DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY DURHAM, N. C. HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY THAN SPORTATION Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/highwayshighwayt01chat © Major Hamilton Maxwell © Underwood and Underwood STORM KING HIGHWAY HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION BY GEORGE R. CHATBURN, A.M., C.E. Professor of Applied Mechanics and Machine Design Lecturer on Highway Engineering The University of Nebraska 121617 NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright 1923, by THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY Printed in the United States of America PREFACE The following pages on Highways and Highway Trans- portation do not pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the subject, but rather a glimpse of the vast development of the humble road and its office as an agency for transportation. Possibly the grandeur of the mountains is best appreciated by one who lives among them, who climbs their acelivitous heights, who daily experiences their power and majesty, and measures their magnitude by grim muscular exertion. But, even so, it would be foolish to contend that he who gets his information from the seat of a Pullman car receives no benefit from the hasty glimpse, or, that his imagination is not quickened and cultured by the experience. In writ- ing this book, then, I have had constantly in mind the myriads of people who have not the time, and possibly not the facilities, to search the pages of the literature of the past for the origin and development, or to work out their present importance, of our amplification of roads and of read uses. It is felt that many of these people laudably desire a conversational knowledge of the origin, evolution and present status of highway transportation, even though it be glimpsed by a very rapid passage through a very large subject. The primary objects have therefore been, to sketch briefly and simply the development of the transportation systems of the United States, to indicate their importance and mutual relations, to present some practical methods used in the operation of highway transport and to make occa- sional suggestions for the betterment of the road as a usable machine for the benefit and pleasure of mankind. Any observations made or conclusions drawn are purely personal. I entered into and have carried on the work entirely unbiased. I am not financially or otherwise, except academically, interested in any firm or company whose v 121817 VI Preface business has to do with transportation either directly as a carrier, or indirectly as a manufacturer of the instruments or accessories to transportation, nor does any of my living come from societies or foundations organized as propa- gandists for any particular forms of transportation, or transportation materials or equipment. I have no admira- tion for the man who hopes to see the steam and electric railways put out of business or even caused to run at a loss by the automobile, motor express or motor bus. Neither have I any plaudits for the man who would arrest the growth of the new forms of transportation by drastic legal enactments and excessive taxation in order to preserve the old. I believe there is room and need in the United States for all forms of transportation, and that each can thrive in its respective field just as do wheat and corn but none will thrive if they attempt to occupy the same field at the same time. The text is naturally divided into two parts — the devel- opment of highways and their use. The first part treats of the relation of transportation to civilization generally, explaining briefly how the two have grown together like children at school, how each has helped the other, and how the meter of one is the measure of the other. Leaving the old world there is sketched all too briefly the development in the United States of transportation facilities from the coastal and natural waterways, from the pack and trail, used by the aborigine and early settlers, through the treks of the pioneers, the periods of canal digging, the toll road competition, and the railway frenzy, to the advent of the modern road with the coming of the bicycle and automobile and their wonderful accelerative impulse. The effects of State and Federal aid upon the road condi- tions of the country are fully treated as is also the planning of highway systems. Automotive transportation for business and pleasure in- cluding rural motor express and bus lines, and their effect on production and marketing are described and discussed. Preface Vll In the chapters on highway accidents and highway aids to traffic, attention is called to many types of accidents, including railway crossing accidents, with suggestions for their mitigation. Here also are given the most recent practical rules for the regulation of traffic in both city and country. A chapter is devoted to the esthetics of the highway, a subject just coming to the attention of road men who have heretofore been mostly concerned with distances, grades, widths and surfaces, which, by the way, are frequently mentioned in the text. As in all building construction the first appeal was made to material things and their relation to the pocket-book, while the last and most enduring appeal is spiritualistic and is made to the pleasures of the imagina- tion. The same idea of making the road a means of catering to the preservative and pleasure instincts of man is con- sidered in the final chapter on aids and attractions to traffic and travel. Safety and warning devices are discussed as such, while comforts and conveniences are means for luring the average citizen to the highway, to the camps and parks, for the broadening effect upon his character, the health of his body, and the enlightenment of his soul. Thus we close a most hurried journey from the very beginning of roads to their modern far superior yet very imperfect attainments. The main thought throughout has been the road as a usable agency in the economic and en- tertaining phases of life. Each equally important to the wealth, health, and happiness of our people. The mind easily travels ahead to a time when separate roads will be devoted to the two great ends of business and pleasure. Then the flight of fancy passes on to still another period of time and sees the highways made inoperative and super- fluous, overgrown by weeds and grass, for the argosies of business and pleasure have taken to the air. George Richard Chatburn. Lincoln, Nebraska March 9, 1923. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE Transportation a Measure of Civilization 1 Stages of Civilization: Direct Appropriation; Pastoral; Agricultural — Manorial and Feudal Systems; Handicraft — Merchant Guilds, Effect upon Trade, Domestic System, Government Control, Agriculture; Industrial — Building of Canals, Smelting Iron, Invention of Steam Engine, Railways Developed. Some Historical Roads and their Influence: Early Highways — Asiatic, Greek, Roman, Pre-Historic American. CHAPTER II Transportation Development in the United States: Early Trails and Roads 34 First Settlements near Coast. Birch Bark Canoe, Meager- ness of Roads. Settlement follows Waterways. Portages. Lines of Travel — Through Alleghanies, from the North, Boone’s Trace or the Wilderness Road, Calk’s Diary. Explorations — Marquette, Lewis and Clark, Fur Com- panies. Western Trails — Oregon, Salt Lake, Later Cali- fornia, Santa F6, Gila and Spanish. Turnpike Roads, Wagon Road Neglect, National Participation — Cumber- land Road. Early Inns.. CHAPTER III Waterways and Canals 70 Coastal, Inlets, Rivers, Creeks. Canals — Europe, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Other States; Passenger Traffic on; Prosperity and Desuetude. Ship Canals: Sault Ste. Marie, Cape Cod, Panama — Inducements for, Early Schemes, Routes — Tehauntepec, Nicaragua, Others; French Participation — DeLesseps’ Grant, Company Organized; Other Promotion Schemes; Indignation in the IX X Contents PAGE United States against Foreign Building Canal; DeLes- seps begins Work; Clayton-Bulwer Treaty; Hay and Pauncefote Treaty; Commission Reports Favorably on Nicaraguan Route; French Company Bankrupt; Colom- bian Congress Refuses to Sell to the United States Control of the Canal Strip; Panamanian Revolution — Roosevelt’s Part in Revolution; United States Secures Control of Canal Strip, Colombia Protests; Construction of Canal Begun; Description of Canal, Canal Traffic. River Trans- portation: Small Boats, Pole Boats, Large Boats, Rafts. Steamboat: Construction, Mississippi River Traffic, New Orleans Levee, Mississippi Steamboats and Steamboating; Steamboat Fares. Government Attitude toward River Improvement. John Fitch Granted a Right in New Jersey; Calhoun’s Activities, Monroe’s Attitude. National Aid for Internal Improvements. CHAPTER IV Railroads 99 Origin and Early Development. Optimism of Promoters. Early Locomotives. First Chartered Railroad— Charles- ton and Hamburg, First Passenger Car on Baltimore and Ohio, New York Central, Camden and Amboy, New Eng- land Roads, West of Alleghanies, in the South. Rapid Growth in Railway Mileage. Call for Government Aid. Land Grants. Pacific Roads — Congressional Discussion, Compromise Bills, Construction of Pacific Roads, Credit Mobilier. Era of Raihvay Consolidation — Typical Con- solidations, Methods of Consolidating. Mechanical Devel- opment: Rails, Freight Cars, Locomotives, Gauge, Tele- graph, Signals. The Evolution of the Sleeping Car. Street Car Service. Electric Traction — Origin, Development. CHAPTER V The Modern W’agon Road 126 Neglect and Desuetude of Wagon Roads, 1830-1890. Lay- ing out and Working Roads, Statutory Width of Roads. Influence of Bicycle for Better Roads: Origin of Bicycle, Development, Ordinary, Safety, Cycling Boom, Organiza- tion of Wheel Clubs, Propaganda for Good Roads, Prev- alence of Poor Roads, Comments by Writers. Good Contents xi PAGE Roads Associations; League of American Wheelmen, National Highway Commission, Col. Pope’s Propaganda, Bills Introduced in Congress. Office of Public Roads Inquiry: Duties and Limitations, Cooperation with Good Roads Organizations, National Good Roads Associa- tion — Good Roads Trains, Object Lesson Roads, Policy Discontinued, Duties and Scope of Office of Public Roads Widened and Name Changed — Educational Work, Re- search, Ad mi nistration of Federal Aid. Rural Free Delivery of Mail: Origin, Development, Advantages. State Aid: Origin — New Jersey, Salient Features, Dif- ficulties of Getting it Enacted; Massachusetts; Other States; State Bonds for State Aid. Federal Aid; Enact- ment of Law, Provisions, Appropriation, Administration, Additional Appropriations. CHAPTER VI Interrelation between Highway and Other Kinds of Transportation 159 Classification of Transportation. Railroads have not always Acted Honorably. Quantity Production and Divi- sion of Labor Applied to Railway Transportation, to Motor Transport. Automobiles Cutting into Railway Earnings, Babson’s Prediction. Effect of Motor Com- petition on Interurban Trolley Lines, on Street Car Lines, Taxicabs and Jitneys, Buses, Trackless Trolleys. Guar- anteeing Earnings of Street Car Companies, Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies. Length of Haul for Economic Trucldng. Reduction of Rates and Expenses. Carving out New Fields. Still Room for all Kinds of Transportation. CHAPTER VII Automotive Transportation 181 Defined, Radical Changes to be Expected. Business Pas- senger Traffic: Jitney and Taxicab, Motor Bus — Qualifi- cations, Fares, Competition with Street Cars, Cross-coun- try Service, Carriers of School Children, Transfer between Depots. Pleasure Passenger Traffic: An Influence in the Purchase of Automobiles, Pleasurable Effect of Automo- bile Riding, Recreational and Pathological Benefits of Motoring, Cost of Motoring. Freight Traffic: Cost and Xll Contents PAGE Time Factors, Motor Trucks and Congested Districts. Time Devoted to Loading and Unloading, Depots, Ware- houses, Devices, Removable Bodies, Sectional Containers, Store to Door Delivery, Mass Loading. Devices Con- nected with the Truck. Devices Separate, Special Types of Bodies. Traffic between Towns: Economic Distance, Licenses and Insurance, State Regulation without Com- petition, Development of State Regulation. Motor Bus Traffic: Buses, Rates, Future of Motor Bus and Other Types of Transportation. To and from the Farm: Impor- tance of Farm Trucking, Arguments in Favor of, Cost of Trucking, Diversified Farming, Intensive Farming, Live Stock. Trucking, Benefits to the Farmer, Economy of Farm Trucking, Parcel Post Service and the Farm, Rural Express, Milk Trucks, Convenience to the Farmer, Pur- chasing a Truck. Terminal Facilities: Advantages. Social Aspect of Motor Transportation: Effect on Merchan- dising, Housing, Unification of Society, Standard of Lining, Size of Farms, Salesmen, Hotels, City and County Stores. Consolidated Rural Schools: The Public School and Patriotism, Peace, Changing Concepts of Public Schools. Rural Mail Delivery. Automobile and Health : As a Form of Exercise, Effect on Styles; Medical Science; Sanitary Effects — Mosquitoes, Flies. The Automobile and Crime: Bootlegging, Robbery, Vandalism. Types of Automobile Transportation. CHAPTER VIII Planning Highway Systems: Selection of Road Types . 222 Object of a Road. Road Classification: Agricultural. Recreational, Commercial, Military. Problem of the Road Planner: Economy, Accommodation, Utilizing Existing Roads. Essentials to be Considered: Ruling Points, Branch Lines and Detours, Alternate Routes, Existing Highways and City Streets, Vested Rights, Widening Roads and Streets, Railroads, Trolley Lines, etc., Bridges, Culverts, Drainage, etc., Ruling Grades, Esthetics. Motor Transport Efficiency Outline, High- way System Unit: Arguments in Favor of National Sys- tem — Eliminates Sectional Differences, Gives Continuous Roads, Military Roads, Benefits of Example. State Systems — Benefits. Procedure of Laying out a Road System: Commission, Determining Factors, Maps, Tenta- tive System, Reconnaisance Survey — What Shown, How Contents xm PAGE Taken, Instruments; Hearings — Object; Final Location — Considerations, Traffic Census Advisable. Financial Con- siderations: First Cost, Upkeep, Traffic Census: Affects Location, Type of Road, Grades, Width, Foundations. Making a Traffic Census: Variation of Traffic — Number of Counting Days, Hours Each Day, Weights, Observer’s Cards, Both Way Count, Weather, Stations — Location of. Classification of Traffic: Object, Maximum Loads, Effect of Heavy Loads, Influence Units of Traffic — British, French, Other Countries, Maryland, Massachusetts, Borough of Brooklyn; Suggested Form of Traffic Sheet — New Jersey. Destructive Factors: Density of Traffic, Weight of Vehicles, Impact, Speed, Wrinkling, Sprung and Unsprung Weight, Tires, Pleasure Cars and Light Traffic to be Considered. Other Methods of Estimating the Amount of Traffic: Area Served, Tonnage Arising. Distribution of Traffic over Township Roads. Selection of a Suitable Type of Road. Taxpayers Allowed to Assist in Selection, Engineers to Suggest. Ideal Road: Qualities of — Low First Cost, Durability — Materials and Design, Resistance to Traction and Tractive Force — Horse, Truck, Speed, Temperature, Roughness, Width of Tire, Diameter of Wheel, Table of Resistances; Resistance Due to Grade — Formulas, Coefficient, Available Engine Effort; Slipperiness — Type of Pavement, Climatic Con- ditions;! Sanitariness — Definition, Effect of Type of Road; Noisiness; Acceptability. Some Types of Roads and their Qualities: Earth, Sand-clay, Gravel, Macadam, Bituminous Macadam, Bituminous Concrete, Brick, Con- crete, Creosoted Wood Block, Asphalt Block, Sheet Asphalt, Other Types. Comparison of Roads — Specimen Tables. CHAPTER IX Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation on Pro- duction and Marketing 273 Production Defined, Productive Activities — Change of Form, Change of Place, Change of Time. Nature and Labor. Capital — Stored up Labor. Marketing — Whole- saling and Retailing. Grain Exchanges; Defined, Object, Commission Merchant, Dealing in Futures — Hedging. Cooperative Marketing: Advantages. Local Grain Mer- chant — Financing Movement of Crops. Elements Enter- ing into the Cost of Marketing. Transportation from XIV Contents PAGE Farm to Local Market. Cost of Production, Effect of Good Roads upon, Intensive Farming, Fruit Farming, Long Haul Transportation . Stock Marketing: Changing Character of Stock Raising, Distance of Economic Hauling by Team and by Truck, Effect of Truck Hauling on Number of Hogs Marketed. Seasonal Effect. Stock Merchant — Local, Shrinkage, Dairying. Poultry. For- estry: Logging and Lumbering, Forest Management, Use of Truck and Trailer, At Saw Mill, Log Loader, in Lum- ber Yards, Mining. Factory Products. From Factory to Retailer. Te rmin al Charges E limina ted. Construc- tion. CHAPTER X Financing Highways and Highway Transportation Lines 306 Origin and Reasons for Road Work. Working out Road Tax Abolished. Private Financing, Public Financing. Taxation: Tax Defined, Classified. Direct Taxes— Levied Uniformly. Indirect Taxes: Defined, Classes of, Special Taxes, How Levied, Benefits Decrease with Dis- tance, Petitioning Influence—^ Curve of, Concrete Illustra- tion. Zone Weights: How Determined, Plots and Tables. Frontage: Defined, Calculation, Illustrative Example. Unequal Zones and Irregular Lots — Concrete Illustra- tion. Another Method of Apportioning Assessments. Rule for Assessment. Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue: Public Sendee Corporations, Bus and Truck Lines, Municipal Sale of Water, Gas, Electricity, Ice, Coal. Public Ownership of Transportation and other Necessary Utilities. Bonds: Sinking Fund, Serial, Annuity, Com- parison of Costs. Term of Bonds. Stocks and Bonds. National and State Aid. Present Status of Federal Aid. Matching Federal Aid Dollars. Financing Highway Transportation: Individual, Partnership, Corporation. Public Ownership — When Advisable. CHAPTER XI Highway Accidents and their Mitigation .... 351 Accidents Result of Disorder, Codes to Prevent, Automobile Accidents Lead in Number. Causes: The Driver — Men- tally or Physically Unfit, Ignorant, Indifferent, Reckless; Driving and Operating: Recklessness. Speeding, Around Sharp Turns, Passing Cars. Homs. Stopping Cars on Contents xv PAGE Grades, in Streets, etc., Backing. Other Forms of Care- lessness. The Car: Skidding, Brakes, Flexibility, Steering and Turning Ability, Lights, Unlighted Vehicles, Speed- ometer. Bad Roads: Slipperiness — High Crowns, Em- bankments and Guard Rails, Super-elevation — Rule for, Clear Vision, Curves, Bridges and Culverts. Railway Crossing Accidents: Prevalency, Elimination of Cross- ings — Cost, Automobile Drivers Careless — Observations, Methods of Mitigation; Bridge Clearance. Pedestrians — Jay-walkers, Obstacles that Obscure Vision, Pedestrians on Country Roads, Slow Going Vehicles, Bicycles. Road and Traffic Regulations: Development of, Council of National Defense Code, Education Necessary, CHAPTER XII Highway Esthetics 382 Indispensable Elements of Architecture — Stability, Utility, Beauty. Esthetic Sense— Applied to Roads, to Land- scape Gardening. Styles — Natural and Formal. Appli- cation to Roads. Varieties of Road and Street Trees — List; Shrubs — -List; Climbers — List. Semi-formal Style. Telephone and other Poles, the Ideal Section, Legisla- tion Necessary. Local Conditions Determine Planting. CHAPTER XIII Ads and Attractions to Traffic and Travel . . . 418 Pleasure Riding — Extent, Advantages to a Community to Have Tourists Pass through, Ranking and Parking, Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists — Space for and Angle of Parking, Location of Parking Spaces, One Way and Rotary Traffic, Opera House Traffic, Public Garages — Several Story Garages. Terminal Stations — Omaha, Pough- keepsie, Elsewhere. Gas, Air and Water Stations, Named and Numbered Roads; Marks, Signs and Guides— Distance and Direction Signs, Letters and Colors, Warning Signs, Map Signs, Detour Signs, Location of Detour Markers, Dummy Cop, Semaphores, Signal Lights and Colors, Road and Street Lighting, City Traffic Lighting, Traffic Officer, Semaphore and Towers. Touring: Prevalency and Pleasures of, Camping — Grounds, Caravans, and Equipment. Camp Sites, Hotels, Parks, Information Bureaus and Agencies. Index 465 LIST OF INSERTS Storm King Highway Frontispiece A Great Engineering Project Along the Hudson between Cornwall and West Point, N. Y. PAGE The Appian Way 22 Showing the original Paving Stones laid 300 b.c. Map of Italy 24 Showing Some of the Twenty or More Roads that Radi- ated from Rome. Map of Roman Roads in England 26 (After Jackman: “Development of Transportation in Modern England.”) Map of the North-Eastern Portion of the United States 36 Showing the Location of Well-known Portages. There Were Other Portages Wherever Two Water Courses Came Near to Each Other. (See Farrand: “American Nation,” Vol. I, and Thwaites, lb. Yol. VII.) Map 42 Showing Main Highways and Waterways in the United States about 1830. When the Railroads Entered the Industrial Arena, the Country Was Being Covered With a Net Work of Highways. (Based on Tanner’s Map of 1825 and Turner in “American Nation,” Yol. XIV.) Map 54 Showing Transcontinental Trails in the United States. Way Bill 66 Used on the Slaymaker Stage Line from Lancaster to Philadelphia, 1815. (Courtesy of Prof. P. K. Slay- maker, Lincoln, Nebr.) The Sault Ste. Marie Canal ....... 76 xvii XV111 List of Inserts PAGE The Evolution op the Railway Train 102 1. The First Railway Coach — 1825. 2. Horse Power Locomotive — 1829-30. 3. Stourbridge Lion — 1829. 4. Stevenson’s Rocket Locomotive — 1829. 5. The DeWitt Clinton Locomotive — 1831. (From Brown’s “First Locomotive” — Courtesy of D. Appleton & Company.) Modern Locomotives 120 1. Showing the Growth in the Size of Locomotives Dur- ing the Past Twenty Years. The Smaller Locomotive is an American Type Class Engine of 1900. The Larger is a Mountain Type Engine. Both are Used on the C. B. & Q. R. R. Photographed at Lincoln, Nebr., Sept., 1922. 2. One of the New Gearless Electric Locomotives Built by the General Electric Company for the C. M. & St. Paul R. R. Transportation Across Death Valley 126 A Picturesque Method of Earlier Days. Good Roads Day in Jackson County, Mo 132 Chart op the Organization op the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, 1917 . . 142 Hard Surface Highway in Oregon 146 A Farmer’s Wipe Meeting the Postal Truck . . . 146 Trackless Trolley Operated on Staten Island, N. Y. . 166 Motor or Rail-Car 166 Showing the Gasoline Locomotive and Trailer, Operated by the Chicago & Great Western R. R. The Evolution op the Steam Automobile .... 182 1. The Cugnot Steam Carriage— 1770. 2. The Trevithick & Vivian Steam Carriage — 1801. 3. The Gurney Steam Carriage — 1827. 4. The Church Automobile Carriage (Steam) — 1833. 5. Gaillardit’s Steam Carriage — 1894. (Courtesy of the Scientific American.) A Modern Rural Passenger Bus . 184 List of Inserts XIX PAGE A New York City “Stepless” Bus 184 It Has an Emergency Door, with Wire Window Guards, and will Seat 30 Persons. The Evolution op the Gasoline Motor Car . . . 188 1. Panhard & Levassor Carriage — 1895. 2. Duryea Motor Wagon — 1895. 3. The Benz Motocycle. 4. Hertel’s Gasoline Carriage — 1896. 5. The Olds Horseless Carriage. 6. Winton’s Racing Machine. (Courtesy of the Scientific American.) Hauling Beans by Motor Truck and Trailer . . . 200 Sacramento Valley, Calif. Hauling Sugar Beets to Market in a Motor Truck . . 200 Traffic on Fifth Avenue, New York City .... 234 Giving a Macadam Road an Application of Tarvia Binder 254 This is Followed by a Coat of Screenings and then the Road is Rolled Again. A Road of Miked Asphalt and Concrete Being Tested Out 254 Crowning a Dirt Road in California with Tractor Drawn Grader 263 A. Milk Truck Equipped with both Cans and Tank . . 296 A Lumber Log Truck Used in the Northwest . . . 296 A National Highway in the Mountains of Maryland . 332 A Dangerous Curve Made Safe by an Artistic Concrete Wall 364 The Tennessee State Highway at Lookout Mountain, Built of Cemented Concrete. Pin Oak Street Trees 388 About 15 Years Old on Land that Was Once Considered to be a part of the “Great American Desert.” A Cottonwood Wind Break 388 Formerly very Common in the Prairie Region. Warning and Direction Signs Used in the State of Illinois 434 XX List of Inserts PAGE Traffic Guides 442 (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regula- tion.”) New York City Traffic Guides 444 In November, 1903, one hundred blue and white enameled signs, directing slow-moving vehicles to keep near the right-hand curb, were put in use in New York. These were probably the first traffic regulation signs ever used.” (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regula- tion.”) Traffic Tower on Fifth Avenue, New York City . . 446 Camping Ground and Caravan 458 A Gipsying Touring Caravan 458 HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION CHAPTER I TRANSPORTATION A MEASURE OF CIVILIZATION As the several peoples inhabiting the earth have pro- gressed from barbarism through the different stages of civilization, the transportation occasioned by their wants and desires has kept a close pace. By a study of the trans- portation — travel, movement of goods and commodities — and the means and facilities for its accomplishment, the relative civilization of any people, their rank and position may be accurately surveyed, graduated, and estimated. The highways of a nation, whether they be of the land or sea, or both, are most vital elements in its progress and could almost as well as transportation be considered the measuring rod of civilization. Stages in Civilization. — Sociologists differ as to what constitute the several stages of civilization. One might trace the development of man through literature, another through art, another through government; others con- sider his economic activities the more fundamental fac- tors. The most widely used economic classification, according to Ely, 1 is based upon the increasing power of man over nature and consists of (1) Direct Appropria- 1 ‘ ‘ Outlines of Economics, ’ ’ by Richard T. Ely. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 2 Transportation a Measure of Civilization tion, (2) The Pastoral Stage, (3) The Agricultural Stage, (4) The Handicraft Stage, and (5) The Industrial Stage. These stages are well illustrated in English history. The stage of direct appropriation corresponding to the pre- historic period and up to 54 b.c., when the Romans over- ran the island of Britain; the Pastoral stage from this time to the invasion by William the Conqueror, 1066 ; the Agricultural up to about the discovery of America, when a great impetus was given to travel and discovery; the stage of Handicraft, from 1500 to the invention of the steam engine and its application to manufacture at the be- ginning of the eighteenth century ; the Industrial stage, to the present time. While these stages necessarily overlap each other considerably, it will be seen that as one declines the next is ushered in with some radical change in govern- ment or in economic or industrial condition. The present day — immediately following as it does the Great World War, out of which have issued many scientific discoveries and in- ventions, notably those advancing the theory and practice of air navigation, with many potential possibilities in new lines of transportation ; and the setting forth of an idea which is capable of leading to a better understanding or even a confederation of nations and altering all forms of national government — may be the beginning of a new stage of civilization. Stage of Direct Appropriation. — This stage covers the whole course of prehistoric man from the time the first ape stood erect some 500,000 years ago 2 through the stone, bronze, and iron ages to the age of literature and art. During these long years civilization traveled far, for the least cultured savages observed have advanced not only away beyond the highest of the lower animals but also beyond the lowest intellectual estate of which human beings may be supposed capable of subsisting. And from the lowest to the highest of these tribes are shown traits vary- ing as greatly in degree as from one stage in the above classification to another. The Indians at the time of the 3 See “The Man of the Stone Age,” by H. F. Osborne. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 3 discovery of America and the three centuries following, and many of the tribes of Africa during the explorations of Livingstone and Stanley, were and still are in this stage and hence have been subjected to scientific study and in- vestigation. Their governments while variable are of the primitive types. Ordinarily a chief autocratically rules be- cause of hereditary influence. Little is manufactured, planting is scarcely known; by hunting, fishing, and col- lecting nature’s products of wild seeds and roots is a sub- sistence obtained often with long, arduous, and dangerous labor. Efficiency, as we understand that term to-day, is very low, and the number of persons that a given area can support is few. No one can predict but what to- morrow he may have to go hungry or suffer cold from the inclemency of the weather, for his store of food is nil or small, his shelter rudimentary and clothing scanty. Note the hardships of the party of Henry M. Stanley during his expedition across the African wilderness in quest of Emin Pasha . 3 Notwithstanding Stanley’s men were possessed of firearms and edged tools and carried some pro- visions with them, and were traversing a country teeming with vegetable and animal life, many times they were on the verge of starvation. The number of the natives in these wildernesses are no doubt kept low because of the extreme difficulties of procuring the necessities of life. The barbarian requires less, of course, than the civilized man ; he is satisfied with mere subsistence. He is improvi- dent and relies upon picking up his needs from day to day as a robin picks worms from the grass. Cannibalism often exists, for the sacredness of human life has not yet been established, although magic and crude religious rites arc seldom missing. While private personal property is recog- nized and retained by personal prowess, the ownership of land is absent. Cooperation of the crudest sort only is found; division of labor consists largely in having the females perform the work of planting, cultivating, carry- 8 “In Darkest Africa” (two volumes), by Henry M. Stanley. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. 4 Transportation a Measure of Civilization mg burdens — when these are attempted at all — cooking and caring for the children in the crudest fashion, leaving to the men the work of hunting, fishing, and fighting. Each tribe is self-sufficient and consists of a chief with a few followers bound together loosely for the purposes of protection from other tribes. Exchange, barter, and trade is at its lowest ebb ; consequently transportation is practically unnecessary, and roadways except mere trails do not exist. The Pastoral Stage. — In the process of evolution certain animals undoubtedly were domesticated and used for food. Whether or not this domestication preceded or followed primitive agriculture or “hoe culture,” is not important, as the pastoral stage of culture evidently lies between the hunting and the farming stages. The written history of mankind indicates that this stage largely prevailed among the earlier Hebrew, Greek, and Teutonic races. A private ownership in cattle and herds was recognized, but the necessity of moving about with the flocks precluded fixed habitations, although large areas were claimed and held or endeavored to be held from trespass thereon by neighbor- ing tribes. A given area would thus support a much larger number of people than in the preceding stage. A small amount of trading or bartering was carried on and con- sequently some transportation was required, but road building as such was little known. Rivers and coast waters for canoes and dugouts were no doubt early taken advan- tage of by the aborigines of bordering territories. But since there is so little division of labor, so little of barter and exchange, commerce was not developed much during this stage. The Agricultural Stage. — The growing and storage of crops, increased by the use of animal power, greatly changed the economic and social conditions of man. It made possible and profitable the living in fixed habitations, even in communities, and this brought out the needs of rules of government. But even yet each family provided without the assistance of others for practically all its own needs. In planting, reaping, threshing, grinding the meal and Transportation a Measure of Civilization 5 cooking, the family became the unit. No great division of labor was yet evident, consequently exchange, barter, and transportation still remained low. Ownership of land was necessary if a family was to cultivate the same land year after year. This meant definite rules and laws and conse- quently the development of governments. Ownership of herds and land brought wealth and a certain distinction in the community. Slavery, which had no doubt existed to some extent in the pastoral stage, here, because it greatly increased wealth, grew immensely. Large families likewise meant more workmen and greater wealth, distinction, and leisure, hence polygamy and polyandry often existed. As the evolution continued there was a trend toward handi- craft and the division of labor; the products of one place began to be exchanged for the products of other places. This necessitated some forms of transportation, meager though they might be, and trails between communities. The Manorial and Feudal Systems. — In England and on the continent during the later years of this stage there were developed the manorial or feudal forms of govern- ment. The people lived largely in villages each controlled by a lord or earl (eorl) and to whom in return for his pro- tection, the use of land, and other favors, they were bound to return to him service in the cultivation of his land and in waging war when called upon to do so. The lords in turn held their allegiance to the king. Some handicrafts- men were among the retainers but they were so few that they did not form an important part of the village, neither was there a great deal of travel or transportation. The manor instead of the family was the unit, and it was almost self-sufficient. The land was allotted in small tracts and tilled in the manner designated by the lord. Each person raised barley, oats, peas, and lentils sufficient for his own needs. Variation in crops was little practiced. Much land at distances from the manor was still devoted to herds and flocks. However, toward the later part of this stage, the feudal system began to break down. There were more free-holders 6 Transportation a Measure of Civilization and free-tenants, living upon the land they cultivated ac- cording to their own ideas. Wheat, rye, flax, and root crops were assuming greater importance. This variety in farm- ing and the larger fields cultivated by the individual naturally increased the products to be sold or exchanged and hence increased transportation. People who had de- voted only so much of their time to spinning and weaving as was necessary to supply their own family needs, were beginning to do more, selling the excess and purchasing from others things not grown or manufactured by them- selves. Thus were developed towns as centers of trade; money as a medium of exchange assumed greater impor- tance; and a division of labor brought into being and in- creased the social standing of trades and professions. Thus was ushered in the Handicraft Stage of civilization. The Handicraft Stage. — In England this stage lasted through approximately five centuries, from 1200 to 1700. The merging of one period into another came about so gradually that a definite date can hardly be designated, and the time is so long that undoubtedly many changes occurred in the economic activities as well as in the govern- ment and literature of the people. While it is probable that merchants, middlemen who bought from one person and sold to another, had thrived throughout the earlier civilizations of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and even extended their trade to Britain, mer- chandising held a comparatively minor position in England until the twelfth century, when merchants became very prominent, so much so that combinations or guilds were formed by them in all the large towns for the purpose of protecting and controlling the conduct of business and, to some extent, of maintaining a monopolistic control of the trade in their particular businesses. A guild was an association or fraternity of persons engaged in the same line of business. It differed from a trade-union in that the guild was an association of masters and employees, whereas the trade-union is an association of employees only. Many of the merchant guilds grew wealthy and strong; Transportation a Measure of Civilization 7 they obtained Royal Charters from the Crown either by direct payment or by an arrangement to pay a special tax, or secured recognition in the borough charters. By au- thority of these they were endowed with certain privileges such as: (a) limiting the number of their own members and the number who could participate in any line of mer- chandising; (b) entering into secret price agreements and trade arrangements; (c) controlling the import and export of wares; (d) the establishing of a court which had abso- lute jurisdiction over its members and others not members engaged in the same line of business. This court “could settle trade disputes, discipline its apprentices with the whip if necessary, could imprison its journeymen who struck work, and could fine its master members who acted against its rules. And, finally, the members of the com- pany were forbidden to appeal to any other court unless their own court failed to obtain justice for them.” 4 More- over, the meeting together for social enjoyment, feasting, and worship ; the helping one another in sickness and poverty ; and uniting together for the pursuit of some com- mon cause, naturally brought about very close and frater- nal relations. Craft-guilds. — Craftsmen of like occupations joined to- gether in guilds also and they, too, became not only numerous but very influential. They regulated their own internal affairs and specified how many apprentices might be entered, and under what circumstances a man might become a journeyman or master craftsman. Numerous other guilds, social and religious, were extant throughout Europe. Effect upon Trade. — The merchant guilds and the craft- guilds materially affected the production and trade of the community and country. The merchants of Phoenicia and later of Greece and Rome are said to have visited the British Isles to secure tin and copper. The great merchant guilds outfitted adventures to the ends of the then known 4 “The Romance of Commerce,” by H. Gordon Selfridge. John Lane, London. 8 Transportation a Measure of Civilization world to secure the goods — whether they were silks, spices, furs or grain — in which they dealt. They were in- strumental in the passage of laws encouraging and securing commerce. They themselves regulated the quality of goods dealt in. For example the Goldsmiths’ Guild of London required that all silver and gold-plate and jewelry manu- factured within three miles of London should be brought to the guild hall for inspection. If it did not come up to the specified standard it was ordered remelted; if it did it received the “Hall Mark” that anyone purchasing it might be assured of its quality. It is said the guilds were so punctilious in the matter of quality that “Made in Eng- land” goods received in the markets of the world a stand- ing of the highest rank; a reputation that never entirely disappeared, and as a consequence English uprightness of character became proverbial. The Domestic System. — All this made necessary the building of ships and harbors, and the improvement of in- ternal highways of trade, and these in turn stimulated manufacture which as yet was carried on by hand. The family instead of the town or guild became the unit ; ap- prentices were entered and kept, usually, as members of the family and worked along side the sons and daughters of the master. As these grew to manhood their pay, be- ginning with mere keep, was gradually increased with their work and responsibility until at the end of seven years they were fitted to go forth as journeymen and later themselves became masters. The work was done at or near the master’s home. The raw material was usually received from a middleman, to whom was returned the finished pro- duct ; the middleman disposed of it to the merchant who in turn sold it to the consumer. This corresponds rather closely to what is called the “sweat shop” method of the present time. Goods in a raw or a semi-raw state are received by the workman from the “manufacturer” and carried home; the workmen per- forms, with the help of his family, certain specified opera- tions and upon the return of the goods is paid for his work. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 9 Or in agriculture, to the contract method, whereby specified products such as sugar beets, sweet-corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, fruits, and other products for manufacture, can- ning, preserving, or pickling in a factory, are raised by the farmer and sold to the manufacturer at a previously agreed-upon contract price. Under the guild plan the manufacturer or importer sold usually to the ultimate con- sumer. So the economic system was gradually growing more complex, and the interdependence of man upon man more pronounced. The older agricultural procedure had not entirely dis- appeared. Most families cultivated land, and raised more or less stock and poultry, but performed the work of manu- facturing as a side line, as at present in the Middle West farmers make grain and stock raising their main industry with dairying, vegetable gardening, poultry, and eggs as mere adjuncts, although these latter often bring in about as much money as the former. Defoe 5 describes these methods (1724-1726) as follows: [The land] was divided into small inelosures from two acres to six or seven each, seldom more; every three or four pieces of land had a house belonging to them . . . hardly an house stand- ing out of a speaking distance from another. ... We could see at every house a tenter, and on almost every tenter a piece of cloth or kersie or shaloon. ... At every considerable house was a manufactury. . . . Every clothier keeps one horse, at least, to carry his manufactures to the market, and everyone generally keeps a cow or two or more for his family. By this means the small pieces of inclosed land about each house are occupied, for they scarce sow corn enough to feed their poultry. ... The houses are full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-vat, some at the looms, others dressing the cloths, the women or children carding or spinning, being all employed, from the youngest to the oldest. Governmental Control. — The numerous guilds reached their zenith during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and then gradually diminished in importance. Some of them, however, still remain active in London. During the B Quoted by Ely in ‘ ‘ Outlines of Economics. ’ ’ Macmillan, New York. 10 Transportation a Measure of Civilization recent World War several were engaged in welfare work. Guilds in France were destroyed or lapsed into desuetude during the revolution, 1791-1815. Those of Spain and Portugal likewise during the revolutionary years of 1833-40 ; of Austria and Germany in 1859-60 and of Italy in 1864. Guilds, as known in Europe, never found a sub- stantial lodging in the United States. The functions of the guilds were gradually taken over by the government, which seemed later to be a better and more satisfactory medium to control labor, trade, and com- merce. Laws were enacted in England to regulate the entering of apprentices, to force able bodied men to serve as agricultural laborers in case of need, and to work the roads annually. Justices of the Peace were given authority to settle disputes and regulate wages. Foreign trade was by laws and Royal Grants encouraged; likewise immigra- tion of artisans to introduce new industries, the establish- ment of foreign colonies and the development of banking and insurance. Almshouses were built and poor laws en- acted to care for the old and indigent. The public roads were still very poor but a beginning was made for their betterment. Macaulay, in writing of the State of England in 1685,® has considerable to say regarding the condition of the highways. Speaking of the lack of homogeneity among the people he says : There was not then the intercourse which now exists between the two classes. [The Londoner and the rustic Englishman.] Only very great men were in the habit of dividing the year be- tween town and country. Few esquires came to the capital thrice in their lives. [And again], The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty found in passing from place to place. Of all inventions, the alphabet and the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove 6 “The History of England,’’ by Thomas Babington Macaulay, Chapter III. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 11 national and provincial antipathies, and to bind together all the branches of the great human family. [Further on], It was by the highways that both travellers and goods generally passed from place to place; and those highways appear to have been far worse than might have been expected from the degree of wealth and civilization which the nation had even then attained. The degree of civilization attained was no doubt due to other things than the public roads. Sea transportation brought to England the products of the world. Coast trans- portation was well developed and river and canal trans- portation had well begun. Macaulay states that One chief cause of the badness of the roads seems to have been the defective state of the law. Every parish was bound to repair the highways which passed through it. The peasantry were forced to give their gratuitous labor six days in the year. . . . That a route connecting two great towns, which have a large and thriving trade with each other, should be maintained at the cost of the rural population scattered between them, is obviously unjust. This sounds like modern arguments against paving rural roads and charging the cost to the abutting property, and is evidently one good reason for state and national aid. However, transportation and travel continued to im- prove. On the main roads “waggons” were employed to transport goods and stage coaches for people, while pack animals and riding horses were used on less frequented trails and roads. Four and six horses were necessary to pull a carriage or a coach “because with a smaller number there was great danger of sticking fast in the mire.” A diligence ran between London and Oxford in two days, but in 1669 it was announced that the “Flying Coach would perform the whole journey between sunrise and sunset.” The heads of the university after solemn deliberation gave consent and the experiment proved successful. The rival university at Cambridge, not to be outdone, set up a dili- gence to run from Cambridge to London in one day. Soon flying coaches were carrying passengers to other points. Posts were established for the change of horses and longer 12 Transportation a Measure of Civilization distances essayed. This mode of traveling was extolled by contemporaneous writers “as far superior to any similar vehicles ever known in the world. ” It is not to be thought that these advances in rapid transportation were without objectors. According to Macaulay, It was vehemently argued that this mode of conveyance would be fatal to the breed of horses and to the noble art of horseman- ship ; that the Thames, which had long been an important nursery of seamen, would cease to be the chief thoroughfare from London up to Windsor and down to Gravesend; that saddlers and spurriers would be ruined by hundreds; that numerous inns, at which mounted travelers had been in the habit of stopping, would be deserted, and would no longer pay any rent; that the new carriages were too hot in summer and too cold in winter; that the passengers were greviously annoyed by invalids and crying children; that the coach sometimes reached the inn so late that it was impossible to get supper, and sometimes started so early that it was impossible to get breakfast. Objections of this character have been made against every innovation and advancement in travel and transpor- tation to the present day when the air-plane is beginning to attract notice as an economic vehicle. Laws were then demanded and passed, as they are now, to regulate power and speed, accommodations and rates, and multifarious other things which might affect the privileges or profits of those interested in older methods, as well as laws for the protection and safety of the general public. Agriculture. — It might be thought that the agriculture of the preceding stage of development might wane. But not so ; with the division of labor and improved transporta- tion and marketing facilities agriculture received a great impetus. Larger tracts w T ere farmed by the individual. Growing crops and stock became more of a business and from the lords of the manor was evolved the landed aristo- cracy of the country. To he sure, there were holders who cultivated their own soil, but much was held upou lease- holds for short or long periods. Many still lived in the villages where “commons” were laid out for the pasturage of the few cows each family needed for its own milk. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 13 Farms were divided by hedges into fields or closes, the amount of land depending upon the rent. The “Book of Surveying,” by Fitzherbert, 1539, gives reasons for such closes and explains the manner of laying them out so that they shall be most convenient and together. The following is a specimen of his style : Now every husband hath sixe severall closes whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his leyse, the fyfthe for his commen pas- tures, and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and then hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lent come, and then he that hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer, and when he hath mowen his medowe then he hath his medowe grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catel that wold be amended, or dyvers maner of catel, he may put them in any close he wyll, the which is a great advantage; and if all should lye commen, then wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the medowes be eaten in X or XII dayes. And the rych men that hath moche catel wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter when he hath most nede; . . . and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be worn or ware bare, then he may breke and plowe up his close that he had for his layse, or the close that he had for his commen pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne and let the other lye for a time, and so shall he have always reist grounds, the which will bear moche corne, with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great profyte of the wod in the hedges when it is growen; and not only these profytes and advantages afore- said but he shall save moche more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate drinke, and wages of a shep- herde, the wages of the heerdmen, and the wages of the swine- herde, the which may fortune to be as chargeable as all his liolle rent; and also his corne shall be better saved from eatings or destroying with catel. Later the system of crop rotation came into vogue result- ing in great improvement in the fertility of the soil. In the same author’s “Book of Husbandry,” 1534, are described farm tools and their uses. There are explana- tions to show where a “horse plow” is better and where an “oxen plow.” It indicates that beans, peas, wheat, barley, and oats are common crops, and that some vege- tables and root-crops were coming into use. Wheat was 14 Transportation a Measure of Civilization probably sowed after plowing up a pasture or “fallowe” field, for he observes, the greater elottes (clods) the better wheate, for the c-lottes kepe the wheate warm all wynter; and at march they will melte and breake and fae in many small peces, the which is a new donynge and refreshynge of the corne. The industries and arts of transportation continued to develop : ocean craft, especially, became more numerous and more efficient. Learning and art grew in harmony as the intercourse of the peoples of the country and of the world increased. The Industrial Stage. — This stage of economical civi- lization, while brought about gradually through many years as factories and special work shops came into exist- ence, was nevertheless greatly accelerated by the inven- tions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The invention of the canal lock (it is a disputed question whether in Holland or in Italy) in the fourteenth century had made practicable the building of many canals throughout Europe, one of the largest across France connecting the Bay of Biscay with the Mediter- ranean Sea. However, the building of important com- mercial canals began in England with the Bridgewater Canal from Worsley to Manchester, completed in 1767. Green 7 tells us that the main roads which lasted fairly well through the middle ages had broken down under the increased production of the eighteenth century. That the new lines of trades lay along “mere country lanes”; that much of the woolen trade had to be carried on long trains of pack animals at a large cost; that transporta- tion “in the case of heavier goods such as coal distribu- tion was almost impracticable save along the greater rivers.” In fact coal was ordinarily referred to as “sea coal” because it was brought to most ports by water routes. The Duke of Bridgewater and a young engineer ’“History of the English People,’’ by John Biehard Green, Paragraph 1527. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 15 of the name of Brindley solved the problem of transporta- tion for the time being by beginning the great network of canals which later covered England to the extent of more than 3000 miles. Too great praise cannot be given to the engineers and constructors of these canals. Brindley considered canals not as adjuncts of rivers and bays, on the contrary “rivers were only meant,” he said, “to feed canals.” He carried this canal by means of an aqueduct over the river to Manchester, thus bringing the coal to a new thriving manufacturing city. Green further says (Paragraph 1528) To English trade the canal opened up the richest of all markets, the market of England itself. Every part of the country was practically thrown open to the manufacturer; and the impulse which was given by this facility of carriage was at once felt in a vast development of production. But such a development would have been impossible had not the discovery of this new mode of distribution been accompanied by the discovery of a new productive force. In the coal which lay beneath her soil England possessed a store of force which had hitherto remained almost useless. Not the least were the new methods of smelting iron with coal instead of wood, which changed the whole aspect of the iron trade and which made Great Britain for many years the workshop of the world. Lead, copper, and tin were also mined and smelted by the use of coal. The great advance of the “industrial revolution” did not come until Watt’s improvements upon the steam engines of Newcomen, Cawley, and Savery, which were themselves improvements over earlier inventions of Papin, della Porta, and Worcester, made practicable the transfer of energy stored up in coal to the movement of machinery. He changed the steam engine from a clumsy, wasteful, inefficient machine into a workable apparatus little differing from the reciprocating steam engines of the present. Up until the successful operation of the turbine engine, the principal advances upon Watt’s engine were mere details, though often of great importance. For in- stance the boilers for the generation of steam were im- 16 Transportation a Measure of Civilization proved; the enlarged application of the principle of ex- pansion, developing better cut-off mechanisms and gov- ernors, to more economical construction due to better facilities and better knowledge of materials and their properties ; and to the application of the steam engine in locomotives to propel transportation cars. Watt’s claims and specifications for patents from 1769 to 1784 cover such inventions as: 1. Methods of keeping the cylinder or steam vessel hot by covering it with wood or other slow heat-conducting materials, by surrounding it with steam or other heated bodies, and by suffering no water or other substance colder than steam to touch it. 2. By condensing the steam in vessels entirely distinct from the cylinder, called condensers, which are to be kept cool. 3. By drawing out of the condenser all uncondensed vapors or gases by means of an air pump. 4. The use of the expansion force of steam directly against the cylinder. 5. The double-acting engine and the conversion of the reciprocating motion into a circular motion. 8 6. Throttle valve with governor and gear for operating the same, parallel motion for opening and closing the valves, and indicator. These inventions not only made it possible to replace hand-labor often with machines, but made it possible to construct machines much more rapidly and to make them in every way more convenient. Improvement in the arts of spinning and weaving caused the textile establishments and population of north England to go forward by leaps and bounds. Previous to the invention of the “fly shuttle” in 1733 by John Kay of Bury, the weaver had to throw the shuttle through the warp by hand. Weaving became much more s It is well to note that Watt in his application for a patent on steam engines granted in 1769 also laid claim for a rotary engine. The rotary engine has been lately developed into the steam turbine. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 17 rapid; also by having several shuttles with different- colored yarn stripes and checks could be woven into the cloth. Since weaving had been made quicker and easier there came a demand for more yarn. Three separate in- ventions satisfied this, viz., James Hargreaves of Blackburn invented his “jenny” about 1767, by which eight threads could be spun at once. At the same time Richard Ark- wright, a barber of Preston, invented and developed the throstle spinning frame (1769-1775). Samuel Crompton, about 1775, invented his spinning “mule,” which seemed to combine the good principles of the others. Power was applied to spinning about 1785 and then it w >' that needed accelerating. To Cartwright in 1784 is ascribed the honor of inventing the power loom. Other inventions for both spinning and weaving have made al- most automatic the running of thousands of spindles and hundreds of looms in a single factory. Railways Developed. — With power manufacturing and increased production due to the adoption of improved factory systems came still greater demand for transpor- tation. Tramways had already been laid in 1676 for transporting coal from the mines to the sea. The rails were first made of scantling laid in the wheel ruts, then of straight rails of oak on which “one horse would draw from four or five chaldrons of coal.” Later (1765) cast- iron trammels 5 feet long by 4 inches wide were nailed to the wooden rails. These trammels collected dust, there- fore in 1789 Jessop laid down at Loughborough cast-iron edge-rails and put a flanged wheel on the waggon. The rails were also placed on chairs and sleepers (ties), the first instance of this method. The distance apart of the rails was 4 feet 8Y 2 inches, what is now known as “standard gauge.” The success of these coal roads sug- gested tramways for freight and for passenger transpor- tation between the larger towns. The canals had become congested with much traffic ; it is said that notwithstand- ing there were three between Liverpool and Manchester the merchandise passing “did not average more than 18 Transportation a Measure of Civilization 1200 tons daily.” The average rate of carriage was 18s. ($4.37) per ton, and the average time of transit on the 50 miles of canal was thirty-six hours. The conveyance of passengers by the improved coach roads, was, for then, quite rapid but rather expensive. Some experimental locomotives had been made and used in the mining regions. Their success led to the build- ing of others. The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened in September, 1825, by a train of thirty-four vehicles, making a gross load of 90 tons, drawn by one engine driven by George Stephenson, with a signal man on horseback in advance. The train made at times as high as 15 miles per hour. The rail used weighed 28 pounds per yard. This road was intended entirely for freight but the demand of the people to ride was so press- ing that a passenger coach to carry six inside and fifteen to twenty outside was put on to make the round trip in two hours at a fare of one shilling. When the bill passed for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1826 Stephenson was appointed engineer in charge at a salary of $5000 per year. This road made a great impression on the national mind, no little enhanced by the competition of locomotives at its completion in 1829, resulting in the victory of Stephenson’s engine the “Rocket.” It made the then astonishing speed of 35 miles per hour and proved conclusively the practicability of railway locomotion. To follow the progress of industry during the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries would require volumes. More has probably been accomplished, not without evils at times, than in the whole preceding history of the world. And as no small part of these accomplishments are the means and amount of travel and traffic and asso- ciated developments and organization made necessary by the vast industries which now supply the world’s wants, once more it may be asserted that the civilization of the world can be measured by its transportation. Some Historic Roads and Their Influence. — In the Transportation a Measure of Civilization 19 brief survey of the stages through which ordinarily a civilization passes note has frequently been made that as the world progresses so does the necessary transportation increase and improve in character. It is not contended that civilization follows the improvement of transporta- tion, although that is no doubt sometimes the case, but that the state of transportation follows up and down with the state of civilization. Very likely the same could be truthfully said of other elements of civilization such as literature, art, religion, and government. Or even if there be applied Guizot’s three tests of a civilized people: “First, they review their pledges and honor; second, they reverence and pursue the beautiful in painting, architec- ture, and literature ; third, they exhibit sympathy in re- form toward the poor, the weak and the unfortunate,” it will be found that those nations most progressed in traffic and travel will rank highest in these tests. Early Highways. — To return to some of the important earlier highways. All evidence seems to indicate that civilization had its origin in western Asia. Early history speaks of the civilization and culture of Arabia and Egypt, of Assyria and Persia. Coeval with these civilizations were trade and commerce. Great caravans of camels traversed the sandy highway with their accompanying merchants carrying many products of many lands — frankincense and myrrh from Arabia ; cloths and carpets from Babylon and Sardis ; shawls from Cashmere ; leather from Cordavan and Morocco ; tin, copper, gold, and silver utensils from Phoeni- cia ; pearls from the Far East ; and grain and other agricul- tural products nourished and grown by the beneficence of the great mother Nile. The extensive civilizations of these countries are handed down stingily by cuneiform inscrip- tions on clay tablets scattered here and there among the ruins of their ancient towns and villages, or inscribed upon granite mountain sides as historical memoranda for future generations. Even Holy Writ says little about roads and highways, but that they were known is evident from the few references made. Those things which are commonplace 20 Transportation a Measure of Civilization often receive least attention by writers. In Isaiah, 35 :8, may be read: “And a highway shall be there, and a way, and it shall be called the way of holyness . . . the way- faring men, though fools, shall not err therein.” And again, Isa. 40:3-4, “The voice of him that cryeth in the wilderness, prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low : and the crooked shall be made straight and the rough places plain.” These would certainly indicate that in Isaiah’s time there were both travelers and roads marked and graded. Isaiah in other places shows that he, if not himself a road builder, is familiar with that process: Isa. 57 :14, “ And shall say, cast ye up, cast ye up, prepare the way take up the stumbling block out of the way of my people. ’ ’ Isa. 62:10, “Prepare ye the way of the people; cast up, cast up the highway ; gather out the stones ; lift up a stand- ard for the people. ’ ’ Also J eremiah likens the path of the wicked to an ungraded road. Jeremiah 18:15, “Because my people have forgotten me, they have burned in- cense to vanity, they have caused them to stumble in their ways from the ancient paths, to walk in paths, in a way not cast up.” The trade along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and across Palestine and the great Arabian deserts to Persia, to Babylonia, and possibly to India was evidently of importance to the fluctuating destinies of Egypt and Assyria, and later of Greece, Rome, and Turkey; so much so, that many wars were waged for the control of the great highway over which it passed. Palestine became a terri- tory of importance. It is said Jerusalem has suffered some three score sieges, most of them because she dominated this highway, being at or near the confluence of its forks reach- ing east into the deserts, north toward the straits over which a crossing could be made into Europe, and southward to Egypt. Egypt and Assyria fought for its control ; Greece and Rome in turn came into possession of it ; Turkey and the Mohammedans for centuries monopolized it; and the Transportation a Measure of Civilization 21 recent great World War was no doubt accentuated by the cupidity of Germany to control a long line of transporta- tion through Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, Mesopo- tamia to Persia, Baluchistan and India . 9 Alexander the Great overran the East, besieged Tyre, and converted an island into an isthmus in order to secure and hold control of the highway and the rich bounty im- agined to be at its farther end. “Babylon is a ruin, a stately and solitary group of palms marks where Memphis stood, jackals slake their thirst in the waters of the sacred lake by the hall of a thousand columns at Thebes, but the road that formed the nexus between these vanished civiliza- tions remains after the winds of four millenniums have sighed themselves to silence over the graves of its forgotten architects and engineers. ’ ’ 10 But the Greater Greece, built up by the personality and sword of Alexander the Great, fell, largely, because of the lack of roads. The very name of Alexander was sufficient to subdue city after city, but as soon as his personal in- fluence was at an end the cities fell apart. Here was a wonderful opportunity. With magnificent natural-made waterways, with innumerable safe harbors what a chance for commerce, for trade with the entire world. The islands of the Aegean Sea were stepping stones to Asia Minor; Macedonia furnished an open route for the Bosphorus and Dardanelles ; Thrace led to those fertile lands surrounding the Black Sea and extending away to the Caspian and join- ing once more with empire already conquered. On the west there was close at hand the islands of, and land bordering, the Adriatic, the great Italian boot, and Sicily where new civilizations were ready to rise and take on Greek culture for the mere offering. It would seem as ““Germany and Austria-Hungary were increasingly convinced that in the further disintegration of the old Turkish Empire they must be recognized in an exceptional way and must be allowed ... to acquire an undisputed influence from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf. ’ ’—Albert Shaw in the introduction to Simonds ’ “History of the World War.” Also see map Vol. II, p. 346. 10 Prom the report of a lecture at Shreveport, La., 1905, by B. H. Carroll, Professor of History, Baylor University, Waco, Texas. 22 Transportation a Measure of Civilization though Greece ought to have become the fostering mother of world colonization, but the different parts of Greece proper, where the real mental ability lay, were separated by lack of roads from each other. Athens was potentially nearer to the Black Sea than to Sparta ; Corinth was nearer Sicily than to Macedonia. The many Grecian tribes were distinct, having different laws, customs and manners. Intercourse, which could have been brought about had there been interconnecting roads, was necessary to weld the people into a homogeneous mass. Sparta and Athens, less than an hour apart by modern air-plane, because of the mountains, roadless and almost pathless between them, barriers which they failed to surmount, developed different forms of civilization, different thought, habits, and tastes. To Athens the world owes an everlasting debt for master- pieces in poetry, oratory, architecture, and sculpture. “There was no Spartan sculpture, no Laconian painter, no Lacedaemonian poet.” The lack of intercommunica- tion caused differences in language, in customs, in ideals, and in manners, making of Greece a heterogeneous con- glomeration of tribes where internecine strife was ever present, and no strong centralized government could exist. Lucky for the best of the Greek civilization that it would be carried to the ends of the world by the roads of a young giant which was arising in the west. Roman Roads. — The roads in Rome bore such a promi- nent part in the civilization that they could not be entirely overlooked by contemporaneous writers. The roads are often described as military roads because they were primarily planned to transport soldiers quickly and easily to any desirable part of the empire. But no doubt the greatness of Rome was due more to the traffic in goods and people brought to and taken away from her precincts by these roads than to military prowess. Her roads were the arteries and veins through which the life blood of the nation pulsated ; were the sensory and motive nerves which fetched and carried intelligence, which prompted action. She received and she disseminated. She was the hub of Underwood, and Underwood THE APPIAN WAY Transportation a Measure of Civilization 23 the universe, her roads the spokes radiating to and holding together the limits of her vast domain. How many roads Rome built it is difficult to state, for they were found in all parts of the empire. Some, as those in Italy, were very carefully and substantially built ; others less so, grading down to mere trails in the hintermost dis- tricts. The Via Egnatia, which was one of the important provincial roads, is said by Strabo to have been regularly laid out and marked by milestones from Dyrrhacium, (Durazzo) on the coast of the Adriatic across from the heel of Italy’s boot through Thessalonica (Saloniki) and Philippi to Cypselus on the Hebnis and later to the Hellespont, for Cicero speaks of “that military way of ours which connects us with the Hellespont.” This road became historic as the scene of the conflict between the friends and enemies of the decaying Roman republic. Brutus and Cassius on the one hand here in 42 b.c., met the forces of Antony and Octavius. There tradition states the ghost of the dead Caesar met Brutus, and as a matter of fact, the “liberators” were cut to pieces in two engage- ments. Brutus and Cassius, believing the cause of the republic lost, both committed suicide, and the Roman world was soon thereafter in the hands of two masters — Antony in the East and Octavius in the West. Three centuries later this road became the leading highway to Byzantium (Constantinople), the great city founded by Constantine, impregnable in its rocky seclusion, dominating the water- way to the Black Sea and the rich agricultural land beyond. Some twenty of these roads, more if their branches be counted, concentrated at the Eternal City and passed through her several gates. Rome could sit on her seven hills and by means of these roads rule the world. Among the most important of these were the Via Appia, Via Flaminia and Via Aemilia, Via Aurelia, Via Ostiensis, and Via Latina. One peculiarity of these Roman roads was their straightness, passing almost in a direct line between determining points. Another, to which is due their 24 Transportation a Measure of Civilization durability, was their massiveness. Their general construc- tion may be described as follows : The line of direction hav- ing been laid out trenches were made along each side defining the width, which was from 13 to 17 feet. The loose earth between was excavated to secure a firm founda- tion and the road was then filled or graded up to the re- quired height with good material, sometimes as high as 20 feet. The pavement usually consisted of a layer of small stones; then a layer of broken stones cemented with lime mortar; then a layer of broken fragments of brick and pottery incorporated with clay and lime; and finally a mixture of gravel and lime or a floor of hard flat stones cut into rectangular slabs or irregular polygons fitted nicely together. The whole was frequently 4 feet thick. Along the road milestones were erected, some of them quite elaborate with carved names and dates. Near the arch of Septimus Severus in the Roman Forum still re- mains a portion of the “Golden Milestone,” a gilded pillar erected by Augustus, on which were carved the names of roads and lengths similar to a modern guide post. Some of these roads were used hundreds of years until they fell into neglect after Rome had been invaded by the northern barbarians. From a statement of Procopinus, the Appian Way, construction begun 312 b.c., was in good condition 800 years later, and he describes it as broad enough for two carriages to pass each other. It was made of stones brought from some distant quarry and so fitted to each other (over some 2 feet of gravel) that they seemed to be thus formed by nature, rather than cemented by art. He adds that not- withstanding the traffic of so many ages the stones were not displaced, nor had they lost their original smoothness. The papal government excavated, repaired, and reopened that road as far as Albano and it is still being used as a highway. The Flaminian Way extended from Rome to Ariminum and thence was carried under the name Via Aemilia through Parma, and Placentia across to Spain. While not so much traffic passed over it, because the West was MAP OP ITALY Showing' some of the twenty or more roads that radiated from Rome Transportation a Measure of Civilization 25 sparsely settled, as over the Appian Way, it nevertheless was a worthy rival. The Aurelian Way followed up the coast through Etruria and furnished another highway to Spain and Gaul. The Ostien highway connected Rome with a splendid harbor at the mouth of the Tiber. But the Appian Way was rightly the most famous of all; it was the earliest made, it was perhaps the longest paved road, and it carried the greatest amount of traffic. The road was built by Appius Claudius Caecus — then a Roman Censor, afterwards a Consul, from whom it takes its name — to Capua, a distance of 142 miles. Later it was extended across the Apennine Mountains through Beneventum, Venusia, and Tarentum, to Brundisium, a port on the Adriatic Sea, in the heel of the boot, a total distance of 350 miles. The improvements of Appius were begun in the year 312 b.c., and carried out at least as far as Capua. Livy speaks of a road over part of this way some thirty- five years earlier. A portion outside the walls was paved with lava (silex) in 189 b.c., and during the reign of Trajan (a.d. 98-117) the Via Appia was paved from Capua to Brundisium (Niebuhr). From Brundisium (Brindis) traffic could be carried by ship to Dyrrhacium and thence over the Via Egnatio to Macedonia and the Bosphorus ; or along the coast to the Grecian towns, to the cities of the Far East and to Egypt. Many are the refer- ences to the noted highway in literature ; Milton, in ‘ ‘ Para- dise Regained,” book four, bids us to watch flocking to the city, enriched with spoils, proconsuls, embassies, legions, in “various habits on the Appian road.” “What a cosmopolitan throng must have graced that highway in the first century, ” says Dr. Carroll. 11 “Thick- lipped Ethiopians with rings in noses and ears, swarthy- browed turbaned Mesopotamians, haughty Parthians, burnoosed Arabs still worshiping their polygods, hook- nosed Hebrews, carven with the humility of the despised "Lecture delivered at Shreveport, La., by B. H. Carroll, Ph.D., Professor of History, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, later U. S. Consul at Naples. 26 Transportation a Measure of Civilization rich, Greek Pedagogues and Rhetors and Tutors, togaed senators, white-clad vestals with modest faces, and painted harlots with amber hair. Lictors clearing the way with rods for some purple clad dignitary of Nero’s court and carrying the fasces and the ax; street merchants and hawkers of small wares, slaves scantily clad, stark be- muscled gladiators, Cives and Peregrini, citizens and strangers, displaying, in varying degree, arrogance and curiosity ; long yellow-haired Germans, their faces smeared with ocher and their yellow hair with oil; kilted soldiers with long spears and short broad swords ; beggars (the lazzaroni of that bygone age), pathetically sullen or volubly mendicant in the sunshine lecticae ; couches carried by bearers containing pampered nobles or high- born ladies; the cisium and the rhoda meritoria ; the car- riage and the hack of that time crossing each other’s path in the narrow road ; children naked and joyous ; merchants on caparisoned asses ; the swinging columns of the legion- aries; brown, straight-featured Egyptians. For part of the distance a canal runs parallel and travelers have their choice to take the pavement or to ride in state on painted barges dragged by mules; on the pavement a Pontifex in his robes of office and Augurs exchanging cynical smiles; the rattle of chariot wheels and some hag- gard-eyed noble, redolent from the warm and scented bath, with flower-crowned brow, drives in furious guise along the Appian Way, while barbarian and Scythian, bond and free, yield the way before him. ’ ’ Davis 12 tells us that the Roman road system after it had become a network over Italy began to spread over the whole Empire. That admirable highways were built by peace- ful legionaries for commercial purposes — and that even to- day in North Africa and in the wilds of Asia Minor where travelers seldom penetrate may be found the Roman road with its hard stones laid on a solid foundation. He fur- ther states that as a consequence of these roads commerce ““The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome,” by William Stearns Davis, The Macmillan Company, N. Y., pp. 95-105. MAP OF ROMAN ROADS IN ENGLAND Transportation a Measure of Civilization 27 expanded by leaps and bounds. A great trade passing down the Red Sea sprang up with India, reaching to the coast of Ceylon, returning with pearls, rare tapestries, and spices. Another set penetrated Arabia for much-desired incense, or unto the heart of Africa for ivory. Also with such merchandising there came a money system with banks, checks and bonds rivaling those of the present day. The bridges are an important part of any road. Those across the Tiber in Rome were regarded as sacred. They were eared for by a special body of Priests called ponti faces (bridge-makers). The name Pontifex Maximus was borne by the High Priest and became a designation for the em- peror; it is now applied to the Pope as the highest au- thority in the papal or pontifical state. Pre-historic American Roads. — When America was dis- covered it was sparsely settled with tribes of semi- civilized peoples. The ordinary aborigine was in the hunt- ing and fishing stage, just beginning to cultivate crops. True, tribes claimed regions and attempted by force to keep other tribes from trespassing thereon. They had no literature save perhaps a few rough diagrams or drawings. There was no trade or commerce and consequently no roads except mere trails. Their methods of transportation con- sisted in walking or in paddling canoes. In the making and operating of canoes and of weapons of warfare and of the chase they were most advanced. In many parts of the country there had been a civiliza- tion, but so long ago no very authentic knowledge of its character can be predicated upon the mounds, utensils, and other evidence now remaining. The Mound Builders and the Cliff Dwellers are as yet to us unknown peoples. In Mexico, Central America , 13 and Peru a much higher civilization prevailed. Especially in Peru where a very high state of agriculture was in vogue. There is even evi- ” See “Mysterious Temples of the Jungle,” by W. F. Sands, and “Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala” by S. T. Morley. The National Geographic Magazine, March, 1913. 28 Transportation a Measure of Civilization dence of a considerable degree of Art and Literature . 14 Many of the remains remind one of early Egyptian and Persian temples and roads, but perhaps no more lucid de- scription of the ancient Peruvian roads and transportation exists than that given in Prescott’s justly celebrated classic, ‘ ‘ The Conquest of Peru. ’ ’ Slightly abridged it reads thus : Those who may distrust the accounts of Peruvian industry will find their doubts removed on a visit to the country. The traveler still meets, especially in the central regions of the tableland, with memorials of the past, remains of temples, palaces, fortresses, terraced mountains, great military roads, aqueducts, and other public works, which, whatever degree of science they may dis- play in their execution, astonish him by their number, the massive character of the materials, and the grandeur of the design. Among them, perhaps the most remarkable are the great roads, the broken remains of which are still in sufficient preservation to attest their former magnificence. There were many of these roads, traversing different parts of the kingdom: but the most considerable were the two which extended from Quito to Cuzco, and, again diverging from the capital, continued in a southerly direction toward Chili. One of these roads passed over the great plateau, and the other along the lowlands on the borders of the ocean. The for- mer was much the more difficult achievement, from the character of the country. It was conducted over pathless sierras buried in snow; galleries were cut for leagues through the living rock; rivers were crossed by means of bridges that swung suspended in the air; precipices were scaled by stairways hewn out of the native bed; ravines of hideous depths were filled up with solid masonry ; in short, all the difficulties that beset a wild and moun- tainous region, and which might appall the most courageous engineer of modern times, were encountered and successfully overcome. The length of the road, of which scattered fragments only remain, is variously estimated at from fifteen hundred to two thousand miles ; and stone pillars, in the manner of European milestones, were erected at stated intervals of somewhat more than a league, all along the route. Its breadth scarcely exceeded twenty feet. It was built of heavy flags of freestone, and, in some parts at least, covered with a bituminous cement, which time has made harder than the stone itself. In some places where 14 See several excellent articles with illustrations on the explorations made in Peru by a joint expedition of Yale University and The National Geographic Society in The National Geographic Magazine, April, 1913, February, 1915, and May, 1916. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 29 the ravines had been filled up with masonry, the mountain torrents, wearing on it for ages, have gradually eaten away through the base, and left the superincumbent mass — such is the cohesion of the materials — still spanning the valley like an arch. Over some of the boldest streams it was necessary to con- struct suspension bridges, as they are termed, made of the tough fibers of the maguey, or of the osier of the country, which has an extraordinary degree of tenacity and strength. These osiers were woven into cables of the thickness of a man’s body. The huge ropes, then stretched across the water, were conducted through rings or holes cut in immense buttresses of stone raised on the opposite banks of the river and then secured to heavy pieces of timber. Several of these enormous cables bound to- gether formed a bridge which, covered with planks, well secured and defended by a railing of the same osier materials on the sides, afforded a safe passage for the traveler. The length of this aerial bridge, sometimes exceeding two hundred feet, caused it, confined as it was only at the extremities, to dip with an alarming inclination towards the center, while the motion given to it by the passenger occasioned an oscillation still more frightful, as his eye wandered over the dark abyss of waters that foamed and tumbled many fathoms beneath. Yet these light and fragile fabrics were crossed without fear by the Peruvians, and are still retained by the Spaniards over those streams which, from the depth or impetuosity of the current, would seem im- practicable for the usual modes of conveyance. The wider and more tranquil waters were crossed on balsas — a kind of raft still much used by the natives — to which sails were attached, furnish- ing the only instance of this higher kind of navigation among the American Indians. The other great road of the Incas lay through the level country between the Andes and the ocean. It was constructed in a dif- ferent manner, as demanded by the nature of the ground, which was for the most part low, and much of it sandy. The causeway was raised on a high embankment of earth, and defended on either side by a parapet or wall of clay ; and trees and odoriferous shrubs were planted along the margin, regaling the senses of the traveler with their perfumes, and refreshing him by their shades, so grateful under the burning sky of the tropics. In the strips of sandy waste which occasionally intervened, where the light and volatile soil was incapable of sustaining a road, huge piles, many of them to be seen at this day, were driven into the ground to indicate the route to the traveler. All along these highways, caravansaries, or tambos, as they were called, were erected, at the distance of ten or twelve miles from each other, for the accommodation, more particularly of the Inca and his suite and those who journeyed on the public busi- 30 Transportation a Measure of Civilization ness. There were few other travelers in Peru. Some of these buildings were on an extensive scale, consisting of a fortress, barracks, and other military works, surrounded by a parapet of stone and covering a large tract of ground. These were evidently destined for the accommodation of the imperial armies when on their march across the country. The care of the great roads was committed to the districts through which they passed, and under the Incas a large number of hands was constantly em- ployed to keep them in repair. This was the more easily done in the country where the mode of traveling was altogether on foot; though the roads are said to be so nicely constructed that a carriage might have rolled over them as securely as on any of the great roads of Europe. Still in a region where the elements of fire and water are both actively at work in the business of destruction, they must, without constant supervision, have gradually gone to decay. Such has been their fate under the Spanish conquerors, who took no care to enforce the admirable system for their preservation adopted by the Incas. Yet the broken portions that still survive here and there, like the frag- ments of the great Roman roads scattered over Europe, bear evidence to their primitive grandeur, and have drawn forth the eulogium from a discriminating traveler, usually not too pro- fuse in his panegyric, that “the roads of the Incas were among the most useful and stupendous works ever executed by man.” The system of communication through their dominions was still further improved by the Peruvian sovereigns by the intro- duction of posts, in the same manner as was done by the Aztecs. The Peruvian posts, however, established on all the great routes that conducted to the capital, were on a much more extended plan than those in Mexico. All along these routes, small build- ings were erected, at the distance of less than five miles asunder, in each of which a number of runners, or chasquis, as they were called, were stationed to carry forward the dispatches of govern- ment. These dispatches were either verbal, or conveyed by means of quipus, and sometimes accompanied b} T a thread of the crimson fringe worn round the temples of the Inca, which was regarded with the same implicit deference as the signet-ring of an Oriental despot. The chasquis were dressed in a peculiar livery, intimating their profession. They were all trained to the employment and selected for their speed and fidelity. As the distance each courier had to perform was small, and as he had ample time to refresh himself at the stations, they ran over the ground with great swiftness, and messages were carried through the whole extent of the long routes, at the rate of one hundred and fifty miles a day. The office of the chasquis was not limited to carrying dis- patches. They frequently brought various articles for the use Transportation a Measure of Civilization 31 of the court and in this way fish from the distant ocean, fruits, game, and different commodities from the hot regions on the coast, were taken to the capital in good condition, and served fresh at the royal table. It is remarkable that this important institution should have been known to both the Mexicans and the Peruvians without any correspondence with one another and that it should have been found among two barbarian nations of the New World long before it was introduced among the civilized nations of Europe. By these wise contrivances of the Incas, the most distant parts of the long extended empire of Peru were brought into intimate relations with each other. The while the capitals of Christendom, but a few hundred miles apart, remained as far asunder as if seas had rolled between them, the great capitals Cuzco and Quito were placed by the high roads of the Incas in immediate corre- spondence. Intelligence from the numerous provinces was trans- mitted on the wings of the wind to the Peruvian metropolis, the great focus to which all the lines of communication converged. Not an insurrectionary movement could occur, not an invasion on the remotest frontier, before the tidings were conveyed to the capital and the imperial armies were on their march across the magnificent roads of the country to suppress it. So admirable was the machinery contrived by the American despots for main- taining tranquillity throughout their dominions! It may remind us of the similar institutions of ancient Rome, when, under the Caesars, she was mistress of half the world. Hiram Bingham, Director of the Geographic Soeiety- Yale Peruvian Expedition 15 gives an interesting descrip- tion of the tracing out of two of these old roads. Evi- dently the trail was mostly used by foot passengers, or possibly llamas, for there were frequently steep grades and flights of steps and open ravines which had more than likely been crossed by the osier suspension bridges. No doubt much commerce beside fertilizer from the great nitrate beds was carried on over these roads. Conclusion. — If the story, very briefly given, of these old roads does not verify the thesis that transportation is a measure of civilization, a view might be taken of the tribes and peoples now living in the various parts of the earth. If the character of the transportation of the tribes of Africa and of Asia, of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, 15 Geographic Magazine, May, 1916. 32 Transportation a Measure of Civilization the least civilized now known, be compared with that of those nations considered most civilized, the same general conclusion would be drawn. Compare the railways, canals, highways, cars, automobiles, ships, and aircraft of the present-day United States with the pack animals and ox- carts of many less favored nations and the further evidence of amount of traffic and travel per person, will be un- necessary to establish the relative states of civilization. It is not necessary even to go beyond the confines of the great American Republic. Writers who traveled through it in the ’forties, ’fifties and ’sixties are wont to call attention to the uncouthness of the inhabitants, to the lack of the refine- ments of speech and manners characterizing those who dwelt in the more populous communities. But the honesty, integrity, generosity, willingness, and ability of the Ameri- can pioneers to dare and to do, were unquestioned. It is a pity that many of the best traits of humanity disappear when people are crowded into cities, when their wants and desires are increased, when the refinements of civilization have replaced the ruggedness of pioneer life. Then, as now, upon the action of a bare majority, which in a repub- lic is called “the will of the people,” often hung the political, social and financial destiny of the nation. A slight change would have changed the course of civilizing evolution ; who knows whether for good or ill. As the trivium and quadrivium were the roads, believed by the ancients to lead to a liberal education, so the government and the civilization of this now great nation has rested con- secutively in its upward progress, upon the slender path of the aborigine, swelled to the well defined trail of the pack- train, broadened into the cart and wagon road, cast lip into a turnpike; and upon the rippling trace of the light canoe, the dugout, the keel-boat, the pole-boat, the flat- boat, the canal-boat and the steam-boat ; all to be sup- planted by the thunder of the locomotive. What in the process of evolution will follow it? The automobile, the truck, the flying machine? Time alone can tell. Transportation a Measure of Civilization 33 SELECTED REFERENCES Davis, William Stearns, “The Influence of Wealth on Imperial Rome,” pp. 85-105. The Macmillan Company, New York. Ely, Richard T., “Outlines of Economics,” The Macmillan Co., New York. Chapter III. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Articles on the “Steam Engine,” “Yarn,” “Weaving,” and “Railway.” Green, John Richard, “History of the English People,” Book IX, Chapter III. Havell, H. L., /'“Republican Rome,” p. 112, Harrap & Co., Lon- don, 191£: Heitland, /W. E., “The Roman Republic,” University Press, Cambridge. Livy, Titus, “History of Rome,” Translated by William A. M’Devitte, Book IX, Chap. 29; XXII, 15; XXIV, 8; George Bell & Sons, London, 1890. Macaulay, Thomas Babington, “The History of England,” Vol. I, Chapter III. Mommsen, Professor Theodor, “The History of the Roman Re- public,” Abridgment by Bryans and Hendy, pp. 95, 97, 98, 108, 175, 219, 251, 318, 319, 320. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1893. Morley, S. T., “Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala,” The Na- tional Geographic Magazine, March, 1913. Account of explorations made in Peru by a joint expedition of Yale University and The National Geographic Society in The National Geographic Magazine, April, 1913, February, 1915, and May, 1916. Niebuhr, B. G., “Lectures on Ancient History,” Vol. Ill, p. 156; “Lectures on the History of Rome,” Vol. Ill, p. 229. Taylor, Walton & Maberly, London, 1852. Osborn, Henry F., “Men of the Old Stone Age.” C. Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1915. Prescott, William H., “Conquest of Peru,” 2 Vol., Vol. I, pp. 62-67, J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1869. Sands, W. F., “Mysterious Temples of the Jungle,” in The Na- tional Geographic Magazine, March, 1913. Selfridge, H. Gordon, “The Romance of Commerce,” John Lane, London. Stanley, Henry M., “In Darkest Africa” (two volumes). C. Scribner’s Sons, New York. CHAPTER II TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES; EARLY TRAILS AND ROADS The early settlements of this country were made upon the shores, naturally, because the settlers were brought by ships from Europe and supplies of various sorts were from time to time renewed by ships. The settlers were not skilled in the art of living on the country as were the natives and when supply vessels failed to put in their appearance there was real hardship in and sometimes entire extermination of the colonists. The penetration of settlement to the interior was slow and even to times within the memory of men now living much of the interior was an unknown wilderness. The Birch Bark Canoe. — Travel from place to place was at first insignificant and what little there was was carried on by walking, horseback riding, or by boat. Settlement, which had begun on the ocean or at the head of ocean navigation on inlets or rivers, was eventually pushed far- ther inland. The rivers and other waterways being at hand were utilized; the birch-bark canoe, the dugout, and the plank boat, furnished the principal vehicles of transporta- tion. The Indians were very expert in the manufacture and operation of light birch-bark canoes. Longfellow in “Hiawatha” gives a poetical description of this: With his knife the tree he girdled; Just beneath its lowest branches, Just above the roots he cut it, Till the sap came oozing outward; Down the trunk from top to bottom, Sheer he cleft the bark asunder, With a wooden wedge he raised it Stripped it from the trunk unbroken. 34 Transportation Development in the United States 35 Then, he explains how the framework is made of cedar : Like two bows he framed and shaped them, Like two bended bows together. After which they were tied together and the bark fastened to the frame by fibrous roots of the larch, then Hiawatha Took the resin of the fir tree Smeared therewith each seam and fissure, Made each crevice safe from water. The aborigine paddled this frail bark so skillfully that the noise of rowing was scarcely audible or the waves visible. And when he came to the headwaters of the stream he was able to raise the light craft above his head and follow the dim trail across the lower lying hills to the stream beyond the water-shed leading in the opposite direction. The white man, profiting by the Red Man’s experience learned to build these boats, as well as heavier ones of logs and timber for transporting goods, and utilized the same trails to push his civilization farther into the unknown. Meagerness of Early Roads. — In the “History of Travel” 1 Mr. Dunbar quotes from a document in the New York Historical Society’s collection, written by Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of His Majesty’s Province of New York, and dated 1694, which shows the lack of roadways or even passable trails in northern New York: “It is impossible to march with any party of men to Canada by Land, either in winter or summer, but they must passe a Considerable Part of ye way over ye Lake, ye land on each side being ex- tream steep and Rocky mountains or els a meer cumbered with underwood, where men can not goe upright, but must creep throu Bushes for whole days’ marches, and im- possible for horses to goe at any time of ye year.” The same author quotes from a letter by Deputy Gover- nor Hinkley of Plymouth Colony, about 1680, asking the English Government for favors because this Colony was “the first that broke the ice, and underwent ye brunt, at ‘“A History of Travel,” by Seymour Dunbar. 36 Transportation Development in the United States our own charge, for the enlargement of his Majestie’s dominions in this heretofore most howling wilderness, amidst wild Indians and wild beasts.” In Massachusetts, 2 on the other hand, it is stated that while communication was usually by water one writer boasts that “the wild and uncouth woods were filled with frequented ways and the large rivers were overlaid with bridges, passable both for horse and foot.” But notwith- standing this it was probably not before the beginning of the sixteenth century that any very serious attempts were made even to widen the trails so that wagon traffic was possible. In 1754 3 four days were needed to go from Boston to New York by stage, and three days more to go to Philadelphia. Twelve years later it required the “Flying Machine” two days to make the trip between New York and Philadelphia. Settlement Follows Waterways; Portages. — The open- ing up for settlement of new territory necessitated means of communication. That near waterways was most easily reached and most easily kept within reach of older settle- ments and was, therefore, naturally first taken up and occupied. To penetrate farther the interior made it neces- sary to cross from one water system to another. As necessity arose the trails were widened into roads and often at these portages were established forts and villages for protection against the natives and to facilitate trade. Villages grew into towns and towns into cities. Portages became known and were talked about just as railroad lines were later. 4 To go from the region near New York the Hudson River was available to the watershed near Lake George, where there was a 15-mile portage guarded by Forts Edward on the Hudson and William Henry on Lake George. After traversing Lake George there was another 3 ‘‘The American Nation,” ‘‘England in America,” by L. G. Tyler. Vol. IV, p. 322. 3 ‘‘American Nation,” Vol. VIII, p. 15. 4 Cf . ‘ ‘ Historic Highways of America, ” by A. B. Hurlbert, and ‘‘Basis of American History” (Vol. II of ‘‘The American Nation”), by L. Farrand. MAP OF THE NORTH-EASTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING PORTAGES Transportation Development in the United States 37 portage to Lake Champlain guarded by Fort Tieonderoga. These names are often mentioned in the histories of the French and Indian and of the Revolutionary wars. The Oneida portage, leading from the Mohawk, a tribu- tary of the Hudson, to Wood Creek thence by the Oswego River furnished a way to Ontario and the other Great Lakes. A portage around Niagara Falls is now supplanted by the Welland Canal. Lines of Travel. — To reach the Ohio Valley travelers might go by way of the north along the routes just mentioned to the Great Lakes, thence to the interior of Ohio, or they could leave the Mohawk and portage across to the upper waters of the Allegheny. The Indians gave trouble along these lines, so a more southerly route was often taken. Some of these, commencing on the north, were: Up the Susquehanna to its headwaters, portage to one or the other of tributaries which flow into the Allegheny near Kittanning; leave the Susquehanna and go up the Juniata and portage over to the Conemaugh, thence to the Alle- gheny — a course partly occupied now by the Pennsylvania railroad ; or, by way of the Potomac, and Wills Creek, then across the Youghiogheny, and Monongahela. Several other trails crossed the Alleghanies. A trail through southern Pennsylvania called occasionally Nemacolin’s Path after- ward formed the line of Braddock’s Road, hastily con- structed for military purposes during the French and Indian War, and over which Braddock’s unfortunate expe- dition traveled. Still farther south there was a well-known trail often followed by the Cherokee Indians, by trappers, hunters, traders, and missionaries desirous of reaching the lands beyond the mountains. Skirting the north end of the Blue Ridge range the traveler followed up the Shenandoah to near the present town of Staunton, thence across the ridges to the headwaters of the James, thence to upper tributaries of the New River, then by crossing a few more ridges to the Holston River, thence into the bountiful hunting grounds of Tennessee. The Cherokee Indians were jealous of this territory and as far as possible kept it 38 Transportation Development in the United States closed to the settler. Therefore the country beyond the Alleghanies was not well known to the Virginia colonists, even up to 1800. True, records of Dougherty, a trader, who had visited the Indian tribes in this region as early as 1690 were known, and another (Adair) in 1730, and still others after 1740. Glowing reports were brought back by the few traders, hunters, trappers, and occasional talkative Indians, who had visited those regions of magnificent rivers, vast woods, and extended prairies. The wild beasts with which this fertile country abounded were likened to the leaves on the trees, they were so abundant; Even the great Ohio River was but a tributary of a larger river of which they had no definite information. The trip, in the language of the Indian, from the headwaters of the Holston (Hogo higee) to the Wabash (Ohio) required for its per- formance “two paddles, two warriors, three moons.” 5 These glowing descriptions only whetted the adventurous appetite and soon such hardy pioneers as Daniel Boone and his comrades sought this territory where they could live near to nature and be freed from high taxes. There was also a well-worn trail from Philadelphia, east of the Cherokee (Shenandoah) through Virginia to the Yadkin, from which travelers could diverge at various points and reach the Cherokee trail or go on through Cumberland Gap farther to the west. Trails from the North. — Traders from Virginia who reached far out in Tennessee and Kentucky found competi- tion from those who came down by one of the several routes from the Great Lakes or up from the lower Mississippi. A route left Lake Erie at what is now Cleveland, passed up the Cuyahoga, portaged across to a tributary of the Ohio, then into Kentucky; another left the Lake at Sandusky 7 , followed the Miami, crossed to the Scioto, thence down to the Ohio, across Kentucky to Cumberland Gap, sometimes called the Scioto trail and farther south the Warrior’s Trail. As western territory settled, trails and roads became 15 Ramsey ’s ‘ ‘ Annals of Tennessee. ’ ’ Transportation Development in the U nited States 39 more numerous. Readers desiring further detailed infor- mation are referred to Hurlbert, Thwaites, Dunbar, and Farrand . 6 A few other routes, however, should be men- tioned on account of the importance they assumed in the settlement of the nation. Boone’s Trace, or The Wilderness Road. — This road is said to be the first road built into the wilderness for the purpose of encouraging settlement and development. In the late years of the nineteenth century it was no uncom- mon thing for a railroad to precede settlement, but at the beginning of the eighteenth century roads were, in America, made largely for military purposes or where demanded by the traffic of earlier settlement. Daniel Boone, the noted hunter and explorer, had several times left his home in North Carolina to hunt and travel in the wilds of Kentucky. He brought back to the eastern side of the mountains glowing descriptions. These excited the cupidity of a friend, a judge and prominent citizen of North Carolina, James 7 Henderson. Henderson employed Boone to confer with the Cherokee Indians who claimed this territory for the sale of their rights. Boone sought out the Indians and by means now unknown got them to agree to sell. The fact that they were persuaded to dispose of their great hunting grounds shows what in- fluence Boone had among them. It has been intimated that the chiefs realized the futility of further fighting the white settler or that the Cherokees felt they had no real right to this land as it had been rather held as neutral territory 8 ‘ ‘ Historic Highways of America, ” by A. B. Hurlbert, 16 volumes, 1902-05, A. H. Clark Company, Cleveland. A series of annotated re- prints of some of the best contemporary volumes of travel in America, compiled by Reuben Gold Thwaites, 1904-07, 32 volumes, A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland. ‘ ‘ A History of Travel in America, ’ ’ by Seymour Dunbar, 4 volumes, 1915, Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, Ind. ‘ ‘ Basis of American History, ’ ’ Chapter II, ‘ ‘ Routes of Travel, ’ ’ Vol. II of the American Nation Series, by Livingston Farrand, 1907, Harper & Brothers, New York. There is good bibliography in this volume. 7 Cecil B. Hartley in his “Life of Daniel Boone,” gives the name of the head of this company as Colonel Richard Henderson. 40 Transportation Development in the United States among several tribes. However, as soon as they had given their pledge Boone is said to have gone immediately to Henderson, who repaired at once to Port Watauga on a branch of the Holston in North Carolina, where he met 1200 natives in council and completed the deal in the name of the Transylvania Company. The main opposition came from an eloquent and powerful chief named Dragging Canoe, 8 who was able to disrupt proceedings the first day. After his speech the council broke up in confusion. The next day, however, the Indians again went into council and the treaty was ratified. Estimates of the price paid range from “ten wagon loads of cheap goods and whiskey,” to “the equivalent of ten thousand pounds sterling,” 9 As soon as the deal was consummated Boone, employed by Henderson, began the marking and cutting out of a road from Watauga, North Carolina, to Boonesborough, Ken- tucky. The party numbered about forty men, consisting of colored men to care for the camp duties and the neces- sary pack animals and a body of woodsmen with axes. Boone went ahead and blazed the way by chopping notches in the sides of trees along the way, the axmen following cleared away the underbrush and felled and removed such trees as stood in the way. However, as it was easier to de- tour than to chop, usually only small trees were cut. It was not intended that this should be a wagon road, as wagons had but just made their appearance in this region. However, it was to be an easily followed way for future settlers. In Boone’s Autobiography, dictated to John Filson, the matter of the road is referred to thus : After the conclusion of which (a campaign against the Sliawanese Indians which Boone commanded by order of Gov- ernor Dunmore), the militia was discharged from each garrison, and I, being relieved from my post, was solicited by a number of North Carolina gentlemen, that were about purchasing the lands lying on the north side of Kentucky River, from the 8 "The Winning of the West,” Vol. II, by Theodore Roosevelt. 9 Dunbar’s ‘‘History of Travel,” Vol. I. Roosevelt’s ‘‘Winning of the West,” Vol. II. Transportation Development in the United States 41 Cherokee Indians, to attend their treaty at Wataga, in March, 1755, to negotiate with them, and mention the boundaries of the purchase. This I accepted; and, at the request of the same gentlemen, undertook to mark out a road in the best passage from the settlement through the wilderness to Kentucky, with such assistance as I thought necessary to employ for such an important undertaking. I soon began this work, having collected a number of enter- prising men, well armed. We proceeded with all possible ex- pedition until we came within fifteen miles of where Boones- borough now stands, and where we were fired upon by a party of Indians, that killed two, and wounded two of our number; yet, although surprised and taken at a disadvantage, we stood our ground. This was the 20th of March, 1775. Three days after, we were fired upon again, and had two men killed and three wounded. Afterwards we proceeded on to Kentucky River without opposition; and on the 1st of April began to erect the fort of Boonesborough at a salt lick, about sixty yards from the river on the south side. A letter from Captain Boone to Colonel Henderson is quoted by Peck in his life of Boone, relating to this same enterprise, which shows the dangerous nature of the work and that even Boone seemed somewhat worried over the matter : Dear Colonel: After my compliments to you, I shall acquaint you with our misfortune. On March the 25th a party of Indians fired on my company about half an hour before day, and killed Mr. Twitty and his negro, and wounded Mr. Walker very deeply but I hope he will recover. On March the 28th, as we were hunting for provisions, we found Samuel Tate’s son, who gave us an account that the Indians fired on their camp on the 27th day. My brother and I went down and found two men killed and scalped, Thomas Mc- Dowell and Jeremiah McPeters. I have sent a man down to all the lower companies in order to gather them all to the mouth of Otter Creek. My advice to you, sir, is to come or send as soon as possible. Your company is desired greatly, for the people are very uneasy, but are willing to stay and venture their lives with you; and now is the time to flusterate their (the Indians) intentions, and keep the country whilst we are in it. If we give way to them now, it will ever be the case. This day we start from the battle-ground for the mouth of Otter Creek, where we will immediately erect a fort, which will be done before you can 42 Transportation Development in the United States come or send ; then we can send ten men to meet you if you send for them. I am sir, your most obedient, Daniel Boone. N. B. — We stood on the ground and guarded our baggage till day, and lost nothing. We have about fifteen miles to Cantuck at Otter Creek. The road began “at the settlements,” which were prob- ably in what are now Sullivan and Hawkins counties. Tennessee, but mostly along the Watauga River, then thought to be a part of Virginia. The road was a continua- tion of the Cherokee trail through the mountains. This trail served the great migration following the Revolution- ary War in Tennessee and Kentucky. From the settle- ments there is a westerly course to the Holston River at Long Island near the site of old Long Island Fort con- structed by Colonel Bird to winter his army during the French and Indian War in 1758. At this place he received some reinforcements and then continued in a generally westward direction through country he was more or less familiar with to the Clinch River, then across the ridge to the Powell River, and finally to Cumberland Gap, through which he entered the land of “Kentucke. ” Here he arrived at the Warrior’s Trail leading northward, so called because Kentucky had been a sort of neutral hunt- ing grounds of the Indians from the North, the Miamis, Shawnees, Wyandots, and others and of the Cherokees, Creeks, Catawbas, and others, from the South. Never- theless the Indians from the South habitually crossed over and fought those from the North and vice versa, hence a large and much frequented trail. Boone appropriated this native route for a distance of about 50 miles to near the present town of Manchester in Clay County. Here he found a “street” made by the buffalo, which were wont to travel through the cane-brakes about five or six abreast, thus with their thousands of hoofs breaking and hardening a way wide enough for a team and wagon. Turning west he followed the bisons’ street MAP SHOWING MAIN HIGHWAYS AND WATERWAYS IN UNITED STATES' ABOUT 1830 Transportation Development in the United States 43 to Rock Castle River, then turned northward again to the Kentucky River and the site of Boonesborough. A fort was here erected by placing stout log cabins with heavy stockades between about a rectangular space some 150 x 260 feet. A pair of strong -wooden gates furnished ingress and egress. Several times was this fort attacked by Indians, the last time in 1778, by nearly 500 warriors, but always, be* cause of the block houses at the corners with their loop- holes and the heavy barricades, also with loop holes, they were able to withstand the attacks and finally repulse the Indians. The first legislature of the Transylvania Republic, as Henderson’s scheme came to be known, was held here. Boone was a member, as was Harrod from Harrodstown, and other early settlers of Kentucky. There is no doubt but that this highway and blockhouse fort were of great assistance in settling and developing the country of Kentucke. Calk’s Diary. — One of the first parties to make use of Boone’s Trace was that of Henderson in response to Boone’s letter heretofore quoted. A naive diary kept by one of its members, William Calk, is still in existence. It has been made available by the publications of the Filson Club. Speed 10 and Dunbar 11 quote it extensively. Theodore (afterward President) Roosevelt 12 says “the writer’s mind was evidently as vigorous as his language was terse and untrammeled.” While spelling, capitaliza- tion, and punctuation may not conform to the best modern style it must be remembered that in those early days there were no public schools. A few private schools were taught by more or less shiftless school teachers, but the man who could read and write at all was fortunate. Boone’s school- ing, of a very meager nature, closed when he and some of his schoolmates exchanged the teacher’s whisky bottle for a similar one doped with tartar emetic. The sick teacher ““The Wilderness Road.” 11 “ A History of Travel in America. ’ ’ ““Winning of the West.” 44 Transportation Development in the United States made a “rough house” with Boone and his companions but was finally knocked down and the school dismissed. To return to William Calk’s diary. It is a sort of log or running account of the trip and events from day to day as they impressed him, from its beginning March 13, 1775, in Prince William County, Virginia, till he arrives at Boonesborough. It is certainly a very good commentary on the early travel conditions. A few of the entries are: 1775, Mon. 13th — I set out from prince wm. to travel to Cain- tuck on tursday Night our company all got together at Mr. Priges on rapadon which was Abraham hanks phipip Drake Eanock Smith Robert Whitledge and myself thiar Abrahms Dogs leg got broke by Drakes Dog. Wednesday, 15th — We started early from priges made a good days travel and lodge this night at Mr. Cars on North fork James River. So he continues with his daily items. It may be interest- ing to note that Wedns 22nd — We start early and git to foart Chissel whear we git some good loaf bread and good whiskey. On “fry day 24th” they turned out of the main wagon road in order to go to “Danil Smiths” on the Clinch River, where they arrived Saturday evening and very hard traveling they found it through the mountains. Those who have had experience with pack animals in the timber will relish this incident which occurred soon after the few days’ sojourn at Smith’s. Thusd 30th — We set out again and went down to Elk gardin and there suplid our Selves With Seed Corn and irish tators then we went on a little way I turned my hors to drive before me and he got scard ran away threw Down the Saddle Bags and broke three of our powder goards and Abrams beast Burst open a walet of com and lost a good Deal and made a turrable flustration amongst the Reast of the Horses Drakes mair run against a sapling and nocht it down we cacht them all again and went on and loged at John Duncans. They “suplyed” themselves with bacon and meal at “Dunkan’s.” This was their last chance to get provisions Transportation Development in the United States 45 other than the game afforded by the country. They found this a “verey Bad hilley way.” Were mired in the mud, fell in the water and got their loads wet. Since they turned off to go to Smith’s they had been traveling unbroken or dim trails; on “mond 3rd” after traveling the woods with- out any track they “git into hendersons Road,” that is the trail which Boone had recently blazed for the Transylvania Company. On “Tuesday 4th” they overtook “Col. hen- derson and his company Bound for Caintuck,” at Capt. Martin’s where “they were Broiling and Eating Beef with- out Bread.” They now formed a company of about “40 men and some neagros. ’ ’ Saturday 8th — We all pack up and started crost Cumberland gap about one oclock this Day Met a good many peopel turned back for fear of the indians but our Company goes on Still with good courage. News of the depredations of the Indians frightened many and caused them to turn back. The Henderson party were able to pursuade some of these to remain. On the 9th they met ‘ ‘ another Companey going Back they tell such News abram and Drake is afraid to go aney farther there we camp this night.” However, after many hardships, swollen streams over which they must sometimes swim their horses, “obliged to toat” the packs over themselves, they arrived at their destination. Once ‘ ‘ Abrams mair Ran into the River with her load and swam over” he followed her and “got on her and made her swim back again. ’ ’ He mentions occasionally Killing game: one “Eavening two Deer,” another day a “beef,” and again “2 bofelos.” The writer was evidently disgusted with the uncleanly and unsanitary Drake, whose dog is mentioned in the first entry, for he notes that ‘ ‘ Mr. Drake Bakes Bread without washing his hands,” which evidently was unusual in even these frontier times. After arriving at “Boones foart” they drew “for chois of lots;” some as will always happen were dissatisfied. This small company, however, must have decided to accept the verdict of chance for Calk writes : 46 Transportation Development in the United States Wednesday 26th — We Begin Building us a house and a plaise of Defense to Keep the indians off this day we begin to live with- out bread. Satterday 29th — We git our house Kivered with Bark and move our things into it at Night and Bigin houseKeeping Eanoek Smith Robert Whitledge and myself. Thus ends this interesting journal kept under difficult conditions when ordinary men would have considered it useless labor to make such a record. There is no doubt but that Boone’s Wilderness Road and Boone’s Fort were both very instrumental in the settlement of Kentucky and Ten- nessee. The territory of Kentucky was separated from Virginia in 1786 and admitted to the union as a state in 1790, when it had a population, by U. S. Census, of 73,077. Marquette’s Explorations. — Religious devotion and zeal has done much for the settlement of North America : the Puritans in New England, the Quakers in Pennsylvania, the Catholics in Maryland and Canada, and very much later the Mormons in Utah are familiar examples. A French Jesuit missionary, Jacques Marquette, who with another, Claude Bablon, had founded (1668) a settlement at St. Mary’s on the falls between Lakes Superior and Huron, said to be the first French settlement within the present boundaries of the United States, had made friends with the Illinois Indians and learned their language. He also collected the remains of the Huron tribes at St. Ignaee and established a mission there (1671). Marquette had heard from the Indians many tales of the Great river to the west, and decided to explore the region along its borders, despite their assertion of great dangers, that its warriors never spared the stranger, and that monsters would de- vour both men and canoes. Traveling with his company up the Fox River from Green Bay he crossed the portage, which still retains the name “Portage,” to the headwaters of the Wisconsin. With the explorer Joliet and five sub- ordinates as companions, he boldly embarked upon the Wisconsin and floated down its course, knowing not where it would lead nor what dangers might be in store. After Transportation Development in the United States 47 seven days of solitary travel they floated with inexpressible joy on the broad bosom of the Mississippi, June 17, 1673. They continued their lonely voyage along its placid waters until they reached the mouth of the Moingona, where were seen evidences of habitation. Fourteen miles in the in- terior was a native village. They said they were received most friendly with a calumet, invited into their dwellings, and feasted. They explained their religious doctrines and were sent away with the gift of a calumet or peace pipe embellished with the heads and necks of various colored bright and beautiful birds. They sailed along their solitary way and were soon re- warded by hearing the rush of the swifter, more turbulent, muddy waters of the Missouri, which seemed from thereon to enhance the speed of the current. They went on past the mouths of the Ohio and the Arkansas, where they found savages who spoke a new tongue and were armed with guns, proof that they had trafficked with the Spaniards from the Gulf of Mexico, or with the English from Virginia. These exhibiting hostility which was only allayed by the peace pipe, they retreated and sailed back up the river. When Marquette reached the Illinois he entered and ascended that river where he beheld the magnificent fertility and color- ing inuring to the late summer and early autumn of the extensive plains and vast wooded tracts of Illinois. An easy portage brought him to the Chicago River, a short stream whose waters are now reversed and flow into the Illinois. Some authorities claim Marquette to have been the first white man to set foot upon the site of Chicago (1673). Others 13 state that the French Jesuit Nicholas Perrot and his party of fur traders pitched their tent on its prairies the latter part of 1669. To Marquette, however, belongs the honor of discovering two very important routes to the Mississippi Valley; the one by way of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, and the other by way of the Illinois. Unfortunately the hardships of this journey undermined his health and the next year 13 Henry Howe. 48 Transportation Development in the United States (1674) a half hour after he had retired for devotion to a small altar of stones on the banks of a little stream now called by his name, he was found dead. Thus judged by the extent and value of the territory traversed, passed away, at the early age of thirty-one, one of our country’s greatest explorers. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — Another explor- ing expedition sought a path to extend the commerce of the United States in the far Oregon country. The great Rocky Mountain ranges precluded direct approach. The idea had evidently fastened itself upon Thomas Jefferson, even before he became president, that the Missouri River might be made the highway across the continent, and that trade and commerce thus engendered would inure to the benefit of the country. Also being a highly educated man, he was deeply interested in extending the geographical and biological knowledge of this vast region even though no remuneration to the nation might come therefrom. Fur- thermore, it is possible, he desired to secure the territories beyond the Rockies as a part of the country, but he was too shrewd to make plain statements to that effect. His shrewdness and the business sagacity of Livingston, minister to France, coupled with the financial straits of Napoleon resulted in obtaining an extensive portion of the country without which the United States could not have developed into a strong well-bound nation reaching from coast to coast. Whether Mr. Jefferson would have at- tempted to take this country by force matters not now. The fact that the Lewis and Clark military expedition was ready to start almost as soon as the purchase was made, lends suspicion to that idea. The nomination of Monroe to be Minister to France, the man whom Jefferson expected to conduct the Louisiana negotiations, and who arrived in France just in time to see them completed by Livingston, was made January 11, 1803 ; while the message proposing the expedition was submitted January 18; the treaty of cession for the purchase was signed May 2; and during that same month the expedition which had previously or- Transportation Development in the United States 49 ganized left its winter quarters about a day’s journey from St. Louis, and proceeded up the Missouri River. The ex- pedition consisted of forty-five persons in three boats, one a flat boat decked over at the ends and two pirogues 14 together with a number of horses which were to be driven along the bank for the use of the hunters. The personnel consisted of the two officers, Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant (by courtesy Captain) William Clark, both of whom were from families already distinguished in border service ; twenty-seven men who expected to make the entire journey ; seven soldiers and nine voyageurs who were to go only to the Mandan villages of the Missouri, where the party would winter. Of the twenty-seven permanent mem- bers one was a half-breed hunter who would also act as interpreter, two were French voyageurs, and one a negro servant of Clark. All, except the black slave, were enlisted in the army that discipline might be secured. Their prog- ress was necessarily slow and a full account of it reads like a romance. They of course had to live off the country as they proceeded. There was no roadway along the river, often the brush was thick and the grass high; the river with its turbulent waters, snags, and sand bars made navi- gation difficult ; flies and mosquitoes, those pests of bottom and marshy land, were abundant. They had some trouble with the Sioux Indians, but Captains Lewis and Clark were evidently able to cope with them successfully. They reached a point near the present site of Bismarck, N.D., that summer. This region was occupied by the Mandan Indians, who lived in villages of rather permanent character. Among these they found some who had traveled far toward the headwaters of the Missouri. One woman, known as the Bird Woman, was especially helpful to them. She had been captured some time previously from a moun- tain tribe and according to Indian custom married to one of their own number, a half breed. During the stay at 14 A pirogue proper is a canoe dug out of a single log. These may have been and probably were keel boats built of timber and the name pirogue extended to them colloquially. 50 Transportation Development in the United States winter quarters, in addition to writing up their journals and records very carefully, they cultivated the acquaint- ance of this woman. She, with her half breed husband and small child, accompanied the expedition when it be- gan its onward journey in the spring of 1805. There was real need for them not only to act as guides and inter- preters, but to replace those who had been sent back down the river with reports of the progress and observations of the expedition up to this time. Part of the duties of the expedition, as heretofore intimated, was to note the character and productivity of the land, as well as the nature and number of Indians found and general information con- cerning them and their mode of living. When the falls of the Missouri were reached there seemed to be an impasse. But from logs and other timbers found there they constructed a crude wagon on which their sup- plies and equipment were transported to the river above. They had brought with them the iron framework of a smaller boat than those used heretofore with the idea of covering it with stretched skins. They found difficulty, however, in getting it watertight. They attempted to get pitch by heating pine tree trunks but were again unsuc- cessful. They resorted finally to a combination of pow- dered charcoal, beeswax, and buffalo tallow — practically natural products of the land. The boat floated nicely and they were greatly encouraged but when it was taken from the water the mixture dropped off and the seams opened up. Lewis finally gave up the attempt and buried the framework and built canoes according to the Indian fashion. In passing up they came to forks in the river and were often at a loss which to take. By conference with the Indian woman and reports of scouts sent ahead they were usually fortunate in choosing the right course. Being ex- plorers of a new country they assigned names to the rivers as they discovered them. At three forks, they called the rivers, Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson, names which they still retain. Three branches of the Jefferson were Phi- losophy, Philanthropy, and Wisdom; these names have not Transportation Development in the United States 51 remained — probably they were too fanciful — the Philan- thropy is now the odoriferous Stinking Water. They followed up the Jefferson until it became too shallow and precipitous to navigate longer. Lewis started out overland into the interior hoping to find an Indian habitation and someone who would guide him to waters flowing Pacificward. Game, which had been very abun- dant practically all the way, was here scarce and the com- pany were often hungry, and very likely despondent. After arduous and weary wandering Lewis came across an old Indian woman and some girls. They were afraid of him and bowed their heads for execution. Instead he gave them trinkets and face paint. The men of the tribe having come up he with difficulty persuaded them to go with him to the river where the “Bird Woman” who had come with them from the Mandan village was recognized as the sister of the chief of the band with which Lewis had fortunately come in contact. Their food up to this time, which was mostly meat, was easily supplied from the numerous herds of buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope; from flocks of wild fowl, and prairie chickens ; and from several varieties of fish found in the waters. ‘ ‘ On the return voyage, when Clark was descend- ing the Yellowstone River, a vast herd of buffalo, swimming and wading, plowed its way across the stream where it was a mile wide, in a column so thick that explorers had to draw up on shore and wait for an hour, until it passed by, before continuing their journey .” 15 They frequently found hungry wolves, grizzly bears, and rattlesnakes which gave them more or less trouble, but they complained mostly of the mosquitoes. But now having left the open country they found game very scarce. The Indians occasionally brought them a Rocky Mountain sheep but they themselves claim never to have seen one alive. After a short exploration in the region of the headwaters of the Jefferson they decided to continue toward the west. So purchasing ponies from the Indians ““The Winning of the West,” Vol. VI, by Theodore Eoosevelt. 52 Transportation Development in the United States and cacheing most of their goods went on until the rivers were again passable for boats, where making new canoes they again took to the waters and voyaged to the mouth of the Columbia. Hunger harassed them, while rapids and whirlpools made their downward travel very disagreeable. The Indians on the lower reaches were generally friendly but their food consisted largely of dog meat, which at first was nauseating; however, after awhile they became recon- ciled to the Indians’ favorite dish. The party wintered on the coast at a post they named Fort Clatsch. The damp winds here were cold and raw and to persons used to active outdoor life the winter’s en- forced idleness cloyed, and they were glad when spring came and they could turn back. The streams toward the mountains are very swift so much of the return journey to the place where they had left their horses with the Nez Perce Indians had to be made on foot. Upon again secur- ing their horses they separated at the top of the divide, Lewis returning by way of the Missouri and Clark going by way of the Yellowstone. Clark for a portion of the way subdivided his party in order that the maximum terri- tory might be explored. They met again at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone and concluded their expe- dition at St. Louis, September 23, 1806. Thus ended a marvelous journey of three and a third years through a wilderness beset with many dangers, inhabited by savage tribes, venomous reptiles, and ferocious beasts ; but a wilderness on the whole extremely friendly, abounding in succulent vegetation and edible game, and endowed with a healthful and invigorating climate. During all this time, notwithstanding hardships and exposures, one man only had died, one had deserted and not more than two Indians had been killed. 16 To Lewis and Clark for their ability to handle men, for their courage, and fidelity should be given much praise. Upon the report of this expedition being made public 16 Cf. “Winning of the West,” Vol. VI, p. 259; and “The American Nation,” Vol. XII, p. 94. Transportation Development in the United States 53 very many hunters, trappers and fur traders came to the lands beyond the Missouri. These in turn were followed by bona-fide settlers. Soon this country was furnishing sup- plies for those farther east, the great rivers Missouri, Mis- sissippi, and Ohio being busy routes of internal commerce. As a result of Lewis and Clark’s labors the United States was able to lay claim to the Oregon country some years later. The door was opened for the development of a vast empire with versatile resources far beyond the fabled riches of the far east. Transcontinental Trails. — Following the purchase of the Louisiana territory there was, of course, an extension of settlement to the prairies beyond the Missouri. The State of Missouri was early occupied and became a state in 1821, but it was many years later before other portions of the Louisiana Purchase were sufficiently settled to become ter- ritories. 17 The settlement of these lands, together with the opening up of Oregon and later California with its great gold rush, created a demand for transconti- nental roads. The mountain ranges were searched for passes, possibly not so much for the purposes of settlement as means for going to and coming from fur trading posts which large companies established throughout the whole Rocky Mountain region. St. Louis became the greatest fur center in the world, a position which she probably holds 17 State Settled Admitted a Territory Admitted a State Missouri 1755 1812 1821 Arkansas 1685 1819 1836 Kansas 1854 1854 1861 Nebraska 1847 1854 1867 North Dakota 1812 1861 1889 South Dakota 1859 1861 1889 Wyoming 1834 1868 1890 Colorado 1859 1861 1876 Idaho 1852 1863 1890 Montana 1861 1864 1889 Iowa 1833 1838 1846 Minnesota 1846 1849 1858 54 Transportation Development in the United States still. 18 Provost, leader of a detachment of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company (Wm. H. Ashley, of Virginia, founder), found the South Pass by way of the Sweetwater branch of the North Fork of the Platte River, 1823. This pass held preeminence as a crossing through the Rockies to the great interior basin and to the Pacific coast. Al- ready has been mentioned the crossing of Lewis and Clark in the North. Bridger discovered the pass in Southern Wyoming bearing his name, about 1824. This defile though wide enough for an army to pass through seems narrow be- cause of its lateral walls of red granite and metamorpliic sandstone extending almost perpendicularly from 1000 to 25,000 feet. The overland mail route prior to the building of the Union Pacific Railroad was through this pass. Jedediah Smith, who succeeded Ashley as head of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, explored practically all the region from Great Salt Lake to the Pacific, and from San Diego to the upper Columbia River in Canada. To him is the world indebted for its first knowledge of much of the vast region west of Salt Lake as by other active members of this company was revealed the sources of the Platte, the Yellowstone, the Green and the Snake Rivers, and possible routes through the almost impassable moun- tains drained by them. New England was especially in- terested in the Oregon country and through men from there the Humboldt River route was discovered. During this same period there were being opened up trade and trade routes with the Spanish possessions farther south. In 1822 a wagon train was taken from Missouri to Santa Fe by a man named Beckwith to trade for horses and mules, and trap along the way. For years St. Louis was headquarters for many overland traders to these regions, taking to them cloths and other manufactured goods and bringing back furs, silver, mules, and horses. The Oregon Trail, the Santa Fe Trail, the Spanish 18 Reports for 1920 show that New York has exceeded St. Louis in manufactured furs but St. Louis seems still to be the largest market for raw furs. TRANSCONTINENTAL TRAILS IN THE UNITED STATES Transportation Development in the United States 55 Trail and the Gila Route, had become quite well known by the early ’thirties and after the discovery of gold in California in ’forty-nine carried many people and much traffic across the continent. Origin of the Oregon Trail. — At Bellevue the Nebraska State Historical Society erected, June 23, 1910, a monu- ment a part of the inscription on which reads : Commemorative of the Astorian Expedition organized June 23, 1810, by John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company. This Expedi- tion discovered the Oregon Trail which spread knowledge of the Nebraska country leading to its occupancy by white people. John Jacob Astor’s purpose in organizing the Pacific Fur Company, a subsidiary of the American Fur Company, was to establish himself and American control in the already disputed Oregon country. 19 As a result two expeditions were fitted out to go to and establish trading posts in Oregon with a central control or main post at Astoria. One of these expeditions went by water around Cape Horn to “carry out the people, stores, ammunition and merchan- dise, requisite for establishing a fortified trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River. ’ ’ The other ‘ ‘ conducted by Mr. Hunt, was to proceed up the Missouri, and across the Rocky Mountains, to the same point : exploring a line of communication across the continent, and noting the place where interior trading posts might be established. ’ ’ 20 The overland expedition, consisting of about sixty men with four boats left their winter quarters in Missouri and proceeded up the river in the spring of 1811. They de- viated somewhat from Lewis and Clark’s route by leaving the Missouri River at the mouth of the Grand River, near where the Pacific extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroad crosses. They seem to have gone across the country north of the Black Hills into Wyoming to the Wind River and Wind Mountains south of the Yellowstone Park, using present-day terms for locations ; thence a short “Albert Watkins in “Collections of the Nebraska State Historical Society.” Yol. XVI, p. 22. “Washington Irving’s “Astoria.” 56 Transportation Development in the United States distance to the head waters of the Snake River, a part of the Lewis and Clark route, which with some deviations they followed to the Columbia. At the mouth of the Columbia they met the sea party, and on July 28, 1812, a party of six men started back with dispatches. They wintered near Scott’s Bluff, Nebraska, having crossed the mountains sub- stantially along the line afterwards known as the Oregon Trail. In the spring of 1813 they continued down the Platte to the Missouri. This trip proved the possibility of a direct route avoiding the long roundabout journey by way of the headwaters of the Missouri River. The evolu- tion of the Oregon Trail has been summarized by Albert Watkins, Historian of the Nebraska State Historical Society, in Collections, Vol. XVI, p. 26, as follows: 21 The Missouri Fur Company sent an expedition of 150 men to the upper waters of the Missouri in 1809. The powerful and ferocious Black Feet Indians, who were the providence of the Oregon Trail, discouraged the attempts of these men to gain per- manent foothold there. Part of them retreated and another part, headed by the intrepid Henry, crossed the mountain divide in the fall of 1810 and established Fort Henry on Henry’s Fork of the Snake River. This was the beginning of the southern movement. In 1821 Pilcher, who succeeded Lisa as head of the Missouri Fur Company, made another attempt at a foothold in the Black Feet country, but was forced back. Ashley, leader of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, organized in 1822, was also beaten back in 1823. By this time Henry was discouraged about holding on to the upper Missouri and turned his attention to permanent ex- ploitation of the Green River valley. In that year Provost made the important discovery of South Pass. In 1824, Ashley conducted an expedition to the lower fields along the regular trail except that he went to Council Bluff and from there west up the Platte Valley. In 1830, his great lieutenants, Smith, Jackson and Sublette, went west with a train of fourteen wagons — the first to go to the mountains over the cut-off ; that is, up the Little Blue valley to its head, across to the Platte, following the river to the mountains. In 1832 Bonneville also went over the cut-off and took a wagon train over the South Pass, the first wagons to cross the mountains. In 1832 Nathaniel Wyeth went over the cut-off to Oregon, but did not take wagons over the mountainous part of the course. In 1836 Marcus Whitman, one of the in- 21 Cf. p. 230, Ibid. Transportation Development in the United States 57 trepid winners and founders of Oregon, went almost through to the Columbia with a wagon, thus demonstrating and illustrating the practicability of a transcontinental road for all purposes. The Oregon Trail was now clearly outlined. It was thoroughly established in 1842 by the aggressive Oregon emigration. The Final Trail. — The Trail as finally adopted and used by emigrants and freighters to Oregon in the “forties” started from Independence and Westport (outfitting sta- tions near the present metropolis of Kansas City, Missouri) then followed in a general way the Kansas, Big Blue, and Little Blue Rivers to near the Platte, crossing over to the latter river a short distance west of the present city of Kearney. The trail here proceeded up the South bank to the forks, and from there up the North Fork to the Sweet- water which it followed through South Pass. Thence it bore southwestward, westward, and northwestward to the Snake River which was followed to a point about west of Boise where a cutoff was made through the Blue Mountains arriving at the Columbia River about the mouth of the Umatilla, thence down the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean. Salt Lake Trail. — Many variations of the above de- scribed trail were in use. Travelers up the Missouri River disembarked at St. Joseph, Nebraska City, Plattsmouth and especially at Council Bluffs. The great Mormon trek was made from the last-named place. They reached the Platte River west of Omaha and followed it on the north bank, paralleling the Oregon Trail from Fort Kearney to Fort Laramie, where they crossed over and joined with the Oregon Trail through South Pass then leaving that trail turned south and west to Great Salt Lake. Later California Trail. — A continuation of the Salt Lake route north of Great Salt Lake and along the Hum- boldt River, across the desert to near Lake Tahoe, where there was a crossing through the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Truckee Pass, thence to the Gold Diggings or across California by way of the American and Sacramento Rivers, was a trail very popular to California gold miners and was afterwards used by the overland stage, and known as the Later California Trail. 58 Transportation Development in the United States Santa Fe Trail. — This road passed westward and a little south to the Arkansas River, which it followed to Bent’s Fort (Colorado), thence up Timpas Creek and over the Raton Pass to Las Vegas (New Mexico). Then west- ward through Apache Canon to Santa Fe. This trail was too rough for wagon traffic, so later a route which crossed over south from the Arkansas to the Cimarron and meeting the old trail at Las V egas was used. Gila and Spanish Trails. — Two routes were possible from Santa Fe. One southwestward by way of the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers into southern California. The other took a northwesterly direction up the Chama River, down the Dolores Valley, and across to the Grand River near the present site of Moab, Utah. Then west to the Sevier, up which it followed until it crossed over to the Virgin River; up this for a short distance then turned directly south-west across the Mohave desert toward Los Angeles. This last route received the name of Spanish Trail. Many of these trails were difficult on account of scarcity of water in the deserts. Descriptions of early travel over them are replete with hardships, sickness, and deaths. Some of the graves were marked with wooden, stone, or iron markers with names roughly chiseled, but more re- ceived no marking whatsoever. Many travelers and settlers were killed by the Indians; the tribes apparently becoming more hostile as the number of whites increased until their own numbers became so decimated they could no longer command sufficient warriors to warrant further attacks. It would seem as though no advance in civilization is unaccompanied by its toll of human lives. Era of Turnpiking’. — The need of better transportation facilities was “borne in” on the people of the eastern part of the country long before the west had been developed. The Indian trail, a single path, — for they always traveled in single file — gave way to the “tote path” over which each year the settler’s surplus crops were transported to market on pack animals. Even if they owned wheeled vehicles the Transportation Development in the United States 59 roads were generally so bad they could not be used. How- ever, wheeled vehicles were not many prior to 1800. When Braddock wished to transport his army to western Pennsyl- vania he called upon the colonies for wagons, but Maryland and Virginia furnished only twenty-five. He appealed to Franklin, who by his influence was able to secure 154 wheeled vehicles 22 from Pennsylvania, probably the best supplied with wagons of all the colonies. It was the custom for communities to join together after crops were gathered to start a caravan of packers to market. 23 A master driver with one or two assistants could manage a pack-train of a dozen or so horses. “Hides and peltries, ginseng, and bear’s grease” are mentioned as articles to be bartered for salt, iron, nails, pewter plates and dishes, and cloth and articles of clothing, although the latter were usually made at home. The horses traveled in single file each fitted with a natural crotch of wood for a tree. Hobbles and bells were provided that the horses could be turned loose to graze at night. Sometimes packs had to be taken off to be carried over streams or through narrow defiles. Naturally, methods of transportation had much influence on the character of the crops raised. Stock — cows, sheep, and pigs — could be driven to market by the raiser or sold to a drover who acted as a middleman. Farm products were concentrated by being fed to stock or manufactured into something requiring less space. Settlers complained that it required two bushels of grain to get one to market. Whisky and brandy were easily made, served to concentrate the grain and surplus fruit and always had a ready sale. When the government placed an excise tax on it the opposition was so great as to produce an insurrec- tion in Pennsylvania (1794). Had there been good trans- portation facilities probably there never would have been a “Whisky Rebellion.” Sixteen gallons (two kegs) of whisky worth $1.00 per gallon east of the Alleghanies was 22 Dunbar ’s ‘ ‘ History of Travel. ’ ’ 22 Doddridge ’s “Notes on the Settlement of Indian Wars.” Monette’s “History of the Valley of the Mississippi.” 60 Transportation Development in the United States a horse load; whereas the same animal would only pack about two bushels of grain worth, perhaps, 80 cents. That packing was a business of considerable importance is shown by a statement in ‘ ‘ The History and Topography of Dauphin (and) Cumberland Counties (Pa.)” quoted by Dunbar : ‘ ‘ Sixty or seventy years ago five hundred pack horses had been at one time in Carlisle, going thence to Shippenburg, Fort London and further westward.” This Was written in 1848. Naturally so much traffic induced men to make packing a means of livelihood. They became so numerous and strong that when wagons began to take over the business of freighting they considered it an infringement upon their vested rights. But as goods could be transported more easily and cheaply by wagon the old had to make way for the new. Wagon roads and at first two-wheeled then four- wheeled vehicles began to appear. This created a demand for better roads. At first that consisted in merely widen- ing the packtrain trails. But about the beginning of the nineteenth century, Tresaguet in France, and Macadam and Telford, in Great Britain, were building broken-stone roads which greatly changed and augmented the internal commerce and the industry of those countries. The most populous and wealthy of the colonies likewise began to consider the road question. A few military roads, such as Braddock’s, had been constructed; there was a road along the coast of Massachusetts, and some roads and bridges in the interior, there were roads connecting the larger cities as from Boston to New York and from New York to Philadelphia. The cities in order to retain and extend their trade needed highways of commerce. Turnpike Roads. — The construction of turnpike roads many of which were stoned was encouraged by a number of the states, especially by Pennsylvania. The Lancaster turnpike from Philadelphia to Lancaster was “stoned” in 1792 by throwing on it stones of all sizes. These were afterwards removed and stones “passing a 2-inch ring” substituted. This is said to have been the first scientifically Transportation Development in the United States 61 built hard surfaced road in America. In 1800 Pennsyl- vania fostered the construction of a system of turnpikes (toll roads), by granting franchises and subscribing stock, which was eventually to cover the state and control the west- ern market. By 1828 there had been 3110 miles of chartered turnpike in Pennsylvania costing over $8,000,000. These thousands of miles of fine turnpike roads including many good bridges placed Pennsylvania in the lead for internal improvements. But other states were similarly employed. New York and New England by 1811 had chartered 317 turnpikes. 24 Virginia appropriated funds “to be used exclusively for river improvements, canals and public high- ways,” in 1816. South Carolina voted a million dollars, in 1818, to be raised in four annual levies for similar purposes. During these years the states were opening public roads but the only good roads were those built by the turnpike companies, which erected gates and collected tolls every few miles. This resulted in a higher cost of transportation than was liked by the public who clamored for free roads and canals. They were wanted by both the producer and the merchant. The turnpikes were opposed to anything which would tend to reduce their control of transportation. Wagon Road Desuetude. — The introduction of the steam railway with its quicker, better, and cheaper form of transportation put . out of existence the freighting and coaching business of the turnpikes, in fact of all wagon roads. Roads which had had a thriving trade found their toll boxes scarcely held enough to maintain the gate keeper. As there was no adequate system of maintenance, although many of them had been macadamized, they gradually fell into a state of disrepair. Freighters and coaehers gravitated westward or took shorter runs as feeders to the railroads. Turnpikes, built as private or semi-private enterprises, were gradually being taken over by the public and maintained by local road overseers. The old practice 24 Cf . Gallatin ’s report for a scheme of national roads and pave- ments (Adams’ Gallatin, p. 350 et seq.). 62 Transportation Development in the United States of calling on the freeholders to work out their road tax annually was in vogue and is still in use in places. By it no road was ever kept at a high state of efficiency. Even the National highway, the Cumberland Road, which had been constructed to Vandalia, Illinois, and surfaced with stone to Columbus, Ohio, at an expense to the nation of nearly seven millions of dollars, had lost its ardent sup- porters. Jackson’s theory that national money should only be spent for roads in territories, and the states’ right idea that each state should be the unit of government and look after all its own internal affairs, seemed to prevail. As a result wagon road building further than to make a mere way for crop marketing at odd seasons of the year stood still until bicycle enthusiasts began an agitation for better roads about 1890. However, a real awakening to the ad- vantages of good roads came only after the advent of the automobile about 1900. National Participation. — The Revolutionary War had shown the need of roadways for quick intercourse between the seaboard and the trans- Alleghany regions. The efforts of the different states, still retaining their colonial jealous- ies, to secure the control of the trade of these regions em- phasized the need of a unifying influence which would bring harmony. The debate proceeded in a desultory fash ion for a number of years. Strict constitutionalists did not believe the national government has the authority to construct roads at all. States’ rights men argued that road construction is the province of the states and the Nati^pal Government has jurisdiction only in the territories. On March 29, 1806, President Thomas Jefferson approved a bill to survey and construct a road from a point on the Potomac near Cumberland to the Ohio River near Steuben- ville popularly known as the Cumberland or National road, and appropriated therefor $30,000. This was in the minds of friends of government control to be the beginning ; there was increasing need of travel and traffic facilities from the Hudson to the Great Lakes, from the Delaware to the Ohio; from Virginia and the Carolinas to Kentucky and Ten- Transportation Development in the United States 63 nessee, to say nothing of north and south routes, which un- fortunately did not mature in time to prevent the great Civil War a half-century later. Alfred Gallatin and Henry Clay sponsored the Cumber- land Road. The former in compliance with the wish of Congress (1808) drew up a scheme for a national system of internal improvements by roads and canals at an annual expense of $2,000,000 for ten years. But its opponents were able to stay it off and the war of 1812 coming on caused financial troubles and the entire scheme was indefi- nitely postponed. The first appropriation for the Cumberland Road had been made, not from the general funds of the government, but from the proceeds of the sales of land, a fiction, of course, for the benefit of the strict constitutionalists. Gradually, however, Congress came to accept the doctrine of “implied powers.” Madison in his last message invited the attention of Congress “to the expediency of exercising their existing powers and, where necessary, of resorting to the prescribed mode of enlarging them, in order to effec- tuate a comprehensive system of roads and canals, such as will have the effect of drawing more closely together every part of the country, by promoting intercourse and im- provements and by increasing the share of every part of the common stock of national prosperity. ’ ’ 25 Up to this time there had been completed only 23 miles of the road. In 1816, $300,000 was appropriated for its completion; two years later $260,000 was voted; but a proposal to appropriate $600,000 for internal improve- ments failed in 1817, as did also a bill providing for the ex- tension of the Cumberland Road. But as a result of the labor of Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin, Thomas Jefferson, President James Madison, and other friends of cheap and rapid transit, by 1820 the total of Congressional appropria- tions for the Cumberland Road amounted to more than $1,500,000; in 1844 the thirty-fourth appropriation made a total of nearly $7,000,000. 26 The growth of the road was 25 Kichardson, “Messages and Papers.” 28 Hurlbert. ‘ ‘ Cumberland Eoad. ’ ’ 64 Transportation Development in the United States slow: the first contract was let in 1811 for 10 miles; con- tracts for short sections were let from year to year and the road by 1817 had crawled, following approximately the Nemacolin Path, with the Potomac through the Cumber- land gateway over the Alleghany range by way of Negro Mountain at an elevation of 2325 feet, down to the Youghiogheny, past the scene of Braddock’s defeat and the cairn which marks his resting place, through the Laurel Hill Range over to Brownsville within reach of Pittsburgh, thence westward slightly north through Washington (Pennsylvania), to Wheeling (West Virginia) on the Ohio River. Thus had the old Indian trail developed into a route for Washington and his band to Fort Necessity; into Brad- dock’s road to Great Meadows; into a pack train trail trampled by thousands of caravan hoofs; and, finally, into a finished paved highway cleared to 66 feet in width, hav- ing no grade above 5 per cent which Washington and Jefferson and Madison had visions would be the means of binding together with the strong bands of commerce the cis- and trans-Alleghanian countries. Extension of the Cumberland Highway. — The road im- mediately proved its worth. The mail coaches were placed upon it ; great freight lines were established having their own stage houses and depots in towns along its way; inns and hotels thrived; apparently the “pulse of the nation beat to the steady throb of trade along its highway. 27 Like the Appian Way it became noted the world over. The National, Good Intent, June Bug, and Pioneer stage coach lines were common names as are the Pennsylvania, New York Central, Burlington, and Union Pacific railroad lines of to-day. The coming to town of these coaches, which had developed from the plain square box, through the oval type to the finished Concord painted in brilliant colors, perhaps bearing the name of some prominent personage, drawn by four and six horses, with the proud and arrogant driver often better known than the eminent patrons whose names - 1 Hulbert, ‘ ‘ The Paths of Inland Commerce. ’ ’ Transportation Development in the United States 65 now grace the pages of history, was an important event in the work of the day. Hardly had the stage stopped before the hostlers were busy changing the horses, taking the tired animals to rub-down, rest, and feed, bringing on fresh high-stepping spirited ones, champing their bits, ap- parently very anxious for a galloping start toward the next post; the passengers were alighting to stretch their legs, rest and refresh themselves at nearby food “em- poriums” or select an inn from among the claims of numerous barkers ; agents were transferring and recording baggage, mail, and express ; and the curiosity loungers con- stituted most of the remaining populace. The stage driver, Westover, made a record of forty-five minutes for the 20 miles between Uniontown and Brownsville, while “Red” Bunting’s drive of 131 miles, with the declaration of war against Mexico, in twelve hours remains, like Paul Revere ’s ride, a part of the nation’s history. The amount of traffic over the National road was tremen- dous. The annual traffic was probably not less than 3000 wagons. 28 One firm in Wheeling is said to have, during the first five years of its existence, done a business of over 5000 wagons carrying 2 tons each. 29 A view of the road must have been interesting, for the Conestoga wagons with their sway-backed canvas covers were said to have been “visible all day long, 30 at every point, making the highway look more like a leading avenue of a great city than a road through rural districts. ... I have staid over night with William Cheets on Nigger (Negro) Mountain when there were about thirty six-horse teams in a wagon yard, a hun- dred Kentucky mules in an adjoining lot, a thousand hogs in their enclosures, and as many fat cattle in adjoining fields. The music made by this large number of hogs eating corn on a frosty night I shall never forget. After supper and attention to the teams, the waggoners would gather in the bar-room and listen to the music on the violin furnished 28 “American Nation,” Yol. XIV, p. 100. 29 Hurlbert, ‘ ‘ The Paths of Inland Commerce, ’ ’ p. 121. *° Searight, quoted by Hurlbert. 66 Transportation Developvient in the United States by one of their fellows, have a Virginia hoe-down, sing songs, tell anecdotes, and hear the experience of drivers and drovers from all points of the road, and, when it was over, unroll their beds, lay them down on the floor before the bar room fire side by side, and sleep with their feet near the blaze as soundly as under a parental roof.” Ah ! where is the poet whose facile pen will engrave upon the tablets of literature the tales of these men as has Long- fellow the “Tales of a Wayside Inn” in Sudbury Town so alike, where : . . . from the parlor of the inn A pleasant murmur smote the ear, Like water rushing through a weir; Oft interrupted by the din Of laughter and of loud applause; And, in each intervening pause, The music of a violin. The success of the Cumberland Road to the Ohio created demands for its extension. In conformity to this demand $10,000 was appropriated in 1820 to lay out a road from Wheeling to the Mississippi River near St. Louis. This continuation was for a road 80 feet wide and in spite of much congressional objection and occasional presidential vetoes, the road was pushed on; the last appropriation being made for a portion west of the Ohio, May 25, 1838. The exact total of all appropriations amounted to $6,824,- 919.33. The road proper reached southern Illinois. States wanted appropriations for other roads, but these were pretty generally vetoed. One important case was the veto, 1830, by Jackson of the bill authorizing a subscrip- tion by the United States for stock in the Maysville, Wash- ington, Paris, and Lexington Road Company. The com- pany was incorporated in Kentucky to build a road from the Cumberland Road at Tanesville, Ohio, to Florence, Alabama, on the Tennessee River, which had been surveyed by U. S. engineers in 1827. Maysville, through which the road was to pass, was on the south side of the Ohio River, Courtesy of Prof. P. K. Slaymaker WAY BILL USED ON SLAYMAKER STAGE LINE FROM LANCASTER TO PHILADELPHIA, 1815 Transportation Development in the U nited States 67 and did considerable trade in Kentucky and Tennessee. A census was taken of the existing road, admitted to be in bad condition, showing an average daily traffic of 351 persons, 33 carriages and 51 wagons. The $150,000 to be subscribed by the government was not to be paid until an equal amount had been subscribed in equal parts by the State of Kentucky and private individuals. Other bills of a similar character were before Congress, one for a road from Buffalo to New Orleans having been laid on the table, and opponents of the bill Insisted any road anywhere could be as w r ell regarded to be a national road as could be the Maysville road. The Washington Turnpike Company bill of a similar tenor was vetoed. 31 Jackson evidently doubted the constitutional right of the government to enter into internal projects of this character. In his message to Con- gress he had conceded that ‘ ‘ every member of the Union, in peace and in war, will be benefited by the improvement of inland navigation and the construction of highways in the several states,” he noted the opposition to methods hereto- fore adopted as unconstitutional and inexpedient. He therefore proposed an amendment to the constitution, to be submitted if it could not otherwise be done, whereby the surplus revenue might be appropriated to the several states in proportion to their representation in Congress for the purpose of internal improvements. State sovereignty was always to be maintained. In 1838 when the road had reached Southern Illinois a new element entered the industrial world. The railroads were proving their ability to compete most successfully with other forms of transportation. The building of national highways ceased ; canal and river transportation were practically put out of business with the entrance of this new leviathan. n Debates of Congress VI, 433-435, 806, 820. 68 Transportation Development in the United States SELECTED REFERENCES Adams, Henry, “Life of Albert Gallatin,” Edited by Henry Adams, Vol. I, pp. 78, 79, 305, 309, 370, 395. J. B. Lippin- cott & Co., Philadelphia. Boone, Daniel, “Autobiography,” dictated to John Filson, 1784, is given also as an appendix to Hartley’s “Life of Daniel Boone.” Calk, William, “Diary of” in Filson Club publications. Doddridge, Joseph, “Notes on the Settlement of Indian Wars.” Chaps. I, XIII, XVIII, XXIV; First publication, 1824, Third — Rittenour & Linsey, Pittsburgh, 1912. Dunbar, Seymour, “A History of Travel in America,” 4 volumes, 1915, Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis. Early, Alice Morse, “Stage Coach and Tavern Days.” Channing, Edward, “The Jefferson System,” Vol. XII, The American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. Farrand, L., “Bases of American History,” Vol. II of the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. Hartley, Cecil B., “Life of Daniel Boone,” 1865, Porter & Coates, Philadelphia. Howard, George E., “Preliminaries of the Revolution,” Vol. VIII of the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. PIowe, Henry, “History of the West.” IIurlbert, A. B., “Historic Highways of America,” 16 volumes, 1902-05, A. II. Clark Company, Cleveland, O. Hurlbert, A. B., “The Paths of Inland Commerce,” Chronicles of America Series, Vol. 21, New Haven, 1920. Irving, Washington, “Astoria,” Irving’s Works, Vol. I, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. Longfellow, Henry W., “Poetical Works,” Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. McMaster, John Bach, “History of the United States,” Vol. V, Chap. XLIV, D. Appleton & Company, New York. Monette, John W., “History of the Valley of the Mississippi,” Vol. II, Chap. II, pp. 52-58, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1846. “Register of Debates in Congress,” Vol. VI, pp. 433-435, 806, and 820. Published by order of Congress, 13 Vol. Wash- ington, 1825-37. Richardson, James D., “Messages and Papers of the Presi- dents.” 8 volumes, Government Print, Washington. Roosevelt, Theodore, “Winning of the West,” Vols. I, II and IV. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1889. Transportation Development in the U nited States 69 Speed, Thomas, “The Wilderness Road,” No. 2 of the Filson Club publications, Louisville, 1886. Turner, Frederick J., “Rise of the New West,” Vol. XIV of the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. Tyler, L. G., “England in America,” Vol. IV of the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880. Watkins, Albert, “The Oregon Trail,” Nebraska State His- torical Society Collections, Vol. XVI, p. 26 et seq. CHAPTER III WATER WAYS AND CANALS From the earliest exploration and settlement pei’iods rivers and coast inlets have been used for transportation. As has been pointed out, the Indian, before the coming of the white man, made good use of his canoe. Boats and barges propelled by oars, poles, or snubbed along by ropes attached to trees on the banks were in early use. Along the coast and the larger rivers sails were made use of. Upon the ocean there was a large development in wooden sailing vessels. The great number of American ships and the in- roads made by American merchants upon English trade had much to do with bringing on the war of 1812. Canals. — Canals had shown their usefulness in England and other European countries, for transporting the in- ternal commerce cheaply and efficiently ; it was but natural, therefore, that they should be considered in the United States. The first canal was in Orange County, New York, and was used for transporting stone as early as 1750. Numerous short canals were constructed in Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts prior to 1810, but the peak of canal building came after this date. The first lock used in the United States was part of a canal extending from the Schuylkill River to the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania. New York, seeing the trade of the Northwest Territory going to Philadelphia on account of the turnpikes which had crossed the Alleghanies through state and private means, was anxious to do something to get control. An agitation for a canal joining the Hudson River with Lake Erie or Lake Ontario consummated in a commission, 1810, 70 Water Ways and Canals 71 headed by Gouverneur Morris, to investigate the question of building one or both of the canals which seemed feasible, namely (1) from Albany up the Mohawk and westward to Lake Erie near Buffalo; (2) from Albany to Lake Cham- plain, thence an opening to the St. Lawrence, which had already been surveyed. In 1812 a second commission was formed which included with Morris, such men as De Witt Clinton, Robert Fulton, and Robert R. Livingston. An en- deavor was made to secure Congressional aid. The war coming on no action was taken, but the demands for the canal continued. To the energy and political ability of DeWitt Clinton is attributed the final success of the enter- prise. When he was elected governor in 1816 he made this the paramount effort of his administration. He stirred public interest by addresses and presented a convincing memorial to the legislature. He argued that “As a bond of union between the Atlantic and western states it may prevent the dismemberment of the American empire. As an organ of communication between the Hudson, the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes of the north and west, and their tributary rivers, it will create the greatest inland trade ever witnessed. The most fertile and extensive regions of America will avail themselves of its facilities for a market. All their surplus productions,” he prophesied, “whether of the soil, the forest, the mines, or the water, their fabrics of art and their supplies of foreign commodities, will concentrate in the city of New York, for transportation abroad or consumption at home. Agriculture, manufactures, commerce, trade, navigation and the arts,” he continued, “will receive a correspond- ing encouragement. That city will in the course of time become the granary of the world, the emporium of com- merce, the seat of manufactures, the focus of great moneyed operations, and the concentrating point of vast, disposable and accumulating capitals, which will stimulate, enliven, extend, and reward the exertions of human labor and in- genuity, in all their processes and exhibitions. And before the revolution of a century, the whole island of Manhattan, 72 Water Ways and Canals covered with habitations and replenished with a dense population will constitute one vast city. ’ ’ 1 As bombastic as this may seem his predictions have been more than realized and the realization began with the com- pletion of the canal to Buffalo in 1825. There grew up along its way the great cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Albany, and scores of smaller ones. The products of the entire west did seem to flow through it, for the tolls are said to have been a half million dollars per year immediately upon its completion and over a million by 1830. 2 This the largest canal project in the United States is still in use. As first constructed, it was 40 feet wide at the top, 4 feet deep, and was navigable for 76-ton boats. It was later enlarged to a general width of 70 feet and depth of 7 feet, navigable for boats of 240 tons burden. Some of the locks had been replaced by power lifts; the transfers are more quickly made. The increase of New York’s prestige of course diminished that of Philadelphia. Pittsburgh was, too, growing up at the head of Ohio River navigation and in the coal and iron regions of Pennsylvania. While numerous canals had been constructed by private enterprises an extensive system of canals was begun under an act of 1825, to connect Philadelphia with Pittsburgh as well as other objective points. Jealousies sprang up over the state, as usually do with any improvement. Always one part thinks the other is getting more than its just share. But notwithstanding, nearly a thousand miles of canals have been constructed in Pennsylvania, some of which washed out and were never replaced, some were abandoned and some are still in operation. In Ohio two canals were built by the state from Lake Erie to the Ohio River, over 400 miles in all. One of these extended from Toledo through Defiance, St. Marys, and Dayton to Cincinnati; the other from Cleveland through Akron, New Phila- delphia, Coshocton, Newark, Columbus, Chillieothe, to 1 ‘ 1 American Nation, ’ ’ Yol. XIV, p. 32. 2 McMaster, ‘ ‘ United States, ’ ’ Vol. V. Water Ways and Canals 73 Portsmouth. Branch lines were run down the Muskingum to Marietta, down the Hocking to Athens, and from Junc- tion westward to Antwerp to connect with the Indiana canal system. Making a total for Ohio about 1000 3 miles. In Indiana the Wabash & Erie Canal, begun about 1834, was constructed through Fort Wayne, LaFayette, Terre Haute to Evansville, in 1853, on its way to the Ohio River. By this time the railroads had paralleled its course and its trade had practically ceased. One of the earliest projects, said to have had the backing of President Washington, culminated, eventually, in the Chesapeake & Ohio canal extending from Georgetown, the upper limit of tidewater on the Potomac, to Cumber- land. After numerous efforts and years of talking, repre- sentatives of Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia, and Pennsylvania met in a convention in the city of Washington and passed resolutions stating that “Whereas the connection of Atlantic and Western waters by a canal leading from the city of National Government to the River Ohio ... is one of the highest importance to the states . . . Resolved that it is expedient to substitute for the present defective navigation of the Potomac River, above tidewater, a navigable canal from Cumberland to the eastern base of the Alleghany and to extend such canal as soon thereafter as practicable to the highest constant steamboat navigation of the Monongahela or Ohio River.” Jealousies between the states delayed matters somewhat, but in 1825 the proponents obtained governmental partici- pation. Delays occurred for various causes, but in 1828 Congress authorized the U. S. treasurer to subscribe for $1,300,000 worth of stock and went further and guaranteed •Length of Miami and Erie Canal 301.49 miles “ “ Ohio Canal 512.26 “ “ Penn, and Ohio Canal 76 “ “ Sandy and Beaver Canal 79 “ “ Whitewater Canal 32 Total 1000.75 miles — Dunbar ’s ‘ ‘ History of Travel in America. 74 Water Ways and Canals subscriptions made by the towns of Washington, George- town, and Alexandria to the amount of $1,500,000. The United States had then once more endorsed the policy of spending national money for internal improvements, and had become a partner in a canal proposition. Building proceeded slowly. Many difficulties were encountered. Opponents fought it in the legislatures of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, as well as in Congress. In two years the money was gone and the canal not com- pleted. Maryland extended further aid, and then still more aid by the help of which the canal was completed to Cumberland in 1850. In 1870 efforts were made to have the Government carry the canal on to the Ohio River, but the plan was never consummated. This canal is still in use, the bulk of its traffic being coal brought down to Washington. Canals were constructed in many other states, but they need not here be followed in detail. Illinois was connect- ing Chicago with the Mississippi River ; Massachusetts built artificial ways about falls and rapids; New Jersey connected the Hudson with the Delaware; and numerous other schemes were carried out. Canal Prosperity and Desuetude. — Until the greater ad- vantages of railway travel and traffic lessened the useful- ness of the canals, they did a thriving business. As has already been noted with regard to the Erie canal so was it with the others. 4 In the whole United States there was a “grand total of 4,468 miles 5 of canals, costing approxi- mately $214,141,802.” Not all these were remunerative. To the end of 1872 the New York Canals had only averaged 4 Total mileage of boats clearing from Fort Wayne in 1849 209,982 LaFayette 162,297 Total mileage by passengers from and to Fort Wayne in 1849 519,336 LaFayette 505,397 “Annual Eeport of the Trustees of the Wabash and Erie Canal,” 1849. s U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880. Water Ways and Canals 75 a profit of 3.2 per cent, while the Erie Canal proper paid but 4 per cent on its cost. 6 The speed at which the barges traveled was about 2 miles per hour; this was reduced on account of time lost by regular stops, passing through locks, and accidents, to 1.7 miles per hour on the average. Rates for freight were about 0.3 cent per ton per mile. The rail- roads later hauled through freight at 0.7 cent per ton per mile. Both these rates were, no doubt too small, for proper maintenance and remuneration. Passenger traffic, notwithstanding the slow speed, amounted to a considerable volume. Packets were in use, that for workmanship, finish and convenience vied with the Pullman cars which later supplanted them. They were decorated in bright colors — green, yellow, brown, red, white, blue — with windows and panels done in contrasting and harmonizing shades and tints. On the interior in addition to compartments for the crew which were separated from those for the passengers, were usually a large general assembly room ordinarily occupied by the men for lounging, writing letters, playing games, and pro- tection from stormy weather. There was a special cabin for the women, also lavatories and conveniences for men and women. In addition there were kitchen, lockers, and cupboards. Three times daily the assembly saloon was transformed into a dining room by re-arranging and set- ting the tables which constituted a regular part of the room’s furniture with others of a temporary nature, car- ried stored away on the boat, into one long table lengthwise of the room. The captain and his two assistants — the mule driver and steersman not on duty at the time — performed this service and waited upon tables. At night both the saloon and ladies’ cabin were converted into dormitories by attaching shelves about 6 feet long and 3!/2 feet wide to hooks in the wall, the outer edges being held up by wooden supports extending from the floor. In each berth was placed a “mattress,” that is a tick having some straw in it and a pillow of similar make. “Johnson’s Cyclopaedia. 76 Water Ways and Canals The passenger usually furnished his own sheets if they were wanted, although some of the later boats were sup- plied with sheets and coverlets. The berths were three high along the wall and had curtains suspended in front of them. The passengers selected their berths in the order in which they had secured passage, late comers being obliged to sleep on the tables or on the floor. Sometimes the whole floor was thus covered. Travelers complained bitterly of the mosquitoes. Crude as this may seem at the present time, these packets were no doubt the forerunners of the present Pullman palace car. The outside decks and the roof of the car were utilized for promenading, loung- ing and sight-seeing. They were often enlivened by music and dancing. Greeley 7 speaks of the ‘ ‘ ‘ cent and a half a mile, mile and a half an hour,’ line boats.” The expression he puts in quotations as though it were common or a slogan. Charges on the Wabash and Erie Canal in Indiana were for the 221 miles from Cincinnati to Fort Wayne, $6.75; 138 miles from LaFayette to Fort Wayne, $3.75; 104 miles from Fort Wayne to Toledo, $3.25. 8 An average of about three cents per mile. The canals were unable to compete with the railroads when time became an element. Passengers would not be content to travel 36 miles per day along a tortuous canal when they could travel a much more direct route at nearly 36 miles per hour. The swifter speed of freight traffic accelerated business; the merchant’s capital could be turned over more frequently; his net profits were conse- quently greater. Is there any wonder, therefore, that the business of the canal continually decreased while that of the railroad as continually increased. Many canals were actually abandoned, others allowed to depreciate from want of proper maintenance, and now only occasional barges are run to transport heavy non-perishable freight such as grain, iron-ore, and coal. And of these commodities, because of ’“Recollections of a Busy Life,” by Horace Greeley. s “ A History of Travel in America, ’ ’ Dunbar. © Underwood and Underwood THE SAULT ST. MARIE CANAL Water Ways and Canals 77 better terminal facilities and the time element, the rail- roads soon were carrying much more than the canals. Ship Canals. — Reports show the tonnage of the Erie Canal to have continually decreased from 2,031,735 tons in 1911 to 667,374 tons in 1918. The total tonnage of all the New York state canals shows a like decrease from 3,097,068 tons in 1911 to 1,159,270 tons in 1918. Notwith- standing such records there are those who firmly believe canal transportation will again take an upward trend with better terminal facilities and possibly electric propulsion. There is one class of canals that seems to have held its own, that is ship canals. The great canal and locks at Sault Ste. Marie transfer a vast lake traffic annually from one level to another between Lakes Superior and Huron. Vast quantities of iron-ore are brought in mammoth vessels by this route from docks near the Mesaba mines for the great iron mills at Gary, at Cleveland, at Pittsburgh, and other points. Similar vessels loaded with wheat, oats, and flax from the Northwest grain fields are unloaded at Buffalo for transportation to the seaboard. Agitation has been going on for some time to enlarge the Welland Canal and its locks between Lakes Erie and Ontario, thus giving seagoing vessels the opportunity of coming up by way of the St. Lawrence River and traversing the entire Great Lake system. The ambition of cities is here again manifest ; Chicago would like such transportation, but it would not be beneficial to New York. A ship canal across Cape Cod saves 70 miles and considerable time and makes the trip much less dangerous from New York to Boston. Ship canals within the islands along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts have been proposed to make safe coast commerce. There is also talk of a ship canal from Chicago to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers ; and still another from Lake Erie to Pittsburgh. The Panama Canal. — All present-day readers are familiar with the greatest of all ship canals, the Panama Canal, constructed by the Government at a cost of approxi- 78 Water Ways and Canals mately $400,000,000, and open to the ships of the world. It will be remembered that a canal across the isthmus had been dreamed of practically ever since Balboa passed over and for the first time a white man saw the Pacific from the west coast of America. With the opening of the Oregon territory there was increased interest in such a canal. With the discovery of gold in California much traffic went by way of Panama being freighted across and transshipped on the other side. Soon a railroad was established for that purpose. Other crossings, too, were much in mind. In 1846 a treaty of amity and commerce was entered into with New Granada, afterwards the United States of Colombia, which gave the United States a right of way across the Isthmus by any available method. In return the United States agreed to guarantee the neutrality of the Isthmus. Great Britain had likewise long been interested in a canal scheme and courted Nicaragua. Also because of English settlements at Belize or British Honduras they claimed rights which had been confirmed by the treaty of Versailles in 1773. Another route, across the isthmus of Tehauntepec, had also assumed importance. In 1848 a company of American citizens was formed for and began at once to construct a railway across the isthmus of Panama. An- other contracted with the Nicaraguan government for a canal there. A treaty was made with Nicaragua whereby a concession was granted the company for the waterway, the United States guaranteeing the neutrality of the way as had been done with New Grenada. But the British government claimed control of the eastern terminus, there- fore a treaty had to be negotiated with her. As a result the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was signed and ratified in 1850, whereby the United States and Great Britain agreed to join in promoting a canal by the Nicaraguan route promis- ing that neither “would obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control over the ship-canal,” nor, and here was the joker, “assume or exercise any dominion . . . over any part of Central America.” Neither was to acquire nor have any rights the other did not have and they both guarantee Water Ways and Canals 79 the neutrality of the canal. This, apparently, was a viola- tion of the Monroe Doctrine in so far as it did allow a European nation a foothold upon this continent, and it was contrary to the Washingtonian policy of avoiding “en- tangling alliances.” However, it was considered at the time to be a victory for American diplomacy. But Great Britain retained her hold on Belize and some islands along the coast, and finally it was made known that before the signing of the treaty Sir Henry Bulwer had left with Clayton a memorandum to the effect that British renunciation in Central America should not apply to “Belize” or any of its “dependencies.” Greytown, a British trading post, had been established as a “free” city at the eastern ter- minus of the Nicaraguan route through British influence and support. In 1851 Greytown levied tribute upon the steamers of the transit company. One of these refused to pay and was fired upon by a British man-of-war, the fiction of Grey- town being a “free city” apparently went glimmering. The situation was critical and for some time looked as though a war might result. Meanwhile the Accessory Transit Company continued in a state of trouble with the Greytown government. So bad was it that the United States vessel Cyane was called upon to protect the build- ings of the Canal Company from destruction. Conditions remained strained, feelings ran high, until in 1854 one of the officers of a company steamer killed an individual and in a riot which followed the mob attacked the United States consul. Lieutenant Hollins, commanding officer of the Cyane, demanded reparation, and as this was not forth- coming he bombarded and destroyed the town. This accen- tuated the trouble between the United States and Great Britain but did not particularly enhance the building of the Nicaraguan canal. About this time Great Britain became involved in the Crimean War while in the United States the slavery question divided the country. Some hot-headed southern- ers wished forcibly to annex Nicaragua and filibusters 80 Water Ways and Canals actually joined in some of the “revolutions” which are almost always in progress in Central American States with the idea of extending slave territory. 9 Through one of these a man by the name of Walker had made himself head of Nicaragua and for two years remained a dictator. His rule was marked by severity and a series of acts that won him the enmity of the Central American States and also that of the Accessory Transit Company, whose charter and steamers he confiscated. He had secured the presidency and opened the state to slavery; he had also been able to get recognition at Washington. But another revolution broke out and he was driven out in 1857. The action of Walker had destroyed American influence in Central America. In the United States opinion was divided. Slavery enthusiasts openly advocated control of any transit route across the isthmus and that “no power on earth should be suffered to impede.” 10 This and numerous other troubles which followed, off and on inter- mittently, delayed and prevented canal construction. French Participation. — After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 by the French an organization of French scientists made a careful study of the various routes across the Isthmus and decided the one at Panama to be the most feasible. As a result, in 1875, De Lesseps, the engineer of the Suez Canal, began a careful survey of that route and in 1878, Lucien Bonaparte Wyse, of the French Navy, se- cured from the United States of Colombia (which had succeeded New Granada) a concession giving a company to be organized by him exclusive right to construct a canal and railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Neutrality was to be maintained and troops transported only by per- mission of Colombia. In return for this privilege and cer- tain grants of land Colombia was to receive 5 per cent of the gross tolls collected. The concession was for ninety- nine years and the canal was to be opened within eighteen 9 Smith: “Parties and Slavery,” (“American Nation,” Vol. XVIII). '“Democratic Platform, 1856. Water Ways and Canals 81 years. While it was claimed this concession did not con- flict with the treaty of 1846 between New Granada and the United States, nevertheless it provided that the latter might share in its advantages. The concession was trans- ferred to De Lesseps, who arranged for an International Congress of Geographical Sciences, which assembled in Paris, May 15, 1879. The United States was one of the twenty-five nations there represented. Fourteen projects involving seven different routes were discussed and in- cluded all that were considered feasible. Without going into detailed description some of these routes may be mentioned. The Tehauntepec route was 148 miles long and required 120 locks, would take about twelve days to pass a vessel through, and was in the region of earthquakes. The Nicaraguan Route was favored by many — it was 180 miles long, needed 17 locks, but it re- quired an actual construction of only 60 miles as existing rivers and lakes could be utilized. A route from the Chiriqui Gulf to the Gulf Dulce, another from the Gulf of Darien by way of the Atrato and Napipi Rivers, and another into the San Miguel Bay, were discarded for various reasons. The choice centered upon the route from Colon to Panama by way of the Culebra pass and the Chagres River. This route, the shortest of all, was only 45 miles in length, but there were several disadvantages. The Chagres River must be diverted by a large dam or carried for miles in an aqueduct. A company (Compagnie Universelle du Canal Inter- oceanique) was organized and popular subscriptions in- vited. It was claimed that further than granting the charter the French Government had nothing to do with the canal. Stock could be owned by people of all nations, but the United States did not take kindly to the measure, although no formal action to prevent the construction of the canal was taken. Several promotion schemes were ad- vanced by private individuals to head off the French and Congress was petitioned for aid. Captain Eads, who by jetties had deepened the mouth of the Mississippi River, 82 Water Ways and Canals and an engineer of note, suggested a ship railway across the isthmus of Tehauntepec. A “Marine Canal Company of Nicaragua’’ wanted Congress to guarantee its capital stock; another Nicaraguan company had Ex-President Grant as a sponsor. 11 The surveys made by the United States of the Panama and of the Atrato-Napipi routes in 1875, were printed by order of Congress. In 1880 the House asked the president for the report of surveys made in 1872 and submitted in 1875 which had not yet become public ; this report recommended the Nicaraguan route. From time to time indignation was manifested in the United States against allowing a foreign country to gain a foothold even though by a neutral company on the Ameri- can continent. The Monroe Doctrine was brought out ; the Clayton-Bulwer treaty was presented; the reports of Con- gressional Commissions were referred to as arguments against the De Lesseps Canal. Various other complications entered, one of which was a possible conflict of authority if in case of a revolution on the Isthmus it were necessary to send troops by the United States to maintain the neutrality of the railroad and by France troops to maintain the neutrality of the canal. Sweeping aside these questions De Lesseps made prepa- ration to construct the canal, and landed a force of seventy engineers, superintendents and workmen on the Isthmus of Panama in 1881. De Lesseps planned a tide-water canal which would require a cut of 285 feet in the Culebra pass. Difficulties encountered from slides in this cut and other reasons made it advisable afterwards to change the plans. De Lesseps purchased much machinery in Europe and America at large expense ; bought the Panama railroad for $17,000,000, because the line of the Canal crossed it frequently and it could be utilized for transporting ma- terials, and began the operation of opening up the cut at various points along its course. The engineers estimated the cost at 843,000,000 francs; this, De Lesseps cut to u North American Review, Vol. CXXXII, p. 107. Water Ways and Canals 83 600,000,000 francs, and set the opening ceremonies for 1888. During the Garfield administration Secretary of State Blaine held out for a strong American policy and informed Colombia, which was charged with making arrangements whereby certain European powers might assume joint guarantee over the canal, that “any movement in the sense of supplementing the guarantee contained (in the treaty of 1846) would necessarily be regarded by this government as an uncalled for intrusion into a field where the local and general interest of the United States of America should be considered before those of any other power save those of Colombia alone.” 12 England claimed to be a new world power equally interested with the United States in maintaining the neutrality of the canal. Blaine proposed amending the Clayton-Bulwer treaty so that the United States could fortify the canal, also to annul that part ex- tending it to any other practical routes so that the United States might be free to build a canal at Panama or else- where as it chose. Garfield’s death and Blaine’s retirement from the cabinet ended for the time being policies regard- ing South and Central Americas that would either have brought the United States in trouble with England or se- cured to her complete control of the canal and also, per- haps, much of South American trade. A treaty with Nicaragua allowing the construction of a canal wholly under American control, the United States guaranteeing the integrity of the territory of Nicaragua, which was un- doubtedly a violation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and prepared by Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State under Arthur, for the purpose of testing that treaty, was with- drawn by President Cleveland who was inaugurated before its confirmation. There was a growing feeling that the De Lesseps com- pany would never finish the canal. The company had spent $10,000,000 more than the estimate of 600,000,000 francs ($120,000,000), and had not paid the $17,000,000 12 ‘ ‘ American Nation,” Yol. XXIII. 84 Water Ways and Canals promised for the Panama railway. In fact it was bank- rupt. While a large amount of excavation had been done, it was small compared with what was necessary. A mag- nificent plant with much costly machinery was going to decay. The Spanish-Ameriean war brought forcibly to the atten- tion of the public the need of an interoceanic canal. In 1900 a treaty negotiated by John Hay and Sir Julian Pauncefote embodying some modifications of the Clayton- Bulwer treaty had been so amended in the Senate that Great Britain would not accept it. A new treaty made in view of the Senate amendments and the British objections was submitted a few months after Roosevelt became President. It abrogated parts of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and gave to the United States full ownership and control of the proposed canal. Colonel Roosevelt had strongly advocated this while governor of New York before his accession to the presidency. 13 Two commissions in the past had reported favorably on the Nicaraguan route. A third commission with Admiral John G. Walker as chairman was appointed and authorized in 1899 to expend a million dollars, if necessary, to make a thorough investigation of the several routes. In 1901 the committee reported that the “Commission is of the opinion that the most practicable and feasible route for an Isthmian Canal, to be under the control, management, and owner- ship of the United States is that known as the Nicaraguan route. ’ ’ 14 The Commission placed the estimated cost of the Nicaraguan Canal at $189,864,062; of completing the Panama Canal at $144,233,358 ; and that to this latter sum should be added the cost of acquiring the rights of the French company. The company asked $109,141,500, but the Commission estimated its worth at $40,000,000. The company considered this unfair but finally offered to ““Theodore Roosevelt, ’’ by W. R. Thayer, 180. “John Hay,” by W. R. Thayer, II, 339-41. 14 Isthmian Canal Commission Report, Sen. Doc. 57th Congress., 1st session, No. 54. Water Ways and Canals 85 negotiate with the United States and sell on the best terms possible. The Commission made a supplementary report recommending the Panama route and purchase of the French company’s work and rights at $40,000,000. An act was signed by the president, June 28, 1902, which had passed Congress, not without opposition, authorizing the president to acquire control of the rights and property of the Panama Canal Company, to acquire perpetual control of a strip of land not less than 6 miles in width, across the Isthmus, to proceed as soon as these rights were acquired to construct a canal through “The Isthmian Canal Com- mission” created by the act; but should he be unable to get satisfactory title to the property of the French company and the control of territory from Colombia, then the presi- dent was authorized to negotiate with Nicaragua and build a canal along the Nicaraguan route. Attorney General Knox reported that the French com- pany could give a clear title ; a convention was entered into by which the United States upon the payment of $10,000,000 in cash and an annual rental of $250,000 per year was to receive the necessary control and strip of land. The Senate ratified this March 17, 1903. When it went to the Colombian congress, however, it was rejected by unanimous vote. President Roosevelt declared Colombia wanted to wait until they could forfeit the title of the French company then sell to the United States for $40,- 000, 000. 15 This view may and possibly was erroneous. There was again a demand that the Nicaraguan route be chosen. But on November 3, 1903, the Panamanians, in- stigated by the French company, whose entire concession and undertaking would revert to Colombia in less than a year, 16 seeing their interests being sacrificed by the cupidity of Colombia, consummated a revolution. Many were of the opinion that the president of the United States was particeps criminis. In a letter to a friend 17 dated October “Message of January 4, 1904, Sen. Doc., 58th Cong. 2nd Sess. No. 53, pp. 5-26. ““Theodore Roosevelt,” by William Roscoe Thayer, p. 184 et seq. 17 Letter to Albert Shaw by President Theodore Roosevelt. Literary Digest, October 29, 1904. 86 Water Ways and Canals 10, 1903, he says, “I cast aside the proposition at this time to foment the secession of Panama. Whatever other gov- ernments can do, the United States can not go into the securing, by such underhand means, the cession. Privately, I freely say to you that I should be delighted if Panama were an independent state, or if it made itself so at this moment ; but for me to say so publicly would amount to an instigation of a revolt, and therefore I cannot say it.” Many years later when chaffingly accused of being a wicked conspirator, Mr. Roosevelt is quoted as having said : ‘‘What was the use? The other fellows in Paris and New York had taken all the risk and were doing all the work. Instead of trying to run a parallel conspiracy, I had only to sit still and profit by their plot — if it succeeded.” 18 The revolution was bloodless except for the accidental killing of a Chinaman and a dog. Colombia, however, as soon as possible sent troops to Colon. The following day the U. S. Ship Nashville landed fifty marines. The next day the Colombian troops left, said by some to have been bribed. A Panamanian government was formed; on November 6th, the American consul was ordered from Washington to recognize it; a week later their minister was formally received by President Roosevelt. On January 4, 1904, the president pi’esented for ratification a treaty. The Senate ratified it February 23, 1904. Thus rapidly did things move. By this agreement the United States secured from the Republic of Panama a zone of land 10 miles wide for the canal with full power over it. In return the United States guaranteed the independence of the Panama republic, and agreed to pay $10,000,000 upon exchange of ratifications and the sum, beginning nine years thereafter, of $250,000 per annum. The Colombians protested and sent their former president General Reyes to Washington to persuade the Government to abrogate its compact with Panama. The counsel for Colombia is quoted as saying that ‘‘Reyes was authorized to accept $8,000,000 for all the desired con- u “Theodore Boosevelt, ” by W. E. Thayer, p. 190. Water Ways and Canals 87 cessions and he would have taken $5,000,000, but Hay and Roosevelt were so foolish they wouldn ’t accept. ” 19 Be that as it may, the effort was several times made to get for Colombia a gratuity much greater than Reyes would have accepted, and in 1921 Congress appropriated for that purpose $25,- 000,000, thus, in a way, acknowledging that Colombia was wronged and that the United States had been profited thereby. A commission was formed to undertake the construction of the canal. This was changed two or three times during the construction. The immensity of the work necessary to make a tidewater canal, and the fact that its completion would be materially delayed, caused the abandonment of that plan. Three sets of locks were provided — at Gatun, Pedro Miguel, and Miraflores. A great dam was built across the lower end of the Chagres, entirely blocking the flow of that river and creating a large artificial lake 165 square miles in area whose maximum height is 85 feet above sea water. This lake serves for storage water neces- sary to manipulate the canal and locks; any surplus flows through a spillway into the Pacific Ocean. Great break- waters were constructed to make smooth harbors at Colon and Panama and prevent silting. The canal is at sea level to Gatun, 8 miles, then three steps lead it to Gatun Lake ; it continues on that level for 32 miles ; then down one step at Pedro Miguel to Miraflores Lake, 55 feet above sea level ; thence through the Miraflores locks to sea level again and then out to deep water in the Pacific, 11 miles. The locks are 1000 feet long and large enough in every way to ac- commodate the largest ships afloat. These great locks with their mammoth gates, tunnels for filling, and mechanical means of operation are one of the seven wonders of the modern world. The cost was about $400,000,000 to date of opening. Since that time considerable sums have been spent in fortifications, improvements, and maintenance — several large slides having occurred in the Culebra Cut. The “total amount expended or advanced to disbursing 19 ‘ ‘ Theodore Eoosevelt, ’ ’ by W. E. Thayer, p. 186. 88 Water Ways and Canals officers for purchase, construction, fortification, etc., to June 30, 1919, $452,075,376. ” 20 The tolls amount to about $7,000,000 annually. The principal arguments in favor of the United States building the inter-oceanic canal were its utility as a meas- ure of preparedness for and strategy in case of war. By furnishing quick passage between the east and west coasts the navy necessary for the protection of these coasts could be reduced one half. With the canal entirely in the control of the Government no foreign nation could take advantage of it to our detriment. Notwithstanding the need of the canal for war purposes, the benefits to be derived by the commerce of peace will doubtless be manifold more valuable. It furnishes cheap transportation between the west and east coasts, and shortens materially the distance from the Atlantic seaboard to western South America as well as to the islands of the Pacific Ocean. During the year 1920, “2814 ships representing 11,236,119 tons of cargo, passed through the waterway” being a considerable increase over any preceding year. 21 Of these 45.5 per cent were registered United States vessels, more than any other one nation. Fuel-oil, nitrates, steel and iron hold leading places in the line of commodities carried. River Transportation. — As has already been stated streams and rivers were early adopted as a means for transportation. Birch-bark and dug-out canoes, flat-boats and keel-boats, with and without sails, and rafts were ex- tensively used. For small boats paddles and oars furnished the means of navigation, while several pairs of oars were utilized on the larger boats. In shallow water poling was much in vogue. Two men by pushing poles against the bottom of the stream from opposite sides of a small boat could easily propel it. On still larger boats and rafts the men as they pushed walked toward the stern as far as possible while the craft moved through the water under them. A third man held it with his pole until the first ““The American Year Book,” 1919. Appleton, N. Y. 51 Panama Canal Record. Water Ways and Canals 89 two regained a position near the front for another push. By this arduous and crude means boats were propelled up shallow but often swift currents. On the larger rivers sails were employed. Going downstream offered little difficulty except to keep clear of sand bars and snags. Sails, oars, and poles were sometimes relied upon to assist the current in making speed. Large rafts of logs and lumber made by tying timbers together with wooden pins were floated down the rivers and broken up and sold when they reached their destination. Furs, hides, bacon, cured hams, or jerked-meat might form a cargo, stored during transit, in a small cabin erected at the center of the raft, which might occupy from 400 to 600 square feet. The construction of a practicable steamboat in 1807 by Robert Fulton 22 and another by John Stevens, the same year, revolutionized both river and sea navigation. While many attempts had been made to utilize the steam engine for propelling boats, and some of them mechanically suc- cessful, Fulton’s was the first boat built and adapted for the conveyance of freight and passengers on a scale com- mercially successful. Fulton had had the confidence and backing of R. R. Livingston and the firm of Fulton & Livingston was formed. This firm secured a monopoly for operating steam vessels in the waters of the state of New York. The first boat, the Clermont , named after Living- ston’s estate on the Hudson River, was 130 feet long, 18 feet beam, and 7 feet deep, with a burden of 160 tons. The Boulton & Watt engine had been brought from England the year previous by Fulton and the boat built for it. The vessel made a successful trial trip to Albany, August 7 to 9, and returned the following two days ; her running speed had only averaged about 5 miles an hour, but she had demonstrated the practicability of steam navigation on in- land waters. Following close after this event, Stevens, who had been experimenting for years and, it is claimed, 22 For a long list of steamboats built in America, and operated under their own power prior to Fulton 's Clermont, see “A History of Travel in America, ’ ’ by Seymour Dunbar. 90 Water Ways and Canals had launched a screw propeller vessel driven by steam as early as 1804, perfected his vessel, but because of Fulton & Livingston’s monopoly took it to the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The trip around by sea demonstrated the feasibility of steam navigation on the ocean. Very shortly thereafter Fulton & Livingston had placed a fleet of their vessels on the Hudson River and Long Island Sound, and had begun to build them at Pittsburgh while John Stevens & Sons had their vessels on the Delaware and Connecticut Rivers. Soon all navigable waters were covered with steam propelled vessels. Prior to the introduction of the steamboat Mississippi River traffic had been, as has been stated, carried on by flat boats, rafts, and perhaps some twenty barges 23 of a better quality. These latter had been making one round trip a year requiring sixty days down and ninety days back from Louisville to New Orleans. This time, by 1822, had been reduced to seven days down and sixteen days up. By 1830 all the navigable tributaries of the Mississippi were traversed by steamboats and the produce of a western empire teeming through the portals was rapidly making New Orleans a great city. The value of these commodities were given as approximating $26,000,000 annually. 24 In 1860 a writer said: “upward of two hundred millions of dollars worth of merchandise are annually brought to this market.” 25 New Orleans was an extremely busy place with all the picturesqueness of pioneer cities generally. Rank- ing twelfth of the cities of the United States in 1790, it had steadily climbed up to third place in 1840, 26 when the northern cities through the influence of the railroads and the decline of river traffic began to outstrip it. The levee, an embankment along the river, several feet higher than the city, was bordered by a long line of warehouses on the land side and by quays extending into the river on the ^“American Nation,” Vol. XIV. 54 “American Nation,” Vol. XIV, p. 105. 25 Henry Howe, ‘ ‘ Historical Sketch of the "West. ’ ’ 21 Statistical Atlas 1900. 12th Census of the U. S. Water Ways and Canals 91 other side. Miles of ships, boats, and barges were anchored along the levee as automobiles are now parked along a street, heads in. A contemporaneous writer describes it thus : The New Orleans levee is one continuous landing-place, or quay, 4 miles in extent, and of an average width of 100 feet. It is 15 feet above low water mark, and 6 feet above the level of the city, to which it is graduated by an easy descent. During the business season, from November to July, the river front of the levee is crowded with vessels, of all sizes and from all quarters of the world, with hundreds of large and splendid steamboats, barges, flat-boats, etc. The levee presents a most busy and animated prospect. Here are seen piles of cotton bales, vast numbers of barrels of pork, flour and liquors of various kinds, bales of foreign and domestic manufactures, hogsheads of sugar, crates of ware, etc., draymen with their carts, buyers, sellers, laborers, etc. Valuable products from the head waters of the Missouri, 3000 miles distant, center here. The Illinois, the Ohio, the Arkansas and Red Rivers, with the Mississippi, are all tributaries to this commercial depot. Under the influence of the river traffic many other cities were springing into importance. Many of these later be- came centers of railroad activity and thus retained or even bettered their rank. Others gradually wasted away until they are mere hamlets to-day. The times seem to have been ripe when Fulton’s Clermont appeared, for almost immediately the steamboat industry thrived. During the first ten years 131 steam vessels had been built and by 1832, 474 ; 27 in 1836 and 1837, 145 and 158 respectively were launched. Building was for a few years checked by business depression but soon revived and in 1846 there were constructed 225 steam vessels. The Civil War reduced the number; immediately following business sprang up again and taking into account coasts, rivers, and lakes has continued brisk ever since. With the growth in the number of vessels, up until rail- roads began to monopolize travel and freight, the accom- 21 Charles Barnard in The Century Magazine, Vol. XXXVIII, from which also is derived information relative to dimensions and decorations of steam vessels, pp. 353-372. 92 Water Ways and Canals modations and speed were continually improved until river and sound boats were frequently spoken of as “floating palaces.” Packets were built to accommodate several hundred passengers, with staterooms, saloons, dining rooms, bathrooms, barber shops, and other features. The river steamboat may be said to be a development of the pole-boat or flat-boat. On account of the shoals they must be broad and shallow. The paddle wheels on the sides are operated independently in order to facilitate quick turning. The weight of engines, boilers, fuel bunkers, freight and passenger burden, are distributed fairly well over the entire surface. Some of the best lower Mississippi boats had a length of hull of 300 feet, a width of 50 feet and depth of hold of 9 feet. The boat fully loaded drew about 10 feet of water, when light, 4 feet. “Mark twain,” 6 feet, represented the shallowest water the vessels piloted by Samuel L. Clemens could navigate ; after quitting steam- boating he adopted that term for a nom-de-plume, under which his inimitable writings were published. 28 The main deck overhangs the hull and is about 90 feet wide. A complete system of ties and braces above the hull gives it strength and stiffness. Modern boats are electric lighted and have swinging gangplanks, capstans, and all the recent power improvements for the rapid handling of freight and passengers. The staterooms are erected on the saloon deck with doors opening into the saloon and on a narrow passageway along the outside. The saloon generally ex- tends the full length of the house, giving a large well- lighted room, used as a lounging and dining room. Above this is another deck on which are officers ’ quarters and above all fully glassed in is the pilot house. The freight capacity of these boats is given as 1500 tons, and there are 70 state- rooms to accommodate 140 passengers. Deck passage could be provided for a number more. The cost of a “floating palace” was in the ’eighties from $100,000 to $120,000. Extremely handsome, well equipped, and finely decorated boats ply regularly on the Hudson River and on Long “ See “Life on the Mississippi,’’ by Mark Twain, p. 117. Water Ways and Canals 93 Island Sound. Some of the vessels of one line are over 400 feet long and 50 feet wide. The decks are about 90 feet wide and they have over 350 state rooms ; many of them are magnificently equipped. O ’Hanlon’s “Irish Emigrants’ Guide to the United States,” published in 1851, would indicate that all travel- ing in that day was not as comfortable as might be inferred from the preceding. With regard to steamboats it says : These have been termed “flying palaces,” and many of them are fitted up in style of great magnificence. But the comfort of traveling by them is confined to cabin passengers, state rooms, accommodating two persons each, in separate berths, are appro- priated for retirement by day and for rest at night; ladies and gentlemen have separate cabins, but dine at the same table, which is set out in the “social hall,” and stocked with a variety of luxuries. . . . The deck passengers are immediately under the cabin, and in the hinder part of the boat. A few berths are fitted up for their reception without bedding. Provisions must be provided at their own expense, and also a mode of preparing them. Sometimes numbers are huddled to- gether on board without having room to move, or stretch them- selves out for rest; the inconvenience of this mode of traveling can hardly be appreciated without being experienced. It is also stated that steamboat traveling was dangerous because of the explosions. It is true there were a number of boiler explosions. Mark Twain mentions one of the very worst, 29 the explosion of the Pennsylvania. He also dis- cusses the subject of racing, which after the Government rules regarding steam pressure went into effect, he claims not to have been dangerous. One of the later races, that between the Robert E. Lee and the Natchez in 1870 was an event of national interest. The time of the Robert E. Lee from New Orleans to St. Louis was 3 days 18 hours and 14 minutes from dock to dock. Mark Twain claims the fastest long-distance running was made by the Eclipse in 1855 when she made the trip from New Orleans to Cairo at an average speed “a shade under fourteen and three- eighths miles per hour. ’ ’ m “Life on the Mississippi,” by Mark Twain, Chapter XX. 94 Water Ways and Canals An idea of the rates charged for passenger fare and for freight traffic on steam-boats may be obtained from the following. In 1816 from New York to Albany the fare was $7, about 4 cents per mile. For way stations between about 5 cents per mile, but no charge less than $1. 30 Steamboat Fares Date Between Distance Total Fare Per Mile Cents 1816 New York and Albany. 145 $7.00 4 1817 New York to Providence 200 10.00 5 1825 Boston to Portland 160 5.00 3 \ 1825 Boston to Bath 6.00 1825 Boston to Augusta 7.00 f W itn meals 1825 Boston to East Port .... 275 11.00 4 J 1848 New York to Albany. . . 145 .50 .3 1848 New York to Erie 600 7.50 1.3 1848 New York to Detroit. . . 825 8.50 1 1848 New York to Chicago. . 1520 12.50 . 7 1848 Baltimore to Richmond . 378 10.00 1848 Tuscaloosa to Mobile . . . 675 12.00 1848 Boston and New York Sailing 1 to New Orleans Packet J ■iU— ou * Warner’s “Immigrant's Guide and Citizen’s Manual.” In 1817 from Rhode Island to New York, $10, ap- proximately 5 cents per mile. The Government ’s Attitude Toward River Improve- ment. — The individual states had been encouraging turn- pikes, canals, and other interior improvements by subscrib- ing and underwriting stock in private companies authorized to build and operate the improvements. Frequently monopolies were granted to operating companies. 31 States 80 Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America.” ” March 18, 1786, John Fitch was granted by New Jersey ‘‘the sole and exclusive right of constructing making using and employing or navigating, all and every species or kind of boats, impelled by the force of fire or steam ’ ’ within the limits of that state. Delaware gave him similar rights in 1787 and New York, likewise, the same Water Ways and Canals 95 were jealous of each other and hesitated to appropriate money for improvements which would inure to the benefit of another state, and frequently an improvement in one state was worthless unless joining improvements could be made in neighboring states. Many men, believing in a large and unified nation rather than a confederation of several small nations advocated governmental action. Strict con- stitutionalists and states’ rights men objected. President Madison had vetoed Calhoun’s Bonus Bill for roads and canals upon the ground that the constitution did not vest Congress with power to undertake such improvements . 32 Calhoun had used all the power of his great eloquence based upon the ‘ ‘ common defense and general welfare ’ ’ clause of the constitution in favor of such improvements. He con- sidered it the duty of Congress to “bind the republic to- gether with a perfect system of roads and canals. ’ ’ He ex- claimed that the very extent of the country ‘ ‘ exposes us to the greatest of all calamities, — next to the loss of liberty, — and even to that in its consequences — disunion. We are great, and rapidly — I was about to say fearfully growing. This is our pride and our danger; our weakness and our strength. We are under the most imperious obligation to counteract every tendency to disunion. . . . Whatever im- pedes the intercourse of the extremes with this, the center of the Republic, weakens the Union .” 33 Monroe’s first message indicated that he followed Madison in the belief that Congress was not empowered by the constitution to establish internal improvements ; and later he vetoed a measure to authorize the president to erect toll houses along the Cumberland Road, appoint toll gatherers and otherwise regulate its use, on the ground that it exceeded the power of congress. He favored internal year. In 1798 Fitch’s grant in New York, which was to have run fourteen years, was canceled and Livingston given a monopoly for twenty years providing within a year he run a steamboat at four miles an hour. This he failed to do, but got his grant renewed in 1803, and again extended until the successful operation of the Clermont in 1807. “"Messages and Papers,” Richardson, I, 584. "Calhoun: "Works II,” 190. "American Nation” XIII, 253. 96 Water Ways and Canals improvements but thought a constitutional amendment necessary . a4 The next year, however, some bills for internal improve- ments got through among them the first act for the im- provement of harbors. In 1802, under the influence of Gallatin, Randolph and Jefferson, 5 per cent of the Ohio lands sold were appropriated for the building of roads. 35 In 1809 was passed the first act for river improvement. 36 These were the beginnings of National aid for internal improvements in the United States. The “implied powers” adherents seem to have been in the ascendency for a report of the treasurer shows that up to 1830 the United States had appropriated for internal improvements — Cumberland Road, $2,443,420.20; subscriptions to canal stock and im- provements of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, $1,263,- 315.65 ; for other items such as building of piers, preserva- tion of ports and piers, making roads and removing river obstructions, $1,603,694.31. It was pointed out that only $234, 955. 92 37 had been expended in the territories where the question of constitutionality did not arise. Presidents had nearly always declared in favor of internal improve- ments but desired that constitutional provision be made for the same. Jackson, a strong state sovereignty man, sug- gested that the surplus funds of the Government be dis- tributed among the several states in proportion to their representation in Congress; and in 1830 vetoed a bill for subscription to the stock of one canal and pocketed others, and closed his administration by pocketing a bill for the improvement of the Wabash River. While Jackson’s attitude cheeked federal appropriations, especially for roads and canals, those for rivers and harbors became al- most a national scandal, and were with other public ap- propriation bills frequently referred to as “pork bills.” A congressional appropriation, whether for rivers and har- 34 “American Nation,” XIV, 231. ” ‘ ‘ Laws of the United States, ’ ’ VI., 120. 83 MacDonald, “American Nation” Vol. XV, 134. "“American Nation,” Vol. XV, pp. 136-137. Water Ways and Canals 97 bors, a federal building, or an irrigation project, brought considerable money into a state ; it was considered a feather in the cap of a congressman and enchanced his chances for reelection. Consequently nearly every congressman intro- duced such an act for his district and “log-rolling” schemes were entered into by many to procure their passage. River and harbor appropriations continued to in- crease until 1882, when they amounted to the vast sum of $18,743,875 to be applied to some 500 different localities. President Arthur 38 vetoed the bill, but Congress passed it over the veto and the “barrel of pork” was divided up as usual. The publicity given the matter checked appropria- tions for a while but they soon climbed higher than ever. The appropriation for the fiscal year of 1920 was $33,378,- 364. 39 SELECTED REFERENCES Arthur, President Chester A., Veto of river and harbor bill, Richardson’s “Messages and Papers,” VIII, pp. 120-122. Barnard, Charles, “Inland Navigation of the United States,” The Century Magazine, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 353-372. Calhoun, John C., “Works of.” Edited by Richard K. Cralle, 6 volumes, 1853-1855. Vol. II, p. 190. D. Appleton & Company, New York. Canals. — “Report of the Committee on Roads and Canals (of the House of Representatives) in reply to memorials of Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and inhabitants of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, asking additional subscriptions by the United States to the capital stock of the Canal.” Report No. 414, H. of R. 23d Cong. 1st Sess., pp. 378 et seq. Dunbar, Seymour, “History of Travel in America,” 4 volumes, Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis. Greeley, Horace, “Recollections of a Busy Life.” J. B. Ford & Co., New York, 1869. Hazard, George S., “The Erie Canal. Its National Character.” Published by order of Board of Trade, Buffalo, N. Y., 1873. Howe, Henry, “Historical Sketch of the West.” 88 Richardson, “Messages and Papers,” VIII, 120-122. * 9 “The American Year Book,” 208. 98 Water Ways and Canals “Isthmian Canal Commission Report,” Sen. Doc., 57th Congress, 1st session, No. 54. Johnson’s Cyclopaedia. Article on Canals. MacDonald, William, “Jacksonian Democracy,” Vol. XV of the American Nation Series, Chapter VIII, “Internal Im- provements.” Harper & Brothers, New York. McMaster, John Bach, “History of the United States,” Vol. V, Chap. XLIV. D. Appleton & Company, New York, 1911. O’Hanlon, Rev. J., “Irish Emigrant’s Guide of the United States,” Boston, 1851. Panama Canal. — Financial Statement to June 30, 1919, The American Year Book for the year 1919, p. 364, D. Appleton & Co., New York. Richardson, James D., “Messages and Papers,” Vol. I, 584, President Madison’s Veto of Calhoun’s Bonus Bill. Pub- lished by order of Congress, 8 Vols., Washington, 1896-1899. Roosevelt, President Theodore, “Messages to Congress,” Janu- ary 4, 1904, Sen. Doc. 58th Sess., No. 53, pp. 5-26. Smith, Theodore C., “Parties and Slavery,” Vol. XVIII, of the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York. Sparks, Edwin E., “National Development,” Vol. XXIII of the American Nation Series, Chapters IV and XIII, Harper & Brothers, New York. Thayer, Wm. R., “Theodore Roosevelt,” p. 178 et seq. Grosset & Dunlap, New York. Thayer, Wm. R., “John Hay,” Vol. II, pp. 339-41. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1915. Turner, Frederick J., “Rise of the New West,” Vol. XIV of the American Nation Series, Chapter VIII, “Western Trade and Ideals,” Harper & Brothers, New York Twain, Mark (Clemens, S. L.), “Life on the Mississippi,” Harper & Brothers, New York. U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880. Warner, I. W., “Immigrant’s Guide and Citizen’s Manual.” New York, 1848. CHAPTER IV RAILROADS During the period of the development of the canals there was growing up along side of them an agency for transpor- tation that was destined practically to put them out of business. Engineers in both Europe and America were straining every energy to apply the steam engine to the propulsion of wagons along a highway. No one at first looked upon the railroad as a separate and distinct in- dustry. For years upon roads over which there was much hauling of heavy loads planks had been placed in the tracks to prevent rutting. These planks had developed into rigidly set timbers or rails either attached to cross timbers or to stones set in the roadway. A little later iron straps were fastened to the tops of the rails to lessen wear and friction. It was found that a horse could haul on these tramways several times as much as he could on the dirt roadway. The steam engine had revolutionized industry and was turning all sorts of machinery with an efficiency unknown before, why then could it not be applied to propel vehicles? In England George Stephenson and associates were proving that it could. But prior to their time many thinkers of America believed in it. John Fitch, the half crazy inventor of an early steamboat, had built a model locomotive. Oliver Evans, who had placed wheels under a steamboat of his invention (1804) and run it over the streets of Philadelphia, predicted “The time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines, from one city to another, almost as fast as birds fly, fifteen to twenty miles an hour.” His vision went still further; he saw what most people think to be absolutely modern 99 100 Railroads innovations: “A carriage will set out from Washington in the morning, the passengers will breakfast at Balti- more, dine at Philadelphia, and sup at New York, the same day . . . and travel by night as well as by day; and the passengers will sleep in these stages as comfortably as they do now in steamboats.” 1 Evans antedated Stephen- son’s thought that speed with a locomotive could only be made on nearly level rails. John Stevens, who is often spoken of as the father of American railroads, of course, had similar beliefs, and wrote a pamphlet to impress his ideas of the importance of railways upon Congress. He said: “I am anxious and ambitious that my native country should have the honor of being the first to intro- duce an improvement of such immense importance to society at large, and should feel the utmost reluctance at being compelled to resort to foreigners in the first in- stance.” 2 Had Congress not turned a deaf ear to him it is quite possible that he might have been before Stephenson in demonstrating the practicability of the locomotive. 3 Stevens built a small locomotive and demonstrated it on a piece of track on his grounds with himself as passenger in 1820. Several tramways or railroads operated by horse were established in different parts of the country. One of them — sponsored by the people of Baltimore, anxious to retain their trade — was the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which had secured from Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsyl- vania charters for its construction in 1827 and 1828. It was being built with many curves, as it, too, was expected to have horse propulsion. Many persons thought it should be made straighter in order to take advantage of the steam locomotive when the inventors had perfected it sufficiently to be usable. It was not considered feasible to operate locomotives on crooked roads. Peter Cooper, justly praised for many benefits to his country, decided to build a loco- 1 Quoted from “Niles’ Register” of 1812 by Dunbar. 2 Stevens ’ pamphlet published in 1812. 2 Stephenson ’s first locomotive was put out in 1814. His Socket and Ericsson’s Novelty had their famous contest resulting in favor of the Socket in 1829- Railroads 101 motive to prove it could run on a crooked track. In his own words : ‘ ‘ Under these discouraging circumstances many of the principal stockholders were about to abandon the work, and were only prevented from forfeiting their stock by my persuading them that a locomotive could be so made as to pass successfully around the short curves then found in the road. ’ ’ 4 Accordingly in 1829 Cooper fitted up a small engine and boiler on a flat car and with that crude locomotive, the Tom Thumb, was able to demonstrate that curves could be “navigated.” Having made some changes in the Tom Thumb, Cooper, the next year, ran it over the 13 miles from Baltimore to Ellicott’s Mills in an hour and a quarter, an average of 6 miles per hour, returning in sixty-one minutes, including a stop of four minutes. The engine pushed ahead of it a flat car carrying twenty-four passengers. The wheels of the engine had been constructed on the “cone principle ’ ’ which allowed it to round the curves of 400 feet radius without trouble. 5 6 This was the first time a car filled with passengers had been hauled over a railroad in the United States by means of steam power. In England steam engines had been tried out but not until 1820 was the first commercial road, the Stockton & Darlington Railroad, 37 miles in length, completed. Prior to this time the tram roads had been erected for special- ized private transportation (from colliery to canal, for in- stance) or as improvements to the public highways. The Stockton & Darlington was intended to be operated with horses. And even as late as 1828 the Liverpool & Man- chester Railroad, intended primarily to haul freight and relieve the congested condition of the canals, was chartered with a provision that the owners could exact toll of all who might put vehicles on the road for the transport of goods. The engineer, George Stephenson, however, was a strong 4 Brown ’s ‘ ‘ History of the First Locomotive, ’ ’ letter from Cooper, 1869. 6 The coning of wheels is an invention of Jonathan Knight, Engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company. 102 Railroads advocate of steam power and the success of the Rocket, built by his son Robert, in 1829, as this road was nearing completion, definitely determined the power to be used. Roads in America followed the same idea that they were public highways. 7n Pennsylvania the state built a rail- road from Philadelphia to Columbia and licensed over twenty different companies to run their horse-drawn cars over it. 6 In other states the same idea prevailed and the right to charge tolls “upon all passengers and property” transported upon the road was legalized by the charter. The utility and economy of the railways were so manifest that organizations were formed rapidly over the whole well settled portions of the country. Several locomotives were imported from England. One of these, the John Bull (locomotives were for a number of years all named like sleeping cars are now), brought over by Stevens & Son, is said to have given Baldwin information which enabled him to build Old Ironsides, the first locomotive to run on Pennsylvania tracks, and establish a business which after- wards became one of the largest locomotive works in the world. Old Ironsides was built by Matthias Baldwin and his brother-in-law Rufus Tyler for the Philadelphia, Germantown & Norristown Road. Tyler seems to have made the drawings. Baldwin was by trade a jeweler but his mechanical ingenuity had carried him further. He had added to his business that of constructing tools and calico printing apparatus and machinery. He had built a steam engine for his own shop. A museum operator in Phila- delphia desiring to add to the attractions of his place of amusement wished to put in a miniature locomotive and railway. He applied to Baldwin, who built the road with its small locomotive and cars. On April 25, 1831, its in- stallation was completed and it hauled two four-seated ■passenger cars about a circular track, to the great delight of the patrons, who were anxious for the experience of riding on the railroad. One of the roads that seems to have been prolific in 0 Dunbar, ‘ ‘ A History of Travel in America, ’ ’ 932. Railroads 103 “first things” was between Charleston and Hamburg, South Carolina. Chartered in 1827, again in 1828. In 1829-30 it experimented with sailing cars, as did also the Baltimore & Ohio and with treadmill horse powers. But the company fortunately employed Horatio Allen, who had studied the English roads and was strongly inclined to steam power. He so convincingly presented his ideas that it was decided to strengthen construction and use such locomotives. This then, very likely, was the first railroad in the world to adopt formally the steam locomotive as its means of propulsion (January 14, 1830). The company accordingly built its lines substantially and placed upon them the “first locomotive made in America for regular and practical use on a railway.” 7 This locomotive known as the Best Friend of Charleston was built in New York and shipped to Charleston by sea. After some adjustments it satisfied the demands of the contract, but distinguished itself by being the first locomotive to explode. It is said a negro fireman sat upon or held down the safety valve to prevent escaping steam from annoying him. The Charles- ton Courier's account closes with the gratifying informa- tion that “none of the persons are dangerously injured ex- cept the negro, who had his thigh broken.” A new loco- motive, the West Point, was secured, upon which several improvements suggested by experience had been made; among them the safety valve was placed out of reach of the fireman, making it fool-proof. The beginning of the New York Central may be traced to a charter granted in 1826 to the Mohawk & Hudson Company, which with five or six other small lines was joined together into that company. Its first locomotive, the De Witt Clinton, had a rather interesting initiation. The engine was constructed by the West Point foundry, the same concern that had built the Best Friend and the West Point. A demonstration was announced for August 9, 1831, the road having 17 miles of rails at that time. The locomotive, a small affair compared with the modern 7 Dunbar, ‘ ‘ A History of Travel in America, ’ ’ 960. 104 Railroads engines, is still in existence and with its train of that day was exhibited at the Pageant of Progress, Chicago, July 30, 1921, as the “pioneer American steam passenger train.” The whole engine was only about 12 feet long with large wheels, tall smoke stack and a central steam dome. Back of it were the tender and wood for fuel and two barrels of water, two passenger coaches modeled after stage coaches, and following these several small flat cars to which had been attached temporary benches for seats. The locomotive and cars were joined together with short sections of strong chain. When the engine started these jerked so badly the passengers could not retain their seats; stopping had a similar effect. On the trip it is said the passengers appro- priated rails from a near fence and made braces to keep the cars the full length of the chains apart. The wood fuel produced many sparks which flying backward set fire to and ruined much of the passengers’ clothing. But accord- ing to a newspaper report 8 the train “passed over the road from plane to plane, to the delight of a large crowd assembled to witness the performance. The engine per- formed the entire route in less than one hour, including stoppages, and on a part of the road its speed was at the rate of 30 miles an hour. ’ ’ On May 10, 1893, Engine No. 999, of the New York Central Railroad, made, traveling alone, a record of 112.5 miles an hour. The Camden & Amboy road was chartered in 1830 and was somewhat unique in that New Jersey in return for $200,000 worth of stock had granted a monopoly of the right of way between Philadelphia and Newark. Poore says : 9 “ The state became a willing party to the scheme, under the idea that it could thereby draw the means for supporting its government from citizens of other States, thus relieving its own from the burdens of taxation.” He says, “the state now (1860) derives a revenue of over 8 The Albany Argus, August 11, 1831. 9 ‘ ‘ History of the Railroads and Canals of the United States, ’ ’ 1860, Vol. I, p. 377. Railroads 105 $200,000 annually from transit duties and dividends on the stock presented to it. ’ ’ New England started three railway projects about the same time: Boston & Lowell, chartered in 1830 first used in 1834, 26.7 miles long; Boston & Providence, chartered in 1831, first used in 1834, 43.5 miles long; and the Boston & Worcester, chartered in 1831, first used in 1834, 44.6 miles long. 10 These roads were chartered with the idea of using horse-drawn vehicles, except the Boston & Worcester, where steam locomotives were authorized, but it was not until about 1834 that they were used. Some of these roads, as did most of those built farther west, followed the English practice of laying track. One of them, at least, laid its track upon wooden cross-ties, thus securing the necessary resiliency for service. It was not many years, however, before several other roads were established with regular trips of locomotive drawn cars arranged both for passenger and freight traffic. The time of passenger service from Boston to New York had been materially shortened by connecting the schedules of stage coaches to Providence with those of steamboats down the Sound. When the steam railway came into existence the time of the trip was again shortened, and still again when an all rail route was opened in 1848, as shown by the following table : 1775 General Washington was 12 days en route. Early coaches required a week. 1800 Stage coaches required 4 days. 1832 Stage coaches required 41 hours. 1822 Coach to Providence, steamboat to New York, 28 hours. 1835 Coach to Providence, steamboat to New York, 16 hours. 1835 Railway to Providence, steamboat to New York, 15 hours. 1848 All railway, 10 hours. 1922 All railway, 5 hours, 10 minutes. 1922 Air plane, 3 hours. While the railroads of the East were gradually working west, the trans-Alleghany states were themselves looking toward railroad transportation. The first railway in Ohio was begun in 1835 and had completed 30 miles by 1840. It “Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 998, 1383. 106 Railroads extended from Sandusky to Springfield. When it was chartered, 1832, under the name of the Mad River & Lake Erie Railway, the intention was to connect Lake Erie with the Ohio River. A locomotive was purchased and shipped to Sandusky by canal and lake. It arrived be- fore any track was laid hence the gauge of the track was made to fit the locomotive, 4 feet 10 inches. Other roads in Ohio were laid at that gauge and in time the state adopted that as a standard. Michigan in 1832, then a territory, incorporated the Detroit & St. Joseph Railroad Company. After several years without doing anything the road was completed to Ann Arbor in 1840. Later its western terminal became New Buffalo, from which point there was steamboat com- munication with Chicago. This was the germ which has grown into the Michigan Central. A railroad was begun from Frankfort, Kentucky, to Lexington, a few miles from the pioneer settlement at Boonesborough. By 1840 this road had extended to the Ohio River near Louisville and was 92 miles in length. Indiana chartered not less than a half-dozen railways in 1832 and continued with a score or more in the next few years. The Lawreneeburg & Indianapolis line, chartered 1832, was opened with a Fourth of July celebration, 1834, and had laid less than 2 miles of track by 1836. 11 The Madi- son & Indianapolis road was opened in 1838. The report of the principal engineer, 1837, states that “the exclusive use of steam as a motive power” had been adopted, thus saving “the cost of a horse path” and avoiding “the delay and confusion arising from the simultaneous use of both steam and horse power,” as well as elevating the “character of the road by greater dispatch in the conveyance of passengers.” He thinks “in the use of the railroads con- structed by the state it will probably be best for the state to furnish the motive power, leaving the cars for the conveyance of freight and passengers to be fur- nished by individuals or companies, from whom the “Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 1071. Railroads 107 state will exact the proper toll for the use of the road, and for the motive power.” The idea seems everywhere to have prevailed that a railway was a public highway to be used by and for the benefit of the public. Only for a very short time in the history of the country did the theory have prominence that a railway is private property to the extent that its owners could do as they pleased with it and the ‘ ‘ public be damned. ’ ’ At various points in the South were railways projected and built. Besides the Charleston & Hamburg, which has already been mentioned, and which by 1850 had extended across the state to Hamburg directly across the Savannah River from Augusta, Georgia, and northward to Columbia with some branches, should be noted a few others. From Richmond there was a line westward to the coal fields (1830-31) and a line which by 1840 connected the Potomac with Fredericksburg, a distance of 75 miles. It was con- structed in the ordinary manner of wooden rails with strap- iron plates. In Virginia there were the Petersburg & Roanoke, about 60 miles long and other lines sufficient to total in 1840 more than 300 miles. North Carolina also took up the rail question rather early. The Wilmington & Raleigh, chartered in 1833, had laid upwards of 160 miles in 1840. Georgia was building lines in the ’thirties and ’forties from Augusta across the state to link with lines in Tennessee. The lines of these several Southeastern states were joined together later and became parts of large systems. Of the several projects authorized amounting to more than 1000 miles (1837) only one materialized, namely, the road from Springfield to Meredosia, and 58 miles had been completed by 1842. A locomotive was purchased and according to the Springfield Journal, March 18, “the cars ran from Jacksonville, 33^ miles, in two hours and eight minutes including stoppages. ’ ’ On account of the unsettled condition of the country and the accidents along the way, — no doubt the track was poorly constructed,— it did not pay. The locomotive for a considerable time lay out in the open where it had jumped the track. A man bought it, 108 Railroads equipped it with wide tired wheels and attempted to operate it on the wagon roads. This proved unsuccessful and it was finally abandoned on the prairie. 12 The road was sold in 1847. Several roads were reaching out for the Mississippi River and the fertile prairies beyond. The bustling young city of Chicago began its first railway to- ward the west in 1848. The other extremity was set for Galena on the Mississippi River. Not being financially able to buy T-rails they purchased some second-hand strap- irons. Likewise a second-hand locomotive was obtained, but when it arrived at the water front in Chicago the city authorities having refused the privilege of laying tracks on the street the company was at a loss to know how to get it to the end of their rails. After much discussion permission to lay a temporary track was given, and the Pioneer finally reached her destination. The railway proved successful from the first; later it became part of the Illinois Central System. The locomotive Pioneer is still retained in the Field Museum of Chicago. There is not space to trace the development of the rail- ways in all the individual states. In all natural growths, increases at first are slow, then accelerated until a maximum is reached, followed by a gradual retardation. So with the railway growth. The number of miles of rail- road constructed up to 1830 was 41 ; 1835, 918 ; to 1840, 2797 ; in small widely scattered locations, but from that time on to the Civil "War the work went on rapidly. By 1860 about 31,000 miles had been constructed and was going on at the rate of 5000 miles per year. Seven trunk line roads had passed through the Appalachian Mountain system ; at eight places they and their connections touched the Ohio River, and the Mississippi at ten.* By 1850 there was railway connection between Boston and the east end of Lake Erie, and from the west end of Lake Erie to Lake Michigan with steamboat connection across the two lakes; before 1860 there was a network of rails between the Atlantic seaboard and the Mississippi River. Construction ** Potter’s American Monthly, July, 1879. * T. C. Smith, American Nation, Tol. XVIII, p. 60. Railroads 109 lagged behind in the South. Up to 1856 the building was approximately as follows : Northeastern States 4000 miles Northern Central States 7500 “ South Atlantic States 2750 “ Southern Interior 2150 “ And the very fact that few of these were north and south roads, that travel and intercourse were east and west, that the people of the North did not fraternize with the people of the South, that they grew apart and worshiped at the shrine of different ideals, furnished at least one cause for the cruel Civil War. There are still too few north and south trunk lines of travel and commerce, too little trade and friendly intercourse to heal the differences en- gendered by a century of separation. There lies one of the hopes of the interchange of summer and winter automobile visitors. The building of railroads offered an opening for surplus capital; the opportunity for fortune and fame was attrac- tive ; but above all the people were crazed with the idea of improvement; every town wanted to grow bigger and a railroad was an absolute necessity; scores of companies were formed with the intention of beginning construction, then deeding the improvement to some established line to operate. Many communities subscribed stock, others voted bonds, others paid for right of way by private subscrip- tion in order to secure a railroad. Mob psychology had got in its work; the people were frenzied. The result was often overbuilding, parallel lines, too many roads attempt- ing to occupy the same territory, with the result that branch lines often never paid interest on the cost of con- struction. On the other hand the gambling instinct was rampant, many roads were overcapitalized, stock was voted influential persons without money consideration, and stock sold to others for more than it was worth. As there had been for turnpikes, as there had been for canals, once again there came a popular call for govern- 110 Railroads mental aid. Land was then plenty and the general belief was that the prosperity of the country demanded its settle- ment. If railways could be induced to go out into the open prairies and by their selling agencies bring about the occupa- tion and tillage of these lands, other lands owned by the Gov- ernment would soon be in demand. There would be no par- ticular hardship on anyone, since Government land was sold to actual settlers for such a small sum, the railroads would be unable to dispose of their land at a much larger price. As a matter of fact the land was sold by the rail- roads for whatever it would bring; the prices increased as settlement became more dense. In Iowa railroad land sold from $5 to $50 per acre during the ’sixties and ’seventies. The remaining land held by the government was ordinarily increased in price from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre. Congress, evidently influenced by the demand for rail- roads, and falling back upon the precedent of the National Highway, heretofore mentioned, granted in 1850 to the State of Illinois a strip of land about 12 miles wide length- wise through the state to be transferred by it to the Illinois Central Railroad. The act gave six sections per mile on each side of the track, amounting, as certified to later, 2,595,053 acres. In consideration of this and in lieu of all other taxes, the company agreed to pay the state an amount equal to 7 per cent of the gross earnings from freight and passenger traffic. The company had received from the sale (principal and advanced interest) of 2,250,633 acres, up to January 1, 1873, $24,296,596 ; 13 an average of about $11 per acre. Other companies were quick to take advantage of tins precedent. Each had its representative in Congress. For over twenty years there was scarcely a Congress that did not make one or two such grants. More than a hun- dred such grants 14 were made between 1850 and 1872, 11 B. W. Martin, “History of the Grange Movement,” 1874, p. 35. 14 Donaldson, ‘ ‘ History of the Public Domain. ’ ’ University of Wisconsin Bulletin : ‘ ‘ Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railways,” by J. B. Sanborn, Pol. Sci. and History Series, Vol. II, No. 3. Railroads 111 aggregating 155,000,000 acres. 15 Several roads did not comply with the conditions of the grants hence the donation lapsed. Up to June 30, 1880, grants amounted to 155,- 504,994.59 acres, according to Donaldson, of which there had been patented to the same date, 35,214,978.25 acres. Pacific Roads. — The most gigantic land grants made by the Government were for the benefit of the trans-con- tinental or Pacific roads. The idea of a transcontinental railroad has been traced back practically to the beginning of railroad building in the United States. 16 During the ’fifties the debates in Congress waxed strong. Should the states’ sovereignty idea prevail and federal aid be first granted to the states and dealt out by them to the builders as had been done with the Illinois Central and numerous other cases, or should the National Government undertake the work itself or grant the aid to a company for that pur- pose ? Where would the road be built : in the North, which would give an advantage to the abolitionists, or in the South, with corresponding advantage to slavery partisans? The two classes were absolutely antagonistic to each other ’s desires. Then there was a middle class, who desired to prevent separation and war who refused to vote upon either side for fear it would create trouble with the other. As a compromise a bill was passed in 1853 to have the country west of the Mississippi River surveyed to determine the most feasible region for building the transcontinental railroad. The report of the survey is contained in eleven volumes, and was made by the War Department, of which Jefferson Davis was the Secretary. This cabinet officer reported in favor of ‘ ‘ the route of the 32d parallel ’ ’ as the ‘ ‘ most practical and economical from the Mississippi River 15 The ‘ ‘ History of the Grange Movement, ’ ’ a subscription book by Edward Winslow Martin, published in 1874, but which can hardly be taken as wholly reliable, says : ‘ ‘ The lands granted by the Gov- ernment to various railway corporations make up a total area of 198,165,794 acres, or about 300,000 square miles — an area larger than the State of Texas, which contains 237,504 square miles . . . and the railway subsidies comprise nearly one-tenth of the entire Union. ’ ’ 18 Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” Chap. LVI, et seq. Donaldson, “History of the Public Domain.” 112 Railroads to the Pacific Ocean.” 17 A line this far south, of course, was not acceptable to the North. The election and Civil War coming on changed the status of affairs and on July 4, 1862, President Lincoln signed the bill by which the first transcontinental road should be constructed by two com- panies : the Central Pacific working from the west, and the Union Pacific working from the Missouri River at Omaha westward. A grant of land of approximately 35,000,000 acres was made, namely, the odd sections lying contiguous to the line on either side. This was not quite a return to the position of the Government when it built out of the funds from the sale of public lands the National Road westward from Maryland, through Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, into Illinois. Then the construction was done under the direc- tion of the federal Government and the road remained the property of the Government. Now federal aid was given to private companies to be operated for their own benefit. What might have been the result in this country had the Government taken a firm stand for national ownership is problematical, but the fact that it has made a success of the construction and operation of the Panama Canal leads many to believe that the railroad question would have been handled as easily if that system had grown up from the beginning. Opponents of government ownership point to the roads of continental Europe as being less efficient than those of England and the United States under private ownership. And more recently the fiasco of Government operation under war emergency is considered a strong argument against public ownership. In addition to the land granted to the Union Pacific for the ‘ ‘ purpose of aiding in the construction of said railroad and telegraph line, and to secure the safe and speedy trans- portation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores thereon, every alternate section of land, designated by odd numbers, to the amount of five alternate sections per mile on each side of said road, ’ ’ 18 the company 17 Senate Executive Document No. 78, 33d Congress, 2d Session. ls U. S. Statutes. Acts of 1862 and 1864. Railroads 113 was given for “right of way” 200 feet each side of the track, 19 “including all necessary grounds” for stations, side-tracks and various other purposes enumerated, also to take from the public land “adjacent to the line of said road” (afterwards limited to 10 miles on each side) “earth, stone, timber, and other materials, for the con- struction thereof.” Further help was also granted by the provisions of the act (Section 5) : “That . . . the Secre- tary of the Treasury shall, upon the certificate in writing . . . of the completion and equipment of forty consecutive miles . . . issue . . . bonds of the United States of one thousand dollars each, payable in thirty years after date, bearing six per centum per annum interest ... to the amount of sixteen of said bonds per mile.” The act pro- vides that this loan shall constitute a first mortgage lien on the property, but the act of 1864 allowed the company to issue bonds to the same amount and subrogate the Government bonds to those issued by the company making the Government claim a second mortgage instead of a first. The Government gave similar grants and privileges to the Central Pacific, although it was a purely state corporation and, at first, was only to build to the east line of California. Apparently the last vestige of the traditions of Madison and Monroe, of Jackson and Buchanan had disappeared. There was danger that other lines would be built. A line was preparing to go west from Leavenworth, lines were converging on St. Joseph and Sioux City, any of which might become rivals of the Union Pacific, so the act pro- vides that they shall unite with the Pacific not farther west than the one hundredth meridian of longitude, and if they do so grants of lands and subsidy bonds will be given to them. However, the demand for transcontinental lines was so great that three other lines were authorized. In 1864 the Northern Pacific Railroad to connect Lake Superior with 19 By subsequent provision the right of way was cut to two hundred feet, although the company still holds four hundred feet through parts of Nebraska. 114 Railroads Puget Sound, with a land grant of 58,000,000 acres ; in the Atlantic & Pacific to follow the old 32d parallel route, now a part of the Southern Pacific, with a grant of 42,000,000 acres ; and last, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe received also a large grant. The total Congressional grants certified or patented to railroads and military wagon roads from 1850 to 1880 were as follows: To States To Corporation and Pacific Roads Military Wagon Roads Deduct lands forfeited Grand Total for Railroads and Military Wagon Roads Acres necessary to fill grants pro- viding all roads are constructed 155,504,994.59 1 Construction of Pacific Roads. — It would be interesting to take up in detail the work of constructing these roads, but space will not permit. Nothing can be said of the in- tense interest throughout the United States ; of the romance and adventure of penetrating 1700 miles of wilderness and desert with hostile Indians ready at any time to attack; with worse than hostile Indians in the rough-necks, gamblers, and prostitutes who followed the camps; of the magnitude of the work employing 2000 graders to go first, 1500 wood choppers and tie-getters spreading their labors over thousands of miles of Government forests ; of the engi- neers and their feats of searching out easiest passages ; of the track layers ; of the boarding houses ; of general camp life ; of t he exciting race with the Central Pacific ending in the union of the two lines and the driving of the golden spike at Promontory Point on the north shore of Great Salt Lake, 1086 miles westward from Omaha and 689 miles eastward from Sacramento, on the 10th day of May, 1869 ; and of the crowds in Omaha, Chicago, Cincinnati, New Orleans, Washington, New York, San Francisco, and every other place of importance in the whole nation, who patiently 1 Thomas Donaldson ’s ‘ 1 History of the Public Domain. ’ ’ 35,214,978.25 acres 10,435,048.08 1,301,040.47 46,951,066.80 607,741.76 46,343,325.04 Railroads 115 waited the sounds of the bells rung in unison with the sounds of the strokes upon the spike, transmitted instan- taneously through the intervening space by the electric telegraph. There is no doubt but that the benefits that have come from the railways through the increased facilities for trans- portation and the corresponding gain to civilization has amply repaid the Government for all its bounties, notwith- standing some of them were unnecessary, in fact, a willful waste and led to an orgy of financial and political corrup- tion a little later. The Credit Mobilier. — Perhaps the most widely noticed scandal connected with the railroads was the scheme known as the Credit Mobilier. This was made much of by the Grange and other anti-monopoly movements which reached their height in the ’seventies. Charges having been made that many congressmen had been bribed by an organiza- tion known as the Credit Mobilier, a Congressional investi- gation was made, 20 Thomas Durant, vice president, and other leading stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad, secured a controlling interest in the stock of the Pennsyl- vania Fiscal Agency in 1864 and had its name changed to the Credit Mobilier of America. One of the ostensible functions of the company was to loan money for railroad construction. The same men were instrumental in award- ing the contract for the building of the Union Pacific Rail- road to one of their number, Oakes Ames, a member of the United States House of Representatives, for stipulated amounts per mile for the different sections ranging from $42,000 to $96,000, amounting in the aggregate to $47,000,- 000. The contract was right away transferred to seven trustees composed of the same controlling stockholders, who were to execute it receiving therefor $3000 per year each, and the profits were to be divided among those stock- holders of the Credit Mobilier of America who would comply with certain conditions. The Credit Mobilier agreed to furnish the necessary money at 7 per cent per annum and 2^> per cent commission, not to exceed the 20 “House Keports, ” 42 Cong., 3d Session, No. 77. 116 Railroads amount provided in the contract to be paid by the Union Pacific company. These same leading stockholders of the Union Pacific being also controlling stockholders of the Credit Mobilier were thus, because the contract prices were said to be twice the actual constructing prices, making a big profit, practically all of which was coming from the United States treasury. Complaints were being made and adverse legislation was feared. Stock in Credit Mobilier was offered to members of congress at a very low figure on which it is said they made dividends of 340 per cent. It amounted to this: The men entrusted with the manage- ment of the road let the contract for its construction to themselves at a figure double its real cost, and pocketed the profits, estimated at about $30,000,000. These same men started the scheme, which afterward became common, of watering the stock, that is increasing the outstanding stock, and distributing it as dividends, upon the plea that the property had increased without any new outlay of money. It also appears to be a method of earning dividends upon money never invested. Railroad Consolidation. — It has been shown that at the beginning railroad building consisted of short stretches from town to town, or from the end of one water com- munication to the beginning of another. It was but reason- able that these would join for the purpose of through traffic. The result was also better efficiency as the equip- ment could be used to better advantage ; the terminal costs were reduced as there were not so many of them ; and, what may have been a leading cause, the control, and perhaps prevention, of competition. Unrestricted competition caused rate wars ; rates once down it was difficult to get them back and frequently bankruptcy occurred. Govern- ment regulations were made prohibiting rate agreements and pooling. Such apparently hastened consolidation. One objection to consolidation was the concentration of vast financial powers in the hands of a few, and since money had much influence in Washington and in the state capitals, political power as well. This and combinations of other industrial concerns were causes which brought about the Railroads 117 enactment of the Sherman Anti-Trust law of July 2, 1890. 21 This law did not come in time to stop consolidation and it may be doubtful if it would for the Supreme Court has de- cided that combinations are not unlawful unless they exercise an unreasonable restraint upon trade. 22 The methods of consolidation are : merger or outright purchase, in which case the individual lines lose their separate identity; stock purchase , wherein a controlling share of the stock of another road is held by the purchas- ing line or by a holding company; lease usually for long periods, a rental being paid periodically for the use of the line ; and, community of interest, that is the establishment of friendly relations. The consolidations are more often financial than physical. When two roads physically com- bine under one management it is customary to reorganize and assume the same name. In the consolidations given in the table below many of the roads are operated separately and almost independently but are dominated by common financial interests with common policies or very friendly relations. Some of the principal consolidations prior to 1912 are : 23 Vanderbilt Interests Mileage Boston & Albany 392 New York Central 3,591 Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 1,663 Michigan Central 1,805 N ew Y ork, Chicago & St . L. 561 Lake Erie & Western 886 Big Four 1,979 Pittsburgh & Lake Erie. . . 215 Chicago, Indiana & South- ern 329 Other affiliated eastern lines 1,759 Western Maryland * 575 Chicago & North Western Systems 9,827 Total 23,582 * Jointly wi Morgan Interests Mileage Erie Railroad 2,565 Pere Marquette 2,334 Southern Railroad System . . 8,667 Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific 335 Mobile & Ohio 1,114 Atlantic Coast Line 6,818 Louisville & Nashville 4,590 Chicago & Great Western . . . 1,495 Total 27fm Harriman Interests Oregon Short Line 1,646 Oregon Railway & Naviga- tion Company 1,737 Union Pacific System (remainder) 3,791 Gould Interests. 21 U. S. Statutes, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., Chap. DCXLVII. “Digest U. S. Supreme Court Reports, Vol. IV, “Monopoly,” pp. 4043-4052, The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company, Rochester, N. Y., 1908. “Funk and Wagnalls’ Encyclopedia. 118 Railroads Mileage Southern Pacific 10,257 Illinois Central System . . . 6,340 Central of Georgia 1,915 Baltimore & Ohio 4,555 Delaware & Hudson 875 San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 1,105 Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton 1,015 Total 33,236 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 10,472 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul System 9,657 Seaboard Air Line 3,084 Pennsylvania Railroad Interests Pennsylvania Lines 11,197 Norfolk & Western 1,990 Total 13,187 Gould Interests Wabash System 2,663 Wheeling & Lake Erie . . . 457 Missouri Pacific System f 3,920 St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern f 313 St. Louis, Southwestern f 1,675 Texas & Pacific f 1,991 International & Great Northern f 1,159 Denver & Rio Grande J . . 2,778 Western Pacific f 979 Moore Interests Mileage Rock Island System 8,144 Delaware, Lackawanna & Western t 1,052 Lehigh Valley § 1,431 Total 10,627 Hill Interests Great Northern 7,397 Northern Pacific 6,281 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 10,443 Colorado & Southern 1,249 25,370 New Haven Interests New York, New Haven & Hartford 2,887 Boston & Maine 3,594 Total 6,481 Hawley Interests Minneapolis & St. Louis. . . 1,027 Iowa Central 559 Toledo, St. Louis & Western 451 ’Frisco System 7,147 Chicago & Alton 1,025 Chesapeake & Ohio System . 2,232 Missouri, Kansas & Texas . . 3,393 Hocking Valley 350 16,508 Philadelphia and Reading . . 2,137 Total 15,935 Grand Total of above Groups and Systems 198,638 Total milage of railways in the United States, Dec. 31, 1916. . . . 397,014 t Jointly with Rockefeller. Kuhn, Loeb, & Co., Vanderbilt and other interests, t Jointly with Standard Oil interests. § Jointly with Erie, Reading and Vanderbilt interests. For a more extended discussion see “National Consolidation of Railroads.” by George H. Lewis. Railroads 119 Mechanical Development. — There is not space to follow in detail the mechanical development of railroads. The rail, for instance, was at first a mere plank placed in the cart track to prevent rutting; this evolved into a rail of timber about 4x6 inches held in proper position by cross- ties not to be considered as sleepers or supports especially. On top of the rail was later placed a strap iron. Since this strap iron under the wheel loads curled up, thicker plates began to be used. Then cast-iron rails some 4 or 5 feet long from tie to tie, cast deeper at the middle for greater strength. Then the rolling mills were becoming sufficiently improved to roll out wrought-iron rails, at first rectangular plates, then T-rails held up by chairs and finally through a dozen or more forms to Bessemer, then open-hearth steel rail shapes as at present used. The fastenings and fish plates have gone through a stage of evolution. The track soon assumed a standard form and has retained it with little variation notwithstanding attempts to use steel and concrete ties. The freight cars, at first boxes with wheels on them, have gradually developed into monsters of steel with draw bars, automatic brakes and couplings. Passenger cars at first very variable were developed from stage coaches and Conestoga wagons hitched together. In Europe they re- mained short, like stage coaches with side doors. In the United States they lengthened out with seats through the interior and doors and platforms at the ends. Platforms were eventually housed in with vestibules. Both types have their advantages and disadvantages. Sleeping cars seem to be a de- velopment of the canal and steamboat sleeping quarters. Here a single company early obtaining a working, if not a legal, monopoly of the business of making and operating sleepers. As a result no improvements of note have appeared in them for years. For financial efficiency the monopoly seems to be a good thing ; for mechanical progress it is not. Locomotives have shown a continual progress. One reason perhaps is their short lives; new ones must always be coming along and there is ample opportunity for ex- 120 Railroads perimentation. From the Tom Thumb to the powerful Mountain Type is a long climb, but as each step was taken the individual changes were not very noticeable. Like the hour-hand of a watch only by observing its position at times quite separated can it be noticed to have traveled. In fact the entire railway system with its millions of cars operating on hundreds of roads has grown complex and yet standardized. To get a common gauge that cars from one road might pass to another required an act of Con- gress. At first companies adopted diverse gauges that their cars could not go onto another road, but when transconti- nental roads were to he built and through lines of traffic established President Lincoln was called upon to set a gauge. He “side-tracked” the matter and threw it onto Congress, who established the distance 4 feet 8 V 2 inches as the standard width between rails. Without the telegraph the present amplification of rail- road business could not have taken place. The early trains traveled by time schedule. No extra train could be added, although looking-posts were established at the stations up which the train men could climb to watch for the smoke of an approaching train. Now every division point must have its coterie of dependable dispatchers. Each wire carries multiple messages. Electric signals and other safety devices to lessen accidents are universal, while the bewildering network of tracks in the ordinary city yard are operated easily from distant towers by interlocking switches. That railroads have brought about an industrial and social revolution, that they have increased enormously the country’s transportation, that they have thus been very instrumental in bringing the present civilization to its high and uniform state of attainment, cannot be denied. The Evolution of the Sleeping Car. — Mr. Husband has made a very interesting book of the story of the Pullman car and its evolution 24 in which he traces with much detail, step by step, the improvements from 1836, when the first 34 1 1 The Story of the Pullman Car,” by Joseph Husband. A. C. MeClurg & Company, Chicago, 1917. Cf. Literary Digest, February 10, 1923, p. 25. z cl o z UJ < z < O' O < O cL CD 3 W) 1 .§* c: « c Lu Q iS xvog - 5 . <=_> O •C o E QJ > OI co. oO fO g°c°E 'E lu a> 4 ? c -O mi- - TO ^ a) £- C ©TO c © — d> . (0 ^ C .^ > O' E Lu O © rv> t i EQ I: . ai a_ E v e <= -U 5 E » -£ .9-t: i c Q)u_ - ux. } (0 E _£! c - o a» © .vj ’Z "O C ' CT T5 C ) <0 . go in o h -cs ^ .tn - ' a cL sg-otd-uEcug c j c2iEu_ q q <° QQ O z < >- o z e- e- $uz 111 ^ Zr O on < < _b q) j = TO S — cS-g © "to c o c_> TO CO O . w- C* C “to <0 -fO o Q; c v/-> u q ztA 51 c£^£ \_ W < 1 / > > TJ -5 ^ PO o \a r> h ^ n 5.e_J£^ — Sh^ S ■E- S S °-S C (Ol c c c o; vj cj ° o (i5 £ TO -+J c in r* CO i_ O; *n a> -Z. c So3 , .§2 S-.i § -a & £ § g-S 3 ^<^^5 WXlJE 1 — » ^i- 1 - LU O Z 21 o R S3- CO Xj cl> OO Z) UT C 3 c TO O . — 1 C V)^3 e _£ IX 03 (0 O c (tj -; -a Cj OT ej!Z)< lu « 1st. District 2nd District 3rd. District 4th.District 5th. District 6th. District 7th. District 8th.District 9th. District 10th. District Berkely.Col. Denver, Colo. So Chicago, III. Tenn. Me., N.H.,Vt n N.Y. Washington,D.C. Wash. Cal., Nev. Mont,Wyo. N.D., S.D Nebr., Iowa Texas., Okla. Mich,, III. Miss., Ala Mass., Conn., R.l. Ohio., Penn., Md. Ore., Idaho Ariz.,N. M. Utah , Colo. Minn., Wis. Kan., Mo. Ark., La. Ind., Ky. &a.,S.C., Fla. N. J., Del. W.Va.,Va., N-C. The Modern Wagon Road 143 struction and road materials. The government’s appro- priation beginning at $10,000 or excluding the Director’s salary $8000, was increased from time to time until it was in 1896, $37,660 and in 1911, $135,000. Since the adoption of the system of Federal Aid, there has naturally been greatly increased operation. The total appropriations for the Bureau of Public Roads are now approximately three quarters of a million dollars. The duties and scope of the Office of Public Roads In- quiry was gradually widened and its name changed to the Office of Public Roads. In 1915 by reorganization of the Department of Agriculture it became the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering and took charge of all the Department’s work which partook in any way of an engineering nature. In 1916 the Secretary of Agriculture directed the Office to act for him in the routine administra- tion of the Federal Roads Act. The work of the Office or Bureau of Public Roads, as it is now designated, was in 1916, carried on along three general lines: 21 (1) Educa- tional; (2) Research, and (3) Administration of the Federal Road Act. By its educational or extension work the Office was endeavoring to reach the people by means of lectures, addresses, the publication of bulletins and the exhibit of models. Emphasizing the economic value of improved roads and the efficiency of various types. Special advice and assistance to communities was given by furnish- ing engineers and experts to confer with municipal officers on their particular problems. Actual demonstration by the construction of object-lesson roads was freely carried on. The community furnished the material and labor ; the Office sent its engineers and experts to design and super- intend the construction. These “seed miles” resulted in the construction of many other miles by the community itself. The Office tried to impress also the need of proper maintenance from the beginning. Fully as important as its educational work was the re- search or investigational work carried on. The Office was n “ Goods Koads Year Book,” 1917, p. 29. 144 The Modern Wagon Road able to secure the services of several young men of scientific attainment and the bulletins put out by L. W. Page, Prevost Hubbard, A. S. Cushman and their successors have commanded world-wide recognition. Laboratories were erected to test road materials, and experimental roads were built to demonstrate the actual use of the same accord- ing to various methods. In this manner careful studies were made of a vast number of materials, including oils, asphalts, tars, concrete, brick, crushed stone and gravel. In connection with practical road men and research com- mittees of such organizations as the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the American Society for Testing Materials many useful standards have been adopted for road materials and road construction. The effect of traffic on various types of roads has also been a profitable subject for study. The organization of the Bureau may be best shown by the chart. Rural Free Delivery. — A brief mention of this agency for better roads should not be omitted. Postmaster-Gen- eral Wanamaker, in 1890, recommended the extension of free delivery to villages of less than 10,000 population and he inaugurated an experimental “village delivery.” After an existence of about two years this was ordered discon- tinued. However, free delivery on a broader basis was demanded by State Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry and other farmers. Congress made small appropriations for rural free delivery, but the Postmaster-General, W. S. Bissell, declined to make any use of them. When Hon. W. L. Wilson became Postmaster-General (1895) he agreed with his predecessor in believing the project impractical, but if Congress would make the money available he was willing to try it out. An appropriation of $40,000 was placed at his disposal. 22 The first Rural Free Delivery routes were established on October 1, 1896, at Halltown, Uvilla, and Charlestown, West Virginia. Others immediately followed. President 22 ‘ ‘ The Delivery of Rural Mails, ’ ’ by Charles H. Greathouse, Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1890. The Modern Wagon Road 145 McKinley in a message to Congress December 3, 1900, states that “by the close of the current fiscal year about 4000 routes will have been established, providing for the daily delivery of mails at the scattered homes of about three and a half million of rural population.” 23 So successful did it prove that it soon displaced nearly all the star routes and was well established in practically all rural districts of the United States. In 1919 out of a total expenditure by the Post Office Department of over $362,000,000, a little less than $51,000,000 was distributed to the rural delivery service. 24 The Department having adopted a rule to the effect that the rural delivery service would only be established along reasonably good roads, and that a carrier need not go out unless the roads were in fit condition spurred the in- habitants up to better attention of the roads for after a man once got in the habit of receiving his mail daily he wanted it regularly. “When a heavy snow blocks the way of the rural carrier it is customary for the farmers to turn out and break the roads, and this is done several days earlier than would be the case ordinarily. In this way communication through- out neighborhoods and with the outside world is opened up promptly. In consequence the farmer is able to take ad- vantage of good markets and the townspeople are not cut off from the supply of fresh country produce, as often has happened in severe storms. Also eases of distress in isolated farm homes are sooner reached and relieved.” 25 The Department finding the rural delivery popular de- termined to make it not only more so but to make it pay also. So they took precautions to protect the mail in the farmer’s boxes by regulating the kind of boxes to be used and promptly prosecuting cases of thievery and molesta- tion of mail; they established registration by rural car- riers and allowed carriers to receipt for applications for “Cong. Kecord, Dec. 3, 1900, p. 12. ““The American Year Book,” 1919, p. 556. “ Dept, of Agri. Year Book, 1900, p. 522. 146 The Modern Wagon Road money orders ; carriers were also authorized to receive and deliver “drop” letters on their routes without passing them through the terminal post office. A little later when the parcel post was instituted the popularity of rural de- livery was greatly enhanced. Like many other conven- iences the rural inhabitants cannot now realize how they could get along without free delivery of the mails. Post- master-General Charles Emory Smith in his report of 190 0 28 says of the then quite new system: Rural delivery has now been sufficiently tried to measure its effects. ... It stimulates social and business correspondence, and so swells the postal receipts. Its introduction is invariably followed by a large increase in the circulation of the press and of periodic literature. The farm is thus brought into direct daily contact with the currents and movements of the business world. A more accurate knowledge of ruling markets and varying prices is diffused, and the producer, with his quicker communication and larger information, is placed on a surer footing. The value of farms, as has been shown in many cases, is enhanced. Good roads become indispensable, and their improvement is the essential condition of the service. The material and measurable benefits are signal and unmistakable. But the movement exercises a wider and deeper influence. It becomes a factor in the social and economic tendencies of American life. The disposition to leave the farm for the town is a familiar effect of our past conditions. But this tendency is checked, and may be materially changed by an advance which conveys many of the advantages of the town to the farm. Rural free delivery brings the farm within the daily range of the in- tellectual and commercial activities of the world, and the isola- tion and monotony which have been the bane of agricultural life are sensibly mitigated. It proves to be one of the most effective and powerful of educational agencies. Wherever it is extended the schools improve and the civil spirit of the com- munity feels a new pulsation; the standard of intelligence is raised, enlightened interest in public affairs is quickened, and better citizenship follows. With all these results clearly indicated by the experiment as thus far tried, rural free delivery is plainly here to stay. It cannot be abandoned where it has been established, and cannot be maintained without being extended. M Year Book, 1900. Department of Agriculture, Washington. HARD SURFACE HIGHWAY IN OREGON A FARMER’S WIFE MEETING THE POSTAL TRUCK The Modern Wagon Road 147 The law for federal aid is based upon the clause in the Constitution giving Congress power “to establish post offices and post roads.” 27 and the money made available may only be expended on post roads outside of towns “having a population of two thousand five hundred or more, except that portion of any such street or road along which the houses average more than two hundred feet apart. ’ ’ 28 Thus may be seen the very great importance to better public highways of the ‘ ‘ rural free delivery. ’ ’ State Aid. — While the bicyclist and voluntary road organizations were creating sentiment favorable to im- proved highways, the states were not idle. It will not be possible to follow the progress in each of the states, but since some form of state aid has been adopted by all of them the development of that idea will be sketched. By state aid is meant a plan whereby a part of the expense of constructing roads is borne by the state and a part by the locality in which the road lies. New Jersey, 29 like many of the other Eastern states, had a few turnpike roads constructed and maintained by private corporations. These roads were much better than the public roads on which there were no toll gates. The public roads were administered under ordinary laws of overseers of highway districts. Charges of partiality had led to amendments, then other amendments until the laws were a maze of intricacies. To eliminate these, the state board of agriculture in 1887 called a mass meeting of farmers and others interested in good roads. The result of the conference, which was well attended, was the ap- pointment of a committee, consisting of one member for each of the Congressional districts in the State, to examine the laws of New Jersey, of other states and of foreign countries and report methods for bettering the New Jersey system. After careful consideration they drafted a law ”“The Constitution, of the United States, Section 8. 28 Public Law No. 156, 64th Congress. 29 ‘ ‘ State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey, ’ ’ by Edward Burrough, Chairman of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, Office of Road Inquiry Bulletin No. 9, 1894. 148 The Modern Wagon Road abolishing the overseers and conferring the powers and duties of caring for the public highways on the township committee. This was presented to the State Board of Agriculture and received unanimous approval. But when it came before the State Legislature, of 1888, for adoption the opposition of the road overseers succeeded in defeating it. In 1889 it was again presented and defeated ; and met a similar fate in 1890. But in 1891 with the cooperation of the governor its passage was secured. Mr. Clayton Conrow of New Jersey 30 claims the honor of proposing the first state aid road law in the United States. He asserts that he learned from actual observation of the travelers on a section of highway that it was used not only by “teams of the local township but also from the adjoining township and the township beyond, and so on and on they came until a score of townships were rep- resented on this section of the road.” He therefore con- cluded that the county and the state by rights should assist in building the main traveled roads, and that ‘ ‘ every citizen of the state is entitled to the free use thereof.” This, he says, was in 1890, just the time the state board of agriculture was pushing its law to discontinue the over- seers. Conrow says he feonsulted with Hon. Edward Bur- rough, president of the state board of agriculture, and outlined his plan for a State Aid Road Law. Burrough was highly pleased, but there was an obstacle in the way, namely the turnpike corporations. They were creatures of the law and had rights that should be respected. Mr. Burrough advocated the adoption of the law having faith that the people would buy the turnpike roads so that no citizen would be the loser. Judge William M. Lanning put the draft of the bill in legal form. It was then sub- mitted to Governor Abbett for his approval as they did not care to encounter a veto if a slight change of form would *° ‘ ‘ Inside History of the State Aid Eoad Law, ’ ’ by Clayton Con- row, President of the New Jersey State Eoad Improvement Associa- tion, Eeport of the New Jersey Commissioner of Poblic Eoads, 1900, p. 81. The Modern Wagon Road 149 reconcile him to its provisions. Mr. Conrow claims his original draft was changed only slightly by the board and again by the governor, then submitted to the legislature by a Mr. Davidson of Gloucester county. This is the act that was passed in 1891. Salient Features of the State Aid Law. — The essential points of the law are set forth in the following extract being the preamble and parts of the seventh and fourth sections : An Act to provide for the more permanent improvement of the public roads of this State- Whereas public roads in this State have heretofore been built and maintained solely at the expense of the respective townships in which they are located; and Whereas such roads are for the convenience of the citizens of the counties in which they are located, and of the entire State as well as of said townships; and Whereas the expense of constructing permanently improved roads may be reasonably imposed in due proportions, upon the State and upon the counties in which they are located: Therefore, . . . And be it enacted, That whenever there shall be presented to the board of chosen freeholders of any county a petition signed by the owners of at least two-thirds of the lands and real estate fronting or bordering on any public road . . . praying the board to cause such road ... to be improved under this act, and setting forth that they are willing that the peculiar benefits con- ferred on the lands fronting or bordering on said road . . . shall be assessed thereon, in amount not exceeding ten per centum of the entire cost of the improvement, it shall be the duty of the board to cause such improvements to be made : Provided, that the estimated cost of all improvements ... in any county in any one year shall not exceed one-half of one per centum of the ratables of such county for the last preceding year. . . . And be it enacted, That one-third of the cost of all roads con- structed . . . shall be paid for out of the State treasury: Provided, That the amount so paid shall not in any one year ex- ceed the sum of seventy-five thousand dollars. . . . It will be seen that under this law the property owners pay one-tenth, the State one-third and the county the re- maining 56 2 / 3 per cent. Except for the 10 per cent paid 150 The Modern Wagon Road by the abutting property holders the burden borne by all citizens of the county is the same. The friends of the movement demanded its enforce- ment; the opponents were equally determined which re- sulted in an appeal to the courts and the mandatory fea- tures were sustained. As it was first enacted the total ex- penditure was $20,000 and a Commissioner of Agriculture was to supervise its disbursement. But as there was no such officer the next legislature, at the suggestion of the governor, authorized the president of the State Board of Agriculture to perform these duties; this he did until the office of the Commissioner of Public Roads was created. The first money paid out under the act was December 27, 1892, $20,661.85, and this was the first money paid in the United States for state aid for the construction of roads. With slight amendments the law remains to the present and has been emulated by nearly all the states in the Union. In Massachusetts advocates of better roads attempted legislation looking toward a system of state highways in 1887 and annually thereafter until 1892. 31 In 1892 the de- mand became so great that the legislature enacted a law providing for a commission of three to inquire into the entire subject and report to the legislature of 1893, with suitable appropriation for the purpose. The commission made a thorough investigation, held public hearings, and made inquiries among all classes. Their findings were brought before the legislature and a general road law was enacted providing for a commission of three competent persons who should give advice to those having charge of the public highways ; it further contemplated the building and care for by this commission of a system of state high- ways connecting the several municipalities. At first the counties were supposed to grade the roads and the Com- monwealth to surface them but the law was changed (1894) so that the Commonwealth through the highway eom- 51 ‘ ‘ State Highways in Massachusetts, ’ ’ by George A. Perkins, Chairman Massachusetts State Highway Commission, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture Year Book, 1894, p. 505. The Modern Wagon Road 151 mission does the entire work of construction and mainte- nance then charges back to the counties 25 per cent of the cost, so that finally the State pays 75 per cent and the county 25 per cent. In 1913 an amendment was made to relieve small communities from the payment of the entire amount thus the State, in reality, pays more than 75 per cent of the expense. The state aid principle has been adopted by all states in the union ; many before federal aid came, the remainder since. Connecticut was third in 1895 and New York fourth in 1898. In order to raise money to meet the demands for state aid roads many of the states bonded themselves for large amounts. New York voted a bond issue of $50,000,000 in 1906 and another of the same amount in 1912. California voted bonds of $18,000,000 in 1910 and $15,000,000 in 1916. Illinois voted $60,000,000 in 1920 eventually to be paid from automobile licenses. Maryland authorized a bond issue of $5,000,000 for trunkline roads; additional issues were made in 1910, $1,000,000 ; in 1912, $3,170,000 ; in 1914, $6,600,000; and in 1916, $2,700,000. Missouri authorized a $60,000,000 bond issue in 1921 and so on for other states. On January 1, 1914 32 there were outstanding highway and bridge bonds in the United States to the amount of $445,147,073 ; of which $158,590,000 had been voted by the States and $286,557,073 by counties and town- ships. After the war increased interest in road building became manifest. Between November 1, 1918, and Decem- ber 31, 1919, 33 state highway bonds amounting to $234,000,- 000 were voted : Illinois, $60,000,000 ; Pennsylvania $50,- 000,000 ; Michigan, $50,000,000 ; Missouri, $60,000,000 and many other states smaller amounts. There is pending legis- lation for nearly $300,000,000 additional bonds, among which are Minnesota, $75,000,000; Texas, $75,000,000; West Virginia, $40,000,000; Washington, $30,000,000; Alabama, $25,000,000. Funds are otherwise raised by 32 Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 136. 33 ‘ 1 The American Year Book, ’ ’ D. Appleton Co., New York, 1919, 1920. 152 The Modern Wagon Road direct taxation, property and special, by appropriations from the general fund, by automobile licenses, and from court fines. The grand total for road construction ex- pended in the United States from 1910 to 1920 is over $2,500,000,000. Federal Aid. — The real road building age in the United States was ushered in by the enactment of the law pro- viding that “the Secretary of Agriculture shall on behalf of the United States in certain cases aid the States in the construction and maintenance of rural post roads. ’ ’ From the time Representative Brownlow startled the country in 1904 by introducing a bill to appropriate $24,000,000 for road building, not a session of Congress passed without several such bills being introduced. Most of these took the form of creating a commission to administer any fund for national aid that might be appropriated, and many feared such large appropriations would result in “pork barrels’’ all over the country. In 1915 one such bill passed the House but did not become a law. However, the leaven con- tinued to work. The influence of the automobile was mak- ing thousands of new road enthusiasts every day. Many petitions were being rained upon Congress and scores of bills introduced for national aid both for specific roads and of a general nature. During the 63d Congress, forty-nine bills were introduced, 10 in the Senate and 39 in the House. A report had been submitted by a joint congressional com- mittee on January 21, 191 5 34 embodying data from for- eign countries showing systems in effect, the mileage and cost of roads constructed; similar data from the several states ; extracts from state constitutions showing limitations of state debts; statistics on tonnage transported over rural roads ; statistics on length, character and condition of rural routes; transportation rates on road materials by rail; comparative statistics embodying possible factors in ap- portionment of Federal aid ; statistics of wealth, debt, and highway expenditures; comparative statistics on the cost M House Document No. 1510, “Federal Aid to Good Roads,” being Yol. 99, of the House Documents. The Modern Wagon Road 153 of road construction, historical sketches of national roads, work of the Office of Public Roads ; and a synopsis on con- gressional action on Federal aid to road improvement. The report speaks of the economic importance of good roads, the constitutionality of Federal aid and gives data to show the public sentiment in favor of Federal aid. Of 10,000 replies to inquiries received from every state in the Union, 97 per cent favored Federal aid and 3 per cent opposed. On January 6, 1916, Representative Shackleford of Missouri, chairman of the committee on roads, introduced the bill which later became a law. The bill ran the usual course and created a great deal of interest and was freely debated in both House and Senate. The discussion on it comprises more than 300 pages of the Congressional Record 35 and cover practically every reason for and ob- jection to the betterment of highways and the use thereon of national money. The bill finally passed the house January 25, 1916, by a vote of 283 Yeas, 81 Nays and 70 not voting ; and the Senate as amended, May 8, 1916, by a unanimous vote. The bill went to conference, the Senate agreed to the conference report June 27, and the House June 28, 1916. President Wilson approved the bill July 11, 1916, and it became Public Law, No. 156, 64th Congress. The title of the bill as amended is “An Act to provide that the United States shall aid the States in the Con- struction of rural post roads, and for other purposes.” In brief it authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to cooperate with the states through their respective highway departments in the construction of rural post roads. In order to keep state sovereignty intact no money apportioned under the act could be expended in any state until the legislature of that state shall have assented to the pro- visions of the Act. The Secretary of Agriculture and the State Highway department agree upon the roads to be constructed therein and the character and method of con- struction. By providing that all roads constructed under ” Vol. LIII, 1916. See page references at end of chapter. 154 The Modern Wagon Road the provisions of the act shall be free from tolls of all kinds Congress avoided the objection raised by President Monroe in his veto of the National Road bill in 1822. A most liberal definition of Post Roads is also given in the bill, namely, “the term ‘rural post road’ shall be con- strued to mean any public road over which the United States mails now are or may hereafter be transported, ex- cluding every street and road in a place having a popula- tion, as shown by the latest available federal census, of two thousand five hundred or more, except that portion of any such street or road along which the houses average more than two hundred feet apart. ’ ’ For the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the act there was appropriated for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1917, the sum of $5,000,000; 1918, $10,000,000; 1919, $15,000,000; 1920, $20,000,000; 1921, $25,000,000. After deducting the amount necessary for administration not ex- ceeding 3 per cent, the remaining amount available was to be distributed as follows: “One-third in the ratio which the area of each State bears to the total area of all the States ; one-third in the ratio which the population of each State bears to the total population of all the States as shown by the latest available Federal census ; one-third in the ratio which the mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in all the states.” The Secretary of Agriculture is to approve only projects which are substantial in character. Items of engineering, in- spection and unforeseen contingencies may not exceed 10 per cent of the estimated cost. The share paid by the Government shall not exceed 50 per cent of the total cost. The same act appropriated $10,000,000 for the survey, construction and maintenance of roads and trails within the national forests when necessary to develop the resources upon which communities within and adjacent to the national forests are dependent. The Secretary of Agriculture issued September 1, 1916, a set of rules and regulations for carrying out the Federal- The Modern Wagon Road 155 Aid Road Act. 36 These are quite detailed and require a close supervision by the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, the Director of which or other officers and employees designated by him, was officially appointed to represent the Secretary of Agriculture in its administra- tion. These rules explain and relate specifically to defini- tions of terms ; information to be furnished the Secretary ; project statements; surveys, plans, specifications and estimates; project agreements; contracts; construction work and labor ; records and cost keeping ; payments ; sub- mission of documents to the Office of Public Roads. A State, County or District making application for aid must present a Project Statement “to enable the Secretary to ascertain (a) whether the project conforms to the re- quirements of the act; (6) whether adequate funds, or their equivalent, are or will be available by or on behalf of the State for construction; (c) what purpose the project will serve and how it correlates with other highway work of the State; ( d ) the administrative control of, and re- sponsibility for, the project; (e) the practicability and economy of the project from an engineering and construc- tion standpoint; (/) the adequacy of the plans and pro- visions for proper maintenance of roads; and ( g ) the ap- proximate amount of Federal aid desired.” Also there must be submitted for approval forms of contract, with documents referred to in them, and the contractor’s bond. Likewise maps of surveys, plans, specifications and estimates, showing quantity and cost shall have the ap- proval of the Secretary. The state shall provide the rights of way and railroad grade crossings shall be avoided where practicable. A project agreement between the State Highway Department and the Secretary is executed. It must also be shown that adequate means either by adver- tising or other devices were employed, prior to the begin- ning of construction, to insure economical and practical expenditures, and rules for submitting and tabulating bids M Circular No. 65, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Public Roads. 156 The Modern Wagon Road are given. Samples of the materials to be used must be submitted for approval whenever requested, and all ma- terials, unless otherwise stipulated, must be tested prior to use by the standard methods of the Office of Public Roads. Supervision shall include adequate inspection. Reports of progress, records and cost accounts must be kept in approved manner. Many states in order to take advantage of the Federal aid within the time stipulated by the Act have, as has been shown, issued long-time bonds. Others have relied on in- creased taxation, and many require abutting property to pay a special tax for improvements. The success of the Act was extremely marked. So much so that the Post Office Appropriation act of February 28, 1919, 37 carried an amendment to the original Federal Aid Act providing an additional appropriation of $200,000,000 for post roads and $9,000,000 for forest roads. Fifty million dollars of the post road fund was made immediately available and $75,000,000 was made available for each of the fiscal years of 1920 and 1921. Of the forest road fund $3,000,000 was made available for each of the fiscal years 1919, 1920 and 1921. This bill transferred to the Secre- tary of Agriculture all available war material and equip- ment suitable for use in the improvement of highways for distribution to the several states on a value basis the same as provided in the Federal Aid Act of 1916. Under this provision trucks, road equipment, and road materials hav- ing when new a value of over $100,000,000 had been dis- tributed by November 1, 1919. SELECTED REFERENCES Anderson, Andrew P., “Highways,” American Year Book, 1918, pp. 317-321; 1919, pp. 308-311. D. Appleton & Company, New York. “Bonds for Highway Improvement,” Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 136, U. S. Dept of Agr. m American Year Book, 1920, p. 308. D. Appleton & Company, New York. The Modern Wagon Road 157 Boston Transcript, Letter by a foreign visitor giving her opinion of American Roads. Aug. 10, 1892. Burrough, Edward, “State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey,” Office of Public Road Inquiry Bulletin No. 9, 1894. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington. Chatburn, George R., “Highway Engineering,” pp. 125-126, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Congressional Record. — Good Roads Resolution introduced in the Senate by Senator Manderson, Vol. XXIV, pp. 157, 261, 300. Introduced in the House by Representative Lewis, Vol. XXIV, p. 883. Conrow, Clayton, “Inside History of the State Aid Law,” Report of the New Jersey Commissioner of Public Roads, 1900, p. 81. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1900, p. 522. Federal Aid Road Law, History of, Congressional Record, Vol. LIII, 1916. The Federal Aid road bill, the one that was finally passed and became the most effective road law the world has ever known, had a history in Congress that would make a large volume in itself. The pages of the Congressional Record where it may be found follow: House Roll 7617 — To pro- vide that the United States shall aid the States in the con- struction of rural post roads, and for other purposes — was introduced by Mr. Dorsey W. Shackleford, of Missouri, January 6, 1916 and referred to the Committee on Roads, 637. — Reported back (H. Rept. 26), 746. — Debated, 1131, 1165, 1234, 1269, 1285, 1353-1368, 1373-1408, 1451-1480, 1516-1537 (Appendix, 21, 36, 141, 157, 160, 162, 172, 177, 178, 188, 203, 207, 208, 209, 211, 213, 214, 216, 218, 593, 1273, 2247). — Amended and passed house January 25, 1916, Ayes 283, Noes 81, Present 3, not voting 67, 1536, 1547. — Referred to Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, 1551. — Motion for change of reference debated, 2049-2057, 2329-2335. — Reference changed to Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, 2334, 2335. — Reported with amend- ments (S. Rept. 250), 3460, 3881. — Debated, 6425-6433, 649U-6504, 6532-6549, 6565-6585, 6731, 6782-6785, 6840- 6849, 6897-6899, 7119-7127, 7225-7228, 7291-7300, 7414, 7451, 7456-7465, 7499-7518, 7560-7571.— Amended and passed Senate unanimously, May 8, 1916, 7571. — Referred to House Committee on Roads — Reported back (H. Rept. 732), 8357. — House disagrees to Senate amendments and asks for a conference, 8749. — Senate insists on its amend- ments and agrees to a conference, 8783. — Conference ap- pointed, 8749, 8783. — Conference report (S. Doe. No. 474) made in Senate, 9964. — Conference report unanimously 158 The Modern Wagon Road agreed to in Senate June 27, 191G, 10086. — Conference re- port (No. 856) made in House. 10171. — Conference report debated in House, 10162-10173 (Appendix, 1316, 1318, 1334, 1340, 1360, 1361, 1647, 1719, 1724, 1793, 1860, 2082). —Conference report agreed to in House, June 28, 1916, by a vote of 181 ayes to 53 noes, 10173. — Examined and signed, 10348, 10371. — Presented to the President, 10446. — Approved (Public Statutes No. 156, July 11, 1916), 10836. “Federal Aid Road Act, Regulations for carrying out,” Office of Public Roads Circular No. 65. U. S. Dept, of Agri- culture. Free Delivery of Mail. Agricultural Year Book, 1917 ; Post- master General’s Reports, 1892-1899; Ex. Doc. 1, Pt. 4, 52d Cong., 2d Sess., p. 11 ; Ex. Doe. 1, Pt. 4, 53d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. ix, 55; Ex. Doc. 1, Pt. 1, 54th Cong., 3d Sess., pp. 11, 120 ; H. Doc. 4, 54th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 8, 116 ; H. Doc. 4, 54th Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 25, 129 ; H. Doc. 4, 55th Cong., 3d Sess., pp. 12, 104; American Tear Book, 1919, p. 556. D. Appleton & Company. Funk and Wagnalls’ Encyclopaedia, Article “Cycling.” Good Roads Year Book, 1917, “State Highway Department Legislation,” pp. 37-218. Good Roads Meetings. — “Iowa Highway Meeting,” Engineering Record, August 27, 1892; National Highway Association at Portland, Oregon, The Morning Oregonian, June 22, 1905; Office of the Public Roads Bulletins, Nos. 15, 17, 19, 21-26. Greathouse, Charles II., “The Delivery of Rural Mails,” Year Book, 1917. U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. “Highway Bonds,” The American Year Book, 1919, 1920. D. Appleton & Co., New York. House Document No. 1510, “Federal Aid to Good Roads,” being Vol. 99 of the House Documents. Iowa Code of 1851, “Road Laws.” Office of Public Roads Established, Bulletin No. 1, 1894, Report of Secretary of Agriculture, 1893, p. 36. U. S. Dept of Agriculture. New York Times, Good Roads Department, Sept. 11, 1892. Nye, Bill, “On Good Roads,” Good Roads, September, 1S92. Perkins, George A., “State Highways of Massachusetts,” U. S. Dept, of Agri. Year Book, 1894, p. 505. Post Roads. — The Constitution of the United States on, Sec- tion 8. Potter, I. B., “The Gospel of Good Roads,” League of Amer- ican Wheelmen. Smith, Charles Emory, “Rural Mail Delivery,” Agricultural Year Book, 1900, p. 522. U. S. Dept of Agriculture. CHAPTER VI INTERRELATION BETWEEN HIGHWAY AND OTHER KINDS OF TRANSPORTATION Transportation has been classified as primary and secondary. Transportation on the public highway, whether of raw products to the market or finished products to the consumer, is denominated primary; transportation by rail- roads, canals, and ships as secondary. Practically all secondary transportation is of products which were first or last or both subjects of primary transportation . 1 There should, therefore, be a natural harmonious relation between them. Suppose the foot should say to the hand, “You are useless, it is I who support the body”; and the hand should retort, “Think you’re smart, don’t you? I’ll let you know it is I who collect and prepare the food which nourishes it; a log of wood could easily replace you”: would that make either one of them independent of the other ? Too true that the great railroad corporations have not always acted in a manner suitable to the man in the street, that they have often taken too much toll, that they have become rich and arrogant, that they have frequently manipulated the political machinery of government in their own favor, that they have exploited where they should not, that they have shown favoritism to prominent shippers, and that they have often borne down heavily on the labor- ing man; but, this country would never have been de- veloped to its present state of civilization and prosperity without some powerful and efficacious method of transpor- tation. The railroads, proving themselves to be more 1 Chatburn ’s “Highway Engineering,” Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 159 160 Relation between Highway and Transportation efficient than either the public highways or the waterways, without perhaps intending any maliciousness, put them practically out of business. Now that improved roads and automobiles and motor trucks are giving the railroads a race for their life some unthinking persons are gloating over the fact and shouting “to the victor belongs the spoils.” The evolutionary law that the “fittest will sur- vive” does not necessarily mean that what is best for the world, for government, for society, for business will al- ways survive. Weeds will often choke out the corn un- less prevented by outside influence. A beautiful elm stands on the corner. Every spring it sheds an abundance of seeds ; soon these germinate and there springs up through- out the lawn, flower and vegetable gardens, myriads of young elm trees. Now elm trees in their proper place are desirable, are useful, are ornamental and furnish pleasure, but when they become weeds they should be rooted up that the lawn, the vegetables, and the flowers may persist. Here the fittest for society survives only because of artifical regulation. The railroads, steam and electric, the water- ways and the highways all have spheres of usefulness ; let each perform its function and there need be no incongruity or discord. Experience has proved time and again that any machine has a particular capacity at which it can be most efficiently operated. A simple stone crusher kept half full is run- ning at a loss ; if crowded and speeded up it will wear and break unduly. It would be foolish to run continually a 50 horse-power engine to serve a 2 horse-power motor. An electric light plant is most economical when operated at its “capacity.” Horse and wagons, motor trucks, rail- ways, canals, and ships, are but machines, and the law holds with all of them that they are most efficient when operated at their proper capacity. Another economic truth is that the unit cost of produc- tion is usually lowest when the output is great. Quantity production is the goal of practically all successful manu- facturing enterprises. Automatic and near-automatic Relation between Highway and Transportation 161 machines replace the human hand. One person by the aid of mechanical and electrical devices produces as much in the same time as could a score or even a hundred without such help formerly. The chief reason why quantity pro- duction is cheaper than individual production is that it allows for a division of labor, a separation of the prepar- ing processes into several operations or occupations. Grow- ing the grain, transporting it to market, grinding it into flour, baking it into bread, and selling the bread, indicate some of the several occupations, that arise in the simple preparation of “our daily bread.” The meat-packing in- dustry affords an excellent example of the principle: The animal is surveyed and “laid off like a map”; and each workman as the carcass passes him has one operation to perform. One man sticks the pig, another scalds it, an- other pulls the hair from a particular portion of the body, one cuts the slits for the gambols, another inserts the sticks, still others hoist the body to the hanger, and so on as it proceeds along its course scores of persons are each doing a very limited portion of the work until the entire animal is prepared and packed for shipment. The workmen are classified and the highest paid are put to the most delicate or important parts while for the less delicate and less im- portant duties the pay is very much lower. But each work- man having only a small variety of work to perform soon becomes adept and can do a much greater amount than if he attempted the entire round of labor. The building of automobiles wherein materials start from different places and eventually coalesce as they proceed on their journey through the shops by each workman as they pass adding one thing or performing one operation until the whole emerges a complete machine ready to run away under its own power, is another case in point. Mr. James J. Hill, when president of the Great North- ern, Northern Pacific and Chicago Burlington & Quincy railroad companies, applied the principle of quantity pro- duction to railroad transportation. Under his supervision locomotives and cars increased in size; this necessitated 162 Relation between Highway and Transportation heavier rails and more substantial track; trains were not allowed to leave the terminals until a full load had been accumulated; regular schedules were of course done away with except for passenger and a few local freight trains. Other trains were to be run only at the full capacity of the locomotive. This was not conducive to speed, but the unit cost of hauling a ton of freight one mile was very ma- terially reduced. The same crew with comparatively small increase in costs may operate a train of many ears about as easily as one of few cars. The same principle underlies the efforts of motor trans- port companies. They are increasing the size of trucks and loads to decrease cost. They have not used discretion, however, in this and their heavy trucks have ground to powder high-cost roadways with the result that public sentiment is reacting against them and regulatory laws are being passed by many legislatures. Increasing the size of the plant, train, or truck will not bring economies unless it can be run at its capacity load, consequently when the trade or traffic will not utilize full loading a smaller plant should be adopted. To run a 12 horse-power gasoline engine to turn a 1*4 horse-power washing machine motor is no more foolish than to run 100-car locomotives to pull 2-car trains, or 7-ton trucks where the load never exceeds 2 tons, or 7-passenger automo- biles with 1 or 2 passengers. The contention is well founded that western railroad methods are futile on New England railroads 2 and that if prosperity is ever to come to New England roads they must reduce their rates and rates can only be reduced by making the size and number of cars commensurate with the character and amount of traffic. In England where shipping distances are com- paratively short the small van or car and quick deliveries have been evolved. In well-settled portions of this country, as in New England, similar practices might well be adopted that the railways may not be entirely eliminated and the 2 Cf. ‘‘Boot, Hog or Die,” by Philip Cabot, Atlantic Monthly, August, 1921. Relation between Highway and Transportation 163 public forced eventually to resort to more expensive trans- portation methods when both direct and indirect costs are considered over the public highways. The railroads are also complaining that the automobile is cutting into their passenger earnings. This is no doubt true. What else can be expected with approximately 11,000,000 machines now in operation? Thousands of tourists are daily traversing the country. They find the out- ing pleasant and when several occupy one car it is cheaper than railroad travel. Free camping along the way avoids hotel bills which have grown inordinately during the past few years. If these rates continue, simple inns as in the olden days may grow up and cut into the business of the high-priced hotels. Lower charges for both railroads and hotels will mitigate but not entirely eliminate the automo- bile competition. The motor car is here to stay and auto- mobile travel will continue to increase. It is no longer a theory but a condition which exists, and the railroads and hotels should adopt the policy of the wily politician, — who said, “If you can’t lick ’em, jine ’em,” — meet the auto- mobile half way and make the most of it. If predictions of those in close touch with the automobile business be any criterion the railroads will feel the influence of the motor car more and more. H. F. Blanchard, writing in Popular Science Monthly, January, 1923, p. 26, claims that the $150 passenger car is in sight, and that the “satur- ation point ’ ’ which has been a worry for years has not yet arrived and will not if the lowering of prices keeps pace with increased production. It is pointed out that the pro- duction of automobiles and trucks is still increasing. The 1922 output (2,577,220 machines) is more than the 1920 output (2,276,000) and these are bought by the public as fast as made. Mr. Durant, a prominent manufacturer, is quoted as saying that: “The development of a cheaper car than we now believe possible is only a question of the development of the highways. Millions more of automobiles would be in use in America to-day if the conditions of our highways permitted. When our automobiles can be built 164 Relation between Highway and Transportation to run on highways that are on the average as good as our city streets — and this is bound to come sooner or later — we shall have lighter, better and far cheaper cars. And the time is not far distant.” In Roger W. Babson’s weekly comment dated September 30, 1922, we read : Railroads have already felt the effects of pleasure automobiles, but they have not really begun yet to feel the effects of auto trucking. The trucking of goods within a radii of 50 or 100 miles has only begun and this radius may readily be extended to cover 200 or 250 miles. Transcontinental systems . . . have nothing to fear from trucks. In fact the trucks may help them. Other roads [those intermediate in length] can survive and per- haps profit under this competition. With roads such as [short- line roads] this is not true. These roads are bound to suffer far more from the truck than they now think possible. We shall live to see great highways built by the state ex- clusively for truck use. Railroads are destined ultimately to lose all of their short haul business and hence the roads -which are in comparatively small and compact territories are sure to suffer. The only hope for some roads ... is to sell certain of their rights of way to the state in order that the tracks may be removed and concrete highways laid in their place. Many roads have parallel lines to-day under their control. The wise rail- road company will develop one of these for itself and will sell the other at a good price to the state for a concrete truck highway. If the steam railroads are feeling the competition of the motor, the interurban trolley lines and the street-car com- panies are harder hit. The interurban lines are most of them short and depend upon local traffic. Their cars stopped at any cross-road along the way to pick up pas- sengers and freight. But the motor transport is going them one better; it picks up its load at the front gate, saving the trouble of even a short walk, or in the case of freight, of loading and unloading and a short haul to the track. The case of street-car lines is slightly different. So many persons are purchasing and daily using automobiles to go to and from business that the street-car people have Relation between Highway and Transportation 165 complained bitterly. Many lines are running behind and one at least, Des Moines, < Iowa, entirely stopped operation (August, 1917). The moment they found their revenues decreasing they ran to the railway commissions and city councils with requests for permits to increase rates of fare. The increase when allowed not only failed to alleviate but aggravated the trouble. Even old-fashioned persons who formerly traveled home for luncheon and back afterward began patronizing cafeterias and clubs. The habit of eat- ing noon luncheon down town was soon formed. Others emulated their example, resulting in the loss of hundreds and even thousands of fares per week. Riding to and from work in an automobile has a fascination for most men, and every one in a street car who sees his neighbor whizzing along by the side vows that he, too, will drive a car as soon as he can save enough money to make the first payment. Useless for the street car managers to try to prove to him that the expenses of a car — gas, oil, tires, repairs and de- preciation — are vastly greater than street car fares ; every- body knows that, but he must be in the style. Farmers, as the implement dealers have found to their sorrow, will do without or tinker up old harvesters and plows in order to enjoy the pleasure of owning an automobile. The mechanic may change his seven-passenger for a light-four as wages go down but he still insists on riding his own ear. The merchant while complaining that others should give up their machines and pay their bills, hangs on to his own with the grip of death. Women, even, are willing to give up pretty dresses and wear khaki overalls at least half the time. It looks as though many will hereafter live a nomadic life using their cars and garages more than their one- and two-room apartments. Stop the people from using motors and force them back to the street cars? Never, until the hardships of living reach the state of starvation and nakedness. In addition to the owners of automobiles there are the taxicabs, “jitneys,” and buses. If the street car system is the logical plant it is desired to maintain for the good of 166 Relation between Highway and Transportation the community then these others are weeds if allowed free rein. If, when the street-car companies go bankrupt and quit business, the motor cars could give a better service, outside of the fact that property had been destroyed with- out compensation, no particular damage would be notice- able to the community as a whole. But the experience of Des Moines shows that while special efforts were made to transport every one; buses were brought in from distant cities and owners of cars most freely picked up the pedes- trians, nevertheless, there was much inconvenience and discontent. Private cars cannot long be depended on to carry free the throng; taxicabs are too expensive, in- sufficient in number and have no regular schedule ; jitneys are unreliable sporadic cars, and half of them go out of business on days of bad weather. There is left then the buses. These may be made of such size and be run with such regularity as to be really valuable for local transpor- tation service. No doubt they will survive and always be a strong competitor of the electric surface street car. Not being confined to a track they load and unload at the curb thus eliminating an element of danger from passing vehicles much feared by timid people. Not having to keep up a track, trolley lines, or a plant for generating electricity the expenses are not particularly great per bus, from $25 to $35 per day will cover them, it is estimated, 3 3 This estimate includes the following items: Heavy Car Light Car 2 Drivers $8.00-10.00 $10.00 per day $10.00 Tires 4.00- 6.00 6.00 4.00 Oil, etc .75- 1.00 1.00 .75 Gasoline 3.50- 5.50 5.00 3.50 Depreciation 4.00- 6.00 6.00 4.00 Interest 1.00- 1.50 1.50 1.00 Insurance 1.00- 1.50 1.50 1.00 Garage .50- 1.00 1.00 .50 License, taxes .75- 1.50 1.50 .75 Repairs .50- 1.00 .50 .50 24.00-35.00 $34.00 $26.00 GASOLINE LOCOMOTIVE AMD TRAILER TRACKLESS TROLLEY OPERATED ON STATEN ISLAND, N. Y. Relation between Highway and Transportation 167 which puts the bus on a par in this respect with the small street car. There is a legitimate field for these buses in the smaller cities and on streets in large cities not easily reached by, or upon which it is desirable not to have street-car tracks. But they should not be free lances — they should be under regulations as street cars are under regulations, they should make scheduled trips, they should be backed by capital or insurance sufficient to pay indemnities in cases of accident and upon payment of license fees are entitled to protection and possibly monopoly in their prescribed territory. A cheap form of transportation, either electric trolley, with or without track, or buses, is absolutely necessary. Buses and individual jitneys cannot, where the business is heavy, carry passengers as cheaply as the electric street car, but for a more limited traffic the buses may take their place, and for still less traffic jitneys can find a useful occupation. If buses and jitneys are allowed absolute free- dom without restrictions as to schedule or route they will skim the cream from the street transportation business and so reduce the revenues of the street cars that they will have to discontinue operation. A thing so undesirable that the public will have to subsidize the street cars and guarantee a certain percentage of earnings or take over their owner- ship, run them at a nominal fare and let the taxpayer take care of the deficit. By these means those persons who ride their own automobiles, the heavier taxpayers, who are, or should be, most vitally interested in maintaining cheap transportation for the unfortunate residue who cannot possibly afford automobiles, yet whose labor is absolutely essential to the industrial and commercial prosperity of the city, will be required to pay a portion of the upkeep of street-car transportation. If a subsidy be adopted it would be better that it should not be a direct guaranty of a fixed percentage of earnings for in that manner there is no premium on efficiency as our Government found to its cost in dealing with the railroads during the recent war. It would be better if some sort of a sliding scale could be 168 Relation between Highway and Transportation worked out whereby the lines should be relieved of occupa- tional taxes or license fees in proportion as they lowered fares, and such that the lower the fares the greater the percentage of profit they might earn. The contract or charter might provide that all earnings above a specified percentage, due allowance having been made for operation, repairs, and upkeep, on bona fide capital invested should be turned over to the city as a license for the use of the streets. For example with a fare of three cents the city might guarantee a 5 per cent income, but allow, by reduction of taxes and all payments to the city an earning of 10 per cent ; on a five cent fare guarantee 3 per cent and allow earnings of 8 per cent ; and so on as shown by the accompanying table the figures of which are merely illustrative : With a fare of The City Guarantees And allows an earning of 3 cents 4 per cent 10 per cent 4 3| 9 5 3 8 6 2 7 7 1 6 8 0 5 To make a workable contract of this sort there would first have to be an agreement as to the corporation capital upon which earning percentages are to be based. If this could be made equal to the real investment it would be absolutely just to both the public and the corporation. However, the so-called unearned increment would in some cases have to be considered. Publicity in accounting, capitalization, bonded indebtedness and earnings, and the feeling engendered that the public is in a sense a co-partner with the corporation would add to more harmonious rela- tions between the two. Similar contracts might be arranged between bus lines and the city, or between bus lines and the state where rural Relation between Highway and Transportatin 169 roads are used, and between railroad and other transporta- tion corporations and the Federal Government for inter- state lines. Objection may be raised to this plan on the ground that it violates usury laws. Nearly every state in the Union provides by law for a maximum rate of interest. Laws of this kind have existed almost since the beginning of history and are so imbedded in the minds of the people that they believe 6 or 7 per cent is all a public service corporation should be allowed to make on its investment, when as a matter of fact all sorts of private businesses are making profits many times that amount without hindrance by law or public sentiment. People who risk money in adventures which are in general for the good of the public should be allowed returns fully as high as those suggested, even though they do go beyond the customary 7 per cent. Whatever the right figures are careful accounting and publicity will have a tendency to establish, and once estab- lished they ought to be as stable and permanent as life in- surance rates and thus encourage the investment of funds in such enterprises. Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies. — Agree- ing, then, that the present systems of transportation should not be put out of business by less efficient ones, what seems to be the most feasible interrelations that will allow all of them to live and let live ? There seems to be no doubt but what the railroads can and do transport large quantities long distances quicker, better, and more efficiently than can be done on the high- ways. Highways may be considered as feeders of the rail- ways. With good roads the zone from which the railway can profitably draw products for long distance or quantity transportation is widened, and again widened very ma- terially when better roads allow the use of motors in place of horses. This, if no other railway interferes, means a larger grand total of traffic hauled. Again the character of the farming along the zone served by a railroad will depend upon the facilities for marketing as well as soil and 170 Relation between Highway and Transportation climate. Those products ordinarily called perishable may be raised if the roads are good so that they may be marketed quickly and cheap enough to compete with other localities. Such produce yield a larger net return per acre than the staple grain products. Intensive farming is usually necessary in such cases so that a smaller farm will support a family allowing an increase in rural popu- lation, a thing most highly desirable in this country. The railroad benefits again, then, because of the increased pro- duce raised by intensive farming brought about by quick marketing facilities, and by increased freight and passenger traffic necessary to supply the greater population. Furthermore, if roads were good throughout the year marketing would be spread over the entire period and there would not at times be a glut with corresponding scarcity of cars, and other facilities for handling. If cars, ware- houses and elevators were sufficient to care for these periods there would be an over supply of facilities at other times and capital would be unnecessarily tied up produc- ing larger overhead charges. With good roads there would likewise be less need for large quantities of money at par- ticular periods of the year as uniform marketing would allow a smaller capital to be turned oftener. Moreover, unproductive branch lines would by the increased traffic brought to them by the improved highways be either made productive or they could be dispensed with altogether. The unproductive short-haul traffic would then be cared for by electric railways, motor trucks or even by horse wagons. Intra City Traffic. — Mr. J. C. Thirwall, of the railway and tractive engineering department of the General Electric Company ( General Electric Review, Vol. XXIV, pp. 974—985), discussing the fields of the rail car, trolley bus and gasoline bus, tabulates the respective costs of these types on a comparative basis for a variety of conditions. In general the calculations indicate that : (a) Where rush hour headways of 3 miu. or less are re- quired with safety cars, rail cars are the most economical and Relation between Highway and Transportation 171 up to 6 min. headways offer successful competition to the other types where the road is a going concern. ( b ) On longer headways the trolley bus appears to have the advantage due to the lower fixed charges. (c) The gasoline bus on account of higher operating expense does not offer competition to the rail car until minimum head- ways of 10 min. are reached on new routes and 20 min. on existing lines. ( d ) The trolley bus is more economical than the gasoline bus up to headways of 60 min. or longer. A tabulation of the respective fields is as follows: Minimum headways, 3 min. or less; rail cars. Minimum headways, 3 to 6 min.; rail cars or trolley bus. Minimum headways, 6 to 60 min. ; trolley bus. Minimum headways, 60 min. or more; gasoline bus. This does not mean that existing lines with headways of 71/2 to 10 minutes should be scrapped and replaced with the newer forms of transportation. It would not pay to do this until a headway greater than 15 or 20 minutes has been reached. Length of Haul for Economical Trucking - . — The railroads would not be alone in the benefits due to better roads. Truck lines could be established to care for freight and passenger traffic between farm and station. Here the truck and railroads would cooperate, there would be no compe- tition, for each would be performing a function incapable (or unprofitable) of performance by the other; the net result would be a benefit to the entire community. But most transport lines that are being established come into actual competition with existing railroad lines. Just bow far a motor truck may profitably compete with the rail- way depends, of course, on the relative costs of transpor- tation. Mr. Cabot 4 calculates that twelve miles is the dividing line between motor truck transport and rail trans- port. He figures the cost of delivery and removal from the railway station at 15 cents per hundred weight, or $3 per ton at each end for terminal charges and that the cost of motor truck haul is at least 50 cents per ton mile. A ton 4 “Root, Hog, or Die: The New Englander and His Railroads, ’’ by Philip Cabot, in Atlantic Monthly, August, 1921, p. 258. 172 Relation between Highway and Transportation may be hauled, therefore, on truck, 12 miles to balance the railway terminal expense or charge. A formula might be worked out this way. Let z=the number of miles where rail and truck charges just balance; m=motor truck charge per ton-mile; r=rail charge per ton -mile; f=terminal railroad charge-cost of collecting and delivery to the railroad plus the cost of re- moval from the railroad. Thus motor charge for x miles is mx and railroad charge for same distance is rx-\-t, equating these, mx=rx-\-t. Solving for the distance traveled, With Mr. Cabot’s figures this formula gives 6.00 .50 -.055 600 44.5 13.5. Using the cost 25 cents per ton mile made up by actual averages compiled by the Motor Truck Association of America and 5.5 cents used by Mr. Cabot as the railroad cost charge, there results 6.00 .25 -.05 600 20 = 30 miles. It will be noticed that this formula contemplates no terminal charge for the motor truck as it is expected to pick up and deliver the freight at the doors of the con- signor and consignee and that the cost of doing this is ab- sorbed in the cost per mile. The dividing distance between profitable rail and freight transportation, x, is seen by the Relation between Highway and Transportation 173 formula to vary directly with the terminal charge and in- directly with the difference between motor and rail cost per mile. To lessen this distance is in the interest of the railroads and can be accomplished by decreasing the ter- minal charges and the cost of transportation per ton-mile. Express companies have for years accomplished this by employing the system of free collection and delivery, and railways in England do likewise. The motor transport companies will have to decrease their cost per ton-mile in order to increase the distance that it is profitable for the shipper to utilize motor trucks. If the difference in cost per ton-mile could be reduced to twelve cents with terminal costs at $6 per ton, and doubtless this may be done under favorable circumstances, the distance would be lengthened to 50 miles. This is probably the maximum motor truck haul which can in general profitably compete with rail transportation. With better roads, larger trucks, trailers, or, in special cases, with certain classes of goods and com- modities, longer hauls will be profitable. The distances which it seems profitable to do trucking are continually being lengthened. Forrest Crissey, writ- ing in the Saturday Evening Post of December 16, 1922, relates a case in which household goods were hauled from Boston to Cleveland at a saving over rail rates and expenses incurred by delays of $417.50 on the shipment. His figures summarized are as follows: Rail — Crating and Hauling to Station $ 300.00 Freight 150.00 Hauling and Uncrating at destination . . 75.00 Hotel Bill of Family of five, two rooms and board, while waiting 525.00 House rental while waiting 67.50 Total $1117.50 Van company’s charge from home to home $ 700.00 Calculated saving $ 417.50 It should be remembered that certain kinds of goods, 174 Relation between Highway and Transportation such as household, lend themselves readily to truck ship- ments. With this class of goods expensive packing and several handlings are eliminated. Such is true of much merchandise which can be delivered directly from the store of the seller to the door of the buyer; to many varieties of manufactured goods which are sold within comparatively short distances of the factory. Each case should be worked out for itself and all the various kinds of transportation used that prove to be practical and economical. Where large concerns like packing houses are supplied with railway tracks right to their doors, shipping in car load and train load lots is not only more economical but absolutely necessary where such large quantities are transported in refrigerator cars. But for distribution to towns near-by the truck is much more convenient and economical. It is impossible to say for so-many-miles it is cheaper to ship by truck, because each commodity must be considered individually in con- nection with the character of the roads, the conditions of weather and climate, and the time of delivery. While the case of shipping household goods alluded to above proved very successful the next one might meet in- clement weather, the truck might have to remain out in the rain and some of the goods become damaged, as was the case of one such shipment that came under the winter’s observation. A single swallow does not make a summer, but the trend is no doubt toward much longer truck trips. And as the roads and vehicles become stabilized and standardized this will be even more evi- dent. For example, milk collected at stations 50 and 60 miles from the large cities can be hauled in to market in large tank cars which are built somewhat on the thermos or vacuum bottle principle, the milk arriving at its destination cooler and in every way better than if hauled in small containers. The truck has a large field open for its especial qualities. Let it confine its opera- tions to these and rail competition will not injure it. Short-Haul Roads Reduce Express Rates. — The Boston Relation between Highway and Transportation 175 & Maine Railroad is reducing express rates between Boston and towns within a radius of 50 miles in an effort to win back short-haul traffic lost to motor trucks. 5 The average reduction is given as about 40 per cent on less than car- load lots. The old rail service rate between Lynn and Boston was $1.50 per ton, iy 2 cents per hundred, with a minimum loading of 20,000 pounds per car, while the truck service charge is about $3 per ton, yet it is estimated that 80 to 90 per cent of the business was by truck. The re- duced rail rate is 5 cents per hundred, $1 per ton with the minimum loading eliminated. It remains to be seen whether people are willing to pay a higher rate to ship by truck, or whether the trucks will meet the express rates. The railroads may still lower costs by one or two other devices : They may use lighter weight cars and locomotives ; they may use gasoline motor cars such as the McKeen used on several branch line runs by the Union Pacific, or a motor car now being tried out capable of running on rails or on the pavements at will. Such a car would take ad- vantage of the light traction on the rails between stations but could go through the main streets to pick up its load. A rail-motor bus following the main features of the street bus and embodying “the same elements of simplicity in construction, reliability in performance, flexibility in operation, light weight, and low first cost, 6 has been built and operated at an average of 14 miles to the gallon of gasoline, a sufficient indication that it can save in operat- ing expenses. The car weighs 11,000 pounds and has a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour, and when required trailers may be used without materially decreasing the speed. Avoiding Waste. — Such methods of cheapening and bettering railroad transportation together with a lowering of rates generally to a point that the traffic can bear, and the adoption of managerial methods that will lessen avoid- able wastes, which the railroad unions estimate at one 5 Wall Street Journal, August 26, 1921. * The Bailway Review, Chicago, July 30, 1921. 176 Relation between Highway and Transportation billion dollars per year , 7 may eventuate in a rehabilitation and stabilization of the railway industry. The taking over by motor trucks of short-haul freight and passenger traffic, even though it cause the discontinuation of unprofitable branch lines may prove to roads but a pruning which will 7 W. Jett Lauck, a union-labor economist, in a report laid before the Railroad Labor Board, specifies the avoidable wastes as follows: 1. Modernizing locomotives. — Gross reparable deficiencies are pointed out which it is claimed might be avoided by the applications of improvements such as superheaters, brick arches, mechanical stokers, feed-water heaters, there would result an annual saving of at least $272,500,000. 2. Locomotive operation. — The magnitude of the railways’ coal bill is considered and certain of the larger wastes calculated, and it is concluded that by use of better methods of coal purchase, coal in- spection, careful receipt, and efiicient firing of the locomotives, an annual saving could be effected of at least $50,000,000. 3. Shop organization improvements. — The sad and almost incredible inadequacy and out-of-date equipment of the Tailway shops is re- viewed, and defenseless wastes considered, and it is conservatively estimated that by a proper shop organization an annual saving could be effected of at least $17,000,000. 4. Power-plant fuel savings. — The obsolete and wasteful condition of the power plants in the railway shops is considered, and it is esti- mated that in this field the possible saving of fuel would by itself amount to an annual total of $10,000,000. 5. Water-consumption savings.— The railroads ’ expenditure in main- tenance of way and structure is reviewed, necessary wastes noted, and it is estimated that easily attainable savings in the consumption of water alone would amount annually to $12,600,000. 6. Service of supply savings. — The expenditure of the railways for supplies has been inquired into and the avoidable losses surveyed, and it is estimated that the wastes and abuses amount annually to not less than $75,000,000. 7. Shop accounting savings. — Attention has been given to the matter of uniform railroad statistics and the use of efiicient methods of cost accounting. An annual saving would be feasible to the amount of $10,900,000. 8. Labor turn-over savings. — The industrial losses due to un- necessary labor turn-over and to inadequate training of personnel have been reviewed, and it is estimated that the avoidable wastes in- cident to labor turn-over alone amount to more than $40,000,000. 9. Loss and damage savings. — Inquiry has been made into the amount of the annual damage account of the railways and into pre- ventable causes of such losses, and it is estimated that an annual sav- ing might be effected to the amount of $90,000,000. Other alleged losses, he says, would bring the total waste to over a billion. Relation between Highway and Transportation 177 be beneficial and inure to the growth of the main trunk and remaining healthy branches. William H. Manse, a member of the Congressional Joint Commission of Agricultural Inquiry, 8 has called attention to another economic waste. He states that “city freight houses were established when team hauling was the only hauling.” These now are the cause of much congestion because of the delivery there of tre- mendous amounts of less-than-carload freight. The load- ing and unloading tracks being limited much of the freight must pass through the depot necessitating double handling. Again, in the large cities a considerable per- centage of land in the business section, stated to be from 25 to 30 in Chicago, is occupied by the railroads for tracks, road and station purposes. This land is worth from $10 to $50 a square foot, and if freight cars stand upon it intermittently for the receipt and discharge of l.c.l. freight, it is not earning continuously but, on the other hand, it is spending every minute in interest, taxes and maintenance. With demountable containers, which are described in Chapter VII, and the motor truck, and with concerted action of the railroads, much of this high- value land could be given over to other business and cheaper land farther out purchased for trackage. Enough has been said to intimate a firm belief that the railways as purveyors of secondary transportation will persist. On economic grounds if for no other reason, for no cheaper method of transportation, except by water, has been devised ; and secondary transportation over canals and rivers ought, for the good of the country, to be revived. There is a large class of freight that could with proper management travel at a slow rate of speed without any detriment or inconvenience whatsoever to the public. Carve Out New Fields of Usefulness. — It is quite likely that the newer systems of transportation, by inter-urban electric railways, by automobile and motor-truck, and by air-plane and dirigible, will all carve out for themselves 6 Report of the Joint Commission on Agricultural Inquiry. 178 Relation between Highway and Transportation new grooves of usefulness, thus opening up for labor and capital new fields of endeavor. The telephone did not, as many believed it would, replace the telegraph ; neither, yet, has “wireless” put “wires” out of use. The telephone, rural free delivery of mail, and the automobile have al- ready put new life into agriculture. Farming has rapidly reached the enchanted plane of professionalism and men are as proud now of being farmers as they were formerly of being lawyers or ministers. And of the three instrumental- ities named, the motor car, including the improved roads it makes necessary, has probably been most influential. In return the farmers have supplied themselves with motor vehicles most generously. These will result in the market- ing of increased quantities of food and products that prior to improved roads and the introduction of the motor car it was unprofitable to raise because of the cost of transpor- tation, or the time consumed in transportation, or the con- dition in which they reached the consumer. This, then, is one of the ways in which the motor car may be beneficial to both producer and consumer, that is to the entire public. In the more thickly populated districts the dairy interests practically depend upon the motor truck ; milk reaches its destination in better condition than when hauled by horses and wagons or when delivered to the railway station, shipped by train, and hauled again to the distributing agency. Also in regions near the large cities vegetable gardeners and orchardists are becoming more and more de- pendent upon the motor truck for the rapid transit of their perishable products to the jobber, retailer, or even consumer. During the railway congestion in the period of the war, not only the dairymen, gardeners, and orchardists that supplied the large eastern cities were saved from ruin but the consumers themselves were saved from food short- age and hunger by the motor car. This condition is not peculiar to the Eastern states, but applies to the grower of perishable products near every large market; it also applies to the raiser of live stock. During the congested period mentioned there was difficulty Relation between Highway and Transportation 179 to get stock cars in which to ship hogs, sheep, and cattle. Motor trucks were seized upon and last year there came to the Omaha stock yards in them more than 200,000 head of live stock, St. Joseph, Missouri, yards are said to be receiving 2500 head of live stock per day by motor truck. Sioux City, St. Paul and other markets report similar receipts. The record day at Indianapolis is given as 6800 head of live stock delivered to the stock yards in 500 motor trucks from a radius of 50 miles. Hogs delivered by truck to the early market at Omaha are said to be in much better condition than those received by train. In some sorts of transportation light automobile delivery wagons will give best service; this is especially true where the distance between stops is such that considerable time may be saved by rapid transit. In still other lines a horse and wagon may be most efficient; this is especially true where the stops are continuous or nearly continuous along a street like a milk or ice route, and where a trained team can be started and stopped by the attendant from the street by word of mouth. It seems then that there is room in this country for various kinds of transportation. The horse and wagon ; the light motor and the heavy motor; the waterways; the electric railroad and the steam railroad. Ail should work together in harmony for the good of the Nation. The little handwheel that opens and closes the throttle valve is of as much importance to the big Corliss engine as the large and more spectacular flywheel; the black iron foundation, grimy with grease, as the bright highly polished brass band around the cylinder lagging darting and reflecting beams of light into the eyes of the beholder. Each has its own work to perform and if done well is deserving of equal honor. SELECTED REFERENCES Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Published by order of Congress, 1922, Washington, D. C. Babson, Roger W., “Weekly Comment” of September 30, 1922, Syndicated. 180 Relation between Highway and Transportation Banham, W. J. L., “Motor Truck and Railroad Freighting,” Address delivered at Highway Transport Conference, 1920, published as a bulletin by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Blanchard, Harold F., “Is the Day of the $150 Car in Sight,” Popular Science Monthly, January, 1923, p. 26. Brosseau, A. J., “Is Highway Transport an Aid to Railroads?” Commercial Vehicle, Jan. 15, 1922. Also published in bulletin form by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Cabot, Philip, “Root, Hog or Die : The New Englander and His Railroads.” Atlantic Monthly, August, 1921, p. 258. Chatburn, G. R., “Highway Engineering,” p. 5. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Crissey, Forrest, “Our New Transportation System,” Saturday Evening Post, December 16, 1922. Graham, George M., “Highway Transportation,” Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the United States Chamber of Commerce. “The Motor Vehicle — Competitor or Ally?” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Green, G. A., “Motor Bus Transportation,” Society of Auto- motive Engineers, Journal, 1920. Johnson, Emery R., “Elements of Transportation,” D. Apple- ton & Company, New York. MacDonald, Thomas H., “Federal Aid Highways,” Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States. Norton, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business,” Part I. A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago. Riggs, Henry E., “Report of the Committee on Interrelation of Highway, Railway, and Waterway Transport,” National Traffic Association of Chicago, N. A. C. C., 1920. Thirlwall, J. C., “Fields of the Rail Car, Trolley Bus and Gasoline Bus,” General Electric Review, Vol. XXIV, pp. 974-985. White, Windsor T., “Benefits of War Experience,” Proceed- ings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States. CHAPTER VII AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORTATION Automotive transportation is a matter of such recent growth that only a few of the elements entering it have as yet become fixed or standardized — the whole question is still in the experimental or growing stage. The next few years will probably see as many, if not as radical, changes in equipment and operation as have the past few. The law of evolution seems to include a period of slow growth or sort of weak feeling-out; then a period of very rapid growth, developing usually along several lines ; and finally a ripening or fixing period in which standardization is reached. The automotive industries are now beginning the third period. Revolutionary changes are not to be ex- pected, but there will be many minor ones seeking efficiency or economy. The machinery of transportation, the motor car and the roadway, are, perhaps, in a later stage of standardization than are the social and legal phases of the subject. The relative rights of the people on the street and driver of the car have yet to be determined. The re- lation between automotive transportation and the older forms of transportation is still in a very formative stage. Plans and organizations for operating systems of highway transport and methods of accounting which shall be fair to owner and patron have in a large measure yet to be developed. These things must necessarily be true in a new and growing industry. Why, encyclopedias published in the ’eighties make no mention whatever of the motor car or automobile. In fact, the first practical automobiles were 181 182 Automotive Transportation put on the market after 1893, and trucks were not sold as such until 1903, ten years later. This was about the period when automobiles were being made over by change of body into “business wagons.” But so rapidly has the use of the motor car grown, automobile registrations increas- ing from about one million in 1912 to more than eleven millions in 1922, that, so it is stated, 80 per cent of all cars manufactured are still in use. Automotive transportation may be considered to include all conveyance from one place to another by means of motor vehicles. A motor vehicle is one which carries within itself the source of mechanical power which propels it providing that source be not muscular. This definition would include the tractor, the road roller, the torpedo, and the locomotive, which are ordinarily excluded. For the purposes of this discussion an automobile or motor car may be considered as a self-propelled vehicle which transports a burden other than itself as a weight upon its own wheels. This will exclude the tractor and the locomotive, which though self-propelled, are intended to draw other vehicles rather than to carry the load ; also the road roller and the torpedo, which have no burden to transport other than their own weights. Some definitions would confine a motor vehicle to one designed to move on common roads or high- ways. However, motor cars are now being used on rail- road tracks ; they are entitled to and should be allowed the use of the name. The automobile may have as the source of power internal-combustion engines using such fuel as gasoline, kerosene, benzol, and alcohol; it may use steam generated by these fuels; or an electric storage battery charged by sources outside the engine may furnish the propelling force. The load transported will either be passenger or freight. Passenger traffic may be classified as business or pleasure. If a vehicle is used mostly for busi- ness, first cost and economy of operation may play a more important part in the purchase of the car than if used for pleasure, in which case appearance and luxurious appoint- ments may be the deciding factor. Automotive Transportation 183 Business Passenger Traffic. — All machines that haul passengers for hire, that are used as a means of perform- ing, promoting, or extending business relations, while so used, may be rightly considered business machines and the traffic business traffic. The physician who finds that he can quadruple the number of his daily calls; the traveling salesman who can double the territory covered and do it much more efficiently ; the business or professional man, of whatever kind, who uses his automobile in going from one place to another in the performance of his duties; the farmer who comes to town to get his mail and information relative to markets or otherwise to assist him with his farm industry ; and the multifold other uses which are for the advantage of financial or industrial enterprise may con- stitute a legitimate business passenger traffic. The trans- portation, however, by taxi-cab, jitney or bus is considered by many persons to be the type that should be classified under the term business passenger traffic. Jitney and taxi-cab traffic are of vast importance in the cities and are of real economic use in furnishing a rapid means of transit from point to point. The jitney is usually a privately owned vehicle not especially constructed for the business, which plies with more or less regularity over a route that may or may not be sefi out in the owner’s license. In early days the price of a ride was a “nickel” or “jitney” hence the name. Taxi-cabs are regularly licensed automobiles that carry passengers for hire, usually making the charge dependent more or less upon the distance traveled, which is registered by a taximeter. For example, the charge may be 25 cents plus 15 cents per mile or fraction thereof. This would make the charge for distances less than 1 mile, 40 cents ; from 1 mile to 2 miles, 55 cents ; from 2 to 3 miles, 70 cents ; and so on. The driver usually turns the taximeter up to the fixed charge plus 1 mile, if fractions are counted as full miles, when the passenger enters, and the instrument adds on as the cab travels. Of course the taximeter may be made to register every quarter, every fifth, or every 184 Automotive Transportation tenth of a mile, or even continuously. A special waiting charge is made if the cab is held by the passenger. Taxi- cabs are variable in form, from “flivvers” to limousines. Many of the larger cities are supplied with cabs owned in quantity by substantial companies which put on a line of cars usually all alike and painted with some striking feature or color. The larger ones are limousines seating five or seven passengers in the tonneau and one on the seat with the driver. Some of these cars are almost luxuriously fitted with fine cushions and special lighting. They have speaking tubes or electrical devices to signal the driver. The drivers for the large companies wear the livery of the company. Taxis, as may be inferred, have no established routes, but go wherever the passenger may desire. The motor-bus is well established both in city and cross- country traffic. As at first made motor-buses consisted of special bodies with seats placed upon freight truck chassis. This did not prove altogether satisfactory because of their excessive weight, too much of which is “unsprung.” They also have a high center of gravity, high floors, long turning radius and rather rigid suspension. A bus, to be efficient, durable and comfortable, should be especially designed. There should be lightness and strength; small unsprung weight ; a low center of gravity ; a flexible control ; special transmission; wide treads; ample wheel base; short turn- ing radius ; low step entrance and exit ; low top clearance ; curb receipt and delivery of passengers; ample brake capacity; and high lowgear efficiency . 1 Pneumatic tires on account of their resiliency make the bus much more comfortable for the passengers by absorbing shocks, and for the same reason they also increase the life of the car and make it possible to travel faster. Cushion tires are next in order of merit and are an effort to combine the durability of the solid tire with the easy riding qualities of the pneumatic. Tests made by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads show that the cushion or semi-solid tires stand 1 See “The Motor Bus Field as a Market for Trucks,” Automotive Industries, September 29, 1921. O p A MODERN RURAL PASSENGER BUS © Underwood and Underwood A NEW YORK CITY “STEPLESS BUS" Automotive Transportation 185 between the solid and the pneumatic as regards riding comfort. With many bus operators a combination equip- ment is being used — pneumatics are used on the front to protect the engine and gasoline tank from vibration and cushion tires on the rear where the hardest wear comes. Buses are made both single and double deck. The latter are in demand where traffic is large and also where sight- seeing is an important item, the upper deck being usually open to the weather. The fare charged by the bus is either the same or in many cases a little higher than that by the trolley car, but the bus has the advantage in that it can travel over streets where the trolley is not allowed, can usually make better time, and can load and unload at the curb, thus avoiding danger from passing vehicles, a matter of no little impor- tance to timid passengers. The trolley car is able to haul large numbers at a less expense. In such cases no passenger transportation is cheaper. But the field for the auto bus is wide and no doubt it will come more and more into compe- tition with the street car and steam railroad lines. The former, whose single and primary business is transporting passengers, are already complaining bitterly of the inroads made upon their business by the privately owned auto- mobile and motor bus. The automobile is the larger factor because there are more automobiles than buses. Since about every tenth person owns a machine which can ac- commodate from two to seven passengers, one can readily see the importance of this item to the traction companies. The result has been a falling off in passenger fares, which the companies have endeavored to offset by increasing rates, and this in turn has only accentuated the trouble by driv- ing more men to automobiles. The only way the street car can hope to compete with the motor car is by keeping its rates low and hauling large numbers of passengers. The handiness of the automobile, going at the instant wanted, avoiding the usual walk of two or three blocks to and from a car line at the beginning and the end of the journey, the consequent saving in time, coupled with the 186 Automotive Transportation exhilarating effect of riding rapidly through the open air furnishes a great handicap which the traction companies will have difficulty in overcoming. About the only things the street car has in its favor are cheapness and dependa- bility. It can no doubt be shown that it is cheaper to patronize the trolley than to own and operate the average car. The street car will go in rainy or snowy weather when motor cars must be laid up. But the average American does not count cost ; he thinks more of his own comfort and doing as his neighbors do, i.e., being in style. It may be- come necessary, as stated in another chapter, for the public to take over the street-car lines, run them at as low rates as possible for the accommodation of those who can- not afford motor cars, since their work is an absolute necessity to the community, and charge any deficit to the taxpayers. There seems to be another feasible and legitimate use for the motor bus which may help the street car companies as well. That is extensions by means of buses at the ends of the car lines or into territory not well served by them. The bus might collect passengers from an outlying district and bring them to the car line where the trolley can take them on to the heart of the city. Thus motor buses will be- come feeders rather than competitors of the regularly established traction lines. The car companies should at- tempt to take advantage of this sort of thing, using either the trackless trolley or gasoline motor, as may be thought the more suitable for the situation in hand. Cross-country motor seiwice has proven quite feasible and scores of buses now leave every large city for the sur- rounding smaller towns. The bus seems to negotiate a 50- mile trip very easily at a speed of approximately 20 miles per hour including stops. These buses or stages carry from 12 to 20 passengers and are operated by one man ; they are well sprung and equipped with pneumatic tires. For country traffic seats cross ways of the car are much more comfortable to the rider than lengthwise seats. Their use- Automotive Transportation 187 fulness seems to lie in suburban traffic or as feeders to railroads. Such buses are also largely used as carriers of children to and from consolidated schools. The little red school house, wherein began the educational training of so many of our great men, of which silver tongues have orated, whose virtues have been painted in poetry, and praises commemorated in song, cannot stand against the superior advantages of the consolidated graded school brought near to the pupils by the advent of the automobile. Since each consolidated school with about five teachers replaces eight to ten ungraded schools, and since it is easier and cheaper to maintain and heat one consolidated school than eight ungraded schools, the advantage is economical as well as educational. Another place where the motor bus seems extremely well adapted is in the transfer of travelers from one railroad ter- minal to another. Railroads contract with transfer companies to do this and a coupon, a portion of the traveler’s ticket, is detached by the bus-man when the transfer is made. To one who is not used to the city this is a great convenience. In the city of Chicago, through which many long-distance tourists pass and through which no or at least few rail- roads extend in both directions, hundreds of such transfers take place daily. Passengers and baggage are thus taken care of on a through ticket with despatch and little incon- venience. Pleasure Passenger Traffic. — Vast and important as may have become the business passenger motor traffic, purely pleasure travel by automobile probably exceeds it. Of the more than ten million motor cars licensed in the United States perhaps 80 per cent of them were purchased not for their use in the business of the owner, although that might have been the final excuse that consummated the deal, but for the pleasure the purchaser and his family would get from owning a car. The great car industry which has sprung up like a mushroom during the past quarter cen- tury may thank the people’s desire for personal pleasure 188 Automotive Transportation for its tremendous prosperity. The movie picture industry is another instance of the same character ; likewise the newest epidemic to attack the people — radio. It is not claimed that these have no economical uses. But the business and economical uses have followed rather than preceded the pleasurable uses. There ^re many who think the automobile fad, like the bicycle fad, will eventually wear out and the whole automobile question settle down to a purely business basis. Such a thing is not likely to occur, however. The automobile is a much more perfect pleasure machine than is the bicycle. The knack of riding a bicycle has to be learned and requires considerable muscular exertion. It is not the thing a tired person eagerly turns to for recreation and rest. Anyone without exertion and with complete relaxation may ride in an automobile. Soon there comes a desire to drive the machine; then complete relaxation while no longer possible is replaced by a mental effort which drives out all thought of business, all care and anxiety regarding the ordinary affairs of life. The mind for the driver’s own safety must be confined to his effort to manage the machine and make it go where and as he wants it to go — change of work is often better than complete relaxation, although the latter has its beneficial effects in the treatment of diseases. For these reasons then, if for no other, the use of auto- mobiles to eater to the pleasure propensities of the people will continue. There are very few persons who do not en- joy an automobile ride — they are only the timid who fear accident. The recreational and pathological benefits to be derived cannot be overestimated. During the recent war the Government gave much attention to the entertainment of the soldiers and endeavored in many, many ways to di- vert their minds from the serious side of war. So with the people generally. They are much better off for pleas- urable diversions and the automobile furnishes these in a very high degree. If, then, there be included under the head of pleasure passenger traffic all not purely business it may with pro- Automotive Transportation 189 priety be estimated that three-fourths of all automobile travel is for pleasure. Considering ten million automobiles in use in the United States, that they average 4000 miles per year and carry two passengers each, there results a total passenger mileage of 10,000,000X4,000X2=80,000,000,000 80 billion miles. A number beyond ordinary comprehen- sion. The passenger mileage upon the steam railroads is roughly speaking about 37V2 billion miles, a little less than half as much as that by automobile. It is evident that all this travel, even though a large percentage be local, must affect seriously the earnings of the steam and electric rail- way lines. Since 75 per cent may be estimated to be for pleasure purposes, it will not be possible for the steam and electric lines ever to regain it. The people who do the dancing are perfectly willing to pay the piper, and even though automobile riding cost more than trolley or train riding the people will continue to have it as a means of entertainment. 2 Most men who own cars pay the expenses in lump sums and forget about them. To have the speed- ometer register in dollars and cents instead of miles, while 2 One method of estimating cost of automobile riding, for a machine costing originally $1000, which having a life of 30,000 miles is then worth for scrap $100, may be given thus: Original cost expressed in cents per mile ( 1000 - 100)100 30,000 Cost of repairs, estimated, Gasoline and oil Tires Garage Interest Taxes Insurance License 3.0 0.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 9.0 The cost is about 9 cents per car mile. If an average of two passengers ride that is 4% cents per passenger mile. The above is merely an illustration and cannot be applied generally. 190 Automotive Transportation it might be a deterrent on the use of the automobile, would “take the joy out of life.’’ Freight Traffic. — When it comes to freight traffic cost and time will be the principal factors to determine the type of performance. The element of pleasure is here eliminated and only cold economical features remain. Already horse trucking is rapidly disappearing as it seems to be able to compete with the motor only where many stops are to be made. In large cities motor trucks are utilized to haul packages to certain districts at consider- able distances from the store, where they are turned over to small wagons for delivery. Ice and milk are often distributed in the same manner, thus taking advantage of long rapid hauls upon fully loaded trucks and less ex- pensive delivery wagons where many stops are to be made and smaller loads are to be carried. Even in delivery service some merchants have by carefully arranging and timing their routes brought the cost of delivery to below ten cents per parcel. All purchasers of goods at the store whether delivered or not should be interested in reducing this cost because usually in the accounting it is spread out over the entire turnover and charged to the expense of doing business. It may be possible that in a few years horses will be barred from the streets for sanitary reasons ; then it will be necessary to use motors for all sorts of deliveries, possibly large ones for hauling to the distant districts and small ones for the house to house delivery in the district. In very congested districts motor trucks are at a great disadvantage because they cannot be used at their most efficient speed. If the congestion can be eliminated or at least relieved by such means as one-way traffic, paving parallel streets, removing buildings which obstruct passage, widening driveways, elevating railroads and street cars, supplying overhead crossings, making subways, or by care- ful rearrangement and planning of terminal facilities, warehouses, and other accommodations, the cost of trans- portation in the large cities may be materially reduced. Automotive Transportation 191 In many such cities public service commissions are study- ing these questions and applying remedies which will allow motor trucks to operate at a greater rate of speed and much more efficiently. Accurate observations of motor truck performance in city trucking business has shown that a large part of the day is given up to loading and unloading, that the truck stands still so much of the time that the cost is more nearly proportional to time than to mileage. Since certain charges such as interest and insurance go on whether the truck is idling or not, it is better to keep it moving. To do this effectively depots, warehouses, and other terminal facilities are provided to lessen the time of loading and unloading. It may be wise to hire an extra stevedore or two to assist with these operations, or mechanical devices may be installed where the saving will justify it. Usually there is not only a saving in time when a mechanical device is used but the amount of expensive manual labor is decreased. Among the practical devices used are removable bodies. The whole body of the truck may be swung by means of a crane from the chassis to a platform where it is loaded or unloaded while the truck with another body is pro- ceeding on its way. Other bodies are so arranged on rollers that they may be readily rolled from the chassis to the platform. Railways are also taking advantage of remov- able bodies for the shipment of less than car-load lots These bodies are made to fit a truck and also of proper sizes so that several of them may be nested or interlocked upon a flat car. One of these units or containers may be left for any length of time for loading then rolled upon the truck and off it to the steam train. At the other end of its journey it is rolled from the car to the truck and from that to the unloading platform with a great saving of time at each terminal. The New York Central railway places nine containers of 6000 pounds capacity on one flat car. These are unloaded by means of a crane in less than five minutes for each container, or the whole car in approxi- 192 Automotive Transportation mately forty minutes. By this means the railroad is able to take advantage of what has been called store-door de- livery. Instead of the consignor hauling its goods to the station and unloading them on the platform to be loaded into cars by stevedores, transported, unloaded into the warehouse, and the consignee notified to come for them, the railway leaves a container which when filled is hauled by truck to the railway yard and in five minutes’ time placed upon the car, which upon reaching its destination is placed upon a truck and hauled to the consignee. Goods shipped in these containers which may be made of steel and securely locked are considered just as safe from predacious hands and the weather as in a way car, and possibly are safer. The demountable container which is rapidly coming into general use, and which has for some time been used by the New York Central Railroad and the interurban railways of Australia, consists of a large steel box or safe, the doors of which can be locked. When it is placed upon a steel flat-car with sides two feet high it cannot possibly be opened as the doors are on the side of the container. And it cannot be removed from the car without the use of a derrick, the top corners of the container being equipped with hooks for this purpose. The containers have a capacity of 438 cubic feet and will hold from 6000 to 8000 pounds of package freight. When the packages are locked and sealed within the containers they are safe from fire and rain as well as marauders. One flat-car will accommodate from 4 to 9 containers, depending upon their size. In addition to the safety furnished by these containers they are economical in saving time of transportation. Re- handling is unnecessary. The transfer of the entire con- tainer from truck to car and from car to truck is very quickly made. The mileage of the flat cars is thus greatly increased — with mail cars it is claimed to be doubled. Expensive packing and crating is avoided and the checking at each rehandling of parcels is eliminated. Mass loading or unloading, whether the whole truck Automotive Transportation 193 body is swung off by a crane, rolled off, or even if trailers and semi-trailers are left to be worked upon after the truck has gone, save little in the way of manual labor. On the other hand they require the installment at each end of the route of special arrangements to facilitate their use. Another class of devices are those connected with the truck itself. For example it may have a winch on it to draw up an inclined plane at its rear such heavy articles as pianos, safes, and large castings. It may have a crane with a pulley running along a central beam over it to facilitate loading and unloading heavy boxes or other things. A swinging crane is also used with some trucks. On others, hoists are arranged to tip the body backward for unloading building and road materials, grain, and so on. Many of these devices make use of the truck power for their operation. Pumps with suction hoses empty catch basins, cess-pools, stopped-up sewers and flooded cellars, pumping the fluid to a tank body of the truck, whence it can be hauled away and dumped by elevating the front end of the tank and opening a gate in its rear. Devices for lift- ing and dumping coal truck bodies directly into the bin save much time over hand shoveling. Still another class of devices are entirely separate from the truck and may or may not be connected with the ware- house. For example a chain conveyor which can be rolled up to the back of a truck elevates barrels and boxes, sand and stone, and is operated by a small electric motor the lead wires of which are plugged into a suitable socket, up to the floor at the rear of the truck from which place they can be easily pushed or shoveled to proper position. Elevated bins are utilized to store road materials from which the ma- terials run by gravity into the body of a small motor-car which then goes to the mixer where it is grabbed by a device that empties the body into the mixer, thus saving much handling of material. Many special types of bodies are made for peculiar pur- poses. These often facilitate loading and unloading, for 194 Automotive Transportation example tank cars for hauling water, milk, gasoline or other fluids ; or trucks fitted with shelves on which are placed trays containing fruits and so forth. As the motor truck enters newer fields of usefulness multiple devices will be developed to lessen the time of loading and unloading. The financial importance to both the owner and the public of keeping the truck moving will no doubt lead to the adoption of these devices providing they are practical and will ac- complish the desired result. Traffic between Towns. — Wherever the roads are de- pendable and passable at all seasons of the year truck and bus lines have sprung up to ply regularly between the towns. The length of haul most profitable seems to be that over which the motor can make the round trip each day and have sufficient time at terminals for loading and unloading. Forty to 50 miles for trucks and 60 to 65 miles for buses seem to be negotiable and double these distances are prov- ing to be practicable. In many of the states such enter- prises have been declared to be common carriers subject to the laws governing such carriers, and must secure licenses to do business from the public service commissions. It is but reasonable that the public should be safeguarded and these concerns be required to take out insurance or give indemnifying bonds to cover loss of goods to shippers by carelessness or theft or injury to passengers by accident. On the other hand the licensed motor transport is entitled to protection against irresponsible truckers. The modem method of state regulation does not contemplate competi- tion as an economic factor in the determination of rates and routes. The old doctrine of ‘ ‘ everyone for himself, and the devil take the hindmost,” is certainly most wasteful. This is about the way that method worked. A starts a bus line between two towns. After he has run it a short time and built up a trade B, seeing his success, decides to put a com- peting bus on this same route. Then there is a period of competition. Rates may be cut and speeds quickened until each bus is running at a loss. This cannot con- tinue indefinitely. The result is that either one man goes Automotive Transportation 195 out of business or there is a combination of interests by actual coalescing or by a “ gentlemen ’s agreement, ’ ’ so that there is practical monopoly anyway. The modern method is to regulate all common carriers as far as rates and routes are concerned so that each may make a justifiable profit. This may be tending toward socialism and away from in- dividualism; it may be a violation of the Darwinian doc- trine of a survival of the fittest. But that is departed from every day. Our cornfields and gardens would amount to nothing if the weeds were allowed undisputed sway. It would seem to be the duty, therefore, of public service commissions to grant licenses to truck and bus lines, to establish routes and equitable rates, to require careful and complete accounting and to make public from time to time such items as the people may be interested in. The Railway Commission of the state of Nebraska was, perhaps, the first public service commission to exercise the right of regulating highway transport (1918). Colorado, California, and other states soon followed. In California the matter came upon a complaint that adequate service was not given by the railway and the decision was : “We are of the opinion that the public deserving trans- portation of freight and express ... is entitled to a more expeditious service than that at present being given by the Southern Pacific and American Railway Express. ’ ’ It went on further to state that notwithstanding their ability to give service the evidence was to the effect that it was not given, hence motor highway transport was licensed. The first highway transport freight rates established by the Railway Commission of Nebraska placed the freight under four classes, describing 103 items. The rates were : 1st Class 20 c. plus (IV 2 c. per mile per 100 pounds). 2d Class 85 per cent of the 1st class. 3d Class 70 per cent of the 1st class. 4th Class 60 per cent of the 1st class. In addition they established rules and regulations, standard bills of lading, etc. These rates have since been rescinded. 196 Automotive Transportation In Colorado two sets of rules were adopted, one for the prairie and one for the mountain division. For the prairie division the minimum charge was 25 c. and the mountain 30 c. per 100 pounds. The rates for motor truck hauling was made, for the prairie division, 30 c. per 100 pounds for 5 miles and for distances up to 100 miles graduated 5 or 10 c. for each additional 5 miles until they reached $1 per 100 miles. For the mountain division, the rate for 100 pounds carried 5 miles is 36 c., graduated to $1.20 per 100 miles. Motor Bus Traffic. — Suburban and interurban motor bus passenger service is growing rapidly. Buses accom- modating as high as sixty persons are being used on the haul where the roads are well paved, but twenty to thirty seems more popular. At present these buses seem to be well patronized, usually bringing their passengers to the larger city in time for business or shopping and returning them home in the afternoon or evening. The rates of fare for bus travel are about the same as those for steam car travel, or approximately 4 c. per mile. The rate of travel depends upon the character of the roadway and the con- dition of traffic, being usually routed upon dependable but less congested roads. Just what may be the outcome of this traffic is problem- atical. Can the buses compete with other forms of trans- portation in fares and speed? If so, they will survive; otherwise they will gradually discontinue. Some writers seem to think they will not only live but will eventually kill the older forms of transportation. Although they will no doubt take over very much of that transportation it seems highly improbable that all transportation can be taken care of by motors. To and from the Farm. — -Farm trucking seems to be firmly established and very much if not all farm hauling will eventually be done by automobiles. Very many farmers now own their own trucks and the number is con- stantly being increased. Glowing statements by govern- ment officials, reports of investigational committees, and Automotive Transportation 197 propaganda by manufacturers and dealers have worked up the farmers’ desire for trucks. A congressional joint com- mittee on agricultural inquiry has recently stated that, No single development since the railroads were first con- structed has had so marked an economic and sociological effect upon productive life as the motor vehicle. Previous to its ap- pearance the economic zone of transportation was sharply de- fined by the haulage range of the horse and the cost of such transportation. There is the evidence of no less a person than Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover that the farm motor truck will be of vast importance to the agricultural interests of the country. Here is his statement : Fifty per cent of our perishable foodstuffs never reach the con- sumer because the farms on which they are raised are too re- mote from the market at which they are sold. . . . Forty to 60 per cent of our potato crop is lost each year by rotting in the ground owing to poor transportation to market because of inade- quate transportation over long distance. . . . By motor trucks the farmer will be able to reach better markets farther away than now by horse and wagon. He will be able to spend more time actually producing on his farm and be able to sell food more cheaply by eliminating the present tremendous waste. By use of the motor truck the farmer will be able to produce more and sell at less cost. Some of the arguments advanced in favor of the farm truck are : (a) The motor truck allows the farmer to haul larger loads, longer distances in less time, thus reducing the actual cost of haulage. (b) That he can better take advantage of market fluctua- tions and thus be able to sell at high markets. (c) That a truck on the farm will replace several horses; that the cost of keeping these horses far exceeds the cost of keeping a truck. ( d ) That the truck may be used to market produce while the horses are busy in the field. (e) That the truck will allow land otherwise too far 198 Automotive Transportation from market to be farmed with perishable but better pay- ing crops. (/) By means of trucks the farmer is often enabled to put his hogs or other live stock on the early morning market in less time from the farm and consequently fresher, gain- ing the advantage of better prices. While there may be some question as to the validity of all these assumptions they are no doubt, in the main, correct. The United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Crop Estimates, collected data showing that in 1918, the hauling in wagons from farm to shipping point cost on the average for wheat 30 cents per ton-mile ; for corn, 33 cents ; for cotton, 48 cents. For hauling by motor truck the average costs were: wheat, 15 cents; corn, 15 cents; and cotton, 18 cents. These unit costs were, con- sequently, reduced to less than half by the use of the truck. The same bulletin gives the average length of wagon haul for these products to be 9 miles, and of motor truck haul, 11.3 miles; furthermore the average number of round trips by wagon per day was 1.2 while by truck it was 3.4. Whether or not the truck on the farm will release any horses will depend on what determines the number of horses kept. To do his hauling does the farmer keep more than is necessary for farm operations alone? The passenger automobile, no doubt, did release many driving and riding horses, but will the truck release many more? The thoughtful, foresighted farmer usually plans his yearly work so that he may do his hauling when the horses are not otherwise busy. This of course limits his farm opera- tion to products which, like wheat and corn, can be stored indefinitely. This limits also diversified cropping which farmers find in the long run to be very much safer than “putting all eggs in one basket” by raising a single pro- duct. It is seldom that a wheat crop, a corn crop, a beet crop, a hay crop, an apple crop, and gardening crops all fail by drought, wet weather, hail, or other untoward events during the same season. Good roads, trucks or anything Automotive Transportation 199 else which will lend assistance to diversified cropping are without doubt beneficial to the farmer. Intensive farming of perishable crops can be done only where the roads allow daily contact with the market. The truck, because of its more rapid speed, will widen the zone of such farming very much over the old zone when the horse-drawn vehicle was in vogue. Because of the risk in- volved and the labor necessary the net returns per acre for this sort of farming are high, allowing small parcels of land to keep a family. As the distance, or rather time, the “fourth dimension,” from market increases the less intensive the farming operations and the less net returns per acre. The community as a whole is deeply interested in widening the zone of intensive farming in order that more people may profitably make a living upon this land. Persons who are not familiar with stockyard activities will be surprised on visiting them early in the morning at any one of the packing-house industries to see the large number of hogs and other farm animals arriving for the early market in motor trucks. These animals have been brought from distances up to 60 miles, but have been on the way less than three or three and one-half hours. Care- ful stockyard figures show that in 1921 more than 6,000,000 cattle and very many more hogs were transported in motor trucks. These animals upon arrival are very much fresher and show less shrinkage than those that have been driven to their home station and loaded into stock cars the day previous. Other things being equal, the top of the market is accorded to the fresher animals. Also for short hauls, say up to 60 miles, the transportation costs are in favor of the trucks. The farmer may obtain the benefits of motor transpor- tation in at least four different ways: (a) He may own and operate his own truck. This pays when the farm is of sufficient size to keep the truck reasonably busy. ( b ) Two or more neighbors may cooperate in the ownership of a truck. This is applicable to small and medium-sized farms, (c) By patronizing truck lines privately owned which haul 200 Automotive Transportation products, freight, and express upon a charge basis. ( d ) By the trucks of the United States Postal Service. Whether or not it pays for a farmer to own and operate a truck depends upon the size of the farm, kind and quan- tity of the commodities hauled, distance from market, character of the roads, and the loading on the back trip. A small farm could not be expected to furnish sufficient hauling to keep a truck busy unless intensively farmed and producing commodities which require frequent marketing. Even a small farmer, though, might by hauling for neighbors keep his truck reasonably busy. Or several neighbors may cooperate in the purchase of the truck and arrange how it shall be operated. They may even form an express line and go into the transportation business as a side issue. The parcel-post service has been very successful in handling packages of produce even as large as a case of eggs. The post-office department allows its carriers to pick up and deliver packages along the route the same as letter mail. Privately owned Rural Motor Express vehicles are also operated successfully which pick up and deliver all sorts of express packages, farm produce in small quan- tities, fruit, butter, eggs, and cream. Trucks which haul nothing but milk and cream are quite common. The farmer leaves his full cans of milk or cream at a specified place, usually a platform at a level with the truck floor, on the roadway. The driver of the milk truck picks up the full cans, leaving empties in their place. Or he may pick up the full on his way to the market, creamery, or railway station, and leave the empties on his return. Such routes are both privately owned and cooperatively owned by the several farmers patronizing them. Often these trucks de- liver the milk and cream to the railway in time to catch a special milk train into the city. Since the trucks come directly to the fanner’s gate to pick up and deliver express or freight, the convenience is much greater than the service given by either the steam railway or the interurban trolley. As a result the trucks Vih'l HAULING SUGAR BEETS TO MARKET IN A MOTOR TRUCK Automotive Transportation 201 will probably be patronized when the railways would not. The habit of sending eggs, cream, and other perishable pro- ducts daily to the market is formed. The daily credit the farmer receives amounts to a considerable sum by the end of the month when he collects from the dealer. Many farmers much more than pay living expenses from the sale of small items utterly ignored before the days of the motor express . 3 Even the farmer who owns his own truck could hardly afford a daily trip of several miles and the time en- tailed to market small amounts of cream, eggs, vegetables, and fruits, but the express man by combining the incoming and outgoing commodities of many farms can without much expense to anyone do a very good business for himself at an economic benefit to his patrons. If the farmer, or several farmers, desire to purchase a truck it would be well first carefully to consider the ques- tion with an idea of finding out the character and amount of trucking at hand and then purchase a machine best adapted for the purpose. The kind of bodies available should be studied, remembering that he may wish to haul grain on one trip, hogs or sheep on another, then cream and vegetables. He will want, probably, to haul back groceries, flour, feed, lumber, hardware, implements, fertilizer, cement, and gravel. In looking ahead he should estimate the increase in the quantity of hauling that more rapid transportation, the going to more distant markets, and the possible raising of different products which may come about through the owning of a truck, will bring to his farm. In this connection the reader is referred to the chapters on “Highway Transport Surveys” and “Effects of the Ease and Cost of Transportation on Production and Marketing, ’ ’ given later. Terminal Facilities. — Railways have found it advan- tageous to spend enormous sums of money upon terminal facilities. Depots and warehouses, garages and repair shops will be necessary if truck lines are to prove efficient ' See Bulletin 770, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Bureau of Markets, “Motor Transportation for Bural Districts, ’’ Also Bulletin 931. 202 Automotive Transportation and successful. It would be quite feasible and profitable for all the truck lines leading from a city to have a union or common terminal station. Portland, Oregon, has such a station owned by a corporation composed of bus lines that operate from there to every city of any importance within a radius of 100 miles. The terminal resembles a railroad depot with waiting rooms, ticket office, an- nouncer, and conveniences. Buses load and unload on a platform at the rear of the building reached by a drive-in from the street. Patrons remain in the waiting room until the bus is announced. Two buses are sent out if more than enough tickets are sold for one. Under the present schedule 150 departures in 21 different directions are pro- vided for. This gives the farthest cities two stages per day while many closer ones are served hourly. Some of the advantages of a terminal station may be in- ferred from the above. Another is that the total number of clerks and employees may be cut down, for one clerk can route goods on half a dozen different lines almost as easily as on one, and there will be no competition between lines, except by service, if the public service commission has allowed no duplication of lines and establishes rates. Much of the freight and express will be brought by the shipper to the depot, where bills of lading will be made out and charges paid. To be sure, large shippers may de- sire freight to be picked up elsewhere, or small express trucks may be used for this purpose, but orders for this can conveniently be phoned to the central office and direc- tions given from there accordingly. Similarly one garage and one repair shop may easily look after the cleaning, re- pairing, oiling, and fueling of several cars more economic- ally than could each keep its separate shop or even go to a commercial shop. The terminal building may be arranged, if desired, so that it can be used jointly for a passenger station, a freight depot and a storage warehouse. If for a passenger station there would be need for the agent’s office, waiting rooms, and toilet accommodations for men and women. The Automotive Transportation 203 freight depot is a place for the collection of freight and should be arranged for convenience and rapid loading and unloading of the trucks. The installation of devices for this purpose may become advisable as the amount of traffic increases. Storage room should be provided for those articles which are to wait some little time for shipment. A check stand to care for parcels is a convenience to passengers and furnishes the company some revenue. The Social Aspect of Motor Transportation. — The change from poor roads and horse-drawn vehicles to good roads and motorized vehicles has produced in society changes quite as radical. These changes are not entirely separate from economic changes and one cannot always say that this particular thing or that particular thing is due to the automobile alone because every activity in life has its effect on every other activity. As the waves upon a pond circling about the point of shock come into contact with other waves their effect is enhanced, minimized, or transformed, and just what part of the resultant may be due to one agency or to another agency is impossible to decipher. That each has entered into a combination with the whole and affected the result there is no doubt. For example it is claimed that because of the prevalence of pleasure riding the giving and receiving of dinners and teas have very greatly diminished. No doubt the high cost of living has had its effect also. Clothiers and haberdashers complain that automobile owners finding it impossible to keep grease spots from their clothing, are now buying an inferior grade and losing the art of good dressing. Builders claim that the expense of buying and maintaining an automobile has prevented many persons from making needed repairs on houses or even building new ones. As people live most of their leisure time in the car a very small apartment will accommodate them for the remaining time. Fewer books and newspapers are read, it is claimed, and there is less attention paid to the cultural niceties of life. People go riding in the evening, so the Sunday even- ing church service is not attended. 204 Automotive Transportation An editorial in the Nebraska State Journal of August 31, 1921, puts the matter piquantly, at least: The savage determination with which the American is stick- ing to his automobile despite the drop in his income is an occa- sion for wonderment and no little irritation with a lot of us. For the sake of economy we may have to exchange our seven passenger for a light six or one of the little fours. Beyond this we need not go. But the farmer, yelling his head off at the fall in corn prices, what does he mean by sticking to his car? Your mechanic resisting the inevitable fall in wages, would be well enough off if only he would give up trying to ride like a millionaire. These merchants, claiming they aren’t making a liv- ing, don’t give up their cars, you will observe. Why pity them, then ? Thus does the general assumption that the automobile is a super-luxury impinge upon the fact that the automobile has be- come a prime necessity. You laugh. Well, go inquire what are the other things the people will sacrifice before yielding up their speed machines. A sharp automobile manufacturer assured a gloomy harvester manufacturer the other day that not only would the men do without harvesters rather than lose their cars, but the women would yield up their very chewing gum. Yea, more than that, their pretty clothes. Food is, of course, a superior necessity, but even that can be reduced and simplified in favor of gasoline. As to houses, we like to be conservative, but there is a perfectly obvious disposition to put house shelter second to automobile shelter. That is why the house shortage isn’t hurting us as we expected it to hurt. The people are in automobile camps. Ob- serve the sudden energy in developing automobile camps. They are wise. It looks now as if half the population will have de- serted houses and flats for their automobile tent within another year or two. In winter time a corner of the garage will do well enough for a living room during the few minutes at a time we are at home. If Ave insist on a separate house, then the tendency is toward a very small one. What is the sense in maintaining a big house not to live in? That is the Avay our minds run now. This will help the lumber men to understand why building doesn’t pick up as it should. And that is how Ave manage to keep the car while incomes fail. It is done by cutting out such unnecessaries as houses and furniture and clothes and heavy dinners. America has been living at a fast gait on its nerves. Isn’t that Avhich Ave see now the natural reaction from the nervous over- strain of fixed habitation and the relaxing ways of the nomad? Automotive Transportation 205 The automobile came along in the nick of time to furnish the transportation, and off we go. The universal gypsy is break- ing out in us. This isn’t more than half moonshine. It is at least half solid fact, with economic and social consequences which, whatever they prove to be, will be important. The above editorial indicates that people are beginning to notice the social changes being brought about by the automobile, and more, they are ascribing them to the auto- mobile. Changes usually come about so gradually that, like the hands on a watch, the movement can be noticed only by comparing what is with what was some time pre- vious. Rapid transportation and rapid communication has ex- tended Broadway clear across the continent. One writer by taking an automobile tour found the American world extends from ocean to ocean, that the hat she purchased in New York had its duplicate in every millinery window all the way across to Los Angeles. She further found that the people between were not all “hicks,” and that farmers did not go around with alfalfa on their chin and straws in their mouths as shown in the cartoons of the funny section. Some farmers play golf on their own pastures. The fact that the sack containing their clubs is often tied with bind- ing twine is of no consequence. The social intercourse which good roads and the rapid moving automobile makes possible between neighbor and neighbor and between country and town tends to produce a more homogeneous people. Each gets the view point of the other, which reacting modifies his own. Factions are largely broken up. Tolerance gains sway and more satis- faction and happiness results. High wages and profits during and following the war led the average citizen to purchase some of those luxuries which before then he was unable to afford. He has had a tasteof a “higher standard” of living. No wonder he objects to a return to pre-war conditions, no wonder he objects to giving up his automobile, the thing which has furnished him with more pleasure than his previous humdrum life 206 Automotive Transportation believed possible. No, he will fight to maintain the new standard and new living conditions. A social revolution has taken place, and in traveling about the spiral the world is one step higher. And while some will for a short time be content to live in one corner of the garage, as the editorial writer opines, the natural longing for a home will assert itself. By the aid of the automobile property will be bought in farther- out district where lots are cheaper, where taxes are not so high, where there is more breathing space, and healthful conditions are more likely to prevail. Men of wealth can build suburban estates, and men of less means comfortable homes leaving the downtown apartments and tenements to those who cannot yet afford motor cars, and many there be, more’s the pity. It will be a good thing to have the farms near large centers of population divided into smaller tracts whereon by intensive cultivation can be supported many families. Here there is always a demand for garden products which by means of a small car, or through the agency of motor express lines, can be marketed daily. It does not require a very great deal of land to support a poultry farm from which there will be a continuous income. By diversifying crops something will be coming in at all seasons. Good roads and the automobile not only make it possible to diversify farming but make the home life in the country less monotonous. No trouble to go after supper 12 or 15 miles to the town to take part in civic affairs, to attend a lecture, watch the movies or go to church. No extra horses need to be kept for these purposes, neither are the farm horses deprived of their rest. While the swift ride through bracing air rests the weary farmer after his day’s toil in the fields and gives new life to his faithful spouse upon whom the lonesomeness of isolation lies the much more heavily. Salesmen have in great numbers provided themselves with automobiles large enough to carry their samples. With these they can make many more towns than when Automotive Transportation 207 they were compelled to depend upon trains and the small- town livery stables. The result is either a wider territory or more frequent calls upon customers. Hotels, during the summer season, especially, if located on one of the popular cross country roads, are seldom with- out tourist guests. Nina Wilcox Putnam 4 states that from Washington westward the “wily tourist will always wire ahead for rooms, and preferably two days ahead. The truth is that the best places to stop are not nearly large enough to accommodate the crowd.” Speaking of these hotels she finds them well equipped, clean, and well cared for. There is no doubt but that the automobile tourist traffic has had its effect, too, upon them. Each spring they clean and spruce up with the idea of securing as much of this traffic as good service reported by the camaraderie of travelers all along the way will bring to them. Mention has been made of the country people going to the larger cities to market their products and purchase goods wanted. It is not considered at all unusual for country and small town people to auto 30 miles to patronize the large department stores in the city. If a trade which satisfies both trader and tradee is beneficial and of economic importance to both then this would seem to be a good thing. The selling of the goods is beneficial to the store-keeper because he makes his profit. The trader has a large variety to select from and having made a voluntary selection is satisfied, because he or she may secure exactly what the city cousin gets. But what is to become of the business of the country store-keeper? How is he to get along? The best thing he can do is to put upon his shelves goods of a standard quality. His rents and overhead are less than those of the city competitor ; he, therefore’, can sell at a less profit. This is so true that the writer has known of city dwellers going to the country store for these standard articles. Such interchange while of economical importance is also socio- 4 “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fe Trail,” Saturday Evening Post, June 10, 1922. 208 Automotive Transportation logical in differentiating between city and country mer- chandising and in bringing together in a new way the city and country dwellers. Consolidation of Rural Schools. — The people of the United States have been justly proud of her public schools. No one has ever considered them to be perfect, but the influence exerted upon the minds of the growing children has been wholesome. The very life of a republic depends upon an educated citizenry. With thorough education along right lines there is no reason why the nation should not live forever. To obtain such an education as is com- mensurate with right living and with the upbuilding and maintenance of our government and civilization requires that every means at hand should be utilized. The broaden- ing, informational, and unifying influence of the auto- mobile should not be underestimated. Edison’s theory that the movie should supplement the textbook because visual education is remarkably interesting and effective, needs more than a passing thought. The instruction which the young people receive from parents, from associates, from newspapers, magazines, and miscellaneous books, from civic organizations of various kinds, and from Sunday school and church cannot be overestimated. Neither should be forgotten the vast and important education which comes through the hard knocks of experience. An illustration of what the public schools may do for the preservation of the country can be drawn from the history of the Great War, the worst and the fiercest the world has ever seen. During that war the patriotism of the people shown forth with undiminished luster. The re- sponse to the President by the citizenry of the country, whether of his own or opposite political faith, by every honest organization, public or private, by business and pro- fessional men, by Congress and legislatures, was all but unanimous. This surprising unanimity was, no doubt, due to the influence of the public schools. The public schools have always inculcated patriotism and loyalty, and these lessons were potent as was evident because even before the Automotive Transportation 209 draft many young men with Teutonic names took their places with others whose forebears were of other nationali- ties as well as with those of long-standing American descent. Therein went astray one of the guesses of the enemy, namely, that our Teutonic citizens with their children would prove more loyal to the “fatherland” than to democratic America. The lessons of patriotism the children brought home from school, the stories of Valley Forge and Yorktown, of Gettysburg and Appomattox, were communicated to their parents and penetrated deep, so that only a moiety of our foreign born element could be classed with the enemy. Thus have the public schools in this great melting pot of the world been the conservators of liberty. The effect of the public school upon the ideals of peace is no less than that upon their state of mind during war. Every day examples are so plentiful they need not here be mentioned. Suffice it to say that it should be made possible for all the young people to come under the in- fluence of the public school learn the American’s Creed, and be steeped in the symbolism of the flag that stands for true democracy. Changing Concepts of the Public Schools. — Schools have continually had to change with changing society. During the pioneer period, and that extended through many years from the first settlements along the coasts, and the occupation of the great fertile areas of the mid-west to recent efforts to subdue the semi-desert and desert regions of the farther west, the schools taught for a few months only a little reading, writing, and arithmetic. The farm and home life supplemented this with manual labor and the attainment of skill in making and repairing neces- sary articles and machinery by the boys, and the arts of home making, weaving, and cooking, by the girls, thereby completing a well-rounded education for the times. But with the increase in population there came a division of labor and specialization. This meant that the simple school of the pioneers could no longer fit for life, hence 210 Automotive Transportation new and additional subjects were added to the currieulums, until at the present time no one pupil can hope to complete all the work given by the larger secondary schools. The changing character of society caused the earliest private schools to be transformed into semi-private and semi-re- ligious schools, and these to tax-maintained schools. The graded schools in the larger communities were found to be more efficient than the ungraded. In country districts the advantages of the graded system could only be brought about by consolidating several small schools thus enlarging the districts to get sufficient pupils. This made distances from home so great that walking to and from school was no longer possible; pupils must be hauled. Considerable progress was made in such schools with horse-drawn vehicles, but not until the advent of the motor bus was attained anything like a practical solution of the problem. So rapidly has the consolidated school made its way that now there are more than 12,000 such schools served by motor buses. Since a six-room consolidated school will re- place about nine small schools the greater efficiency of a graded school extending through a longer school period is gained at little if any increased cost. In the years to come the results of these schools must have a marked bene- ficial effect upon the entire country. Rural Mail Delivery. — The development of the Rural Mail Delivery and its relation to the better roads movement has been touched upon in Chapter V. It will only be necessary to say here that the psychological effect of a daily mail upon the inhabitants of the rural districts has been most remarkable. Through its means these people are no longer isolated, they know daily what is transpiring in the world; they are thinking of the great questions of finance, politics, and what not, at the same time as their fellows in other parts of the country. The nation is thus more or less unified, the country dweller looks and thinks of himself as an integral part of the whole. Rural mail, telephone, the automobile, modern home conveniences and, now, radio telephony are rapidly making agriculture one Automotive Transportation 211 of the great and desirable professions. The rural home need no longer be a place where there is nothing but ten hours’ work and six hours’ chores. The farmer of to-day, with his daily paper, his market reports, his books and magazines, his furnace-heated and electric-lighted house, his automobile ready at hand, is better off, more independ- ent, and should be more happy and contented than those who dwell in the murky city. The Automobile and Health. — “Health is something more than strength, it is a universally good condition,” according to Munger. The automobile, by inducing people to get more into the open air, may be considered to be a prophylactic, and something that will bring them into that universally good condition. The forgetting of business, the obliteration of household cares, the unstringing of high- tensioned nerves by a swift run like a swallow in its flight over smooth and undulating roads brings rest with relaxa- tion, and cure with comfort. Then away from the mad’ning crowd, away from close poorly ventilated rooms, away from foul-smelling germ-laden cars, to the roads, to the hills, to the country with their varied shades of living carpets, with freshening winds and glad’ning brooks, with bees, and birds, and flowers into nature’s great laboratory where are brewed nectars and panaceas for the ills which infest mankind. But all cannot have automobiles, pity ’tis, ’tis true, but all may have the benefit of fresh air and the style for an open air life set by those who can afford to drive the “red flyers,” the “quivering arrows,” the “bear cats” or the “poodle dogs,” have been followed by the less fortunate hoi polloi. Thus outdoor exercises and amusements have been popularized. While motoring may not be the best form of exercise, may not bring into play as many muscles as walking, horse- back riding, or rowing, say, it must be remembered that not many can have horses to ride or boats to row and walk- ing is too slow. Gymnasium exercises or even home gym- nastics are not exciting enough to keep one practicing, so 212 Automotive Transportation that the outdoor life of the present day, brought about largely by the automobile, has had a more wholesome effect on the people generally than perhaps any other measure. Styles of clothing have kept close pace, and the garments now worn by both men and women are both comfortable and sanitary, allowing freedom of bodily movement. It is to be hoped that the same influences which induced such hygienic clothing will continue and that never more may the autocratic demands of style force people into close-fitting uncomfortable, unsanitary wearing apparel. For years hygienists, health reformers, and physicians preached against tight lacing for women without results until the automobile came to their assistance. Until very recent years women ’s long skirts have swept clouds of germ-laden dust into the air from sidewalks to be breathed by all passers-by. All men know that their present dressing, while it might be bettered, is so much more comfortable than formerly that they have much reason for rejoicing. Formal dressing except for an occasional party has almost disappeared. In the summer time men may be comfortable on the streets without coats. But the women, though more responsive to style changes, now go the men one better and abandon long sleeves and high collars. Medical science, always alert to adopt modern improve- ments, was one of the first to take advantage of the time- saving benefits of the automobile. Its universal use by physicians and surgeons, allowing them to reach the bed- side of sick patients more quickly and allowing them to visit more patients in the same time, is certainly a pathological asset of great value. Automobile ambulances called in emergency cases save the lives of many injured persons by getting them quickly to the hospitals and under the care of competent medical and surgical attention. From a purely sanitary point of view good roads have been great agencies for health. Clean streets, clean pave- ments, and clean roads are much more wholesome than the mud puddles and quagmires that formerly served as passageways for man and beast. In order to get better Automotive Transportation 213 roadways drainage was resorted to. Ponds and standing water along the side of the road were done away with, at the same time obliterating the breeding places of the myriads of mosquitoes that always abounded in summer time. Since mosquitoes are carriers, as is well known, of such diseases as malaria and yellow fever, the consequence has been a very great reduction, almost elimination, of these ailments. Again just as the use of the horse on the highways has diminished, so has the summer pest of flies grown less. The favorite breeding place of the housefly is horse dung. When nearly every house in both city and country had its stable with a pile of horse manure by the door flies bred abundantly. The fly has been convicted of being a most energetic distributor of typhoid and other bowel com- plaints, hence the distruction of its breeding places will be the most effective means for its extermination, and with it one of the most virile sources of contagion. Thus, upon analysis, it may be seen that the influence of the automobile extends throughout the whole domain of life, changing and modifying nearly all social customs. It is called into use at the birth of the babe to bring the physician to the bedside of the prospective mother. It is the correct equipage at the wedding and starts the bride and groom upon their honey-moon and, it is to be hoped, a happy journey through life. And finally, it bears the re- mains to their last resting place in the silent city of the dead. The Automobile and Crime. — But not always have the changes produced by automobiles been in the interest of better living. Criminals and those who verge upon criminality have been quick to employ the superior advan- tages of modern means of rapid transit to assist them in their nefarious work. Automobile theft has taken the place of horse thievery, and automobiles are used daily as a means of getting to and getting away from the place of the crime. Trucks are utilized to haul the loot. Since the adoption of prohibition laws motor cars have been seized upon by 214 Automotive Transportation booze runners as a convenient vehicle for transporting liquor from one place to another, thus becoming an aid to “bootlegging.” In several of the states cars used for illegally transporting intoxicants are confiscated upon discovery and sold by the state. Drastic laws also deal with operators and owners. Highway robbery of trucks hauling goods across country is reported. In New Jersey two trucks were robbed of $120,000 worth of merchandise. In other places express drivers have been held up and relieved of their money. One of the earliest improvements of the roadways of Eng- land was due to the prevalence of highway robbers — the brush and trees were ordered to be cut from the highway in order that their might be fewer lurking places for robbers. 5 Here the results of robbery may lead to interesting possibilities. For instance if the trucks above mentioned as robbed in New Jersey were owned by the shipper the $120,000 is a dead loss to him unless he had insurance. Even if the trucks were owned by a small capitalist he would probably not be able to recompense the shipper. Had it been lost on a railway it would have been paid for. If motor shipping is to continue shipments must be covered by bonds or insurance. Even then there is a loss to the public when outlaws seize a loaded truck and drive it into wilds whence its contents can be disposed of at leisure. Shall truckers, like the ancient caravans of the deserts maintain guards with long guns to fight off marauding Bedouins? The western stages of some years ago furnished employment as guards to the quickest shots in the world. Is it the duty of the community to make its highways safe for transportation or must the shipper take the risk and employ guards and machine guns? 8 The statute of Winchester enacted during the reign of Edward I, of England, provided “that highways leading from one market town to another shall be enlarged, where woods, hedges or dykes be, so that there be neither dyke, tree nor bush, whereby a man may lurk to do hurt, within two hundred foot on the one side and two hundred foot on the other side of the way. ’ ’ Automotive Transportation 215 Vandalism. — Complaints are made that those who drive or walk to the country are often guilty of vandalism and disregard for the rights of property. Note this editorial utterance in the Saturday Evening Post of June 17, 1922 : 6 On Sunday one dare not leave one’s farm or country place unwatched or unprotected for a moment. The whole country- side is aswarm with Nature lovers from the near by city. First come the makers of forbidden beverages, trooping across fields and lawns, picking the once despised dandelion and anything else that happens to be loose; then the happy motorists in long pro- cession, embowering their cars in the spoil of orchards, wood- lands, and wayside shrubberies. If there are no flowers near the road these free-and-easy visitors will penetrate one’s garden and break off the blooming branches of the rhododendrons or lilacs or whatever other bush happens to engage their fancy. With trowel and spade the woods are looted and sometimes, if it looks safe, an unwatched garden. Following come shy maidens, in twos and threes, daintily pulling up the woodland flowers by the roots — arbutus, azalea, and a hundred little blossoms that wilt in the hand that picks them; and everywhere are bands of half- grown hoodlums helping in the spoiling of the countryside. The bolder spirits are usually those who come in motors. They can destroy more, steal more, and get away faster than the man on foot. They meet remonstrance with effrontery and resent the notion that a hick has any rights of property and privacy that they are bound to respect. The flowers, the shrubs, the orchards, and occasionally the unguarded gardens are their prey. They camp beside the woodland brook or the shaded spring, hack the trees, trample the flowers, and turn the spot into a garbage hole with their greasy papers, tin cans, bottles and refuse food. Then up and away to the snug flat in the big town, throwing out the wilted flowers as they go. Spooning in automobiles parked along the roadways is a subject of regulation in the city of Omaha. An ordinance makes it a misdemeanor subject to fine. However, the motor car will not be discarded or outlawed because unscrupulous persons put it to illegal and immoral purposes. A net cast into the sea gathers fishes of every kind, and among the wheat there will always spring up tares. 6 Reprinted by permission from The Saturday 'Evening Post, Copyright 1922, by the Curtis Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 216 Automotive Transportation Conclusion. — The world cannot now get along without the motor car. What was a luxury yesterday has become a necessity to-day. Automotive transportation is carving out a path for itself. While it perhaps will take much from the older forms of transportation it can never hope to sup- plant them. The final result will come only after the world has had opportunity through competitive experience to determine which is most economical in time and money and which is most desirable and comfortable from a personal or a sociological standpoint for the various purposes and various kinds of transportation. At present it would seem as though the automobile will be used more largely than ever : I. As a pleasure and busi- ness vehicle driven by its owner for passenger traffic : (a) for local travel near home; ( b ) for short runs from town to town; (c) for more extended tourist traffic, and ( d ) for the use of salesmen. II. For pay passenger traffic: (a) Taxi-cabs in the cities: ( b ) Mot or -bus service in the cities either in competition or in conjunction with street car ser- vice; (c) motor bus service to suburban and outlying dis- tricts; ( d ) motor bus service between towns up to 75 or 100 miles, with towns not more than two hours apart, (e) motor bus service between railway terminals. III. For freight and express traffic: (a) Haulage of farm products to market or shipping point in owner’s truck; (b ) Haulage to market of perishable farm products in rapid going privately or cooperatively owned trucks; (c) Heavy truck- ing lines through farm districts; ( d ) Light express lines through farm districts; ( e ) Suburban or radial distribu- tion of goods from large cities; (/) Short-haul traffic be- tween towns; (p) Short branch-line or stub-end transporta- tion to be taken over by trucks either in competition or conjunction with railways; (7i) Trap car and store to door service by railways ; (i) Terminal distribution allowing cars to be loaded and unloaded at a greater distance from congested centers; ( j ) Terminal distribution between dif- ferent lines of railway or between railway and waterway either to relieve congestion or where there is no physical Automotive Transportation 217 connection; ( k ) Longer hauls where there are no rail facilities; (?) Logging and lumbering formerly done by horses, oxen, or even light railway, (m) Rural mail service, and IV. By modified or combination motors: (a) Track- less trolley ; ( b ) Rail motors. Addendum. — Since the above was written President Harding has issued the annual legislative message to Con- gress (December 8, 1922), in which he discusses at some length the transportation problem in the United States. Among other things he says : Manifestly, we have need to begin on plans to coordinate all transportation facilities. We should more effectively connect up our rail lines with our carriers by sea. We ought to reap some benefit from the hundreds of millions expended on inland waterways, proving our capacity to utilize as well as to expend. We ought to turn the motor truck into a rail feeder and dis- tributor instead of a destroying competitor. It would be folly to ignore that we live in a motor age. The motor car reflects our standard of living and gauges the speed of our present-day life. This transportation problem cannot be waived aside. The demand for lowered costs on farm products and basic materials cannot be ignored. . . . Government operation does not afford the cure. It was gov- ernment operation which brought to us the very order of things against which we now rebel, and we are still liquidating the costs of that supreme folly. Surely the genius of the railway builders has not become extinct among the railway managers. New economies, new efficiencies in cooperation must be found. The fact that labor takes 50 to 60 per cent of total railway earnings makes limita- tions within which to effect economies very difficult but the demand is no less insistent on that account. The President then urged merger of railroads, pooling of equipment and a central agency to aid in their financ- ing and to suggest economies. This portion of his message was evidently inspired by the great labor strike during the summer of 1922, and the subsequent short- age of cars and inadequacy of transportation facilities. He argued that there “should be a guaranty against sus- pended operation. The public must be spared even the threat of discontinued service.” He then recommended 218 Automotive Transportation an abolition of the Labor Board as not being “so con- stituted as best to serve the public interest.” This board is composed of three members selected by the railways and three by railway employees, and three by the Gov- ernment. According to President Harding “it is in- evitable that the partisan viewpoint is maintained throughout hearings and in decisions handed down. Only the public group of three is free to function in unbiased decisions.” He, therefore, suggested the abolishment of the partisan membership and that the work of the board be performed by or in very close contact with the Inter- State Commerce Commission which already has supreme authority in rate making to which “wage cost bears an indissoluble relationship. ’ ’ When a president of the United States takes up so much of his annual message with transportation and the relationship which the different forms bear to each other, when he argues for harmony between them and between them and their employees, there is certainly reason for study and legislation which will bring about just and adequate methods of administration, operation and regulation. SELECTED REFERENCES Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Part III deals with Transportation, Washington, D. C., 1922. Alden, H. W., “Automotive Obligations Toward Highway De- velopment, Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers, Vol. VIII, pp. 161-162, 426-432. Automotive Industries . — “Automobile Sendee Stations,” Vol. XLVII, pp. 374-175; “Automobiles in Postal Sendee,” 178- 179 ; “Cost of Operation of Bus Lines,” 482^183 ; “Motor Trucks on the Farm,” 315; “Railroad Officials Recognize Truck as Transportation Ally,” Vol. XLIII, 1201-1203. Baker, C. W., “Relative Economy of Truck and Railway,” Engineering News-Record, Vol. LXXXIII, pp. 52-67. Bassett, W. R., “Avoiding Industrial Traffic,” Industrial Man- agement, Vol. XLI, pp. 342-346. Automotive Transportation 219 Blanchard, A. H., “Traffic and Transportation,” Canadian En- gineer, Yol. XL, pp. 129-131. Blum, H., “Transportation of Bulk Freight,” Kali, Halle, Ger- many. Bus Transportation. — “Baltimore Service,” Yol. I, p. 484; “Motor Buses,” 479-80 ; “Bus and Electric Railways as Essentials in Transportation, by G. A. Green, 293-295; “Battle of the Bus and the Street Car,” by F. H. Warren, 85-88 ; “New Englanders Hold Meeting to Study Motor Bus and Trackless Trolley,” 124-129, 191-193 ; “Railway Men Discuss the Bus and its Relation to Rail Transportation,” 195-196^ Davis, F. W., “Motor Truck Transportation,” Engineering News- Record, Vol. LXXXV, pp. 1194-1195. Donnelly, William T., “Comparison of Cargo Transportation,” Marine Engineering, Vol. XXV, pp. 899-903. Engineering. — “Bringing the Food to the Table,” Vol. VI, pp. 387-391. Electric Railway Journal. — “Report of Committee on Trackless Trolley Transportation to the American Electric Railway Association,” Vol. LX, pp. 576-577; “Freight and Motor Truck Competition,” Vol. LVI, pp. 157-160. Development of the Automobile: Hiscock, Gardner D., “Horseless Vehicles,” Norman W. Henley & Co., New York, 1901. Homans, James E., “Self-Propelled Vehicles,” Theo. Audel & Company, New York, 1902. “History of Automobile Carriages,” reprinted from La Nature by the Scientific American, Vol. LXXII, p. 389, June 22, 1895. Many other articles in the Scientific American, some of which are : “Ponchain’s Electric Carriage,” Vol. LXX, p. 69; “The Tachocycle,” p. 181; “Gaillardet’s Steam Carriage,” p. 200; “Simonds’ Steam Wagon,” p. 398; “Bicycle of 1816,” Vol. LXVII, p. 180; An Account of an automobile race from Paris to Bordeaux with descriptions of some of the machines participating, LXXIII, p. 40 ; “An English Horseless Carriage of 1827,” p. 214; “Duryea Motor Wagon,” p. 293; “Petrolium Tricycle,” p. 234; “Kane-Pennington Vic- toria,” p. 293 ; “The Benz Motocycle,” p. 315 ; De La Vergne Motor Drag,” p. 377 ; “Steam Omnibus in London, 1833,” p. 404. Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Bulletin No. 6, “Consolidated Rural Schools and the Motor Truck”; Bulletin No. 7, “The Motor Truck Terminal.” Akron, Ohio. 220 Automotive Transportation Facts and Figures, 1922. “Motor Bus Aids Rural Education,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Greenough, M. B., “Motor Trucks and Highway Transporta- tion,” Engineering and Contracting, Yol. XLIX, pp. 157-158. Johnson, Emory R., “Elements of Transportation,” D. Apple- ton & Co., New York, 1909. Lacy, V. E., “Inland Waterway Transportation,” Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers,” Vol. VIII, pp. 59-62. Lane, F. Van Zant, “Motor Truck Transportation,” D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1922. Mackall, J. N., “Motor Bus as a Factor in Highway Trans- port,” Engineering News-Record, Vol. LXXXIII, p. 234. Mantell, John J., “Transportation Problems of the Metro- politan District,” Official Proceedings of the New York Railroad Club, Vol. XXXI, pp. 6369-6393. Mechanical Engineering. — Discussion on Motor Truck Transpor- tation, Inland Waterways, etc., Vol. XLIII, pp. 181-183. Motor Rail Cars: Railway Review. — Vol. LXIX, pp. 753-755, 792-796; 860, Vol. LXX, 49-50, 191-192, 389-392, 501, 656, 669- 673, 741-747, 928-929, 930. Railway Age. — Vol. LXXI, pp. 841-843, Vol. LXXII, pp. 749-750, 886, 920, 1008-1009, 1069-1070, 1183-1184. Electric Railway Journal. — Vol. LXIX, pp. 419, 513, 685-686. Municipal Engineering. — “Text of Colorado Decision Affecting Commercial Use of Highways.” Vol. LXIII, sup. pp. 17-18. National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. — Graham, George H., “The Motor Vehicle — Competitor or Ally. 1920. Norton, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Transportation,” A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago. Power Wagon. — Various articles March, July, October, Novem- ber, and December, 1921, and during the year 1922. Stocks, C. W., “The Bus Transportation Field,” Electric Rail- way Journal, N. Y., Vol. LVIII, pp. 517-522. Spence, Lewis J., “New Era of Railroad Transportation in America,” Paper before the National Industrial Traffic League, Railway Age, Vol. LXIX, pp. 1153-1154. Upham, C. M., “Car Shortage and Its Relation to Highway Work,” Engineering News-Record, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 1099-1100. White, W. T., “War Development of Motor Transportation,” Good Roads, n. s. Vol. XIX, pp. 291-292. Whitestde, W. J., “Motor Truck Competition,” Electric Rail- way Journal, Vol. LIV, pp. 981-982. Automotive Transportation 221 Willard, Daniel E., “Railroad Transportation. Fundamentals for developing a complete and well-articulated national transportation system,” Mechanical Engineering, Vol. XLIII, pp. 17-18. Williams, C. C., “When Ship Freight by Motor Truck and When by Rail,” Engineering News, Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 315-316, 660-661. Young, H. E., “Freight Movements by Motor Truck,” Western Society of Engineers’ Journal, Vol. XXVI, p. 204. CHAPTER VIII PLANNING HIGHWAY SYSTEMS : SELECTION OF ROAD TYPES A road is a strip of land set apart or appropriated for travel, public or private. When a road has been dedicated to the public or has been used so long that the public has a legal right of easement therein, it becomes a highway. 1 The object of a road is to provide a way for transporta- tion. It goes without saying, therefore, that its situation should be such that it can perform this function most efficiently, and a system of highways should perform the same function for the public in the same manner. Efficiency here includes the ideas of economy and satisfac- tion combined. In order to make a layout of a system of highways they should first be classified as to use, for the proper treatment will depend upon the use to which the roads are to be put. Anyone attempting a layout will make his own classifica- tion suitable to the inherent conditions pertaining to the district covered. The classification of Mr. T. H. Mac- Donald, Director of the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture, made for another purpose may be adopted : 2 1. Those used chiefly related to agriculture. 2. Those which are recreational in character. 3. Those which are commercial. 4. Those which are military. 1 Highway is sometimes used in the sense of greater importance and road in that of less, as in the expression ‘ ‘ highways and roads. ’ ’ Baker in his > ft a Loaded >> ft a w Loaded 1 Light Heavy >> ft a w Loaded >> ft a Loaded m a o 6 vH | 15-tons Over 15-ts. 6 a. m. to 7 a. m. 7 a. m. to 8 a. m. 8 a. m. to 9 a. m. 9 a. m. to 10 a. m. 10 a. m. to 11 a. m. 12 noon to 1 p. m. 1 p. m. to 2 p. m. 3 a. m. to 4 a. m. — — — — 4 a. m. to 5 a. m. 5 a. m. to 6 a. m. Total Of above motor vehicles carried foreign licenses as follows Weather Type of pavement Condition of pavement Width of roadway Width of pavement Traffic .... Narrow . . . Tires Special Inspector Notes Checked by Destructive Factors. — From the above it appears that there is a general opinion that there should be some com- mon measure for the destructive effect of vehicles upon road surfaces. As yet no unanimity of opinion has crystal- lized. While density of traffic influences the surface wear of the road crust — considerably in the case of earth and gravel, less for macadam and asphalt, and still less for brick and concrete — the actual weight of the wheel load 246 Planning Highway Systems seems to have a much greater destructive effect. The im- pact due to speed and irregularities of the road surface, the resiliency of the tires, the proportion of sprung to un- sprung weight, and the shoving forces of the wheels all have their effects which are usually in some way connected with either the weight or the speed, or both, of the vehicle. The many experiments now being carried on by the United States Bureau of Public Roads, and the several states may furnish data from which a practical measure will some day be devised. Mr. Older, Chief Highway Engineer of the State of Illinois, under whose direction the comprehensive investigational and endurance tests under way in that state are being carried on, recently stated to a party of visitors, of which the author was one, that in his opinion weight, including impact, is the prime factor in the destruction of a pavement. Wear is of very minor importance, tempera- ture and weather is of considerable importance. Road surfaces must be considered as bodies acted upon by forces. Some day the stresses produced by these forces will have been analyzed, then will it be possible to stand- ardize the importance of the several vehicle loads. At present it is known that the weight of the load and the weight of the pavement itself are under some circumstances sufficient to produce cracks in the pavement and disruption of the road crust. Bearing tests and bending tests are be- ing devised to measure the effects of such loads. Road crusts, earth, gravel, macadam, asphalt, brick, concrete, are to varying degrees elastic bodies and when loaded they give, as an elastic band stretches, a spring shortens, or a bow bends, until the internal stresses reach a limiting point where the crust is broken or permanently distorted. It is well known that the effect on an elastic body of a suddenly applied load is twice as destructive as the same load gradually applied. And when the action is an impact the destructive effect may be very great indeed, depending on the physical properties of the impinging bodies. But how- ever the load is applied, whenever the internal stresses reach the limiting strength of the material of which the Planning Highway Systems 247 road crust is composed it will go to pieces. The sudden ap- plication of the load by fast driving is a sort of impact. The stresses produced by this impact are now being studied. Much good is expected to come toward the solu- tion of the problem of destructive vehicle influence from these researches. Another effect of speed is noted on the more or less viscous materials of which road surfaces are composed. The pushing of the wheels against the surface causes wrinkles which continue to grow until the wrinkles become waves entirely across the pavement. Such waves may also be produced by expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature, but are probably always accentuated by wheel pressure. Side thrust of wheels often produces longitudinal waves in viscous road crusts. In the classifications given no one seems to have con- sidered the proportion of sprung and unsprung weight in the motor car. There can be no doubt but that the resiliency of the springs relieves the pavement of very much of the shock of impact. This is illustrated by an attempt to drive a nail into a springy board. It can hardly be done because the springiness of the board uses up, absorbs, the work of impact. A mechanical statement is, the work of impact equals the change in kinetic energy, or algebraically stated when the entire energy has been absorbed. Here F is the acting force and s the distance through which it acts, Fs, is the work done by the force F. W is the weight of the ram or moving body (vehicle, wheel load), v the velocity of impact and g the acceleration of gravity, a factor that enters the equation in the expressing of mass in terms of weight. Solving this equation for F there results, 248 Planning Highway Systems which shows that the smaller s is the greater the force of impact F. When s is made long by means of a spring the force F becomes smaller. This is illustrated by the old method of catching a baseball without gloves — the hands were allowed to go backward so that the work of stopping the ball was spread over a greater distance, the impact force thus becoming so small it did not sting the hands. The effect upon the road, and also the vehicle, is like that of the hammer which hits a nail on the anvil. The nail is flattened, pounded to pieces very soon. But if the nail were not placed upon the solid anvil but upon a slab of springy steel, it might be pounded all day without doing it much harm, the spring at all times absorbing the shock. So with the weight of the vehicle largely sprung the damage to the roadway is comparatively small. Therefore, it would seem , as though a fair classification would take into account the springs of the vehicle. The pneumatic tire, and the cushion tire and wheel, each act as springs and shock absorbers in varying degrees. In some of the censuses, pneumatic or solid tires were noted, and very many of the earlier noted whether rubber or steel tires were used. Just how far all these things should be taken into ac- count is questionable. Whether or not just as good results would not come for even a simpler classification is not yet determined. It might be that only the heavy loads and their frequency is all that need be considered if the de- structive effect of traffic alone is aimed at. The great amount of pleasure riding and the tremendous desire for such riding should be considered in laying out a system of roads and in the selection of a type of road, therefore all passenger cars and motor cycles should be counted and given an influence number. Other Methods of Estimating’ Amount of Traffic. — The amount of road traffic may be roughly estimated from the area served by the highway. Upon a map is outlined the tributary territory and its area measured by any one of several means. The area may be divided into small squares Planning Highway Systems 249 of known size and the number of squares counted ; it may be divided into strips and the length of the strips meas- ured with a scale and thence the area computed, or a planim- eter may be used. Having found the area the unit ton- nage is estimated from a knowledge of the character of the crops raised and the industries in the territory from which the haulage is calculated. The average haul may be de- termined, if desired, by finding approximately the center of gravity of the area and measuring its distance from the market. If the market place is at the center of a circle sur- rounding it and the products are uniformly distributed over the circle the mean distance is two-thirds the radius of the circle. The tonnage, arising from farms, which is transported over the roads varies with the kind of crop, the fertility of the soil, the amount of stock fed, or kept for dairying, and numerous other local conditions. Studies made by various authorities 7 indicate that the marketable products vary from 1/10 to 1/2 ton per acre. If a circular area with market place at the center is served by six uniformly dis- tributing radial roads a mathematical analysis will show that the tonnage upon each one of these roads, one-sixth that from the whole circle, will be 2 7 =335.12gr 2 where T=total tons per year, q = yield of marketed crops in tons per acre, r — maximum haul-radius of the circle. Dividing T by the number of working days per year (usually taken as 300) gives the average daily haul into the market. The average length of haul may be taken as 2/3 r. The haul over any zone whose edges are concentric with the circle is considered to be all that originating in the area outside the zone plus that originating within the 7 Bulletin 205, Cornell Agricultural College ; Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Bulletin 49, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept, of Agr. Reports of the 1910 U. S. Census. 250 Planning Highway Systems zone times the mean distance from the inner edge of the zone. The result of the analysis gives this equation, for the haul over any zone having an outer radius a, and an inner radius b, H — T r —T a 2 a 2 — ab — b 2 3 (a+6) (Ta-T b ), where T r ,T a and T b represent the tonnage originating on the sectors of radius r, a and b respectively. For the first mile, o = l, b = 0. H = T r - 1/3 T a . For the eighth mile, o = 8, 6 = 7. U — T t — T’s+23/45 (Ts-T 7 ) Theoretical Average Tonnage of Six Uniformly Distributed Market Roads* Unifobm Yield per Acre of Maxi- mum Haul Aver- age Haul One-tenth Ton One-fourth Ton One-half Ton Total Tons per Year Tons Hauled per day Total Tons per Year Tons Hauled per day Total Tons per Year Tons Hauled per day Over 1st Mile Over 8th Mile Over 1st Mile Over 8th Mile Over 1st Mile Over 8th Mile 1 0.67 33 0.07 84 0.17 168 0.34 2 1.33 134 0.40 335 1.00 670 2.01 3 2.00 302 0.96 754 2.40 1,508 4.80 4 2.67 536 1.74 1,340 4.36 2,681 8.71 5 3.33 838 2.75 2,094 6.87 4,189 13.74 6 4.00 1206 3.98 3,016 9.95 6,031 19.90 7 4.67 1642 5.43 4,106 13.58 8,211 27.15 8 5.33 2145 7.11 0.85 5,362 17.76 2.13 10,724 35.52 4.25 9 6.00 2714 9.00 2.75 6,786 22.51 6.88 13,572 45.02 13.75 10 6.67 3351 4.13 4.87 8,378 27.82 12.18 16,756 55.63 24.35 11 7.33 4056 13.47 7.22 10,138 33.68 18.05 20,279 67.35 36.10 12 8.00 4826 16.04 9.79 12,064 40.10 24.48 24,128 £0.20 48 95 13 8.67 5663 18.83 12.58 14,158 47.08 31.45 28,316 94.15 62.90 14 9.33 656S 21.85 15.59 16,420 54.63 38.98 32,840 109.25 77.95 15 10.00 7540 25.09 18.83 18,850 62.73 47.08 37,700 125.45 94.15 * From Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 251 Planning Highway Systems The table shows the theoretical average tonnage on each of six uniformly distributed radial roads. It is taken from Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Since roads do not run in practice in this manner the re- sults can only be used for comparison in confirming estimates. Mr. E. W. James, of the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, makes an analysis of the distribution of traffic over the roads of a township located along the section lines of the United States land survey. The market place is taken at the center of the township. 8 ROADS Graphic representation of distribution of traffic on roads located along section lines. His analysis assumes the lay of the country makes all roads equally traversable and that the traffic seeks the nearest highway thence to the main traveled road east and west or north and south through the market center. This analysis shows that 4.8 per cent of the total mileage carry 39.3 per cent of the traffic; that 9.5 per cent of the roads carry 71 per cent of the traffic. In his opinion this analysis corroborates the observation of engineers to the effect that 20 per cent of the roads carry 80 per cent of the traffic. 8 Engineering Record, Vol. LXXIV, p. 439. 252 Planning Highway Systems Of course the most important roads, measured in traffic, are the ones nearest the market, 15-22, 15-16, 16-21, 21-22. Following these naming only one of the four symmetrical roads, in the order of importance are 14-23, 14-13, 13-24, 13-x, 14-15, 11-12, 12-x, 12-13, 1-x, 11-14, and 1-12. The same objections to this method hold as to the pre- ceding. Local conditions always affect the travel on Road between Sections Relative Importance Road between Sections Relative Importance 15-22 100 11-12 7 14-23 60 12-x 7 14-13 25 12-13 2 13-24 20 1-x 2 13-x 15 11-14 1 14-15 13 1-12 1 roads ; hills, valleys, soil, drainage, nearness to other cities, railways, streams, and location of farmhouses, schoolhouscs, churches, and factories, all enter into the estimate. A reconnaissance and the good judgment of the observer must supplement any method of formal procedure. The Selection of a Suitable Type of Road. — The high- way plan should, if it has been carefully and scientifically made specify the type of roadway as well as the location of the highway. However, when the improvement is to be paid for by a special tax on the abutting land, it is cus- tomary to allow the taxpayers to have something to say about the type. Road engineers often object to this as being unscientific and unsound, on the theory that the layman is ignorant of the properties and behavior of road materials and that only an expert can make the proper selection. The author’s observation is, however, that hard- headed business men and farmers who have passed through the experiences of rough knocks are no more likely to make a mistake in the selection of a road type than is the young engineer fresh from the halls of college, or the engineer Planning Highway Systems 253 whose experience has prejudiced him in favor of particular types of road surfacing. The best and fairest of engineers cannot agree, then why not give the man who must pay the fiddler an opportunity to dance? It will be well, nevertheless, for the engineer to suggest a type, or types, of roadway with his reasons for its or their suitability. If he can show that one type is superior to another the tax-payer will usually follow his advice, and agree to the type suggested. The final decision must rest with the road officials. They should know the requirements of the road, whether, for example, it is to be largely com- mercial or used largely for pleasure; whether durability or noiselessness is a determining factor ; or whether a pleas- ing appearance and convenience to the inhabitants living along the way are of greater importance than directness and low grades. The decision must be made after taking all things into consideration even to the whims of the property-holders. The best road for a given location is the one which at a reasonable cost will give over a long period of time a service which is most satisfactory to the majority of its users. What is a reasonable cost and what is satis- factory service are debatable questions and usually must be compromised to a greater or less extent. An ideal road is one that is cheap to construct and main- tain, one that is durable, presents light resistance to traffic but is not slippery, is comfortable to travel and not annoy- ing to users or dwellers along its side, and one that is easily cleaned and is sanitary. No road can contain all these qualities to the same degree, neither are they all of equal importance, but each should be given some weight in the selection. Perhaps the first and most important item to be con- sidered is the economic one of cheapness in construction and maintenance. In making a decision between two types of pavement the first cost will probably have more weight than will the ultimate cost. The fact that a higher priced article will last longer and in the end prove to be a saving 254 Planning Highway Systems has little charm for the man who has not the ready money to pay for the article. He will content himself with the cheaper until he can afford the better. If a community cannot pay for a certain type of road, no matter how de- sirable that may be, that type cannot be used. Types of roads must be selected which will utilize the materials most available. It would seem to be unwise for brick to be shipped from the Middle West to New England, or granite blocks from New England to the Middle West. Gravel, being plentiful in many states, is being used, and rightly so, more than any other road material notwithstanding the durability of a gravel roadway is less than that of many other types. Durability is an important factor from an economical standpoint, as it enters vitally in the long-run cost of a pavement. It is also of importance on account of the in- fernal nuisance of having a roadway full of pot holes and rough places, to say nothing of the inconvenience to users of frequent repairs. Road officers are no more given to re- garding the adage “a stitch in time saves nine,” than are other people, consequently non-durable roads are usually more or less out of order. Durability depends upon the materials used in construc- tion and their manipulation, proportioning, and other treatment ; the character weight and density of traffic ; system or lack of system in making repairs ; the opening up of pavements for water, gas, and sewer or other purposes; building operations along the street ; cleanliness ; the ab- sence or presence of street-car tracks ; climate and possibly other factors. Materials and Design. — The physical properties of ma- terials — their tensile, compressive, and shearing strengths, their elasticity, brittleness, etc. — while important elements in the durability of pavements, the design of the pavement, its thickness, the proportioning and mixing of parts, the laying, as well as the subgrade and its treatment are all elements that count very much also. No matter how good GIVING A MACADAM ROAD AN APPLICATION OP TAR VIA BINDER A ROAD OP MIXED ASPHALT AND CONCRETE- TESTED OUT BEING Planning Highway Systems 255 a material it can easily be spoiled in the handling. Some materials like vitrified brick and stone will last indefinitely on a little-used street while others like asphalt and creosoted wood block are much better for considerable wear. The use of definite and often meticulous specifications is to insure good materials and proper manipulation of the same, while the plans are carefully prepared ahead, so that durability and satisfaction may result. The effect of character, weight, and density of traffic has been frequently mentioned and will again be referred to in what follows. There is no doubt a relationship between materials and design and the character and amount of traffic. A cinder road may be perfectly acceptable for a park drive where the traffic is light, but absolutely worth- less under heavy commercial trucking. Resistance to traffic varies with different road surfaces. A smooth hard surface offers a very great deal less resist- ance than does a rough or soft surface. To illustrate, a horse is said to be able to pull directly on the traces one- tenth his own weight without being overworked. With a resistance of 100 pounds per ton (earth road in medium condition) a team of horses weighing 1200 pounds each could draw over a level road 20xi00 = ^'^ tons - a concrete, asphalt or brick pavement having a tractive re- sistance of 30 pounds per ton the team could draw 2X1200 10X30 = 8 tons. In other words the load that can be drawn is inversely as the tractive resistance. Here speed was not considered. It was the natural walking gait of the horse about three miles per hour. If the speed is greater the load must be cut down proportionally. With a truck the direct pull is the effective power of the engine in foot- pounds per minute divided by distance in feet per minute ; and the load that can be drawn is the direct pull times the tractive resistance. Thus if a truck may exert h effective horse power= 33,000k foot-pounds per minute, and the speed is v miles per hour, the load T, in tons, that may be 256 Planning Highway Systems hauled on a road having a tractive resistance of t pounds per ton, is 33,000 h 375 h 1 ~ 5280v vt ‘ 60 Therefore a truck of 20 effective horse-power will haul over a road whose tractive resistance is 100 pounds per ton at a speed of 10 miles per hour a load of T = 375X20 10X100 - and on a smooth road with a tractive resistance of 30 pounds per ton at the same speed, 25 tons, or the same load 7.5 tons may be drawn at a speed of 33 1/3 miles per hour. It must be remembered that when the speed is increased the tractive resistance is likewise increased. The air re- sistance is in about the ratio of the square of the velocity, so that 33 miles per hour would be too great in the last case. Experiments to determine the tractive resistance due to the surface vary considerably, for it is impossible to secure like conditions of surface smoothness and cleanliness, to say nothing of hardness. The tractive resistance will with some materials vary with the temperature. That of sheet asphalt, for example, may be twice as much in summer as in winter. The tractive resistance may not be directly pro- portional to the load although it is customary to express it in pounds per ton. It is conceivable that a heavy load because it sinks into the road crust may require a greater number of pounds to move it than a light load that does not greatly sink in. This also leads to the effect of width of tire and diameter of wheel. Many experiments have shown the tractive force to be less with wide than narrow tires, due, no doubt, to the unequal sinking into the road crust. Likewise wheels ought, for the same reason, to show Planning Highway Systems 257 less resistance for large diameters; in fact some engineers give it as varying inversely as the diameter of the wheel. The results of tests, while varying much, show in a gen- eral way, the direct pull necessary to draw a load at slow speed on the level in well-lubricated wagons to be approxi- mately as follows : Lbs. per Ton yu = coefficient of Resistance Upon Steel rails 10 1/200 Sheet asphalt, good condition Asphaltic macadam or con- 20 1/100 crete, good condition 20 1/100 Concrete, good condition .... 20 1/100 Brick, good condition Broken stone water-bound 20 1/100 macadam, good condition . . 30 3/200 Gravel, good condition 30 3/200 Sand clay, good condition . . . 60 3/100 Earth, best condition 67 1/30 Earth, medium condition. . . . 100 1/20 Earth, poor condition 300 3/20 Resistance Due to Grade. — The resistance due to grade is just as marked as that due to surface. The work neces- sary to draw a load up an inclined plane is the same as that of drawing on a level along the base of the plane and lift- ing it directly up to the height of the plane. A mathe- matical analysis 9 based upon this fact leads to the formulas : For a horse-drawn load, = M+0 ( 1 ) For a tractor, • • ( 2 ) 9 See “Highway Engineering,” by G. E. Chatburn, pp. 22 to 28, Wiley & Sons, New York, publishers. 258 Planning Highway Systems For an automobile or truck, ( 3 ) where L = weight of load drawn, including weight of vehicle (subtract weight of vehicle for net load); H = weight of horse ; T = weight of tractor; P = effective tractive force exerted (available engine effort) ; H = coefficient of road resistance; g = grade (gradient) = tangent of angle of incline, nearly the same for small angles as the sine of the angle of incline, that is, the height of the incline divided by its length; 2 = the direct pull of the horse divided by the weight of the horse; h = horse-power = work of 33,000 ft. -lb. per minute. v = velocity in miles per hour. Equation (3) indicates that the load, including its own weight, that a truck or an automobile can draw varies di- rectly as the horse-power exerted effectively, and inversely as the velocity. Also it decreases as the coefficient of road resistance, fi, and the gradient g increases. The resistance coefficient, /*, may include axle or internal resistance of the vehicle plus road surface resistance plus air resistance. The axle resistance is nearly a constant, the road resistance likewise, but the air resistance depends upon the speed v, varying approximately as the square of the velocity. W. S. James, in the Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers , June, 1921, uses the formula F—CAV 2 where F=the wind force in pounds; C = a constant, varies from .003 to .004; A = frontal area of automobile in square feet approximately 26 ; V — velocity in miles per hour. Planning Highway Systems 259 His researches show that the available engine effort P of equation (3) or horse power h is not quite constant but varies with the speed. His table follows : Car Speed m.p.h. Available Engine Effort Per 1000 lb. of Car Weight, Lbs. Air Resistance Per 1000 lb. of Car Weight, Lbs. 15 107.3 4.9 16 105.2 6.8 20 107.6 8.8 25 106.0 13.4 30 103.9 19.2 35 101.2 26.0 40 98.0 34.1 45 94.1 43.4 50 86.8 53.8 Returning to Equation (3) which has been plotted in two different ways on page 260, it may be seen that the load that can be hauled up a grade decreases with the per cent of grade very rapidly for the roads having a small coefficient of resistance and very much less rapidly for larger resistances. For example, on steel rails, resistance 10 pounds per ton, ^=1/200, a 1 per cent grade reduces the load to one-third the load that may be hauled on the level, and a 5 per cent grade reduces it to less than one-tenth of the same load. With a good asphalt, brick or concrete road, resistance 20 pounds per ton, /*= 1/100, a 1 per cent grade reduces the load to one-half, while a 5 per cent grade re- duces it to about one-sixth the load that can be drawn on a level road. While for an earth road in bad condition or a dry sand road, 300 pounds per ton resistance, ^=3/20, a five per cent grade only reduces the level grade load by one-fourth. This shows clearly that the better the road surface the less the grade must be in order to benefit by it. The plots on page 260 show the same thing in differ- ent ways, and also that the maximum load that can be hauled with a given force at a constant speed is greater, no matter what the grade, on the better types of roads than 260 Planning Highway Systems Graphical representation of the effect, of grade on the load that can be drawn. Graphical representation of the effect of road resistance on the load that may be drawn. RESISTANCE POUNDS PER Planning Highway Systems 261 on the poorer, but that the very great advantages due to hard roads come with the better type of roads. In- cidentally this plot shows that the load that may be hauled, other things being equal, on steel tracks, is very much greater than that that can be hauled on the best hard sur- faced road with same power, therefore it will never be possible to haul loads on highways as cheaply as on rail- ways unless the operating expenses on the highways can be made materially less than on railways. Slipperiness. — Road surfaces which become slippery not only decrease the tractive effort of horses and motors but are very dangerous also. Non-slipperiness ought then to be given weight in the selection of the type of roadway. Observations in London in 1873 by Heywood on slipperi- ness of pavements indicated granite-block most slippery, then asphalt and wood-block. Greene, in 1885, analyzing a series of observations made in the principal cities of the United States, gave the order of slipperiness as wood-block, granite-block, and sheet-asphalt. Slipperiness increases with grade. A special committee upon road materials of the American Society of Civil Engineers 10 recommend the following maximum grades for various kinds of pavements : Kinds of Roadway Maximum Grade Per Cent Gravel Broken stone Bituminous surface Bituminous macadam Bituminous concrete Sheet asphalt Cement concrete Brick, cement grout filler Brick, bituminous filler Stone-block, cement grout filler Stone-block, bituminous filler . . Wood-block 12 12 6 8 8 5 8 6 12 9 15 4 “Am. Soc. C. E. Proceedings, 1918, p. 2327. 262 Planning Highway Systems This would indicate that in the belief of the committee slipperiness is about in the inverse ratio of the grades. Those on which the steepest grades are allowed being the least slippery. Climatic conditions affect slipperiness. Roads which are non-slippery in dry weather may be very slippery in wet weather. Pavements having a small amount of clay or earth on them are quite slippery when dampened, but after a hard rain may be much less slippery. Earth roads that have been thoroughly dragged are much more slippery immediately after a small shower than after a hard or soak- ing rain. Stone blocks and brick are worse after they have worn turtle-backed. Ice and sleet render all pavements slippery, but some more than others. Sanitariness. — The sanitariness of a road is the measure of the effect it has on the health of its users and the dwellers along its side. A dusty road is ordinarily an un- sanitary one because of the germs of disease carried on the dust particles and which may be widely spread by the wind. An earth or gravel road when not dry or dusty is a sanitary road. A concrete or asphalt pavement when clean is very sanitary, but because dirt and debris brought upon it soon becomes ground into dust may become more unsanitary than an earth road. Mud, when clean, if that expression may be allowed, is sanitary, but when mixed on the road with the droppings of animals, sputum and other unclean things may become very unsanitary. Noisiness. — Noisiness is a real source of disease, especially mental disorders. The less noisy types of pave- ment are usually laid in front of hospitals. Acceptability. — The acceptability of a roadway depends in addition to the things mentioned on its looks, ap- pearance, esthetics ; on the degree of heat and light which it reflects ; upon its springiness and comfortableness to travel over as well as its easiness upon horses’ feet and rubber tires. CROWNING A CALIFORNIA DIRT ROAD WITH TRACTOR DRAWN GRADES Planning Highway Systems 263 Some Types of Roads and Their Qualities. — Earth Roads . — The good qualities are: low first cost, not slippery, noiseless, easy on horses’ feet and on rubber tires, comfortable when in first-class condition. The poor quali- ties are : high tractive resistance, not durable, high cost of maintenance when traffic becomes dense, requiring constant attention to be kept in good condition, difficult to clean, muddy in wet weather, dusty in dry weather, choppy when dust blows away, rut easily, wear down rapidly under heavy traffic especially in windy localities, uncomfortable except when in prime condition. Adaptability : Satisfac- tory for light or medium traffic when properly drained and constantly maintained. It will probably pay to put in better roads when the traffic amounts to more than 400 vehicle-tons per day. Sand-clay Roads .- — The good and poor qualities are about the same as for earth roads. In fact they are earth roads with a selected mixture of sand and clay. They are more durable, harder and smoother than the ordinary earth road. They are appropriate for a light or medium traffic and are especially adaptable for sandy stretches or over clay or gumbo soils. The cost will depend upon the avail- ability of materials ; the cost of maintenance should be no more or very little more than earth roads. They should be good up to 800 vehicle-tons per day. Gravel Roads . — The good qualities are: moderately hard, compact, and smooth, not slippery, noiseless, easy on horses’ feet, and not very hard on tires, not muddy, are comfortable, and low in first cost. Poor qualities: rut rather easily and require constant attention to keep them in first-class condition, dusty in dry weather. Gravel sometimes becomes loose on top and rolls under fast mov- ing vehicles, causing skidding. When not thoroughly com- pacted gravel roads have high tractive resistance. They are particularly well adapted to country roads under medium traffic, especially where gravel may be obtained at 264 Planning Highway Systems a reasonable cost near at hand. At the present time more miles of gravel roads than of any other type of surface are being constructed in the United States. This is because of their low first cost and general satisfactory character for medium traffic. -- Macadam Roads. — Moderate first cost and when well compacted smooth but not slippery. They require new dust continually to keep the stones cemented together. Under rubber tires the dust is not worn off the stones and what little there is on the roadway is picked up and spread to the winds. If covered with tar or asphaltic oil the stones cement together and form excellent roadways under medium traffic, where there are no extremely heavy trucks to cut through the surface. Traffic up to 1200 vehicle-tons per day is accommodated well by these roads. Bituminous macadam roads are ordinary macadam roads impenetrated with bituminous materials. When well made they are excellent roadways, and unless extremely heavy trucking comes upon them ought to prove satisfactory for medium to moderately heavy traffic. Bituminous Concrete Roads are made of broken stone mixed with a bituminous cement before laying and rolling. They, like bituminous macadam, are smooth, non-slippery, easy riding, have small tractive resistance and the first cost and cost of maintenance are moderate. Such roads have proven very satisfactory where the traffic is dense but not composed of real heavy units. On account of their dust- lessness and general sanitary character as well as for their durability they are deservedly popular. Brick Roads. — Vitrified paving brick give a hard durable surface, reasonably smooth and not slippery. The cost of maintenance is low and the appearance is good. Brick roads are expensive as a heavy concrete foundation is necessary, and they are noisy. Thej r are well adapted for heavy hauling. Concrete Roads. — This type of roadway is rapidly forg- ing to the front. With the exception of gravel it leads in Planning Highway Systems 265 mileage of hard-surfaced roads. When made of good con- crete sufficiently thick it has proven itself to be durable, hard, smooth, of small tractive resistance, comfortable, and not particularly expensive in first cost or maintenance. With horse-drawn iron-tired vehicles it is doubtful if it would prove as durable as some other types but for rubber tired motorized vehicles it seems to be extremely well adapted. There is no doubt but that this type will con- tinue to be popular. It has a tendency to crack under the action of temperature and moisture. It is customary to fill these cracks with tar, pitch or asphalt, giving an ap- pearance which some people think not pleasing. The pave- ment is rigid and noisy, therefore objectionable for some localities. Creosoted Wood Block Roads. — Wood blocks treated with creosote to preserve them from decay make an ex- cellent pavement. They are smooth, durable, noiseless and sanitary, have small tractive resistance and are comfortable to ride upon. The principal objection is their habit of “bleeding” in the summer time. The sticky oil tar that oozes out is very objectionable, as it adheres to shoes and is tracked into houses. The first cost is considerable, but maintenance is low for many years after laying. Wood block roadways seem well adapted for bridge floors, fox- stable and shop floors, and for heavy teaming when placed on a substantial concrete foundation. They seem to last better for a moderate or semi-heavy use; when left idle they are more subject to decay. Asphalt Block Roads have proven satisfactory for both country and city roads where the traffic is reasonably heavy. They are laid on both cement concrete and asphaltic concrete bases. They are smooth, easy riding, have light tractive resistance, are not very noisy, and are sanitary. The dark color is rather pleasing. Sheet Asphalt Roads and Streets, considei’ing their cost, durability, smoothness, ease of riding, low tractive resist- ance, and general acceptability, are among the most v. 266 Planning Highway Systems popular roads. What has been said of sheet asphalt will apply to asphaltic concrete of the Topeka specification and bitulithic types. The road is better for use. The asphalt and sand surface has the habit of swelling and cracking when not used. The proportioning and laying of a sheet asphalt surface is a particular job and requires a person of technical knowledge and experience to do it properly. Sheet-asphalt pavements seem well adapted for city streets and roads where there is a medium or dense traffic. With a firm foundation it stands up well under the heaviest traffic. Its popularity is truly deserved. The pavement under some conditions of moisture is inclined to be slippery but when dry is not. Neither is it very noisy. Miscellaneous . — There are numerous other types of roads that have their proper uses in many localities. Burned clay, shell, furnace slag, coal slack, cinders, plank, corduroy, hay, bagasse, and possibly other materials have and will continue to be used with more or less success. The proper places for their use will depend upon local conditions which every good engineer always takes into account before deciding upon a type of roadway. Comparison of Roads. — In order to compare the relative merits of different types of roads weights are usually given to the different qualities entering into the roadway that they may be compared with a predetermined ideal. It must be remembered that such tables apply only to the particular road for which they are made out. No two can be exactly alike. Here is one adapted from the author’s work on “High- way Engineering .” 11 11 ‘ ‘ Highway Engineering — Rural Roads and Pavements, ’ ’ by George R. Chatburn, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Planning Highway Systems 267 Comparative Table op Several Types of Roadway for Some Particular Locality Qualities Ideal Road for this Particular Location Best Earth Road Sand Clay Road Gravel Road Macadam Road Brick Road Concrete Road Asphalt Block Creosoted Wood Block Bituminous Concrete Sheet Asphalt Low first cost 20 20 16 16 15 10 12 10 8 14 13 Low cost of maintenance 20 15 15 10 8 9 8 8 10 8 10 Ease of traction 10 1 4 6 8 10 10 9 9 9 10 Non-slipperiness . . 10 9 9 9 9 8 5 5 5 5 5 Noiselessness 5 5 5 5 4 1 1 2 4 2 2 Healthfulness Freedom from dust and 10 5 5 6 8 9 9 9 8 9 9 mud 10 1 2 3 4 9 9 9 9 9 9 Comfortable to use 10 3 4 5 6 8 8 9 9 9 9 Appearance 5 2 3 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 5 Total 100 61 63 63 66 69 66 66 67 70 72 Tilson gives the following weights for city pavements having heavy traffic : 12 Pavement Qualities Per- cent- age Granite Block Wood Block Brick Sheet Asphalt Bitu- lithic Cheapness 14 8 8 13 14 12 Durability 21 21 16 12 15 15 Easiness of cleaning .... 15 10 14 15 14 14 Light resistance to traffic 15 13 14 15 11 12 Non-slipperiness 7 7 4 6 5 6 Ease of maintenance . . . 10 10 8 6 6 6 Favorableness to travel . 5 2 5 3 4 4 Sanitariness 13 9 13 10 12 12 Total 100 80 82 80 81 81 Less cheapness 72 74 67 67 69 ““American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,’’ p. 1360, Wiley & Sons, New York. £68 Planning Highway Systems The Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture presents the following table: Pavement Qualities Per- cent- age Granite Block Sheet Asphalt Brick Mac- adam Wood Block Cheapness 14 4 61 7 14 4l Durability 20 20 10 121 6 14 Ease of maintenance. . . 10 91 71 81 41 91 Ease of cleaning 14 10 14 12± 6 14 Low resistance to traffic 14 81 14 121 8 14 Non-slipperiness 7 51 31 51 61 4 Favorableness to travel 4 21 4 3 3 31 Acceptability 4 2 31 21 21 4 Sanitary qualities 13 9 13 101 41 121 100 71 76 741 55 80 Crosby gives three sets of ideal crusts for country roads : V for main roads, carrying a fairly heavy mixed traffic, W, secondary roads carrying moderate traffic, and X on minor roads with light farm travel almost wholly . 13 Components Ideal Brick Plain Cement Con- crete Bitumi- nous Mac- adam Water- bound Mac- adam V IF X First cost, cheapness . . . 15 15 15 8 10 10 15 Maintenance, cheapness 25 25 20 25 20 20 10 Durability 7 7 7 7 5 5 3 Ease of maintenance . . . 8 10 10 7 8 8 10 Cleanliness 5 5 5 3 3 5 2 Low tractive resistance . 10 5 5 5 4 4 4 Non-slipperiness 10 10 10 4 7 5 10 Sanit.ariness 5 5 5 4 4 5 3 Noiselessness 5 5 5 3 3 5 4 Acceptability 5 5 8 2 3 4 5 Favorableness to travel . 5 8 10 3 5 6 8 Total 100 100 100 71 72 77 74 “ ‘ ‘ The Scientific Selection of Pavements, ” by W. W. Crosby, in Municipal Journal, May 29, 1913. Planning Highway Systems 269 Anderson gives the following economical table to assist in arriving at a proper type of surfacing : 14 Method of Making Economical Comparison of Road Surfaces Item Possible Types of Surfacing A B C Estimated life of surface with proper maintenance, years 4 8 12 Original construction cost per mile $ 8,000 $15,000 $30,000 Annual charges for interest, depreciation and resurfacing 2,364 2,528 3,797 Cost of maintaining surface per mile, average, annual 1,000 750 200 Total cost per mile at end of 12th year, period 40,368 39,336 47,964 Value of road surface per mile at end of 12th year period 7,500 12,000 Net outlay per mile of road 40,368 32,836 35,964 The choice of selection here is evidently between B and C, with the figures so close together that the one with the least number of uncertainties would probably be adopted if economy is the determining factor. Another method of making economical comparisons is shown in the table and plot following: Item 1 , Earth Road 2 Gravel Road 3 Bitumi- nous Mac- adam and con- crete 4 Portland Cement Concrete 5 Sheet Asphalt Bitu- lithic 6 Brick Stone Block 7 Wood Block First cost per mile . Annual Interest, SI, 000 $5,000 $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 5 per cent Annual Mainten- 50 250 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 ance 250 250 500 100 100 50 50 Life of surface, yrs . 0 5 10 20 20 25 25 Cost of resurfacing Annual Sinking $ 0 $2,500 $5,000 $15,000 $15,000 $25,000 $35,000 Fund 3^ per cent. . 0 466 427 530 530 884 899 Anual Total Cost . . 300 966 1,427 1,630 2,130 2,934 3,449 Daily Cost, per mile 0.82 2.74 3.90 4.45 5.84 8.03 9.46 ““Modern Road Building and Maintenance,” by Andrew P. Anderson. 270 Planning Highway Systems .0040 Plot showing cost of several types of roads under vary- ing traffic density. When the traffic density oh road No.l. (Earth and sand day) becomes greater than 300 or *700 vehicles per day the curve would turn up because the maintenance costs would be increased. Similarly for Nos. Z. and 3 for 1600 to ZOOO vehicles per day 400 goo i zoo /boo zooo VEHICLES PER DAY w Planning Highway Systems 271 SELECTED REFERENCES “American Civil Engineers’ Pocket-Book,” Sec. 15, Art. 4, John Wiley & Sons, New York. “American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,” p. 1360, John Wiley & Sons, New York. American Society of Civil Engineers, Proceedings, 1918, p. 2327. Anderson, Andrew P., “Modern Road Building and Main- tenance.” Hercules Powder Co., Chicago. Automotive Industries, “The Motor Bus Field as a Market for Trucks,” Yol. XLV, pp. 627-628, Sept. 29, 1921; “Weight of Trucks,” May 18, 1922. Blanchard and Drowne, “Textbook of Highway Engineering,” Chap. II, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Bullard, General Robert Lee, “The Motor Truck’s Importance on the Battle Front of France,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Chatburn, George R., “Highway Engineering — Rural Roads and Pavements,” pp. 22-28; John Wiley & Sons, New York. Collins, J. A., “Transportation Surveys for Rural Express Routes, Good Hoads, March 17, 1919. Cornell Agricultural College Bulletin No. 205; Ithaca, New York. Crissey, Forrest, “Our New Transportation System,” Saturday Evening Post, December 16, 1922, p. 14. Crosby, W. W., “The Scientific Selection of Pavements,” Municipal Journal, May 29, 1913. Dalton, James C., “Highways Must Be Made Self-supporting,” Automotive Industries, May 25, 1922. Good Roads. — “Benefits of a National Highway System,” A committee report of the American Road Builders Associa- tion, Jan. 19, 1919. Haydock, Winters, “The Pittsburgh Traffic Count,” Proceed- ings of the Engineering Society of Western Pennsylvania, Vol. XXVII, pp. 477-513. Hirst, A. R., “Laying out Wisconsin Trunk Line Highways,” Good Roads. Horine, M. C., “Economics of Motor Transport,” Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers, May, 1922. James, E. W., “Distribution of Traffic on a Rectangular Sys- tem,” Engineering Record, Vol. LXXIV, p. 439. Johnson, A. N., “The Traffic Census,” Public Roads, Dec., 1920, Appendix; also p. 16. “Traffic Census and its Use in Deciding Road Width,” Public Roads, July, 1921, p. 7. 272 Planning Highway Systems Jadwin, Colonel Edgar, “Relation of the War Department to Improved Highways.” Bulletin No. 25 of the Texas Engi- neering Experiment Station, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, May 1, 1922, p. 40. MacDonald, “Classification and Uses of Highways,” Engineer- ing News-Record, Vol. LXXXIII, pp. 984^985, 635. Massachusetts Highway Commission Report, 1912. Simonds, Frank II., “History of the World War,” Vol. I, p. 118, Yol. Y, p. 115. Doubleday, Page & Company, New York. New Jersey State Highway Commission, Committee Report on Traffic Census — Engineering News-Record, Vol. LXXXVI, p. 338. Taylor, Colonel B., “Similarity of Military and Commercial Motor Transportation,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. United States Bureau of Public Roads, “A Study of the Cali- fornia Highway System,” Public Roads, pp. 124, 136-138, 196-197, 200-209. United States Census Reports. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Statistics Bulletin 49. Bureau of Forestry Bulletin. CHAPTER IX EFFECT OF EASE AND COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON PRODUCTION AND MARKETING The creation of economic utilities by the application of the mental and physical powers of man to the materials of nature is called production. Grass grew abundantly for thousands of years over the great plains of the Miss- issippi valley, but there was no production until it was utilized by the hand of man for economical purposes. Just so far as change came to that grass through the application of labor, physical or mental, or stored up in capital, there was production. Productive activities may be classified as those which have to do with: (1) a change in form, (2) a change in place, (3) a change in the po- tential time of use. Productive activities add to the materials as received other values, namely, form utilities, place utilities, and time utilities. The farmer though the processes of sowing, cultivating and harvesting, is instru- mental in changing the elements of nature into grain, of adding form utility; it is transported over the roads and railways to elevators, thus is added place utility ; it is there stored until needed thereby the third or time utility is attached. In the illustration just given wheat stored in the bin is considered the finished product. But a finished prod- uct of one productive activity may be the raw product of another. For instance, the wheat is taken from the bin and ground into flour, the flour transported to the place of stor- age, and held as a finished product until it is wanted by an- other productive activity in which the flour is the raw prod- uct. The baker takes the raw product, flour, molds and bakes it into bread, which is held by the merchant for sale. 273 274 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation The wheat thus has passed through the three productive processes three different times. Other things may have passed through more before the final consumptive process occurs. Production is very commonly thought of as being only the first one of the three operations, but the changes brought about by the transporter and the merchant are productive of economic wealth through the application of human physical and mental efforts hence are as truly a part of production as is the first operation. The factors which enter into production are by some economists given as nature and labor, by others as land, labor, and capital. Under nature or land are included all natural elements, external to man, such as the forces of cohesion, gravitation, of moving air and water, and also the stored-up riches of nature. Under labor are placed all those things or utilities which have been added by the ap- plication of human endeavor, either mental or physical. Physical strength in and of itself is not sufficient, for the productive output increases with mental strength. The ox or the horse is capable of exerting greater physical force than is man, but without the guiding, directing force of man’s mind it would produce nothing. Moral qualifica- tions are also placed under the general heading “labor” as they affect production. Temperance, dependability, pru- dence, frugality, etc., have in them productive elements of importance the same as the intellectual qualifications of quick perception, alertness, imagination reason and judgment. Capital has been frequently defined as stored-up labor. It is the finished product of some previous effort, but as wheat and flour may be considered as intermediate prod- ucts between nature and bread, so capital may be looked upon as an intermediate product between nature and more labor necessary to produce anew. “Its own origin, its exis- tence, its subsequent action are nothing but stages in the continuous working of the true elements, nature and Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 275 labor .” 1 Capital — raw materials, tools, machines, build- ings, equipment, means for transportation and selling, stored products — is absolutely essential to more production, hence may be considered as an independent factor, although it may have been the product of previous labor allied to natural powers. From what has been said it will be readily seen that transportation and marketing (selling) are a part of the process of production. Transportation can be divided into two classes : primary, transportation upon the public roads ; and secondary, transportation on railroads, canals, steamboats and steamships. Marketing is likewise divided into two classes: wholesaling and retailing. The whole- saler buys goods in quantity from the manufacturer and sells them to the jobber who in turn sells them to the re- tailer. The jobber usually divides the larger purchased quantities into smaller or job lots in any quantity suitable to the retailer. The wholesaler and the jobber may be com- bined into one individual or firm. The jobber will, usually, not sell directly to the consumer ; he sells only to retailers. The retailers frequently have a sort of “gentlemen’s” agreement with the jobber not to buy directly from the producer. This sort of complicated machinery often in- volves more expense than direct trading. After each of the tansactions mentioned there is usually a change of place and a waiting in store. Grain Exchanges. — In the grain business there has been developed a great system of selling through commission merchants, that is, the selling agents take commissions on the sales for their remuneration. A limited number of the commission merchants of a particular city organize them- selves into incorporated bodies for the purpose of provid- ing themselves with houses and facilities for doing business and establishing rules for the transaction of the same. Such organizations with places of doing business are known as Grain Exchanges or Boards of Trade. The Board of 1 Bohm-Bawerk, “Positive Theory of Capital,” translated by W. Smart, p. 96. 276 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation Trade of Chicago, the most noted grain market in the world, was established in 1846. Mr. Vincent of the Omaha Grain Exchange explains the matter as follows : 2 Suppose that a group of twenty-five mule breeders in Missouri came to Omaha to sell several hundred mules, and buyers assemble from several states. The mule dealers find a vacant lot in a convenient locality and secure permission to use it tem- porarily. It is the mule market, or mule exchange. The buyers and sellers meet and dicker, each trying to secure the best bargain he can. Every purchase or sale is an individual transaction — be- tween one seller and one buyer. The vacant lot or “mule ex- change” has nothing to do in the transaction — it occupies no place in the trade. It is simply the location where the traders gather for their own convenience. If the traders hire a clerk to act for all in settling the trades and collecting the money, it is simply because the clerk has the knowledge of a technical nature not possessed by all traders and his employment is a con- venience to all concerned. He represents the individual traders and not the mule market. Now translate mules into cars of grain and the “vacant lot” into a board of trade building erected for the convenience of traders engaged in a permanent business. The transactions held on the board of trade are the individual trades between the in- dividual seller and buyers, just the same as in the mule market. The board of trade is simply the location where buyers come to meet sellers (of their agents the commission men.) Vincent’s theory that the board of trade is the “location where” is hardly inclusive enough, for only a favored few who have ‘ ‘ purchased seats ’ ’ or are stockholders of the incorporation are privileged to buy and sell on the board of trade, that is, are a part of an organization known as a board of trade. His own pamphlet states that he is a “Member of the Omaha Grain Exchange.” Vincent defines a commission merchant as “the agent of men (1) who do not have enough grain to sell so they 2 ‘ ‘ Letters on Grain Marketing Problems, ” by C. Vincent, Secre- tary of the Farmers’ Grain Company, Author of Nebraska Co-opera- tive Law, and Member of the Omaha Grain Exchange, pamphlet pri- vately published, 1921. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 277 can afford the time and expense to come with the grain So as personally to make the sale, and (2) who would be meet- ing strangers and who would not know which of the buyers might want the particular kind or grade he might have for sale.” He contends that it is not only an economy to the seller to employ the services of the commission merchant but that it is necessary to have the selling done by some one ‘ ‘ who knows who the buyers are in the various lines — corn, oats, barley, and wheat of the different kinds and qualities,” and who knows “the inspection rules and sees that the grain is properly graded — in short ’ ’ one who 1 ‘ does for his employer, or principal, all those things that he would do for himself if he were in the central market and acquainted with the buyers. ’ ’ Vincent upholds the custom of dealing in futures, as it furnishes a sort of insurance to the legitimate dealer in grain. When the local dealer buys, say, 10,000 bushels of wheat which by ordinary methods of business may require from two to four weeks to get to the terminal marketing point, he at the same time sells on board of trade 10,000 bushels for future delivery, thus “hedging” the purchase. If wheat goes up he gains on the actual wheat in transit but loses on his hedge. If wheat goes down he loses on the 10,000 bushels in transit, but gains on his hedge; thus, either way, the one transaction balances the other so there is no gain, and no loss, except the cost of the hedge, and hence no speculation. Hedging is, in short, a sort of in- surance that protects the dealer should the price of grain fall between the time he purchased it and the time of selling it at the terminal. The process of hedging when honestly carried on is a stabilizing operation and according to Vin- cent ‘ ‘ effects the commercial transfers of grain from farmer to miller at a less expense than is involved in the market- ing of any other product of human endeavor — at less ex- pense than would be possible if grain merchants alone carried all the risk — the speculation. ’ ’ Cooperative Marketing. — Cooperative marketing asso- ciations and the intermediate dealer, that is a man who 278 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation buys directly from the producer and resells to other pur- chasers, are said to have two points of superiority over the commission merchant: (a) The care and solicitude of the owner replaces the zeal of the agent ; (b) by combining the products of many they are able to handle large quantities and thus secure better shipping rates, and take advantage of other benefits of quantity business. The farmer or local dealer, or cooperative association, ships to the commission merchant only in carload lots. The freight charge, now- adays, no matter what the custom may have been in the past, is the same whether one or a dozen cars are shipped at a time. There may be some favoritism in the securing of cars when asked for by the large shipper. The inspection charges are fixed by law. The commission merchant’s fee is a percentage of the sale and thoroughly regulated by custom and the rules of the grain exchange. The com- mission merchant being acquainted with buyers can usually place all grain the day it is received, so the advantage, if any, of an intermediate dealer are more in name than in reality. With the idea of eliminating some of the cost of market- ing cooperative associations have sprung up over the whole country. While there are many advantages of cooperation, such as by pooling interests, larger quantities can be handled in one bulk, thus getting any advantage that might come in freight rates. Also where large quantities are collected it is practically always possible to take care of buyers; or, the agency may know where to find buyers when an individual would not. The buyer for overseas exports wants to get his grain in as large lots as possible to reduce handling charges. The association usually has facilities to examine and separate the grain or other com- modities into the several grades, and the buyer can rely on the grade being as stated by the seller. In the case of some perishable goods, such as fruit, the association adver- tises freely, spreading the cost over many raisers, and creating a desire on the part of consumers for the associa- Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 279 tion’s named brand of fruit. “Sunkist” lemons and oranges and ‘ ‘ Sun Maid ’ ’ raisins are household words due to extensive advertising by their respective cooperative associations. Cooperative associations purchase from non- members and profits on these purchases go to the associa- tion and in due time are distributed to its members. The California Fruit Growers’ Exchange advertises itself as “A non-profit cooperative organization of 10,500 growers.” The object of all such associations is two-fold: (1) To de- crease the cost and trouble of marketing, and (2) to in- crease the common desire for their products. Both of which will tend to increase the grower’s profits. The grain merchant, whether in business as a dealer for himself, or a cooperative concern must have an elevator, or place, where the grain may be collected and prepared for the larger market. Fruit dealers have houses for the collection and care of the fruit. Since these commodities are collected a little from one, a little from another, or for ripening, grading, or other purposes, they must be kept usually several days before the car is loaded. After it is loaded there is quite a little time before it reaches its destination. During this time there is money invested in these products, that is, capital is required. The local banker is called upon to help finance the purchases. The elevator company or fruit company has some capital, he depends upon borrowing for more. The banks when com- modities are freely moving are frequently severely taxed to furnish the required money for the movement of crops. The banks at the terminal markets are also stressed for they are furnishing money to the buyers there, and the export commodities are paid for by money from abroad. So that many financial institutions are intimately inter- ested in the crop movement capital. Whenever a local dealer consigns a car load of wheat to a responsible merchant he can deposit the bill of lading with his banker and draw upon the merchant for some 90 per cent of the value of the grain, providing the dealer has 280 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation hedged so that there is no chance of loss. The banker will honor the dealer’s checks and hold the credit of the mer- chant as collateral. When grain or other food commodities have been stored the warehouse receipt is considered the best possible col- lateral for bank loans. Mr. Forgan, president of the National City Bank of Chicago, is quoted as saying : 3 “I have seen the time more than once when high-class stocks and bonds, and even government bonds, could not readily be sold, but I have never seen the time, nor do I ever expect to see it, when anything that has to be eaten could not be sold.” The warehouse receipts, therefore, above alluded to, constitute a collateral which is always available for the payment of debts. Furthermore, if the grain or provisions represented by the warehouse receipts are sold for future delivery, that fact adds a great element of strength to the loan, because there is a third party obligated to take the grain at a certain time for a given price. . . . The sale for future delivery — the ‘hedge’ — is the final link in the chain that makes such loans the best in the world.” It has been shown that in the production of grain or other farm commodities the three elements, change in form, change in place, and potential change in time enter ; while the factors entering are, nature, labor, and capital. These all must be present no matter which method of procedure is followed in the marketing. The cost of marketing must always be counted in the cost of production. A decrease in the cost of any element or factor will of course have its effect on the cost of the whole process. For example, it is claimed by grain merchants that where there is an oppor- tunity to hedge there is less risk and consequently the profits of the middlemen may he less thus decreasing the cost of production. To get a concrete example of what part transportation bears in marketing the following analysis is made : 3 ‘ ‘ Letters on Grain Marketing, ’ ' by C. Vincent. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 281 Elements Entering into the Cost of Marketing Wheat Grown in Kansas or Nebraska Farm Expense Cents per bushel Loading 0.25 If sacked, add about 5 cents per bushel. Highway Haulage A bulletin of the Bureau of Crop Estimates, U. S. Department of Agriculture gives the cost at 30 cents per ton-mile when horses are used and 15 cents per ton-mile by motor-car, the average distance being 9.4 miles, rough ave- rage, say 6.00 6.25 Total cost of getting to local market .... 6.25 Local Elevator Unloading, storage, cleaning, and mixing, shrinkage. Overhead — interest on investment, taxes, insurance, office expense, depreciation, repairs, hired help, etc., and profit 3.00 3.00 Total cost up to the commission merchant 9.25 Freight Terminal and hauling charge 16.00 Inspection and weighing at terminal 25 Profit of commisson merchant 1.25 17.50 Total cost up to the exporter 26.75 Exporter’s cost Elevation, loading into boat, etc 1.25 Ocean freight (very variable), say 6.00 Insurance, leakage, etc., in transit 75 Overhead expenses of exporter 1.00 Profit of exporter 1.25 10.25 Total to Liverpool market 37.00 The above would indicate that if all wheat were shipped to Liverpool the local price in Nebraska or Kansas should be about 27 cents per bushel below the New York price and 37 cents below the Liverpool price. As a matter of fact the Omaha and Kansas City prices are frequently equal to 282 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation or exceed the New York prices because there is quite a large local demand for wheat from the mills of the Middle West. It is said nearly one-half the Kansas wheat is milled in that state. Highway Transportation from Farm to Local Market. — The table indicates that the highway transportation amounts to about 6 cents per bushel. Had the cost been based on all team hauling it would have been 8!/2 cents; on truck hauling, 4f4 cents. The grand total cost of pro- duction would be the Cost of growing; Cost of transportation ; Cost of marketing. Taking up only the transportation from the farm to the local market point, the question arises, what, if any, effect would a change in it have on the character and amount of farm production? Let there be considered a zone around a local market point ; suppose the width of this zone limited the distance from the market at which wheat can be grown profitably when the hauling is all done by horses. Since it can, accord- ing to government authority, be hauled at half the cost by motor truck, other things being equal, the zone of profitable productions would be widened to twice its former width with no greater expense to the wheat grower. Or, looking at it another way, the size of the farm could be somewhat lessened and the farmer still make the same gross sum on his crop. This latter would allow a few more people to live in the same territory as formerly. If again by means of paved roads the cost was further reduced one-half the zone could again be doubled; it is then four times its original width. Also, since a living could be made on smaller farms the tendency would be to increase the rural population. But it is not likely that all farmers under in- creased advantages would continue to raise wheat. Other crops, more perishable but more profitable, would venture forth. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 283 Such perishable crops as vegetables, head lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, cantaloupes, watermelons, etc., re- quire dependable marketing facilities. They must be har- vested and put on the market at just the right time or they deteriorate in quality and price very rapidly. Crops that could be hauled by team only 4 or 5 miles could be hauled by truck over a hard road easily 20 miles. Near the large cities truck gardeners by virtue of the truck and the good roads have been able to go out 15 to 20 miles and secure land at a very much lower rent, or purchase it on an amortization scheme at no more annual expense for double or treble the amount of land than they formerly paid in rent near the city for the smaller tract. According to Norton outside the large cities of the East market garden- ing extends back 25 to 30 miles. That it is not uncommon to haul vegetables to market in trucks 40 miles, and that a New Jersey fruit farmer was accustomed to make a 65- mile trip daily to market his fruit in New York City. 4 Likewise small fruit farming. One acre of land highly cultivated this year, 1922, produced more than $1000 worth of strawberries, which were brought to the railway station every day on a small truck a distance of 15 miles. Raspberries and blackberries will give almost as good re- turns. Vegetables of all kinds, and cantaloupes and water- melons in favorable localities, will probably bring larger returns. Even potatoes sometimes give a gross return of from $100 to $300 per acre. It should be remembered that in every case there must be a keen, avid market and adequate transportation facili- ties. The market, since more than half the people of the United States live in the cities, is likely to be sufficient if the marketing machinery is ample and properly function- ing. Horse-drawn wagons may answer the purpose in some places, in others the motor truck, but other crops cannot be marketed without access to the steam railway. For in- stance, could trucks carry cantaloupes from the Imperial 4 “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business Profits,” by S. V. Norton, A. W. Shaw Co., Chicago. 284 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation Valley in California to New York City? This requires the steam railway and refrigerator cars drawn in rapid trains. The trucks will greatly widen the zone of cantaloupe cul- ture near the shipping point. The same may be said of citrus fruits from Florida and California, tomatoes and watermelons from Texas, plums from Idaho, apples from Washington, grapes from New York and Michigan, and, indeed, some product from nearly every state of the Union, to say nothing of the non-perishable products. Stock Raising'. — Marketing facilities and road transpor- tation is greatly changing the character of stock raising. Not so very many years ago the great western plains were covered with large herds of cattle whose owners and care- takers were known as ranchers. The ranch usually con- sisted of the owner’s residence, which he also used as an office, sleeping and eating quarters for the cowboys, a corral or two for the horses and possibly cattle during the round-up and branding season, though this latter was usually on the open. The cattle ranged and fed upon the wild grass, the cowboys riding around the bunch daily in order to keep track of them. The round-up was held in the late summer while the calves were still running with their mothers and could he identified. The cattle of several ranches ran together and at branding periods had to be cut out — separated. Then the unbranded calves and mavericks were roped, thrown and branded ; the bull calves were altered and the herd again turned loose upon the prairies. A little later in the fall they were again rounded- up and those to be sold selected and cut out. These were driven to the nearest railway track and shipped to market, sometimes a train load from one shipping point. During the winter season and in violent storms there were many hardships as well as loss of cattle. The cowboys also had to be on the lookout for “rustlers” — thieves who stole the cattle outright, branded unbranded mavericks they knew did not belong to them, or mutilated brands by placing their own over the rightful one. Meat from these more or less wild, grass-fed animals was Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 285 seldom better than second class, and never brought on the market the equal of corn-fed cattle. However, they did furnish a reasonably cheap food and kept down the price of meat. Along with better roads and markets came a demand for other products; land that furnished the open range was fenced in, and later subdivided into farms upon which were raised grain, hogs, poultry, and perhaps a few cattle. Dairying in many places took the place of stock raising. No longer were the animals driven to market on the hoof. They were fattened upon grain and hay and carried to market in wagons and trucks. Hogs replaced cattle. The turnover is more frequent and they do well on maize, re- quiring no hay or straw except perhaps a very little for bedding. The com fed to hogs usually brings about twice as much a bushel as that sold to the dealer. Since about 12 to 15 miles is the greatest distance hogs may with profit be hauled to market in horse-drawn wagons on dirt roads, there grew up at every small railway station a stock market. The railway company provided stockyards, a series of pens with a chute for loading. The dealers bought from the farmers and placed their animals in the railway pens until a car load was obtained, when they were sent on to the packing house located in one of the large cities. Therefore, between the farmer and the packer there were at least two Middlemen, the local dealer and the com- mission merchant at the terminal stock yards which are nominally under a different corporation than the packing houses. With the good roads and the motor truck has come much marketing directly by the farmer at the packing-house yards. The Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, a subsidiary organization of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio, made a careful study of the use of the truck in marketing live stock, and in 1921 issued a bulletin thereon. 5 A detailed showing of the marketing of animals “Bulletin No. 8. “Marketing Livestock by Motor Truck,” issued by The Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Firestone Park, Akron, Ohio, 45 pages. 286 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation at St. Joseph, Omaha, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis is given. From that bulletin will be copied some statistics and other information that may be of interest. Those wishing the full discussion should write for the bulletin. Tables are given which “show that at each yard the driven-in receipts during the years 1918, 1919, and 1920 were very much in excess of those of 1917. Of the total receipts (the tables give them each month of the four years) of driven-in hogs at the St. Joseph yards in 1917 approximately 10 per cent were hauled to the yards by motor truck. While the driven-in hog receipts at the same yard during 1918 were twice those of 1917, 40 per cent of this total was driven by truck. In 1920, 60 per cent of driven-in hog receipts were truck hauled. The St. Joseph figures clearly indicate that the truck movement com- menced about 1917 and that each of the following years have witnessed decided increases. “At Omaha truck-hauled receipts appear to have com- menced earlier than at St. Joseph; for during the years 1917 and 1918 the best estimates placed the truck-hauled recepts about 90 per cent of the total driven-in receipts, while the year 1919 amounted to 95 per cent of the total driven-in receipts. In 1920 virtually all driven-in receipts were truck-hauled. “At Cincinnati in the year 1918 more than 90 per cent of driven-in receipts were truck-hauled while in 1919 at least 95 per cent of all stock delivered at this yard other than by freight car came on motor trucks. In 1920 driven- in receipts which were not truck-hauled were negligible. “Indianapolis has shown the most conspicuous increase in truck delivered stock of any yard in the country. Dur- ing the last year more than 95 per cent of all driven-in hogs to this yard were delivered by motor truck. It is seldom that team equipment is seen at this yard. At both Cincinnati and Indianapolis on an average day 100 trucks can be seen coming into the yards, while as many as 300 trucks have been counted at Cincinnati in one day, and as many as 450 at Indianapolis. ’ ’ Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 287 From tables given in the Bulletin are extracted the fol- lowing data for the Omaha and the Indianapolis yards : Omaha Yard Year Driven-in Receipts Total Receipts Percentage, Driven- in to Total 1916 46,542 3,116,820 1.47 1917 65,922 2,796,596 2.36 1918 188,417 3,429,533 5.38 1919 179,036 3,179,116 5.64 1920 1921 181,946 2,708,482 6.67 Indianapolis Yard Year Driven-in Receipts Total Receipts Percentage, Driven- in to Total 1912 110,624 1,824,260 6.06 1913 90,821 1,994,624 4.04 1914 96,521 2,099,787 4.58 1915 136,441 2,435,319 5.61 1916 173,191 2,576,611 6.74 1917 271,994 2,350,730 7.84 1918 462,313 2,749,976 16.8 1919 709,584 2,936,493 23.7 1920 1921 787,100 2,896,894 27.2 A graphical representation shows the continuous increase of driven-in to the total receipts. The table of percentages and the graphical representation are not given in the bulletin. They show very clearly what happened when the motor truck began to function in 1917. The truck has made a very much more effective showing at Indianapolis than at Omaha. No doubt this is because (1) the average haul at Omaha is longer ; Omaha draws from a more sparsely settled country and from longer distances; (2) the roads adjacent to Omaha are nearly all, as yet, earth- surfaced. Only a few hard roads have been built; (3) many of the farms in the Omaha territory are large and 288 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation sell so many animals at a time that they can easily fill one, two, or three railway cars at a shipment. The percentage of truck-hauled stock will no doubt continue to increase until practically all hogs within the economic radius of truck operation are marketed by motor. When the time comes, if it ever will, when abattoirs are established at distances no farther apart than 100 to 150 miles, making the maximum haul 50 to 75 miles, the percentage of stock handled by the railroads to these abattoirs w ill be very DRIVEN- IN HOGS A5 A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL RECEIPTS INDIANAPOLIS OMAHA Showing the increase of truck-delivered hogs at Indianapolis and at Omaha. small indeed. The larger packing houses with the advan- tages of great quantity production will still be able to reach out into the more remote districts and secure that proportion of animals necessary to keep them going which can not be obtained locally. That there is still an opportunity for increases of motor- hauled stock a further quotation from the Firestone Bul- letin will show : “The territory served by trucks in marketing live stock is principally within a 50-mile radius of the market center. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 289 In the course of investigation the longest haul which came under observation was 140 miles. The average haul on the days the investigators were at the markets was about 30 miles. The following table gives some idea of the length of hauls at the four different yards : Yard No. of Trucks Observed Longest Haul, Miles Shortest Haul, Miles Average Haul, Miles St. Joseph 48 100 9 27 Omaha 62 75 6 28.2 Cincinnati 40 72 3.5 28.9 Indianapolis 40 97 7 32.5 “While the average haul is 28.95 miles, most of the trucks observed in the course of investigation use solid-tire equipment. This type of equipment had a tendency to re- strict the mileage. ’ ’ The bulletin also is authority for a statement that 91.3 per cent of the hogs within a 50-mile circle about the Indianapolis yards are carried by trucks, but that only 18.3 per cent at Omaha move that way, and at St. Joseph 10.8 per cent, which indicates to them that there are still great possibilities for the truck, especially as the truck has not come into as extended use at many other packing centers as at the four places treated in the bulletin. There is no doubt but that pneumatic-tire equipment, and to a lesser extent, the cushion-tire equipment will ex- tend the average haul to 50 miles. Hard-surfaced roads will again extend it 25 to 50 miles, making a haul of 75 to 100 miles not uncommon. A further effect of the truck and the ease of marketing which it will bring about is that hogs will be marketed in smaller quantities but oftener. The farmer instead of turning off his marketable animals twice a year will send them in four times a year, possibly monthly. The tendency will be to stabilize the market over the several seasons. As 290 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation yet, the stabilizing, influence of the truck is hardly notice- able. Diagrams on pages 290 and 291 show the average monthly number of hogs received at the yards of Indianapolis and Omaha by truck ; the years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 be- 80000 JAN. Ainr Average number of driven-in hogs marketed at Indianapolis each month; years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 being averaged. ing averaged. At Indianapolis, where the roads are good the year around, the receipts from June to December are much larger than those from December to June, the peaks occurring in December and June. In Omaha, on the con- trary, the greater number of driven-in hogs came in the other half of the year the peaks occurring in January and Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 291 July. These may be partially accounted for, in the West, on the theory that January 1st and March 1st are regular settlement days and farmers arrange to meet their obliga- tions then by selling off a batch of hogs. They also plan to reduce the number of their hogs to the minimum during 18000 JAN. Aior Average number of driven-in hogs marketed at Omaha each month; years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 being averaged. the months of May, June, and July, so as to have few fat hogs to carry through the hot weather. In the Eastern states the farmers seem to work on a different basis. If the selling of live stock could be spread out uniformly over the year prices would be more uniform. An analysis of prices on the Chicago hog market shows that they are 292 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation usually highest during the summer months, from April to August, the months when the fewest numbers are sold. The advantage which those crops which can be stored with- out deterioration, such as grain, cotton, wool, and lumber, is manifest. The price of meat is less fluctuating than that of live stock because meat can be kept indefinitely in the cold storage houses at a very small expense. It is quite likely that more good roads and a more extensive use of the truck will tend to a better distribution of live stock marketed throughout the several seasons of the year. One of the principal advantages of marketing by truck is the less liability of losses in transit. Dealers and owners often crowd too many hogs into a freight car and as a result some smother. Or, if hogs from different farms are placed together in a ear there may be fighting, which unduly heats up the hogs with equally dire results. It is reported that at the Chicago yards in 1918 there were removed from cars 24,785 dead hogs and in 1919, 28,356. To be sure many of these cars came from a distance and were, perhaps, several days on the way. But a fat hog is a delicate animal and a stream of cold water from a hose on a hot hog will often kill him instantly. Government figures state that one out of every 319 hogs shipped died in transit ; of cattle one out of every 998 ; of sheep one out of every 936. Losses by motor, because the animals are not crowded so many together, because they are acquainted and do not fight, be- cause the distances traveled are usually such that only three or four hours elapse between the times of loading and unloading, and because the driver is always at hand to quell disturbances and to see that there is no undue crowd- ing, are said to be negligible. The local buyer at points near packing houses has al- most become extinct. These men formerly bought from the farmers and held the stock until they had sufficient number to fill a car. Since they would often have to hold them several days they had to buy on a wide margin to insure themselves against loss, from % to IV 2 cents a pound. Even where the farmer does not own a truck he can get the Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 293 hogs hauled at a cost of % to % cents a pound, or a saving of about $15 per truck load. If a return load is to be had, such as lumber or feeders the saving will be greater. One difficulty about the return load is the necessity of thoroughly cleaning the truck body. A shovel, a hose with a fair pressure of water, and a hard floor upon which to stand the truck while it is being cleaned are necessary. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the local stock- yards in the way they are often kept are very unsanitary and certainly a nuisance as far as bad smells are concerned as well as a menace to health. Shrinkage. — The argument that there is less shrinkage in motor-hauled hogs than in rail-hauled may be as a gen- eral rule true, but, according to the Firestone Bulletin, will not net the farmer much, because buyers base the price they are willing to pay on the dressed weight and not the live weight. It is stated that the buyer from long experi- ence is able to estimate with considerable accuracy the weight at which a hog will dress, and that he makes his price offer accordingly. The percentage loss of weight in dressing is, of course, greater for thin than for fat hogs. By grading the hogs into classes the buyer is enabled to discount the price paid enough to take care of the “fill,” which is said to range from 3 to 5 pounds per hundred weight. But notwithstanding this the fact that the animals are fresher and livelier must have some effect on the mind of the buyer. This may be the reason for the rapid increase of hogs received by truck at the packing houses, being as many as 6800 in a single day at Indianapolis. Dairying. — The use to which the motor truck has been put in other industries is fully as important. Many in- dustries use several hundred trucks in their work. Creameries have already been mentioned. The very fact that trucks make regular trips along designated routes is an invitation to the farmers to do more dairying. If John Jones can draw from $50 to $75 a month from the creamery for a few hours ’ work each day, Henry Smith living on the next farm is anxious to do likewise. Many good farmers 294 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation find it to their advantage in the long run to allow the women folks to have all the poultry and creamery money while the men content themselves with the returns from grain, livestock, woodlot, and hay land. Thus is created a division of labor which if carried out to the limit will interest every member of the rural family in some par- ticular part of the farm work. Without going into detail it may be said that from rais- ing beef on the natural grass of the plains region to the raising of stock for butter, milk and cheese may seem a far cry, but with adequate markets and dependable transpor- tation this is rapidly coming to pass. Dairying has already reached enormous proportions, and since it is estimated that dairy products should constitute for the sake of health and economy about one-fifth the average diet, it can easily be seen that dairying always will be of great importance. Over $18,000,000 a year is now received for milk and cream by Nebraska farmers, and Nebraska is not a leader in this line. No doubt with better roads and better marketing facilities that will be doubled or trebled in a few years. Poultry. — We have just mentioned the Nebraska in- come from milk and cream sold by the farmers. It may be surprising that the sum received from the humble hen is nearly twice as much (given by state authorities as $35,- 000,000 from the fowls and eggs produced each year). But the only way this can be successful is by quick and adequate markets. Dressed fowls and eggs are highly per- ishable products and must be put into the cold storage warehouses at the earliest possible moment. The motor car and the rural express, with their necessary accompani- ment good roads, make this possible and thus increase the returns to the poultry industry as well as widen the territory over which it will pay to keep fowls for com- mercial purposes. As an illustration of the efficacy of the motor truck in the poultry business this quotation from the New York Times, June 8, 1920, is given : 6 • From a reprint by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 295 At 6 o’clock one morning a motor truck was loaded at Lan- caster, Pa., with 18,000 eggs in crates, and 1000 chicks a day old, and started for New York City, one hundred miles away, says the writer. At the same time a similar shipment was sent to the consignee by railroad. It took the truck twelve hours to reach New York. Four of the little chicks were dead and nine eggs were broken when the goods were delivered at the door of the consignee. The train shipment was four days in reaching Jersey City. It took another day to send a notice to the consignee that the ship- ment had arrived. He was then compelled to send his own truck to Jersey City for the shipment. When it reached his door thousands of the eggs had been smashed and half the chicks were dead. Diversified Farming. — Before leaving the farm it might be well to say that easy marketing makes for diversified farming. All eggs are not put in one basket, and in case of a failure or partial failure in one crop the effect is not felt so much because there are others from which returns will be received. Often drought will injure a wheat crop but later rains will “make” the com crop ; or, earth soaked by winter snows will mature a wheat crop while the corn may, due to a few days of hot dry weather, be a partial failure. While chinch bugs may get the wheat, it is pos- sible to kill potato bugs by spraying. And the year the potatoes die by blight may be excellent for alfalfa and timothy. Diversified farming also allows of the rotation of crops, thus conserving the fertility of the soil. And it all can be done over a wide range from the market place because of good roads and easy marketing facilities. Forestry. — Realizing that the lumbering methods in vogue in this country since its earliest settlement are most wasteful and are destructive of the future usefulness of the timbered regions the United States Government has set aside as forest reserves several hundred thousand square miles. A forest crop is like any other crop. It must grow from the seed and at maturity be harvested. Those trees that have reached the point in life where years do not add materially to the lumber content are marked for cutting. So that each year brings a harvest. New trees are planted 296 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation or allowed to spring up where the old were cut so that there is a continuity. It is estimated that there yet remains some 550,000,000 acres of forest land unsuited for agriculture. The older lumbering methods meant that a company gained control of a tract of timber land, sometimes they had not purchased it, it was really government owned, and cut and slashed all the trees that were upon it. No attempt was made to utilize any of the tree except the bole; the limbs, containing thousands of cords of good wood, were left with the slash to become the prey later of fierce fires, which often got beyond the bounds of the cutting and de- stroyed millions of acres of growing timber. 7 At a still earlier day the trees were cut so that they would fall with their tops together, then they were burned in order to clear the land for farming purposes. The only reason settlers did not go to the great prairie lands of the Middle West where such wanton destruction was unnecessary, was the lack of means for rapid transportation, and communication. Even the loggers and lumbermen were often isolated from all civilization except their own party or neighboring parties of like kind, with no roads but the trails of their own making. The highways of commerce were the streams and rivers to which the logs were rolled or snaked by oxen, mules, or horses, and down which they were floated in the spring when the flow was sufficient to carry them. When they reached the larger rivers they were often bound into rafts and floated hundreds of miles to the mills for sawing, a cheap means of transportation. As the timber was cut off near the streams it was neces- sary to go farther back for logs. Then developed the log- ging railways. Usually narrow gauge lines with small locomotives which brought logs down from the forests to the streams or to other lines of railway. But as yet scientific means of lumbering had not been adopted. Not until the government by making large forest reserves and by insisting that loggers should clean up and burn the ' During the year 1919 there were reported 27,000 forest fires which burned over 8,500,000 acres . — American Forestry, Dee., 1920, p. 707. A MILK TRUCK © Underwood and Underwood A LUMBER LOG TRUCK Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 297 slashes in such a manner as not to injure standing timber, and leave the ground in such a condition that new trees of good varieties would spring up to take the places of those cut, did there come any real advancement along these lines. In order that the better methods of lumbering and forest management could he successfully carried out it became necessary to supply roads of such a character that trans- portation would not be unduly burdensome. If the trees to be cut were to be selected hither and yon, getting the logs and wood from the tops would be a much more expensive process than the mere rolling of holes to the stream and leaving the slash to decay or burn. The Government, realizing this, is now expending millions of dollars on the forest roads making them usable not only by teams but by trucks and automobiles. The truck and trailer have rapidly made their way in the logging and lumbering industries. By the use of the trailer and the Government-made good roads the truck is able to haul logs of almost any length down from the log- ging grounds. Trucks and tractors are utilized in the forests, too, for snaking logs and pulling stumps. In places where the grades are steep or on the interior where the roads have not yet penetrated causeways have been built of timber; these usually being cross-ties, and under trussing across draws, with lengthwise planks for the wheels to run on and side planks or logs to keep the ma- chine on the track. Down this causeway by means of a two-wheeled semi-trailer, immense logs are transported. As they are sometimes very steep, chains on the wheels are necessary to prevent slipping and assist in braking. The average load that a logging truck and trailer will haul is from 3000 to 5000 feet. Larger loads are hauled over snow on sleds, but when distance and time are con- sidered the truck is claimed to be more efficient. F. "W. Fenn states that a lumber camp truck to be efficient “must have maximum traction, ample clearance, and proper ser- vice and care and be stout enough and strong enough to 298 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation stand the severest strains.” 8 He further claims that the truck is replacing the older means of transportation, drag- ging by horses and oxen, skidding down mountain sides, rafting upon rivers, not because it is cheaper but because the great stands of timber are gradually decreasing and the modern method of cutting only properly developed trees is coming into vogue. “Thus the logging industry has developed from one of independence to almost total de- pendence upon improved transportation facilities, with its consequent problems and expense.” The hauling of logs down to the water edge by trucks upon natural earth roads and upon specially prepared skid- ways is said to be cheaper than the narrow-gauge railways formerly in use in the state of Washington. One of the types of trailers worked out has four wheels, 44 inches in diameter for the front and 46 for the rear with a 10-inch tread all around. The trailer is fastened to the truck by a long pipe coupling. The most satisfactory trailer, according to Fenn, is the two-wheeled rubber -tired with wheels 40 to 44 inches in diameter. Roads which theoretically require steel tires for ironing out ruts would better be planked or otherwise hard surfaced. Proper attention and routing will greatly prolong the life of the truck. A longer smoother road is rather to be preferred to a short rough one. The depreciation of the truck is figured on a basis of 100,000 miles as its minimum life. Other Uses of the Truck. — But the use of the truck in the lumbering industries is not limited to logging. About the saw mills it is used for getting the logs to the saw and taking the sawed lumber away. And at yards, all over the country, for taking the lumber from the railroad tracks to the storage piles and for delivering it to customers. Special loading devices save much time. A gantry or other * ‘ ‘ The Motor Truck as an Aid in the Extraction of Baw Products at the Source,” by F. W. Fenn, National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 299 type of crane will pick up and handle an entire load of lumber at one time. Amos Log Loader. — The Amos log loader is described as an efficient loading machine in which a friction drive takes power directly from the drive shaft of the motor truck and by means of a worm gear transmits it to a long winding shaft, or small diameter drum, which extends the length of the truck bed, being mounted parallel to it just under the bed. Loading chains are attached to this drum either at the ends or middle as the driver wishes. The movement is regulated by means of a lever just over the truck step. By a small movement of his foot the driver has control of the friction drive while his hands are free to operate the engine. He can raise or lower the log or stop it at any point. Stopping it if desired so he can leave his position to make needed adjustments of the log, chains, or skids. The small diameter of the winding drum insures steady strong pull. It may also be used for skidding logs into position for load- ing. It is claimed the truck driver soon becomes very ex- pert as he realizes the possibilities of the loading device. After the logs are loaded the loading chains are used to bind them to the truck. In the Yards. — After the logs are sawed the lumber is stacked up in yards either at the point of sawing or else- where. It must be hauled to the shipment point and from the cars to the yards. Trucks are applicable for all these purposes. When it comes to delivering the lumber to the consumer a wagon known as a dolly is of great assistance for collecting materials to load on the delivery truck. Most retail yards now deliver their lumber by truck even to a distance of 15 or 20 miles. When an order for mixed grades, sizes, or kinds of materials is received, a light wagon or cart having a dolly upside down for its floor, the whole known as a “dolly,” is used in the loading. The dolly has a roller placed cross-ways of the wagon bed and the lumber is piled directly upon it, care being taken that some long pieces are used for the bottom of the load. The dolly is pushed by hand from place to place in the yard until the 300 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation order has been filled with the various pieces desired. The truck, which may be out during the time the selection is being made, is backed up to the end of the dolly, the floor of the truck body passing under the lower boards ; then by turning the cross roller with a crank the whole load is con- veyed to the truck. To facilitate the action another roller is placed in the floor of the truck near its rear end. Both rollers may be turned at the same time. The dolly may have two or four wheels. A short truck is often arranged for a semi-trailer which may be loaded in a manner similar to the dolly. 'With two or three of these trailers a busy yard will keep the truck and driver on the road practically all the time at a con- siderable saving in expense over waiting time if the lumber is loaded directly upon the truck. Mining. — The building of railway tracks to mines was at one time a very expensive part of a railroad’s business. It required much expert knowledge on the part of the rail- road officials to determine whether or not such a road would pay. In fact a great many miles of such tracks have been abandoned and very likely the loss to the railroad has been equal to that of the mining companies. Motor trucking is to a large extent doing away with the enormous track build- ing that formerly went on in the mining communities. This eliminates the switching charge which seldom paid the railroad, and possibly the trucking is more convenient and cheaper to the mining company. Here again the use of trailers, special bodies, and mechanical loading and unload- ing devices will greatly expedite the work. When the mine has grown so that the quantity of ore or coal taken out will pay for it a railroad track may be laid without risk of loss to either railroad or mine. The hauling of mine products a long distance is not altogether uncommon. Transporting borax from Death Valley, California, was formerly done by twenty-mule teams. It is now much more expeditiously and cheaply hauled by motor trucks. And the transport of supplies from point of purchase to interior and isolated mines, or to Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 301 depots from which they may be continued by pack horses is common practice. Factory Products. — Scarcely a manufacturing industry but that owns motor trucks, some of them running into the hundreds. No doubt these trucks have had their effect on the goods manufactured just as any other machine intro- duced into the process might do. In some instances goods that were marketed through jobbers are being sold directly to the retailer and sent to them by routings which return to the same customer every day, every two days, twice or once a week, or once a month, or in such regular periods the customer may look forward and depend upon the com- ing. Packing houses by delivering meat with truck directly to the retailer ’s butcher block daily have practically driven out of business the old slaughter houses with their un- pleasant odors and unsanitary conditions. Special bodies have been devised for the different manu- factured products. A slatted rack accommodates nearly 300 empty barrels ; tanks are made to haul milk, gasoline, or other liquids; cracker factories have racks which will accommodate cardboard cartons without injury by crush- ing; low long-bodied trucks upon which cotton bales may be placed without much lifting lessens the time and labor of loading; different-sized drawers on the inside of a body have been used to take clothing-store goods to customers in outlying districts ; plumbers fit up shops on wheels, claim- ing thereby to save time and expense to their patrons by not having to go back to the shop numerous times in the course of a job to get tools and supplies; furniture and automobile trucks have large roomy bodies to carry bulky but not very heavy goods. Hoists, cranes, tipping bodies, combination bodies, conveying belts and chains and many other devices facilitate rapid unloading and loading. By sending goods from factory to retailer by motor rail- way terminal expense is cut out. Just how far it is profit- able to send goods by truck is a question depending on the relative terminal charges, the hauling rate, and the col- lecting charges. The collecting charges at a factory might 302 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation or might not be the same for shipments by rail and by truck. If the railroad switch is such that there is no haul- ing from factory to car except that on the floor of the fac- tory itself, there would be no difference, otherwise there would be the expense of hauling to the loading tracks. If the expense of selling is not affected by motor hauling the only thing to be considered is the actual cost of trans- portation. If this be taken to be made up of two items, namely, terminal costs, and hauling costs, the distributing charge by railway may be written : D=T+Rx where T is the railroad terminal cost ; R, the railroad rate per mile cost per unit-package, barrel, cwt. or ton ; x, the number of miles hauled. The distributing charge by truck would be a similar equation d=t-\-rx where the letters represent the same items referred to the truck. If D is made equal to d, there results, t-\-rx=T-\-Rx and, rx—Rx—T—t T-t x — — D r — R Railroads do not separate the terminal and hauling charge for the good and sufficient reason that if this be done there are a number of other factors of transpor- tation that could with equal reason be segregated. The terminal costs, and by that is considered all the expense except the actual cost of haulage, has been variously com- puted. 6. M. Jones, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce, esti- mates “that the average expense of hauling a ton of freight Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 303 240 miles is 74 cents while the cost of handling the same freight at the terminals is 75 cents.” 9 A more definite and possibly more accurate statement is that of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, also quoted «• by Lane, p. 53 : The combined average terminal cost at one end is shown to be 10.4 cents per hundred pounds. For two terminal buildings (origin and destination) this figure doubled results in 20.8 cents per hundred pounds; and as this figure contains no elements of overhead costs, or taxes, such costs are arrived at by dividing the terminal cost by the operating ratio. The operating ratio of the Trunk Line roads for 1915, 1916 and 1917 is 69.6, and the result of dividing the terminal cost of 20.8 cents by the operating ratio is 30 cents per hundred pounds, which covers terminal expenses and overhead for less than car- load freight. An example may be worked out with the assumption that the railway terminal charge is 30 cents per hundredweight, the truck terminal charge is 10 cents, the railway haulage charge is 0.02 cent per hundredweight mile and the truck haulage charge 0.3 cent per hundredweight mile. Then the economical length of the haul must not be less than 30-10 .3-. 02 20 2000 500 .. 728 = ~28~ = ~ 71 miIeSi The length of haul varies directly as the difference in ter- minal charges and indirectly as the difference in rates. The example given should not be applied generally, but each case must be considered by itself. If there are col- lecting and marketing costs, they may be added to the ter- minal costs and the sum treated as a terminal charge. Construction. — It will hardly be necessary here to take up more individual cases. The almost universal use of trucks in the handling of materials of construction no doubt has affected the quantity and cost of construction, truly a productive process. Everyone is familiar with one or 9 Quoted by Lane in “Motor Truck Transportation,” p. 6. Van Nostrand Co., New York. 304 Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation more of the many devices for loading and unloading, for in this class of haulage these things have reached a very high state of development. Other Agencies. — It is not the intention here to claim for the motor car entire credit for the manifold changes in marketing — buying and selling — which have occurred dur- ing the past two decades. Many other factors have entered into these changes and the corresponding advancement in the average standard of living. Transportation of all kinds, upon the highways, upon the railways, upon the waters, by telegraph, by telephone, by improvements in the postal service, and by the general increase in knowledge through the schools and printed literature, have all been instrumental in the development. But the automobile directly and indirectly has stimulated each of these activi- ties and hence deserves credit with the rest. SELECTED REFERENCES Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on Part IV deals with Marketing, Washington, D. C., 1922. American Forestry, “Forest Fires,” Dec., 1920, p. 707. Bohm-Bawerk, “Positive Theory of Capital,” Translated by W. Smart, Books I— II. Macmillan & Co., London, 1891. Boyle, James E., “Speculation and the Chicago Board of Trade,” Macmillan Company, New York; “The Chicago Board of Trade, What it is and What it Does,” Distributed by the Chicago Board of Trade. Collins, J. H., “Motor Transportation for Rural Districts,” Bulletin 770 of the United States Department of Agricul- ture. Cowan, D. R. and Hart, F. C., “Motor Transportation in Rural Ontario,” Bulletin 227, Ontario Department of Agriculture, 1920. Dana, Richard T., “Hand Book of Construction Equipment,” pp. 550-559, 767-772. Fii’estone Ship by Truck Bureau, Akron: Bulletin No. 1, “Ship by Truck among Farmers through Cooperative Associations”; Bulletin No. 2, “How and Where to Establish Truck Routes”; Bulletin No. 3, “The Motor Truck at the Coal Mines”; Bulletin No. 4, “The Farmer Effect of Ease and Cost of Transportation 305 and the Motor Truck”; Bulletin No. 5, “Costs and Their Relation to Truck Transportation.” Highway and Highway Transport Education Committee.— “Proceedings of a Conference on the Economics of High- way Transport, Held at the University of Maryland, July 27, 1921,” Washington, D. C. Kentucky, University of, College of Agriculture Circular No. 130, “Marketing Farm Products.” Lexington, Ky., June, 1922. Lane, F. Van Zant, “Motor Truck Transportation,” D. Van Nostrand Company, New York. National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York: “Facts and Figures of the Automobile Industry, 1921.” “Factors in Food Transportation.” “A State Endorses the Motor Express.” By Arthur Capper, “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks ^ By F. W. Fenn : “The Field of the Motor Truck in the Petroleum Industry”; “The Motor Truck as an Aid in Extracting Raw Materials”; “Motor Truck Operation at the Mines”; “Motorizing the Factory” “Organiza- tion and Operation of a Rural Motor Express Line.” By R. 0. Patten, “Merchandising Motor Trucks.” By R. 0. Patten and F. C. Horner, “The Evils of Over- loading.” Norton, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business Profits,” pp. 155-156, 406-410, 484; A. W. Shaw Co., Chicago. Power Wagon Reference Book. Tolley, H. R. and Church, L. M., Bulletin 910, “Experiences of Eastern Farmers with Motor Trucks”; Bulletin 931, “Corn Belt Farmers’ Experience with Motor Trucks”; and Bulletin 1201, “Motor Trucks on Eastern Farms,” The United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Vincent, C., “Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” Privately published, Omaha, 1921. CHAPTER X FINANCING HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION LINES Highway financing may be divided for consideration into two parts, namely: financing the road and financing the operation of the road. Both are necessary if goods are to be transported from where they are plentiful, grown, manufactured, or stored, to where they are needed for sale, consumption or transshipment. Money is required for both parts and it must be obtained in some legal manner. As has been shown roads developed from mere trails that originally were paths along which by common consent, force, or otherwise the privilege of passing was gained. This, when ownership in land was recognized, became an easement. After the development of civil governments the right to traverse and transport goods over such road- ways, that is, the easement, was vouchsafed to the inhabi- tants and protected by laws. In England the right of way over another’s land became known as the king’s highway, as all public property was held and measures taken in the name of the king. In the United States it is known simply as a public highway. The highway is in reality the right of passage, not the beaten track, for in both England and the United States the laws recognize the privilege the traveler has when for any reason the road becomes blocked or obstructed of taking to the fields and making another track. Equity courts may grant damages for such usage of private land by the public but no court will attempt to prevent it; if necessary they will, however, by writ of mandamus command road officers to repair the established roads so as to make them passable. In England the law 306 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 307 allowed the traveler to tarn into the adjacent field, whether cultivated or not, whenever the track became worn or rutted. In order to keep the used way within due bounds and at the same time maintain it in a passable condition the freeholders, perhaps at first voluntarily then by force of laws, worked the roads once or twice a year. By doing this they saved their lands and crops from being trampled down. It has also been shown how Edward I took up the question of improving the highways as a police measure in order that it might be safe for man and goods to pass along the road without being attacked from ambush by robbers. Such robberies have taken place in the development of every land, and those who have made a profession of it are variously styled highwaymen, bandits, brigands, and so on. Even to the present day, as has been shown in a preceding chapter, highway robbery still exists, although the pro- fession of highwayman no longer commands the respect of reputable society as was the case during the time of Robin Hood, and Claude Duval of England, and of the Robber Barons of Germany. Thus the public good demanded that the time of the free- holders and the money of the government be expended upon the highways. Of late years in the United States the “working out” of road or poll taxes has been practically abolished and the taxes are collected in money which is expended in road construction and maintenance by persons regularly delegated for that purpose. With the increased use and the building of better types of roadways more and more money is demanded so that the financing of highway improvements has become a matter of vast importance. The money must come from either private sources or from the public. If from the public it results directly from taxation or is borrowed and the obligations paid off by taxation. Private Financing. — A few persons of wealth have built roads as a benefaction to the public. Perhaps one of the most ambitious projects of this sort is the DuPont Road, which is located through the state of Delaware from north 308 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines to south. The intention of the DuPont family is to make this road eventually one of the finest in the world. It has been very carefully laid out and constructed. Later it is to be widened and beautified. Some $3,000,000 have al- ready been expended, and it is contemplated to spend $1,500,000 more. It might be well if more men of wealth would commemorate their names by constructing and en- dowing roads. In spaces about wharfs and depots, although on privately owned ground and privately constructed, the pavement is often used generally as a highway. Such places are of course primarily for the convenience of the steamship or railway companies and they are maintained at their own expense. However, all such expense forms a part of the cost of operation and no doubt is charged to the patrons in the overhead, or it is intended to be a means of advertis- ing in the hope that it will increase business. In timbered and rough mountainous countries, roads have frequently been built and maintained by the com- panies interested in lumbering, mining, or other enterprises therein, and thrown open to the general use of the public. Here the companies figure that the benefit to be derived by them more than balances the expense. Furthermore, the use of them by the public, while a minor consideration as far as the road itself is concerned, is a means of maintain- ing a friendly feeling with the inhabitants. Turnpike or toll roads, as has already been pointed out, were very extensively built in the days preceding the ad- vent of the steam railway. These were built with money raised by the ordinary methods for financing industrial enterprises. A good many thousands of miles of such roads were chartered and constructed by private capital amounting to millions of dollars before the steel tracks put them out of business. Only a few now remain in Pennsyl- vania and Virginia with now and then scattered short stretches of roadway, and bridges over larger streams else- where, and ere long they, too, will be taken over by the states and become a part of the great public highway. As Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 309 late as 1915 a private toll road in Tuolumne County, Cali- fornia, operated by a mining company was purchased by the state and nation, a portion of it being within the Yosem- ite National Park, and made a part of the California state system. The people will never be content to go back to the inconvenience of being stopped by a turnpike every 4 or 5 miles to pay a toll amounting in many cases from 1 to 2 cents per ton-mile, when the same amount of money in the form of licenses and taxes will keep up magnificent systems of public “free” highways. Public Financing. — Every civic government has its methods for the collection of revenue to pay its necessary expenses. One of the easiest things theoretically to do, then, is to collect by a tax on the property of the district — state, county, township — sufficient money to meet expenses, including the building and maintenance of roads, from the property holders in proportion to their wealth and turn it over to the proper officers for expenditure. When roads were yet simple things, before they had become elaborate and complicated structures, that might have been done. Practically, however, even then the working of the roads was a farce; men sat around, told stories, retailed the neighborhood gossip and smoked their pipes or whittled sticks, while the horses hitched to the scraper or plow stood limp with one hip lower than the other, eyes half shut lazily swishing at the flies with their long tails. Soon the necessary hours were passed, their poll or road tax had been “worked out.” The roadway was left in an almost im- passable condition to be gradually worn smooth during the intervening six months until it came time again to work the roads. To most of those old timers the working of the road was a necessary evil and done only because the law re- quired it. When occasionally a road supervisor insisted on a full day’s work for a day’s credit he was a skinflint and at the next election lost his job. The tremendous amount of money necessary to construct present types of roads must, in the long run, be obtained from the citizens through some medium of taxation. A tax 310 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines is a compulsory contribution levied upon persons, property, business, occupations, privileges, or enjoyment of the people for the support of government or governmental functions. When levied upon persons it is usually called a poll or head tax; when upon property, a property tax; when upon business it may be a capital tax, sales tax or an income tax; when upon occupations, an occupation tax; when upon privileges, a license; and when upon enjoy- ment, a pleasure tax. A good many of them may be lumped together under the name of revenue taxes. Some are col- lected personally by a specified officer of the government, while others are collected indirectly by the sale of stamps which are attached to the article or transaction taxed. Taxes may also be classified as direct, indirect and spe- cial, all of which are of great importance to the highway. Direct Taxes. — Direct taxes are levied directly upon property or persons. State laws usually prescribe that general property taxes shall be levied uniformly over the assessed values of the district concerned. A poll tax is levied on all persons of a particular age or class, as all able- bodied males between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years. An income tax is levied according to some prescribed rule on the annual incomes of persons and corporations. An income tax is really a tax on business, either present or past. In either case, whether the levy is on his poll, upon the assessed valuation of his property, or upon his declared income, the taxpayer contributes, theoretically at least, in direct proportion to his ability to pay. The amount of the tax is definitely ascertained some little time in advance of payment and is collected directly by an officer of govern- ment. The levying of labor or poll taxes on persons living within a particular road district easily expanded to the levying of property taxes to care for the local roads. How- ever, as the cost of road building and maintenance in- creased the fronting or contiguous property could not stand the entire burden, the zone of taxation was widened Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 311 to include larger areas, the township, the county or the state, depending on the importance of the highway. Indirect Taxes. — Indirect taxes are those not levied upon the various persons or the property of the district, but are placed upon some article of consumption or some article of manufacture, upon imports and exports, or some privilege or pleasure. The government does not look to each individual for its money, but to the seller or manu- facturer or importer of the article taxed, or the licensee, or the operator of the theater or other pleasure resort. The amount of the tax is added to the price at which the article is sold or to the fee charged so that it is at last borne by the ultimate consumer, in proportion to his con- sumption of the article taxed, or the privilege enjoyed. Federal aid moneys all come from indirect taxes, for the Constitution forbids the national government to levy direct taxes. In Alaska 65 per cent, of the “Alaska Fund,” a fund derived from all returns from liquor, occupation or trade licenses obtained outside incorporated towns, must by .Con- gressional law of 1905-1906 ; be spent in Alaska for roads, trails, and bridges. License fees on motor cars and sales taxes on gasoline belong to the class of indirect taxes, and are attempts to charge the user of the road in proportion to the wear and tear produced by him or his consumption of it. If the motor car is an express truck, a bus, or a taxicab the tax is passed on to the patron, and this patron charges it to the cost of living and attempts to pass it on to his employer through increased wages or those who do business with him. It is finally paid for by that visionary personage the ulti- mate consumer — everybody. Special Taxes. — Special taxes are those levied upon property for a particular improvement that is demanded by public interest. They are not uniform but must be lev- ied in proportion to the benefits accruing to the property from the improvement. This class of taxes is very popular for financing the building of roads and the paving of streets 312 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines as well as other public construction. The area adjacent to the road or pavement for a certain specified distance back, or possibly, halfway to the next thoroughfare, is assessed for the improvement and in road work is technically known as “fronting property.” Each piece of fronting property is required to pay toward the whole cost of im- provement an amount proportional to the benefits derived from the improvement. These benefits evidently decrease as the distance from the improvement increases. They may not always vary in the same ratio, but appraisers will usually follow some definite rule and deviate from it only in extreme cases and as local conditions demand. That they should not de- crease directly as the distance but in some geometrical ratio, most engineers agree. Law courts have frequently upheld assessments made upon some such basis. For the purpose of initiating an improvement by petition it is customary to adopt a fixed scale for the measure of the benefits, based upon distance, that will probably be derived from the improvement. Some legislative bodies have enacted definite rules for evaluating “influence” in peti- tioning. Generally the rule is based upon some mathe- matical variation. For example that the assessed value or influence of property of uniform width extending back from the roadway shall vary as the square root of the maxi- mum distance back. In the figure on page 313, a lot of one- unit area fronting the street is given a value of 31.62. This is from the mathematical formula y 2 =1000x where y represents the assessed value or influence in peti- tioning, and x, the distance back, considering the value of y — 100 for rc=10. To draw the curve mark off on a straight line ten equal distances ; at the mid-point of these distances or units erect perpendiculars. From the formula calculate values for y as shown in the table; lay these off on the verticals and plot the curve through their extremities. To clarify this Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 313 some, suppose that upon the center of the first space, there being one unit area or lot here, there is stacked up the / 2 3 4 5 6 7 Q 9 /o Assessment curve. value of the assessed benefits 32 (31.62) silver dollars. On the next space, since there are two lots extending back 314 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines from the street, the stack would contain 45 (44.72) silver dollars — continue this for each space and for the number of lots extending back. A curved line passing through the tops of the stacks representing the assessed values will be the influence curve plotted. For the purpose of initiating an improvement the unit in which the prospective benefits are to be measured is usually adopted by the governing or assessing authorities. Dollars will not do because the cost will not be known until after the improvement has been finished. In the case of roads and streets the unit quite generally used is the “front-foot.” The number of front-feet in any paving district will be the same as the number of abutting feet along the street to be improved. A different definition for “front-foot” is given on page 318. The petitioning power or influence of the several properties constituting the whole frontage is proportional to the number of front-feet as- signed to each property, and these are assigned according to the adopted rule which is supposed more or less closely to measure the benefits to be derived from the improve- ment. When it comes to paying for the improvement the total cost up to the time of payment, including all charges against the district of whatsoever character, is divided by the number of front-feet giving the cost per front-foot, from which may readily be determined the cost to be as- sessed to each property according to the number of front- feet assigned to it. To illustrate this more concretely, consider a road one mile long. Its abutting length is 2 miles, one on each side, or 10,560 feet. The total number of units of influence in the whole assessed area, and the number of units of as- sessed benefits, is 10,560 front-feet. The number of these units assigned or assessed to a particular plot of land is technically called its “frontage.” Since all land for a specified distance from the roadway must share in the bene- fits and in the cost, therefore, a piece of property may have Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 315 frontage even though it does not touch the street or road- way to be improved. In order to facilitate computation, more or less arbitrary variations are made from the theoretical curve of assess- ment thought to be ideal. Each infinitesimal portion of land bears a different assessment value according to its position in relation to the improvement. It would be im- practicable to divide the land into an infinite number of strips of infinitesimal width and calculate the assessment for each. This could be done by mathematical analysis if all the boundary lines were straight lines and mathematical curves, but the work would be even then too laborious to pay. It is customary to divide the assessed territory along each side of the roadway into zones with edges parallel to the road, and to each zone is given a weight or proportional part of all the assessed value. The weights are obtained from the mathematical curve and are given values cor- responding approximately with theoretical calculations. Zone Weights. — To determine the proper zone weights the influence curve is plotted as in figure on page 319. The base line, AB, is divided into as many parts as it is desired to have zones ; from the mid-point of each part a perpen- dicular to the base line is erected to meet the curve, shown in the table, as mid-ordinates. These are each multiplied by 100 and divided by the longest, in the case of five zones, 94.85, to get them into percentages of the whole. These are now adjusted to near numbers for easy multiplication. For example, to multiply by 33f add two ciphers and divide by 3 ; to multiply by 25 add two ciphers and divide by 4 ; and so on. Five-zone Table Zone Mid- ordinate Per- centage Weight Adjusted Weight Sum 1 31.62 33.3 33.3 33! 33! 2 54.77 57.7 24.4 25 58! 3 70.71 74.6 18.9 16f 75 4 83.67 88.5 13.9 15 90 5 94.87 100.0 11.5 10 100 316 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines To get weights for six zones take the mid-ordinates at 8$, 25, 41§, 58-§, 75, and 91§, as follows: Zone Mid- ordinate Per- centage Weight Adjusted Weight Sum Another Adjusted Weight Sum 1 28.86 31 31 30 30 334 334 2 50.00 52 21 20 50 20 534 3 64.45 67 15 15 65 16| 70 4 76.70 80 13 12* 774 10 80 5 87.02 91 11 124 90 10 90 6 95.73 100 9 10 100 10 100 To Calculate the Frontage. — As has already been stated, in some states in order to initiate a road improve- ment to be paid for by special assessment a petition for the same signed by the owners of a majority of the front- age is necessary. To determine the frontage for this peti- tion general rules are laid down by proper authority or laws enacted, stating the necessary procedure and the weights allowed for calculating frontage based upon dis- tance from the roadway to be improved. In one state the land up to a distance of 2 miles back on each side of the roadway may be formed into an improvement district which constitutes the fronting territory or frontage. The frontage on each side of the roadway is divided into four zones equal in width. The first zone, the one nearest the road, has a weight of 50, or it may be said to contain 50 per cent, of the total frontage; the second zone has a weight of 25, or contains 25 per cent, of the frontage; the third, 15 per cent. ; and the fourth, 10 per cent. Along a mile of the road there are, of course, two miles or 10,560 front-feet frontage. This 10,560 front-feet is not considered to be uniformly distributed over the entire 4 square miles (as- suming the district 2 miles each side the road) of assessed territory abutting the mile of roadway. Nor to be de- creased according to the mathematical laws stated above. But the distribution is by arbitrary rule laid down by legis- lative authority. In this particular case, assuming a Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 317 straight roadway and equal zones, the first one will contain 50 per cent, of 10,560=5280 front feet. Since the actual area of the zone is 1 square mile=640 acres, there are 5280-f-640=8 1 / 4 front-feet per acre in this zone. The table will show similar results for each of the four zones : Zone Weight Front feet per mile Front-feet for varying acreages 1 acre 10 acres 20 acres 40 acres 80 acres 160 acres 1 50 5280 8.250 82.50 165.0 330 660 1320 2 25 2640 4.125 41.25 82.5 165 330 660 3 15 1584 2.475 24.75 49.5 99 198 396 4 10 1056 1 . 650 16.50 33.0 66 132 264 As an illustration, suppose two taxpayers have farms of exactly the same size, 800 acres each, but placed differently in regard to the road, see figure below. Their influ- Assessment Influence Two farms of the same shape but situated differently with regard to the improved highway have different “petitioning influences” and are assessed differently for improvements. Farm A is in con- tact with the road for 5280 ft., and has an influence or assessment value of 4158 front-feet. Farm B is in contact 1320 ft. and has an assessment value of 2442 front-feet. ences or petitioning power may be calculated in front-feet from the preceding table thus : 318 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines Farm A Farm B Zone Weight Acres Influence Front-Feet Acres Influence Front-Feet 1 50 320 2640 80 660 2 25 240 990 160 660 3 15 160 396 240 594 4 10 80 132 320 528 Total 800 4158 800 2442 Contact Feet . . 5280 1320 Procedure with Unequal Zones or Irregular Lots. — Where the zones are not equal in area or the property lines do not intersect the roadway at right angles or the lots are irregular in shape, the method of procedure is not quite so simple, although the principle is the same. While it is cus- tomary to make the zones of uniform width this is not ab- solutely necessary. Likewise the ratio of weights vary with different states and cities. One city uses 33£, 20, 16§, 10, 10, 10 for the weights in its six zones; another uses 33^, 25, 16§, 15 and 10. Neither of these, as shown in the tables on pages 315 and 316 varies materially from the theoretical ratio. Using the latter of these ratios a small district has been worked out as shown in the figure and table on page 320. Incidentally this also shows a good method of recording lot assessments during the process of computations. The work is readily checked. The sum of the lot areas must equal the sum of the zone areas and that of the whole dis- trict. The sums of the weighted areas for the same divi- sions must balance. The sums of front-feet likewise. Also cross and vertical summations may be made to check. Second Method of Apportioning Assessments. — A second method based upon a different definition has some- thing in its favor. If the front-foot is defined as a lot 1 foot wide measured in the direction of the street extending Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 319 directly back through all the zones to the limit of the assessed area it will have a weighed area of W 1 z 1 -f-W 2 z 2 -|- W 3 Z 3 . . . and so on, where W ± represents the weight of the zone, whose width is z 1} and W 2 the weight of the zone, width z 2 , etc. If z x —z 2 —z z . . . etc., as is usually the case the weighted area of 1 front-foot is CW^-f-Wa+W., . . . )z=Wz=100z, since W is always=100. The total number of front-feet in the district, or in any lot, will be the number of weighted feet in the district or in the lot, di- vided by lOOz. In the district represented on p. 320, the number of front-feet is the total frontage, 1,936,000 di- vided by 4000=484 ; and for each lot the amount shown in the table. The results obtained by the two methods are directly proportional, so that either may be used for making 320 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines assessments. In fact they are proportional to the weighted areas, so that the weighted areas may be used instead of the front-feet if desired. Rule for Assessment. — To get the assessment for any particular lot divide the total cost of the improvement by I k * zoa/fs LOT / LOT ?. L OT3 AREA WTO A RE A AREA WTO. AREA AREA WTR AREA AREA WTO AREA / 33'/, 2Z80O 760,000 4300 / 6 0,000 3600 /ZO, OOO 2400 SQOOO 25 20,400 5/0, OOO 2400 60,000 3600 30 , OOO 2400 60,000 3 /6% /d,ooo 300, OOO 300 5,000 3300 55,000 2400 40,000 4 /5 /5,eoo 234000 / 200 /3, OOO 2400 36,000 5 / 0 /3,200 /32. OOO /200 /2.000 Tofo / 90,000 /, '336,000 1 7500 Z 2 5, OOO // 700 ''233, OOO JOSOO 228 OOO Front Fa < 2 . + /^L/7att/o3 60 C 6373 87.7/ 70.66 " .. za g .. 484 . 56 25 70.75 5700 1 LOT 4 LOT 5 LOT 6 LOT 7 AZ£A WTR. AREA AREA WTO AREA AREA WTR. AREA AREA WTO. AREA 3000 / 00,000 3000 / 00,000 6000 200, OOO 3000 75,000 3000 75,000 6000 /50, OOO 3000 50,000 3000 50,000 3000 50,000 3000 50,000 3000 45000 3000 45.000 6000 90,000 3000 30,000 3000 30,000 6000 60 000 Tofo/ /5000 300, OOO /. sooo 300, OOO 75000 400,000 / 5.000 200000 Front Fea-t 92.97 32.97 Z23.97 6/99 ~ TH 75.00 75.00 /oo. 00 50.00 /? rsf fief hod Fronf'Feef ~ 600 We/'ffhfed Area par Fronf Foot - /. 036. OOP - 5226 2 ? 600 Lot fronfage 1 We/yhfe d araa of Lof + J226 % Second Hat hod Fronf Feef- ‘ * F 8 d Fronf age of each /of - tveighfed area of /of + 4000 the total number of front-feet in the district and multiply the quotient by the number of front-feet in the lot. It should be remembered that the assessment of cost must be in proportion to the benefits to be derived from the im- provement. The assessors will therefore have to use sound Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 321 judgment and modify the mathematical results if deemed wise. As a rule it is best never to deviate, though, unless there are extraordinary good reasons. Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue. — A few years ago much was said relative to the right of a city to take a por- tion of the earnings of public service corporations as com- pensation to the public for the use of its streets. Many cities granted franchises under such agreements and until the automobile depleted the earnings of street railways and the general costs of manufacturing gas and electricity went up received considerable revenue from these public utility organizations. While in most cities this went into the gen- eral fund money was usually appropriated from that fund for street maintenance and improvement, so indirectly, at least, the roadways profited. In the large cities franchises for the use of the public streets at, above, or beneath the surface are sufficiently valuable to warrant good returns to the public. It seems logical that such money be used fox- street improvements. Bus and truck lines fall directly under this head, and since they are very largely conducive to the distraction of pavements, it would seem as though they ought to pay for at least a part of this damage. The tax might be graduated according to weight as is now in most states the automobile license tax. A number of cities are entering the commercial and in- dustrial enterprises such as the sale of water, gas, elec- tricity, ice and coal. While usually these are operated on a low margin so as not to make money there is nevertheless, here, an opportunity to secure necessary funds for public improvements. And if the operation of these enterprises is such that private competitors can make reasonable profits the people will be the gainer by having more available funds for worthy objects. It may not be the proper prov- ince of the government to go into gainful enterprises in competition with its own citizens. In fact, public opinion in America has been so one-sided on such questions that wherever private enterprises have been taken over by the states or the nation they have thereafter been conducted 322 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines free or at the bare cost of operation. The turnpike roads were bought by the states and made part of the free public road system. Cities like Cleveland and San Francisco have handled their street railways at the bare cost of operation. Efforts are being made to make the Panama Canal free to certain classes of commercial shipping. Government land reclamanation by irrigation and drainage has been made so that it could be paid for by the settlers in small amounts, running through long periods of time. But notwithstand- ing all this there is an awakening to the possibilities that may come from the development and operation by govern- ment of resources that were formerly considered fair game for private exploitation. Such disputes as the two nation-wide industrial strikes of 1922, the coal miners and the railway craftsmen, are rapidly forcing those not directly connected with the “operators” or the “strikers” to the opinion that govern- ment ownership is the remedy for industrial ailments of this character. They point to the Post Office Department as an argument in favor. While it is a fact there has been no trouble so far with postoffice employees, it does not fol- low that the same would be true with the railway, coal min- ing, and cotton industries. And if the Government should begin taking over industrial and commercial enterprises, where would be the end of such paternalism, and would it lead to sovietism? It is barely possible that governmental regulation has already gone too far. But, nevertheless, from some such sources as have been mentioned or from a sales tax on gasoline may eventually come a relief to the burden of taxation which now and increasingly so in the future must otherwise be borne by the land. Bonds. — It is not always possible to raise by taxes sufficient money to make public improvements on a pay-as- you-go basis. It would not be economical to attempt to pave one-tenth the width of a street each year. One patch would be worn out before the next is put down. The whole must be done at the same time in order not to be vastly Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 323 wasteful. And, in order to enjoy the improvement while money is being collected for its payment, the municipality must resort to borrowing. It is also argued that since future generations will enjoy the improvement they should be required to help pay for the same. The indebtedness represented by the bonds become a lien against the assessed property in the state, county, township, or district over which they have been laid. The taxes to pay off the bonds will be levied uniformly over all property or specially in proportion to accruing benefits according to conditions pre- scribed at the time the improvements were made. Kinds of Bonds. — Bonds are certificates of indebtedness by means of which the repayment of borrowed money may be spread over a series of years. They are classified as Sinking Fund, Annuity and Serial, depending on their manner of payment. Sinking fund bonds are paid as a whole at the end of their term, interest being paid annually, or at some other fixed regular period, upon their face value. The name arises because of the custom of establishing a sinking-fund into which a certain proportion of the debt is to be paid annually, and this loaned out so that at the end of the period it will amount to the face of the bonds. Since there is always time lost between the collection and loaning of the sinking fund money the interest derived therefrom will not usually be the same as that of the bonds. For this reason and from the further fact that sinking funds are frequently drawn upon for other purposes than that for which they were created this type of bonds is less eco- nomical than either of the other two types. The sinking fund which must be raised annually to dis- charge a debt of P dollars in n payments, if it can be loaned at i per cent, is given by the formula : 1 X Sinking fund = — p P ’See Chatburn’s “Highway Engineering,’’ Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 335 et seq. 324 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines To illustrate the use of the formula let the debt be $10,000, the average rate that can be expected from the sinking fund 4 per cent, and the time five years. Substi- tuting in the formula, S = .04 (1+.04) 5 -! 410,000 To solve, the denominator is first evaluated: Log (l + .04) 5 = 5 log 1.04 Taking the antilog, = 5X0.017033 = 0.085165 and Then (1 + .04) 5 =1.21665 (1 + .04) 5 - 1 = 0.21665 O -04 X $10,000 S “ “0.21665 "-® 1846 ' 27 ' Annuity tables, which may be seen at nearly any bank or brokers’ office, or in Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Ag- riculture, give the annuity which will amount to 1 in five years at 4 per cent as 0.1846271 ; this multiplied by $10,000 gives $1846.27. To the nearest cent the following tabular statement shows the growth of the sinking funds: Year Sinking-fund at Beginning of Year Interest during Year Annual Pay- ments into Sinking-Fund Total Sinking- fund at End of Year 1 0 . 0 . $1,846.27 $1,846.27 2 $1846.27 $73.85 1,846.27 3,766.39 3 3766.39 150.66 1,846.27 5,763.32 4 5763.32 230 . 53 1,846.27 7,840.12 5 7840.12 313.61 1,846.27 10,000.00 If this loan, the bonds, bore 5 per cent interest the cost to the borrower would have been the principal plus the interest on principal less the interest on the sinking fund : $10, 000+$2500—$768.65=$ll, 731.35; Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 325 or the interest on the loan plus the sinking-fund payments : $2500+$9231.25=$ll, 731.35 Serial Bonds are such that a fixed amount of the prin- cipal is retired at definite periods of time. Usually the amount retired is an aliquot part of the whole. The pay- ments to be made at any particular time is the fixed portion of the principal plus the interest on the unpaid portion up to that date. The periods of retirement are usually annual or semi-annual. Assuming the principal to be P and that one nth. part of it is paid each year, the formulas are: Annual payment for the fcth year Interest for the fcth year . . . Total amount of interest to the end of the kth year Total amount of interest and prin- cipal paid up to the end of the kth year . . . The following table shows how a debt of $10,000 bearing 5 per cent interest would be discharged by equal annual payments in five years : Year Principal at Beginning of Year Interest for Year Principal Re- paid at end of Year Total Annual Payment 1 $10,000 $500 $2,000 $2,500 2 8,000 400 2,000 2,400 3 6,000 300 2,000 2,300 4 4,000 200 2,000 2,200 5 2,000 100 2,000 2,100 Totals $1,500 $10,000 $11,500 326 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines Annuity Bonds are those wherein a uniform periodic pay- ment is made to discharge the debt in a given time. The formula for the necessary payment to discharge a debt of P, with interest rate i in n years is, Annual payment = P l — (1—0- • Results may be taken from books of tables already re- ferred to or by means of logarithms the formula may be solved. For example let it be required to discharge a debt of $10,000 in five equal payments, the rate of interest being 5 per cent. Solution : (l+£)-"= 1.05” 5 . Log 1.05 = 0.021189 -5 Log 1.05= -0.105945 = 9.894055-10 Log" 1 (9.894055- 10) =0.783529 1-0.783529 = 0.216471 Log Annual Payment = Log i — Log 0.216471 +Log P = Log0.05— Log 0.216471+ Log 10,000 = (8.698970- 10) - (9.335398-10) + 4.000,000 = 3.363572 Annual Payment = Log -1 3.363571 = $2309.748. The following table shows the repayment of the loan by annual payments of $2309.75: Year Principal Owing at Beginning of Year Interest for Year Principal Re- paid at End of Year Total Payment for Year 1 $10,000.00 $500.00 $1,809.75 $2,309.75 2 8,190.25 409.51 1,900.24 2,309.75 3 6,290.01 314.50 1,995.25 2,309.75 4 4,294.76 214.74 2,095.01 2,309.75 5 2,199.85 109.99 2,199.75 2,309.74 Totals $1548.74 $10,000.00 $11,548.74 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 327 Since it is more convenient to have the bonds in even hundreds of dollars and the interest in dollars some ad- justment from the theoretical amounts are usually made but such that the annual payments will be near the theo- retical. Sometimes, too, the bonds are made smaller for the first few years then gradually increase so that the natural growth in population and wealth may bear its proportional burden. One adjustment for the example just given is shown : Year Principal Owing at Beginning of Year Interest for Year Principal Re- paid at End of Year Total Payment for Year 1 $10,000 500 $1,800 $2,300 2 8,200 410 1,900 2,310 3 6,300 315 2,000 2,315 4 4,300 215 2,100 2,315 5 2,200 110 2,200 2,310 Totals $1,500 $10,000 $11,550 Total Cost by the Three Kinds of Bonds. — The total cost of a loan, as shown by the following table taken from Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture, is generally greatest under the sinking fund plan and least under the serial. The serial, too, is the simplest to compute. Total Cost of a $100,000 Loan for 20 Years Interest Compounded Annually * Annual Interest on Bonds Sinking-fund Bond Compounded Annually at Annunity Bond Serial Bond 3% 3i%. 4% 4 $154,431 $150,722 $147,163 $147,163 $142,000 4* 164,431 160,722 157,163 153,752 147,250 5 174,431 170,722 167,163 160,485 152,500 5* 184,431 180,722 177,163 167,359 157,750 6 194,431 190,722 187,163 174,369 163,000 * From Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 328 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines The sinking-fund bonds are made out to run the full period and are paid for from the proceeds of the sinking- fund at the end of the term. Serial and annuity bonds are made to mature in proportion to the amounts paid each year. In the example used the serial system would retire $2000 worth of bonds each year, while with the annuity system $1800 would be retired at the end of the first year ; $1900, the next; $2000, the third; $2100 the fourth, and $2200 the fifth. Interest coupons, that is, notes for the payment of inter- est at stated intervals and providing for interest upon the interest if not paid at maturity, are usually attached to the bonds for the entire period that they run, one to be clipped at each interest pay day. The Term of Bonds. — Several states and some of the large cities have issued bonds for road improvements for long series of years. This has met considerable opposition on the ground that the bonds should not run longer than the life of the improvement, otherwise there may be an- other series of bonds lapping upon the first, and perhaps a second and third upon these. The arguments in favor of the long terms are that some parts, at least, of the im- provement will be permanent, that reconstruction will cost less than original construction so that lapping will do little harm, and that money may be obtained at a lower rate on long-term than on short-term bonds. It is a quite general practice for the abutting property- holders to pay for the first pavement by special assessment. Resurfacing is frequently and general repairs almost uni- versally paid for by the city as a whole. It would seem, especially where property-holders pay on the installment plan, that a term of bond well within the life of the pave- ment ought to be adopted. Ten years seems a reasonable time, fifteen years at the longest. If borrowing is contin- ued and one loan lapped upon another there comes a time when the charges for paying off the debt and the interest will more than equal the amount that can be borrowed. For instance suppose a man can continue to borrow $1000 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 329 per year on five years’ time, $200 to be paid each year. During the first year he would owe $1000, and at the end of the year he pays $200 on the principal and the interest. He borrows another $1000, so during the second year he is in debt $1800 and must pay at the end of the year $400 principal and $108 interest. The third year he is in debt $2400 and pays on principal $600 and interest $144. The fourth year his debt is $2800, and payment on principal $800 and the interest, $168. The fifth year and every year following the debt is $3000 and the payment necessary on principal $1000 and the interest $180. The payments on the principal amount is equal to exactly the sum he can borrow. While the amounts used in the illustration are small the principle is the same for loans upon long-term bonds. It would be better for cities and states to progress more slowly than to have saddled upon them a debt in perpetuity. There are times, however, when municipalities or other districts will find it the best policy to borrow money and issue bonds. Serial and annuity bonds have this advantage that as the improvement depreciates in value with time the burden of indebtedness for the improvement becomes less. But it can scarcely be considered the part of wisdom to have the bonds run longer than the life of the pavement for which they were issued. The pay-as-you-go plan is by far the most economical method of procedure, but it cannot always be followed. There are times when budgetary ap- propriations are insufficient and the people will not stand for heavy taxation. In one city it had been the custom for the city by general taxation to pay for paving intersections. As the intersections amounted to about 30 per cent, of the total area paved that was thought to be an equitable divi- sion, because the entire city receives some benefit from each pavement put in. But the applications for paving were much more each year than the city could pay for from its ordinary budget. The amount of paving done each year was limited by the area of intersections that the city was able to lay. Some districts said, “We will pay for the whole 330 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines pavement, intersections and all, rather than go without or wait over one or two years.” The city council allowed this to be done, and, soon, even went further and passed an ordinance taxing the whole cost including the intersec- tions to the fronting property. This method has been in use for several years and the city of less than 70,000 in- habitants has more than 200 miles of pavement, and no citizen was ever known to protest the scheme. Of course the public as a whole could have paid for all these inter- sections by general taxation just as easily as the private property-holders could, but if taxes had been raised for that purpose there would have been many complaints that the poor were being taxed to pave the streets in front of the residences of the rich. In fact, the last idea mentioned is one of the arguments in favor of large bond issues such as are found in several of the states like New York, Maryland, Illinois, California, Missouri and other states, to say nothing of cities and counties. The argument is that the entire state, county or city system should be constructed about the same time that all may have equal benefit of it and that there shall be no intentional partiality. Nelson P. Lewis states in the Ameri- can Highway Engineers ’ Handbook in effect that on a 4 per cent basis the $100,000,000 bonds of the state of New York will mean an annual tax of $4,890,000 for interest and sinking-fund charges, to say nothing of the annual main- tenance and renewal expenses, running through two genera- tions. He claims the same system of roads could have been built, at no greater annual appropriations, in twenty years’ time and the people would not have been saddled with debt, and it will require at least half that time to complete the system with the bonds and the debt. In Illinois, on the other hand, the debt, some $60,000,000 is to be paid from the automobile licenses, which will be used for its amortization. In Maine automobile licenses are also being used to pay bonds, but only $500,000 will be issued in any one year and the total outstanding cannot by law exceed $2,000,000. Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 331 Maryland uses a short-term-bond — fifteen years — and provides that any road renewals required before that time shall be paid for out of general appropriations. New York city had issued bonds until more than two- thirds of the total taxation for streets had to go to interest and amortization so some years ago a change was made to what they called the pay-as-you-go plan. It took four years to make the change, so, now, non-revenue-producing im- provements are made without issuing bonds. Revenue-pro- ducing enterprises, such as water supply, transit lines, and water-front improvements, are still financed by long term, 50-year bonds. Stocks and Bonds. — Railways, interurban trolley lines, street-car lines, and toll roads have been financed largely by stock subscriptions. Public roads, being without a rev- enue-producing power, cannot be financed in this manner, except perhaps in exceptional cases where a few persons are willing to donate their money or are building for pri- vate use but are willing to share the same with the public. Large bridges may occasionally be built in this manner, the stockholders exacting toll for passage in order to get a return on their investment. However, such cases are negligible in the great national scheme of public highways. National and State Aid. — The history of National and State Aid in the United States has been treated quite fully in Chapter Y. It will not be necessary to repeat that here. Suffice to say that with possibly a few exceptions all the states in the Union now have some form of state aid — money, engineering advice, testing materials, con- vict labor, etc. ; also the territories of Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, and Porto Rico, or else the governments of these divisions directly take charge of the construction of a part or a whole of the roads. The acceptance of Fed- eral Aid practically made it necessary for the states to have highway departments to distribute the Federal Aid money and the equal amount the state had to put up to match it. Several of the states like New York and California had raised by bond issues large sums of money before federal 332 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines aid was available and distributed it to counties that would cooperate in the building of roads to be united into a com- prehensive state system. New Jersey, the first State Aid state, and Massachusetts, a close follower, had already “paved the way” as an example for other states to follow. Federal Aid. — The Federal Aid road act, approved July 11, 1916, appropriated “out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1917, the sum of $5,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, the sum of $10,000,000 ; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, the sum of $15,000,000 ; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920, the sum of $20,000,000; and for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, the sum of $25,000,- 000.” In addition there was appropriated $10,000,000 — $1,000,000 per year until 1926 — for the survey, construc- tion and maintenance of roads within or partly within the national forests in cooperation with the states in which these forests are located. The Secretary of Agriculture was by the Act, after making a deduction of 3 per cent, to cover expenses of administration, authorized to apportion the remainder “among the several states in the following manner: One- third in the ratio which the area of the State bears to the total area of all the States ; one-third in the ratio which the population of each State bears to the total population of all States. . . . ; one-third in the ratio which the mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in all the States. ...” States desiring to avail themselves of the benefits of the act were required to “submit to the Secretary of Agricul- ture project statements setting forth proposed construction of any rural post road or roads therein.” If approved the states were further to “furnish to him surveys, plants, specifications and estimates therefor as he may require.” Only such projects as were “substantial in character” might be approved. “Items included for engineering, in- spection, and unforeseen contingencies” may not be greater © Underwood and Underwood A NATIONAL, HIGHWAY IN THE MOUNTAINS OF MARYLAND Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 333 than 10 per cent of the total cost of the work. Upon the final approval by the Secretary of Agriculture of the plans, specifications and estimates and its certification to the Sec- retary of the Treasury the Act provides that there should be ‘ ‘ set aside the share of the United States payable under this Act on account of such project,” not to “exceed fifty per centum of the total estimated cost thereof.” It was not the intention to take away from the states any right which they might enjoy for the construction work was to be done in accordance with the laws of the state within which a project lay but subject to the inspection of the Secretary of Agriculture. He also has power to pay to the states the amount of money set aside when a project has been satisfactorily completed and also to make pay- ments on the same during the process of construction not to exceed the United States’ pro rata part of the value of the work done, and not to exceed $10,000 per mile of road exclusive of bridges more than 20 feet clear span. The states snapped up this money greedily and the de- mand for more money became so great that in 1919 Con- gress appropriated $200,000,000 more, and still later, 1921, appropriated $75,000,000, and $15,000,000 for national forest roads. And still later, June 18, 1922, there was au- thorized an appropriation of $65,000,000 to be expended during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, and $75,000,000 for the succeeding fiscal year. At the end of five years after the passage of the Federal Aid road act, there had been completed under its terms 7469 miles of road and 17,977 miles additional were under construction. Texas ranked first in the number of miles completed, with 682 ; and Illinois had received the greatest amount of federal aid on projects completed and under construction, with $11,807,906; while Texas was a close second with $11,- 393,485. While the mileage built by Federal and state aid is less in the more compact densely populated Eastern states, the cost per mile is much more as much more expensive types of roads are being built. In the West and South earth roads 334 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines largely make up the mileage. It has been objected that these do not properly come under the wish of Congress when it provided that the fund should be used only in the construction of “substantial” roads. Earth road advo- cates argue that such features as grading, draining and straightening roads may be considered permanent, in so far as the road is ready for any type of surfacing that may be desired to be laid at a later date. Recognizing the merits of both contentions The Bureau of Public Roads issued, in 1922, a decision practically as follows : The question of a more definite policy to be followed in con- nection with the approval of earth road Federal Aid projects which involve grading and drainage only, has for some time been under consideration, and it has been decided that hereafter such projects will only be approved on condition that The (State) Highway Department agree, in so far as it may legally do so, that within a reasonable time after completion of the improve- ment of the project as an earth road, it will place or cause to be placed thereon, an adequate and substantial type of surfacing. By adequate and substantial type of surfacing is meant such type as will carry the prospective traffic with such maintenance expenses that the total annual charges will represent a reasonable expenditure for the public service rendered by the highway. It seems, therefore, that the Government expects to assist in the financing of roads that appear adequate for the purposes intended. State Aid. — The machinery of paying state money to finance local roads throughout the counties varies greatly with the different states. For example half may come from Federal Aid, half the remainder from State Aid, and half the remainder from County Aid, leaving only a very small amount for the local abutting property. In other states a large part falls on the abutting property. It would seem as though through main traveled roads should be largely financed by nation and state while local marketing roads which will not require such expensive surfacing should be largely locally financed. Present State of Federal Aid. — The Bureau of Public Roads gives out the information that 11,930 miles of road Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 335 have been constructed during the year 1921 by the States in conjunction with Federal Aid, at a total cost of $231,963,- 682, toward which the government allotted $94,057,089. There were under way during the year 31,228 miles, which was about one-half the road work carried on in the United States during the year. It is safe to assume, then, that through the stimulus of Government Aid, direct and indi- rect, more than 20,000 miles were built during 1921, and that more than 40,000 more miles are under way. The effects of Federal Aid is just now beginning to be felt; a few years more will see the United States so well supplied with good roads that the national appropriations for Federal Aid may be reduced materially. It is estimated that the $190,000,000 available for allot- ment, $65,000,000 for the year ending 1923, $75,000,000 for the year 1924, and $50,000,000 remaining from previous appropriations, will result in the construction of more than 25,000 miles of road, which added to the 46,000 miles that are expected to result from previous federal appropria- tions, makes a total of 71,000 miles, or nearly 40 per cent of the estimated 180,000 miles of good roads in the System of Federal Aid roads now being outlined. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads gives out the figures up to December 31, 1921, as follows : Federal Aid Apportioned, 1917 to 1922 ine., $339,875,000 Projects under Construction: Total Estimated Cost 275,652,104 Federal Aid 117,049,690 Miles 15,834 Projects on which Construction is Completed : Total Estimated Cost $221,739,710 Federal Aid 95,054,184 Miles 12,907 Matching Federal Aid Dollars. — The main argument that brought the Federal Aid law into being was the need of farm to market roads and the fact that in the past the expense for building and maintaining roads fell most heavily upon the farmer. In an excellent report made 336 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines by Senator Bankhead (Senate Report 250, 64th Congress, 1st Session) for the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, the statement is made that “it is probably con- servative to say that at least 75 per cent of the money raised for road purposes” at that time, 1916, “is paid by the owners of country property.” He gives statistics to show that the owners of less than one-third of the real property of the United States were paying more than three-fourths of the cost of the public roads. This did not seem to be equitable, since the country people did not have a monopoly on their use. The burden of building and caring for the roads should be distributed among all who were benefited by them. There is no very adequate method of doing this, but inasmuch as all citizens, both city and country, share in the raising of national revenues, the re- sult of federal appropriations would be to tend in some measure to equalize the cost of roads as between city and country. It was not thought wise to make a direct gift of money from the federal treasury, as that would favor too much of paternalism, would result in “pork barrel” scandals, and would stifle local initiative, energy, and self-help. If the federal government were to enter upon the building outright of a system of roads, there would be a temptation for the states and counties to cease building in the hope the government would eventually get around to them. Likewise the demand for “pork” would be enormous. The plan was therefore devised of requiring the state to pay half the expenses of road building, that is, of matching dollars, fifty-fifty, with the federal treasury. It was further decided that federal money should go into road ex- tensions, leaving repairs and renewals to the states. If states refuse to perform the necessary maintenance the only recourse the government has is to withdraw future Federal aid. The object of the government was to add to the stock of good roads, and eventually secure the necessary 20 per cent upon which engineers state, 80 to 90 per cent of the entire traffic can be adequately accommodated. Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 337 Many of the states were devoid of the necessary machinery to take care of this money and expend it efficiently in the construction of roads or to maintain them in good condition afterward ; so the Government asked that highway departments be created, if they did not already exist, in order that there might be skilled supervision and efficient organization on the parts of the states as that was the best insurance that these duties would be thoroughly performed. Furthermore there would be some centralized authority at Washington and some at each state capital; the initiative and the choice of location, types, and ma- terials for road building would not be left wholly to local administrations which were more likely to be swerved to meet the selfish interests of prominent local personages than is possible in larger political units. The judgment of Congress is less likely to be biased by local conditions or by selfish individuals than would that of a township or county board, or even the State Legislature. On the other hand from the very beginning of the national federation states have jealously guarded their rights, giving up very reluctantly to the Federal Government in any attempts to- ward centralization. So “no policy,” states the committee report, “should be adopted which does not permit the retention by the States of the fullest measure of control consistent with the necessary inspection and safeguarding which is customary with all federal appropriations.” Hence the states were left the power or not as they saw fit of availing themselves of the Government Aid money. Nearly if not all the states in the Union have availed them- selves of Federal Aid. It is claimed by opponents of the system that this is because if a state does not take its quota the money will be appropriated to other states while this state will still have to pay its proportional part to the fund from which the money comes. This they claim is pernicious and has caused states to ask aid when voting the taxes to match the same was extremely burdensome to the people. In other words the people ‘ ‘ are forced into a position where 338 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines their only justification is a presumption that they are grab- bing while the grabbing is good. ’ ’ 2 It was the intention of the framers of the law that the contribution from the government would be so substantial that results of magnitude might be accomplished and still at the same time not raise taxes higher than the people could stand. The plan adopted seemed just. First the road is primarily for the use of the people hence popula- tion should be a factor. A secondary consideration was to make accessible the best products of the farm and to de- velop the land which on account of its remoteness to markets and the conditions of the highways was not in the highest or best state of culture. Area then was a second factor. The third factor was the post roads — rural delivery and star routes. This last as has been pointed out in a previous chapter was possibly the peg upon which the gar- ment could be hung in the closet of constitutionality. How- ever, it was thought that “the interests of the East are protected by the factor of population, the interests of the West should receive consideration through including area as a factor of apportionment. Finally, the direct interest of the federal government,” according to the Committee, ‘ ‘ as represented by the great mileage of rural delivery and star routes for the transportation of mail and parcel post should have some weight in the granting of federal funds. ’ ’ Federal Aid has now been in operation for five years. Most people think it has demonstrated its worth. But it must be remembered that five years is a short time for the stupendous task of transforming an almost impassable conglomeration of roads into a usable system of comfortable highways. The soldiers who went to France during the World War came back enthusiastic converts of good roads. Foreigners traveling in this country have frequently mar- veled at the paucity of good roads. The natives having grown up here knew no better. The Federal Aid experi- ment has been the means of bringing the people to a par- tial knowledge of the benefits of better highways. They will not be content to go backward. In the words of a ’Newspaper article. Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 339 committee report to the Legislature of the State of Nebraska 3 : “The (Federal Aid) System seems to be well grounded and is nourished and sustained by nation-wide organizations, that are banded together for the purpose of maintaining and extending the system, and inasmuch as they seem to be powerful enough to influence the mainte- nance of the system, it will no doubt be maintained until some organization equally influential makes of the matter an issue and overturns the system.” The Committee, while evidently prejudiced against matching dollars with the Federal Government, admitted the value to the state of the work done and that “there is no more important internal improvement in which the state can engage.” Under a Federal highway act signed November 9, 1921, $75,000,000 becomes available by Federal Aid for road con- struction in the several states for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, and in addition $15,000,000 for roads in national forests. This new Federal Aid Act is very similar to the act of 1916. The method of allotment is as before ; the ratio of allotment nearly the same, but a new feature is that the minimum allotment to any state shall not be less than one-half of 1 per cent of the total to all states, which in this case amounts to $365,000. This increases the apportionment to the four states of Delaware, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. The new Act changes the manner in which a state may use its allotment. Each state must select a connected road system not exceeding 7 per cent of its road mileage for im- provement with Federal Aid. This system will be divided into two classes, one to be known as “interstate highways” the other as “intercounty highways.” The interstate high- ways must not exceed three-sevenths of the system selected ; on them not more than 60 per cent of the Federal Aid Allotment can be spent without the joint approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and the State Highway Depart- ment. The intercounty highways will receive the remainder of the allotment. ’ Report of a Joint Committee appointed by the Governor and the 1921 Session of the Nebraska Legislature regarding the relative cost of road construction by the state and by various counties. 340 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines Some of the Western states where there are large areas of unappropriated public land due to the desert or moun- tainous nature of the country, found it to be impossible to continue the matching of Government funds. The new act provides that in states where the unappropriated public land amounts to more than 5 per cent of the area of the state, the 50 per cent allotment is increased by an amount equal to one-half the percentage of unappropriated public land in the state. Before any funds can be paid to any state, the state must appropriate money under the direct control of the Highway Department to match the Federal apportionment or so much as it desires to avail itself of. Likewise it must provide suitable means for the maintenance of Federal Aid highways. The allotment to each state of Federal Aid funds avail- able June 30, 1922, under the act signed November 9, 1921, authorizing an appropriation of $75,000,000, follows: State Allotment State Allotment Alabama . . . . $1,553,420 Nebraska . . SI, 581, 189 Arizona . . . . 1,053,281 Nevada 953,436 Arkansas . . . . 1,264,142 New Hampshire. . 365,625 California . . . . 2,462,098 New Jersey 942,870 Colorado . . . . 1,341,175 New Mexico . . 1,189,823 Connecticut. . . . 480,897 New York . . 3,696,447 Delaware 365,625 North Carolina. . . . . 1,709,333 Florida 886,825 North Dakota. . . . ■ 1,164,714 Georgia . . . . 1,997,957 Ohio . . 2,823,004 Idaho 938,536 Oklahoma . • 1,752,339 Illinois . . . . 3,246,281 Oregon . . 1,182,663 Indiana . . . . 1,958,855 Pennsylvania .... • ■ 3,39S,925 Iowa 2,102,872 Rhode Island .... 365,625 Kansas . . . . 2,102,281 South Carolina . . . . . 1,061,237 Kentucky . . . . 1,417,178 South Dakota . . 1,204,060 Louisiana 996, 9S9 Tennessee . . 1,647,692 Maine 695,160 Texas . . 4,425,172 Maryland 640,629 Utah 849,417 Massachusetts. . . . . . 1,096,176 V ermont 365,625 Michigan . . . . 2,249,532 Virginia 1,456,828 Minnesota . . . . 2,123,597 Washington . . 1,103,709 Mississippi . . . . 1,294,906 West Virginia .... 802,359 Missouri 2,448,128 Wisconsin . . 1,894,S15 Montana . . . . 1,546,885 Wyoming 934,617 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 341 The question of whether or not it is wise for a state to match the Federal Aid appropriation for the purpose of building roads is a debatable one. When people see the amount of their taxes going up by leaps and bounds they naturally look for some place for retrenchment. The road tax being, now, one of the largest in the state is naturally subject to attack. In the consideration of the problem two questions stand out prominently : Do the results so far obtained justify the expenditure? and can the United States and the States afford to continue the expenditures ? Reports from the Bureau of Public Highways indicate that with the aid of the $350,000,000 previously appro- priated by the Government, 17,000 miles of road had been completed up to May 31, 1922, and in addition nearly 14,500 miles were under construction involving more than $287,500,000 of Federal Aid. To match this fund the states have appropriated approximately $380,000,000, mak- ing a total of $667,500,000. The Bureau states the average cost of roads per mile of all types of construction with Federal Aid has been $17,120, of which 43 per cent has been the cost to the government. About one-fifth of the Federal system, that it is thought will be sufficient to ac- commodate 80 per cent of the traffic, has been completed. This seems to be reasonable progress considering the stupendousness of the task. The expenses so far are a little more than $6 per person in six years or approximately $1 per person per year, counting the population of the United States as 110,000,- 000. If any one is anxious to save this expense it can easily be done by a little economy. Refraining from smoking one cigar a month, from drinking one ice-cream soda a month, from going to three picture shows in a year, or by allowing the automobile to stand in the garage one or two Sundays per year. Practically each state in the Union could easily collect its share of the match money by a one-cent tax per gallon on gasoline. A score of states have adopted this method 342 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines and more will, as by this means the land which is highly burdened with general and school taxes will be considerably relieved, and the road tax shifted to the road users. The man who owns an automobile will not thus have the ultimate amount which he pays for roads decreased, but the man who does not own an automobile will be relieved in so far as the gasoline tax is not passed on in the way of increased charges. But the gasoline tax will not appear on the annual tax receipts and therefore is less noticeable. The answer to the question, “should the states continue to match the Federal Aid dollar?” in the opinion of the writer is, “yes, until the Federal system of 180,000 miles of road is completed.” This ought to be accomplished in about ten years. Most of the Mid-west and Western states pay into the national Federal Aid fund, as duties, revenue taxes, etc., less than they receive in the way of Federal Aid. These states, therefore, are the gainers in the matching process. Even where there is no financial advantage as in some of the more populous states, there is a psychological advan- tage in the stimulus which this money gives toward the building of good roads. Good, dependable, 365-days-a-year roads must come. They are demanded by the 10,000,000 pleasure automobile owners and their 30,000,000 additional passengers ; they are demanded by the more than 2,000,000 commercial vehicle owners and their 50,000,000 patrons ; they are demanded by the man who lounges along in a smooth-riding silent $10,000 car; and they are demanded by the driver of the sputtering, rough-riding, ear-splitting $400 car. Yes, good roads must come, and the Federal Aid movement begun at the behest and in behalf of the farm element will continue even if the burdens of building and maintenance be shifted through the gasoline tax and the automobile license, from the farm and city real estate to the owners and users of motor-driven vehicles. With all these influences working it is not likely legislatures will refuse to match dollars with the Government. Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 343 Financing Highway Transportation. — There are at least three methods of financing highway transportation: (1) Individual; (2) Partnership; and (3) Corporation. Individual . — The individual method may be divided into two classes: (1) Those that are a part of auxiliary to or accessory to other business, and (2) those that make up or compose the business itself. The highway transport lines that are auxiliary to other business may be illustrated by the delivery truck of the grocer, the trucks for hauling to and from the depots of large department stores, or better the trucks owned by creameries which perform a sort of express service for the producers of milk and cream. The Fairmont Creameries, with head- quarters at Omaha, operate more than 140 trucks, many of which make regular trips over established routes, picking up at the farmer’s gate full cans of cream and milk and leaving empty ones. The cost of these services, while ostensibly borne by the creamery, must of necessity be accounted for and charged to the expense of doing business or to the individual sellers of cream. The business is not run as a trucking or transportation business, but as a creamery, a department store, or a grocery, and is reckoned in as part of the annual expense or overhead charges. The motor to the truck gardener is of as much importance as any other part of his business. In fact his plant would be as handicapped without it as would a clock without its hour hand. The same may be said of practically all enter- prises which depend on transportation upon the highways as a function of their business. All such transportation, therefore, is financed in exactly the same manner as the business itself, in fact it is a part of it. In the other class of individual ownership the business is usually so small that one person, the owner, can look after the whole of it. He may or may not have any assistants. However, he finances it as an individual. He either has the money at the beginning or is able to borrow it. If he bor- rows it he gives his note acknowledging the debt and stating 344 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines the time or times for payment, rate of interest and any other stipulations that might have been entered into at the time of securing the loan. He will probably give a mort- gage on his property, that is a writ showing the debt to be a lien on the property under which the loaner of the money may, if it is not paid as stipulated, foreclose and sell the property for the settlement of the debt. It becomes null when the note on which it is based has been paid. If, how- ever, it has been “recorded” in the office of the Register of Deeds or other place set aside for that purpose, it will have to be “released” and the release recorded in order to clear the title to the property. Partnership . — An agreement of two or more persons to combine their property, labor, or skill for the purpose of transacting any particular business for their joint profit is called a partnership. The agreement may be oral or written. The partnership is just as extensive as the busi- ness it is proposed to do, but no more so. Each partner is entitled to his share of the profits as arranged for in the agreement but in the absence of any stipulation the law will presume equal shares. The partners may agree on a way of dividing the losses, but such agreement will only hold as against those to whom it is made known and credit has been given accordingly. The laws usually provide that articles of partnership may be made known generally to the public by proper publication and recording in a place designated for that purpose. Although long neglect of any articles of agreement will act as a waiver against an innocent creditor. In a partnership the action of one partner with some exceptions, binds the whole partnership, so that rather than have several members to a partnership it is better to form a corporation. A partnership may borrow money and mortgage its property just the same as an individual. A transport line then could be financed by each partner putting in a definite proportion of the capital. Two men might enter into a partnership and one man furnish all the capital, the other the skill and experience necessary to Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 34 5 operate the business, the profits and losses to be shared in a manner agreed upon. However, without notice to a creditor at the time the debt was entered into each partner could be held for the entire debt if partnership property would not take care of it. The advantages to be derived from a partnership are that larger capital may be obtained and more business done, the benefit of business skill and experience may be pro- cured, and the work of management may be sub-divided among the several partners so that each may become more proficient, or more efficiently administer his own depart- ment. There will be no particular difference between the financing of the partnership and the individual ownership, except perhaps more capital will come in with more partners. The partnership agreement should, to prevent misunderstanding, be carefully drawn up in writing and signed by each partner. It should state the amount and kind of capital each partner puts into the business, the relations and duties of the partners, and the manner in which profits and losses are to be shared. Corporation . — A corporation is a legal combination of two or more persons into an artificial personage for the purpose of carrying on some lawful business under such grants as secure to it a legal existence and power to act even though the individual memberships change. In this type of proprietorship the individual owners called stockholders are liable for the debts of the business only to the extent of their stockholding, in some states to double the par value of their stock. The stockholders have a voice in the affairs of the business only to the extent of their ownership of stock, such ownership being evidenced by certificates of stock issued in proportion to the number of shares of stock owned. State laws are voluminous and restrictions are numerous for the regulation of corpora- tions. The organization must be made according to law and then incorporated. It must conduct its work accord- ing to definite requirements, file regular reports, pay 346 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines special taxes, and so on. The business is conducted through a board of directors elected by the stockholders at regular intervals of time specified in the articles of incorporation. The board of directors usually elects its own officers and appoints a manager or managers for the business. The operation of the business is under the direction of a manager, who may as a rule appoint his assistants and employees, unless this latter be designated to under officers. The manager is under the supervision of the board of directors, and the directors hold their office at the hands of the stockholders. So that the real owners have only an indirect supervision over the affairs of the business. The corporation is given a name and seal and is empowered to act as an individual, may borrow money, own property, sue and be sued. Notwithstanding its somewhat cumbersome machinery the corporation is a favorite form of organiza- tion possibly because of its limited liability feature, its close centralized control even though the ownership be spread over large numbers, and the amount of money handled be great. The large transportation companies, the railways, the steamship lines, electric street cars, canals, trolley lines, pipe lines, and so on, when held under private ownership, are all organized in this manner. There are many bus lines and many truck lines already incorporated, and with time the number will, no doubt, rapidly increase. The shares of stock usually have a par value of $100. These are sold to investors to obtain the working capital. The amount of stock is limited by the articles of incorpora- tion and must not exceed by the laws of most states an amount conducive to good business. The stock may be either common or preferred. Holders of preferred stock have some preferment such as drawing a definite fixed rate of interest while common stock receives no dividends until the interest on the preferred stock is paid. Corporations may also raise money by selling bonds. These are certificates of indebtedness, bearing a fixed rate of interest, payable at definite fixed periods. Like other Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 347 bonds they may be either sinking-fund, serial or annuity. Bonds differ from stocks in that their owners have no voice in the affairs of the corporation. Money may also be borrowed on the notes of the cor- poration signed by its officers, when authorized by the board of directors. Since the laws of the several states vary so widely and there are so many of them, it is impossible to give even a brief synopsis here. Should any highway transport com- pany wish to incorporate it would be well to seek the advice of a lawyer and have him draw up the articles of incor- poration and see that the laws of the state are fully com- plied with. Public Ownership . — It is not the intention here to go into a lengthy discussion of the merits and demerits of pub- lic ownership, but merely to mention this as a method of financing transportation lines. On the continent of Europe public ownership of railways and canals has long been the practice. In England there is private ownership of railways, but the post office depart- ment operates the telegraph lines. In this country the Government has built and operates several ship canals, including the great Panama canal. The state of New York owns and operates the Erie Canal. During the War the operation of railways was taken under supervision by the Government, but this has now been turned back to the several lines. The public regulation, however, of railways is so strict, that they have so little initiative and freedom left, so little power to make rates, so little choice as how to deal with employees, that they might just as well be ope- rated by the Government. Indeed, it is frequently stated that there is quite a large minority of the American citizenship that would like to see the Government take over all the railways and operate them as it does the Post Office at the mere cost of operation and maintenance. On the other hand, a very large number of persons be- lieve that the best governed nation is the one least governed and that the ordinary commercial and financial laws of 348 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines supply and demand should regulate prices and that private capital should govern all industries. There are places, however, where it seems to be the part of wisdom to establish public ownership. First, where the amount of money necessary to finance and operate the enterprise becomes a menace to the rest of the country, or where it is so large that it becomes a practical monopoly, then it would seem just for the Government to step in and, as in the case of the Standard Oil Company, force an un- scrambling, or else take it over and run it as a public in- dustry. Second, where the work is so large that it is difficult to get private enterprise to take it over without grants of privileges that would be exorbitant and, perhaps, scan- dalous. The building of the Panama Canal proved too great a task for a French private company. This does not say that an American company could not have completed it, but to get money for a doubtful or uncertain proposition is not easy. The great Sault Ste. Marie locks under Govern- ment control are very satisfactory, probably more so than if they were operated by private capital for private profit. Third, public ownership is advisable where private lines of transportation fail to accommodate the public. Numerous applications are being made nowadays by rail- roads for the privilege of discontinuing trains on branch lines. In some cases these have been allowed by railway commissions, in others refused. But if they are not paying, the public will not indefinitely force the railways to main- tain them. Then it will be proper for the Government to take them over, finance and operate them, even at a loss if necessary, providing the same work can not be done by private highway transport lines. Likewise, street-car lines are complaining bitterly at the inroads of the automobile upon their business. But street- car lines are necessary to the social and business functions of a city. It cannot very well get along without them. The streets are hardly wide enough to accommodate the passenger and commercial traffic as it is. With the street Financing Highways and Transportation Lines 349 cars off that would be doubled with very much increased congestion and loss of time and a correspondingly greater number of accidents. The street cars in every considerable municipality must be kept going. The Des Moines strike of 1921 proved that conclusively. It may be necessary for the city governments to take them over and pay any deficit from public taxation. But even that will be money well expended. The same arguments apply to those lines of railroad whose traffic consists largely of short haul and compara- tively small lots. If they cannot be made to pay it may be necessary for the public to take them over and keep them running on their longer hauls even at a loss in order to prevent the congestion that would ensue to the public roads should all the traffic be forced to the truck. Also, trucks and buses are not altogether dependable in spells of bad weather, and there may be other conditions that would make the steam train the better and more economical trans- portion agent, as it always is where large quantities are to be transported. It would be better to try to regulate all transport service that each might be made into a paying proposition. If it cannot be done by regulation the power- ful long arm of government will have to take charge. SELECTED REFERENCES Blanchard, A. II., “Elements of Highway Engineering,” Chap- ter II, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Blanchard, A. H. and Drowne, H. B., “Text-book on High- way Engineering,” Chap. XXVII, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Bradt, S. E., “Financing Permanent Roads,” Proceedings National Conference on Concrete Road Building, 1914, p. 26, Chicago. Chatburn, G. R., “Highway Engineering,” pp. 335 et seq. John Wiley & Sons, New York. “Financing and Bonding Highway Work,” Proceedings Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVIII, four articles by F. S. Green, pp. 511-512; H. S. Sisson, pp. 513-515; E. C. Lunt, pp. 337- 339; and J. N. Cole, 326-330. 350 Financing Highways and Transportation Lines Hews, L. T. and Glover, J. W., “Highway Bonds,” Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Lewis, Nelson P., “The Planning of the Modern City,” Chap. XIX; “Financing of Highway Improvements,” American Highway Engineers’ Handbook, Section 28; John Wiley & Sons, New York. Nolen, John, “City Planning,” Chap. XYI, D. Appleton & Co., New York. Robinson, C. M., “City Planning,” Chap. XVII, G. P. Put- nam’s Sons, New York. Tilson, G. W., “Street Pavements and Paving Materials,” Chap. VI, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Van Ornum, “Theory and Practice of Special Assessments,” Transactions Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 336-422. CHAPTER XI HIGHWAY ACCIDENTS AND THEIR MITIGATION It may be true that accidents are commonly the result of disorder, but as there seems to be no panacea for dis- order, accidents cannot entirely be prevented. The best thing that can be done at present is to arrange everything connected with the road so that the chance of accident will be kept as low as it is possible for imperfect hu- manity to keep it. Transportation accidents have always occurred and prob- ably always will occur. In the early days of the railway such papers as Harper’s Weekly ran weekly illustrated accounts of railway accidents. If it was the intention to induce the people not to patronize the train service it utterly failed. To prevent shipping accidents the Govern- ment has spent millions in lighthouses and water-front protection. Great quantities of money have been spent to make safe river transportation. Elaborate national and international codes of rules for navigation have been adopted. Laws to regulate railways have been passed. The newest form of transportation, aviation, has already been a subject for the law makers’ wisdom. Of all classes of accidents, whatever, as reported by life and accident insurance companies, that coming under the heading “Automobile” is by far the largest. The Insur- ance Press stated that during the year 1920 the automobile caused 12,000 fatalities and 1,500,000 non-fatal injuries. The 1921 statistics show approximately the same results. 1 1 ‘ 1 Facts and figures of the Automobile Industry, ’ ’ 1922, published by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, gives the fol- 351 352 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation Since it is quite likely that many accidents never get into the enumeration it may be assumed without fear of suc- cessful contradiction that about one car out of every seven has an accident causing injury to human beings each year. The number of accidents in which no human injury results must be fully as many more. With ten million automobiles in every conceivable state of repair, with ten million drivers with every imaginable diversity of expertness, with many millions of unexpected conditions constantly turning up it would be, indeed, very strange if no accidents occurred. Classification of and remedies for accidents can only be made in a most general manner. In some of what follows the mere calling attention to the nature of the accident will suggest the remedy; in others precautions will be mentioned. The Driver. — No matter how careful a driver may be there will be accidents, but the greatest number occur with drivers who may be classified as: (1) Mentally or physically unfit, (2) Ignorant, (3) Indifferent, (4) Reck- less by nature. The unfitness may be caused by sickness, acute or lowing' table under the heading “Batio of Accidents to Traffic Declines : Year Number of Auto Deaths per Car Total Number Auto * Deaths Registration of Cars Number of Cars per 1000 Population Auto Deaths per 1000 Population 1917 .0019 9,184 4,983,340 48 .0887 1918 .0016 9,672 6,146,617 59 .0919 1919 .0013 9,827 7,558,848 71 .0936 1920 .00123 11,358 9,211,295 87 .1040 1921 .00119 12,500f 10,448,632 99 .1100 * Estimated of entire U. S. by National Workmen’s Compensation Service Bureau applying Census Bureau for registration area to grand total. t Estimated from incomplete figures. Later statistics of the U. S. Census Bureau gives automobile accidents in 1921, 9103; in 1922, 10,168. Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 353 chronic, business worry, overwork, loss of sleep, intoxica- tion, the undevelopment of youth or the feebleness of old age. Men of ordinarily good judgment have become nervous and lost their heads in times of crises. The good driver must react quickly, his foot must press the brake pedal, his hand turn the steering wheel almost uncon- sciously. His mind works reflexively ; the gas, the brake, the steering are operated and related to each other so perfectly that the car goes where it should without the conscious mind giving it any particular attention except in cases of emergency. With an untrained mind the car will frequently go where it should not quite as uncon- sciously as in the other case it goes where it should. The driver looks at a bump in the road and thinks, “I must not hit it, ’ ’ but he watches it intently and almost as surely hits it. Instances are not uncommon of men who have become drowsy while driving and allowed the car to run into the ditch. Mental and physical alertness have saved many cars from serious accident. Ignorance of how to operate a car may not mean ignorance in other things. Too many persons try to operate a car without knowing anything whatsoever about it except to put on the gas, shift gears, and turn the steering wheel to the right or the left. They frequently lack decision, will power and imagination, or they go to the opposite extreme forget to be courteous and hog the whole road. The driver of a car is like the soldier going into battle, thinks the other man may be hit but not he. The driver, too often, believes himself to be immune. He knows there are bound to be accidents to some but he continues to take chances. In- experience is as bad as any other kind of ignorance except that the tyro imagines continually that he may have an accident and is always on the watch. He usually, too, drives slowly until self confidence leads him to a quicker pace. Many an ignorant driver may, as the tyro men- tioned, be absolutely careful, but not knowing how to manipulate his machine kills the engine in the most dan- gerous places, or otherwise brings about an accident. 354 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation The indifferent or “don’t care” personage is one of the worst offenders. He passes through a string of cars without paying any attention, taking it for granted that the other fellow will do the looking out. He runs over the walk lines without giving thought to the pedestrians who have as much right there as he. It is said that women are more likely to be afflicted with indifferency than men. If this be so, no doubt the scientist could explain it on the theory that for ages women have been given first place by the men, they have seldom been called upon to look out for themselves, but have always depended upon being cared for especially in times of danger, hence now they unconsciously expect all cars, especially those with men drivers, to avoid them. The indifferent person does not look both ways before cross- ing a railroad track. He starts to walk across a street without noticing whether or not automobiles are coming. He pays no attention to signs and danger signals along the way. He takes dangers as nonchalantly as though driving in the lonely desert. He knows that accidents do happen and imagines that some day or other he will “get his” but thinks that day is always a long time in the future. When spoken to in regard to his careless driving he laughingly puts it off with, “Oh, I am all right. Nothing will happen to me.” But, all too frequently something does happen. The reckless by nature are not so uncommon as one might think. There is more or less recklessness in all mankind. Else why do they enjoy reading of and seeing deeds of daring? An aeronaut looping-the-loop used to draw hundreds to a fair. When that became common and ceased to produce thrills the daring air man leapt from the plane descending by parachute, or passed from one plane to another. The papers will fill their columns with accounts of a daring flight across the ocean, the people pay for and read these papers because they in a measure satisfy the natural reckless longing of mankind. Wild west stuff in the movies receives a large patronage when Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 3 55 everyone knows that the days of uncouth and reckless cow-boyism are gone forever. Horse races and automobile races because of the elements of contest and danger cater to the same wild propensities. When two race horses come beside each other they champ their bits and throw their heads in a wild endeavor to be off. The human animal, too, when another machine tries to pass him, has the same instinctive inclination to keep it from doing so. Of course there are all degrees of recklessness and it certainly is not to be condoned on the theory that it is an inherited tendency. Might as well say that civilized man should continue the barbarous customs of head-hunt- ing and cannibalism. The time has arrived when all such barbarian actions should absolutely cease. The slogan, “Wreckless, not Reckless,” should govern. Perhaps two- thirds of the automobile accidents can be charged either to carelessness or recklessness on the part of drivers. Can these propensities be done away with? Only by creating a sentiment in favor of careful and safe driving. DRIVE CAREFULLY should not only be posted on the wind shield of every automobile but in the mind and conscious- ness of every driver. Driving and Operating. — Mention has already been made of reckless driving. Speeding might be looked upon at times as reckless, at other times not, although it at all times is more or less dangerous, for there is always a chance that some part of the mechanism might suddenly go wrong, that another machine may come in from a side road, or that there may be an unseen bad place in the road. Reckless and fast driving together are almost sure, sooner or later, to lead to accident and perhaps loss of life. The Maryland State Road Commission has its patrol- men collect and report accident data. During the three months of May, June and July of 1921, their records show that 90 per cent of the accidents are due to speeding. It has been suggested that automobiles ought to be installed with governors which will limit the vehicle-speed to twenty-five or thirty miles per hour. This is a very 356 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation doubtful expedient for very many accidents occur when vehicles are traveling at a very much less speed. Even trucks with governors that limit them to 12 or 15 miles per hour frequently have accidental collisions. Laws limiting speeds to 8, 12, or 15 miles through villages while possibly wholesome will not wholly prevent accidents. In congested cities speeds as high as 25 miles per hour are at times not only allowable but highly desirable to relieve the congestion. The driver in such instances must have his wits about him and drive with utmost care. The sudden rounding of a sharp corner has caused many a car to turn turtle ; likewise suddenly turning a car from a rutted track will sometimes cause the driver to lose control and the car to go into the ditch. If there is snow, ice, loose earth or mud on the roadway or pavement, skidding, which may result in a broken wheel or more disastrously, is quite likely to take place. The remedy, of course, is to slow up before turning. Passing or attempting to pass a car on the wrong side, and driving on the wrong side of the street are sources of danger. So, also, is every infraction of road customs and rules such as driving rapidly over crossings and those portions of the street where the public have a right to walk, failure to slow down at railway crossings, not watching the car ahead for hand signals, or not giving hand signals when turning or stopping the car. How many drivers run on past a street car -when it is stopped for taking on or discharging passengers. How many drivers watch the sidewalks, the store fronts, or turn around to talk to the passengers on the rear seat instead of watching the street with its many passing vehicles and pedestrians. Horns. — Every car is supposed to be equipped with a good horn and it should be used with caution when neces- sary but never when unnecessary or so often as to become a nuisance. Horns should be regulated by law in just the same manner as lights. The standard horn is one which honks, not one which whistles or screeches. The Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 357 siren is a lm ost, universally the property of fire-fighting motors and many cities reserve its use to the fire depart- ments, making it a misdemeanor for any one else to use it. Screeching and whistling horns should be relegated to the scrap pile. The honking horns are now so well recognized that every one knows what they mean, and if they are used properly and not too close to crossings will not frighten the pedestrian. If honked too close a pedestrian may become excited and rush back right in front of the car. Boys, and bicycles should not be allowed to have honking horns, they should belong exclusively to the automobile. Stopping Cars on Grades, Streets, etc. — The stopping of machines on grades without thoroughly braking them or blocking the wheels, or leaving them without wheels blocked on ferries may be and has been productive of accidents. September 3, 1922, the papers reported that a taxi which had been left on the brink at Niagara Falls and whose brakes failed to hold, had carried a woman pas- senger over the cliff to her death. Trucks, delivery wagons, ice-wagons, etc., frequently stop back of the line of parked automobiles in the street restricting the way and causing all passing vehicles to go over to the wrong side of the street thus congesting traffic and furnishing a source of danger. Deliveries should, if possible, be made at the alley or rear entrance. If that is impossible space might be reserved at each end of the block for this purpose. There must also be space reserved at the ends of blocks for the entry and discharge of street car and bus passengers. Likewise the space about a fire hydrant should be kept absolutely clear. Backing. — Mr. L. A. Held, adjuster for the American Railway Express Company, writing in the Express Mes- senger of July, 1922, says: In those claims presented for damage arising out of accidents caused by our vehicles backing, settlement in most every case is necessary as there is not the slightest chance of successfully de- fending an action for damages resulting from such an accident. 358 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation The handling of an automobile while in reverse calls for the greatest care and continual vigilance. It is not sufficient to merely look once before starting to back. On the contrary, the operator should continually watch the rear of his truck and take almost extraordinary precautions to see that no harm befalls any person or property. Where there is no one to guide him, it becomes quite difficult to avoid collisions, especially in congested thoroughfares, for truth to tell, there appears to be an absolute lack of road courtesy on the jmrt of most automobile drivers. When more than one man is assigned to a vehicle, the helper should take the position on the ground where he has an unobstructed view of traffic and pedestrians approaching from all directions. This by no means is always done. It can be accounted for by no other reason than neglect and laziness. What Mr. Held says regarding express trucks applies with equal force to all other motor cars. Other Forms of Carelessness. — Mr. Held also speaks of claims presented because drivers cut in ahead of street cars and were caught, demolishing the truck and injuring the street car and some of its passengers. Also, he con- tinues, “there are a fair proportion of accidents from vehicles being turned to and from the car tracks. The driver should always determine whether the way is clear before diverting the course of his vehicle.” There are many other forms of careless or reckless driving that might be mentioned, such as, driving too close in heavy traffic, cutting in on traffic — “stealing the road,” turning in the middle of a city block, attempting to turn in too small a space, failure to go slowly near a school house or children’s play ground, failure to be on the lookout for playing children elsewhere, failure to try to anticipate what the other fellow is going to do. The Car. — The car itself may be the cause of accidents. Faulty design may result in the breaking of essential parts when the car is going at a rapid gait. It must be said to the credit of modern design and manufacture that while many parts break, few of those that may cause the car to turn turtle or otherwise injure the passengers Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 359 are found in the number. It is remarkable that they are so few. Skidding. — Failure to use wheel anti-skid chains on a slippery road or pavement is a fertile source of danger. Skidding may break a wheel or cause a collision with another ear, or the car itself may slide off an embankment into the ditch. Sometimes, too, cars skid on loose gravel, or clods of earth, or even on slightly rough roads where a sufficient contact between wheel and ground is not obtained for a good grip. The Brake. — Perhaps the most serious danger in the car mechanism is the brake. Mr. Harold F. Blanchard writing in Motor (New York), argues that more than half, probably as much as 90 per cent of all motor accidents may be eliminated by making the stopping ability of motor vehicles a maximum instead of 25 to 50 per cent, as is now the rule. He would have brakes put on all four wheels and claims thereby the braking power of the machine can be more than doubled. He further maintains that the braking power of the ordinary car is extremely low, due, sometimes to the design of the braking system and sometimes to the failure of the owner to adjust the brakes properly. He states that a car equipped with an efficiently constructed system of brakes on four wheels may be stopped from a speed of 30 miles per hour in 36 feet, whereas an average car in the hands of the aver- age motorist will require from 100 to 150 feet. He thinks the brake should be powerful enough to lock the wheel through which it acts. This is not possible on many cars, especially trucks, and it is the reason, he says, why there are so many truck accidents in spite of their low speed. He argues that since very few crises arise so abruptly that the accident takes place before there has been some opportunity to slow down, and that a majority of accidents occur during the latter part of the stopping period, therefore, the substitution of 100 per cent braking power on four wheels instead of the present 25 per cent, the decelerating period will be reduced to one-half or one- 360 Highway Accidents and tlieir Mitigation quarter its former length, and consequently the number of “accidents would be reduced to a mere shadow of their present magnitude.” Some automotive engineers think it best not to lock the wheels completely in braking. That the best plan is to apply the pressure only until incipient locking has been reached but the wheels are still rolling. The driver has little control of a skidding car, and certainly would have none whatever with all four wheels locked. While the wheels are still moving there is a chance to guide the car so as to avoid an obstruction even though it can not be stopped in time. Steering and braking should go together. On some of the steep mountain roads, which, be- cause of their length and relative grade with the bot- tom of the canyon, appear to be nearly level, it is impossible to hold the car with the brake alone. It is customary in such cases to assist the brake with the engine ; unless the driver is very expert at changing gears the engine should be put in low, or intermediate, depend- ing on the steepness, at the top of the hill, then with brakes and clutch the car may be controlled and kept to a safe speed. The brakes being under the car are more or less difficult to get at, they form no part of the ornamental finish, and as a consequence usually are neglected until they become so very bad that they scarcely brake the car at all. They receive the mud and water from the roadway. The joints and pivots become rusted so that even with good bands they are only a quarter to a half efficient. It will pay better than life insurance to keep the brakes in first class condition. Flexibility. — While the brakes are most useful in the prevention of accidents, it frequently happens that a quick pick-up is also important. In crossing the street ahead of a car coming at right angles, for instance, there may be no time to stop, no chance to turn, the only thing that can be done is to “give her gas” and shoot ahead at full speed. A flexible engine with ability to change quickly Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 361 from fast to slow and from slow to fast velocities will in the hands of an expert driver prevent many an ac- cident. Steering 1 and Turning Ability. — It has been mentioned several times that steering is a matter of importance in the prevention of accidents. Designing engineers should, therefore, take that into account. It was formerly thought that turning ability is a function of the length of wheel base, but there are other things to be taken into account and some late designs with reasonably long wheel bases are able to turn in half the radius that was required for some of the older designs with shorter wheel bases. Lights. — The lights whether on your car or another car are often serious sources of danger. If there is not enough illumination one is always liable to get off the roadway. If there is a large amount of illumination improperly con- trolled the glare is quite as dangerous to approaching vehicles. State regulations usually require two white lights ahead and one red light behind. The two-light regulation is wise. When one approaches a single lighted machine he can not tell which of the two lights is out, or whether or not it is a motorcycle. Many accidents have been caused on account of this fact by not giving sufficient clearance to pass the approaching vehicle. When meeting a one lighted machine the driver should always slow down and give as much clearance as the road will allow. Safety first. The red light behind of course saves many a rear end collision. As to whether it should be red or white is questionable. Glaring lights became such a menace to safety that most of the states have enacted laws requiring all lenses used to comply with certain requirements, and providing that they be approved after tests by some competent authority. By doing away with plain lenses and properly corrugating the glass, lenses have now been produced which go far toward removing the glare. With proper lenses and re- flectors the lights may be so regulated that the beam of light will illuminate the roadway almost completely across 362 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation its width and from 200 to 300 feet ahead of the vehicle and at no place go higher than 56 inches above the ground. But even with the best lenses and best adjust- ments it is impossible to see beyond an extremely bright light so in passing such a light there is always the chance of running into an unlighted parked car, or other obstruc- tion, or a ditch at the side of the road. In passing such a light the eyes should be kept on the road and shielded, if possible, from the glare of the other machine. The precaution of driving slowly under such circumstances goes without saying. Unlighted Vehicles. — Unlighted, horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, and animals driven or walking in the street fre- quently give the automobile driver palpitation of the heart. Even if the law does not require it horse-drawn vehicles ought to bear lights or reflectors which would give a warning to the coming automobilist. Bright reflect- ing surfaces will flash back the rays of light from the auto- mobile lamps and are much better than no lights at all. A California freighter who had many pack mules going along the automobile highway to and from the mountains continually kept such reflectors on both the head straps and cruppers of his animals with the result that very many less were struck by automobiles than before the reflectors were used. It is only by the reflections from lenses and bright parts of automobiles parked without lights, contrary to law, along the streets that saves them from being run into and smashed, to sav nothing of per- sonal injuries and the probable loss of lives. Speedometer. — Every automobile should be equipped with a good speedometer. Speed limits are known to most drivers and if constantly stared in the face by good clear speedometer numbers they are not so likely to exceed them as if they depended entirely upon a sense of velocity, which is merely relative at the best. A motorist is driving along a country highway at a speed of 25 miles an hour, say, when he comes to a village with a sign out, “Speed Limit, 15 miles.” He slacks to that speed by speedometer Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 363 but feels he is only traveling 5 or 10 miles an hour. Rail- road companies found it advantageous to equip their loco- motives with self-registering speedometers in order to re- duce the number of accidents due to speeding. The auto- mobilist with a speedometer before him has no excuse, at least, for speeding. Bad Roads Cause Accidents. — It is not always the fault of the driver or the vehicle that there is an accident. The roads may be at fault, and while careful driving may decrease the number it can not eliminate all. Slipperiness is hard to combat. This will vary of course with the types of road, with grades, and with height of crowns. But even a pavement, which in dry weather is perfectly safe, will, when it becomes moist, especially if there is a small amount of dust or clay on it, be extremely slippery. Earth roads when they are wet on top and hard below are very treacherous. All types become slip- pery in the winter when there is ice and snow. A thorough flushing of pavements, which will remove surplus dust and clay, preferably done at night, is a good remedy for slipperiness. The use of sand or cinders on turns is some- times resorted to where absolute cleanliness can not be obtained by flushing. Extra precautions by the drivers over the slippery roads and streets is always a good thing. The investigations of the Maryland Highway Commission indicate that about 20 per cent of all the accidents can be attributed to wet and slippery roads. In the construction of roads high crowns should be avoided. On earth roads the crowns should never exceed one inch per foot and if the road is one that is much used and carefully maintained so that it is hard, should be about one-half inch per foot. A crown of one inch to the foot is equivalent to an 8 1 / 3 per cent grade down which vehicles will easily run and oft which they will slide in slippery wmather. Vehicles seek the center of the road when the crown is high both for comfort and safety but two passing vehicles can not be there at the same time. On hard pavements a quarter of an inch per foot will 364 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation furnish ample drainage, and that is all the crown is for anyway. Embankments and Guard Rails. — Too many roadways are built on narrow embankments and often there are no guard rails. The embankment should always be wide enough to accommodate the traffic with an ample factor of safety. It is not uncommon for vehicles to slide off embankments with fatal results. The writer has be- fore him a recent newspaper clipping of one such case where a bus slipped off the roadway and toppled into the ditch killing one man and injuring several others; the busman had no indemnity insurance. Chains on the wheels of the bus or heavy guard rails might have pre- vented the accident. The danger from sharp turns in roads is so well recog- nized that state systems are now specifying a minimum radius of 200 feet and when practicable laying curves out very much flatter. The pavement is also being widened at the turns so as to allow the same turning radius on the inner as on the outer track in order that the temptation for vehicles to cross over to the other track may be lessened. Superelevation.- — The superelevation of the outer side of a curved roadway can not at one and the same time be made suitable for all rates of speed. Works on mechanics give the formula for the elevations of the outer edge as av 2 where e = the elevation in feet; a = the width of road in feet; g = acceleration of gravity in ft. per sec. per sec.; v = velocity in ft. per sec.; R = radius in feet. Or if the velocity, V, is given in miles per hour and the elevation, E, in inches this reduces to „_121 aV 2 0.807aF 2 1501? R Underwood and Underwood Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 365 The country pavements are usually superelevated for 12 miles per hour. Even this with the minimum radius gives a surface so tipped that it is difficult for horse-drawn of vehicles may pass around on the same curvature as the outer row. wagons to remain on it unless the horses trot around the curve. Substituting for a velocity of 12 miles per hour, a width of 20 feet, and a radius of 200 feet there results £' = 11.6 inches. The following table gives the necessary elevation in inches that there shall be no side thrust at various speeds, for a road one foot wide. To get the elevation for any width multiply by the width. Table op Superelevation in Inches per Foot of Width Radius Speed in Miles per Hour Feet 10 12 15 20 30 40 Inch Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches 100 0.81 1.16 1.82 3.23 7.26 12.91 200 .40 .58 .91 1.61 3.63 6.46 300 .27 .38 .61 1.08 2.45 4.30 400 .20 .29 .45 .81 1.81 3.23 500 .16 .23 .36 .64 1.45 2.58 366 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation Unless the road is intended for a speedway, 12 miles per hour would he about the right speed to use. In rounding a curve of radius 200 feet at a speed of 30 miles per hour, superelevated as shown in the table for 12 miles per hour the coefficient of friction would have to be about one-fourth to prevent skidding. In dry weather this would practically always be exceeded. A committee of the National Highway Traffic Association, 1922, recommends “that on all curves of more than three degrees the pave- ment and inner-half of the earth shoulder should be banked. This superelevation should vary from 0 for a 3-degree curve to 1 inch per foot of width for curves of 20 degrees or sharper.” Clear Vision. — Clear vision is another thing that should be insisted upon as a means for safety. Weeds, brush and trees are all too frequently allowed to obscure the sight. With ordinary brakes on smooth roads from 100 to 150 feet is needed to stop a car moving at 30 miles per hour. With first-class brakes this might be decreased, but since it usually takes a driver a short period to react from the time a car heaves in sight or he sees a break in the pavement or some other obstruction, there should be allowed 150 feet to stop if the roads are smooth and hard. In order that there might be a good factor of safety it is desirable to get at least 250 feet clear vision. This will require for a 200-ft. radius that the brush, trees and so on should be cut back about 27 feet from the traveled way. As the radius becomes larger the distance necessary to clear back becomes less: 300-ft. radius, clearance, 12 ft.. ; 400-ft. radius, 7 ft. ; 500-ft. radius, 4 ft. In case the curve is in a cut the bank on the inside at the height of the eye should be excavated far enough back to give the necessary clear vision. At the corners of city streets it will, of course, be impossible to get a 200-ft. radius. A 12- or 14-ft. radius may usually be obtained. The rule to turn close to the curb may then be accomplished with the ordinary auto- mobile providing it is not going very fast. With a square Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 367 angle or a short 2-or 3-ft. radius as it was formerly the custom to put in, and still is in places, it is practically impossible to keep from going at least to the middle of the street thus endangering motors on the other side. The cut shows the lines of travel. Curves. — Notwithstanding curves are dangerous the records of the Maryland State Commission, heretofore referred to, show that the largest number of accidents occur at places which always have been considered safe, while the sections that have been regarded as very danger- ous are relatively free from accidents. On the long straight stretches, with good vision and free from any elements that might be considered dangerous, have oc- curred the greatest number of accidents. The commission accounts for this on the theory “that even the less careful motorists drive cautiously in the presence of recognized dangers, such as steep grades, sharp curves, grade cross- ings, etc., while the absence of such dangerous features gives the driver a sense of security which prompts him to take a chance and yield to the well nigh universal passion for speed.” 2 Bridges and Culverts. — Many road accidents can be attributed to poor and poorly located bridges and cul- 2 Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer, in Public Roads, September, 1921. 368 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation verts. Wooden bridges and culverts soon decay and be- come so weak that a heavy vehicle will break them down. Often culverts of the best type are not cared for as they should be or there is no abutment protection with the result that a freshet will wash under and about them so that they are real sources of danger. Frequently the damage is not visible to the driver and the first warning is when his vehicle goes down. In order to shorten them and thus lessen the cost, bridges are often built straight across the stream or draw, but at a skew to the roadway, thus requiring a sudden turn to get on to them. Very frequently, too, bridges and culverts are built too narrow with no guard rails or markers leading up to them. Notwithstanding the fact that thorough bridging constitutes a considerable portion of the expense of road construction, the best plan is to put in substantial structures, wide as the traveled way, and straight with it, thus lessening a grave source of danger. Railway Crossing Accidents. — The great number of fatalities at railway crossings has for years been a theme for much talk, and many suggestions for the elimination of grade crossings have been made. The public seems to think that the railways are the ones that oppose the elimination. As a matter of fact they would welcome elimination if it could be done at reasonable cost. In 1919 there were eliminated 399 crossings “but there are still 251,939 cross- ings on Class 1 Railroads (revenue of over $1,000,000 annually) alone and the conservatively estimated sum which would be required to eliminate all remaining cross- ings in the entire United States is placed as high as $12,- 500,000,000, which cannot be immediately available. 3 It is estimated that more than 2000 persons are killed annually in the United States at these crossings. The Pennsylvania R.R. Bulletin, February, 1914, states that 430 crossings 8 Bulletin issued by the American Railway Association as a part of the “Cross Crossings Cautiously’’ campaign, June to September, inclusive, 1922. Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 369 were eliminated on that road from 1904 to 1913 at a total cost of $27,742,433 — an average of $64,518 per crossing. In Illinois the average cost of eliminating ten crossings was $58,000. In California the average cost is estimated at $30,000 ; in Colorado, $40,000 ; in New York, $48,000 ; and in Wisconsin, $25,000, according to the bulletin mentioned. Even at pre-war prices the average cost for the whole United States was put at $40,000. Since there are in the whole country something over 300,000 crossings that will account for the $12,000,000,000 necessary. The public must remember that the elimination of crossings even if the railways could finance such a vast operation would eventually be charged up to and paid for by the public. While the railroads have a direct in- terest in checking crossing accidents, yet in the first and last analysis the public itself suffers the pain, the mutila- tion, and the passing to the Great Beyond, in addition to bearing the financial burden. 4 F. T. Darrow, Asst. Chief. Engr., C. B. & Q. R.R., makes this calculation 5 for the State of Nebraska. Population 1,350,000 Miles of railway track 6,516 Number of grade crossings 11,300 Cost of entire removal $452,000,000 Cost per mile of track 70,000 Cost per person 330 Nearly doubling the cost value of the railroads, at a price 11 times as much as railroad service now cost per annum per person. But suppose the cost were put upon the public at the beginning, the state would have to finance the $452,000,000, and if it were placed as a charge against the 80,000 miles of rural highway and the 45,000 miles of city and village streets, it would amount to $3600 per mile. Similar cal- culations could be made for each of the States. 4 “Cross Crossings Cautiously” Bulletin. 6 Nebraska Blue Print, May, 1920. Published by the Engineering Society of the University of Nebraska. 370 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation From the above it does not appear probable that either the railroads or the state or both together, can afford to pay for the elimination of all grade crossings right away. It is probable that they will be gradually done away with, although Mr. Darrow states that at present two or three crossings are added to the list for each one subtracted. The railroads realize that it is incumbent on them to make the crossings as safe as possible but that they must look to the education of the public as a means of immediately reducing fatalities. Hence the “Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign in 1922. The bulletin states that the “Safety First” organized effort had reduced the number of deaths among railway em- ployees from 4354 in 1907 to 2578 in 1920. A thing well worth while and a similar campaign against carelessly crossing crossings may change, at least, the rate of ac- celeration of crossing accidents, which have increased in the past thirty years 345 per cent in fatal and 652 per cent in injury cases, while the country’s population has increased in the same time only 68 per cent. The Automobile and Crossing - Accidents. — To the auto- mobile is attributed much of the increase. And to care- less, indifferent and reckless driving the greater per cent of it. The railways have made numerous counts which show the carelessness of the people at railway crossings. Those given below are typical of them all. In December, 1913, St. Louis: Per Cent Stopped and looked in both directions — pedestrians 1 Kept moving and looked in both directions (of all pedestrians, vehicles, teams and autos) 2 Kept moving and looked pi one direction 7 Kept moving and looked straight ahead 91 (on a total of over 30,000 individual movements) On the Baltimore and Ohio, Southwest, 1914: Per Cent Stopped and looked both directions 5 Kept moving and looked in both directions 13 Kept moving and looked in one direction 18 Kept moving and looked straight ahead 69 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 371 In California, 1913 : Per Cent Stopped and looked in both directions 0.2 Kept moving and looked in both directions 35 Kept moving and looked in one direction 7 Kept moving and looked straight ahead 58 The California Railway Commission in 1917 tested 17,000 motor vehicle drivers: 27.8 per cent looked both ways 2.7 per cent looked only one way 65.5 per cent looked neither way before crossing. A Southern Pacific Railway folder gives these figures for automobile accidents during the period from January 1 to August 1, 1917, taken from the figures of eighteen railroads : Total number of accidents 769 Trains striking autos 426 Autos striking trains 112 Autos running through crossing gates 143 Accidents at protected crossings 766 Accidents at unprotected crossings 3 Accidents at night 168 Accidents during daylight 540 Persons injured 515 Persons killed 99 The fact that practically all these accidents occurred At protected crossings would seem to indicate that most people trust the railway to look out for them, and do not assume any individual responsibility. It is to be noted, also, that those who did not look either way are in the majority in every count. Also the number of automobiles that run into trains is about one-fourth as many as those that try but fail to get by in front of the train. Enough has been said to prove this to be an important item in the vital and financial economies of the nation. The question then is, what is the remedy? No specific can be given but relief, partial, may be secured. 372 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation (1) Eliminate grade crossings as rapidly as possible. For this a cooperation between public and railroad by legislation might be fair. Some States already do this going “fifty-fifty” on the expense. (2) By combining public roads, that is vacating some, changing others by relocation following along the railroad rather than cross over the track twice as may be necessary if section lines be followed. Frequently the shortening of the distance and betterment of grades will pay for the improvement. (3) By taking advantage of natural features in the location of new lines of road and railway, and the reloca- tion of old, to avoid grade crossings. This has been done to a considerable extent in the more recent locations. (4) By proper location and construction details: (a) Sharp angles in crossing should be avoided. The crossing should be made as nearly at right angles to the track as possible. Flat easy curves can usually be made to lead up to the crossing to accomplish this. Secure an angle greater than 60° if possible. Catching wheels in the flangeways or slipping along the track is common when the angle is sharp. Also a view of the track to the rear is difficult. (b) Steep grades near the track should be avoided. In Kansas and Colorado the rule is for a level grade for 20 feet from the track. It would be better to have this read “not steeper than a 2 per cent grade downward from the track for at least 40 feet.” The roadway would by this slight slope of not more than 2 feet in 100 feet be better drained and therefore would keep in better condition. Level roads are liable to hold water in the ruts and depressions softening them and the railway track as well. A definite rule should not be made, for circum- stances alter cases. The rails are not always level. If the track is in curve at point of crossing one rail will be superelevated above the other. If the track is in cut, Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 373 or half cut, it may require different treatment than if in fill. The following sketches will illustrate this. LEVEL CROSSING CROSSING ON CURVE Steep grades at a crossing should be avoided. The grade of the highway must conform to the elevation of the rails. (c) For the same reason the road should have a crown, the amount depending on the type, earth, sand-clay, and gravel roads from ^ to 1 inch per foot of width, concrete, asphalt, brick and other hard surfaces may have less. (d) Clear vision for several hundred feet from the road- way along the track should be secured if possible. This may often be done by the removal of brush and weeds and the trimming of trees. During certain seasons of the year cornfields may obstruct the view from some little distance down the road, but if there is a comparatively level stopping place near the crossing the driver ought to be able to slow down his machine, to have it under thorough control, so that it could be stopped quickly and far enough away from the track for safety, while he looks both ways along the track. A little cooperation between railroad and farmer may result in the planting of low growing crops where the view would be obstructed by the high growing corn. The farmer might also be willing to have hedges trimmed low and trees trimmed high in such localities. In some states the law^s provide 374 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation for the annual trimming of trees and hedges near railway crossings. (e) The railways at the request of the road officers will usually arrange the rails so that no joint will come upon the crossing, thus keeping both road and track in better condition. (/) The building of a right-hand turn along the railway track at each crossing on to which the motorist seeing that he could not pass ahead of the train or stop his car could drive. See the figure above. (5) Drivers when they see a train approaching should make it a point to stop at least 100 feet away from the track. If a flying stop is made right near the track the engineman will be at a loss whether to apply the air for the train to stop or take a chance of hitting the vehicle. Enginemen will appreciate a little courtesy of this kind. Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 375 [Also it will be much easier to get a start to make the grade over the crossing if a longer distance is allowed. (6) Markers indicating the approach to a railroad cross- ing placed 300 feet back will serve as a caution warning. A good many states are providing their highways with standard markers. In Illinois certain crossings are desig- nated with a stop sign and it is a misdemeanor to go over without first coming to a full stop. In another state the law requires a stop at all crossings and a ditch, or “thank- you-ma’am” practically enforces the law. (7) Automatic electrically driven gongs, bells, colored disks, waving arms, or red lights are expedients in quite common use. (8) Crossing gates and watchmen are used where the traffic is heavy. They are expensive and railroads like to avoid them wherever possible. On Long Island it is said light gates were run down by the motorists. Very heavy gates are said to have proven more efficacious. (9) Locomotives should be equipped with whistles and bells sufficiently penetrating to be easily heard by drivers of moving automobiles. Mr. Byron Clark, Chief Counsel of the Burlington railway west of the Missouri River, called the author’s attention to what he believes to be a fact, namely, that automobilists when traveling at a rapid gait do not hear the locomotive whistle which the state law and the railway rules require to be sounded before each crossing. Since my attention has been called to this matter I have watched it quite closely and believe Mr. Clark to be right. Frequently I hear the engine bell but not the whistle. It might be well to experiment with whistles and bells of various types. Is there a difference in the audibility of high-pitched and low-pitched whistles and bells? (10) But no matter what mechanical devices there are, how carefully the enginemen obey the law about whistling, or how vigorously the watchman swings his signal, lack of care on the part of the driver will be productive of accidents. Before they can be avoided or even decreased 376 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation materially it will be necessary for the people generally to come to a full understanding that they owe it to them- selves, to the public and to the nation to be careful. Life and accident insurance is only a method of spreading the cost of loss due to death and accident over a larger num- ber. The economic loss to the people as a whole is just as great whether there is or is not any insurance. An accident is always an economic waste. “A careful man is the best safety device known.” Clearance. — The New York State Highway Commission makes it a rule to secure the following clearance : When a highway passes under a railroad the crown elevation is made 13.5 feet below the bottom of the bridge girder, and the minimum right angle distance between abutments is taken as 26 feet. The distance from the base of the rail to the bottom of the girder varies with the span of the bridge and ranges from 2 ft. 2 in. for a 30-foot span to 2 ft. 4^2 in. for a 110-foot span. Where the highway crosses over the railroad a minimum clearance of 21.0 feet is required from the top of the rail to the bottom of the highway bridge girders. The span or right angle opening will vary with the number of tracks and the standards of the railways. It is, of course, well to have a clear opening over the entire used roadway. The practice in some places, of having pirn's or piles in the center of the road, unless there is placed around these a safety zone or park extending each way along the street so that traffic may be separated some little distance before coming to the pier, is not to be com- mended. Pedestrians. —While it has been said that 90 per cent of the accidents are due to lack of caution on the part of the driver, it must not be thought that there is no contributory negligence. Pedestrians constantly go across the street without look- ing up to right or left. Others look with a leer as much as to say, “hit me if you dare,” and leisurely proceed. They will not hurry one bit, thus causing a slow down Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 377 of the approaching motor and that in turn of the next, and the next, producing a congestion in traffic with its known liabilities. Each party has a right to the street, but courtesy should be extended on both sides. When there is no traffic officer, motorists should remember to give pedestrians time to cross, and pedestrians should hurry a little so as not to delay motor traffic. Jay Walking. — Another source of danger which can not be too strongly condemned is the practice of “jay walk- ing.” The driver of a car along a crowded thoroughfare is never sure but what some person will pop out from behind a parked vehicle and start across the street di- rectly ahead of his machine. By the ordinances of most cities parking is prohibited near the ends of blocks and the proper walking spaces. Vision is there clear to the sidewalks. The motorist is expecting pedestrians and is on the lookout for them. But in the middle of the block with parked cars along each side with travel more rapid than over the walking spaces it is difficult to avoid hit- ting the exasperating jay walker. Obstacles that Obscure Vision. — Many pedestrians have received injury or been killed by stepping around the rear of street cars, trucks, and other obstructions to clear vision, directly in front of a passing vehicle. So sud- denly does the pedestrian come into the path of the moving vehicle that the driver can not stop before hitting him. The remedy is care on the part of the pedestrian. Look before crossing, is always an excellent slogan. Pedestrians on Country Roads. — When pedestrians walk along country roads they should habitually take their left-hand side. Thus they will meet face to face those machines that are passing along that side of the roadway, whereas if they walk on the right-hand side the machines are coming up from their rear and may come near before sounding the horn. A startled person often jumps in the wrong direction, thus moving in front of instead of away from the impending danger. 378 Highway Accidents and their Miitgation Slow-Going Vehicles. — Horse-drawn vehicles should travel on the outer side of the road if possible in order to allow faster going vehicles to pass them readily. Often a slow-going truck will take the middle of the roadway and stubbornly keep it even when asked courteously by horn to get over. In trying to pass by going par- tially off the paved way motors have slipped down due to the soft earth shoulders, with serious injuries to both persons and machines. Where traffic is heavy congestion results from slow-going vehicles not taking the outer side of the way, with its usual disastrous effects. Bicycles. — Boys on bicycles become extremely careless and fool-hardy. They cut in front of rapidly moving cars and weave from one side of the roadway to the other. They dart in from behind a parked car or from a side street. When moving not straight along the wheels are always likely to slip on wet spots in the pavement or catch in the flangeway of the street-car tracks. The bicycle is in itself a very useful machine and, per- haps, the most economical vehicle built. Its use is to be encouraged by furnishing special pathways for it to run upon wherever that is practicable. When used on the main thoroughfares extreme care is necessary. The motor- cycle is a rapidly going machine and should be treated in the same category as the automobile. The matter of lights for non-motorized traffic has been mentioned. It would be well for all to carry lights or reflectors. Motor-cycles with side-cars should carry two lights in front, one for the cycle and the other for the side-car. Road and Traffic Regulations. — Very great credit for the development of traffic regulation in the United States during the past two decades is due to the persistent and unselfish efforts of William Phelps Eno, 6 who in the latter part of the last century began an agitation to reform the 6 Formerly Chairman of the Citizens ’ Street Traffic Committee of New York City, Honorary President of the Highway Traffic Asso- ciation of the state of New York, Chairman of the Advisory Com- mittee for the Highway Transport Committee of the United States Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 379 traffic situation in New York City. In December, 1899, 7 he published an article on “Reform in Our Street Traffic Most Urgently Needed,” followed by many others, with per- sonal letters and visits to the city officers, and with the publication of circulars and pamphlets. At first he was not received very favorably by city officers who seemed more interested in “what personal benefit” Eno expected to get out of it, than to the good that would come to the public through such regulation. He later received favor- able consideration by Maj. Gen. Francis V. Greene, Police Commissioner, and by Capt. A. R. Piper, U. S. A. Retired, who had been placed in charge of traffic. In a letter dated October 14, 1909, General Greene gives due credit to Eno, thus ,- 8 The plan for street traffic regulation owed its inception to you, and you have followed it up consistently and persistently to its present almost perfect development; and in so doing you have conferred a benefit upon New Yorkers and the dwellers in other large cities, of very large proportions. As a result of the combined work of the city officers and Mr. Eno, a code was compiled which later furnished the basis for the code adopted by the Highway Transport Committee of the Council of National Defense, U. S. A., May 8, 1919. Most of the larger cities in the United States, together with Paris and other European cities, have adopted this or similar codes. A universal standard- ization of the National Defense Code is being sought now by a national organization — The Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc. 9 This code has been revised once or twice since first adopted by New York. The Foundation will be glad to receive suggestions for its betterment from any persons interested. Council of National Defense, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc., etc. 7 ‘ ‘ The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation, ’ ’ by W. P. Eno. Distributed by Brentano ’s, New York. 9 Eno, op. cit. 9 Main Office, Saugatuck, Fairfield County, Conn. 380 Highway Accidents and their Mitigation Campaigns like the “Safety First” and the “Cross Crossings Cautiously” and other “No Accident” cam- paigns have marked effects. If the necessity of care could be instilled into the mind of every person, if each could be made to realize that the next accident might be his, that accidents are not only painful and disagreeable but always result in the destruction of property, in per- sonal injury or the loss of life, the sum total of savings in money and humanity would be tremendous. All the devices of human ingenuity, all the laws of the sages, and the education of all agencies will not bring absolute safety. The human race is too ignorant, too indolent, too self-complacent, too near, in short, the outskirts of civilization, and the person ivho suggests the utmost care, who would curtail the thrills of chance and danger is a “joy killer” and a “crepe hanger.” Perhaps so. In- finite care might result in “innocuous desuetude.” It is said that there was introduced into a western legislature a bill providing that two trains on different tracks ap- proaching their crossing point “should both stop and neither proceed until the other had passed.” The other extreme is fatalism : “on with the dance, let joy be uncon- fined”; “eat, drink and be merry.” Is there not a golden mean ? SELECTED REFERENCES Accidents, Symposium on Automobile Hazards, by Ralph Stickle, James L. Roche, Joseph H. Handlon, and William G. Fitzpatrick. Electric Railway Journal, Vol. LI I, pp. 913-921. American Railway Association, Bulletin issued as a part of the “Cross Crossings Cautiously,” campaign, 1922. Darrow, F. T., Asst. Chief Engr., C. B. & Q. R. R., “Grade Crossing Elimination,” Nebraska Blue Print, May, 1920. Lincoln. Eno, William Phelps, “The Science of Highway Traffic Regu- lation,” published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York. “Facts and Figures of the Automobile Industry,” 1922, National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New Tork. Highway Accidents and their Mitigation 381 "Harper’s Weekly, Accounts and pictures of early railway acci- dents, years 1840-1860. Held, L. A., Adjuster for the American Railway Express Com- pany, Express Messenger, July, 1922. Williar, Harry D., Jr., “Maryland Road Accident Map.” Public Roads, September, 1921. / CHAPTER XII HIGHWAY ESTHETICS One test for success is the degree of satisfaction pro- duced. A successful book satisfies the majority of its readers. A machine is successful when it performs the duties intended to the satisfaction of its operators. In business satisfaction brings repeat orders; in art it gives emotional pleasure, and we return again and again to look upon it. The ancient writer Vitruvius says the three in- dispensable elements of architecture are Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas, stability, utility, beauty. That one which in the long run is most pleasing to the builder and gives the greatest degree of satisfaction is beauty. Most people are sensible to the charms of nature and art, that feeling excited in the mind when observing those things called beautiful, and to a feeling of revulsion and, possibly, disgust when brought in contact with the ugly. The so-called esthetic sense enables us to appreciate and admire the beautiful in nature and art, to enjoy literature and music, to delight in wit and humor, and even to recog- nize beauty in a mathematical problem. Can the principles of esthetic construction be applied to the humble road ? Most assuredly, everyone recognizes that the first two elements, stability and utility, are very essen- tial qualifications, but the public fails to get the greatest possible satisfaction from the road because it neglects the element of beauty. Until the profession of Road Aesthete has been evolved, therefore, it might be well, in at least a crude way, to apply to the highway some of the principles of architecture and landscape gardening. Since the road- way is of necessity flat it blends in well with landscape 382 Highway Esthetics 383 gardening and the characteristics of unity, variety, and fit- ness are fundamental. All parts that are above the sur- face may receive a true architectural treatment. Bridges are especially amenable. With the very large bridges there is present the element of size, vastness, and when properly proportioned they excite in the mind of man a feeling of awe akin to appreciation of the sublime in nature and im- press upon him a deep sense of the greatness of human power. In all bridges the elements of proportion, harmony and symmetry are applicable. And with the beauty and grandeur of form comes the heightened effect of embellish- ment — ornament and color. Here, however, the skill, ex- perience, and taste of the artist must come in. Embellish- ment may be carried too far. A simple decoration of con- structive parts is usually sufficient. Massive concrete is it- self pleasing, but possibly a rubbing of the surface will enhance the effect of light and shade and bring into promi- nence the lines which the bridge architect desires to em- phasize. The coloring due to the materials used is usually deemed sufficient, although there may be places where har- mony demands a special treatment. Much the same principles are involved in landscape gar- dening. It might be well if every road engineer also had a course in the art of landscape gardening, and some have gone so far as to contend that the need for the services of an expert landscape architect to assist in the design of high- ways is obvious. The artistic qualities of landscape garden- ing applicable to the beautification of highways may be conceived to be unity, variety, and character. Unity means that in the landscape composition some leading idea, motive, shall prevail, and that details shall be subordinate to it. In order that a motive may be most effective one master mind should have charge of the land- scape work for an entire road ; plans should be completely made and all planting within and along the edges of the right of way should be absolutely under his supervision. In only a few instances has road gardening been carried to this extent. Perhaps this may be due to a lack of art educa- 384 Highway Esthetics tion on the part of the public, to a sort of inherent feeling that Nature will take care of her own and cover without artificial aid all ugly spots, or to a lack of necessary funds. Two great styles ordinarily mentioned are the Natural and the Architectural. They are sometimes spoken of as the English and the Italian, because they have been re- spectively most highly developed in these countries. An- other style called the Picturesque has its adherents for certain locations. The natural style attempts to retain naturalness as far as possible— in extreme cases refusing to prune trees or clear out trees weakened by decay and blown down by the wind. Generally the best effects are obtained by not going that far. Open lawns, curved lines, and grouped trees are utilized to obtain the appearance of naturalness. Shrubs and flowering perennials are used to furnish a natural and pleasing connection between the open lawns and the wooded portions of the landscape. They may be used in profusion to hide unnatural and inartistic features, and often will be low enough to look over and therefore beautiful vistas need not be eliminated. The Architectural style seeks to carry the architectural composition of the buildings into the landscape. The ex- treme Italian style is diametrically opposed to the extreme English. It has been said that they are mutually exclusive. For best effects that may be true, but the modern tendency seems to be to recognize that each lias its advantage in special situations. Modern landscape architects are not adverse to a proper mixture of the two. The writer is of the opinion that road gardening will be best as a compromise between the two extreme styles. The fact that the road must be laid down through a long, narrow stretch of land, that ditches must be maintained for drainage, that embankments and cuts must continually alternate, makes a purely naturalistic treatment impossible. The geometrical must be in evidence. In country districts with wide right of ways — in some places they are as much Highway Esthetics 385 as 200 feet — the road may be considered as separating two plots in which there is room for much open grassy space and group planting along the outer edges. With narrower roads the trees will necessarily be planted in rows uni- formly spaced, depending upon the width of the street and species of trees, giving an “avenue” effect. In cities greater formality is necessary than in the country, but even there planting the less formal trees will tend to give more or less naturalness to the whole. The architects will not agree with me in believing that satisfactory combinations of the two great styles may be obtained. They believe that street planting, for example, should be in (1) parallel rows with the street (2), the trees should be uniformly spaced, and (3) the individual trees should be just as nearly uniform as possible. I will admit that the main lines of trees should be parallel with the street but do not admit that irregular groups of shrubbery and flowers will destroy the artistic effect. That the larger trees should be uniformly spaced and of the same variety and size for the same block or street is also admitted. But, that such trees as the American elm, for instance, be- cause it is lacking in formality, is not a good street tree, cannot be admitted. Neither do I believe that an avenue made up of palms, Lombardy poplars, or dwarfed catalpas, is any more beautiful, harmonious or restful than a street of long curving pendulant elms, although geometrical boldness has not been so thoroughly carried out in the latter case. Clipped trees, occasionally in fantastic shapes, are some- times seen. It scarcely needs to be said, that however ap- propriate they may be in an Italian villa, they have no place along an American highway. But neatly clipped hedges of privet or mulberry may add materially in outlining the geometrical arrangement. It is my opinion that the main trees along a country highway should be much farther apart than they are usually planted. Two to three times the spread of a grown tree of the same variety in that region is none too much. Or the distance may equal the height plus the spread. If 386 Highway Esthetics they are placed on both sides of the roadway they should be alternated, staggered. This gives the trees each in- dividually an opportunity of undisturbed growth, and if they are adapted to the locality and well fed will form large symmetrical trees. American elms, for the Mid-west states should be placed not less than 100 feet apart along country roads. Lombardy poplar closer, say 75 feet; while they do not spread so very far they do grow high. Another rea- son, in addition to that of unrestricted growth, for setting the trees far apart is that for some distance from a tree, perhaps because of the spread of its roots or the shade, crops do not grow well. And as the tree must usually be planted near the edge of the right of way, the farmer who owns the adjacent land is being robbed of the fertility of his soil. The fewer trees that may be set and still give a good appearance the better. The improved appearance of the highway and its benefit to the farm fully compensates for the loss of land, without doubt, when the trees are spaced wide as has been suggested. The varieties of trees that should be planted along high- ways depends upon the location of the land. Those species that will thrive on low bottom land may not thrive on the table and upland. The eucalyptus grows rapidly into a tall, dignified stately tree in California, but would not live at all in Minnesota. The paper birch of Michigan and New York might be out of place entirely in Texas. Only those trees should be planted that experience shows are fitted for the region and locality. In Europe it is common practice to plant apple and other fruit trees along the highway. Such trees might not thrive under American vandalism. Mr. C. A. Reed of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture 1 recommends the planting of nut trees. Among others he mentions black walnut, hickory, Japanese walnut, beech, chestnut, filbert or hazel, and pecan. Of non-nut-bearing trees he thinks the elm the best all-around tree. He also mentions the sugar maple, the 1 In a paper presented, 1921, at the meeting of the Michigan State Good Eoads Association. Highway Esthetics 387 linden, the apple, and especially a native variety known as thorn apple, hawthorn or red haw. There are many other species that grow well. The pin oak and other varieties of oak may be transplanted; two or three poplars — a variety of cottonwood known commer- cially as Carolina poplar is a rapid growing but short- lived tree; ashes, locusts; catalpa, sycamore, the pines, spruces, cedars, and larches, all do well in some localities. Plums, choke-cherries, and black haws make good screen- ing thickets and furnish fruit for the birds. The wild grape and the Virginia creeper will soon completely cover unsightly fences, rocks, and stumps ; the birds also like their fruits. For low planting practically all the shrubs used in decorative gardening are available, while the perennial herbaceous flowering plants become veritable splotches of color to delight the eye of the discerning wayfarer. In the language of Oliver Wendell Holmes, “It will not do to be exclusive in our tastes about trees. There is hardly one of them which has not peculiar beauties in some fitting place for it. ’ ’ Even a blasted and wind-torn tree, or those trees which have the quality of pieturesqueness, such as the gingko, cut -leaved maple, Kentucky coffee, weeping larch, or those artificially dwarfed trees, catalpa and mountain ash, all may be utilized in their appropriate places. Trees. — Apple. — A rather good-looking tree with a beau- tiful show of blossoms in the spring. Used extensively as a road tree in Europe. The native crab-apple and the thorn-apple (red haw) are both fine for their blossoms. They do not grow large so can be used in group planting. Arbor vitae . — A species of cedar used for screens, wind- breaks, and hedges, and for filling in shrubbery where a variety of color is desired. Ash . — There are some half dozen or more varieties found native in the United States covering a region from the At- lantic to the Rockies and extending into Oregon and Wash- ington. Nearly all of them are suitable for road and street trees. In parks they are good for massing as they stand close planting. 388 Highway Esthetics Aspen. — A species of poplar, rapid growing and often springs up in the pine forests after the conifers have been cut off. The color of the leaves makes it desirable in some plantings. Will grow in close masses. Balm of Gilead. — A species of poplar (black cotton- wood) ; a good-looking tree but like other poplars not es- pecially desirable as a road tree, but in all the Northern states where quick growth is wanted might be used. Baynboo . — Native of South Sea Island, Philippines, southern Asia, other southern countries and a species in Florida. A rapid growing plant, quite graceful, and can be utilized for group and massive planting where accli- mated. Basswood. — See Linden. Bay . — See Laurel. Beech . — A beautiful tree both in summer and winter. Best when grown individually. There are fifteen or more species belonging to the genus ( Flagus ). The blue beech or ironwood, a rather small tree, may be used where its peculiar color is desired. Birch . — Some twenty-four species are known in the United States, inhabiting mostly the northern part, ex- tending into Canada and Alaska. The birches, especially the paper or white birch, are distinguished by their light- colored bark. That of the white birch was used by the In- dians for canoes. It is an excellent park tree if it can be saved from being peeled by the ubiquitous vandal. Box Elder . — A species of maple found quite generally from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. It grows to a height of approximately fifty feet with a spread about the same. It casts a dense shade and since it will stand severe climatic changes is a good tree for the naturally treeless sections. Has been used much as a street tree, although not particularly shapely as to trunk. Buckeye . — The buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same genus. To the native species is usually given the name buckeye. The Ohio buckeye is from 30 to 45 feet in PIN OAK STREET TREES A COTTONWOOD WIND BREAK Highway Esthetics 389 height and is useful in mass planting and not at its best in road planting. Camphor. — The Camphor Tree ( Cinnamomum cam- phor a) is quite commonly planted for street trees in the Southeastern, Southern and the Southwestern states. The tree is a thrifty grower and is nice and straight. The leaves and wood have the characteristic aromatic camphor odor, and from them can be extracted the juice. Another tree of the same genus C. zeylanicum has also been imported from Asia and may be found in the same states. From the roots is obtained cassia bark. Catalpa . — Was planted extensively a few years ago be- cause it was thought it would quickly develop timber large enough for fence posts and ties in a few years. The best variety is the Catalpa speciosa, which grows under favor- able conditions to a height of 60 feet, with a spread of 30 feet. The leaves are large and of good color, but slow to appear in the spring and drop at the first frost in the fall. The flowers are very showy. For this reason, its general shapely appearance, and its rapid growth, it is a good road tree. It does not seem to be very long lived, and as a street tree it is objected to by those having close cropped lawns because of its bad habit of shedding its long seed pods all summer. Cedar. — There are many species of cedars, both red and white. The arbor vitae has already been mentioned. Juniperus virginiana is perhaps the best road tree. It grows from 50 to 80 feet tall with a spread of one-quarter to one-third its height. It is suitable in nearly every place where evergreens can be utilized. Its pyramidal shape makes it well adapted to formal landscape architecture and hence would make a good road tree for avenue planting. Citrus Fruit . — Orange, lemon, grapefruit, and citron are freely planted in Florida and California. Where these come up to the highway they answer for road trees. The citrus trees have a beautiful dark green shiny foliage with 390 Highway Esthetics a round top, and with their flowers and ripening fruit are always interesting. Coffee Tree . — A good lawn or park tree, but a very few specimens will be sufficient. Cherry . — The wild cherry, Prunus serotina, also called black-cherry, grows native over much of the eastern and central portions of the United States. It is the tree from which the cherry wood is obtained. It is hardy, grows to a good height, 40 to 80 feet, with a spread of 20 to 40 feet. It is a good road tree spoken of by one writer as “charmingly unconventional,” and bears a slightly bitter pea-sized fruit of which the birds are fond. It is deserving of larger planting as a road and street tree. The choke- cherry is a much smaller tree, from 5 to 20 feet high and can be used in massing and screening. The blossoms in the spring and a little later the fruit of which birds are extremely fond, make it worthy of attention. The Japa- nese flowering cherry and tame cherries are sometimes used for their blossoms. Cottonwood ,. — A species of poplar found native from Maine to Florida and westward to the Koeky Mountains. Being so hardy and a rapid growing tree, it was planted freely by the early settlers in the plains regions of the Mid-west. A variety known as Carolina poplar grows especially straight and tall, from 75 to 100 feet, with a spread of 25 to 30 feet. The cottonwood is not strong and is liable to be broken in the wind, because of this fact old trees are usually more or less unsightly. The shedding of cotton from the pistilate tree is objected to, but this trouble may be avoided by propagating only from staminate trees by cuttings. Nevertheless it is a valuable tree where rapid growth and quick shade is desired. Chestnut . — The chestnut ( Castania vulgarus ) and one or two other species was formerly an important timber tree in the Eastern states. The tree when not in foliage looks something like red oak. It grows to a height of 75 to 100 feet, 5 to 12 feet in diameter. In Europe a chestnut is mentioned 204 feet in circumference. The spread of the Highway Esthetics 391 tree is from one-fourth to one-half its height. The nuts are edible. A bark disease has carried off most of the Eastern trees, and the larvae of insects almost universally infect the nuts. However, it is a rapid grower and might be worth planting where it is known to thrive. Cucumber Tree — A large, handsome tree, symmetrical, 50 to 75 feet in height of the magnolia family, its fruit re- sembling cucumbers. It is a native of the Eastern states. Cypress . — The bald cypress, though a large tree and of commercial importance, has little value as a road tree be- cause it grows in swamps, the very worst place for a road. It might be utilized in the lake of a park. Dogwood . — A native shrub of several varieties. Its low growing tendencies, its beautiful flowers and showy fruit make it- a valuable ornamental shrub for parks. A species Cornus florida grows into a tree some 25 feet high. Douglas Spruce or Fir. — Snow 2 states this ( Pseudotsuga ) genus “is neither a true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock. The name ‘pseudotsuga’ is from pseudo, or false, and tsuga or hemlock.” These trees are among the largest known and the wonder of the traveler through the forests of Oregon and Washington. Along the lines of these roads it were well, if the pleasure of the tourist be of import, to retain the most beautiful specimens. It grows from 175 to sometimes 300 feet in height, and 3 to 5, and sometimes 10 feet in diameter. Elm . — The American elm ( Ulmus americana ) is consid- ered by many to be the best street and road tree in this country. It has a large rounded top with long graceful branches. The shade is not very dense and the lack of foliage near the ground allows the free circulation of air. It grows into an exceptionally fine individual specimen and will also group well. The general good appearance of the tree both in summer and in winter makes it a favorite. There are some fifteen different species of elm distributed over the temperate portions of the Northern Hemisphere, 2 ‘ ‘ The Principal Species of Wood, ” by C. H. Snow, Wiley & Sons, New York. 392 Highway Esthetics except along the western coast of North America. The wood being tough and fibrous it withstands damage from the wind fairly well. Occasionally the long branches become so heavy they break down, but usually the tree is so well balanced that it stands up well. The white or American elm is the favorite for road work. The red or slippery elm ( TJ . pubescens) is a beautiful tree and would be used more frequently in road and park work were it not that its delectable mucilaginous inner-bark makes it the mark of the road vandal. White elm grows from 90 to 100 feet in height with a spread of 50 to 75 feet. There is a tree now being featured by the nurseries called English elm which has a smooth bark and very shapely appearance. The cork elm (U. racemosa), grows from 75 to 90 feet in height, best developed in southern Ontario and Michigan, with a somewhat rough shaggy bark, is also a good road tree. Eucalyptus . — This genus includes about 400 species. They are variously and locally known as gum trees, stringy- barks, iron-barks, mahoganies, and box, and are natives of Australia and neighboring islands. They have been widely planted throughout the world in warm climates. The blue gum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) does well at least as far north as Sacramento, and has practically changed the landscape of Southern California and Arizona. The tree has an ex- tremely rapid growth, reaching a height of 200 and some- times 300 feet. Some of the trees have a shaggy exfoliat- ing bark while others seem smooth. The leaves of the young tree in some of the species, very noticeable in the blue gum, change their form and color as the tree reaches a certain age. Likewise the color and shape of the leaves and flowers differ widely with different species. They all are “evergreen” but the leathery leaves are blue, gray, or green. The leaves of the blue gum are blue, oval, and stalkless when the tree is young while the leaves of the older trees have stems, are dark green, some 10 or 12 inches long, an inch wide, and sickle shaped. In southern California they have been known to grow 25 feet in one year. The various varieties may be used in various ways, some for Highway Esthetics 393 wind breaks and massing and some for individual speci- mens. Some are brilliant with flowers during a period of year when other flowers are scarce. Eucalyptus oil ex- tracted from them is used as a medicine. For dry warm climates they make an excellent road tree. Fir. — There are a large number of species and like other evergreens have their uses in landscape work. They look much like the spruces. In the West many of them grow to tremendous sizes. Gingko. — A picturesque tree, sometimes called the maiden- hair, has been used about the city of Washington for street purposes. Gingko biloba is a native of Japan. While beau- tiful it would require much care to get it properly started. Gum Tree. — The name is applied to trees of diverse species. Sweet gum ( Liquidambar styraciflua ) grows from Connecticut to Florida, and westward, intermittently to Illinois and Texas. Greatest development in the basin of the Mississippi River. This is a tall, straight tree with symmetrical top, rather smooth bark with corky ridges. A good-looking road tree. The star-shaped leaves turn bril- liant scarlet in the fall. The seed pods are a sort of bur or rounded ball. Black, or sour gum, while the wood is difficult to work and does not burn easily, ought to be a fairly successful road tree in some localities. Grows from 45 to 100 feet high. Hedge. — See Osage Orange. Hackberry. — In the Western prairie states has proven itself to be a very good street tree. Grows to a height of about 50 feet with a spread of 30 feet. The bark is corky and deep cut, giving it a rough surface. In general ap- pearance resembles the elm. Deserves more general plant- ing. Hemlock. — Is found native, in several species, over the northern part of the United States and southern Canada. Frequently found with broad-leaved and other needle- leaved timber. Tsuga conadensis grows from 60 to 80 feet in height, has short leaves, green above and light beneath, 394 Highway Esthetics a straight trunk and beautiful appearance. Western hem- lock is found as high as 6500 feet above sea level. Hickory. — The several species of this genus are recom- mended highly for road purposes in the Eastern half of the United States. Probably at its best from Michigan to Missouri. The shagbark ( Hicoria ovata) grows to a height of 75 to 90 feet with a spread of half as much. The bark is rough and shaggy — hence the name. It bears fine edible nuts in abundance. It will well repay planting along the roads. Pignut (H. glabra) a fine tree of about the same height has a smooth bark and nuts that are rather bitter and sometimes astringent, but from its fine appearance and useful wood is worthy of planting. Pecan ( H . pecan) is especially adaptable to the more southern climates, growing very thriftily in Texas and other Southern states. Reed says, 3 “it is the noblest nut tree of all American species. Beautiful trees, sometimes 3 or 4 feet through at the base and from 100 to 150 feet tall, occur in the alluvial soils of the Mississippi River and its tributaries and in the Southwest. In the Southern states it forms a splendid roadside tree and orchards of it are worth going long distances to see. Very often enough nuts are gathered from a half dozen trees on a city lot to pay the taxes and keep up the insurance on the home. ’ ’ Holly. — Occasionally 50 feet in height but more often much smaller, particularly in the North. Occurs from Massachusetts to Texas. The foliage is evergreen and the beautiful red berries remain until spring. Might be util- ized in park plantings. Horse Chestnut. — See Buckeye. Juniper. — See Cedar. Koelreuteria. — Koelreuteria paniculata is recommended for a park tree for middle ground planting, being a small tree, 15 to 30 feet high, with feathery pinnate leaves and yellow blossoms. Larch.—' The larches are deciduous, needle-leaved coni- 11 “Useful Trees for Boadside Planting,” a paper before the Michi- gan State Good Eoads Association, 1921. Highway Esthetics 395 fers. A tall, straight, slender tree. If planted at all should be in groups or masses. The winter aspect is not particularly inviting. Laurel. — The laurels, known as magnolia trees, Magnolia grandi flora found along the Atlantic as far north as Wash- ington, and Umbellularia calif ornica and Arbutus menziesii found in California, are ornamental trees of the highest rank. They make fine individual specimens reaching a height from 50 to 100 feet and a spread fully half as much. The dark evergreen foliage and large showy flowers give them a most beautiful appearance. A magnolia avenue is certainly worth seeing. Several other varieties of laurel are recommended for planting as far north as New York. Lemon. — See Citrus Fruit. Lignum vitae. — A low gnarled tree grown in semitropical regions. Could be used in picturesque landscape work. Linden. — Variously called basswood, whitewood, linn, beetree ; is found intermittently throughout the eastern half of the United States. It is, when grown, 60 to 90 feet in height and has a spread of 30 to 45 feet. It has large, smooth leaves and in the spring its flowers are very produc- tive of honey. It is quick growing but said to be long lived. The American linden ( Tilia americana) is perhaps the most thrifty for a road tree. It can be used individually and deserves more extensive planting. Locust.-—' The name locust seems to have been applied to three distinct genera of the family Leguminosae. The black locust ( Robinia pseudacia ) is a fine appearing tree but in the Middle West is much subject to attack by borers. In other regions it does not seem to suffer that way. It attains a height of 50 to 75 feet, and a spread half as great. The honey locust, a little larger tree, 75 to 90 feet high, with a spread of 30 to 40 feet, is less subject to borer attack, and is one of the hardiest trees for Western Kansas, 4 upland planting. The long compound thorns are sometimes objectionable, but these may be avoided by select- ing only those specimens having no thorns, for the thorns 4 “Forestry and Irrigation,” August, 1903. 396 Highway Esthetics are frequently absent. As a road tree the honey locust is worthy of much attention. Another genus of locusts is the ordinary mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora) of the so-called desert regions. They sometimes grow to 40 or 50 feet in height, sometimes they are a shrub. They are naturally a dry country plant and should be used in places where the moisture is scanty. It is said, 5 “The easily agitated foliage cools the air to a surprising degree.” The “cool shade of the mesquite” is a characteristic phrase. A valuable tree in its own region. The roots furnish wood, the pods are filled with a sweetish pulp from which the Indians, it is said, made “bread, cake, and fermented drink.” “A black dye is obtained from the sap, and a good mucilage from the gum.” Magnolia . — See Laurel. Maple. — One of the best road trees, by some considered superior to Elm. The hard maple ( Acer saccharum ), the soft maple ( Acer saccharinum) , are the principal Ameri- can species of the genus, comprising very many, which grow in the Northern Hemisphere. The Norway maple ( Acer platanoides ) similar to the hard or sugar maple, has been imported and is used to a considerable extent. The hard maple in New York state and the east is a rapid growing tree ; when transplanted to the plains region its growth is very slow. The Norway maple seems to be more rapid, but that too, is slow in those regions. Hard maples grow to 70 or 100 or more feet in height with a spread of nearly the same. When allowed to grow individually and branch from the ground, they form an oval top nearly as wide as high. The shade is dense and the numerous branches in winter and heavy foliage in summer give to the tree a very fine appearance. The leaves turn yellow and scarlet in the fall giving to the woods a most fascinatingly gorgeous aspect. What has been said about the hard maple is true in a lesser extent of soft maples. In the western part of the Mississippi Valley the soft maple is a much more rapid “Snow: “ The Principal Species of Wood. ’ ’ 2d Ed., Wiley & Sons, N. Y. Highway Esthetics 397 grower. The height attained is not quite so great, 40 to 90 feet. They have when allowed room a fine shape some- times suggesting elm. The leaves are silvery white be- neath, which is why they are sometimes called silver maple. They do not turn so yellow or so red in autumn as the hard maple. On the whole a road tree that may be recom- mended. The red maple has been mentioned under the name box elder. The Oregon maple ( Acer macro phyllum) about the same size as the soft maple is one of the most ornamental broad-leaved trees on the Pacific Coast. Mulberry . — Red and white, named from the color of the ripe fruit, under good conditions attain a height of 40 to 60 feet, and are quite ornamental. The fruit is sweet, lacking in acid, but is liked by the birds and by some people. A Russian shrub variety is used for low hedges and stands trimming remarkably well. Oak . — The oaks not only furnish the finest of building lumber but are practically all good ornamental trees. The principal reasons they are not used more are the difficulty of transplanting them and their slow growth. However, they are well worth the trouble and wait. The oaks, of which there are some 300 species, are found native in most of the Northern Hemisphere and in a few places south of the equator. They are usually classified as white oaks, red oaks and live oaks. They are quite easily distinguished by the foliage, bark, and general appearance of the trees, but not easily, always, by the wood. In all cases the fruit is an acorn, an oval or oblongly lanceolate smooth nut having a thin shell and partly enclosed in a scaly woody cup. A dozen or more species could be described as good road and park trees, but a few will suffice. White oak ( Quercus alba) is widespread throughout the north central and eastern United States. It rises to 75 or 100 feet in height and spreads nearly as much. It is truly a mag- nificent tree when grown. The cow oak ( Q . michauxii) grows best in a slightly more southern region, is nearly the same size. The chestnut oak ( Q . prinus) is slightly smaller, is found along the eastern border, has leaves somewhat 398 Highway Esthetics resembling a chestnut, and reaches 75 to 80 feet in height. Post oak ( Q . minor), still smaller, inhabits the Gulf states. Bur oak ( Q . macrocarpa) , one of the largest of the oaks, extends farthest west and northwest of the eastern oaks. It is recommended for prairie planting. The red oak, ( Q . rubea ) best in the Northeastern states, is found native as far west as Nebraska. It is 90 to 100 feet in height, is rather more upright than the white oaks, the spread not so great. The pin oak ( Q . palustris ) has proven itself well adapted for transplanting. Since it has a straight upright trunk and symmetrical body is a good street and road tree, at least as far west as Nebraska. The live oaks ( Q . vir- giniana), (Q. agrifolia), (Q. chrysotepis) do well in the Southern states and in California. They grow from 50 to 80 feet in height and are evergreen. Q. bicolar, and the scarlet oak, Q. coccinea , are also recommended for land- scape gardening. Orange. — See Citrus Fruit. Osage Orange. — Used extensively for hedges, hence the name sometimes given to it, “hedge.” Fruit resembles an orange. Long thorns. Wood hard, but cheeks badly in drying ; heart, a beautiful orange, sapwood yellow. Makes very durable fence posts. Palm. — Palms come under the division Endogenous, or those that increase from within. Yuccas, cornstalks, sugar cane, bamboos are other examples of endogens. There are 1000 or more species of palms. Some of them are very decorative and in regions where they grow, such as South- ern California and Florida, may be used very effectively for road and park embellishment. The Washington palm ( Washingtonia filifera ) grows to a height of 30 to 60 feet, with a tuft of fan-shaped leaves at the top. Old leaves die and hang down the tree like a thatched roof. Sometimes these are trimmed off, leaving a smooth stem nearly the same size all the way up. They are very effective in pro- ducing rows or avenues. Cabbage palmetto ( Sabal pal- metto) also has a long stem with a tuft of leaves at the top. The date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) has been grown Highway Esthetics 399 quite successfully in Arizona. Several other species are available. Pecan. — See Hickory. Pepper . — Snow 6 states that the California pepper tree or Peruvian mastic ( Schinus molle ) was introduced into California from Peru by the early Spanish missions. It is now a very popular street and road tree. In general ap- pearance it suggests the drooping foliage of the weeping willow. It is very irregular and grows to 30 or 50 feet high with a spread nearly as great. The fine fern-like foliage and the long sprays of rose tinted berries make it very ornamental. It gives off a pleasant pungent peppery odor, and it is claimed to have the property of stopping dust, something greatly needed during the summer season in California. Pignut. — One of the Hickories, q. v. Pine . — Nearly forty species of pine are found in the United States. They have high ornamental qualities and are used extensively in nearly every part of the country. Except on the great plains, one or more species are to be found. The different species grow from mere dwarfs to immense trees. For park purposes the white pine ( Pinus strobus), an imported Scotch pine, an imported Norway pine, and the dwarf mugho have been very popular. (The sugar pine (P. lambertianu) grows in the high regions of California, is a fine tree and has cones 16 to 18 inches long). Plane Tree . — See Sycamore. Plum . — Is used in thickets for screening and for its flowers and fruit. Pissard’s plum has been largely used for ornamental planting. The American plum ( Prunus ameri- cana) works well in a general composition and is very thrifty. Poplar . — The aspen, cottonwood, and balm of Gilead, have already been mentioned, one more needs attention, whitewood or tulip tree ( Liriodendron tulipitera), found native in the eastern part of the United States. It is the tree from which the whitewood of commerce is mostly ob- * Op. cit. 400 Highway Esthetics tained. It grows to a height of 90 to 150 feet, and to a diameter of 6 to 12 feet, with a corresponding wide spread. It has been cut out until it is not particularly common any more. On account of the wood being soft, without knots, and free from season checks, the logs were utilized by the Indians for “dugout” boats. Hough states some were large enough to carry twenty or thirty persons. This, one of the most useful of American deciduous trees, de- serves more liberal planting. Quercus . — See Oak. Redwood . — These trees are native to California. There are two species — the mammoth trees ( Sequoia washing- tonia) of which a comparatively few large specimens re- main, and the common redwood ( S . sempervirens ) which is now being rapidly cleared off by lumber companies. ‘ ‘ Big or mammoth trees have been measured up to 320 feet in height and 35 feet in diameter” (Snow). These trees on account of the thick bark, on the large trees some 2 feet, resist fires very well. This is shown by ring counting and investigations on a fallen tree by Professor Dudley. 7 This tree dated back to 271 years before the Christian Era and showed that fires had occurred during the years a.d. 245, 1441, 1580, and 1797. The last fire charred a space 30 feet high and 18 feet broad, but full recovery had been made. The tree grows rapidly. Snow states that trees have been known to develop a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 16 inches in thirty years. In the Mariposa grove, at least partially under U. S. Forest Reserve, the roads wind about through the great natural avenues formed by these trees. On account of the great commercial value of red- wood the trees might, in places where they will grow, be Utilized for road planting to encourage their growth by others, and assist the government in its long-time forest plans. Sassafras. — Native to the eastern part of the country is a good looking tree of small size, rising to a height of 30 to 50 feet with a spread one-third as great. It has the ehar- T Congressional Keeord, Senate Doe. 156, Vol. V, 58th Cong. Highway Esthetics 401 acteristic sassafras odor, the bark of the roots being used for medicine. Will mass well. The leaves being some lobed and some not lobed lend a pleasing variety. Is best in naturalistic planting. Sequoia . — See Redwood. Slnagbark . — See Hickory. Spruce . — Perhaps the most important evergreen used in landscape gardening, sharing that position with the pines. They seem to enjoy long winters and short summers, hence are well adapted to the Northern states. As they have a very trim symmetrical shape they can be utilized excep- tionally well in formal planting. They go well also with informal planting, lending a splotch of green on an other- wise gray winter landscape. When planted at uniform spacing along an avenue they outline it exceedingly well without very much obstruction to clear vision if they are not set close together. The black ( Picea nigra ) and white ( Picea alba ) spruces rise from 40 to 100 feet in height with a compact symmetric conical shape. The black spruce has the darker foliage. The Colorado blue spruce (P. parry- ana) has been much in vogue as an ornamental tree, the new foliage having a blue tinge. Norway spruce (P. abies) has been used very largely in ornamental cultivation. The cones are large, 5 to 7 inches, nearly cylindrical, and the branches droop in artistic fashion. The Sitka Spruce (P. sichensis ) of the Pacific coast region from Alaska to Northern California is a large tree of great commercial im- portance, and will grow well on low grounds. Sugar Tree . — See Maple. Sycamore. — The plane tree or buttonwood ( Platanus Oc- cident alis) is found in the central and eastern portion of the United States, best in the Ohio and Mississippi River basins. It attains a height of 90 to 100 feet, and a spread of half as much. The outer bark peels off, leaving the inner exposed in white patches. Its straight, upright trunk and symmetrical form when allowed free growth ought to com- mend it for road planting. The fruit are rough balls about an inch in diameter which dangle in the air like ornaments 402 Highway Esthetics on a Christmas tree. The California sycamore (P. race - mosa) is a smaller tree with a poorer quality of wood, but in general appearance somewhat the same. Tamarack. — See Larch. Teak. — A tree of great commercial importance in India and Africa. Has been transplanted to some extent in the Southern states but not yet sufficiently numerous to be con- sidered a road tree. Thorn. — Several members of the Crataegus family are suitable for landscape planting. Crataegus crus-galli, C. tomentosa, and C. coccinea, native plants, and the English hawthorn, C. oxyacantha, are all recommended where small trees are desired. Tulip Tree. — See Poplar. Tupelo. — Same as Black or Sour Gum. Vlmus . — See Elm. Walnut. — Three species of walnut are used for road trees — black walnut, butternut, and English (Persian) wal- nut. The black walnut ( Juglans nigra) makes a handsome tree when allowed to develop individually, from 90 to 125 feet high, and 3 to 8 feet in diameter with a normal spread about one-half the height of the tree. The edible nuts are the delight of the small boy and as they are usually gath- ered up from the ground after they fall their collection will not injure the tree. The foliage is not very dense and it will not take away greatly the fertility of neighboring ground hence, makes an almost ideal road tree. Since the World War, according to Reed 8 it has been considered a favorite as a memorial tree. Its native habitat is the eastern half of the United States intermittently from the Atlantic to Nebraska and Texas, but it thrives when transplanted to the states of Oregon and Washington and is being used ex- tensively by the State of California as a road tree. The trees grow well from the nut or they may be transplanted from a nursery by cutting the tap root one year ahead of transplanting as is necessary for most nut trees. The but- ternut ( J . cinerea), sometimes called white walnut, is a B Op. cit. Highway Esthetics 403 very similar tree, a little smaller and has not quite so ex- tensive a native range. The nuts are not round like the black walnut, but lanceolate in shape. On the whole the black walnut is the better road tree. The English walnut ( J . regia) is a native of Persia, but is grown very largely in orchards in California where the annual crop of nuts is more than 20,000,000 pounds. Hardy varieties suitable for more severe climates are advertised but it is not here recommended that they be planted where experience has not shown them to thrive. The tree itself is of fine appear- ance, and in the warmer climates makes a good road tree. White Wood. — A name given to trees of various genera. See Basswood, Poplar. Willow. — Willows may be used in decorative planting to a considerable extent, especially along banks to keep them from washing and other low places. The black willow ( Salix nigra ) grows into an interesting tree with a rough trunk and long pendulous limbs and narrow lance-shaped leaves. It resembles in general appearance the pepper trees of California. It should be used more as a road tree across low bottoms. It grows only 40 to 50 feet high, but its spread is fully as much, giving it a rounded, ball-shaped top. Salix regatis, S. alba, S. vitillina aurea, and S. lauri- folia are all recommended for decorative effects. Yucca. — Many of the yuccas are merely herbaceous plants with beautiful flowers, but the Joshua tree ( Yucca arbor escens) grows to be 25 to 40 feet in height, and two feet in diameter; it is so very ungainly that it is pictur- esque. Shrubs. — Any nursery catalogue will give a wilderness of shrubs from which a good selection may be made. But the discerning road gardener will take advantage of the native plants and not only preserve them but so arrange them along the roadside as to give unity and variety to a com- plete stretch of road. We notice the large trees because their size thrust them upon us, but we are likely tu over- look the smaller plants or think of them simply as weeds to be got rid of. The native wild plants are all too fast 404 Highway Esthetics disappearing. Practically the only places where they may now be found are along the highways and the railways, and in the farther forests where the cattle have not yet trampled them out. The road man who has a love for nature in his heart will take interest in preserving for future genera- tions, that they may know what this land looked like before the hand of man changed it for better or for worse, these narrow strips of natural loveliness. Then let the graceful wild flowers and the sturdy shrubs be a connecting link be- tween the sordid interests of man, symbolized by the hard, hard pavement and the boundless breadth of God’s good- ness exemplified by the abundance in the vast outspread of fertile fields and the deep and reverent dignity of the mighty forest. If nature’s wild flowers and shrubs are selected there will be no need of artificial fences and pergolas for support or straw and hay covering in the winter thus losing to the passerby at least one-half the pleasure that Nature herself can furnish. Nature is liberal and will furnish artistic pleasure the year around if given a reasonable opportunity to do so. Alder . — The green or mountain alder ( Alnus virdis), 3 to 8 feet tall. Also A. incana, a little larger — 8 to 20 feet. Adapted to damp soils. Barberry. — Plant only the Japanese barberry ( Barberis thunbergii) as the common variety has been convicted of carrying the spores of wheat rust. The barberry has slen- der graceful branches with fine bright green foliage. Small yellow flowers in June with berries turning scarlet and re- maining on bushes all winter. Colors up nicely after frost. Three to 5 feet high. Button Bush, Cephalanthus occidentalis. — Hardy native shrub, 4 to 8 feet high. Globular heads of white flowers in the spring. Foliage good. Bush Honeysuckle, Louicera tartarica. — Four to 10 feet. Upright somewhat spreading branches; bright green foli- age. Flowers freely in May and June. A good background for smaller shrubs. Highway Esthetics 405 Buck Brush, Ceanothus. — North American species of the buckthorn family. Yellow or blue flowers in terminal clusters, small shrub. Butterfly Bush, Buddleia Variabilis Magnified. — This is advertised highly as an ever bloomer, beginning in early spring and continuing until frost. Hardy except in ex- treme Northern states. Cinque Foil, Potentilla fruticosa. — Three to 4 feet. Hardy native shrub. Bright yellow flowers. Cherries, Prunus. — The native plums and cherries are nearly all so small as to be called shrubs. They are worthy of planting for ornamental purpose. The sand cherries are natives of the western sandhill regions; P. besseyi, and P. pumila are excellent. For massing the common choke- cherry is one of the best small trees known, the flowers are beautiful and the fruit is excellent food for the birds. Coral Berry, Indian Currant, Symphoricarpus vulgaris. '—Common native shrub, graceful, and holds through the winter bright little red berries. Two to 3 feet high. Currant. — See Ribes. Dogwood, Cornus, several species. — About thirty species distributed over the Northern Hemisphere. Chiefly shrubs, all hardy and ornamental, handsome foliage, stems, flowers, and fruits. The unfortunate name “dogwood” seems to have been fastened upon these beautiful plants because a decoction of the astringent bark was used to wash mangy dogs. 9 The dogwoods are mostly shrubs, except three or four species in the Southern states. Some of the smaller ones were called Kinnikinick 10 by the Indians, applied to at least the red osier ( C . stolonifera) and the silky cornel ( C . amomum). The highly colored red and purple stems give them a striking appearance in the winter. In the sum- mer the foliage bright green in some, grayish green in others, the white flowers and white berries changing to “New Nature Library, Vol. Ill, p. 411, “The Tree Book,” by Julia E. Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1914. 10 This Indian word seems to have been applied to many plants the leaves or bark of which was used for smoking. 406 Highway Esthetics blue, always prominent even after the foliage has taken on gorgeous coloring in autumn, makes them stand out prom- inently from other bushes in their neighborhood. By all means let the dog- woods be preserved by planting along not too dry places in our roadways. The species especially desirable are, in addition to the two mentioned, C. baileyi, C. sericea, C. mas, C. sanguinea, and C. horida. Daphne. — D. mezerum, a low shrub, 1 to 3 feet, with rose- colored flowers. D. cneorum, a hardy evergreen shrub from Europe. Deutzia. — Not quite hardy in the North. There are sev- eral species. Elder. — The common elder, Sambacus canadensis, is a rapid-growing plant with ornamental qualities of high rank. Its pinnately compound leaves, its beautiful little lacy flowers which combine into broad compound cymes giving them a very showy appearance, and its fruit — small berries in the same showy cyme bunches — make it worthy the notice of road gardeners. The golden elders give bright color but are probably freaky. In the South the Mexican elder (S. mcxicana ) grows into a tree 30 feet high. Like- wise the pale elder ( S . glanca ) on the Pacific coast; it is said to grow 50 feet tall in Oregon. The fruit of the elder is edible ; is used for wine and pies. Exochorda grandiflora . — A shrub bearing white blossoms in spring. Evergreens . — A number of the evergreens are dwarf or so slow growing that they may be very effectively used for shrubbing. The arbor vitas has been used in hedges. Pines, cedars and spruces are commonly used to heighten archi- tectural effects. Fringe Tree, Chionanthus virginica. — A shrub or small tree blossoming profusely about lilac flowering time. Foli- age not particularly good. Flowering Almond, Amygdalus nana. — A dwarf almond cultivated for its flowers, imported from Russia. Grows 4 or 5 feet high and in the spring the slender stems are almost wholly covered with the blossoms. Highway Esthetics 407 Flowering Crab. — Nearly every state has the wild crab- apple, which is hardy and a most beautiful flowering plant when in bloom. The fruit is usually small and sour, but the early settlers found it fine for jelly, and the wild tang is delightful. Crab trees have been domesticated so that now nursery men claim a double flowering crab, extremely beautiful with fragrant double flowers of delicate pink. The tree is of medium height. Golden Bell, Forsytliia viridissima, and F. Fortunei bear great quantities of yellow flowers in early spring. At their best in the Eastern states. F. syspensa is a weeping or semi-prostrate form. Hercules Club, Aralia spinosa. — Six to 18 feet high. Its large leaves give it a somewhat tropical effect. Hydrangia paniculata grandifiora. — The shrub hydran- geas furnish large showy white flowers in the autumn after most flowers have gone. Very effective between the greens of the shrubs and trees and of the grass. Indian Currant. — See Coral Berry. Japan Quince, Pyrus japonica. — Cultivated for its bril- liant scarlet flowers in early spring. Judas Tree. — See Red Bud. June Berry, Amalanchier canadensis. — Also called serv- ice berry (in the Black Hills, sarvice berry) or shad bush. A slender tree, 6 to 20 feet, with pretty flowers forming early before the leaves. Fruit, berries, one-third of an inch in diameter, edible, extremely well liked by the birds. Two other species, A. oboralis and A. alnifolia, are equally useful as ornamental trees. The first and second species native in Canada and North Central states ; the third west of the mountains from Alaska to Oregon. Kerria japonica. — Three to 8 feet. A pretty shrub with slender twigs and yellow flowers. Lilac. — The common cultivated lilacs, an important gar- dening shrub, belongs to the genus Syringa. They may be used in clumps or in hedges, and require very little care except to cut them back occasionally and clean out dead wood. Several fine varieties are now on the market. 408 Highway Esthetics Mock Orange . — See Syringa. Oleaster, Elaeagnus Longipes, E. argentia and E. hor- tensis. — Sometimes called wild Olive. Said to have edible fruits. Pea-Tree, Caragana frutescens, a low shrub bearing yel- low pea-like flowers in spring. C. arborescens, similar, larger. Plums. — A number of wild plums are very suitable for road planting. In fact they plant themselves if given an opportunity. Good for massing and screening. Primus americana and P. maritima are especially recommended. Privet. — Hardy shrubby hedge plants. Best adapted for carefully trimmed low hedges 2 to 3 feet high. Ligustrum vulgare and L. ovalifolium are both used. For the North Central states it is recommended that “Amoor Kiver” privet be used as the “California” privet is not alto- gether hardy. May also be used for massing. Raspberry, Rubus odoratus. — The flowering raspberry grows from 3 to 5 feet tall and may be used in clumps for small massing wherever brambles may be desired. Red Bud, Judas Tree, Cercis canadensis. — A very strik- ing small tree, from 10 to 30 feet high, in the early spring when its bright red-purple flowers appear before the leaves. V ery noticeable in the bluffs along the large rivers where it dots the gray and greening hillsides with splotches of color. The foliage and bark are also good, so that it is well worthy of note for roadside planting. Ribes aureum. — Sometimes called the flowering currant. A very hardy native, useful for massing. It bears bright yellow flowers, whose spicy fragrance soon call attention to it when in bloom. Grows from 4 to 7 feet high and spreads rapidly by suckers. Other species of currant and goose- berries are valuable for massing. Rhododendrons . — In the Eastern states as far north as Massachusetts these ornamental plants are very popular. As a road shrub it could hardly be used on account of the thieving propensities of some people. Roses. — The hardy flowering roses in massed groups will Highway Esthetics 409 give color and interest to the roadside. The sweet-brier and single prairie rose grow profusely in the Central West. The ramblers may be used to cover old fences. The diffi- culty with most roses is a lack of artistic beauty after they have ceased flowering. A few have good foliage for mass- ing. In Oregon and other Coast states the perpetual bloom- ing roses may be utilized. Shad Bush . — See June Berry. Snowball . — There are several species and varieties. Viburnum opulus and its varieties are probably best. Very hardy, good foliage, from 4 to 10 feet high, and when in bloom in the spring a most impressive sight with each bunch of blossoms looking like a truly big snowball. Snowberry. — Similar to the Indian currant, but has white berries. A very hardy native ; blooming in the late summer its berries remain on the bush-like small pearls until late into the winter. Symphoricarpus racemosus is the native shrub well worthy of cultivation. Will make its way wild along the roads if given a chance. Spice Bush, Calycanthus floridus. — A small shrub bear- ing spicy flowers. Spirea. — The several species are all very artistic shrubs and worthy of the popularity which they bear. Can be used as a single bush, in hedges or in masses. The long graceful bends of the slender stems, reminding one of the streams of water from a fountain, their beautiful foliage and above all the foaming flowers in the spring time make them the horticulturist’s favorite. Spirea van houttei, bridal wreath, is considered to be the best, although S. prunifolia, and S. Thunbergii have their admirers. S. anthony waterer bears crimson flowers. Squawberry. — A local name sometimes given to Indian currant and snowberry, q. v. St. Johnswort. — A number of small shrubs of the family Hypericum. H. aureum has a height of 3 feet and flour- ishes in the Southern and Western states. Wild it prefers rocky situations and shady spots. Yellow flowers. Strawberry Tree, Euonymus atropurpureus . — Also called 410 Highway Esthetics burning bush. Hardy in the South. Bright ornamental fruit persists into the winter. Sumach . — Several species of the family Rhus. They are native over a wide range and very hardy. The leaves are pinnately compound and hang down from the top of the stem something like a palm leaf, giving a suggestion of the tropics. Of about 120 species of Rhus some sixteen are found in North America; all but four are shrubs. The poison sumach, Rhus vernix, should never be allowed to grow along the roads as touching the plant is said to be far worse than handling poison ivy. It grows in wet or swampy ground and the white berries are in drooping clus- ters. The ornamental sumach, R. glabra, is the ordinary common roadway plant, with its upright fruit clusters per- sisting late into the winter showing deep red against a gray or snowy white background. Its foliage is bright and clean during the summer and turns to rich colors in the autumn. Many ugly spots can with very little trouble be covered with this harmless roadside friend. Sweet Gale, Myrica gale, and sweet fern, M. asplenifolia, are native small shrubs that can be well used in shrubbery border. Syringa. — Sometimes called mock orange. This shrub grows to about 8 or 12 feet high and on account of its many white flowers in late spring or early summer is a favorite garden shrub. In shape and fragrance the flowers resemble orange blossoms. It may be used in clumps, masses or in hedges. It is very satisfactory because it seldom fails to bloom and has good appearance afterward. Old wood should be cut out. The best species to plant are Philadel- phus coronarius, P. grandiflorus, and P. gordonianus. Tamarix or Tamarisk. — A shrub of the genus Tamarix, which has been imported from the Mediterranean regions. The feathery foliage reminds one of the cypress vine. The species best adapted to the United States is T. gallica. It bears pink flowers in late summer. Is good for covering unsightly banks. May be propagated from cuttings. It will kill out in extreme winters. Highway Esthetics 411 Wegelia, Diervilla florida. — Several varieties. Good blooming plants and usually hardy. Rather poor foliage. White Alder, Clethra alnifolia. — Native shrub 3 to 10 feet high. Willow. — Many of the Salix family are shrubby and can be used well in low places. As they come into foliage early in the spring they are often used by the landscape artist. The shining twigs and leaves lend variety. Yucca. — The yuccas may be used effectively with formal plantings, or to lend variety to naturalesque schemes. Climbing Plants. — A few climbing plants, perhaps, will be needed to complete the plan, but they can readily be found in such plants as: The Wild Grape. — It will grow 50 feet in a season and cover the nakedness of an old fence or stump with lovely foliage and furnish quantities of fruit for bird or human consumption. Ampelopsis quinquefolia. — Another rapid grower, also furnishing beauty and bird food. A. veitchii and A. en- glemanii are fine for covering brick and stone work. Bittersweet. — Another native climber showing beautiful red berries throughout the winter. Clematis. — Several varieties, some of them native, per- fectly hardy, such as Clematis virginiana, not only gives its flowers but extends the pleasure long into the winter with the “old man’s beard.” C. paniculata is a favorite, flow- ering profusely late in the fall. Honeysuckle, Lonicera. — White, red and yellow are found. L. sempervirens will be satisfactory for roadside work. Trumpet Creeper. — A hardy rapidly growing vine with large trumpet-shaped red flowers. Wistaria. — A rapid growing favorite with large spike like flowers, violently purple. There are a number of other climbers available. The hop vine is a good grower, coming up year after year from the root. The several morning glories, from the old fashioned white that was the bane of the corn cultivator and the 412 Highway Esthetics purple glory our grandmothers loved to the Japanese vari- ety and the moon flower, are all good in place. There is not time to go into the wealth of hardy peren- nial flowers, and the annuals which seed themselves, nor the grasses that may be utilized. The author would refer those who are interested to works on landscape gardening and horticulture. For a brief discussion of “the principles governing outdoor art with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening,” see “Landscape Gardening,” by F. A. Waugh, Orange Judd Company, New York. Semi-Formal Style. — In what precedes much has been said about beautifying the highway by proper planting. Perhaps one of the nicest and most ornamental pieces of road is that with a single row of trees, uniformly set and of uniform size, down each side; the grass from the road- way out neatly clipped; and the edge of the roadway where it joins the ditch a distinct line parallel to the road center line. This is the geometrical or formal style fully carried out. Hard maples set, say, 75 feet apart will give satisfactory results. For long level stretches the Lombardy poplar will give a pleasing variety to the landscape. Care- ful attention to the small details of keeping the road sur- face well smoothed, the side lines straight and the grass and weeds mowed, will add wonderfully to the pleasure of traveling on any highway. It is not the intention to have the grass smoothed with a lawn mower — however, with the horse-drawn and motor driven mowers now available that would not be impossible, and the road would look all the better for such clipping — but to have it mowed two or three times a season to give the grass a chance to overcome ugly weeds. For this reason the side ditches should be as wide and shallow as possible in order that they might grow grass on their bottoms and the mowing be done with a machine. Telephone and Other Poles. — The matter of telephone, telegraph, electric light, and other poles is one that will bother. Telephone companies pay no more and not as Highway Esthetics 413 much directly for the use of the highway as do trucks, but upon the theory that telephone communication is neces- sary for the transaction of community business and for the general dissemination of information, and from the further fact that any charge made for the use of the right of way would be passed on to the public as a sort of indirect tax, they are in most states allowed to set their poles along the roadside. The poles are more or less unsightly and as far as the beauty of the highway is concerned it would be better if they could be removed. In cities and villages the wires are being carried in cables and in many places under ground. “The Ideal Section.” — The so-called ideal section of pavement being sponsored by the Lincoln Highway Asso- ciation, located about 40 miles south of Chicago, between Dyer and Schererville, Lake County, Indiana, is to have all pole lines and other unsightly features removed, that the natural beauty of the right of way may be enhanced. A prominent landscape gardener has made extensive studies of the land and natural features, it being in a wooded country, and has developed a plan of beautification which will be worked out along the roadside. The general speci- fications of the “Ideal Section” calls for 40 feet of con- crete paving, 10 inches thick and reinforced with steel in such a manner that it is hoped to prevent cracking. Shoul- ders of 5 feet on each side will make the used roadway 50 feet wide. It is to be placed in the middle of a 100-foot right of way, allowing 25 feet each side for landscape gar- dening. The plans for the “Ideal Section” follow the ad- vice of a highly trained technical committee of road en- gineers and road enthusiasts, and while they do not claim this represents the ultimate in highways, the Association believes an attempt should be made to crystallize the ideas of the foremost highway authorities of the country into a tangible expression of the ideal,- even though the expression must lack perfection. Of course, it is not possible that all roads in the country can be made “ideal sections.” Nor even can telephone 414 Highway Esthetics poles be banished from the right of way. To do this, no matter how desirable it might be from an esthetic stand- point, is impracticable at the present time. It would not only be a very great hardship to the pole-using companies but the expense of removal and the cost of new right of way, or, if they be forced under ground, the cost of con- duits, cables, and installation would become a part of the capital investment on which dividends must be earned. Since this would not bring extra business it would be passed on to the public by increased rates. As “it is a condition and not a theory that confronts us,” we must make the best of it and design the roadside treatment with the poles and wires as a part of it. Location of Poles. — In prairie district where there are no trees to interfere it is customary to set the poles either on the fence line or half the length of the cross- arms into the right of way. In case there are high hedges, trees or other obstructions, the poles are set near the side ditch, and trolley poles often on the very edge of the traveled roadway. On the whole it would seem best in most places to set the poles just outside of the ditch, leaving if possible the extreme edge for the planting of trees and shrubs. Neither poles nor trees should be set on the middle of the space between the edge of the ditch and the right-of-way boundary. In either ease the limbs of the trees and the wires will interfere and the wire- men will hack the trees and leave them unsightly. In some states an attempt is made to prevent this and other vandalism by legal enactment, making it unlawful to cut any trees on the right of way without express permission of the highway commissioner. No definite fixed rule can be made for the position of the poles. It is a problem to make the best of them. Also having once been set the pole owners may refuse to reset them, and it might be difficult to get courts to see the necessity of doing so. Therefore the landscape gardener will have to make his design with reference to them or, in co- operation with the pole users, get them changed. In the Highway Esthetics 415 design natural condition should be preserved as far as possible. It might be wanted rightly to preserve large trees standing near the roadway; this would force poles to the fence line. When the poles are thus placed on the right-of-way boundary it may be necessary for the company to secure an easement from the owner of adjacent property. The highway officials, no doubt, under such circumstances would cooperate with the company in securing it. By considering the poles as a part of the formal or semi- formal treatment of the roadside, having them arranged uniformly as to setting, distance, height, and length of cross-arms, they will not appear very ugly and even may unite interestingly, at least, with the landscape. Trees may be trained and pruned so that their branches will be above the wires, and shrubs may be grown below them. Anyway, the wires look like business. Legislation. — Michigan, California, Maryland, Massa- chusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and possibly other states have legislation covering some or all features that have been mentioned for improving and making attractive the appearance of the highway. Other states require property owners to mow the roadside abutting their land each year before weed seeds ripen, but this is not for the purpose of beautifying the roadway. The laws of Michigan provide for the plant- ing and care of trees along state trunk line roads and national aid roads and allow counties and smaller political divisions to appropriate funds for this purpose. The in- jury or cutting of trees without authority from proper road officials is made a misdemeanor. Arrangements are also made for the Agricultural College to furnish trees and advice for roadside planting. The laws of Michigan contemplate first a formal applica- tion by the counties for roadside improvement, then the plans are made by the staff of the Agricultural College. The necessary trees and shrubs will be obtained from the Agricultural College, or from local sources ; nearby groves often furnishing all that are necessary, and the owners are 416 Highway Esthetics willing to donate them for thinning often betters their own property. In other cases automobile clubs and other local organizations pay for them. Local Conditions Determine Planning. — It cannot be too much emphasized that local conditions must determine the planning. The soil and topography, the future de- velopment of the roadway for the probable amount of traffic it is to carry, are all factors that should be considered. Neither must the planting be so profuse that the roadway is hemmed in with no lookout. Vision of the interesting points of view as well as vision along the highway itself must not be obstructed. Long vistas of fields, of hills and valleys, of mountain peaks and ranges, of lakes and rivers, are more interesting usually than all the planting that could be made on the right of way. Long, straight rows of trees uniformly spaced, while excellent in some places, might if continued too far become monotonous. Fit the planting to the landscape; possibly a clump here a clump there, or a small grove leading up a draw on land unfit for farming may be arranged in cooperation with the owner. Woodland should be purchased and parks pre- pared for picnics and outings. Massachusetts has done much in this way. The Government invites the public to make use of the National Parks and National Forest Re- serves, but they are too far away from most people to fill an every-day want, therefore a need of local road beautifica- tion and roadside parks. ‘ ‘ Cover up ugliness and leave beauty, ” is a good slogan, and it must not be thought to be inapplicable upon our home roads. But season everything with reason. A bold rock jutting out may be more interesting than the same rock covered with ivy. Appropriateness and fitness are fully as essential as beauty alone. So a bold line setting out clearly the safe boundary of the road may be more fitting than any attempt to harmonize the road with its surroundings. Good judgment and a sense of artistic fit- ness are the key to road esthetics. Highway Esthetics 417 SELECTED REFERENCES Boehler, C. F., “The Appearance of our Highways,” Good Roads, Yol. LXII, p. 205; “Selection, Arrangement and Planting of Roadside Trees,” Engineering and Contracting, Voy. LVIII, pp. 233-234. Bryant, Ralph C., “Logging,” John Wiley & Sons, New York. Dahe, L. L. and Brooks, Henry, “Trees of New England,” Ginn & Company, New York. Dudley, Wm. R. Report to the U. S. Senate through Senator 0. H. Platt, of the record obtained by counting concentric rings of a felled sequoia tree, Senate Document 156, Yol. V, 58th Congress. Fernow, B. E., “The Care of Tree in Lawn, Street and Park,” Henry Holt & Co., New York. Going, Maud, “Our Field and Forest Trees.” A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. Hough, Romeyn B., “Handbook of the Trees of the Northern U. S. and Canada, East of the Rocky Mountains.” Hough, Romeyn B., Lowville, N. Y. Kellogg, R. S., “The Lumber Industry.” Ronald Press Com- pany, New York. Lincoln Highway, Ideal Section of, Engineering and Contract- ing, Yol. LVI, pp. 537-538. Muir, John, “Our National Parks.” Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Parkhurst, H. E., “Trees, Shrubs and Vines of the Northeastern United States.” Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. Reed, C. A., “Useful Trees for Roadside Planting,” A paper before the Michigan Good Roads Association, 1921, Good Roads, Vol. LXI, pp. 173-176. Rogers, Julia, E., “The Tree Book,” in “New Nature Library,” Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1914. Sargent, Charles Sprague, “Trees and Shrubs.” Vols. I and II, 4 Parts to a Volume. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Snow, C. H., “The Principal Species of Wood,” John Wiley & Sons, New York. Solotaroff, William, “Shade Trees in Towns and Cities.” John Wiley & Sons, New York. “Trees for City Streets,” Public Works, Vol. LIII, p. 63. Waugh, F. A., “Landscape Gardening,” Orange Judd Company, New York. CHAPTER XIII AIDS AND ATTRACTIONS TO TRAFFIC AND TRAVEL It is a well-recognized fact that pleasure riding con- stitutes by far the greater part of automobile riding. With ten million pleasure cars and two million trucks that is obvious, notwithstanding every pleasure car is used more or less for business. Assuming that the pleasure cars average 3000 miles per year each, a conservative estimate, and that two-thirds of this is purely for pleasure, 1 and that the average number of passengers is 2y 2 , there results the almost inconceivable number of fifty billion passenger miles. If one person did all that traveling he would have to circle the earth two million times, or about one circuit every quarter of a minute. Each of the hundred million people in the United States, therefore, joy rides annually to the extent of 500 miles, at an expense of about $50, one-fourth of which is for gasoline and oil. Or, stating it another way the expense of this pleasure, recreation, outing, release from business cares, is about $1 per week per person. 2 1 Senator Arthur Capper in an address delivered before the High- way Transport Conference, New York, 1920, said: “A recent inves- tigation showed over 75 per cent of the Middle Western farmers bought their cars not for pleasure, but for business.” But he did not say how they use them. He did, in the same address, say, ‘‘A good road, plus a good motor truck, begets almost six motor trucks in any community and in any locality.” Emulation and rivalry are great selling agents. 2 After the above was written there appeared in the New York Herald this statement: ‘‘This country consumed in May (1922), more than 13,000,000 barrels of gasoline. This is a matter of some 700,000.- 000 gallons.” The article goes on to calculate that in the use of this gasoline there was a travel of 10,000,000,000 car miles, and ‘‘at 418 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 419 This hardly seems to be too much for the returns received, but if it is it cannot be helped. The automobile is here. It is here to stay. It is going to be used more and more. And economy is not the most stimulating element toward its use. Like the telephone, it is rapidly being emancipated from the luxury class and is establishing itself among the necessaries. This being true, the road must not only be made usable in an economic sense but must also cater to the comfort and pleasure of the user. “Make business a pleasure and pleasure is business.” This means new developments not only in the road construction, surfacing, maintenance, but in the many other things that always follow improvements. The road was made smooth and hard and level because larger loads at less expense could be hauled; they were widened and the curves flattened that there might be more speed, thus cutting down the cost of transportation. All these things came along as a matter of economy, but at the same time they brought increased safety and much pleasure to the traveler. Now the beautification of the highway, discussed in the last chapter, while primarily for pleasure, has been found to increase the use of the road and bring money in new ways to the pockets of many. The beautiful and the scenic are truly economic assets of great worth. California will realize many times over from the tourist traffic alone the cost of her wonderful roads. The famous Columbia River Highway will return to Oregon again and again its cost through tourists and other pleasure riders attracted to it as bees to sweets by the lure of its scenic vistas. Standing upon the streets of my home city it is an unusual day if I do not see license tags from a half dozen states within a few minutes, sometimes ranging from coast to coast and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. Think what it means to a community to have all these an average of four persons to the ear, 1,600,000 individual motor trips around the world (in distance) in May.” The United States Bureau of Mines gives the domestic consumption of gasoline in the United States for 1921 as 4,516,012,979 gallons, an average of only about 7,000,000 barrels per month. 420 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel people pass through it. If they have good roads to travel upon, few hardships and a hospitable treatment along the way, they are bound to feel kindly toward the community, speak well of it when they go home. This, unintentionally perhaps, suggests to others to travel over the same roads, and some, no doubt, will return for the purpose of taking up their abode in a community so hospitable and up to date in its activities. If there are factories that make articles for sale the traveler having seen their signs and buildings as he passes by feels a kindly interest in them ever after. The manufactories, the stores, wholesale and retail, the farms, and all others will directly or indirectly benefit from the travel and interchange of social courtesies brought about by it. The direct sale of goods and supplies, the sums spent at garages and hotels constitute a very small part of the bene- fits received from those who use the roads, yet it is by no means negligible, for “many mickles make a muckle.” It may be sordid to think of the money brought in by these persons, and taken out in almost equal amounts by our own travelers, but the money certainly is put into circula- tion and flows from those who have more to those who have less, balancing, as the rains do the rivers, the backward flow through various channels from those who have less to those who have more. If the transportation of commodities and goods from market to market over the country can be likened to the life blood of the human body, then the pass- age of citizens from place to place is like the lymphatic circulation repairing wastes due to ambition, greed, and ignorance. Ranking’ and Parking. — Frequently the things which will attract the motorist are those which also prevent acci- dents, which cause vehicles to interfere with each other as little as possible, relieve congestion, which make it easier for the stranger to find his way, as well as make it more pleasant and more comfortable for passenger and driver. All road regulations might be considered under the head- ing of conveniences and comforts, for they all tend to make Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 421 traveling more safe and pleasant. Of arrangements of this character the first to be discussed will be ranking and parking. Ranking is defined by the “General Traffic Regulations of the Council of National Defense, U. S. A.” as “standing vehicles behind one another parallel with the curb,” and parking as “standing vehicles along side one another at an angle to curb .” 3 Notwithstanding these definitions by common usage the word ‘ ‘ parking ’ ’ is made to include any method whatsoever of “standing automobiles.” Just as the generic term “man” includes both “man” and “woman” so the term “parking” includes both “parking” and “ranking,” and the verb “park” both “park” and “rank.” Usage makes this so whether it be scientific or not. People who come to the city or have business in the city must have some place to stand their vehicles. The ques- tion of where this shall be is becoming one of great im- portance, as the number of vehicles is constantly increasing and the parking space does not increase correspondingly. A number of cities are making local regulations limiting the time of parking in certain localities. Such limitations seem just, for the reason that near large office buildings, for in- stance, all available space is appropriated by cars parked early in the day which remain there until their owners, the occupants of the offices, are ready to go home at even- ing. Outsiders and others wishing to park near places where they desire to do business find it impossible to do so. As a result they either walk back several blocks or make their purchase where they can find parking space. The writer has frequently done the latter when he really wanted to patronize the store near which he could not park. The stores at such places actually lose considerable trade that they are entitled to and for which they pay large rent or other overhead. Such practice may in the long run help 8 See also ‘ ‘ Science of Highway Traffic, ’ ’ by William Phelps Eno. Published by himself and distributed by Brentano ’s, New York City. A very valuable contribution to the literature of road regulation. 422 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel the little store farther out and cause a corresponding de- crease in property and rental prices. "RANKING "STAN DING VEHICLES BEHIND ONE ANOTHER PARALLEL TO THE CURB o CO ,=d VEHICLES RANKED AT CURB o_ co L VEHICLES RANKED IN CENTER vS TRACKS % VEHICLES RANKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS "PARKING 'STANDING VEHICLES ALONGSIDE ONE ANOTHER AT AN ANGLE TO THE CURB VEHICLES PARKED AT CURB I t kfMMMM. l i VEHICLES PARKED ATCENTER * I maun mm ah [ML \ , o L <0 / m inti ai naagm * 7 1 VEHICLES PARKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS after eno Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists. — The figures above show several methods for parking. Spaces in front of fire hydrants and certain building en- Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 423 trances, at crossings, and street car stops are usually marked with no-parking signs and the curb painted a distinctive color. There may be other places where general parking and unlimited time may be allowed. If these spaces happen to be paved it would be well to have the parking stalls marked, as more machines will park when this is done. Such general parking places may be alongside public parks, vacant lots, in wide streets, and elsewhere where parking will not interfere with the flow of traffic. Special and limited parking spaces, such as those set aside for buses, cabs, and trucks, or those on which the parking is limited as to time should be marked by the city with a standard sign. The angle of parking depends upon the width of street and other local conditions. On narrow streets it may have to be zero degrees, that is, ranking; on others 30°, 45°, 60° or 90°. Since it is best to have machines head in, the 90° angle is difficult unless there is ample turning space. Likewise in backing out the same difficulty occurs. The following widths are suggested 4 for parking spaces if in the middle of the street, and parking is at an angle of : 90°, the space should be at least 15 feet wide Space required for backing out, 15 14 13 424 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel When the parking space is next to the curb the widths can be reduced 1 foot each. For any angle of stalls between 90° and 45° the parking space width must be greater than 15 feet; for 60° about 16 feet. There are streets where this could be allowed and more machines accommodated than Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where streets meet at right angles. at 45°. Ranking spaces should be marked off 9 feet wide. Some cities have special rules that ranked cars shall stand 6 feet apart to allow any one to get out. The stalls, whether, the parking is to be on one side, both sides, or in the middle, should be slanted toward the approach of traffic. There is an advantage to parking in the center of the street in that other vehicles may drive up to the sidewalk Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 425 for loading or unloading passengers. It is objected to, however, on the theory that more space is required for mid- street parking. Where possible parking spaces should be paved with hard surfaces, like concrete or brick. Vehicles parked upon asphalt for a considerable time sink in, and as there is no ironing out by traffic of these depressions the pavement soon becomes rough, retains rain and sprinkling water and rots. An asphalt strip for driving and a concrete strip for parking is ideal, for this separates distinctly by color the two spaces. On fairgrounds and picnic grounds where many cars are to be taken care of two rows of parked cars are headed together, then a lane and two more rows, an- other, lane, etc. Parking should usually be at 90° to the lane. One Way and Rotary Traffic. — In the crowded cities it has been found necessary to coniine traffic to one direction in some of the streets. All streets not wide enough for two vehicles must of course have one-way traffic. Streets a little wider may wish to park or rank cars along one side and have one-way traffic on the other. With parallel streets near together, wide streets even, may be used advantageously as one-way streets with two or more lines of vehicles. For the convenience of the public clear and distinct signs should be placed at every entrance to a one-way street. Of these more will be said further on. At intersections there are two methods of procedure: The block and the rotary. The block requires a traffic officer who stops for a short time the traffic in one direction to allow the other to pass, then in the other. Even the short spaces of time between his whistle blasts are produc- tive of much congestion. To alleviate this condition a movement about the center of the intersection in one direction has been devised. On the intersection of streets where there are small parks, monuments or safety zones the rotary method is most successful. The movement around is such as to leave the center of the intersection, 426 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel the park or monument, on the left, thus avoiding all left- hand turns. In establishing one-way streets attempts are usually made to avoid left-hand turns whenever possible. The figures on pp. 424 and 426 show sketch plans for rotary service. When there are street-car tracks or other local obstructions slight changes may have to be made. Note only two full passing places for vehicles, A, and as only a part of the traffic will want to cross con- gestion and danger are largely eliminated. There may be one, two, or more lines of traffic at B; depending on the Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where streets meet at an acute angle. Right angle passing at A. One, two or more lines of traffic depending on width of street at B. width of the street. This scheme, according to Eno, is so practical that after it was put into use in New York in 1908, it was adopted the same year at Boston, by Paris in 1909, by Buenos Aires in 1910, and now is in use in many cities throughout the world. Taking Care of Opera House Traffic. — Special arrange- ment must be made in large cities in front of opera houses and other places where there are large gatherings. 5 A 5 See Eno, op. cit., p. 53. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 427 most difficult problem occurs in New York city between 38th and 41st streets, where several large theaters, opera houses, and halls are located. Mr. Eno suggests that a numbered check be given to the owner of each vehicle with a duplicate to the driver on which are printed directions for lining up to be followed by the driver. As each vehicle comes along the line the number is flashed on a board con- tinuously. Or, a roller blackboard could be used and as each number is rolled out of sight at the top a new number is written in at the bottom. As there might be several lines, at least one for each entrance, there would be several boards and the owner’s ticket would direct which one he is to watch. Public Garages. — As it was found necessary to go up into the air in large cities to accommodate the demands for room for offices, stores, and other businesses, so now some cities are preparing to build public garages of the sky- scraper type for its automobiles. If press items are correct Chicago is about to make a trial of the sky-scraping garage near the heart of the retail district for the accommodation of automobilists who wish to drive to business, leaving the streets where they now park their cars free for transient motor cars. There is nothing particularly new in a sky-scraper garage. They have been used for private and for hire pur- poses for some time. The novelty lies in a municipality considering itself obligated to furnish parking places for automobiles. But why not? The public provides, now, roads for them to travel upon, and parking places upon the ground level. If extension to this space is made by piling one parking place on top of another instead of one beside another, what is the difference? It is presumed that a nominal fee would be charged and that outside parking places would be limited in time of occupation by any par- ticular car. The distinguishing feature of several-story garages is the manner in which the cars are taken to the upper floors — whether by elevator propelled from some outside source 428 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel or whether they are driven up inclined planes by their own power. The press notice regarding the Chicago scheme indicates the car will be driven up to its stall in any one of the ten stories, and when ready to go home the driver will ascend to his car and drive it down the exit ramp and go on his way. It will be an interesting experi- ment. If it succeeds central garages will be built in even the smaller cities. The elevator garages are quite common. The car is driven onto an elevator large enough to handle it and taken to any story desired, then driven off to its stall. A reverse operation brings it back down. The elevator will probably be run by electric power. The present cost of installing a bus elevator 6 is practically as follows: First cost, $7500; repairs and depreciation, per annum, $500 ; cost of current, $750; interest on investment at 6 per cent, $450; assuming one operator, salary $1200. Total yearly charge $2900. These figures are claimed to be very conservative, as some run as high as $5000. The possibility of a break of the moving machinery tying up the rolling stock will make a second elevator imperative, the annual charges would be, assuming no extra man to be required, $1700; making altogether an annual charge for elevators of $4600, and the total cost of the installment, $15,000. On the other hand it is claimed that when the ramps are constructed with the building the extra cost is slight, being little more than that of the floors which would be necessary to cover their spaces were they not put in. After being put in they are claimed to be superior be- cause there are no moving parts to break down, there is no maintenance expense, no salaried operators, and they provide quicker service, as several machines may be run up or down in the same time it would take to transport one on an elevator. The ramps are said to take up more space than the elevators, but the claim is made that by dividing the 0 “ A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Type Garages, ’ ’ by Harold F. Blanchard, Bus Transportation, June, 1922. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 429 garage into two parts and having the floors in one part come approximately half way between those in the other part, much shorter ramps may be used, and the space taken up is not so very much greater than would be required for elevators. The ramps are made about 16 feet wide, and the grade approximately 15 per cent. Terminal Stations. — For the purpose of accommodating patrons bus and express terminal stations are being in- stalled. So far these have been established and financed by private companies. Where several bus lines or express lines radiate from a city a union depot may be expected not only to pay, but greatly to convenience the public. Small hotels and out-of-the-way places are ordinarily used when there is no central station. It is difficult to keep these in mind, and as they use the telephones of the hotels, restaurants, shops, etc., that they occupy for headquarters it is difficult for everybody to remember where they are located and find them when needed. Cooperation between the hotel em- ployees and the bus lines for the giving of patrons infor- mation relative to schedules, fares, rates, etc., is not always satisfactory. The organization of a stock company with bus lines, ex- press lines, and merchants as stockholders for the purpose of building and operating a terminal depot may be formed. It will be necessary that the merchants be brought to see the financial returns that will come to them from the passengers which will be brought to the city every forenoon, allowed time to shop and return home in the afternoon ; and that the number of passengers will be increased if con- venient and accommodating terminal facilities are at hand. Experience at Omaha shows that a large percentage, 85, of the passengers carried by the buses are residents along the routes and not commercial travelers, and are therefore potential customers. Many of these people when making their purchases ask that the purchased articles be delivered to the central depot in time to meet a particular bus. The purchaser is given a check upon the surrender of which he receives his package at the depot. Of course the more 430 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel central the location of the depot may be the better the ac- commodation to the passengers. On the other hand the rent of the station may and probably will increase as it is brought nearer to the center of the retail district. Any- way it should be within walking distance of the principal retail stores. The main costs of such a station will be rent, light, heat, water, taxes, insurance, upkeep, and the personal service of an agent and janitor. At Omaha seven bus lines and eighteen merchants entered into an arrangement whereby the merchants were to guarantee the rent while the bus operators were to furnish, maintain, and operate the ter- minal. The rent was $200 per month. For current ex- penses each member pays $2 a month dues and a service charge of $15 a month in advance for each scheduled in- and-out daily trip. Thus the Omaha-Weeping Water line with one in-and-out bus would pay about 50 cents a day; Omaha-Lincoln line with two buses each way, $1 a day ; and the Omalia-Fremont line with four buses in-and- out every day, $2. A small additional income is received from a cigar, candy, and miscellaneous sales concession, it being 12^2 per cent of the gross sales less $7 a week which the association pays toward the salary of the clerk who acts as their information and ticket agent. A limited free checking service is maintained for the accommodation of passengers and shoppers. A colored porter presides over a shoe-shine stand and calls the departure of buses and assists the passengers with their baggage. He also serves as janitor. Special courtesy to patrons is maintained as a means of increasing business. The depot has 36x80 feet space and is divided into a general waiting room and office, a ladies’ rest-room, a smoking room, and space for baggage. Here is a joint terminal for a few bus lines running out of one of the smaller large cities of the country into an agricultural community with unpaved but excellent earth roads. The operators feel that even though small it has proven its worth, as they have a definite business center where patrons can get information about schedules Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 431 and buses and find comfort while waiting. It also makes for an esprit de corps among the several bus companies which very frequently loan buses to each other in cases of emergency. The compensation in such cases is 15 cents per mile if the borrower furnishes gasoline, oil and driver, or 22 cents a mile if these are furnished by the owner. In case one line does any work for another the basis of pay is cost plus 10 per cent. It is considered that the bus lines are themselves a con- venience to the public as their schedules and routes are planned to give service where the railroads do not. For example, a resident of Wahoo wishing to go to Omaha by train leaves at 11 :15 a.m., there being only one train a day, arrives at Omaha at 1 :15 p.m. ; but must wait until the next day to return, as the only train leaves Omaha at 12.41 p.m. ; arriving at Wahoo at 2:31 p.m. The citizen has, therefore, spent practically two days to make the trip. By bus he can make the round trip the same day — leave Wahoo 9 :10 a.m. ; arrive Omaha 11 :30 a.m. leave Omaha 2 :00 p.m. and arrive back home at 4 :20 p.m. ; or he can have still more time in the city by leaving at 5 :10 and arriving home at 7 :30 p.m. A number of instances like the above could be cited. On the contrary one of the bus lines runs between Omaha and Lincoln, passing through the same towns that are already well served by several trains per day. The time of mak- ing the trip from Omaha to Lincoln by bus is about one hour longer than by train. There seems little use for such a bus line except to pick up passengers between train stations. Much more elaborate terminal stations have been estab- lished in other cities, for example Indianapolis, Indiana, and Portland, Oregon. A Minneapolis terminal to accom- modate 100 buses a day has been opened and the company expects ultimately to spend $100,000 to create an adequate terminal. At Poughkeepsie, New York, a city of 40,000 people, the Chamber of Commerce learning that an ordinance had been 432 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel introduced in the Common Council prohibiting the parking of motor buses on the streets, evolved the idea of a central waiting room for the convenience of all passengers from the rural districts, the establishment of a definite bus schedule and the installation of a checking department. 7 After a year’s operation the merchants were extremely well pleased with results. The bus drivers were invited to use the accommodations provided at the entire expense of the merchants, of a little less than $1500 a year. Rental is at the rate of $50 and janitor service $12 a month. The room is steam heated and made as comfortable and cozy as possible, so that women and children find it a pleasure to wait there. From 150 to 300 persons use the bus terminal daily. The bus drivers have formed an association and taken over the care of the building, as they believe this one of the best things ever put forward for the development of their own business. As an example of how it works this is given : A lady in Red Hook desires one of the Poughkeepsie merchants to send her certain goods, she simply telephones her order to the Poughkeepsie merchant, who then consults his time table regard- ing buses operating in that direction. He next selects the mer- chandise; makes up his package and his boy takes it to the motor bus terminal, where the attendant in charge receipts for the package. This bundle is then put by the attendant in the proper bin and the right driver takes it just previous to leaving the sta- tion. The driver delivers the package the same as the parcel post man would, with promptness and dispatch. lS T o charge is made by the attendant for taking the package but a charge of 10 to 50 cents is put on the parcel by the bus driver, which he collects from the recipient of the package, or it is prepaid as the merchant prefers. It is said there has been no loss by theft. The drivers each carry a key to the Bus Terminal Station which is opened by the first driver to arrive about 6 :30 a.m. and closed by the last to leave about 11 :00 o’clock at night. ’“A Motorized City,” by Alfred Jenkins, Secretary of, and pub- lished by, the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, 7 East 42d Street, New York. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 433 This is not a freight -trucking depot, only packages being handled. From the customers which the buses have brought it is estimated the trade in the first year was over a half million dollars, a large part of which is partly trace- able to the courtesy and convenience rendered to out-of- town patrons by the establishment of the depot. Gas, Air, and Water Stations. — Another business of great importance that has followed the increased use of motor cars is that of the sale of gasoline and oil. Of course there are the large manufacturing and wholesale companies; of those it is not the intention here to speak, but of the retailer who is endeavoring to accommodate the motoring public. There is no city of any size now but what is supplied with one or more filling stations. Much money is being spent on the stations to make them convenient and attrac- tive to the motorist. The modern filling station consists of the necessary storage tanks, usually placed under ground, for gasoline and oil, and the pumps for measuring and forcing the “gas” into the tank of the motor, with other pumps or facilities for care of oil. Then there is the building containing an office, a storeroom for oil and sup- plies, rest and toilet rooms for women, and possibly also for men. There is usually a marquise extending out over the place where automobiles stop for filling, to keep off rain and sun from the pumps and also from driver or passenger in case he or they desire to get out of the car for any pur- pose. Water and air are available at these stations and are looked after by attendants if desired. There are also pits where crank cases may be rapidly drained and refilled. While these accommodations are for the purpose of attract- ing trade, the very fact that they do, shows them to be real conveniences. Of course, there are also those things which the auto- mobile dealer calls “service.” That is places where may be purchased and repaired broken parts, where batteries may be filled with distilled water, and so on. Usually water, either fresh or distilled, is free, but in some places 434 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel in the “deserts” out West it has to be hauled miles and a cost charge is made. Named and Numbered Roads. — For a number of years road enthusiasts, automobile clubs, and chambers of com- merce have been selecting and marking main lines of road across the country or through their particular cities. Some of these roads such as the Lincoln Highway, the Santa Fe and the Yellowstone Trails extend across the continent from coast to coast ; or north to south as the Dixie, the Jefferson, and the Jackson Highway. There are very many of these volunteer organizations; they attempt to secure the improvement of highways, ranging in length from transcontinental routes to short county lines, by bringing influence to bear on road officials and creating in the minds of the public generally an interest for better roads. Some states like Iowa and Nebraska passed laws enabling an association promoting any route to register it together with the marker that is to be used, providing penalties for in- juring or defacing any sign board, and making it unlawful for others to use the name or marker design on any other road. It is said over a hundred routes were marked in Iowa, fifty in Illinois, and other states somewhat pro- portionately. Opposition has been offered on the theory that it is the State’s business to mark and maintain signs along roads. It has been suggested that since the General Government has selected a system of national roads and since these must be by law continuous, that they be numbered continuously by the same number. For example the transcontinental road farthest north should be numbered 1, the next con- tinental road, 3, the next, 5, and so on. That the roads running north and south beginning on the east be numbered with even numbers. Several of the New Eng- land states have already agreed to a common number or name for roads running through them. The point is that when a road has been marked a tourist may travel clear across the continent on the same number and would not have to look up a new number or name when he crossed a ROAD CLOSED BY ORDER OF— CLIFFORD OLDER, chief highway ehgiheer VIOLATORS SUBJECT TO ARREST PENALTY: F, '‘ e ' SSTSSST "* 1 OPED ONLY TO RESIDENT AND CONTRACTOR'S TRAFFIC FOLLOW MARKED DETOUR CiflJMr la blip Win Irtlcili Eud lss)la| et Oilier SFrlsf lilup lid Bind lea Fig. 2. — “Road Closed” Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer in Charge Inserts Routing of Detour and Mileage in the Space Under the Words “Follow Marked Detour.” SLOW BARRICADE -400FT Fig. 1. — Standard Warning Sign for Barricades. DETOUR FOR ROUTE. ^od ^noj.aa Fig. 3. — Standard Detour Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer in Charge Prints on the Sign the Route Number, Name of Trail, its Emblem if the Road has a Name and Emblem, the Next Town and County Seat or Main City cn the Road. Fig. 4. — Map Showing Position of Barricade and Detour Signs. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 435 state line. Also when once made public a map of the roads would be good next year or the year after, and the traveler need not fear its having been changed. It might be possible that places would be located by certain roads as they were once by rivers. In the practical work of drafting, numbers are more easily placed on the map than are names. Marks, Signs and Guides. — Whether or not the Govern- ment will take over the numbering of through roads the states and volunteer associations will no doubt continue marking. The marks are very comforting to a person traveling on an unknown road, and few there are who do not at sometime travel unknown paths. Not only does it keep him going along the right way but signs giving mileage to the next town are always watched for anxiously. One of the most common and most effective methods of marking a road is to paint a band of distinguishing color around the telephone poles along the way. In addition to the color band a letter or insignia may be used. The Lincoln Highway uses a red strip at the top and bottom of the white band and a blue L. The Detroit, Lincoln, Denver route uses black strips at the top and bottom of the white band and black monogram made up of the letters D. L. D. The state of Nebraska erects markers showing the number of the road in its state system and the number of the mile on the road. This is partly for the convenience of travelers and partly to assist in systematic filing of records in the office. In case it is necessary to make a special report the patrolman can give the location almost exactly, for example, “Road 14, mile 32, north quarter, washout,” or more simply, “14, 32, N Q, washout.” This is very definite. The state of Wisconsin uses a triangle as an in- signia in which is placed the legend “State Trunk High- way,” the number of the highway and the abbreviation Wis. Several of the states have adopted the method of setting quite large signs alongside the roadway and forbid the placing of advertising signs, even though they give 436 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel road information, or signs by local volunteer associations. This would seem to be going a little too far for volunteer associations have done much for better road construction in this country as well as to give publicity to the advan- tages of traveling over the particular road in wffiich they are interested. The influences which they have been able to bring upon local road officers by various means has had a wonderful effect in keeping in good condition the marked road and by emulation other roads joining with it. The most of these associations have contented themselves with marking a route from one terminal to another. They have not asked for a special kind of surfacing. They have aided by advice and perhaps occasionally assisted to put in a sample mile of good road. For example the Lincoln High- way is at the present time interesting itself in financing and constructing an “ideal section” of road in Indiana. (See Chapter XII, p. 413.) On the whole it is the belief of the writer that the good done by these associations in- ures to the great benefit of the general public and until a comprehensive plan can be agreed upon by all the states they should be allowed to continue their work. Distance and Direction Signs. — Direction signs are such as point out the direction which a traveler must take to keep on a particular route. Distance signs also give in- formation as to distances from the sign to particular places. These two classes are often combined. In addition to these there are warning and detour signs which may also be direction signs. Mile posts are not new. It was the custom to plant them along the old Roman roads. It has already been men- tioned that board markers are frequently placed along the state numbered highways. It would be better to have well- designed cut stones or concrete posts set at even miles, and, perhaps, also at Y 2 or x /± mile points as well. The post should bear the number or insignia of the highway and the mile number, measured from some particular terminal. Wisconsin uses a triangle as an insignia ; other states use an outline map of the state, which is usually not so simple Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 437 and requires larger sign boards and hence greater expense, and is not so symmetrical and neat looking. The abbrevia- tion of the state name is sufficient. This is to be placed on the side facing the road. It has been suggested that on the side toward the approaching traveler may be placed the name of the next village, town or city in that direction with the distance in miles. On the other side visible after pass- ing would appear the name of the last village passed. The only difficulty with this scheme would be the size of the post required. To get the name on in readable letters would require a post 16 to 24 inches square. So large a post would run the cost up materially. A hollow circular post with a cap east on its top could be made of cement. Iron signs have been successfully used. The Automobile Club of Minneapolis used a malleable cast-iron form 30 inches long, % inch thick, and 3 inches wide. The letters are 2 inches high and the letters and a half-inch border are raised about % of an inch. The sign is bolted to a 2^- inch galvanized-iron pipe set in concrete. The sign is gal- vanized, the background painted white and the raised bor- der and letters finished in black. The cost was approxi- mately $7 per sign. Steel signs with letters spot welded to them are on the market. Concrete posts with board signs are common and if oc- casionally repainted make a durable comparatively cheap sign. One of the chief objections to the advertising signs placed along some highways is that the information relative to the highway occupies a very small portion of the space and is not easily read while the advertisement stands out very prominently. If the road authorities put the signs up at public expense they could be much smaller and would desecrate the landscape correspondingly less. Uniformity of Signs. — It would be well if simple stand- ards could be adopted for the entire United States, or at least for each state, and that all signs be set with uni- 438 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel formity. If placed consistently at the same distance and height from the roadway the eye of the traveler will natu- rally seek them and they will be more easily read. Evans and Batchelder 8 recommend that double-distance board signs be 36 inches long by 17 inches deep when they carry three rows of names and a fourth row for the authority responsible for the sign. If the fourth row is not on the sign 15 inches deep will be sufficient. They recommend that the size of the plain block letters be graduated according to the importance of the places mentioned. The top line for the most important places 4-inch letters; the second row, 37 NEWYORK TRENTON 35 25 NEWARK PRINCETON 23 7 PLAINFIELD SOMERVILLE 5 A New Jersey distance and direction sign. less important, 3-inch letters, and the third, least important, 2-inch letters. Single direction signs to be 20 inches long and the same depth. All signs on posts are recommended to be placed an average height of 6 feet above the roadway, on houses 9 feet. If the double direction names are placed below each other the board will not need to be so long. Letters and Colors. — The letters should be clear and distinct ; the style known as block letter is good. The colors should be highly contrasting. Black and white is as good as any; however, Eno 9 thinks that black with yellow and red with white are the best combinations; yellow on black being better than black on yellow. Eno would classify signs as : 8 “Direction and Distance Signs,” by P. Evans and A. G. Batclielder, Engineering and Contracting, July 30, 1913. 8 Op. cit., p. 11. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 439 Primary, those for warning and directing moving vehicles, vivid yellow letters, arrows or graphics, on a black background. Secondary, those for stationary vehicles, designating public parking spaces, cabstands, car and bus stops, etc., black on yellow background. Tertiary, those for the control of pedestrians, designating crosswalks, safety zones, etc., red on white background. Warning Signs. — The name indicates their purpose, that they are intended to warn against danger or to indicate that extra precautionary measures should be exercised. They give notice of sharp turns, bad bridges and culverts, rail- road crossings, cross-roads, and so on. Frequently the word “danger” is printed followed by a descriptive word indicating the kind of danger; for example, “Danger — sharp curve,” “Danger — bad bridge,” “Danger — railroad crossing.” Or there are used such words as “Slow” or more simply ‘ ‘ Slo, ’ ’ with a graphic or descriptive word fol- lowing, as, “Slow — school,” “Slo — drawbridge.” The International Road Congress suggested a standard graphical sign, 24 by 16 inches, with white symbols on a black background. Some American roads use a modifica- tion of these, p. 440. Map Signs. — There seems to be a tendency toward map signs and the necessary large boards which they entail. It is the opinion of the writer that it would be better except for exceptional places to keep to as small a marker as can be seen readily. The sizes recommended by the Interna- tional Road Congress are plenty large enough and probably could be decreased without impairing their utility. An ordinary sign is itself an unsightly thing, and after the campaigns that have been made against the advertising bill boards it seems hardly consistent for the state to put up almost equally unsightly disfigurements of the landscape. In Maryland the direction signs between towns are 30 inches wide by 20 inches high and display in white letters on a black background the name of the road, the distance to and from important points, and all principal connec- tions. Evidently “the wayfaring men though fools shall not err therein. ’ ’ Other states are putting up similar signs. 440 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel WARNING SIGNS AS USED ON SOME AMERICAN ROADS BLACK ON WHITE BACKGROUND International Road Congress warning signs. Warning signs as used on somo American roads. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 441 Illinois is using about the same size boards setting them for each turn in the road, each entering road, whether or not it comes in from one or both sides, each school and other places where special care should be taken. On a map at- tached to some of these signs is a point or star indicating the position of the sign on the road. In addition to direction and distance signs Maryland erects large, 10 feet square, map signs at the limits of each of the larger towns. Upon this map is delineated the main routes through the town in white and the secondary routes in gray, the names of the streets and well-established landmarks, so that a person can make a decision of the route he wishes to take and follow it without difficulty. The color scheme is white letters on black background. They are oriented to read in the direction of travel so that if the signboard were pushed over ahead on its back the road would point in the direction of travel. On the map in red is a star with the words, “You are now at this point.” On the top of mountain grades Maryland erects boards similar in size to the map boards, which state the number of miles down the mountain, indicate curves and give con- cise instructions how to drive down so as to avoid accident and personal injury. This is to assist inexperienced drivers and those unacquainted with the region by telling how to brake their cars by putting them into “high,” “in- termediate,” and “low” at certain places, which, of course, will be very helpful, and may save an accident. Where the state roads cross from Maryland into neighbor- ing states a large sign 15 to 25 feet is erected on which is displayed the salient features of the state motor vehicle law. No one, therefore, need be ignorant of the law and thus un- pleasantly encounter the state police. The contract price of these signs range from $12 for a single face direction sign to $347.50 for a state-line motor vehicle law sign. They are kept in repair by the contractor at prices ranging from $3.50 to $20 each per year. 10 10 The information about Maryland ’s signs is taken from articles by Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer of the Maryland 442 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel Detour Signs. — Perhaps nothing is more exasperating to the tourist than to come to a barricade with the word “Detour,” and then find the detour road practically im- passable. In many states the contractor on a piece of con- struction work is obligated to care for detour roads and de- tour signs during the time the road is closed. Finding the obligation not well fulfilled several of the states are taking over that work in order that it might be done in a manner to satisfy the traveling public. Wisconsin 11 considers the proper marking and maintaining of detours more impor- tant than similar work of the regular trunk routes, for well- marked detours are necessary to keep enthusiasm for good road construction alive. Minnesota, North Carolina, and other states have adopted similar plans. Before a road is closed a detour is selected and marked and thus automatically becomes a part of the state trunk line system. A map sign is placed at the ends of long de- tours showing the road under construction, the detour, the location of railways, cities, and prominent natural features. The traveler thus gets a definite idea of the way he must go to return to the main highway. Ordinary markers are placed along the line of detour. In Connecticut and some other states a half width of the roadway is paved at a time, allowing the other half to be used while the first half is under construction. This is possible where the detour is not too long, or if there is passing room in the one-half way. Concrete is well adapted for this sort of construction. The joint down the center is a benefit rather than a detriment to this type of road sur- face; it acts as an expansion joint and allows a certain amount of flexibility under the warping action of heat, and furnishes a mid-line mark to keep passenger traffic in proper lanes. State Highway Road Commission, in Public Boads, August, 1921, and 'Engineering and Contracting, October 5, 1921. 11 ‘ ‘ The ‘ Wisconsin Idea, ’ as Applied to Detours a Source of Satis- faction to Motorists,” by N. M. Isabella, Assistant Maintenance Engineer, in Concrete Highway Magazine, April, 1922. rsLO i SLO X it DANGEROUS L CROSSING A Yellow on Black. Yellow on Blank. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 443 "Widening the roadway before reconstruction has begun will also furnish room for the passage of vehicles. Of course under either of these two last methods the passing vehicles are more or less of a nuisance to the constructor and if a reasonably direct detour entirely away from the work under construction can be maintained in satisfactory condition so much the better. While the traffic must be inconvenienced to some degree by detours the fact that an effort is being made by the road authorities to make the substitute as pleasant as possible will leave a “good taste in the mouth” of the traveling public which is worth while whether that traffic is local or from a distance. Location of Detour Markers. — The location or arrange- ment of detour markers in reference to the traveled way has received considerable attention. Of course the first signs are the barricade warning and at the barricade. In Illinois the State Department of Highways requires the barricade warning to be placed about 400 feet from the barricade. The map signs of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Carolina are used also as barricade signs. Any driver, not authorized, passing a barricade is by the laws of some states subject to arrest and fine. Detour arrows are placed at road intersections in such a manner that traffic going in either direction may follow the arrow. Il- linois uses a black arrow on a white background. Iowa has somewhat similar signs except that the color scheme is a white arrow on a black background. The word “de- tour” is printed above and below the arrow and the one painted out that is not needed after the sign is erected. In Iowa upon primary (State) roads the district engineer, and upon county roads the county engineer, is held respon- sible for the following: First. — He shall determine whether or not a detour is needed. Second. — He shall cooperate with the local officials in choosing a detour. Third. — He shall provide for the proper marking of the detour. Fourth. — He shall provide for the maintenance of the detour and report such provision in the central office. 444 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel Speed Signs. — Most cities and towns have speed limits lower than that allowed in the open country. Some of them even divide the city into zones and make a different limit for each zone. On the outer edge of these zones and the outer edge of the city are often placed signs of warning such as “Speed Limit, 15 miles per hour.” In one city was facetiously added “Go slow and see our city, go fast and see our jail.” On the backs of these signs, the side seen by the traveler as he leaves, are sometimes painted the words “You’re Welcome — Come Again.” All of which is to give the traveler a good impression and thus advertise the community. Traffic Guides. — Before leaving the subject perhaps something more should be said about traffic guides in the cities as most of what precedes has been written with a view to country roads, although many of these signs are applicable to city streets. Lines upon the pavement should be used to define cross- walks, parking spaces, and restricted and reserved zones. Curbstones may be painted white or yellow to indicate no parking against them. In parking spaces the stall lines are painted, as this will keep vehicles close together and more will be able to park. If they are allowed to drive in promiscuously there will often be half and three-quarter spaces which cannot be used. Painted lines should be about 4 inches wide. If well put on with good paint they will wear for a considerable period. A painted line down the center of a roadway, especially on curves, is a great convenience and safety device for passing vehicles. Eno tells us that the earliest traffic regulation signs in New York were worded “Slow moving Vehicles, Keep Near Curb.” These were followed gradually by many others. It is not necessary to place on signs the name of the de- partment authorizing them as, “Police Department,” “De- partment of Streets and Allies,” as these take up room and make the signs no more impressive. The simpler and shorter the wording the better. I have been told, I did not see it, that in Boston instead of having a sign read “One- Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. I DO NOT I [parkhereT [park IN I | CENTER! Improperly w orded signs. Properly worded Black on Yellow. 10 MILE SPEED LIMIT PUBLIC PARKING SPACE^ Black on Yellow Yellow on Black. Y'ellow on Black. careTquiet .SCHOOL A HOSPITAL. Yellow on Black. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 445 way Traffic,” it is made to say, “Vehicles Using This Street Will Follow in the Direction of the Arrow Only.” This may be merely a slam at the Bostonese but it illus- trates the point. There are several types of signs in use. Most of them are made of enameled metal and may be placed on station- ary or portable standards. The stationary standards may be made of iron pipe set in cement with the sign attached to its top. The sign should be just above a tall man’s head, say 6 feet 6 inches from the walk. Portable standards are frequently used, having an elongated (nearly elliptical) iron base, sufficiently heavy to hold them upright, and a pipe extending from a hole in the center vertically about 4 feet high, to bear the sign. These signs are placed on side- walks to designate parking and no parking places, safety zones, etc. Dummy Cop. — A post, column, or monument designed to stand at the intersection of streets in place of a traffic officer has been called a dummy cop. Mushrooms or cement bumps are sometimes utilized in the same manner. Bump- ers are used, too, to indicate restricted and safety zones, isles of safety, etc. A dummy cop at night ought to carry a lantern or be illuminated from some outside source. Semaphores. — A traffic officer sometimes uses a Go-Stop sign so arranged at the top of a standard that by turning a handle he can present one or the other of these two words to the traffic. Some of them carry a light at night, and an umbrella to shade the officer during the day. They are objected to on the ground that there is no neutral posi- tion, they always say either “Go” or “Stop.” If by a change in plan they could be designed so as to show neither word when the officer was not at his post they could act as dummy cops. Crow’s-nest, or traffic tower, is a term given to a lookout or sentry box supported about 7 feet 6 inches above the street by a strong post. The crow’s-nest has a roof for shade and shelter and may carry a semaphore above it, and another lower down to attract the eye of nearby persons. 446 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel As used in New York the arms have electrical control, and at night carry red lights. The semaphore is for the block system and may be made superfluous when rotary traffic methods are in vogue. Mr. Eno, who is given credit for the suggestion of the crow’s-nest, does not believe that they should be installed at every intersection, as a “continuous block system wastes too much of the traffic capacity of the street because between the time the signal is given to stop and the time the signal is given to go the vehicles (just ahead of the break) have gone ahead a long distance. . . . This leaves a large proportion of the street surface un- occupied by vehicles.” 12 The rotary system is advocated as one which will distribute the traffic uniformly over the whole surface of the street, and also equalize the speed of vehicles to a safe mean. Crow’s-nests may be used where there are street cars by making them high enough to clear the top of the cars. Signal Lights and Colors. — The railroads in all these years have not come to a common usage of colors in signal- ing. All roads use red for stop, danger. Some use white and some green to proceed with caution; white and green are both used for clear, proceed. Here white is the same as yellow, because lanterns using oil bum with a yellow light which railroad men call white. Electric signals may be white in reality. There now seems to be a demand for standardization and at a meeting of the American Association of State Highway Officers (1922, at Raleigh, N. C.) a color scheme was recom- mended that may become a standard for both motorists and railroads. One of the difficulties is that red and danger are no longer properly associated because of the common use of the red for tail lights of automobiles, for sandpiles or other street obstructions, for the tops of semaphores, and for various other purposes. The story is told that not long ago a bridge was being repaired and a red light was placed at one side. The signal was intended as a warning that the “An article entitled “Prevent the Proposed Permanent Traffic Towers on Fifth Avenue,” by Wm. P. Eno. © Underwood and Underwood TRAFFIC TOWER ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 447 autoist slow down and proceed with caution. The driver of an approaching car took the lantern to be the tail light of an automobile. He swung to the left to clear the obstruc- tion and plunged down an embankment. It would be better if red should never be used as a pre- caution signal but only as a stop signal, but at the present time that cannot be done because automobiles now carry, and most states require it by law, a red light behind. The color once considered a sign of danger has become almost meaningless. Red lanterns are placed on roads, or at bridges, or in the street where the road is not impassable but merely hazardous and the light in reality means pro- ceed carefully. If colors are to be signals to tell whether or not to stop on account of danger, to proceed cautiously or to go ahead without fear, they should be standardized and their proper use protected. The code of colors as recommended by the Association of State Highway Officials is: Color Green to mean proceed, the way is clear. Color Yellow to mean that caution shall be exercised. Color Red to mean stop. The Association urges abolishment of the red for auto- mobile tail lights and the substitution of yellow (white). There are other reasons why this should be done; one of them, a white light will illuminate the number tag much better than a red light. In fact Ohio requires a red light shining out behind and a white light to illuminate the tag. On the other hand by the different colored lights one can distinguish whether one is going toward the front or back of an automobile, a thing of importance, sometimes. This may be far enough to go at the present time, but later the standardization of other signal and guide lights would be well. The red light on street obstructions should be abolished. Better a bright white light for with good illumination the danger will often disappear. Road and Street Lighting. — While road and street lighting are primarily for the purpose of promoting safety, 448 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel they, as signs and guides, are here treated under the head- ing of comfort and convenience to the user. Like other things pertaining to roads, lighting has dur- ing the past few years seen wonderful development. Open- arc lights have all but passed out of use. Even in the field of incandescent lighting many improvements have and are still being made. Efforts have been made to cater to the esthetic sense and create beauty by artistic shapes and sizes of lamps and by harmonious groupings. Safety, com- fort, and esthetic design cannot always be combined, then one or the other must give way. Silhouette vision, that is, where the object appears dark against a lighter background, requires a much less illumina- tion intensity than direct or detail vision. In the first case the object is between the observer and the light while in the second case the light is reflected from the object to the ob- server. Then there are spot lights and flood lights where the light is thrown directly upon the object and as little as possible allowed to disperse into surrounding space. Dean Ferguson 13 has pointed out that safety lighting is secured by any illumination that will reveal clearly the presence and nature of a danger, and also that low illumina- tion intensities used in silhouette effect may serve for safety at a greatly reduced expense. Much of street lighting is of the silhouette type, depending on the relative positions of the observer, the illuminant, and the object to be seen. As we approach a post or sand pile on the street it appears first as a black object in silhouette, as we come nearer the reflected light becomes more intense and the object is seen in detail. There seems to be a sort of twilight zone between these two conditions where the visibility is least. The sil- houette vision appears to be best when the intensity of the reflected light is least, and vice versa for the detail or direct vision. The indeterminate place between the two where visibility is least is, of course, where the light behind is equal in intensity to the reflected light in front. One ob- ““ Electric Lighting,” by O. J. Ferguson; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 449 ject of the illuminating engineer is so to arrange the lights as to avoid as far as possible points of low visibility. This he does by the size and spacing of the light units, their height of suspension and the shape and setting of the re- flectors. These same elements enter into the avoidance of glare. In city and street lighting it is nearly always desirable to illuminate the buildings as well as the road surface, so that the type of lamp used is entirely different from that desirable on country roads where only the surface of the roadway needs to be lighted. Ornamental lights of the luminous arc and the incandescent types are used. The former where a large amount of intense light is wanted, and the latter where smaller units will answer the purpose. The latest road lighting is, perhaps, that developed for the “Ideal Section” mentioned heretofore. 14 Here it was important to concentrate the light on the roadway instead of diffusing it upward and over the adjoining fields, to have a flexibility of arrangement that would keep the light in line with the surface of the roadway, and that the cost should be reasonable. The scheme developed contemplates placing the lighting units on adjustable brackets 35 feet above the surface of the road, spaced 250 feet, staggered. They can be set for varying grades, for curves, or for the lighting of a portion of the roadside if thought necessary. The unit consists of a nest of three reflectors, one within another, and with an opening in each one side of the lamp. These collect and reflect the light to the surface as shown in the figure. The detailed article should be consulted by those who are further interested. City Traffic. — Projectors suspended above a traffic officer illuminates him and his semaphore much as spot lights are used in theaters and flood lights to illuminate statuary and buildings. Many of the busy cities are install- ing color lenses in the towers (crow’s-nests) to regulate the traffic. The colors which are used both day and night 14 ‘ ‘ Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln High- way, ” by H. H. Bell, Electrical World, April 15, 1922- 450 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel are standardized as follows: Red, to indicate “Stop”; amber, to indicate “Change of traffic”; and green, to indi- cate “Go.” Touring. — Stand for a few minutes on any one of the transcontinental highways and note the tourists who have their bedding and baggage piled in and tied to the sides of their cars. Note the brown and healthy faces of the brown-clad travelers. Dust has no horrors to them; they expect it; they are prepared for it. Their khaki clothing cost little when purchased and wears well, and even if thrown away at the end of the journey has more than paid its way. The author of “Let me live by the side of the road and be a friend to man” could certainly enjoy him- self during these mid-summer gypsying days. For one has the world brought to his own dooryard. "Wait and there will come to you Maine, and California, and Texas, and Oregon, Michigan, Canada, Mexico. A man drove on my driveway a few days ago and used my hose to wash Texas soil from his fenders, and now that yellow dirt is nourish- ing a spirea bush in Nebraska- Come around in the evening just after the supper, not dinner, utensils have been cleared away, and from these roadside campers in the course of the summer you may hear the Vermonter drop the “r” from “qua Teh” and put it into “idear,” the Georgian with his delightful Southern drawl, a Minnesotan with high-pitched voice and Scan- danavian accent, or a musically soft Spanish from the Rio Grande regions. All the world’s make of automobiles may be inspected, their good and bad features discussed. Outing outfits of all characters and descriptions from the small compact bundle scarcely big enough for a flea, to the cum- bersome behemoth mountain of canvas, boxes, and poles. There is the man who believes Detroit is destined to be the largest city in the world, and the man who is certain noth- ing can compare with Los Angeles. Truly the man who lives beside the road may have, if he is endowed with gump- tion, a joyful time as the perennial reel runs on. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 451 But if such things come to the man who sits in his house beside the road and watches the race of men go by, what must be the feelings of the man of gypsying instinct as he climbs into his car, caring not for time or place, who has not painstakingly scheduled his route and must perforce make a certain hotel every night, who is no “speed lizard” but expects to take in as he journeys along all the scenic beauties and interesting features along the way. His only care is to head-about at the proper time to bring him home again at the end of his vacation. It is estimated that more than a million persons are fol- lowing some such nomadic life each year in the United States. The term “motor-gypsy,” has been quite definitely applied by the people to those who tour leisurely and camp more or less as they go. A part of the people set aside six months or a year to a long tour, seeking the north, south, coast or mountain as fancy, heat and cold dictate, a greater number travel from two to four months, going one year to the Michigan forests, another to the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota, passing through the great granaries of the world to the cooling breezes of Colo- rado, ambling along the coast to Georgia and Florida, fol- lowing the windings of the Mississippi to the old Creole districts of Louisiana, up the Platte or through the Black Hills, to trout fishing in Wyoming, or stopping at the borders for walking trips over the wildernesses in the Yel- lowstone and Glacier National parks. The entire expanse of a most wonderful nation is open to the motor-gypsy. Camping Grounds. — So important has this sort of travel become that it is estimated that about 3000 cities and towns over the country, beginning in the Middle West and now spread to both coasts, have public automobile camp- ing grounds for the traveling visitors. These are provided and kept up by the cities themselves or by chambers of commerce or automobile clubs; sometimes by combinations of these organizations. The question often arises, “Does it pay?” From a finan- 452 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel cial standpoint it probably pays the community as a whole even if every individual who subscribes does not receive reimbursement. In the first place the tourist’s impression of a city is influenced by the treatment he receives. If an effort is made to furnish him with a safe and comfortable camping site and with facilities for cooking and cleaning he returns home with praises for that city. He tells other tourists that he meets on the way, he tells his neighbors after he gets home, and other and still other tourists come. On the contrary if no provision is made for the tourist, if he is not met with a glad hand he naturally warns others to keep away or plan to pass through in the daytime, spending what spare time they have farther on in more hospitable centers. Secondly, tourists always spend some money for food and supplies, for gasoline, tires, accessories, repairs, and with increasing frequency for hotels. Clothing and dry-goods stores profit to some extent. Since thousands of dollars are brought to those towns lying on the main thoroughfares having good camping facilities, and since this money will be respent by those receiving it directly, the entire com- munity in the long run benefits by the touring traffic. Denver possibly averages 400 to 500 campers per day during the summer season. Omaha, Kansas City, Lin- coln, Deadwood and all the smaller places to the Rocky Mountains entertain from 25 to 100 per day. The actual tourists are many more, for not nearly all camp along the way. The Omaha Auto Club registered cars in 1921 carrying over 40,000 tourists. Other gateways passed fully as many, and not nearly all took the trouble to look up the club office to register. During the winter season the gypsying traffic turns south and Georgia, Florida, and on west to California, benefit by it. A traffic census made simultaneously on eighteen Ne- braska roads, distributed widely over the state, of vehicles passing in one week (August 20-26, 1922), showed a total of 88,958 divided as follows : Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 453 County Inter- County Inter- State Total Percentage Co. I-C. I-S. Automobile 40,598 25,595 13,560 79,753 51 32 17 Light Truck 2,465 886 242 3,593 68 25 7 Heavy Truck 1,547 556 140 2,243 69 25 6 Horse-drawn, passenger . 1,303 1,303 Horse-drawn, freight. . . . 2,066 2,066 Total 47,979 27,037 13,942 88,958 "What is especially interesting in this connection is that nearly one-sixth of all the automobiles or one automobile in six, comes from without the state, and one in three from without the county. Connecticut censuses, Connecticut being a small state between thickly populated states, shows a much higher ratio, 47 per cent without the state. All sorts of cars from the most expensive to the cheapest are found and they seem to be harmonious when on the camping ground ; the Pierce-Arrow and the Rolls-Royce do not look disdainfully at the Ford and the Chevrolet, neither do the latter pretend an importance greater than their due. Democracy of cars and democracy of people ought to lead to a better understanding all around. Some very excellent and well-to-do ladies of a western city went to a hotel in one of the national parks for luncheon. They were clad in khaki trousers and blouses which had seen considerable wear. The dining room was full and they were placed at a table where some distinguished looking and well- dressed men were talking stocks and bonds. The ladies in such garb were nonplused, they were embarrassed to the limit ; but the men, being also gentlemen, gave their names and became acquainted. So pleasant proved this little din- ner participated in by the khaki-clothed ladies and stylishly attired men that at its conclusion they shook hands heartily and bade each other Godspeed for the remaining journey and hoped that, not like ships that pass each other in the night, they would again meet to renew an acquaintance so happily begun. Such is the democracy of touring. 454 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel On the contrary an editorial writer in the Saturday Evening Post, November 18, 1922, expresses incredulity of the offhand opinion ‘ ‘ that travel of any kind must rub off the sharp edges of provincialism.” He says the “American tourist in Europe has long been the subject of ridicule,” and that travel in many cases “appears to accentuate narrow-mindedness.” It is further argued that “too much travel means practical disfranchisement and a total lack of interest in local affairs.” There is no doubt but that anything, even touring, can be carried to extremes. The editorial concludes with the statement, however, that travel “can teach no lesson of more value than the knowledge that everywhere, whether the climate be hot or cold, the towns large or small, men of upstand- ing character are spending their lives to make those communities better places in which to live. ’ ’ It must be acknowledged that the fact that only about one-half of the persons eligible to the franchise exercise the right of voting at the general elections indicates that not enough interest is taken in affairs of government. Anything which tends to decrease the interest is, therefore, bad. But moderate touring in our own country ought to give a person a wider view, a stronger love of eounti’y, and a deeper sense of the importance and benefits of citizen- ship therein. A majority of the cars are of the type that would cost less than $1500, because there are more cars of that type in use. One of the most elaborate caravans seen on the D. L. D. highway this summer is a Winton six, with a lengthened frame on which is built a square van-like struc- ture, with doors and windows and a rear observation plat- form. The driver ’s seat is completely enclosed. By its side is a door which gives entrance to the interior of the car. Its size may be judged from the fact that the wheel base is 202 inches. In the front part of the car are rattan arm chairs deeply upholstered for all the members of the party. There is an ample aisle. In the rear of the car is a kitchen- ette, a lavatory, storerooms, cloak rooms and many mis- Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 4 55 cellaneous conveniences. At night the car is run to a con- venient place by the side of the road or in a special camp- ing place. The end of the observation platform is let down, a tent is hooked over the rear hood, and there is room in a jiffy for cots for three people. Two double beds are made up in the aisle of the main car, giving plenty of room for seven. In the morning it takes but little time to prepare break- fast in the kitchenette. The car has running water from a tank holding about thirty gallons. It is lighted by elec- tricity and has every convenience that one can think of. This is the fourth car designed by its owner, Dr. E. J. Fithian of Grove City, Pennsylvania. It cost him a little less than $10,000. He believes it possible to plan a shorter car that will serve every purpose for a little more than $5000. The car makes from 150 to 200 miles a day over ordinary roads. It weighs 8200 pounds fully loaded with gas, water, and supplies. It is said to ride as easily as an ordinary automobile. The passengers sit in their chairs and watch the scenery glide by very much as from the window of a Pullman, but with this difference, that they are free to go and pause at will, and can see interesting sights, if they desire, off the main lines of travel. Another caravan built on a Ford car passed through Lin- coln last summer. It carried Mr. and Mrs. C. B. Hays of Great Falls, Montana, who have lived in it for two years, winter and summer. Failing health induced Mr. Hays to take to the simple life, and a stroke of paralysis made it impossible for Mrs. Hays to walk. Two years ’ outdoor life and roughing it have restored health to both, besides during that time they have saved much on house rent. In their caravan, the windows along the sides could be pushed out like an awning and an oil cloth curtain dropped down. On one side of the car a long cushion served as a seat during the day and by adding other cush- ions it made a bed at night. A large flat box did duty as a linen closet while fastened around the sides were nu- merous bags or pockets for taking care of articles which at 456 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel home are kept in bureau, drawers. In one comer was a small oil stove with a tiny oven upon which was cooked wholesome meals well relished by the outdoor wanderers. When dinner was ready, the door of the china cupboard swung down on its hinges and a table large enough for two was soon dispensing nourishment for the hungry nomads. They dine, too, in the restful atmosphere of delightful music. No, not a phonograph. From the beamed ceiling of this unique house swings a yellow canary in his gilded cage. Can you imagine any music more alluring to per- fect joy and rest or more alarming to the dread monster indigestion ? Even the crumbs are not wasted, for they are relished by the pug, who likes to sleep curled up on his bed on top of the fender. At the side of the car Mr. Hays has apparently solved the hand signal problem for closed cars. A stuffed glove attached to a broad arm may be raised partially for a left- hand turn, fully for a right-hand turn, straight out to stop, and dropped to the side of the car when not in use. A white enamel water cooler was an attractive accessory to the dining room. A wash-board and a small tub told the story of how wearing apparel was laundered. Mrs. Hays wants a sewing machine, and although space is very much limited she says she will find the room. Is there any wonder that health and youth return with this sort of ‘ ‘ play ’ ’ housekeeping. ‘ ‘ Can you beat it ? ’ ’ Something 1 More Moderate. — While there are many persons of means, the owners of expensive cars, pitching their tents in shady nooks, enjoying the sociability of glow- ing camp fires, and sleeping to the music of gurgling trout streams, there are also those who drive cheaper cars who are enjoying the same starry nights, the hum of bees and the flash of birds, who take the gamy trout to help out their daily rations, who stop to regale themselves with wild berries and ehokecherries, who relish the chuek-chuc-k of the red squirrel, and the flirt of the saucy chipmunk’s tail as he scurries to a hiding place. Wealth has no monopoly on Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 457 the enjoyment of nature, and most any one who is able to own a car of any kind is able to take a more or less lengthy gypsying tour. Mr. Elon Jessup 15 says “Motor camping is the only way in which many people can afford to travel at all. ’ ’ He tells of meeting in Banff, Canada, a farmer, his wife and five children, who were enjoying the wondrous sights in that region, and while their car was somewhat rickety, neverthe- less it had drawn them there. The farmer’s explanation was to the effect that he had wanted for years to take his family to that country but had never been able to stand the expense until he got the flivver. Then going did not cost much more than staying at home. There will be all sorts of conveyances ranging from the simple touring car with no modifications whatsoever to the elaborate caravan described. There are also on the mar- ket all sorts of special accessories. A pantograph luggage- holder clamps on the running board. Tents that cover the car at night and extend out sidewise, or endwise, to shelter cots, beds, or cooking and eating equipment. Beds that at- tach to the running board and fold up during the day ; beds that fit on top of the seats. Sets of dishes and cooking uten- sils are now made to nest into each other in such a manner as to take up very little space. Mr. Jessup in “The Motor Camping Book,” already re- ferred to, elaborates considerably on equipping the camp- ing outfit but intimates that it is a matter for individual judgment. No two persons can agree. This is right, as it gives flexibility and zest. Summed up there are two funda- mentals : Only necessities should be taken and these should be selected for compactness. But what are necessities? blankets to roll up in on the ground? or should a cot or bed be included? Would a folding table and a chair help to make one more comfortable. It is a compromise be- tween what one would like and what one has room for. Mrs. Nina Wilcox Putnam 16 thinks that for a transcon- 15 “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. 19 “ A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fe Trail, ’ ’ by Nina Wilcox Put- nam, in Saturday Evening Post, June 10, 1922. 458 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel tinental trip a touring oar of medium size with good under clearance to avoid hitting the high centers in some of the western roads is best. As she patronized hotels exclusively no camping equipage was necessary. For clothing for women she says that east of the Mississippi she and her husband found it practical to wear just such motor clothes as one would wear at home, but they should be “dirt-col- ored.” West of the Mississippi “khaki for all hands be- comes positively de rigueur.” West of Kansas City, both men and women wear trousers. She assures ladies they can “walk into the best hotels through the Far West in the aforesaid garments without the slightest embarrass- ment. ’ ’ A complete list of the clothing carried by Mr. and Mrs. Putnam is given in the article above referred to and those who expect to take the trip might do well to look it up. Heavy as well as light clothing will be needed when traveling through the Rocky Mountain region. The nights and mornings are always cool, but under the direct action of the sun the valleys often become extremely hot. The only rule is, carry as little as you can and still be comfort- able. Camp Sites. — A gentleman, who with his wife and a Chevrolet coupe, the rear of which was modified into a large box about 5 feet square and 2 feet deep, who has “gypsied” across the United States several times from east to west and from north to south, says the problem of a camping ground for an average town is simple. Only a small tract is needed, and if it is properly looked after he thinks the tourists will not complain of a modest charge that will make it self sustaining. The average tourist would prefer the small charge and clean surroundings. 7 “A block is enough space, if the affair is in the hands of a competent caretaker, who will see that cars and tents are properly placed and guarded. People who tour in ordinary cars like to be close together. They are not aristocrats. They are folks. They like to visit around and talk roads, and 11 Interview with Frank A. Harrison in Nebraska State Journal, July 12, 1921. CAMPING GROUND AND CARAVAN A GIPSYING TOURING CARAVAN Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 459 examine outfits and discuss their plans. The best camps are divided into small plots by wooden palings on three sides. The caretaker shows you your place and it is your home for 25 cents a day. This money pays the caretaker and gives you the use of shower baths and lavatory. The best camps have city gas for cooking, bought through a slot meter. Some of them have ovens, but gas is better. The stoves are in a shed, which becomes the club house of the women. They meet there and cook and wash and com- plain about the reckless driving of their husbands, and tell where their married children live and have a glorious time. ‘ ‘ The men spend their spare hours buying supplies and talking and smoking, chewing, and pitching horseshoes. They also have the best time in the world. If the auto camp is next door to a good garage so much the better. Be- tween here and the coast the common thing is the private auto park.” Camps, in Mr. Harrison’s opinion, should not only be near a garage, for convenience and information, but also as near the business center as possible “because the tour- ists like to go up town to get a restaurant meal, buy soda water and postal cards, and take a squint at the movies.” As the car is usually a part of the tent and usually more or less cluttered up with baggage the camp site should prefer- ably be in walking distance of the center of town. Too many towns have the camp sitas away out where more land is obtainable, and possible natural shade. They should be near the main lines of travel and as stated the nearer a garage and grocery store the better. The time will no doubt come when garage men with busi- ness acumen will establish camping facilities, though the space be small, in connection with their garages and charge a small fee the same as they do now for stabling the car overnight. Possibly the Denver public camp ground is the most liberally patronized of any in the United States. El Paso, Texas, has a small park not more than 200 feet square that tourists claim to be the best eared for of any in the west. 460 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel Olympia, Washington, is praised by tourists for her camp- ing facilities. Only very recently has the camp idea reached the eastern coast, but the newspaper accounts indicate that it is taking hold. Hotels. — For those persons who do not care to camp there are always hotels. During the busy season, however, those in the larger towns which have gained a reputation with the traveling public are usually full to overflowing. Many tourists telegraph ahead, from one to two days, for accommodations. Rooms can be obtained in all the towns but not always bath in connection, or even running water. Throughout the w T ell-settled communities meals and luncheons may be obtained at most any hour. In the sparsely settled regions lunches are put up by the hotels which can be carried in the car for the noonday refresh- ment, care being taken to reach the next settlement for dinner in the evening. The evening scene in a popular tourist hotel reminds one of the old wayside inns. There the tourists, usually spruced up for the evening, with the travelers ’ camaraderie, are talking, smoking, and enjoying each others’ company. Parks. — The great National parks are being used more each year by automobile tourists. Good hotel and camping facilities are available. These parks are set aside by the Government for the preservation of marvelous natural beauty and grandeur, and the government desires that they be used to the utmost by the citizenry. Perhaps 100,000 people will visit the Yellowstone National Park this (1922) season, of which 75 per cent will come by private automo- bile. Naturally the larger number come from the nearby states, but last year practically all states were represented. Montana sending 2892 and Maine 1. The patronage is likely to continue and grow. Other National parks and the United States Forest Reserves will also receive their share. Several states are beginning to recognize the need for play and recreational grounds. New York has built a magnificent automobile road up the Bronx River Parkway Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 461 Drive and through the Adirondack^, and the State Con- servation Commission has built along these highways many stone fireplaces for the special use of motorists. Colorado is building an automobile road up Mount Evans, thus head- ing off private parties who wished Government permission to build a toll road. Michigan will develop tourist roads to attract the summer traveler. The field secretary of the State Good Roads Association maintains that such roads will bring an annual revenue to Michigan of $75,000,000 to $100,000,000 annually through the resort trade. Scarcely a state but has some attraction to the tourist ; it would be well to make its advantages known to the public that they might be enjoyed to their fullest extent. Information. — The last sentence brings us to an im- portant topic. The tourist at the present time inquires at the nearest garage or hotel for information relative to routes and condition of roads, detours, accommodations, etc. This is well, but all these people do not have at hand a knowledge of the information sought, so the traveler must pass on and trust to luck that he may get through. Cham- bers of Commerce and automobile clubs have endeavored to fill the want, and in the Middle West these places are sought by hundreds of people daily. Some of the large newspapers have drawn on their advantageous news-gath- ering facilities and publish each morning a statement of road conditions and detours. The Minneapolis J ournal says that when it established its bureau of travel and resort information, “the new agency was overwhelmed from the start with eager inquirers for facts and advice.” Information is the one thing that a tourist fairly yearns for, even more than for food, gas, and oil ; he knows where to go to satisfy these wants. The manager of the Journal, Perry S. Williams, who is also vice-president of the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World, has in mind a plan for “dotting the whole country- side with little information bureaus, where the traveler can learn what’s what and feel easy in relying on what he learns. Every community under this plan is to have its 462 Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel own bureau and to make it easily accessible to the wan- derer. ’ ’ But the state of Wisconsin which has long been among the foremost in the development of new road ideas, has beaten them to it, for already the Commission conducts a department of “Highway Information Service.” A blue- print map of the state trunk highway system is furnished weekly to all subscribers. The map shows the type of road on every mile of the system, the location of all construction jobs and of all detours and the condition of the detours. The map is revised weekly. Information up to Tuesday is mapped and in the hands of subscribers by Thursday, in time to supply information for week-end motor trips. This information is sold by the state to hotels, commercial asso- ciations, automobile clubs, garages, and other places where touring information is sought. The map is 54 by 60 inches in size and mounted on a frame or bulletin board to be placed in a conspicuous place. A charge of ten dollars is made for this service for the season from June 1 to Sep- tember 15. The charge barely covers the cost of blue- printing. While it may be the duty of the state to furnish the roads and do all possible to promote transportation, local bureaus will be able to supplement the State’s information in a very acceptable manner. SELECTED REFERENCES Bell, H. H., “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln Highway,” Electrical World, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 731-732. Blanchard, Harold, F., “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Types of Garages,” Bus Transportation, June, 1922. Brook, Mark, “Highway Signs,” American Highway Engineers’ Handbook, pp. 1390-1394. Capper, Arthur, “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Eno, William Phelps, “Science of Highway Traffic,” Published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York. Aids and Attractions to Traffic and Travel 463 Evans, P. and Batchelder, A. 6., “Direction and Distance Signs,” Engineering and Contracting, July 30, 1913. Ferguson, 0. J., “Electric Lighting,” Chap. XXI, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Akron, Bulletin No. 7, “The Motor Truck Terminal.” Harrison, J. L., “Color Schemes for Highway Signs,” Engi- neering and Contracting, Oct. 13, 1915, p. 280. Isabella, N. M., “The Wisconsin Idea as Applied to Detours a Source of Satisfaction to Motorists,” Concrete Highway Magazine, April, 1922, Chicago. Jenkins, Alfred, “A Motorized City,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Jessup, Elon, “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. Lewis, Nelson P., “The Planning of the Modern City,” pp. 240-246, John Wiley & Sons. “Omaha Union Stage Depot,” Bus Transportation, Yol. 1, p. 45. Putnam, Nina Wilcox, “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fe Trail,” Saturday Evening Post, June 10, 1922. Halvorson, C. A. B., Jr. and Hussey, R. B., “Illumination of Highways,” Engineering and Contracting, Yol. LVI, pp. 535-536. Underwood, W. E., “The Trend of Modern Practice in Street Lighting,” Engineering World, Vol. XVII, pp. 348-351. Williar, Harry D., Jr., Articles on Road Signs, Public Roads, August, 1921, and Engineering and Contracting, October 5, 1921. INDEX Accidents, highway, and their mitigation, 351-380 Agriculture, stage of, in develop- ment of civilization, 4-6. See Farms Amos log loader, working of, 299 Anderson, A. P., tables from “ Modern Road Building and Maintenance ” by, 269 Appian Way, famous highway, 23-24 Ashley, Wm. H., founder of Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 54 Asia, early highways in western, 19-21 Asphalt and asphalt block roads, good qualities of, 265-266 Assessments for highway improve- ment, 311-321 Astor, John Jacob, exploring ex- pedition organized by, 55 Automobiles, railway passenger earnings affected by, 163; ef- fects of, on street-car lines, 164- 166; great use of, for pleasure passenger traffic, 187-189; es- timate of cost per mile of riding in, 189 n.; changes in society produced by, 203-208; effects on health, 211-213; and crime, 213-214; percentage of acci- dents due to, 351-352; respon- sibility of the driver for acci- dents and their avoidance, 352- 355; horns for, 356-357; stop- ping on grades, backing, etc., 357-358; miscellaneous causes of accidents, 358 ff.; ranking and parking of, 420-425; ramp and elevator garages for, 427-429; gas, air, and water stations, 433-434 Automotive transportation, anal- ysis and discussion of, 181-218 Auto trucks, effects of, on rail- roads, 163-164. See Trucking by motor Babson, Roger W., quoted on rela- tions between railways and auto trucks, 163-164 Backing of cars, accidents due to, 357-358 Baldwin Locomotive Works, ori- gins of, 102 Beautification of roads, discussion of, 382-416 Bible, references in, to highways, 19-20 Bicycles, influence of, on roads, 127-136; highway accidents due to, 378 Bodies, removable, a device for loading and unloading freight, 191-192 Bonds, issuing of, for highway financing, 322-323 ; kinds of, 323-327; total cost of a loan, by the three kinds, 327-328; the term of, 328-331 Boone, Daniel, “ Autobiography ” quoted, 40-42 Boone’s Trace, account of, 39-43 Boston, early railroads centering at, 105 Brakes, parts played by, in auto- mobile accidents, 359-360 Brick roads, good qualities of, 264 Bridger Pass, discovery of, 54 Bridges, road accidents caused by, 368 Buses. See Motor-buses Cabot, Philip, article by, on New England railways, cited, 162; calculations and figures by, 171-172 465 466 Index Calk, William, “ Diary ” of, quoted, 43-46 Camden & Amboy R.R., charter- ing of, 104 Camping grounds for motor tour- ists, 451-456 Canals, era of, in England, 14-15; in America, 70-75; passenger traffic on, 75-76; inability of, to compete with railways, and results, 76-77; ship, 77; Sault Ste. Marie, Welland, and Cape Cod, 77; Panama Canal, 77-88 Canoes, travel and transportation by, 34-35 Cape Cod, ship canal across, 77 Cattle. See Stock raising Census. See Traffic census Central Pacific Ry., building of, 112 Charleston & Hamburg R.R., budding of, 103 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, building of, 73 Civilization, transportation a measure of, 1 ff.; five stages in, 1-2; stage of Direct Appropri- ation, 2-4; Pastoral Stage, 4; Agricultural Stage, 4-5; Handi- craft Stage, 6—12 ; Industrial Stage, 14-48 Clark, William. See Lewis and Clark Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, terms of, 83 Clermont, Robert Fulton’s steam- boat, 89 Clinton, De Witt, efforts of, in be- half of canal-building, 71 Coaches. See Stagecoaches Colonial days, transportation in, 34-46 Concrete roads, good and poor qualities of, 264 Consolidated Rural Schools, im- portance of motor transporta- tion to, 208-210 Container, the demountable, 176, 192-193 Cooper, Peter, locomotive built and operated by, 100-101 Cooperative marketing, advan- tages of, 277-282 Corporations, financing of high- way transportation by, 345 Credit Mobilier, notorious rail- way-construction scandal, 115- 116 Crime, the automobile and, 213- 214 “ Cross Crossings Cautiously ” campaign, 380 Culverts, road accidents caused by, 368 Cumberland Road, building of, 62-64; extension of, 64-66 Curves, dangers of, 367 Dairying, use of motor truck in, 293-294 De Lesseps, Ferdinand, and Pana- ma Canal, 80-84 Des Moines, Iowa, good roads movement at, 132-133 Destruction of highways, factors in, 245-248 Detour signs, 442-443; location of, 443 Distance and direction signs for motorists, 436-437 Driver, responsibility of the, for automobile accidents, 352-355 Dunlop, J. B., inventor of pneu- matic tire, 128 Du Pont Road, example of private financing of highway, 307-308 Durability, an important factor in road building, 254 Earth roads, good and poor quali- ties of, 263 Efficiency outline of motor trans- port, 225-227 Electric-light poles along high- ways, 412—413 Electric traction, operation of street cars by, 122-124 Elevator garages, 427—428 Engine. See Steam engine Eno, William Phelps, develop- ment of traffic regulation due to efforts of, 378-379; cited on width of parking spaces, 423; cited on opera house traffic, 426, 427 Index 467 Eno Foundation for Highway- Traffic Regulation, Inc., 379-380 Erie Canal, building of, 70-72; small profit from, 75 Esthetics, highway, 382-416 Express rates, reduction of, due to short-haul motor trucking, 174- 175 Express terminal stations, 429-433 Factory products, transportation of, by motor truck, 301-303 Farms, meaning of the automobile to, 177 ; motor trucking to and from, 193-201; Rural Mail Delivery one of many modern advantages, 210-211 Federal aid, financing of highways and transportation lines by, 332-334; present state of, 334- 335; plan of local matching of Federal Aid dollars, 335-342 Federal Aid Road Act, passage of, 152-153; provisions of, 153- 154; rules and regulations for carrying out, 154-156; marked success of, 156 Feudal system, government under the, 5-6 Financing, highway, 343-349 Forestry, use of motor truck in, 295-298 France, traffic censuses in, 236- 237, 240-242 Garages, public, 427-429 Gardening, road, 382-387 Gasoline, stations for selling, 433 Gila Trail, 55; route of, 58 “ Good roads ” movement, growth of, 128-129 Government, U. S., attitude toward river improvement, 94- 97; ownership of railways by, 112; aid of state and Federal, for better roads, 147-156 Grain exchanges, account of, 275- 277 Gravel roads, good and poor quali- ties of, 263-264 Greece, effects on ancient, of lack of roads, 21-22 Greeley, Horace, quoted on canals, 76 Guides, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Guilds, medieval, 6-8; destruc- tion or lapsing of, 9—10; func- tions taken over by govern- ment, 10 Handicrafts, stage of, in growth of civilization, 6-12 Harding, President, discussion of transportation problem by, 217-218 Harriman interests, railway lines held by, 117 Haulage. See Trucking by motor Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, terms of, 84 Health, the automobile and, 211- 213 Henderson, James, early Ameri- can pioneer, 39-43 Highway, distinction between road and, 222 Highways, important early, 19-22 ; of ancient Rome, 22-27 ; classi- fication of, 222; planning systems of, 222 ff.; units of systems, 227-229; principles of esthetic construction applied to, 382-416. See also Roads Hogs. See Stock raising Hoover, Secretary, quoted on farm motor trucks, 197 Horine, M. C., “ Economics of Motor Transport ” by, quoted, 225-227 Horns for automobiles, 356-357 Hotels, accommodations for tour- ists in, 460 Humboldt River route, discovery of, 54 Husband, Joseph, “ Story of the Pullman Car ” by, 120-121 Individual financing of highway transportation, 343-344 Information, supplying of, to auto- mobile tourists, 461-462 Interurban railways, effects of motor competition on, 164 468 Index Intra-city traffic, calculations con- cerning, 170 Inventions, industrial stage of civilization brought about by, 14-15 Iron, invention of new methods of smelting, 15 Italy, traffic censuses in, 242 Jay walking, as a cause of acci- dents, 377 Jefferson, Thomas, Louisiana Pur- chase arranged by, 48 Jerusalem, effects upon, of stra- tegic position, 20 Jitneys, earnings of street-car lines diminished by, 165 ; impor- tance of business done by, 183 John Bull, locomotive, 102 Joliet, Louis, early explorer, 46 Kay, John, inventor of fly shuttle, 16 Kentucky, Boone’s path into, 42; early railroads in, 106 Knight, Jonathan, coning of en- gine wheels invented by, 101 n. Lancaster turnpike, building of, 60-61 Land, grants of, to railways, 110; grants to Pacific roads, 111-114 Later California Trail, route of, 57 Lauck, W. J., quoted on avoid- able railway wastes, 175 n. League of American Wheelmen, organization of, 128; good roads movement sponsored by, 129- 136 Lewis and Clark Expedition, ac- count of, 48-53 Lighting of roads and streets, 447- 449 Lights, on cars, as sources of dan- ger, 361-362; for non-motor- ized traffic, 378 Loading and unloading freight, devices for, 191-194 Locomotive, invention and early development of, 18; the first, 99-103; progress in mechanical development of, 119-120 Louisiana Territory, purchase of, 48 Lumbering, improved methods in, due to motor truck, 295-300 Macadam, J. L., road construction by, 60 Macadam roads, good and poor qualities of, 264 MacDonald, T. H., classification of highways by, 222 Manse, W. H., cited on waste by railways, 176 Map signs, sizes of, 439-441 Marketing, effect of ease and cost of transportation on production and, 273-304 Marks, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Marquette, Jacques, explorations of, 46-48 Massachusetts, state aid for high- ways in, 150-151 Merger, railway consolidation by, 117 Michigan Central R.R., begin- nings of, 106 Mining, use of motor trucks in connection with, 300-301 Mississippi River, steamboat transportation on, 90-91 Mohawk & Hudson Company, chartering of, 103 Moore, W. H., “ good roads booster,” 139 Morgan interests, railway lines held by, 117 Motor-buses, relations between street-car lines and, 165-166; character of business done by, 184-187; extent of suburban and interurban, 196; terminal stations for, 429-433 Motor transport efficiency out- line, 225-227 National Good Roads Associa- tion, activities of, 139 National Road. See Cumberland Road National system of highways, ar- guments for, 227-229 Index 469 Nebraska State Journal, editorial from, 204-205 New England, early railways in, 105 New Orleans, importance of, due to river traffic, 90-91 New York Central & Hudson River R.R., beginnings of, 103- 104 New York City, Governor Clin- ton’s prophecy concerning, 71-72 New York State, canal-building in, 70-74; automobile roads in, 460-461 Nicaragua, canal route across, 84 “ No Accident ” campaigns, 380 Novelty, Ericsson’s locomotive, 100 n. Nye, Bill, quoted on roads, ISO- 131 Office of Public Roads Inquiry, instituted, 136-137; duties and scope of, widened, 143-144 O’Hanlon, J., “ Irish Emigrant’s Guide to United States,” quoted, 93 Ohio, first railway in, 105-106 Ohio Valley, early fines of travel to, 37-38 Old Ironsides, first Baldwin loco- motive, 102 Opera house traffic, special ar- rangement for, 426-427 Oregon Trail, traffic over, 54-55; origin of the, 55-57 ; final route of, 57 Pacific railways, building of and land grants to, 111-114 Packing of goods on turnpikes, 58-60 Page, L. W., worker for good roads, 142, 144 Palestine, roads and highways of, 19-20 Panama Canal, history of, 77-88 Parking of automobiles, 421-422; spaces for, a convenience to motorists, 422-425 Parks, National, visited by auto- mobile tourists, 460-461 Partnership, financing of high- way transportation by, 344- 345 Pedestrians, contributory negli- gence of, toward accidents, 37&-377; rule for, on country roads, 377-378 Pennsylvania, turnpikes in, 61 Pennsylvania R.R., railways held by same interests, 118 Peru, roads in ancient, 27-31 Pioneer, Illinois Central locomo- tive, 108 Pittsburgh, Pa., growth of, 72 Plants, climbing, for use in road gardening, 411-412 Pleasure passenger traffic, use of automobiles for, 187-189 Poles, telephone and other, along highways, 412-415 Pope, Albert A., worker for good roads, 133, 136 Portages, importance of, in early American period, 36-37 Potter, I. B., good roads advocate, 129 Poughkeepsie, Bus Terminal Sta- tion at, 431-433 Poultry business, efficiency of motor truck in, 294-295 Prescott, W. H., “ Conquest of Peru,” quoted, 28-31 Production and marketing, rela- tion between ease and cost of transportation and, 273 ff. Public ownership, as a method of financing transportation lines, 347-349 Pullman cars, development of, 120-122 Railway crossings, accidents at, 368-370; increase in accidents due to automobiles, 370-372; means of diminishing fatalities, 372-376 Railways, early development of, in England, 17-18; effects of, on canals, 76-77 ; account of growth and development of, 99-116; consolidation of, 116-118; me- chanical development of, 1 19— 120; street, 122; relation be- 470 Index tween transportation on, and on highways, 159-168 Ramp and elevator type garages, 427-429 Ranking of cars, 421-425 Regulations, road and traffic, 378- 380 Resistance of road surfaces, 255- 257; due to grade, 257-261 Richmond, Va., first electric rail- way operated for profit in, 123 River and Harbor Improvement Bills, 96-97 Rivers, government's attitude toward improvement of, 94-97 Road, distinction between high- way and, 222 Roads, prehistoric American, 27- 31; early, in North America, 35-36; evolution of modern wagon, 126 ff.; influence of bicycle on, 127-136; building of object-lesson, 142-144; state and Federal aid for, 147-156; good, as agencies for health, 212- 213; selection of suitable type, 252-254; types of, and their qualities, 263; compari- son of types of, 266-270; bad, as causes of accidents, 363-364; naming and numbering of, 434-435. See also Highways Robbery, automobiles used in, 213- 214 Rocket, George Stephenson’s loco- motive, 100 n. Rome, roads of ancient, 22-27 Roosevelt, Theodore, and the Panama Canal, 85-86 Rotary scheme for traffic, 424- 426 Rural Free Delivery, an agency for better roads, 144-147; ef- fects of, on farmer’s life, 210-211 “ Safety First ” campaign, 380 St. Louis, Mo., as a fur center, 53-54 Salt Lake Trail, route of, 57 Sand-clay roads, good and poor qualities of, 263 San Francisco, cable cars in, 122 Sanitariness of roads, 262 Santa Fe Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58 Saturday Evening Post, quoted on vandalism, 215 Sault Ste. Marie, ship canal and locks at, 77 Schools, motor transportation and the consolidation of, 208-210 Semaphores, use of, by traffic officers, 445-446 Service stations for automobiles, 433-434 Shrubs, for planting along roads, 403-411 Signal lights and colors, 446-447 Signs, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Skidding, accidents due to, 359 Sleeping car, evolution of the, 120- 122 Slipperiness of road surfaces, 261- 262 Smith, Jedediah, discoveries of, 54 South Pass, discovery of, 54 Spanish Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58 Speedometer, as an essential, 363 Speed signs for motorists, 444 Spooning in automobiles, 215 Stagecoaches, era of, in England, 11-12; on Cumberland Road, 64-65 State aid, 147-152; financing highways and transportation lines by, 334 State system of highways, argu- ments for, 229-230 Steamboats, the first, 89-90; on Mississippi River, 90-91; in- creasing luxuriance of, 91-93; dangers connected with early, 93; fares on, 94 Steam engine, Watt's improve- ments on early, 15-16; at- tempts to use, in locomotives, 99-100 Stephenson, George, improvement of locomotive by, 18; first locomotive put out by, 100 Stevens, John, called father of American railroads, 100 Stock raising, effect of marketing Index 471 facilities and road transporta- tion on, 284-293 Stock subscriptions for highway financing, 331 Stockton & Darlington R.R., completion of, 101 Stock watering, meaning of, 116 Stopping cars on grades, streets, etc., 357 Street-car service, progress in, 122; effect of motor transportation on, 164; effects of taxicabs, jitneys, and buses, 165-167 ; competition between motor- buses and, 185-186 Superelevation of outer side of curved roadway, 364-366 Systems of highways, planning of, 222-270 Taxes for road construction, 309- 321 Taxicabs, character and impor- tance of business done by, 183- 184 Telephone poles, highways dis- figured by, 412-413; location of, 414-415 Telford, Thomas, road construc- tion by, 60 Terminals, waste at railway, 176; transferring between, by motor- bus, 187 ; improvement of facili- ties at, caused by motor trans- portation, 201-203; for buses and express service, 429-433 Tom Thumb, Peter Cooper’s loco- motive, 101 Touring by motor, amount of, 450-451; camping grounds for use in, 451-456; camp sites, 458-460 Towns, truck and bus lines be- tween, 194—196 Traffic, one way and rotary, 425- 426; taking care of opera house, 426-427; guides for, in cities, 444-445 Traffic census, taking a, for plan- ning of highway, 234-236; methods of taking, 236-238; classification of traffic in, 239- 245 Transcontinental railway lines, land grants to and construction of, 111-115 Transportation, a measure of civilization, 1-32; classified as primary and secondary, 159; interrelation between highway and other kinds of, 159 ff . ; legitimate fields of agencies of, 168-170; analysis and discus- sion of automotive, 181-202; social aspect of motor, 203-208; effect of ease and cost of, on production and marketing, 273- 304; financing of lines of, 306- 343; financing highway, 343- 349 Transylvania Republic, early set- tlement called, 43 Trees, for planting along roads, 385-403 Tresaguet, French highway en- gineer, 60 Trucking by motor, effects of, on railway earnings, 163-164; length of haul for economical, 170-174; reduction of express rates due to short-haul, 174- 175; freight traffic cost under system of, 190-194; traffic be- tween towns, 194-196; general effect of ease and cost of, on production and marketing, 273- 304 Turnpikes, era of, in America, 58-60; construction of, 60-61; effects of railways on, 61-62 Types of roadway, comparison of, 266-270 Uniformity in distance and direc- tion signs for motorists, 437-438 Union Pacific Ry., building of, 112-114 United States, transportation development in, 34—67 Units, of highway systems, 227- 229; of traffic, 240-242 Vandalism by visitors to country, 215 Vanderbilt interests, railway lines held by, 117 472 Index Vehicles, unlighted, as sources of danger, 362-363 Vincent, C., “ Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” quoted, 276-277, 280 Virginia, transportation improve- ments in early, 61; first rail- roads in, 107 Vision, clear, as a means of safety, 366-367 ; obstacles that ob- scure, a cause of accidents to pedestrians, 377 Wagon road, the modern, 126-156 Walker, American filibuster in Nicaragua, 80 Warning signs for motorists, 439 Washington Turnpike Company bill, 67 Waste, methods of avoiding, by railways, 175-177 Waterways, settlement near, in early American period, 36-37. See Canals and Rivers Watkins, Albert, quoted on Ore- gon Trail, 56-57 Welland Canal, traffic through, 77 Wilderness Road, the, 39-43 Williams, Perry S., plan of, for information bureaus for travel- ers, 461 Wood block roads, qualities of, 265 Date Dne m ? r Duke University Libraries 625.7 4 ■ C492H 121617