^^^' \:'uiii<^'^- > i lit, I f • George Washington Flowers Memorial Collection DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ESTABLISHED BY THE FAMILY OF COLONEL FLOWERS YORK'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR, REVISED AND ADAPTED TO SOUTHERN SCHOOLS, BY REV. BRANTLEY YORK THIBD EDITION. RALEIGH, N. C. : BRANSON & FARRAR. FAYETTEVILLE STREET, 1865. -^ u IV( PREFACE, At what age should the study of Grammar be commenced? This and similar questions have frequently been asked the author. But no age, perhaps, can be specified ; some are as well, or better prepared to commence tlie study at eight or nine, than others arc at ten or eleven, or even, perhaps, at twelve or thirteen. The author is of the opinion that, with a suitable text-book and instruction, the study should be commenced as soon as the pupils can read intelligibly. This study should be commenced early, for the following reasons: 1. — In order to prevent the formation of erroneous habits of speak- ing and writing ; for every one must be aware of the great difficulty of breaking up erroneous habits, once formed and deeply seated. 2. — Because Grammar, well understood, tends directly to flicilitatc any or all other studies. As the knowledge of any su)>ject must be acquired through the medium of language, whether written or oral ; it follows, therefore, of necessity, that the better this medium is un- derstood, other things being equal, the more thorough and rai>id will be the progress in acquiring a knowledge of the various subjects, em- bracing the educational course. 3. — If this subject be not mastered before the pupils enter College, their knowledge of it is likely to be defective through life, since but little attention is generally paid to the study of English Grammar after they commence the Collegiate course. One of the leading features in the art of teaching, is, the adaptation of the subject to the various capacities of the pupils. Much time and money have been lost, and, perhaps, pupils injured by entering upon IV PREFACE. the study of subjects which are above and beyond the utmost reach of their faculties. Led by this, and similar views, the author has attempted the publication of a Grammar adapted to the capacities of the juvenile mind — which Grammar he denominates *' An Introduction to the Illustrative and Constructive Grammar." The plan of teaching, as unfolded in the latter, is precisely similar to that of the former ; hence it will be found to be a convenient and easy introduction to the more voluminous and elaborate treatise embraced in the former work. The object of the author, in the publication of this, as well as the former work, is to make thevstudy of English Gramriiar more attractive by making it more thorougli and practical. If success should crown his efforts in this respect, he will rest satisfied tliat he has done a good work — a work that will tell for good upon the present and sul>sequent gCTierations. With theae few prefjitory remarks, this little work is submitted to the examination of a candid and discerning public. THE AUTHOR York €ollegiate Institute, N. C, October, 18G0. PAia I. Page. LESSON I. A Sentence, 1 Subject, 1 Predicate, i Exercises. 1 LESSON II. Sentences, 1 Simple, 1 Co-ordinate Connective, 2 Complex, 2 Compound, 2 Exercises, 2 LESSON III. Clauses, 2 Leading Clause, 2 Co-ordinate " 3 Subordinate " 3 Exercises, 3 LESSON IV. Kinds of sentences, 3 Aflirmativc, 3 Subfirmative, 3 Interrogative, 3 Exclamative, 4 Imperative, 4 Petitionative, 4 Exercises, 4 LESSON V. Construction of Subject and Predicate, 4 Exercises, 5 LESSON VL Elements of Sentences, 5 How many Elements, 5 Subtantive elements, 5 Noun, 5 Pronoun, 5 Verbal elements, 5 Verb, 5 Elements continued, 6 LESSON YIL Adjective elements, Adjective, Article, Participle, Adverbial elements, Adverb, Connective elements, 7 Conjunction, T Preposition, Model for Elements, Exercises, LESSON Yin. Elements of the First, second, and third class- es. Phrase, Model, Exercises, - LESSON IX. Page. Page. Exercises, 14 LESSON XIIL Construction of ele- ments, 14 Promiscuous Exercises, 15 LESSON XIV. 7 Monologic Analysis, Characters used. Connectives, Such as give Clauses, do Phrases, Co-ordinate, Subordinate, Exercises, Principal and Subordinate Elements, 10 Modification of Subject or predicate Indirect- ly. 11 Model, 11 Exercises, H LESSON X. The Siibject— Simple, Compound, and Com- plex, or Logical, 12 Exercises, 12 LESSON XL The Predicate, Simple, Compound, and Com- plex, 12, Copula, Exercises, LESSON xn. Possessive and Objec- tive elements, LESSON XV. Dendrology or Construc- tion of "Sentences, The Trunk, or leading clause, The Branch, or Subor- dinate members, LESSON XVI. Dendrology continued. Order, Notation, Integrity, Rank, LESSON XVIL 14 17 Dendrology continued, 20 Position " 20 Sub and Super Mem- bers, 20 Illustration by Diagram, 21 Exercises, 23 LESSON XVIIL Alligation, Diagram, Exercises, CONTENTS. PART II Page LESSON L Language, 25 LESSON IL Grammar, 35 Letter?, 2een im> 8 prisoned) (for debt.] A certain Emperor €077%- manded a general release, is a. member of the Trunk order, Plenary notation, Imperfect integrity, and of the Affirma- tive kind, because it expresses the hightest degree of verbal force. Of China, is a member of the Branch order, Plenary notation, Perfect integrity, first rank, juxta-posi lion, and reads with the Trunk for its super ; thus, A certain Emperor of China commanded a general release. On his accession, is a member of the Branch order. Ple- nary notation. Perfect integrity, first rank, disjuxta-posi- tion, and reads with the Trunk for its super, A certain Emperor commanded a general release on his accession. To the throne, is a member of the Branch order, Plena- ry notation. Perfect integrity, second rank, juxta-position, and reads with a member of the first rank for its super. — On his accession to the throne. Of his ancesters, is a member of the Branch order, Ple- nary notation, Perfect integrity, third rank, and juxta-po- sition, and reads with the second rank for its super. To the throne of his ancestors. Of all those persons, is a member of the Branch order, Tm- plenary notation, Perfect integrity, first rank, juxta-posi- tion, and reads with the Trunk for its super. A certain Emperor commanded a general release of all those persons. Who had been imprisoned, is a member of the Branch or- der, Plenary notation, Perfect integrity, second rank, jux- 22 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND ta'positlon, and reads with a member of the first rank for its super. Of all those who had been imprisoned. For debt, is a member of the Branch order, Plenary no- tation, Perfect integrity, third rank, and juxta-position, and reads with the second rank for its super. Who had been imprisoned for debt. By inspecting the Diagram, the learner will perceive that branches No. 1 depend directly upon the Trunk or leading clause, that branches No. 2 depend directly upon No. 1, and that those of No. 3 depend directly upon No. 2, but that all depend directly or indirectly upon the Trunk or leading member. Which ia the Trunk or leading clause in the foregoing sentence? A certain Emperor commanded a general release. Why? Because, like the Trunk of a Tree, it can stand alone, or make sense of itself. Why is it of the Plenary notation 7 Because each word belonging to it, is expressed. Why of the Imperfect Integrity ? Because its entireness is broken by the member, of China. Why of tb» afiSrmative kind / Because it expresses the highest degree of verbal force- Whj ia on hta accttaion of the Branch order? Because it depends upon the Trunk, and cannot make sense of itself. Why of th« first rank ? Because it depends directly upon the Trunk or leading member for its siiper. Why of the dtt/ux^a-position f Because it is separated from its super, or the member with which it has a constructive relation. Why u the member, to the throne, of the tscond rank ? Because it depends upon the first for its super. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 23 Why is the m^mher, of h{« ancestors, of the third rankf Because it depends upon the second rank for its super. Rem. To Teachers. The Teacher may ask similar questions until the young learners become familiar with all the terms used in this nomenclature. EXERCISES. [Analyse and Constrae the following sentences as exhibited in the forego- ing Models.] 1 1 [A beam (of tranquility) often plays] (around the heart) 2 1 (of the truly pious man). [Martha went] (with Mary), (to the grave) (of Lazarus). [There was a marriage] (in Cana) (of Galilee). [Dagon fell] (upon his face) (before the ark) (of the living God). ^The young lady (who instructs me) 2*12 (in Grammar), live%] (in the city) (of New York). [Lot fled] (with his two daughters), (to the mountains). [Mary 1 1 2 remained] (in the house) (with the Jews) (who had visited her). [Time slept] (on flowers,) (and lent his glasses) (to hope). (On that night,) [sleep departed] (from the king.) [The Lord, (into his garden,) comes ;] (The spices yield a rich perfume ;) (The lilliea grow and thrive.) Rem. — After the class has been fully practiced on the above exercises, sentences should be written upon the black- board or slate without the analysis. LESSON XVIII. OF ALLIGATION OF SENTENCES. What is Alligation ? It is the art of combining the words of a sentence, by 24 York's illustrative and lines which indicate the government^ relation^ and connect lion of the several parts. How are lines which indicate goTcrnmont drawn ? They are drawn over. How are all others drawn 7 They are drawn under, as shown in the following Dia^ gram: d^-e/rUy^ "V/^/Zi^ n/M//o 'Tyui to Wit Line 1 shows Henry governs went, and reads with it — Henry went. Line 2 shows with, connects went and me^ nnd reads with them — went with me. Line 3 shows that with governs me, and reads with it — with me. Line 4 shows that to connects went and zlii'p, and reads with them — went to ship. Line 5 shows to governs M'p, and reads with it — to ship. Line 6 shows that the belongs to thi'p, and reads with it — the ship. The object of this exercise is not only to give an occu- lar illustration of the various grammatical connections and relations which words bear to each other in a sentence, but also to show that words which are grammatically rela- ted to each other, make sense when read together. EXERCISES. [Write the following and similar sentences on slates or the Black-board, and give the alligation as exhibited in the above Diagram.] The old fox heard the hunter's horn sounding. Foxes kill women's geese. I see a man walking through the fields. The day glides sweetly o'er our heads. That old man labors in the field. John walked with his sisters to church. Mary studies her lessons well. The moon shines through broken clouds. The lowering clouds are moving filowly. Elizabeth went into the hill-country. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR^ 25 PART SECOND. LESSON I. OF LANGUAGE, What is language ? Language is the medium through which mind travels to mind, and thereby communicates thoughts, feelings, de- sires, and affections. Do brutes, in any sense, possess the power of language ? In some sense, they do ; since, by various inarticulate sounds, they make known tlieir wants and sufferings. How many kinds of language are there? Two, namely, spoken aad written. What are the elements of spoken language? They are simple aotinds, uttered by the human voice. What are the elements ef written language ? They are letters or characters, invented to represent simple sounds. May not Jeaticulation be regarded as a kind of language ? It may ; since men, who are barbarians to each other, can understand each other by means of signs or jesture©. Since language is the medium of communicating thoughts, is it not im- portant that it should bo understood.' It is ; and, hence, arises th-e necessity of studying tho- roughly the Grammar of the language which we employ for such medium of communication of thought. LESSON IL OF GRAMMAR. What is grammar ? Grammar is the science of language, or, more literally, the science of. letters, or the science of sounds. 26 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND What do letters represent / They represent simple sounds. How many Eimple sounds aro there in the English language T Thirty-eight. How many letters or signs are there to represent these sounds .' There are but thirty-six in the English Alphabet. What necessarily follows from there being more sounds than letters / Some letters must represent more sounds than one, "What must necessarily arise from this f Much obscurity and many provincialisms. How many letters should there be in a perfect language / As many as there are simple sounds. How are the letters of the English Alphabet generally divided 1 Into Vowels and Consonants, How are the Consonants sub-divided.' Into Mutes and Semi-vowels, Is this division founded in philosophic truth ? No ; for every sound may be uttered in its own, indi- vidual, and elementary character ; yet, it is said, the Mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. What would be a more philosophic and truthful division of the letters of the Alphabet! A more truthful division would be into three classes, viz : Vowels or Tonics, Sub-vowels or Sub-tonics, and Atonies or Aspirates, as exhi])ited in the following Table in which are displayed the thirty-eight cJemcntary sounds, and the manner of representing them : CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, 27 THIRTY-EIGHT SIMPLE SOUNDS. 15 Vowels. 14 Sub-vowels. | 9 Aspirates, a in ale b in bow P m pm a " arm d " duty t '' tin a " all g " gay sh *^ shade S " an I " love k ** kit« e " eve m " man 8 ^^ sin € " end n ** no f " fume 1 " ile n§ " song th " thin 1 " in r '' roll h ^^ hat 6 " old th '' thou wh '' wh*t '' lose V « vow 5 " on w '* wo u '' tube 7 *^ yoke ii ^' up z *' zone u ^' full z " azure ou " our Rem. — It will be observed, that j, x, and ch are not found in the above table ; the reason of this is, they do not represent simple sounds, but compound ones. J rep- resents the sound of d in day and of z in azure ; as, Job, John, &c. Rem. to Teachers. — It is not intended that the table of elementary sounds should be committed to memory by the pupils .; but the Teacher should utter the sounds accurately in their elementary character, the pupils uttering them after him. 28 "rORK'sniLUSTRATIVE ANC (For further information concerning the simple scfunds of the English Language and the Analysis of words, the learner is referred to the Illustrative and Constructive Grammar, Part Second.) LESSON IIL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. What is Engliei Grammar/ It is the science of the English Language, What does it comprise f It comprises both a Science and an Art. mx&t does it toach as an Art? As an Art, it teaches how the English Language should be written and spoken. What as a Science f As a Science, it teaches why one form of speech should be used rather than another. What, then, is the difference between Science aad Art? Science tells wlit/ a thing is done; Art how it is done. What, then, will Xnglieh Grammar, well understood both as a Science and an Art, enable one to do? It will enable one to speak and write the English Lan- guage correctly. LESSON IV. THE DIVISION OP GRAM MAE. Into how many parts, is Grammar ditidcd ? Into four, viz : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody,, CONSTRUCTIVE aRAMMAR. 29 What does Orthography teach ? The name and power of letters, and the art of spelling. Where must this art be chiefly acquired ? From the Spelling-book and Dictionary. Of "what does Etymology treat? Of the different parts of speech, their various inflection, and the derivation of words. What does Syntax teac-h ? It teaches the correct construction and arrangement of sentences. Of -what does Prosody treat? It treats of the just pronunciation of sentences^ and the rules of versification. LESSON V, PARTS OP SPEECH OR CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. Into how many Classes, are words naturally divided? Into two, namely. Primary and Secondary. What are Primary words? Those that are essential to the language of men, to which all others bear a subordinate relation. What parts of speech are they ? The Noun and Verb. Why are they Primary t Because, of these, a complete proposition may be con- structed ; as, God is. Time flies. What ara Secondary words 7 They are of subordinate use in language, sustaining a branch relation to the Primary. How mony sorts of words or Parts of Speech are there? Thero are ten, viz : the Noun, Verb, Participle, Pronoun, '^O YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND Article, Adjective, Adverb, Treposition, Conjunction, and Interjection or Exclamation. Rem. Grammarians generally name nine Parts of Speech, excluding the Participle ; but we see no sufficient reason for this. What is a Konn ? It is the 7ia77ie of anything ; as, Man, virtue. What is a Verb? A Verb is a word which asserts or affirms, or expresses action; as, The boy reacts. The child jt?%5. TThat is a participle ? A Participle is a word, derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective ; but de- pends upon a noun or pronoun in construction ; as, I see a bird flying, "What is a Pronoun 1 A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and gener- ally to avoid its repetition ; as, James reads, and lie will soon read well. What is an Article / An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit the extent of their signification ; as, A man. The boys. What is an Adjective t An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit its meaning, or express its quality ; as, A beautiful lady. That river. What is an Adverb 1 An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, Mary writes very well. What is a Preposition ? A Preposition is a word generally placed before some noun or pronoun which it governs ; it, also, shows the re- lation which this word bears to some other word which precedes it in construction : as, Henry went with me. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 81 What is a Conjunction .' A Conjunction is a word which joins together parts of a .•sentence, or parts of a discourse in a regular construction ; as, John goes to school, and learns well. What is an Interjection or Exclamation / A.n Exclamation generally expresses some emotion of the speaker, but has no dependent construction ; as, " Alas ! and did my Saviour bleed?" EXERCISES. [Point out the different parts of Speech in the following sentences.] The river flows slowly. The sun shines by day, and the moon gives light by night. Henry lost his hat. Alas ! that man has made a fatal mistake. I see a man walking. John went ; but Peter stayed. LESSON VI, OP NOUNS. What is a Noun ; A Noun is the name of any thing; as, Man, Virtue, How many kinds ©f nouns are there? There are two, viz: Proper and Common. What is a Proper noun ? A Proper noun is the name of an individual person or thing ; as, Mary, Delaware. What is a Common noun ? A Common noun is a name common to a whole class of persons or things ; as Man, river. What is a Common noun, comprising several persons or things intone cel- lectivc body, called ? A Collective noun, or Noun of multitute ; as, Commit- tee, army. 32 York's illustrative and What belong to Nouns? To nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and Case. LESSON VII. OP GENDER AND PERSON, What is Gender? Gender is the distinction of sex. How many sexes are there / Two, viz: Male and Female. How many Genders are there*? Since there are but two sexes, strictly speaking, there are but two genders. How many Genders are thought, by some grammarians, to bo convenient in parsing? Four, viz: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Com- mon. What does the Masculine Gender denote ? The Masculine Gender includes all males; as, Man, horse. What does the Feminine denote / The Feminine includes aM females; as, woman, hen. What does the Neuter include? The Neuter includes such as have no sex ; as. Chair, river. How may the Common Gender be defined ? Nouns which are equally applied to both sexes, are called Common Gender ; as, Friend, child. Rem. — The application of the Neuter and Commor Genders in parsing, is of little or no practical utility since it adds nothing to the sense. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 58 W&at is Person in grammar .' Person distinguishes the relation of a noun to the speaker. How many Persons have noime f Three, viz : the First, Second, and Third. What does the First Person denote f It denotes the speaker ; as 7, John, saw him. What the Second Person ! The Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken to, or addressed ; as, James, I desire i/ou to study. What the Third Person ? The Third Person denotes the person spoken of, or about ; as, Feter wept bitterly. LESSON VIII. OP NUMBER. What is Number f Number is the distinction oi unity imd pluraliti/. How many numbers have nouns/ Two, viz ; the Singular and Plural. What does the Singular number imply ! It implies uniti/, or but one ; as, A hopk^ What does the Plural number denote? It denotes plurality, or more than one; as, Books. How is the Plural of nouns formed ? The Plural is generally formed by annexing s or esf to the singular. When is « only annexed .' When it will coalesce in sound with the other letters ; as, Table, tables. 34 York's illustrated and When is es annexed ? When s will not' coalesce in sound with the preceding let- ters; aSyljYSLTich, branches. Is tho Piural of nouns formed in any other way 1 Yes, in various ways. Mention a few of them. 1. Nouns ending in j^, preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by changing y into i, and annexing es ; as, Yly, flies. Spy, spies. 2. Fifteen nouns in f or fe, viz: beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wharf, wolf, life, knife, and wife, form their plurals by changing / into v, and annexing es or s; as, Beef, beeves. Wife, wives ; other nouns, in / or, fe, form their plurals in the regu- lar way: as. Dwarf, dwarfs. Handkerchief, handker- chiefs, 3. Some nouns are very irregular in the formation of their plurals ; as, Man, men. Child, childreny &c. Do Proper nouns adait of a plural .' They do not ; for, in such case, they would become Com- mon; as. The twelve Coesars, The PZafoa of the age. LESSON IX. OF CASE. What is meant by Case f Case, as applied in Grammar, distinguishes the rela- tion of a noun or pronoun to a verb, participle, prepo- sition, or another noun. How many cases have nouns and pronouns f Three, viz : the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. IThat relation does the Nominative Case bear to the verb 1 It bears the relation of subject; as, John walks; it ^, CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 35 is, also, said to be in the Nominative when predicated of the subject ; as John is a student. It is I. What relation doea the Possessive Case show .' It shows the relation of possession or ownership; as, Pe- ter's wife 8 mother. Henry s horse. Rem. Some nouns, having the Possessive /orw, do not imply ownership ; they are, strictly speaking, Specifyino- Adjectives ; as, Harriet makes ladies bonnets; Johnson sells hoys' hats. TFhat ralation doeo the Objective case show .' The Objective case shows the relation of an object, and is either the object of an action, or of a relation ; as, Charles struck John on the head. When is the Objective case the object of an ac> Time is duration measured. Eternity is duration without measure The space included by the vertical lines (1), represents present time. The space on the left of the vertical lines, represents past time, and that on the right of the vertical lines, rep- resents future time. '' Figure 2, which consists of but one line, having no con- nection with the Present, illustrates the Past tense of the verb. This tense is properly used in speaking and writixig^ •when both the event and the period of time in which it CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 43 occurred, are past ; as, Philosophers made great discove- ries last century. " Figure 3, which consists of two parallel lines, illus- trates the Perfect Tense. This tense embraces a period of time which is not only connected with the present, but frequently extends into the future, as shown by the first line in the figure. This period, as a whole, consists of three component parts ; — the Event part marked E, is past, the Speaking part, marked S, which is present, is the time occupied in uttering the sentence, and the Post speak- ing part, marked P, which is future, denotes that portion of the period of time subsequent to the uttering of the sen- tence. But the period embraced by this Tense of the verb, sometimes only approaches the Present, as shown by the second parallel line ; this is the case when the speaker refers to all the past part of his life ; as, " I have 7iever seen trees so tall." This tense is correctly used in speaking and writing, when the period of time in which the event occurred, is connected with the Present ; as, I have studied hard this weeh Figure 4, which consists of two liaes connected, illus- trates the Pluperfect tense. When two past events are connected in sense, the Plu- perfect is correctly employed in the prior past of the two ; as, The thief had eseap-ed before the goods were missed. That these two are connected in sense, is obvious ; for, when the former is uttered, the mind is so much under the influence of the expectation of the latter, that it is disap- pointed, if it is withheld. The thief had escaped, — and what else ? before the goods were missed. Figure 5, which consists of a single line, ilkstrates the Future tense. This shows that this tense of the Verb denotes future time simply, having no connection with any other event or ^t YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND time. This tense is correctly used Tvhen future time is simply indicated. Figure 6, which consists of two lines connected, illus- trates the Future-Perfect tense. When two future events are connected in construction, this tense is correctly used in the prior future of these two ; as, John will have completed his task by the appointed time. This tense is called Future-Perfect, because the action or event will be completed at or defore the post future event with which it is connected. QUESTIONS. What da^? ("lo space inclnded by the vertical linos, represent? What time does the sy^acc on the left of the -vortical lines, represent? Wbat doea thai on the right reprepent? What does figure 2a represent ? ITheu is tho Past iense correctly used ? What i." mt .mt by the event? nie .?;!ial occurrence of the action, as expressed by the wor i 77iade in the example. What Vj period of time f By pci-iod of time, is meant that portion of time in whicii the event occurs; as, ^' last Centura/" in the example re- ferred t»'. Rem. — The Teacher may ask similar questions on the rest of ^'e Diagram. LESSON XV. • OF NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. Are Nr..:.jer and Person dopendetit or independent propertie» of ibe veirb 7 They are depende-ot. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 45 Why? Because the verb depends upon its nominative for these properties. In order, then, to know tho number and person of the verb, to what must you look ? ■ To its nominative. lu what tonse, do the variations of the verb principally take place? In the Present. "What are these terminations called ? Thej are called personal or verbal. What terminations does a nominative of the second person, singular solemn style, require the verb to assume ? & ■ » T, sty or est ; as, Thou ar^, thou lovest, thou walkest. Does the nominative you of the second person, singular, familiar style, reqaire the verb to assume the same terminations? It does not ; for the verb generally assumes the root or plural form ; as, John, where are you ? Does the verb ever assume the singular form in such instances ? Yes ; some good writers use a verb of the singular form, in the Past tense with such a nominative; as, ''Witness, where ivas you standing during the transaction." What terminations does a nominative of the tliird person, singular, famil- iar style, require the verb to assume ? aS' or e;» ; as. He walks. She goes. What terminations does the same nominative, solemn style, require? Th or eth\ as, "The Lord love^^ the gates of Zion." "He walke^/i through dry places." What does a plural nominative of any person require ? It requires the verb to assume the root or plural form ; as, We love ; you love ; they love. What effect does a nominative of the first person singular have? It generally requires the verb to assume a similar form ; as, I love. Rem. 1. — When an Auxiliary verb is employed, it is always varied instead of the principal verb ; as Thou canst do it. 46 York's illustrative and Rem. 2. — A nominative of the second person, singular, solemn style, requires a verb in the past tense to vary ; as, Thou tvalkedst. Rem, 3. — The solemn style is the style used in the Bible, and the familiar style is that used in common conyersation* LESSON XVI. OF CONJUGATION. What is meant by the Conjugation of a verb? It is, literally speaking, yoking the verb with its nomi- native throughout all its Modes, Tenses, and Voices. CONJUCxATION OF THE VERB TO BE. Root. Be. Principal Parts.. Present, Am or be ; Past, Was ; Perf. Participle, Been. INDICATIVE MODE. present tense. Singular. Plural. 1st Person, I am. 1st Person, We are. 2d Person, iThouart, or 2d Person, \1.°"!'^' ' (You are. / lou are. 3d Person, lie, she, or it is. 3d Person, They arc. Past Tense. 1st Person, I was. 1st Person, We were. 2^ 44 a 1 ers. -j j^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ] Do ye or you be. INFINITIVE MODE. Present Tense, To be. Perfect Tense, To have been. Participles. Imperfect, Being. Perfect, Been. Pluperfect, Having been. LESSON XVII. The Conjugation of the Regular, Transitive Verb, To LovK — IN THE Active Voice. Root, Love. Principal Parts, Love, loved, loved. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular, Ist Person. 1 love. 2(1 " Thou lovest, or you love. 3d " He loveth or loves. * This tense is generally called Present, though, strictly speaking, it is Future ; since, if the event were aetually occurring at the time of command, it would supersede the necessity of it. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, 51 Past Tense. 1st Person 2d 3d I loved. Thou lovedst or you loved. He loved. Perfect Tense. Ist 2d 3d I have loved. Thou hast loved, or you have loved. He hath or has loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1st 2d 3d a I had loved. Thou hadst loved, or you had loved. He had loved. Future Tense. 1st 2d I shall or will love. Thou shalt or wilt love, or you shall love. 3d " He shall or will love. Future-Perfect. Ist " I shall or will have loved. 2d " Thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you shall or will have loved, 3d " He shall or will have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Common or Indicative Form. Singular. 1st " If I love. 2d " If thou lovest, or you love. 3d " If he loveth or loves. 52 york s illustrative and Past Tense. 1st Ferson If I loved. 2d " :If thou lovedst or you loved. 3d *' " If be loved. Perfect Tense. 1st " If I have loved. 2d| " ; If thou hast loved, or you have loved. 3d] " . If he hath or has loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1st " If I had loved. 2d *' If thou hadst loved, or you had loved; 3d " If he had loved. Future Tense. 1st " If I shall or will love. 2d " If thou shalt or wilt love, or if you will love. 3d " If he shall or will love. Futuhe-Perfect Tense. ] 1st " If I shall or will have loved. 2d " If thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you shall or will have loved. 3d " If he shall or will have loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Indefinite Tense.. — [Present.] Singular. 1 I may, can, or must love. cy j Thou mayst, canst, or must love, or ^ \ You may, can, or must love. 3 He may, can, or must love. - /T coxsteuctive grammar. ^^ Indefinite Tense, — [Past.] I might, could, would or should love. hou miglitst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love, or You might, could, would, or should love. He might, could, would, or should love. Perfect Tense. 1 1 may, can, or must have loved. ,y j Thou mayst, caast, or must have loved, or ( You may, can, or must have loved. ^ He may, can, or must have loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1 I might, couid, would, or should have loved. ^ f Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved- ( You might, could, would, or should have loved. ^ He might, could, would, or should have loved. IMPERITIVB MODE. Present Tense. — [Future.]] 2 r Love or love thou or you, or \ Do thou or you lore. iJNFINITIVE MODE. Present Tense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. Participles. Imperfect, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Pluperfect, Having loved. Hem. 1. — Since the verb undergoes no variation to agre© with a nominative in the plural, the plural number has been omitted in the above conjugation. Rem. 2. — The Passive voice is formed throuf'hout all 54 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND the Modes and Tenses^ hy prefixiwg the variations of ibv verb To Be to the Perfect Participle of a Transitive verb ; as, I love, Active ; I a?n loved. Passive Voice. LESSON XVIII. Formation of the Tenses. Tlie Root of the verb, as- found in the Infinitive Present^ is its simplest form. How is the Past Tesase of Regular verbs in the Indicative and Subjunctive Modes, formed f By annexing d or ed to the root; ag|, Love, loved. How is the Past of Irregular verbs formed .' Bj varying the form of the root ; as, See, scnv. How 18 the Perfect Tense formed T By prefixing have or its variations to the Perfect Parti- ciple ; as, Have loved, hadst loved, hath or has loved. How is the Pluperfect Tense formed ? By prefixing had to the Perfect Participle ; as. Had loved. How is the Future formed? ]iy prefixing shall or ivill to the 7'oot of the verb ; as^ Shall or will love. Shall or will see. How is the Future- Perfect formtd? By prefixing shall or will have to the Perfect Partici- ple ; as, Shall or will have loved. Shall or will have seen. How 13 the so caJled Present Potential [Indefinite], formed? By prefixing maj/, can, or must to the root of the verb ; as, ma}^ can, or must love. How is the I'utentiMl Past [Indefinite], as it is called, formed ? By prefixing might, could, would, or should to the root ; as, Might, coukl, would, or should love. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 55 Rem. — -Both of these tenses should be called Indefinite. How is the Potential Perfect formed / By prefixing may^ caUy or must have to the Perfect Participle ; as, May, can, or must have loved. How is the Potential Pluperfect [Past] formed / By prefixing might, could^ would, or should have to the Perfect Participle ; as Might, could, would, or should have loved. How is the Present Infinitive formed .? By prefixing to to the Root ; as, To love. How. is the Perfect Infinitive formed/ By prefixing to have to the Perfect Participle ; as To have loved. LESSON XIX. LIST OF IRREGULAR A^ERBS, Present. Past. Abide abode Am or Be was Awake awoke, R Bear, (to bring forth,) bore Bear, (to carry .) bore Beat beat Begin began Bend . bent, R, Bereave bereft, R, Beseech besought Bid bid, bade, Bind bound Bite bit Bleed bled Blow blew Perfect Participle. abode been awaked born borne beaiCn, beat • begun bent bereft, R, besought bidden, bid bound bitten, bit bled blew * Those verbs whose Past tense and Perfect Partii iple are followed by R, have also a regular form ; as, Awake or awaited. 56 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE A5D Prksbnt. Past Break broke n Breed bred Bring brought Build built, R, Burn burnt, R, Buret burst Buy bought Cast cast Catch caught, R, Chide chid Choose chose Cleave, (to adhere,). cleaved Cleave, (to split,) clove, cleft, Cling clung Clothe clad, R, Come came Cost cost Creei> crept Crow crew, R, Cut eut Dare durst Deal dealt, R, Dig dug, R, Do did Draw drew Dream dreamt, R^ Drink drank Drive drove Dwell dwelt EftI ate, eat. mi fell Feed fed Peel felt ^iglvt fought find found Flee fled Fling flung Fly flew Forsake forsook Freeze froze Freight freighted Get got Gild gilt, R, Gird girt, R, Give gave ill return to-morrow. I may have said it. The work might hav* •been done better. He would not go. He went into th« field, to seek treasure. He ought to have gone sooner. — Obey my precepts, if you wish to learn. Take heed to your ways. Walk not in the way of bad men. Keep your heart with all diligence. Tarry not at the w;nc. He has no time to lose. Have they returned ? Can Mary attend the wedding ? It is I ; be not afraid. LESSON XX. OF PARTICIPLE. What Is a Participle t A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also, of an adjective, but de- pends upon a noun or pronoun in con&truction. How do Participles partake of tbp itature of the verb? They, like verbs, express action ; as, I see a man walk- ing. In what respect, do tbey partake of tbo nature of adjectives ? In limiting the noun or pronoun on which they drpend. For instance, in the sentence, "I see a man walking," walking not only exp)es^es the action of man, 1 ut, also, limits man like an adjective. How many Participles have verbs? Three, viz : Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 61 How is the Imporfect Participle formed ? By annexing ing to the Koot of the verb ; as, Love, loving. Rem. — ^When the verb ends in e, on receiving the suffix ing^ the e is dropped. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar, Rules for Spelling.) IVhy is the Participle ending in ing, called Imperfect? Because the action Tvhich it expresses, is unfinished. How is the Perfect Participle formed ? When derived from a regular verb, it is formed by an- nexing d or ed to the Root; as, Love, loved ; but, when derived from an Irregular verb, it is formed by varying the form of the Root ; as, See, seen. Why is this Participle called Perfect? Because it denotes -a finished state of the action or ver- bal denotement. How is the Pluperfect Participle formed? By prefixing having to the Perfect Participle ; as, seen, having seen. Why is it called Pluperfect. Because it denotes more than the Perfect. Rem. — The Pluperfect Participle not only denotes . finished state of the action or verbal denotement-, but, also, as completed before the time indicated by i--. -. princi- pal verb of the sentence, with vhich it is assooi;- ; u ; as, He having written a letter, mnilpd it. (For a full display of tlie Participle, see Illustrative and Constructive Grram- mar.) MODEL. The old fox heard the hunter's horn sounding. Sounding is an Imperfect Participle, derived from the verb to sounds and refers to horn^ according to Rule 18. Why is soundirg a Participle? Because it is derived from a verb, and partakes of th nature of a verb and an adjective. 62 York's illustrative and Why is it Imperfect? Because the action wliicli it expresses, is unfinished, still going on. Why i» it said to refer to horn ? Because it depends upon it in construction. EXERCISES. I see an eagle flying. The hnnters heard the young dog b;iil%ing. James has completed the task given him. The young ladies, having written the letter, dispatched it. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lonely head. The General having completed the conquest, re- turned in triumph. Jesus seeing the multitude, went up into a mountain. The house, erected on yonder rising ground, drew me from the road. I see a man beating his horse. LESSON XXL PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. What is a I*ron )un ? A Pronoun is a word used instead of si noun, and gene- rally to avoid its repetition ; as, Ilenv^ is a good student, and he learns very fast. Re . — You perceive that he, in this sentence, stnnds for the noun or name Henry, and, also, avoids its repetition, thereby ai.iking language more concise and elegant. How rn.iv r'runouna be divided? Into ivo classes, viz: Personal and Relative, or Con- nective. How aro ;.;n;onal pronouns distinguished from the Rela iv«? Personal pronouns have a form to show their own ^er- 8on ; j>., litives have not. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 63 How many Personal pronouns are there ? There are fiv^e, viz : 7, thou or you^ he she, and it, and their plurals, We, ye or you, and they. What belong to Pronouns? As Pronouns stand for nouns, they must have the same properties, viz : Gender, Person, Number, and Case. Which of the Pronouns are varied to express Gender? Those of the third person, singular, viz: He, mascu- line ; She, feminine, and It, neuter. Why are not Pronouns of the first and second persona, varied to express Gonder? Because the speaker and person addressed, are supposed to be present ; consequently their Gender known ; but, as the third person may be absent or unknown to the person addressed, it is varied to express gender. How many Persons have pronouns? Tliree; first, second, and third; Jand?/;c are first per- son, thou or you and ye or you are second, and he, she, it, and they, third. Wb't does the person of Pronouns represent or denote ? The first person denotes the speaker, the second, the person or thing spoken to or addressed, and the third, the persons or things spoken of or about. LESSON. OF DECLENSION. Do Pronouns have a form to show their case ? Moot of them have. W ; 18 this variat.il a of form, to show c.u^e, called? It is called Declension. Whiii dix s Declension mcaii ? It meaas to bend from, i c, the Possessive and Objec- tive cases generally huva forms different from the nomina- tive, as illustrated in the lollowiug Diagram : 64 York's illustrative and DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON Possessive. MY or MINE- our SECOND YOUR- your — Nominative. Singular. i Plural. — we — PERSON, Famili Singular. YOU Plural. SECOND niY or THINE- your- PERSON, Solemn Singular. THOU THIRD HIS- you Objective. ME, -us. AK Style. YOU Style. -you. Plural. ye — PERSON — Masc Singular. „ HE -TH^E, -you. uline. rheir- HER Their Plural. Tl.ey- THIRD PERSON— -Femi Singular. SHE THIRD ITS Their Plural. -Thoy- PERSON — Neu Singular. :iT HIM Tlun-!, nine. ■HER, -Them. TER. Plural. -They— -IT, -Tliciii. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 65 By examining the Diagram, it will be perceived that the Nominative is written in the middle column, the Posses- sive on the left, and the Objective on the right. The Pos- sessive and Objective cases are written at the ends of linea, forming right angles with the middle column, showing that the most of them have a form, and all of them a meaning different from the Nominative. In declining, as exhibited in the Diagram, the pupils will take it up in the following order : Nominative I ; Pas- sive my or mine ; Objective me, &c. MODEL. " Henry is a good student, and he learns very fast." He is a Personal Pronoun, Masculine Gender, third person, singular, agreeing^ with its antecedent Henry^ according to rule 12, (repeat) ; and in the nominative caso to the vprb learns according to Rule 1. (Repeat Rule.) Why is he a Pronoun ? Because it is used instead of a noun. Why a Personal pr«noan? Because it has a form to show its person. Why of tho Mascaline gender, third person^ singolarf Because its antecedent Henry is. Why in the Nominatire case f Because it is the subject of the verb in Us own memW. EXERCISES. Mary walked with her sister. I saw a man walking with his brother. My friends visit me very often. Charles has lost his knife. Thou hast seen my friend. Blot out all mine iniquities. We leave your forests of beasts. You are happy ; because you are good. I will fear no evil ; for thou art with me. ^6 York's illustrated and LESSON XXIII. OF RELATIVE OR CONNECTIVB PRONOUNS. What are Relative Pronouns 1 They relbe used? It should be '^sed before words commencing with a vowel itoundy and, also., before words commencing with A, when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, An aooran; aK> hour; 8, as exhibited in the above Model.] Washington was a prudent man. A good man is a great man. Solomon was the wiset man. 'Ud age should be respected. Martha is m„ore beautiful than her sister. Pe- ter is taller than James. He bought a piece of dark brown cloth. A very industrious man acquires property. A very good pen writes well. / LESSON XXVIII. SrECIFYIKG OR LIMITING ADJECTIVES. How do Siiccifyiny Adjectives point out nouns ? They point out nouns by some distinct specification^ but do not express quality ; as, Every man. Some womeiu Do Specifying Adjectives ever belong to nouns? They do, though not frequently ; as, " A good under- etanding have all they that fear the Lord." Are Specifying Adjectives ever used as Substitutes ? They are frequently so used ; as, He came unto his ozom, but his own received him not, ^. e, he came unto his own nation, &c. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 75 Into fcew many classes may Specifying Adjectives be divided/ Into seven ; viz .: 1st. Distributive ; as, Eacli^ every, either, neither, 2cl. Demonstrative ; as, This, that, these, those, yonder, 3d. Indefinite ; as. All, such, some. 4th. Interrogative; as, What, ivhich. 5th. Numeral ; as, One, tivo, twenty, &c. 6th. Ordinal ; as, First, second, third, &c, 7th. Circumstantial ; as. An Arabian horse. A desert thistle, &c. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar.) MODEL. ^^ Every man helps a little." Every is a Specifying Adjective, and belongs to man, according to Rule 15. Why is every an -Adjective? Because it is added to a noun. Why Specifying or limiting ? Because it limits the meaning of the noun without ex- pressing quality. EXERCISES. Some me» are not wise. All men are mortal. Each individual fills a space in creation. Three ladies walked into the garden. Adam was the first man. Those young ladies are handsome. This man is unhappy. That day w as hot. All great men are not wise. Some men labor, others do not. All we, like sheep, have gone astray. He has an Arabian horse. Demosthenes was an Athenian Orator. Jefferson was an American citizen. LESSON XXIX. ADVERBS OR MODIFIERS. WhtiX is an Adverb, or Modifier / An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of T6 TORK'ff ILLUSTRA'PrVK AND verbs, participles, adjectives or other adverbs; as, She walks gracefully. I see a cloud moving slowly. A VERY good pen writes extremely tvell. Rem. — It would be better, perhaps, to call those Ad- verbs which modify Adjectives, Secondary or Heljnng Ad- jectives ; since they limits nouns or pronouns indirectly through the medium of the Adjectives which they limit directly. We would, also, suggest the propriety of call- ing such Adverbs as modify other Adverbs, Secondary or Selping Adverbs. Into how many classes, may Adverbs be divided ? Though Adverbs express a great variety of meaning and shades of meaning, yet the principal Adverbs may be in- cluded in four classes ; viz : Time, place, cause, and man- ner. To what questions, do Adverbs of 2^lace answer ? To the questions where, whither, whence ; as, Where', there, above, &c. To what questions, do Adverbs of time answer ? To the questions ivhen,- ho^v long, hoiv often } as. Then, yesterday, often, &c. To what questions, do Adverbs of cause answer? They answer to the questio:;'!®' wh'^, wherefore ; a^^^ W%, wherefore, therefore, &c. To what question, do Adverbs of manner answer ? They answer to the question hoiv ; as. Elegantly, faith- fully, fairly, &c. MODEL. The day glides sweetly. Sweetly is an Adverb, and modifies the verb glides, ac- cording to Rule 25. Why is Sweetly an adverb ? Because it modifies the meaning of the verb glides. COlfSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 7T Iq modifying the meaning of the verb glides, what doeff ^ point out f It points out the manner of its action. To what class, then, does it belong / It belongs to the class of Manner, EXERCISES. The river flows rapidly. The bird flies swiftly. He is thert. Where is Thomas ? Why do you delay ? ^^The lowering clouds move slowly. We shall get the mail to- morrow. When shall I hear from you? He is not at home. The weather is very cold. She writes exceedingly well. Surely* he will return soon. LESSON XXX. OF PREPOSITIONS. What is a Preposition ? A Preposition is a word used to connect words, and ghow the relation between them; as, He went to New York. Rem.— To, in this sentence, connects went and Neic York, and it, also, shows the relation which ITeiv York bears to ivent. The connective quality will readily be per- ceived by omitting the preposition; thus, He went New York. Here the total want of connection is obvious* Since Prepositions connect words, and show the relation between them, ho-w many terms must every Preposition have? Two, viz : Antecedent and Subsequent. How would J ou define the Antecedent term ? The Antecedent term is so called, because \t preceded i\\e Preposition in the natural order of construction. What is the Suhsequcnt term ? The subsequent termfoUo^vs the Preposition in the natu- ral order of construction. 78 York's illustrative and What parts of speech may be used as the Antecedent term? A noun or pronoun, verb, participle, adjective, and even an adverb. What may be used as the Subsequent ? A noun, pronoun, participle, or part of a sente»cc. Rem. — When a Participle is used as a Subsequent term of a Preposition, it partakes of the meaning of a noun, and is frequently called by grammarians a Participial noun ; as, He earns a livelihood by writing. In Tvhat case, is the Subsequent term of every Preposition ? It is in the objective case, and governed by the Preposi- tion. In order to ascertain what words are connected by Pre- positions, you must make the sense your guide, — guided by this, you will generally be able to determine what words are Prepositions, and what they connect, without the aid of a List of Prepositions. MODEL. Lot fled with his two daughters, from Sodom to the mountains. From is a Preposition, and connects fled and Sodom^ and shows the relation between them, according to Rule XXX. Rem. — With and fo, in the above example, are, also, Prepositions, having the same Antecedent iQvm fled ; hence it will be perceived that several Prepositions may have the same Antecedent term. Why is from a Preposition ? Because it connects words, and shows the relation be- tween them. EXERCISES. There was a marriage in Cana of Galilee. The sun shines through the window upon the floor. Birds fly in the air. A green, narrow vale appeared before us ; its CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, 79 ^finding stream murmured through the grove; the dark hosts of Rothmar stood on its hanks, with their glittering spears. She sits at the window. Her ways are ways of LESSON XXXL OF CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES. What is a Conjunction, or Connective ? A Conjunction is a word, used to connect phrases and clauses of sentences, and, also, words of* the same con- struction, therehy enabling the speaker or writer to con- tinue discourse at pleasure ; as, Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it. Martha and Mary were sisters. Are Conjunctions ever used after a full point, or period? They are sometimes ; thereby manifesting some relation between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. How are Conjunctions generally divided? They are generally divided into Copulative and Disjunc- tive. Is this division important ? It is not ; but is, perhaps, worse than useless. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar; also. Dr. Web- ster's Improved Grammar.) Name the principal Conjunctions, used in connecting discourse? They are andy hut, or, nor, yet, than, if, though, lest, un- less, &c. (For the classification of Connectives, see Elements of sentences, Part First.) MODEL. God created the heavens and the earth. And is a Conjunction, and connects heavens and earth, according to Rule 22. 80 YOtlK's ILLUSTRATIVE AND Rem. — In parsing Conjunctions which connect phrasea and clauses, no rule need be applied. EXERCISES. Clay and Webster were distinguished Senators. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glasses to hope. The wicked is driven away in his wickedness ; but the righteous hath hope in his death. Mary and Eliza play. James will im- prove, if he study. Obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourselves. Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake. LESSON XXXI. OF INTERJECTIOirS OR EXCLAMATIONS. Whan is an Exclamation [Interjection]? An Exclamation is any sudden expression of joy, grief^ disgust, calling, &c.; as, jo;$^ful sound of gospel grace! Alas ! I fear for life ! Turti from your evil ways, houRe of Israel ! &c. Rem. 1 — Considering the etymological import of the term Interjection, it will, perhaps, be conceded by all that the name is inappropriate ; since but comparatively few of the words called Interjections, are thrown between the parta of a sentence ; the term Exclamation is, therefore, to be! preferred. This ia recommended by Dr. Webster and other able philologists. Rem. 2 — Since Exclamations have no dependent con- iStruction, they can have no government, nor scarcely can they be said to belong to written language. MODEL. Alas ! and did my Saviour bleed ? Alas is an Exclamation [Interjection] ; it is an expr^s- CONSTRUCTIVE GEAMMAR. 81 sion of grief; it has no dependent construction in the sen- tence, according to Rule XXXI. EXERCISES. Oh ! what a fall was there. Lo ! from their seats, the mountains leap. Alas ! I fear for life. Ah ! whither shall I fly ? What ! take my money, and my life too ! Fie ! how angry he is. LESSON XXXIIL OF THE CASES INDEPENDENT, ABSOLUTE, AND APPOSITION-, When is a noun or prononn said U be in the Nominatire oaae Indt- pendent? It is said to be in the Case Independent when directly addressed ; as, JameSy I desire you to study. When Is a n«un or pronoun said to be in the Nominatiye Case Absolute .' When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, liaving no verb to agree with it, it is in the nominative •case Absolute ; as, The sun having risen, we pursued our journey. When is a noun or pronoun said to be in Apposition f When a noun or pronoun is appended to another noun or pronoun for explanation or emphasis, it is said to be in Apposition with it ; as, Paul, the great ApostUy was cmi^ nent for his Christian zeal. Rem. — As the case in Apposition must always agree in case with the principal word, it must be construed in the same member; as, [Daniel Webster, the distinguished Statesman and Orator^ now reposes] (in the silent grave.) MODEL L BoySj study your lessons. 82 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND Boys is a common noun, masculine gender, second per* son, plural, and is in the Nominative case Independent, according to Rule 27. MODEL 2. /being in great haste, he consented. / is a personal pronoun, of the j&rst person, singular, and in the nominative case Absolute, according to Rule 28. MODEL 3. John, the beloved Disciple, was banished. Diaciple is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular, and is in the nominative case^ put by Apposition with John, according to Rule 3. EXERCISES. Young man, you have ruined yourself, and injured your friend. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. The Gene- ral being slain, the army was routed. The moon having risen, we resumed our march. The Butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. She descending, the ladder fell. Make not my Father's house, a house of merchan- dise. Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair, proclaim your Maker's wondrous power. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. [You may now Analyze, Construe, and Parse tho following sentences which contain all the Parts of speech ; you may, also, assign the reason for ttv« punctuation, and quote tho rules.] Eliza went with Mary to the well for water. The All wise Creator bestowed tho power of speech upon man for the best purpose. Pale Cynthia declining clips the hori- zon. Man beholds tho twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Thou who CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 83 hast been a witness of the fact, canst state it. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. Beneath the pale beams of the moon, the Indian lover sat, and, in piteous tones, bewailed her sad condition. If youth be trifled away without improvement, manhood will be con- temptible, and old age, miserable. The sun shines upon all men who will receive his rays which he sends from the heavens. John the Baptist came, preaching in the wilder- ness of Judea. Jesus departed, and went into the parts of Galilee. Thert) I shall bathe my weary soul In seas of heavenly rest, And not a wave of trouble roll Across my peaceful breast. We had heard the news before the messenger arrived. The work might have been finished sooner. Susan may visit her sister who lives in the country ; but Lucinda must re- main at home with her mother. Go ye into all the world, and preach my Gospel to every creature. Alas ! the joys that fortune brings, Are trifling, and decay; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they. The value of the Christian faith, may be estimated from the consolations which it affords. He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness, for his name's sake. The ejes of a fool are in the ends of the earth. The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promates the happiness of all who are around him. Charles, you, by your diligence, have made easy work of the task which was given you by your preceptor. Bo- naparte being banished, peace was restored to Europe. Boys, study your lessons closely, if you wish to succeed. Paul, the great Apostle of the Gentles, suffered martyr dom at Rome. Why seek ye the living among the dead ? Canst thou expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance ? She makes the heavy heart t« sing, And cheers the wintry gloom, Floats on the spicy gales of spring, And makes all feature bloom. g4 YOBK'a ILLUSTRATIVE AND DoBt thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? The law was^iven by Moses ; but grace and truth -came by Jesus Christ. John, the Apostle, was banishec* to the ifile of Patmos. Your friends may die, and haste away To that blest world of rest ; But Mary's part, with you, will stay, And ever make you blest. LESSON XXXIV. OF SYNTAX. Of what does Syntax treat ? It treats of the construsetion of sentences. Do joa remember wLat a sentence is ? A sentence is such an aesemblage of words as asserts a fact. What elements are necessary to assert a fact? The Subject and Predicate; as, The sun sMnes* Upon what principles, are most of tl?^ rules of Syntax based ? They are mostly based upon three principles, viz : Gov- eraoient. Agreement, or Concord, and Position. Ib what does Government consist? Government is that power which one word has in direct- tog the Mode, Tense, or Case of another word. What is Agreement or Concord f Concord is the agreement of one word with auother in ff4nder, persom, number, and case. What is Position ? Position is the place -which a word occupies in a sen- tence. CC^NSTi^D'CTIVE «(SRAMMAIL ^5 LESSON XXXV« •RULES OF 6YKTAX- EULE I — The sul)ject e in tli ject, must be in the nomiiia>tiv« ^caBe; as. Thou wtlxe, — Law ie a rvdc of actkwi- RULE III — A noun or pr«n(Buii, nsed to identify another nouTi or proROUTi, is put 'by apposition in the same case : as, Solomon, the son of David, wrote niany proverbs. RULE TV — A noun -or pron-oun in the possessive civst. 5S governed by the word which it limits'; as, ffohn't book. His 'being away from home, was the caiise of great disap- pointment. RULE V — rh-e i-nfinitiv-e mode is governed by t'he word •whi^h it limits; as, They went TO se-E hiia- She is'eag^r TO LEARN. I heard Iidm say it, RULE ¥1 — The ver'b musf agree with it^ ncminfitiYe in jQ umber and person ; &s, Thou eeesit. Ke sees, I see. We see, &c. RULE Vm — Two -or more nomiRutives in the singular, conoected by and, mii-st kave verbs agreeiisg with them in the plural ; as, Cato and Plato tvere wise. RULE Vni — ^Two or mere nomiRatives in th-e singular, con^iected by ^r or ner, must kav« v-erbs agreeing with them in the singular ; as John or James was ill. RULE IX— Whem a verb agrees with the lafinitiye mode ©r part of a gentence for its subject, tt must be in tiie third person singular ; as, To die for one's country, is glorious. To study is profifcable. RULE X— A collective noun conveying idea of unity, generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular ; as. The nation teas once powerful, but now it is feeble. RULE XL— A collective noun conveying idea of plu- 7 &(y TOEK'S ILHrSTKATTVF ANT? ralit^, geii>eraITy ha^ & Ter?/» amd? prom)iai in- the- plural ,~ ss"^ The comimittee wer^- divi^kd m their somtimerjts. KFLE XII — Frofi(x?i>s agree witb tbeir an-tecedcnts Id gendSer, irr.TrjbcT, aiiii< persoij : asy .?ohrv ioet hi^ krvifc. He- j<'/i(^ stotSeS', mVi iraprcvre-. IIUL-E XTII — The iKufeMte- catide belcfngs-toR€«ns ir* the- &iTxigwlar nuMHrbc-r ; as^ A mi\m An hour. KULE XI Y.*' — ^Tlie dlefe^^e- artide belongs- to» ncwn^ o^' botli Duirjber& ; asy T73'£^ man?. The iraen*. KULE r^i^A^ — AcFjectF?es b^lo-ng t® no^iifrand pronouns; RLLE XVI — AdjestiY€& sometiisaeS'WoRfg' to the inSn- itivc iDodfe, p«rt of a seii'teixje, or a whoJe senteiice; as^ r^y^^i;- is- FLE^^SiYNT. A6.REEA.BLE to this, we read of name s^ ^:r'i7ig blctted out of God'& boo-k. QualiSj mdij be predieated of aetie-n ; I>en>ce RULE XVII — Adjectives are used to-qimlifj til-? aetioK f. \erbs^ ani^ to express the (ju^lities- of things in connec- tion witli X\iQ action bv which thej are protliu-eecJ ; as^ Opeii thine Lazad wids. Tiie egga b3>il hmd. The \ist% l;ook.& RULE XVin — Fartidples refey to- nouKis aasf pro- nouns j as-, Mary having written her iKter, mailcil it, I 3€e hill) walking. RULE XIX— The cbject ©f a transitiTC Terb in the active Toiee, is- ysit id ^hc ivbjectiTe rase } asy I m's^ him tvhom you we#, RTjLE XX — The obiect e-f a iransitive participle is put in the objective case; as, I sa-«r a man heating his 7ii)r5^. RULE XXI — Tl\e *>bjeet of a preposition is put in the O'bjective ca.-^e ; aSy Henry Trent with me. RULE XXII — Conjunctions connect words of the same ^ort ; a&7 John and Jame^. Crood and had, etc. * This is not important, since there is no possibility of violating it. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 87 RULE XXIII — A Conjunction connects nouns and pro- nouns of the same case ; as, Ilenrj and WilUam obey their teacher. RULE XXI Y — Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and tenses; as, Kingdoms rise umi fall. RULE XXY — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs ; as, He writes hadly. RULE XXVI — Eup})ony requires that the sign to of the infinitive should be omitted when construed with the following verbs, viz : hid, dare, feel, make, let, hear, help, see, need, and their participles ; as. He bid me come. We felt tlie earth trouble. I h^ard him speak, etc. iiULE XXVII — When an address is made, the nai-e of the person or thing addressed, is put in the nominative'^' case independent ; as, James, I desire you to study. RULE XX"\'III — A nonn or pronoun, placed before a participle, and having no verb to agree witli it, nor word on which to depend, is put in the nominative case absolute : as, The sttn having risen, we pursued our journey. RULE XXIX — Some verbs in the imperative mode have no nominative specified ; as, " God said, let there be light, and there was light, RULE XXX— Prepositions point out the relation be- tween their antecedent and subsequent terms; as, Henry we7it to the cit^/ of Neiv York. RULE XXXI. — Exclamations [Interjections] have no dependent construction. Rem — The last three rules niay be used in parsing, or they may be omitted — just as it may suit the tas*e of teachers. ^ It would be better, perhaps, t> dr >p the word nominative, and simpiv say " The case indeijcndcut." 88 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE A5D LESSON xxjn^i. OF RULES OF SYNTAX WITH NOTES ; AND SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED. RULE L— The subject of the verb must be in the nomi- native case; as, "JbAn writes." Note 1. — The infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, or a whole sentence, may be the subject of a verb; as, " To nee, is pleasant" — *' To die for ofie'g coimtnj, is glorious." Note 2. — When a pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must take the subjective form ; as, *'/, tJioii, he, she, we, they, etc. FALSE SYNTAX. '' Them told itr ^ Ie thie sentence correct f It is not. Why? Them is used as the subject of the verb, but has not the subjective form. It should be, " They told it," according to Rule 1. EXERCISES. [ [Correct tbe sentences under each rule, and parse the words corrected.] Him struck first. Her was not to blame. Them were in fault. Who said it 'i Me said it. Him is in the field. Her is at home. LESSON XXXVII. RULES AND CORRECTIONS CONTINUED. RULE 11— A noun or pronoun, predicated of the sub- ject, must be in the nominative case; as, '• Thou art he.'* FALSE SYNTAX. "John is himJ", CONSTRUCTIVii GRAMMAR. 81> la this sentence correct f It is not. Rim is predicated of the subject John, but is not in the nominative case, or has not the subjective form. It should be, "John is he," according to rule 2. EXERCISES. Is it me? I thought it ^vas him. Mary was not her. That boy is him. She said it was them. It was her that told it. Is it him with whom he is angry ? RULE III.— A noun or pronoun, used to identify another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case; as, "Cicero, the Orator^ FALSE SYNTAX. "He took it to be /." 13 this sentence correct? It is not. State the reason. / is used to identify it, but is not in the same case. It i should be, " He took it to be me.'" ^ EXERCISES. I believe it to be she. She mistook me to be he. We '^ adore the Divine Beings He who sustains all things. It was John, him who preached repentance. I saw Mary, she that you visited. LESSON XXXVIII. RULE IV.— A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed bv the word which it limits; as, ''''Johns book." v'O YORK 8 ILLUSTRATIVE AND Note 1. — The possessive case of nouns should always be distin- guished by an apostrophe. Note 2. — Nouns, pluralized by .s, retain the apostrophe, rejecting the additional 8 ; as, Those boys' books. Note 3. — Any noun ending in a hissing sound, followed by another oommcncing with a hissing sour.d, retains the apostrophe only ; as " Righteousness' sake." FALSE SYNTAX. " That girls book is on the table." 1« this eentence correct? It is not. Point out what is wrong, and correct. Girls is in the possessive case, but not tlistinguishcd by the apostrophe. The apostrophe should be inserted be- ivreeii the I and s ; thus, That girVs book. EXERCISES. Those hoys books are cleaner than that girls book. The boys hat is under the bed. Peters dog bit Johns finger. The Lords day should be kept holy. He does it for con- seience sake. RULE v.— The infinitive mode is governed by the ■vvor<] ^vhich it limits; as, "They iveiit to see him." LESSON XXXIX. RULE VL — A verb must agree with its nominative w number and person; as, *' Thou «^c«t" ^'Wq sees.'' *'I t^c." '' We see:' FALSE SYNTAX. " 1 lovethr Jt tills sentence correct.^ It is not; for the yerb loveth ha^ tho termination of the 'CO^STRTJCTTVE 'GRAXMATi, 'SI ^1fird 'person singute, -solemn .-style. It should be love it- iagree with its nomia^ative oks, Yo^ ha* •a fen-c 'dness. "Mie last v\ve€& Mwere vary hot, -She take •"Smilff. tl ,r;-.issfc ^sbirts mgr ♦eyes, .and g^>es at. iBiUOS VIL — l>wo 'or ^msve •namka'tkef. inthe -smgiilar., '■^on^ected \fj^a'nd^ Bfntst <^bjm'e 3i*bs agreeing Avith .th^m iy- •the .iplural:; 4is, '"♦Gat--© aosS M«*«'ti'ep»2 ^-svise." '*''Heisiry?3nid WiTliam /^at'^ Fetuuned^'^ Is this ^«n ten e« correct .' It is (MOt-? Why? The ^TeiH), ^t^ref??rr/ie:foi>e, %€ .H-enry and 'Wiilliam hu've retuvnech aooordin^ noiE«l9¥;IL Marthe, amd Mary -^^js si^-ers, -D'olm anH ^etsr 'lWas strongly ^ attached 'to 'eaofc 'Othor^ Elixa .end 'her «.ister 'has .^one into 4he cde e-r part of a 3ejia:e:4«a f^r ifes- subject^ k ir/tist be of i'le third person, singular; as-,. '^ To see^ is pleasan-t,' " ■•' To die for onesoowntry^ ^ glbri3us,."' S-ALSE. SYNTAX- ^To seelc God', are wisdomo."' la tkia eentenco correct '?. It is-Tl-O't.. State; tbo rejus^n.. The verb haa the pluraJ form, whereas it haa pfi^rt df ^j tientenca for its subj.ect ;. it is,, tWrefose,. inoorr^ct. i'> sliould bCy. To a«ek (j^l, i^ wisdom, ace(S>rdiiig to Riile IX. EXERCISES, Thair tiie tmth is a sphere, ar'^ casiTj proveJ^ Td ser s>ur frienils, avs pl^auDl. 'iV publish slanderous words,. ^re wrong. To seek our own happiness by violating th*v- rights of Gfchrors, are contrary to the (^rolden Rule, Ta lieaxn,. are- pleasanU cosstrvctivy: gkajimak. 9-3 RULE X--A collective noun conveying idea o^ unity, /:,'eneriilly has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the lingular ; as, *' That nation was once powerful ; but now it id feeble/' FALSE SY>'TAX, ^^The council tvere unanimous." le this sentence correct ? It ia not. State the reason wbj it ia no* correct :'' The nominative is a collective noun^ conveying idea of nnifi; ; the verb, therefore, should be singular ; thus, The council iva» unanimous. EXERCISES. The society mi^et annually. The meeting tvere large. The army were routed. Congress have adjourned. RULE XI— A collective noun conveying idea of i:>lu~ ralitf/j generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the plural; as, ''The council tvere divided in their sen- timents/' FALSE SYNTAX. *' The committee was divided in its sentiments/' Say the committee were divided in their sentiments. Why should the verb and prououo, in this sentence, be plural/ Because the noun committee conveys the idea of phi- rality, EXERCISES. The people was divided in its sentiments, some adhering to one faction, and some to another. The multitude pur- sues pleasure as its chief good. LESSON XLI, RULE X7J.— Pronouns agree with their antecedents in 04 York's illustrative a^^b gender, number, and person; as, ^' J^ha lost kk knife.'' ** He wA-c? studies, will impn3vi art the Loni, «-/<»'; 8 Z YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVK AND EXERCISES. He cave the frnir to /. Between /and you, there i.-i a crreit disparity of years. The teacher spoke to he an«l I. With >vho, does he trifle ? LESSON XLV. RULE XXII — Conjunctions connect Avords of the same sort; as, "Jo/m {>nd James.'' Good und had.'' ^'' Gj-ace- fullij and rajndly.'' i^KM. This rule should only be applictl when conjunctions connect words. RULE XXIII — Conjunctions connect nouns and pro- nouns in the same case ; as, " Henry and William obey their leacher." "They assisted /r/?yi and 7?i<.^" '"'David's and. Jonathaiis friendship." FALSE SYNTAX. Him and I went. Say, He and I went. EXERCISES. He and them have no dealings. He sent it to her and I. She and nie are cousins. Him and they are brothers. He went with her and I. Who will go ? He and me. RULE XXIA^— Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and tenses ; as, " Kingdoms rise and fall" LESSON XLVL RULE XXV — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs ; as, *'• He writes well.'' COi?rSTKU€TIYE GKA3IMiiK. 99 Note. — "When manner is expressed, an «(^t'cr?v should be employed, and not an adject ire ; a&. The birtls sing ^wee-tlhf. Shs? dances grae-e- fuiy Say, She dances gracefuliy. EXERCISES FOP. COKRECTION. Clouds are moring sle^w. That }0«ng ladj sings sweet. The bell rings n:ierry. Time flies rapid. She cannot hear gocxl. He writes bad. That hoy walks- awkward. Noi'E 2. — Umiieccf5vS{iry negatives shcHild be avoklcil; as-, I don't jScno\T nothhig abcut it, Stiy, 3 know nothiiig about it, w I do not knmv any thing ube-imt it. FOR CORRECTION. He never s-ays nothing. He haint got no more. lie Jon't do nothing. In our neighborhood, no body never take no newspapers. RULE XXVI — Euphony requires that the sign fo of the infinitive should be omitted when construed with the following verbs, viz. hid^ dare, feel, help, make, let, hear, »ee, need, and their participles ; as, " He bid me eome,'' " We felt the earth tremble,'' etc. Note. — When Ihcse verbs are used in the Passive voice, the sign is used; as, ''"He was often heard to aayJ" FALSE SYNTAX. Let bim to go. Say, Let him go, EXERCISES. Bid him to depart. I felt the earth to shake. I heard her to say. Help him to work. He need not to attend, I saw the child to walk. He dare not to do it. Make the man to work. LESSON XLYII. RULE XXYII — When an address is made, the name 100 VORKS ILLUSTRATIVE AND of die person or thing addresged, la put in tlie nominaiice case indeptmdent\ as, *'^ copious, we have thrown together some of th^e inaccnraeies, and arranged the correct andincorrcet expressions in par- allel columns. Though thes^ colloquial inaccaraeies may vary not only in different States, but,, also, in different sections of the same State, yet they may nearly all be traced to three leading sources, viz : 1 Ummrrantahle Contractions. 2 Redundant words or JPhonastic expres- sions, and 3 Words badly chosen to eonvey the sense in- tended, CLASS L Unwarrantable Contractions. Though some contractions are admissible in familiar style, yet they sliould be carefully aroided in all grave or solemn discourse. Incorrect, I aViiH well, I hav'nt been out. We weren't there, SJie'd heard of it, I us'd to know it, I^Te seen '«r, I ^spose Uwitl, Lay ^em on the table, Gim me some bread, A good^eel too short, He haint none, You do'ii't know Hmy John^s got enough, Cmi't she go? Correct. I am not well, I have not been out^ We were not there, She bad h^ard of it,. I used to know, I hare seen her, I suppose it will, Lay them on the table,, Give ine some bread, Very much too short, He has none. You do not know him, John has enough. Can she not go f CLASS IL Redurdaict Words, or Pleokastic Expressions. Incorrect. Correct. I could not get to go, The speaker rose -wp. He fell down. Up above, Up over, D9wn under. He mentioned it over again, I will repeat it again^ I could not go. The speaker rose. He fell, Above, Over, Under, He mentioned it again, I will repeat it, CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 103 Incorrect. They loth met, He cannot taWfor why, Return had- immediately, He went, but will soon come hdch again, Where shall I go to ^ He was in here, AVc entered into the case, I am a going. He is a walking. Can you go ? To he sure. D'ye see that ihar man ? /'fe done said it, Btit he 8 done done it, How do you do ? He has (jot enough, Mary she went, John he said it, Susan her bonnet, George his book, Bring me them there quills, This here book. That there book, LooTcy there, Correct. They met, He cannot tell why, Return immediately. He went, but will soon return, "Where shall I go? He was here. Wo entered the cave, I am going, lie is walking. Can you go ? Surely, Do you see that man ? I have said it. But he has done it, How Are you ? He has enough, Mary went, " John said it, Susan's bonnet, George's book, Bring me those quills, This book, That book, Look there. CLASS II L Words Badly Cuosen. Incorrect. I am drij. Put out the candle, Give me them books, I reckon it will rain, I gucM it is enotigh, I calculate to return, You read right well, She cannot hear good, lam monstrous glad to see you, He has a heap of money, 1 want it hadlt/, A great* territory. The Erricson is a big'^ ship, AV'ebster's large* mind, Correct. I atn thirsty, Extinguish the light. Give me those booku, I think it will ram, I think it is enough, I intend (or purpose) to return, You read very well. She cannot hear well, I am glad to see you, He has miich money, I want it much, A liirge territory, The Erriri Trliich it depends, taken in a restrictive sense, thecomma should be omitted before tlie p artidple; as, " He i&u)ig r^idicidcd^ le;ft ^.he ?K5tatutc-©ii." Rex. S — When a paTticiple, Trith«.iit &n sic^unes i-s &£i5ar£X,e(S from the word on which it de|^ciids ip. constractioii, a cote ma jy> generally 'inserted before and after it:; a^;, "^ And, vhep. i%e v/as -CvMue iie(5 ckfyelr e<3nnccted %vith its antecedent, that it will Vi^t vAm'it gT tr;iRsp>j>ition, it shd&ys, tsnd Cuil <£ troable." Rem. :£ — A coEimia «hc«M be placed before the relative when a word or phrase intervenes between it and its aisitecedent; as, *'He gave me the piece of aa a^^ie, which he found." Rem. ^ — Whe^n ^ho. rd«-ti?fe clause is broken by 1^ intrody^ctioTi ol a sub-membefr, the rci&tive «aay be separated from its antecedent by a comma; as, " An old dock, which, forjifty ly^car^ had stood in & farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped." iS-EM. -i—When the relative clause is imvolved, and readilj admits of lOS- YGKKS IJLLCSTRAlflVE AICD tranKpo>ition, the relntivc may be separated from its antecedent I)j a c:)mnia; as, "The lady^ n'h,9ss /wsss ue oc3ypy; bestows many char- itics." Rem. 5^ln aoeb examples as the lha^,. I'he comma is frequently omitted Wfore tvie relative, nor does the constnietion really desnanJ that the relative s?kx>uld be i^eparated from its antea.'iCem.<: !« any case^ except 2« noticed in IJ^eiDork 2. RLLE YII — Wfien. a eonjunstMn is nntTerstooo' in con- necting v/ords in the same cofis-^Fuction, its pkcs should! be supplied by a, cc-mma, and,, al'&o, when the verb of a simple membGi' is^ understood ; a?^ " He is a plai}^,, \onest man." From law, arises security > from ^eeurity, curiosity; from curioHtjj,. knowledge^" etc-, RULE VIII — Three or more iN-ords occ-urriiig in the- same constri^etion, with their conjunction expressed or un- derstood, should all be separated- by eomnias, except the ]a&t ; as^ " David vas a hra^e\, wiu, pious, and generous^ man/' 0es:??.R'7ATI0N — Tlie reason why the last Trord is not; separated, is^ because it is either ia j'axta-position with its^ iiiper, or clo&es a aeateisige. Rof. 2 — If th*-? aTTB notiainative.^, vyritera ger>erally sspayj^te the. Fast alHo : an, 'Fuii hewd, tb-g /i^a.vf, andth-j Aft^scfo-sbouM b« cosistantljr tmplcyed i^ doing gootL" RE3f. i^' — "Wben. words ars eo?J5i€ct£d in pajrs, the pairs on5y slfloukl bo separated ;. a», '■'Interest and a)9hhitioi\ /*i»ic.p and ahmne, friend - ^hip a!.xi enmity, gratitude avA rsven^.e, are ths prime wiovers in> pubhc transiietions,'" Rem. S— Words or phases, placed antithstica%, sbauM be separated by commas > usy "'.though dse^, ^t dear;. tho*ighr ffsntk, ijetnot dully Rem. -1 — "When the conjunction or joins on a v.-ord whfcli expresses- an alternative ?)f wc'^ds, and not of ideas, it should be yeyaraSed by a. comma ;. ar>, " lie saw a large h(*.% or Qulfy Rem. 5 — When j)/i.?'f«^s are «o»ns^e5ed. bj CDnjuncJians,, thsy arc- ?eguluted by the same rales as single words. RULE IX— When any tense of the verb " To Be" i& folloYv'ed by a verb in the infinitive mode, which, by trans- position, may be m-ade the nominative case to it, the former CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 109 is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma ; as, "The best preservative of health is, to he temperate." Rem. 1— The infinitive mode absolute with words depending on it, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, *' To correct the sjnrit of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve." Rem. 2— When the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence is used as the subject of the verb, it is generally separated from it by a com- ma; as, '' To die for one's country^ is glorious." Rem. 3— When a verb in the infinitive mode, is separated from the word on which it depends in construction, a comma is generally placed before it; as, 0, for a glance of heavenly day. To TAKE this stubborn heart away." RULE X — Modifying words and phrases, as, however, nay, hence, therefore, besides, in short, finally, formerly, etc., are usually separated by commas ; as, "It is, Jiowever, the task of criticism to establish principles." RULE XI — The members of a compound sentence, ■whether successive or involved, should be separated by commas ; as, " The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones." " Providence has, I think, displayed a tenderness for mankind." Rkm. 1— Those modifying clauses which are joined on by such subordinate connectives as do not limit the verb in the preceding clause, should be punctuated as co-ordinate clauses; as, " The hus- bandman is happy, if he Tv/tows his advantages.''^ Rem. 2— In comparative sentences whose members are short, the comma should not be used ; as, "■ Wisdom is better than gokV RULE XII — The case in apposition with its adjunct, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- mas; as, "Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his Christian zeal." Rem. — If the case in apposition is unaccompanied by any modifying word or phrase, no comma should be used; as, '' The patriarch Joseph was an ilUistrious example of true piety." 110 York's illustrative and THE SEMICOLON, The semicolon ( ; ) requires a longer pause than the com- ma ; the proportion being as one to two. The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period which are less closely connected than such as are separa- ted by commas. RULE I — When the first division completes a proposi- tion, so as to have no dependence on what follows, but the following clause has a dependence on the preceding, the two parts are separated by a semicolon; as, "The one has all that perfection requires, and more, but the excess may be easily retrenched ; the other wants the qualities requisite to excellence." Rem. — In general, then, the semicolon separates the divisions of a sentence, when the latter division has a dependence on the former, whether the former has a dependence on the latter or not. RULE II — When several members of a sentence have a dependence on each other, by means of a substitute tor the same principal word, and the clauses, in other respects, constitute direct propositions, the semicolon may be used ; as, "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." — Pro- verbs ix. RULE III — A semicolon is generally used to separate premises and conclusions ; as, ^'Man is mortal ; therefore he must die." "Caesar deserved death; /or he was a tyrant." RULE IV — The semicolon is generally used to separate an example, introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition ; as, The subject of a verb must be in the nominative case ; as, Washington loas President, '' Rem. — The above, with some variation, are the rules generally given by punctuists, to direct the learner to a proper use of the semicolon. It will be seen, however, that the principles, on which the proper application ot this point is based, are found in the perception of a re- semhlance and contrast. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. Ill When a new subject is introduced in the sub-member, of which something similar is predicated, to that of the super-member, the idea is that of resemblance ; and the semicolon should be used to separate the members ; as, '* As wood is to fire ; so is a contentious man to the production of strife." But, when a new subject is introduced in the sub-member, and of which something antithetical is affirmed, to what is affirmed in the super-member, the idea is that of antithesis or contrast; consequently the members should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " The wise shall inherit glory ; hut shame shall be the promotion of/o(?fe." Hence the following rule will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct the learner to a proper application of this gnomon, or point. RULE V — When resemblance or contrast is affirmed in the sub-member, the members should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship ; hut hell of fierceness and animosity." *'The zvicked flee when no man pursueth ; hut the righteous arc as bold as a lion." '' JEliza is beautiful ; and so is Mary.'' THE COLON. The time generally given to the colon ( : ) is double that of the semicolon. RULE I — When the things affirmed in the latter, or sub-member, are adapted to the condition of the things mentioned in the former, or super-member, the colon may be used to separate the members; as, " ilfa7i is a great sinner : Christ is a great Saviour,'' RULE II — When that which is affirmed in the latter, or sub-member, is illustrative or confirmatory of what is affirmed in the former, or super member, the colon may be used; as, "Man cannot arrive at a point here, which he cannot pass: he is to advance in the next ivorld.'' "Mr. Gray was followed by Mr. Erskine who spake thus : 1 rise to second the motion of my honorable friend,'* Rem. 1—r When the colon' is used, the connective is generally omitted. Rem. 2 — Our best writers have frequently confounded the col^h 112 York's illustrative and and semicolon. The truth is, the colon is nearly obsolete; conse- quently but sparingly used by the best writers of the present age.— {See Dr. WeUter's JmjrroTed Grammar^ Page 154.) Rem.— The practice of writers is far from being uniform, with re- gard to the pouit to be used in introducing direct quotations. Some use the colon, some the semicolon, and others, the comma. THE FERIOD. The period, or full point ( . ), marks a completion of ihc sense, a cadence of the voice, and the longest pause used between sentences. It closes a discourse, also, or marks the completion of a subject or section. Rem. — And it is also used in abreviating words, and is placed after initials when used alone; as, " Eei\ Prest. Craven, D. i>." " C. F. Deems, I). i>." ''Hon. David L. Swain, L.L. i>." THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. The Dash ( — ) is used where there is a significant pause, an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sen- tence is left unfinished ; as, " If thou art \iQ—hut 0, how fallen!" The Dash is now frequently used instead of the Paren- thesis ; as, '' The Colonists — such is human nature — de- sired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched/ ' The Parenthesis () is used to enclose a part of a sentence not necessary to the construction, but, in some way, ex- planatory of the meaning of the sentence; as, "Consider (and may the consideration sink deep in your hearts) the fatal consequences of a wicked life." INTERROGATION POINT, The Interrogation point (?) is used when a question is asked ; as, Do brutes reason ? Rem.— When two interrogative members are closely connected, the CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 113 comma is generally used after the first, and the interrogation point at the close of the last member ; as, "When fiball I reach that happy jjZace, And be foreTer bleat ?" EXCLAMATION POINT. The exclamation point (!) is used after an exclamative sentence; as, "How vain are all things here below!" It is also used after phrases expressive of emotion; as, " 0, happiness! our being's end and aim !" BRACKETS. Brackets ( ] ) are used when a word or phrase is intro- duced for explanation ; as, *' He [the Professor] explained it." QUOTATION MARKS. Quotation Marks (" ") are used to include a passage taken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said, " / relinquish my claim,'" THE CARET. The Caret ( a ) is used in writing to show that some let* lies ter, word, or phrase, has been omitted ; as, "The book upon. A THE HYPHEN. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com- pound word ; as, Book-binder. When placed at the end 114 York's illustrative axd of a line, it slio-svs that a word is divided, tlie remaining part beinff carried to next line. THE ELLIPSIS. The Ellipsis ( ) is used to denote the omission of certain letters or words; as, Y k, K g. THE INDEX. The Index (W^^) points to some remarkable passage. ACCENT. The accent is a character used to point out the accented sylable of a word, whether long or short. Onr ancestors borrowed three of these characters from the Greek lan- guage, viz : the acute (/), the grave (\), and the circum^ flex (a). The acute points out the rise of voice ; the grave, the fall ; and the circumflex unites both of these in one, and makes an undulation of the voice. The breve (^ is placed over an unaccented syllable in poetry ; and the dash ( — ) is used over the accented syllables ; as, " With rav The mon i^lied ears, arch hears.' THE APOSTROPHE. The apostrophe (') is used as a sign of the possessive case, and also to mark the omission of a letter in the syncopa- tion of words; as, "This is JoZ/yi's book." ^'-E'en now where Alpine solitudes ascend." CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 115 THE ASTERISK, Three asterisks (***) show that some indelicate expres- sion has been omitted, or that there is some defect in the manuscript. The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f), the double-dagger (J), and parallels (||), are only used as foot notes, or references to the margin. LESSON LI. OF CAPITALS. The following words should begin with capital letters ; 1 The first word of every distinct sentence. 2 Proper names and titles of office or honor ; as, " George Washington^ General Lee, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, the Ohio, Main Street:' 3 The name of an object personified, may be used as a proper name, and should then begin with a capital ; as, ** Gentle Spring.'' 4 Adjectives derived from proper names; as, '^Ameri- cans English, Romans' 5 The appellations of the Deity ; as, " God, the Almighty J" " The Supreme Being." 6 The first word of every line of poetry. 7 The first word of a direct quotation, when the quota- tion is a complete sentence of itself; as, " Christ says, ^My yoke is easy.' " 8 Every noun and principal word in the titles of books ; ts, " Pope's Essay on Man," 9 The pronoun 1 and interjectiorj are written in capi- tals. 10 Any word, when of particular importance, may be- gin with a capital. IIG YORK'S ILLUBTRATIVE AND LESSON LII. OF VERSIFICATION. Poetry is metrical composition, or it is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables, according to particular rules, so as to produce melody. Meter, in English, consists in the regular return of the accent at regular intervals. Accent, then, is essential to verse ; but Rhyme is not, since there may be a regular return of accent, or syllables similarly affected, without the similarity of sound which produces rhyme. Two or more syllables, grouped together by accent, constitute afootj or measure. It is called a measure, be- cause, by its aid, the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. When two syllables are thus grouped together, it is called dissyllabic measure ; as, <•' With rav | ished ears, The mon | arch hears." But, when three syllables are thus grouped together, it is trissyllahic measure ; as, ♦' I am mon | arch of all | I survey." Several measures, or feet, properly arranged, form a line, or verse. A verse, then, is a certain number of con nected feet forming one line. ^ ^ A Stanza is a combination 0£ several verses, varying in number, according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular division of a poem or song. When the first and third lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet each, and the second and fourth lines, three feet each, it is Common Meter. When the first, second, and fourth Ikies of o ctar.za con- tain three Iambic feet each, and the third Ino four, it is ^%ort Metre. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 117 When all the lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet each, the metre is Long, Blank verse is metrical composition without rhyme ; as, " Now camo still evening on, and twilight gray Had, in her sober livery, all things clad." Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last sylla-* bles of different lines, as in the following, " How do thy morcies close me round, Forever be thy name adored ! I blush, in all things, to abound ; The servant is above his lord." SCANNING. Scanning a verse is dividing it into its component feet, and properly placing the accent. All the feet used in poetry are reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : DISSYLLABLE. TRISSYLLABLE. An Iambus A Trochee A Spondee A Pyrrhic A Dactyl An Amphibrach A Tribrach An Anapaest The Iambus, Trochee, Anapaest, and Dactyl, may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of poetry are chiefly, and may be wholly, formed of them. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their object is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. IAMBIC VERSE. In Iambic verse, the second syllable of every foot is ac- cented, and the first unaccented. 1. Iambic of one foot, or Monometer ; Fr5m me, They flee. 2. Iambic of tw& feet, or Dimeter ; To me I the rose No longer glows- 118 3. lamhic of three fi-ef. or Trimeferl In pla I cos far | or near. Or famous, or obscure. 4. lamlic of four feet, or Tetrameter-, How sleep | the brave | who sink | to rest. With all their country's honors blest. 5. lamhic of five feet, or Pentameter : On rif I ted rocks, | the drag | on's late | abodes, The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 6. lamhic of six feet, or Hexameter ; For thou I art but | of dust ; | be hum | ble and | be wise. Note. — The Iambic Pentameter is called the Heroic. The Iambic Hexameter is called the Alexandrine. The Alexandrine is sometimes admitted into heroic rhyme, and, when used sparingly and with judgment, occa- sions an agreeable variety ; The seas | shall waste, | the skies | in smoke | decay, Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; But fixed his word, his saving power remains ; Thy realm \ forev | er lasts, \ thy oivn \ 3Iessi \ ah reigns^ 7. lamhic of seven feet, or Ileptameter ', The lof I ty hill | the hum ] ble lawn | with count | less beau I ties shine ; The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine. Each line is commonly divided into two ; thus, The lofty hill, the humhlc la\yn, AVith countless beauties shine ; The silent grove, the solemn shade, Proclaim thy power divine. TROCHAIC VERSE. 1» Trochaic Monometer ; \ , Changing, Ransrinj •&-"&" \ \ 119 2. Trochaic Dimeter ; Fancy | viewing, Joys ensuing. 3. Trochaic Trimeter ; Go where | glory | waits thee, | But where fame elates thee. 4. Trochaic Tetrameter; Round a | holy | calm dlf | fusing, Love of peace, and lonely musing. 5. Trochaic Pentameter-, All that I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, All tha,t dwell in palaces or garrets. 6. Trochaic Hexametev ; On a I mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. In Trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd syllable ; in Iambic verse, upon the even. The Iambic verse admits of an additional short sylla- ble ; ^ A Chieftain to the Highlands bound. Cries boat | man do | not tar | ry. The Trochaic admits of an additional long syllable ; Where the | Avood is | waving | green and | high^ Fawns ard I Dryads | watch the | starry ( sky, ANAPiESTIC VERSE. 1. Anapaestic Monometer ; On the land, Now I stand; From the sea, Now I'm free. 2. Anapaestic Dimeter : On a plain, | as he strode, By the hermit's abode. 120 3. Anapaestic Trimeter ; Oh ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace ; To your inmost receses I fly ; I would hide with the beasts of the chase ; I would vanish from every eye. 4. Anapcestic Tetrameter; At the close j of the day | when the ham | let is still ; And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. In Anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syl- lable. The first foot of Anapaestic verse may be an Iam- bus: And mor \ tals the sweets | of forget | fulness prove. DACTYLIC VERSE. 1. Dactilic Manometer ; Cheerfully, Tearfully. 2. Dactylic Dimeter ; Free from anx | iety, Care and sat | iety. 8. Dactilic Trimeter', Wearing a | way in his | youthfulness. Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 4. Dactilic Tetrameter ; Boys will an ] ticipate | lavish and | dissipate, All that your busy pate has hoarded with care. EHK^T^. On page 6, t( (( 12, (t " 23, t; (( 26, i( " 31, ii {( 39, ii i( 43, (( a 55, (( u 73, 7«. line 17, read Participle for particle. " 0, read two or rnore for one or 7710?'^. " 3 — of the Exercises, the member (in Cand) shoulp be No. 1 instead of 2. " 6, read twenty -six for thirty-six, " 2, full line fiom bottom, read collective for cellective. " 10, " " read Affirmation for aflBnnation. " 8, omit quotation marks. last line except foot note, the Perfect Participle should be blown. " 0, read mark for make. " (5, limits should be limit '^ read hence for as. ■ ■• -^ike the corrections here noted. I f. ; <> rUBLlV'iviL*..^ ■h 4: ■A<^'r mtmi i'-t^ * %.