, as Economic Paper Ho. 33 of the reports of the Horth Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, a report on Forest Fires in North Carolina Daring 1912, which also con- tains some information in regard to national and Association Cooper- ative Eire Control, this having been prepared by Mr. J. S. Holmes, Forester to the Survey. These statistics are collected and additional data with regard to forest fire control by Federal aid and through the work of associations is published, with the idea of helping our authori- ties to frame some adequate laws to meet the conditions as they now exist in Horth Carolina. Yours respectfully, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. CONTENTS. PAGE Forest Fires in North Carolina during 1912 7 Introduction 7 The Weather 8 Relative Fire Risk in 1912 and 1911 (Table 1) 8 Tabular Statement of Forest Fires 9 Summary of Reports by Regions, Comparative Statement (Table 2)_ 10 Summary of Reports by Counties 11 Mountain Region (Table 3) j 11 Piedmont Region (Table 4) 12 Coastal Plain (Table 5) 14 Comparative Statement of Averages by Regions, 1909-1912 (Table 6). 16 Causes of Forest Fires 16 Causes of Forest Fires in the Different Regions (Table 7) 17 A New Law Against Hunters Setting Out Fires 18 Conclusions 19 Federal Forest Protection in the United States : 20 Fire Protection on the National Forests ' 21 Causes of Fires 22 Prevention of Railroad Firas 22 Warning Notices 23 The National Forest Force 23 Lookout Points 24 Trails and Telephones 24 National Forest Fire Laws 25 The Fires of 1911 on National Forests 26 Progress in Protection 26 Rural Mail Carriers to Report Forest Fires 28 How the States Are Helped 29 Assist in Posting Warnings 30 Federal .Cooperation with States Under the Weeks Law 31 Administration by the Forest Service 31 Results Accomplished _■ 33 Extending Cooperative Protection 33 How the States Are Benefited by the Weeks Law 34 New Hampshire 34 Oregon 35 Maryland 37 Minnesota : 38 New Jersey 39 Wisconsin 41 Timberland Owners’ Protective Associations 43 County Fire Patrol Associations in Oregon 44 Idaho Timber Protective Associations 45 6 CONTENTS. Timberland Owners’ Protective Associations— Continued. page Protection in Montana 46 New Hampshire Timberland Owners’ Protective Association 47 Lumber Manufacturers’ Association Takes Up Actual Protection 47 Cooperation with Railroads 48 Patrol and Protection of Right of Way by Railroads 49 Use of Spark Arresters by Railroads 50 Conclusion 52 Appendix: Spark Arresters on Railroad Locomotives, by R. C. Havjley 57 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH GAROLINA DURING 1912 By J. S. HOLMES, Forester. INTRODUCTION. Statistics on tlie annual damage and extent of forest fires through- out the State, such as have been gathered and published by the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey for the past four years, are calculated to serve two very important purposes. First of all, the gathering of the information stimulates a desire to know more about this subject and to help correct the evil, while the publication of the figures imparts to the general public a knowledge of conditions as they are, which leads, sometimes very greatly, towards the bettering of con- ditions in the prevention of the fires. In the second place, such knowl- edge as is gained is of great value in furnishing a basis of known facts from which the legislator and other State officers can intelligently build up the most efficient laws for the protection of the forests and an administration that can most effectively put such laws into force. With a record extending over several years covering the causes of forest fires in the different parts of the State, the principal months in which such fires commonly occur, the average size of fires and the damage done by them, the weakness of our present laws are clearly brought to light, and changes and improvements in them readily suggest them- selves. The figures in the following tables have been gathered in the same way as those which have been previously published, as follows: Forest Fires During 1909, Economic Paper 19; Forest Fires During 1910 , Economic Paper 22; Forest Fires During 1911, Economic Paper 25. The general method is about as follows : A list of questions, accom- panied by a form letter, is sent out to voluntary correspondents all over the State. It is the object to have at least two correspondents in each township in the State. This has, unfortunately, not been accom- plished, though a larger proportion of the townships of the State have this year been reported for than in former years. This is largely in response to a request that each correspondent send in the names of per- sons who might be willing to furnish such information in adjoining townships. The tables show that in spite of this, less than one-half of the townships of the State have been reported for. It therefore can be seen that the figures given are not accurate totals, though they con- vey as fair an idea as possible of the conditions now general through- out the State. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. A new item of damage which was not included in the reports for 1909 and 1910, which, though introduced last year, then made a show of relatively small importance, has in the figures for this year assumed very large proportions, and that is the damage to young growth. The reason for this is that the less frequent fires are, the more the young growth will be damaged, because there is more of it to he injured. This, however, is not an argument against protection, as some people have contended. If, by protecting an area one can raise a crop of young growth worth $10 an acre in twenty years, as many people have done, that is surely a very strong argument for keeping out fire. If at the end of that time this young growth is all destroyed by fire, the owner is no worse off than had his land been burned over every few years, each time destroying all the young growth or preventing the growth of reproduction, while, if he saves it from fire, his property is worth at least double what it would be if it had been unprotected. THE WEATHER. A comparative study of the annual summary of the United States Weather Bureau for Uorth Carolina for 1912 and the following tables bring out the point that variations in the seriousness and extent of fires cannot always he traced directly to the weather. In fact, it is hard to discover much direct connection between the drought periods and the periods of the worst fires in 1912. Table 1.— RELATIVE FIRE RISK IN 1912 AND 1911 BY MONTHS AND SEASONS, IN PERCENTAGES. Though the rainfall for the year was slightly below normal, the showers and storms were as a rule so well distributed that the season was far from being abnormal. This was especially true throughout the FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 9 dry summer season, when iu many places tlie rainfall was not mucli over half the usual amount. The United States Weather Bureau in its annual summary says : “The local rains of the dry summer period were generally sufficient for sur- face requirements. July was marked by a deficiency in rainfall for the central and eastern districts. During August the rainfall was very light, but well distributed. All rivers were decidedly below normal stages. “Precipitation through September continued light until the third week, when general rains broke the drought conditions that had prevailed since July.” In spite of this long drought, there were very few forest fires at this season, owing, as was before said, to the well distributed showers and to the large amount of green vegetable matter in the woods, which, as a rule, prevents serious fires at this time of the year. The largest and most destructive fires for the year occurred in the mountains during ^November, a month in which the precipitation for the whole State was about normal. There was, however, a short hut severe dry spell in the western part of the State during the latter part of this month, when the most appalling loss of timber and other prop- erty took place within a very short time. The comparative figures for the mountain counties show that, on the one hand, the number of fires reported was even below normal; Avhile, on the other hand, the area burned over, the amount and value of timber, young growth, and other property destroyed, was several times as great as the average for the past three years. TABULAR STATEMENT OF FOREST FIRES IN 1912. The following tables represent replies from all hut five counties of the State, though only 443 townships out of a total of 980 were reported for. The figures, therefore, though decidedly more representative than those previously published, are far from complete, and are given not for their absolute accuracy, but as an indication of the great loss we are experiencing every year.* It must he remembered that the 537 ~ townships not reporting are many of them townships in which fires rarely occur. It would not, therefore, be fair to argue that the 980 townships lost twice as much as here reported, or $2,000,000 worth of property. It might, however, he safe to add from 25 to 50 per cent to this total loss to make it apply to the whole State. * Any reader who is interested in forest protection can assist in making future reports more com- plete, and thereby molding public opinion in favor of fire prevention, by acting as voluntary cor- respondent. Write at once to the Forester, Chapel Hill, X. C., and the list of questions will be sent you at the end of the year. 2 10 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Table 2.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1912. COMPARATIVE STATE- MENT. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY REGIONS FOR 1912. WITH AVERAGES FOR 1911, 1910, AND 1909. Mountain. Piedmont. Coastal Plain. State. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. 1912. 1911, 1911, 1910, 1912. 1910, 1909. 1909. Total number of townships in region 166 166 450 450 364 361 980 980 Number of townships reporting. __ 79 _ 00 230 154 134 121 443! 330 Number of replies received 100 55 308 128 146 100 554 2S3 Number of forest fires reported 145 191 319 198 201 261 665 650 Total area burnt over, in acres 3S2.609 96,074 100,017 97,347 133,425 18S.535 616,051 3S1.956 Total standing timber destroyed, in M feet, board measure 79,613 11,626 3,568 9,359 9,645 25,0S3 92,826 46,06$ Value of timber destroyed, in dollars $178,460 $ 36,352 .? 27,520 $ 27,434 $ 33,097 $ 66,658 $ 239.077 $130,444 Area of young growth destroyed, in acres 165,518 9,181 19,011 2S , 963 35.72S 48,658 220,257 86,802 Value of young growth destroyed, in dollars $230,900$ 12,380 $ 58,129 $ 20,325 $ 70,365 $ 78,250 $ 359,394 $110,955 Value of forest products destroyed, $223,475 S 29,990 8 84,675 $ 60,295 $100,920 $ 83,341 $ 409,070 $173,626 Value of improvements destroyed, $ 18,770 $ 36,4S0 $ IS , S20 8 14,925 8 30,704 8 64,635 8 6s, 312 Total damage reported, in dollars. $651,981 S 97,500 $212,911 $126,883 8224, S92 $258,932 $1,089,784 $4S3,335 2 2 2 2 Cost, to private individuals to fight fire $ 5,916 $ 7,257 S 6,107 $ 4,630 8 5 , 585 $ S,30S $ 17,608 $ 20,195 Table 3.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1912. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY COUNTIES. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 11 * 9J Tvi SnijqSij JO JSOQ — IL'-CM’— a a *6 < Ashe Averv - Buncombe.-. Cherokee Clay - Graham Haywood Henderson Jackson Macon Madison Mitchell Swain Transylvania Watauga.. - Yancey Totals 12 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. •ejij SnijqSix JO }SOQ •JSO^ SOAiq •pa.^ojjsoQ spioxuoAoiduii jo anp?A •pa^oj^soQ s^on -pOJJ JO QU[V\ •paXojjsaQ q^AOJQ Stmoy jo orqqA o o o cm c cm cm < § •sajoy I o m ‘paAoijsa* O t". •Suijjodo^j ediqsa.AOX jo 'joqmn^j •jfyurtoQ ni sdiqsa.AOX jo loqumj^ jiqox CM CM O P ~ O ZZ — .S ^ >> -5 p 2 c 3 c3 c3 100 2,500 o »o o *o 50 10 •JSOq S0AI r J •paXoj^seQ sjueuuoAojduii jo anpJA (s o iO 5,125 500 o o o *-o o ! O i •pBiConssQ; sjan -pojo 550 500 1,000 o CO o »o CO 001 009 •sojoy ui ‘J0AQ jumg; 'B0JV I^ox 2,000 800 200 8,725 51.000 10.000 2,000 o IQ CO 3,020 276 5,200 •S0JIJ jo jaquinfci co *n o o t-{ CM TP QO •saiicfe-g jo LOq’ran^j O >— < 1— 1 lO O t*< o m co co co i-i o e* •Suijjodog; sdxqsuMOX jo ’jequm^ Ttt O 1— l 1-H O CO ^T« co co co »— i \tyunoQ ui sdiqsuAiox jo jeqiun^; pjox OC5U^OCOOrtiT*40»— liOiOCO-"C41>-OC'JCOS^ County. Beaufort Bertie Bladen Brunswick. Camden Carteret Chowan Columbus Craven Cumberland. Currituck Dare Duplin Edgecombe Gates Greene Halifax. Harnett Hertford 16 FOREST FIRES IX NORTH CAROLINA. Table 6.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1912. COMPARATIVE STATE- MENT OF AVERAGES BY REGIONS FOR 1912, AND 1911, 1910, 1909. Mountain. Piedmont. Coastal Plain. State. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. Percentage of townships reporting.. . 48 33 51 34 37 33 45 33.5 Average area of each fire, in acres — 2,638 502 314 491 663 722 926 58S Average damage by each fire, in dollars.. - -- 84,496 $ 510 $ 667 S 642 81,119 .$ 992 $1,639 8 744 Average area burnt over per town- ship reporting, in acres 4,843 *1 , 108 435 *623 996 *1,755 1,391 *1,121 Average damage per acre burnt, in dollars $ 1.01 S 2.13 $ 1.31 S 1.69 8 1.37 8 1.76 $ 1.26 *For 1911 and 1910 only. No township figures for 1909. It is seen from the foregoing tabulated summary of replies that fires were twice as destructive in this as in any former year for which fig- ures are available, although 1912 was not abnormally dry, nor specially favorable to forest fires. An average forest fire damage for the past three years of nearly half a million dollars, has leaped at once to a loss of $1,089,784. This is equivalent to more than half the total tax for schools in the whole State of ISTorth Carolina. In the mountain counties, where the fires were the most destructive, the damage done by fires undoubtedly exceeded in value the total taxes for that region last year. A loss of $652,000 is reported for less than half the townships of the region, while the total State and county taxes for all the townships only aggregated about $760,000. Should not some effort be made to reduce this fire tax, literally a double tax? CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES. In examining the tabulated causes of forest fires as given by the correspondents (see Table 7), with the object of ascertaining the reason for the large increase in the damage done by fires, especially in the mountains, during the past year, three items attract our attention, namely, those under the heading of “hunters,” those caused by “malice, or incendiary,” and those attributed to “loafers, trespassers, etc.” It is seen that the two former have made their largest increase in the western and piedmont sections of the State, while the third is men- tioned only in the mountains. This may be only a coincidence, but it seems to throw some light on the fact previously noted, that the fires in the mountains were much worse than usual, and that this could not be traced directly to any long period of excessively dry weather. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 17 Table 7.— CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES IN THE DIFFERENT REGIONS OF NORTH CARO- LINA IN 1912. COMPARED WITH THE THREE PRECEDING YEARS, IN PERCENTAGES. 1912. 1911, 1910, 1909. Moun- tain. Pied- mont. Coastal. State. State. Farmers burning brush, grass, rubbish, etc 3 16 1 8 12 Hunters 21 15 13 16 10 2 2 1 3 Carelessness __ 16 21 23 20 18 Railroad locomotives, sparks from 7 18 25 18 20 Logging locomotives, dummy engines, etc _ _ 5 5 12 7 8 8 3 4 4 i i To improve the range 7 3 5 5 3 2 1 3 1 1 Malice or incendiary ___ ____ 18 10 5 10 6 Unknown causes 7 2 12 7 7 1 7 2 Campers _ .. ... 2 .5 1 From Table 7 it would appear that the large increase in damage done by fires in 1912 was due to a large extent to hunters, loafers, tres- passers, and other persons who set out fire either from malice or else from what might justly be called criminal carelessness. This conclu- sion is supported by information secured from other sources. As one farmer in the mountains put it: “Fires seemed to spring up on every side during this week or two of dry weather in November.” Looking at it from the standpoint of the man who wants to prevent the recurrence of such conditions, the outlook is hopeful. This class of fires are the easiest of any to handle, because they are strongly con- demned by all reputable citizens. Public opinion is strongly against the men who purposely set out fire in a dry time on other men’s land ; and all we need to enable us to handle such fires is a good strong law, with some organization to put it into effect. Public opinion will then see that it is enforced. 3 18 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. A NEW LAW AGAINST HUNTERS SETTING OUT FIRES. In line witli these conclusions, hut before they were formulated, the General Assembly of 1913 passed a bill to prevent hunters leaving fires unextinguished in the woods. This law, as far as it goes, is in the right direction, but, unfortunately, it is like so many more of our legislative enactments in that it lacks the proper means and power for its enforce- ment. This hill is here given in full, and reads as follows : AN ACT TO AMEND SECTION 3347 OF THE REVISAL OF 1905 SO AS TO INCLUDE HUNTERS WHO FAIL TO EXTINGUISH FIRES. The General Assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That section 3347 of the Revisal of 1905 be and the same is hereby amended by adding after the word “fires” and before the first comma in line four thereof, the following : “or hunter who shall set fire to any tree, stump, or other combustible matter and leave without totally extinguishing such fire.” Sec. 2. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. Ratified this the 4th day of February, A. D. 1913. Section 3347 of the Revisal of 1905 is a law that has been on the statute-books of the State for many years, having been part of the old Code. It was originally made to prevent wagoners who hauled produce through the country from leaving their camp-fires unextinguished when they drove on. This section, as amended to include hunters by the recent enactment, now reads as follows : Sec. 3347. Woods, from Camp-fires. — If any wagoner or other person en- camping in the open air shall leave his camp without totally extinguishing the camp-fires, or hunter tcho shall set fire to any tree, stump, or other combustible matter and leave without totally extinguishing such fire, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not exceeding fifty dollars or imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. This law and the old section against setting fires to the woods, sec- tion 3346, quoted in Economic Paper Ho. 25, are the only laws against forest fires which we have at present of general application to all the State. A second measure, however, was passed by the Legislature of 1913, applicable only to certain conditions. It is entitled “An act to protect watersheds owned by cities and towns from damage by fire.” As there are only comparatively few such watersheds in this State, its enforcement can he brought into play only in a restricted way. How- ever, the burning of such watersheds affects a much larger number of people than any areas of similar size in the State, so that it is most wise to adopt special means for their protection. All of our laws for the protection of our forests from fire have the same weakness which was spoken of above, namely, the lack of any FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 19 machinery through which they may be enforced. One hears from all sides that the laws are no good; that offenders cannot be discovered; and, if discovered, are not prosecuted; and, if prosecuted, cannot be convicted. All this could he changed by the adoption of a State Forest Warden system. Such a system is now working effectively in about half the States in the Union, and throughout Canada. Such a bill* was introduced into the recent session of the Legislature by one of the most prominent representatives from the mountain part of the State, and, though only an appropriation of $5,000 a year was asked for to organize and start a Forest Warden system in such counties as were especially liable to fires and where the citizens were most anxious to prevent them, the bill was killed in committee, because, it was said, the State could not afford to spend that amount. CONCLUSIONS. Can the State afford to pay out $5,000 to start a scheme which has proved its value in preventing fires in other States and other coun- tries? It cannot afford not to do it. A loss from one year’s fires of over $1,000,000, a total loss for the past four years of over $2,500,000, would surely persuade even the most indifferent that it was time to act, and to act effectively. Our people are said to he losing millions of dollars each year by the freight discrimination of the railroads, but to remedy that condition laws have been passed and special commis- sions appointed, and even the calling of a special session of the Legis- lature has been suggested. A similar loss from forest fires to the farmers and timberland owners of the State not only goes on from year to year almost unnoticed, but, when a proposal is made to stop it, the claim is made that the State is too poor to appropriate money for such a purpose. Hot until the people want forest protection will the State be rich enough to afford it, but as soon as the people ask for such protection they will get it. * See page 84, Biennial Report of State Geologist, 191I-'12. FEDERAL FOREST PROTECTION IN THE UNITED STATES. The Federal Government is by far the largest owner of forest land in the United States. This land is included in National Forests, In- dian Reservations, National Parks, Military Reservations, and a small amount in the unreserved public lands. “The unappropriated public domain is so widely scattered, and is passing out of the hands of the Government at such a rapid rate, that its protection and administration would be impracticable even were there any provision for such a course. As a matter of fact, there are neither funds nor men available for this purpose, and absolutely no steps have been or are being taken to pre- vent the destruction by fire of timber on the public domain.”* “On the military reservations there is very little destruction of timber by fire. The reservations are for the most part small and the proportion of com- mercial forest low. . . . The presence of troops on or near each reserva- tion makes it possible to extinguish promptly any fire that may occur. In some cases patrol is maintained to guard against forest fires.”* “On the National parks protection from fire is as complete as on the mili- tary reservations, according to the reports of the respective superintendents. The parks are in general much larger than reservations and contain a much greater area of merchantable forest. Where danger from fire exists, a regular patrol is maintained, and a sufficient body of troops is available to promptly extinguish any fire that may occur.”* “No statistics are available as to damage by forest fires on the Indian reservations. It is, however, known that these reservations have received immense damage from year to year, and that but little effort has been made to prevent the indefinite recurrence of such damage. Fires occurring near the agencies have in many cases been extinguished. No provision has, how- ever, been made by Congress for a systematic patrol. Superintendents of Indian reservations have neither the authority nor the funds to employ men for fire fighting, and it is very difficult to get the Indians to voluntarily per- form work of this kind. Under such circumstances, fires will inevitably occur in the future, as they have in the past, in the more remote and inaccessible regions.”* Tbe Office of Indian Affairs is, however, now paying more attention to tbe care of tbe forests on tbe Indian Reservation than it bas pre- viously done. In “Regulations and Instructions for Forest Officers in charge of Forests on Indian Reservations; approved June 29, 1911,” forest officers are directed to “use all diligence in tbe detection of parties guilty of a violation of tbe act against setting fire to forests on tbe public domain,” referred to on page 24, which includes fires on Indian Reservations. It is also directed that : “Each superintendent or forest officer in charge is responsible for the divi- sion of his Indian forest into patrol districts and the assignment of guards to each district. Guards must use every possible effort to extinguish every fire * Forest Fires: Report of the National Conservation Commission, 1909, page 453. FOREST PIKES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 21 of which they have knowledge, and must immediately investigate every one of which they are informed. During dry and dangerous periods the selection of headquarters, camping places, and routes should be made with the single object of preventing and discovering fires. Fires caused by lightning are not rare, especially in dry mountain regions. After every electric storm a special effort should be made to locate and extinguish any such fires before they are well under way.” “Every superintendent is authorized, in person or through a subordinate, to hire temporary men, purchase tools and supplies, and pay for their transporta- tion from place to place to extinguish a fire. No expense for fighting a fire outside a reservation must be incurred unless the fire threatens the reserva- tion. Fire fighters should be paid by the hour, actual working time, at the current local rates. The time consumed in going to and from the fire may be included. While the Indian Office is doing its utmost to pi’event and fight fires, only a limited amount of money is available for this purpose.” It is in the National Forests, however, that much the largest part of the Government timberland is located, and here, fortunately, we find the most efficient and businesslike system of fire protection. A short ac- count of this system, together with some of the results already obtained, should he of especial interest to all North Carolinians at this time, not only because we are now developing a forest policy of our own and such an example may he of the greatest use to us, hut also because the Federal Government is now gradually acquiring considerable areas of our mountain lands for an Appalachian National Forest. The methods of fire protection which are now being put into force on these lands will no doubt follow closely those which are succeeding in the National Forests of the West. FIRE PROTECTION ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. For purposes of administration, the 160 National Forests in the United States are grouped into six districts. Each district is in charge of a District Forester, who is immediately responsible to the Chief Forester in Washington. The District Foresters, with full district office forces, have headquarters in well chosen centers. Each National Forest is in charge of a Forest Supervisor, who is directly responsible to the District Forester. Where the forests are small, a supervisor sometimes has charge of two. This officer’s head- quarters are usually located as near the main lines of railroad, tele- graph, and telephone communication as possible, so that he will be in close touch with the District office as well as with all parts of his forest. The rangers, on the other hand, are scattered over the forest and have their headquarters wherever they can best look after their own particular parts of the forest. There are on an average from eight to ten rangers to the average forest of 1,000,000 acres in extent. 22 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. A forest of this size is equivalent “to an area from 30 to 50 miles wide and from 40 to 60 miles long. To protect such an area from fire, especially with the difficulties of transportation and communication, is exceedingly difficult.” Mr. F. A. Silcox, District Forester in District 1, has explained fire prevention and control on the National Forests so clearly that his article is largely quoted below:* CAUSES OF FIRES. “The causes are many, but practically all can be classified as preventable. The usual causes in the order of their frequency are : Railroad engines ; light- ning ; careless campers ; fishermen and hunters ; settlers burning brush to clear land for cultivation ; logging engines and sawmills ; malicious incendia- ries.” How like our own North Carolina conditions ! PREVENTION OF RAILROAD FIRES. “To prevent the innumerable small fires set by railroads, oil must ultimately be used as a fuel. An efficient spark arrester which will keep large glowing embers from being thrown out into the dry grass, brush, or debris usual along the right of way will assist greatly, but will not entirely prevent fires.” “There must be some way to prevent those cinders which do get away from starting fires, and the only effective one is to clear the right of way of all inflammable material. There should be no standing timber, no punk logs and debris, and it should then be burned over periodically, under careful super- vision, to prevent further accumulation of inflammable stuff. Through open country it is best to plow a furrow or two at the outer edge of the right of way to serve as a fire break. The method to be adopted depends to a great extent on topography. Two to four furrows on each side of the track are usually sufficient. In addition, it is necessary to patrol the right of way immediately after every heavy freight train, by a man on a speeder.” “Appreciating the common danger, the Government and certain railroads have outlined, and in some cases have put into effect, a practicable cooperation. Such cooperative agreements are in force between the Forest Service and the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railroads, which traverse National Forests in Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Oregon. “Under this cooperation the railroad agrees : To clear and keep clear its right of way of all inflammable material to the satisfaction of a duly author- ized Forest officer ; to use effective spark arresters on all locomotives ; to grant the use of pin room on the poles on its rights of way for wires of the Govern- ment, provided such an arrangement can be made with the company that owns the poles : to permit use of tricycle speeders for patrol purposes during the dry season ; to furnish such assistance as is available in case of fire : to pay all expenses directly to the men employed in fire fighting, if the fire is within 200 feet of the right of way (this is made 100 feet in some cases to allow Forest officers to ride on certain designated freight trains when provided with proper transportation), to notify the nearest Forest officer in case of a fire. * Fire Prevention and Control on the National Forests, by F. A. Silcox: Year-book separate, 54S, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1910. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 23 “On its part the Forest Service agrees to patrol the right of way during the dry season ; to supervise the clearing of the right of way ; to construct such telephone lines connecting Forest officers' headquarters as may be necessary; to furnish caches of fire-fighting tools at convenient points along the right of way ; to give to the railroad all timber cut in clearing its right of way or an additional strip not to exceed 200 feet in any case, provided the timber does not run over 10,000 feet per acre; to pay directly the men employed in fighting fire outside of the 200-foot strip (but if the railroad is later found to be responsible for the fire, the United States is to be reimbursed), to notify the nearest station agent of any defects found in the tracks by the patrolmen. “Both parties to the agreement are bound : Mot to terminate agreement during the fire season ; not to terminate it outside of the fire season without thirty days notice.” WARNING NOTICES. “Plainly noticeable on every road or trail in the National Forests are fire- warning notices. The essential feature of these notices is an outline of the Federal law against setting or leaving any fire. It states that malicious fire setting is met with a punishment of $5,000 fine or two years in prison, or both ; careless fire setting with $1,000 fine or one year in prison, or both.” THE NATIONAL FOREST FORCE. “Each forest is divided into ranger districts to distribute the patrol force properly and to fix the responsibility for a specific piece of territory on a permanently employed ranger, who can become thoroughly familiar with the country in which he is to work. This is important, since much depends upon the ranger’s knowledge of the topography of his distinct. The size of the ranger district varies, but under present conditions is altogether too large. In no case should it include more than two townships, or approximately 72 square miles. Since the ranger must not only oversee the fire protection work, but must handle the administrative work, such as making estimates, maps, and reports on timber sales, must exercise general supervision over the construction of roads and trails, and make examination of claims, it is necessary to have additional men to assist in patrolling the territory. These additional men are needed mainly during the fire season — from June to Octo- ber — and are employed temporarily as guards to assist the ranger in patrol work. To properly distribute these additional men. the ranger subdivides his district into patrol units, to each of which he assigns a forest guard. From 1 to 10 forest guards are assigned to a ranger, depending, of course, on the size of his district and the comparative danger from fires. “The unit of patrol varies according to the character of the country. In the very heavily timbered regions of the coast and Northwest one man cannot adequately cover, even with every facility for readily getting over the country, more than from 25,000 to 30,000 acres. In the more lightly timbered regions, where there are a great many open parks, one man can cover from 50,000 to 60,000 acres. This would mean for a forest of 1,000,000 acres a patrol force, not including rangers, of thirty-three men.” 24 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. LOOKOUT POINTS. “After dividing the forest into ranger districts and subdividing the districts into patrol units, with a man in charge of each, it is still necessary to make sure that these men are in a position to render effective service. The ranger must select certain lookout points and ridges from which he can see over his entire district. A view from these high points will, in many cases, be worth a great deal more for discovering fires than patrol lower down ; hence these points are carefully selected and coordinated to give primary control of the entire forest. They are generally high, isolated peaks from which an unob- structed view may be obtained. If possible, they should be in sight of each other, so that two men can locate a fire accurately by taking triangulation compass bearings. “Yet these lookout points and ridges are of little value if after the fire is discovered there is no way to get to it quickly because of a lack of trails, or no way to call for immediate help. Travel without trails through mountainous regions, over windfall and through brush, must be on foot; the time lost in getting to a fire is a serious matter. Where the guard himself possibly could put the fire out when he first discovers it, provided be could reach it quickly, it might take an army of men to control it after a delay. In most cases ready assistance can be had only along the railroads and in the settled lower valleys.” TRAILS AND TELEPHONES. “In many cases help is from 10 to 60 miles away. With a telephone line the distance can be spanned in five or ten minutes ; to travel it may take as much as four days. Unless, however, it is possible to bring in men, supplies, and tools over road or trail, the delay is still greater, for then a trail must be cut for pack horses. “Permanent trails must be built to make the country accessible. They should be along all of the main streams and ridges as trunk trails, then up the tributaries and on the spurs as laterals. The system must be complete, comprehensive, and coordinated in order to make it possible for a man on horseback to reach any portion of his fire patrol unit within a few hours. In case the fire gets a start, and it becomes necessary to bring in a number of men and many supplies, even better means of transportation must be pro- vided. These can be secured only through wagon roads as far as they can be constructed and then trails for pack animals. Pack trains of from eight to thirty horses should be kept on each forest where there is risk of delay in getting horses from the outside. These horses may be distributed over the forest on trail construction work, or used for packing supplies and carrying mail to the patrolmen away back in the hills, so that the men will not have to leave their stations to come out for two or three days at a time during a critical period. “When a large fire occurs which cannot be handled by the local force of rangers and guards, and assistance is needed, the telephone gets word to the supervisor, who, in most cases, is in a town on the railroad, and help is sent in. The horses are called into service from their routes or construction work and put to packing supplies to the fire camps. The caches of tools at strategic points throughout the forest contain enough tools to equip from ten to fifteen men. Larger caches at central points of distribution in the forest provide against the loss of time which would result if they had to be packed in. in addition to the food supplies for the men.” FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 25 NATIONAL FOREST FIRE LAWS. The following regulations and instructions in regard to Fire Tres- pass, issued by the Secretary of Agriculture to take effect September 1, 1911,* shows that the Federal Government not only believes in having strong laws to prevent fires, but also in rigid enforcement of them : FIRE TRESPASS REGULATIONS. “Tlie following acts are prohibited on lands of the L'nited States within National Forests: “(a) Setting on fire or causing to be set on fire any timber, brush, or grass: Provided, however, that this regulation shall not be construed to prohibit the building of necessary camp-fires or other fires for domestic or manufacturing purposes. “(b) Building a camp-fire in leaves, rotten wood, or other places where it is likely to spread, or against large or hollow logs or stumps, where it is difficult to extinguish it completely. “(c) Building a camp-fire in a dangerous place, or during windy weather, without confining it to holes or cleared spaces from which all vegetable matter has been removed. “(d) Leaving a camp-fire without completely extinguishing it.” INSTRUCTIONS AND PROCEDURE IN FIRE TRESPASS. “The act of June 4, 1897. authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to make rules and regulations for the occupancy, use, and protection of the National Forests, and provides that any violation of such rules and regulations shall be punishable by a fine of not more than $500. or imprisonment for not more than 12 months, or both. The Secretary in the exercise of this authority promulgated Regulation T-l (quoted above) to insure care with fires and thus protect National Forest resources. “Section 52 of the act of March 4. 1909 (35 Stat., 10SS), provides a fine of not more than $5,000, or not more than two years imprisonment, or both fine and imprisonment, for willfully setting on fire or causing to be set on fire any timber, underbrush, or grass upon the public domain, or for leaving or suffer- ing a fire to burn unattended near any timber or other inflammable material. “Section 53 of the same act provides a fine of not more than $1,000. or not more than one year's imprisonment, or both fine and imprisonment, for failure to totally extinguish a fire built in or near any forest, timber, or other inflammable material upon the public domain before leaving it. “Offenders can be prosecuted under either of these acts. The United States, having all of the legal remedies of a private citizen, can. in addition to criminal prosecution, bring civil suit to recover damages for loss by fire. “In certain cases criminal prosecution under the State laws may be advisa- ble. Such prosecution must, of course, be conducted in the State courts and by the State authorities, with such assistance as may be rendered by the dis- trict assistant to the solicitor. “When a fire occurs, the most important consideration is. of course, to put it out. As soon as possible thereafter, the ranger in charge should make dili- gent inquiry into its cause. He should not content himself with conjecture. *The National Forest Manual: Trespass. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1911. 4 26 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. hearsay, or circumstantial evidence, but should secure affidavits from witnesses as soon as it appears probable that a fire trespass case will follow. If be secures convincing evidence that the fire was incendiary, and there is reason to suppose the offender will escape, be should arrest or secure a warrant for the arrest of the offender. “Cases where fire spreads after all reasonable precautions are taken, or where the fire is entirely the result of accident, will be considered innocent, and only actual or compensatory damages will be demanded. “All cases where fires are set maliciously, or allowed to spread through gross carelessness or neglect, or in violation of any Federal or State law. are willful, and evidence should be secured and report prepared with a view to criminal prosecution as well as the collection of damages.” THE FIRES OF 1911 ON NATIONAL FORESTS. In the latest Report of the Forester the losses by forest fires on the National Forests are given for 1911, the final returns for 1912 not having been received. The gross area of the national Forests is about 160,000,000 acres. About 22,000,000 of this is alienated, i. e., owned, as farms, ranches, and timber tracts by private individuals, leaving a net area owned by the Government of about 138,000,000 acres. To insure adequate protection, the private as well as the public land must be patrolled by the forest officers, for fire starting on a farm inside a national Forest threatens all the surrounding Government land. *“The total area of National forest lands burned over was 469, 63S acres, of which 348,783 acres were timberland and 120,855 acres open. The loss in timber destroyed or damaged was 117,174,000 board feet, with an estimated value of $172,385. There was also a loss in reproduction estimated at $176,406, and of forage valued at $5,955, making a total National forest loss of $354,746. “On private lands within the forests 310,342 acres were burned over, of which 267,107 acres was timber and 43,235 acres open. The loss in timber amounted to 27,049,000 board feet, valued at $37,376. The total cost of fight- ing the fires upon National forests and fires which threatened National forest land was $202,046.36. This does not include time spent by regular forest officers. “The timbered area burned over per 1,000 acres was 1.78 acres in 1911, as against 1.S6 in 1909, and 19.90 acres in the disastrous 1910 fire season. PROGRESS IN PROTECTION. “In spite of the fact that so many of the fires occurred in regions of inacces- sibility, the efficiency of the Forest Service fire-protective machinery shows as rapid progress toward perfection as can be obtained with the comparatively small force of patrolmen and lookouts who can be employed with the funds available. “The mileage of trails and telephone lines was largely increased during the fiscal year 1912, and a considerable number of lookout stations were estab- lished and equipped. These improvements directly increase the efficiency of fire protection and fire suppression. ’Report of the Forester for 1912, by Henry S. Graves, U. S. Department of Agriculture. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 27 “Special attention was given to the equipment of lookout stations, since it is obviously of the utmost importance that the location of a fire be reported and the Are reached at the earliest possible moment. “The locating of fires by triangulation methods has proved very successful. Obviously, however, this plan cannot be used except in those forests having more than one lookout point connected by telephone. As rapidly as possible the lookout points have been put in telephone communication, and this work is being vigorously extended. In the Arkansas and Ozark National Forests, for instance, where, largely because of topographic conditions, the need of a lookout patrol system received early recognition, approximately To per cent of the area of forest land is covered by a system of lookout towers connected by telephone. It was found necessary to construct towers on the lookout points in order to obtain a clear vision, and 30-foot wooden towers or 60-foot steel towers built on the style of a windmill have proved very effective. “The practical results of the lookout stations have been remarkable. In many cases fires have been definitely located at distances varying from 10 to 50 miles and word has been telephoned to the nearest rangers, who have promptly extinguished them. Lookout stations are of great value in the case of lightning fires. Sometimes as many as 12 fires are started by a single electric storm. The observer at the lookout station locates all of them and is able to direct the rangers just where each fire is. so that he can assemble the necessary force and equipment to put them out. Many instances have occurred where the machinery has worked like a city fire department and many thou- sands of dollars have been saved by the system. “Great progress was made in the fire-protection cooperative agreement with States, railroads traversing National forests, owners of large bodies of timber in and adjacent to forests, and associations of lumbermen. Several railroads are using oil-burning locomotives in heavily timbered districts, and many are clearing their rights of way of inflammable debris. These cooperative agree- ments mean, in many instances, the material supplementing of the fire-pro- tective force on the National forests during the summer months. In the Northwest there is almost no agency, private or public, which is not lending its assistance to the work of fire prevention and fire fighting. With all agen- cies in the field working toward a common end, the danger of destructive fires must gradually grow less. “The problem of awakening the public mind to the great loss suffered annually from forest fires received much attention during the year. Letters were sent to representative citizens in the vicinity of each National forest, including the proprietors of hotels and resorts, calling their attention to the annual fire loss and asking for their cooperation in fire protection and sup- pression. In each letter the location of the nearest ranger district was given, together with the name, address, and telephone number of the ranger in charge. Many of the recipients of these letters replied, offering valuable suggestions for the better handling of the fire problem in their vicinity. In a number of instances local telephone companies inserted in their directories suggestions regarding camp-fires and instructions as to reporting forest fires when discovered. Some of the railroads traversing National forest lands inserted in their summer time-tables, at the request of forest officers, warning notices against carelessness with fires. Through these and many other means public sentiment in National forest States has become alive to the importance of fire protection.” 28 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. RURAL MAIL CARRIERS TO REPORT FOREST FIRES. Another department of the Federal Government has recently inaugu- rated the policy of cooperating with States in fire protection. As is the case of cooperation under the Weeks Law, only those States are assisted which have some kind of State organization of their own for the prevention of forest fires. ISTorth Carolina is therefore not as yet directly benefited by this offer of aid by the Post-Office Department, but this further opportunity wait- ing at our door should certainly be an additional inducement to us as a State to start fire protection ourselves. The United States Department of Agriculture in a recent news item calls attention to this offer of cooperation in the following words : “For several years in some sections of the country a sort of informal under- standing has existed between National Forest rangers aud mail carriers, with the idea of securing increased fire protection. The marked effectiveness of this cooperation was a strong argument in favor of its extension aud official sanction, and was in part responsible for the request of the Secretary of Agriculture which resulted in the order by the Post-Office Department. “The plan is for the carrier to report a fire to the nearest forest officer on his route, or, if no officer lives on the route, to have him notified by some responsible citizen. State and National foresters are supplied with post-road maps and with postal guides containing the addresses of the different post- masters. The postmasters in turn are supplied by the foresters with the names, addresses, and telephone call numbers of forest officers residing on or near the carriers’ routes.” The order of the Postmaster General referred to is published in the United States Official Postal Guide for May, 1913, and is as follows: FOREST FIRES TO BE REPORTED BY RURAL AND STAR ROUTE CARRIERS. The attention of postmasters and rural and star route carriers is directed to the following order which appeared in the June, 1912, Sup- plement, and which should be carefully observed : “May 31, 1912. “Order No. 6315. “The following instructions are promulgated for the guidance of the postal employees concerned : “In accordance with the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, this Department has arranged a plan of cooperation with State and National Forest officers whereby rural and star route carriers shall report forest fires discovered by them along their routes to persons designated by the State and National authorities to receive such intelligence. “Cooperation with State officers will be given in the following States : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts. Rhode Island, Connecticut, FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 29 New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. “The National Forest officers will be cooperated with in the following States: Florida, Arkansas, South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. “The State and National authorities will inform postmasters as to whom the discovery of fires should be reported, and each rural carrier should be directed to cooperate to the fullest extent with such authorities in the manner agreed upon, namely, that the carrier shall report a fire to the nearest State fire warden or National Forest officer on his route, or, if no such warden or officer lives on the route, to arrange through some responsible citizen to have him notified, by telephone if possible. Star route contractors and car- riers are included in the plan of cooperation, and should be requested to re- port the discovery of fires in the same manner as will be done by the rural carriers. “Postmasters in or near National Forests are also directed to report fires to the nearest forest officer.” HOW THE STATES ARE HELPED. Quotations from tlie forestry reports of two representative States of the East and Middle West will give some idea of tlie results wliicli are being brought about by this assistance now offered by the Post-Office Department : New Hampshire . — The Forestry Commission of Hew Hampshire reports d “This agreement was brought to the attention of the Forestry Commission by the United States Forest Service, with instructions as to how it should proceed. The Commission has complied with the suggestions by sending let- ters to New Hampshire postmasters and furnishing pamphlets with lists of the wardens, deputies, and patrolmen, to the carriers. The agreement has not been in effect long enough to show what its real value will be, but the Commission beliei-es it will be of material benefit, as tbe rural carriers cover many miles of country and will perform part of the services of fire patrol- men.” Minnesota . — The State of Minnesota makes an annual appropriation of $75,000 for fire protection alone, and undoubtedly has one of the very best equipped and most efficient State Forestry organizations in the Union. The Minnesota Forest Service does not, however, depend entirely on its own efforts, but seizes every opportunity to secure the cooperation of all interested parties. The State Forester reports 2 that “Through cooperative arrangements it was possible to greatly increase the effectiveness of the fire protective force. Railroad companies, lumber com- panies, and organized towns furnished patrolmen who worked under the district rangers, and valuable assistance was rendered by the rural mail carriers, through an agreement with the Post-Office Department.” 'Report of New Hampshire Forestry Commission, 1911-12, p. 23. "Second Annual Report of the State Forester of Minnesota, 1912. 30 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. But, though taking full advantage of the order requiring mail car- riers to report forest fires, the scope of their help was materially widened by a special arrangement with the Postal authorities. In addition to the fire warning notices issued last year, and continued to be supplied to the rangers for posting in the pine and spruce country, another form of notice was issued for use in the hardwood and prairie portions of the State. Because of the lack of ranger service in these regions, it was deemed advisable to post a different kind of notice. An agreement was per- fected with the Post-Office Department at Washington in which the rural mail carriers were instructed to cooperate with the State Forest Service in distributing and posting these notices. Sixteen thousand of these, printed on cloth, were thus posted. A copy of the notice follows : Woodlands are rapidly increasing in value. Soon every kind of timber will be worth money. Fires have destroyed more timber in Minnesota than has been cut. It is time to stop wasting young and growing timber. Observe the following precautions in dry seasons and so reduce the fire danger : 1. Do not throw away cigar or cigarette stumps, hot pipe ashes, or matches, until they are absolutely extinguished. 2. Do not burn meadows or stubble fields, straw stacks, or brush piles unless protected by good fire-breaks, with sufficient help at hand to prevent fires jumping the breaks. Evening or night is the best time to burn. 3. Do not leave any fire until all traces of fire are extinguished or rendered harmless. 4. If it is desired to burn off any meadow or prairie lands in the spring, it should be done while the ground is still frozen, and while snow still lies in the woods. This precaution will usually prevent damage from such fires, and prevent the fire from getting into any peat soil over which it may run. 5. Do not stack your hay, grain, or other combustible material close to railroad rights of way. 6. Plow double fire-breaks around stacks or other inflammable property which is exposed to possible running fires. There should be. if possible, at least 100 feet between the breaks. 7. Campers. Build small fires. Build them on bare soil, and where they will not run. Put them out when you leave. 8. Be Careful with Fire. It pays. If you allow a fire to escape, you are liable for the damage it does, and to a fine and imprisonment. The State law in regard to fires is strict, and it is the duty of every citizen to help ASSIST IN POSTING WARNINGS. CONSIDER! enforce it. April 20, 1912. William T. Cox, State Forester. Such a plan is peculiarly adapted to conditions in North Carolina, where the educative value of such notices posted along the rural and star routes of the State would be of enormous value. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 31 FEDERAL COOPERATION WITH STATES. With the passage of the Weeks Law in 1910, a new avenue for Fed- eral activity in fire protection was opened up, and one which is of far- reaching and vital importance to us in North Carolina, though we have so far failed to show any appreciation of its value. That is coop- erative fire protection with the States. Besides providing for the purchase of forest lands on the headwaters of streams by the Federal Government for the protection of navigable streams, it is provided in section 2 of the Weeks Law that the sum of $200,000 is made available until expended, to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to cooperate with any State, when requested to do so, in the protection from fire of the forested watersheds of navigable streams. It is provided, however, that no such agreement shall be made with any State which has not provided by law for a system of forest fire protection, and that in no case shall the amount expended in any State exceed in any year the amount appropriated by that State for the same purpose during the same year. ADMINISTRATION BY THE FOREST SERVICE. The law is administered by the Forest Service. No State will receive more than $10,000 in any one year. The expenditures in 1911 were $39,000; in 1912 about $50,000; while the allotments for 1913 amount to about $90,000. A fund of about $20,000 has been reserved to in- crease allotments to States where an emergency due to unusual drought may occur. *“In making the allotments consideration is given especially to the possi- bility of active assistance from private owners ; to the amount of appropria- tion from each State ; to the importance of the watersheds to be protected with respect to stream flow and navigation ; to the relative area of the water- sheds; to the kind and value of the forests; and to the relative Are risk. The States assisted must at least have initiated efficient fire protective organiza- tions. “They must secure the cooperation of private owners in various activities, such as the hire of patrolmen, purchase of fire-fighting equipment, and the construction of lookout stations and telephone lines. The Forest Service takes the ground that before a region shall receive Federal aid the private owners must make a reasonable effort themselves. This requirement is most satisfactorily met by protective associations of timberland owners, such as those in Maine, New Hampshire, Washington, and Oregon. “The aim is to assist each State as far as possible, helping especially the ones which have difficulty in providing efficient protection. *“Forest Fire Protection Under the Weeks Law in Cooperation with States,” by J. Girvin Peters. Cir. 205 (First Revision), Forest Service, U. S. Department Agriculture, 1913. 32 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. “Except for a nominal salary to the State Forester, the expenditures made by the Federal Government are exclusively for the salaries of Federal patrol- men, including men assigned to lookouts, to railroad patrol, and to similar duties.” Tlie States which received Federal aid under the Weeks Law in 1912 and the amounts allotted by the Government are as follows : Maine $10,000 New Jersey $ 2.000 New Hampshire . . . . 8,000 Maryland 2.000 Vermont 2,000 Wisconsin 5.000 MnssaHinsptts; 2,500 Minnesota 10,000 Connecticut 1.500 ■Washington 10.000 New York 4,000 Oregon 10.000 Most of the States did not spend their full allotment, probably be- cause they were reserving something for possible emergencies. Besides the above, the allotments for 1913 include three additional States : Kentucky, which gets $4,000 ; Montana, $3,500 ; and Idaho, $7,000. In addition, $15,000 was reserved for States which were con- sidering legislation which would enable them to secure Federal cooper- ation in fire protection. Among these latter are Louisiana, which has already passed the necessary legislation, but which, on account of dis- agreements, has not been able to put it into force ; Florida, whose Legis- lature is now considering an up-to-date Forestry bill; and Worth Caro- lina. Unfortunately, there is no possibility now of our securing any of this assistance, as our Legislature failed to make any appropriation or pass any law for State forest fire protection. Again quoting from the same circular : “Three hundred and eight Federal patrolmen were employed in these States, of whom about 200 were on continuous pay from the date of appointment to the end of the season. “The most important duties of the patrolman are putting out small fires, warning persons against setting or leaving fires, and recording their names when advisable. In the larger fires he has authority under the State law to call out help. “In addition to regular patrol duty and fire fighting, his work includes watching for fires from lookout stations, burning slash, and constructing protective improvements. “In most of the mountainous regions, especially in the Northeast, the lookout station is a highly developed feature of the State's fire protective system. It furnishes the primary control of the fire situation, while the patrol conducted in the valleys beneath forms the secondary control. “The practical value of the lookout station has been thoroughly tested ; it is one of the best assets of a timbered country. Wherever possible, the Federal Government prefers that its funds be expended for the salaries of lookout watchmen. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 33 RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED. “There were many practical results of cooperation under the Weeks Law. Hundreds of fires left by campers, fishermen, and hunters, or set by careless smokers and by locomotives, were discovered by the patrolmen and promptly extinguished. Great progress was made on permanent improvements that will simplify future fire control and prevention. But in addition to these tangible results, which have been apparent from the start, the educational value of the work, although not measurable, has been far-reaching. Except in a few States, the last two years were the first when any systematic State patrol of the forests was conducted. It marked the general extension of the State organization cooperating with the Federal Government in getting out among the people; in educating them, through the actual work done, of the need and value of fire protection ; and in encouraging their cooperation. EXTENDING COOPERATIVE PROTECTION. “The Federal Government desires to extend this cooperative protection to other States. To secure its benefits they must enact a forest-fire law and must appropriate funds for administering it. Few more effective steps could be taken by many States toward the conservation of resources which support important industries than to inaugurate systematic fire protection. “ The States Should Take the Lead. — The fact that the immediate financial interests of timber owners make them backward in undertaking this insur- ance of their industry is an additional reason for the States to take the lead. The readiness of the Federal Government to cooperate with the States under the terms of the Weeks Law, as soon as the States make a start, is an incentive to immediate action.’’ “ What a Fire Law Should Provide. — A State forest-fire law should provide, in addition to an organization to fight fires, a patrol force for fire prevention. A general defect in fire laws is that they provide only for fighting fires, and not for patrol. The law should, of course, carry an adequate appropriation ; the most serious defect has been the inadequacy of appropriation. “ Cost of Protection — To protect the National Forests costs about 2 cents an acre annually ; tbe Biltmore tract in North Carolina, about 5 cents an acre; and the lands of the various timberland protective associations in the Northeastern and Northwestern States, from 2 to 4 cents an acre. It is probable that the State can secure efficient protection for 1 cent an acre, if the larger private owners will assist by contributing toward the protection of their own lands. If, for example, a State contains 5.000.000 acres of forest land which needs protection, an annual expenditure of $50,000 should be suffi- cient to handle the work effectively. It is improbable that a State would appropriate this amount at the beginning; an appropriation of $10,000 or even less would be sufficient to start the work and demonstrate its value.” The last session of Congress continued the appropriation to carry on this important work, so that it will still be possible for ISTorth Caro- lina to obtain assistance in fire protection if we can secure the proper legislation at the next session of the General Assembly. An appropri- ation of even $10,000, as suggested by Mr. Peters in the circular above 34 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. quoted, would enable us to receive substantial assistance from the Government for fire protection over practically all of tbe western part of tbe State. Tbe estimated loss from fires for 1912 shows conclusively that fire protection is needed. We cannot afford any longer to neglect this splendid opportunity of securing some substantial aid in starting a protective system which will mean so much to the present and future welfare of the people of the State. HOW THE STATES ARE BENEFITED BY THE WEEKS LAW. In order to give Horth Carolina readers some idea of the immense advantage this Federal assistance under the Weeks Law has already been to other States, not only in preventing forest fires, but in an educational way also, the experience and opinions of several State Forest officers are here quoted verbatim from recent State reports. It is undoubtedly true that forest conditions in these States differ more or less from those in our own State, but it is just as true that there is a greater difference between several of the States here men- tioned than there is between some of them and Horth Carolina. Meth- ods that have proved equally effective in preventing and controlling forest fires in Hew Hampshire and Oregon, in Maryland and Minnesota, in Hew Jersey and Wisconsin, would, if tried out in Horth Carolina, no doubt bring similar results. It must be borne in mind in reading these State reports that this Federal cooperation was only started in 1911, and that at best it has scarcely been in operation two seasons. The results, which are in every case very satisfactory, are therefore the more remarkable and encourag- ing. NEW HAMPSHIRE. The State of Hew Hampshire has for purposes of fire protection been divided up into four fire districts, each in charge of a district chief. Federal patrolmen were employed only in the three more north- erly districts which include all the more mountainous and timbered portions of the State. This region includes the headwaters of the navi- gable streams. In tlie report of the Forestry Commission for 1911-12, Federal aid in fire protection and the work of the Federal patrolmen is commented upon as follows : “New Hampshire was the first State to benefit by the cooperative fire pro- tection fund provided in section 2 of the Weeks Act. By this law $200,000 was appropriated on March 1, 1911. “The State was allowed $7,200 for employing patrolmen in the mountain region during the fire season of 1911. The agreement was renewed in 1912, FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 35 and the allotment was increased to $8,000. To carry this agreement into effect, the State Forester and the forester for the Xew Hampshire Timber- land Owners’ Association are appointed collaborators in the Forest Service for the purpose of supervising the Federal men. During 1911 all the men were employed for patrol work, but in 1912 six of them were used on lookout stations. “The most important duties of the patrolmen when covering their routes were putting out small fires, warning persons they met about fire danger, and recording the names of parties going into the woods. During 1911. sixty -nine such fires were extinguished, and up to August 31, 1912. fifty fires. “The patrolmen were instructed to warn persons found in the woods about the danger from fire, inform them about the laws, record the names and addresses of such people, and forward such names to the district chiefs. The educational value of such work is incalculable. During 1911 4.700 warnings were issued, and up to August 31, 1912, about 2,500 warnings. This would indicate that many people have been restrained who otherwise might have caused fires through carelessness. In many instances during dry weather, when the patrolmen interviewed camping and fishing parties and recorded their names, the parties abandoned their plans, not with much protesting, but simply not wishing to be held responsible for a fire caused by some care- less person. It is the plan of the commission to catalogue these names recorded by the patrolmen and mail copies of the fire laws to them. It is hoped that in this way each year a greater proportion of the people who come into the woods will have respect for the law and knowledge that the timberlands are being patrolled. “In addition to the regular duties, the improvement work done by the patrolmen will each year make the territory easier to protect and render their work more efficient. During the two field seasons they helped in the construction of 50 miles of telephone line, built or fixed 15 camps for tempo- rary headquarters, brushed out 50 miles of old trails, and cut 70 miles of new trails.” OREGON. The second annual report of the Oregon State Forester might almost be called a handbook of forest fire prevention. Perhaps in no other State in the Union has protection of the forest from fire, through prevention, become more firmly established as a settled policy of the people than in Oregon. This State is mentioned as one of the thi’ee States in which the private owners have more satisfactorily met the requirements of the Weeks Law relative to fire protective activities. The State Forester in his latest report* discusses the results so far accomplished under section 2 of the Weeks Law, as follows : “It has been proven that only through the closest cooperation of Federal Government, State, and private interests can economy in protection be secured. Under any other arrangement duplication of effort is inevitable. It is there- fore urged that timber owners, through organization for actual patrol, put themselves in a position to assist and be assisted by the State. See Annual Report of the Oregon State Forester, 1912. 36 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. “This work lias made excellent headway the past season, and no small amount of credit is due the Oregon Forest Fire Association for its efforts along this line. This association has worked hand in hand with the State and added strength to the movement. “The Secretary of Agriculture, 1911, allotted a sum not to exceed $5,000 to be used in protecting the forested watersheds of navigable streams in the State. This fund became available on August 10th, and the work of appoint- ing and assigning Federal patrolmen to definite patrol districts was com- menced at once. By August 20, a force of 32 patrolmen to be paid from this fund had been placed in the field. They served for periods extending from a month to six weeks, and proved of great assistance in keeping down the Are loss. “At the commencement of the fire season of 1912 this office was notified that Oregon had been allotted $10,000, the maximum amount that could be given to any State under the policy followed by the Secretary. “No Federal patrolmen were appointed until July loth, when weather con- ditions indicated that the most dangerous period of the fire season was at hand. The fire hazard during June aud the early part of July was not great, and it was therefore not considered wise to use any of the Federal fund until there was actual and immediate need of the services of the Federal patrolmen. This plan made it possible to place a large number of Federal patrolmen in the field during the period when standing timber was most endangered, besides leaving sufficient funds to retain the patrolmen until early in October in case the Fall held off until that time. In all. 58 Federal patrolmen were appointed. They served for a period of from four to eight weeks, depending upon the fire danger in the district to which they were assigned. That the operation of the cooperative agreement was satisfactory to the Federal Government is indicated by the following extract taken from Acting District Forester C. H. Flory's report to the Forester at Washing- ton, D. C. : “ . . The experience gained during the season of 1911 by the State Forester in working out the details of organization under the cooperative agreement proved very valuable in getting the work started, this season. Cooperation between the State, the Oregon Forest Fire Association, and the Forest Service was carried out in the fullest possible manner. “ . . The Federal patrolmen supplemented in a most admirable manner the regular State organization for fire prevention. In practically all tim- bered counties a supervising warden was appointed who was directly responsi- ble to the State Forester for all matters concerning the county or territory over which he had supervision. In other words, his position was very similar to that of our forest supervisors. The Federal patrolmen were responsible to the respective supervision wardens, and reported all matters concerning their work to them. “ . . In building up an organization for fire prevention and fire pro- tection which entails employment for only a portion of the season, the effect- iveness of the organization will be largely determined by the number of the same men who can be secured year after year.’ “Beyond question, the assistance given the State Forester during the last two seasons by the Federal Government has been an extremely important factor in inaugurating systematic fire-prevention work on privately owned FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 37 lands in Oregon. This cooperation has probably been the greatest single factor in getting county fire patrol associations organized. It is safe to say that three of the five new associations would not have been organized had it not been for the assistance the State Forester was able to give them through the Federal patrolmen. The policy of Forester Graves in desiring to have the Federal patrolmen assigned to localities in which the timber owners themselves were taking an interest in fire prevention resulted in securing sufficient patrol systems where there had been none heretofore. In other words, formerly indifferent timber owners in many localities were induced to put patrolmen in the field in order to secure assistance from Federal patrolmen. In a direct way the Federal cooperation practically doubled the efficiency of this office in its forest protection work, since it made it possible to more than treble the field force during the period when the need for addi- tional help was greatest.” MARYLAND. The topography of Maryland varies much, as does that in North Carolina, and its forests resemble ours quite closely. The Mountain region of the State extends across the Blue Ridge to the Alleghany Mountains, the Piedmont region covers the center of the State, while the southern part, east of the Chesapeake, resembles our own Coastal Plain region. The forests are principally hardwoods in the mountains, mixed hardwoods and pine in the Piedmont Plateau, while loblolly pine is the principal timber tree farther east. Only the Mountain and Piedmont regions could come under the operation of the Weeks Law. The State Forester, in his report on forest fires for 1909, says:* “The Federal forest patrolmen are regularly commissioned forest wardens, who are paid by the Federal Government under the cooperative agreement provided in the Weeks Bill. “Under this arrangement a forest patrol was organized on October 1. 1911, to patrol the woodlands of the mountain counties during the fall fire season. Seven patrolmen were assigned to seven patrol districts, averaging about 100 square miles each, in Garrett, Alleghany, Washington, and Frederick coun- ties. These men were mounted on horseback and kept constantly on the move over their districts during the days when it was dry enough for fires to run in the woods, looking out for forest fires, warning those who are likely to be careless, explaining to all the residents of their district the nature of the fire protection work, and asking for their cooperation in preventing and controlling forest fires. “The fall of 1911 was an unusually wet season, so that the value of the fire patrol was not fully demonstrated. There were but eight fires discovered by the patrolmen, but the fact that these small fires were discovered and extin- guished before they assumed serious proportions demonstrates the value of the patrol service. “Under our forest warden system, the forest warden is not authorized to incur any expense in patrol work or in doing anything until after the fire has been reported to him, and generally the fire has done considerable dam- Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1910 and 1911. 38 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. age and is difficult to control by the time it comes to the attention of the forest warden. Under the patrol system this trouble is largely overcome, and certainly for the mountain districts, where there is a large percentage of woodland in continuous bodies, and where the chief danger from forest fires is confined to two rather definite periods — one from March 20 to May 20, the other from September 20 to November 20 — the patrol system is the only practicable method of dealing with the forest fire question. The patrolmen were provided with printed matter relating to our forest fire laws and fire protection, and they were instructed to avail themselves of every opportunity to place this literature in the hands of landowners in their district, and talk with them on the subject of fire protection. While it is difficult to measure the effect of this work, it is believed that it has been instrumental in securing a more thorough cooperation on the part of the landowners of the mountains in suppressing forest fires. The landowners in every case have shown their willingness to cooperate, and now that their attention has been called to the forest laws, and to the determination on the part of the State and Federal Gov- ernment to aid them in securing fire protection, they have been encouraged to hold a different view toward the forest fire question. It was just such work as this which was required to crystallize the sentiment and to make it effective. The forest patrolmen not only visited the landowners in their dis- tricts, posted warning notices and warned the careless, but also visited the schoolhouses and got the teachers interested. Our forest laws are sufficiently comprehensive to cover the situation and to meet any emergency that may arise, but it is through just such an agency as the patrol to create public sentiment that will make the enforcement of the laws more certain. The fact that the Federal Government is paying men to patrol the woodlands and enforce the forest fire laws carries with it a dignity and force which cannot fail to arouse the admiration and good-will of the people generally. . . . The importance of the forest protection work is sufficient in itself to warrant a substantial appropriation by the State, but when the Federal Government stands ready to add an equal amount, within reasonable limits, there is the strongest kind of an argument for a liberal appropriation for this work." MINNESOTA. As brought out elsewhere in this report, the Minnesota forestry offi- cials, though spending a larger sum for fire protection than any other State except New York, believe in cooperation in forest fire prevention, and practice it with lumbermen, railroads, and the Federal Government. It is therefore interesting to see what results the State Forester of Minnesota secures. After one season’s experience, the State Forester reports:* “The value of Federal cooperation in 1911 with the Minnesota Forest Service cannot be overestimated. The additional $10,000 rendered available by the cooperative agreement permitted the employment of a force of patrolmen nearly double the size of the force which it would otherwise have been possible to retain. State expenditures were of such an important nature that to have * First Annual Report of the State Forester of Minnesota, 1911. FOREST FERES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 39 cut their aggregate by $10,000 would have been inadvisable, even impossible. Consequently, bad this aid not been available, even the insufficient force of patrolmen in the field in 1911 would have been decreased by almost one-half. This would have meant at least a proportionate decrease in the amount of educational work done in the State, the value of which is incalculable. “There were 114 fires reported in 1911, which resulted in approximate dam- age of $18,615. It is fair to assume that a one-half decrease in the number of patrolmen would have meant that at least one-half of these fires would have gotten beyond control, with an entirely disproportionate increase in the amount of damage done. It is fair to figure, taking into consideration the prevailing state of mind toward fires in previous years, that with one-half of the watchful patrol force eliminated, far more fires would have been set and would have escaped from careless burning than was actually the case. “Since the Federal patrolmen were stationed in districts which embrace the headwaters of navigable streams, their work was of National as well as of State importance. From either viewpoint, the returns from the expendi- ture of the $10,000 Federal funds were greater than the sum itself would indicate. “The Federal Forest Service aided the State in other ways than by furnish- ing direct financial assistance. The men employed on the two National Forests in Minnesota were appointed special rangers of the Minnesota Forest Service, to serve without pay in looking after the State interests within the National Forests. The National Forests also cooperated in the construction of lookout towers and the clearing of trails and portages, where this would he of mutual advantage to both the National and State services. The two organizations work in harmony at all times, to their common benefit.’’ NEW JERSEY. Though its total area is only one-sixth that of Horth Carolina, the topography and forests of the two States are very similar. In the north there are rough wooded mountainous regions ; in the central por- tions are rich farming lands, and in the south are vast stretches of sandy pine lands, the northern extension of the Atlantic Coastal Plain which farther south comprises nearly one-half of our own State. Some account of the workings of the Weeks Law in promoting forest pro- tection in Hew Jersey should therefore he of special interest to us in ISTorth Carolina. In his report* for 1911, the State Lire Warden gives the following account of what has been accomplished: “One thousand dollars of this Federal appropriation was allotted to New Jersey for 1911 and available during the balance of the calendar year for the establishment of a forest fire patrol. Under the existing interpretation of the law, this expenditure was restricted to the watersheds in the northern portion of the State, and, since the exposure of this section is far less em- phatic in the summer months, it was determined fo concentrate this year on the fall season. Seventh Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commission of New Jersey, for 1911. 40 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. “The general system fixed upon is a road patrol, with lookout stations upon the few points available from which a sufficient outlook and reasonably prompt communication to the territory under observation could be had. After a thorough investigation of the area, 44 patrolmen were engaged, each assigned to a specific route. Their duty was to traverse these routes and report to the proper fire warden, or to extinguish themselves all fires seen, and to apprehend those responsible for them. Five lookout stations were also established from which frequent observations were made each day. “The fire watchers at these stations were on duty every day in October and November, hut the fund available was so limited that it was necessary to authorize the patrol only on clays when the people in the woods were likely to be most numerous, viz., holidays and hunting days. The patrol was ordered for a period of fifteen days in all, covering these dates as far as possible. In actual service, however, the time covered by all was less, be- cause of the wet weather that so often prevailed, under which conditions the patrol ceased automatically. The average time served by each patrol was but nine days, and this brief service, linked with prevailing weather conditions, should properly, and does, account for a lower aggregate of tangible results than had been expected. On the other hand, the moral effect of a body of men known to be on the watch for fires and their originators is an item in the account that the future probably will appraise highly. “Despite the conditions, however, the patrol reported 27 fires, with the significant feature that 17 of them, found on days and in situations making it quite probable that they would have become true forest fires without this prompt attention, were put out by the patrol themselves, and that a warden or competent fighting force was notified of all others in time to prevent a serious fire. It is particularly noteworthy also that so far there has been no fire reported from the patrolled section of which mention is not made by some patrolman. “A continued and thorough supervision of the men when on duty proved that, with few exceptions, their work was done conscientiously throughout, and a canvass subsequent to the patrol season further showed that practi- cally all are ready to serve again. The fall work has, therefore, accomplished these things: the actual control of fires in the patrolled district; the estab- lishment of an organized force available for future use; the focusing of public interest in this section on the forest fire problem in a way never before realized ; and, finally, though not concretely measurable, the stimu- lating of respect for the fire law and of care among forest users in handling fire. “The actual expense to the Federal Government has been $9S4 (for patrol service only), and the expense to the State (for patrol organization and ad- ministration only) approximately $492, in addition to the cost of the regular fire service. It is believed that the work already done has paved the way for a continuance of this fire preventative, so vastly preferable to the most effective cure.” The second year of Federal cooperation in J^ew Jersey gave still more satisfactory results than the first, not only from the standpoint of the number of fires extinguished as well as prevented, hut even more so from the point of view of its educational value. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 41 The State Fire Warden, in reporting on the Federal Cooperative Fire Patrol in 1912, says in part:* . . During May four patrolmen and one lookout were on duty along some of the most dangerous exposures for the purpose, first, of reducing the number of fires escaping from these places, and then of finding out just how great the responsibility of the railroads might be from even one small locality. This patrol was maintained until October 1st, with patrolmen vary- ing in number from four to six. That the expense incurred by both Govern- ment and State was justified is evidenced by the fact that these few patrol- men extinguished an average of IS fires per month, while in July alone there were 35 fires put out. On October 1st, this organization was enlarged to a patrol of eight men ; for the fall season their work was laid out on lines quite similar to those of 1911, with the intention of assuring as great a measure of security as possible from careless sportsmen, nut gatherers, and others in the woods. . . . During the two months that this patrol was maintained there were 20 fires reported by the patrolmen, none of which got beyond control. Most of them the patrolmen handled alone, while fire fighters were secured for the rest. The cost to the Federal Government for the summer was $1,088.50, and for the fall $8SS. This expenditure is balanced by the State’s outlay for maintaining its regular fire service. “Again, there stands out the fact that aside from all practical results obtained upon the ground, this patrol, like that of last year, has been an im- portant factor in inducing greater care among those who frequent the forests. . . . The continuation of such work has aroused an interest in fire control throughout the section that could have been obtained in no other way.” Summarizing these results, it appears that Federal patrol in the mountainous part of Flew Jersey, at a total cost of less than $2,000, resulted in extinguishing 110 fires. Allowing nothing for the fires which were prevented and for the interest aroused among the people by this patrol, the average cost of extinguishing each fire was about $90. In the mountains of FTorth Carolina last year the average dam- age done by each fire reported was $4,496, or about fifty times as much as it cost the Federal Government to extinguish fires in ISTew Jersey. How can we longer afford to ignore the offer of such valuable assist- ance ? WISCONSIN. Two of the principal rivers which form the headwaters of the Mis- sissippi take their rise and run their whole length within the State of ‘Wisconsin, the “Father of Waters” forming the southwestern border of the State. It was therefore most appropriate that part of the appro- priation for assisting States in the protection of the headwaters of navigable streams should go to Wisconsin. Eighth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Commission of New Jersey, for 1912. 42 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. The State Forester, in his report for 1911-1912, speaks of the Fed- eral cooperative fire protective work as follows : “Wisconsin’s application for assistance in protecting the headwaters of the Wisconsin and Chippewa rivers was approved by the United Stales Forest Service, and during the fire seasons of both 1911 and 1912 the Wis- consin State Board of Forestry has been allowed $5,000 with which to employ Federal patrolmen. “Each year from about May 1st to December 1st, twelve Federal patrolmen are employed to assist an equal number of forest rangers who are in the permanent employ of the State. “During the fire season of 1911 there was so much rain that it was not necessary for the men to devote much of their time to patrol work, and therefore it was possible to make a great deal of headway in starting the fire protective system. “Twelve State forest rangers, twelve Federal patrolmen, and one private patrolman have been engaged in the patrol work during 1912. When not engaged in patrol work the men were employed in building up the protective system” (of roads, trails, telephones, fire lines, lookout towers, etc.). “The few settlers within the protective area, as well as the large number of summer visitors, have come to realize quite clearly the value of the patrol system, and are much more careful in burning brush and about leaving their camp-fires burning. “. . . The expenditures in 1912 for the patrol and protective work dur- ing the time that the Federal patrolmen were employed was as follows: State expenditures, approximately $16,326.00 Federal expenditures, approximately 4,422.00 Total $20,748.00 “The Federal expenditures were only for the salaries of the Federal patrol- men, while the State' expenditures covered the salaries of the forest rangers, together with the cost of building roads, fire lines, trails, telephone lines, and lookout towers. One private owner paid the salary of a patrolman through- out the entire fire season, and it is expected that by 1913 a number of other private owners and large timberland owners will cooperate in this way. “There are no rural mail carriers within the protective area, but in other parts of the State the carriers should he a great assistance in promptly noting and reporting fires. “The Federal fire cooperation has been extremely valuable to Wisconsin, especially for the following reason : The protective area at the headwaters of the Wisconsin and Chippewa rivers comprises some 1.260,000 acres, and as the State only has 12 forest rangers, it would have been impossible for them to adequately patrol this large area, and their work would have been con- fined to approximately 260,000 acres of State lands, leaving 1.000.000 acres of privately owned lands unprotected. With the assistance of the 12 Federal patrolmen, it has been found possible to divide the entire area of 1,260,000 acres into districts, so that all portions, including both State and privately owned lands, have received equal protection. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 43 “The 1,000,000 acres of privately owned lands, many of which are heavily timbered, are worth on a conservative basis at least $5 per acre, and there- fore it can he stated that the Federal cooperation has enabled Wisconsin to protect 1,000,000 acres of timberland upon the headwaters of the Wisconsin and Chippewa rivers, both of which are important tributaries of the Missis- sippi River, and worth at least .$5,000,000. which would have been impossible without this cooperation.” TIMBERLAND OWNERS’ PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS. The regulations for the administration of the cooperative section of the Weeks law require that in order for a State to obtain assistance in fire protection from the Federal Government the cooperation of private owners must he secured. This requirement, says Mr. J. G. Peters, is most satisfactorily met by protective associations of timberland owners. The U. S. Forester, in his report for 1912, says that “great progress was made in the fire protection cooperative agreements with associations of lumbermen.” In an earlier publication of the Survey* attention was called to the good work some of these associations were doing, notably those in the Northwestern States. Because of their importance in a fire protective scheme, and their notable extension and development even during the past two years, and also because the pub- lication referred to is practically out of print, some account of their operations is given here. In the March (1913) number of American Forestry, Dr. Henry S. Drinker, president of the American Forestry Association, in an article entitled “The Spread of the Forestry Movement,” gives a list of Con- servation, Timber Protective, and allied associations of the United States. Eleven States are represented on this list, which includes 33 associations, nearly all of which carry on cooperative fire protection. These associations are usually composed of lumbermen and other owners of timberland whose property lies more or less contiguous in some definite county, district, or region. The Oregon associations usually confine their operations to a certain county, or even part of one; the Idaho associations operate over one or more watersheds or districts, while the more easterly ones commonly extend their operations over several counties, or definite forest regions of a State. These associations all depend on patrol and lookouts, that is, on fire prevention, rather than on extinguishing fires after they have gained headway. The president of the Oregon Forest Fire Association, which organization does not itself patrol, but which assists, encourages, organ- izes, and advises the local patrol associations, recently said that the policy pursued was to prevent fires rather than to fight them. The *Economic Paper No. 22, Forest Fires and Their Prevention, North Carolina G. and E. S., 1911. 44 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. policy of the State Board of Forestry to so direct its efforts as to en- courage owners to greater personal expenditure, has, he said, made for better protection. All expenses are met by a pro rata assessment on the land to be pro- tected owned by members. This assessment varies from one to four cents per acre per year, depending largely on whether the fire season is wet or dry. COUNTY FIRE PATROL ASSOCIATIONS IN OREGON. The State Forester of Oregon reports* briefly on the results accom- plished by several of the county associations in his State. He says in part : “The history of the Coos County Fire Patrol Association covers three fire seasons, and during no one of these years has there been material loss of timber. The cost of maintaining patrol has been from 1 to 1 y 2 cents per acre. A good system of trails and telephone lines has been installed which makes for efficiency in the work. The contributing acreage is approximately 300,000, although the area covered by the association’s patrols is much greater than this. The past season, twelve wardens were employed and no damaging fires occurred. The assessment for 1912 was only one cent per acre. “The Klamath-Lake Comities Forest Fire Association, like the one above, has also had the experience of three fire seasons to its credit. Its con- tributing acreage, which is in Klamath and Lake counties, is a little over 500,000, though, like most other associations of the kind, the territory pa- trolled is over twice that contributing. The assessment during normal years is one cent or less. “The Jackson County Fire Patrol Association is one of the more recent ones, having been organized in 1911. The work performed has, however, been so satisfactory that the permanence of the patrol is assured. The past sea- son the assessment was 1% cents per acre, and this fund together with the aid extended by the State allowed of building 33 miles of telephone line, 4 miles of new trail, and the opening up of 15 miles of old trail, besides hav- ing a force of twelve patrolmen in the field. The patrolmen were paid by the association, State, and under the Weeks Law.” Five similar county fire patrol associations were started in Oregon in 1912. These necessarily spent considerable money on permanent improvements such as telephone and lookout construction, trail and road building, purchase of tools and supplies. They also patrolled nearly twice as much land as was represented by the membership, in order to do effective work. In spite of this, the assessments were not excessive. One spent three cents per acre and did good work. Another spent only one cent per acre, but they found that this was not enough for the first year. A third association had an assessment of only one * Second Annual Report of the State Forester of Oregon, 1912. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 45 cent per acre on 480,000 acres of timber; this, it was acknowledged, would not be sufficient in dry seasons. A fourth organization, the ClacTcamas-Marion Counties Fire Patrol Association, showed splendid results for the first year. “Fourteen companies or individuals joined in the expense of patrol for 3912, and not only was there no loss of timber, but the assessment was kept down to one cent per acre, fire-fighting equipment was installed in each patrol district, 16 miles of old trail was opened up and 17 miles of new trail con- structed. “Over 400,000 acres of timber was patrolled by eight men and a head warden. No assistance was secured from the county, but the State through its funds and those furnished under the Weeks Law paid the head warden and part of the salaries of several other wardens.” The Columbia, County Fire Patrol Association, though “starting patrol late in the season of 1912, made a most excellent record. Under private manage- ment good protection had been given, and owners were alive to the need for providing adequate funds if good results were to be expected. “The county contains some 360,000 acres of land requiring protection. Membership representing approximately 150.000 acres or 21 firms or indi- viduals, was readily secured, and this acreage undertook the protection of all the timber. Two head wardens and eighteen patrolmen were employed, mak- ing the average patrol district 20,000 acres. The assessment was 3% cents per acre, and in addition to patrol, telephone material for 4 miles of line was purchased, and 80 miles of old trail opened up. Though many small fires occurred, these were competently handled by the wardens, and no loss of timber worthy of mention resulted. “The county court extended valuable aid, contributing $600 to the patrol association, and the State, by assisting in paying the two head wardens and furnishing two Federal patrolmen, undoubtedly made possible a better showing than could otherwise be reported. In fact, it is safe to say that during the first season, had no outside aid been secured, the association would have worked a hardship on those contributing because of the considerable area which failed to pay its just share of expense. Another season additional membership is considered a certainty.” IDAHO TIMBER PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS. Besides cooperating with Timber Land Owners’ Associations through the iSTational Forest Administration, and through the operation of the Weeks Law, the Federal Government sometimes joins the association and cooperates as a land-owning member. An official of the Clear- water Fire Protective Association of Idaho describes the attitude of the Government in this kind of cooperation as follows : “We prorate the amount of property that we have within a township and pay on that basis — for instance, if we have two-thirds the timber in a town- ship we do not cooperate with the Government, but take care of this our- selves, as well as the other one-third belonging to the Government, and they 46 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. pay us according to the cost of protection ; if it costs us 6 cents per acre, it would cost the Government 6 cents per acre, and vice verm. Where the Government has two-thirds of the timber and we one-third, they usually pro- tect for us; in fact, everybody who belongs to the Clearwater Fire Protective Association pays per acre, prorated on the total cost of protection. If it is two cents to the Clearwater Timber Company, it is two cents to every other organization or individual, the State of Idaho and the Government, all alike.” He then continues, describing the general methods of this association, which are similar to those of the other Idaho associations : “We make our assessments as we need the money. We try to keep enough in the bank to pay our bills, but we don’t keep any great surplus. Our method of protection is to put out the fire before it starts — what I mean by this is, we have our patrolmen so located that they can see a fire when it originates at any time of day, and we are so fixed that they can reach a fire within at least four hours, and of course a good number of them can be reached within one-half hour. In this way there is no great danger of fire spreading before the patrolmen can get it under control.” PROTECTION IN MONTANA. The highest efficiency is secured where the closest cooperation can be carried out between timberland owners’ associations, the State fire protective system, the Federal Government, and the railroads. This is being done in many of the northern and western States. Montana furnishes a good example of such cooperation. At the second annual meeting of the Northern Montana Forestry Association, recently held, the Fire Warden referred to “a cooperative agreement between the association and the State and Federal Government,” and stated that the cooperative fire districts, known as Nos. 1, 2, and 3, cover an area, of 964,160 acres, the area within the jurisdiction of the Northern Mon- tana Forestry Association proper being 359,662 acres. The member- ship of the association was shown to be 184, an increase of 100 mem- bers since the last preceding report and an acreage increase of 165,692 acres. ‘‘Eight fires had occurred within the association’s cooperative dis- trict during 1912, four of which were handled and placed under con- trol by the association and four by the Government. The total area burned was 251 acres, 5,000 feet of timber being damaged, of value $15, the cost of fighting the fires totaling $65.80. Of these fires, one was caused by lightning, three by parties clearing land, one by locomo- tive sparks, and the other three due to miscellaneous causes. The report expressed appreciation of the Great Northern Railway Com- pany’s cooperation, and stated that an assessment of one-half cent an acre was levied against the members in 1912 on 359,662 acres.”* * American Lumberman, February 22, 1913. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 47 NEW HAMPSHIRE TIMBERLAND OWNERS’ PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION. The largest and best known association of this kind in the East is the New Hampshire Timberland Owners’ Protective Association. f It was organized early in 1911, representing “an ownership of about one million acres. Each member is assessed one cent per acre per year and the funds used for fire prevention. The association employed a trained forester to supervise all field work, cooperate with the State Forester, and properly coordinate the work of the association with the State and Federal work. “During the fire seasons of 1911 and 1912, the association has em- ployed a large number of patrolmen, placed caches of fire-fighting tools in places where they will be useful in case of fire, built telephone lines and lookout stations, improved trails and camps, and in every way admirably supplemented the work of the Forestry Commission. The patrol of the association has been particularly effective.” Probably the association that patrols the largest area is the Northern Forest Protective Association, which operated in northern Michigan. Last year Mr. Wyman, the secretary-forester, had* * “a force of 21 mounted rangers in the field, and they kept an oversight over lands in 13 of the 15 upper peninsular counties. Some 2,000,000 acres of lands are represented in the association, but the ranger work covers much additional acreage, and, of necessity, is of great benefit to landowners who are not members of the association. The prevention of fires in such a great area would seem impracticable with such a small force of rangers. As a matter of fact, there are areas of particularly marked hazards which it is necessary to guard, while the fire hazard for the greater part of the acreage is comparatively small, and it is not neces- sary to give it much attention. “The most important phase of the association’s work is the educa- tional phase. ... We spend considerable money on publicity, warn- ing visitors to the woods of the necessity of caution in handling fires, and our rangers give much time to personal work with homesteaders and other settlers along this line.” LUMBER MANUFACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION TAKES UP ACTUAL PROTECTION. The Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association has set a splen- did example to other associations of lumber manufacturers in taking up the actual protection of timberlands belonging to its members. Organized in 1906 as a purely lumberman’s association, it last year formed a Forest Fire Protective Department and employed a Chief f Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission, 191 1-’ 12. * Michigan Roads and Forests, 1913. 48 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Fire Warden. His report, made at the recent annual spring meeting, showed that the cost of protection last year was 4 cents an acre, which was levied in two assessments of 2 cents each. In his opinion, one assessment of 3 cents an acre would be sufficient for this year. The bureau had in its charge about 300,000 acres of timber land for the present year. The efficiency of the patrol service of this association has been greatly increased by the purchase of an automobile specially designed for this purpose. It is equipped with a special body so that a number of men can be carried, as well as tools, etc., for fire fighting. The results of this important and progressive departure of the Michi- gan hardwood manufacturers will he watched with interest by the many similar organizations all over the country; and it is to be hoped that some of them will not he slow to follow its example. The value of associations for fire protection and the estimation in which they are generally held by the intelligent public is so well ex- pressed by a short editorial in the American Lumberman for May 31, 1913, that it is here given: “Few organizations have more promptly justified their creation than have the numerous forest fire protective associations. Almost without exception they have paid immense dividends on the funds they have expended in saving valuable timbered tracts from serious damage or total destruction. “Much of the trail-making and installing of means of quick communication has been of a permanent character, involving heavier annual outlays than will be necessary after these essential facilities have once been provided. Even with these heavy initial expenditures, however, the cost of forest pro- tection has been negligible in comparison with some other forms of insurance ; while for timber it is the only form of insurance available. “The effective work of these organizations has won them loyal moral and financial support from timber owners and from the public generally. But this support is needed more and more as the population increases in forested regions. To the lumberman the forest is everything; to the citizens of lum- bering States it is hardly less. Every agency designed to protect the forests from fire, therefore, deserves, and if the results of their splendid work is but known cannot fail to win, the support of everybody.” COOPERATION WITH RAILROADS. In the preceding pages the valuable cooperation furnished by some of the railroads has been referred to more than once. The IJ. S. Forester, in speaking of the protection of the National Forests, says that great progress was made in the fire protection cooperative agree- ment with railroads. Several railroads are using oil-burning locomo- tives in heavily timbered districts, and many are clearing their rights FOREST FIRES IX XORTH CAROLIXA. 49 of way of inflammable debris. These cooperative agreements mean, in many instances, the material supplementing of the fire protective force on the National forests during the summer months. Cooperation with some of the railroads in fire protection has been arranged by many of the States which have protective systems of their own, but only after laws have been enacted requiring the railroads to take some definite steps to prevent fires, such as to use spark arresters, clear their rights of way or patrol their lines in dry weather. In no case, however, so far as is known, have the railroads voluntarily, with- out' fear of compulsion, taken the first step. Three or -four examples of cooperation by the railroads with the State authorities in adopting one or more of the above named definite means of reducing fires result- ing from sparks from their engines are here given. PATROL AND PROTECTIOX OF RIGHTS OF WAT BY RAILROADS. In New Hampshire , “a few years ago, the Maine Central Railroad began systematic work for fire prevention, viz., making it the duty of one man in each section crew to patrol the track, following trains. This work was especially effective during the dry season of 1911, patrolmen being provided with velocipedes so that they could keep their section well covered. They would carry on these velocipedes a shovel or hoe, a bucket of water and a mop, to put out small fires. On account of the heavy grades, this company has recently been using a number of oil-burning engines, and these entirely elimi- nate the fire risk for the trains on which they are used.” Last year another railroad in New Hampshire made an agreement with the Forestry Commission covering the following points: 1. Section foremen to be appointed deputy fire wardens. 2. Township wardens to cooperate with section men in extinguish- ing railroad fires. 3. Fires to be reported to station agents, who will secure assistance to extinguish them. 4. Railroad officials will post fire warning notices. 5. Railroads will blow warning signal of one long and three short whistles on passing fire. In Minnesota the railroads “which traverse regions where fires are probable were required to put on patrolmen during dangerous periods. The latter were to follow on speeders the day trains and to extinguish while small any fires which might be set. . . . Railroad officials, for practically all roads traversing the forested area of the State, showed 50 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. themselves willing, in promise and practice, to conform to any reason- able demand for patrol service made upon them by the State Forest Service.” New Jersey furnishes one of the best examples of the clearing of rights of way by railroads. A law passed in 1909 required railroads to build thoroughly effective fire lines on each side of their track through woodlands. Much good work was done in compliance with this law; but unfortunately it was subsequently declared defective. The State Fire Warden reported in 1911 that though the state of uncer- tainty, due to the questionable status of the law, was deplorable, “the situation has elements of encouragement, chief among them being the voluntary extension of their fire lines by the ISTew Jersey Central Rail- road, by the Atlantic City Railroad, and, to a limited extent, by the Pennsylvania Railroad. “With respect to the effectiveness of the fire lines, the fire wardens’ reports have but one tale to tell, namely, that wherever they have been established serious forest fires have not occurred, while outside the lines some bad ones have begun.” In his 1912 report the State Fire Warden again comments on this situation : “Although the temporary nullification of the law is hampering the construc- tion and maintenance of the fire lines to a large degree, it is again cheering to note that the railroads, more particularly the Xew Jersey Central, con- tinue their policy of voluntary fire-line construction. “There have been, again, one or two instances in which a fire has started from a spark thrown clear beyond the fire line, but as heretofore these cases are so rare and occur under conditions so unusual, as to wind and atmos- phere, that they in no way argue against the value of the fire line in con- trolling railroad fires. “The outlook for next year’s work is highly encouraging in that three roads* the Atlantic City, New Jersey Central, and Pennsylvania, have already indicated their desire to make appreciable additions to their mileage of fire lines, and the latter its intention to put into first-class shape the total mileage that is now completed along its lines.” USE OF SPARK ARRESTERS BT RAILROADS. Laws requiring tlie use of spark arresters are in force in one-tbird of tbe States of tbe Union, and mucb good is being accomplisbed through them, though it is admitted by all parties that, as used at present on railroad locomotives, spark arresters are not entirely satis- factory. According to the State Forester of that State, Wisconsin has “one of the strongest and most practical laws in the country for reduc- FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 51 ing the number of forest fires set by railway locomotives, donkey, trac- tion, and portable engines.” Among other things, it provides that 1 — ‘‘Between March 1st and December 1st all logging locomotives, donkey, traction, or portable engines which are operated in, through, or near forest, brush, or grass land, and which do not bum oil as fuel, must be equipped with screens or wire netting on top of the smokestack, and so constructed as to give the most practicable protection against the escape of sparks and cinders. . . . The great value of this provision of the law will be at once apparent to any forester, as it compels every locomotive which is operated through the forests to be equipped with the oldest, simplest, and yet by far the most effective device for preventing the escape of sparks or cinders, namely, a screen or hood over the smokestack. “The main causes of railroad fires are sparks, which escape from the smoke- stacks, and live coals, which are dropped by the ash pans. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway has been cooperating with the State for the last three years in an endeavor to perfect a spark arrester which would prove entirely satisfactory in preventing the escape of sparks, and though great progress has been made, complete success has not been secured as yet. It is a com- paratively simple matter to get an arrester that will stop a locomotive from throwing sparks, but very difficult to find one that will also allow the engine to steam freely and pull its load. “The State Board of Forestry has a locomotive inspector who devotes his entire time from March 1st to December 1st to inspecting locomotives in the forest regions of the State, and he is constantly working with the railroad officials to perfect improved devices.” Tbe Chicago and Northwestern Eailway, says tbe State Forester, now uses tbe Slater box front end on nearly all of tbeir engines oper- ating in tbe forest reserve regions. Tbis front end is a big improve- ment over tbe old style. Less sparks are thrown from tbe stack and less than 5 per cent of tbe sparks are alive when they strike tbe ground. Tbe engine crews state that they are harder to steam with, however, and use more fuel than tbe old style. Tbe Great Northern Eailway has experimented during 1912 with a new spark arrester which is known as tbe Cannon or Conical front end. Tbe engine crews do not appear to find fault with tbis arrester. Tbe conclusions of tbe State Forester are particularly interesting because they show tbe true spirit of cooperation which animates both tbe railroads and tbe State forest officers. He says : “The railroads of Wisconsin, particularly withiu the protective area, have shown a keen interest in cooperating in fire prevention, and after several years efforts, and the expenditure of thousands of dollars, they have devel- oped spark arresters which, although not perfect, are a long step in advance and have reduced the number of forest fires set by railroad locomotives to a 1 Report of State Forester of Wisconsin, 1911 and 1912. 52 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. very marked degree. The law now provides that all locomotives on main lines must be equipped with the most efficient spark arresters, and that locomotives on branch lines or spurs in the forest region must have screens over the smokestacks, so as absolutely to prevent the escape of all sparks. This last provision of the law has worked particularly well, and during 1911 and 1912 the railroads did not cause a single bad forest fire in the protective area. The railroads have also appointed inspectors at each division point and roundhouse, whose duty it is to examine each locomotive each day dur- ing the fire season, in order to see that all spark arresters and screens are in good condition.” The efficiency of spark arresters on railroad locomotives, now being experimented with or in use by the railroads of the United States, was recently investigated by Prof. R. C. Hawley of the Yale Forest School. At the request of the Forester of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, Professor Hawley has prepared a short article on this subject, which has already been issued in an abridged form as Press Bulletin 110. The complete article appears in the appendix to this report (page 55). CONCLUSIONS. In order to successfully control forest fires, two means are absolutely necessary, namely, organization and cooperation. The value of organi- zation has been realized ever since the first definite steps were taken to control fires, and the formation of State and National fire warden systems has been the natural result. It is only within the past two or three years, however — in fact, only since the passage of the Weeks Law and the subsequent carrying out of section 2 of this measure — - that the necessity for cooperation in fire prevention has been demon- strated. In the States containing National Forests, North Carolina among them, the Federal Government stands ready to cooperate with the State in fire protection in three ways : either as an ordinary land-holder, or through the National Forest administration, or else through the work- ing of the Weeks Law. Frequently two or all three of these avenues of assistance are open, and are used. In States where there are no National forests, assistance can usually be gained under the Weeks Law. But the State must take the first step. Where State protection has been organized, the timber owners and lumbermen have not been slow to take their part in a scheme of cooperative fire protection. Railroads also have in many cases shown a willingness to cooperate with the State authorities after they have found out that the State is in earnest in its efforts to prevent forest fires, and all of them will no doubt gradually fall in line. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 53 But the whole scheme of cooperation depends entirely on the atti- tude and action of the individual States. The United States Forest Service says that the States should take the lead. The States them- selves can well make that stronger, and say that the States must take the lead. The people of North Carolina wish to prevent forest fires, the Fed- eral Government, the lumbermen, and even some of the railroads stand ready to cooperate in fire protection; the State of ISTorth Carolina, therefore, should and must take the lead. APPENDIX. SPARK ARRESTERS ON RAILROAD LOCOMOTIVES. By Pkof. R. C. Hawley, of the Yale Forest School. In the United States at the present time between 25 and 50 per cent of the forest fires are started by sparks from railroad locomotives. Large amounts, often exceeding $50,000 on single lines, are paid annually by the railroads in settlement of damage claims. It has long been recognized that railway locomotives increase the fire hazard both to forest property and to buildings, and efforts have been made to prevent the escape of sparks by the use of screens. An inves- tigation made in 1911 showed that out of forty-one States reporting, sixteen required by law that screens for arresting sparks be placed in railway locomotives. Seventeen States do not require this by law, and eight States reported that while not required by law, yet the railroads equipped all locomotives with such devices. As a matter of fact, this is the case over practically the entire country. These screens are so placed in the smokestacks or in the front end of the locomotives as to arrest any sparks that might be carried out of the stack. This sounds very simple, and at first thought it would seem as though fires set by sparks from railroad locomotives ought to be uncommon, since practically all locomotives have screens. The truth of the matter is that these screens, as often required by law and cus- tomarily used on railroads, do not efficiently perform this function of arresting fire-bearing sparks. In order to explain why this is so, it will be necessary to briefly describe the interior arrangement and working of the ordinary railway locomotive. Locomotives cast more sparks than other types of power plants de- veloping the same amount of power. A locomotive is constructed with the primary idea of developing enormous power in small compass with- out. regard for such things as spark loss, smoke emission, etc. The modern engines often burn 5,000 pounds of coal per hour when being operated. Only in forges or furnaces employed for metallurgical pur- poses are fires burned with greater intensity than in locomotives. This is accomplished by creating a forced draft of high velocity. Unless such a draft is maintained the power of the engine is crippled. This draft passes up from beneath the grate through the fire-box and boiler tubes into the smoke box, a large open space in the front end of the locomotive just ahead of the boiler and under the smokestack, and 56 FOREST FIRES 1ST NORTH CAROLINA. finally out of tlie smokestack. So powerful is this draft that pieces of fuel are carried along and may be cast out of the stack in the form of sparks. From 5 to 20 per cent of the fuel may be carried by the draft into the front end of the locomotive. The number and size of the pieces of fuel picked up and blown out as sparks depends on the force of the draft and the character of the fuel. Wood and soft coal will give more sparks than anthracite coal. To prevent the pieces of fuel or cinders from being thrown from the stack, screens of woven wire or perforated iron plates are placed in the smoke box of the engine. Through this screen the draft rushes : the large cinders strike against it, rebound, and continue this process until finally beaten into small enough pieces to go through the screen. These screens to be satisfactory must meet two conditions : 1st. Have small enough openings so that no live spark can pass through. 2d. Be sufficiently large so that the screen will not clog up and the draft he interfered with. The best compromise between these two rather conflicting conditions calls for openings in the screen of not over one-fourth inch across, with about two and one-half to three meshes of wire to the inch. Such a screen if in perfect condition should prevent the passage of practically all live sparks. Its disadvantages are that it is difficult to keep in perfect condition because it burns out readily and may warp and make openings around the edges. With certain types of fuel, such as some lignite coals, the screen may clog so badly as to seriously cur- tail the draft and hence the steaming power of the locomotive. That these screens are not fully efficient in stopping the casting of sparks is abundantly proved over and over again during every forest fire season. During the last few years the increasing interest in forestry and greater attention given to suppressing forest fires has resulted in more thought being put on the development of a really satisfactory spark arrester : one which would actually stop all sparks and at the same time not interfere with the draft. Private individuals and the railroads themselves have been working on the problem with such success that there are on the market to-day several spark arresters much more efficient than the old-style screens, though no arrester for railway locomotives is as yet on the market which can he said to fully cover the needs of the case. A few of the better spark arresters are briefly described and names of the concerns manufacturing them can be secured on application. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 57 MUDGE-SLATER SPARK ARRESTER OR LOCOMOTIVE BOX FRONT END. This is a modification of the standard screen arrangement. The smokestack is extended down into the smoke box of the engine and to the lower end of the stack is attached a box with top, bottom, and back of sheet steel and sides of woven wire netting. The advantages over the old arrangement are that the parts are much more carefully joined together, and will not warp ; the arrester is very easy to work around and keep in condition. It can be taken right out of the engine and brought into court in damage suits, and better steaming of the engines- fitted with these arresters is claimed. Over one thousand of these arresters are in use on the engines of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. State Forester Griffith of Wisconsin recommends the arresters as giving very good service. RADLEY-HUNTER STACK. This arrester is also in actual use, especially on logging railways. A special smokestack must be used containing the arrester. This stack is equipped with an iron cone (B) against which sparks strike in com- ing up the stack. They are deflected with a spiral motion toward the sides of the stack, where they pass through a perforated screen (C). They are then beyond the strongest draft and fall into a receiving- chamber (D), from which they can be drawn off. Sparks may rebound from C or lighter ones never strike it and be carried higher up the stack, where they are intercepted by a screen (E) projecting straight down from the top edge of the stack. There is at all times an absolutely free passage for the draft, and clogging of the screen is avoided. This arrester is espe- cially good for soft fuel where danger of clogging is found. For stopping sparks, the arrester de- pends on throwing the sparks out of the strongest current of the draft and either retaining them in the receiving pit or breaking them up by impact against plate and I i 1 screen. 58 FOREST FIRES IN FT ORTH CAROLINA. VAN HORN-ENDSLEY SPARK ARRESTER. This arrester, by means of a spiral plate placed in the smoke bos just ahead of the boiler tubes, imparts a rotary motion to the gases and cinders carried by the draft through the flues. The spiral plate finally is stopped by a vertical partition right across the smoke box, the only outlet being a hole in the middle of the partition. Through this hole the gases escape and pass up the smokestack, but the cinders, being heavier, have been carried by the rotary motion (centrifugal force) around the outside of the locomotive shell, and finally are stopped by the partition. They then fall by gravity into a hopper, which can be emptied as required. The arrester separates the cinders from the gases by means of a rotary motion and provides two outlets, one for gases and the other for cinders. There are no screens to impede the draft. As yet this arrester is not used extensively, having been but recently perfected and patented. In trials it has worked very successfully, and may prove to be the best arrester of sparks yet devised. WESTRALIAN ROTARY SPARK ARRESTER, The Westralian Rotary Spark Arrester consists of a rectangular box placed on top of the smokestack. This box contains two wheels (re- sembling paddle wheels), with eight long arms covered with wire net- ting. These wheels are so arranged that as they revolve the arms inter- lock. When the locomotive is moving the wheels revolve downward against the uprushing draft. The netting allows all gases to pass through, but catches the sparks and drops them into chutes on each side of the smokestack. The arrester is not in actual use on any railroads in the United States, but has been used in Australia and other foreign countries. It is now being tried out at Purdue University. Many other arresters have been patented and are in use, but the few above described illustrate the different types so far invented. If fires set by locomotives are to be stopped, spark arresters must also be placed on ashpans and grate openings. The escape of sparks from grates and ashpans can be prevented by the use of wire netting. In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that as yet no spark arrester is in use which will absolutely prevent the escape of all live sparks. A very large proportion of railroad fires, however, can be prevented by their use. Railroads should, therefore, either be required to put in and keep in good repair spark arresters and screens on ashpans, at least through the dry season, or else they should patrol or assist in patrolling their rights of way, in order to extinguish incipient fires. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. BULLETINS. 1. Iron Ores of North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1893. 8°, 239 pp., 20 pi., and map. Out of print. 2. Building and Ornamental Stones in North Carolina, by T. L. Watson and F. B. Laney in collaboration with George P. Merrill, 1906. S°, 2S3 pp., 32 pi., 2 figs. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bound copy SO cents extra. 3. Gold Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze and George B. Hanna, 1S96. 8°, 196 pp., 14 pi., and map. Out of print. 4. Boad Material and Road Construction in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes and William Cain, 1893. 8°, 88 pp. Out of print. 5. The Forests, Forest Lands and Forest Products of Eastern North Caro- lina, by W. W. Ashe, 1894. 8°, 12S pp., 5 pi. Postage 5 cents. 6. The Timber Trees of North Carolina, by Gifford Pinchot and W. W. Ashe, 1897. S°, 227 pp., 22 pi. Postage 10 cents. 7. Forest Fires : Their Destructive Work, Causes and Prevention, by W. W. Ashe, 1895. 8°, 66 pp., 1 pi. Postage 5 cents. S. Water-powers in North Carolina, by George F. Swain, Joseph A. Holmes and E. W. Myers, 1899. 8°, 362 pp., 16 pi. Postage 16 cents. 9. Monazite and Monazite Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1895. S°, 47 pp., 5 pi. Out of print. 10. Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States, by Henry B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, 1897. 8°, 164 pp., 10 pi. Out of print. 11. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of Western North Carolina, by J. Volney Lewis, 1S95. 8°, 107 pp., 6 pi. Postage If cents. 12. History of the Gems Found in North Carolina, by George Frederick Kunz, 1907. 8°, 60 pp., 15 pi. Postage 8 cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. 13. Clay Deposits and Clay Industries in North Carolina, by Heinrich Ries, 1897. 8°, 157 pp., 12 pi. Postage 10 cents. 14. The Cultivation of the Diamond-back Terrapin, by R. E. Coker, 1906. S°, 67 pp., 23 pi., 2 figs. Out of print. 15. Experiments in Oyster Culture in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1907. 8°, 74 pp., 17 pi., 11 figs. Postage 6 cents. 16. Shade Trees for North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8°, 74 pp., 10 pi., 16 figs. Postage 6 cents. 17. Terracing of Farm Lands, by W. W. Ashe, 190S. 8°, 3S pp., 6 pi., 2 figs. Postage If cents. 18. Bibliography of North Carolina Geology, Mineralogy and Geography, with a list of Maps, by Francis Baker Laney and Katherine Hill Wood, 1909. S°, 428 pp. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bouncl copy SO cents extra. 19. The Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett, 1905. 8°, 64 pp., 8 figs. Postage If cents. 20. Water-powers of North Carolina : An Appendix to Bulletin 8, 1910. 8°, 3S3 pp. Postage 25 cents. 21. The Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina, by Francis Baker Laney, 1910. 8°, 137 pp., 23 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 22. A Report on the Cid Mining District, Davidson County, N. C., by J. E. Pogue, Jr., 1911. 8°, 144 pp., 22 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 23. Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina, by J. S. Holmes, 1911. 8°, 115 pp., S pi. Postage 15 cents. 60 PUBLICATIONS. ECONOMIC PAPERS. 1. The Maple-sugar Industry in Western North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1897. 8°, 34 pp. Postage 2 cents. 2. Recent Road Legislation in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 3. Talc and Pyrophyllite Deposits in North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1900. 8°, 29 pp., 2 maps. Postage 2 cents. 4. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1900, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1901. 8°, 36 pp., and map. Postage 2 cents. Takes up in some detail Occurrences of Gold, Silver, Lead and Zinc, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Corundum, Granite, Mica, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Graphite, Kaolin, Gem Minerals, Monazite, Tungsten, Building Stones, and Coal in North Carolina. 5. Road Laws of North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 6. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1901, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1902. 8°, 102 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives a List of Minerals found in North Carolina; describes the Treatment of Sul- phuret Gold Ores, giving Localities; takes up the Occurrence of Copper in the Vir- gilina, Gold Hill, and Ore Knob districts; gives Occurrence and Uses of Corundum; a List of Garnets, describing Localities; the Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Uses and Localities of Mica; the Occurrence of North Carolina Feldspar, with Analyses; an extended description of North Carolina Gems and Gem Minerals; Occurrences of Monazite, Barytes, Ocher; describes and gives Occurrences of Graphite and Coal; describes and gives Occurrences of Building Stones, including Limestone; describes and gives Uses for the various forms of Clay; and under the head of “Other Economic Minerals” describes and gives Occurrences of Chromite, Asbestos and Zircon. 7. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1902, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1903. 8°, 27 pp. Postage 2 cents. 8. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1903, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1904. 8°, 74 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives descriptions of Mines worked for Gold in 1903; descriptions of Properties worked for Copper during 1903, together with assay of ore from Twin-Edwards Mine; Analyses of Limonite ore from Wilson Mine; the Occurrence of Tin; in some detail the Occurrences of Abrasives; Occurrences of Monazite and Zircon; Occur- rences and Varieties of Graphite, giving Methods of Cleaning; Occurrences of Marble and other forms of Limestone; Analyses of Kaolin from Barber Creek, Jackson County, North Carolina. 9. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1904. by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1905. 8°, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives Mines Producing Gold and Silver during 1903 and 1904 and Sources of the Gold Produced during 1904; describes the mineral Chromite, giving Analyses of Selected Samples of Chromite from Mines in Yancey County; describes Commercial Varieties of Mica, giving the manner in which it occurs in North Carolina, Per- centage of Mica in the Dikes, Methods of Mining, Associated Minerals. Localities, Uses; describes the mineral Barytes, giving Method of Cleaning and Preparing Barytes for Market; describes the use of Monazite as used in connection with the Preparation of the Bunsen Burner, and goes into the use of Zircon in connection with the Nernst Lamp, giving a List of the Principal Yttrium Minerals; describes the minerals containing Corundum Gems, Hiddenite and Other Gem Minerals, and gives New Occurrences of these Gems; describes the mineral Graphite and gives new Uses for same. 10. Oyster Culture in North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1905. S°, 39 pp. Out of print. 11. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1905, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8°, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Describes the mineral Cobalt and the principal minerals that contain Cobalt; Corundum Localities; Monazite and Zircon in considerable detail, giving Analyses of Thorianite; describes Tantalum Minerals and gives description of the Tantalum Lamp; gives brief description of Peat Deposits; the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick: Operations of Concentrating Plant in Black Sand Investigations: gives Laws Relating to Mines, Coal Mines, Mining, Mineral Interest in Land, Phosphate Rock. Marl Beds. 12. Investigations Relative to the Shad Fisheries of North Carolina, by John N. Cobb, 1906. 8°, 74 pp., 8 maps. Postage 6 cents. 13. Report of Committee on Fisheries in North Carolina. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8°, 7S pp. Out of print. PUBLICATIONS. 61 14. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1906, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1907. S°, 144 pp., 20 pi., and 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. Under the head of “Recent Changes in Gold Mining in North Carolina,” gives methods of mining, describing Log Washers, Square Sets, Cyanide Plants, etc., and detailed descriptions of Gold Deposits and Mines are given; Copper Deposits of Swain County are described; Mica Deposits of Western North Carolina are de- scribed, giving Distribution and General Character, General Geology, Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Mining and Treatment of Mica, Origin, together with a descrip- tion of many of the mines; Monazite is taken up in considerable detail as to Loca- tion and Occurrence, Geology, including classes of Rocks, Age, Associations, Weath- ering, method of Mining and Cleaning, description of Monazite in Original Matrix. 15. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1907, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8°, 176 pp., 13 pi., and 4 figs. Postage 15 cents. Takes up in detail the Copper of the Gold Hill Copper District; a description of the Uses of Monazite and its Associated Minerals; descriptions of Ruby, Emerald. Beryl, Hiddenite, and Amethyst Localities; a detailed description with Analyses of the Principal Mineral Springs of North Carolina; a description of the Peat Formations in North Carolina, together with a detailed account of the Uses of Peat and the Results of an Experiment Conducted by the United States Geological Survey on Peat from Elizabeth City, North Carolina. 16. Report of Convention called by Governor R. B. Glenn to Investigate the Fishing Industries in North Carolina, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8°, 45 pp. Postage // cents. 17. Proceedings of Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, September 9, 1908. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 190S. 8°, 94 pp. Out of print. 18. Proceedings of Second Annual Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, November 11 and 12, 1909, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, and containing North Carolina Drainage Law, 1909. S°, 50 pp. Out of print. 19. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1909, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1910. 8°, 52 pp., 9 pi. Out of print. 20. Wood-using Industries of North Carolina, by Roger E. Simmons, under the direction of J. S. Holmes and H. S. Sackett, 1910. 8°, 74 pp., 6 pi. Postage 7 cents. 21. Proceedings of the Third Annual Drainage Convention, held under Auspices of the North Carolina Drainage Association ; and the North Carolina Drainage Law (codified). Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8°, 67 pp.. 3 pi. Out of print. 22. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1910, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1911. 8°, 48 pp. Out of print. 23. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1908, ’09, and ’10, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Miss H. M. Berry, 1911. 8°, 134 pp., 1 pi., 27 figs. Postage 15 cents. Gives report on Virgilina Copper District of North Carolina and Virginia, by F. B. Laney; Detailed report on Mica Deposits of North Carolina, by Douglas B. Ster- rett; Detailed report on Monazite, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Reports on various Gem Minerals, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Information and Analyses concerning certain Mineral Springs; Extract from Chance Report of the Dan River and Deep River Coal Fields; Some notes on the Peat Industry, by Professor Charles A. Davis; Ex- tract from report of Arthur Keith on the Nantahala Marble; Description of the man- ufacture of Sand-lime Brick. 24. Fishing Industry of North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8°, 44 pp. Out of print. 25. Proceedings of Second Annual Convention of the North Carolina For- estry Association, held at Raleigh, North Carolina, February 21, 1912. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1911. Suggested Forestry Legislation. Com- piled by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1912. 8°, 71 pp. Postage 5 cents. 26. Proceedings of Fourth Annual Drainage Convention, held at Elizabeth City. North Carolina, November 15 and 16, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1912. 8°, 45 pp. Postage 3 cents. 27. Highway Work in North Carolina, containing a Statistical Report of Road Work during 1911. by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss II. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8°, 145 pp., 11 figs. Postage 10 cents. G2 PUBLICATIONS. 28. Culverts and Small Bridges for Country Roads in North Carolina, by C. R. Thomas and T. F. Hickerson, 1912. 8°, 56 pp., 14 figs., 20 pi. Postage 10 cents. 29. Report of the Fisheries Convention Held at New Bern, N. C., December 13, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, together with a Compendium of the Stenographic Notes of the Meetings Held on the Two Trips taken by the Legislative Fish Committee Appointed by the General Assembly of 1909, and the Legislation Recommended by this Committee, 1912. 8°, 302 pp. Postage 15 cents. 30. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the North Carolina Good Roads Association held at Charlotte, N. C., August 1 and 2, 1912, in Co- operation with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Com- piled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. S°, 109 pp. Postage 10 cents. 31. Proceedings of Fifth Annual Drainage Convention held at Raleigh, N. C., November 26 and 27, 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. 8°, 56 pp., 6 pi. Postage 5 cents. 32. Public Roads are Public Necessities, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8°, 62 pp. Postage 5 cents. 33. Forest Fires in North Carolina during 1912 and National and Associa- tion Cooperative Fire Control, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1913. 8°, 63 pp. Postage 5 cents. VOLUMES. Vol. I. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks in Western North Caro- lina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and J. Volney Lewis, 1905. 8°, 464 pp., 44 pi., 35 figs. Postage 32 cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. Yol. II. Fishes of North Carolina, by IJ. M. Smith, 1907. 8°, 453 pp., 21 pi., 18S figs. Postage 30 cents. Yol. III. The Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by Win. Bullock Clark, Ben- jamin L. Miller, L. IV. Stephenson. B. L. Johnson and Horatio N. Parker. 1912. 8°, 509 pp., 62 pi., 21 figs. Postage 35 cents. Pt. I. — The Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain of North Caro- lina, by Wm. Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller, and L. W. Stephenson. Pt. II. — The Water Resources of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by L. W. Stephenson and B. L. Johnson. BIENNIAL BEPORTS. First Biennial Report, 1S91-1S92, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1S93. 8°, 111 pp., 12 pi., 2 figs. Postage 6 cents. Administrative report, giving Object and Organization of the Survey; Investiga- tions of Iron Ores, Building Stone, Geological Work in Coastal Plain Region, in- cluding supplies of drinking-waters in eastern counties. Report on Forests and Forest Products, Coal and Marble, Investigations of Diamond Drill. Biennial Report, 1S93-1S94, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1S94. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1S95-1896, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1S96. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1S97-1S9S, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1S9S. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1S99-1900, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist. 1900. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1901-1902, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist. 1902. Postage 1 cent. S°, 15 pp. S°, 17 pp. S°, 2S pp. S°, 20 pp. S°, 15 pp. Administrative report. PUBLICATIONS. 63 Biennial Report, 1903-1904, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1905. S°, 32 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1905-1906, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1907. S°, 60 pp. Postage 3 cents. Administrative report; report on certain swamp lands belonging to the State, by W. W. Ashe; it also gives certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations. Biennial Report, 1907-1908, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 190S. S°, 60 pp., 2 pi. Postage 5 cents. Administrative report. Contains Special Report on an examination of the Sand Banks along the North Carolina Coast, by Jay F. Bond, Forest Assistant, United States Forest Service; certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations; Results of an Investigation Relating to Clam Cultivation, by Howard E. Enders of Purdue University. Biennial Report, 1909-1910, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1911. S°, 152 pp. Postage 10 cents. Administrative report, and contains Agreements for Co-operation in Statistical Work, and Topographical and Traverse Mapping Work with the United States Geological Survey; Forest Work with the United States Department of Agriculture (Forest Service); List of Topographic maps of North Carolina and counties partly or wholly topographically mapped; description of special Highways in North Caro- lina; suggested Road Legislation; list of Drainage Districts and Results of Third Annual Drainage Convention; Forestry reports relating to Connolly Tract, Buncombe County and Transylvania County State Farms; certain Watersheds; Reforestation of Cut-over and Abandoned Farm Lands on the Woodlands of the Salem Academy and College; Recommendations for the Artificial Regeneration of Longleaf Pine at Pinehurst; Act regulating the use of and for the Protection of Meridian Monu- ments and Standards of Measure at the several county-seats in North Carolina; list of Magnetic Declination at the county-seats, January 1, 1910; letter of Fish Commissioner of the United States Bureau of Fisheries relating to the conditions of the North Carolina fish industries; report of the Survey for the North Carolina Fish Commission referring to dutch or pound-net fishing in Albemarle and Croatan sounds and Chowan River, by Gilbert T. Rude, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; Historical Sketch of the several North Carolina Geological Sur- veys, with list of publications of each. Biennial Report, 1911-1912, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. S°, 11S pp. Postage 7 cents. Samples of any mineral found in the State may be sent to the office of the Geological and Economic Survey for identification, and the same will be clas- sified free of charge. It must he understood, however, that no assays or quantitative determinations will be made. Samples should be in a lump form if possible, and marked plainly on outside of package with name of sender, post-office address, etc. ; a letter should accompany sample and stamp should be enclosed for reply. These publications are mailed to libraries and to individuals who may desire information ou any of the special subjects named, free of charge, except that in each case applicants for the reports should forward the amount of postage needed, as indicated above, for mailing the bulletins desired, to the State Geologist, Chapel Hill, A. C. Date Due Form 335— 40M— 6-39— S S*3 H87S 46389 mic_Su^ 5E3 N873 no. 33 43389 XS9U86£0a