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ESSAY 
 
 ON THE 
 
 NATURAL EQUALITY OF MEN; 
 
 ON 
 
 THE RIGHTS THAT RESULT FROM IT, AND 
 ON THE DUTIES WHICH IT IMPOSES : 
 
 To which a SILVER MEDAL was adjudged by the TEYLERIAN 
 SOCIETY at HAARLEM, April, 179a. 
 
 CORRECT EL^itnd ENLARGED. 
 
 By WILLIAM LAWRENCE BROWN, D. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, AND THE 
 
 LAW OF NATURE, AND OF ECCLESI ASTI CAL 
 
 HISTORY ; AND MINISTER OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH CHURCH AT UTRECHT. 
 
 Aliquid femper ad communem ut'ditatem ajferendum. Cicero. 
 
 THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. 
 
 J- £4-0 Z 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 HN ORMROD, by WILLIAM V 
 AT FRANKLIN'S HEAD, NO.41, CHESNUT- STREET- 
 
 f793- 
 
 j Printed for JOHN ORMROD, by WILLIAM W. WOODWARD, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Wi 
 
 HOEVER has attentively confidered 
 the feries of queftions propofed for public dif- 
 cuflion by the Teylerian Society, will acknow- 
 ledge that they have ufually had the peculiar ad- 
 vantage of uniting curious inveftigation with ge- 
 neral utility. But, of all the queftions propofed 
 by this, or by any literary fociety whatever, none 
 appears either of greater confequence in itfelf, or 
 from the complexion of the times, more likely to 
 excite attention, than that which is now offered 
 by this refpectable body, as the fubject of compe- 
 tition for the literary honour which they annually 
 confer. It directly leads to examine the princi- 
 pal foundations of civil fociety, to unfold the 
 chief obligations of all focial duties, to eftablifh 
 the important advantages of fubordination, on 
 the one hand, and, on the other, to guard againft 
 the dreadful and odious confequences both of def- 
 potifm and of anarchy. Such are the momentous 
 confiderations necefTarily connected with the pro- 
 per difcuflion of this queftion; the propofal of 
 A* 
 
( iv ) 
 
 which does equal honour to the difcernment and 
 public fpirit of the worthy directors of the Tey- 
 lerian inftitution. Happy may the perfon account 
 himfelf. and juftly will he be entitle^ to the thanks 
 of his fellow men, who mall be enabled to treat 
 this fubjecl in any manner adequate to its real 
 confequence and dignity. Far, indeed, is the 
 writer of this Effay from prefuming to lay claim, 
 to this praife, but he feels his heart imprefled by 
 the importance of the f ubjecl:, and animated with 
 a warm defire of contributing to the public good 
 that portion which his fmall abilities may permit. 
 Ever fince he was capable of any rational reflec- 
 tion, he has found his foul actuated by the facred 
 
 flame of Liberty, p y 2& SHnkCqi 2iq$:z%zz, 
 
 and by that love of juftice which dictates an equal 
 enjoyment of all the rights of human nature. 
 The grand principle of the natural equality of 
 men, if rightly underftood, is the only bafis on 
 which univerfal juftice, order, and freedom, can 
 be firmly built, and permanently fecured. The 
 view exhibited in this EfTay, fo far from loofening 
 the bands of fociety, or weakening that fubordi- 
 nation, without which no government can fubfift, 
 will draw more clofely every focial tie, and more 
 ftrongly confirm the obligations of legal obedi- 
 ence, and the rights of legal authority. 
 
 The writer is fufficiently aware that the prin- 
 
( v ) 
 
 dples which he attempts to unfold, will not be a. 
 greeable either to the wild enthufiafts for liberty, 
 or to the fervile and tyrannical abettors of arbi- 
 trary power. That moderation, which flows 
 from the love and the perception of truth (which 
 commonly lies between two extremes) is feldom 
 acceptable to the multitude, who, incapable of 
 diftinguifhing the ufe from the abufe of things, 
 are generally as extravagant and impetuous in 
 the maintenance of right,, as in the abetment of 
 wrong. It is only the few, who have fhaken off 
 the fhackles of prejudice, difpelled the clouds of 
 paffion, and bur ft from the dungeon in which 
 they confine the foul, that can view and relim ob- 
 jects as they appear in the pure and fteady light 
 in which na ture exhibits them. The eyes of the 
 reft of mankind are either too weak to fuftain its 
 luftre, or, if they have beheld it for fome time, 
 become fo much dazzled as to lofe fight of the ob- 
 jects which it is defigned to unfold to them, and 
 are thus deprived .of that direction in conduct 
 which it ought to afford. Of the truth of this 
 affertion, the times in which we live furnim abun- 
 dant and melancholy examples. 
 
 Since the generality of mankind, then, will e- 
 ver be in extremes, and the wifer few, if they 
 keep themfelves free from the contagion of po~ 
 
 a 3 
 
( vi ) 
 
 pular prejudice and paflion, will, from tliis very 
 circumftance, feldom acquire any great influence 
 over the general conduct; it may be afked, of 
 what ufe can fuch writings be, which the multi- 
 tude will either not read, or not apply to profit, 
 and the more intelligent do not require ? To this 
 queftion the anfwer is obvious : — that the progrefs 
 of truth is fure, though flow ; that, if every per- 
 ibn of difcernment and moderation would confi- 
 der it as his duty to communicate, as far as his 
 iphere may extend, the light he himfelf has ac- 
 quired, a great deal of good might at laft be ac- 
 complished ; and that to contribute any portion, 
 however fmall, to the common benefit, is both a 
 fufficient motive and a fufficient reward to a bene- 
 volent and generous mind. The human foul is for- 
 med for truth and virtue. Error, prejudice, and de- 
 pravity, are unnatural ftates. Superftition and bi- 
 gotry, popular frenzy, or defpotic oppreffion, ne- 
 ver can be defined by the Supreme Director of the 
 world to hold a perpetual reign, becaufe they 
 counteract his wife and benevolent defigns. The 
 paiTions, and tlie consequent agitations which they 
 excite, as they are violent, can never be lafting, 
 and, from their very violence itfelf, tend, by a 
 ipecies of fermentation, to throw off the dregs 
 of ignorance and folly, which obftruct the im- 
 provement of our fpecies. Thefe convulfions may 
 
( vii ) 
 
 be compared to tempefts and hurricanes which o*- 
 vercaft the fl;y with a temporary gloom, and of- 
 ten occafion the moft dreadful calamities ; but, 
 in the end, refine the atmofphere, and preferve 
 its falubrity. It is more natural to fuppofe that 
 the progrefs of the world is towards improvement 
 and perfection, than, as gloomy but contracted 
 minds are apt to fancy, towards degeneracy and 
 ruin. Even the final deflruction of this globe, 
 which Scripture teaches us to expect, will only 
 ferve to introduce a more perfect and glorious 
 fcene. The times in which we live, though agi- 
 tated with violent convulfions, and marked by 
 ftriking events, are peculiarly favourable to rati- 
 onal inquiry and to fubftantial improvement. On 
 the public affairs of the world, it has often been 
 faid, that the fpeculations of philofophers in their 
 clofets have but little influence. But fuch an 
 opinion can be adopted by thofe only who are as 
 great Grangers to experience as they are to fpe- 
 culation. The conduct of men is commonly direc- 
 ted by their opinions. Their opinions are formed 
 by their principles ; their principles, by the in- 
 ftrucxion which they receive, by the books which 
 they read, by the company which they frequent. 
 Hence it is eafy to fee how far the public opinions 
 and conduct muft, in a literary age, be affected by 
 the writings that appear in it. If thefe are dicta- 
 
( viii ) 
 
 ted by foundnefs of judgment, and benignity of 
 heart, they cannot fail of producing much bene- 
 fit. 
 
 The time, therefore, and pains employed in fpe- 
 culations fuch as are fuggefted by the important 
 queftion I now propofe to difcufs, cannot be mif- 
 fpent, if the fubject is treated with any tolerable 
 degree of accuracy and precifion. Even thofe 
 who fail of fuccefs may ftill claim the honour of 
 a laudable attempt* and from men of fuch judg- 
 ment and candour as characterise thofe to whom 
 I have the honour of addrefling this difcourfe, are 
 fure of obtaining it. Without detaining the at- 
 tention of my candid readers any longer from the 
 immediate confideration of the queftion now before 
 them, I mall directly proceed to examine it. As 
 it ftands propofed by the Society, it divides itfelf 
 into three parts : 
 
 I. In what refpe&s may men be faid to be e- 
 qual ? 
 
 IL What are the rights refulting from this §- 
 quality ? 
 
 III. What are the duties which it impofes? 
 
^^^^'J^^^^^^^^^'^^i^i^:^^^^^^^^ 
 
 AN 
 
 E S S A Y, &c. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 $^^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 

A N 
 
 ESSAY, &c. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 In what Senfc may all Men be J aid to be Equal > 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of Satural diversities among Men. 
 
 X H A T all men are, by nature, equal, is an 
 opinion fo generally received among thofe who 
 are accuftomed to any degree of philofophical re- 
 flection, that to call it in queftion might appear 
 abfurd, and to prove it fuperfluous. Yet, this 
 opinion, like many general maxims which obtain 
 a currency in the world, however true it may be, 
 in its proper fenfe, is not, I am inclined to believe, 
 of the greateft part, fufficiently founded according 
 to the acceptation of thofe who admit it. If itisun- 
 derftood in any fenfe, exclufive of all natural fupe- 
 riority and diftinftion among men, it will be found 
 to contradicluniverfal experience. At whatever pe- 
 
( 14 ) 
 
 riod of human life, in whatever ftate or condition 
 of fociety, we contemplate our fpecies, we fhall find 
 that nature has diftinguifhed individuals from each 
 other, by peculiar and appropriate qualities, al- 
 moft as remarkably, in fome inftances, as fhe has 
 diftinguifhed the human race from the inferior 
 creatures. Thofe philofophers, who, in order to 
 exalt themfelves, attempt to degrade their fpe- 
 cies, and difplay their eloquence by defending the 
 moil irrational paradoxes, are eager to perfuade 
 us that, as human nature, in its original Hate, is 
 on a level with the brutes, lb individuals among 
 mankind derive every difference of corporeal and 
 mental perfection that characterizes them, wholly 
 from the opportunities of improvement which 
 they have enjoyed, or from the happy fituations 
 in which they have been placed. Contradicting 
 univerfal experience, they ftrive to refer the 
 judgments which it eftablifkes, to the clafs of po- 
 pular prejudices ; and, pretending to lead us to 
 the true knowledge of human nature, exhibit to 
 our view a ftate of brutifh ignorance, and of favage 
 ferocity, which has never exifted but in their own 
 imaginations. They carry us back to a period of 
 which there are no monuments, and in which 
 they confider man not as afocial, but as a folitary 
 animal, actuated by mere animal inftincts, defti- 
 tute of ideas, a mere quadruped grazing along 
 
( 13 ) 
 
 with the brutes, and as little diftinguiihed from 
 the reft of his fpeciesby individual qualities, as his 
 fpeciesfrom the other inhabitants of the foreft. 
 In order to eftablifh this theory, fo difgraceful to 
 human nature, they produce certain relations of 
 travellers, concerning Pongos, and Enjokos, and 
 Ourang-Outangs, whom they conclude to be pri- 
 mitive men, whofe conduct and mode of life can 
 alone furnifh us with juft reprefentations of our 
 original condition*- So eafy is it, when a favour- 
 ite opinion is to be maintained, or a paradox 
 eftablifhed, to adopt, as principles, judgments de- 
 stitute of all evidence, and to reject principles 
 fancTioned by univerfal confent. So apt are the 
 enemies of fyflem, to run into fy Items of their 
 own, whofe fole recommendation is Angularity, 
 -while ingenious fophiftry is their only fupport. 
 
 Thofe writers feem not to have reflected, that, 
 if man was originally a brute, he muft ever have 
 continued fo ; and that that inftincl, which folely 
 they allow to him in that fituation, if it is unerr- 
 
 * See Rouff;au, fur l'origlne et les fondemen3 de l'inega- 
 lite parmi les hommcs. Note ioth. This fidion appears to 
 be opied from ancient writer*.— — See Lucretius, 1. v. verfe 
 9*3. Horace, f'erm. lib. 1. Sat. 3, verfe 98. Cicero fro 
 Sextio, c. 4Z, De inventione, lib. 1. c. 2. La&ant. div. inft. 
 lib. 6. c. 10. Hobbes de cive, c. viii. fe&ion 1. 
 
 B 
 
( 14 ) 
 
 ing within its prefcribed compafs, never can, by 
 any improvement, be carried one. ftep beyond its 
 primitive limits. That capacity cf perfection, 
 which they grant to him, as his only diftinction 
 above the inferior animals, implies, in its very na- 
 ture, more elevated and extenfive powers, than 
 any of thefe can polTeis. To deny this, is to af- 
 fert, that a building may be erected without a 
 foundation, an elegant and beautiful form exhibit- 
 ed without original materials, an effect produced 
 without a caufe. Thefe writers feem to overlook 
 the whole analogy of nature, in which every fpe- 
 cies is diftinguiflied from every other, by.proper- 
 ties common to all of the fame ctafs, while all the 
 individuals of each fpecies are characterized by 
 their peculiar qualities. It would be equally ab- 
 furd to think of forming a man out of a brute, as 
 to imagine that a fifh may be transformed into a 
 quadruped. 
 
 Tliofe, however, who feek not fame, but wit 
 dom, not brilliancy, but truth, will, in all their 
 enquiries concerning human nature, take the hu- 
 man fpecies, as they find it exhibited, in its various 
 forms, by daily obfervation, by the incorrupted 
 records of Hiftory, and by the authentic relations 
 of travellers. Beyond thefe fources of in forma- 
 tion they will not pretend to go in queft of ftates 
 
( >5 ) 
 
 x5f human nature, which are only to be found in 
 the pictures of poets, or in the hypothefes of phi- 
 loibphers equally fanciful ; and they will confide r 
 it as no lefs ridiculous for any one to philolbphife 
 on man with an Ourang-Gutang before him, than 
 it would be for a perfon, attempting to determine 
 the qualities of gold, to reject an undoubted piece 
 of that metal, and begin his experiments with a 
 piece of pinchbeck. For, as a ftatue, however 
 elegantly finiihed, ftill contains the rude mafs cf 
 marble, on which fo much fymetry and beauty has 
 been fuperinduced ; fo, man, in the mofl civilized 
 ilate of fociety, ftill retains the original principles 
 of his nature on which all the various modifica- 
 tions he has undergone, have been ingrafted. It 
 is the bulinefs of the philofopher to difcover thefe 
 amidft all the adventitious circumftances with 
 which they may be connected, or the various 
 ihapes and colourings which they may have afTum- 
 ed. No human purfuit, no human inftitution, no 
 human enjoyment, no human corruption itfelf, 
 but may be ultimately referred to fome original 
 principle of our nature ; and without thele origin- 
 al principles, it is impoffible to account for the 
 power of education, of habit, and of example. 
 If, laying afide all regard to imaginary ftates of 
 human nature, in which none of the principles, 
 which now fo powerfully influence our fpecies, 
 B 2 
 
( >6 ) 
 
 are fappofed to have unfolded themfelves, we fix 
 cur attention on mankind as they are exhibite-d to- 
 ns in hifiory, and by daily chfervation, there is 
 one important fact, which muft occur to every 
 one endowed with the fmalleft reflection. This 
 fact, on which I mean chiefly to found my reafon- 
 ings on the whole of this fubjecl, is, that, how- 
 ever fimilar the fpecies may be fn general, an infi- 
 nite diverilty of abilities, talent?, and character^, 
 obtains among the individuals that compofe it. 
 
 This diverilty is evident with regard both to, 
 the body,' and to the mind. In ibme, we behold 
 great bodily flrength and dexterity, and a pecu- 
 liar aptitude for mechanical operations, and for 
 rapid and powerful movements. In others, the 
 powers of imagination confpicuoufly unfold them- 
 ftives ; while judgment, acutenefs, penetration, 
 and fagacity, in the conduct of life, diftinguifh 
 another clafs of men. An uncommon clearness 
 and energy of intellect, and an aptitude for the 
 abftract fciences, raife others above the common 
 level. Some have an aftonifhing faculty of 
 perfualion, of addrefs, and management in mov- 
 ing the affection?, and influencing the conduct of 
 their fellow men. 
 
 Nor is this diverfity lefs remarkable in the mo- 
 ral qualities of men, than in their corporeal and 
 
( n ) 
 
 intellectual powers. Some have a wonderful 
 command of their own paflions, and can prefervc 
 their moderation and compofure of foul amidft the 
 greateft provocations, and the molt trying cala- 
 mities ; others are deprived of all felf government 
 by the flighted: adverlity, or by the fmalleft oppo- 
 fition. Some natures are extremely fympathetic, 
 and eafily moved by the diftreffes of their fellow 
 men ; while others difcover an aftonifhing infen- 
 fibility with regard not only to the afflictions of 
 other perfons, but even to their own. Benevo- 
 lence, and all the gentle and amiable qualities 
 which accompany it, peculiarly diftinguifh fome 
 characters, while fortitude and magnanimity, and 
 all the ftern and awful virtues, are the leading fea- 
 tures of fome elevated fpirits. Not to mention 
 the characteriftical marks of ambition, avarice, 
 voluptuoufnefs, indolence, or vanity, which diver- 
 fify fuch a number of individuals, it is certain that 
 the moral complexion of men is as various as their 
 corporeal conffitution, or their mental faculties^ 
 and perhaps is greatly influenced by both. 
 
 Nor can it be alledged, that thefe diftinctions 
 of character are entirely derived from the pre fen t 
 ftate of fociety, and from different opportunities 
 of cultivation ; and by no means referable to any 
 original bent of nature- This conclulion will not 
 B 3 
 
( i8 ) 
 
 be authorifed either by the inclusions of reafon, 
 or by experience. For, in the firft place, it is 
 hard to be conceived how any combination of cir- 
 rumftances, or any influence of education and 
 habit, can produce any power or propenfity, of 
 which the original feeds have not been dropped 
 into the conftitution by the hand of the Creator. 
 A.11 that fituation and opportunity can effectuate, 
 is to furnifh thefe inherent powers and propenfi- 
 ties, with the means of unfolding themfelves, of 
 increafmg in vigour, and of acquiring maturity. 
 If they are entirely wanting, they will never be 
 implanted by any effort of human {kill, or be 
 brought into action, by any favourable combina- 
 tion of circumftances. If they exift in any degree, 
 however fniall, opportunity, exercife and cultiva- 
 tion, will advance them to a pitch of ftrength fo 
 greatly above their primitive condition, as will 
 have the appearance of a real creation. If we at- 
 tend to the fact itfelf, it muft be evident that 
 children and favages, who have received no in- 
 struction, fhow varieties of character, as well as 
 men who have enjoyed all the advantages of po- 
 iilhed fociety, and who move in its different 
 fpheres. Although a pronenefs to imitation is 
 iniverfally predominant in childhood, yet the 
 nanner of imitating, and the objects to which it is 
 tirected, are infinitely diverfiiied. Asfcon as the 
 
( '9 ) 
 
 faculties begin to unfold, all the paflions and pro- 
 pensities that belong to human nature impercepti- 
 bly arife, and, according as the one or the other 
 of thefe is moft prevalent, chara&eriftical features 
 diftinguifh the infant. The objects that engage 
 the attention of the favage, and the defires that 
 animate his purfuits, are indeed few, in compari- 
 fon of thofe that exift in more polifhed ftates of 
 fociety. Yet, as thefe concentrate his whole 
 foul, fo they excite its energies the more power- 
 fully within their limited compafs, and confpire 
 the more fpeedily to form his character. In the 
 favage ftate, the genuine impulfes and propenfities 
 of nature are freely allowed to appear, and, col- 
 lected in one point, exert themfelves with the 
 greater vigor, and give to each individual that 
 peculiar complexion which refults from the pecu- 
 liar ftrength of his native powers*. The multi- 
 plicity of objects which attract attention, and fti- 
 mulate activity in more poliihed periods of fociety, 
 prevent a character from being fo fpeedily form- 
 ed : while the uniform inftitutions of civilized 
 life, mould all the members of the community 
 to mutual refemblance, and contribute to efface 
 thofe prominent and characteriftical features., 
 
 * See Robertfon's Hiftory of America, and Raynars Hi- 
 ftoire Philofophique et Politique pijfim. 
 
( ao ) 
 
 which the hand of nature hasimpreffed. I mean 
 not to afTert that thofe diverfuies of talents and 
 character are wholly to be afcribed to the unaflift- 
 ed powers of nature, but only that they prevail 
 in the joint proportion of thefe powers, and of 
 the circumftances that call them into exercife. As 
 the fire will foon be extinguifhed, if not conftantly 
 fed by combuftibles, and as thefe combuftibles, 
 however multiplied, will not produce flame, and 
 light, and heat, unlefs they are kindled ; ib the 
 human faculties, if never called into action by 
 correfponding lituations, will remain torpid and 
 inefficacious ; and the moft favourable concur- 
 rence of circumftances will not produce genius, 
 dexterity, fagacity, and virtue, if the original 
 feeds of all thefe qualities are totally wanting. 
 Be this as it may, it is incontrovertible that there 
 is, among the various individuals that compofe 
 the human fpecie6, an almoft infinite diverfity of 
 abilities, temper, and character. 
 
 From this circumftance a natural Inequality 
 rnuft neceflarily arife. Thofe talents and difpofi- 
 tions, which are the moft amiable and refpectable, 
 directly point out their poflefibrs as the objects of 
 love and efteem. Wherever fuch qualities appear 
 it is as impoffible for the hunnn mind, unlefs it 
 be moft deplorably depraved, to withhold its ad- 
 
( 21 , 
 
 miration and affection, as it would be for any na» 
 tural caufe not to produce its effect: when placed 
 in circumftances adapted to its operation. Every 
 difplay of genius, of fagacity, of penetration, and 
 prudence, is calculated to excite the admiration 
 of the beholders, to afford thein pleaiure, and if 
 beneficently directed, to demand their gratitude. 
 Fortitude, magnanimity and generofity, command 
 veneration, and excite efteem. Gentlenefs, mo- 
 deration, kindnefs, and companion, appearing as 
 the diftinguiihing features in any character, can- 
 not fail to attract the love and complacency of all 
 to whom they are known. Even corporeal ftrength 
 and dexterity procure a certain degree of refpect 
 to their poflefTors, on account of their utility in 
 life both to others and to themfelves. 
 
 It is equally certain, that refpect, efteem, ve- 
 neration and love, enfure to thofe who are the 
 objects of them, a very high degree of influence 
 over the reft of mankind. Such will be liitened 
 to, imitated, and obeyed, by all who are capable 
 of eftimating the qualities above mentioned ac- 
 cording to their real merit; the Inure which they 
 fhed around the'r poffeffors dazzles thofe whofe 
 fouls are lefs difcerning and elevated • and even 
 the ftupid and the bafe are constrained to pay an 
 involuntary homage. That fuch qualities are the, 
 
( fc ) 
 
 only original fources of power and influence, is 
 evident from the conduct of all who afpire at ac- 
 quiring confederation and authority. If they 
 want the reality, they affect the appearance of 
 them, and, even when power alone reduces their 
 fellow men under their fubjection, they endeavor 
 alfo, if not ftupified by the habits of tyranny, to 
 engage their efteem, and to captivate their bene- 
 volence, fenfible that dominion, to which thefe 
 give nofupport, can never be fure and lafting. I 
 am far from afferting that ail power and diftinc- 
 tion are founded on this natural bails. Lament- 
 able experience proves the contrary. But, that 
 refpectableand amiable qualities are the primitive 
 fources of authority and pre-eminence ; and, 
 when freely allowed to exert themfelves, cannot 
 fail to obtain them, will be as generally acknow- 
 ledged as it is certain in fade*. 
 
 * Hence it i» e:fy to account for monarchies having heen 
 zdmoft every where the primitive form of government. As no 
 fociety could fubfift without fome dire&ing power, and, as rude 
 and favage men were incapable of exterdi g their views to thofe 
 more complicated fyftems which obfervation and experience alone 
 can fuggeft and eftablifti, it was natural for them to pitch on the 
 fimpleft form, which was dictated rather by fentiment, ihan by 
 reafon, and to yield that voluntary obedience to a chief, which 
 their admiration of his fuperior qualities infpired. This fimple 
 form lafted as long as the chief continued to difplay thefe virtues, 
 and to apply tfceai in fuch a manner as to conciliate general bene- 
 
( *3 ) 
 
 Nature herfelf, then, has evidently eftabliihed 
 unambiguous diflinclions among men, and produ- 
 ced a very remarkable inequality among the indi- 
 viduals of our fpecies. We .may freely afTert, 
 that, if any mortal confpicuouQy excelled the reft 
 of mankind in every poflible talent and quality, 
 whether corporeal, intellectual, or moral, which di- 
 ftinguifhes the fpecies in general, and had everypof- 
 fible opportunity of difplaying this perfection in all 
 itsluftre, he would be raifed, by nature herfelf, as 
 much above the reft of his fellow men as they are 
 above the inferior animals, and be as clearly de- 
 figned to lead and govern them. Or, if all the 
 abovementioned qualities were the peculiar attri- 
 butes of any given number of men, thefe would 
 be marked out, by Divine Providence, as a glori- 
 ous ariftocracy or fenate, to prefide over the com- 
 munity to which they belonged. For they would 
 be pofTeffed of every qualification to difcern, of 
 
 volcnce. But, as foon as oppreftion rendered him an object of 
 hatred, or weaknefs, an object of contempt, the evils experienced 
 pointed out the neceflity of fecuringthe public welfare on a firmer 
 bafisthan the capricious pleafure of an individual; and the habits 
 of fociety fuggeflc d more complicatedfyftemsof government, better 
 adapted to the grand objects of political union. Among boysatfchool, 
 one diftinguilhed by his courage, his fagacity, or his art, com- 
 monly aflumes the lead, and governs the juvenile community, 
 with a fway as dofpotic as that of any eaftern monarch. The cafe 
 is nearly the fame in all voluntary aflbciations. 
 
( 24 ) 
 
 every difpofnion to purfue, and, from the willing 
 homage and obedience of the reft of mankind, of 
 every power to fecure, the public good. Or, 
 laftly, if any human being were invefled with 
 fuch ftrength and agility of body, w ith fuch com- 
 pals cf underftanding, and with fuch complete 
 mattery of his own pailions, as fully to provide 
 himfelf with every thing neceffary for his fubfift- 
 ence, or conducive to his convenience and com- 
 fort, and as neither to be expofed to the injuries 
 of others, nor to be tempted to injure them, 
 nor to be affected by their misfortunes ; fuch 
 a mortal would be perfectly independent of the 
 reft of mankind ; and as he needed nothing from 
 them, fo he would, in no refpect whatever, be 
 their debtor. 
 
 But fuch characters as thofe above defcribed 
 have never yet exifted in the world, and indeed 
 never can exift. Such an aflemblage of perfection 
 is not human, but divine. 
 
( 2 5 ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the DISTRIBUTION of HUMAN ABILITIES and 
 TALENTS. 
 
 I 
 
 F we confider the various talents and modes of 
 excellence of which the human fpecies is capable, 
 we mail acknowledge that neither all thefe, nor 
 any confiderable number of them, have ever been 
 found united in any one individual ; nay, that the 
 higheft degrees of many of them are incompatible 
 with each other. For, when diftinguimed honors, 
 or extenfive reputation, are acquired by illuftri- 
 ous qualities, we are not thence to infer that the 
 perfons, to whom thefe diftin&ions are allotted, 
 furpafs the reft of mankind in every quality be- 
 longing to the fpecies ; but only that they have 
 attained fuperiority in fuch, as being more un- 
 common, are, on that account, more admired. 
 Thbfe mechanical arts and inferior virtues, with- 
 out which human fociety could not fubfift, attract 
 no admiration, becaufe they are daily exhibited. 
 C 
 
( 26 ) 
 
 Yet the moft illuftrious of mankind ftand more in 
 need of the benefits which thefe afford, than their 
 diftinguifhed abilities can confer on the humble 
 poffefTors of the former. As thofe endowed with 
 the qualities moft neceffary in human life, but of 
 inferior eftimation, efpecially fuch as are difplay- 
 ed in mechanical labour and art, cannot, from 
 their occupations themfelves, afpire at the fublim- 
 er and more elegant abilities which difiinguifh 
 others ; thefe, on the other hand, muft remain 
 deftitute of the more ufeful ones. That leifure, 
 meditation, and itudy, without which the facul- 
 ties of the mind cannot be perfected, necefTarily 
 prevent that full exercife of the corporeal mem- 
 bers, which enfures their higheft vigour and agi- 
 lity. A fancy uncommonly lively and bright is 
 adverfe to the patient and accurate refearches of 
 philofophy, and to the juft application of the in- 
 tellect, in the difcovery and developement of 
 truth, and the improvement of fcience. That 
 minute attention to calculation, that arithmetical 
 exactnefs, and that conftant obfervance of the un- 
 varying routine of buiinefs, which are necefTary 
 to mercantile and ceconomical purfuits, but which 
 prefect no imagery to the mind, are inaufpicious 
 to the more elegant enjoyments cf tafte, and to 
 the cultivation of the fine arts. The ftern and 
 awful virtues feldom afibciate with the gentle and 
 
( 27 ) 
 
 amiable, and, claiming refpect and veneration, 
 feem to difdain complacency and love. Even Tome 
 corporeal perfections appear repugnant to others 
 The moft robuft conformation of the members, and 
 the ftrength it produces, are not eafily united 
 with great agility, and with delicate refinement 
 in the organs of fenfe. In a word, it appears to 
 be the intention of nature, that, although the 
 human faculties are various, and capable of being 
 carried to amazing heights of excellence ; yet this 
 ihould fejdom be accompliihed, unlefs when un- 
 common culture and improvement are beftowed 
 on fome particular faculty, or at leait, on a few 
 faculties which have a peculiar native ftrength. 
 
 Variety of talents is, therefore, more applica- 
 ble to the fpecies than to individuals. The feeds 
 of each (as we have above obferved) are, per- 
 haps, caft into every individual conftitution, but 
 the foil is differently adapted to them, and that 
 particular power to which it is favourable, fprings 
 up, and, if properly cultivated, comes to maturi- 
 ty, fpreads around its branches, and bears abun- 
 dant fruit. It may be objected, that it feems ve- 
 ry prepofterous to fuppofe the creator implanting 
 in any conftitution the principles of powers, which 
 were never defigned to come to maturity. But, 
 let it be confidered that, as the different improve- 
 C 2 
 
( 28 ) 
 
 ments of men depend on various occurrences, and, 
 as mentioned above, the characleriftical qualities 
 of each individual will be in the united degree of 
 their primitive ftrength, and of the opportunities 
 of culture ; it was neceffary that the feeds of each 
 fhould be dropped into every human frame, fo 
 that, when favourable circumftances concurred, 
 that power which they were beft calculated to im- 
 prove might fpring up and flcurifh, and thus as 
 much human excellence might, on the whole, be 
 produced as the human condition would admit. 
 This was, moreover, neceffaryin order to confii- 
 tute that general firailarity which characterises the 
 fpecies, and unites them together in the bonds of 
 a common nature. 
 
 Be this as it may, it is undoubted that thofe who 
 aim at diftinction, or even at moderate degrees of 
 excellence in a great variety of objects, generally 
 exhibit a ridiculous figure; after having v ailed 
 their time, exhaufted their powers, and fuperin- 
 duced on their minds habits of inconstancy and 
 iicklenefs. Even the greateft genuifes, when 
 they leave that particular track, in which indul- 
 gent nature had provided them with unfading lau- 
 rels, and endeavour to invade the province, and 
 and fnatch the rewards of others, while they pre- 
 fent, on the one hand, the moil aftonilhing inftan- 
 
( 2 9 ) 
 
 ces of the ftrength of the human mind, afford, oil 
 the other, no lefs convincing proofs of its weak- 
 nefs and vanity*. Hence the receflity of each in- 
 dividual devoting himfelf to fome favourite and 
 ufeful purfuit, to which every other mould be 
 fubfervient, and of applying to the diligent dif- 
 charge of the duties of that department in which 
 he can produce the greateft benefit to mankind, 
 and acquire the greateft honour to himfelf. 
 
 From what has been faid in this and the prece- 
 ding chapter, it appears, in the fir/} place, That 
 nature herfelf has eftablifhed clear and certain 
 diftinctions among men, in the various qualities 
 allotted to each individual, arid in the various op- 
 portunities furnifhed them in the courfe of life for 
 their improvement. . Thefe opportunities may oc- 
 cur, though in inferior degrees, in the rudeft as 
 well as in the mod polifhed ftates of fociety. It 
 is evident, fecortdly, That thefe diftinctions com- 
 prehend not the perfection of all the human pow- 
 ers, but the lingular excellence of one, or of a 
 few of them, confpicuous in individuals. " 
 
 * This might be illuftrated by many examples of a foolifhaffo 
 tation of uaivsrfality of genius. 
 
( 3° ) 
 
 — — — — 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the MUTUAL DEPENDENCE of MANKIND. 
 
 FROM the two facte eftabli/hed in the con- 
 clufion of the laft chapter, duly confidered, it ap- 
 pears to me that the juft notion of the natural 
 equality of all mankind, as far as relates to their 
 mutual duties, is to be derived ; and that, howe- 
 ver paradoxical it may feem, an equality the moft 
 e*ac"t and perfect, in refpecl of every moral and 
 focial obligation, fprings from inequality itfelf. 
 
 Human nature is evidently endowed with a va- 
 riety of appetites and defires, adapted to the va- 
 rious objects which are capable of fupplying its 
 wants, or of furnifhing it with pleafures. The bo- 
 dy {lands in need of conftant fupport, which is not 
 to be procured without confiderable art and la- 
 bour. This art and labour muft be greatly increa- 
 fed, if not only the necefTaries, but alfo the con- 
 veniencies and elegancies of life are defired, and 
 
( 3' )' 
 
 the refinements of fenfe confidered as objects of 
 purfuit. The fenfes are not only inlets of plea- 
 fures merely corporeal, but of others alio of a 
 more refined and delicate kind, of which the mind 
 under the influence of fancy, is the chief percipi- 
 ent. Hence they open a very extenfive field of 
 human enjoyment, and claim the whole cornpafs 
 of nature to adminifler materials for the fine arts. 
 The mind of man is eagerly defirous of knowledge, 
 and wifhes to difavver the relations, the caufes and 
 the effects, of the various objects that are prefent- 
 ed to it. Not only corporeal wants and appe- 
 tites, the fenfes of beauty, of harmony, and of 
 magnificence, and the love of knowledge, fubject 
 man to neceffities, which muft be fupplied, or oSer 
 to him pleafures which he cannot but defire ; he 
 is alfo actuated by various affections, fome felrifh 
 and fome benevolent, which ferve as conitant 
 fpurs to action, and impel him into various tracks, 
 according to the different complexions of their ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Such is the nature of man ; and from what h3s 
 been faid above, as well as from other coniidera- 
 tions on which I fhall {lightly touch, it is evident, 
 that each individual is infufficient, not only for 
 his own perfection, but even for thelupply of his 
 mofl urgent neceflities. The other animals are 
 
( 32 ) 
 
 by nature provided with defence and covering, 
 with fubfiftencc and fhelter. They Toon attain 
 the full vigour and the complete exercife of their 
 powers, and, without inftruction or fuccour, can 
 apply them with certainty to their refpective ends. 
 But man, as he enters into the world naked, de- 
 fenceless, and unprovided with fubfiftence, fo, 
 without the afliftance and co-operation of his fpe- 
 cies, lie muft ever remain in the moft abject and 
 Com for tie fs condition. The inclemency of the 
 feafons, the fterility of the earth, the ferocity of 
 fa v age animals, his natural imbecility, oppofe to 
 his comfortable exiftence fo many and fo powerful 
 obftacles, as he could never expect of himfelf to 
 lurmount. lie is aiTailed by evils which he cannot 
 repel, fubjec~t to wants which he cannot fupply, 
 and furrounded by objects which he cannot, by 
 his own ftrength, convert to his ufe. Deftined 
 for fociety, he is immediately thrown on its care, 
 and bound by his own weaknefs, to contribute to 
 itsflrength. Defigned to form the moft intimate 
 union with his fellow men, he is conflituted mifer- 
 able and deftitute without them ; but, conftrained 
 by this circumftance, to join his efforts to theirs, 
 he derives the moft sftonh'hing acquired power 
 from his natural imbecility. Furnifhed with ca- 
 pacities greatly fuperior to inftincl, he at firft ex- 
 crcifes them in a manner greatly below it ; and, 
 
( 33 ) 
 
 formed for infinite improvement, he proceeds 
 from the fmallefl beginnings ; but can neither be- 
 gin nor proceed without the co-operation of his 
 fellow men. 
 
 What multiplication of ingenuity, what combi- 
 nation of induflry, what concurrence of different 
 abilities, are requifite not only to carry to perfec- 
 tion, but even to invent and exerciie, with any 
 tolerable degree of dexterity, thofe mechanical 
 arts and employments, which exalt the citizen a- 
 bove the favage, which fweeten and embeUim fa- 
 cial life, which furnifh all that variety of conve- 
 nience and pleafure we daily behold and enjoy, 
 and which, from the mod helplefs of the animal 
 creation, render man the lord of the world. Will 
 the forefl be felled and moulded into furniture, 
 the quarry be dug and polifhed into materials for 
 building, the marfn drained and converted into a- 
 rable land, the overflowing river confined to its 
 proper channel, the inferior creatures conftrained 
 to fuccour human weaknefs by their fuperior 
 ftrength, or their fpoils be manufactured into 
 clothing; will the fuperfiuities of one country 
 fupply the deficiencies of another, and navigation 
 unite the molt diftant regions by the mutual and 
 permanent ties of beneficial commerce; will all 
 this, and much more, which I forbear to c- ■ume- 
 
( 34 ) 
 
 rate, be accomplifhed without the united and jnft- 
 ]y regulated efforts of the human fpccies, and the 
 equal application df the talents of each to the 
 common intereft*? Will the fecret fprings of na- 
 ture be explored, and the laws, which ihe obferves 
 through all her different provinces, be inveftiga- 
 ted unlefs time and opportunity are furnimed to 
 the acute and the, ingenious, by means of a com- 
 modious fubiiflence provided for them, by the la- 
 bour and induflry of thole whole faculties are 
 lefs refined and exalted? 
 
 Thus it appears that, as each individual is total- 
 ly ini'ufficient for his own happinefs, fo he rnuft. 
 depend, in a great meafure, on the a (lift an cc of 
 others for its attainment; and that however much 
 any one may contribute to the benefit of his fel- 
 low men, by the excellence and fplendour of his 
 abilities, whether nutural or acquired, he derives 
 from them as much as he can befiow, and fre- 
 quently much more than he gives. 
 
 If the union of all, then, be necellary for the 
 fuflenance, the convenience and the happinefs of 
 each individual, and each individual can, in his 
 turn, contribute coniiderably to the common wel- 
 
 * fee Smith's Wealth of Nations, Book I. 
 
( 35 ) 
 
 fare, it follows, as a necefTary confequence of 
 this determination of nature, that order and fu- 
 bordination muft be introduced, by which the 
 different members of the community may have 
 their proper talks allotted to them, the talents of 
 each be directed to their proper objects, injuftice 
 and violence be reftrained, and as great a fum of 
 common felicity be produced, as the condition of 
 humanity will permit. Hence, new channels are 
 cut out for abilities, namely, thofe which are ex- 
 ercifed in offices of power and authority. As rea- 
 fon, however, loudly dictates the inftitution of 
 thefe for the common good of the human race ; 
 fo me requires that they fall to the lot of thofe 
 who are qualified to difchsrge them. When this 
 actually takes place, the order of nature is observ- 
 ed, and all its happy confequences enfue. When 
 this order is overturned, and the different depart- 
 ments of fociety, but efpecially thofe of the high- 
 eft dignity and ufe, are committed to fuch as are 
 incapable of difcharging the ^duties of them, all 
 the diirnal effects of folly, injuftice, and confufion, 
 are fpread through the whole of the fecial frame, 
 and the evils of that inequality, which the cor- 
 ruption and biindnefs of mankind have introduced, 
 are feverely felt. When the talents and merits 
 of men are allowed their free courfe, are permit- 
 ted a fair field for their cxercife, -and are not de- 
 
( 36 ) 
 
 prived of thofe rewards which are by nature an- 
 nexed to them, there never can be any ground to 
 complain of inequality among men. For, howe- 
 ver unequal their abilities and opportunities may 
 be in themfelves, the mod perfect* equality exifts 
 in the distribution of the rewards and advantages 
 annexed to each by theconfutution of nature. The 
 good effects of univerfal induflry, and the proper 
 application of the powers of every individual, fo 
 as to produce the greatest good upon the whole, 
 are then felt through all the focial body. Every 
 per Ion poffefTes that degree of wealth, of cpnfide- 
 ration, and of honour, to which he is entitled by 
 his honed induflry, or by his fervices to the pub- 
 lic. The active and noble minded exert all their 
 powers for the common welfare, in the moft effi- 
 cacious and illuflrious manner. The indolent 
 and felfifh are conftrained, by the indigence and 
 contempt into which they muft otherwife fall, to 
 contribute their mare to it. Eut, when power 
 and riches are employed to fruflrate virtue of the 
 refpeel which is its due, abilities, of the diftindion 
 and influence which they juflly claim, and honeft 
 induflry, of its natural fruits, a moft mocking in* 
 equality takes place, which can only lubfift in con- 
 junction with the mod odious tyranny. In pro- 
 portion as this opprefiion prevails, which 
 throws the principal advantages of focicty into 
 
( 37 ) 
 
 the hands of a few, by no means the moft refpec- 
 table of its members, and renders it a patrimony 
 and inheritance, of which they may difpofe at 
 pleafure, fociety is corrupted and miferable. In 
 proportion as that equality is maintained, which 
 the Creator has eftablifhed, and which confifts, 
 not in all the members of the focial body being 
 placed on a level, but in mulual dependence and 
 parity of obligation among all, amidft a variety of 
 diftinclions, conditions, and ranks, fociety is hap- 
 py, free, and flourifhing, fecuring to each indivi- 
 dual the full enjoyment of all his natural advanta- 
 ges, enfuring to the public the complete product 
 of the efforts of all well directed and juftly com- 
 bined ; uniting all the members of the focial body 
 by the ties of mutual intereft and benevolence, 
 and preferving as much liberty as is confiftent 
 with civil union. 
 
 In fuch a happy ftate of things, whatever forms 
 of fubordination may exift, as there is a mutual 
 dependence among all theparts-of the focial body ; 
 fo there is not the fmalleft ground for pride and 
 infolence, on the one hand, or for degradation and 
 debasement of fentiment, on the other. Are any 
 exalted above others by the fuperiority of their 
 mental powers, they are inferior to them in other 
 qualities, which are abfolutely neceffary to the 
 D 
 
( 38 ) 
 
 fupport and convenience of life. If one excels 
 in ufeful qualities, another is diftinguifhed by a- 
 greeable and mining ones ; and, as pleafure with- 
 out utility, is pernicious, fo utility, without 
 pleafure, becomes languid and infipid. If one 
 is exalted to power, or llluflxious by fame, thofe 
 who faithfully difcharge the duties of an hum- 
 ble and obfcure (ration, enable him to fulfil 
 the duties of his more eonfpicuous one, and con- 
 tribute to his exaltation, by occupying thofe 
 parts of the general fyftem, without which the 
 higher orders could not fubfift, and by paying him 
 that deference and refpecl: to which his merit is in- 
 titled. If one is eminent by his wifdom and fa- 
 gacity, by his genius and wit, by his knowledge 
 and erudition ; another is nolefs diffcinguifhed by 
 his activity and ftrength, by his fkill and dexterity, 
 by his induftry and labour. If one is venerable 
 by his elevation of foul, by his generofity, public 
 fpirit, and intrepidity ; another is amiable by his 
 gentlenefs and complaifance, by his patience, mo- 
 di (ty, and meekncfs ; and, if the former qualities 
 are the ornaments, the latter are the great fweet- 
 ners, of life, while both, operating in conjunction, 
 fupply mutual defects, and impart mutual ftrength 
 and imbeliifbment. If thofe who fill the higher 
 ftations in a becoming manner, confer the greatefl 
 benefits on their fellow men, they are equally in- 
 
( 39 ) 
 
 debted to them for their fupport. If the latter 
 ftand in need of the judgment and penetration of 
 the former; in order to devife the b eft plans of 
 profecuting the public good, and of maintaining 
 the general fafety ; thefe, again, ftand in need of 
 their refolution and diligence to carry their plans 
 into execution. If fome contribute to the inftruc- 
 tion and improvement of their, fellow men, by 
 teaching and illuftrating the grand principles of 
 virtue, on which the welfare of' fociety is princi- 
 pally founded, thofe who enjoy the benefit of 
 their inftru&ions, turn them to their profit, by 
 pra&ifing towards them the virtues which they in- 
 culcate- If one clafs of men maintain good or- 
 der and peace, and another exercife all the ele- 
 gant and ufeful arts of. focial life, there are o- 
 thers who fecure thefe enjoyments and advanta- 
 ges againft external invasion, and offer their blood 
 as their contribution to the common inter eft. 
 
 As, in the human body, therefore, the welfare 
 of the whole depends upon that of each individual 
 member, and that again is necelfarily affected by 
 whatever affects the whole fyftem ; and there is 
 thus a mutual dependence and iympathy among all. 
 the parts ; fo, in fodety, every individual having 
 a particular portion of talents, and, if properly 
 placed, a particular ftation, conformable to this, 
 Da 
 
( 40 ; 
 
 allotted to him, becomes neceffary to the welfare 
 of the whole community, and as he affects, is like- 
 wife affected by, its profperity or detriment. All 
 are united by mutual dependence and fupport : 
 Break but one link of the chain, and the reft are 
 of no ufe, or, at leaf!:, are deprived of much ad- 
 vantage and comfort, which is enjoyed when the 
 focial feries is complete. 
 
 Nor ought it to be alledged, that many of 
 thofe wants, which cannot be fupplied but in foci- 
 ety, are not the wants of nature, but are merely 
 adventitious, and generated in that fociety, the 
 neceffity of which they are produced to prove. 
 We readily grant that, in refined and highly po- 
 liced ftates of civilized life, where luxury has u- 
 niverfally diffufed its effeminating influence, ma- 
 ny wants and defires are generated, which are 
 not only not agreeable to nature, but repugnant 
 lo human perfection and felicity. Let it how- 
 ever be obferved, that this pernicious tendency 
 to human happinefs begins by loofening thofe 
 ties which knit men moft firmly together. It is 
 felfifb, not focial, enjoyments which are moft ad- 
 verse to human perfection, and man begins to in- 
 jure his own happinefs, by Separating it from the 
 general good. It is undoubted that all the origi- 
 nal powers of human nature are carried to the 
 
( 4t ) 
 
 higheft perfection in fociety, and droop and lan- 
 guifh in folitude. That ftate, furely, which is 
 moft perfective of every human faculty, is the mod 
 natural, and it is only by the ftrangeft perverfion 
 of terms and ideas that the contrary can be aflert- 
 ed. But the perfection of the focial ftate cannot 
 be attained, without the mutual dependence of 
 mankind, in that extenfive fenfe in which I have 
 exhibited it. That dependence is, therefore; found- 
 ed in the conftitution of nature itfelf. 
 
( 42 ) 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FINAL CAUSES of the VARIETY o/HUMAN TALENTS. 
 
 XT is evidently the intention of Divine Provi- 
 dence in beftowing upon different perfons different 
 powers and abilities, to point them out for diffe- 
 rent ftations and circumftances, to aflign to them 
 different duties and tafks, and thus to promote 
 moft effectually the welfare of the human fpecies. 
 By this fcheme, it is unqueftionable, many more 
 advantages are obtained, with regard to the beft 
 interests of mankind, than could have been fecur- 
 ed by difpenfing the fame portion of ability and 
 virtue, that diftinguifhes our fpecies, on any other 
 plan whatever. For every particular talent is 
 thus cu Itivated with greater fuccefs, when it oc- 
 cupies the conftant and habitual attention of its 
 poffefTor, than it could have been if he had been 
 overloaded with a multiplicity of employments, or 
 diffracted by the exercife of various abilities. A 
 greater fum of excellence is thus produced in the 
 fpecies, and, of confequence, its perfection and 
 
( 43 ) 
 
 happinefs is more effectually promoted. By this 
 plan of diftribution, moreover, opportunities arc 
 afforded for the exercife of many virtues, which 
 could not have otherwife exifted. Thus, were 
 all equally wife and learned, no opportunity 
 could be afforded for difplaying either a communi- 
 cative or a docile difpofition. Were all equally 
 rich, or equally powerful, neither generofity nor 
 gratitude could be excited ; and, as there could 
 be no demand for fuccour and protection, on the 
 one hand, fo, on the other, there would be no oc- 
 cafion for condefcenfion and fympathy. Finally, 
 mankind by being rendered absolutely neceffary 
 to each other, are conftrained to maintain a mutu- 
 al intercourfe of good offices ; and fociety is thus 
 united by the firmeft and moft lading bonds. 
 
 In fact, this diverfity of talents and virtues ap- 
 pears to be the chief circumftance which qualifies 
 men for a focial and political exiftence. Were all 
 endowed with the fame definite portion of pow- 
 ers, of whatever kind, to what purpofe would 
 men affociate, fince they would derive little more 
 from their union than they individually poffeffed? 
 An accumulation of mere ftrength would be the 
 only effect of combined powers, in the fame man- 
 ner that ilx horfes can draw a greater weight, and 
 to a greater diftance, than two. This diverfity of 
 
( 44 J 
 
 abilities, by rendering mankind mutually depend- 
 ent from their detached weaknefs, becomes the 
 ftrongeft motive to afTociation, the moil powerful 
 bond of fociety, and its greateft excellence and 
 perfection, when it is properly arranged. With- 
 out this, and on the fuppofition that the fame fpe- 
 cific qualities were, as in the brutes, allotted to. 
 each individual, a more perfect equality would 
 indeed be eftablifhed among all the members of 
 the fpecies ; but it would be an equality ufelefs for 
 every purpofe of affociation, and would ferve ra- 
 ther to feparate than to unite them. Thiscircum- 
 ftance I. am inclined to think, has not hitherto 
 been fufficiently confidered, at leaft not in the 
 light in which I have reprefented it. In this 
 light, thofe pleas of fuperior wifdom, oroffupe- 
 rior power, which Ariftotle*, and fome late wri- 
 ters, who appear not very favourable to the caufe 
 of equal freedom, have urged as the foundations 
 of the dominion of one part of mankind over the 
 reft, are deftitute of all force. For, if thefe 
 pleas mould be admitted, even in their utrooft ex- 
 tent, they will furnim no ground for independent 
 dominion and fuperiority, unlefs it can be proved, 
 at the fame time, that the poflefTors of thefe qua- 
 lities are equally endowed with every other which 
 is necefTary or conducive to human felicity. Should 
 
 * Pol. 1. zmo, c. a. 
 
( 45 ) 
 
 the wifdom and the ftrength (as is commonly the 
 cafe) be found indifferent fubjecls, it will remain to 
 be decided to which the fuperiority is to be align- 
 ed, and what particular degree of each of thefe qua- 
 lities is neceflary to conflitute a rightful claim. Art 
 and ingenuity maylikewife fuppo'e themfelves en- 
 titled to fome portion of dominion, fince it is un- 
 doubted that their influence is very confiderable 
 in the affairs of life. In this manner, every 
 thing is thrown into confufion, and no clear no- 
 tion of right is any where left. But, by the view 
 we have taken of the fubjecl, (which will, I flat- 
 ter myfelf, be found to be the true one) every 
 man acquires a clear and definite claim according 
 to the portion he contributes to the general wel- 
 fare, a moft falutary equality is dill left among 
 mankind, and the community is knit together by 
 ties which cannot be diflblved, without the de- 
 struction of general and particular happinefs. In 
 a word, the flighteft contemplation of human na- 
 ture convinces us that man isdefignedby his Cre- 
 ator for fociety, and, as this was his deftination, 
 he is fo conffttuted as to be impelled towards it by 
 all his propenflties and powers, and linked to it by 
 all his wants and enjoyments, with whatever abi- 
 lities he may be endowed, or in whatever ftation 
 he may be placed. 
 
( 46 ) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Thejtift Notion of the NATURAL EQUALITY ofMEX 
 
 is placed in equality of obligation. — The 
 
 proper tendency of this doctrine. 
 
 F 
 
 ROM what has been already faid; it will 
 now fnffieiently appear, that the moft perfect equa- 
 lity of obligation, of benefits received and return- 
 ed, fubfifts among all the members of fociety, of 
 whatever denomination or degree, who faithfully 
 dif( harge their duties ; that that dependence, 
 which the proud and* the powerful are fain to li- 
 mit to one fphere and ftation, runs through all 
 alike, and that independence, at which all afpire, 
 is no where to be found among men. For al- 
 though any human being ihould be pofTefled of 
 every imaginable perfection and advantage ; yet 
 while he lives in fociety, and abundantly fatisties 
 all his focial propenfities, from which the fublim- 
 eft pleafures of human nature are derived, he re- 
 ceives from mankind fuch an ample portion of iiap- 
 
( 47 ) 
 
 pinefs, that he is bound to compenfate it by every 
 return, which the utmoft exertion of his abilities 
 can enable him to make. From his elevateJ fupe- 
 riority he is thus obliged to defcend to the equali- 
 ty of a citizen, and of a man. 
 
 In the eye of reafon, therefore, and of the 
 Univerfal Parent, every honeft ftation of. life is 
 equally honourable, fince they are all but parts 
 of the great focial body which his wifdom has 
 planned, and his power preferves. In this view, 
 no human creature is more or lefs worthy than 
 another, but in as far as he difcharges or neglects 
 the part allotted to him, and augments or dim'u 
 niihes the fum of general -felicity ; or as he occu- 
 pies a place which he is incapable of filling, de- 
 prives others of their juft ftation, fnatches, from 
 them the rewards to which they are entitled, or 
 preVents them from performing the duties of the 
 ftation in which they are placed, and of the fphere 
 in which they move. 
 
 The principles above eftablifhed are widely dif- 
 ferent from thofe which pride and tyranny em- 
 brace and inculcate. If men are endowed with 
 fuperior abilities, or raifed to an exalted ftation, 
 they will not eafily admit that, between them and 
 their inferiors, the dependence and the obligation 
 
( 4« ) 
 
 are reciprocal. Unlefs they are diftinguiflied by 
 peculiar generofity of (entiment, they will conli- 
 der it as no very pleafmg doctrine that, between 
 the f'overeign and the fubjecl, the magiftrate and 
 the people, the great and the mean, the rich and 
 the poor, the acute and the dull, the learned and 
 the ignorant, there is no difference but in the 
 pofTeflion of different powers, and in the difcharge 
 of different offices peculiar to each capacity, and 
 ufeful to all ; and that, if the firft have a juft de- 
 mand on the fecond for fubmiflion and obedience, 
 for honour and refpect, for convenience and eafe, 
 the fecond have as juft a claim on them for protec- 
 tion and defence, for the adminiftration ofjuftice, 
 and the prefervation of equal liberty, for the fup- 
 ply of their wants and the relief of their diftreffes, 
 for inftruftion and good example. Pride and ty- 
 ranny would place, on the one fide, all honour 
 and refpect, and nothing but difregard and con- 
 tempt, on the other ; here, all oppreflion and vio- 
 lence, and there, all patience and fubmiflion ; here, 
 all convenience and pleafure, and there, all la- 
 bour and indigence ; here, would have the fmal- 
 left afliftance to beconiidered as an eternal obliga- 
 tion, and there, the greateft fervices to pais for 
 indifpenfible duties. With fuch fentiments, it is 
 no wonder that the mutual dependence and obli- 
 gation of men mould be rejected as a dangerous 
 
( 49 ) 
 
 and odious doctrine, equally fubverfive of public 
 order, and of private right. Thofe who think 
 and act in this manner, either making no returns 
 for the benefits they receive from fociety, or po'f- 
 fefling no capacity to make them, are eager to re- 
 present every notion of mutual obligation and e- 
 quality among men, as imaginary and prefumptu- 
 ous, and to oblige the world to look on them -as 
 its eftablifhed lords. Butfuch opinions can never 
 retain their influence, when knowledge lias begun 
 tQ make any progrefs, and mankind to underfland 
 their own nature and dignity. The bodies of men 
 can never be enflaved, when their minds are free; 
 and the moft diligent care of all defpots, of what- 
 ever rank or denomination, ever has been, and 
 ever mufl be, to keep mankind in ignorance. As 
 foon as knowledge diffufes her light over the dun- 
 geon in which they are inchained, the doors are 
 thrown open, and their chains fall off. In fact, 
 pride and tyranny, by deftroying that mutual 
 obligation, and that juft equality which we have 
 now eftablifhed, fap the very pillars which fup- 
 port greatnefs and difplay fplendour. For, if 
 there is no mutual obligation, no parity of right, 
 then power, on the one hand, and weaknefs on 
 the other, are the only bonds of focial or civil uni- 
 on. It is eafy to fee where, in fuch circumftan- 
 ces, the greateft power will be found; whether 
 E 
 
( 50 ) 
 
 in the hands of the poor, the mean, the illiterate; 
 or in thofe of the rich, the great, the learned, and 
 the ingenious. But if the grand principle of equa- 
 lity of obligation, and of mutual dependence, is 
 adopted in opinion, as it is cftabliftied in nature, 
 if flations and offices are neither unjuftly ufurped, 
 nor their duties perfidioufly and weakly performed, 
 the obligation to obedience and fubmilfion is as 
 ftrorig on inferiors, as that of juftice and difmte- 
 refted zeal for the public good is on rulers and 
 mao-iftrates; ard the honor obtained by diftin- 
 ruiftied abilities is equally due to their poffeffors, 
 as the fruits of their honeft labour are due to the 
 lower orders of the community. This principle 
 places the fabric of fociety on a firm and lafting 
 foundation, and all the parts of the building, how- 
 ever different in point of fplendour and ornament, 
 are fo clofely connected, and fo necefiary to the 
 whole, that none of them can be removed or de- 
 faced, without injuring the beauty or the folidity 
 of the flructure. Thiscqually balances all the parts 
 -,vA members of the fecial body, makes pre-emi- 
 ncice itfelf emerge from common intereft, and 
 S o- ? in depreffes that feparate indq^endence whidi 
 pre-eminence would affume, by referring it to that 
 ccttecYive power from which it is wholly derived. 
 \ conftant balance, and readion of obligation and 
 du% is thus maintained through all the depart- 
 
( 5' ) 
 
 rhents of fociety, fimilaf to what we obferve in 
 nature. As exhalations and vapours from the 
 ocean and the lower parts of the earth, refting 
 on the tops of mountains, form the fprings whence 
 are derived the rivers that water and fertilize the 
 different regions of the globe, anil return at lad 
 into the ocean, and thus a conftant circulation is 
 maintained; fo the more elevated fphere of focie- 
 ty derive their political exiftence and energy from 
 the general mafs, and, if properly filled, diffufe 
 through the whole focial body a falutary influence, 
 which again ferves to maintain their dignity and 
 fplendour* The individuals that occupy thefe 
 fpheres, detached from fociety, and confldered 
 merely as individuals of the human race, are en- 
 titled to no diftinclion or fuperiority, but what 
 arifes from corporeal or mental qualities, which 
 are the diftinctions of nature. But, viewed in 
 their connedion with the political body, they 
 claim their pre-eminence and power, on the fame 
 principle by which fociety is held together, name- 
 ly, that the general good mull limit the pretenli- 
 ons of individuals. 
 
 This is that equality of mankind, which has 
 
 been fo often alTerted, but is feldom well under- 
 
 flood — an equality which the proud and tyrannical 
 
 difdain, becaufe it oppofes their felfifl.nefs orin- 
 
 E2 
 
( 52 ) 
 
 dolence — an equality which turbulent and defign- 
 ing men are fain to abufe as an engine for over- 
 turning regularity and government, and for in- 
 troducing that anarchy in the midftof which they 
 themfelves are to rife. It is an equality which im- 
 plies fubordination — an equality of wants, with a 
 diverfityof means offupplying them — an equality 
 of obligation, with different modes of difcharging 
 it. It is an equality which, by rendering all equal- 
 ly neceflary, makes all, who faithfully difcharge 
 their duties, equally honourable in the fight of 
 God ; but, by requiring higher and lower ftations, 
 and various diftinctions and fpheres, eftabliihes 
 different degrees of re fpect ability and honour a- 
 mong men. It is an equality which degrades none 
 but the tyrant, the ruffian, the thief, the volup- 
 tuary, and the fluggard ; and exalts all, but thefe, 
 to the ennobling dignity of constituent members 
 of the grand community of mankind, and of fel- 
 low labourers with God in advancing the felicity 
 of his moral and intellectual creation. 
 
 Not lefs abfurd, than pernicious, therefore, is 
 that levelling notion, which confounds all diftinc- 
 tions and ranks, annihilates fubordination, and 
 deftroys that juft equality which is founded in na- 
 ture, and in human happinefs. While this fran- 
 tic opinion is directly contrary to the appointment 
 
( 53 ) 
 
 of God in the eftablimment of fociety, and horri- 
 bly deftructive in its confequences, it commonly 
 tends, like every other extravagant and vicious 
 paflion, to frufrrate its own gratification. Taking 
 licentioufnefs for liberty, it becomes the greateft 
 promoter of defpotifm. For, as nothing has 
 brought religion more into difrepute, than bigo- 
 try, fanaticifm, and hypocrify, which have fo of- 
 ten afiumed that venerable and facred name ; 
 and as nothing has brought fo much difgrace on 
 philofophy, both in ancient and modern times, as 
 the profligate lives of pretended philofophers ; fo 
 licentioufnefs, appearing under the difguife of liber- 
 ty, has a direct tendency to render it either odious 
 or contemptible. The tyrannical opprefTors of 
 their fellow men, and their fervile abettors, ea- 
 gerly lay hold of the horrid excefles which licen- 
 tioufnefs produces, and at which they fecretly re- 
 joice, as infidels delight in the corruptions of reli- 
 gion; paint them with the decpeft colours of an 
 inflamed imagination j and afcribe them with tri- 
 umph to thofe principles of true liberty, to which 
 they are lb repugnant in their origin, and fo per- 
 nicious in their confequences. The ignorant mul- 
 titude, incapable of diftinguifhing appearances 
 from realities, haftily admit both the amnion and 
 its inference, and feek refuge from arnarchy in the 
 chains of defpotifm. The wife, however, and the 
 E3 
 
( 54 ) 
 
 good, will equally guard againft the wild decla- 
 mation of the demagogue, and the crafty infinua- 
 tions of the tyrant, will hold faft thofe eternal 
 principles of equity which God has imprened on 
 their fouls, and, if they cannot evince their truth, 
 or inculcate their practice,on mankind,will deplore 
 the blindnefs and the corruption of their fpecies, 
 and pray that the Father of light may at laft un- 
 fold a day of knowledge and ferenity, when the 
 benignant voice of truth mail neither be (tilled by 
 the mandate of tyranny, nor drowned by the ac- 
 clamations of tumult, when the power of opprel- 
 flon fhall be extinguifhed together with the defire 
 of it ; when freedom fhall be eftablifhed on the 
 bafis of fubordination, and fecured by obedience 
 to law ; when men mall be attached to juflice by 
 the permanent bleflings of fecurity and peace. 
 
( 55 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Some Circumftances o/equality not yet conjidered* 
 
 H 
 
 AVING, in the preceding Chapters, explain- 
 ed the chief foundation on which it may be afiert- 
 ed that all men are equal, in as far as relates to 
 every focial and civil duty, I fhall now briefly 
 point out feveral other refpects in which the equa- 
 lity of mankind is farther evident. 
 
 I. All men are endowed with the fame frame 
 of body, and with the fame genera] conftitution 
 of mind. Notwithftanding the diversities, which 
 obtain among individuals, in point of higher or 
 lower degrees of excellence in any of the original 
 faculties of our nature, all the fpecies, excepting 
 fome uncommon and monftrous inftances, is cha- 
 racterifed by the fame members and organs of body, 
 and by the fame faculties, propenfities, and affec- 
 tions of foul. Does the richeft, the moft power- 
 ful, the moft beautiful, the moil ingenious among 
 
( 5* ) 
 
 the fons of men, feel lefs the {enfe of hunger and 
 thirft, of cold and pain, than thofe of contrary de- 
 fcriptions ; or are thefe laft lefs diftinguimed than 
 the former, by the general conftruclion and or* 
 gans of the human frame; Do not the rich and 
 the poor, the obfcure and the elevated, come into 
 the world in the fame ftate of imbecility and 
 wretchednefs ? Is the infant of opulent parents 
 poflefled of greater vigour, or does he require lefs 
 the afnflance of thofe on whofecare he is immedi- 
 ately caft, than the infant of the peafant or the 
 beggar ? Can he already difcern and provide his 
 food, ufe. his limbs, defend himfelf from danger, 
 and, by his hereditary independence, vindicate 
 the true fuperiority of his condition ? So far is any 
 of thefe from being the cafe, that, if there is any 
 difference, in thefe refpecls, between him and the 
 infant of meaner rank, it is ail in favour of the 
 latter. This, from the ftrcngand healthy conni«- 
 tution of his parents, brings along with him a frame 
 naturally vigorous and robuft, and requiring only 
 the mod ordinary care for its nouriihment, its 
 prefervation, and its final maturity. The other 
 often inherits from thofe who begat him a fickly 
 and (lender conftitution, which the utmofl atten- 
 tion and afliduity can hardly preferve from ex- 
 tinction in the moment of birth, and afterwards 
 more frequently debilitate than £rerigthen> 
 
( 57 ) 
 
 Again, the fame natural principles, propenfities, 
 and affections, operate on all mankind with differ- 
 ent degrees of force, according to their different 
 fituations. All men, of whatever rank or condi- 
 tion, are ftrongly actuated by a principle of felf- 
 prefervation, by the love of liberty, by the de- 
 fire of pleafure, and an averfion to pain, by the 
 love of fociety, and a diflike of folitude, by the 
 parental, conjugal, and filial attachments, by a 
 fenfe of honour, by refentment of injuries, and 
 by a certain affection for their country. None 
 are deftitute of fome perception of beauty, order, 
 and magnificence in the works of nature or art, 
 and noiae, but fuch as are monftroufly corrupted, 
 are infenflble to the eternal diftinctions of right 
 and wrong, of virtue and vice, of truth and error, 
 in human judgments and actions. Even the moft 
 ftupid, ignorant and perverfe of the human fpecies 
 differ, in this refpect, from the 'brutes, that, as 
 they remember the paft, and anticipate the future, 
 fo they are capable of forming and purl uing fome 
 plan of life, of conceiving fome fyflem of happi- 
 nefs which they defire to attain, or fome image 
 of mifery which they endeavour to avoid. No 
 human being, therefore, enjoys or fuffers like the 
 inferior animals, according to the blind impulfes of 
 appetite, or the unanticipated impreffions of fenfe, 
 but has fome previous deliberation and choice, with 
 
C 58 ) 
 
 regard to the objects of defire and averfion* Every 
 mortal alio feels that, by the birth-right of human 
 nature, he is entitled to certain rights, of which 
 he cannot be deprived without cesfmg to be a man, 
 or without envying the condition of the inferior 
 creatures. Thefe are the common features ©f 
 humanity which characterise all the fpecies, and 
 eftablifh among them fo many points of equality* 
 
 II. All men are equal in being equally expofeil 
 to vicifiitudes, and to death. To attempt any 
 proof of thefe facts would be nugatory and ridicu- 
 lous. But the confequences to be deduced from 
 them, with refpect to the light in which the differ- 
 ent orders and defcriptions of men ought to view 
 each other, are not fo evident, or at lead poflefs 
 not that influence over the heart, to which they 
 are in reafon entitled. For, if the moft exalt- 
 ed of mankind mud, as well as the loweft, fubmit 
 to the ftroke of death, and moulder the prey of 
 worms in the grave, if this event equally hangs 
 over his head every moment, and, when it hap- 
 pens, muft ftrip him of every external distinction ; 
 can any pretentions be more abfurd than thofe of 
 pride, which are folely founded on a pre-eminence 
 fo tranfient and uncertain ? For any one, there- 
 fore, to value himfelf on fuch tranntory diflincii- 
 ons, is as ridiculous, as it would be for a traveller 
 
( 59 ) 
 
 .to imagine himfelf proprietor of everyfielcl through 
 which he pafled. 
 
 Befides, the itatlons which difcriminate the dif- 
 ferent orders of Society, are by no means perma- 
 nently attached to any number of individuals that 
 may now enjoy them, or to their defendants. 
 They are fubject to many viciffitudes, and have a 
 conftan-t tendency to change. As the parts of ma- 
 terial nature are in perpetual fluctuation, and are 
 fame times altered by fecret and filent decays, 
 fometinaes by violent convulfions, by tempefts, 
 hurricanes, inundations, earthquakes and volcanos, 
 fo the various orders of fociety are expofed to 
 constant changes, partly by Sudden and violent 
 agitations, partly by thofe fecret, but certain 
 caufes, which are continually operating the exalta- 
 tion or the depreffion of men. Foreign wars or do- 
 mestic commotions, lignal calamities or uncommon 
 profperity, illuftrious virtues or flagrant vices, pro- 
 duce the moft wonderful alterations in human for- 
 tunes. Leaving the public transactions of our own 
 times, which furnifh moft ftriking proofs of this 
 fad, what numberlefs instances croud into the 
 mind while it revolves the events of ancient or 
 modern hiftory ! 
 
( <5o ) 
 
 Fortunafaevo laeta negotio et 
 Ludum infolentem ludere pertinax 
 Tranfmutat incertos honores, 
 Nunc mihi nunc alii benigna*. 
 
 Hor. Od. 1- iii. 29. 
 
 There is, befides, in every ftation a certain ten- 
 dency to change, and the fame caufes that produc- 
 ed the elevation of the higher orders of men, are 
 imperceptibly operating alfo in favour of others 
 placed in inferior conditions. As a projectile, 
 when it has reached its higheft point of elevation, 
 begins immediately to defcend, and continues its 
 courfe downwards with an accelerated velocity ; 
 fo there appears to be a certain point of exaltation, 
 beyond which human grandeur cannot proceed, 
 and which, by being the termination offplendour, 
 becomes the beginning of decline, and of final pre- 
 cipitation. On the other hand, as the feed of a 
 tree, from the moment it is dropped into the 
 ground, is continually expanding, and receiving 
 
 * For fortune ever changing dame 
 Indulges her malicious joy, 
 And conftant plays her haughty game, 
 
 Proud of her office to deftroy ; 
 To-day to me her bounty flows, 
 And now on other* (he the blifs bcftows. 
 
 Francis'* Tranilation. 
 
( 61 ) 
 
 from the earth new additions to its growth, till 
 it mingle its branches with the clouds, and cover 
 the foil with its made j in like manner, among the 
 lower orders of men, there are evident principles 
 of increafe and amelioration of their condition, 
 which fail not to operate fuccefsfully when they 
 are favoured by opportunities. 
 
 For, what are the vices which are apteft to in- 
 fed elevated and and affluent circumftances ; and 
 what the virtues which an humble and hard lot 
 moft eafily engenders and cherifhes? In the for- 
 mer, we often behold pride, which excites indig- 
 nation and hatred, and, confequently, combinati- 
 ons to reprefs it. We behold luxury and extrava- 
 gance, which wafte rapidly the moil fplendid for- 
 tunes, and incapacitate for exertion and activity. 
 We behold careleffnefs and inattention, which al- 
 low people's affairs to run into diforder, and oc- 
 cafion irreparable confufion at laft. We often 
 behold extortion, oppreflion, and flagrant abufe 
 of power, in order to retrieve broken circumftan- 
 ces, which haften the' ruin they are employed to 
 prevent, and produce indelible difgrace. 
 
 In an humble and fevere lot, we frequently fee 
 humility and modefty, which never fail to concili- 
 ate complacency. We fee patience and frugality, 
 F 
 
( 62 ) 
 
 of which the former renders the hardeft conditi- 
 on tolerable, and the latter draws eafe from pe- 
 nury. We fee industry, and a fuccefsful exertion 
 of abilities, which firft make men ufeful and indif- 
 penlibly necefTary even to their fuperiors ; then 
 bring them into notice and regard ; and, laftly, 
 raife them to trnft and affluence- Thus, while 
 thofe who are placed in the higheft ftations., 
 fuppofing they have no exertions to make, 
 becaufe they have reached the pinnacle of human 
 great nefs, are verging towards decline and obfcu- 
 rity, thofe who move in an inferior fphere, urged 
 by their. necelTities, or ftimulated by their ambiti- 
 on, are making conftant efforts to rife, watching 
 every favourable opportunity of fuccefs, and fi- 
 lently climbing the fteep from which the former 
 are defcending. Where are now thofe illuftrious 
 families that occupy fuch a remarkable place in 
 ancient hiftory ? They are not furely all extinct ; 
 their defendants, doubtlefs, exift fomewhere up- 
 on the earth. But they are confounded with the 
 general mafs of mankind, while others havearifen 
 to fliine in the fphere from which they have de- 
 parted. It is thus that Divine Providence, which 
 has, for the wifeft reafons, eftablifhed, an inequa- 
 lity of ftations and talents among men, has by al- 
 lowing their virtues and vices to operate their na- 
 tural effects of alternate depreflion and exaltation, 
 
( <$3 ) 
 
 reftored the balance, which difappears from the 
 view of fuperficial obfervers* 
 
 III. If we juftly eftimate the advantages and 
 inconveniencies of every condition of life, we {hall 
 find that they nearly balance each other, that the 
 fum ofhappinefs, fhared among the human fpecies, 
 is divided in pretty equitable portions; and that 
 equality of enjoyment is anotherground, on which 
 the different ranks of fociety, if not the individuals 
 that are placed in them, are^ on a level. The 
 grand difference, in this refpect, conflfts in what 
 is appropriated to no ftation or fortune, but is e- 
 qually open to them all — internal difpofition and 
 character ; which it is unqueftionable, may be dif- 
 played in their greateft excellence, and enjoyed 
 in their higheft perfection, in the loweft, as well 
 as in the mofl elevated, fphere. As the different 
 regions of the globe, however removed from the 
 Equator, or the Poles, enjoy equal meafures of 
 light and darknefs, though diftributed in different 
 manners ; fo the different orders of fociety poffefs 
 equal portions of felicity, and are expofed to equal 
 pains, though the modes of enjoyment and fuffer- 
 ing be diver fified. If the honours of an exalted 
 ftation are greater than thofe of an humble one, 
 its duties are alfo more difficult ; if its virtues are 
 more fplendid, its temptations are more enticing, 
 F 2 
 
< «4 ) 
 
 and its vices more confpicuous; if its enjoyments 
 are more refined, its fufferings are more acute, and 
 its afflictions more durable. Is it fuppufed that 
 the burden of labour is heavier than that of indo- 
 lence, or the pains of indigence greater than thofe 
 of fenfuality? Confider that health cften {miles, 
 on the cheek of poverty, while difeafe deforms the 
 faceof opulence. Do any imagine that ihefolicitude 
 cf providing daily fubfiftence is greater than that 
 which at teads the improvement, or the fecurity, 
 of an exteniive eftate — that the real wants of na- 
 ture afford more anxiety and care, than the ima- 
 ginary demands of extravagance — that the evils 
 which are really felr, are greater than thofe 
 which diftempered fancy creates? — let fuch confi- 
 der the difcontent, the uneafinefs, the dejection, 
 the wayward humours, and the fullen gloom, 
 thatfo often haunt the great and the wealthy, and 
 acknowledge thatfleep vifits the couch of draw, 
 and flies from the bed of down. 
 
 Do any imagine that it is more difficult to pur- 
 ine, with conftancy andfirmnefs, the rugged and 
 thorny paths of the humble vale of life, than to 
 maintain the elevated pcfts of dignity and honour, 
 in the midft of intrigue, of competition, cf cla- 
 mour, and of all the uncertainty of favor ? Let 
 them reflect on the folkitudes and the terrors, of 
 
C *5 ) 
 
 the public governor, when unfuccefsful iflues at- 
 tend his ad fniniftration, when the tide of popular 
 approbation begins to ebb, when hisenemies fpread 
 difcontent through the land, reprefent him to the 
 people as the author of their calamities, androufe 
 them to facrifice him as the victim of their fury. 
 The ftorm often burfts on the palace, when it paf- 
 fes inoffenfively over the cottage ! 
 
 IV. All men are equal in having fome peculiar 
 duty to difcharge, fome peculiar advantages for 
 the exhibition of correfponding virtues, fome pe- 
 culiar temptations to correfponding vices, and in 
 being placed in a courfe of probation for a future 
 and final ftate. If the duties of each ftation are 
 properly difcharged, its virtues proportionably 
 difplayed, and its temptations furmounted, it is 
 difficult to fay whether the greateft praife is due 
 to the fuperior or inferior ranks of fociety. If 
 the duties or the virtues of either are neglected, 
 or its temptations allowed to prevail, the blame 
 is equal on both fides, although the punifhments 
 are frequently diftributed very unequally under 
 human governments. That all men are at pre* 
 fent placed in a preparatory ftate for a future ex- 
 iftence, both natural and revealed religion concur 
 in evincing. It is no lefs evident, from the ex- 
 ternal principles by which the divine government 
 
( 66 ) 
 
 is adminiftered, that the characters which men 
 have acquired in the prefent period of being, will 
 be the only meafures of their future fate, and 
 that all thofe diftindions, which are wholly ex- 
 ternal, will then <lifappear forever! If any re- 
 gard is then paid to the different ftaiions which 
 men have occupied here below, it will only be in 
 order to determine how far they have difcharged 
 the duties of them, and what degree of merit, 
 or demerit, is to be affigned to each individual, 
 according to the talents he pollened, and the op- 
 portunities tie enjoyed for the practice of every 
 virtue. Here all men are placed on the moll per- 
 fect equality, have the fame hopes, the fame fears, 
 the fame pleas to urge, the lame titles toproduce, 
 or rather are levelled by the fame incapacity of all 
 merit, but what is derived from the clemency of 
 the Great Judge, operating through the plan of 
 falvation he has eftablifhed. With his eyes turned 
 to this fcene, with any adequate impreilion of this 
 awful confummation on his heart, (and mad mult 
 he be to whofe mind fuch thoughts are never pre- 
 fent !) can any one deny the equality of mankind, 
 nor perceive the empty titles,, and tinfelfplendors 
 and idle pageants of this tranfitory period, fwim- 
 ining before his fight, and finally difappeai ing, 
 like the dreams which occupy his fancy in fleep, 
 but fade and are forgotten when he opens hi* 
 eyes, and again enjoys the reality of things. 
 
A N 
 
 E S S A Y, &c. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
( *9 ) 
 
 A N 
 
 ESSAY, &c. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 What are the RIGHTS refulting from the Natural 
 EQUALITY of MEN > 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Cf the MANNER in which we acquire our NOTION 
 of RIGHTS* 
 
 A N the difcuflion of moral and metaphyseal 
 fubjects, hardly any thing has occasioned greater 
 obfeunty, and, of confequence, more violent dis- 
 putes, than the ambiguity of terms, and the vague 
 and indeterminate ideas annexed to them by dif- 
 ferent parties. Of this no word can afford a more 
 ftrikmg mftance than the term right, efpecially 
 when applied to denote a moral capacity to acl. 
 
( 70 ) 
 
 topojjefs, or to demand, in certain circumftances-- 
 Of this the notion will.be found to be as various, 
 as the philofophical or religious fyftems which 
 men have adopted, the profeflions which they 
 have embraced, the ftations which they occupy, 
 or the company they frequent. Although peo- 
 ple may agree in fome general and indefinite no- 
 tions of right, yet, in the peculiar ideas they en- 
 tertain with regard to its application to all the 
 particular objects of human- action and purfuit, it 
 will be found that their conceptions are not redu- 
 cible to any determinate iiandard. We are not, 
 on this account, however, to imagine that the 
 rights of men are indefinable, or that there are 
 not general claffes to which they may be reduced. 
 For, although the private rights of individuals 
 muft vary according to their different circumftan- 
 ces and relations, there are ftill certain and per- 
 manent principles on which they are founded, and 
 from which they mult be deduced, in order to 
 diflinguit'h them from thofe powers which fraud 
 iecretly obtains, or violence openly ufurps. Un- 
 lefs this were the cafe, laws and obligations would 
 be unmeaning words, and power the only arbiters 
 of right and wrong. 
 
 Without entering at prefent into any abftrufe 
 and refined fpeculations concerning the foundation 
 
( 71 ) 
 
 of moral obligation, I mall only obferve, that we 
 feem, in general, to denominate that right which 
 has a tendency to promote the univerfalhappinefs 
 of mankind, or that of the individual himfelf, 
 when it is not repugnant to the more extenfive 
 intereft, whether of the whole fpecies, or of the 
 fmaller communities into which the fpecies is di- 
 vided. To thefe two general heads, namely, ten- 
 dency to general, and tendency to particular hap- 
 pinefs, when properly limited, it will be found 
 that every thing juft, and honorable, and praise- 
 worthy, in human fentiments and conduct is ulti- 
 mately referable. Whoever does, or poffeffes, or 
 demands, what is conducive to the common good, 
 or to his ownintereft in confiftency with this, that 
 he mould do, or poffefs, or demand, we, fay he has 
 a right to do, to pqffefs or to demand, it. 
 
 It is evident, that the only notions we can form 
 to ourfelves of happinefs muft be derived from 
 thofe original principles of our nature, by which 
 certain objects are conflituted the means of fatis* 
 faction and pleafure, and others the caufes of un- 
 eafinefs and pain. The former become, on that 
 account, deferable, and the latter, difagreeahk and 
 odious. By implanting thefe dehres and averfions 
 in the foul of man, the Creator evidently intend- 
 ed that they mould be indulged within the limits 
 
( 72 ) 
 
 he has prescribed to them, and, in order todifco- 
 ver thefe limits, has fuperadded the noble faculty 
 of reafon. Accordingly, there fcems annexed to 
 every natural dejire and propenfity of the heart, a 
 certain feeling of a right to its indulgence. The 
 original propenfities and deilres fpring up fponta- 
 neoufty in the foul, and impel it to action. In 
 children, thefe are the firft ftimulants to motion 
 and activity, and, as they are ftill undirected by 
 the higher principles of our nature, and by the 
 improvements of experience, conftitute their on- 
 ly notions of right* As the inferior animals are 
 immediately carried by nature towards thofe ob- 
 jects which are adapted to fatisfy their inftinctive 
 principles ; fo men, in the firft period of their ex- 
 iftence, greedily defire and feize whatever their 
 appetites or paihons point out to them as agreea- 
 ble, and confider it as an injury to withhold from 
 them the indulgence; butfuchis the beautiful or- 
 der eftablifhed in the human constitution, that ma- 
 ny of thefe propen'ities limit and balance each o- 
 ther, fo that the immoderate indulgence of one 
 prevents that fatisfaction of others, which is alfo 
 a neceiTary ingredient of happinefs. Different 
 pains and inconveniencies, foon experienced. from 
 unbridled propenfities, fuggeftthe neceinty of mo- 
 deration and i'elf-command. The pleafures and 
 the advantages cf feciety attach men to their fpe- 
 
( 73 ) 
 
 cies, and point out, at the fame time, the necefli, 
 ty of regulating their condu&infuch a manner as 
 to prevent their defires and purfuits from encroach- 
 ing on the equally natural defires and purfuits of 
 others. 
 
 Reafon, recollecting the paft, and anticipating 
 the future, eftabliihes fuch rules of action and en- 
 joyment as unite the perfection and happinefs o£ 
 the individual with the general inter eft of the 
 fpecies, aad convert the harmonious movements 
 of the whole focial body into the moft efficacious 
 means of promoting the happinefs of all its mem- 
 bers of whatever rank or degree. The moral 
 faculty, furveying fuch a beautiful and falutary 
 arrangement, fan ctions it with its approbation, and 
 decrees that every human being is bound to act 
 and to enjoy in conformity to the principles of this 
 fyftem. The various relations and circumftances 
 of men being confidered and defined, general max- 
 ims are formed, which are denominated the laws 
 of nature* As the human conftitution is the work 
 of the fupreme Creator, whatever is, by juft in- 
 ference, deducible from this conftitution, as a rule 
 of conduct to man, is as juftly held to be a divine 
 law, as if the Omnipotent Legiflator had proclaim- 
 ed it with the moft audible voice. From thefe 
 general laws, various rights are deduced compe- 
 G 
 
( 74 ) 
 
 tent to men, whether as inherent in their com- 
 mon nature, or as belonging to thofe peculiar re- 
 lations in which they are placed, by the neceffary 
 arrangements of fociety. 
 
 In this manner, the notions of the different 
 rights of- men are acquired* 
 
 
( 75 ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The two grand divisions of rights which flow from 
 the Natural equality of mankind. 
 
 JL ROM the fliort deduction contained in the 
 preceding chapter, joined to what has been efta- 
 blifhed in the iirft book, it is evident that there are 
 certain natural rights , which cannot be infringed, 
 without overturning the foundations of human 
 fociety, and that there are others which be- 
 long only to certain defcriptions of men, 
 in confequence of that focial order which 
 is necefTary for the general felicity. The for- 
 mer are to be considered as the original conditions 
 of the focial compact ; the latter, as the means by 
 which it is to be executed ; and both flow from 
 that idea, of equality of obligation which we have 
 above illuftrated. 
 
 In the firft. place, there are certain principles 
 fo ftrongly interwoven with the human frame, 
 fo intimately blended with its efience, fo efficient 
 of all that can be called human, that the violation 
 of them cannot be regarded in any other light 
 G 2 
 
( 76 ) 
 
 than in that of a degradation, nay, an entire ex- 
 tinction of the diftinctive attributes of the human 
 character. Of confequence, every man fiipulates, 
 by entering into fociety with his fpecies, that the 
 enjoyments grounded on thefe principles, or, in 
 ©:her words, the rights which attach to them, as 
 the gifts of God to his rational: creatures, mall be 
 maintained to him inviolate ; and referves tohim- 
 felf the privilege of defending them at ail hazards, 
 whenever it is attempted to wreft them from him. 
 For, as every human being is a conflituent mem- 
 ber of the focial body, he is, while he difcharges 
 the duties incident to his peculiar capacity, enti- 
 tled, equally with every other, to the grand pre- 
 rogatives of human nature, which civil fociety is 
 intended to maintain and improve. He is as ne- 
 ceffary, as the moft diflinguilhed of mankind, to 
 the general perfection and felicity, and he contri- 
 butes to it that portion which his abilities enable 
 him to furnifh. The rights, therefore, which 
 are indifpenlibly neceffary to the prefervation and 
 happinefc of each individual, in whatever rank or 
 fituation he may be placed, muft equally belong 
 to all, and can never fuffer the fmalleft diminuti- 
 on from any claims or prerogatives attached to the 
 diftinctions of fortune, of rank, or of talents. 
 They are the neceffary appendages of that equa- 
 lity y whichfubfifts among all men aniidft the divex- 
 
( 77 ) 
 
 fities which fociety and civilifation have intro- 
 duced. 
 
 I mall firft briefly enumerate and explain the in- 
 herent and original rights of human nature, which 
 •qually belong to all men without exception ; 
 and, fecondly, thofe adventitious rights, which 
 belong only to particular defcriptions of men, as 
 chara&erifed, whether by particular talents, or 
 by particular fituations in civil life, but equally 
 to all to whom thefe defcriptions are applicable. 
 
 G 3 
 
( 78 7 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Cfthe original and inherent rights of human 
 
 NATURE. 
 
 i.E 
 
 i VERY innocent member of fociety has a 
 perfefl right to life, and to the integrity of his 
 body. No principle is more deeply engraved in 
 the conftitution of all animals, than that of felf- 
 prefervation. Every living creature has an ab- 
 horrence of diffolution, and a ftrong averfion 
 from pain, which is a ftimulant (till more power- 
 ful than the love of pleafure ; becaufe the remo- 
 val of evil is the nrft ftep towards enjoyment. No- 
 thing excites the deteftation of mankind more than 
 an unprovoked attempt on life, or even violent af- 
 iault, when no more is intended than to wound, 
 or to mutilate. Befides, no man can be ufeful to 
 fociety, but in as far as his life is preferved and fe- 
 cured, and bodily health and vigour are neceffary 
 to difchargethe moft important focial duties. The 
 right to thefeis facredand inviolable, and, when- 
 ever they are unjuftly affauhed, every man is en* 
 
( 79 ) 
 
 titled to defend them even by the (laughter of the 
 aggreflbr, when every other means of fecurity is 
 removed. In this right is evidently included that 
 of the prefer vation of chaftity when attacked. 
 
 II. Every man has a perfect right to the full 
 fruits of his own honeft ingenuity and labour. 
 The Creator, by beftowingon every perfon a cer- 
 tain portion of corporeal or mental ability, plain- 
 ly intended that it ihould be exercifed. To this 
 exe'rcife men are impelled by the ftimulants of 
 pleafure, and of pain* Reafon> which enables 
 mankind to anticipate futurity, fuggefts, from the 
 recollection of former wants, the neeeflity of pro- 
 viding for them when they fhall again recur- 
 The natural productions, which may be render- 
 ed fubfervient to the ufe of man, necefTarily be- 
 come the property of the firft occupier, becaufe, 
 if they were appropriated to none, they would be 
 ufelefs to all ; at leaft, fuch of them as could af- 
 ford no prefent ufe would remain neglect- 
 ed and unimproved. For no man will beftow la- 
 bour and time on that from which he is to receive 
 no profit. Men are ftrongly afFecled by a tender 
 folicitude for their offspring and near connections, 
 to whom they wifh to impart a fhare of their fu- 
 perfluities during life, and, at death, to tranfmit 
 their entire potfeifioiis. They are inflamed with 
 
f 80 ) 
 
 a thirft of honour and applaufe, and eager to ob- 
 tain them by the difplay of ufeful, of elegant, or 
 of f iiblime, talents. Befides, while men mutual- 
 ly fupply each other with what they want, for 
 an equivalent, fociety is more clofely cemented, 
 by a conftant interchange of the various products 
 of induftry, of art, and of wealth ; and, by the, 
 different conditions of men in point of fortune^ 
 opportunity is, as above obferved, afforded for the 
 exercife of many virtues, which could not other- 
 wife exift. Man's double capacity, as an individu- 
 al, and as a member of fociety, is thus beft pre- 
 ferved, and his felfifh, as well as his facial, pro- 
 penfities arc gratified- In fact, the fame means 
 that enable him moft amply to indulge the former, 
 alfo qualify him for fatisfying moft effectually the 
 latter. By the exercife and cultivation of all his 
 faculties, and by the improvement of the opportu- 
 nities he enjoys, he beft promotes his own private 
 happinefs, and, in the fame manner, he contri- 
 butes moft to the public good. As the perfection 
 and folidity of all the parts of a building produce 
 the folidity and perfection of the whole ; fo, in hu- 
 man fociety, the profperity of all its members in 
 their different relations and circumftances, produ- 
 ces the fum of general happinefs. Notwithftand- 
 ing therefore, the Utopian fyftem of a community 
 of goods, which foine political projectors, fixing 
 
( Si ) 
 
 their eyes on partial views of advantage and in- 
 convenience, have endeavoured to recommend, 
 and fome fmaller focieties have exemplified, it is 
 undoubted that both public and private happinefs 
 require that the right of property mould be fa- 
 credly maintained. 
 
 This right implies not only that pofTeffions, al- 
 ready lawfully acquired, mould remain the invio- 
 lable property of their poffeflbrs, but alfo that 
 every honeft and fair mean of acquiring mould be 
 equally open to all who are placed in the fame 
 circumftances. It requires that a fair field be 
 granted for the e<ercife of every ufefulgnd orna- 
 mental talent, and that its natural rewards be 
 not with held from it. Partial and narrow fyftems 
 of policy, whereby the intereft of a few is only 
 confulted, frequently cramp genius, and reftrain 
 induftry, to the great prejudice of the common 
 good. 
 
 Thefe, however, with whatever pretexts they 
 may be coloured, are juitly to be accounted viola- 
 tions of the lacred right of property, v/hich re- 
 gards not only what men already honeftly poiTefs, 
 but alio, what they may honeitly obtain. The 
 powers of their bodies, and the faculties of their 
 minds, are the only property which men receive 
 
( «a ) 
 
 from nature. The exercife of thefe on the vari- 
 ous natural productions, introduced the adventitU 
 ous rights to thefe objects, and inheritance and 
 contracts transferred them from their original pro- 
 prietors to their fuccefiors. But the foundation of 
 ali property is the common right to the earth and 
 its productions, which God has granted to man^ 
 kind, together with the peculiar appropriation, 
 which every one made of fome portion of thefe to 
 himielf, by the ufe of his mental and corporeal 
 powers. It is abfurd, therefore, that adventitious- 
 rights fhould. be facred, while the primary means, 
 of acquiring thefe rights may be wantonly cir- 
 cumfcribed- 
 
 III. All men have an equal right to a fair and 
 honefl character, till it has been proved that they 
 have juftly forfeited it. The love of character 
 is deeply implanted in the human breaft, and as it 
 can only be extinguished with the extinction of in- 
 tegrity ; fo it is ftrong in proportion to the ftrength 
 of virtuous and -elevated fentiments. The lofs of 
 reputation, wounding one of the moft lively feel- 
 ings of the human heart, is one of the greateft 
 calamities in life. With the lofs of character ma- 
 ny other evils are unavoidably connected, which > 
 while they deftroy the private happinefs of the 
 individual, alfo fruftrate his public utility. Th* 
 
( 8 3 : ) 
 
 Aicceftof a perfon in the world, whether in the 
 improvement of his fortune, or in the exercife of 
 his abilities, depends greatly on the opinion which 
 is entertained of his integrity. His ufefulnefs to 
 fociety depends chiefly on the confidence which his 
 fellow men can repofe in him* When any man's 
 honefty is queftioned, his talents, far from being 
 objefts of complacency, are converted into fources 
 of terror, and mankind naturally combine in or* 
 der to deprive them of thofe opportunities of ex- 
 ertion, which feem to threaten their own fafety. 
 
 Fame, ordiftihguifhed confideration and refpecl:, 
 belong only to eminent abilities, virtues or ftations* 
 But the character of honefty belongs equally to all 
 who faithfully difcharge every fOcial and civil 
 obligation. Thofe wli6, in every fituation and 
 circumflance, whether of exaltation or of obfcuri- 
 *ty, carry along with them purity of heart and in- 
 tegrity of conduct, meet on the equal footing of 
 good men, and are equally entitled to all the en- 
 joyment, advantage, and confideration, which that 
 character juftly claims* and cannot fail to poflefs> 
 if not clouded by mifreprefentation, or ftained by 
 calumny. The moft illuftrious abilities, or the 
 moft exalted ftation, give not, of themfelves, a 
 better title to a fair and fpotlefs character, than 
 
( 84 ) 
 
 the mofl: moderate parts, or the moft humble cir- 
 cumftances. This right, till it is loft by vicious 
 action, extends to all conditions and ranks with- 
 out exception. 
 
( 8 5 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 IV. J_J VERY man has a p erf eft right to liberty, 
 or to acl: in whatever manner hepleafes, provided 
 he offers no injury to others, and violates no law 
 enacted by the public authority of the civil fociety 
 to which he belongs* As foon as we form the no- 
 tion of a rational agent, freedom immediately en^ 
 ters into the conception, and all happinefs and all 
 virtue reft on its foundation. For, as virtue 
 confifts in the proper ufe of all our faculties, or 
 in that conduct which is fuited to the human na- 
 ture and condition; fo happinefs confifts in the 
 pofTeflion of "thofe enjoyments, of which nature 
 has rendered us capable, and which the right ufe 
 of reafon enables us to obtain. But how can lie, 
 who is deprived of the power of regulating his 
 own actions, and of determining and directing his 
 purfuits, either exert his faculties in fuch a man* 
 ner as is beft adapted to their ends, orpurfue thofe 
 enjoyments, with the greateft vigour, to which 
 H 
 
( 86 J 
 
 he has afiigned the higheft value ; how can he, 
 who is fubjected to the arbitrary will of another, 
 contribute his portion to the common order and 
 felicity ; which refults from the combined efforts 
 of all directed to this glorious and comprehenfive 
 end — from the combined exertions of knowledge, 
 wifdom, fkilJ, ingenuity, dexterity, art, labour, 
 refolution, and vigour, ihared among all the mem- 
 bers of the focial body ? Supprefs the juft exertion 
 of any of thefe feparate portions, juft fo much is 
 cut off from the general perfection and happinefs, 
 and, while individuals are opprefTed, the public 
 fuffers. Subject them to the arbitrary will of one, 
 or of a few, all the light, and invention, and ener- 
 gy, which refultfrora the free, but well regulat- 
 ed, efForts of all acting in harmonious concert are 
 gone — all that variety of talent, of deflgn, of pur- 
 fuit, and of operation, which embellifh, and im- 
 prove, and ftrengthen, human fociety, is extin- 
 guifhed — and the whole focial mafs, fubordinated 
 to one feeble and impotent will, ever influenced 
 by narrow and contracted views, or by cloudy paf- 
 fions, either pines in a paffive lethargy, or, if it 
 is called into action by extraordinary ftimulants, 
 exhaufh its ftcength by its efForts, while their 
 produce is wholly drawn off by the privileged 
 part; fimilar to thofe aged trunks on which we 
 behold a few of the higher brandies retaining their 
 
( 8; ) 
 
 fap and verdure, while the tree itfelf is rotten, 
 and finking fpeedily to dtift. Thus the preferva- 
 tion of liberty is neceffary to the attainment of pub- 
 lic, as well as of private, felicity ; nor can it ever 
 be fuppofed that any human being, whofe judg- 
 ment is found, and who has not been corrupted 
 by long habits of fervitude, would either expli- 
 citly or tacitly relinquish what is neceffary to eve- 
 ry enjoyment cf human nature, and without 
 which, fociety kfelf is his greateft curie. In 
 fhort, liberty and human nature are infeparable ; 
 to deftroy the former, is to annihilate the latter 
 •— is to annmil ate every notion of duty, and vir- 
 tue, and happinefs, beyond what is merely fenfu- 
 al and brutiih. 
 
 It is no wonder then, that the love of freedom 
 mould be ftrong and vigorous in the bread, in pro- 
 portion to the elevation of fentiment, the fenfe 
 of honour, the regard for virtue, with which 
 each individual is endowed, and that, by every 
 generous and feeling foul, flavery mould be deem- 
 ed the greateft of human evils. Bafe, indeed, 
 and corrupted, and broken by habits of fervile 
 iubje&ion, muft that man be, who can confider 
 himfelf as the property of his fellow creature, 
 and feels no indignation at the tyrant who reduc- 
 es him to this deipicable condition, and who, de- 
 H 2 
 
C M ) 
 
 grading the rational creation of God, which he 
 has firft debafed in his own foul, outrages heaven 
 while he domineers upon earth. Few of mankind 
 are fo degenerate as to have left all fenfe of liber- 
 ty, and of the native dignity of man. For al- 
 though they may fubmit in filence to a defpot, yet 
 they abhor him in their hearts : and, when they 
 can do it with fafety, would lay hold of the firfi 
 opportunity of making off the yoke. The namej 
 of mailer and flave annihilate all claims of duty 
 all voluntary offerings of affe&ion, and exhibit 
 man to man in a ftate of hoftility, where power 
 is the only right, and terror the only obligation** 
 
 * From tkefe confederations it may be eftabliflied as a certain 
 fruth, that arbitrary governments, in whatever hands they may 
 be placed, can never effectually fecure the happinefs of rrankind. 
 With whatever wifdom and goodnefs a prince may be endowed - , 
 it is impoflible, from the narrownefs of the human mind, that his 
 views can extend to every department of civil fociety ; aHd he 
 will be unavoidably expofed to impofition from fome quarter or o- 
 ther. His adminiflration, of confequence, can never be marked 
 vsith that extenfive beneficence, which remits from forms of go- 
 vernment which are calculated to collect into one point the wifdom, 
 ingenuity, and vigour, which are difTufed through the whole fo- 
 oial body. Befides, as it is the intention of civil iociety to pro- 
 mote the happinefs of all its members, it is impoflible that its 
 ends can be obtained, when the fenfe of freedom, which isfo effen- 
 tial an ingredient of human felicity, is either completely cxtin- 
 guifhed, ©r deprived of its enjoyments- 
 
C «9 ) 
 
 Notwithstanding this averfton to fervitude, 
 and this love of freedom, fo ftrongly implanted 
 in the human breaft, it muft be confefled, that 
 there is in mankind both an aftoniftiing propenfity 
 to tyrannize, and a wonderful facility in fubmit- 
 ting to enormous power. The freedom which 
 men claim to themfelves, they are not willing to 
 grant to others) and the principle which infpires 
 the wifh of independence, produces the exercife 
 of opprefllon. The love of pre-eminence and 
 power rejects competition and equality; fond at- 
 tachment to one's own opinions ftimulates men to 
 pre fcribe them as rules to others; pofleflion con- 
 ftantly aims at enlarging its bounds : elevation 
 and authority have a perpetual tendency upwards, 
 and, in their afcent, deprefs thofe parts through 
 which they move — the generality of mankind, 
 long accuftomed to admire fplendour and wealth, 
 or eminent talents, readily fubmit to their domi- 
 nion ; and voluntary homage often begins the fub- 
 jection, which is at laft exacted as a right. Ha- 
 bits of fervitude debilitate the fenfe of freedom, 
 and the rigours of oppreffion are frequently ne- 
 ceflary to roufe it. It is thus, that the love of in- 
 dependence ftimulates to encroach on the rights 
 of others, and that fuch encroachment is fo fre- 
 quently fuccefsfnl. 
 
 H 3 
 
( 9° ) 
 
 On this account, all civil liberty is limited by 
 thefe two conditions, abftinence from injury to 
 others, and fubmiffion to the laws enacled by the 
 authority of political fociety. Whoever injures 
 others is not a free man, but a tyrant, and, if he 
 is free, others are flaves*. As it is the grand de- 
 fign of civil fociety to fecure men from that in- 
 juftice and violence which would foon fubjecl: all 
 to the raoft powerful, it is neceflary that the pub- 
 lic authority ihould circumfcribe the actions of 
 each individual. While all are equally fubjecl: to 
 this authority, and the collective power of the 
 whole community is centered in this point, it fol- 
 lows as a neceflary confequence of that equality, 
 which confifts in the relation that all equally bear 
 to the focial body, that the actions of each fliould 
 be directed and limited by this relation. No mem. 
 ber is fubjecl to another, confidered as a member, 
 but every member is fubject to the whole in its 
 collective capacity, and, when this capacity is tranf- 
 ferred to any part, or to any number of parts of 
 the focial body, thefe deriving their pre-eminence 
 and authority from the whole fociety, have a right 
 to govern all its members, while in every inftance 
 
 * Hence the propriety of the infcription libertas oir the pr» 
 fons of Geeoa. fcte Rouffc-uu— Comrat Social—and Howard o* 
 Prifcns. 
 
C 9' ) 
 
 in which they appear as members themfelves, and 
 ad, not in a public, but in a private, capacity, 
 they are equally fubject to the common will, ex- 
 prefTed by public laws, with all the other mem- 
 bers of the community. In civil fociety, it is this 
 alone that maintains that equality which fubfifts 
 among all its different members, notwithstanding 
 the diverfities which fortune, rank, or talents, have 
 introduced. For, as thefe only diverfify the man- 
 ner in which each is to contribute his portion to 
 the public good ; fo, when all are equally fubject 
 to common laws, all are levelled by this common 
 fubjection, and every one is reftricted to that line 
 of conduct, which is neceflary for the prefervati- 
 on and welfare of the political fyftem. Unlimit- 
 ed freedom is unattainable not only in civil fociety, 
 but in every fpecies of alTociation whatev/.r, be- 
 caufe the actions of every individual of the fociety 
 are limited by the actions of all the reft, and by the 
 general defign and conditions of afTociation itfelf. 
 The grand defign of every focial union is to ob- 
 tain the co-operation of all its members for the 
 common good. It is hence incumbent on every- 
 one of them, fo to regulate his conduct, as to con- 
 tribute to the end propofed. Nay, perfect liberty, 
 if, by that term, we understand the unreftrained 
 indulgence of every defire and propenfity, is as 
 inconiiftent with the rational conftitution of each 
 
C 9* ) 
 
 individual, as it is with the principles of civil union* 
 For there is an order eftablifhed by nature among 
 all our defires and pafllons ; and reafon is given 
 both to difcover and to maintain it. As the violator 
 of civil order ceafes to be a citizen, and becomes a 
 public enemy, fo he who violates the order of the 
 moral and rational nature ceafes to be a man, de- 
 generates into a brute, and is the deftroyer of his 
 own happinefs. As a man, he only is free, who, 
 delivered from the yoke of paffion, freely follows 
 the dictates of his nobler faculties, and indulges 
 every natural propenfity in confiftency with men- 
 tal order. In like manner, civil fociety is free, 
 when delivered from arbitrary power, in what- 
 ever mape it may exift, all its members are placed 
 under the empire and dominion of laws, enforcing 
 the gr.vnd principles of political union, and equal- 
 ly binding on the legiflators themfelves as on the 
 people. If any are railed above law, or enjoy 
 privileges and prerogatives, which have no rela- 
 tion to the public good, and are burthenfome to 
 the community, in proportion as they are advanta- 
 geous, to the poffelfors of them, the principles of 
 civil union are oppofed, political equality is fub- 
 verted, and oppreffion, more or lefs grievous ac- 
 cording to the degree of fuch inequality, is intro- 
 duced. 
 
( 93 ) 
 
 As the limitation of law is infeparable from 
 the liberty to which every citizen has an incon- 
 teftible right ;, fo this right implies that, in every 
 inftance, neither contrary to law, nor injurious to 
 others, every innocent perfon, who has reached 
 the years of maturity, and has not voluntarily 
 fubjected his actions to the controul of others, 
 fhould enjoy the power of acting as he pleafes. 
 Perfons of found judgment, and of generous fen- 
 timents, will, in the ufe of this freedom, confult 
 not only their own pleafure and advantage, but 
 alfo, the felicity of all to whom their influence may 
 extend. Their purfuits will be characterized by* 
 a dignity and beneficence, which will point them 
 out as the ornaments of fopj^ty, and the objects 
 of general admiration and gratitude.. Such will 
 find their moft delightful enjoyments in their own 
 higheft improvement, and in their mofl extenflve 
 utility to others. Men of inferior capacity, or of 
 a meaner turn of mind, will chiefly devote them- 
 selves tofenfual pleafures, and to felnfh purfuits j 
 and thus with-hold from the public a great deal 
 of benefit which they might otherwife contribute* 
 On this account, however, they are not to be de- 
 prived of their liberty, as long as they remain 
 within the bounds of that innocence which, how- 
 ever deficient in a moral and religious light, is, 
 fufficient for the maintenance of public peace, and 
 
( 94 ) 
 
 of civil and political order. They are not amen- 
 able to human, but to divine juftice ; and muftbb 
 called to account, not in the prefent, but in a fu- 
 ture, world. Argument, perfuafion, and exam, 
 pie, may be employed ; and every good man will 
 uie them to the utmoft of his power, in order to 
 diffuie virtue and happinefs among his fpecies. 
 But to ufe violence for this purpofe, is both to 
 difappoint the end, and to exhibit an inftance of 
 that folly which is reprobated in others. Men 
 may be conitra'mcd to be harmlefs and. juft, but 
 not to he virtuous and happy ! 
 
 In the right of liberty is included the free ufe 
 of private jHcrment in every thing relative to the 
 regulation of conduct, and efpecially to religion > 
 as well as the free communication of fentiment 
 within the bounds above ftated. It is vain to 
 think of enjoying liberty of action, if the opini- 
 ons by which action is to be directed are not alio 
 free. In fact, the right of private judgment can- 
 not be alienated or wrefted from any human be- 
 ing by any power on earth. The mind of man, 
 eonflituted free by its Creator, will ever remain 
 fo, in fpite of every endeavour to enflave it. Ig- 
 norance may darken, prejudice reftrain, or cor- 
 ruption pervert, its powers; ftill the opinions 
 which it really embraces, are fuch, as appear to 
 
( 9>, ) 
 
 it the beft, according to the light which it enjoys. - 
 But to conceive any mortal adopting an opinion, 
 for which he perceives no ground, is the mofc 
 glaring contradiction — is to fuppofe him admit- 
 ting and rejecting at once the fame propodtions. 
 With regard to religion, in particular, the right 
 of private judgment, and the freedom of consci- 
 ence, are to be maintained, as neceflarily connect- 
 ed with the equality of all men, above eftablifh- 
 ed. For, although religion ever has been, and 
 ever muft be, the flrongeft bond of fociety, yet 
 the Strength of this bond depends on the united 
 evidence of the religious opinions which are adopt*, 
 ed, and on the Sincerity with which they are em- 
 braced. It is only when religious opinions are 
 both true in themfelves, and ingenuouily profehed, 
 that they can exert any aufpicious influence on the 
 actions, of men. 
 
 Now, to perceive truth is the. operation of the" 
 understanding. To embrace it with becoming 
 zeal, and to obey its dictates with undeviating 
 conftancy, is the operation of the heart. The 
 understanding may be enlightened by reafon, the 
 heart may be affected by perfuafion, and, in order 
 that either may be produced, perfect freedom is 
 necefiary. To convince or to perfuade by vio- 
 lence, is the greatefl of abfurdities, is a manifeft 
 
( 96 ) 
 
 impoflibility; and when there is neither conviction 
 nor perfuafion, where can religion fubfift? Place 
 it where it can only relide — in the underftanding 
 and the heart; it eludes all conftraint. Ptemove 
 it from this habitation, it loies its falutary influ- 
 ence. 
 
 As religion, therefore, muft, from its very na- 
 ture, be free, no man can have any right to dictate 
 to the conscience of another* All men are equally 
 entitled to ferve God, and all are equally bound to 
 ferve him in J'pirit and in truth. No man can 
 ferve him with another's fpirit ; and no man can 
 difcern truth with another's underftanding. To 
 fubject religion to conftraint, is, of confequence, 
 to deftroyits eflence, and to annihilate its falutary 
 tendency. Enthufiafm and bigotry, whofe cha- 
 racter it is to erect their own opinions as ftaildards 
 for all the world, and to violate the rights of con- 
 fcience, never fail, if they are fuccefsful, to give 
 birth to hypocrify, as the heir to their ufurped 
 dominion. Hence it is eafy to account for the 
 fmall influence which religious opinions have on 
 the conduct of their profeiTors, while pure and un- 
 dented religion ought naturally to produce the 
 moil falutary effects not only in rendering men 
 -wife untofalvation, but in forming them to the 
 practice of every ibcial and civil virtue. Religion 
 
( 97 ) 
 
 |l either believed to be fomething very different 
 from what it is, toconfift merely in forms and ce- 
 remonies, in which cafe it has either no effect at 
 all on moral conduct, or a very pernicious one — 
 or men are conftrained to profefs what they do 
 not believe ; by which their hearts are corrupted, 
 and their actions and fentiments are at conftant 
 variance. The glory of God is thus promoted by 
 •defacing his image on the human foul, and by 
 transforming his reafonable ftrvics into childiili 
 pageantry and infignificant pomp. Befides, if any 
 f'et of men aflume to themfelves the power of pre* 
 fcribing to others in religious matters, others 
 may, with as good a title, do the fame whenever 
 they obtain the power. True religion may thus 
 be fupprelTed and deftroyed, without its profefFors 
 having any plea for its defence whichisnot equal- 
 ly competent to the moft abfurd fupcrftition. 
 While men thus domineer in religious matters, 
 •according as they poffefs the power, all religious 
 improvement is precluded ; the wifeft and moft 
 pious of men may be obliged to fubmit, in obfe* 
 quious filence, to the moft ignorant and impious ; 
 and fuperftition, in all its hideous forms, is put on 
 the fame footing, and enjoys the fame advantages 
 for its maintenance and propagation, *vith divine 
 revelation itfelf. This right of freedom of judg- 
 ment carries along with it that of free communi- 
 I 
 
( 9* ) 
 
 cation of fentittient, within the limitations above 
 laid clown. As there is in man a ftrong natural 
 propensity to communicate his feelings and fenti- 
 ments to others, fb the faculty by which he is chief- 
 ly enabled to communicate them is one of the moil: 
 powerful bonds offbciety, and one of the chief in- 
 struments of its improvement. By fupprefhng this 
 freedom of communication, the natural equality 
 of men is deftroyed. Thofe from whom it is 
 wrefled are degraded from the condition of mem- 
 bers of the community, and, being Gripped of this 
 privilege, may be prevented from contributing 
 that portion to the public good which it might en- 
 able them to afford. How much the improve- 
 ment and felicity of mankind depend on the free 
 diffuiion of knowledge, is too evident to require 
 any proof. Nor is it lefs certain that ignorance 
 and prejudice, ever delighting in darknefs, becaufe 
 their Laponian eyes are too weak to endure the 
 light, are extremely deflrous of excluding it from 
 whatever quarter it may mine. They endeavour, 
 therefore, violently to extinguish the lamp of rea- 
 fon, and to iilence the voice of truth. If they fuc^ 
 ceed, all the evils of barbarifm are perpetuated; 
 if the precious right of free communication of opj* 
 nion is maintained, private as well as public happi- 
 nefs is the reiult. 
 
( 99 ) 
 
 But, if men embrace and profefs opinions with 
 regard to religion, morals, or politics, the moil 
 grofsly falfe and erroneous, are fuch fyftcms to 
 be tolerated, and not rather prescribed aseflron- 
 tive to God, and pernicionsfto men? The firft in- 
 quiry mud be, whether fuch opinions tend to over- 
 turn the principles of civil fociety, and to difturb 
 its order and peace. If any are fo fcolifh, or fo 
 wicked, as to entertain fentiments fubverlive of 
 thofe fundamental truths on which the mutual 
 obligations of men, and the praclicc of all vir- 
 tue, and civil fociety itfelf, are founded ; fuch may 
 be juftly conftraineel to abftain from the propaga- 
 tion of them, or to remove from the fociety of 
 which they are members • or, if they obftinately 
 refufe to comply with a requisition which felf- 
 prefervation chelates, may be juftly punimed in or- 
 der to deter others from imitating their example. 
 But as fuch fundamental truths are few, and uni- 
 verfally acknowledged, fo they ought not to be 
 unneceffarily multiplied in order to fnpprefs the 
 exercife of private judgment, or connected with 
 other points in which diverlity of opinion, far 
 from being pernicious, conduces to enlarge die 
 bounds of human knowledge, by pouring in new 
 light from various inquiry and intelligence. Be- 
 fides, as no fincere profeilbr of any fyftem of re- 
 ligion or morals really believes it impious and 
 
 J a 
 
£ ioa }, 
 
 pernicious, but, on the contrary, entertains the 
 higheft opinion of its excellence, fuch ought ra- 
 ther to be convinced by argument, than deftroy- 
 ed by persecution, and, while he abftains from 
 actions injurious toothers, it is unjuft to treat 
 him withfeverity and violence. It is undeniable 
 that bigotry, and fuperftition, and enthufiafm,. 
 whether religious or civil, have often produced 
 the mod direfal calamities in the world. But it 
 is to be obferved, that this has entirely proceeded 
 from the principle againft which I am now con- 
 tending, namely, the right of any man to dictate 
 to the conscience of another. For if, on the moft 
 important of all Subjects, men. fupported their 
 caufe by argument and perfuafion only, fuperfti- 
 tion, bigotry, and error, would foon be driven 
 from the field, and true religion andpure morality 
 obtain a decisive victory in every part of the world* 
 But while different feels and parties mutually re- 
 present each other as the enemies of God and 
 man, and connect, with every fpeculative opinion, 
 the moft important confequences to the temporal, 
 as well as the eternal, interefts of mankind, ran- 
 cour, and hatred, and malevolence, foon burft 
 into the flames of the moft virulent animofity, per- 
 fection appears in her moft hideous forms, and 
 the caufe of God, and the interefts of mankind, 
 are afluraed as pretexts for indulging the moft 
 
( ioi ) 
 
 ferocious paflions of the human breaft ! If, on the 
 one hand, therefore, profeflions evidently lub- 
 verfive of the fundamental principles of fociety 
 have no claim to toleration; fo, on the other, 
 the greateft caution is to be ufed not to clafs, un- 
 der this head, opinions which have no connection 
 with the interefts of civil fociety, but regard only 
 theological or philosophical Speculation. I mean 
 not that erroneous opinions are always free from 
 blame, becaufe it is an undoubted fact that error 
 is not always the refult of weaknefs of judgment, 
 but more frequently ftill of pride, of obftinacy, or 
 of negligence- But as no man is mafter of ano- 
 ther's confeience, fo no man can claim to himfelf 
 the judgment of this point with regard to ano- 
 ther, but in as far as opinion is manifefted by acti- 
 on. To his own mafter he/iandcth or falkth, who 
 art thou that judgefi another P 
 
 The right of liberty, which I have illuftrated 
 at confiderable length, becaufe it is not generally 
 underftood, includes, firft, perfonal liberty ; fe- 
 coudly, liberty of aftion ; thirdly, liberty of con- 
 feience; fourthly, liberty of communication of 
 Sentiment. 
 
 To all theSe modifications of liberty within the 
 limitations above ftated, every member of Society 
 G 3 
 
( 102 > 
 
 fa as an equal right; nor can any difcriminatiea 
 of rank, of fortune, or of abilities, entitle any 
 one to any privilege in thefe refpects, which is not 
 equally due to every human being who ispoflefled 
 of a found mind, has reached the years of matu- 
 rity, and has not voluntarily fubjected himfelf to- 
 she controul of another- 
 
C *oj ) 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 That it is the interest of governments to- 
 preferve inviolate the right of liberty, 
 as above explained* 
 
 AT is a falfe notion to fuppofe that governments 
 are mod firmly eftablilhed when the liberty of the 
 fubjeft, or of the citizen, is deftroyed* It will, 
 in fact, be found, on mature confideration, that 
 it is as much the intereft of governors, as of the 
 governed, that this grand right be religioufly ob- 
 served in all its branches* It is true that no go- 
 vernment can fubfift in the midfl: of licentioufneis* 
 But, Hcenthufnefs and defpotifm are only different 
 names for the fame thing* Li cent ioufnefs is a con- 
 tempt of law, and right, and juftice — is the do- 
 minion of paflion, and caprice, and violence- And, 
 what other definition can be given of defpotifm ? 
 In the midfl of that anarchy which licentioufnefo 
 introduces, thofe who have acquired the greatcfi 
 influence over the multitude lead them at their 
 
( 104 ) 
 
 pleafure, and ufurp the moft defpotic power over 
 the reft of the community. This power con- 
 tinues as long as the favour that produced it, and 
 then gives place to another dominion, equally ca- 
 pricious and cruel. Society is thus agitated with 
 unceafmg convulfions, till it link under abfolute 
 power, or a happy combination of circumftanccs 
 eftabiiJii the equal arid impartial government of 
 law, and of authority founded on its balis. 
 
 DefprjUfm produces fimilar effects, though in air 
 inverted courfe. It levels all to exalt one y or a 
 few; and, acknowledging no title but force, tram- 
 ples under foot every claim of right which is op- 
 pofed to its dominion. But, as all power, when 
 • feparated from juitice, mull fall before fuperior 
 power contending with it ; and as Haves, whene- 
 ver they have the courage to refill, and the faga^ 
 city to combine againft, their mailer, muft inevi- 
 tably cruih him ; fo, every defpot mares all the 
 -terror he infpires, and joins trembling with his 
 coirrmands* Knowing himfelf the enemy of man'- 
 'kind, he can place no confidence in their affecti- 
 on, and make no appeal to their juflice. When 
 his power begins to totter, the fear that rcllrains 
 them is removed, and the interefl that engaged 
 them in his favour pafTes over to the quarter where 
 it can be better promoted. While flattery is en- 
 
 
( »°5 ) 
 
 deavouring to lull him to fecurity, treachery is 
 machinating his deftruction ; and he is often over- 
 whelmed before he has time to prepare either for 
 refinance or for efcape*- 
 
 To this Gtuation, difmal even in its greatefl 
 pre-eminence and fplendor, all abufes of power 
 infenfibly lead. Smaller violations of right are 
 eafily borne, becaufe they are not generally or fe- 
 verely felt. This fuccefs tempts to greater op- 
 preflion, while the luft, and the advantages of 
 power, ftimulate to extend its limits, and to enfure 
 its duration. Opprelilon, at laft, becomes necef* 
 fary to its own fupport, and the fear of redrefs 
 iuggefts the accumulation of injustice. Abufes 
 grow intolerable ; violent refiftence appears the 
 only means of relief; and the moment which ad- 
 vances oppreiiion to its completion, becomes the- 
 
 * It is wonderful how nearly defpodfm, and pure democracy,, 
 approach each other. They are hoth the government of th« 
 mob, at leaft on many occafions. In f ure democracy this is fuf- 
 fkiently evident. Defpotifm can only be maintained hy the army ; 
 and, when the urmy is numerous, it can depofl- the ibvfereign at 
 plcafure. The Roman emperors vere focceffively elciled, de- 
 throned, ami butchered, by the Pretorian guards. The Turk" 
 ifh Sultan is at the mercy cf the JaniflV.ries — See Gibbon's H;f- 
 tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman EBipixe, vol. i. chap* 
 viii. p. ^09. Svo edition-. 
 
( 'c6 ) 
 
 period of ils overthrow. For, when the bodies 
 of men are neither effeminated by luxury, nor en- 
 feebled by climate, nor their minds bru tilled by 
 ignorance, they cannot fail, fooner or later, to 
 make off the yoke of tyranny, and to break her 
 fceptre in pieces. As in fuch circumflances, hew - 
 ever, their lethargic pafllvenefs is difpelled by ex- 
 traordinary ftimulants, and the furious paffions 
 of refentnient and revenge are violently roufed, 
 the raoft atrocious acts of cruelty are exercifeJ 
 towards their bppreffprs, or thefe whom they 
 conceive to have been joined with them in the odi- 
 ous combination againft their (pedes ; and the 
 vindication of violated right is thus often accom- 
 panied with the mp"ft flagrant injustice. In this 
 manner human fociety, which mould be the Safe- 
 guard of human happinefs, fo frequently exhibits 
 alternate fcenes of rigorous defpotifm, and of 
 furious dinarchy ; of injuftice in the maintenance 
 of ulurped power, and of violence in the fubver- 
 fion of it ; of grofs abufes in the adminiltration 
 of governments, and of lamentable calamities in 
 the reformation of them. The only flable go- 
 vernment is that jn hich is founded on equal liber- 
 ty, limited by law, admiuiitercd with moderation, 
 fupported by the combined interefts of the whole 
 political body, and displayed in the glorious effects 
 cf internal order and external fecurity — of im- 
 proving induftry, civilization, and virtue- 
 
( io 7 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Of rights -peculiar to certain stations and 
 
 ABILITIES. 
 
 'ESIDES thofe rights, equally belonging to 
 all, which have been above illuftrated, there are 
 others, which, although they are founded on the 
 diftinttions of rank and fortune, or on the gene- 
 ral fubordination which civil lbciety requires, are 
 neverthelefs deducible from that notion of equali- 
 ty eftabliihed in the firft part of this Efiay. 
 
 I. Thofe who are placed in the higher (htions, 
 and inverted with offices of government and com- 
 mand, as they owe the difcharge of thefe impor- 
 tant functions to the public, are entitled, from 
 this very conikleration, to the obedience of thofe 
 who are fub jetted to their authority.. As mem- 
 bers of the focial body they are bound to promote 
 its intereit by the moit effectual means in their 
 power. The peculiar direction of this utility is 
 
'( i°8 ) 
 
 determined by their offices themfelves. This 
 line cannot be purfued without the legal obedi» 
 ence andfubmlfiion of the reft of the community. 
 Hence that equality of obligation which binds the 
 former to the juft and zealous difcharge of their 
 functions, binds alfo the latter to a ready and cheer- 
 ful fubje&ion to their authority. 
 
 II. When the necelTary balance of the politi- 
 cal body, or that encouragement of merit which 
 tends fo powerfully to promote its higheft intereft, 
 have raifed a certain clafs of men to certain ho- 
 nours and privileges; thefe are, by that equality 
 itfelf which fubfifts among all in their common re- 
 lation to the public good, entitled to the advan- 
 tages and refpecu which are annexed to their fta*. 
 tion, which the public welware requires mould 
 be maintained in becoming fplendour and dignity* 
 
 When, by political conftitutioiis, peculiar marks 
 of diftincuoii are aihgned to eminent talents and 
 virtues, thcfe who difplay them have a juft claim 
 tm the public to the diftinclion which is their re- 
 ward, and on every member of the community for 
 the regard which that diftinclion requires. Views 
 of public intereft fugged fuch diftindions as incen- 
 tives to merit, in order to extract from all the" 
 members of the focial body the greateft poilible 
 
( ™9 ) 
 
 fu'm of exertion, and to diffufe its influence over 
 the whole. It is juft, therefore, that thofe who 
 contribute in the mod diftinguifhed degree to the 
 common welfare fhould enjoy a proportionable 
 fhare of honour and advantage, adapted to the 
 peculiar manner in which their utility has been 
 difplayed. To deprive them of this would be to 
 deftroy their relation to the community, and that 
 equality which confifts in the common obligation 
 of all to contribute to its benefit, and to receive a 
 proportionate return* 
 
 III. When riches, acquired by honeft induftry, 
 t)r enjoyed in virtue of thofe laws which perpetu- 
 ate property, whatever be its value and extend 
 enable their pofTeflbrs to relieve want, to footh 
 affliction , to diffufe around them a fpirit of improve* 
 ment, to encourage induflry, and to make their 
 fuperfluity circulate through the general mafs of 
 the community, they confer on the opulent a juft. 
 title to confideration and influence, in proportion 
 to the fuperior benefits they beftow on all who 
 are placed within the fphere of their action. It 
 would be as unjuft to deny them this confiderati. 
 on, as it would be to with-hold from a day-la- 
 borer his hire, or from a good man the efteem 
 which is his due. 
 
 K 
 
( MO ) 
 
 IV. The fame confiderations give to the inferi- 
 or ranks of fociety, and to the community in gene- 
 ral, an equal right to demand that all delegated 
 power and authority, as all civil power undoubt- 
 edly is, be employed folely for the ends for which 
 it was conferred, and that all honorary diflinctions 
 be neither beflowed on the undeferving, nor per- 
 verted to the purpofes of pride, of infolence, 
 and of opprefhon. The community. at large has 
 a right to demand that the legiflative power be 
 conflantly directed by views of general utility, 
 and not by partial fyftems which injure and diftrefs 
 the whole by throwing all advantages on one fide 
 of the political body ; that the executive power 
 never exceed its legal bounds, and, by an impar- 
 tial administration of juftice, maintain all in the 
 equal enjoyment-of their rights; that rank be 
 fupported with. dignity, and tempered with the 
 affability and condefcenfion becoming every citi- 
 zen; that wealth be not abufed to introduce and 
 foment profligacy of manners, or to abet injuftice ; 
 and that talents be not perverted to difleminate 
 opinions and principles fubverfiveof virtue, and 
 pernicious to fociety, 
 
 V. All men, have an equal, though imperfect, 
 right to thofe offices of humanity which, while 
 they cofl the performers of them little trouble, 
 
 
are the fweeteners of focial intercourfe ; and to 
 the compaffion and relief, of others, proportion- 
 ed to their condition and circumftances, when 
 they are overpowered by diftrefs and calamity. 
 This right, it is true, cannot be fo defined as to 
 admit of any individual's claiming a determined 
 portion of the good offices of any of his fellow 
 men; nay, the fulfilment of its obligations muft 
 from its very nature, be left to every one's judg- 
 ment and feelings. But, as men aflbciate for 
 their mutual benefit and comfort, as humanity is 
 interwoven with the human conftitution, and as 
 compaflion with diftrefs is one of the ftrongeft 
 feelings of our nature, it is undoubted that, to 
 every fituation which is calculated to call thefe 
 feelings into action, a certain right is annexed to 
 expect and require them, and a general obligati- 
 on lies on all to advance the bappinefs of their 
 fellow men by every mean in their power. As 
 the ordinary offices of civility muft vary accordino- 
 to the different conditions and ranks of men ; fa 
 the compaflion which is due to their diftrefs, and 
 the relief which it prompts to afford, muft be 
 greatly affected by the fame confiderations. For, 
 as a lofs which would ruin a man in narrow cir- 
 cumftances, would not at all affect a perfon of 
 affluent fortune; fo, on the other hand, there 
 are fituations which would appear to one in ob- 
 K 2 
 
( na I 
 
 fcure ftation highly eligible, which would over- 
 whelm thofe of a more elevated condition with in- 
 expreffible dejection and anguiih. What would 
 feem to one perfon a Angular benefit, would, to 
 another in different circumftances, either be no 
 benefit at all, or interpreted into a cruel affront- 
 All then have an equal right to offices of humani- 
 ty and kindnefs ; but the degree and manner of 
 thefe offices muft be determined by the circumftan- 
 ces and rank of the perfons towards whom they 
 are exercifed. This proportion is required by 
 equality itfelf. 
 
( »3 ) 
 
 C HA P T E R VII. 
 
 GENERAL INFERENCES from the WHOLE of this 
 EOOK. 
 
 A Have now endeavored to enumerate, and 
 eftablifh, as concifely as poffible, the different 
 rights that flow from the natural equality of men, 
 confidered in its proper light. Some of thefe are 
 fo effentially neceflary to human happinefs, that 
 they cannot be violated without overturning the 
 iirfl principles of fociety. They are the funda- 
 mental articles of the focial compact, for the main- 
 tenance of which mankind, if not explicitly, yet 
 tacitly, and by the inftitution of civil fociety itfelf, 
 have ftipulated to relinquifh fome portion of their 
 natural liberty, and to commit, to a certain num- 
 ber of its members, the concentrated power of the 
 community for the benefit of all. Civil fociety 
 annihilates not the natural rights of me» y but fen- 
 ces, fecures, and improves them. By circumf brib- 
 ing them by the limits which the political union 
 K 3 
 
( H4 ) 
 
 requires, it condenfes, as it were, their eflence r 
 and gives it greater flrength and fblidity. 
 
 Others of thefe rights flow, indeed, from the 
 fame principles ; but, as they cannot be fo pre- 
 cifely afcertained as to eftabliih an exact and defi- 
 nite claim in every particular cafe, they may ad- 
 mit of a lefs rigorous obfervance, without wound- 
 ing the vitals of human afTociation. . If ihofe of 
 the former clafs conftitute the foundations of the 
 focial fabric, thofe of the latter indicate the means 
 of its confolidation and higheft improvement* 
 When all thefe rights are maintained, according 
 to their refpective importance, as far as the hu- 
 man condition will admit, fociety is flouriihing 
 and happy, under whatever form of political ad- 
 ministration it may be placed. There are, it is 
 true, certain forms of government, which, as their 
 conftitution itfelf threatens even the molt impor- 
 tant of them with destruction, are, therefore, ef- 
 fentiallybad. But, there are others which, main- 
 taining the grand prerogatives of human nature, 
 have a direct tendency to advance focial happinefs, 
 though in different degrees. Under fuch govern- 
 ments mankind may always confider it as a fortu- 
 nate circumftance to be placed. That govern- 
 
 
f »'5 ) 
 
 ment is thebeftin which all the inherent rights of 
 human nature are inviolably fecured, legal autho- 
 rity is maintained, and reftricted to its objects, the 
 power of the ftate is employed to promote the 
 general happinefs ; and inequality itfelf tends to 
 preferve equality of law, and parity of obligatien, 
 among all the members of the community. 
 

A N 
 
 E S S A Y, &c. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 

( "9 ) 
 
 <> " » ' ■ ■ * ' i ' i ' ■ - i j _a 
 
 AN 
 
 ESSAY, &c. 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 What are the DUTIES refultlng from the 
 EQUALITY vf MANKIND .? 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 X HE divillon of my fubje&, on which I now 
 enter, opens a field comprehending every lbcial 
 and civil duty, becaufe every duty of this clafs fup- 
 pofes reciprocal obligations founded on the terms 
 of equality, on which men aflbciate* Nay, as in 
 order tod ifcharge the duties we owe to our fellow 
 men, and fellow citizens > it is necefTary to reftrain 
 our felfifh pafhons within juft bounds; and, asjhe 
 Divine authority fan&ions every human obligati- 
 on, and religion is the firmed bond of fociety, the 
 
( &$ J 
 
 -duties of piety, as well as thofe of felf-command 
 and moderation, might be inculcated on the fame 
 principles. Hence, a complete treatife of practical 
 morality might be produced. But, as this EfTay 
 has already fwelled beyond the bounds which I 
 at firft propofed to it, I mail confine myfelf to the 
 -confideration of thefe duties which directly flow 
 from the principles of equality already eftablifhed, 
 and from the rights which they confirm. The 
 duties now to be illuflrated will, therefore, cor- 
 refpond.to the two grand divifions of rights ex- 
 plained in the preceding Book*. 
 
 ■• Ch. II. III. IV. VI te 
 
( «w ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ^//MEN equally bound to respect the PRIMITIVE 
 
 RIGHTS of HUMAN NATURE. 
 
 A: 
 
 S the inherent rights of human nature are the 
 fundamental articles of the fecial compact, for the 
 maintenance and prefervation of which civil fo- 
 ciety is conftituted, every violation of thefe is 
 not only an atrocious injury to the individual 
 who fuflfers it, but is a direct attack on fociety it* 
 felf. No pre-eminence or prerogative whatever 
 can give a title to deprive an innocent member of 
 the community of thofe rights, without which his 
 exiftence is either precarious or miferable ; and 
 every attempt to infringe them is, on the part of 
 the aggrelTor, a renunciation of his focial advan- 
 tages, becaufe thefe advantages are infeparably 
 conne&ed with the obfervance of the rights now 
 under confideration. It is to fubftitute force 
 in the place of right y and, of confequence, to 
 acknowledge that fuperior power is entitled to 
 L 
 
( 1*2 } 
 
 make him Tubmit in his turn. This principle, 
 carried in every inftance as far as it will go, tears 
 afunder every fbcial and civil tie, tramples under 
 foot every dictate of juftice, and introduces a urate 
 of unceafing hofiility and violence. 
 
 Indeed, fo effential are fom« of thofe rights to 
 the very exiflence of fociety, that they are fenc- 
 ed and fecured by the ftrongefl civil fanctions. 
 Life and property cannot be directly actacked 
 -without expofing the aggrefTor to the fevereft pe- 
 nalties. But in what a variety of indirect ways 
 may injuries of this nature be offered, without 
 any rifk of human punimment ? Life is deftroyed 
 not only by the dagger, or by the bowl, but by 
 with-holding the means of its fupport. Life is 
 not fo defirable on its own account, as on account 
 of the enjoyments which it furnifhes. Property 
 is withdrawn from its lawful pofTeilor, not only by 
 robbery, or by theft, but alfb by every fpeciesof 
 unfair commerce. Every deceitful practice, there- 
 fore, whereby advantage is taken, under what- 
 ever colour, of the ignorance or of the neceffity 
 of men, to deprive them of their property with- 
 out an equivalent, is a violation of the right of 
 property, and every oppreffive act which cuts off 
 or diminifhes the means of a comfortable fubfift- 
 ence, is an attack upon life itfelf. Toreduce men 
 
( 123 ) 
 
 to the difmal neceflity of dragging out exigence 
 in mifery and contempt, to make them curie the 
 day of their birth, and figh for that of their dif- 
 iblution, to render the tendered of nature's ties 
 an aggravation of diftrefs ; what is this but to 
 {pare life in order to perpetuate torment ? And 
 to this difmal condition how great a portion of 
 the human race is reduced — a condition more ab« 
 jecftthan that of the brute creation, which nature 
 has provided with the neceffary fupply of their 
 wants, and given them defires for nothing more ! 
 Shall any rights whatever, derived wholly from 
 political inflitutions, founded, for the moflparr, 
 in barbarous ignorance and tyrannic oppreflion, 
 be oppofed to thofe clear and permanent rights 
 which the Creator has conferred on all men 
 equally, by the gift of life itfelf, and by the na- 
 tural faculties of providing for its fupply ! Shall 
 he who cultivates the foil be deprived of an ade- 
 quate fhare of the fruits which his induflry pro- 
 duces, and pine in want, while the labour of his 
 hands feeds luxurious idlenefs ? Shall the right of 
 property be eftablifhed only for thofe who contri- 
 bute nothing to the general flock, but confume 
 and wafle what the induflry of others has provid- 
 ed, and mall that property which nature has be- 
 llowed on her children, in the faculties of their 
 
 La 
 
( 124 ) 
 
 minds and of their bodies, be confidered as amarH 
 of degradation, and a badge of flavery ? 
 
 How contrary are fuch fentiments, and the 
 conduct they produce, to that juft notion of equa- 
 lity above eftablifhed, which reprefents every hu- 
 man being as a conftituent member of the focial 
 body, and in his peculiar ftation, equally necefla- 
 ry, with every other, to the common welfare; 
 which exhibits man toman as children of one com- 
 mon parent, as brethren connected no lefs by one 
 common intereft, than by one common origin, and 
 (Incriminated, by different diftinctions of occupa- 
 tion and place, merely that the general good may 
 be more effectually advanced* For, although fuch 
 views of focietymay, by fome whofe policy is but 
 half wifdom, be claifed among the theories oP 
 inoralifts, or the vilions of divines, they are the 
 only representations that can (land the teft of rea- 
 fon, or bear the eye of inquiry. 
 
 Equally incumbent, on all men, is the duty to 
 refpect the right which every innocent individual, 
 iias to character and liberty. But, how little is 
 this duty regarded? Civil laws cannot do fo much 
 for the fecurity of the rights, to which it relates, 
 as for thofe of life and property ; becaufe it is not 
 fo eafy to deline, in every cafe, their exact extent, 
 
f !# J 
 
 and muchmoreris, on that account, left to thedif- 
 cretion and virtue of individuals. That degree 
 of character which is aflaulted by open and direct 
 calumny, may, indeed, be always exactly afcer- 
 tained, and every infraction of it become the 
 fubject of legal animadverfion. This is alfo the 
 cafe with regard to perfonal liberty. But, in how 
 many inftances may a character be ruined, with- 
 out its being in the power of the injured perfon 
 to find any legal redrefs ; and how much may one's 
 juft liberty be circumfcribed and infringed without 
 any ground of legal complaint? The daily con- 
 duct of mankind towards one another, in thefe 
 refpects, is the ftrongefl evidence both of thene- 
 ceflity of a civil government, and of its infuffici- 
 ency for the fecurity of human happinefs. It 
 manifefts the malevolent propenfities by which 
 mankind are often actuated, and, of confequence, 
 the neceflity of coercive power; and, fince thefe 
 evil propenfities burft out on fo many quarters, 
 notwithstanding the authority of laws, this evin- 
 ces the great utility of philofophical and religious 
 inftruction, which applies to the underftanding 
 and the heart, and, by purifying the fource of 
 action, renders conduct more conformable to hu« 
 man nature, and more conducive to human felU 
 eitvv. 
 
 £# 3- 
 
( 126 ) 
 
 Do unto others as you wijh them to do unto you? 
 is a maxim thatanfwers every cafe in which we can 
 have any intercourfe with our fellow men. It J3 
 founded on the equality of human nature, amidft- 
 all the diverfities of condition and circumftances. 
 It takes, as the rule of conduct, the feelings of 
 every individual, fuppodng his condition were 
 exchanged with that of the perfon towards whom 
 he acts. It could never r therefore, ,be a juft 
 itandard, if the fame duties were not equally in- 
 cumbent on all in the fame circumstances. Now, 
 with, refpecl to reputation and liberty, which eve- 
 ry human being fo warmly cherifhes, andfoea^ 
 gerly purfues, this rule ought to have peculiar 
 efficacy. Yet, in thefe refpects, it is m oft mame- 
 f ully and frequently violated. It is aftoniming to 
 ©bferve the general averfion to reproach and cen- 
 fure, and the general propenfity to reproach and 
 eenfure others; the high opinion which moft peo- 
 ple entertain of themfelves, and wifti the world 
 to entertain of them, and their inclination to 
 think ill of others, and to undervalue and dimi- 
 nifh their good qualities. It is natural to fuppofe, 
 that, as the experience of diftrefs renders men 
 prone to companion*, fo the love of character, 
 and averfion from difgrace, which operate fo 
 
 * Haud ignara mail mifcrii fuccurrcre difccv 
 
( w ) 
 
 powerfully in every human breaft, would render 
 men delicate in inflicting, on others, thofe pains 
 which arefo grievous to themfelves, and in depri- 
 ving them of thofe f satisfactions which they ac- 
 count fo delicious. But thefe fenfations act, un- 
 der the impulfe of felfifhnefs in a contrary man- 
 ner.. Men think that the reputation of others 
 ftands in the way of their own, and that their ex- 
 cellence cannot be exhibited unleis thofe inter- 
 pofmg eminences be thrown down, and the pub- 
 lic eye wholly fixed on themfelves* While men 
 are thus employed in levelling each other, no real 
 pre-eminence remains to any, and nothing is- 
 difplayed, to every judicious eye, but one wide 
 extent of malignity and corruption. Every one 
 wiihes his opinion of his neighbour tobe believed j 
 and his wifh is granted. But the fulfilment of 
 this wifh equally wounds the characters of all. 
 The blemifhes he difcovers in another, or imputes 
 to him, are acknowledged ; thofe which another 
 lays to his charge meet with the fame credit. 
 Thus every one by endeavoring to exalt himfelf 
 at another's expence, only points out the means 
 of his own depreflion, and, by fetting the exam- 
 ple, provokes the reft of mankind to ufe them. 
 Such however, is the fafcination of felf-love, 
 that the generality of men fuppofe themfelves ve- 
 ry little obnoxious to cenfure; and, while they 
 
( 128 ) 
 
 are indulging the moft vicious paflions of the hu- 
 man heart, envy or revenge, they flatter them- 
 felves with the vain notion that their turpitude is 
 unobferved. As ofteH as I reflect on the preva- 
 lence of detraction, of obloquy, and of ilander, I 
 find it difficult to determine whether it proceeds 
 more from weakuefs or from malignity ; whether 
 it is more an object of contempt or of deteflation* 
 What can be more malignant than to delight in 
 the deftruction of one of the deareft of, human 
 enjoyments? What more foolifh and ridiculous 
 than for a perfon to alTault others, and to fuppofe- 
 that the attack will not be returned ? 
 
 The fame abfurdity and injuftice is confpicuous 
 in the mutual conduct of men with regard to liber- 
 ty. How few are ready on every occaflon to* 
 grant to others the fame freedom which they take 
 to themlelves ! Such is the fpirit of domination 
 univerfally diffufed, that what Pope limits only to 
 one fex., is equally applicable to both — the love of 
 fleafure, and the love of power. Indeed, the one 
 neceffarily draws after it the other. The love of 
 pleafure produces the defire of the means of ob- 
 taining it, and of extending influence and power 
 as far as poflible. For why are men tyrants, but 
 becaufe they wifh freely to indulge their inclina- 
 tions, unreftrained by juilice,. unlimited by mode- 
 
f 129 ) 
 
 ration ? While felf-love, therefore, is the pre- 
 dominant principle of the human heart, tyranny- 
 will not be confined to thrones and dominions, to 
 principalities and powers, but fpread through e- 
 very Iphere and condition of life. It is not fo 
 much the inclination as the power that is want- 
 ing ; and the ■ emper, which is overbearing and 
 unjuft in private life, would be a Nero if ieated 
 on a throne. Let us only confider the fond at- 
 tachment which molt men have to their own opi- 
 nions and mode of life, their eager defire to im- 
 pofe them on others, their impatience of contra- 
 diction, their propenfity to fquare the actions of 
 other men by their own rule, their luft of homage 
 and precedence, their eagernefs to rife above 
 others, and to indulge their ambition in every lit- 
 tle manner which their iphere prefents to them, 
 their refentment of affronts and injuries, appa- 
 rent as well as real, their felf-conceit and averfi- 
 on from amendment — we behold the feeds of ty- 
 ranny lurking in almcft every human breaft; and. 
 fhall ceafe to wonder that, when great power i9 
 poflTelTed, it mould be fo frequently abufed. How 
 feldom is the freedom of fpeech and action enjoy- 
 ed even in the freeft dates of civil fociety ! Let any 
 one recollect what pafles before his eyes every 
 day; let him confider how-often he is obliged to 
 regulate his words, not fo much by the internal 
 
f J 3° I 
 
 fentiments of his own heart, as by the opinions 
 and prejudices of thofe with whom he affociates > 
 and his aclions, not fo much by the immutable 
 rules of duty, as by the fictitious fian,dards of the 
 world, and he will corifefs that none can enjoy 
 the true freedom of a man, but he who has the 
 fortitude to facrifice to this exalted privilege, his 
 raoft valuable temporal interefts, and his chief 
 focial pleafures. Prejudices born of ignorance*, 
 or of pride, are nouriihedby education, ftrength- 
 ened by inter eft, or fupported by that felf-love 
 which is humbled by the expofition of them»- 
 Cuftom and f ami on have eftablifhed arbitrary 
 rules and forms, which, however contrary to rea- 
 fon, it is coniidered as unlawful, at leaft, as high- 
 ly ridiculous, to infringe. The man who pre- 
 iumes to tliink, to fpeak, or to act, differently 
 from the generality, even in matters of lingular 
 importance to the common. good, is looked upon. 
 as an unfocial favage being, who, feparatinghim- 
 felf from his fpecies, is entitled to no fliare of their 
 regard and affeclion. It is well, if he is not ez^- 
 pofed to the fevereft elFecls of refentment and 
 hatred. 
 
 Wealth and external dignity,a!though they can- 
 not of themfelves introduce one ray of light into 
 the underftanding, or implant one virtue in the 
 
t i3« ) 
 
 heart, afTume the privilege of dictating in mit- 
 ters of tafte, of politics, of fcience, of morality, 
 and of religion, and of bearing down all who fub- 
 fcribe not to their arbitrary decrees. The ref- 
 pect due to rank, and the influence which for- 
 tune juftly claims, every man of fenle and of in- 
 tegrity will readily acknowledge and beftow. 
 But that a man's judgment mould be meafured by 
 Lis title, or his merit, weighed by his gold ; that 
 fortune and rank mould not only pofTefs their 
 rightful precedence, but alfo ufurp the honour 
 which is equally due to genius and learning, to 
 wifdom and virtue ; that a fenfible and honeft 
 man mould not dare to exprefs his fentiments, be- 
 canfe they are repugnant to thofe of another de- 
 corated with the badges of diftin&ion, or poffefs- 
 ed of a large eftate ; is fnch a perverfion of na- 
 ture, fuch an infraction of liberty, as mankind 
 could never be brought to endure but by thofe 
 habits of fervility which luxurious effeminacy has 
 introduced. It will be anfwered, that this free- 
 dom, every man who choofes to ufe it, may en- 
 joy. But at what expence ? at the expence of in- 
 curring the keeneft difpleafure of the exalted 
 perfon whom he difobliges, and of feeling his 
 power employed to ruin him and his nearefl con- 
 nections. 
 
 
I 13s ) 
 
 But, why complain of the exorbitant and ty- 
 rannical pretentions of rank and fortune, when 
 genius, which has already fecured fame, frequent, 
 ly exhibits the fame dogmatical and oppreftive fpi- 
 rit? How often have thofe, whole literary cha- 
 racter has already attracted the greateft confide- 
 ration and refpect, ufurped a dictatorial power 
 both in converfation and writing:, contradicted 
 without argument, keenly refented the fmalleft 
 difference of opinion, even when their fentiments 
 were manifestly abfurd, fhared out their appro- 
 bation by the meafure of flattery they received, 
 and inflicted cenfure, not according to perfonal 
 or literary merit, but according to the prejudice 
 or difguft by which they were influenced. In 
 reading the lives of fome diftinguiihed geniufes, 
 I have found my indignation as much fired by 
 their pride and infolence, and by the tame fub- 
 miflion with which they were borne, as by the op- 
 prefiion of civil defpots, and the fervility of the 
 reft of mankind. In fact, genius and reputati- 
 on give as little title to domineer as fortune and 
 rank. For, whatever mental fuperiority a man 
 may difplay, he is inferior to others in many qua- 
 lities, equally neceffary to the common good as 
 the talents he poiTefles. Brilliant powers are fre- 
 quently counter-balanced by contemptible weak- 
 nefles, and great virtues by ihameful vices. Ill 
 
( '33 ) 
 
 prooi of this aiTertion > I might inftance the lives 
 of ibme of the greateft literary characters. 
 
 As individuals are actuated by a tyrannical fpi- 
 rit, fo nations claim to themfelves the preroga- 
 tive of reducing to flavery others inhabiting a 
 different climate, or diftinguifhed by a different 
 ^colour of countenance. Ariftotle, in that very 
 book where he eftablifhes the grand principles of 
 a free government*, is not afhamed to affert, 
 that the Greeks were deftined, by nature, to 
 rule the other nations of the earth ; and founds 
 this right on their fuperior genius and civilization. 
 Had that philofopher forefeen the prefent ftate 
 of his own country, and that Of thofe nations 
 whom he confidered as appointed to continue bar- 
 barians to the end of time, he would have ac- 
 knowledged the futility of his argument. But 
 the nations of Europe, who have exchanged bar- 
 barifm for refinement, have adopted the fame 
 principle, and fuppofe that fuperiority of art and 
 policy carries along with it the right of opprefs- 
 ing thole whofe ftate is ftill rude and uncultiva- 
 ted. The principles eftabliihed in this Effay fuffi- 
 ciently evince that no pre-eminence of fagacity, 
 wifdom, ingenuity, or ftrength can entitle any 
 "human being, or any fociety of men, to deprive 
 
 • Politic. lib, I mo. 
 
 M 
 
< 134 ) 
 
 others of the inherent and unalienable rights of 
 human nature. 
 
 But, fince principles directly contrary to thefe 
 influence the generality of mankind, the prelent 
 ftate of fociety is perfectly conformable. As few 
 men have the courage to facrifice their intereft, 
 their pleafure, or their fame, to their regard for 
 truth and juftice, the great concern is, to fpeak 
 and act, not as reafon and virtue dictate, but as 
 interefted views, in conforming to the opinions, 
 humours, and manners of others, may require. 
 .For, how is the favour of the greater part of men 
 to be caught, but by adulation and fervile ref- 
 pect .? and what fo efficacious for incurring their 
 difpkafure, as that manly and generous conduct 
 and converiation, which indicate lefs folicitudeto 
 fecure favour than to enjoy fe If- efteem, a great- 
 er love of mankind than refpect for individuals ? 
 Hence, moft men have an opinion for every com- 
 pany they frequent, and change their fentiments 
 oftener than their drefs. The art of pleafmg, 
 reduced into fyftem, and practifed by every one 
 who aflumes the character of politenefs, has given 
 the fame fhape and coloring to the manners of all ; 
 and thofe prominent features, which characterife 
 and diftinguifh, are rubbed off by the file of civi- 
 lity and faihion. Politenefs is making conftant 
 
( *35 J 
 
 demands — propriety impoling new laws — men 
 are always the (laves of cuftom, and feldom fol- 
 low the bent of their own genius and temper. 
 Society is a fpecies of ftage, on which the actors 
 appear in their turns, and play their parts. The 
 real character remains behind the fcenes. The 
 great conteft is, who mall act with the moft pow. 
 erful effect on the fpeclators, and produce the 
 completed illufion- Ke is, therefore, molt ap- 
 plauded, and bears thehighefl price, who appears- 
 leaft himfelf, and perfonates moft fuccefsfully the 
 affumed character. Should an uncivilized fon of 
 nature be introduced into our European circles, 
 he .would, atfirft, conclude that humanity and 
 benevolence had there fixed their abode. But, 
 as foon as he was informed that all this was but 
 fcenery and ftage effect, he would be uncertain 
 whether moft to admire the fkill with which the 
 reprefentation was conducted, or to deteft the 
 duplicity which could fo completely affume the 
 appearance of qualities, of which the reality was 
 wanting*. 
 
 By thefe different infractions of the original 
 rights of man above mentioned, fociety is reduced 
 to its prefent unhappy condition, in which the 
 Hobbefian ftate of nature appears in the midft of 
 
 * See Roufleau, Difcours fur les Sciences et lea Arte, p. it. 
 
 Ma 
 
( I3« ) 
 
 civilifation and refinement. The interefts, the 
 purfuits, and the paffions of men conftantly a&ing 
 in oppofition, infpire, in the midft of unceaiing 
 competition, unremitting caution and folicitous. 
 jealoufy. The fpecious maik of civility and com- 
 plaifance is often affumed to conceal the moft 
 hoflile' defigns. The language of nature is un- 
 known, and the warm expreiTions of affection ei- 
 ther fall to the ground deftitute of all meaning,, 
 or are perverted to convey an ironical conception 
 of contempt and diflike*. 
 
 How different would be the face of fociety, if 
 thejuft equality of mankind were duly confldered, 
 and the inherent rights of human nature reflect- 
 ed as they ought ! But this confummation, de- 
 voutly to be wifhed, will only take place, when 
 men ihall believe and praftife Chriftianity, and da 
 the will of their heavenly Father on earth, as it is 
 done in Heaven. 
 
 * Fugere pudor, verumque fidefque ; 
 In quorum fubiere locum, fraudefque, dcliquc, 
 lufidiaeque, et vis, et amor fccleratus habendi. 
 
 Qyid. Metam. 1. I. Y. ijp. 
 
f 137 ) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The duties ofthofe who are placed in the inferior 
 
 stations o/life, or endowed -with inferior, 
 
 capacities and powers. 
 
 1 
 
 F the diftribution of abilities illuftrated in the 
 firft Book*, and a diverfity of ranks in fociety, be 
 beft calculated to promote the happinefs, not only 
 of the focial body in general, but of every indi- 
 vidual that compofes it, how iniquitous and unrea- 
 fonable is it to oppofe this plan, and to complain 
 of its arrangement, becaufe it coincides not with 
 the fuggeftions of ambition and caprice ? When 
 men defpife thofe talents and that rank in life 
 which divine providence has allotted them, and 
 afpire at others for which they were never defign- 
 ed by nature, they aim at fubverting that equali- 
 ty of obligation which afligns particular duties to 
 particular abilities and fituations, and requires 
 them to be anfwered by others of a difFerent or- 
 der. For, if every man is at liberty to defert 
 
 * Chap. z. 
 
 Ms 
 
t 138 ) 
 
 the poft afiigned him, and to invade another's pro- 
 vince, how mall the inferior ftations be filled, 
 which are not lefs neceifary to the general welfare 
 than the more eminent? If, in the circumftances- 
 in which any given number of men can be placed, 
 there be unavoidable hard/hips and inconveniences, 
 why mould thefe rather be fupported by fuch as 
 have never been accuflomed to them, and are 
 therefore totally unqualified for their duties, than 
 by thofe whom education, and habit, have 
 beft adapted to fuchfituations? Yet, unlefs thefe 
 inconveniences be endured, thefe difficulties en- 
 countered by fome, the ftations in queftion rauft 
 be deferted, and a void left in the order of fbcie- 
 ty equally pernicious to public and to private in-- , 
 terenV 
 
 Still, men complain of. their fituation, and ea- 
 gerly afpire to others more exalted ! But, is there 
 any real foundation for this difcontent, for this 
 reftlefs defire of change ? Is it, as people pretend, 
 that their prefent condition is more painful, more 
 adverfe to virtue, more inaufpicious to the devel- 
 opment and exercife of their powers, than thofe 
 which they fo fondly defire? Or is it that men, 
 are better acquainted with the difficulties and 
 temptations of their prefent fituation, than with 
 thofe of any other, have fondly magnified theis 
 
C 139- ) 
 
 own abilities, and ignorantly placed all excellence 
 in the dif charge of the duties of f uperior flations? 
 If we examine the cafe with impartial attention, 
 we fhall findnoreafon to hefitate in determining^ 
 the queftion. 
 
 Men readily grant the complaints of thofe 
 who are placed above them to be ill founded, and 
 afcribe their difTatisfa&ion to their folly. They 
 haftily prefume that, if they were fixed in their 
 fituation, they would eafily furmount its difficul- 
 ties, refill its temptations, and fully difcharge its 
 duties. Their inferiors pronounce the fame judg- 
 ment with regard to them and their circumftances, 
 and, if they envy, they are envied in their turn. 
 A convincing proof this, that, in every conditi- 
 on, there are advantages as well as difficulties ; 
 that, though none is exempted from inconvenience, 
 none is abfolutely infupportable ; and that difcon- 
 tent with a prefent ftation, and impatient defire 
 of a higher, proceed from rmftaken notions of 
 both. 
 
 I beg that it may be confidered that I am, at 
 prefent, fpeaking only of the different ranks and 
 fituationsof human ibciety, as they are diverfified 
 for the common happinefs of mankind ; and nor 
 of thofe fingular conditions of diftrefs and miier.yy 
 
( *4° ) 
 
 which fall to the lot of individuals. In thefe, pa- 
 tience and fortitude may be recommended as du- 
 ties and as confolations ; but contentment can hard- 
 ly be required. 
 
 But, in furveying the different ftations of life, 
 although men grant that there are difficulties and 
 hardihips in all of them, they frill believe that 
 thefe diminifh in proportion to the degree of ele- 
 vation; and fall, with the greateft weight, on 
 tbofe who occupy the loweft places- They fond- 
 ly imagine, that, if they could afcend to a confi- 
 derable height, they mould there find fome agree- 
 able fpot, where, unmolefted and compofed, they 
 might furvey the fteep which they had climbed, 
 and enjoy the delightful profpecl opened around 
 them. But, they reflect not on the difficulty of 
 the aicent, on the giddinefs of the fituation, or, 
 if they mould chance to flip, on the fe verity of 
 the fall. The preffure of corporeal wants, the 
 burden of daily labour,, and the humiliation uf 
 contempt, conftitute the primary pains of a poor 
 and ignoble condition. It is further deprived of 
 the enjoyments which retail from the cultivation 
 of reafon, and of the other nobler faculties of the 
 foul, and is conftrained to toil amidft the darknefs 
 of ignorance. If tbofe, to whofe mare it falls, 
 feel for the miferies of others, they are deftitiae 
 
( i4i ) 
 
 of the means of relieving them, and muft fbifcfr 
 the pangs of companion, without the divine fatif- 
 faction of beneficence. Prefled with their own 
 diftrefTes, feeling for thofe in (Imilar, or in ftill 
 more afflicting circumftances, and cbferving the fu- 
 perfluiiy of the ions of fortune, they are apt to 
 envy their profperity, to murmur at the Divine 
 difpenfations, and to practice violence or fraud, 
 in order to obtain what their (Ituation has denied 
 them. 
 
 They confider not, however, that the pleafures 
 of life depend not fo much on the externals of 
 condition as on the difpoiitions of the poiTefTor ; 
 that what feems calculated tofatisfy, and to limit, 
 defire, ferves often to inflame and extend it ; that 
 the enjoyments which are in men's power are not 
 thofe which they really tafte ; and that to wiih 
 and to purine is the unceating employment of 
 man upon earth. He who afcends a mountain, 
 and beholds the view unfolding around him, is 
 fired with greater curiofity to reach the f'ummit, 
 whence the utmoft bounds of the proipecl can be 
 defcried. In lik3 manner, no moderare exaltati- 
 on in the fcale of ibcicty can futisfy men, whole 
 ambition is kindled, and whofe activity engaged. 
 Every ftep becomes only a help to rife higher; 
 and deiire continues importunate even after its 
 
f 1-42- 7 
 
 ©bje&s are all exhauflech Alexander is the true 
 emblem of ambition, which is reitleis while any. 
 thing remains above it ; and, when it has reached 
 the fummitof. its defir.es, weeps that the progreis 
 is finiflied ! 
 
 Ye who envy fortune and rank, not fo much 
 for the fenfual pleasures, or the indulgences of 
 vanity and pride which they afford, as for the 
 iublime and elegant enjoyments which they lie em 
 to offer, in- the improvement of knowledge, the 
 cultivation of genius, and the exercife of th-3 no- 
 bleft virtues of human nature — fay if the engage- 
 ments of public bufinefs, the contentions of' am- 
 bition, the interruptions of company, ia? endlefe 
 exactions of ceremony, the allurements of plea- 
 fure, can afford much lcifure for the improvement 
 of the mind, and the cultivation of elegant flu- 
 dies; or that, when the reputation of wifdom, of 
 learning, or of wit, is acquired without judgment, 
 application, or parts, and flattery amply fupplies 
 every deficiency, there is any incitement to fuch 
 noble and pleafing purfuits ? In a low and indigent 
 ftation, are there greater temptations to difcon- 
 tent and envy, than when fuccefs inflames ambi- 
 tion, and ambition fpurns every inferior degree? 
 Are the motives ftronger to cultivate honefty, 
 andtoob-ferve the dictates of juftice, when the 
 
( M3 1 
 
 feverity of punifhment hangs over the head of th« 
 offender, than when concealment is promifed by 
 intereft, inquiry removed by intrigue, or impuni- 
 ty fecured by power ? Is there lefs fympathy with 
 the diftrefs, or lei's fmcere joy on the profperity 
 of others, when men are reminded of their fuf- 
 ferings by the experience of their own, and de- 
 pend for fubfiftence on their bounty and good opi- 
 nion — than when luxury removes even the afpect 
 of want, and opulence fecures independence ? Is 
 there lefs piety and devotion, lefs reverence for 
 God, when men literally implore him for daily 
 bread, and depend for its fupply on the continu- 
 ance of health, and on the fertility of the fea- 
 fons, than when, having much goods laid up for 
 many years, they eat, drink, and are merry* , and 
 -the immoderate draughts of plenty render them 
 forgetful of the bountiful hand that beftows it? 
 
 Suppofing, after all, that the advantages of cul- 
 tivation and virtue are fully improved by thole in 
 the higher ftations, in what do theie exceed the 
 lame advantages of the inferior, fo as to render 
 them objects of envy, or caufes of dif content . ? — 
 Has not every member of Chriftian fociety fuffici- 
 ent opportunity of acquiring the fublimeft and moft 
 
 * Luke, xii. 19. 
 
( 1 44 ) 
 
 tifefol branches of human knowledge— the origin^ 
 the duties, and the destination of man — the rela- 
 tion in which he ftands to his Creator and to his 
 fellow men — the divine nature and perfections — 
 the gracious plan of falvation the Deity has pub- 
 lished to guilty mortals, by the mouth of his own 
 Son, and by his infpired Apoftles — the glorious 
 profpects opened to his penitent and amended 
 children beyond the grave, and the gracious 
 means he hath inftitu ted for their perfection and 
 felicity ? Do not the heavens, the ocean and the 
 earth, unfold their magnificent and numberlefs 
 beauties to the eye of the peafant, as well as to 
 that of the monarch ; nay, do they not difclofe to 
 the former many ravifhing fcenes, which the lat- 
 ter can feldom behold ? Are not many even of the 
 moft ftriking and admirable difplays of art, which 
 riches have produced, and continue to Support, 
 equally enjoyed by the meaneit palfenger, as by 
 the proprietor himfelf? It is a grofs miftake to 
 iuppofe, that to provide for one's family by afiidu- 
 "ous and honeit labour, is lefs meritorious than to 
 fupply the poor out of an opulent fortune ; that 
 patience is lefs commendable than generofity, re- 
 ficmation than mtmlficence, meeknefs, than mode- 
 ration, contentment than condefeenfiori ; that £o- 
 ciety is lefs benefited by being furnifhed with the 
 Tieceflarfes of life, than by being adorned with the 
 
( 145 ) 
 
 refinements of art, and by the productions of ge* 
 hius ; that the public welfare is lefs promoted by 
 dutiful (ubmhTion to lawful authority, by an inof- 
 fenfive, regular, and ferviceable conduct, than by 
 the enaction of falutary laws, by the judgment 
 and punifhment of offenders, and by a zealous and 
 difinterefted difcharge of public truft. God ac- 
 cepts no lefs the artlefs devotion of the grateful, 
 though uninftru&ed, heart, than the copious and 
 fwelling praifes of the enlightened underftanding* 
 The cOarfer and brawny mufcles are as necefTaiy 
 to the perfection of the body, as the organs of the 
 moft delicate texture. 
 
 It is thus evident, that real happinefs and virtu£ 
 are not limited to any ftation, but are equally open 
 to all. If there ifs any exception to this conclu- 
 fion, itmuftbe in favor of the middling fpheres of 
 life— in which neither power and opulence tempt 
 to oppremon and dhTolutenefs of manners, nor 
 poverty and ignorance lead to fraud and violence ; 
 in which neither pride hardens the foul, nor fervi- 
 lity debafes it ; in which the beft enjoyments of 
 life are offered, and itsgreateft enticements to cor- 
 ruption excluded. 
 
 From all that has been faid on this fubject, it 
 clearly appears, chat as it is the duty, it is equally 1 
 
 N 
 
( 1 46 ) 
 
 the intereft of all who are placed in the inferior 
 ranks of life, to difcharge, with diligence and af- 
 fiduity the humble offices of their ftation, to cul- 
 tivate contentment with their lot, and to fupprefs 
 the emotions of envy towards thofe who are more 
 exalted. 
 
 ]t may indeed be objected, that the defire of 
 rifing is one of the moft powerful motives to the 
 honeft and active difcharge of every focial duty, 
 that one great point of equality among men confifts 
 in the opportunity which all ought to enjoy of ex- 
 ercifing their ufeful or elegant abilities, and that, 
 if every one is to reft fatisfied with the condition 
 in which his birth or his circumftances have plac- 
 ed him, exertion muft be difcouraged, and the 
 general welfare be deprived of the benefit which 
 reiults from honeft and generous ambition. We 
 have, moreover, mown above, that frequent ex- 
 change of ranks and conditions feems to compofe 
 a part of the divine adminiftration of human af- 
 fairs. If thofe, therefore, whole fituation is at 
 prefent ignoble and deprefled, are to confider it 
 as a duty never to afpire higher, one of the ftrong- 
 eft checks is removed from pride, namely, the un- 
 certainty of its elevation, while dejection and po- 
 verty are deprived of one of their moft powerful 
 confolations— the expectation of more profperous 
 davs. 
 
f 147 ) 
 
 It ought,, however, to be confidered, that the" 
 doftrine above inculcated tends not to preclude 
 laudable ambition and induftry, but only to fup- 
 prefs, on the one hand, difcontent, avarice, and 
 envy, and to remove every pretext for indulging 
 thefe paflions under the fpecious colorings of 
 more elevated and generous motives ; and, on the 
 other, to comfort and ftrengthen thofe who are 
 apt to view their inferior ftations with an undif- 
 cerning eye, .which beholds affliction where hap- 
 pinefs may be found, and degradation where true 
 dignity may refide. Nay, if our limits admitted 
 of it, it might eafily be iliown, that the faithful 
 difcharge of the duties of an inferior ftation, and 
 that contented and cheerful mind which partakes 
 of its greateft enjoyments, are the fureft andfafeft 
 means of advancement. I mail fatisfy myfelf, how- 
 ever, with pointing out, in the following Chapter, 
 fome important cautions with refpect to the im- 
 provement of our condition. 
 
 N 2 
 
f *48 ; 
 
 CHAPTER IV, 
 
 cautions to be obferved in the pursuit of a 
 higher and more flourishing condition. 
 
 I. I HE clefire of improving one's circum- 
 stances ought nevsr to lead to encroachment on 
 the rights of others, whether natural or acquired- 
 By the violation of the former, the fundamental 
 principles of fociety are fubverted ; and, by that 
 of the latter, the order neceflary to its exiftence, 
 is deftroyed. Whoever, therefore, pretends to 
 maintain any of the natural rights of man, by 
 overturning that fubordination and juft ordery 
 which is the foul and the life of fociety, defeats the 
 very purpofe which he has in view, and exhibits 
 either egregious folly or egregious wickednefs. 
 In either cafe, he becomes a dangerous enemy to 
 the public intereft, who is to be retrained and 
 punilhed, to prevent him both from injuring others 
 by his practice, and corrupting them by his exam- 
 ple. Such, however, is the intemperance of hu- 
 
( 149 ) 
 
 man paflions, even thofe of the moft generous 
 kind, when they are ftrongly excited, that the 
 ardor of liberty, and indignation at oppreflion, 
 often hurry men to purfue a condud directly re- 
 pugnant to the principles of equity and beneficence 
 Avhich they profefs — to opprefs others when they 
 are contending for freedom ; to be moft iniquity 
 ous in defence of juftice ; and, with a view to pro- 
 mote the welfare of fociety, to overturn its foun- 
 dations. Let the times in which we live, declare, 
 ihmanyinftances, the truth of this after trion. 
 
 II. The duties of the ftation, which people al- 
 ready occupy, ought to limit their endeavors af- 
 ter advancement- The co-operation of every in- 
 dividual for the public good, m uft firft 'difplay its 
 energy in the fphere in which he moves, and be 
 thence tranfmitted to the other parts of the faci- 
 al body. By neglecting the duties of his prefent 
 ftation, a perfon with-holds the portion he is ap- 
 pointed to contribute to the general welfare, and, 
 by encroaching on the province of others, may 
 dog their exertion and fruftrate their utility. To 
 arrive at a more agreeable or more honorable fta- 
 tion, the faithful discharge of the duties of a pre- 
 fent one ought always to be the firftmeans em- 
 ployed. When thefe are fulfilled, every fair and. 
 honeft exertion is not only lawful, but even high* 
 N 3 
 
( *5° ) 
 
 )y laudable, as the great-eft activity of the party 
 then advances more effectually the profperity of 
 the whole* By embracing the opportunities 
 which occur, and by exercifmg the talents with 
 which men are endowed, they manifeft their gra- 
 titude to Providence, and they improve its gifts 
 to the greateft advantage. 
 
 III. The duties of any ftation to which men 
 afpire, and their own ability to difcharge them,, 
 ought to be contidered before they attempt to ob- 
 tain it. For, to occupy a ftation for which one 
 has no capacity, or with the duties of which he is 
 totally unacquainted, is both to expofe his own 
 folly, and to injure fociety, by betraying a truft 
 which is committed to him- Hence, it is of the 
 utmoft confequence to acquire a complete know- 
 ledge of our own talents and qualities, which the 
 generality of mankind are fo apt to magnify, both, 
 to their own difgrace, and to the detriment of 
 others. Inability to difcharge the duties of any 
 ftation, refulting whether from narrownefs of 
 underftanding, from unhappinefs of temper, or- 
 from infirmity of body, mould be deemed an ex- 
 press declaration of the Divine will againft the 
 acquirement of it, and, of confequence, a boundary 
 not to be pafled. 
 
 
( *» ) 
 
 IV. Men's exertions to improve their conditi- 
 on mould be influenced by the confideration of the 
 enlargement, or the contraction, of their utility. 
 From the light in which every man appears as a 
 member of human fociety, to whofe benefit he is 
 bound to contribute in the mod ample manner 
 poffible, it is plain that it can never be lawful for 
 any one to change his prefent fituation for ano- 
 ther, in which his utility muft be impaired. This 
 is to prefer private to public intereft, to pervert 
 the quality of member, to demand more than is 
 compenfated, and to lofe all that dignity and real 
 enjoyment which refult from the raoft extenfive 
 beneficence* 
 
 If, in the ftation defired, men may be equally 
 ufeful, as in that which they occupy, private in- 
 tereft may be allowed its full force* If, together 
 with advancement, opportunities of utility increafe, 
 every private and public confideration happily 
 unites in ftimulating tothepurfuit of it, and every 
 generous heart will wilh and applaud the fuccefs- 
 
 Thus, the rights of others, the duties of a pre- 
 fent ftation, the talents requifite for a higher, and 
 the more extenfive utility, are the limits within 
 which men ought to confine their exertions for 
 the improvement of their circumftances. Thus^ 
 
juft'ice, diligence, ability, and public fpirit, mould 
 be the conitant attendants in the path of advance- 
 ment,, and the chief forwarders of the progrefs. 
 
 But, how fittTe are thefeconfiderations regard- 
 ed ! When intereftor pleafure are constituted the 
 fole fprings of action, every duty that has no ten- 
 dency to advance their ends is neglected, and of- 
 fices, inftituted for the benefit of mankind, are 
 fhamefully perverted to their prejudice. When 
 the project is formed of rifing to preferment 
 without regard to merit, birth, intereft, or party- 
 attachmsnts, are the only valid grounds of pre- 
 tenfion. To the moft felHfii confiderations the moff 
 important interefts of fociety are facrificed. Be- 
 fore children can difcover either inclination or ca- 
 pacity, offices are defigned for them, and kept 
 conftantly in view ; nor were this to be cenfured, 
 if proper care were taken to give them a fuitable 
 education, and their deftination changed, when 
 their temper and talents were perceived to be in- 
 compatible with it. But thefe things are feldom 
 much confidered. Whatever be the genius or im- 
 provements of the perfon in queftion, he muft 
 move in the particular fph'ere which has been cho- 
 fen for him. The public welfare is treated as a 
 chimera, which it is the bufmefs of a man well {kil- 
 led in the w*ays of the world to ufe as a color to 
 
I 153 ) 
 
 yarnifh the moil: interefted defigns, but wKicH 
 none, but an enthufiaftic or vulgar mind, can think 
 of adopting as a real object of purfuit. When 
 the public welfare, however, is obflru&ed, private 
 happinefs cannot long be enjoyed. For, as one 
 chief caufe of the diforder and corruption, which 
 fo often lay wafte civil fociety, is the little atten- 
 tion which is ihown to adapt men's condition to 
 their abilities and tempers ; fo the mifery of in- 
 dividuals frequently fprings from the fame fource* 
 Men moving in a fphere for which they were ne- 
 ver defignedby nature, foongrow difgufced with 
 their lot, and, finding the duties of their ftation 
 irkfome and oppreffive, either neglect them alto- 
 gether, to iheir own irretrievable difgrace, or 
 continue to difcharge them, in fuch a manner as is 
 equally painful to themfelves, and detrimental to 
 others. Thus, Divine Providence takes ven- 
 geance on mankindfor infringing its appointments, 
 by allowing them to be bewildered in their errors^ 
 and the victims of their own infatuation. 
 
( >54 ) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The duties of thofe placed in the higher ranks 
 ©/.life, and endowed -with distinguished 
 
 ABILITIES. 
 
 I 
 
 T is certainly no eafy matter for a perfon not 
 'to confider himfclf as greatly fuperior to the reft 
 of his fpecies, when everyone of thofe who fur- 
 round him pretends that his honor and dignity, 
 his pleafure and fervice, are the only objects which 
 occupy himfelf, and ought to occupy every other; 
 when every one applauds, with fervile adulation, 
 his moft infignificant fayings, and moft ridiculous 
 actions, and adores him as the fource of wifdom, 
 and the centre of power. When a perfon has fo 
 many occasions of beholding his fellow men in a 
 contemptible light, it muft require angelic mode- 
 ration to abftain from treating them accordingly; 
 to neglect thofe advantages which his circumftan- 
 ces and their fervility put into his hands for gra- 
 tifying his own paffions and caprice, at the ex- 
 pence of their moft valuable mterefts.. 
 
 
( 155 ) 
 
 When, therefore, I confider this ftate of things, 
 far from being furnrifed at the pride, and impa- 
 tience of contradidion, which often characterise 
 the higher ranks of life, or any fpecies of diftinc- 
 tion and eminence, I am more difpofed to admire 
 the condefcenfion and humanity which they fo 
 frequently exhibit. For,thefe vices, though more 
 obfervable in the higher fpheres, becaufe they are 
 difplayed in a more confpicuous point of view, are 
 by no means confined to thefe, but pervade every 
 rank, every fituation and profeihon of life. Hardly 
 ■any attainments fo low, any circumftances fo cir- 
 cumfcribed, as not to afford fcope for felf-fufficiency 
 and oftentation. Who will notfeem great, if he 
 is as highly exalted as his ideas of greatnefs reach, 
 and compares himfelf only with his inferiors : if 
 heeftimates his own knowledgeby another's igno- 
 rance, his own wifdom by another's folly, his 
 own power by another's impotence, his own wealth 
 by another's poverty, his own virtue by another's 
 depravity? On what other foundation, than on 
 this partial mode of comparifon, are built the 
 pride and arrogance of even the moft exalted of 
 mankind? But, if we abandon this magical glafs, 
 which transforms the cottage into a palace, and 
 the infant into a man, and contemplate objects in 
 the true light of nature, we fhall find, that the 
 great difpute only is, who mail be efteemed the 
 
( 156 ) 
 
 leaft ignorant, the leaft fooliih, the leaft weak* 
 the leaft: indigent, the leaft corrupted ; that pride 
 and infolence, which fubvert the parity of obliga- 
 tion fubfiliing among all, fhould be baniilied from 
 every human bread, and that thofe who move in 
 the higheft and molt illuftrious fpheres, having 
 the beft opportunities of enlarging their minds, 
 ought to regulate their opinions by their own 
 knowledge, not by the ignorance of their inferi- 
 ors, to acquire real dignity > -by divefiing them- 
 felves of paffions, which are born of ignorance, 
 and nouriihed by delufion ; and, by moderation, 
 equity, affability, and condefcenfion, to conciliate 
 'benevolence, enfure refpect, make the rays of 
 virtue eclipfe the fplendors of fortune, and efta- 
 blifh a throne which me neither can erecl: nor 
 overturn. 
 
 Would men, divefting themfelves, for a mo- 
 ment, of the prejudices which birth, education, 
 or luxurious habits, have fixed in their minds, fur- 
 vey, with the eye of reafon, the coriiftru&ion of 
 fociety, the principles on which it refts, and the 
 ends which it purfues, and then contemplate the 
 nature and perfections of the univerfal parent — 
 what a different light would be thrown on their 
 condition and circumftances, and how different a 
 profpect be difclofed to them, from that which 
 
( r 57 ) 
 
 they have been accuftomed to behold through the 
 mills of ignorance, or the twilight of fell-decep- 
 tion ! Would it be poflible for them to fuppcfe that ^ 
 the Deity lavilhes his bounty on individuals ca- 
 pricioufly elected, merely for their plea Cure and 
 profit, and not with any view to the univerfal be- 
 nefit ; that he has befiowed on one authority and 
 power, in order that he may encroach on the li- 
 berties, invade the properties, and overawe the 
 confciences of his brethren, and not that he may 
 protect innocence, reftrain oppreflion, and main- 
 tain inviolate the interefts of juftice, of religion, 
 and of truth; that, on another, he has conferred 
 wealth and fuperfluity, only to furnifh him with 
 the means of indulging in luxury, or of wallow- 
 ing in intemperance, and not to open to him a 
 treafure for the fupply of indigence, the relief of 
 diftrefs, the encouragement of indufhy, and the 
 reward of merit; that he has adorned a third 
 with fagacity and genius, that he may find an a- 
 greeable amufement for himfelf, gratify his paf- 
 fion for admiration, miflead the judgments, and 
 corrupt the hearts of his fellow men, not that he 
 may enlighten, and improve, and lead them to 
 happinefs, through the path of virtue? Can any, 
 man of a found mind, who allows himfelf a mo- 
 ment's reflection, impute fuch a fcheme to infinite 
 goodnefs and wifdom, or confider it in any other 
 O 
 
( 158 ) 
 
 light than in that of the moft atrocious rebellion 
 againft the Divine government ? — Aperfon, raif. 
 ed to a high office, placed in exalted rank, or a- 
 dorned by diftinguifhed abilities, is eftablimed on 
 an eminence that his views of the general good 
 may be more extenfive and correct, and that he 
 may apply, to its advancement, the powers he 
 pofTelles with the greater advantage and fuccefs. 
 As on an eminence, therefore, the eye is diverted 
 from proximate to remoter objects; fo, in an exalt- 
 ed ftation, the narrow concerns of felf fliould be 
 lefs regarded than the grand and magnificent 
 range which the public welfare prefents to the 
 mind. 
 
 Nor does this view of things diminifh, in the 
 fmalleft degree, the advantages refulting from 
 eminent rank, fortune, or abilities; on the con- 
 trary, it greatly enhances them. For, if we ex- 
 clude the opportunities which thefe afford of 
 widely difFufing benefic&nt influence, and, with 
 the imitation of the divine perfections, of fharing 
 in fome meafure the divine felicity ; what elfe re- 
 mains but the meaneft gratifications of human na- 
 ture, but an augmentation of mifery with an aug- 
 mentation of vice, and a total degradation of all 
 that diftinguifhes man from the brutes? If the 
 rich enjoy not the pleafure of munificence, of clo- 
 
( i59 ) 
 
 thing the naked, of feeding the hungry, of fup- 
 porting the falling family, of rearing the orphan, 
 of fweetening the cup of fhame-faced uncomplain- 
 ing poverty, without ruffling the veil that hides 
 her from public view ; if the powerful are denied 
 the fatisfaction of protecting innocence, of reftrain- 
 ing oppreflion, of drawing modeft merit from its 
 retirement, and, by the jufl reward of honour, 
 of rendering it confpicuous and exemplary, of de- 
 fending fubitantial virtue againft faction and in- 
 trigue, and of promoting the public good by no- 
 ble and ufeful undertakings ; if the wife, the in- 
 genious, and the learned, are denied the enjoy- 
 ment of comforting affliction, of inftructing igno- 
 rance, of directing perplexity, of correcting pre- 
 judice, and of reclaiming vice ; what remains 
 but the more copious indulgence of fenfuality — «• 
 but the gratifications of the molt ru thief s pafiions 
 that convulfe the breafl which they occupy — and 
 the indulgence of the moll contemptible, though 
 frequently the mofl pernicious, vanity, difplayed 
 by attempting to fubvert the grand principles of 
 morality, and to poifon the d.vine confolations cf 
 religion ? Is there in thefe any thing which a man 
 of judgment would value, defire, and purfue, as 
 primary objects ? Were fuch a perfon informed, 
 on his firft fetting out in life, that fuch would be 
 all the enjoyment he mould reap from the fondeft 
 
 O 2 
 
( i6o ) 
 
 objesfcs of his purfuit — would he cohfider the pari 
 chaie as a fuffieieat recompenfe for his toil and 
 anxiety, his frequent mortifications, and ainduous 
 ftudy? I afTert not that the man, who devotes 
 wholly to feJfifh purpofes the advantages lie pof- 
 fefies, has no pleafure, no enjoyment. The fen- , 
 fua«ft, the miier, the vain, the ambitious, the 
 proud, have each their particular gratifications. 
 But thefe gratifications are unmanly and bale, and 
 fall infinitely fhort of the delights of a faithful dif- 
 charge of duty, and of the fubiime enjoyments of 
 beneficence. Nor can it be alledged that enjoy- 
 ments being matters of tafle, it is impoihble to as- 
 certain their comparative values ; becauie every 
 man will be partial to his own, and, while the 
 generous extol the joys of beneficence, the felfim. 
 will ever find their happinefs in thole which cen- 
 ter in themfelves. For, in order to compare the 
 different fourees of felicity, it is neccflfary to tafle- 
 them ; and this can only be done by men of an 
 exalted and capacious foul, who can reliih in the 
 higheft degree both, the pleasures which attach to 
 felf, and thofe which refult from benevolence- 
 13y feeding the hungry, does any man fpoil his 
 own appetite ? By relieving the diflrefied, does 
 he dhninifh his own reliih of eafy circumftances? 
 By maintaining peace and order in fociety, does he 
 tontrud his imagination, or diminilh its powers J 
 
 
( i6i ) 
 
 By comforting the afflicted, by inftrutting the ig- 
 norant, or by advifing the perplexed, does he 
 render his conception lefs clear, his judgment lef9 
 folid, or his memory lefs tenacious? On the other 
 hand, it is certain that a contracted felfiflinefs 
 weakens and extinguifhes the benevolent affections, 
 nnd excludes the pleafures they confer. The man 
 who leeks in wealth only the means of indulging 
 his fenfuaiity, and promoting his convenience, 
 who afpires at power, only to gratify his pride 
 and ambition, or who purfues knowledge only for 
 his own amufement or vanity — fuch a man can 
 have but little reliih of the joys that fpring 
 up and flourifh in a focial and benevolent heart*. 
 
 What is it that, in all the actions, and all the 
 characters, whether prefented by daily obfervati- 
 on, recorded in hiitory, or figured by imagination, 
 excites admiration, and engages efteem ? Is it 
 merely extent of capacity, fuperiority of ftation, 
 or largenefs of fortune ; or is it liberality of {en^ 
 timeiit, and kindnefs of heart I Place the faith- 
 fu-i friend, the affectionate parent, the indulgent 
 
 * Hence Ariftotle very juflly aflerts, In feveral places cf his 
 Ethical writings, that the good man h the only proptr judge ©f 
 happinefs. 
 
 03 
 
( i<52 ) 
 
 matter, the generous patron, the incorrupt ma- 
 giftrate, the genuine patriot, in the mcfl disad- 
 vantageous circumstances; let him be funk m 
 poverty, overwhelmed with difgrace, tortured 
 with pain, he will flu 1 ! preferve his dignity, and 
 command our refpecl ! Nay, the lefs he enjoys of 
 tlie advantages, and the more he fullers of the 
 evils, of life, the more glorious will he appear ! 
 But no favorable concurrence of circumftances, 
 neither the gifts of nature, the accomplishments 
 of arts, nor the fplendors of fortune will ever 
 be able to bribe our efteem in behalf, I fay, not 
 of the fenfualift, the villain, or the tyrant, but 
 even of the unfocial folitary mortal, who, though 
 lie offers no pofitive injury to his fpecies, yet 
 with-holdshis endeavors for their happinefs ! Nay, 
 if fuciTa fuppofitionbe not impious, remove good- 
 nefs from all the other divine attributes, and 
 fuppofe the Supreme Being unconcerned for the 
 h'jppinefs of his creation, and fay whether his 
 nature would then appear as amiable, adorable, 
 and tranfcendently excellent, as it now appears 
 to every reflecting mind. And if goodnefs con- 
 flitute the fupreme glory of the divine nature,, 
 that which gives to every other perfection its 
 true beauty and light, and completes the real 
 character of Deity-ws it pcfTible that any human 
 
excellence or advantage fhould coropenfate for 
 the abfence of tins primary virtue ? 
 
 If the true excellence of human nature, thus, 
 confifts in benignity, if this neceilarily attracts 
 the regard of the lelflm themielves, how comes 
 it to pais that fo many, who have the nobleft op- 
 portunities of gratifying a difpoiition ib beatific 
 and glorious, can be reconciled to a contrary con- 
 duct — to fenfuality, oppreffion, and perverfion 
 of the fineft abilities > The weaknefs, the blind- 
 nefs, and the corruption of human nature, are 
 the only fatisfactory caufes that can be alledged* 
 
 But, even in adions the moll apparently felfifh 
 and groveling, a difcerning eye will be able to 
 difcover fone faint gleams ofgenerofity which 
 illumine and recommend the ml Senfuality is 
 clothed with the fpecious coloring of fociality, of 
 pleafure communicated as well as received, of jo- 
 cularity and mirth, of freedom, and contempt of 
 iervile reftraint. OpprefTion atxl tyranny are 
 prefented to the mind under the appearance of 
 dignity, of a high Cen^e of honor, a noble ambi- 
 tion, attachment to party, nay, even of a love 
 of juftice. Without thefe fictitious images, the 
 fenfualift would appear tohimfelf ajs the rnoftcon- 
 
( 1*4 ) 
 
 temptible, and the oppreflbr asthemoft odious, of 
 mankind. 
 
 Bat, why multiply arguments in a matter where 
 a m 3 neat's feeling is more decifive than an age 
 of reafoning ? Had you ever a faithful friend, 
 into whofe bofooi you poared all the fe-:rets of 
 your heart — a parent, whofe burden of years 
 you lightened, whofe tottering limbs you fupport- 
 ed — a child, whole affiduous duty, whofe budding 
 virtues, fweetened all your cares of the prefent, 
 ani brightened all your hopes of the future — did 
 ever the fyoipataetic gam (tart in your eye at the 
 fight of mifery — did ever your hands ftretch forth 
 the unexpected relief, and difpel the gloom that 
 hangs on the brow of woe, as the fun, burfting 
 through the clouds, renews the face of nature — 
 did you ever difcharge an important truft with 
 dignity, difintereftednefs, and honor, and fpread 
 peace and joy among your fellow men, while the 
 ear when it heard you hie/fed you, end the eye when 
 it Jaw you gave witnefs to you*- — fay what delight 
 thefe recollections afford— would you exchange 
 them for a life-time of the moft refined fenfuality 
 .—for Peruvian treafum— or Afiatic power? 
 
 • Job, x»Ix, IJ. 
 
( 1$ ) 
 
 It appears, then, that the dignity of human 
 nature con fills not in the greatneis of men's abi- 
 lities, wealth, or dominion, but in expanfion, 
 and benignity of foul ; that the former are only 
 means of promoting, the purpofes of the latter, 
 andligns that their poffefTors are particularly cal- 
 led, by Divine appointment, to generous and 
 elevated action ; that one, whopcfiefles all thefe 
 advantages, may be more contemptible than thof'e, 
 who, though devoid of them, have the heart 
 which could apply them to their properends ; and 
 that one firm purpofe of doing good will adorn a 
 character more than the accutdt underflanding r 
 the molt opulent fortune, or the moll exalted 
 rank, unaccompanied with a virtuous difpofition. 
 Hence, to be filled with pride and contempt of 
 thofe below us, on account of our talents, or ex- 
 ternal circumflances, without any regard to the 
 right application of them, is both to a£t unjuftly,. 
 by a*ftingincoiifiItentiy with the character of mem- 
 bers of the community, and ufurping the rights 
 which belong to it alone, and to overturn the ba- 
 ds on which true (uperiority muff ever reft. It 
 is to content ourlelves with the ihadow^ without 
 the fubftance, of greatnefs; and, while God and 
 men unite in calling us to a pre-eminence and 
 happinefs which neither time, nor fortune^ nor 
 
( '66 ) 
 
 death, can remove, to defcend to the moft con- 
 temptible of all conditions, by perverting the 
 moil fplendid powers, and the richeft opportuni- 
 ties — to embrace the hideous form of mifery 
 while celeiiial felicity courts us — to change a fer- 
 tile £eld into a barren heath — to dwell in a dun- 
 geon while we may walk in the moft refplendent 
 day. In a word, it k the duty of thofe who are 
 raifed to the higher (Nations of life, poflefled of 
 the gifts cf fortune, or endowed with fuperior 
 abilities — to maintain jufrice, order and peace, 
 in fociety ; to ftudy and purfue the public good ; 
 to relieve diftrefs, to encourage induftry, to re* 
 ward merit, to exercife condefcenfion and affa- 
 bility towards their inferiors; to cultivate and 
 extend uieful and elegant knowledge ; to clta- 
 blifh, and inculcate, the grand principles of mo- 
 rality and religion, to enlighten, humanife, and 
 improve mankind, and to lead them to virtue and 
 happinefs. 
 
 Thofe who employ in this manner the oppor- 
 tunities and talents with which they are furniihed 
 by Divine Providence, are entitled to the higheft 
 veneration of mankind. It is, then, that nobi- 
 lity, illuftrious itation, or diflinguifhed parts, ap- 
 pear in their full fplen dor, and exhibit their pof- 
 ieffors as a fpecies of divinities upon earth, who, 
 
( '6/ ) 
 
 bearing the refemblance of God as far as human 
 nature will permit, fhare alfo his felicity, and 
 claim the homage of the world. Let them be 
 difplayed as the inftruments of beneficence, they 
 will reign with an irreliflible and permanent do- 
 minion, which neither envy, nor malice, nor 
 faction, nor tumult, will be able to overturn ; for 
 it is founded in the hearts of men who, feeling, 
 and rejoicing in, its blil&ful influences, muft ceafe 
 to love themfelves, before they can wiili to with- 
 draw their refpecl and obedience. 
 
 But, when riches are only the fund of a fordid 
 avarice, or the fountain of licentiouinefs and pro- 
 fligacy ; when wifdom is perverted into craft, 
 and abilities transformed into the rainifters of ca- 
 bal and intrigue, of deception and ignoble policy, 
 eftablifh, uphold, or extend, civil or religious 
 defpotifm ; when refplendent genius is employed 
 in rebellion againft God, and in the corruption of 
 men, by propagating irreligion and immorality; 
 when pre-eminence and authority are, in civil 
 life, uied as the inftruments of pride, injuftice, 
 oppreflion, and cruelty, or fupreme power, im- 
 pelled by infatiable ambition, deluges the earth 
 with blood, and fpreads devaftation and mifery 
 through the habitations of men — reafon eafily pe- 
 netrates the falfe glitter that furrounds them, 
 
( i68 ) 
 
 and perceives their deformity and blacknefs. She 
 declares their luftre to refemble that of thofe 
 noxious vapours, which, rifing from the earth, 
 are kindled into a flam in the fky; and terminate 
 in noife and deftruction ; while thofe who apply 
 their talents, their riches, or power, to the be- 
 neficent ends for which they are deitined, are like 
 that trlorious luminary in the heavens, which 
 fhines with a conftant and falutary light. 
 
 Thou proud infolent mortal ! who lookeft down 
 from thy lofty ftation on thy brethren of men, 
 and imagineft them only formed to bring their 
 gifts to thy altar, and to bend before thee with 
 fervile homage, know that thy elevation only 
 renders thee more confpicuoully contemptible ! 
 Confider that, mould thofe, whom thou fo info- 
 lently defpifeft, adopt thy principles, and burft 
 the bands of foci al union by which alone they are 
 made thy dependents, the power is theirs, and 
 thine only the fhadow and the phantom. Should 
 they only withdraw their fupport without inflict- 
 ing any pofitive evil, thou woukift precipitately 
 fink into a degradation lower than that of the 
 meaneft laborer. Lefs inured to want, thou 
 wouldft be lefs able to provide for its fupply, and 
 have lefs reafon to expect it from the beivgnity 
 of others. Coniider that, even in thy pre lent 
 
( i «9 ) 
 
 elevation, thon art really more dependent than 
 the mod: ignoble of the fons of men. If he is 
 lead dependent who Hands leaft in need of others, 
 he is furely moft dependent who- ftands m oft in 
 need of them. With our rank, our necellities, 
 our demands, our cares, increafe. The links 
 by which we are joined to our fellow men are 
 multiplied, and the very circumftance which en- 
 larges our influence diminifhes our internal 
 ftrencrth. He, therefore, who has the preatefl: 
 number of dependents, has only the greatefl num- 
 ber of thofe to whom he is indebted for confide- 
 ration and power. The more lofty and fpacious 
 the edifice is, with the greater precipitation, if 
 its pillars are fapped, does it rufh into ruin. Learn 
 then to feek thy importance and dignity, where 
 only thou wilt find them, by discharging every 
 duty which thy ftation requires, and by diffufing, 
 by thy affability and beneficence, happinefs among 
 mankind. Relinquiming the phantoms of pride 
 enjoy the fubftantial pre-eminence of virtue. 
 
 But ye ! who employ your diftinguifned abili- 
 ties, or exalted power, for thepurpofes for which 
 Providence has beftowed them, fear not that any 
 portion of that refpeft, obedience, and honor, 
 to which you are entitled, will be withdrawn* 
 Goodnefs, moving in an elevated fphere, and 
 P 
 
( '70 ) 
 
 guided by diftinguifhed wifdom, fhines with fuch 
 an amiable luftre, polfefTes fuch a commanding in- 
 fluence, and is fo irrefutably attractive, that me 
 reigns over the hearts of men, and is often con- 
 ftrained to bluih at the homage fhe receives, be- 
 caufe it approaches adoration. Power may inti- 
 midate, fplendour may dazzle, genius may fur- 
 prife and delight, but goodnefs alone can captivate 
 the heart i 
 
 
C *7* ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 duties common to ALL with regard to the use of tfcir 
 
 OPPORTUNITIES and TALENTS. 
 
 Wi 
 
 HOEVER attentively examines the human 
 conftitution will diicover in it feveralinconfiften- 
 cies not £o eadly accounted for. Thus, mankind 
 have a ftrong propensity to fociety, and are mife- 
 rable without it ; yet in fociety they are prone to 
 indulge the mod unfocial difpolitions. Nature con . 
 ftantly draws them to their fpecies > and points out 
 their (weeteft enjoyments, as iblely derivable from 
 this fource; yet the felfiih part of our frame, coun- 
 teracting this dictate of nature, corrupts the grand 
 ftreamsof happinefs, by turning them into its own 
 channel, and, inflead of allowing the individual to 
 act as a member of the focialbody, and to receive 
 from this capacity his higheft dignity and enjoy- 
 ment, endeavours to render fociety fubfervient to 
 the individual. There is in all men a wonderful 
 P 2 
 
fondnefs of independence, and a no !efs forprifmg 
 deiire of the ferviee and reipecl of others. 1 his is, 
 in fa£l, to j oin the greateft con traditions, to force in- 
 to union things absolutely incompatible ; for inde- 
 lence can only be fecured, by an entire iepa- 
 ration from mankind, by relinquishing every claim 
 to their good offices and regards, by renouncing 
 y locial enjoyment, and by deriving happi- 
 nefs from the (lores of felf. As foon as man en- 
 ters into the focial circle, and fliares its beneficial 
 influences, he relinquiihes his Separate exigence, 
 and, forming a part of a fyftem, is limited by the 
 relations which he bears to the other parts, and 
 to the whole, becomes bound to contribute to. 
 their fupport and perfection, according to the flip- 
 port and benefit which he receives from them, 
 and is required to exert a beneficial activity pro- 
 portioned to the influence he pofTefTes. Whoever 
 with-holds from the general good any portion of 
 ufeful effort he is able to bellow, is unfaithful to 
 the conditions, on which he enjoys the benefits 
 of fociety, and violates that equality of obligation 
 which fubfifts among all mankind. He alio fruf- 
 trates, as far as lies in his power., that plan of Di- 
 vine wifdom, whereby the general felicity is in- 
 tended. For it is certain that the Univerfal Pa- 
 rent has diflributed among men fuch a portion of 
 abilities and powers, as, duly cultivated and im» 
 
( '73 ) 
 
 proved, would render the condition of all com- 
 fortable, in every refpecr, and happy. In the 
 pre Cent ftate of fociety, fome are, indeed, over- 
 burthened with labour, and enjoy but a fmall de- 
 gree of convenience; while others loiter in indo- 
 lence, and confume the fruits of induftry. This, 
 however, could never be the cafe, did every one 
 cultivate with diligence his peculiar talents, and 
 difcharge the duties of his peculiar ftatiori^ It is 
 the neglect of this alone that makes it necellary to 
 overload fome, in order to fupport that part of 
 the common burden, from which others have 
 treacher.ou.fi y withdrawn tbemfelves* 
 
 Hence the principle of equality, above illuftrat* 
 ed, requires not only that all men fhould religi- 
 oufly regard the rights of others, but that they 
 mould exert themfelves, to- the utmoft of their 
 ability, for rhe common, benefit.. Whoever re- 
 jects this reqnilition defcends below the rank of 
 a member of fociety, and, inftead of riling, as is 
 fooliihly fuppofed, above the reft of mankind, by 
 a life of idlenefs and diflipation, degrades himfelf 
 to the condition of a begger, who lives on the la- 
 bour of others, without making any j-u£L. return 
 for it. For, however ftrange it may found, it i«_ 
 undoubted, that fociety has a right to the beft 
 exertion of- all its members, of the higheft as weli 
 P 3 
 
( 174 ) 
 
 as of the loweft, of the mod opulent as well as of 
 the pooreft, for the common good. 
 
 The queftion is not, what advantage every in- 
 dividual is content to reap from his own powers 
 aud opportunities, but what degree of general u- 
 tilitv he can effectuate. Thefe powers have not 
 been beftowed on -him, by their divine author, 
 folely for his own ufe, but chiefly for the benefit 
 of the human race, to whofe happinefs he is def- 
 tined to contribute. This proper exercife of the 
 powers of every individual all the other members 
 of fociety have a right to demand, on fair and 
 equal terms. The equivalent every individual ob- 
 tains by the advantages and comforts which he 
 receives from focial life, and Hill more by that fu- 
 perfluity which enables any one to live in floth. 
 He is a debtor to the grand community of man- 
 kind, and his creditors can call him to repay. 
 
 It is true that, fince it is fo difficult to deter- 
 mine the extent of every one's capacity, and the 
 exad meafure of the focial advantages he enjoys, 
 no precife claim can be eilabliilied in every parti- 
 cular cafe. But, the general obligation remains 
 equally ilrong on all, and none can wilfully vio- 
 late it without incurring the blame of his own 
 mind ; and the diipleafure of ths author of his ex- 
 
( '75 ) 
 
 iftence. The principle, therefore, on which fome 
 ancient legiflators prohibited any citizen, of what- 
 ever condition or rank, from living in idlenefs, 
 was perfectly juft in itfelf, although the execution 
 of any law grounded upon it muft ever be ex- 
 tremely difficult, and might occafion greater in- 
 conveniences than thofe which it mould be intend- 
 ed to obviate. 
 
 As indolence, and the neglect of opportunities 
 of utility, are highly unjuft, fo they are extreme- 
 ly contemptible. For, what chara&er can be 
 more the object of contempt, than that of a per- 
 fon who, though endowed with active powers, 
 and furniihed with ample opportunities of benefit- 
 ing that particular fociety to which he belongs, 
 and from which he receives conftant defence and 
 protection, yet lives on the labour either of his 
 predeceflors or contemporaries, without leftifying 
 any approbation of thtir induftry, by which he 
 fubfifts, or making any efforts to imitate their 
 laudable example ? What can degrade a man 
 more in his own eyes, than the confideration that 
 he has done nothing to benefit his friends, to o- 
 bl ; ge his neighbours, to educate and eftabliih his 
 children, or to promote the intereft and honour 
 of his country ; that he has buried his talents, de- 
 feated the end of Providence in beftowing them, 
 
f n6 ) 
 
 and that, when he is cut off by death, the world 
 will be delivered from an unnecelTary burden, from 
 a putrid excrefcence ? 
 
 On the other hand, what can convey, to any 
 perfon, a higher idea of his own worth and im- 
 portance, than the reflection that, though but an 
 individual endowed with oneclafs of abilities, yet, 
 by their improvement, he not only enlarges his 
 own enjoyments, but diffufes around him the moft 
 joyous influences, and promotes the welfare of 
 the whole human race ; that, though retired from 
 public view, he appears in the uleful productions 
 of his application and genius ; that, though infirm 
 in body, he renders, by his inventions, the labour 
 of the ilrong and hardy both more eafy to them- 
 f elves, and more beneficial to others; and that, 
 though devoid of public authority, he hrength- 
 ens the politicaitanion, and advances public order 
 by the jufl principles which he eftabJiihes and elu- 
 cidates ; that, taking another view of the cafe, 
 though ignorant and illiterate, yet he contributes, 
 by his toil and dexterity, to the instruction mid 
 improvement of mankind, while he provides fuf- 
 tenance and leifure for thofe who are endowed 
 with genius and learning, or placed in thofe lla- 
 tions where plans of general welfare can be belli 
 c ' Tr ed, and propoied with the greatefl nro£. 
 
( '77 ) 
 
 peels of fuccefs? In fine, it is an exalting confider- 
 ation, that, however obfcure a perfon is in him-. 
 felf, hz is an inftrument in the hand of Providence 
 for communicating to mankind, not only the ne- 
 cefTaries of life, but alfo its higheft ornaments 
 and delights, and even of raifmg their views a* 
 bove this terre final abode, and directing them to 
 a ftatc of endlefs felicity, the certainty of which 
 cannot fail to produce the moil falutary effects on 
 every part of their conduct. No perfon is fo mean, 
 and iniigniiicant, as not to affect fome part, of the 
 community. In a grand piece of machinery, the 
 frnailer wheels and pins, though lefs obfervable, 
 are not on that account lefs necefTary than others 
 to the juit motion and effect of the whole. In like 
 manner, the conduct of the inferior members of 
 fociety not only airl'cts their own happinefs, or 
 that of their immediate connections, but diffui'es 
 its influence, though in a lefs perceptible manner 
 than that of the higher ranks, through the whole 
 ibcial body. Nay, I may aflert that, as thefe 
 compofe the greater part of the community, their 
 ufefui induftry is (till more req.uifite to the general, 
 happinefs, and that the meaneft labourer, who 
 diligently and honefUy exerts hiraielf in his fphere, 
 is entitled to mare, with the moil exalted of the 
 fons of men, the glorious appellation of the friend 
 of mankind, and of the. approved of Gcd! Should 
 
f 17* J 
 
 any whom fortune deprefTed, orinfolence laughs to 
 fcorn, butwhofe foul, rifing above hisfituation, feels 
 the intrinfic dignity of man, and laments the nar- 
 rownefs of his terreftrial fphere, caft his eye on 
 thefe pages, let him be comforted and ftrengthen- 
 ed by the reflections above mentioned. There is 
 fomething in ths idea that exalts the mind, that 
 kindles the deiire of ufefulnefs, that ronfes activi- 
 ty, and puts every faculty in motion. When we 
 confider it, we feem defirous of breaking the in- 
 glorious chains of indolence, and pant for fome 
 worthy object, fome important purfuit, to exerciie- 
 the generous energies of the foul I 
 
 If the confederation of the importance of the 
 meaneft member of fociety ihould prove a itrong 
 argument to ufeful diligence, how much greater 
 force muft this argument acquire with regard to 
 thofe whom fortune and rank particularly diftin- 
 guiih. Their influence, whether good or bad, 
 is very extenfive. Firft communicated to nume- 
 rous connections and dependents, it is conveyed 
 through them to other contiguous relations, till 
 it reach at laft the extremities of the focial fyfteni. 
 Were this influence always of a beneficial nature, 
 fociety would feel its falutary effects through all 
 its frame, and, inftead of that diftempered and 
 Reformed face which it fo frequently wears, would 
 
C ^79 ) 
 
 afTume the mod healthy and fmiling afpecT. The 
 fac-e of nature, long hid in fog, or ravaged by 
 tempeiis, receives not a more delightful transfor- 
 mation from the returning fun, than fociety 
 would receive from thofe benignant lights which 
 thus illumined and invigorated it. 
 
 In what light, then, miift thofe perfons appear, 
 who, becaufe their external cfrcumftance's free 
 them from the neceinty of labouring for their fub- 
 fiftence, imagine themfelves exempted from eve- 
 ry fpecies of ufeful exertion ; who, becaufe they 
 are provided with the abundant fupply of every 
 corporeal want, think themfelves under no obli- 
 gation to improve their minds, or to engage in 
 any purfuit conducive to the common welfare ; 
 who either yawn away the*ir time in the moft le- 
 thargic indolence, or devote it to the moft infigni- 
 ficant, frivolous, or vicious enjoyments; who 
 wafte ingenuity in mere oftentation, degrade rea- 
 fon to purvey for appetite, and make recreation 
 their ftudy, and amufement their bufinefs — in a 
 word, whofe whole life is either a blank, or aper- 
 verfion of exiftnece. The phantom of pleafure, 
 like an ignis fatuus, inftantly difappears, when 
 they think they can felze it. The fame infipid 
 round is run over a thoufand times. The fenfes 
 sre jaded, the appetites cloyed. Tired at laft 
 
( i»o ) 
 
 with the tedious purfuit, thofe votaries of plea- 
 fure, like the top that has long been laihed, dofe 
 in the arms of indolence. When they wake at 
 times from their inlenfibility, their minds are 
 "haunted with all the chimeras, all the monfters 
 of vapour and fpleen, which often drive them to 
 bnrft, by death, the ponderous fetters with which 
 they are loaded. 
 
 I will not afiTert, that all who live in this man- 
 ner are fenfible of the criminality of their con- 
 duel, and perceive that, however averfe from 
 injuftice, breach of truft, and cruelty in their 
 dealings with particular perfons, they yet involve 
 themfelves, by this negative vice, this neglect of 
 the due improvement of their talents and oppor- 
 tunities in thefe crimes with refpect to their i'pe- 
 cies in general. No; I am convinced that, if 
 they clearly perceived the tendency of their con- 
 duel, many of them, at leaft, would review it 
 with f'orrow and difguft. Ignorance, and wrong 
 habits contracted in early lite, mere than any 
 vicious difpofuion, are the caufes of a courfe of 
 action i'o difgraceful and unhappy to themfelves, 
 and fo detrimental to fociety. 
 
 This reflection, however, If it diminifn their 
 ' criminality, augments the folly of neglecting to 
 
( 1*1 ) 
 
 cultivate thofe rational faculties, which Would 
 afford themjuft notions of their duty, and difclofe 
 an elevated region of purfuit and happinefs. For, 
 if they rightly apprehended the relation in whick 
 all the members of fociety ftand to each other, 
 they would perceive that it is not only the rapa- 
 cious invader, or the fecret purloiner, of proper- 
 ty, who muft be reputed injurious, but alfo the 
 indolent and the diffipated, who deprives his fel- 
 low men of any benefit which he is called to be- 
 flow. They would fee that they are under obli- 
 gations, not only to abftain from pofitive violation^ 
 of juftice, but alfo to difcharge many duties of 
 diftinguifhed utility to mankind. To thefe they 
 would acknowledge themfelves particularly call- 
 ed by the appointment of Heaven- Relieved 
 from the neceflity of providing for their corpo- 
 real wants, their minds are furnifhed with great- 
 er freedom for the exercife of its nobler powers, 
 and with a more extenfive range for the difcove- 
 ry and profecution of fchemes of public good. 
 And as thofe clouds that obfeure their underftand- 
 ing began to remove, an hundred untafledfprings 
 of felicity would open on their hearts. For, if 
 every perfon of fortune and rank employed his 
 moft active endeavors to excite and maintain a 
 fpirit of induftry and virtue among his dependents, 
 his neighbors, and fellow-citizens, he would 
 
( I<& ) 
 
 find his time and attention fo happily engaged, 
 that he would furvey with contempt his former 
 pleafures ; he would feem to breathe a purer air, 
 and to live in a region of perpetual funfhine, 
 while the vapours of low ambition and of fenfual 
 indulgence rolled below his feet ! 
 
 Man can only be happy in as far as his powers 
 are duly exercifed ; and thofe powers, which are 
 the mod elevated and capacious, afFord the great- 
 eft fum of felicity- The fame means, therefore, 
 which render any man moffc highly beneficial to 
 others, alfo increafe the fum of his own enjoy- 
 ments, and fuperadd to them that moft delightful 
 of all fatisfaclions — the confci«ufnefs of having 
 difcharged, to the utmoft of his power, his duty 
 as a member of the community, and fulfilled the 
 intention of his Creator in fending him into the 
 world. The neglecl: of the due improvement of 
 any power, or of any opportunity of honorable 
 afrion, detracts juft fo much from perfonal enjoy- 
 ment. As want of circulation corrupts the air, 
 and ftagnation the water, fo, indolence fuperin- 
 duces a torpor on the mind, which unfits it even, 
 for the more refined pleafures of fenfe, and de- 
 prives it of that great fweetener of every enjoy- 
 ment, the refle&ion that it is the produce of our 
 own exertions ; and the natural recompenfe of 
 
( «83 ) 
 
 merit. With regard to diftinction, acquired by 
 fuccefsful exertions of abilities, it is certain, that 
 the fame obligation which demanded the firit dif- 
 .play of them, requires their continuance while 
 any benefit can thence refult to mankind, and their 
 pofleflbrs are able to confer it. He who has al- 
 ready exerted powers, by which the aggregate of 
 common good has been increafed, has pledged 
 himfelf to a courie of dittinguifhed utility, and, if 
 he relaxes or ceales his efforts, while his faculties 
 are (till vigorous, is more culpable than if he had 
 never entered on the honorable career; becaufe 
 practice procures facility, and fuccefs mould ani- 
 mate to frefh enterprife. If felfifh ambition mould, 
 as is in this cafe moft probable, be the fole motive 
 to action, let it be confidered, that it is perhaps 
 more difficult to preferve than to purchafe reputa- 
 tion and homage. The enligns of honor attract 
 the public eye ; elevation places men in a more 
 confpicuous light, where every defect, as well as 
 ev r ery virtue, is more clearly difcerned, and more 
 nicely fcrutinized. If thofe, therefore, who are 
 thus diftinguiihed, are not able to fupport their 
 fituation with dignity, their difgrace will, from 
 the difappointed expectations of mankind, be more 
 humiliating, and the contempt which they incur 
 more general. Envy will magnify every fault, 
 annihilate every virtue, and lafh them with the 
 
( 18-4 ) 
 
 laurels which fhe has torn from their brows. Hap- 
 py for themfelves, and happy for the world, 
 whofeinterefts are always hurt by the degradati- 
 on of merit, if they had never rifen above the 
 vulgar level 1 
 
( i«5 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 T, 
 
 HE view of fociety, and of the principles on 
 which it is founded, difclofed in this Eflay, evinces 
 the obligation of all its members, of whatever 
 rank or defeription, to contribute their molt aclive 
 and honeft endeavors for the common good. In- 
 deed this obligation is fufficiently inculcated on the 
 lower claffes, by the neceflity of laboring for 
 their daily fubfiftence, and by the dreadful confe- 
 rences which idlenefs produces to them and their 
 families. With regard to thefe, it is, therefore, 
 lefs neceflTary to unfold the full force of this obli- 
 gation, than with refpecl to thofe whofe eafy cir- 
 cumftances, feeming to render them independent 
 of their fellow men, (eem alfo to exempt them 
 from every debt beyond the limits of itrict jufHce. 
 This independence we have fhewn to be purely 
 imaginary, and utterly incompatible with the prin- 
 ciples of focial union. The chain of dependence 
 O 3 
 
( 1 86 ) 
 
 runs equally through all the orders of fociety, * 
 and binds every individual in thefe orders. W hiic 
 it excludes the extravagant claims of feif-love, 
 and fubjects men to more generous and falutary 
 principle^ it eftablifhes at the fame time a fyftem 
 which, if univerfally obferved, would fully fecure 
 the moft effential interefls of each individual, by 
 fettling them on the broad and immoveable bafis 
 of general welfare. Fur, did the rich employ 
 their wealth to lupply the wants of the poor; the 
 poor, their labor to adminifter to the eafe and 
 convenience of the rich ; the great, their power 
 and authority to protect the weak and defencelefs; 
 the wife, the ingenious, and the learned, their 
 abilities to inftruct and counfel the ignorant and 
 illiterate ; did every one, in iliort, impart to his 
 fellow men a portion of the fruits of his talents 
 and advantages; it is impofhble that any mould 
 repine at another's pofTefiing what was employed 
 for his own benefit, nay, was made more fubfer- 
 vienr to his uie, than if he himfelf were the pro- 
 prietor. For no individual could fo perfectly cul- 
 tivate all the different talents, necefTary for his 
 fupport and welfare, which are diftributed among 
 the fpecies, and, while fome particular one is al- 
 lotted to each, are all carried to the higheit im- 
 provement of which they are fuiceptibk. 
 
( '8/ ) 
 
 Thus, the principles of equality which we have 
 eftablilhed, at the fame time that they reprefs the 
 infolence of pride, the outrages of oppremon, and 
 the difTipation of feufuality, confirm, neverthelefs, 
 the necefTity of fubordination, and the juft de- 
 mands of lawful authority. They maintain in- 
 violate every natural and every civil diftindtion, 
 draw more clofely every fecial tie, and unite all 
 in one harmonious and juftly proportioned fyftem, 
 which brings men together on the even ground 
 of the inherent rights of human nature, of reci- 
 procal obligation, and of a common relation to 
 the community. Yet, for the maintenance of 
 this equality itfelf, they feparate tfyem into dif- 
 ferent clafles, and in veil them with different ca- 
 pacities and offices. Thus are the poor and the 
 mean reconciled to their circumftances, or com- 
 forted under them — the opulent and the power- 
 ful are excited to beneficence and condefceniion ; 
 the ingenious and acute are directed to the bell 
 ufe of their abilities ; and all are linked together 
 by the powerful ties of common interefts, and of 
 reciprocal duty. Happy thole, whofe fouls are 
 capable of rifing to fuch enlarged views of things, 
 and are animated by them to a conduct worthy of 
 human nature, worthy of Chriftianity, which re- 
 prefents men to each other as children of one pa- 
 rent, as members of one family, as journeying to- 
 
( iW ) 
 
 gather through the checkered fcenes of this tran- 
 iitory world, towards a region where all the 
 diftinctions of poverty and riches, of obfcu.rity 
 and fplendor, of power and meannefs, ihall ceafe, 
 every inequality difappear ; where virtue alone 
 ill a 1 1 be exalted, and vice degraded forever ! 
 
 It mud, indeed, be acknowledged, that this 
 theory is too pure and exalted to admit of a com- 
 plete conformity of practice. But man is quali- 
 fied for endlefs improvements in knowledge and 
 virtue, and the happinefs which he attains will 
 exactly correfpond to the degrees of his progrefs. 
 In every art and fcience there is an ideal model, 
 which can never be reached even by the raoft ex- 
 act and .beautiful execution* -What Cicero ob- 
 ferves with regard to a perfect orator, that he had 
 never feen any i'peaker that could come up to his 
 notions of eloquence, is not limited to that art,,., 
 but is equally applicable to every other. It is, 
 however, to be obfcrved, that even the excellence 
 which is attained, is wholly referable to the per- 
 fect ftandard previouily exiting in the artifts 
 mind. In proportion, therefore, as clear and 
 elevated ideas of excellence are entertained in re- 
 ligion, in morality, and in politics, and action is 
 directed by thefe, human conduct and happinefs 
 will be improved and exalted. If, on the other 
 
( 1*9 ) 
 
 hand, low and groveling ftandards are adopted", 
 and principles are regulated by eftablifhed prac- 
 tice, not practice reformed by the genuine princi. 
 pies of nature, mankind will continue to tread 
 in the old and muddy path, and the progrefs of 
 the world will be marked with degeneracy and 
 degradation. 
 
 It is the conftant objection of thofe, who arc 
 either averfe from improvement, or too indolent 
 and too timid to begin or advance it, that the per- 
 fection aimed at is too high for human nature. 
 They thus employ the exiftence of abufes and er- 
 rors as a reafon for perpetuating them. But, 
 if the fame reafoning had always been confidered 
 as juft, mankind would, at this day, dwell in 
 caves, feed upon acorns, fall down before the 
 works of their own hands, and be bound in the 
 heavy chain of Heathen ignorance and fuperiti- 
 tion. The inftitutions and refinements of civil 
 fociety mull appear to a favage as extravagant 
 and impracticable, as the fineft theory of moral 
 fentiment and action appears to thofe whole fouls 
 are immerfed in fenfuality, or fettered by felf- 
 intereft. The queftion is not, what is the prc- 
 fent practice of mankind, but what they are qua- 
 lified ultimately to attain ; not how far any theo- 
 ry is conformable to the prefent ftate of things, 
 
( *9° ) 
 
 but how far it is founded in nature, adapted to the 
 human faculties, and conducive to human felicity* 
 
 If the principles illuftrated in this EfTay mould 
 be devoid of every other recommendation, they 
 have at leaft, that which is no inconfiderable one, 
 of being conformable to the doctrines of Chriftia- 
 nity*. For, although fome philofophers, who 
 have pretended great zeal for the rights and the 
 happinefs of mankind, have manifefted, at the 
 fame time, a ftrange. antipathy to every kind of 
 religion, and particularly to the Chriftian, it will 
 be found, by every impartial inquirer, that the 
 religion of Jefus Crjriil inculcates and fanctions 
 every principle on which public and private hap- 
 pinefs can be built. It is true that Chriftianity 
 has frequently been moft fhamefully corrupted, 
 and, in that corrupted form, produced the moft 
 dreadful calamities. But, to explode Chriftianity 
 on this account, isjuft asfenfible as to forbid man- 
 kind the ufe of water, air, or fire, becaufe thefe 
 elements have often been the vehicles of deftruc- 
 tion. Whoever attempts to erect any fyftem of 
 policy to the exclufion of religion, betrays great 
 ignorance of human nature, and great indiffe- 
 rence for human happinefs. Man is a religious 
 creature, and is drawn to his Creator by all the 
 
 * Romans, xii. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. zft Cor.xiL 
 
 
( '9' ) 
 
 principles of his conftitution — by the fenfe of his 
 imbecility, by confcience, by gratitude and ad- 
 miration, and by his reafon when duly improved. 
 The grand requifite, then, is to procure for him 
 a religion pure, fimple, beneficent, and confolo- 
 tary. This will be found only in the religion of 
 Jefus Chrift, as it is exhibited in the facred wri- 
 tings. Here the moft perfect ftandard of duty is 
 erected, in order to engage man to an endlefs 
 progrefs in virtue ; a fufficient remedy is provided 
 for his deviations from it, when accompanied 
 with penitence ; the moft glorious rewards are 
 offered to his perfevering endeavors ; and the 
 llrongeft fuccours are provided for his weaknefs* 
 Such a religion powerfully ftrengthens every fa- 
 cial and civil obligation, and prepares men for 
 heaven, by rendering them ufeful on earth. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 In what Senfe may all Men be /aid to be Equal P 1 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of Natural Diverlities among Men, ib. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Diftribution of Human Abilities and Talents 2£ 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Mutual Dependence of Mankind, 30 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Final Caufes of the Variety of Human Talents, 42 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The jufl: Notion of the Natural Equality of Men is 
 placed in Equality of Obligation. — The proper 
 Tendency ol this Doctrine, 46 
 
 C H A P T E R VI. 
 
 Some Circumftances of Equality not yet confidered, 5$ 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 What are the Rights refulting from the Natural 
 Equality of Men ? ^ 69 
 
 C H A P T E R I. 
 
 Of the Manner in which we acquire our Notion 
 of Rights, ib. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The two Grand Divifions of Rights which flow 
 from the Natural Equality of Mankind, 75 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Original and Inherent Rights of Human 
 
 Nature, *" 7 3 
 
 R 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The fame Subject continued, 85 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 That it is the Intereft of Government to preferve 
 inviolate the Rights of Liberty, as above ex- 
 plained, 103 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Of Rights peculiar to certain Stations and Abi- 
 lities, 107 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 General inferences from the whole of this Book, 1 1 3- 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 What are the Duties refulting from the Equality 
 of Mankind P j 1 9 
 
 CHAPTER I- 
 
 Preliminary Obfervations, ib. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 All Men equally bound to Reflect the Primitive 
 Rights of Human Nature, 121 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Duties of thofe who are placed in the Inferior 
 Stations of Life, or endowed with Inferior Capa- 
 cities and Powers, 137 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Cautions to be obferved in the Parfuit of a Higher 
 and more Flourishing Condition, 148 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Duties of thofe placed in the Higher Ranks of 
 Life, and endowed with Diftinguifhed Abilities, 154 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Duties common to all, with regard to the Ufe of 
 their Opportunities and Talents, 171 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 ConcluHon. 1S5 
 
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