T^i'/^v^)© HK PRINCIPLES r i A i (ILi^Jl (^RAMMAB. t-; \ 1^ \ . \v o u H i:i.T.. A.M 2^ v.-ii\ JLLK, TKNiN.: ' TM GRAVK.S, .MAKK > • UN rci«M.«Hi\i: norw) 1861. ^ [fp^^pi DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Treasure %oom Y^'S ^ THE PRINCIPLES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. BY A. S. WORRELL, A.M ^^^^6r UU LI SHED BY GRAVES, MARKS & CO., SOUTH-WESTEKN PUBLlSniNO HOl'SE. 18Q1, Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 18C1, by A. S. WORRELL, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Confederate States for the District of Georgia. f PREFACE. The only apologies offered for presenting a new Grammar to the public arc — first, that ecery independent nation must fnrnish its own literature; and second, that none of the works hitherto presented to the public are perfect. The South- erners, in their previous history, have been content to have their books furnished them by the North. This not only discouraged Southern authorship) , and cramped genius, but it allowed the North the chief means of shaping natio7ial bias — THE Press. But now that the Southern people have separated from the North, and established an independent nationality y she will, of course, hail with pleasure every industrious effort of '■^her own sons" to free her from Aboli- tion dependencies. The author does not claim absolute perfection in the pre- sent work ; but he does claim that, while he has embodied in this work the best that he could obtain from other sources, he has presented, in a elan-er, fuller light, the "science of tlie English language," than any other one author of his acquaintance. Like the " parts of speech," the " rules of Syntax" have been variously extended or curtailed, as if these important jirinciples depended merely on "arbitrary taste;" yet the former are as clearly defined in their number as the latter. As the purpose for which language is used determines the number of " the parts of speech," so the number of " gram- matical rules" must be determined by the number and kind of grammatical relations arising from the various combina- tions of words. ^f^i^ ly PREFACE. The number of rules in the English language may properly be limited to XV. This number has been increased by one, owing to the obscurity which has enveloped the " infinitive mood/' in order to remove " the mist." Few grammarians have condancndcd to inform us what part of speech "to" (preceding the infinitive) is. Some call it "the sign of the infinitive;" otiiers, an "auxiliary" to the infinitive; many overlook it entirely; while a /e«r, taking a correct view of it \n j^mrt, fall into " fatal blunders." Those who regard "to" as a preposition, generally agree that it may sometimes have a (grammatical) subject in the objective case ; but this cannot be, since one word can have but one grammatical government. If all the slight deviations from rules, and all cautions against had g?-ammar, should be dignified with the title of rules, then there is no end to rules. The deviations from rules are stated in the notes immediately following the rules themselves; so that the pupil can easily obtain a correct scope of the syntax of the language. If the pupil will study these rules and notes carefully, he will find little to trouble him in the most difliicult English works. Appended to the Syntax will be found a brief summary of " English Idioms," which constitute no little difficulty in the way of learning the English language; also, a condensed chapter on the subject of " English Analysis," which, if properly studied, will give a correct outline of this important subject. There are many other improvements which, for want of space, cannot be specified now. There are three considerations which should commend this work to Southern patronage: 1. The author was horn and educated in the South: 2. The work has been edited and jmhlishcd in the South: 3. The work itself: "let it stand or fall on its own merits." A. S. WORRKLIi. CONTENTS. FAQS DEFINITIONS AND DIVISIONS 7 ORTHOGRAPHY 7 Letters 8 Vowels 9 Consonants 10 Diphthongs 11 Triphtliongs 11 Syllables 12 Words 12 Syllabication 13 Spelling 14 ETYMOLOGY 10 Nouns 18 Gender 21 Number 23 Person , 27 Case 28 Pronouns 32 Verbs 39 Participles 44 Classes of Verbs 4G Forms of the Verb 52 Conjugation 54 Adjectives 64 Comparison of 66 Adverbs 70 Comparison of 71 Irregular Adverbs 72 Prepositions 73 Conjunctives 75 Interjections 77 VI CONTENTS. SYNTAX 79 Sentences 79 Subject 80 Tredicate 80 Modification of Subject and Predicate ;. 81 Different Forms of Sentences 82 Division of Sentences 82 SYNTAX— Rule 1 84 " " II 85 ." «« III 80 *« " IV 87 *t «« V 88 *< " VI 90 « " VII 91 « " VIII 93 " " IX 95 " " X 97 " ♦• XI 99 " *« XII 103 " " XIII 104 «* " XIV 106 " «' XV 108 «« «' XVI 109 REMARKS ON MOODS AND TENSES 110 WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH Ill IDIOMS 114 Idiomatic Sentences 116 CHAPTER ON ANALYSIS 118 ARRANGEMENT 125 PUNCTUATION 127 ACCENT 139 EMPHASIS 140 PROSODY 141 FIGURES OF SPEECH 150 CAPITAL LETTERS 153 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON I. Question. What is English Grammar? Answer. It is the science that teaches the principles of the English language. Q. What is language ? A. It is the medium through which we communicate thoughts. Q. How many kinds of language do we use ? A. Three : natural, written, and spoken. Q. What is natural language ? A. It is the use of signs to communicate thoughts. Q. What is spoken language ? A. It is communicating thoughts vocally, or by means of the voice. Q. W^hat is written language ? A. It is a way of communicating thoughts by the use of certain characters used to represent the elementary sounds of the human voice. Q. What are elementary sounds? A. The primary or simple sounds of the human voice used in speaking. ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. — VOWELS. Q. What is orthography ? A. It is that part of grammar which treats of letters, syl- lables, words, and spelling. 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What is a letter ? A. A character representing an elementary sound of the human voice. Q. How many letters arc there iu the English language ? A. Twenty-six. Q. Into what arc letters divided? A. Into vowels and consonants. Q. "What is a vowel ? A. It is a letter which represents a free, uninterrupted sound of the human voice. Q. Will you name the vowels ? A. They are a, e, i, o, u, and w and ij not beginning a syllable. Q. Have vowels but one sound ? A. No; some of them have several. Q. How many sounds has a? A. Four. Q. What are they ? A. The first sound of a is like a in ate. The second sound of a is like a in art. The third sound of a is like a in all. The fourth sound of a is like a in cat. Q. How many sounds has et A. Two. Q. What are they ? A. The first sound of e is like e in me. The second sound of c is like c in met. Q. How many sounds has i? A. Three. Q. What arc they ? A. The first sound of i is like i in mine. The second sound of i is like i in pin. The third sound of / is like i in machine. Q. How many sounds has o ? A. Three. LETTERS. — CONSONANTS. — CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 9 Q. "What are they ? A. The first sound of o is like o in old. The second sound of o is like o in move. The third sound of o is like o in nod. Q. How many sounds has ti ? A. Three. Q. What are they ? A. The first sound of u is like u in use. The second sound of w is like u in sup. The third sound of u is like u in full. Q. IIow many sounds has y, when used as a vowel, and what arc they ? A. Two. The first is like i in mine : as dr?/, pronounced as if it were dri. The second is like i in jji», as petti/. Q. How many sounds has w, when used as a vowel, and what are they ? A. Two. First, when it is the last letter of a syllable, it has very nearly the sound of it, as in saw, pronounced as if it were sau. In the second it has the sound of oo. Q. Is there any reason for the above order, "first," "second," etc.? A. None, except for convenience. Q. Upon what does the sound of any particular vowel depend ? A. Partly upon the consonants with which it is connected, and partly upon its length. LESSON II. LETTERS. — CONSONANTS. — CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. Q. Wlifit is a consonant? A. It is a letter which cannot be sounded alone, but is always used in connoofion with n vowel. 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. AVill you name (he consonants? A. They are h, r, d, /, g, h, j\ k, I, wi, », p, q, r, s, t, v, Xj z, and w and y beginning a syllable. Q. What sounfls have consonants ? A. They have no sounds which can be fully represented on paper, but if special attention be given to the following table, some idea of their sounds may be obtained. Thus : b in bag — b-ag, n in never — n-cvcr, c in cat — cat, p in pat — p-at, (1 in dog — d-og, q in quest — q-uest, f in fix — f-ix, r iji rate — r-atc, g in go — g-o, t in time — t-imc, h in hat — h-at, v in van — v-nn, j in June — j-une, w in will — w-ill, k in kate — k-ate, x in fix — fi-x, 1 in late — 1-ate, y in your — y-our, m in mate — m-ate, z in zinc — zinc. Q. How are consonants divided ? A. Into semi-voicels and mutes, Q. What is a semi-vowel? A. It is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel. _ Q. What arc the semi-vowels ? A. They are /, 7i, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, i/, z, and c and f/ soft. Q. What are the semi-vowels /, ?n, n, and r called ? A. Liquids, on account of the fluency of their sounds. Q. What is a mute? A. A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded by itself. Q. Will you name the mutes ? A. They are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. Q. How many of these sound alike ? A. Three : k, q, and c, hard. DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONaS. 11 Q. What is meant by c and g being hard or tofi ? A. C is hard when it has the sound of k, as in catch, and soft when it has the sound of s, as in city. G is hard when it is sounded as in gun ; it is soft when it has the sound of j, as in gentle. EXERCISE. Give the sound of each letter in the following words: Above, around, afloat, against, across, cat, dog, fog, good, hood, ink, jack, lack, rack, saque, take, urchin, vile, winter, axe, yes, dizzy, rainy, snowy, one, two, chest, sheets, vowel, horse, city, cow, calf, wood. LESSON III. DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS. Q. What is a diphthong? A. It is the union of two vowels in one sound, as oii in our, ea in fear. Q. How many kinds of diphthongs are there ? A. Two : proper and imjyroper. Q. What is a proper diphthong? A. One in which both of the vowels are sounded, as ou in flour. Q. What is an improper diphthong? A. One in which but one of the vowels is sounded, as ca in heat. Q. What is a triphthong? A. The union of three vowels in one syllabic, as can in beauty. Q. How many kinds of triphthongs are there? A. Two : proper and improper. 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. "What is a proper triphthong? A. One in which all of the vowels are sounded, as iioy in huoy. Q. What is an improper triphthong? A. One in which all of the vowels are not sounded, as eau in heaiiteous. EXERCISE. Name the diphthongs, iriphthonffs, and vowels in the following words: Oil, owl, tow, anxious, anxiety, foil, mould, foolishness, sound, spool, young, buoyant, liquid, quest, guest, hay, maid, rogue, waist, buy, rye, vie, eyeing. LESSON IV. SYLLABLES. — WORDS. — SYLLABIFICATION. Q. What is a syllable ? A. It is a letter or a combination of letters uttered by a single impulse of the voice ; thus : in ti(/er, ti constitutes one syllable, and ger another. Q. What do syllables form ? A. Every syllable forms either a word or part of a word. Q. What is a word ? A. A syllable or a combination of syllables, used as the sign of an idea. Note. — All words do not convey definite ideas, as a, the, any. Q. What are the names of words according to the number of sylla- bles they contain ? A. A word of one syllable is called a monosi/Ilahle ; of two, a d iasi/Uahle ; of three, a trisi/llahlc ; of four or more, a 'poli/ syllable. SYLLABLES. — WORDS. — SYLLABIFICATION. 13 Q. What is a primitive word ? A. One that is not derived from another word in the same language, as dove, hoy, man. Q. What is a derivative word ? A. One that is derived from another word in the same language, as dovelet, boyish, manly, from dove, hoy, man. Q. What is a compound word ? A. One which is composed of two or more words, as scliool-teaclier, love-feast, nevertheless. Q. What is a simple word ? A. One which is not compounded, as school, teacher, never, the, less, love, feast. Q. In dividing words into syllables, are there any rules to guide us? A. We are directed principally by the ear, but the follow- ing rules may be observed, when they are applicable : RULES. I. If two vowels, not forming a diphthong, come together, they must be separated in dividing the syllables, as a-e-ri- ans. II. Consonants are usually joined with the vowels, diph- thongs, or triphthongs which they modify in utterance, as ad-vo-lu'twn. III. Grammatical and derivative endings are generally separated from the primitive words to which they are joined, as harm-less, man-ly, exectit-ed. IV. Prefixes usually form separate syllables, as dis-oxcn, up-lift. When the meaning of the prefix is disregarded, it may not form a syllable, as in rec-reate, composed of re and create. V. Compound words must first be divided into the words which compose them -, then these words may be divided ac- cording to the usual rules. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON V. SPELLIxNG. Q. What, is spelling ? A. It is naming the letters of a word in order, dividing it into its proper syllables, and pronouncing it correctly; or it is writing a word correctly. Q. How is the art of spelling learned ? A. From the spelling-book and dictionary, and by observa- tion and reading. Q. What are the rules for spelling? A. The following, though they do not embrace all, are very important: RULES. I. Monosyllables ending in /, ?, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double /, I, or s, as f/lass, cuff, pill. Exception 1. Clef, if, and of have but one f. Ex. 2. Bui, nul, sal, sol, have but one L Ex. 3. As, has, gas, was, is, his, this, us, thus, pus, yes have but one s. II. Words ending in any consonants except /, l, or s, do not double the final letter, as far, box, hat. Ex. 1. Except all, ehb, egg, add, odd, inn, err, hurr, jmrr, yarr, hutt, buzz, fuzz. III. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or a vowel after qu, double the final consonant before an addi- tional syllable beginning with a vowel, as drop, dropped, quit, quitting. IV. Double / usually becomes single before an additional SPELLING. 15 syllabic beginning with a consonant, as willy wilful^ skill, skilful. V. Words ending in any other double consonant retain it double before the terminations fid, hj, 7iess, and less, as stif, stiffness. \I. Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change 7/ into I before an additional syllable, aa tocari/, wcariedy ^rcUif, prettier. Ex. 1. Before ing, y is retained, to prevent doubling z, as marry y marrying. VII. Silent c is generally omitted before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel, as have, having, tune, tunable. Ex. 1. Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before the terminations able and ous, as peace, peaceable, courage, courageous. Ex. 2. Words ending in oe retain the final e, as hoe, hoe- ing. Ex. 3. To prevent ambiguity, the word dye, and some others, retain the c before ing, as eye, eyeing. VIII. Most verbs ending in I, though accented on the last syllable, do not double the I on receiving a syllable beginning with a vowel ; as reveal, revealed. IX. Compound words, formed by prefixing a word or a syllable to a monosyllable ending in all, retain the double II, as recall, befall. Ex. 1. Withal, therewithal, and wherewithal. In words ending in eive and ieve, e precedes i when c pre- cedes ; otherwise i precedes e. EXERCISE. Correct the spelling in the following sentences according to the preced- ing rules, when aj^plicable ; othencise, consult the dictionary. Itt iss harde to dye. Can you spel beleive and recieve f IG ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Thee prettyest girls stayed til the uglycst won had gou. Be carcfull and allways fulfil your premisses. Spyes are hap- pycr than theives. Thee ladyes are writeing letters. Your welcum leter was duely reccaved. A dutyful boy wil bee loved by awl. Animosity is allways blameablo. Man ought to make a propper use off the tallents commited two him. Liveing economichally is beter than liveing extravagantly. Vicces two often are called follys. A great mysterry has bin revealled too him ; therefour he thinks sum grate evil awatcs him. He has not wherewithal! to buy bred. A slaveish man sincerely pleases himself. LESSON VI. ETYMOLOGY. Q. What is Etymology? A. It is that part of grammar that treats of the classifica- tion of words and their modifications. Q. Into how many classes are words divided? A. Eight. Q. What name is given to these classes ? A. Parts of Speech. Q. What particular names do they have ? A. Noun, Verb, Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunctive, and Interjection. Q. Why are there not more parts of speech ? A. Because words are used only for eight diflferent pur- poses. Q. Do all languages liavc the same number of parts of speech ? A. All languages which have attained to something like perfection have the same number, though all grammarians do not think so. It is the purpose for which language is used ETYMOLOGY. IT that determines the number of classes, and not the classifica- tions made by men. Q. What reason can you give for tlie names of the several classes ? A. 1. The word noun means name ; hence a word which is the name of any thing, is properly called a noun. Note. — Be careful to observe that the namey and not the person or thing named, is a noun. 2. Verb means icord ; and since the words which declare or ajfirm something of a noun are the principal or most im- portant words, they are called verhs. 3. Adjective means joined or added to ; hence the class of words that are always joined or added to another class — viz., to nouns or pronouns — are called adjectives. 4. Pronoun moans for or instead of a noun ; and as there is a class of words which are used instead of nouns, they arc called pronoims. 5. Adverb means joined to a verb. The words called adverbs are joined chiefiij to verbs to modify their meaning, and hence they are called adverbs. 6. Preposition means placed before ; and because this class of words is geiieraWy placed before the latter of two words which it connects, it receives the name p;v'j;osi7/o«. 7. Conjunctive means uniting ov joining to(jetlier ; hence the class of words used to iinite or join together are called conjunctives. 8. Interjection signifies thrown between ; hence the class of words thrown in between other words in a sentence or composition, having no grammatical connection with these words, are called interjections. 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON VII. NOUNS. Q. What is a noun? A. The name of an object — any thing which we can sec, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of; as man, horse, hook, ac- tion, virtue. Q. Is any object a noun ? A. No; but the names of all objects are nouns; thus the object which we call chair is not a noun; but its name — chair — IS a noun. Q. Into how many classes are nouns divided ? A. Two : Proper and Common. Q. What is a proper noun ? A. A proper noun is the name of an individual object, a particular people, or group, as John, Boston, the Greeks, the Alps. Q. What is a common noun? A. It is a name that is applicable to a whole class of ob- jects. Note. — The terra man is applicable to the entire race of men; common nouns, therefore, serve to distinguish the classes of objects. Q. Do proper nouns ever become common? A. They do, when the word the is placed before them ; as, "He is the Cicero of his age." Q. When do common nouns become proper ? A. When the noun is addressed as if it were a living being ; as, "0 Libert}/ ! thy cause has few friends." Q. What particular classes of nouns are included under common nouns? A. 1. Collective nouns, or such as signify two or more in a single word ; as assembly, army, company, pair. GENDER. 19 2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as goodness, vir- tue, hash/ulncss. 3. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions; as running, loalking, worJcing. EXERCISE. roint out the nouns in the following words, and tell whether they are proper or common, collective, abstract, or verbal, and why. "William went home from the army. James's horse ran to town with him. The cow kicked the good dog. A cat irightened the mule. Fish are found in the Tennessee River. Columbia and Washington are the names of cities. The Amazon is a very large river. A boy is not a match for a goat. A large flock of geese. A good people. Goodness and kindness are sisters. Books and churches enlighten na- tions. The utility of running. The virtue of exercising pity. Bashfulness is not modesty. The forests of America are beautiful. My name is George Jones. LESSON VIII. GENDER. Q. What is gender? A. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. Q. How many genders are there ? A. Two : the masculine and the feminine. Q. What does the masculine gender denote ? A. The male sex, as boi/, man, father. Q. What does the feminine gender denote? A. The female sex, as woman, sister. to ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. Wlicn su.ch nouns tiB parent, deer, and all those whose gender cannot be determined are found, what gender shall we give tliem ? A. Since vrc do not know what their sex is, we should say that their gender is unknown. Q. Can the gender of such nouns ever be determined ? A. Yes ; and when this is the case, we should give them their proper gender. Q. Why may not such nouns be said to be of the " common gender ?^^ A. Because there is no such gender. [When we say a noun is of the " common gender/* we seem to give it some positive element ; but we cannot do this unless we have some- thing to give. If we do not know a thing, it cannot be a fault in such cases to state it.] Q. Do all nouns have gender? A. No; those without life, or inanimate objects, have no sex, and of course can have no gender. Q. Should we give any gender ? A. No; because they have none. Q. How should we treat nouns that have no gender ? A. We should either not speak of their gender, or say " without gender." [Not to speak of gender would be more natural.] Q. Do nouns without gender ever have gender attributed to them? A. They do, when we speak of them as living beings ; as, The ship, she is sailing ; The sun, he is rising ; The moon, she is shining. EXERCISE. Tell the gender of the folloxoing nouns, that have any ; mention those whose gender is not known, aud those that have none. George, Mary, man, river, potato, Susan, boy, field, Bos- ton, Thomas, cat, garden, Selraa, Fannie, tree, friend, Rufus, bird, cousin, apple, fish, John, Ohio, pig, Asia, Columbus, virtue, meanness, afiability, moderation, Atlanta, Alabama, running, leaping, singing, happiness, truth, girl. WAYS OP DISTINGUISHING SEX. 21 LESSON IX. WAYS OF DISTINGUISHING SEX. Q. How many ways are there of distinguishing sex ? A. Three. 1. By diflferent words; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Bachelor Maid Husband Wife Beau Belle King Queen Boar Sow Lad Lass Boy Girl Lord Lady Brother Sister Man Woman Buck Doe Master Mistress Bull Cow Nephew Niece Cock Hen Ram Ewe Brake Duck Sir Madam Earl Countess Son Daughter Father Mother Stag Hind Friar Nun Sloven Slut Gander Goose Uncle Aunt Hart Roe Wizard Witch Horse Mare 2. By difFcrent endings; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Abbott Abbess Canon Canoness Actor Actress Caterer Cftteress Administrator Administratrix Chanter Chantress Adulterer Adulteress Conductor Conductress Ambassador Ambassadress Count Countess Arbiter Arbitress Czar Czarina Baron Baroness Deacon Dcnconcss Benefactor Benefactress Duke Duchess Bridegroom Bride Elector Electress 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Male. Female. Male. Female. Emperor Empress Prince Princess God Goddess Prophet Prophetess Heir Heiress Shepherd Shepherdess Hero Heroine Songster Songstress Hunter Huntress Sorcerer Sorceress Governor Governess Sultan Sultana or Inheritor Inheritrix or Sultaness Inheritress Suitor Suitress Jew Jewess Tiger Tigress Lion Lioness Testator Testatrix ■Marquis Marchioness Traitor Traitress Mayor Mayoress Tutor Tutoress Patron Patroness Victor Victress Peer Peeress Viscount Viscountess Poet Poetess Widower Widow Priest Priestess 3. By diflferent prefixes ; as 1 / Male. Female Cock-sparrow Hen-span-ow He-bear She-bear He •goat She-goat Male child Female child Male descendant Female descendant Man-servant Female servant EXERCISE. Give the masculine and feminine nouns corresponding to the following model: Boy, girl; woman, man. Maid, abbot, witch, mare, friar, father, aunt, king, niece, bride, sorcerer, songstress, shepherd, prince, poet, peeress, mistress, heroine, hunter, lion, votary, traitress, goddess, maid-servant, horse, she-goat, he-bear, tutor, benefactress, tyrant, prophetess, priest, Jewess, testatrix, patron, deacon, gander, mother, sister, wife, widow. NUMBER. 23 LESSON X. NUMBER. Q. What is number ? A. Number is that property of a noun or pronoun by which we determine how many are meant — whether one or more than one. Q. How many numbers are there ? A. Two; singular and plural. Q. What does the singular number denote ? A. One ; as, hoy, horse, gun. Q. What does the plural number denote ? A. More than one ; as, boys, horses, guns. Q. Which may be considered the first form of a noun, the singular or the plural ? A. The singular ; since the plural, in most cases, is formed from the singular. [Besides, it is natural that objects should first receive their names singly before there should be a noun to denote the plural of the same species.] Q. What are the rules for forming the plural ? A. General Rule : Add s to the singular ', as, hoy, (sing.,) hoys, (plural ;) girl, (sing.,) girls, (plural.) Q. What are the special rules ? A. I. Nouns ending in i, s, sh, ch, (soft,) x, z, or o, form the plural by adding es to the singular; as, pass, passes; brush, brushes; church, churches ; box, boxes ; phiz, phizes; hero, heroes ; houri, houries. Ex. Nouns ending in eo or io, as also canto, grotto, halo, portico, quarto, solo, and some others, form their plural by adding s; as, cameo, cameos; seraglio, seraglios; tyro, tyros. II. Nouns ending in y, after a consonant, or qu, change y into ies, to form the plural ; as, pony, ponies ; colloquy, col- 24 ENGLISH GRAiMiMAR. loquies. But if y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed according to the general rule ] as, monkey^ monkeys. III. Fifteen nouns in / or fe — viz. : Uafj calf, self, half hcef loaf sheaf shelf loolf loharf thief elf icife, knife, life — form the plural by changing / or fe into ves ; as loaf, loaves; wife, wives. Note. — Staff, a walking-stick, changes ff into ves for the plural, but its compounds form the plural regularly. Q. What are the irregular nouns ? A. Such as do not form the plural according to any rule; as, Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Man Men Goose Geese Woman Women Mouse Mice Child Children Louse Lice Foot Feet Cow Cows or kine Ox Oxen Tooth Teeth Q. How do nouns introduced frc )ra foreign languages usually form their plural ? A. They retain their origins il form of the plural; as, Smgtdar. Plural. Singular. Plural. Antithesis Antitheses Effluvium Effluvia Appendix Appendices or Ellipsis Ellipses appendixes Emphasis Emphases Arcanum Arcana Encomium Encomia or en- Automaton Automata comiums Axis Axes Erratum Errata Beau Beaux Genus Genera Basis Bases Hypothesis Hypotheses Calx • Calces Index Indices or Cherub Cherubim indexes. Crisis Crises Lamina Laminse Criterion Criteria Magus Magi Datum Data Memorandum Memoranda of Desideratum Desiderata memorandums Diseresis Diaereses Metamorphosis Metamorphoses NUMBER. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Parenthesis Parentheses Stimulus Stimuli Phenomenon Phenomena Stratum Strata Radius Radii Thesis Theses Stamen Stamina Vertex Vertices Seraph Seraphim or Vortex Vortices or seraphs. vortexes. 25 Note. — Some other words besides the above are sometimes used, but these are the most common. Q. Have any nouns two forms in the plural ? A. Yes ; but they have different meanings ; as, Singular. Brother. Die. Fish. Genius. Index. Pea. Penny. Plural. Brothers, (of the same family.) Dies, (for coining.) Fishes, (individuals.) Plural. Brethren, (of the same society.) Dice, (for gaming.) Fish, (the species.) Geniuses, (men of genius.) Genii, (imaginary spirits.) Indexes, (tables of contents.) Indices, (signs in algebra.) Peas, (distinct objects.) Pease, (referring to a mass.) Pennies, " Pence, '* Q. Are any nouns used only in the singular ? A. Yes ; names of metals, virtues, vices, and those which denote things measured or weighed, are generally used in the singular ; as, gold, temperance, heef, cider. But, to ex- press varieties, some have plural forms; as, icine, wines ; sugar, sugars; metal, metals. Q. What nouns are used only in the plural? A. Annals, antipodes, assets, embers, ashes, credenda, clothes, scissors, and some others. Q. What nouns in the singular form are either singular or plural ? A. Deer, sheep, swine, trout, salmon, apparatus, hiatus, and some others. Q. What nouns in the plural form arc either singular or plural ? A. Amends, means, riches, j^ciins, and the names of some 26 ENQLISH GRAMMAR. of the sciences; as, mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, optics, politics. Note. — The last-mentioned nouns are used mostly in the singular. Q. How is the plural of proper nouns formed ? A. According to the general rule ^ as, Crawford, Craw- fords j Simpson, Simpsons. Note 1. — The word *♦ Thrown. Thrust, Thrust, Thrust. Tread, Trod, Trodden, or trod. Wax, Waxed, Waxen, R. Wear, Wore, • Worn. Weave, Wove, Woven. Weep, Wept, Wept. Wet, Wet, R. Wet, R. CLASSES OF VERBS. 51 Past Past Participle. Whet, R. Whet, 11. Won, Won. Wound, Wound. Wrought, Wrought. Wrung, Wrung. Wrote, Written. Present. Whet, Win, Wind, Work, Wring, Write, Note.— The " R" placed after some of the preceding words, indicates that they may be rt-gular. REDUNDANT TERES. Q. What is a redundant verb ? A. One that forms its past tense or past participle in two ways ; or one that is both regular and irregular ; as gild, giltj or gilded. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Q. What is a defective verb ? A. One that is wanting in some of its tenses. Q. Can you name the defective verbs ? A. They are beware, qtioth, ought, and the auxiliaries, ex- cept do, he and have. AUXILIARY VERBS. Q. What is an auxiliary verb? A. One that is used in forming the modes and tenses of other verbs. Q. Will you name the auxiliary verbs ? A. They are do, he, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations. Q. Are do, be and have always auxiliary verbs ? A. They are not; they are frequently used as principal verbs. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ LESSON XXI. FORMS OF THE VERB. Q. How many "ways are there of using verbs in the active voice ? A. Three: called the common^ the emphaticj and the^ro- gressive forms. COMMON FORM. Q. How are the tenses of the common form formed ? A. I. — In the indicative mode, which has six tenses : 1. The present is the first form of the verb; as, love. 2. The past is the second form of the verb ; as, loved. 3. The future is formed by joining to the first form of the verb, the auxiliary shall or will ; as, will love. 4. The present perfect is formed by joining the present of have to the past participle of the verb ) as, have loved. 5. The past perfect is formed by joining the past of have to the past participle of the verb ; as, had loved, 6. The future perfect is formed by joining the future of have to the past participle ; as, shall have loved. II. — In the potential mode, which has four tenses : 1. The present is formed by joining the present of the auxiliary may, can, or mustj to the first form of the verb ; as, may love. 2. The past is formed by joining the past of mai/, can, must, shall, or will, to the first form of the verb ; as, might love. 3. The present perfect is formed by joining the present potential of have to the past participle of the verb ; as, may have loved. 4. The past perfect is formed by joining the past poten- tial of have to the past participle of the verb ; as, might have loved. FORMS OF THE VERB. 53 III. — In the imperative mode, which has one tense : 1. The present is the lirst form of the verb, generally without an expressed subject; as, love. IV. — In the infinitive mode, which has two tenses : 1. The present is the first form of the verb joined to ** to ; " as, to love. 2. The present perfect is formed by joining the present infinitive of have to the past participle of the verb; as, to have loved. V. — In the participles : 1. The present participle is formed by adding in(j to the first form of the verb ; as, loving. 2. The past participle is formed, in regular verbs, by ad- ding d or ed to the first form of the verb ; as, loved. 3. The perfect participle is formed by joining the present participle of have to the past participle of the verb ; as having loved. EMPHATIC FORM. Q. To what modes does the emphatic form belong? A. To the indicative and imperative of the active voice ; it is also confined to the present and past tenses. Q. How is it formed ? A. By joining the auxiliary do to the first form of the verb for the present tense, and did to the same for the past tense ; as, do love ; did love. PROGRESSIVE FORM. Q. How is the progressive form formed ? A. It is the present participle of the verb added to the common form of the verb to be; as, am loving ; have been loving. Note.— To the above may be added the passive form. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAU. LESSON XXII. CONJUGATION. Q. What is meant by the conjugation of a verb ? A. A regular arrangement of its several forms, moods, tenses, numbers, 2i\idi persons. The following is the conjugation of the irregular verb To Be: INDICATIVE MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSES. Pre .sent Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am. We are. 2. Thou art.* You or ye are. 3. He is. They are.f Singular. Past Tense. riural. 1. I was. We were. 2. Thou wast. You or ye were. 3. He was. Singular. Future Tense. They were. Plural. 1. I shall or will be. We shall or will be. 2, Thou shalt or wilt be. You or ye shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be. They shall or will be. RELATIVE TENSES. Singular. Present Perfect. Plural, 1. I hi ave been. We have been. 2. Thou hast been. You or ye have been. 3. He has been. They have been. * Thou is used in the biblical or poetic style. You ia used in the singular, in the common style ; as, I am, you arc, he i.s. t The pupil should be required to conjugate conditionally : as, if I am, if thou art, if he is, d-c. CONJUGATION. 55 Past Perfect. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. You or ye had been. 3. He had been. They had been. Future Perfect. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been. We shall have been. 2. Thou wilt have been. You or ye will have been. 3. He will have been. They will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSES. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be. We may be. 2. Thou mayst be. You or ye may be. 3. He may be. They may be.* Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be. We might be. 2. Thou mightst be. You or ye might be. 3. He might be. They might be. EELATIVE TENSES. Present Perfect. Singular. . Plural. 1. I may have been. We may have been. 2. Thou mayst have been. You or ye may have been. 3. He may have been. They may have been. Past Perfect. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been. We might have been. 2. Thou mightst have been. You or ye might have been. 3. He might have been. They might have been. Conjugated conditionally; as, If I may be, If thou mayst be, IJ he may be, etc. 66 ENGLISH GRAMiMAR. IMPERATIVE MOOD. I*resent Tense. Singular. Plural. Be ; or, Be thou. Be you or ye. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense, To be. Present Perfect^ To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present J Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Haying been. Q. One conditional form of the present tense of the indicative mood is, "If I am," etc. Is there any other? A. There is : namely — Singular. Plural. 1. If I be. If we be. 2. If you be. If you be. 3. If he be. If they be. Q. Is there another conditional form for the past tense ? A. Yes : it is — Singular. Plural. 1. If I were. If we were. 2. If you were. If you were. 3. If he were. If they were. SYNOPSIS. Q. What is the synopsis of a verb ? A. It is a short view of the verb, showing its forms in the moods and tenses in one number and person. The following is a synopsis, first person singular, of Do : INDICATIVE MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSES. I do. I did. I will do. RELATIVE TENSES. I have done. I had done. I shall have done. Note. — Let the pupil write a synopsis of the second and third persons in the same manner, and complete the synopsis in all of the moods. CONJUGATION. 57 The regular verb love is thus conjugated : Note. — The four forms are arranged together. The pronouns arc placed at the top of the columns. Kead downwards, or across. INDICATIVE MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSES. Present Tense. 1st. Singular. I 2d. Singular. You 3d. Singular. He, she, it Com. love. love, loves. Emp. do love, do love. does love. Prog, am loving. Pas. am loved, are loving, are loved, is loving, is loved. 1st. Plural. 2d. Plural. 3d. Plural. We Com. love, You love. They love. Emp. do love, do love, do love. Prog, are loving, Pas. are loved, are loving, are loved, Past Tense. are loving. are loved. 1st. Singular. I 2d. Singular. You 3d. Singular. He, she, it Com. loved, loved. loved. Emp. did love. did love. did love. Prog, was loving. Pas. was loved, were loving, were loved, was loving, was loved. 1st. Plural. 2d. Plural. 3d. Plural. We Com. loved, You loved, They loved. Emp. did love, did love. did love. Prog, were loving. Pas. were loved, were loving, were loved. Future Tense. were loving, were loved. 1st. Singular. I 2d. Singular. You 3d. Singular. He, she, it Com. will love, will love, will love. Prog, will be loving. will be loving, will be loving. Pas. will be loved, will be loved. will be loved. 5» ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1st. Plural. We Com. -will love, Prog, will be loving. Pas. will be loved, 2d. Plural You ■will love, "will be loviug, will be loved, RELATIVE TENSES. Present Perfect Tense. 3d. Plural. They will love, will be loving, will be loved. 1st. Singular. 2d. Singular. 3d. Singular. I You He, she, it Com. have loved, have loved. has loved. Prog. have been loving. have been loving. has been loving. Pas. have been loved. have been loved. has been loved. Ist. Plural. 2cl. Plural. 3d. Plural. We You They Com. have loved. have loved. have loved. Prog. have been loving, have been loving, have been loving, Pas. have been loved, have been loved, Past Perfect Tense. h(^ve been loved. 1st. Singular. 2d. Singular. 8d. Singular. I You He, she, it Com. had loved, had loved, had loved. Prog. had been loving, had been loving. had been loving. Pas. had been loved. had been loved, had been loved. 1st. Plural. 2d. Plural. 3d. Plural. We You They Com. had loved. had loved. had loved. Prog. had been loving. had been loving. had been loving. Pas. had been loved, had been loved, had been loved. Futiire Perfect Tense. Ist. Singular. 2d. Singular. 8d. Singular. I You He, she, it Com. will have loved. will have loved. will have loved. Prog. will have been will have been will have been loving, loving, loving. Pqs. will have been will have been will have been loved. loved, loved. CONJUGATION. 59 let. Plural. We Com. will have loved, Froff. will have been loving. Pas. will have been loved, Ist. Singular. I Com. can love, Proff. can be loving, Paa. can be loved, Ist. Plural. We Com. can love, Proff. can be loving, Pas. can be loved, Ist. Singular. I Com. might love, Pro^. might be loving, Pas. might be loved, Ist. Plural. We Com. might love, Proff. might be loving. Pas. might be loved, 2d. Plural. You will have loved, will have been loving, will have been loved, POTENTIAL MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSES. Present Tenso. 2d. Singular. You can love, can be loving, can be loved, 2d. Plural. You can love, can be loving, can be loved, Past Tense. 2d. Singular. You might love, might be loving, might be loved, 2d. Plural. You might love, might be loving, might be loved, 1st. Singular. I Com. may have loved. RELATIVE TENSES. Present Perfect Tense. 2d. Singular, You may have loved. 8d. Plural. They will have loved. will have been loving, will have been loved. 3d. Singular. He, she, it can love, can be loving, can be loved. 3d. Plural. They can love, can be loving. can be loved. 3d. Singular. He, she, it might love, might be loving, might be loved. 3d. Plural. They might love, might be loving, might be loved. 3d. Singular. He, she, it may have loved. m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Prog, may have been loving, Pas. may have been loved, may have been loving, may have been loved. may have been loving, may have been loved. 1st. Plural. 2d. Plural. 3d. Plural. We Com. may have loved. Prog, may have been loving. Pas. may have been loved, You may have loved, may have been loving, may have been loved, They may have loved, may have been loving, may have been loved. Past Perfect Tense. 1st Singular. I Com. might have loved, Prog, might have been loving. Pas. might have been loved, 2d. Singular. You might have loved, might have been loving, might have been loved, Zd. Singular. He, she, it might have loved, might have been loving, might have been loved. 1st. Plural. 2d. Plural. Zd. Plural. We Com. might have loved. Prog, might have been loving. Pas. might have been loved, You might have loved, might have been loving, might have been loved, They might have loved, might have been loving, might have been loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 2d Singular. 2d Plural. Com. Love, or love thou, Love, or love you or ye, Emp. Do thou love. Do you 6r ye love. Prog. Be thou loving. Be you or ye loving. Pas. Be thou loved. Be you or ye loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. ABSOLUTE TENSE. Present Tense. Com. To love, Prog. To be loving, Pas. To be loved. RELATIVE TENSE. Present Perfect Tense. Com. To have loved. Prog. To have been loving, Pas. To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present. Com. Loving, Prog. Being loved, Pas. Being loved, or Loved. Past. Loved, (used in combination.) Perfect. Com. Having loved, Prog. Having been loving, Pas. Having been loved. 61 LESSON XXIII. Q. "What is a sentence ? A. A sentence is a collection of words so arranged as to express a thought j as, ^' John laugJis/' Q. How many parts of speech are necessary in the construction of a simple sentence ? 02 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. A. Two : a noun and a verb ; as, << Julia plays." In this sentence "Julia'' is a noun, and <' plays " a verb. Q. How many parts of speech may be used in a sentence ? A. All of the eight parts of speech may be, and often are, used in the same sentence. Q. What is the subject of a sentence? A. That of which something is affirmed ; as, " The dog harJcs." Here, ^'clo(/'' is the subject, because it is that of which something is affirmed, or declared. Q. What is the predicate ? A. That which is affirmed of the subject. Thus, in the sentence, "The dog barks," "barks'* is the predicate, be- cause it affirms something of the subject. Q. What is the order for parsing a verb ? A. Tell, 1. What part of speech and why ? 2. Regular or irregular. Why ? 3. Name the principal parts. 4. Transitive or intransitive. Why ? 5. Voice. Why? 6. Mood. Why? 7. Tense. Why? 8. Person and number. Why ? 7. Kule. If the verb is in the infinitive mood — 8. Depends on what word ? 9. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. Ohildren love apples. Children is a noun — a name; common — it may be ap- plied to each individual of a class of objects; third person — spoken of; plural number — means more than one; nomina- tive case — the subject of the verb love, according to Rule B. The subject of a finite verb must be in THE nominative CASE. MODELS FOR PAUSING. 63 Love is a verb — a word used to express action ; regular — it forms its past tense and past participle by the addition of d to the present J present love, past loved, past participle loved) transitive — requires the addition of an object to com- plete its meaning; active voice — represents the subject as acting J indicative mood — simply declares a thing ; present tense — represents the action as taking place now; third per- son, plural number — -because the subject, children^ is, with which it agrees ; according to Rule C. — The verb agrees with its subject nomi- native IN number and person. Apples is a common noun of the third person, plural num- ber; in the objective, because it is used to complete the meaning of the verb love ; according to Rule D. — Transitive verbs and their participles govern the objective case. Having finished their tasks, they departed : Having finished is a participle ; it partakes of the prop- erties of a verb and adjective; perfect active participle; de- notes an action past and completed at the time denoted by the principal verb; it is from the regular transitive verb, finish ; it limits the pronoun they. Rule. — An adjective, or participle, agrees with the noun which it limits. Their is a personal pronoun ; third person, plural number, in the possessive case, and limits the noun tasks, according to Rule A. Tasks is a common noun ; third person, plural number, in the objective case, and governed by the participle, having finished, according to Rule D. They is a personal pronoun; third person, plural number, and in the nominative case to the verb departed, according to Rule R. M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Departed is a regular active transitive verb from depart; present de^mrty past departed, past participle departed; in the indicative mood ; past tense ; third person, plural number, according to Rule C EXERCISE. Trees bear fruit. Dogs bark. He studies grammar. Learn your lesson. Come. Will she go ? May Ann get my hat ? Boys love to play. Jane can spin wool. William vrill fight. Cows give milk. He gave apples. Having walked, she was fatigued. Loving their children, parents protect them. Take care. Beware. Study economy. Eternity awaits us. War has commenced. You might have been loved. It might have been written. Love thou. LESSON XXIV. ADJECTIVES. Q. What is an adjective? A. An adjective is a word which directly modifies a sub- stantive, either by describing it or limiting its meaning ; as The good boy. Q. How are adjectives divided? A. Into two classes — limiting and qualifying. 1. — LIMITING ADJECTIVES. Q. What is a limiting adjective? A. A limiting adjective is a word used to limit or restrict the meaning of a noun ; as A book, The man, Every horse. Q. How are limiting adjectives divided ? A. Into four classes : Articles, Pronominal AdjcctiveSj Numeral Adjectives, and Circumstantial Adjectives. ADJECTIVES. 65 ARTICLES. Q. What is an article ? A. The limiting adjectives the, and a or, an, are called articles. Q. What kind of an article is the called, and -why ? A. The is called a definite article, because it points out or restricts the meaning to some particular thing; as The book. Q. What is a or an called, and why ? A. A or an is called an indefinite article, because it docs not point out or restrict the meaning to any particular thing; as A slate. Q. What is the difference in the use of a or an ? A. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound; an is used before those beginning with a vowel sound ; also before words beginning with h and accented on the second syllable ; as, a pig, an apple, an historical account, a union. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. Q, What are pronominal adjectives ? A. Those limiting adjectives which may represent a noun when understood, without the use of the article, are called pronominal adjectives; as. This (dog) belongs to him. Q. What are the principal pronominal adjectives? A. This, that, these, those, former, latter, which, ivhat, each, evert/, either, neither, some, one, none, any, all, such, manij, much. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Q. Wliat are numeral adjectives? A. The limiting adjectives expressing number, are called numeral adjectives ; as, one, two, etc. Q. Into how many classes arc numeral adjectives divided? A. Three : Cardinal, Ordinal, and Multiplicative. Q. What are the cardinals ? A. One, two, three, four, five, etc. 3 •i ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What are the ordinals ? A. First, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. Q. What are the multiplicatives ? A. Those limiting adjectives which show the number of parts of which a whole is composed, are called multij^lica- lives; as, single, double, triple, four-fold. CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADJECTIVES. Q. What are circumstantial adjectives ? A. Those limiting adjectives which denote some circum- stance, generally of time or place ; as, an an evening walk, a western vessel. II. — QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. Q. What are qualifying adjectives ? A. They are those adjective words which limit the mean- ing of nouns by denoting some property or quality ; as, a vicious man ; a merry child. Note.— To this class belong the participles, which have the construction of the adjective, and the signification of the verb. Q. What is meant by the comparison of adjectives ? A. When different objects are compared to each other, tho adjective denoting the property by means of which they are compared, undergoes a change; this change is called com- parison. Q. How many degrees of comparison are there ? A. Three : positive, comparative, and superlative. Q. What does the positive degree denote? A. The positive, which is the simple form of the adjec- tive, simply expresses the quality of an object, without re- ferring to other degrees of the same quality j as, sour milk. Q. What does the comparative degree denote? A. That of two objects : one possesses a quality in a greater or less degree than the other; as, "This apple is sweeter than that." ADJECTIVES. 67 Q. How is the comparative of monosyllables formed ? A. By adding r or er to the positive; as, w?j'se, wiser; hiyhy higher. Q. How is the comparative of words of more than one syllable formed ? A. By using " ?nore " or ''/ess" with the positive; as, pleasant, more or less 2^lcasa7it. Q. When is ** more '* used ? When *' less ? " A. " More " is used when an increase of the quality is meant ; " less " when there is a diminution of the quality. Q. What does the superlative degree denote ? A. The superlative shows that one of several objects pos- sesses a quality in the highest or lowest degree, when com- pared with all of the others; as, ''The poplar is the tallest tree in the yard.'^ Q. How is the superlative of monosyllables formed ? A. By adding st or est to the positive ; as, long, longest ; wise, wisest. Q. How is the superlative of words of more than one syllable formed ? A. By using "most" or "least" with the positive; as, most righteous, or least righteous. Note.— The same distinction exists between *^most" .'vnd "feast" as between •• more " and " less.''^ Q. Are any adjectives of more than one syllable ever compared like those of one syllable ? A. Yes : dissyllables ending in y or silent c, and those ac- cented on the last syllable, are frequently compared like monosyllables; as, happy, happier, happiest; nolle, nobler, noblest. Q. What adjectives are compared ? A. All qualifying adjectives, except those that have in themselves a superlative signification ; as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, infinite, ceaseless, eternal, etc. Note I.— A few words form (ho superlative by adding "most" to the end of the word ; as, uffrrfnost-, " nethermost." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note II.— The following adjectives are coir ipared irregularly : Positive. Comparative. Superlative, Bad, Evil, or ill, Worse, Worst, Good, Better, Best, Little, Less, Least, Much, or many, More, Most, Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next, Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest. Late, Later, Latest, or last. Far, Farther, Farthest. Note III. — The termination , ish, denotes a diminution of quality ; as, ho Let the pupil tell to what class each of the following adjectives belong ; also, compare those that admit of comparison. The, good, those, hungry, sleepy, able, any, one, sixteen, old, large, greasy, first, ugly, wise, two-legged, double- handed, long, black, far, a, an, ample, dizzy, little, evil, fourth, much, round, perfect, infinite, eastern, turkish, girl- ish, murky. Tell the degree of comparison of the following adjectives: Happiest, longer, nethermost, brackish, lovely, most grace- ful, taller, smoother, last, blue, more pleasant, blackest, om- nipotent, boundless, leafless. Q. AVhat is the order of parsing an adjective ? A. Tell, 1. What part of speech, and why? 2. Qualifying, or limiting, and why? 3. (If qualifying,) the degree, and why ? 4. Compare it. 5. To what noun it belongs. 6. Rule. If it is a limiting adjective, Tell, 3. What kind, and why? 4. To what noun it belongs. 5. Rule. ADJECTIVES. 0i MODELS FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES. The good boy is industrious. Good is an adjective — a word used to modify a nounj qualifying — it expresses a quality ; positive degree — simply expresses a quality without comparison ', positive good^ com- parative better J superlative best ; it belongs to the noun bot/y according to Rule E. — An adjective, or participle, agrees with the noun which it limits. Industrious is an adjective; qualifying; positive degree ; positive industrious, comparative more industrious, superla- tive fnost industrious ; it belongs to the noun bo?/, according to Rule E. The is an adjective — a word used to limit a noun; limit- ing — it restricts the meaning without expressing any quality; article — it points out some object; definite article — points out some particular object; points out the noun boy, and limits it accordinsr to Rule E. jHiat man is mean. That is an adjective; limiting adjective; pronominal — it may be used without the noun ; belongs to man according to Rule E. exercise. That boy managed the vicious horse. Your good mother will see your idle follies. This trifle makes much trouble. The tallest boy is the best. Old men are plain. These children are agreeable companions. One old cat can eat twenty little chickens. An apple is good. The black hen troubles me. The rose is the most beautiful of all flowers. One man walked ten miles. The well is deep. The room is long. The sky is blue. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSON XXV. Q. What is an adverb ? A. An adverb is a word used to limit or modify the mean- ing of a verb, participle, adjective, or another adverb; as, "John learns rapidly J* "Loving him dearly. ^^ "She is very tall." "The bird sings very sweetly. '^ (The words in italics are the adverbs. "llapidiy'' modifies "learns;" " dearly/' " loving :" "very," " tall ;" and " very," " sweetly.") NoT«. — Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions; as, "He went nearly to town." (Here "nearly" modifies the preposition "to.") Q. Into how many classes may adverbs be divided ? A. Into the following ; Adverbs of time, place, number, degree, and manner. Q. What are adverbs of time ? A. Those adverbs that answer to the question. When ? or How often ? They embrace the following divisions : 1. Time present ; as, noiOy to-day, instantly. 2. Time past ; txs, yesterday, lately, already. 3. Time to come; as, hereafter, to-morrow, soon. 4. Time absolute; as, always^ ever, never. 5. Time relative ; as when, then, before, after. 6. Time repeated; as, oft, often, repeatedly. Q. What are adverbs of place ? A. Such as answer to the questions, Where? Whither? Whence ? Q. What do those denote, which are indicated by the question "Where?" A. They denote rest in a place ; as, here, there. Q. Indicated by "Whither?" A. They denote motion to or towards a place; as, hither j thither. ADVERBS. 71 Q Indicated by "Whence ?" A. Motion from a place ; as, whence, thence. Q. What are adverbs of number ? A. Such as answer to the question, "Aoio often T^ as, once^ twicCf thrice. Q. What are adverbs of degree ? A. Such as answer to the question, *^how much?^* or ^^how little f^* as, much, little, very, too. Q. What are adverbs of manner ? A. Such as generally answer to the question, ^^howT^ as, " He did the work well^ Q. How many general divisions of this class are there ? A. Two: 1. Those* that affect the manner or quality of the action or state ; as, " He learns rpaidly^ 2. Those that affect the manner of the assertion; ''He will surely come.'' COMPARISON OP ADVERBS. Q. Are adverbs ever compared ? A. Some adverbs are compared. Q. What adverbs are compared ? A. Those that from their nature, are capable of expressing their meaning in different degrees ; as, soon, sooner, soonest. Note. — Some adverbs of all the classes are compared, but those of manner and degree are those chiefly compared. Q. How many degrees of comparison have adverbs ? A. Three : Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. These correspond to the comparison of the adjective. * Note 1.— Most of this class of adverbs are derived from adjectives, by add- ing the syllable "ly" — which is a contraction oCHikc; as, mnuly, for manlike. Note 2. — Two or more words, or even subordinate sentences, may bo used aa adverbs ; as. Ho came in haste. When i/ou came, I was sleeping. The words, ♦' in haste," and " when you came," are adverbs. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. In how many ways are adverbs compared ? A. In three ways : 1. By adding cr to the positive, to form the comparative; and est to the positive, to form the superlative ; as soon, sooner ^ soonest. (See rules for spelling.) 2. By prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, heauti- fullyy more heautifully, m,ost heautifuUy , Note 1.— Most adverbs of more th\ what case are the participles of copula verbs followed? * Logical, not grammuticMJ subject. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule II. A noun or pronoun used with the copula to form the predicate, must be in the same case as the subject. EXERCISE. The drunkard is a brutish man. Good nature is a desira- ble virtue. The son, bred in sloth, becomes a profligaite. Life is a fleeting moment. I am a worm of the dust. The world is the creature of God. He ordered the floor to be his bed. I think her to be a lady. I took him to be a gen- tleman. I consider William to be a good student; but An- drew, a worthless villain. He being mayor, quelled the dis- turbance. EXERCISE TO BE CORRECTED. This man is him. These are them. The one called Jane is her. For he to be a rogue, is distressing. I acknowledge she to be my sister. Do you consider I to be a villain ? For they to be good men is impossible. Take me to be she, if you dare. Rule III. The person or thing addressed is put in the nominative case, independent ; as, " Jiilia^ come to me." Explanation. — By independent is meant that the noun has no gram- matical connection with any other part of the sentence in which it stands. Note 1. — Nouns thus used are in the second person. When, therefore, an object without life is addressed, it is regarded as a human being, or as possess- ing some of the qualities of a human being; as, "Listen, winds, to my story." Here the winds are commanded to listen, which imphes, by figure of speech, the capacity to hear, the intellect to understand the command. Note 2. — Such nouns are often accompanied by interjections ; as, " soldiers I your hberties are endangered." When the interjection is used with the noun, the address is more earnest and emphatic. Note 3. — Tlie noun independent may be limited by a single word or any num- ber of words ; as, " Sweet vale of Avoca ! how calm could I rest," etc. Here vale is limited by "sweet" and "of Avooa." Questions.— ^hni is Rule III? What is meant by independent? Repeat Note 1. Note 2. Note 3. SYNTAX. 87 PARSING. Plato, thou rcasonest well. Model. — Plato is a proper noun, masculine gender, second person, singular number, and in the nominative case inde- pendent, according to lluLE III. The person or thing addressed is put in the nominative case — independent. EXERCISE. Father ! hear my prayer. O winds ! sing me a soft lullaby. My friend, do you remember your vow ? Take advice, my dear son, and change your course. Your liberties, O soldiers of the South, are endangered. Jlome ! thou art no more ! O night, and storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong ! Rule IV. A noun and a participle independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative absolute; as, ''They refusing to comply, I withdrew." Explanation. — By ♦*absoUite" is meant that the noun 50 m.W, is free from, any grammatical connection rcith the ttM of the sentence. Tlie noun absohite differs from the noun independent, by being connected with a participle, and not being addressed. Note 1.— The clause containing the nominative absolute, though free from grammatical connection with other parts of the sentence, is very closely con- nected Avith it in thought. It often denotes time^ cause, condition, etc. ; as, " The letter having been read, he immediately departed." The clause, "The letter having been read," denotes time, and when the letter was read, or after the letter was read. " The bill being rejected, I," said the senator, " will return home." " The bill being rejected,'^ denotes condition, and, if the bill is rejected, or should the bill be rejected. " Mi/ friend having treated me rudely, I was forced to disown him." Here the first claury of ; as, '• Woman's beauty" — " The beauty of woman." The main point of diflTerence between " woman's" and " of woman" is, that the latter is a more general expression. Notes. — Prepositions are sometimes followed by a noun in the possessive case, limiting a noun understood ; as, " This is a hat of my brother's." PARSING. The girVs bonnet. Model. — GirlU is a common noun, feminine gender, third person, singular number, in the possessive case, and limits the noun ^' bonnet," according to Rule V. The possessive case limits the noun with which it is connected. EXERCISE. My cap was bought at Jones' store. Your father's barn is a good one. The dog's head is sore. Anna's mother's dress is new. Good men love God's word. His step is slow. The man's pen is better than mine. Smith & Pool's new goods have come. Mr. J. P. Corsby's horse ran away. Our tables are smaller than yours. Their folly fills their father's heart with grief. The snake's tongue is forked. My cap came from Allen & Dean's. He is at his father's. EXERCISE TO BE CORRECTED. Mothers hair is not black. AVilliam' hat is on the bed. This is his'. Mary, her book is torn. I bought my bonnet at Dobbin's and Gray's. The kin us house. The men lost their's way. These are mine's, and those yours's. PH ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule VI. Transitive verbs and their participles, in the active voice, govern the objective case; as, "John struck William.^' " I saw John beating him.'' ExPLANATiOT*.^— Nouns In the objective case After stich verbs, or participles, are used to limit the application of the action or state denoted by the verb. Thus, ''William" lifrtits the action of the verb "struck;" and "him," that of the participle "beating.'* "John struck," of itself, conveys no definite idea. Note 1. — The objective case answers to the question, Whomf or Whatf as, "Whom do you see? James." That is, I see James. " What do you see? A horse." These answers are in the objective case, and governed by the verb " see," understood. Note 2.— Some verbs which do not express action are followed by the object- ive case; as, '-Susan resembles her mother." Here "mother" is in the object- ive case, and Ibjiits the application of the quality or state denoted by the verb "resembles." Note 3. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by the objective case of a noun of kindred signification; as, "He lived a life of wretchedness." "Life" is kindred to "live," and is in the objective case, limiting "live," (used transi- tively.) Note 4. Verbs in the infinitive mode are used as objects of many verbs, (espe- cially those denoting a mental operation); as, "The youth desires to study.^* "To study" is the object of "desires." Note 5. — Dependent sentences are used as the objects of verbs; as, "He knew that he said it." " He said it" is the object of " knew." The conjunctive " that" is the word which regularly introduces such objects. " That" is often omitted ; as, " He said, ' I will come.' " Note 6. — Some verbs are followed by two objectives denoting the same per- son or thing; as, "They appointed him president." "President" is an attribute of " him," and may be regarded as the predicate after " to be," understood ; as, " They elected /m>h to be president." In parsing, it is better to supply some copula verb in all such cases. Some of the verbs thus used are^name, call, render, constitute, make, appoint, deem. Note 7.— Verbs of asking, teaching, giving, etc., are followed by two object Ives — one of a person, and the other of a thing; as, "He gave me a hook." 1. With verbs of giving, " to" should be supplied before the object den<5ting the person ; as, " He gave a book to me." 2. With verbs of asking, "of," "about," or "concerning," may be supplied before one of the objects, as the sense requires. 3. With verbs of teaching, " in," or " in respect to," xnay be supplied before the object denoting the thing; as, "He taught me wi respect to grammar." Qufs^iows.— Whatis Rule VI? Explain the Rule. What is Note 1? Note 2? Note 3? Note 4? How are dependent clauses often used? Repeat Note 6. Name some of these verbs. What is said of verbs of asA;i>?47.' Teaching f What should be supplied with verbs of giving f Asking? Teaching? SYNTAX. 91 PARSING. Men eat bread. Model. — Bread is a common noun, third person, singular number, in the objective case, and governed by " eat," ac- cording to Rule VI. Transitive verbs and their participles, in the active voice, govern the objective case. EXERCISE. We plow the fields before planting corn. Wild beasts in- habit the country. She resembles her brother. The man ran a race. Wis father dreamed that he was in heaven. He wrote, ^' Be kind to my child.'' I have been writing a let- ter. An enemy exaggerates a man's crimes ; a friend, his virtues. George desires to learn. Learn to study. " You will soon recover," said the physician. Whom do you see? What do you want? He kindly showed me a seat. John granted him a favor. The people made the man an oflBcer. EXERCISE TO BE CORRECTED. William calls I his friend, but Julia considers my her enemy. Teach he his lesson. Give we our daily bread. Who did you strike? Here is a friend who you must re- ceive cordially. Give John and I some berries. I owe he some money. Forgive we our debts. Rule VII. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, ^' The girl walks through the garden.'* Explanation. — The preposition serves to guide to the object tipon or to -which the action or state of the verb tends, or to which the qualiit/ of an adjective or noun is directed. Questions.— V^'hai is Rule Vlir Give the Explanatioa. 921 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 1. — Participles, when used as nouns, may be the objects of preposi- tions; as, " The cause of my coming is this." "Coming" is the object of "of." Note 2. — Sometimes adverbs are used as objects of prepositions; as, "At once." " Forever." In such cases the adverb has the force of a noun. Notes. — A clause sometimes becomes the object of a preposition; as, *' It all depends on who the men are." " Who the men are," is the object of "on." Note 4. — Prepositions are often omitted : 1. Before the noun home; as, "He went home." In parsing "home," supply " to ; " as, "He went (to) home." 2. Before nouns denoting ichen, or hoio long; as "He came last June, and re- mained a month;" that is, "He came (on) last June, and remained (during) a month." 3. Before nouns of direction or distance; as, "Which tvay did he go? " tliat is, "Along which way." "He traveled ten miles;" that is, " over ov tfaoajh ten miles." Note 5. — " Worth " is construed by grammarians in different ways : 1. As an adjective, with "to" supplied; as, "The horse is worth (to, or to the amount of) one hundred dollars." 2. As a noun, with "of the" before, and "of" after it; as, "The horse is (nf the) worth (of) one hundred dollars." 3. As a preposition ; as, " The knife is tcorth a dollar." The first construction is preferable. Note 6. — Prepositions and their objects (except of) usually form adverb- ial elements. Note 7.— Prepositions are frequently construed with adjectives; as, "in vain," "on high;" that is, "in a vain manner," "on high walls." Such phrases are equivalent to adverbs, implying manner, place, time or degree. In parsing, supply the omission. Note 8. — After like, near, nigh, the preposition to, or unto, is frequently un- derstood ; as, " This is hke (to or unto ) gold." Note 9. — The antecedent term of the relation ( shown by a preposition, ) may be a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or interjection. PARSING. He lives in America. Model. — America is a proper noun, third person, singu- lar number, in the objective case, and governed by the prep- osition "in," according to Rule VII. Prepositions govern the objective case. Questions. — Do participles ever become objects of prepositions? Adverbs? Clauses? When are prepositions usually omitted? In how many ways is "worth" construed? Which is preferable? What kind of elements do prepositions, and their objects, form? What is Note VII? What is said of " like," " near " and " nigh ? ' What of the antecedent term ? " SYNTAX. 93 EXERCISE. The history of Peter is agreeable to the sacred texts. The wisest princes need not think it any diminution of their greatness, or derogation from their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel. He came from Switzerland, through France, over to England, and stayed some months among us. He was re- lated to, and governed by, the same person. After waiting a long time, we left. "Like the dew on the mountain, Like the foam on the river. Like the bubble on the fountain, Thou art gone, and forever." Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun, used to identify another noun or pronoun, must be in the same case, called apposition ; as, "John, the sailor.'^ Explanation. — The second noun is used to designate a person, or thing, more precisely, by mentioning some attribute, office, or profes- sion, etc., of the first noun. Thus, "sailor*' is used to show what "John" is meant. Note 1. — The nouns must always denote the same person or thing. Note 2. — The second noun is usually in the same number as the first. Notes. — A noun identifying may itself be identified by another noun; as, "The Empress, Josephine, tho wife of Napoleon." "Josephine" is in apposi- tion with "Empress," and "wife" with "Josephine." Note 4. — The place of the first noun may be supplied by a clause; as, "He sought to decoy the youth from the path of duty : a thing which he could not effect." " Thing " is in apposition with the fact expressed in the preceding part of the sentence. Note 5. — When nouns, in apposition, are in the possessive case, the pos.sess- ive ending is added only to the last; as, "John the Baptisfs head." Note 6. — A distributive pronoun in the singular number, is sometimes in ap- position with a noun in the plural; as, "The soldiers returned encfetohis tent." " Each' is in apposition distributively with " soldiers?" Questions.— Vih^i is Rule VIII? Why is the noun in apposition used ? What is Note first? Does the second noun agree in number with the first? May an identifying noun be identified? Maya clause take the the place of the first noun? What is Note fifth ? How may distributive pronouns be used? 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 7. — Indefinite pronouns are sometimes used in apposition partiticely; (i. e^ to denote a part of the number denoted by the noun in the plural ;) as, "The boys went, some to town, others io the country." "Some" and "others" are both in apposition with "boys," and each denotes only apart of the number of boys; while together they exhaust tJie number. Note 8.— The compound pronouns, each other and one another, express a re- ciprocal action or relation; as, they love each other. "Each" is in apposition distributively with "they," and "other" is the object of "love." Each other is used in speaking of two. They love one another. "One" is in apposition distributively with "they." "Other" is the object of "love." "One" distributes the number included in " they." "Another" distributes the number, and shows that each indirndual is the recipient of the affection expressed by "love." Note 9. — Two or more nouns in the singular may have a noun in apposition in the plural; John, James, and Joseph, honest boys, have come. Note 10. — Nouns in apposition have the force of adjectives. PARSING. Dennis, the gardener, gave me some tulips. Model. — Gardener is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, in the nominative case apposi- tion, according to Rule VIII, A noun or pronoun used to identify another noun or pronoun, must be in the same case, called apposi- tion. EXERCISE. Elisha the prophet, lived in the days of Joram, king of Israel. Titus, the son of Vespasian, destroyed Jerusalem, the Jewish capital. Hope, the star of life, never sets. You write very carelessly, a habit which you must correct. For ever honored be this, the place of our fathers' refuge. The court condemned the criminals; a part of them to suffer death, and a part to transportation. Victoria, queen of Eng- land, has not visited this country. Questions. — How are indefinite pronouns sometimes used? What do the compound pronouns, eacA, ovhat is the use of these, that, etc. ? After what verbs should adjectives be used ? 4 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. sweetly, for that would imply that the lily had the power of smellino:, since sweetly means vi a sweet manner.) We can say, " The lily is sweet ; " hence, uae the adjective. Note 6. — Adjectives are sometimes used to limit the meaning of other adjec- tives; as, "The stove is red hot." '^ A quick sailing vessel." Such should be regarded as compound adjectives, whether connected by hyphens or not. NoTK 7. — Adjectives are often used as substantives, particularly when prece- ded by the definite article or the demonstrative pronouns. They even take the plural, at times ; as, " The good; " " these evils." In such cases the noun is omitted. (Note 3.) Note 8.— Substantives, or phrases coming directly before substantives, are often equivalent to adjectives; as, "The city hall;" "the river Thames." Note 9. — In the use of the comparative degree, other is prefixed to the second term of the comparison, if both terms belong to the same class; as, "Socrates was wiser than the other Athenians." Note 10. — Other cannot be admitted in the use of the superlative degree, be- cause the object expressed by the first term of the comparison is contained in the class expressed by the second term; as, "Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians," not of the other Athenians. Note 11. — Do not use double comparatives or superlatives; as, "more better;'* " most strongest." Note 12.— Adjectives, implying number, must agree with their nouns in num- ber ; as, " This sort." These apples." When the adjective is necessarily sin- gular, or plural, the noun should be made so, too; as, "TTsn miles;" '^one season.'' PARSING. The good are happy. Model. — The is a limiting adjective; that kind called definite article ; it points out the noun, persons understoodj and limits it, according to Rule X. An adjective or participle, used as a modifier, belongs to the noun which it limits. Good is a qualifying adjective; good, better, best; it is in the positive degree, and limits the noun, persons understood, according to Rule X. An adjective or participle, used as a modifier, belongs to the noun which it limits. Or, good is an adjective used as a noun, third person, sin- gular number, and in the nominative case to are, according to Questions.— Do adjectives ever limit adjectives ? Are adjectives ever used as substantives? Do substantives ever become adjectives? What is said of other in the use of the comparative degree ? SYNTAX. 99 Rule I. The subject of a finite verb must be iu tlic nom- inative case. EXERCISE. Choose that course of life which cahn reflection says is the most excellent, and continued practice will make it delight- ful. A suspicious, uncharitable neighbor, can never be treated as a confiding, charitable one. Kiotous indulgence enervates both the body and the mind. " Come, let us leave the vain, the proud, The ambitious, and the worldly wise ; Pomp's revels, turbulent and loud. And pleasure's tempting vanities." How beautiful, how glorious are the works of creation ! To see the rising sun is pleasant. Teaching is laborious. The beautiful are not always useful. I see two men j that one is going, this one is coming. She has bright golden hair. Silk dresses are fashionable. Rule XI. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; as, " I sing," " He sings," " They sing." Explanation. — It is not meant that the verb has number or person, but that it has different forms to accommodate it to the subject in these respects. Thus, we say, "The boy sings;" ♦' The boys sing." **Sings," we say, is singular, and of the third person, because its subject, "boy," is of this number and person. "Sing" is plural, and of the third person, because its subject, "boys," is. Note 1. — If the subject is an infinitive or a clause, the verb must be singular. Note 2. — When the subject consists of two or more singular nominatives connected by and, the verb must be plural; as, "Mary and Julia are here." "To be good, and to be useful, arc consistent things." In this sentence the subject consists of two infinitives. The rule holds good, whether the subjects arc nouns, infinitives, or clauses. Questions. — What is Rule XI? Does the verb have number and person? What is Note 1 ? Note 2? 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 3. — Two or more singular nominatives having and between them, and some word to sliow that they are not taken together, liave a singular verb; as, "William, and not John, goes to school." " William, and also John, goes to school." In each of these sentences, ''William" is the subject of "goes," and "John" is the subject of "goes" understood. The verb expressed, in such examples, agrees with the nominative which belongs to it. If its nominative is plural, the verb must be plural, etc. ; as, " Mercies, and not justice, save him." NoTB 4. — When or or nor connects two or more singular nominatives, the verb is singular; as, "An apple, or a peach, lies on the table." Note 5. — When collective nouns include the whole as one body, they take singular verbs; otherwise, they have plural Verbs; as, "The company seeks pleasure :" that is, tlie whole company considered as one body. " The company seek pleasure :" that is, the individuals cornjiosing it. Note 6. — If nominatives of diflterent persons or numbers are connected by or or nor, the verb agrees with the nominative nearest to it; as, "You or I am ruined." The verb is understood with "you;" as, " You are ruined." Note 7.— The verb often appears to have it as its subject, when "it" stands for an infinitive mood, or a clause ; as, " It is pleasant to love." " It" serves to introduce the sentence, and appears to be the subject until we reach the infini- tive, which the mind readily perceives to be the subject. " It," in parsing, should be regarded as an expletive, (i. e., as not necessary to the sense,) and "to love," the subject of "t«." "It is pleasant to see the sun." " To see the sun is plea- sant." "To see" is the simple subject. "Sun" is the object of "to see." The logical subject is, "To see the sun." Note 8. — A verb may have a participial clause, or the fact expressed by such a clause, as its subject; as, "His being a stranger, caused him to be regarded with suspicion." The fact implied in the words, " His being a stranger," is the sub- ject of " caused." The sense may be readily given thus : " The fact that he was a stranger," etc., where " that he was a stranger," is in apposition with "fact." Various are the constructions given of the clause above. The following seem to be the most satisfactory : " Being a stranger" may be considered as an abstract noun; while "his" limits it. Or "being" is a participle, and agrees with the personal or substantive idea in "his;" while "stranger" is in the nomi- native after "being." Either of these constructions will satifffy the conditions of Syntax. "Being a stranger" is the grammatical subject; "His being a stranger" is the logical. Questions. — When the singular nominatives are connected together by and, what is the number of the verb ? When another word shows that they are not taken together ? Which must the verb agree with? When singular nomina- tives are connected by or or 7ior, what is the number of the verb ? What num- ber do verbs, whose subjects are collective nouns, take? If nominatives of diflferent numbers or persons are connected by or or nor, which does the verb agree with ? What is said of " it," as the subject of verbs ? May verbs ever have participial clauses as subjects ? What are the most satisfactory ways of disposing of such constructions? SYNTAX. lOi PARSING. One of the most cheerful objects that can he seen is the bee among spring flowers. Model. — Can he seen is an irregular, passive verb; pre- sent secj past saw, past participle seen; it is in the potential mode, present tense, third person, and singular number, be- cause its subject, "that," is, with which it agrees; accord- ing to Rule XI. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Is is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative, present tense ; and in the third person, singular number, because its subject, " one," is ; according to Rule XI. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. EXERCISE. Do good opinions, which are unattended by consistent con- duct, signify any thing? Mark the effect of art upon a block of marble : how the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface shine, and discovers every orna- mental cloud, spot, or veiu, that runs through the body of it ! What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to a hu- man soul. Day and night yield us blessings. The kindness of friendship is tested when reverse of fortune or character affects us. " He, stooping down and looking, saw the linen clothes lying; yet went he not in." You or John is mis- taken. John, and not I, made the correction. His being a foreigner, prevented his election. Her being a teacher, brought sorrow to her friends. EXERCISE TO BE CORRECTED. You is welcome. [Not correct, because is does not agree with you) say, you arc welcome.'^ 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. He think himself better than others. Oh ! beware, lest you yields to temptation. What are he doing? When is they going? The reverses of fortune is often attended with the loss of friends. I is happy. The man and wo- man that was present wondered at his behavior. Rule XII. The infinitive mood is governed by the prep- osition to; as, "John desires to see." Explanation. — •' See " is governed by " to." " To " is ordinarily regarded ns the sign of the infinitive mood, or as an auxiliary verb. There are many objections to either of these views. The most satis- factoi-y explanation is, that " to " is a preposition. The verb following " to" expresses an abstract action or state ; and " to" connects that action or state to some preceding word, and gov- erns it as its object. Note 1. — Tlie infinitive may be connected to various parts of speech; as, 1. To a verb ; us, " I love to plan.'''' 2. To a noun; as, "You have pervm^ion to go." •-. To a pronoun; as, "I know him to be honest." 4. To a participle ; as, " Trying to sec." 5. To an Adverb ; as, " He is well enough to study." 6. To a conjunctive; as, "He is wiser than to do thisJ" Note 2. — The infinitive with '-to" has, besides the meaning denoted by tlie vfrb, various significations : 1. It denotes a purpose; as, "I came to see." — (that I might see.) 2. It denotes cause: as, i rejoice to learn this; {because I learn this; or, more i roporly, the fact implied in "to learn this," is the reason or cause of my re- j icing.) 3. It denotes an occupation or employment ; as, "he delights to study." Note 3. — The infinitive sometimes has a logical* subject in the objective case; as. He ordered me to go. "To " connects "me" and "go," governing "go" as its oliject. Questions. — What is Rule XII? How is "to" ordinsirily regarded? What is tlie most satisfactory explanation ? What does the verb following "to" ex- press ? What is the office of " to ?" To what may the infinitive be connected ? What significations has the infinitive with " to?" What is said of the subjeet of the infinitive ? What is meant by "logical" subject, as explained below? * The word "logical" is not used in the sense previously defined, includ- ing the grammatical subject, (and its modifiers;) but it is used simply to denote that the person, or thing, connected, by "to" to the verb following it, is the person or thing that must be the agent of the act or state denoted bj' the verb. Allowing that "to" governs the infinitive, this same infinitive does not SYNTAX. 103 Note4.— "To," before the infinitive, sometimes has no antecedent term (ex- pressed, nor can one always be readily supplied) to complete the relation; as, To love is pleasant. " To " has no antecedent word, to which it can connect "love." Such constructions are indefinite or univerttal, it being true of every one, that ''to love is plca^ant.'^ Hence, the action denoted by "love" may be referred to "any one," or some general word denoting />crson, or persons. Another Example.—" To be candid, I am in fault." " To" connects the state denoted by " be candid" to " I" or '• me" understood. " Candid" is a predicate adjective aft-er "be," and agrees with " I" or" me" understood. " To be can- did"—!/ I must be candid, or for me to be candid. In all such constructions, the adjective agrees with a noun or person understood in the same part of the sen- tence. The infinitive used as in the preceding example is sometimes, though im- properly, called the " infinitive absolute." If the construction above given is correct, the infinitive has its (logical) subject understood, and is governed by the preposition. Remark.— This disposition of the infinitive does not prevent it from being the subject of the finite verb. In the sentence above, " To love," or " for one to love," is the subject of "ts;" while "pleasant" agrees with " to love." Note 5. — The verbs dare, need, bid, hear, make, feel, do, have, let, see, may, can, will, shall, 7nust, are followed by the infinitive mood without the preposition "to;" as, "Dare you (to) speak;" "They need not (to) come;" "I hear the horse (to) neigh." Tlie preposition is usually used with the passive form of these verbs; as, " He teas heard to say this." EXAMPLE PARSED. Boi/s love to play. Play is a verb in the infinitive mood, present tense. To is a preposition connecting love and j^lay. Play is governed by to. Rule XII. The infinitive mode is governed by the prepo- sition to. ^ Questions.— Does the infinitive mood affirm or assume its action ? Repeat Note 4. What is the antecedent term of the relation in the sentence, " To love IS pleasant"? Parse "to." Give the Remark. admit of any other grammatical government; yet as every action must have an actor, the infinitive, though grammatically governed by the preposition " to," must be referred to some actor, or agent; and it is clear that it can be referred to nothmg but the objective ca,se (of the noun or pronoun) which precedes "to" Such being the connection between the infinitive following "to" and the objec- tive case preceding " to," it is not improper to call the objective case the subject of the xnAmtive. It is proper to state that the iniimtive doc* not affirm, but as- sumc$. 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISE. Newton did not wish to obtrude his discoveries on the public. They need not call on her. Whom have I so much reason to love as this i'riend ? You have reason to dread his wrath. To sleep is refreshing. We should fear and obey the One who has power to reward or punish us. You ought to solicit him to do a kind action. You dare not do so. I heard him announce it. Rule XIII. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs; as, "He writes well." ^^ Abusing him cruelly." "This apple is very sweet.'' "John spells very badly.'' Explanation. — Adverbs affect the meaning of the words with which they are connected ; thus, "well" specifies the manner of action \\i "writes," by informing us how "he writes." "Cruelly" specifics I lie character of the act expressed by the participle "abusing." "Very" increases the quality denoted by "sweet;" and in the last example, "very" intensifies the meaning of "badly." Note 1. — In parsing, adverbs should always be referred to their classes. (See Lesson XXV, Part 1.) Note 2. — Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions ; as, " He went almost to town." " He went to town," implies that he reached the town ; but, " He went almost to town," implies that he stopped shortly before reaching it. Hence "al- most" diminishes the regular import of "to." Note 3. — Yes and no are used independently in answering questions, and a,re equivalent to entire sentences. Thus, " Will you go ?" " Yes." / wiU go. "Has he come?" "No." He has not come. In parsing "yes" and "no," in such cases, it is hardly proper to consider them as mere adverbs ; for, if a verb be supplied, " yes" should be omitted, unless the verb is added to emphasize or limit " yes." Thus, " Will you come ?" " Yes, I will come." " I will come," is used to emphasize " yes," and, in some such cases, to explain what it means. No may be regarded as an abbreviation of not, and as modifying a verb un- derstood ; as, " Do you hear ?" " No :" 1. e., I do not hear. Note 4. — Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns; in which cases they must be parsed as nouns ; as, " He remained a great while" — a great or long time. Note 5. — Adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives, and, when so used,, must bo parsed as adjectives ; as, " The above lines will inform you." "Above" may qualify written understood ; but, according to the use now made of it, it must bo regarded as an adjective. Note 6. — Some adverbs fill the double office of adverbs and conjunctives ; as, *' I was reading token you came." Here "when" is an adverb of time referring SYNTAX. 105 to both verbs, "was reading" and - came." " When'— at the time at which. It also serves to connect "you came" to "was reading." Note 7.— Two negatives should not be used with the same verb, unless an affirmation is meant; as, "Nor did they not perceive their evil plight." Note 8.— Adverbs, beside their influence in modifying verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs, by their position may modify nouns or pronouns also ; as, " The occurrence frightened me espccinllyr Here " especially" modi- fies "frightened," and emphasizes "me," showing who was particularb/ affwiod with fmr. Though others were affected, "me" was more affected than others. NoTK 9.— Adverbs should be placed, m sentences, where they will most clear- ly indicate the true meaning. The speaker or writer must, in most cases, de- termine for himself as regards this subject, since there are no definite rules. EXAMPLE PARSED. lie ate rapidly. Rapidli/ is an adverb of manner : it limits the verb atCj according to Rule XIII. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. EXERCISE TO BE PARSED. They were very kindly entertained. He found her not only contented, but even happy. Here is your most respect- able coat. Time flies rapidly. Are you going home soon ? Yes. Do you return ? No. Are we almost there ? I am particularly interested. Can any very wise man expect to live here always? He had a particular carefulness in the knitting of his brow, and a kind of impatience in all his mo- tions, that plainly discovered he was always intent on mat- ters of importance. He came nearly to the gate, then changed his course. Our early days ! how often back We turn on life's bewildering track, To where, o'er hill and valley, plays The sunlight of our early days. 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule XIV. Prepositions show the rehitions between their objects and the words on which they depend; as, *' He went to Atlanta." Explanation. — "To" shows the relation between "went" and "Atlanta." NoTK 1. — The office of a preposition is to introduce the object which is reached, affected, or in some way related to the word upon wliich the preposition dcpcuds. Tiio proposition, to^^ether with its oVijcet, serves to limit the antecedent term of the rclntion. Thus, in the sentence, " He went to Atlanta," ''to Atlanta" linnts '•went," and answers to the question, WhereT a.s, " Where did he go?" Ans. " To Atlanta." Note 2. — The antecedent term of the relation may be a verb, participle, noun, pronoun, adjective, or an adverb: the latter term (which completes the rela- tion, the object) may be a noun, pronoun, participle used as a noun, or a verb in the infinitive mode. Note 3. — The preposition "to" before the infinitive used as a subject, has no antecedent term expressed; as, " To hate our enemies, is wrong." Note 4. — The preposition '• for," when it introduces its object before the in- finitive, has no antecedent term expressed ; as, ^'For me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you." Note 5. — Either term of the relation may be omitted. 1. The antecedent term; as, " In a word, I will not do it." "I s;iy" maybe supplied thus : " I say, in a word," etc. 2. The uhject, or subsequent term ; as, " These are prniciples we ought earnest- ly to contend /or." Supply ''which," thus: "These are principles for which we ought to contend." Note 6. — Sometimes prepositions have the force of adverbs, when their ob- jects are omitted ; as, " He has gone aboi'c.'" Note 7. — Two prepositions sometimes come together, in which cases they should be regarded .is compottnd prepositions ; as, " The house is situated over against tlie mountain." "Over against" maybe considered as a compound preposition, showing the two-fold relation which "moimtain" sustains to " house." Note S. — Two prepositions, showing different relations, may liave reference to the .same object; as, " He. boasted of, and contended/or, the right :" that is, " He boasted of the right, and contended for it." QMC5ftoH.s.— What is Rule XIV? Explain it. What is the office of a prepo- sition? What does the preposition and its object do? What may the antece- dent term be ? The object? What is .said of "to" and " for ?" What term of the relation maybe omitted? When do prepositions have the force of ad- verbs? What is said of compound prepositions? May prepositions, showing different relations, refer to the same object ? SYNTAX. 107 Odservation. — When it is difficult to find either, or both fcorms of the relation, the following directions may be of service : 1. To find the antecedent term, prefix the interrogative ivhat to the preposi- tion; thus, "Heart to heart responds." We ask, " What to heart?" Answer: " Responds." " Heart responds to heart" 2, To find the term that completes the relation, place what or whom after tho preposition ; as, " I know not the man I gave the book to." EXAMPLES PARSED. He was skilful in many languages, and had, by reading and composition, attained the full mastery of his own. In, is a preposition, and shows the relation between " skil- ful" and '* languages.'' IluLE XIV. Prepositions show the relations between their objects and the words on which they depend. By is a preposition, showing the relation between " had attained" and ^^ reading and composition." Of is a preposition, showing the relation between '* mas- tery" and *' language" understood. EXERCISE TO BE PARSED. Continue to walk in the path of virtue. By innumerable threads our interests are interwoven. We must not confound frugality with parsimony. The prospects of many a youth are blighted by self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy. One of the greatest arts of escaping superfluous uneasiness, is to free our minds from the habit of comparing our condition with that of others on whom the blessings of life arc more bountifully bestowed, or with imaginary states of delight and security, perhaps unattainable by mortals. Clarendon allows his demeanor, through the whole proceeding, to have been such, that even those who watched for an occasion against the defender of the people, were compelled to acknowledge themselves unable to find any fault in him. Question. — What are the direction.'* for finrcdica(e — all other words must, in a gram- matical point of view, be subordinate to these. The subject may be modified : 1st. By an adjective element of the first class; as, "The man loves." 2d. By an adjective element of the second class; as, "The man of industri/ prospers." 3d. By an adjective element of the third class ; as, " The lady who visited the city is dead." Note. — These modifying elements may themselves be variously modified by adverbial and adjective elements of different classes. II. The predicate may be modified : 1st. By an adverbial element of the first class ; as, " He came quickly.'^ 2d. By an adverbial element of the second class ; as, " He came in haste.'' 3d. By an adverbial element of the third class; as, "lie was sleeping lohen I came." III. It may be limited : 1st. By an objective element of the first class ; as, " You saw him." 2d. By a second class objective element; as, "I love to study." 3d. By a third class objective element; as, "I know that you are deceived." Note. — These subordinate elements may be themselves modified. Remark. — This brief chapter on Analysis is given for the benefit of those who may not be able to study that subject in large works. QueMions. — Name the principal elements. To what are all other words sub- ordinate ? How may the subject be modified? May subordinate elements be modified? How may the predicate be modified? How may the predicate be limited by objective elements ? May these elements be limited ? AURANQEMENT. 125 ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS OF SENTENCES. The arrangement of words in a sentence is the position which they take. Arrangement is of two kinds — N^adwal and Rhetorical, or Inverted. NATURAL ARRANGEMENT. Rule 1. In declarative sentences, the natural order is to place the suhject before the predicate, the auxiliary before the principal verb, and the copula before the attribute ] as, "Susan writes." "John will read." "Life is short." Rule 2. In direct interrogative sentences, the auxiliary or copula comes first, the subject next, and the principal verb or attribute last; as, "Will you assist?" "Is she sleeping ?" Rule 3. In indirect interrogative sentences, the word which asks the question comes j^rs/, and the other parts are arranged as in direct interrogative sentences ) as, " When did he die?" Note. — When the attribute is the thing inquired for, it 8hould precede, and the subject follow, the copula ; as, " How hirjh is the tower ?" Questions. — What is arrangement? How many kinds? What is the natural order in declarative sentences? In direct interrogative sentences? In indi- rect ? When the .attribute is the object of inquiry, where should it l>e placed ? 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 4. In imperative sentences, the subject is placed after the predicate, or between the copula and attribute; as, " Hear thou." " Be ye silent." Rule 5. In dependent clauses, the connective comes Jirst, the subject nexty and (he7i the predicate; as, "I was dream- ing when you came.'* Rule 6. Adjective elements of the frst class precede the nouns which they limit; but those of the second and third classes follow the nouns which they limit; as, ^^ Prudent men" — men of prudence — men who are prudent. Rule 7. Objective elements follow the verbs which they limit; as, '' He studies Xa?m." " He loves ^o s/?/Y7y." ''lie says that he will atudy." Rule 8. An adverbial element is placed after the word which it limits; as, ''He reads iceU." Note. — The adverbs very, more, most, and some others, usually precede tlie words they Umit ; as, " Very good men." rhetorical arrangement. The elements may be variously transposed, for the sake of emphasia, heuufi/, taste, etc. No definite rules are given for their transposition. Questions. — What is the natural order in imperative sentences ? What is tlie arrangement in dependent clauses? How are adjective elements arranged? Objective elements ? Adverbial elements ? What is said of rhetorical arrange- ment 2 PUNCTUATION. 127 PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing written language by means of jjoints, so as to show the relation of words and clauses, and clearly indicate the meaning. Note.— In speaking, these relations are indicated by the pauses and inflec- tions of the voice. The objects of Punctuation are three : 1. To indicate the sknse; 2. To indicate the sense loith YORGE or ^T^A\3TY ) 3. To indicate it with CONVENIENCE. The first is the most important of these principles. The second belongs mainly to Rhetoric, and involves the two principles — 1. Ellipsis; 2. Transposition. Note 1.— Ellipsis is the omission of a word ; as, " John, Susan, Henry and Anna arc present." Aiul is omitted between "John" and "Susan," "Susan" and " Henry." Note 2. — Traji^position is changing the natural arrangement of words in a sentenf^e ; as, " To those who labor, sleep is sweet." The natural order is, "Sleep is sweet to those who labor." Convenience is the use of the first letter of a name for the name itself, or an abbreviated form of a word for the word itself; thus, instead of "John Willis Smith," we write '^ J. W. Smith," etc. Questinn/f. — What is punctuation 7 How are the relations indiratod in speak- ing? What are the objects of punotuation ? Wliich is the most important f To what does the second belong? What is Ellipsis? Transposition? What is meant by convenience ? 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. POINTS. The points used in punctuation are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period (.), the interrogation point (?), the exclamation point (!), the dash ( — ), and others loss frequently used. Note 1. — The comma denotes the shortest pnuse ; the semicolon, n pause twice that of the comma; the colon, twice that of the semicolon; the period, twice that of the colon. The interrogation and exclamation points may denote n pause equal to the comma, semicolon, colon or period. Note 2. — The length of any of these pauses depends upon the nature of the composition. THE COMMA. Rule 1. When several words are together used as the sub- ject of a verb, they are usually separated from it by a comma; as, ^^Her heing a stranger, excluded her from the circle." ^^That one shoidd tell a deliberate falsehood, is .strange." Rule 2. The members of compound sentences are gene- rally separated by a comma; as, "John studies well, and learns rapidly." Note 1. — When the members are short and closely connected in sense, they are not separated ; as, " Love is better than sacrifice." Note 2. — The relative clause, used in a restrictive sense, should not bo pointed off; as, " The principle which you advocate, is just." Rule 3. All words, phrases, or clauses, used independ- ently, or absolutely, are separated by the comma from the rest of the sentence ; as, 1. The nominative addressed; as, ^^Mary, study your lesson." Questions. — What points are used? What does the comma denote? Semi- colon? Colon? Period? Interrogation point? Exclamation point? What 1:4 Rule 1 for the use of the comma? llulc 2? Should the members of com- pound sentences be separated when they are short and closely connected? Wliat is said of the relative clause ? What is Rule 3? What does it include ? PUNCTUATION. . 129 2. The nominative absolute; as, "JShamc hciiifj lontj y'lrtuo is lost." 3. Tlie infinitive absolute; as, ^'To be candidj I was in fimlt.'^ Note.— Interjections often form exceptions to this rule; as, "Alas! what shall I do ?" " O boy ! come here !" Rule 4. Adverbs, or adverbial phrases or clauses, begin- ning a sentence, or not closely connected, in sense, with some other word, are separated by the comma; as, ^^Most assuredly^ you are wrong." ^^In the first jdace, she was absent." " I will leave, when you ohey rne." Rule 5. Nouns in apposition should be separated by the comma; as, "Pcud, the Apostle, was a martyr." Note 1. — Several words used as a proper name, are not separated ; as, "Mar- f ».s TuUius Cicero M'as a great orator." Note 2. — When two nouns or a noun and a pronoun arc very closely con- nected, they are not separated ; as, "Vc men of Israel, hear." Rule 6. When the conjunctive and or or is omitted, the comma must supply its place; as, "A virtuous, gentle and lovely maiden." Rule 7. When the finite verb is understood, the comma usually supplies its place; as, ''Love produces confidence; confidence, (^produces) friendship; and friendship, {prO' duces) delight." Rule 8. Conjunctives separated from their clauses by in- tervening words, are pointed off by the comma; as, ^^Buf, by perseverance, you may succeed." Rule 9. Prepositions and their objects, when thrown in between other words closely connected together, are sepa- rated from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, '' Yet, hy reading the best authors, you will acquire correct taste." Qurstinn/^. — Do interjections come under this rule ? Wliat is Rule •*? Rule 5 ? .\re several words used as one proper noun sop.'jratod ? Should two closely eonno<>t^'d nouns Vk' spp Mated ? Whnt is Rul.^ 0? RnlcT? Rules? RuloO? 130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 10, Words repeated for emphasis, are pointed off by the comma; as, ''I would never lay down my arms, never ^ never J never J' Rule 11. All dependent propositions, are pointed off by the comma; as, '■'^ If you come, I will go.'^ Rule 12. When a quotation is divided bywords interven- ing, a comma must be placed on each side of these words ; as, *' ' The laws of God,' said he, ' are just and good.' " Rule 13. When words are used in pairs, thej^jaiV.s shonM be separated; as, *' Evil and good, prosperity and adversity, depend upon our own choice." Rule 14. Words used in contrast, or opposition, should be separated ; as, *' Though deep, yet clear J' Rule 15. When or, or nor, introduce a word for the pur- pose of explaining what precedes, a comma should be placed before it; as, ^^A gentleman, or rather a manj came yester- day.'' the semicolon. The semicolon is used to separate parts of sentences less closely connected than those separated by the comma; and are more closely vnited than those separated by the colon. Rule 1. When a sentence consists of two or more inde- pendent members, they are separated by the semicolon, un- less the connection is very close; as, "Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord; but they that deal truly are his delight." Rule 2. W^hen minor divisions of a sentence are sepa- rated by the comma, the greater divisions are usually sepa- rated by the semicolon ; as, ''As energy, when it is properly Qucstiovs.— What is Rule 10? Rule 11 ? Rule 12? Rule 13 ? Rule 14 ? Rule 15? When is the semicolon used ? What is Rule 1? Rule 2? PUNCTUATION. 131 directed, leads to glorious results; so, on the other hand, sloth insures poverty, suffering and disgrace." Rule 3. Several words in apposition with a preceding noun, are separated from it by the semicolon ; as, ^* There are three divisions of time ; the past, the present, and the future." Rule 4. When several long clauses have, each, a common dependence on some other clause or word, they must be sepa- rated by the semicolon ; as, '•'•If he is toise ; if he regards his own intei'est ; if he does not desjnse his own happiness; he will accept the proposal." Note.— If the clauses are short, they may be separated by the comma. THE COLON. The colon is used to separate the parts of a compound sen- tence, that are not so closely connected as those that require the semicolon. Rule 1. The colon is sometimes placed between the mem- bers of a compound sentence, when there is no conjunctive between them; as, ''Never flatter the people: leave that to such as mean to betray them." Rule 2. The colon must be used before a direct quotation, or a number of particulars, when preceded by the words, thus, the folloioing, as follows, this, these, etc. ; as, *' He spake as follows : ' Never shall I forget your kindness.' " Note 1. — Particulars are formally introduced by first, sc^ondbf, etc.; as, "There are throe grand characteristics of the mind: Firfit, the intellect; seeon/fhf, the ponsibilities ; and thirdly, the will." Omitting " first," "secondly," .nnd "thirdly," and it would be thus: "There are three grand characteristics of mind ; the intellect, the sensibilities, and the will." Qucstionii. — What is Rule .3? Rule 4? If the clauses are short, what point may be used ? For what is the colon used ? What is IJiiIe 1 t Rule 2? How are particulars introduced ? 132 ENGLISH GRAMiMAR. Note 2.— If the quoted passage is introduced by that, the colon is not used as, "Remember that ' one to-day is worth two to-morrow.' " THE PERIOD. Rule 1. The period must be used at the end of every de- clarative and imperative sentence ; as, "John runs." "James, study your lesson.'' lluLE 2. The period is used after abbreviations ; as, " J. C. Cole." "Dr. W. L. Griffin." Note. — When the 8hort form is used without reference to the original word, the period is not used ; as, " Jo" for "Joseph." " Eve" for " evening." There is hardly any unvarying standard of punctuation. Different authors punctuate diiferently. THE INTERROGATION POINT. Rule 1. The interrogation point is used after questions ; as, " Who comes ?" Note 1. — When two or more questions arc united in a compound sentence, they are separated by the comma, or semicolon ; and the interrogation point is placed after the last; as, " Will you remain, or go?" Note 2. — When a question is indirectly referred to, the point is omitted ; as, " He asked me why J came.^' Note 3. — The interrogation point must be used when the precise words of a question are quoted ; as, " He said, ' Why do you weep V " THE EXCLAMATION POINT. Rule 1. The exclamation point should be used after every exclamatory sentence, clause, or word; as, "How sweetly she sleeps !" " The dark billows roll ; how frightful the sound !" " Darkest treason I" " Shame !" Note 1.— The exclamation point may be repeated to denote great emphasis; as, " Take away my liberty !!" " What consistency ill" Questions.— 'When the quotation is introduced by "that," is the colon tised? What is Rule 1 for the period? Rule 2? Note 1? Do all writers punctuate alike? What is the rule for tli'- interrogation point? Note 1? Note 2? What is the rule for the exclamation point? Notr.i(^c used? Kercrcnec marks do what ? Name the reference marks. How is tlic panifjiiiplj used? 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SECTION. The section (§) mark is placed before the subdivision of a book accompanied with numbers, for convenience of refer- ence. Question.— Where is the section mark placed ? ACCENT. 139 ACCENT. Accent is of two kinds — Grammatical and Rhetorical. Grammatical Accent (') is a stress of voice placed upon a syllabic or syllables of a word to render it easy of pronuncia- tion. Note.— This accent was settled according to no definite rules; but was de- termined by n(jrccablcness of sound, and natural case of speaking. This accent is of two degrees, called primari/ and second- ary. The primary is the principal accent, and is used in all words of two or more syllables ; while the serondari/ is used only in polysyllables; as, ac'ccnt; ac-cent'-na-tion. In the last word, the primary accent is on " cent," and the second- ary on "a." Note 1. — Words of one syllable have no accent. Note 2.— Accent does not fall on two successive syllables except, perhaps, in a few compound words. Rhetorical accent is a peculiar inflection of the voice placed upon certain words to denote the tone of voice in which they should be pronounced. There are three accents of this kind: the grave ('), acute (^), and circumflex ( ^ ). The acute denotes the rising inflection; as, '' Have you com'e ?" " Did you say thi's ?" The grave accent is used to denote the falling inflection ; as, "I have comV" " It is T." Questions.— ilovr many kinds of accent? What are they? What is the gram- matical ? Upon what principles is it based ? IIow many kinds of grammatical accent? What arc they? What words have no accent? Note 2? Wliat is rhetorical accent? How many kinds ? What is tlie acute used for? What docs the grave accent denote ? 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The circumjlcx accent (made up of the acute and grave) is used to denote the rising and falling inflection in the pro- nunciation of the same word or syllable ; as, '^ He said that it was you, not me." EMPHASIS. Emjyhasis is of two kinds — Grammatical and Rhetorical. Grammatical marks of emphasis are used to attract the special attention of the reader. They are usually found in newspapers, hand-bills, cards, etc , but very seldom in books. They are : 1. The index, or hand, (B@°") 2. The Asterism, (*^*) Rhetorical emphasis is a peculiar, forcihle stress of voice in pronouncing certain words j as, "iVeyer, never, NEVER !" The lowest degree of emphasis is indicated by the words being printed in italics ; as, *'2)o you hear me .^" In writing, this is indicated by a single mark drawn under the word or words. A still higher degree of emphasis is denoted by printing the word or words in small capitals ; as, "Who comes?" This is denoted in writing by drawing two lines beneath the word or words. The greatest emphasis is shown by printing the word or words in large capitals ] as, "ATLANTA." This, in writing, is shown by drawing three lines beneath. Questions. — AVhat does the cirouinflex denote? How many kinds of empha- sis ? What are they ? How are tlioy each indicated? PROSODY. 141 PROSODY Poetry, strictly speaking, is the language of the imagina- tion and passion. This, together with the circumstance that poetry has in each line a certain number of syllables and feet, constitutes the characteristic difference between pro&e and poetry. That is not poetry which consists merely of a succession of feet or rhyme : the thought must be 'poetical. It is not necessary, however, that every thought in a poem should be figurative ; yet the " figurative and the fanciful" must predominate. The conception may be poetical; but this of itself does not make poetry. The measure must be observed as well as the thought. Prosody treats of the laws of versification ^ {yerse-making.^ A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented sylla- bles, arranged so as to form a line of poetry. A line consists of a certain number of feet. A foot is a division of a verse consisting of two or three syllables. A syllahlc is cither long or short. A short syllable re- quires half the time of a long one for pronunciation. All accented syllables arc long. All unaccented syllables (except some monosyllables) are short. Questions. — What is s.iid of poetry ? Of what does prosody treat ? WJmt is a verse? Of what does a lino consist ? What is a foot? How are syllables di- vided? What time does a short syllable require? What syllables are long? W'hat are short? 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Monosyllables are either long or short, according to the demands of the verse. Note. — Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and interjections, of one syllable, are gener.illy long. Prepositions and conjunctives are, for the most part, short. Articles are always short. Pronouns are short, unless they are cwt- phatic. A long syllable is sometimes designated by the mark, (-), placed over it; as, over. The short syllable is denoted by the semicircle ; as. Baker. There are two kinds of verse — rhyme and blank verse. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syllables of two or more lines. Blank verse has no rhyme. FEET. The following are the feet mostly used in English poetry : The Iambic — first short, second long ; as, hestow, below. The Trochee — first long, second short; as, baker, maker. The Spondee — both long; as, vain show. The Dactyl — one long, two short ; as, excellent. The Anapcest — two short, one long ; as, intervene. The Amphibrach — first short, second long, third short; as, confinement. The Tribrach — three short; as, vulnerable. Note 1. — The syllables that have the straight mark over them are accented. The others have no accent. Note 2. — The length of time required in pronouncing a syllable depends upon the nature of the piece. Note 3.— Most poetry is written in Iambic. Questions. — Are monosyllables long? What parts of speech of one syllable are long? What are short? Are pronouns long or short? How is a long syl- lable marked? A short? How many kinds of verse arc there? What are they? Name the feet of two syllables? Of three syllables? What syllables are accented? Upon what docs the length of time required in pronouncing a syllable depend 7 PROSODY. 143 METRE. Metre, or measure, is the proper arrangement of a certain number of feet in a verse. A verse of one foot is called a Monometer. A verse of two feet is called a Dimeter. A verse of three feet is called a Trimeter. A verse of four feet is called a Tetrameter. A verse of five feet is called a Pentameter. A verse of six feet is called a Hexameter. A verse of seven feet is called a Heptameter, etc. SCANNING — STANZA. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is composed. A stanza is a combination of two or more verses, consti- tuting a regular division of a poem or song. Note. — The name of the foot must precede the terms which denote the num- ber of feet ; as, " Iambic dimeter, tetrameter," etc. C^SURAL AND FINAL PAUSES. There are two pauses peculiar to poetry — the camral and final. The cmsural pause divides the line into two parts. It is usually placed at the end of the fourth, fifth or sixth f