DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from Duke University Libraries https://archive.org/details/forestfiresinnor01holm_0 \ NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, Stale Geologist ECONOMIC PAPER No. 37 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913 AND STATE FOREST FIRE PREVENTION IN THE UNITED STATES 0 / J. S. HOLMES, Forester RALEIGH : E. M. Uzzell & Co., State Printers and Binders. 1914. GEOLOGICAL BOARD. Governor Locke Craig, ex officio Chairman Raleigh. Frank R. Hewitt Asheville. Hugh MacRae Wilmington. William H. Williamson Raleigh. Henry E. Fries Winston-Salem. Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist Chapel Hill. yb'V h 2) 3 7 ^' LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Chapel Hill, H. C., July 1, 1914. To His Excellency, Locke Craig, Governor of North Carolina. Sir : — There has just been completed by the Horth Carolina Geologi- cal and Economic Survey the collection and tabulation of statistics re- garding forest fires in Hortli Carolina during the past year. AYe have also obtained information regarding what other States are doing toward protecting their forests from fire and the results accomplished. I would, therefore, submit for publication as Economic Paper, Ho. 37, of the Reports of the Horth Carolina Geological and Economic Survey the report on the Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1913 and a Sum- mary of State Forest Fire Prevention in the United States. This report will give information that should be of value in the framing of an efficient forest policy for Horth Carolina. Yours respectfully, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. CONTENTS. Fobest Fires in North Carolina During 1913. p Introduction „ The Weather Relative Monthly and Seasonal Fire Risk (Table 1) Fire Damage Summary of Report by Regions, Comparative Statement (Table 2) Summary of Reports by Counties Mountain Region (Table 3) Piedmont Region (Table 4) Coastal Plain Region (Table 5) Comparative Statement of Averages by Regions (Table 6) Causes of Forest Fires Causes of Forest Fires in 1913 by Regions (Table 7) Improving the Range Lightning Incendiary Prosecutions Present Forest Fire Laws = Conclusions State Forest Fire Prevention in the United States. Lake States Minnesota Wisconsin Michigan Northwestern States Oregon Washington Idaho Montana New England States Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut Northeastern States New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Ohio , Indiana Prairie States South Dakota ’AGE 7 7 . 9 . 9 9 . 10 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 14 . 15 . 15 . 10 16 . 17 . IS . 19 . 19 . 27 . 31 34 . 34 36 38 40 40 41 42 44 45 47 48 50 50 53 55 58 59 60 60 60 G CONTENTS. State Forest Fire Prevention in ti-ie United States — Continued. p. Southwestern States California Colorado Southern States Maryland West Virginia Kentucky Virginia Louisiana Alabama Tennessee North Carolina Publications of the Survey ’AGE - 61 . 61 . 63 . 64 . 64 . 66 . GS . 69 . 71 - 73 . 74 . 75 . 77 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913. B1- J. S. HOLMES. Forester. INTRODUCTION. Iii making Lis annual report for 1913, the Chief Fire Warden of the Washington Forest Fire Association summarizes the essentials of forest fire prevention so satisfactorily that they might fitly form a text for this report. He says : “This has been a successful season, made so by a com- bination of circumstances, in having (1) favorable weather; (2) three strong patrol organizations working in unison; and (3) the cooperation of the public.” He goes on to say: “By strengthening the patrol force from year to year, and continuing to deal fairly with the public, we can hope to make each season a successful one, even though the weather be not favorable.” That is, in Washington and other States where fire prevention is a policy _ of the people, they are planning to make the weather a negligible quan- tity, something that does not count. Here in Worth Carolina, on the other hand, the weather is the only factor upon which we can depend in dealing with fires. The contrast is startling and alarming. With 600 fires, the members of the above association lost only one million feet of timber out of 250 billion feet protected; while with about the same number of fires Worth Carolina lost sixty times as much timber out of a total estimated stand in the State of less than one-sixth of that protected by the Washington Forest Fire Association. Yet our last year’s season was comparatively favorable, probably quite as favorable as that of Washington. It was not the weather, but the lack of any system of patrol and the indiffer- ence instead of the cooperation of the public, which made our propor- tionate loss of timber nearly 400 times as great as theirs. Fortunately, in Worth Carolina there is a very decided growth of public opinion in favor of fire prevention which will undoubtedly soon result in securing definite assistance from the State. THE WEATHER. It is undoubtedly true that the weather has more to do with the preva- lence and seriousness of fires in Worth Carolina than any other one thing. Local weather conditions must be watched as closely as the more FOREST FIRES IX XORTH CAROLINA. general influences. Even in a period when showers are general there are some localities that get little or no rain. Winds are often more or less local. When a drought and a wind come together a very serious fire hazard is created, which, combined with the carelessness or sometimes the viciousness of the individual, is apt to bring about a state of destruc- tion such as visited the Linville region in the spring and Polk County in the fall of 1913. According to the reports of the United States Weather Bureau, we had no extensive dry spells last year. The annual precipitation for the State was slightly above the normal and was well distributed, though there was considerable variation between certain places, Highlands hav- ing nearly three times as much rain as Asheville or Marshall, and Wel- don having less than two-thirds the rainfall of Lumberton or Hew Bern. The two driest months were April and November, and these were the times our severest fires occurred. After abundant rains through Jan- uary and February, the first week in March was quite dry. Fires occurred in both eastern and western North Carolina, but general rains on the 10th prevented any extensive damage. April was a month of light rainfall, though around the middle of the month good rains were general. Again at the end of the month light rains were reported from nearly all stations. It was not, however, until towards the 10th of May and in some places nearly the end of the month that soaking general rains came which finally extinguished the forest fires, which had been so frequent and disastrous through this period. The late summer and fall was wet up till about the 10th of November, with light rains around the 15tli. From then on to the end of the month the weather was dry, especially in the western part of the State, where some devastating fires occurred, especially along the eastern slope of the Blue Bidge. The following table shows by percentages the months and seasons in which fires are most likely to occur. It is based not only on the records showing when fires did actually occur, but also on the opinion of cor- respondents all over the State as to what is the most dangerous season. It is seen that the two fire seasons, spring and fall, are even more strongly emphasized the past year than in former years. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 9 Table 1— RELATIVE MONTHLY AND SEASONAL FIRE RISK IN 1913 AND AVERAGE FOR THREE YEARS. IN PERCENTAGES. 1913. Average. 1913. Average. March ... . . . . 19 17 ] 31 64 May 14 13 June. .. . . 3 5 2 6 ^Summer ... 6 16 August i 5 September . 2.5 5 October ... ... _ . 8 7 tFall 21 23 November __ 10.5 11 ) December.. 5 9 7 February 3.5 2 i FIRE DAMAGE. The information from which the following tables have been compiled has been voluntarily furnished by nearly 700 correspondents all over the State. Only seven counties this year were unrepresented, though less than half the townships of the State have been reported for. It should be kept in mind that the figures given do not purport to be exact. They are more or less careful estimates made hv well informed and impartial citizens of the special townships for which they are re- porting. These correspondents receive no compensation for their serv- ices other than the knowledge that they are thereby helping the move- ment which will make their State a better place to live in. They cannot therefore he expected to travel all over the township, or to investigate personally each fire. Their estimates are, however, made with care and with due regard to the facts in the case as far as they can he ascertained. There can be no doubt that the figures are conservative and represent less rather than more than the actual damage in nearly every case. Table 2— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913 — COMPARATIVE STATEMENT- SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY REGIONS. Mountain. Piedmont. Coastal Plain. State. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. Total number of townships in region.. __ 166 166 454 450 370 364 990 980 N umber of townships re- porting . ... 82 61 251 173 133 124 466 358 Number of replies received— 115 66 413 171 156 112 684 351 Number of forest fires reported.. ... _ 126 ISO 258 228 167 246 551 654 Total area burnt over, in acres 100,350 167,708 151,796 98,015 71,298 174,758 323,444 440, 4S0 10 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Table 2.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913 — COMPARATIVE STATEMENT- SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY REGIONS — Continued. Total standing timber' de- stroyed, in M feet, board measure Value of timber destroyed, in dollars Area of young growth de- stroyed, in acres Value of young growth destroyed, in dollars. Value of forest products destroyed, in dollars Value of improvements destroyed, in dollars Total damage reported, in dollars Number of lives lost Cost to private individuals to fight fire Mountain. 1913. 7,471 S 30,693 56,659 S 76,435 S 39,612 S 10,120 3156,860 S 4,116 Average for Previous Four Years. 28, 623 $ 71,879 48,265 $ 66,985 $ 78,361 $ 17,642 $236,120 Piedmont. Coastal Plain. State. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. 28,439 S 74,088 67,691 $193,225 S 34,786 S 29,615 $331,714 3 S 6,922 $ 4,439 1913 Average for Previous Four Years. 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. ,911 23,904 21,224 59,814 57.75S $ 27,456 $ 66,041 S 58,268 $170,822 S 157,602 26,078 25,572 45,425 | 149,922 120,166 S 29,776 S 48,828 $ 76,279 $318,488 : $ 175,565 S 66,390 $ 84,966 $ 87,736 $159,364 $ 232,487 $ 23,242 $ 17,800 $ 26,759 $ 57,535 S 67,693 $148,390 S217, 635 $250,422 $706,209 S 634,947 2 3 2 S 4,999 S 9,386 S 7,627 $ 17,941 $ 19.54S Table 3.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY COUNTIES. Mountain Region. County. Total Number of Townships in County. Number of Town- ships Reporting. Number of Replies. Number of Fires. Total Area Burnt Over, in Acres. Merchantable Timber Destroyed, M. Value of Timber Destroyed. Area of Young Growth Destroy- ed, in Acres. Value of Young Growth Destroyed. Value of Products Destroyed. Value of Improve- ments Destroyed. b£ .1? ■Xt ° . > s_2 Alleghany 8 i i i 40 20 S 100 10 $ 50 $ 150 $ 100 .... 15 1 1 2 700 500 700 300 200 Avery 7 5 7 S 15,800 2,250 5,725 6,200 23,000 5,000 .... 500 Buncombe 13 4 5 4 1,300 40 200 400 200 40 6 2 3 500 10 15 100 200 Clay 5 4 9 12 15,900 800 1,900 6,600 21,300 2,200 1,375 .... 300 3 3 3 8 600 1,010 5,250 1,250 50 13 6 8 1,700 300 1,500 900 1,120 5,000 460 8 7 9 4 850 2 10 20 1 25 Jackson 15 4 5 5 2,400 5 5 100 500 700 50 .... 29 11 6 7 4 25 Madison 16 10 10 10 30,550 374 2,360 25,334 4,605 8,012 100 .... 432 Mitchell 9 2 100 100 350 2,500 Swain 5 2 3 7 11,000 70 200 6,000 13,000 17,000 1,000 .... 1,200 Transylvania .. 9 7 12 39 7,600 250 6,750 3.S40 2,700 1,300 550 12 9 13 4 510 100 218 150 410 Yancey a 0 13 8 5,875 2,050 10,250 S50 4,400 1,100 2,100 .... 200 Totals 166 82 115 126 100,350 7,471 30, 693 56, 659 76,435 39,612 10,120 .... 4,116 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 11 Table 4.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY COUNTIES. Piedmont Region. County. Total Number of Townships in County. Number of Town- ships Reporting. Number of Replies. Number of Fires. Total Area Burnt Over, in Acres. Merchantable Timber Destroyed, M. Value of Timber Destroyed. Area of Young Growth Destroy- ed, in Acres. Value of Young Growth Destroyed. Value of Products Destroyed. Value of Improve- ments Destroyed. Lives Lost. Cost of Fighting Fire. 13 12 21 1 40 s 40 S 100 $ s s 8 7 10 6 520 10 275 517 320 200 200 5 8 12 6 6 10 86,000 25 20,550 4 52,200 31,000 86,000 4,500 2,000 5,000 1,250 12 20 1 20 12 2 5 2,000 2 200 1,200 500 1,000 1,000 , 100 9 6 7 1 8 7 1 3 14 9 4 503 25 510 10 800 11 8 2 200 110 520 100 100 10 17 6 8 2 75 CO 100 10 50 200 6,000 7 7 23 2 250 6 2 2 1 10 10 14 8 2 3 3 15 10 18 2,200 126 195 1,360 16 590 2,500 3,200 2,000 100 6 3 6 500 300 225 9 7 10 3 24 45 2 18 10 11 2 15 250 5 7 16 12 3 150 ___ . 200 200 50 200 300 500 1 50 7 3 4 2 2 11 4 6 10 7,018 30 2,000 5,200 150 3,518 15,036 236 1,200 566 Mecklenburg- Montgomery 11 19 3 11 8 9 2 2,020 55 135 1,000 200 100 250 20 9 8 12 6,050 60 50 100 4,420 60 8,100 160 16,000 5,900 825 3 6 5 9 4 4 2 49 49 475 Polk 6 6 13 27 28,080 1,101 2,200 12,000 72,400 1,600 1,200 600 19 6 9 ii 5 2 Rowan. 14 10 16 5 500 102 175 300 650 900 500 210 Rutherford 12 7 6 14 6,850 2,120 2,350 5,700 2,300 575 3,100 120 $ 1 1 2 60 7 30 20 200 500 8 2 4 14 12 21 8 194 100 650 55 700 1,550 250 100 9 5 6 9 8 2 15 10 19 2 2 12 8 34 4,740 4,105 129 35 3,315 5,900 924 500 550 100 Wilkes 21 17 34 19 910 2,952 390 1,802 750 1,015 316 8 8 13 8 90 110 175 825 1,700 55 Totals 454 251 413 258 151,796 28,439 74,088 67,691 193,225 34,786 29,615 1 4,439 12 FOREST FIRES 1ST NORTH CAROLINA. Table 5.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS BY COUNTIES. Coastal Plain Region. County. Total Number of Townships in County. Number of Town- ships Reporting. Number of Replies. Number of Fires. Total Area Burnt Over, in Acres. Merchantable Timber Destroyed, M. Value of Timber Destroyed. Area of Young Growth Destroy- ed, in Acres. Value of Young Growth Destroyed. Value of Products Destroyed. Value of Improve- ments Destroyed. fc£ © O > ® ft- 6 4 4 2 2,100 $4, 150 10 S 50 $ Bertie. __ _ _ 9 7 12 n 7,771 1,875 7, 650 4,150 550 5,200 2,650 3,225 2 2 6 3 1 1 9 1 1 4 3 3 i Columbus 14 8 15 17 17,100 730 1,680 2,833 2,533 6,500 1,300 — - 1,025 9 4 4 3 2,000 500 1,500 2,000 Cumberland 11 4 3 4 4,025 5,000 5,000 500 1,000 6,000 400 .... 325 2 3 3 300 150 300 500 13 3 3 2 40 100 150 30 200 Edgecombe 14 2 2 2 100 10 40 10 50 90 100 15 7 9 2 2 Halifax 12 1 i 3 1,200 100 150 1,200 3,500 2,000 1,000 100 13 8 ii 11 2,100 200 1,300 150 1,500 7,700 2,800 6 2 2 Hoke . 1 1 1 150 10 25 1,000 500 100 4 1 1 Johnston 17 6 8 11 300 40 120 100 500 200 150 100 7 1 1 1 1,000 Lenoir.. __ 12 6 6 7 860 90 375 675 300 11,035 455 90 10 Nash 14 6 6 16 3,520 532 1,056 2,467 5,770 5,506 800 1,426 4 9 6 7 1 20 2 10 10 25 Onslow 5 3 3 5 2,500 200 750 1,100 600 1,025 .... 25 Pamlico _ 4 3 4 6 2,300 1,100 1,900 700 1,500 15,000 .... 1,000 6 Pender 10 5 5 15 4,300 450 2,300 8,500 24.S00 3,600 6,400 220 Perquimans 5 3 2 5 2,300 2,000 10,000 650 1,700 1,500 150 .... 2.5 11 4 4 2 1,000 500 1,500 500 2,500 1 1 2 500 19 9 12 15 11,210 10,020 25,060 650 1,190 110 , 600 16 9 11 22 25 125 12 60 4 2 2 4 3,100 100 100 300 5 4 3 3 2 1 1,000 100 500 1,000 200 200 12 7 3 280 70 200 100 10.300 100 .... 1,010 Wilson . 10 3 3 5 ! 200 100 400 75 200 5,000 1,000 50 Totals 370 133 156 167 71,298 23,904 66,041 25,572 4S,S2S S4.966 17.S00 .... 9.3S6 FOREST FIEES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 13 Table 6.— FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING 1913. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGES BY REGIONS FOR 1913 AND FOR FOUR PREVIOUS YEARS. Moun- tain, 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. Pied- mont, 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. Costal Plain, 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. State, 1913. Average for Previous Four Years. Percentage of townships reporting 49 37 55 38 36 34 47 36.5 Average area of each fire, in acres Average damage by each 796 1,036 588 447 427 707 587 673 fire, in dollars Average area burnt over per S 1,240 S 1,506 S 1,236 S 648 S 1,303 $ 1,024 S 1,282 $ 968 township reporting, in acres . _ 1,223 *2,042 1,605 *576 536 *1,565 694 *1,1S9 Average damage per acre burnt, in dollars S 1.56 $ 1.18 S 2.19 $ 1.52 S 3.05 S 1.45 $ 2.18 $ 1.34 Average damage per town- ship reporting, in dollars.. -S 1,913 $ 3,871 S 1,322 S 858 S 1,636 S 2,020 $ 1,515 3 1,774 *For the years 1912, 1911, and 1910. No township figures for 1909. From tlie above tables it is seen that tbougb tbe damage from forest fires was considerably less in 1913 than in tbe previous year, yet tbe loss was above tbe average for tbe past five years, and tbis in tbe face of not specially unfavorable weather conditions. Tbis somewhat abnormal damage is no doubt due in part to tbe 30 per cent increase in tbe number of townships reporting. Too much stress, however, must not be laid on this fact, as tbe increase in tbe number of replies came largely from tbe Piedmont region, over tbe greater part of which serious fires are rare. Tbe growing realization of tbe value of unmerchantable young growth is perhaps tbe chief reason for tbe apparently high money loss. Whereas in 1911, tbe first year any general estimate was placed on destroyed young growth, tbe loss from tbis one cause amounted to only 25 per cent of tbe total damage, in 1912 it comprised 33 per cent, while in 1913 it has increased to 45 per cent of tbe total estimated damage. An instance of tbe growing recognition of tbe destructiveness of woods fires comes from Transylvania County. A farmer there claimed $300 reduction in tbe tax valuation of bis place because 300 acres bad been burnt over. Tbis reduction was granted by the county commissioners. Tbe county therefore lost several dollars in taxes every year from that one fire, besides tbe much more serious loss sustained by tbe farmer. In Worth Carolina the destruction of mature timber is only a small part of tbe fire damage, because tbe usual surface fires, unless occurring late in tbe spring, do not kill tbe larger trees. For tbis reason tbe value of tbe reproduction and young growth destroyed necessarily assumes large proportions. 14 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Tlie very serious annual loss from forest fires can perhaps best he brought out by a comparison. The average loss from fires in North Carolina for the past five years has been about $650,000 a year. This is equivalent to a tax levy of 36 cents on the $100 on all the land in the State, or a tax of 13 cents on the $100 on all property, real and personal, now listed for taxation. How quickly would this fire tax he done away with if it came in the form of a regular tax levy! Yet the fire tax is paid year after year by the people of North Carolina without a murmur. One or two per cent of the amount lost, if properly spent hv the State, would reduce the fire damage one-half the first year, and not only save much valuable property belonging to our citizens, hut insure the future well-being of our State. CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES. The relative importance of the different causes of forest fires in North Carolina, as given in the following table, does not vary very widely from that shown by the investigations of previous years. The carelessness of the individual was responsible for a still larger proportion of fires, 46.5 per cent coming under this general heading, compared with 45 per cent in 1912, and 42 per cent the previous year. Table 7— CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA IN 1913 BY REGIONS, COM- PARED WITH THE PREVIOUS FOUR YEARS, IN PERCENTAGES Mountain. Piedmont. Coastal Plain. State. Four Years, State. Farmers burning brush, grass, rubbish, etc. 14.5 18.5 6 13.5 n Hunters . _ _ -- 25.5 8.5 3.5 10.5 12 Cigars, cigarettes, matches, etc . 3.5 3 2.5 3 2.5 Carelessness . __ ___ 12.5 17.5 26.5 19.5 19 Railroad locomotives, sparks from 2 17.5 20 15 19 Logging locomotives, dummy engines, etc. 9 13 6 7.5 Sawmills, etc _ __ 2 10.5 5 7 4 4 .25 Accidental, caught from burning build- .5 1 4 3.5 Set by chestnut-gatherers, root-diggers, 2 2 i 1 2 1 i 4 Malice or incendiary 12.5 6.5 2.5 Unknown causes _ 9 9 13 10.5 7 2.5 1 i 3.5 1 1 2 .25 Farmers and hunters seem to he the chief offenders. The former were said to he responsible for nearly one-fifth of the fires occurring in the Piedmont region. Careless handling of fire in burning brush, stumps, rubbish, grass, and leaves when too dry or when the wind is too high. FOREST FIRES 1ST NORTH CAROLINA. 15 most commonly in the spring, is not confined to the small renters, hut is a fault of many of our best land-owning citizens. Allowing boys or other irresponsible persons to burn in dry weather is on a par with letting children play with loaded guns. In nine cases out of ten hunters are not the owners of the land over which they hunt, and whether they are bird hunters from the town or opossum hunters from the adjoining plantation, they apparently feel little or no responsibility about the occurrence of fires. The recent amendment to the camp-fire law, making hunters responsible for camp- fires left unextinguished, seems as yet to have had no appreciable effect, as no prosecutions of hunters have been reported. The new amendment to the old law, though an improvement, is not sufficient. Men will not prosecute their neighbors for what appears to be simply carelessness. Grand jurymen, who are the only State officials who can take the initia- tive in such investigations, have not the time or the opportunity to look up the evidence in forest fire cases. Such work must be done at the time of and immediately succeeding the fire. Township forest wardens, re- sponsible directly to the State, whose special duty it is to prevent, extin- guish, and investigate forest fires, are the only officials who can control this nuisance. IMPROVING THE RANGE. The Coastal Plain region is the only part of the State where the prac- tice of starting fires for the purpose of furnishing early feed for cattle is common. One reports that the chief cause of fires is “burning the woods for pasture for cattle,” while another says : “Out in the back- woods, where there is not much timber, the woods are set on fire and burnt off for grazing purposes.” It is in just such places, “where there is not much timber,” that the young timber growth is needed to fill up the openings and provide for a second-growth forest. The total assessed value of cattle grazing on these open-range lands is 15 cents per acre, and yet for this pittance young timber is destroyed which would yield ten times this revenue, not only to the owner of the land, but also to the com- munity at large. LIGHTNING. Electrical storms were more frequent and severer during the summer of 1913 than for many years. Throughout the State many trees and houses were struck and much live stock was killed. Yet so far as can be ascertained, only two forest fires were caused by lightning, and these were in the adjoining counties of Cumberland and Harnett. This is in strong contrast to reports from the western States, where— in California, for example — half the fires on the National Forests were started by lightning. In that State more fires were set in this way on the National 16 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Forests alone tlian were reported for the whole State of Xorth Caro- lina. We are fortunate in having so few fires which are unpreventahle. INCENDIARY. S; - . . Malicious setting fire to the woods in order to destroy property or to conceal crime is comparatively rare in Xorth Carolina. The last report showed that 7 per cent of the replies gave this as the chief cause of fires. In 1912 18 per cent of the Mountain fires and 10 per cent of the Piedmont fires were said to have been of incendiary origin ; while this year the number has come down to 7 per cent, which is the average for the past five years. One rather remarkable feature of this year’s report is that the ma- jority of the reported incendiary fires occurred in one county, and that most of the remainder were in three other counties in the same imme- diate region. In 1912 Transylvania suffered more from forest fires than any other county in the State, the reported loss running up into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. In 1913, though the total reported damage was less than in Polk, the number of fires was greater than in any other county, Polk having about two-thirds as many. In six out of seven townships in the former county incendiarism was assigned as the chief cause of fires, while in three out of six townships in Polk the same cause was given. These two counties seem to have had more incendiary fires than all the rest of the State put together. Some were set by “blockaders to disguise their stills,” but the greater part were probably started with the idea of getting even for some real or fancied grievance. The fact is generally lost sight of that while the owner of the land loses by fire the value of his stumpage, the community loses twice as much in the value of the labor it would take to manufacture that timber and put it on the market. PROSECUTIONS. Under the present law practically the only action that can he taken against one who sets out fire is personal prosecution. Such action is almost never taken against individuals, chiefly because a private citizen objects to making a personal matter of what is really the concern of the community or of the State. The weakness of the present situation is illustrated by conditions in Transylvania County, which is not very different from other parts of the State. This county reports 39 fires, most of which were of incen- diary origin. One correspondent, when asked if any one had been prose- cuted for setting fires, replies: “Xo! Xo!! Xo!!! and I should like to know why.” The reason is that our forest laws are antiquated and ma- chinery for their enforcement is entirely lacking. Even in Polk County, where, since the severe fires of last Xovember, the citizens have organ- FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 17 ized a Forestry Club, have employed a forest warden, and offered a reward for evidence sufficient to convict any one of setting fires, no one has yet been punished. However, such an active and decided step will undoubtedly tend to prevent many fires in the future. The sum total of prosecutions in North Carolina for 1913 seems to be five. Three of these were civil suits for damages, all of which were still pending at the end of the year. Iredell has the distinction of being the only county, out of eighty reporting forest fires, in which individuals were prosecuted and punished for setting fires. Although “just a small fine” was imposed, the good effect of this example will no doubt be felt far beyond the county lines. Railroads usually pay damages, where a claim is made, without letting the matter go to court. Five cases of settlement for damages by rail- roads were reported for 1913, and no doubt there were others that were not heard of. Such a remarkable lack of prosecutions must mean one of two things : either the average citizen is indifferent to fires, or else the procedure is absolutely inadequate. The first is not the case, judging from the corre- spondents, many of whom speak strongly against the people who pur- posely or carelessly set fire to the woods. From the east as well as the west come such expressions as, “Hunters, villains, idiots” ; “Carelessness and cussedness, cussedness mostly” ; while only one or two of the whole number of correspondents attempt feebly to defend the practice. The sentiment against burning is well-nigh universal amongst land-owning North Carolinians. It must he, then, that our present laws are not strong enough or comprehensive enough to furnish adequate protection. PRESENT FOREST FIRE LAWS. Only two sections of North Carolina law, dealing respectively with setting fires in the woods and leaving camp fires unextinguislied, are of State-wide application. These two laws were printed in full in Eco- nomic Papers 25 and 33, but are again copied here for convenience of reference : Section 3346. Woods. If any person shall set fire to any woods, except it be his own property or, in that case, without first giving notice in writing to all persons owning lands adjoining to the woodlands intended to he fired, at least two days before the time of firing such woods, and also taking effect- ual care to extinguish such fire before it shall reach any vacant or patented lands near to or adjoining the lands so fired, he shall, for every such offense, forfeit and pay to any person who shall sue for the same, fifty dollars, and be liable to any one injured in an action, and shall moreover be guilty of a mis- demeanor.* *Revisal of 1905. 2 18 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Section 3347. Woods, from Camp Fires. If any wagoner or other person encamping in the open air shall leave his camp without totally extinguishing the camp tires, or hunter who shall set tire to any tree, stump, or other com- bustible matter and leave without totally extinguishing such tire, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not ex- ceeding fifty dollars or imprisoned not exceeding thirty days.f These two laws are good as far as they go, hut they were enacted many years ago when conditions were very different from what they are today. During the past five years, while the State has lost upwards of three million dollars by fires, these laws have probably not been invoked half a dozen times. CONCLUSIONS. For the purpose of information and comparison, and with the hope that the woodland owners of ISTorth Carolina may be led to demand that protection from forest fires which is their right and which the citizens of other States enjoy, the remainder of this report is devoted to some account of what other States are doing to reduce the fire menace. Last year’s report (Economic Paper 33), besides giving the report on Forest Fires in Worth Carolina during 1912, contained some account of Federal Forest Protection in the United States as wnll as recent develop- ments in cooperative fire control. Under the former heading were taken up in a general way fire protection on the National forests and National forest fire laws, together with a brief account of what the other depart- ments of the Government are doing to help in the work of protection. Cooperative fire control was briefly taken up as offered to the various States by the Federal Government under the Weeks law. The splendid work being done by the various timberland owners’ protective associa- tions was outlined and the beginnings of railroad cooperation con- sidered. The conclusion was reached that in order to successfully control forest fires both organization and cooperation are essential. Organization must originate with and be maintained by the State, and the State must act first. As soon as an organization is started, full cooperation can be secured from the Federal Government under the Weeks law. In States containing National forests, such as Worth Carolina, assistance can also be secured from the Forest Administration. Experience has shown that the cooperation of timberland owners and lumbermen, and then of the railroads and other corporations, will quickly follow the State’s initia- tive. The State, however, must take the lead. fRevisal of 1905, as amended in 1913. STATE FOREST FIRE PREVENTION IN THE UNITED STATES. THE LAKE STATES. Tor many years what is known as tlie Lake Region was the center of the lumber industry in this country. For the past two or three decades, however, the output of lumber from these three States (Minnesota, Wis- consin, and Michigan), which have supplied the white pine of com- merce, has been declining, until now the production of lumber is of yearly decreasing importance. For many years some of the worst forest fires of the country have raged through the cut-over lands as well as the virgin forests of these States, causing untold loss of property and the sacrifice of hundreds of lives. Since the inauguration of efficient fire protection, however, the annual damage has been greatly reduced. MINNESOTA. Minnesota has an approximate area of 52,000,000 acres. According to the estimate of the State Forester, of the 28,000,000 acres of forested land in the State, about 13,000,000 acres will eventually be cleared for farming. The remaining 15,000,000 acres, because of its character, will probably always remain in forest. This State has for many years been one of the foremost in fire pro- tective legislation. As early as 1895 what were then advanced forestry laws were passed. These have been amended and added to from time to time, until in 1911 the present law, which is perhaps the best in the United States, was enacted. This was again amended and greatly strengthened in 1913. An Early Fire Law . — The forest law as passed in 1895 and amended in 1903 provides : (1) For a forest commissioner, who shall be supreme in all matters relating to the preservation of forests and for the prevention and sup- pression of forest fires. (2) For a fire warden system consisting of the supervisors of town- ships, the mayors of cities, and the presidents of village councils in what are called organized townships, and wardens appointed by the forest commissioner in an organized territory. (3) The appointment of a chief fire warden by the forest commis- sioner to he in supreme charge of the fire fighting and administer the 20 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. forest fire laws of the State. During dry and dangerous seasons the chief fire warden was to use such means under his command as he might deem necessary to prevent or suppress fires, his expenses to be paid by the State, with the proviso, however, that his total expenses in one year should not exceed $5,000. (4) It was the duty of fire wardens to take precautions to prevent the setting of forest and prairie fires, to patrol in dry seasons and, when necessary, to employ one or more extra patrols, to warn against careless use of fire, to control forest fires, to call for assistance, in emergencies, on any able-bodied male person over 18 years of age, who, if refusing to go, was liable to a fine of not exceeding $100. (5) Both the chief fire warden and the fire wardens under him were given the powers of arrest without warrant for any violation of the forest laws, and were required to institute suits against offenders. It was their duty also to inquire into the cause of each fire in their district and report to the chief fire warden. Compensation was fixed at $2 per day, together with necessaiy expenses, and $1.50 per day for assistants hired by the wardens. (6) One-third of the total cost of fire protection, outside of the salary of the chief fire warden, was paid hv the county and two-thirds by the State. (7) Strong provisions against setting forest fires, either willfully, neg- ligently, carelessly, or maliciously, were incorporated in the law. (8) The total appropriation for carrying out this scheme of fire pro- tection was $5,000 for payment of wardens and their expenses, and $1,000 for prosecuting offenders. It was found by experience that this law was inadequate in several particulars, notably in the unequal protection furnished by the various organized townships and in the inadequacy of the appropriation. The present law, which was passed in 1911 and strengthened by the Legisla- ture in 1913, is in many respects the best State law now in force in this country. Several important sections will therefore be quoted in full so that a basis of comparison may he had for the laws of other States. The strongest and most essential features of the Minnesota law are the appointment of a competent and well paid forester who has supreme control of all fire preventive measures, including a fire warden system composed of men whose chief, and in many cases only, duties are to act as fire wardens ; a strong law for the inspection and control of railroad engines, and a law which puts into the hands of the State Forester the power to make and enforce regulations for slash disposal. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 21 ORGANIZATION OF STATE FOREST SERVICE. State Forestry Board . — “There shall be a State Forestry Board of nine members, composed of the director of the Forestry School and the dean of the Agricultural College of the University of Minnesota, and seven others ap- pointed by the Governor for a term of four years and until their successors qualify. Two of said members shall be appointed upon the recommendation of the regents of the University, and one shall be appointed upon the recom- mendation of each of the following bodies: The State Agricultural Society, the State Horticultural Society, and the State Game and Fish Commission : Provided suitable persons be recommended by them to the Governor not later than January 31st of the year in which such terms expire. All vacancies shall be filled the same as the original appointments. The members now in office shall hold through the terms for which they were respectively ap- pointed. So far as practicable, all such appointees shall be appointed wuth reference to their knowledge of and interest in the planting and cultivation of trees in prairie regions, the preservation of natural forests, the reforesting of denuded lands and the protection of the sources of streams.” Chief among its duties, the law provides that the State Forestry Board “shall have the management of the forest reserves and of all other prop- erty acquired therefor, supervise all matters of forest protection and reforestation and have charge of all moneys appropriated therefor or accruing therefrom, including the forest reserve fund and the forest service fund.” State Forester . — “The board shall appoint a State Forester who shall be a trained forester, at a salary not to exceed four thousand dollars ($4,000) per annum, and he shall be allowed necessary traveling and field expenses incurred in the conduct of his official duties. The office of the State Forester shall be at the State capital, and the board is hereby authorized to employ such office assistants as may be necessary and to fix their compensation. The State Forester, with the approval of the State Forestry Board, may appoint an assistant forester and such other employees, outside of the office assistants, as may be necessary in carrying out the provisions of this act, and fix the amount of their compensation. The State Forester shall execute all rules and regulations issued by the State Forestry Board pertaining to forestry and forest protection within the jurisdiction of the State ; have charge of the work of protecting all forests-and lands from fire; shall investigate the origin of all forest fires and prosecute all violators of this act ; shall prepare and print for public distribution an abstract of the forest fire laws of Minnesota, together with such rules and regulations as may be formulated by the State Forestry Board. He shall prepare printed notices calling attention to the dangers from forest fires, and cause them to be posted in conspicuous places, and shall furnish same to the railroad companies, whose duty it shall be to post them in such places as he may direct.” District Rangers . — “As soon as practicable after this act shall take effect, the State Forester may, with the approval of the State Forestry Board, create and establish patrol districts, including all lands of both State and private 22 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. ownership, upon which there is a probability of forest and brush fires start- ing, and establish rangers over the said districts. “Under the direction of the State Forester, the district rangers are charged with preventing and extinguishing forest fires in their respective districts, and the performance of such other duties as may be required by the State Forester. “They may arrest, without warrant, any person found violating any pro- visions of this chapter, take him before a magistrate and there make com- plaint. When the district rangers shall have information that such violation has been committed, they shall without delay make similar complaint, and have the same prosecuted. The district rangers shall not be liable for civil action for trespass committed in the discharge of their duties.” Fire Patrolmen. — “At any time district rangers, with the approval of the State Forester, may employ suitable persons to be known as fire patrolmen permanently to remain upon and patrol such territory, State or private, as may he assigned to them as long as may be required to prevent and extinguish any fire. Each such patrolman so employed shall- be supplied with the neces- sary equipment. The State Forester and the district ranger may, and if they are absent and fires are actually burning in the forest, the fire patrolmen may summon any male person of the age of IS years and upwards to assist in stopping the fires, and may incur any other necessary and reasonable expense for the same purpose, but shall promptly report the same to the district ranger. “Any persons summoned by any official of the State who is physically able and refuses to assist shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punish- able by a fine of not less than $5 and not more than $25.” Payment for Fighting Fire. — “The wages and expenses of men summoned or employed to fight forest fires actually burning shall be fixed and paid for by the State Forester and the labor reckoned and paid for by the hours of labor performed, which shall not exceed the rate of 25 cents per hour em- ployed : Provided, no pay shall be given for fighting fire within one mile of the residence of such person, unless employed by the State Forester or his assistants.” Road Overseers to Extinguish Fires. — “Every road overseer or assistant of a road overseer or other local officer having charge of the highway, who finds that any person has left a camp fire burning in his district, shall extinguish the same, and take prompt measures to prosecute the person or persons who so left such fire.” Negligently Setting Fives. — “Whoever under any circumstances sets fire must exercise care and precaution in proportion to the danger. “Whenever a fire set by any person or corporation spreads to and destroys property belonging to another, it shall be prima facie evidence that the party so setting such fire is guilty of negligence in setting the same and allowing it to spread.” County Attorney to Prosecute. — “Whenever an arrest shall have been made for violation of any of- the provisions of this chapter, or whenever information of such violation shall have been lodged with him, the county attorney of the county in which the offense was committed shall prosecute the accused with all diligence and energy.” FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 23 Auxiliary Patrol Force . — “Tlie State Forester may appoint supervisors, con- stables, and clerks of towns, mayors of cities, and presidents of village coun- cils tire wardens for their respective districts, and it is hereby made their duty to do all things necessary to protect the property of such municipalities from fire and to extinguish the same. “All towns, villages, and cities are hereby authorized and directed to take necessary precautions to prevent the starting and spreading of forest or prairie tires and to extinguish the same, and are hereby further authorized to annually levy a tax of not more than five mills upon a taxable property of such municipalities, which, when collected, shall be known as the ‘Fire Fund.’ which shall be used in paying all necessary and incidental expenses incurred in enforcing the provisions of this act.” Appropriation . — “There is hereby appropriated from the general - revenue funds of the State out of any moneys not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $15,000 for the fiscal year ending July 31, 1911, $75,000 for the fiscal year end- ing July 31, 1912, and $75,000 for the fiscal year ending July 31, 1913, which shall be credited to the Forest Service, to be used therefor as provided in this act.” RAILROADS ; REGULATIONS AND DUTIES. The railroad law gives large powers to the State Forester, hut fixes responsibility so clearly yet impartially that it has the effect of securing the active and hearty cooperation of the railroads in fire prevention. This is the object of the law and the avowed policy of the State Forester. Chapter III of the State Forester’s annual report for the year 1913 is perhaps the best discussion of railroad fire prevention ever published in this country. Because of the exceptional efficiency of the Minnesota railroad fire law, it is here given in full : STATE FORESTER TO PROVIDE MEASURES FOR IMMEDIATE CONTROL OF FIRES. “When, in the judgment of the State Forester, there is danger of the setting and spreading of fires from locomotive engines, he shall order any railroad company to' provide patrolmen to follow each train throughout such fire patrol district or districts as he deems necessary to prevent tires. When the State Forester has given a railroad company notice to provide such patrol after trains, the said railroad company shall immediately comply with such instruc- tions throughout the territory designated ; and upon its failure so to do, the State Forester may employ patrolmen with the necessary equipment to patrol the rights of way of said railroad, and the expense of the same shall be charged to the said railroad company, and may be recovered in a civil action in the name of the State of Minnesota, and in addition thereto the said com- pany shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. “The State Forester may prescribe such other measures which are consid- ered by him to be essential for the immediate control of fire. Duties of Railroads . — “It is also made the duty of any railroad company, acting independently of such State Forester, to patrol its right of way after 24 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. the passage of each train when necessary to prevent the spread of fires and to use the highest degree of diligence to prevent the setting and' spread of fires to cause the extinguishment of fires set by locomotives or found existing upon their respective rights of way, and for any violation hereof such rail- road company, its officers and patrolmen, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars ($50) nor more than one hundred dollars ($100) and costs, and in addition thereto such railroad company shall be liable for all expenses and damage caused or permitted by it, to be recovered in civil action. Ash-pan and Spark Arrester . — “Every company operating a railroad for any purpose shall equip and use upon each locomotive engine a practical and efficient ash-pan and spark-arresting device, which the master mechanic shall cause to be examined, and the same shall be examined by the master me- chanic or some employee each time before leaving the roundhouse, except when snow is on the ground. Record of Examination of Locomotives.-r-“A record shall be kept of such examinations in a book to be furnished by the railroad company for the pur- pose, showing : “1. The place and number of each engine inspected. “2. The date and hour of day of such inspection. “3. The condition of the said fire protective appliance and arrangements ; and “4. A record of repairs made to any of the fire protective appliances. The said book to be open for inspection by the State Forester or other authorized officer appointed by him. “The master mechanic or employee making such examination shall be held responsible for the good condition of the same, but without relieving the com- pany from its responsibility hereunder. State Inspection Authorized. — “Any locomotive inspector appointed by the State Forester is authorized to inspect any locomotive, donkey, traction, or portable engine and all other engines and boilers operated in the vicinity of forest, brush, or grass lands, and to enter upon any property for such pur- pose or where he may deem it necessary in order to see that all the provisions of this act are duly complied with. Right of Way . — “Every such company shall keep its right of way clear of combustible material, logs, poles, lumber, and wood, except ties, material for shipment, and other materials necessary for the maintenance and operation of the road, from March 15th to December 1st. During particularly dry and dangerous periods the State Forester may prohibit any and all burning along part or all of railroad right of way for a definite period. Fire-breaks Along Right of Way . — “Every railroad company shall establish and maintain such fire-breaks along the route of its railway as can be con- structed and maintained at not excessive expense. The intention shall be to adjust the protective measures to the local conditions, and to make the ex- pense proportionate to the fire risk and the possible damage. Other Engines. — “Except when snow is on the ground, no donkey, traction, or portable engine or other engines and boilers except locomotives shall be operated in the vicinity of forest, brush, or grass lands, which do not burn oil as fuel, except they be provided with a practical and efficient ash-pan and spark-arresting device. FOREST FIRES IK NORTH CAROLINA. 25 Deposit of Live Coals and Ashes. — “No company shall permit any of its em- ployees to leave a deposit of fire, live coals, or ashes in the immediate vicinity of woodland or lands liable to be overrun by fire, and every engineer, con- ductor, or trainman discovering a fire adjacent to the track shall report the same promptly to the agent at the first telegraph or telephone station reached by him, whose duty it shall be as representative of such company to at once take necessary steps to put out such fire. Posting Warning Placards. — “Every such company shall give its employees particular instructions for the prevention and extinguishment of fires, and shall cause warning placards, such as are approved by the State Forester, to be conspicuously posted at every station in the vicinity of forest, brush, and grass lands ; and. when a fire occurs on the right of way of its road, shall im- mediately concentrate such help and adopt such measures as shall be available for its extinguishment. “Every railroad company shall make such reports to the State Forester as are deemed necessary by him of fires occurring on or adjacent to their respective rights of way. Combustible Material Close to Railroad. — “Whenever any combustible ma- terial shall be left in the proximity of any railroad, either without proper fire protection or so as to constitute a fire menace to other property, it shall be the duty of the owner of such material, upon being notified in writing by the State Forester or any forest ranger as to the nature and extent of the protection required, to forthwith comply with all the terms of such notice so as to properly protect or remove such material. Penalty. — “Any company or corporation violating any provision of this sec- tion shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be fined not less than fifty dollars ($50) and not exceeding one hundred dol- lars ($100) and costs of prosecution for each offense, and any railroad em- ployee or other individual violating the same shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars ($25) nor more than one hundred dollars ($100) and costs of prosecution, or by impris- onment in the county jail not exceeding ninety (90) days.” DISPOSAL OF SLASH. Powers of Forester and Rangers as to Slashings. — “Where and whenever in the judgment of the State Forester or district ranger there is or may be dan- ger of starting and spreading of fires from slashings and debris from the cutting of timber of any kind and for any purpose, the State Forester or dis- trict ranger shall order the individual, firm, or corporation by whom the said timber has been or is being cut to dispose of the slashings and dSbris as he may direct. Where conditions do not permit the burning of the slashings and debris over the entire area so covered, the State Forester may require the person, firm, or corporation by whom the timber was cut to dispose of such slashings and debris in such a way as to establish a safe fire line around the area requiring such protection, the said fire line to be of a width and of a character satisfactory to the State Forester. Expense of Burning Slash Can Be Collected by State as Mechanics Lien . — “When any such branches, slashings, or debris are left unattended contrary 26 FOEEST FIRES IN WORTH CAROLINA. to the instructions of the State Forester or district ranger, the State Forester, the district ranger, or patrolman may go upon the premises with such force of men as may be necessary, and burn such branches, slashings, and debris, and the expense thereof shall be a lien upon the land on which they are situ- ated, and also upon the logs and other timber products cut upon said land, and enforced as liens are enforced for the improvement of real estate or per- sonal property. Clearing for Right of Way or Roadbed. — “Any person or corporation who cuts or fells trees or bushes of any kind in clearing land for roadbed or right of way for any railroad, highway, or trail shall in the manner and at the time as above prescribed burn the slashings and all combustible material ex- cept fuel and merchantable timber. Clearing for Agricultural Purposes. — “Any person or corporation who cuts or fells trees or bushes of any kind in clearing land for agricultural or pastur- age purposes, or who in any way clears land, is prohibited from setting fire to the slashings, brush, roots or excavated stumps or other combustible mate- rial on such land and letting the fire run ; the material must be disposed of pursuant to the regulations of the State Forester. Contractors to Pile and Burn Slash. — “Any contractor who enters into a contract for the construction of a public road, and which contract involves the cutting or grubbing of woods, standing timber, or brush from any part of the right of way of such road, shall pile all the slashings and debris cut or grubbed from the roadbed or right of way in the middle of such right of way. and shall burn and dispose of such slash and debris without damage to ad- joining timber or woods, which burning shall be done in a manner and at a time satisfactory to the State Forester.” COMMENT. Only one season has passed since the above law bas gone into force, and so it is too soon to compare it witb tbe deficiency of previous years. Tbe State Forester, however, is enthusiastic about the improved condi- tions and administration of the law. Iu summing up the work of the State Forest Service for the season, he says: “The season just ended has undoubtedly been the worst fire season that has been experienced 4 since the present Forest Service has been organized, although there were less fires reported this year than in the previous years. “Every effort was made during the year to prevent fires. The field force under the direction of the district rangers was about the same as in previous years. Approximately sixty patrolmen were employed by the State during the spring and fall, when the danger of fire was the greatest. This number was decreased during the summer months, when weather conditions were such as to decrease the fire danger. The Federal Government furnished an average of eighteen men per month. The various railroads maintained dur- ing the dangerous seasons a large force of patrolmen, who were engaged solely in the work of fire prevention. Quite a number of townships again employed patrolmen in their respective towns ; the lumber companies had on duty during the entire year a large number of men who took every precau- FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 27 tion in guarding against fires. Aside from the above, there were a number of special patrolmen such as National Forest Service officers and men em- ployed by the Indian Service. “The railroads have shown a marked improvement in their cooperation for fire prevention. In 1912, 44 per cent of the fires were set by railroads, while in 1913 only 20 per cent are charged to railroads. “The number of patrolmen, the length and location of their beats, were determined by the ranger of each district. The rangers are intimately ac- quainted with the territory which they control, understanding the relative ‘fire danger’ of the different localities. In deciding upon the number of pa- trolmen needed, several things are considered : the number of trains per day : condition of engines in regard to fire protective devices ; conditions of right of way and of adjacent land, whether covered with timber or grass ; and proximity to towns, sawmills, or stored products such as ties, posts, or logs. “Slash disposal is now a regular part of logging in Minnesota. The loggers in the last year spent in the neighborhood of $300,000 in burning brush, or approximately 10 cents a thousand on the cut of three billion feet of timber. The slash resulting from pine cuttings was practically all burned and fire lines of different kinds were burned around spruce and cedar cuttings. Only a very limited amount of lopping was done, and this mostly in areas of hard- wood.” WISCONSIN. The forest fire laws of Wisconsin have until recently been well ahead of the other Lake States ; in fact, three or four years ago it was gener- ally supposed that they were about the best State laws in the country. Their administration was in the hands of the State Forester, who was responsible to a representative forestry commission. One or more fire wardens were appointed by the forester in each township where the need for them existed, and these were paid for the time actually employed by them in preventing and suppressing fires at a rate not to exceed 25 cents per hour. All bills for services for wardens and those employed by them were paid by the township in which the work was done up to an amount not to exceed $100 a year in such township. Lake States Forestry Conference . — After the two most disastrous fires of 1908 and 1910, not only in Wisconsin, but also in Minnesota and Michigan, it was realized by these States that their present laws were inadequate to cope with the forest fire situation. In December, 1910. a conference was called at St. Paul at which representatives of the three States came together to discuss the situation and the working out of a better system of fire prevention. This conference was an unusually strong and representative one, headed by the Governors of Minnesota and Wisconsin, members of the legislative committees on forestry from the Lake States, and also lumbermen, foresters, etc. The sense of the 28 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. meeting was that “the old system of doing nothing until the fire occurred had always and everywhere proved to be little better than no system at all, and that the only sensible, practical plan was to concentrate the efforts of each State to building up the best possible system of fire pre- vention.” After a two days meeting they passed a series of strong reso- lutions, among which are the following: Adequate Patrol System Recommended. — “First. That the forest fire pro- tection of each State and such other branches of State work as may be deemed, best to combine with it be placed under the control of a nonpartisan commission empowered, as fully as possible under the constitutions of the different States, to carry on the work, and under civil service rules. Such commission should represent all the interests involved as far as possible, and we recommend that such commission place the work in charge of a chief forester who should be a professional graduate forester, and that the com- mission employ such trained foresters and other assistants as may be neces- sary ; define their duties and fix their salaries ; said employees to be engaged under such civil service regulations as the commission may prescribe. “Second. Resolved , That it is the sense of this conference that the present forest fire warden service of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota is totally inadequate to meet the existing fire hazard to both life and property, and that forest protection service, to become efficient, must be greatly extended. To this end we recommend an adequate forest patrol system, maintained by the State, organized and operated by the commission referred to.” Subsequent to this meeting Minnesota greatly strengthened her for- estry laws (see pages 19-27) until now she has perhaps the most efficient fire preventive system in the country. Wisconsin was not so fortunate, however. Fire Protection Made a Local Affair. — “A bill was introduced in the Wis- consin Legislature of 1911 to provide for a State forest fire patrol, but the Legislature refused to appropriate State funds for this purpose, and the leg- islative committee changed the bill so that all lands benefited by the patrol would pay a special tax of 2% cents per acre, per annum. The timberland owners refused to agree to this amendment, with the result that the bill was killed. Wishing to accomplish something, the Legislature passed a law pro- viding that town chairmen should act as town fire wardens, and the road supervisors should he deputy town fire wardens. The idea of this law was to place the responsibility for and the cost of fighting fires directly upon the local community where they occurred. Weakness of Neio Law.- — “This law is only a makeshift, and is especially weak and inefficient for the following reasons : “1. Some of the best men in the towns are elected as town chairmen and road supervisors, but because they are good men it does not naturally follow that they have the strength and endurance or the knowledge of how to fight forest fires. The impression seems to prevail that any one can fight forest fires. Almost any fairly able-bodied man can assist very materially, but the men in FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 29 charge of the work must know the country thoroughly, and, more important still, must know just where and how to attack the fires. Experienced woods- men should be in charge of the fire warden system in each town, and not simply some good man who happens to hold an office and upon whom it is easy to assign another duty by law. “2. The towns that have the most timber are always, for that very reason, either without any settlers at all or else both settlers and roads are very few. Such towns, as a rule, have no road supervisors, and as a result, where the fire warden system should be the strongest it is in fact the weakest, and vice versa. “3. The town chairmen and road supervisors almost never take any action until the fire actually occurs. In other words, the present law makes the same old mistake of providing for fighting fires, but not preventing them. Prevention is the watchword of any successful fire warden system, and this has been proved in every State from the Atlantic to the Pacific. No city of any size would think of being without a fire department, and no town con- taining a large area of timberlands should be without a strong fire warden system which would devote its efforts in the first place to preventing fires.” RAILWAYS. The strongest feature of the present law and the one which will best repay careful study by IMorth Carolinians is that which provides efficient State inspection for spark arresters and for fire preventive devices on railway locomotives, donkey, traction, and portable engines. The follow- ing synopsis of the w r ork of this law given by the State Forester in his report for 1911-’12 is quoted almost in full because of the importance of this subject. Railroad inspection in some parts of Canada may be some- what more complete and effective, but Wisconsin has certainly one of the strongest and most workable laws in the United States : Spark Arresters . — “Between March 1st and December 1st all logging loco- motives, donkey, traction, or portable engines which are operated in. through, or near forest, brush, or grass land, and which do not burn oil as fuel, must be equipped with screens or wire netting on top of the smokestack, and so con- structed as to give the most practicable protection against the escape of sparks and cinders. ‘The term logging locomotive as used in this act shall be con- strued to mean any locomotive operated on a railroad, branch line or division, the chief or main business of which is the transportation of logs, lumber, or other forest products.’ The great value of this provision of the law will be at once apparent to any forester, as it compels every locomotive which is operated through the forests to be equipped with the oldest, simplest, and yet by far the most effective device for preventing the escape of sparks or cinders, namely, a screen or hood over the smokestack. Locomotives that are operated on main through lines and that make long runs could not be equipped in this way. for with the smokestack covered with a hood the front end of the engine would clog up with cinders, and then of course the engine could not steam or pull its load. Therefore the law provides that ‘all locomotives operated on 30 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. any railroad other than a logging railroad shall be equipped with the most practicable spark arresters so constructed as to give the greatest possible protection against the escape of sparks and cinders from the smokestacks thereof, and each such engine shall be provided with the most practicable device to prevent the escape of the coals from ash-pans and fire boxes, and such devices between March 1st and December 1st shall at all times be maintained in good repair.’ Railroad Locomotive Inspectors . — “The law provides that the superintend- ent of motive power or equivalent officer on each railroad shall designate an employee of such railroad at each division point and roundhouse, who shall examine each locomotive each time it leaves the division point or roundhouse between March 1st and December 1st, and such employee shall be held responsible for the proper carrying out of the provisions of this section, but without relieving the company from its responsibility hereunder. This pro- vision of the law has proved very effective in keeping the locomotives in proper condition, and also in bringing about real cooperation between the State and the railroads. State Locomotive Inspectors . — “It will be noted that the law provides that screens or hoods on the smokestacks must give the 'most practicable protec- tion’ and that spark arresters must be constructed so as to give the ‘greatest possible protection.’ The question naturally arises as to who shall decide as to the most practicable device. “The law provides that any locomotive inspector designated by the State Board of Forestry may reject immediately from service any locomotive, etc.. and in case of disagreement appeal may be made to the State Railroad Com- mission. “Particular attention is called to the fact that any defective engine can be ordered out of service and that it cannot be returned to service until the defects have been fully remedied. This provision of the law is extremely important and is far more effective than the usual fines, for any railroad company that was inclined to disregard the law would be quickly brought to its senses by having its locomotives ordered out of service. Other Provisions. — “Minor though important provisions of the law are : “a. Railroads must provide patrols for duty along their tracks in danger- ously dry weather, and if any railroad company fails to provide such patrols after due notice, the State Board of Forestry may employ patrols and the cost shall be charged to the railroad company. “b. Every railroad must at least once every year cut and burn, or remove from its right of way, all grass, weeds, brush, logs, and refuse material. “c. No railroad company shall permit its employees to deposit fire, live coals or ashes upon their tracks outside of the yard limits, except they be immediately extinguished. “d. Engineers, conductors, or trainmen who discover fires along the right of way, or on lands adjacent to the railroad, shall report the same to the agent at the nearest telegraph station. COMMENT. “The railroads of Wisconsin have come to realize within the last few years that they are more directly interested in preventing forest fires than any FOREST FIRES IN’ NORTH CAROLINA. 31 other great industry in the State, and as a result of tins realization they are anxious to do their full share in putting a stop to forest fires that are caused by the railroads. “The State Board of Forestry has a locomotive inspector who devotes his entire time from March 1st to December 1st to inspecting locomotives in the forest regions of the State, and he is constantly working with the railroad officials to perfect improved devices.” MICHIGAN. The third of the Lake States, which has perhaps been more seriously denuded of timber and laid waste by forest fires than either Minnesota or Wisconsin, has at the present time the least effective fire protective system of the three. The weakness of its organization consists in part in its being combined with the game and fish warden system of the State. Fire Wardens . — The State Game, Fish, and Forestry Warden, who is responsible to the Public Domain Commission, has charge of the preven- tion and suppression of forest fires. Supervisors are constituted fire wardens of their respective townships. In those townships in which the supervisor does not reside the State Warden appoints a fire warden. The forested part of the State over which this law is operative is divided into ten districts, each in charge of a deputy game, fish, and forestry warden, who is directly responsible to the State Warden. These deputy wardens receive a salary from the State of not to exceed $1,000 and their necessary expenses. In addition to this force, temporary fire ward- ens are appointed by the State Fire Warden in any locality which he thinks is inadequately protected. The State Warden is empowered to use such means under his command as he may deem necessary to pre- vent and suppress fires during dry and dangerous seasons, the expenses of which, to be paid by the State, must not exceed $10,000. Fire wardens may summon all necessary assistance, and persons re- fusing to attend are liable to a fine or imprisonment. All fire wardens and employees engaged to fight fire are to receive for their services $2 per day for the time actually employed, two-thirds to be paid by the township and one-third by the State, with the proviso that no fire warden is to be paid for more than a total of fifteen days service in one year. The approximate cost of fire prevention during 1913 was $18,600, $10,- 000 of which was specially appropriated by the State Legislature for this purpose and the remainder was part of the receipts from hunting and fishing licenses. Railroads . — All railroads operating within the State are required to use efficient spark arresters, and to keep their rights of way clear of combustible material. Employees are forbidden to deposit live coals 32 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. within the vicinity of woodlands and trainmen are required to report fires at the nearest telegraph station. Railroad companies are also re- quired to give particular instructions to their employees for the preven- tion and prompt extinguishment of fires, and to post warning placards furnished by the forest commissioner. Efficient spark arresters must also be maintained upon all threshing or other portable steam engines. Inspection . — Perhaps the two most effective features of the present administration of the fire laws are the careful and efficient inspection of railway locomotives and rights of way, and the inauguration and growth of the Boy Forest Scout movement. In the report of the State Game, Fish, and Forestry Warden for 1912 seventy pages are devoted to the subject of railway fires and the efforts being made, not only hv the State hut also by the railroads themselves, for their prevention and final elimination. It would seem from this report that the strongest and closest cooperation exists between the railroads and the Forestry Depart- ment, and that very gratifying results are being obtained. Forest Scouts . — The Michigan Forest Scouts movement deserves spe- cial mention. In adapting the Boy Scout idea to the forest protective needs of the State of Michigan, Mr. William R. Oats, State Game, Fish, and Forestry Warden, has not only secured an invaluable auxiliary fire-fighting force for this State, but has started a movement which may spread with advantage over the larger part of the United States. Already ISTew Jersey, Massachusetts, and Washington have taken it up, and the forestry officials of West Virginia are seriously considering the advisa- bility of organizing such a force. There seems no reason why Worth Carolina could not take advantage of the enthusiasm and intelligence of her school boys and girls in the same way, as soon as there is some defi- nite State organization under the supervision of which they may be enlisted. “The Michigan Forest Scouts are school boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 19 years who have willingly enlisted as protectors of forests and prop- erty and become close students and exponents of reforestation. The move- ment has proven so popular that school boys and girls in all parts of the State have joined its ranks until now there are 3.000 members. “Not only has the organization proved a great aid in the protection of forests and property, but it has resulted in a good moral effect on the mem- bers, bettering their health by giving them training out-of-doors, developing chivalry and increasing their appreciation of citizenship. In a general way knowledge of the importance of prevention of forest fires is assimilated not only by the boys and girls of the State, but through them their parents have a greater appreciation of the value of forest protection. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 33 “A boy or girl to join the organization must pass a creditable examination on simple fire fighting and ‘first aid’ methods. A few of the things that can- didates must know are how properly to use a knife, hatchet, ax, shovel, mat- tock ; flails of brush, sacks or blankets ; how to determine direction by a watch ; height of a tree, and how to tie a death-grip, square, fisherman’s halter, and lumber jacks’ single and double timber hitch. “Candidates must also be able to swim 20 yards, walk one mile in 12 min- utes, row an ordinary boat, or paddle a canoe one mile in acceptable time, according to conditions. They must know the general State open season for the hunting of game or taking of fish, and their own county game law excep- tions, if there are any. “Candidates must also be able to distinguish and name three indigenous forest trees, three indigenous water plants, three indigenous ground plants, three domestic game birds, three migratory game birds that pass over Michi- gan; three game fishes and six fur-bearing animals. Other minor things about forestry, game, or fish conditions must also be answered satisfactorily by the lad who desires to join the movement. “The general control of the Michigan Forest Scouts rests with the board of control, the Superintendent of Public Instruction and Secretary of the Public Domain Commission being at the head of the department of which they are auxiliaries. The field control rests with the field supervisor and immediate control of the scouts is with the State deputy fire or forestry warden of the accompanying district. “In 1912 the scouts extinguished 509 fires in Michigan, besides reporting large fires to State Warden.”* “As a result of tlie educational campaign by tbe scouts,” so tlie For- estry Warden reports, “it is doubtful if there is today any English- speaking adult in tbe forestry district who does not appreciate the disas- trous effects of fires, or has not some knowledge of fighting them and of precautionary measures.” Summary.— Mr. Gifford Pinchot in a letter to the State Game, Eish, and Forestry Warden indorsing the forest scout movement, sums up the situation in Michigan in the following words : “You must realize that the enlistment of boys of the State in this work cannot solve the fire problem. Michigan, I am sorry to say, is far behind most of the States in handling this question. The enlistment of the Michigan Forest Scouts must not be allowed to stand in the way of an effective body of fire fighters employed by the State. “By far the best work in fire fighting now done in the United States is that of the National Forest Service. I recommend strongly the organization of work along the same lines for the State of Michigan. Such a service should stand on its own feet, and should not be merged in any organization with work other than that of forestry to look after. The forest question is far too important not to have an organization of its own.” *lliehigan Forest Scouts, in American Lumberman, Jan. 31, 1914. 3 34 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. NORTHWESTERN STATES. Of the five Northwestern States Wyoming is the only one which has not an effective State fire protective system. Out of the 10,000,000 acres of forest land contained in this State less than 1,000,000 acres is in the hands of the State or of private owners. All the rest is adequately pro- tected by the Federal Government, either as National forests or part of the Yellowstone National Park. Cooperative fire protection has reached its highest efficiency in these States where the Federal Government, the State, the counties, and asso- ciations of private owners all cooperate to prevent forest fires. (For a discussion of cooperative fire protection, see Economic Paper No. 33, Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1912 and National and Associa- tion Cooperative Fire Control.) OREGON. Perhaps the most effective fire protection in the United States is now practiced in Oregon. This is not only because there is a well organized State system, provided with an adequate appropriation, but because the law provides for and requires definite patrol on the part of woodland owners. “Approximately 28,000,000 acres or 46 per cent of the area of the State is timberland or land upon which there is sufficient brush to make protection from fire necessary. About 16,000,000 acres are inside the boundaries of the National Forests and are patrolled by the United States Forest Service; while the remaining 12,000,000 acres are patrolled on a cooperative basis by the State and the private timberland owners.” State Board of Forestry . — In the act of 1911 a State Board of For- estry of seven members is provided for. The personnel shall consist of the Governor, the acting head of the Forest School of the Oregon Agri- cultural College, and five electors of the State of Oregon to he appointed by the Governor from and upon the authoritative recommendation of Oregon State Grange, the Oregon Forest Fire Association, the Oregon and Washington Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, the United States Forest Service, and the Oregon Wool Growers’ Association, each to select and name one of such electors. The members of the hoard shall receive no compensation, but shall he entitled to actual traveling ex- penses incurred in attending meetings. State Forester . — The Board of Forestry must appoint the State For- ester at a salary of not to exceed $3,000 and a Deputy State Forester at a salary of $1,800. Both officials are allowed necessary office and con- tingent expenses, and traveling and field expenses. Among other duties, FOKEST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 35 the State Forester must appoint and instruct fire wardens; take action to prevent and extinguish forest, brush, and grass fires; enforce the forest laws, and cooperate with landowners, counties, or others in forest protection. Appropriation. — The sum of $60,000 per annum is appropriated for carrying out the provisions of 'the fire protection law. In addition, county commissioners may appropriate money from the county funds for forest protection in their counties. Fire Wardens. — Several different classes of wardens are provided for. The State may appoint proper citizens fire wardens, who shall serve voluntarily or under compensation by property owners or counties. State and county officials whose duties make their ex officio services as fire wardens especially desirable shall accept appointments as such when requested by the State Board of Forestry. Upon the recommendation of Federal forest supervisors, the State Forester shall appoint resident officers of fhe National forests ex officio fire wardens. In times or localities of particular fire danger the State Forester may appoint and employ either independently or jointly with other agencies additional fire wardens. These last shall he paid from the State fire •fund : Provided, each county in which such services are given shall be responsible for one-third the expense thus incurred. A law passed in 1913 provides that all county judges shall he ex officio fire wardens, having all the powers of county fire wardens, with the spe- cial duty of issuing permits for burning. In 1913 the following numbers of fire wardens of the different classes were employed in the State : Employed by individual timber owners 120, employed by associations 111, employed by counties 1, employed under the Weeks law 58, employed by United States Forest Service 122, serving without compensation 315, employed by State 32, making a total of 759. The following sums were paid by the State, private, and county agen- cies in 1913 for patrol, improvement work, and supervision : Individual patrol $22,200, association patrol $17,400, county agencies $1,400, State agencies $16,500, Federal expenditures under Weeks law $8,700, making a total of $96,200. Timberland Oiuners Must Provide Fire Patrol. — Under a recent law owners of timberland must furnish or provide a sufficient fire patrol during the season of the year when there is danger of forest fires. This patrol must meet with the approval of the State Forester. If the owner fails to provide such patrol the State Forester may patrol the land and 36 FOREST FIRES IX NORTH CAROLINA. levy the costs against the land not to exceed 5 cents per acre per year. The law recognizes the residence of the owner within one and one-half miles of the timberland as effective patrol. This law, the State Forester says, has already proven a powerful help in advancing systematic forest fire protection. It was the chief factor in more than doubling the membership of the patrol associations and through its influence six new associations were formed in the spring of 1913. Burning of Slashings . — Lumbermen are required to burn their slash- ings each year in such a way as to confine the fire to their own lands. Builders of trails, roads, or railroads must destroy or remove all in- flammable material resulting from the constructing or clearing for such improvements. Permits are required for the burning of such slashings, choppings, woodlands, or brush lands between June 1st and October 1st each year. Spark Arresters . — All engines using fuel other than oil in or near forest or brush land must be provided with adequate spark arresters, kept in constant use and repair from June 1st to October 1st of each year. The escape of fire from any engine shall be prima facie evidence that such appliances have not been adequately maintained. Railroads . — All rights of way of railroads must be mowed each year between June 1st and July 1st. If any railroad neglects or refuses to mow their right of way, the adjoining landowner may mow it and col- lect the costs from the county authorities. Closed Season . — In addition to the requirement of permits for burn- ing between June 1st and October 1st, which is designated the “closed season,” the Governor may with the advice of the State Forester suspend all permits in times and localities of unusual fire danger. In addition, during the open season for hunting game he may by proclamation sus- pend the open season and make it a closed season for the shooting of wild birds or animals of any kind in order to prevent the use of firearms or fire by hunters. WASHINGTON. The State of Washington has 22,000,000 acres of timberland that requires protection. Of this area, 11,6S4,6S0 acres are within exterior boundaries of the National forests. The State forestry organization and the State laws are quite similar to those of Oregon, its neighbor to the south. It has a State Board of Forest Commissioners with a State Forester, and a fire warden who has charge of the fire protective system. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 37 “The law relating to forest fires passed in 1911 provides that where wood- waste material is destroj’ed in incinerators, they shall he equipped with effective spark arresters, and the same applies to smokestacks, chimneys, or any other outlet for sparks. Where forest products are being manufactured within one-quarter of a mile of forest material, the destruction of slabs and refuse must be provided for in a manner which will not endanger surrounding property. Locomotives, donkey engines, etc., must be provided not only with an effective spark arrester, but with devices which will successfully prevent the escape of live coals from fire boxes and ash-pans. The felling of trees so that tops lie in adjoining timber is prohibited, unless the permission of the owner of such timber is procured. Whenever rights of way are cleared, the slashings must be piled and the burning done at such time as the fire warden considers safe. Watchmen must be kept at donkey engines for two hours after operation ceases, and all snags over 25 feet in height within 50 feet of each donkey engine must be felled.”* Permits are required for the burning of slashings both for clearing land and as fire preventive measures. The holders of permits generally exercise gTeat care to prevent fires from spreading beyond the limit of the slashings, and little loss is done by such burnings, so it is said. There are three agencies for fire protection actively at work in the State: the United States Forest Service, the Washington Forest Fire Association, and the State organization. These three cooperate to the fullest extent in preventing and extinguishing fires. Federal Protection .- — “About one-half of the timbered area of Washington is protected by the Forest Service. In this work about 210 men are employed, and as an adjunct to protection 758 miles of telephone line and 1.270 miles of trails have been constructed and are maintained by the Forest Service. The cost of protection within the boundaries of the National forests, in the ordinary year, is about $SO,000. State Protection . — “The State has an appropriation of $37,500 yearly with which to maintain the office of State Forester and put wardens in the field. In addition to this fund, the State received the past year $10,000 from the Federal Government as its share of the Weeks law fund. The State has in the field one, and in some cases two, fire wardens in each county. These ward- ens receive $1 per day and necessary subsistence expenses when away from headquarters. Their duties are to enforce the law and, by doing so, prevent destruction by fire. Washington Forest Fire Association . — “The Washington Forest Fire Asso- ciation has a membership representing approximately two and three-quarter million acres. This association patrols all of the territory west of the Cas- cade Mountains outside of the National forest, or about S.000,000. Its patrol and fire-fighting force consists of a chief fire warden, 12 inspectors, and from 75 to 100 patrolmen. For purposes of protection the State is districted, first into inspector districts and then into patrol districts. Each patrol district is in charge of a ranger, who, in addition to being responsible for the suppres- *Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IX, p. 516. 38 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. sion of any fires that may start, is charged with the duty of law enforcement, issuing burning permits and seeing that the law requiring the burning of dangerous slashings is enforced. “An inspection district is made up of several ranger districts and, as the name implies, is in charge of an inspector. These men are responsible for the work of the rangers in their districts and are selected for their wide knowledge and experience in fire suppression. All rangers and inspectors are responsible to the chief fire warden, who in turn is responsible to the trustees of the association. Inspectors receive from $90 to $125 per month and expenses and are employed for about five months of each year. Rangers receive from $75 to $100, no expenses being allowed. Cooperation . — “To insure the greatest success, thorough cooperation be- tween the three agencies engaged in fire prevention is necessary. Such coop- eration exists. The Forest Service, the State and the Association cooperate under an informal agreement in looking after the areas along the National forest boundaries. Needed Changes . — “The Washington law is good in most respects, and pro- tection work in the State is of a high character. However, there is need of radical reform along lines which will free the State Board of Forestry, the State Forester, and the warden force from political influence. At the present time a portion of the State funds are held in readiness to meet emergency fire-fighting expenses. The result is that during the ordinary year a balance accumulates which is turned back to the State Treasury because of nonuse. Obviously the State appropriation being far too small, the maximum of benefit would he derived if all of the funds were expended in putting on a larger patrol force, leaving to some other agency the raising of funds with which to fight fire. “It seems logical that besides its appropriation, for fire protection in gen- eral, which is no more than is done by Oregon and other States without large grant areas of their own, Washington should also contribute additionally on an acreage basis for the specific care of its timber holdings, as does Idaho under the Fallon law.”* IDAHO. Idaho contains approximately 20,000,000 acres of forest land, nearly half of which is owned and protected by the Federal Government as National forests. With the exception of about 250,000 acres owned by the State, the remainder is nearly all in the hands of lumber companies or other large owners. The fire protective law, which is said to be one of the best in the country, is based on a system of cooperation between the landowners and the State. Administration . — The fire law is administered by the State Board of Land Commissioners. They are required to divide up the State into districts, having due regard to the area of forests or timberlands therein. *Report of Forestry Committee, Fifth National Conservation Congress, p. SOS. FOREST FIEES IFT NORTH CAROLINA. 39 Upon application of the owners of the land, they are to appoint one fire warden to each district, who is to be paid by the property owners. Fire Wardens . — The district warden is to appoint such fire wardens in his district as may he designated by the property owners. They like- wise are to he paid by the property owners. They shall exercise all the powers and duties of State officers in enforcing the provisions of the fire law. They are to patrol, extinguish fires, and investigate fires, post notices, and compel assistance which will he paid for at a rate of not more than $2.50 per day. Under this law the State, as a landowner, cooperates with and con- tributes to four timber protective associations, composed of timberland owners throughout the State. For the purpose of administering the law and paying its own pro rata share in the protective associations the State makes an appropriation of $15,000. Disposal of Brush . — All persons engaged in cutting timber from “lands within the State of Idaho are required to pile and burn or otherwise dispose of the brush, limbs, tops, and other materials incident to such cutting which are 4 inches or under in diameter ; and the times and methods of so doing shall be prescribed by the warden of the fire dis- trict in which said cutting shall be done.” Permit for Burning Brush . — Between June 1st and October 1st no person must set out fire for the purpose of clearing land without a writ- ten permit from the fire warden ; and at no time can a fire he set out unless sufficient help is present to control it, and unless it is watched until it is out. Railroads . — All railroads must keep the ground for 50 feet on each side of the track where it is a part of the right of way clear of all com- bustible materials. Railroad employees must not leave deposits of fire near woodlands, and trainmen on discovering fires adjacent to the track must report them at the next station. Spark Arresters . — All users of spark-emitting locomotives, logging and portable engines, traction engines, or stationary engines between June 1st and October 1st must provide the same with good and efficient spark arresters. Comment . — The president of the Northern Idaho Forestry Association says : “In Idaho private timber owners, the State administration and the people at large believe in the protection of their forests from fire, and today there is probably no locality in the world, not even except Germany, where this branch of conservation is so efficiently handled as in the timber section of northern Idaho covered by our four local fire associations.”* *Report of the Forestry Committee, Fifth National Conservation Congress. 1913. 40 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. MONTANA. Montana lias a comparatively small amount of forest land, and the greater part of this is included in the National forests, which are thor- oughly protected by the Government. However, Montana maintains a well organized fire protective system, which, except for the amount of the appropriation, which is $5,000 a year, is abreast of most of the western States. Organization . — The State Forester, “who shall be skilled in the science of forestry and whose salary shall be $2,500 per annum and actual neces- sary expenses,” and who is responsible to the State Board of Land Com- missioners, has entire charge of the fire warden system. The fire ward- ens are of two kinds. The volunteer -fire wardens are public-spirited citizens appointed by the State Forester in such numbers and localities as he may deem wise. On the other hand, the sheriffs, game Avardens, and deputy game Avardens are ex officio fire wardens, and are deemed ' paid fire wardens, though receiving no compensation except such as they receive in connection with their other duties. Fire Avardens may sum- mon assistance for putting out fires and perform such other duties as are required of them for the protection of the forests. Mo fire warden, however, may incur any expense in excess of $50 without expressed au- thority from the State Board of Land Commissioners. Railroads . — Railroads are required to keep their rights of way clear of combustible material for a distance of 100 feet on each side of the track. All railroads are also required to plow fire lines 6 feet wide at a distance of 50 feet from the track wherever it passes through a range or grazing country. If any railroad fails to comply AAuth this law, the county commissioners may plow such fire lines and recover the expense from the railroad. Disposal of Brush . — Wherever timber is cut on State lands the opera- tors are required to pile and burn the brush and slashings in such a manner as to prevent forest fires. NEW ENGLAND STATES. All six of the WeAv England States have efficient fire protective or- ganizations and fairly effective forest fire laws. Though these organi- zations are variously constituted, still the administration of the laws in each State is in the hands of a technically trained forester who is either responsible directly to a commission or to the chief official of such a commission. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 41 MAINE. Maine and New York are tire only northeastern States which restrict their efforts at forest protection to what they call the forest region of the State. In the former State the lands which are protected are all in the hands of private owners; while in New York protection is exercised largely for the benefit of State lands, which constitute a considerable proportion of the area which is protected. Forestry District. — The Maine forestry district comprises approxi- mately nine and one-half million acres of land in the roughest portion of the State. The land in this district is specially taxed at the rate of 15 cents on the hundred dollars, or about 1% cents per acre. This yields a revenue of something like $70,000, all of which is used for pro- tecting this district from forest fires. Forest Commissioner— The administration of all the forest laws is in the hands of a forest commissioner, who is responsible directly to the Governor. His duties are defined as follows : “The forest commissioner shall take measures for the prevention, control, and extinguishing of forest fires in said forestry district, and to this end he shall establish such sub-forestry districts as he may deem necessary for effective protection against loss or damage by fire. He shall have authority to establish lookout stations connected by telephone, and to equip and main- tain depots for necessary tools for the extinguishment of forest fires.” Forest Fire Wardens. — The commissioner appoints one general forest fire warden for each district, and within the districts such numbers of deputy fire wardens as in his judgment are necessary. The general fire wardens receive compensation at the rate of $3 per day, with an allow- ance for expenses of not to exceed $2 per day, for every day they are on duty ; while the deputy forest fire wardens receive $2 and subsistence for each and every day of actual service. Lookouts and Patrols. — At the end of the fire season of 1913, 42 look- out stations were being operated in the forestry district, while 173 patrol- men were employed. While the lookout men were obliged to remain on duty at their posts throughout the season, the patrols were employed in the construction of telephone lines, trails, camps, etc., when the weather conditions would permit. During dry and dangerous seasons the patrols were used largely along the railroad lines and in regions where fisher- men, hunters, and camping parties were using the woods, lakes, and streams. In addition to the patrols and lookouts, something like three hundred fire wardens are appointed in the forest counties and townships of the forest district. All wardens may, for the purpose of controlling 42 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. and extinguishing fires, summon to tlieir assistance citizens of any county, who shall be paid 15 cents per hour and subsistence during actual service. Railroads. — Railroads are required to keep their rights of way clear of inflammable material, and to furnish all locomotives which run through forest land with spark arresters. Employees of railroads are forbidden to deposit live coals in the vicinity of woodlands, and are required to report fires found burning on or near the right of way. During the past year chief fire wardens have been appointed for the territory along the right of way of the railroads. These men were paid by the Forestry Department, and the State was reimbursed by the rail- roads. Under the direction of these chief wardens, patrols, fire trains, etc., were maintained and expenses paid by the railroads. Comment. — The forest commissioner, who now is a technically trained forester, summarizes the work which he proposes to take hold of as fol- lows : “We plan to extend the system of lookout stations and to improve the sta- tions already constructed as fast as possible. We believe that the lookout stations form the backbone of our protective system and that they should be supplemented by patrols when necessary. We expect to be able to build sev- eral lines of telephone, install additional boxes of lire tools, and in some instances furnish a camping outfit for a fire-fighting crew in central places.” NEW HAMPSHIRE. Forestry Commission.- — ISTew Hampshire has a forestry commission of three members appointed by the Governor, who serve without com- pensation, but receive legitimate expenses incident to the carrying out of their duties. State Forester. — The Forestry Commission appoints a State Forester at a salary of $2,500 a year and reasonable traveling, field and office ex- penses, who executes all matters pertaining to forestry within the juris- diction of the State. The State Forester is empowered to build, equip, and maintain moun- tain lookout stations connected by telephone lines, which stations are to be used for the discovery and control of forest fires. He may purchase or receive gifts of land and hold them in the name of the State for observatory sites, for rights of tvay, paths, and telephone lines; and if necessary sites cannot be obtained by either purchase or gift, the For- estry Commission may acquire the same under the power of eminent domain. The State Forester may call an annual conference of forest FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 43 fire wardens and other employees for the purpose of improving the service. He may also establish supply stations for tools and apparatus used in fire fighting, etc. Protective Force. — The State is divided up into four forest fire dis- tricts, each of which is in charge of a district chief. Under this chief three classes of men are employed : (1) Patrol service performed by (a) Federal patrolmen paid by the United States, (b) Association patrolmen paid by the Hew Hampshire Timberland Owners’ Association, (c) State patrolmen hired tempo- rarily by the State during dry weather. (2) The mountain lookout stations in charge of watchmen employed by the State. There were operated in 1912 twenty permanent stations and five tem- porary ones. These stations reported that year 178 fires to the wardens and patrolmen, who proceeded without delay to extinguish them. (3) Forest fire wardens : One forest fire warden in each town* and one or more deputy wardens in each town. The list of forest fire wardens and deputies for 1912 in- cludes some 650 names. Fire Wardens. — Selectmen of all towns and mayors of all cities are required to recommend persons who are fit to fill the office of forest fire warden and deputy fire warden, and these men may be appointed to fill these positions by the State Forester. These wardens, under instructions from the State Forester, are required to patrol the woods of their re- spective districts, warn persons who are traversing the woods about light- ing and extinguishing fires, post warning notices and arrest offenders against the forest law. The State Forester shall have power to remove the wardens from office at his discretion. The expense of fighting forest and brush fires and expenses locally incurred by forest fire wardens in preventing fires is borne equally by the town or city and by the State. Wardens have power to arrest without warrant any who are offending against the forest laws of the State. Appropriation. — The appropriation for maintaining the Forest Fire Service amounts to $10,000 a year. Brush Burning. — The law forbids the burning of brush in or near woodland between April 1st and November 1st without the permission of the forest fire warden. Spark Arresters. — The owners and operators of portable steam saw- mills are required to use spark arresters, which are approved by the State Forester. *The New England “town” is an administrative division of the county, almost identi- cal with our Southern “township,” but with a larger share of self-government. 44 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Tlie section referring to this law reads as follows: “No person, except when the ground is covered with snow, shall operate any portable steam mill unless the same is provided with a suitable spark arrester, approved by the State Forester. Such approval shall be in writing, signed by the forester, and said approval may be revoked by the State For- ester in the same manner. “It shall be the duty of the State Forester to examine all portable steam mills or cause them to be examined, whenever he deems it necessary, to deter- mine whether the same are kept in constant use, as provided for in section 1 of this act. It shall be the duty of the town forest fire warden to examine portable steam mills, when requested to do so by the State Forester, and make reports on the same in such form as the State Forester may require.” Railroads . — New Hampshire seems to have no definite laws to control railroad fires. The Forestry Commission in their report for 1911-1912 recommends as follows : “A few years ago the Main Central Railroad began a systematic work for fire prevention, viz., making it the duty of one man in each section crew to patrol the track, following trains. This work was especially effective during the dry season of 1911, patrolmen being provided with velocipedes so that they could keep their section well covered. They would carry on these velocipedes a shovel, or hoe, a bucket of water and a mop to put out small fires. On account of the heavy grades, this company has recently been using a number of oil burning engines, and these entirely eliminate the fire risk for the trains on which they are used.” VERMONT. Vermont employs a technically trained State Forester, who is respon- sible to a State Board of Agriculture and Forestry. Mr. Robert M. Ross in an article on “Forest Fire Prevention in Vermont” in American For- estry, November, 1913, says that Vermont a few years ago had practi- cally no system of fire prevention, hut today stands well up in the list of States which are striving to reduce to a minimum the danger of forest fires. The State appropriation for forestry purposes amounts to some- thing over $10,000 a year, though only $1,500 of this was used for fire prevention last year. Fire Wardens . — A new law passed in 1913 provides that the select- man or chief township officer shall appoint a fire warden by January 1st of each year who shall meet the approval of the State Forester. If this appointment is not made by March 1st, the State Forester himself may make the appointment. This provision makes it possible to secure good wardens in forest towns and keep them in office as long as is de- sirable. These wardens are paid at the rate of $2 per day when actu- ally engaged in fire work ; all other men who are hired to do fire fighting work are paid by the town at the same rate as those engaged in work FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 45 on the roads, which is usually $1.75 per day. Whenever the amount ex- pended in fighting fire in a town exceeds 5 per cent of the grand list of the town, the State pays the sum over this per cent. Thus the poorer towns are helped by the richer ones, an arrangement which seems no more than right. Lookouts .- — The two main branches of protective work are a series of lookout stations and a system of patrolling. At the present time Ver- mont has four lookout stations in operation, with prospects of the erec- tion of another one in the immediate future. Two of these stations have been erected by the owners of woodland in the vicinity of the stations, while the other two were constructed by the State itself on State forests. Men are kept at these stations during the dry periods of the year, that is, from May to October. These lookout men are connected by telephone with the town wardens, so that fires which have been discovered can quickly be extinguished. A new law gives the State Forester authority to erect such buildings, lookout stations, etc., as may be desirable on State forests, the same to be paid for out of the general forestry appropriation. Patrols . — “In several sections of the State patrols are of far more value than lookout stations. During this season we have had several patrolmen out, a few of whom we have kept along sections of railroad tracks where there is especial danger of fire starting. The others have confined their work to districts which are frequented by fishermen, hunters, and campers. “In regard to establishing patrols in very dangerous sections, there is a law which empowers any warden of a town, with the approval of the State Forester, to appoint a patrolman during dangerous periods, said patrolman to be paid by the town in which his work is done. “For the past two years the State Forest Service has kept its patrolmen busy during the months when the danger of fire is small, by having them work on trails in the mountainous sections of the State.” MASSACHUSETTS. Massachusetts, with an estimated area of 2,000,000 acres of woodland and an additional 1,000,000 acres of so-called waste land capable of reforestation, has perhaps the strongest and most thoroughly organized forestry department of any of the New England States. Supervision . — The State Eorester, who is in charge of all of the for- estry work, is appointed by the Governor with the consent of the council. He must be a trained forester who has had a technical education. He is to be an ex officio member of the State Board of Agriculture. The State Fire Warden is appointed by the State Forester to take entire charge of the fire protective work of the State. He is directly respon- sible to the State Forester. Under the State Fire Warden are one as- 46 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. sistant State Fire Warden, one locomotive inspector, and four district forest wardens in charge of the four forest districts of the State. Forest W ardens . — The forest wardens are appointed by the mayor and aldermen of cities and the selectmen in towns, subject to the approval of the State Forester. It is the duty of the forest warden to “take precau- tions to prevent the spread of forest fires and the improper kindling thereof, and he shall have sole charge of their extinguishment. He shall investigate the causes and extent of forest fires and the injury done thereby,’'" etc. Forest wardens are compensated for making investiga- tions for the State Forester at a rate not to exceed 35 cents per hour for the time actually employed by them. The payment to forest wardens, to their deputies and to the persons assisting them at a forest fire is at a rate prescribed by the town. At the present time there are in the employ of the State 353 forest wardens with over 1,000 deputies. Lookouts . — Massachusetts has an excellent system of lookout stations scattered over the forested part of the State. In the past year twenty- one of these stations were operated with very gratifying results. The observers form part of the State system of fire protection and are paid a salary by the State. The wardens, on the other hand, are considered township officers and are paid by the local authorities. Forestry Conventions . — An excellent provision of the forestry law is that the State Forester may expend a. sum not to exceed $2,000 in making necessary arrangements for conventions of forest wardens and in paying wholly or in part their traveling expenses to and from such conventions. By this means the fire protective force becomes a more coherent and intelligent body of men each year, so that steady improvement in effect- iveness is insured. Railroads . — Railroads are required to install and maintain spark arresters, and to clear off all inflammable material on each side of their track to a point 200 feet distant. In order to do this they are empowered to enter upon unimproved land adjoining their right of way, after giving due notice, and clear the land of dead leaves, dead grass, and dead wood to a distance of 100 feet from the track without thereby becoming liable for trespassing. Railroads are also forbidden to leave deposits of fire, hot ashes, or live coals upon their rights of way. They are required to post notices furnished by the State Forester. In addition, train hands are required to signal by blowing the whistle when fires are discovered, and to notify the section men. Section men or other employees are required when notified to proceed at once to the fire and extinguish it. Railroads are liable to the authorities for the cost of extinguishing auy fire set by them. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 47 RHODE ISLAND. Rhode Island, which has an area of less than 683,000 acres, or little more than ISTorth Carolina’s largest county, contains only 250,000 acres of woodland, practically all of which is in farm woodlots. nevertheless, this small State has a Commissioner of Forestry and a State fire pro- tective system. Commissioner of Forestry . — The Governor is required to appoint a Commissioner of Forestry to hold office for three years. His duties are principally to collect and publish information relating to the forests of the State, their protection and perpetuation. The Commissioner is paid $1,000 a year and expenses. The expenses, however, together with the costs of printing, etc., must not exceed $500 annually. Forest Wardens . — The town council of every town is required to ap- point each year a forest warden and to notify the Forestry Commis- sioner of this appointment. In any town having 4,000 acres or more of woodland the town warden may divide up the town into two or more dis- tricts, and appoint district wardens for each. There were, in 1913, one hundred forest wardens in the State. The compensation of wardens is fixed at 30 cents per hour and that of employees of the wardens at 18 cents per hour for actual services in extinguishing forest fires. They are paid for patrolling and serving as watchmen at a lookout station at 20 cents per hour. In addition to this, town forest wardens are paid $10 a year and district forest wardens $5 a year in lieu of all allowances for postage, etc. Patrols and Lookouts . — “During a period of drought the town forest warden may require the district forest wardens to patrol their several districts, subject to the approval of the town council.” Fire wardens are required, when fires occur, to take measures to extinguish them. They are given “authority to summon any able-bodied male person in his town between the ages of 18 and 50 years to aid in the prevention or extinguishment of a forest fire, and may require the use of horses, wagons, and other property adapted to the purpose.” A minimum of five hours pay is allowed to persons who are officially summoned to assist in extinguishing forest fires, one-half to be paid by the town and one-half by the State. Whenever two or more adjoining towns which contain an aggregate of 8,000 acres or more of woodland, or whenever any number of forest- owners whose woodland in any two or more adjoining woodlands aggre- gate 4,000 acres, shall in any town establish, at their own expense and subject to the approval of the Commissioner of Forestry, a lookout sta- tion connected with the local telephone system for the purpose of pro- 48 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. tecting the forests from fire, the town forest warden of the town in which such lookout station is established shall appoint a watchman for the sta- tion during such period as the town forest warden may think advisable, not exceeding 300 hours in any one year : Provided, that not more than two such lookout stations in any one county shall he entitled to draw public money. One-half the expense for the service of watchmen and for telephone service shall he paid by the town and one-half by the State. Appropriation. — The State of Rhode Island makes a total appropria- tion of $3,000 for forestry purposes, one-half of which is used for fire protection and the other half for the salary of the Forestry Commis- sioner and his expenses. Permits for Burning Brush. — Ho fire may he set between March 1st and December 1st except by written permission of the town or district forest warden, except on plowed fields or on lands devoid of inflammable materials, when such a fire is at least 100 feet from any woodland. Railroads. — Railroads are authorized to enter upon unimproved land adjoining their rights of way in order to clear at their own expense such lands of dead leaves, dead grass, and dead wood to a distance of 100 feet from the tracks, provided sufficient notice is given to the owner. CONNECTICUT. About one-half the State of Connecticut, Avhich has an area approxi- mately one-tenth that of Horth Carolina, is better adapted to the raising of trees than of any other crop, and the largest factor in handling the forest land is the fire problem. More than 4 per cent of the 1,500,000 acres of forest land was burnt over in 1911. State Fire Warden. — The State Forester of Connecticut is an officer of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. He is appointed by the director of the station and is paid out of the general appropria- tion for the support of the Experiment Station. The State Forester is ex officio State Forest Fire Warden, and as such is given supervision of town fire wardens, and is required to issue notices and regulations to the wardens and cause violations of the laws in regard to forest fires to be prosecuted. Fire Wardens. — Selectmen of the towns are required upon request of the State Forest Fire Warden to appoint town fire wardens, who shall act for a term of one year. Such town fire Avarden may establish two or more fire districts in the tOAAm and appoint district fire wardens for each. Town and district fire wardens are required to prevent and extin- guish forest fires and enforce fire laws. Any fire warden may arrest without warrant any one violating the forest fire law. During a season FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 49 of drought the town fire warden may establish a fire patrol in the town. He may summon necessary assistance for extinguishing fires and may also require the use of horses and other property needed for such pur- poses. Compensation . — Town and district fire wardens shall receive 35 cents per hour for time actually employed at forest fires or otherwise discharg- ing their duties ; while the selectmen are to fix the prices per hour to be paid laborers employed by fire wardens and deputies, not exceeding 20 cents per hour. All expenses incurred by the town wardens, their depu- ties, and men employed by them, together with their own compensation, are paid for, one-half by the town, one-fourth by the county, and one- fourth by the State. Lookouts . — In regard to lookout stations, the State Forester reports that two stations were maintained experimentally during 1912 with valu- able results. If possible, other stations will be established during 1913, the State cooperating with towns and landowners when practicable. If the stations are equipped with telephones the observers will be able to locate fires definitely, and thus be able to inform the nearest wardens at once. Railroads . — Only two laws relating to forest fire work by the railroads are at present in force. The first makes a railroad company responsible to the person injured when property is damaged by a fire from their engine. The other law was a compromise measure. “The State Forester pre- pared a bill for the Legislature which would have made patrol compul- sory on the part of the railroads, upon instruction from the State For- ester. The railroads were opposed to any such measure, and they offered a substitute making themselves liable for the cost of fighting fires which they started. This seemed worth while accepting, and for the time being the idea of compulsory patrol was dropped. The measure was enacted into law in the summer of 1911.” Comment . — At the Weeks Law Conference in Washington, January, 1913, the State Forester said: “I do not feel we need any law compelling patrol, for I think we can get the help of the railroads in this matter without compulsion. If. we can get them to patrol voluntarily, it will produce a better cooperative spirit between the railroads and ourselves. It may be advisable for us in Connecticut to have a law compelling inspection of the locomotives, because it seems to me patrol work is not getting to the bottom of the trouble. We ought to go further back than that and eliminate the cause of fires.” 4 50 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. NORTHEASTERN STATES. More or less efficient fire protective systems exist in all of tlie six States here classed as northeastern. In three of them, however — Ohio, Indiana, and Delaware — where the forests occur chiefly in the form of farmers’ woodlots, and extensive or destructive fires rarely occur, no effort has been made to develop effective working forces. In the three other States the systems are some of the most effective in the country. NEW YORK. Hew York does not maintain a fire protective system for the whole State, but only over what is known as the “forest preserve” area. This consists of approximately 10,000,000 acres in the Adi'rondacks and the Catskill mountains, about one-fifth of which belongs to the State, and is known as the State Forest Preserve. Supervision . — Fire protection is under the general charge of the Superintendent of Forests and the immediate supervision of the Assist- ant Superintendent of Forests, who are in turn responsible to the State Conservation Commission. The Conservation Law provides for the division of the protected area into districts, each to be in charge of a district forest ranger, who shall receive an annual salary of not to exceed $1,500 and necessary expenses. The Adirondack region is divided into four fire districts and the Catskill territory into one. Rangers and Lookouts . — These five districts are divided into definite territories, each in charge of a ranger. “The rangers’ duties consist in patrolling the dangerous places, watching out for fire, meeting people, instructing them in regard to building camp fires, giving them literature and keeping in close touch with the entire territory. Also whenever a fire occurs he immediately summons help and endeavors to extinguish the same promptly. During the past four years fifty mountain observa- tion stations have been established. Each of these observers, as well as the rangers, has connection with the Commercial Telephone System, and the observers are provided with a camp, field-glass, and map of their territory, together with a list of the rangers, fire wardens, landowners, etc., to be notified in case of fire.” The fact that so many fires have burned over only small areas is due to their prompt discovery by lookouts who were able to get men to the fires quickly. “ninety- five per cent of the fires are detected by these observers while fires are in their incipient stages, and but very few fires occur which are not extinguished promptly.”* ’'American Forestry. Yol. XIX. p. 750. FOREST FIRES IjST WORTH CAROLINA. 51 Rangers receive a salary of $75 per month, and necessary expenses. They may employ men and teams to fight forest fires and may summon necessary assistance. Expenses . — All salaries, costs, and expenses incident to fire protection are paid by the State except wages and expenses incident to the actual work of fighting fires which are already burning, which shall be paid one-half by the State and one-half by the town in which the fire wardens and men so employed were actually engaged in fighting fires. Camp Fires . — The law regarding camp fires reads in part as follows : “Every person who starts a camp or other fire upon or in the vicinity of forest or wood land, for cooking, obtaining warmth, or any industrial pur- pose. shall, before lighting the same, clear the ground of all branches, brush- wood. dry leaves, or other combustible material within a radius of 10 feet from the fire, and shall carefully extinguish the fire before quitting the place.” Emergencies . — The Governor may by proclamation forbid hunting, fishing, camping, etc., in the forest preserve counties on account of drought or other emergency. A very valuable provision has recently been added to this law (March, 1914). This allows the Governor to borrow from the State a sum not to exceed $100,000 for the purpose of fighting and controlling forest fires when in the judgment of the Con- servation Commission “an emergency exists whereby through inefficiency of appropriations it is found impossible to protect the forests of the State from fire.” RAILROADS. The forest fire laws regarding railroads seem to be very effective in ISTew York. Though originally confined to the forest preserve counties, the law has recently been amended so that all railroad lines in the State are subject to inspection and are obliged to comply with certain laws and regulations. “The Conservation Law provides that every railroad company and every person operating a railroad in any part of the State shall properly clean its right of way, and shall provide each locomotive with practical and efficient spark-arresting devices, and furthermore said devices shall be approved by the Public Service Commission and shall be at all times maintained in good repair.”* Patrol . — All railroads are required to provide necessary patrol as the commission may direct between the first of April and the first of Novem- ber ; and if the railroads do not organize and maintain such fire patrols, or if they are inadequate, the commission is required to organize and ♦Report of New York Conservation Commission, 1912. 52 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. maintain efficient patrols, the cost of which shall be paid to the com- mission by the railroads whose lines are thus patrolled. Railroad Inspectors. — In addition to this, railroads are required to employ competent inspectors to examine all locomotives as they leave the division point or roundhouse between March 1st and December 1st, and to make reports on the condition of the fire preventive devices, which reports must he open for inspection by the Conservation Commission. All trainmen are required to report fires at the first station at which they arrive, and the station agent is required to notify the nearest State ranger or fire warden. State Inspectors. — In addition to the inspectors employed by the rail- roads, the Conservation Commission maintains two chief inspectors for the northern and southern divisions of the State respectively. These inspectors receive an annual salary of $1,200 and expenses. Four addi- tional inspectors are employed during the summer months to assist these chief inspectors. The Conservation Commission has power to require the withdrawal from service of any and all locomotive or logging engines which shall he reported as defective. The railroads have been cooperating with the Conservation Commis- sion in a very gratifying way, and the law seems to be working quite effectively. The Superintendent of State Forests reports that ‘‘the inspection of thousands of miles of right of way and many thousands of engines of various designs and types at numerous places has kept our force very busy. Conferences have been held between all general inspect- ors and superintendents of motive power and other officials of railroads. As a result a better understanding has been reached and the railroad officials have submitted drawings illustrating proposed changes in design for the approval of the Public Service Commission.” Oil Burning. — For the past few years all railroads operating in the Adirondacks during the summer season have used oil as fuel. The Superintendent of F orests says in regard to this : “The use of oil as fuel for steam development eliminates sparks and cinders as a cause of fires. We know of no case where fires have been caused in New York State through its use. During the oil-burning season last year there were only two fires along the New York Central Railway from Utica to Malone, and both, I think, were caused by cigarettes or cigars thrown from smoking-car windows. However, while the use of oil is effective, a very large percentage of the fires can be prevented if the locomotives are equipped with proper devices to prevent the escape of sparks, coals, or cinders.” Portable Engines. — All donkey, traction, portable engines, portable steam sawmills or other engines, boilers, or locomotives which do not FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 53 burn oil as fuel must be provided with a screen or wire netting to pre- vent the escape of sparks and cinders from the smokestacks, and with practical devices to prevent the escape of fire from ash-pans and fire boxes. Any violation of this law is subject to a penalty of $100, and iu addition the offender shall be liable to treble damages. Appropriation . — The appropriation for fire protective work is now $100,000 a year, and the commission says that at least $125,000 per year should be appropriated. The chief weakness of the law seems to be that it does not apply to the whole State. The Superintendent of Forests says: “New York is the only State in the northeast that does not exercise super- vision or authority over forest fires in the entire State. The law should be amended to give this commission authority to organize, in any section of the State outside of the ninety-six fire towns in the forest preserve, where the forests are threatened and forest interests are sufficient, a suitable fire organ- ization to be paid for by the territory protected and towns benefited.” Top Lopping Law . — This law, as at present amended, requires that every one felling evergreen trees for sale or other purposes shall cut off from the trees and the limbs thereof at the time of felling or at some time fixed by the commission, all limbs up to a point where the trunk or branch does not exceed 3 inches in diameter. The commission may decide that the limbs need not be lopped if in their judgment the danger from fire does not warrant it. The working of this law has been very carefully investigated by all interested parties, and the general conclu- sion arrived at is that when judiciously carried out the top lopping law does very materially increase the fire protection; that the thoroughness with which the lopping is done has much to do with the future results ; that a limitation may be made beyond which it is not necessary to lop ; that a reasonable extension of time should be allowed operators in order to accomplish their work at the minimum expense. PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania was one of the first States to take up the question of forestry, and has been ever since a leader in this movement. However, largely on account of politics, she has of late years allowed many of the other States to get ahead of her in the efficiency of her forest fire admin- istration. The forest commissioner claims that even now 5,000,000 acres of land are being kept nonproductive by forest fires. This area, he says, if properly protected, would yield at least one billion feet of timber per year. 54 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Organization and Appropriation. — The Commissioner of Forestry, who is also President of the State Forestry Reservation Commission, and the Deputy Commissioner of Forestry are designated Chief Fire Warden and Deputy Chief Fire Warden respectively. These officials are given immediate supervision and control of the fire warden system. The Commissioner of Forestry is required to appoint in each borough and township, if necessary, one district fire warden, who is to be chosen for his physical fitness and good reputation for sobriety, honesty, and ability. It is the duty of the fire warden to extinguish fires. He is authorized to employ necessary assistants and has the power to compel the attendance of assistants if necessary. District fire wardens receive as compensation 25 cents per hour and actual expenses while engaged in the performance of their duties, and persons employed by them receive 15 cents per hour. Ho owner or lessee or person employed by them shall receive any compensation for extinguishing fire upon the lands of such owner or lessee. Assistant fire wardens may he appointed wherever needed, and their compensation is 20 cents per hour and neces- sary expenses. Fire wardens may be required by the Commissioner of Forestry to keep daily patrol in regions which are especially hazardous, for which services they shall he paid a stated sum, not to exceed $25 per month. For the carrying out of the provisions of this act, which was passed in 1909, the sum of $50,000 is provided biennially, or $25,000 a year. Railroads. — There are no railroad laws to provide protection for forest lands as such. There is a law, however, which requires the use of spark arresters and the keeping of rights of way clear of inflammable material on lands in which oil wells and gas wells are situated. This law, of course, has a very restricted application. Cooperation with Local Forest Fire Associations. — A latv passed in 1913 greatly widens and strengthens the field of fire protective operations in Pennsylvania. By it the Department of Forestry is authorized to enter into cooperative agreement with local forest fire associations for the prevention and suppression of forest fires, and the department is authorized to spend a sum of money equal in amount to that expended by each of such associations for the employment of patrols during the forest fire season, provided that such expenditure does not exceed $30 a month for each patrolman. “When any group of landowners desire to organize themselves into a mutual forest fire protective association they shall promptly notify the Commissioner of Forestry of their intent, if it be the desire of such landowners to receive such cooperation from him." FOREST FIRES IX NORTH CAROLINA. 55 It is presumed that the regular appropriation for forest protection must he drawn upon for carrying out the provisions of this act. Pennsylvania owns nearly 1,000,000 acres of State forests and spends each year a large amount of money for their administration. Fire pro- tection on these lands is fairly efficient. The State forest employees are empowered to assist in fighting fires on private lands in the same locali- ties. Summary . — The Commissioner of Forestry in his last report says in regard to the workings of the Pennsylvania law : “At the present the part of the act which provides that during the spring and fall tire season each year wardens may be put on daily patrol, for which they are to receive a compensation of $25. is wholly inoperative, because no appropriation has been made by the Legislature to meet these provisions. The amount of the appropriation which the act was finally permitted to carry is inadequate. If fires are as had in the next three fire seasons as they have been in the past, the $50,000 will scarcely last out the first year.” NEW JERSEY. Hew Jersey, which is somewhat the shape and approximately one- sixth the size of Worth Carolina, and has in many respects quite similar forest conditions, contains an estimated forest area of 2,000,000 acres, 1,700,000 of which is now covered by the present system of fire pro- tection. Organization . — The fire protective organization is in charge of a State Fire Warden, who is responsible to the State Forester. Both of these officials are men of technical training and experience. The State For- ester is appointed by and responsible to the State Forest Park Reserva- tion Commission. This commission consists of the Governor, who is ex officio president, the State Geologist, who is termed the executive officer, and three citizens appointed by the Governor with the consent of the Senate. ■ Fire Wardens . — The State is divided into four divisions, each of which is in charge of a division fire warden. The township committee or gov- erning body of every township, upon being notified by the commission, is required to appoint some suitable person to act as township fire warden for the entire township, or for such part of it as the commission shall determine, for a term of one year or until his successor shall have been appointed. Township fire wardens, when required to do so by the State Fire Warden, must divide their townships into two or more districts and appoint district fire wardens for each: Provided, that no district fire warden shall be appointed for the district in which the township fire warden lives. 56 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. Powers and Duties of Fire Wardens . — The section of the law dealing with the duties of fire wardens reads in part as follows : “Township and district fire wardens shall enforce all statutes of this State now in force or that may hereafter be enacted for the protection of forest and timber land from fire, and shall carry out the directions of the State Fire Warden or division fire wardens regarding the prevention and extinguishing of forest fires. They shall have control and direction of all persons and ap- paratus engaged in extinguishing forest fires. They may plow land, or, in an emergency, set back-fires to check any fire. They may summon any male person between the ages of 18 years and 50 years who may live or be within the jurisdiction of such fire wardens to assist in extinguishing fires, and may also require the use of horses and other property needed for such purpose. Any person so summoned, who is physically able, who refuses or neglects to assist, or to allow the use of horses, wagons, or other material required, shall be liable to a penalty of $10. When a serious fire occurs the State Fire Warden or any division fire warden may summon to his aid fire wardens from surrounding townships with their assistants, and in such case the State shall bear the whole expense of paying the fire wardens and assistants who reside in townships which were not threatened. In every other case in which a fire is fought by men from two or more townships the cost shall be appor- tioned by the State Fire Warden among the townships in which the fire burned, or which were directly threatened.” If any township shall fail to appoint the fire wardens when directed by the forest commission to do so, or shall fail to make an appropriation sufficient to pay its share of the fire wardens’ salary and bills incurred in fighting fires, assistance may be summoned by any fire warden, and per- sons so summoned shall he paid by the State. Pay of Wardens . — The pay of fire wardens is regulated by law as follows : “Each township fire warden shall be paid at the rate of $20 a year, and each district fire warden at the rate of $10 a year. Said sum shall be in lieu of all allowances for making reports, for postage, for posting fire-warning notices, and for issuing permits. For special services in investigating fires, and the causes thereof, and for all time in actual fire fighting, fire wardens and their helpers shall be paid at the following rates : “Fire wardens, while engaged in fighting fires, $2 for five hours or less, and 30 cents per hour thereafter. “Fire wardens, while otherwise employed, 25 cents per hour. “Helpers, fighting fire, $1 for five hours or less, and 20 cents per hour for more than five hours. “Helpers, on patrol or employed otherwise than fighting fire, 20 cents per hour.” Permits for Burning Brush . — Under the law permits are required to be obtained from the fire wardens before brush and other rubbish can be burnt by private citizens, unless the burning is to be in a “public road. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 57 garden, or plowed field at a distance of not less than 200 feet from any woodland, brushland, or field containing dry grass or other inflammable material.” Fires Must Be Watclied . — Tbe law which would be of the greatest assistance in ISTorth Carolina requires that “all persons who shall burn any pit of charcoal, or set fire to or burn any brush, grass, or other material whereby any property may be endangered or destroyed, shall keep and maintain a careful and competent watchman in charge of said pit, brush, or other material while burning.” Fire wardens, among other things, are required to post notices con- cerning forest fires, and a penalty is inflicted for tearing down such notices. Fire wardens may arrest without warrant any person found violating the forest laws. Appropriation . — The State appropriation in 1912 for the support of the Forest Fire Service was $15,000, while the townships contributed for fire wardens’ salaries and expenses something over $3,000. This sum enabled the State to maintain, in addition to the State Fire Warden, a force of four division fire wardens, 110 township fire wardens, 151 district fire wardens, and 3 fire watchers. In addition to this force, through cooperation with the United States Forest Service, a number of patrols are kept in the field throughout the dangerous season. Lookouts . — At present Hew Jersey has done little in the establishment of lookouts, chiefly because telephonic communication is lacking in the remote forestry districts. With the increase in the number of telephones, however, the Forestry Commission plans to create a number of lookout stations, which, they are convinced, will insure much fuller protection. Law Enforcement . — The commission lays great stress upon the value of strictly enforcing the laws. The State Forester reports that of the 545 fires reported in 1912, 252 are known to have been violations of the law. Of this large number, nearly half have been disposed of within the year, fines of various amounts having been inflicted in most cases. “Tlie only way we have found to cope with the problem is by endeavoring to penalize the people who start the fires. We put particular emphasis on getting the offender. If we can make a man pay a fine for starting a small fire, and the fact gets into the newspapers, it makes an impression on the people who frequent or use the forest. I believe we have done the greatest part of our educational work by making it expensive to start fires.”* Railroad Fire Lines . — In 1909 the Legislature of 'Hew Jersey passed a law requiring all railroads to build fire lines along their rights of way through woodlands. These fire lines were to be made by cleaning up *Forest Fire Protection by tbe States, by J. G. Peters, U. S. Forest Service, 1914, p. 18. 58 FOREST FIRES IN WORTH CAROLINA. and plowing a stretch. 10 feet wide at a distance not less than 100 feet nor more than 200 feet from the track and keeping it clear of combusti- ble material. The ground between the fire line and the track to be burned off or otherwise cleared of brush, grass, leaves, and dead wood. A provision was inserted whereby objections of owners of property to the railroad constructing such fire lines ivould be considered by the Forest Park Reservation Commission, which commission would endeavor by peaceful means to overcome the difficulty and effect a satisfactory compromise. The weakness of this law, however, is in the fact that nothing can compel the owner to allow the construction of these fire lines, and, therefore, weak places occur at intervals along the lines. Railroads were not required to construct these fire lines all at once, but not exceeding one-fifth of their distance was to he completed each year, as determined by the Forestry Commission. Several of the principal railroads complied with the provision of this law and constructed many miles of fire line. Some of the railroads, however, fought the law, and it was finally declared unconstitutional. The fire lines, however, suc- ceeded so well in preventing fires along the tracks that some of the roads still continue to construct and maintain them with good results. The following comment by the State Forester on the local workings of the organization which appears in the publication of the United States Forest Service quoted above will be of interest: “The State organization in north Jersey consists of a division fire warden as an assistant to the State Fire Warden and a township warden in each township where there is any appreciable amount of woodland, in addition to enough district wardens to adequately control the area. The aim is to assign a warden to each 5,000 acres of land. This force is composed of local men. who receive a small annual fee of $10 or $20 besides the money paid them for actually fighting fires. It is, therefore, a good deal of a voluntary service. These men. as soon as they hear of a fire, get together enough men to take care of it. They have authority to require assistance.” The Forester is confident tbat as soon as telephonic communication is extended to the forest! area a lookout system can be installed in the northern part of the State which will cover the territory very satisfac- torily, leaving the actual fire fighting and what little control is necessary to the local wardens. DELAWARE. Practically all the land in Delaware is adaptable to farming, and most of the forest is in the form of woodlots. For this reason fires are not common and may be easily prevented. Throughout the southern half FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 59 of the State, however, more than one-third of the area is wooded, and it is estimated that 27 per cent of the whole State is still in woods. In 1909, as a result of a forest survey of the State made the year before, a fairly good forestry law was enacted. It has, however, been practically inoperative, because no appropriation was made by the Legislature for its enforcement. Organization . — The State Board of Forestry consists of five members: the Governor, Secretary of State, President of the State Board of Agri- culture, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and the For- ester of the College. This latter official is ex officio State Forester, but as there is no Forester of the College, the Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station acts in the capacity of forester. It is said that only when the State employs a competent and technically trained forester whose sole duty it is to improve the forest conditions of the State will anything much along these lines he done. Wardens . — The State Forester may, whenever he thinks it necessary, request the Governor to appoint certain men as forest wardens. These wardens are to receive no salary from the State, but only such compen- sation as the forester may allow them for special services actually ren- dered. The expenses incurred in fighting or extinguishing fire are to he borne by the county in which the fire occurs after the accounts have been approved hv the State Forester. Spark Arresters. — Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey or thresh- ing engines, traction engines and other engines and boilers operated in, through, or near forests or brush, which do not burn oil or naphtha as fuel must be provided with appliances to prevent the escape of fire and sparks from smokestacks, ash-pans, and fire boxes. Civil Liability . — An individual or corporation causing fires shall he liable to the State or to the county in which the fire occurs in an action for debt to the full amount of all expenses incurred by the State or county in fighting and extinguishing such fires. OHIO. Ohio has a Department of Forestry under the control of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, and a forester appointed by that sta- tion. It has no fire protective system and very few fire laws. “A section of the General Code of Ohio authorizes township trustees to call on the inhabitants of the township to assist in extinguishing forest or prairie tires ; but this method is entirely inadequate, as a tire is likely to have caused great damage before the machinery for its control can be put in operation. Some provision should be made for a systematic patrol of the regions liable to 60 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. forest fires during the small part of the year when there is danger from such fires. The necessary cost of such patrol would be far less than the present annual loss from fires.”* INDIANA. Indiana is essentially an agricultural State, and only 17 per cent of its area, or 4,000,000 acres, are in woods, nearly all of this being in the form of farmers’ woodlots. Board of Forestry . — There is a State Board of Forestry composed of five members, including the secretary. The latter official is paid a salary of $1,800 a year and expenses. Practically the whole amount of the appropriation of $7,000 is spent for general and office expenses and for administering a small State forest reservation. Fire Protection . — The only forest fire laws are (1) a law which for- bids persons setting fire to the woods of another, (2) one which pre- scribes a heavy fine or imprisonment for setting fire to woods, marsh, or prairie maliciously or wantonly, and (3) one which makes it the duty of the township road supervisor to summon help and extinguish any fire which may occur in his district, the costs to be paid by the township. PRAIRIE STATES. The six prairie States, namely, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, North and South Dakota, contain little or no forest land; and, with the exception of South Dakota, those States which have any forest policy have confined their efforts almost entirely to the encouragement of tree planting. Practically all of these States have at one time or another passed laws calculated to induce private individuals to plant woodlots, etc., usually with only indifferent results. Kansas now has a State For- ester; most of his time, however, is devoted to teaching forestry in the State Agricultural College. SOUTH DAKOTA. Outside the National and State forests there is little woodland in South Dakota. At the present time the Federal Government controls about 1,200,000 acres and the State forests amount to about 60,000 acres more. Some 300,000 acres of farmers’ woodlots are also reported. The forest administration deals almost entirely with State lands. Administration . — The direction, management, and control of all State lands is in the hands of the Board of School and Public Lands. Among the duties of this board is the appointment when necessary of a forest * * Fourth Annual Report of Forest Conditions in Ohio. FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 61 supervisor, who shall have administrative powers, with authority to employ needed assistance in case of forest fire on or near any lands owned by the State. This official, who is called State Forester, was appointed in 1913, when a special appropriation of $3,000 a year for fire protection became available. Fire Laws . — There are laws against willfully or negligently setting fires, and declaring a closed season in which no fires must be set in woods, marsh, prairie, grass or stubble lands. Any fire set must be kept in con- trol and extinguished the same day on which it is set. Railroads . — Railroads are permitted to enter upon private or State lands to construct fire guards along their lines. Comment . — A comprehensive fire plan was inaugurated July 1, 1913. Several miles of telephone line were built and put into operation, and a lookout station established and equipped. This lookout has direct tele- phonic communication with the district ranger, with State forest head- quarters, and with the nearest lookout on the National forest. Last year the State Forest Service was able, along with its other activities, to effect necessary fire patrol up to September 15th, when the money available was exhausted. The timely assistance of the Federal Government, how- ever, under the provisions of the Weeks law, allowed for effective patrol till the end of the fire season. SOUTHWESTERN STATES. The Southwestern States have little forest land except in the moun- tains, and the greater part of this in most of these States is included in the National forests. Consequently it is adequately protected from fire by the Federal Government. Only two, California and Colorado, out of the six Southwestern States have any State fire protective system. Utah has a State Conservation Commission with a committee on State forest con- servation, but no further State forestry organization. In Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada there is little timberland in private ownership, but the States themselves own a considerable amount of forested school lands. As most of these are included within the outside boundaries of the National forests, no pressing need for their protection by the State has been felt. CALIFORNIA. California has an approximate area of 24,000,000 acres of forest land, or 24 per cent of its area. Of this amount, 14,000,000 acres is included in National forests and is thoroughly patrolled by the Federal Govern- ment. An additional 1,500,000 acres is included in National parks and 62 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. other public lands; while nearly 1,000,000 belongs to the State. The remaining third of the forest area is owned one half by farmers and set- tlers and the other half by lumber companies. The forest fire laws at present are quite inadequate, largely because the appropriation is too small to carry them out effectively. Organization. — There is a State Board of Forestry of four members, which supervises the State forestry work and convenes upon the call of the Governor or of its secretary. The State Forester, appointed by the Governor, is a civil executive officer who shall be a technically trained forester and shall receive a salary of $2,400 a year and necessary office and contingent expenses. There are two assistant foresters who each receive a salary of $1,200 a year and necessary expenses. Fire Wardens. — The forester shall appoint public-spirited citizens to act as volunteer fire wardens, who may receive payment for their serv- ices from the counties or from private sources. The forester and fire wardens shall have the powers of arrest without warrant for violations of the State or Federal forest laws. Fire Patrol. — In times and localities of particular fire danger the State Forester may maintain a fire patrol through the fire wardens, as the public interest may require, the expense of such patrol to be paid by the county. He may also, upon request of counties, corporations, or individuals, maintain a fire patrol on their forest lands, provided that the expenses be paid by those requesting the patrol. Liability for Forest Fires. — Owners whose property is injured or de- stroyed by fire may recover in civil action the amount of the damage suffered if the fire occurs through willfulness, malice, or negligence. In addition, persons or corporations causing fires or violations of the law shall be liable for all expenses incurred by the State or county in fighting such fires. Appropriation. — The sum of $7,000 a year is provided for the pay- ment of all salaries and expenses and for carrying out the other pro- visions of the law. County Cooperation. — Counties are allowed by law to appropriate from the general funds sums not to exceed from $10,000 to $20,000, according to the size of the county, for the purpose of aiding forestry work. This includes the preservation, reforestation, and protection from fire of forests upon public lands. Spark Arresters. — Persons using logging locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, or other engines or boilers in or near forest, brush, or grass land must provide adequate devices to prevent the escape of fire or sparks from smokestacks, ash-pans, fire boxes, or other parts. FOREST FIRES IX NORTH CAROLINA. 63 COMMENT. “So far we have been without an appropriation for forest protection ; conse- quently the State Board of Forestry has been prevented from organizing fire patrols and taking the first steps necessary to establish forestry principles. “State fire wardens serve without compensation for their services and often incur considerable expense. For this they cannot be reimbursed by the State, since there is no appropriation for this purpose. It is imperative that the State make an appropriation for tire protection and for paying the necessary expenses incurred when fires do occur.” COLORADO. Approximately 18 per cent of the area of Colorado, or about 12,000,- 000 acres, is forested. Of tliis amount, about 8,000,000 acres is under tbe control of tbe Federal Government, while approximately 4,000,000 is in private bands. Tbe State itself owns some 600,000 acres of wood- land. Tbe present forest law was passed in 1911, probably with tbe object of increasing tbe efficiency of tbe then existing fire prevention forces. When compared with tbe laws of some of tbe more progressive States, however, tbe Colorado law seems very inadequate, as it leaves tbe for- estry work in so many different bands. This defect will be noticed in tbe following brief summary : State Forester .— Tbe State Board of Agriculture is authorized to appoint tbe State Forester, who shall be a professor of forestry in tbe State Agricultural College, and shall be under the control of tbe Board of Agriculture. His salary shall not exceed $2,500 a year. His duties, amongst others, are to advise, aid, and assist the Board of Land Com- missioners in preventing and extinguishing fires on State lands ; to advise or assist individuals, associations, corporations, etc., in tbe care of their forest lands; to aid and assist tbe associations of tbe various counties in extinguishing fires; to investigate fires and report derelictions of duty on tbe part of any officer of tbe State with relation to fires or forests, and to prepare notices concerning tbe prevention and extinguishing of forest fires, which tbe Commissioner of Game and Fisli is required to post. Fire Wardens . — Sheriffs of tbe various counties of tbe State are to report to the State Forester as soon as practicable tbe occurrence of any fire in any forests in the State, either on private or public lands, and shall then aid and assist in extinguishing tbe same. Deputies appointed by tbe sheriff at present serve in tbe forty-two counties which contain forest lands. In all there are 392 such wardens. 64 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. In addition to these deputy sheriffs, 197 special forest fire wardens have been commissioned from the list of special deputy game wardens after several conferences with the State Fish and Game Commissioner. Appropriation . — For carrying this act into effect the Legislature ap- propriates $10,000 for each successive biennial period, or $5,000 a year. SOUTHERN STATES. The South has allowed the western and northern States to outdistance it in the matter of forest protection. It is only within the last few years that any of the southern States have even talked of adopting State fire protection, and it is only the borderland States that have so far secured any fire protective systems. Maryland was the leader in this movement, and has continued to he foremost in the protection of her forests. Ken- tucky and West Virginia now also have State fire protection. Worth Carolina and Virginia have State foresters, while Tennessee and Ala- bama have forest laws; but all four are still without forest protection. Louisiana will no doubt have an excellent system as soon as its rather cumbrous machinery gets into working order. The remaining southern States have done little or nothing in the way of forestry. Forestry laws have been introduced from time to time into the legislatures of South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Missouri, but have failed to pass. Georgia has a forester connected with the State Agricultural College, while Arkansas and Oklahoma have apparently made no move towards any form of forestry. It is said that Texas is contemplating some action at the next session of the Legislature. With its 40,000,000 acres of forest land definite forest protection is certainly needed. The southern States, like the lake States, have been greatly handi- capped in their efforts to secure forest protection by the theory, fostered by many large landowners, that all of the cut-over lands are suitable for agriculture. The greater part of the pine lands of the South may event- ually be adapted to farm use, but it seems certain that for many years to come there will be little demand for the greater part of it. This should, therefore, be adequately protected from the fire and allowed to produce a remunerative crop of timber. MARYLAND. Maryland, like Worth Carolina, has three forest regions, the Moun- tain, the Piedmont, and the Coastal Plain region. Altogether, Maryland has approximately 2,000,000 acres of woodland, most of which is greatly FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 65 reduced in productiveness by repeated forest fires. The State Forester says that the forest fire question is the most important forestry problem in Maryland. At the time of the passage of the forest law in 1905 the Maryland law was considered about the best in the United States. Since that time, however, several States have secured more effective laws. State Board of Forestry . — “There shall be a State Board of Forestry, con- sisting of seven members, the Governor. Comptroller, president of Johns Hopkins University, president of the Maryland State Agricultural College, State Geologist, and one citizen of the State known to be interested in the advancement of forestry, and one practical lumberman engaged in the manu- facture of lumber within this State, who shall be appointed by the Governor, to serve for a term of two years, which board shall act without compensation, save for actual necessary expenses incurred in the performance of their offi- cial duties.” State Forester . — The Board of Forestry shall appoint a State Forester who shall have a practical knowledge of forestry and shall be a trained forester. His compensation, fixed by the board, shall not exceed $2,000 per annum and reasonable traveling and field expenses. He shall have charge of all the forest interests of the State, shall have charge of and direct the forest wardens, take necessary action to prevent and extinguish forest fires, and enforce the forest fire laws. He has various other duties which are defined in the law. Appropriation . — The law provides an annual appropriation of $10,000 for the work under the Board of Forestry and an additional appropria- tion of $6,000 for the publication of forest reports and maps. Protective System . — “Our protective system consists of forest wardens, forest patrolmen, and lookout watchmen. The wardens are commissioned by the Governor, upon the recommendation of the State Forester, the law limit- ing us to the appointment of not more than one warden for each 15.000 acres of woodlands in the county. The wardens receive no salary, but are paid for services rendered, half by the State and half by the county. Since under our law there are no restrictions in the appointment of the wardens, except as to number, we have been able to select men who would make the best officers, most of them actuated by a high sense of public duty. The chief difficulty is that they are too far apart, and in order to overcome this we are appoint- ing deputies for each warden, with the view of having the men within 2 or 3 miles of each other. “The patrolmen, all of whom are Federal employees, are regularly commis- sioned forest wardens, assigned to patrol duty. They are usually farmers who know everybody in the community and who understand the local situa- tion thoroughly. These men are assigned a territory covering from 85,000 to 100,000 acres each. and. as far as possible, they travel along the ridges, where a good view of the surrounding country can be obtained. They are 5 66 FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. mounted on horses, in which respect our system appears to be different from that, of other States. The patrolman furnishes his horse and receives $3 per diem when actually employed, and his patrol is limited to days when it is dry enough for fires to run in the woods. This usually amounts to from 50 to 60 days during the year. By paying a dollar a day more for a mounted patrolman than for one on foot the efficiency, I believe, is at least doubled. “The lookout watchmen aid very materially in the tire protection plan. We have a number of lookout stations in the mountains. Each one has a telephone connection with the forest wardens, so that a forest fire is quickly observed and reported to the nearest warden. We have found that under this system the tires have not only been reduced in number, but the average area burned over by each fire is very much less than before the system was inaugurated. “In addition to the regular lookout stations there are a number of good observation points where we employ men living near-by to make three obser- vations daily during the dangerous seasons, for which they are paid 50 cents a day. We find that this arrangement works very well and saves the expense of a regular station where we would not be justified in having an all-day lookout.”* Spark Arresters . — Railroad and logging locomotives, donkey or thresh- ing engines, and other engines and boilers which do not burn oil as fuel must be provided with appliances to prevent the escape of fire and sparks from the smokestacks and to prevent the escape of fire from ash-pans and fire boxes. Stock Law . — One mountain county in Maryland still allows live stock to run in the open woods. As a result of this practice fires have been set intentionally to burn off the young forest growth in order to improve the range for cattle and sheep. In one month twenty-nine fires occurred in this county, eleven of which were definitely known to have been set for this purpose. The fire warden system was unable to cope with the situation, and 55,000 acres were burned over in this county in May. The State Forester says : “Any law which will encourage the burning of 30.000 acres of woodland, causing a loss of over $100,000. for a few hundred dollars worth of free grazing has certainly outlived its usefulness and should be repealed.” North Carolina confronts this same problem in a number of counties, both in the western and eastern parts of the State. It is to be hoped that she may soon do away with the menace of the open range. AVEST VIRGINIA. West Virginia, Avhich has an area of a little 0A*er 15,000,000 acres, or approximately one-half the area of X orth Carolina, contains about ’’■‘Forest Fire Protection by tlie States, by J. G. Peters, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. FOREST FIEES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 67 11,000,000 acres of forest land, the greater part of winch, has been cut over and much of it very badly burned. A law passed in 1909 provided for a Forest, Game and Fish Warden, and subordinated fire protection to the protection of game. As only a very small appropriation was allowed for the carrying out of this law. little effective work could be accomplished. Protective System . — Under this law the State Forest, Game and Fish Warden was made ex officio fire warden of the State, and all deputy game wardens were made deputy fire wardens for their respective coun- ties. These wardens, in addition to their duties in protecting game, were required to extinguish any forest fires which were brought to their notice, and were empowered to hire volunteers or summon assistance to extin- guish fires. Deputy wardens receive $2 per day for the time actually employed at forest fires, and the various counties are empowered to fix the price paid to laborers at forest fires not to exceed $2 per day for services actually rendered. All services rendered at forest fires, both by deputy wardens and their assistants, are charged against the county, and the county court is required to pay such cost out of the county funds. Piecovery of Expenses . — The warden of any county in which has occurred a forest fire which has been extinguished by his efforts can recover from those causing the fire to the amount expended in extinguish- ing the fire, together with the costs of said recovery. This, however, shall not act as a bar to the recovery of damages by those injured by the fire. This laiv has been greatly hampered in its execution by the county court refusing to allow claims for extinguishing fires or by fixing the per diem so low that it was very hard to get men to help fight fires. Bailroads . — Railroads passing through forest lands are required to move from their rights of way twice a year all grass, brush, and other inflammable materials. In seasons of drought they must employ suffi- cient trackmen to promptly extinguish fires on their rights of way. They must also provide locomotives with spark arresters and devices to prevent the escape of fire from ash-pans and furnaces. They are for- bidden to deposit live coals on their track or rights of way near forest lands, are required to extinguish fires on or near their rights of way, and trainmen are required to report fires at the first station to which they come. Appropriation . — Under the law of 1909 there was no appropriation which could be used for fire prevention. In 1913, however, the Legis- lature appropriated $25,000 for two years for the use of the forest, 68 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. game, and fish warden in carrying out the provisions of the earlier law. Two-fifths of this is to be used for special fire preventive measures. With the $5,000 a year for the next two years the Governor has decided to establish a State fire protective system. “Five lookout sta- tions are to he erected at once (October, 1913) and properly equipped with field glasses and fire-fighting equipment. Telephone connections will be made with these stations from all the surrounding country and watchmen stationed there during all the dangerous season to give an alarm in case of the discovery of fire. This system will be extended throughout all of the forest area of the State as rapidly as proper cooperation with timber owners and organizations can he effected and Federal cooperation secured.”* Comment . — A more comprehensive law was introduced into the Legis- lature in 1913, providing for a special Forest Department, State For- ester, a protective system, and a special appropriation. This bill was backed by the forest, game, and fish warden, but it failed of passage, owing to lack of time to consider it, due to a senatorial deadlock. KENTUCKY. Kentucky has approximately 10,000,000 acres of forest land or about 40 per cent of the total area of the State. Like Korth Carolina, there are three physiographic regions, the eastern or Mountain region, the central or Blue-grass region, and the western or Yalley region. The per- manent forests are in the mountains, which are perhaps rougher, though not so high as ours in Korth Carolina. As the larger part of the land in these mountains is better adapted for growing timber than for any other purpose, the necessity for protecting the forests from fires is ob- vious. Until recently, however, Kentucky has made no appropriation for fire protection. In 1912, largely through the persistent efforts of the State Federation of Women’s Clubs, a first-class forestry law was enacted and a State Forester appointed. Since that time a fire protective system has been formed and one or more local clubs organized to cooperate with the State in fire protection. Kentucky is now perhaps, with the exception of Maryland, the foremost amongst the southern States in the protection of her forests from fire. State Board of Forestry. — The new law established a State Board of Forestry, consisting of six members, namely, the Governor, Director of the State Experiment Station, Commissioner of Agriculture, all of whom are ex officio members, and three persons to be appointed by the Gov- * American Forestry, Vol. XIX, p. 74S. FOREST FIRES IN' NORTH CAROLINA. 69 ernor with the advice and consent of the Senate. The members of the board shall receive no salary, but shall be paid necessary expenses in- curred in attending meetings. State Forester. — The State Forester shall be appointed by the board and he shall be a graduate of a school of forestry, a technically trained forester with both practical and theoretical knowledge of forestry. Among other duties, the State Forester is secretary of the Forestry Com- mission. lie is given supervision and direction of all forest interests within the State and “he shall have charge over all forest wardens who may be appointed by the State Board. He shall take such action as is authorized by law to prevent and extinguish forest fires, enforce the laws pertaining to forests and woodland, prosecute any violation of such laws, etc.” His salary is fixed by the Forestry Board and must not exceed $2,500 a year and reasonable expenses. Fire Wardens . — “Whenever the State Board of Forestry considers it necessary, it may apply to the Governor to commission such persons as it may designate to act as forest wardens.” These wardens shall receive not to exceed $2 per day for services actually rendered. Their duties are to protect the State forest reserves ; to report violations of the law, and assist in apprehending and convicting offenders ; to extinguish fires, and employ persons to assist as they may deem expedient. Ho provision is made for patrols or lookouts, which seriously reduces the effectiveness of the system. Appropriation. — The sum of $15,000 per annum is appropriated for the use of the State Board of Forestry in carrying out the provisions of the forestry law. Only a small part of this, however, can be used for fire protection, as the law also provides for the purchase and adminis- tration of lands for State forests. Spark Arresters.- — “Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other engines and boilers operated in, through, or near forest and brush, which do not burn oil as fuel,” must be pro- vided with spark arresters and devices to prevent the escape of fire from ash-pans and fire boxes. Comment. — At the end of the 1913 fire season the State Forester re- ported that the county fire wardens in the eastern part of the State had been kept busy fighting fires. The efficiency of the work of the wardens has been thoroughly demonstrated. VIRGINIA. Virginia has a productive forest area of about 15,000,000 acres, or about 58 per cent of its total area, which is a somewhat less proportion 70 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. of woodland than we have in North Carolina. The same three forest regions, the Mountain, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain, that we have here, occur there. A considerably larger proportion of the forest, however, is in the form of farmers’ woodlots. Until recently little forestry work has been done by this State, and the laws have only been the usual ones against setting fire to the woods and the not so usual one requiring steam engines to use spark arresters. In March, 1914, however, a comprehensive law was passed which when made effective by an appropriation will place Virginia in the front rank of the southern States which exercise forest protection. State Forester . — The office of State Forester is created under the direction and control of the State Geological Commission, which is com- posed of the Governor, President of the University of Virginia, President of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Superintendent of the Virginia Military Institute, and one citizen from the State at large appointed by the Governor. The Forester is to he appointed by this commission. He must he a technically trained forester who has both a practical and theo- retical knowledge of forestry. Besides the c-are and management of the State forest reservation and State nurseries, which are provided for in the bill, he shall have charge of all forest wardens and shall take neces- sary action to prevent and extinguish forest fires. His salary shall not exceed $2,000 per year, together with reasonable traveling and field expenses. Wardens . — The State Geological Commission may apply to the Gov- ernor to commission certain persons to act as State forest wardens. These wardens receive no salary, but shall he paid by the State for serv- ices actually rendered, not exceeding $2 per day. It is the duty of the forest warden to extinguish forest fires and to summon necessary help for this purpose. County Protection . — The hoards of county supervisors are authorized by this bill to levy and appropriate money for purposes of forest pro- tection, improvement, and management. “The State hoards shall have recourse under an action at law for debt against any landowner, indi- vidual, or corporation on whose account they shall be obliged to pay out money for fighting fire for the amount which they shall have expended for such purpose.” Spark Arresters . — “Logging and railroad locomotives, donkey or threshing engines, and other engines and boilers operated in, through, or near forest or brush, which do not burn oil as fuel, shall be provided with appliances to prevent, as far as may he possible, the escape of fire and sparks from the smokestacks thereof, and with devices to prevent. FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 71 as far as may be possible, tlie escape of fire from ash-pans and fire boxes. Forest Reserve Fund. — “All money received as penalties for violations of the provisions of this act, less the cost of collection and not otherwise provided for, together with any amount obtained from the State forestry reserves, shall be paid into the State Treasury to the credit of the forest reserve fund, which fund is hereby created ; and the moneys in said fund are hereby appropriated for purposes of forest protection, management, replacement, and extension, under the direction of the commission.” Appropriation. — This bill was passed so late in the session that no appropriation was carried through with it. A provision, however, was inserted by which the necessary funds for the work will be provided by the University of Virginia until the meeting of the next Assembly in 1916. LOUISIANA. Louisiana has an approximate forest area of 22,000,000 acres, two- thirds of which, it is estimated, is held by lumber companies and other large owners, and the remainder by farmers. As a result of repeated burning, some 4,000,000 acres of woodland are now barren. The Department of Forestry was authorized in 1904, the Register of the Land Office being ex officio Commissioner of Forestry. A fire warden system Avas established by the parishes. In 1910 this laiv was re- pealed and a comprehensive law passed. The tax feature of this law Avas declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, so that an amendment to the Constitution Avas necessary. This Avas passed in 1912, and the laAV was again amended in the same year. Owing, however, to strenuous opposition to the collection of the tax imposed, the law has not yet been put fully into force. Organization. — The State Conservation Commission consists of three persons appointed by the Governor Avith the consent of the Senate, Avho shall he men well informed on the three following branches : Conserva- tion of wild life, game and the requirements for its conseiwation ; oysters, salt- and fresh-Avater fish of the State ; the forest and mineral resources of the State. The chairman of this commission receives a salary of $3,000 per annum, AAdiile the other tAvo persons are paid $2,400 per annum each. Necessary traveling expenses are also alloAved them. State Forester. — Under the Conseiwation Commission and responsible to it, the Register of the State Land Office is appointed ex officio State Forester. A Deputy State Forester at a salary of $1,800 a year and an alloAvanee of $600 a year for traveling and office expenses is appointed to take charge of the forestry work of the State. This official “shall be 72 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. a person practically and theoretically educated in silviculture.” (Owing to lack of funds, the technically trained forester has not yet been ap- pointed.) Among other things, it is the duty of the State Forester “to have direc- tion of all forest interests and all matters pertaining to forestry within the jurisdiction of the State, to take such action as is authorized by the law to prevent and extinguish forest fires, enforce all laws pertaining to forests and woodland, and prosecute for any violation of these laws.” With this authority it is presumed the Conservation Commission can organize and maintain an adequate fire-fighting force as soon as suffi- cient money is available. Railroads . — All railroad companies operating through forest lands must keep their rights of way clear of all combustible materials and safely dispose of the same between November 15th and April 15th. Xo railroad company shall permit its employees to leave or deposit fire or live coals on its right of way, other than between the rails, in the vicinity of woodland. When trainmen discover fires along their right of way they shall report the same at the next telegraph station. In seasons of drought railroad companies must give particular instructions to the sec- tion foremen for the prevention and prompt extinguishment of fires originating on their right of way. License Tax for Conservation . — In order to provide funds for the enforcement of the conservation law a special annual license tax is pro- vided for in Act Xo. 209 of 1912, which is based upon the then recently passed amendment to the Constitution. This tax is levied each year “upon each person or association of persons, firm, or corporation pursu- ing the business of severing natural products, including all forms of tim- ber, turpentine, and minerals . . . from the soil. The said person, firm, association, or corporation shall at the same time pay to the tax collector of the parish where said product is taken or severed from the soil a license tax equal to one-half of one per centum (%%) of the gross value of the total production thereof, less the royalty interest accruing to the owner thereof, the license on which shall be paid by said land or royalty owner. And the value of all products shall be computed at the place where the same are severed or taken from the soil ; and the value of all forms of timber, for the purposes of this act, shall be computed in their manufactured state, after severance from the soil.” After several months of disagreement between lumbermen and the State Auditor as to on what basis returns for the license tax were to be made on the different species of timber trees cut, the following scale was FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 73 agreed upon: Yellow pine, $2.50 per thousand feet; cypress, $3 per thousand ; tupelo gum, $1 per thousand ; cottonwood and red gum, $2 per thousand ; hickory, oak, and ash, $3 per thousand. These figures repre- sent the agreed value of the timber severed from the stump at place of cutting, so that the tax of i /2 per cent is levied on these values. Comment . — Louisiana is the only State which is trying to protect its forests with a direct tax upon the user of the forest. “He who severs, and profits by exhaustion of the natural resources of the State, in the creation of which he had no hand, should, in addition to the common burden of the expense of government, borne by all alike, bear an addi- tional burden of taxation, the proceeds to go towards replacing either the resource which he has removed or, if that be impossible, toward renew- ing one which by its nature is renewable.”* The Conservation Commission speaks of this method of taxation as a new principle of government. It formulates this principle in the follow- ing words : “The exploiters of our natural resources should bear an extra burden of taxation, sufficient in a measure not only to regulate their own business, but to replace the resources which they exhaust.”* ALABAMA. Alabama, with practically the same total area as Yorth Carolina, has approximately the same amount of forest land or a little more than 60 per cent of the total area. Practically all of the woodland is in private hands, 44 per cent of it being owned and controlled by farmers. The remainder is in the hands of large lumber companies and similar owners. In 1907 a comprehensive forestry law was enacted ; hut as it carried no appropriation and none has been made since, the law has been inopera- tive — at any rate, as far as fire protection is concerned. The object of the law, according to the title of the act, was “to provide for the protection of the forests of Alabama; to establish and create a State Commission of Forestry, to consist of the Governor, a member of the State Tax Commis- sion, the State Game and Fish Commissioner, the Commissioner of Agri- culture and Industries, a member of the United States Forest Service, the Professor of Forestry in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, and one practical lumberman ; to declare the county game and fish wardens, for- est wardens ; to declare constables, justices of the peace, sheriffs and deputy sheriffs, ex-officio forest wardens, and to provide for the appoint- ment of deputy forest wardens by the Governor ; to exempt from taxation for a period of ten years land which shall be planted in trees ; to appro- Report of the Louisiana Conservation Commission of 1910-12. 74 FOREST FIRES IN NORTH CAROLINA. priate the sum of $500 annually for the purpose of carrying out the pro- visions of this act ; to create a forest reserve fund, and to provide for the payment of all hues, forfeitures, and penalties arising under the pro- visions of this act into said fund.” Comment . — The law itself was copied more or less closely from the Maryland law, and as soon as a sufficient appropriation can be secured to put it into effect it will furnish Alabama with a fairly effective fire protective system. TENNESSEE. Tennessee with 15,000,000 acres of forest land has no fire protective system and appropriates no money for the purpose of forest protection. In 1907 a law was passed providing for a fire protective system in the Fish, Game, and Forestry Department. Xo appropriation, however, has been made and absolutely nothing has been done to carry out the pro- visions of the law. The only work along forestry lines which has been done in Tennessee was carried out by the Xational Government in cooperation with the State Geological Survey. Three or more reports have been prepared by Government agents and published by the State Survey. In one of these occur the following passages : “There is now a fire law on the statute-books which provides penalties for setting forest fires carelessly or willfully, but it lacks an appropriation to make it effective. “The legislation in regard to forestry is of a very scattered nature. Iu addition to the fire law, it consists chiefly in giving investigative functions to three different departments — the State Geological Survey, the Department of Game, Fish, and Forestry, and the Commissioner of Agriculture. It is time to consider what legislation is needed in order to unify and round out a con- sistent and complete forest law,” During the past spring, namely, in February, 1914, the Geological Commission created a Division of Forestry in the Geological Survey. A State Forester has been appointed to take charge of this division, who is to assume his new duties the coming autumn. Comment. — A complete forest law providing for a separate Forestry Department, a professional forester, etc., was introduced into the Legis- lature in 1913, chiefly through the efforts of the Southern Lumberman. It failed of passage for political reasons. Such a law. carrying a suffi- cient appropriation, is greatly needed. FOREST FIRES 1ST NORTH CAROLINA. 75 NORTH CAROLINA. jNTorth Carolina lias no fire protective system and very inadequate fire preventive laws.* lN"evertheless, for purposes of comparison the follow- ing facts are here given : iSTorth Carolina has an approximate area of 31,000,000 acres. It is estimated that 63 per cent or 19,600,000 acres of this is forest land. The State is naturally divided into three regions, the Mountain or western, the Piedmont or central, and the Coastal Plain or eastern region. Ap- proximately 75 per cent of the Mountain region is absolute forest land and should be kept permanently in woods. The greater part of the Coastal Plain region will eventually become agricultural land, but until the population is largely increased most of it should be growing a crop of timber. The Piedmont is largely a woodlot region, the forests consti- tuting from 30 to 60 per cent of the average farm. For the past five years the forests of this State have sustained an annual loss from fires of approximately $650,000 a year.f The worst fires occur in the Mountain and Coastal Plain regions. ISTortli Carolina makes no appropriation whatever for forest protec- tion, and no direct appropriation for forestry in any form. The For- ester, however, is employed by the State Geological and Economic Sur- vey to do educational and propaganda work throughout the State. Im- proved forestry laws have been introduced into each General Assembly for the past six or eight years, but there has not been sufficient public interest in the matter to secure their passage. ♦For North Carolina tire laws, see page IT. fSee Table 2, page 0. « PUBLICATIONS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. BULLETINS. 1. Iron Ores of North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1893. 8°, 239 pp., 20 pl., and map. Out of print. 2. Building and Ornamental Stones in North Carolina, by T. L. Watson and F. B. Laney in collaboration with George P. Merrill, 1906, 8°, 283 pp., 32 pl., 2 figs. Postage 25 cents. Clotli-hound copy 30 cents extra. 3. Gold Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze and George B. Hanna, 1S96. 8°, 196 pp., 11 pl., and map. Out of print. 4. Road Material and Road Construction in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes and William Cain, 1S93. 8°, 88 pp. Out of print. 5. The Forests, Forest Lands and Forest Products of Eastern North Caro- lina, by W. W. Ashe, 1894. 8°, 12S pp., 5 pl. Postage 5 cents. 6. The Timber Trees of North Carolina, by Gifford Pinehot and W. W. Ashe, 1S97. 8°, 227 pp., 22 pl. Out of print. 7. Forest Fires : Their Destructive Work. Causes and Prevention, by W. W. Ashe, 1S95. 8°, 66 pp., 1 pl. Postage 5 cents. 8. Water-powers in North Carolina, by George F. Swain. Joseph A. Holmes and E. W. Myers, 1899. S°, 362 pp., 16 pl. Postage 16 cents. 9. Monazite and Monazite Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1895. 8°, 47 pp., 5 pl. Out of print. 10. Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States, by Henry B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, 1897. 8°, 164 pp., 10 pl. Out of print. 11. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of Western North Carolina, by J. Yolney Lewis, 1895. 8°, 107 pp., 6 pl. Out of print. 12. History of the Gems Found in North Carolina, by George Frederick Kunz, 1907. 8°, 60 pp., 15 pl. Postage 8 cents. Cloth-hound copy 30 cents extra. 13. Clay Deposits and Clay Industries in North Carolina, by Heinrich Ries, 1897. 8°, 157 pp., 12 pl. Postage 10 cents. 14. The Cultivation of the Diamond-back Terrapin, by R. E. Coker, 1906. 8°, 67 pp., 23 pl., 2 figs. Out of print. 15. Experiments in Oyster Culture in Pamlico Sound. North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1907. 8°, 74 pp., 17 pl., 11 figs. Postage 6 cents. 16. Shade Trees for North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe. 1908. 8°, 74 pp., 10 pl., 16 figs. Postage 6 cents. 17. Terracing of Farm Lands, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8°, 3S pp., 6 pl., 2 figs. Postage If cents. 18. Bibliography of North Carolina Geology. Mineralogy and Geography, with a list of Maps, by Francis Baker Laney and Katherine Hill Wood, 1909. 8°, 428 pp. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-hound copy 30 cents extra. 19. The Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett, 1905. 8°, 64 pp., 8 figs. Postage If cents. 20. Water-powers of North Carolina : An Appendix to Bulletin 8, 1910. 8°, 383 pp. Postage 25 cents. 21. The Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina, by Francis Baker Laney, 1910. 8°, 137 pp., 23 pl., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 78 PUBLICATION’S OF THE SURVEY. 22. A Report on the Cid Mining District, Davidson County, X. C„ by J. E. Pogue, .Tr., 1911. 8°, 114 pp., 22 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 23. Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina, by J. S. Holmes. 1911. S°, 115 pp., 8 pi. Postage 15 cents. ECONOMIC PAPERS. 1. The Maple-sugar Industry in Western North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe. 1897. 8°, 34 pp. Postage 2 cents. 2. Recent Road Legislation in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 3. Talc and Pyrophyllite Deposits in North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt. 1900. 8°, 29 pp., 2 maps. Postage 2 cents. 4. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1900, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1901. 8°, 36 pp., and map. Postage 2 cents. Takes up in some detail Occurrences of Gold, Silver, Lead and Zinc, Copper, Iron. Manganese, Corundum, Granite, Mica, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Graphite, Kaolin, Gem Minerals, Monazite, Tungsten, Building Stones, and Coal in North Carolina. 5. Road Laws of North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 6. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1901, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1902. 8°, 102 pp. Postage \ cents. Gives a List of Minerals found in North Carolina; describes the Treatment of Sul- phuret Gold Ores, giving Localities; takes up the Occurrence of Copper in the Vir- gilina, Gold Hill, and Ore Knob districts; gives Occurrence and Uses of Corundum; a List of Garnets, describing Localities; the Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Uses and Localities of Mica; the Occurrence of North Carolina Feldspar, with Analyses; an extended description of North Carolina Gems and Gem Minerals; Occurrences of Monazite, Barytes, Ocher; describes and gives Occurrences of Graphite and Coal; describes and gives Occurrences of Building Stones, including Limestone; describes and gives Uses for the various forms of Clay; and under the head of “Other Eco- nomic Minerals” describes and gives Occurrences of Chromite, Asbestos and Zircon. 7. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1902, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1903. 8°, 27 pp. Out of print. 8. The Mining Industry iu North Carolina During 1903, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1904. 8°, 74 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives descriptions of Mines worked for Gold in 1903; descriptions of Properties worked for Copper during 1903, together with assay of ore from Twin-Edwards Mine; Analyses of Limonite ore from Wilson Mine; the Occurrence of Tin; in some detail the Occurrences of Abrasives; Occurrences of Monazite and Zircon; Occur- rences and Varieties of Graphite, giving Methods of Cleaning; Occurrences of Marble and other forms of Limestone; Analyses of Kaolin from Barber Creek, Jack- son County, North Carolina. 9. The Mining Industry iu North Carolina During 1904, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1905. S°, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives Mines Producing Gold and Silver during 1903 and 1904 and Sources of the Gold Produced during 1904; describes the mineral Chromite, giving Analyses of Selected Samples of Chromite from Mines in Yancey County; describes Commercial Varieties of Mica, giving the manner in which it occurs in North Carolina, Percent- age of Mica in the Dikes, Methods of Mining, Associated Minerals, Localities, Uses; describes the mineral Barytes, giving Method of Cleaning and Preparing Barytes for Market ; describes the use of Monazite as used in connection with the Preparation of the Bunsen Burner, and goes into the use of Zircon in connection with the Nernst Lamp, giving a List of the Principal Yttrium Minerals; describes the minerals con- taining Corundum Gems, Hiddenite and Other Gem Minerals, and gives New Occur- rences of these Gems; describes the mineral Graphite and gives new Uses for same. 10. Oyster Culture in North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1905. S°, 39 pp. Out of print. 11. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1905, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8°, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Describes the mineral Cobalt and the principal minerals that contain Cobalt: Corundum Localities; Monazite and Zircon in considerable detail, giving Analyses of Thorianite; describes Tantalum Minerals and gives description of the Tantalum Lamp; gives brief description of Peat Deposits; the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick: Operations of Concentrating Plant in Black Sand Investigations; gives Laws Relating to Mines, Coal Mines. Mining, Mineral Interest in Land, Phosphate Rock, Marl Beds. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVEY. 79 12. Investigations Relative to tlie Shad Fisheries of North Carolina, by John N. Cobb, 1906. 8°, 74 pp., S maps. Postage 6 cents. 13. Report of Committee on Fisheries in North Carolina. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. S°, IS pp. Out of print. 14. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1906. by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1907. 8°, 144 pp., 20 pi., and 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. Under the head of “Recent Changes in Gold Mining in North Carolina,” gives methods of mining, describing Log Washers, Square Sets, Cyanide Plants, etc., and detailed descriptions of Gold Deposits and alines are given; Copper Deposits of Swain County are described; Mica Deposits of Western North Carolina are described, giving Distribution and General Character, General Geology, Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Mining and Treatment of Mica. Origin, together with a description of many of the mines; Monazite is taken up in considerable detail as to Location and Occurrence, Geology, including classes of Rocks, Age, Associations, Weathering, method of Mining and Cleaning, description of Monazite in Original Matrix. 15. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1907. by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8°, 176 pp., 13 pi., and 4 figs. Postage 15 cents. Takes up in detail the Copper of the Gold Hill Copper District; a description of the Uses of Monazite and its Associated Minerals; descriptions of Ruby, Emerald, Beryl, Hiddenite, and Amethyst Localities; a detailed description -with Analyses of the Principal Mineral Springs of North Carolina; a description of the Peat Formations in North Carolina, together with a detailed account of the Uses of Peat and the Results of an Experiment Conducted by the United States Geological Survey on Peat from Elizabeth City, North Carolina. 16. Report of Convention called by Governor R. B. Glenn to Investigate the Fishing Industries in North Carolina, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8°, 45 pp. Out of print. 17. Proceedings of Drainage Convention held at New Bern. North Carolina. September 9, 190S. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt. 1908. 8°, 94 pp. Out of print. IS. Proceedings of Second Annual Drainage Convention held at New Bern. North Carolina. November 11 and 12. 1909. compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, and containing North Carolina Drainage Law, 1909. 8°, 50 pp. Out of print. 19. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1909. by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1910. S°, 52 pp., 9 pi. Out of print. 20. Wood-using Industries of North Carolina, by Roger E. Simmons, under the direction of J. S. Holmes aud H. S. Sackett. 1910. S°, 74 pp., 6 pi. Post- age 7 cents. 21. Proceedings of the Third Annual Drainage Convention, held under Auspices of the North Carolina Drainage Association : and the North Carolina Drainage Law (codified). Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt. 1911. 8°, 67 pp., 3 pi. Out of print. 22. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1910. by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1911. 8°, 4S pp. Out of print. 23. Mming Industry in North Carolina During 1908, ’09. and TO. by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Miss H. M. Berry, 1911. 8°, 134 pp., 1 pi., 27 figs. Postage 10 cents. Gives report on Virgilina Copper District of North Carolina and Virginia, by F. B. Laney; Detailed report on Mica Deposits of North Carolina, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Detailed report on Monazite. by Douglas B. Sterrett; Reports on various Gem Min- erals, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Information and Analyses concerning certain Mineral Springs; Extract from Chance Report of the Dan River and Deep River Coal Fields: Some notes on the Peat Industry, by Prof. Charles A. Davis: Extract from report of Arthur Keith on the Nantahala Marble; Description of the manufacture of Sand- limo Brick. 24. Fishing Industry of North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8°, 44 pp. Out of print. 25. Proceedings of Second Annual Convention of the North Carolina For- estry Association, held at Raleigh. North Carolina, February 21. 1912. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1911. Suggested Forestry Legislation. Com- piled by J. S. Holmes. Forester. 1912. S°, 71 pp. Postage 5 cents. 80 PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVEY. 26. Proceedings of Fourth Annual Drainage Convention, held at Elizabeth City, North Carolina, November 15 and 16, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1912. 8°, 45 pp. Postage 3 cents. 27. Highway Work in North Carolina, containing a Statistical Report of Road Work during 1911, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8°, 145 pp., 11 figs. Postage 10 cents. 28. Culverts and Small Bridges for Country Roads in North Carolina, by C. R. Thomas and T. F. Hic-kerson, 1912. 8°, 56 pp., 14 figs., 20 pi. Postage 10 cents. 29. Report of the Fisheries Convention Held at New Bern, N. C., December 13, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, together with a Compendium of the Stenographic Notes of the Meetings Held on the Two Trips taken by the Legislative Fish Committee Appointed by the General Assembly of 1909, and the Legislation Recommended by this Committee, 1912. S°, 302 pp. Postage 15 cents. 30. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the North Carolina Good Roads Association held at Charlotte, N. C., August 1 and 2, 1912, in Coopera- tion with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss II. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8°, 109 pp. Postage 10 cents. 31. Proceedings of Fifth Annual Drainage Convention held at Raleigh, N. C., November 26 and 27, 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. 8°, 56 pp., 6 pi. Postage 5 cents. 32. Public Roads are Public Necessities, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8°, 62 pp. Postage 5 cents. 33. Forest Fires in North Carolina during 1912 and National and Associa- tion Cooperative Fire Control, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1913. 8°, 63 pp. Postage 5 cents. 34. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1911-12, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1914. 8°, 314 pp., 23 pi., 12 figs. Postage 15 cents. 35. Good Roads Days, November 5 and 6, 1913. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. 8°, 102 pp.. 11 pi. Postage 10 cents. 36. Proceedings of the North Carolina Good Roads Association, held at Morehead City, N. C., July 31 and August 1. 1913. in cooperation with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Statistical Report of High- way Work in North Carolina During 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt. State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. S°, 127 pp.. 7 figs. Postage 10 cents. 37. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1913 and a Summary of State Forest Fire Prevention in the United States, by J. S. Holmes. Forester, 1914. S°, 82 pp. Postage 8 cents. VOLUMES. Vol. I. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks in Western North Caro- lina. by Joseph Hyde Pratt and J. Volney Lewis. 1905. S°, 464 pp.. 44 ph. 35 figs. Postage 32 cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. Vol. II. Fishes of North Carolina, by H. M. Smith. 1907. S°, 453 pp., 21 pi.. 18S figs. Postage 30 cents. Vol. III. The Coastal Plain Deposits of North Carolina, by William Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller. L. W. Stephenson, B. L. Johnson, and Horatio N. Parker, 1912. 8°, 509 pp., 62 ph, 21 figs. Postage 35 cents. Pt. I. — The Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain of North Caro- lina, by Wm. Bullock Clark, Ben.iamin L. Miller, and L. W. Stephenson. Pt. II. — The Water Resources of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by L. W. Stephenson and B. L. Johnson. Vol. IV. Birds of North Carolina. In press. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVEY. 81 BIENNIAL REPORTS. First Biennial Report. 1S91-1S92. J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1893. 8°, 111 pp.. 12 pi., 2 figs. Postage 6 cents. Administrative report, giving Object and Organization of the Survey; Investiga- tions of Iron Ores, Building Stone. Geological Work in Coastal Plain Region, in- cluding supplies of drinking-waters in eastern counties. Report on Forests and Forest Products, Coal and Marble, Investigations of Diamond Drill. Biennial Report, 1893-1891, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1894. S°, 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1S95-1S96. J. A. Holmes, State Geologist. 1896. S°. IT pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report. 1S97-189S, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1S9S. S°, 2S pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1S99-1900. J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1900. S°, 20 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report. 1901-1902, J. A. Holmes. State Geologist. 1902. S°, 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report,- 1903-1904, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist. 1905. S°, 32 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report. 1905-1906. Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. 1907. S°, 60 pp. Postage 3 cents. Administrative report; report on certain swamp lands belonging to the State, by W. W. Ashe; it also gives certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations. Biennial Report. 1907-1908, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 190S. S°, 60 pp.. 2 pi. Postage 5 cents. Administrative report. Contains Special Report on an examination of the Sand Banks along the North Carolina Coast, by Jay F. Bond, Forest Assistant. United States Forest Service; certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations; Results of an Investigation Relating to Clam Cultivation, by Howard E. Enders of Purdue University. Biemiial Report. 1909-1910, Joseph Hyde Pratt. State Geologist. 1911. 8°, 152 pp. Postage 10 cents. Administrative report and contains Agreements for Cooperation in Statistical Work, and Topographical and Traverse Mapping Work with the United States Geological Survey; Forest Work with the United States Department of Agriculture (Forest Service) ; List of Topographic maps of North Carolina and counties partly or wholly topographically mapped; description of special Highways in North Caro- lina; suggested Road Legislation; list of Drainage Districts and Results of Third Annual Drainage Convention; Forestry reports relating to Connolly Tract, Buncombe County and Transylvania County State Farms; certain Watersheds; Reforestation of Cut-over and Abandoned Farm Lands on the Woodlands of the Salem Academy and College; Recommendations for the Artificial Regeneration of Longleaf Pine at Pinehurst; Act regulating the use of and for the Protection of Meridian Monuments and Standards of Measure at the several county-seats in North Carolina; list of Magnetic Declination at the county-seats. January 1. 1910; letter of Fish Commis- sioner of the United States Bureau of Fisheries relating to the conditions of the North Carolina fish industries; report of the Survey for the North Carolina Fish Commission referring to dutch or pound-net fishing in Albemarle and Croatan sounds and Chowan River, by Gilbert T. Rude, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; Historical Sketch of the several North Carolina Geological Surveys, with list of publications of each. Biermial Report. 1911-1912. Joseph Hyde Pratt. State Geologist. 1913. 8°, 118 pp. Postage 7 cents. Administrative report, and contains reports on method of construction and esti- mate of cost of road improvement in Stantonsburg Township, Wilson County; report on road conditions in Dee County; report on preliminary location of section of Spar- 6 82 PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVEY. tanburg-Hendersonville Highway between Tryon and Tuxedo; report of road work done by U. S. Office of Public Roads during biennial period; experiments with glutrin on the sand-clay road; report on Central Highway, giving Act establishing and report of trip over this Highway; suggested road legislation; report on the Asheville City watershed; report on the Struan property at Arden, Buncombe County; report on the woodlands on the farm of Dr. J. W. Kilgore, Iredell County; report on examination of the woodlands on the Berry place. Orange County; report on the forest property of Miss Julia A. Thorns, Asheboro, Randolph County; report on the examination of the forest lands of the Butters Lumber Company, Columbus County; proposed forestry legislation; swamp lands and drainage, giving drainage districts; suggested drainage legislation; proposed Fisheries Commission bill. Samples of any mineral found in the State may be sent to the office of the Geological and Economic Survey for identification, and the same will be classi- fied free of charge. It must be understood, however, that no assays or quantitative determinations will be made. Samples should be in a lump form if possible, and marked plainly on outside of package with name of sender, post-office address, etc. ; a letter should accompany sample and stamp should be enclosed for reply. These publications are mailed to libraries and to individuals who may desire information on any of the special subjects named, free of charge, ex- cept that in each case applicants for the reports should forward the amount of postage needed, as indicated above, for mailing the bulletins desired, to the State Geologist, Chapel Hill, N. C. Date Due Form 335— 40M— 6-39— S '553 N873 NVg? 44537 N»C» Geological and Econo- rriic Survey: Forast Firee in North Carolina during 1513 — nflTr ni'F 1 icci irn m 553 N873 No. 37 44527