THE IJtZDAYJtSNlAN PHILOSOPHY. H80Z J- DASTOI JAMAS? ASA. l-L . 1 1 1 II .. - II M I UM j DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Treasure %oom 7 7 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MAZDAYASNIAN RELIGION UNDER THE SASSANIDS. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF L. C. CASARTELLI, WITH PREFATORY REMARKS, NOTES, AND A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR, BY FIROZ JAMASPJI DASTUR JAMASP ASA Registered under Ad V.VT. / Mf, Bombay : JEHANGIR BEJANJI KARANI, 17 AND 1 8, PARSI BAZAAR. I889. Alt , '■/: '■< r«] . , rtit ' BOMBAY: PRINTED AT THE EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BYCULLA. A- TO H. E. The Rt. Hon. Lord Reay, G.C.I I., LLD., GOVERNOR OF BOMBAY, IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF HIS EMINENT SERVICES TO THE CAUSE OF EDUCATION IN THIS PRESIDENCY, AND IN TOKEN OF THE IMMENSE INTEREST WHICH HE INVARIABLY TAKES IN THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, THIS TRANSLATION IS (BY permission; MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE TRANSLATOR. • » I Bombay, April 1889. JL i i •_ ■ CONTENTS. PAGE Translator's Prefatory [Remarks ix. Opinion xi. Biographical Sketch xiii. Abbreviations • xv « Introduction i-viu i CHAPTER I. The Divinity. I. Diversity of Doctrines on the Divinity during the Sassanid Period l II. This Diversity is a Consequence of Dualism 3 III. The Zrvanic System, Destiny 5 IV. Zrvanism is a Philosophical System 12 V. The Relations between Zrvan and Auharmazd 12 VI. Auharmazd, His Names H VII. Titles and Attributes of Auharmazd 21 VIII. God the Creator, His relations with the Creation 27 IX. Relations between God and Destiny 31 X. The Doctrine of Divine Wisdom 33 XI. The Doctrine of Vohuman, Son of the Creator 42 CHAPTER II. Evil. » » I. The Dualistic System of Mazdeism 50 II. Names, Atrributes and Qualities of the Evil Spirit 54 III. Aharman, the Creator of Evil 61 IV.' The End of Aharman and of Evil 64 174054 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. The Spirits. page I. Distinction between the Material and the Spiritual World 69 II. Origin of the Good and Evil Spirits = 7° III. The Good Spirits : — (i) Vohuman 7 2 (ii) The other Ameshocpands 74 (iii) The Yazds 76 (iv) The Primordial War of the Spirits 77 (v) The Principal Yazds : — (a) Genii of the Last Things 79 (b) Genii of the Physical World, Abstract Genii, &c r 8l (vi) The Fravahars 83 (vii) Worship of the Good Spirits 87 IV. The Evil Spirits :— (i) The six principal Devs 88 (ii) The other Demons 90 (iii) Questions relating to the Demons 92 CHAPTER IV. Cosmology . I. Distinction between the Spiritual Firmament and the Material Sky 94 II. Firmament : — (a) Signs of the Zodiac, Constellations 95 (b) Astronomical Systems 97 (c) The Sun and the Moon 98 (c?) Planets ; the Evil Stars 99 III. The Material World :— (a) Creation IOO (b) Primitive Qualities and Elements 102 (c) Cosmogony of the Dinkart 103 {d) Form of the World 106 IV. Material Sky — Meteorology ,.... ,'o8 V. The Earth :— (a) Mountains, Keshvars, Geology HO (b) Water : its circulation. Seas. Rivers 113 (c) Fire and its different Species IJ.6 CONTENTS. Vli PAGE VI. Organic World : — (a) Sex 117 (6) Vegetable Kingdom — Botanical Notions 118 Mystic Trees 121 (c) Animal Kingdom — Zoological Notions 124 Mythical Animals 127 CHAPTER V. Man. * I. Anthropogeny — The First Man 129 II. Vegetable Origin of the Human Races 130 III. Earliest Genealogies 131 IV. The Constitution of Man — The Body — Physiological Notions 134 V. Psychological Notions 137 VI. Men and Demons 144 CHAPTER VI. Ethics. I. Bases of Ethics : — (a) Intellectual Nature of Man 145 (b) Action of the Evil Spirit 146 (c) The Spiritual Combat jaj {d) Destiny M I4 8 II. Classification of Virtues and Vices : — (a) Virtues and Good Deeds : — (i) General Lists I^n (ii) Special Virtues , It-j 1 (iii) Duties of the State of Life I( - 3 (iv) Good Deeds peculiar to Mazdeism 156 (v) Khvetukdac jcg (6) Sins and Evil Actions : — (i) General Lists I ^ Q , , (ii) Sins specially condemned 162 (iii) Legal Impurities— Philosophical Theory 163 (iv) Classification of Sins 166 III. Merit — Responsibility — Casuistry jg- IV.^ Contrition— Confession— Penance !6o Vlil CONTENTS. I PAGE V. Religion — Duties of the Faithful with regard to it — (a) The Good Law. — The only true Religion, 171 (b) The Priesthood : its Importance 173 (c) Other Religions — Infidels — Apostates 174 VI. Sententious Morality of Mazdeism 175 CHAPTER VII. Etchatology. I. Fate of the Soul after Death — (a) Before the individual Judgment 178 {b) The Cinvat Bridge and the Judgment of the^Soul... 182 (c) The world beyond the grave — (i) Heaven 185 (ii) Hell 190 (iii) Hamectagan 194 II. End of the World — (a) Last Millennia 196 (b) Resurrection^of the Dead 197 (c) 'AiroKaTavTaais I99 TRANSLATOR'S PREFATORY REMARKS. Pehlevi was, until recently, looked upon as a mere jargon by the savants of Europe, who neglected its study on account of its difficult and enigmatic reading. Of late, however, a few European and Parsi scholars, by their unsparing labour and indefatigable zeal, have aroused such an interest in the study of Pehlevi that the cultivation and correct exposition of this language attracts considerable attention at present, both in Europe and in America. Several tests and translations, grammars and lexicons, have been published, and much, if not very con- siderable, light has been thrown upon many obscure and knotty passages of its literature. Dr. L. C. Casartelli has been a labourer in this field, and after having been a student for many years of the learned and distinguished Professor de Harlez of Louvain, has given to the public his celebrated and im- portant essay, entitled La Philosophie religieuse du Mazdeisme sous les Sassanides, as the most comprehensive result of his study of the Iranian languages, and especially of Pehlevi. This treatise is mainly based upon the Pehlevi texts that have hitherto been published, and embodies the fruits of the learned scholar's untiring and persevering . efforts towards elucidating, in a concise yet clear and thorough manner, the theological, cosmological, anthropological, moral, and eschatological ideas of the .Mazdayasnian religion, as it existed in the Persian Empire under the rule of the Sassanides — the period when that religion attained its highest phase in philosophical completeness. It is an essay that will be welcomed by scholars as a valuable and erudite contribution to the exposition of philosophical questions mooted by the post- Avestaic exegesis; and an English translation of a treatise like this must be both useful and important to the Parsis, while it cannot fail to be of interest to the English-speaking public at large. The Translator has added a few foot-notes tending to supplement or contradict the views of the author ; quotations from well-known writers are given in some cases ; the German passages quoted by the Author have been translated into English, and references to *he Avesta texts a"re inserted wherever it is deemed necessary to do so. All these notes, for which the Translator alone is responsible, have been enclosed within square brackets, in order to distinguish them from the original notes of the Authpr. X translator's prefatory remarks. At the suggestion of the Author, two indices have been appended, one of things, places, persons, &c, referred to in the work, the other of all Pehlevi, Avestaic, Sanskrit, and Persian words explained by the Author. The translation has undergone a thorough and careful revision by the Author himself, who has in some places added to or altered the original context. For this and for other valuable suggestions, as also for expressing his impartial opinion on this translation, my sincere and warmest thanks are due to the Author. I must avail myself of this opportunity to acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude to that eminent scholar and statesman, H. E. Lord Reay, Governor of Bombay, for his kind and gracious permission to dedicate this translation to him. My thanks are also due to the Trustees of the Sir Jamshedji Jijibhai Translation Fund for subscribing to a goodly number of copies of this work, and to the Parsi community generally for their kind support. FIROZ JAMASPJI DASTUR JAM ASP ASA. Bombay, April 1889. OPINION. I have great pleasure in stating that I consider Firoz Jamaspji Dastur Jamasp Asa to have translated my treatise, La Philosophie religieuse du Mazdeisme sous les Sassanides, with conspicuous care and fidelity, and that his version is a thoroughly reliable rendering of the original. I am much indebted to the Translator for the great pains he has taken to secure this result. L. C.'CASARTELLI. A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR. Louis Charles Casartelli, son of an Italian (Lombard) family settled in England, was born at Manchester on the 14th of November 1852, At the age of 15 he went to Ushaw College, near Durham, connected with the University of London, where he passed in 1870 his Preliminary Arts with Exhibition in Latin; in 1872 his B. A with scholarship in the classics and prize in the Scriptural examination ; and in 1873 n * s M. A. with gold medal in the classics. In 1874 he joined the University of Louvain injBelgium, where he studied, for several sessions, under the famous Professor de Harlez, the Sanskrit, Avesta and Pehlevi lan- guages. In 1876 he was ordained a (Catholic) priest at Salford, Manchester, and was appointed in 1877 Professor and Prefect of Studies in St. Bede's (Commercial) College in the same city. He again went in 1884 to the Louvain University, where in the month of July he passed the examinations in Sanskrit, Avesta, and Pehlevi. In the same year he published his celebrated dissertation on the Philosophy of the Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids {La Philosophie religieuse du Mazdeisme sous les Sassanides) and obtained the degree of Doctor in Oriental Literature. In 1886 he reprinted from Le Museon at Louvain his celebrated treatise on Mazdayasnian Medicine {Tratte de Medecine Mazdeenne) in which he gives, after an introduction on the subject, an analysis of what is found in the Avesta on Medicine, followed by an analysis and a translation of the 157th chapter of the Dinhart, which is an old medical treatise, based and developed on the system of the Avesta ; then follows an Appendix containing grammatical notes. The work presents a clear picture of the Iranian art of healing and curing in the Sassanian period. Besides this he has written many papers and articles on oriental and philological subjects for le Museon, the Babylonian and Oriental Record, and other periodicals. He is also connected with several learned societies ; for instance, the German Oriental Society (1876), the Manchester Geographical Society (1885), in which he also holds the office of a Councillor, the Socie'te Orientale of Louvain (1886), of which he is an Honorary Member, and the Royal Asiatic Society of London (i? LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AEG. for Spiegel, Vergleichende Grammatik der Alteranisch.cn Sprachen . Arab. „ Arabic. Av. „ Avesta. AVN. „ Ardd-i Viraf Ndmeh. BD. „ B&n-Dehesh. BY. „ Bailment Yasht. Chald. „ Chaldic. Chap. „ Chapter. Dk. „ Dinkard. EA. „ Spiegel, Erdnische Alterthutnskun.de. ed. or edit. „ edition. fol. „ folio. GAP. „ Justi, Geschichte des alien Persiens. GF. „ Gosht-i Fry&no. Kurd. „ Kurdish. Lat. „ Latin. lit. „ literal or literally. MK. „ Mainyo-i Khard. MS. „ manuscript. n. „ foot-note. NR. „ Nakshe Rajab or Rustam. OK. „ Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur im Alterthum. Pehl. „ Pehlevi. Pers. ,, Persian. P.T. „ »West, Pahlavi Texts. RV. „ Rig Veda. Sass. „ Sassanian. Sirci.. „ Sirozah. SIS. „ Shdyast Id Shdyast. Skt. or Sans. „ Sanskrit. s. v. „ sub voce. Syr. „ Syriac. XVI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. Trad. Lit. orTL. UI. v. Vd.or Tend. Visp. vol. Wester. Ya$. Yt. Zdm G. Zor. Stud. ZS. for Spiegel, Traditionelle Literatur der Parsen. ,, Ulemd-i Isldtn. Vendidad, Vispared. volume. Westergaard, Zend Avesta. Yag,na. Yasht. Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft. Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien. Zad-Sparam. INTRODUCTION. T/rl^lHIS Essay is an epitome of the philosophical $%£ and religious doctrines of the Mazdayasnian or Zoroastrian religion, as it existed in the Persian Empire under the national dynasty of the Sassanides (from A. D. 226 to the conquest of Eran by the Arabs in 65O. The importance of this epoch is explained by the fact that the Sassanian kings were the adherents of the Mazdayasnian religion, and that they were the first who made it the State religion. It is especially the case that at this time the reconstitution of the Mazdayasnian religion with the introduction of new notions made it into a special system. We are astonished to see the illustrious Eranist Mr. E. W. West, in a recent work, styling the religious writings of the Mazdayasnians, such as the Avesta and the Pehlevi treatises, " the last remnants of the faith professed by Cyrus, the anointed of the Lord, the scattered fragments of the creed professed by Darius in his inscriptions." 1 \7e believe that after the last decisive arguments adduced by Spiegel 2 and de Harlez 3 it will be no longer possible to make a mistake on this point. The Avestaic religion is not identical with that of the » f — 1 See Pahlavi Texts, part I., p. ix. (Oxford, 1880). 9 See Vergleichende Grammatik der altiranischen Sprachen, pp. 6,7 (Leipzig, 1882). * See, Introduction a Velicde de I' Avesta, pp. ccxi-ccxii. (Paris, 188 1). 1 li INTRODUCTION. Achaemenian kinejs, although in both reliassanide epoch, and I have arranged in a philosophical order the various precepts which are found therein. I have scarcely touched therein upon the questions of origin or of comparison with other systems. Among the works used, the Bun-Dehesh, the Mainyo-i Khard, the Ardd-i Virdf Nanieh, the Bahman Yesht, the Shdyast Id-Shdyast, and the small history of Gusht-i Frydno are unanimously admitted by Eranists (students of the Eranian languages) as belonging to Sassanide literature. INTRODUCTION. V It is not so with the Dinkart, to which is often assigned a more recent date. However, I have been led to the conviction that this opinion is erroneous. It is true that we can judge only from the portion of this work already published — the four volumes edited by Dastur Peshotun of Bombay (1874- 1884), scarcely containing a fourth part of the whole text. • I have been unable to avail myself of any MS. material. But to judge from the portion of Dinkart which has been published, it seems to me that this remarkable treatise is^undoubtedly a genuine and characteristic pro- duction of the Sassanide epoch. I rely mainly upon : (i) The continually repeated theories of the duties of the king, of his prerogatives, of his relations with the true religion, and the relations between the State and the priesthood, which reveal very evidently an epoch when Mazdeism was certainly the religion of the State. 1 (ii) The continuance of the four political and social divisions of the people. 2 (iii) The frequent polemics against the Jewish, Manichean, and Christian religions, 'without any mention of Mohammedanism. 5 (iv) The pronounced hostility against Rum or Arum, i.e., the Greek Empire,* which can only suit the Sassanide period. 1 See vols. I., 46, 58; II., 92, 96; III., 124, 129, 133; IV. 164, &c. " * 9 Seel., 50; IV., 157. 8 Seel., 29; II., 80 ; IV., 166. 4 See III., 134. vi INTRODUCTION. (v) The categorical assertion that " the religion of Eran is the Mazdayasnian Law" (airano ddto ditto Mujiiaynsno), 1 which would no longer be true after the Arab conquest. What is more: certain Sassanide treatises, as the Bihi-Dehesh, contain many traditions of high anti- quity, even often more ancient than those of the Avesta ; but the Dinkart appears to be the production of the philosophical thought of its own epoch,' 2 and therefore it gives us a more faithful idea of the systems peculiar to that time. Moreover, the more accentuated monotheism and the more elevated spirituality which distinguish it with the very explicit indications which we shall see further on betray a very prominent influ- ence of Christian ideas upon its authors. 3 If I have quoted at full length many passages, it is because I find myself face to face with the translation of Mr. Ratanshah Eruchshah Kohiyar, made from the Gujarati version of Dastur Peshotun ; experience has 1 See I., 28. 8 [It is manifest from the Dinkart itself that several chapters of the book were based upon some original Avesta Nasks, which are now- extinct, but which were extant at the time when the book was written, because the authors of it often say " davan din pet ilk, i. J£j ', but we do not know whether this altogether Christian idea can be traced back to the Sassanide times. 6. The idea of the Zrvan Akarana is treated at full length by Spiegel in the second volume of his Antiquities. Generally, it is not easy to clearly distinguish this Divinity of Time from Destiny. If we consult the Armenian Vartabed Eznig, a writer contemporary with the Sassanides in the 5th century, we shall find the following definition of the being of Zervan in his description of the Mazdayasnian religion as flourishing in his time. 8 ' "When there was as yet nothing, say the Magi, neither heaven nor earth, there existed a certain Zervan, whose name, when translated, signifies fortune or glory." 5 Here, then, Zrvan and Bakht seem to be identical, as Theodore of Mopsuesta affirms also.* In Persian Zamdn (equivalent to Zrvan) is used to signify time in general, and Zamanah designates fate, destiny, as in the following verse of the Shdhnameh: Zamanah na dad- ash Zamani dirang, "destiny did not grant him a long time (life)." 5 7. The Mainyo-i Khard, as we have already shown, develops chiefly the doctrine of Eternity and Destiny. Sometimes this book seems to separate these two beings. We give here an example: — "The affairs of the world altogether proceed through Destiny ( ey{j ) dreh 6 and time, 1 U. I. p. 5, Vullers' translation, p. 52. 8 See the more recent and more faithful translation of M. Gattey- rias, L'Armenie et les Armeniens (Paris, 1880), p. 40 (cf. p. 10). See also Spiegel, E. A. II., pp. 182, 183. 3 Spiegel, Geschick (bakkt, destiny) or Glanz (p'ark r lustre). * Photios Biblioth., p. 63. c » 6 Quoted by Pizzi in his Manuale delta lingua Persiana, s. v. p. 388. [The exact translation would be " destiny did not grant him a moment's' respite." — Tr.] Cf. Pehlevi and Persian bihar = fate, portion. THE ZERVANIC SYSTEM, DESTINY. 7 (Zamdn) and through the supreme decree of the self-existent Eternity, the king and lord of long time {vazar i brin raved i gad-hast zurudn i pddishdh u derang oadde)." 1 In another chapter it is said of unlimited time that — "He is imperishable and immortal, he is without grief, without hunger, without thirst and without affliction, living eternally, everlast- ing, nobody being able to stop him and to remove his control from his affairs." 2 By these last words of the passage quoted above, Time is again brought into contact with Destiny. Elsewhere it is said of Destiny : — '* Destiny is what has been ordained from the commencement;" 3 and again, " Destiny is that which is supreme over every one and every- thing." 4 8. Spiegel entirely distinguishes the Zamdn derang qadae from Zrvan akarana, of which mention has been made above, and which is evidently the Zrvan daregho qadhata of the Avesta. 9 He considers it as a subdivision of Zrvan or rather as a part of it, carved out by Auharmazd for his own use ; a and it is from it that he creates the God of Destiny. We doubt whether this idea can be reconciled with the fact acknowledged by Spiegel himself, that this Zamdn derang qadde is the created time, the time of the existence of the world. But one is tempted to believe that the Zrvan akarana itself was considered by certain sects not only as the eternal source of all Being, including Auharmazd, 7 but also as a vast chaos, an infinite pre-existing matter, the $^n of Paul the Persian, from which Auharmazd formed all his creatures. 9. In the first volune of his Pahlavi Texts, 8 West energetically defends the Avestaic religion from having admitted 1 M. K. xxvii. 10. 8 M. K. viii. 9. 3 M. K. xxvii. 11. » -> * M. K. xlvii. 7. 6 Nyaish I., 8; Sirozah I., 21. « E. A. II., 11. 1 [See the translator's note (3) on p. 5]. 8 Sacred Books of the East, P. T., I., p. lxx. 8 THE DIVINITY, the belief of an infinite time. His argument is chiefly based upon a passage of Zdd-Sparam, translated by himself, where it is stated that Zorvan was a creature of Auharmazd, and he accuses the Greek and Armenian writers of being incorrect in their assertions. Zad-Sparam says, in fact: — ''Auharmazd has produced the creature Zorvan to aid the celestial sphere ; and Zorvan is unrestricted, so that he made the creatures of Auharmazd to move." 1 Now West has proved that these extracts \ though written about the year 88 1, are based upon documents, which can certainly be attributed to the Sassanide period. 2 It must be added that in this very book Zorvan is mentioned as Destiny. It is said that it was by the decree of appointing Zorvan that Gayomard had only 30 years of certain life. 3 We willingly admit that we have here the doctrine of a Mazdayasnian school of the Sassanide time, even if we will grant what Spiegel calls "the orthodox faith'"; still it seems impossible for us to reject the very evident testimony of the contemporary though foreign writers, the testimony of the edict of the minister of Yazdegerd II. and that of a book like the Ulema-i Islam, which, though bearing the date, like Zad-Sparam, of the Mussalman period, must also represent like it some very old traditions. It appears that an important sect called the Zervanists really existed,* and the Ulema-i Islam must have been written by a partisan of that school. 5 We do not know in what century this doctrine of the eternal 1 Z. S., i. 24. a P. T., I., p. xlvii. * Z. S.,iv. 5. * Spiegel, E. A., II., 176-187. 5 Ibid, p. 178. [The Zervanic, Kayomarthian and other such beliefs and sects were heretical and diametrically opposed to the received doctrines of Mazdeism, just like those of Mazdak and Hani. From the writings of Shahristani, a celebrated Mahomedan writer, we l'earn that the Mazdayasnians were split into several sects, which very likely arose at the time of the Sassanians, such as the Mazdakyas, Kayomarthias and Zer- vanists, whose doctrines being altogether strange to the ancient books must have been derived from other creeds. (Cf . Haug, Essays on tl^e Sacred THE ZERVANIC SYSTEM. DESTINY. g Zrvan was formed, and whether it was contemporaneous with the beliefs of the Avesta or was formed only in the Sassanide times. But we are tempted to believe, even by the nature of things, that it could not be much posterior to the Mazdayasnian Dualism. 1 Was it perhaps borrowed from Babylonia at a very ancient date? io. That the idea of this " primaeval" principle (Urprincip) may have been mixed up with that of Destiny must not much astonish us. Destiny plays a prominent part in all the Oriental religions, — all tainted with more or less fatalism, and its effect is to disturb the idea of Divinity everywhere. We have seen this belief in Destiny very strongly developed in the Maionyo-i Khard, certainly a Sassanide work and attested by contemporary writers. 2 The idea of an inevitable fatum? a blind power, which is even above the will of the gods, is not reconcilable with the idea of a true Divine and Supreme Being, especially like that of the Mazdayasnian religion. But we must not expect to find too much consistency in these beliefs ; because, in that case, we should equally have to exclude Dualism itself. These fatalist ideas are preserved and propagated chiefly in the minds of the people. Nor can we be surprised to find this power, vague, mysterious and shapeless, confounded among the Mazdayasnian sects with that other being, equally intangible and misty, viz., Zrvan. The transition from the one to the other is quite natural. Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsis, p 15). Therefore no reliante should be placed upon them, and they should not be reckoned as Mazdayasnian sects and beliefs. — Tr.] ( x ) [The doctrine of Zrvan seems to have been formed only in the Sassanide times, because no mention of it is found in the Greek and Roman authors who flourished before the Sassanides. We find some testimony of it only in the Greek and Roman authors contempo- raneous with them, and also in the Armenian and Mahomedan writers •of a later time. — Tr.] 2 Naturally it was still more developed after the contact with Islamism. Cf. De Harlez, Introduction a V Avesta, p. lxxxvii. 3 M. k. xxiii. , 3 IO THE DIVINITY. 11. There is another point of view according to which Zrvan, the infinite time, is neither the source nor the creature of Auharmazd, but rather a co-eternal quality, an essential attribute of this God. Such is the point of view of the Avesta. It also appears in the Sassanide writings. Accord- ing to the version of Spiegel, it is said in the Bun-Dehesh that Auharmazd " is endowed with boundless time" {damdn-i- akanarak-homand) - 1 West, however, does not approve of this translation. Now, this term is explained by the fact that Auharmazd himself, his abode, his law, and his time {daman, i.e. the duration of his existence) have been and are and ever shall be. (Yeheviint va ait va hamdk yehevtinit.) The Bun- Dehesh therefore conceives the space occupied' by God, the duration of His existence and His eternal Law (His Will) as divine attributes pretty nearly in the Christian sense. 12. As regards space, which is referred to here, it would appear, if Spiegal is to be trusted, 2 that this conception also as much as that of Time was one of the transcendant beings 3 considered by the Eranians as divine, eternal, and anterior to Auharmazd or at least co-existing with him. This being is personified in the Avesta under the name of Thwdsha, i.e., "infinite space," very distinct from the Asman or created heaven. 4 It is invoked with boundless time and with the 1 B. D., i., 3. West translates the phrase : " independent of boundless time," which is not reconcilable with any of the Maydazasnian theories. Nevertheless, he adds that the construction is very obscure and leads us to believe that there are some omissions in the text. We do not see any obscurity. The sense is explained by the words that follow. On the etymology of the word damdn=Zamdn andof Zrvan, etc., see de rjarlez, Manuel de V Avesta, p. 304, and Spiegel, E. A., II., 5, n. E E. A., II, 13-17. 3 Ibid., p. 4. Die Grundbedingungen, welche fur den Bestand eines jeden Dingen nb'thig sind heissen Zeit und Raum und diese werden als gottliche und persb'nliche Wesen aufgefasst. [" The primary condi- tions, which are necessary for the duration of any one being, are- called Time and Space ; and these are understood as divine and personal beings."] * [Ervad Kawasji Edulji Kanga in his Glossary of Vandidad, trans- lates the term thwdsha by " the void between heaven and earth, — atmosphere, air." — Tr.] THE ZERVANIC SYSTEM. DESTINY. ri same qualificative of qadhdta. 1 It seems that some have conceived it not only as the vague and immense space, but also as the "firmament" to which are attached the 12 signs of the Zodiac. Therefore, it is nothing but the Pehlevi splhr, the modern Persian sipihr, the celestial sphere. 13. But it is clearly asserted in the Bun-Dehesk that this celestial sphere was created by Auharmazd, that it was the first of his creations, 2 and that he assigned to it the signs of the Zodiac. 3 Spiegel admits this interpretation, but doubts whether the Eranians always regarded the space as a creature. Relying upon the assertions of Herodotus and Damasius, he believes that this infinite Space was in former times a primordial divinity along with Time.* The solution of this point however does not fall within the limits of our Essay. What is undeniable is that in the Sassanian philosophy this celestial sphere was the creature of Auharmazd \ we shall therefore have to refer to this subject again whilst speaking about the Cosmogony. However, we have to remark that the idea of Destiny was as closely attached to this Being as to that of the Infinite Time. The Avestaic name thwasha seems even to have been formed from a root twakhsh, which is no other than the tvx of the Destiny of the Greeks Tu^. 5 The Pehlevi name Splhr is even used to signify Destiny, as in the Mainyo-i Khard. 6 This accounts for the fact that it is called in the same work "the strongest being." 7 The Persian word Sipihr has been employed in the same sense of Destiny. 8 1 Nyaish. I., 8; Siroz., I., 21 ; Vd. xix. 44, 55 (Wester., 13, 16.) 2 [According to the Avesta (Yas. xix. 8) the Ameshaspentas were the fifst of the creations of Ahuramazda. They were followed by the Ahunavairya, the firmament, water, earth, animals and man in succes- sion. — Tr.] 3 B. D., ii., 2. * E. A., II., 15. However, Herodotus is neither describing- the Aves- taic nor the,Mazdayasnian religion, but the naturalist religion of the Persian people of his time. For this very important distinction, see de •Harlez, Introduction, pp. xiv — xvi, ccxi — ccxii. 5 Spiegel, E. A., II., 13. 8 M. K., ii., 28. 7 Ibid'., xxviii., 10. 8 See the Shdhndmeh. Spiegel, E. A., II., 15. 12 THE DIVINITY. IV. — Zrvanism is a philosophical system. 14. So far we have spoken about the primordial divinebeings, the transcendent beings if I may say so, the ideas of which are rather the result of philosophical speculations proceed- ing from the dualistic system. These theories were probably developed in the Eranian mind from a very early time. Among certain sects they were freely and clearly expressed, and co-ordinated in the minds of others these beings floated in a very vague manner in the midst of conceptions about the divine nature. Finally there were other schools which rejected them and formally attacked them. But nowhere were these beings, this Infinite Time (and perhaps this Infinite Space), properly called Gods by the Eranians. 1 Undoubtedly they formed to themselves a primordial Zrvan in order to get rid of the embarrassment of the speculative theories, but this Zrvan is everywhere a pale and doubtful figure which serves only to introduce the true Eranian God, Auharmazd, about whom we have now to speak. V. — The relations between Zrvan and Auharmazd. 15. But first of all some words must be said about the transition imagined by certain schools from the primary being Zrvan to the God Auharmazd himself. If we turn to the celebrated edict of the minister of Yaz- degerd II., this is what we read in this document of a Sassanian king, according to the Armenian historians 2 : — " Before the heaven and the earth existed Zrovan, the^reat god, sacrificed for 1000 years and said : — ' If perhaps a son of the name of Ormizd were born to me, he would create heaven and earth.' Now Zrovan conceived two beings in his womb — the one because he sacrificed, .the other because he said perhaps." « — — — / 1 [Even in the Avesta thwdsha and Zari>&?ia are nowhere praised with the appellation of Yazata. — Tr.] 2 Justi, G. A. P., p. 197. » THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ZRVAX AND ADHARMAZD. 1 3 16. The narration of Eznig in his description of the Mazdayasnian religion is almost identical ; only it is a little more lengthy than in the edict according to Eliseus and Lazarus of Pharp : — "During iooo years (Zervan) offered sacrifice saying to himself that ' perchance a son would be born to him who would create the heaven and the earth and everything that they contain.' After a thousand years of sacrifice, he commenced to turn over his thought in his mind saying : — ' Of what use is the sacrifice that I offer? will my son Ormizt come ? or will my efforts be useless ?' Whilst he thought thus, Ormizt and Arhmen were originated in the bowels of Zervan ; Ormizt on account of Zervan's offering the sacrifice and Arhmen on account of his being doubtful." 1 17. Such is therefore the origin of the two spirits: they were really begotten by Zrvan. That is a doctrine indisput- ably adopted in the Mazdayasnian schools under the Sassa- nides. Spiegel finds another proof of it in a contemporary Greek author already mentioned — Theodore of Mopsuestia. 2 If we take into consideration the importance of the document of Mihr Narseh, addressed to the Armenians and commencing with these solemn words : " You must know that every one of those who live beneath the sky and do not believe in the Mazdayasnian religion is deaf and blind and deceived by the Divs of Haraman" 3 ; if we add that all the contemporary foreign writers have represented this Zervanist system as the true dogma of the national religion of the Sassanians and cfiat this dogma gives proof of its vitality long after the downfall of the national kings in works, such as the Ulema-i Islam, it must be acknowledged that these Zervanists were anything but a small peculiar sect, and that they probably 1 See the translation of M. Gatteyrias, UArmmie et les Armeniens, p. 40. . 2 Photios Biblioth., p. 63. E. A., II., 184. 3 Justi, G. A. P., p. 197. -, 14 THE DIVINITY. formed the most considerable part of the Mazdayasnians for a certain number of centuries. 1 The great religious works of the Sassanian epoch that we now possess however appear much more orthodox and monotheistic in their doctrine, as we shall see when discussing the existence and characteristics of the great God, Auharmazd. VI. — Auharmazd, His Names. 18. If we wish to know how the Persians under the Sassanides called their national God, we have an infallible means of succeeding in our investigation. It is sufficient to consult the Pehlevi inscriptions on the monuments or on coins. The form which is found engraved in the so-called " Sassanian characters" is Auharmazdi. Now referring to the written Pehlevi literature we find by the side of the rare form Hormazd (^-^ ■$>»), which resembles the modern name 1 [See Haug, Essays, 8fC, 2nd ed., pp. 309 — 310. " That Dualism was actually the doctrine of the Zendiks, we best learn from the commence- ment of the Bun-Dehesh, which book purports to expound the lore of this party. The Magi seem still to have clung to the prophet's doctrine of the unity of the Supreme Being. But to refute the heretical opinions of the Zendiks, which were founded on interpretations of passages from the sacred texts, a new and fresh proof of the unity of the Supreme Being was required. This was found in the term Zarvan akarana, 1 boundless time,' which we meet with occasionally in the Zend-Avesta. The chief passage, no doubt, was Vend. xix. 9 ; but the interpretation for proving that Zarvan akarana means the Supreme Being, out of whom Auharmazda and Angromainyush are said to have sprung, rest* on a grammatical misunderstanding, as we have seen above (p. 24). This interpretation, however, must be very old ; for all the present Dasturs believe in it as an incontrovertible fact. That this doctrine of Zarvan akarana was commonly believed in Persia, during the times of the Sassanians, may be distinctly seen from the reports quoted above (pp. 12-14). The true meaning of the expression, that • the beneficent Spirit made (them) in boundless time,' is that God (Ahuramazda) is from, eternity, self-existing, neither born nor created. Only an eternal being can be independent of the bounds of time to which all mortals are subjects." Cf. also K. E. Kanga, Translation of Extracts from ihe Zend- Avesta of Anquetil Du Perron, preface, p. v. — Tr.) AUHARMAZD. HIS NAMES. 15 used by the Parsis, another form which is more difficult — it is the almost universal name •*£h». For this antique form there is the traditional reading Anhomd, which is considered as a Huzvaresh or Semitic word. 19. Here we have to encounter many difficulties. Because (i) we have already seen according to the unsuspected testimony of the Sassanian alphabet that at that period they certainly said " Auharmazdi," we ought to meet again with this same form in some literary document of the epoch. Now the reading of the form 5$%r cannot be doubtful ; therefore ■"•Or must represent the form of the inscriptions. This is the reason why the modern Eranists — Haug, West, de Harlez, etc., read this form Auharmazd, and in this they are followed by many Parsi savants of our time ; that is to say, they give to the second 1 the very common value of J and they see in the last character •» the value of *, i.e., of zd or dd. 1 We can allege in favour of this reading the fact that even in the Sassanian inscriptions the second and the fourth characters have the same ambiguous form 2, which like the Pehlevi 1 can be read r as well as n. 20. In support of this opinion other proper nouns are cited, such as ))»oo which represents yazaan of the inscriptions, though the traditional reading is "^^NJT 1 (y tn< * n ) ] 2 tt>O or yazd, traditionally jij^i {y&t) ', and ?i^-h) as the name of the king T Yazdegard (Sass. yazdakarti). In all these cases the reading of ■» as zd re-establishes the harmony between the literary and monumental forms. 4 I j ., x Cf. Haug, the Book of Ardd Viraf, Introductory Essays, p. I. a Spiegel, T. L. P., p. 439. Destur Peshotun compares it with the Semitic " rv or vtv" ! See his edition of the Dinkart, vol. I., p. 13. * Haiig, A. V. N., Introductory Essays. l6 THE DIVINITY. 21. (ii) On the other hand, it is observed with great justice thatAnkomd (-»£n*) is the traditional form, established by some generations of the Parsi doctors (Desturs) ; and that whatever might be said of other terms, it would be quite unprecedented that the true pronunciation of the most sacred and the most important name, not to say the most in use in the whole Eranian religion and literature, should have been forgotten. However we might see therein nothing but an ideogram or a mystical term, perhaps in origin Semitic. Thus it is that Spiegel simply believes to have found in it the name CDifTHN 1 '> Dut this interpretation does notfit in the Pehlevi characters. He adds: — " ich glaubc.man hat wohl diese fremde Form desswegen vorgezogen, weil es in jener Periode (wie bei den Rabbinen) fur unpassend gait, den Namen Gottes selbst (i. e. j>-^>»). auszusprechen." 2 These last words appear at the first sight to supply the key to the difficulty. It may be said that because the people did not dare to pronounce the sacred name they forgot the exact form or rather substituted a mystical and altered one in its place. Is it not the same case with that of the Hebrew word ;-fl;-p and its traditional pronunciation Jehovah ? But a little consideration will render this theory at least impossible, as there is absolutely no trace in Eranian theology of any such prohibition to pronounce the Divine Name as existed among the Jews. 22. It is true that the Sassanian form Auharmazdl suggests another objection to us on account of the final z, which insinuates some contractions in the words mentioned above ; thus we might be tempted to read Auharmd for Auharmazdl, just as Yakart for Yazdakartl, Yaan for Yazdan, etc. 3 But 1 T. L. P., p. 361. Cf. de Harlez, Manuel du Pehlevi, p. 197. 2 [" I think. ..that this strange form was probably preferred because it was considered improper at that period (as by the Rabbis) to pronounce the name itself of God (i.e. ^^f)." — Tr.] 3 Objection may be taken on account of the difference of quantity of the a ; however, it must not be forgotten that K)*-* •»■£ mdzdayasna = Sass. tnazdayasna. See Haug,'A, V. N., Introductory Essays, p. xxviii. AUIIARMAZD. HIS NAMES. I 7 this difficulty has little weight when we recollect that the final l is added without any etymological value to the Sassanian words with almost as much facility as the Pehlevi u. 1 In any case the final i cannot be explained as a representative of the original a of the ancient Avestaic form Ahura-Masda and the Achsemenian form Auramazda. We may therefore assume without any difficulty that the national God was called Auharmazd in Sassanian times, although this name is engraved on the coins and inscriptions with a final i, which is altogether useless.. (§ 2) 23. The other divine name which is used in the Avesta, viz., Spenta Mainyus, is found in Pehlevi under the form Spenak Minoi, The history of this term is very curious. The identification >of the name Spenta Mainyus with that of Ahura Mazda in the Avestaic religion 2 is the effect, as we know, of an amalgamation of two systems and of the names of two divinities, the former the truly one God, the latter the God of Dualism, the twin of the Evil Spirit. 3 Indeed the traces of this original difference are not obliterated in the Avesta. But in the religious philosophy of the Sassanides all this is long forgotten and we meet with another phase of the evolution of this divine name. 1 Though the usage is not quite parallel, cf. Haug, A. V, N., p. xxix. 2 [In the Avesta Spenta Mainyus is identified with Ahuramazda only in the first Fargard of the Vendidad and in some stray passages, but he is mostly mentioned as a being quite different from Ahuramazda and as the creative agency of God. See Yas. xxx., 3-5 ; xlv., 2 ; xix., 9 ; xlvii., 4; xiii,'4 : x., J 16 ; and Kii., 2. Vend, xix., 9. Yasht xiii., 13 ; xv., 3,43, 44; and xix., 44, 46. Moreover, Ahuramazda is always mentioned with the attributes in the superlative degree. He is called Mainyu Spenishta or Mainyus Spent otemd, but never Spento Mainyu. — Tr.] 3 Sec {Je Harlez, Introduction a t' Avesta, p. Ixxxv. 18 THE DIVINITY. The name Spenak Minoi is generally used as a synonym of Auharmazd. Thus in the Dinkart it is expressly said that "the adorable name which has been, which is and which shall be is the divine name of Spenak Minoi •" then it is added that "His unique peculiar name is also Auharmazd. ni Bat we find also such expressions as " the Spenak Minoi of Auharmazd, " as if the title of Spenak Minoi was an attri- bute or a part of the being of Auharmazd. Here one is tempted to suspect a Semitic and even a Christian influence, such as we shall often notice later on, because these terms remind us in a striking manner of the Qin^^ |TH °f the Old and Trvevfia to ayiov of the New Testament. 2 Indeed we have " Spenak Mindi datar A4harmazd" z literally ' the Holy Spirit of the creator Auharmazd .' We would therefore say that as the good mind — the good conscience of man — was personified as Vohuman, in the same manner Qpenak Minoi was looked upon as the mind — the soul, if I may say so, — of God. 4 We read also that the intelligence of Auharmazd i D. K., II., 81,3. 2 In the same manner the Municheans had also a " Holy Spirit." Spiegel, E. A., II., p, 226. [The idea of the " Holy Spirit" (Spenak Minui) is found in the Gathas as well as in other parts of the Avesta, and it has been noted before that Spenak Mindi is the creative power of Mainyu Spenislita (God). It is therefore evident that the writer of the Dinkart was not obliged to borrow his ideas from the Semitic or Christian religion.] 3 Dk., IV., 138, 2. Peshotun has badly translated this phrase, (see p. 194) ; one would believe that Spenak Minui is a creature quite distinct from Auharmazd. We shall return to this point. 1 ["The one, who produced the ' reality,' is called * Vohu-manu, the good mind,' the other, through whom the ' non-reality' originated, bears the name ' Akemmano, the evil mind.' All good, true and perfect things, which fall under the category of ' reality,' are the productions of the ' good mind.' While all that is bad and delusive belongs to the sphere of ' non -reality,' and is traced to the * evil mind.' They are the two moving causes in the universe, united from the beginning, and therefore called 'twins.' They are present every where ; in Ahuramazda as well as in men. These two primaeval principles, if supposed to ho united in Ahuramazda himself, are not called Vohumand and Akemman6 t but Qpcnto mainyush, ' the beneficent spirit,' and Angro mainyush, ' the hurtful spirit.'" Haug, Essays^ .xc, 2nd ed., p. 303-304.— Tr. 1 • AUHARMAzD HIS NAMES, 19 was revealed to His own "Holy Spirit" before the creation (ghanca val benafshman Qp&nak Minoi pitdk yehevunto). ' The Sassanian speculation does not seem to have gone further. The modern Parsis have however much further developed this idea of the Qpenak Minoi. According to them Hormazd has two principles, the one good (the Qpcna- mino) and the other evil (the ghanftmino, i.e. Gandk Minoi).' 2 But then, this is only the logical consequence of their system and of their tendency towards a more real monotheism. Even this belief was perhaps old among certain sects. 3 (§ 3) 24. A divine name which presents more difficulty is that of Yazddn which has become the well known Persian word cj \*ji- The history of this name is not without interest. In the terminology of the Avesta the w r ord Yazata* signifies like the Sanskrit Yajata " what is worthy of worship, ador- able, venerable •" and is applied to Ahura himself as well as to the Amesha Spentas and other inferior angels. The Yazatas are often the angels inferior to the Amesha Qpentas. Then it is employed in the singular for only one angel : Thus in Yaz. xvii. 2 (Wester., 1) Ahura-Mazda is called mazishta yazata, the supreme Yazata. In Pehlevi books the yazatas or yazds are again the angels, the good spirits sometimes even distinguished from the Ameshaspands 5 as in the Avesta ; Auharmazd is also qualified by this title. Once in the Dinkart he seems to be called " one of the Yazds/' if we can accept the translation of Destur Peshotun in the phrase : az yazdano aivak khiitai anshuta " one of the yazds is the 1 Dk., I., 40, 2. 2 Cf. Peshotun, Dk., I., p. 18, n. 3 See Yas. xix., 21 (Wester., 9) and cf. West, P. T., II., p 14. But de Harlez translates the text [frd me sfanya.6 manivao tavaca) in another way. The Pehlevi translation of the phrase is : fr&z li pavan afzunik mindash guft, which seems decisive in favour of de Harlez. * Old Persian Izates, according to Tacitus, Annals, xii., 14. 6 Dk.„II.,8i,3. 20 THE DIVINITY. Lord of man." 1 In the Mainyo-i Khard the word yazd in the singular seems, to signify "God" only once; panak yazd drtipushtlar, " God is the surest protection." 2 But what is more certain and more common is the usage of the plural Yazddn as the Divine Name signifying " God" quite as in the modern Persian. 3 It also appears that among the Gayomarthiyans, one of the Eranian sects,- the two principles of good and evil were called Yazddn and Ahriman.* 25. This use of a plural form for expressing the name of God is not only very ambiguous but can be explained only by a Semitic influence ; it must be a plurafts majestatis formed on the model of the Hebrew Qin7&$* (§ 4) 26. Another divine name which had little vitality is the ancient title bagh, the old Persian baga of the Cuneiform inscriptions, 3 the bagha of the Avesta, memory of which is preserved in the name of Bagdad, " the city created by gods." In the Sassanian inscriptions we read bag " God" and bagi " divine." The Pehlevi books show us the word in the term bagho bakht, which seems to signify " Providence," literally " what is bestowed by God." G But generally the word bagh seems to have had a very restricted use. 1 Dk., IV., 174, 2. But this version is incorrect ; see further on, chap. V., § 207, note. ' 2 M. K., xiv., 9. 3 For instance, see M. K., i., 16, etc. BD., xvii., 8; SIS., I., o; viii., 22, etc.; Dk., IV., 174, 6, etc. It is often difficult to decide whether we should translate the word " God" in ihe singular or " the angels " in the plural. t . , * Spiegel, E. A., II., p. 187. 5 Baga vazraka Auramasda hya imdm bumitn add, &c., " a great God is Auramazda, who has created the earth." N. R., a, &c ( Persipolis). « Cf. MK-, viii., 15; xxiv., 5, 7. TITLES AND ATTRIBUTES OF AUHARMAZD. 21 VII. — Titles and Attributes of Auharmazd. 27. Let us now pass from the names to the titles and attributes of the Supreme Being. In the first place we find that He is called the Being or the Existing par excellence. 1 He is also the One Who was, Who is and Who shall always bo.' 2 He is the pure intangible Spirit; 3 the Spirit of spirits.' 4 He is Omniscient and Omnipotent ; He is the Supreme Sovereign ; 5 He is perfect- ly good; 8 He is beneficent to all, 7 benevolent 3 and merciful. 9 28. As to the divine attributes we find recorded: (i) Omni- science (vispo-dk/isik)— -His omniscience is one of the principal attributes of Auharmazd. Quite in the beginning of the Biin-Dehesh we read that He is supreme in His omniscience {bulisto pavan harvisp-ilcdsih). 10 This knowledge does not extend only to the present and the past but also to the future, for He foresees the end of His combat with the Evil Spirit, 11 who on the contrary possesses a knowledge extending only to the past events, 12 an «ri/*^eta. The omniscience of 1 Dk., L, 40, 2. 2 BD,i„ 3; Dk., II., 81, 3. 3 SIS., xv., 2. * Dk., II., 81, 3; III., 109, 4. Here we cannot admit the translation of Poshotun : " His perfect knowledge about the Minoydn Mi?/o, perfect strength, etc.," as if Minoydn Minbi was a word distinct from the being itself of Auharmazd. Here there is simply question of the attributes of the Creator which are enumerated : " Minoydno minqyih, vispo-dkdsih, •0ispC9ub&7$ih va vispokhutdyth va vispovehih, Ddtdr Ddstdr :" the quality of Spirit of spirits of Creator and Preserver. Sec. The learned Destur has correctly translated it in his vol. II., p. 103. 5 Dk., III., 130. 6 MK., i., 14. 7 MK., i., 1. a MK., i* 16. 3 MK., i., 16; Dk., II., 81,3. 10 BD.,i., 2. 11 BD., i., 13, 17, 20. 12 BD,, i., 3, 9. 22 THE DIVINITY. Auharmazd is the source of the knowledge of other creatures, even the highest ones 1 and the foundation of the innate wisdom of man (dun dsno-kharto). 2 It is also identified with Wisdom (/chart). 3 29. (ii) Omnipotence (vispo-tubamh). This is an attribute 4, generally accompanied by the first and the third in enumera- tion. This quality appears chiefly in the creation of the creatures ; and the action even of the highest creatures on the creation is due to a communication of this supreme power, as in the case of Vohumano. 5 The attribute of vispo- kkulayih, "the supreme sovereignty," " omnisovereignty," if we may coin a word, agrees very nearly with this attribute. 6 It is a consequence of the creation that God is the Supreme Possessor and Lord of everything that exists. It is the title of khutdi, " king, sovereign," that has given birth to the modern name of God — 1*^ khoda. 30. (iii) The Supreme Goodness of God — This is indicated by the nameof Vispovehlh (All-goodness). 7 The Biln-Dchesh expresses this same idea saying that " He is supreme in all goodness." 8 The goodness is not only in God himself, but it is also made manifest as the source of supreme beneficence to the creatures, as "Sovereign Beneficence," vispo- sittlh. 9 We often find the divine attributes enumerated together as follows : — vispo-akasih, vispo-tubanih, vispo-khutih ; these are grouped together and always in the indicated order: sometimes vispo-vehih is added.' 1 Dk., I., 40, 3. « 2 Dk., III., 109, 4. ' 3 BD., II., 10. * Dk., Ill , 109, 4. * Dk, I., 40, 3. « Dk, I, 40, 3; III, 109, 4. 7 Dk., Ill, 109,4 * * BD, I., 2. * Cf. MK, I, 1. *o In a post-Sassanian work (D&Sest&n-i-Dinik, xxxvii., 4), Auharmazd is also called vispdno-vispo, "All in all." West, PT., II. « TITLES AND ATTRIBUTES OF AUHARMAZD. -3 31. We also find some very long lists of the titles and excellences of Auharmazd. Thus in the prayer attributed to " a Destur of the Good Law/' and inserted in the Dinkart, 1 we read the following attributes after the names and titles mentioned above : " khbtai-i mahist va danak-datar va fravartar va pa?iufc va huapar (?) va kerfakgar va avokh-shutdr va av'izak datastanik...raba-i hustikan:" that is to say: — " Supreme sovereign, wise creator, supporter, protector, giver of good things, (?) virtuous in actions, merciful, pure legislator, Lord of the good material creations." The title ^eyp is obscure. It may be read hudzar signifying " very stong" (from Arab, jj' ), or " patient" (according to Peshotun) ; or huapar,, which is more probable in view of the Avestaic qdpara, a word in itself not clear, but which may signify " who produces good things" or *' who protects by himself." 2 This word is very often found. 3 West reads it khvapar, and translates it as "persistent" or "self- sustaining."'* 32. Also in another chapter of the same book 5 there is a panegyric on the Creator Auharmazd, who bears the following title in opposition to the other beings : — 1 Dk., II., 81. 2 Cf. de Harlez, Manuel de la langue de I'Avesta, p. 464. 3 E.g. SIS., xxii., 21. * FT., II., 45, n. He also cites the Persian word khapdra, "active." Cf. also PT., I., 403, n. The term is equally applied to the other spirits. [Neriosangh in his Sanskrit translation of the Mainyo-i Khard seems to give a correct meaning of the term J^yf which I would prefer to read khdvar. The word ■»><'©T occurs twice in the Mainyo-i * Khard, in chap, xxxviii., 4, where it is translate'd pdlana, and in *lvii., 14, where it is translated " pratipdlana, which means " sustainer, nourisher." — Tr.] 5 Dk.,111., 130.2. 24 THE DIVINITY. Khntdi Id bandik; 1 abu Id farzand ; peshlk Id kkveshnlk ; ahilo la airmano ; rato Id ratvad ; pdtokhshdhi Id ahudslak(7) ; 2 pdnak Id patak ; mdnestak Id vdrun; zih&k ddnishno benafsh- vian la afzdr ; vindrvand la vindrtak ; bdkhtari Id biharvar ; hvdrinltar Id hvhrtnitak ; hamkartdr Id, ham\k-kdr ; handa- tar la handdtak ; s rdsinltar Id rdsinhhnlk. That is to say : — "Sovereign, and not servant ; father, and not child ; prior, and not dependent; master, and not obedient; chief, and not having a chief; lord, and not subject to a master j* protector, and not protected ; immutable, and without desires ; 5 possess- ing in himself living knowledge, and not by any medium ; G disposing, and not disposed ; distributing, but not receiving anything ; illuminating, and not illuminated ; co-operating, but not receiving co-operation ; co-acting, and not subject to any co-action ; directing, and not directed." 33. This remarkable enumeration already anticipates the relation of God with his creatures, of which we shall have to speak presently. It must be confessed that we have here a description of a very elevated and perfect nature of a Supreme Being even in the Christian sense, and one which does not altogether agree with other conceptions about Auharmazd which we find in other works of the time, — chiefly those connected with Destiny and Time. The fact is that the monotheism of the Dinkart is very pure as compared with that of the other Sassanian writings. 34. The only attribute of the Supreme God which appears to be wanting in these titles of Auharmazd is that of the immensity or infinity. It is true that he is called amihdnak in 1 Reading mj for ^Mj (bundik). 2 May this be read havislak, " disciple" ? 3 Reading ^x»" for '^-'(j)" * Perhaps the fourth and the sixth terms have been interchanged and they should be read : aliuo Id ahudstak and pdtokhshahi la airmano. 5 Yarfm = " lust, desire ;" therefore Auharmazd is tranquil, passionless. His knowledge is immediate and not mediate; afedr =" means, instrument." • TITLES AND ATTRIBUTES OF AUHRAMAZD. 25 the Dinkart 1 and that Peshotun gives to this word the sense of "infinite and unproportioned." 2 But this title seems to signify simply "without medium," or "independent," as the author continues to explain the sense of the term, saying : " amihanakih zak, zagash men avorak\h va yehevttninakih dahishnan aiv&cik khveshih ; va mihdnak homanand zak 1 Amarcpanddno, avarik minoyano" etc. 3 " The word amihanakih designates [freedom] from depend- ence on the prayers of the creatures created (by) and receiving their existence [from Him]; and those who are dependent are the Ameshacpands, the other angels, "*etc. The author only endeavours to deny the dependence of God on sacrifices and prayers, which doctrine is taught by many oriental religions, especially those of the Hindus. 35. It is in the Bun-Dehesh that the infinity of God is expressly excluded, and the reason of this exclusion is also given. Indeed, it is precisely the existence of the Evil Spirit and his kingdom that involves the impossibility of infinity for Auharmazd. 4, In the beginning of the Bun-Dehesh we read : "Both the spirits are limited and unlimited, for this supreme light is called infinite, and this profound darkness is called infinite, and there is a void between the two, and thus the one is not contiguous to the other ; and, secondly, both the spirits are limited as to their bodies." 5 This means that neither of them is " immense" in the sense of the Christian theology. The author continues to explain that the infinity of Auharmazd is in His omniscience and supreme sovereignty. 6 Thus we see why we have not found the 1 Dk., II., 91, 3. * In his translation, vol. II., p. 1 14. a Dk., II., $1,3, 4. * In the Dinkart, III., 127, Auharmazd is said to be every where, but this has connection with His own creation only. 5 BD., i., S . « BD.,i„6,7. 5 26 THE DIVINITY. qualificative " infinite" among the titles of God, and also that this is a rigorous consequence of Dualism. 1 36. There is still another consequence and it is that Auharmazd has a fixed residence. This residence, this heaven or paradise, is often described. Auharmazd dwells in the eternal or endless light (afariroshano), which is a brilliant space (roshamkgap), and is expressly denominated "the place of Auharmazd'' (fuak-i- Auharmazd).' 2 Further on this light is clearly distinguished from the created light of the world (ftik roshanih). 3 This is therefore one of those eternal divine beings whom we have spoken of (§ 12) and who belong to the class of those whom Spiegel has called " ansserweltlichen Gottheitet? (extramundane deities). 4. The doctrine of the Dinhart is quite the contrary. This purely monotheistical work teaches that the residence of Auharmazd is a part of the created sky (aqm&no), and therefore itself a creature. 5 37. Something must be said here about the spirituality of Auharmazd. It seems that to the Eranians the essential idea 1 [It is related that originally there were IOOI appellations and attributes of God, of which only 101 remain now. These IOI names are found in the editions of the Vendiddd Sdde, and are daily recited 10 times by the Yozdathregar Mobeds in the beginning of the " Paragna" ceremony, which is preparatory to the " Yajashna" ceremony, and thus the recital of them is considered as the foundation of the whole " Yajashna ■" ceremony. The recital of these names seems to have been introduced in the ceremony from a very ancient time, — perhaps from the Sassanian time. *Among them we find the two attributes Abadah and Avtanjam( joy or -o*» and *« p*(y or JOryey) meaning respectively "without any source or begin- ning " and " without any end." The infinity of God seems therefore to have been known to the ancient Eranians— Tr.] * «. a BD., i., 2. s Ibid., 25. * EA., II., p. 420. » Dk., II., 74, 2. « GOD THE CREATOR, HIS RELATIONS WITH THE CREATION. 2-] of this spirituality was only the invisibility. 1 Thus Arda-i Viraf when introduced in the presence of Auharmazd saw nothing but a light, although he heard the voice of God (" be- cause I have seen a light but I have not seen the body,") maman am rbshanih dit, af am tanu la dit. 2 The modern Parsis explain the title Mlnoyan minoi " the Spirit of spirits " by saying that Auharmazd is invisible to the other spirits who are themselves invisible to man. 3 This idea seems to be very old and is also found in the Avesta. This brilliant light was sometimes considered as the body of Auharmazd,* and sometimes it is also called His residence or garment. It was in no wise a real body, but only a kind of manifestation of His presence, as,, the n!2*Oll? °^ the Old Testament. If in the Sassanian sculptures Auharmazd has been represented under a human figure, 5 it no more indicates an anthropomorphism in the religious ideas of the epoch than the figures cf God the Father under the form of a venerable old man do in Christian art. It seems however that Auharmazd could reveal Himself to Zartusht in a dream and in the human form, but the latter could not touch Him by the hand, because " I am an intangible spirit," says Auharmazd, " it is not possible to hold me by the hand. 6 VIII. — God the Creator, His relations with the Creation. 38. The favourite title of Auharmazd is that of the Creator (ddtdr). We see thereby that the verb employed to signify 1 From the translation of Destur Peshotun. (vol. til., p. 174,) one would say that in chapter 127 of the Dinkart Auharmazd was expressly called 'invisible." It is sufficient to examine the text to see that not a single word is there said about it. 2 AVN., ci., ii, cf. Dante. * Peshotun, Dk., II., 103, n. ♦Spiegel, EA., II., 67. 5 For example at Naksh-i Rustam near Persepolis where Auhar- mazd is on horse-back with the inscription : " The figure of the God Auharmazd." See the engraving in Justi's G.A.P., p. 69. Also the same thing at Firuzabad and Naksh-i Rajab, Justi, p. 178. * SIS., xv., 1, 2, 3. This passage is quoted as being in the Avesta. 28 THE DIVINITY. " to create" is ciatano which is nothing else than the Avestaic root da. The Huzvaresh term which often takes its place is barlunUano from Semitic fc^-D* Another favourite term, especially in the Dinkart, is avoritano} What are we to think of this creation ? Is it a real creation ex nihilo or formation from a pre-existing matter ? Spiegel 2 and West 5 believe that neither the Avestaic nor the Pehlevi terms can be understood in the sense of a real creation ex nihilo. However this opinion is not easily reconciled with the very beautiful passage of the Biin-Dehesh which is translated by West in the following manner:— 39. Zaratusht asked of Aftharmazd, as regards the final resurrection, how the human body which has been dismem- bered and parcelled out by wind and water will be formed again. Auharmazd answered him thus: — " When through me the sky arose from the substance of the ruby, without columns, on the spiritual support of the far- compassed light ; when through me the earth arose which bore the material life, and there is no other maintainer of the worldy creation but it ; when by me the sun and moon and stars are conducted in the firmament of luminous bodies ; when by me corn was created so that, scattered about in the earth, it grew again and returned with increase ; when by me colour of various kinds was created in plants ; when by me fire was created in plants and other things without combustion ; when by me a son was created and fashioned in the womb of a mother, and the structure severally of the skin, nails, blood, feet, eyes, ear* and other things was produced ; when by me legs were created for the water, so that it flows away, and the cloud was created which carries the water of the world and 1 There is also the verb biharinxta.no from the word bihar = v lot, share." Cf. Dk., I., 40, 3. * EA., I., 454. * PT., I., p. 9, n. GOD THE CREATOR, HIS RELATIONS WITH THE CREATION. 29 rains there where it has a purpose ; when by me the air was created which conveys in one's eye-sight, through the strength of the wind, the lowermost upwards according to its will, and one is not able to grasp it with the hand out- stretched ; each one of them, when created by me, was herein more difficult than causing the resurrection, for it is an assistance to me in the resurrection that they exist, bat when they were formed it was not forming the future out of the past {la yeheviint yehevunit men yehevunt)." 1 40. Another very remarkable expression is that of the creation accomplished 'in' or ' with the assistance ' of time. In the Mainyo-i Khard it is said that the Creator Aiiharmazd formed (brehlnid) the material and spiritual worlds from His own splendour and in (for ?) the glory (?) of the boundless time (ezh an i qesh roshani u pa dfrin i Zuruan-i akanara). 2 This is very obscure. Perhaps it may be translated " for his eternal glory." Spiegel translates : " with the acclama- ton of the boundless time " (mit dem Jubelrufe der unend- lichen Zeit). 3 Further on, it is in this same boundless time that Aharman made his treaty of 9,000 years with Auharmazd.* May it be that akan&ra is only an epitheton perpetuum applied to the time in general? In that case these expressions would be employed only to exclude the creation ab seterno. Or is it that the Zrvan is taken here as Destiny ? 5 1 BD., xsx., 5,. 6. As for the style and the ideas this passage must be compared with Job. xxxviii. 2 MK., viii., 8. Neriosangh translates by the ablative : tasmat yah sviyah udyotah ashirvadena ca samayasy a anantasya. Spiegel has shown that the expression "God has created everything from time" in the UI., p. 2, is owing to a false reading of \&± for js*. and it must be translated u everything is created except time." The author of the Ulemd, as we know him, was a Zervanist. 3 EA., II., 6. * MK., viii., 11. 5 See §§ 6, 7. It is certain for ZS., iv., 5 ; perhaps also for ZS., i.,27. 30 THE DIVINITY. 41. The doctrine is very clearly expressed in the Dinkart that Auharmazd is the Creator of all creatures without any exception. Indeed, we read in the prayer quoted below : — " Afrito, pavan nefshman andm biitlg zanar va ddndkik, avartar cash Ameshocpand va kabedi yazatdn va roshan vahist va garbtmdn va gartoi ayndno va hvar-i tijak va rnah-i bumig va star-i kabtd tbkhmak, va vat va andarvai va dtesh va maya va zaniik va hurvar va gospandva ayokhshusto va anshuta" l : i.e. "He has created through his own essential power and knowledge six supreme Ameshospands and numerous Yazds, the most excellent paradise and the Garotman, the vault of the sky, the burning sun, the shining moon and the stars of numerous germs, the wind and the atmosphere, the fire and the water, the earth and the plants, the animals, metals and man. " 42. From His having created the world and all beings it follows that there are relations existing between Him and His creatures. The Pehlevi books speak very often about these relations. We have anticipated many of them while giving the lists of the titles attributed to Auharmazd (§ 3 2 )» W e can sum up these relations as follows : — 43. Auharmazd is not only the Creator but also the God who sustains {ddshtar) His creation. 2 He protects (pdnak) it and governs it like a sovereign {pdtokhshdh'i ahu) ; 3 He directs {rafinitdr)* it. He approves {patiraftar) it, as it is worthy {gaj'dh) of Him; 5 it is His kingdom (pdtokAshaki/i). 6 While the Evil Spirit introduces disorder in the creation, 7 Auharmazd can draw good out of evil itself. 8 He reveals Himself to His creatures by the visible creation. 9 He rewards and punishes His creatures according to their merits and 1 Dk., II., 8i, 3. 2 Dk., II., 81, 3,-. 6 Ibid. s Dk., III., 130. r MK., xxxiv. * Dk., III., 130; I. ,41. 8 Dk., iv., 162; MK., viii., 24-26. ' • Dk., I., 41, cf. Pers. sazd- ° Dk., iv., 120. RELATIONS BETWEEN GOD AND DESTINY. 31 demerits. 1 He is the author of the Sacred Writings {i.e., the Avesta)." He is the master of mankind. 8 He dwells among the good,* wherefore the righteous are called " men of God" (yasddn martuman). 5 He has relations chiefly with the Yazds who assist Him in His works, — for instance, in the production and distribution of rain 8 — but chiefly in the moral government of the world and in assisting His creatures/ Of His special relations with Vohuman we shall have to speak by-and-by. 44. Consequently all creatures should pray to Him and should adore Him 3 in a manner which recalls to our mind the "faith, hope and charity" of our catechism. This worship of God, whicri is performed in the pure and good religion of the Mazdayasnians, is good. Its foundation is virtue, truth and faith without doubting {avegum&mh) in God. Man is grateful to God, whether he has obtained little or much benefit from Him, and when distress and evils come upon him from Ahar- man and his demons he neither doubts the benevolence of God nor lessens his thankfulness unto Him and of this he doubts not, that God, beyond what is good, does no harm to man. 9 IX. — Relations between God and Destiny. 45. The Mainyo-i Khard very openly inculcates that there is a divine Providence. Indeed, this work distinguishes what is called bagho-bakht from Destiny {bakht). 10 West sees divine Providence in this term. 11 He seems to us to be right, because the passage referred to gives the following 1 Dk., II., 90. 3 Dk.,I., S , 3 . 3 Dk., iv., 174, 2 (cf. § 24). * Dk., III., 132; I., 55, 4. 8 AVN., Ixxiii., 8. Haug remarks that the expression is rare. « Dk., III., 112. 7 MK., Llk. passim. 8 MK, liii.; Dk., II., 81. • MK.,lii., 5-15. 10 MK., xxiv., 5—8. 11 See West, MK., pp. 37, 142. 32 THE DIVINITY. definition : ft Destiny (bakht) is that which is ordained from the very beginning ; and bagho-bakht is that which is bestowed secondly (didi ca bakshend)." 1 Here a mention is made of the Yazds y the mediums of communication with the action of God ; 8 and it appears correct to understand the expression "second time, or secondly" as the result of the prayer. In another place 3 it is said that the divine Provi- dence or (divine interposition) will destroy at the end of the world the creatures of every kind made by Aharman. The etymology of the word confirms this interpretation, because bagho-bakht literally means n what is bestowed by God."* However this divine interposition is very rare (kam), 5 because Ahrman by the assistance of the planets greatly hinders the action of the yazds. 46. The influence of Destiny is terrible indeed. " Even with the strength and power of wisdom and knowledge, even with arms it is impossible to contend with Destiny. For when predestination for good or for evil shows itself, the wise becomes foolish in action and the foolish becomes intel- ligent ; and the timid (vdd-dil) becomes courageous and the courageous becomes timid ; and the industrious becomes lazy and the lazy becomes industrious. Precisely because it is predestined for one thing, the cause which must produce it enters in man and paralyses any other effect/' 8 It is impos- sible for human activity to obtain advantages which are not predestined. 7 1 The Pazend didi is " an old misreading for Pehlevi tani" according to West, p. 61. 2 See chap. III., cf. Spiegel, E. A., II., 11. Perhaps yazdan means " God." 3 MK., vii., 15. * About bagh = " God, " see § 26. 8 MK., xxiv., 8. * MK., xxiii. * MK., xxii. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE WISDOM. 33 47. But this idea' of Destiny like the, other Sabean doctrine connected with the idea of the influence of the planets, 1 borrowed probably from the neighbouring religions, greatly interferes with the conception of the supremacy of the God Auharmazd. This was clearly felt and reservations were made 2 in favour of the intervention of God. Thus it was naturally asked whether this power of Destiny being admitted, it was worth while to pray ? Do the yazds {yazddn, perhaps God) bestow upon man for his prayers and good actions things other [than what has been predestined]. 3 It is in answer to this difficulty that the author gives the above- mentioned explanation of the term bagho-bakht, which, for the Mainyr-i Khard at least, saves its monotheism from an irreconcilable fatalism. X. — The Doctrine of Divine Wisdom. 48. We have just traced the portrait of the Auharmazd of the Sassanide period and seen that He is the same Ahura- mazda of the Avesta, though some developments have been introduced, partly owing to philosophical speculations* and partly to some foreign influences. 8 It now remains for us to examine two other very important and remarkable external influences, which have left their unmistakable traces in the religious literature of the period. 49. One of the most important works of the Sassanide literature is unquestionably the remarkable book which has hitherto been known to us under the Pazend name of Mainyo- i Khard or under the Persian designation of Minokhirad, but which in Pehlevi 8 is probably called Dina-i Mainog-i Khirad that is to say : tl the doctrine of the Spirit of Wisdom." Who was this Spirit of Wisdom ? 1 Cf. MK, viii., 17. 2 MK., xxii., 6. 4 MI4., xxiv., 2. * For instance, Zervanism. • 3 For instance, Destiny and the influence of the planets. 6 West, in the Museon, No. 3, 1883. Since translated by him in Sacred Books of the East, PT., part Hi., 1886. 34 1HK DIVINITY. 50. In the first chapter of the treatise which bears his name the Spirit of Wisdom seems to be considered as one of the Ameshocpands, for it is said that Auharmazd has performed for him more prayer and worship than for the other Ameshocpands. 1 If this expression is not a rhetorical figure, Mainyo-i Khard must be identified with Vohtiman, an identification already suggested by the comparison of the terms Khratus Vohumananho in the Avesta 2 and by the traditional version Asn-khard of these words. 3 But in other chapters he is clearly distinguished from the Ameshocpands. 4 That Acn-khard and Mainyo-i Khard are the words for one and the same being is proved from another passage. 5 As regards many other abstract names in certain passages, it seems sometimes difficult to decide whether they are personified or not. 51. Elsewhere Wisdom appears also to be identified with Auharmazd, because in the Bun-Dehesh the latter is clearly called " Khard harvifP dkds" the Omniscient Wisdom. 6 It is taught in the Mainyo-i Khard that Auharmazd has created the world by means of Wisdom [pa khard) 1 and the creatures in the world also by means of the Innate Wisdom (pa aqn khard). 6 The advancement of the world and of the spirit i.e. of the material and spiritual creation is made through Wisdom {pa khard). 9 Mention is made of the Spirit of Wisdom of the Lord, Auharmazd, and of the Ameshogpands (Hormazd-i qadae u A?neshdgpanddn Mainyo-i Khard). ,0 This Spirit of Wisdom can assume a visible body, as he did for the sage (dana), 11 whose conversation with him forms the whole of the Mainyo-i Khard. Now, this spirit himself affirms that he has been created by Auharmazd like the 1 ML, i., 53. 6 MK.,i., 11, 49. a Yas., xxvui., I (Wester., 2). 7 MK., i., 11. » EA., II., 33. 8 MK.,i, 49. * MK., viii.,8. 8 MK., i., 50. » MK., lvii., 4. 10 MK, i., 51. 11 MK., i... 57. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE WISDOM. 35 Ameshocpands and the other creatures ; x and that " I who am the Innate Wisdom {Acn khard), have been with Auharmazd from the beginning."^ 52. We here reproduce the following praises of Wisdom : — " The Creator Auharmazd created, preserves and moves the yazds of the spiritual and material worlds and all the remaining creatures and creation, by the power, strength, knowledge and skilfulnessof the Innate Wisdom 3 ; and at the end of the latter days it is possible to cause annihilation and 'destruction of Aharman and his malformations more fully, by the power of the Innate Wisdom. 4 Soshyans and Kaikhusrav and those who*cause the resurrection of the dead and the final body {tan-i pasln), are able to act more fully, by means of the power and assistance of Wisdom. The knowledge and skilfulness of the world, the learning and instruction of every trade and all advancement of the seasons, are through Wisdom. And the souls of the righteous, in escaping from hell to the paradise Garothman, arrive better by means of the power and protection of Wisdom. It is possible to solicit the good living, enjoyment, comfort and every advantage of men in the world, through the power of Wisdom. The capability of preserving the seeds of men, beasts, herds and flocks and also of every remaining creature and creation of Auharmazd, the Lord, which are in the womb, that they shall not die from hunger and thirst ; and the making evident that their food is in the womb, and the bestowal and maturing of the limbs, are possible to effect more fully, by means of the great strength and force of Wisdom. The arrangement of the eearth and the distribution of water in the earth, the growth 1 MK, viii.,3, 8. 2 MK.Jvii.,4. s [Cf. Ahuramazd Yasht, 26. The world first began through the agency of the wisdom and knowledge of Ahuramazda,"and it will end also through the agency of them. — Tr.] * [Cf. Haug, Essays, fyc, 2 ed., p. 151. " Wisdom is the shelter from lies, the annihilation of the destroyer (the evil spirit)." Yas. xxx., 10. — Tr.] 36 THE DIVINITY. and the increase of plants, the colour of various kinds, and scent, taste and pleasantness of various things are ordained and made more fully through Wisdom. 1 And the arrange- ment of Alburz around the world, and making apparent of the earth of the seven keshvars,' 2 and the sky above the mount Alburz ; and the motion of the sun, moon and the twelve constellations ; and the six seasons of Gahambars and the five times of Farvardyan ; and heaven which is in the place of good thoughts, and the place of good words, and the place of good deeds, and the all radiant Garothman which is pre-eminent ; # and the road of the heavens and the worlds, the Bridge of Candour, are made and ordained through the power of Wis- dom. And the watery clouds seizing water from the sea and advancing in the atmosphere, and gradually dripping, drop by drop, to the earth; and the knowing the properties of heaven and hell, which is for the creatures of Auharmazd and Aharman, and the protection of Auharmazd and the Ameshocpands and the remaining Yazds over their own creatures ; and the devastation and destructiveness of Aharman and the demons, over the creatures of Auharmazd, it is possible to know more fully by the power of Wisdom. And the sayings of the good religion of the Mazdayasnians, the experience of the worlds, the demolition of the demons' bodies which are of the world, and the making them concealed which is from the sight of men, are done more fully by means of the pre- eminent appliances of Wisdom. Also the struggle and • conflict which is with the non-Aryas, and the destruction of Aharman and the demons, it is possible to perform through the power of Wisdom. It is also possible to cause the sun's observation, of the hidden water below the earth and to bring it for cultivation and habitableness, and the advantage, ease and enjoyment of men, beasts, herds and flocks, through the power of Wisdom. The understanding of the pain and sickness of men, beasts, herds and flocks and the remaining 1 Cf. the passage of BD. (xxx., 5, 6), mentioned in § 39. 2 For these terms, see our chapter on Cosmology. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE WISDOM. 37 animals, and the bringing unto them medicine and remedy and health and ease, are possible more fully by means of the power of Wisdom. ..And it is evident that he who is good in disposition and good in conduct, then praise is to be considered his from Wisdom. ..This also is declared that: Auharmazd...made an assembly with the Ameshocpands and Yazds of every kind, and the praise of that which is His own Wisdom was spoken and recounted by Him." 1 53. In other verses it is said that it was by means of Wisdom that Zaratusht triumphed over the temptations of Aharman 2 ; that Gushtasp, Zaratusht, Gayomard and others obtained by means of Wisdom a share more fully from heaven ; and that it was on account of the absence of full Wisdom that Jim, Frediin and Kaus were less successful in obtaining heaven. 3 54. We have quoted this long passage in order that we may compare it with the doctrine of the Sapiential books of the Old Testament, such as Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, and Proverbs. We will not develop here this comparison, of itself so important, but content ourselves by suggesting the principal parallelisms : — I came out from the mouth of the Most High, the first born before all creatures. Ecclesiasticus, xxiv, 5.* Ffom the beginning and before the ages I am created and I will not cease at all unto eternity, and I have served before Him in His holy residence. Ecclesiasticus, xxiv, 14. I, who am the Innate Wisdom, have been with Auharmazd from the begin- ning and before the heavens and the material world. MK., lvii., 4. 1 MK., lvii., 5-18, 23, 30. ? MK., lvii., 24-29. 3 MK., lvii., 20, 21. * Cf. also Ecclesiastes, i, 4. 33 THE DIVINITY. All wisdom is from the Lord God and has always been with Him. Ecclesiasticus, i, i. , God possessed me in the beginning of His way, before He had created anything in the beginning. I was estab- lished from all eternity during the ages before the earth existed. Proverbs, viii.,22,23. Thou hast formed man through Thy wisdom to reign over the creations made by Thee (jav vnb crov yevofievcov ktkt- fiarw) and to rule the world with righteousness and justice. Wisdom, ix, 2, 3. God has given me true wisdom in order to know the arrangement of the world and the force of the elements, the beginning and the middle of the times, the alterations of the tropics {rpoiTfbv dXXayds)! and the changes in the seasons, the circuit of the year and the position of the stars, the na- The Creator has created and preserved and made to move the Yazds of the heaven and earth and all other crea- tures and creations through the power of the Innate Wisdom. MK., lvii., 5. Auharmazd has created these creatures and creations which are in the world through the Innate Wisdom, and the advancement of the material and spiritual worlds is by means of Wisdom. MK., i., 49, 50. The knowledge of the world of the management of the seasons is by meaiys of Wisdom. The fact that the cloud seizes water from the sea and advances in the atmosphere and drips it drop by drop on the earthy the knowledge of the spiritual and material properties it is 1 Beelen, Hetbock der Wijsheid, p. 48, n. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE WISDOM. 39 tures of animals and the ferocity of wild beasts, the force {&la lvii. The germs of creatures are preserved, and the embryo lives and is nourished through the power of Wisdom (11). The arrangement of the earth and water ; the growth, colours and odours of plants (12) ; the arrangement of the mount Alburz which sur- rounds the world, the mani- festation of the earth and her seven continents (keshvars), and of the sky on high, the motion of the sun, moon, constellations and of the times and the seasons; the three paradises, the road to the next world (13); the action of the sun on the water hidden in the earth (17); — all these things are accomplished through the aid of Wisdom. MK., lvii. 1 The Vulgate has improirisa, and perhaps read a(pavi], see Beelen, Hetboek der Wijsheld, p. 48. , 40 THE DIVINITY. [God] has created [Wis- The Innate Wisdom and dom] in the Holy Spirit, the incarnation of the virtue Ecclesiasticus, I., 9. of Vohuman are born of the Those to whom [Wisdom] Cpenak minoi (lit. the Holy has appeared in vision love Spirit). Dk., III., 122, 123. her at her appearance. Ecclesiasticus, I., 15. Wisdom shall praise herself. The Spirit of Wisdom on Ecclesiasticus, xxiv, 1. account of the thoughts and Doth not Wisdom cry ? wishes of the sage displayed saving: O you men! I unto him a body, and it was call unto you and my voice is said unto him by it: Friend addressed to the sons of men. who praiseth me!... seek Ye little ones, understand instruction from me, who am Wisdom! and ye fools, attend! tne Spirit of Wisdom, that ...Hear me: blessed are they I may be to thee a guide to who follow my ways. Hear the pleasure of God and' the instruction and be wise and good, and to the deliverance refuse it not. Blessed is of the body in the material that man who heareth me... world and of the soul in the Whoso shall find me, shall spiritual one. MK., i., 57-61. find life and obtain the favour of the Lord. Proverbs, viii., i-5. 3 2 , 33> 35- Wisdom has protected and Wisdom has assisted and conducted Adam, Noah, Abra- made Gayomart (the first ham and other patriarchs; man), t Gushtasp, Zaratusht, the people of Israel against Jim, Fredun andKaiL, topros- their enemies, &c. Wisdom, per; it has assisted the Maz- x., xi. dayasnians, especially against the non-Aryas, etc. MK., lvii., 20, 21, 16. 55. It would be easy to multiply these quotations, but we do not wish to insist on the point any longer. It appears to us that the passages we have just quoted are sufficient to suggest to our readers the very remarkable coincidences of THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE WISDOM. 41 many ideas and even locutions peculiar both to the So^ta of the Sapiential Books and to the A$no-khart or Mainyo-i Khard of the Sassanian philosophy. Besides, numerous pro- verbs and maxims and aphorisms of morality and of prudence of these books of the Old Testament have a striking paral- lelism with those that are found in so great a number in the Mainyo-i Khard and to a certain degree in the Dinkart. We shall quote some instances therefrom in our chapter on Ethics (chapter VI.). We think therefore that no one will have the least difficulty in agreeing with Spiegel 1 when he affirms the close relationship between the Eranian Acno-khart and Socpla of the Old Testament, of the Alexandrines and of the more »recent Gnostics; and that the Eranians have been in this indebted to the West. 2 56. However, in converting the Alexandrine 2o(j)la to their own use, the Eranians, faithful to their instinct of systemati- zation, easily managed to find a place for it in the ancient hierarchy of the Avesta. For this purpose they identified personified Wisdom with the Agno-khart , which is no other than the Acno-khratus of the Avesta. Now, these Eranian terms are employed to signify first of all the natural intellect and innate wisdom of man, as distinct from knowledge acquired by teaching. For instance, see in the Avesta : Yacna xxii., 29 (Wester. 25); xxv., 17 (Wester. 6) ; Yt. ii., 1 ; Siroz. i, 29. 1 E. A., II., 34, cf. Trad. Lit., p. 136, sqq. 2 [Almost all the Sassanian works seem to have been based upon Nasks or portions of the Avesta which are now lost but which were extant at the time of the Sassanides, and it is seen from the Dinkart (books viii. and ix.) that many such Nasks were available at the time when it was written. Could not the doctrine of Wisdom as contained in the Mainyo-i Khard have therefore been indebted for its development to one of these Nasks rather than to the West ? And could not the West have borrowed the ideas of that doctrine from the Iranians, the more especially as it is a historical fact that the Jews were long in close contact with the Iranians ? — Tr.] 42 THE DIVINITY. In the Pehlevi books A^no-khart is one of the principal faculties of the human soul. Mention of it is often made, 1 and it is opposed to Goshanqriit-khart, 'wisdom acquired by hearing or by experience.' 2 On the other hand, mention is also made of the innate Wisdom of Auharmazd Himself as one of His attributes ; it has not been created by Him like the human faculty, but it belongs to His own being. It is not certain whether the term Acno-khratus is used in the Avesta in this double signification. However, Spiegel believes to have found this sense in Yt. x., 107, and probably in Yt. xvii., 2. 3 Such is also the case with Spenta mainyus. ' The Wisdom of God' was spoken of just as ' the good spirit of God' was spoken of. Now, is it not natural to personify this wisdom and then to identify it with the 'Zofyla, the more so because this very word is used in the Sapiential writings precisely in the various senses which we have undeniably established for the Eranian khart* We believe that we here meet with a characteristic development of the Sassanian epoch. XI. — Doctrine of Vohuman, Son of the Creator. 57. From a Jewish influence of the Alexandrine school we now pass to a purely Christian influence. There is a very important passage in the Dinkart, 5 which seems to us to have been misunderstood by Peshotun, and which we transcribe and translate more exactly below : — 1 Dk., II., 81, 4; III., 109, 4; I., 60, 2. 2 This is the khart of the Mai?iyo-i Khard, xlviii., 8-9. (.Perhaps Goshdnsrut-kliart is to Spenta Armaiti what A$no-khart is to Vohumano ? Cf. Spiegel, E. A., II., 38. 3 E.A, H.,34. * " Wisdom. ..that is to say religion and virtue. ..By Wisdom is also sometimes indicated in the Book of Wisdom the Wisdom of God {Sapientia essentialis) and sometimes it indicates the personal Divine Wisdom {Sapientia notionalis), the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity. And even in other significations does the name Wisdom occur in this Book." Beelen, Boek der Wijslieid, p. 1. s Dk., I., 40, 2,3, 4. DOCTRINE OF VOHUMAN, SON OF THE CREATOR. 43 (2) Aito benafshman aitoih, zak i pitdk; va pitakih benaf- shman val ddndkih. Viruk benajshman peshca tnen kdr; ghanca val benafshman Qpendk-mindi pitdk yevunto. Hamdi benafshman aitoih. "(3) Va pitakih zak i aito pavan aitoih valca bard gabrd benafshman dkharihd. Cigun pitakih Auharmazd pavan aitoih val Vohuman, dkhar men avoritd; zak-ash V6 human pavan kiinishno yehevunto. Leva t man afritarih-i Vohuman pavan Datdr, fratiun dahishnih, va levatman dahishno danakih, dino ham vakhedkih. l Va avih zak-ash khutih va pasajakih-i Vohuman, pavan Datdr benmanih va Ddtar pavan Vohuman abulh. Dino nakizo adinca zak-i val benaf- shman Datdr peshca men Vohuman dahishno pitdk yehevunto. Val Vohuman dkdcih and mato yekavimunit, cand Ddtar patash dandkinitd; ghanca dahishno aydzishnd tubdno pdik and, cand Datdr men nefshman viqpdkdsih va vicptubdnih va viqpkhutdih biharinitbr Ldca zak apartar pavan ddnishnd tubdno val zak apartdnih pavan danishnd tubdno val zak apartunih ayazishno yehevunit. " (4) Va menkeshydrdno mand Datdr benafshman ayuf pavan a bit, benman, abu la pesh men benman, benman la dkhar men abu, kola du-bdndddiik hamd'tk : kesh levatman yehevun- to la shdyactano.* 1 Bihar-i aivak benafshman, hamat benafsh- man aivak avoraqto. Akharca vadunand pavan du pesh va du pesh va du dkhar, aivak men tani mehim abu benman guftanb, zak-i du peshih vd du dkharih aivak men tani pavan ab'itarih va benmanih yehevunit. Yin iiikhmakho-i minddvam revano, va Id mehim abu-i pavan cihar pesh men . benman, benman; afash va benman pavan cihar dkhar men abu, abu" 58. " The Existing (cf. § 27) is self-existence, this is what was reveale/1 ; and the revelation itself was for knowledge. „ _ 1 m . _ , _ , 1 Or, hamniazdkih ? J C^ i, eX> , # 2 Instead of the infinitive biliarinitano. s Probably it must be read : yehevuntano Id shdyarto. 44 THE DIVINITY. The knowledge of Himself was before His operation and was revealed to His own Holy Spirit. 1 It was the perfect self- existence. "And the revelation of this existing One by His essence was also subsequently unto man himself. As the revelation of Auharmazd by His essence was unto Vohuman after his creation, His Vohuman existed by formation. In the creation of Vohuman by the Creator was the first creation ; and with the creation came knowledge and the development of the Law. And this excellence of his nature and the creation of Vohuman by the Creator [is called] ' filiation/ and [the rela- tionship of] the Creator to Vohuman [is called^ 'paternity.' The exposition of the Law is in this manner, and this (Law) was manifest to the Creator Himself before the creation of Vohuman. Knowledge came to Vohuman in the proportion in which the Creator made it known to him ; and the power in the accomplishment of the creation came to him in the proportion in which the Creator communicated it to him by His own omniscience, omnipotence and omni-sovereignty. And he who is very powerful in his knowledge is not on account of that knowledge superior to this supremacy either in power or in accomplishment. "And as to those teachers who [say that] the Creator, in Himself or by a Father, is Son, that neither the Father is before the Son nor the Son after the Father, that both of them are necessarily co-eternal: according to religion this could not be. The lot of the one is in himself' 2 ; whilst the other is himself created. And afterwards they work as two" prin- ciples 3 ; but the one (being) anterior and the other poste- rior of the two, the one by opposition to the other is called ' Son' comparatively to the ' Father.' This anteriority and 1 Or, " and his Holy Spirit was to Himself reveaied." 2 He has self-existence, He is the aito. 3 Unless, however, the repetition of the word du pesli should be erased, and the translation runs : " and afterwards they work, as the one being anterior and the other posterior of the two." DOCTRINE OF VOHUMAN, SON OF THE CREATOR. 45 posteriority of the two, on the part of the one in opposition to the other, involves paternity and filiation. In generation there is a certain order, and the Father being by origin anterior to the Son is not Son ; and the Son being by origin posterior to the Father is not Father." 59. There is nothing extraordinary in Auharmazd being called the father, 1 because this title is frequently found even in the Avesta. 2 Thus from Ya§na xxxi., 8, it follows that the father of Vohuman, named in Yagna xliv. (Wester, xlv.), 4, is Ahuramazda. 3 But it is unquestionable that Spiegel 4, is right in saying that all these locutions are purely and evidently figurative. Thus in some Pehlevi texts we find the epithet of father given to Auharmazd. 5 But it appears that in the passage which we have just quoted, we have a polemical passage relating to a paternity in a very different sense. Indeed the author is try- ing to establish (i)that Auharmazd is the Supreme Being (cdt)^ self-existing {benafshman altoVi), and (ii) that he existed alone in the beginning, having a perfect knowledge of Him- self through His own spirit {Spenak minoi). Then (iii) he endeavours to show that Vohuman has been created (avdripto) by Auharmazd, and that after having created him this God revealed Himself unto him. These are the reasons, he says, 1 [Cf. Haug, Essays, &c, 2nded.,pp. 151 n. and 306. "VoJmmano repre- sents the life in men and animals, the principle of vitality. If Ahura- mazda is called the father of Vohumano, it means that all vital powers in the animated beings have sprung out of him, as the supreme being. Vohur^ano is regarded as the vital faculty in all living beings of the good creation. Originally his name was nothing but a term for the good principle, as emanating from Ahuramazda, who is, therefore, called the father of Vohumano. He pervades the whole living good creation, and all the good thoughts, words and deeds of men are wrought by him." — Tr] 2 Vd., xi.v, 45 (Wester. 13) ; Ya?., xliv. (Wester, xlv.), 4;,Yt., xvii., 2, 16. J 3 Spiegel, E.A., II., 32. * E.A, II., 24. 5 Dk.,TII., 130 ;cf. § 32. 46 1UE DIVINITY, for which Auharmazd can be called the Father of Vohftman and the latter the son of Auharmazd. Firstly, on account of the excellence of his nature {avik zak-ash kh&tih) Vohuman, who is the first {fratum) and the most noble {apartar) creature, is worthy to be called x ai <£°xh v , ' the Son of God.' Secondly, on account of his creation or formation {papajaki/i) by God, he may be called ' the son.' But all his knowledge, however great it may be, and his influence over the progress of the creation {ghan dahishno ayazishnu) have been communicated to him by his Creator, who is supreme, and he cannot be called superior in comparison to Him. Then (iv) the author refutes those theologians (kesh- ydr&no) who try to prove that the Father and"the Son are identical and co-eternal, and that there is no priority nor posteriority between the two. This according to him is im- possible : the one is self-existing, the other exists only by means of creation. It may be true that both of' them act as principles as far as the rest of the creation is concerned, but the one is always anterior to the other, and for this reason they are Father and Son. If this be a paternity and a filia- tion, is it not contrary to the nature of things, which follow a fixed order in generation, that the Father should be identical with the Son and the Son with the Father? 60. Is it not abundantly clear that the Dinkart is attack- ing here a Christian doctrine, or rather an attempt made by some leaders of the Mazdayasnian religion to introduce and assimilate a Christian doctrine into the midst of Mazdeism ? We would say that these doctors wished to identify God, the Son, or the Aoyos of the New Testament with Vohiunan of the Avesta, precisely as we have seen the 2o^m borrowed from the Jews and identified with the AQno-khart. Our author seems to admit a great deal. He is willing to place Vohuman very high above other creatures — even higher than what he was in the epoch of the Avestaic Amesha- qpentas. He will also allow him a very important part in the< work of creation — even that he should act as a " principle;" he allows him to be superior to any other being by his DOCTRINE OF VOHUMAN, SON OF THE CREATOR. 47 knowledge of the nature of God; finally he acknowledges him as " the Son of God/' and God as his Father. But notwith- standing this he does not at all tolerate that Vohuman. should be identified with God, that he should exist with God from the beginning, and that his existence, his knowledge and his power were not communicated to him but original. And he proves his theme by the argumentum ad hominem and reductio ad aJjsurdum. He proves by the fact that the one is the Son and the other the Father that the one must be posterior to the other : otherwise the very sense of the terms — paternity and filiation — is lost. 61. Such is the argumentation of this chapter of the Dinkart against the doctrine of the Aoyos in the very im- perfect sense in which it was understood. 1 When we con- sider the number of Christians that there was in Persia under the Sassanides even in the court of the kings 2 and that the first Oecumenical Councils, wherein the dogma of the Aoyoy was the principal subject of the definitions, were held precisely in Sassanide times, it seems quite natural that we should find some traces of this doctrine in a religious work like the Dinkart. It is true that these traces are those of hostility towards the Christian doctrine, but when we think of the very remarkable position given to Vohuman even in this passage, we cannot deny that the influence of Christian ideas has been very profound. 3 1 Is there perhaps an allusion to the Uuevfia to ayiov of the New Testa- ment fri the Qpendk-mw6% in the beginning ? A Mazdayasnian would have less difficulty in accepting this idea as understood in his sense, see § 23- 2 Cf. Land, Anecdota Syriaca, vol. iv.,pp. 98-101. 8 [Dr. Casartelli often speaks of the influence of the Jewish and Chris- tian rgligior.s upon Mazdeism, but it is the opinion of many eminent scholars, both in Europe and America, that the Jewish and the Christian religions owe a great deal for their doctrines to the religion of ancient Iran, and not the Iranian religion to them for any of its doctrines. It would be worth while to quote here some of them : — /)S THE DIVINITY. 62. It also appears to us that the Mazdayasnian author had in view, if not the Gospels, at least the works based upon them. For the course of his argumentation follows pretty nearly that of the doctrine concerning the &oyds in the beginning of the first chapter of the Fourth Gospel. There it is inculcated that in the beginning the AoySs existed, that he was with God and that he was himself God (verses 1,2). Everything created was without any exception created by him W. R. Alger, an American author, says in his Critical History of the Doctrine of Future Life : — " The charge has repeatedly been urged that the materials of the more recent of the Parsi scriptures. ..were drawn from Christian... sources. No evidence of value for sustaining such assertions has been adduced. Under the circumstances, scarcely any motive for such an imposition appears. In view of the whole case, the reverse supposition is rather to be credited. In the first place we have ample evidence for the existence of the general Zoroastrian system long anterior to the rise of Christianity. The testimony of the classic authors — to say nothing of the known antiquity of the language in "which the system is preserved — is demonstrative on this point. Secondly, the striking agreement — in regard to fundamental doctrines, pervading spirit, and ritual forms — betiveen the accounts in the classics and those in the Avestean Books, and of both these with the later writings and traditional practices of the Parsees, furnishes powerful presumption that the religion was a connected development , possessing the same essential features from the time of its national establishment. Thirdly, we ha-ve unquestionable proofs that during the period from the Babylonish captivity to the advent of Christ the Jews borrowed and adopted a great deal from the Persian theology, but no proof that the Persians took any- thing from the Jewish theology. This is abundantly confessed by such scholars as Gesenius, Rosenmiiller, Stuart, Liicke, de Wette, Neandir ; and it will hardly be challenged by any one who has investigrted the subject. But the Jewish theology being thus impregnated with germs from the Persian faith and being in a sense the historic mother of Christian theology, it is far more reasonable in seeling the origin of dogmas common to Parsees and Christians to trace them through the Pharisees to Zoroas- ter, than to imagine them suddenly foisted upon the former by forgery on the part of the latter at a late period We therefore^ee no, reason for believing that important Christian. ..ideas have interpolated into the old Zoroastrian religion. The influence has been in the other direction." (See K. R. Kama, Stray Passages extracted from Alger's Critical His- tory of the Doctrine of Future Life, pp. 2-5) > THE DOCTRINE OF VOHUMAN, SON OF THE CREATOR. 49 (v. 3). The life and existence was in himself (it was neither communicated nor created) ; and this life was the light which enlightens men (v. 4, 9). The Aoy6s is the only Son of the Father (v. 14). If we compare these propositions of the first chap- ter of St. John with the points of the polemic of the Din- kart, we shall find that the latter follows almost exactly the same order of ideas. The late Dr. Martin Haug says in an article contributed to the Journal of the German Oriental Society, ix., ss. 286, pp. 683-692 : — "Judeism after the exile — and, through Judeism, Christianity after- wards — received an important influence from Zoroastrianism, an influ- 1 ence which, in regard to the doctrine of angels, Satan and the resurrec- tion of the dead, cannot be mistaken." (See K.R. Kama, Stray passages extracted from Alger s Critical History of the Doctrine of Future Life, p> 6.) Dr. Edward Roth, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Heidel- berg, says in the Egyptian and tlie Zoroastrian Doctrines of Faith as the oldest sources of our speculative ideas: "An exact acquaintance with these two circles of ideas (viz. — the Christian religion and the Grecian philosophy) teaches us, however, that even they again are not at all origi- nal, but flow down out of yet more remote sources, and in truth — by a curious coincidence — both from just the very same two common sources: the Egyptian and the Bactro- Persian doctrinal belief. The Christian circle of belief in fact agrees most precisely with the Jewish The so-called Jewish doctrine of faith developed itself among the Jews not until after the Babylonian captivity, when Judea was a Persian province, and is found in the later books of the Old Testament and in the Jewish writings a little older than, or contemporaneous with, the books of the New Testament, as well as in the oldest portions of the Talmud. That more ancient form of the Jewish doctrine of faith has its origin, like the entire political and civil organisation of the Jewish nation,»in the Egyptian culture ; the recent one, on the other hand, in that Bactro- Persian circle of ideas that had spread itself out beyond Persia over the whole of Western Asia, so far as it was subjected to the Persian supremacy. Thus then, at last we have the Egyptian and the Bactro-Persian speculations left to us as the earliest sources, as well of the Grecian as of the Christian circle of ideas, and consequently also of ourjpreseitt-day philosophy. In Egypt and Persia, or properly speak- ing in Bactria, there was accordingly the cradle of our philosophic Culture of the present day, and its development up to its present state must have required a period of time of nearly three and a half thousand years." .(See K. R' Kama's English Translation, pp. 19-22). — Tr.] 8 t 50 EVIL. CHAPTER II. Evil. L — The Dualistic System of Mazdeism. 63. The origin of Evil has been in all ages one of the principal difficulties which different religions have tried to solve. It may also be said that the form given to the solution of this question characterizes the divergences which distinguish them from one another. We need hardly repeat that for the Mazdeism of every age this solution has been sought in Dualism," or in other words in the doctrine of the existence "of two independent, hostile and perfectly opposite prin- ciples, — the principle or Spirit of Good and the principle or Spirit of Evil. 64. Quite recently Dr. West attempted to defend Mazde- ism from 'the accusation of Dualism, made in good faith by Muhammadan writers and echoed more incautiously by Chris- tians.' l Dr. West blames the Parsees themselves for having admitted it, at least as regards their religious doctrines in the Middle Ages. We perfectly agree with Dr. West that it is first of all necessary to determine with great precision what one means by ' Dualism, J in order not to include in its definition most of the religions of the world, not excepting Christianity. But we cannot admit the definition which his reasonings involve, that an omnipresent, omniscient, omni- potent or eternal Evil Spirit is necessary for a real Dualism. 2 It is not difficult to show that in Mazdeism these attributes do not belong to the Evil Spirit and even that they are explicity withheld from him. But the foundation of Dualism, in the complete sense of the word, appears to us to be precisely in this, that there exists a Being, evil by his own 1 West, PT., I., p. lxviii-lxix. : also II., p. xxiv. 4 Ibid. One may remark that even Auharmazd is not omnipresent, see ""§ 34» 35- [See also the translator's note 1, p. 26.] THE DUALISTIC SYSTEM OF MAZDEISM. 51 nature and the author of evil, who does not owe his origin to the Creator, of good, but who exists independently of Him, And such is the exact notion of the Mazdayasnian doctrine. 1 65. Dr. West says that the origin of Aharman is, like his end, 'as uncertain' as that of the Devil (in Jewish and Chris- tian Scriptures). But can he seriously assert that the origin of the Devil — the Fallen Angel — remains doubtful in Christian theology ? or that there exists any obscurity as to his final destruction ? The fundamental idea of the Devil in the Christian doctrine is that of a creature of God, good in his origin but fallen by his own wilL Now it must be really con- fessed that such a conception does not agree in any way with the description of Aharman in the Bun-Dehesh, i., 3, 5, 9, etc. 66. But yet a more capital difference as will be seen from the interpretation of Dr. West is that Aharman is capable of producing evil spirits and demons (BD., i., 10, 24), and that evil- doingcreaturesaresaidtobehis (BD., iii., 15 ;xiv.,3o; xviii., 2). 2 He therefore shares with Auharmazd the power of creation. He creates not only abstract evil, but also living spirits, men and animals. What distinction more decisive than this could one find between such a spirit and the Devil of the jews ? d Christians ? It is therefore impossible to agree with Dr. W when he writes : — " If the belief in Aharman, as the auth of evil makes the Parsi religion a Dualism, it is difficult understand why a belief in the Devil, as the author of e does not make Christianity also a Dualism." 3 That the T is considered as more intelligent and more endowed ubiquity* than Aharman is nothing to the purpose. T essential characteristics of the Evil Spirit in the Mazda- 1 [This doctrine is quite contrary to the doctrine of the G seems to ha /e sprung from wrongly understanding Ahura Cpento mainyus as one and the same being. See note I op 2 PT., I., p. lxix. 1 Ibid., p. lsx. * Ibid, p. lxix. V^ e ' 52 EVIL. religion, viz. — (i) his independent origin, and (2) his share in the creation, place him much above the Fallen Angel. 1 67. We willingly admit that this dualistic system is irrecon- cilable with a real monotheism. Too much consistence must not however be expected in the Mazdayasnian doctrines. We have already seen other dogmas which come into collision with this monotheism ; as for example, Zervanism and the belief in Destiny. 2 We have also seen that from early times the Eranian mind has sought some means of escaping from the difficulties of this Dualiam, and we have already anti- cipated the solutions devised for this purpose by several schools. It is therefore sufficient for us to sum up briefly what we have already said on this subject. 68. These solutions are grouped generally under two hypo- thesis — 'that the two spirits, Auharmazd and Aharman, have sprung from a single, indifferent, pre-existing source ; ^ and that the Evil Spirit proceeds from the Good Spirit by generation or creation. The first is the doctrine of the Zervanists and the second of the Gayomarthiyans. For the development of the first system we refer the reader to the passages cited in §§ 15 and 16. The genesis of Aharman in the other system is described , follows in the narration of Shahristani : — 69. "The Gayomarthiyans believe in two principles, Yaz- n 3 and Ahriman, and affirm that Yazdan is without inning and eternal, but that Ahriman has had a begin- and has been created. They say that Yazdan thought himself : — ' If 1 had an adversary, how would he be 3 ' This was an evil thought and was not in harmony e nature of light, and therefore from this thought the Mng proceeded and was named Ahriman ; and evil, orruption, wickedness and malevolence rn.ve become origin of the doctrine.of Satan or Fallen Angel in Jude- dianity, see p. 49, note. — Tr.] see $ 24. THE DUAL1STIC SYSTEM OF MAZDEISM. S3 his nature. Then he revolted against light and by his nature and words contradicted it, and a war burst out between the army of light and the army of darkness/' 1 It is remarkable that in this description the origin of Ahri- man is an evil thought of Yazdan, just as we have seen his birth attributed to a doubt on the part of Zervan. 2 The doctrine of a Zervanist school mentioned by Shahristani agrees closely with this doctrine. " Some of the Zervanists say that there is incessantly something evil in God, either an evil thought or an evil corrup- j tion, and that that evil is the source of Satan. They think that the world was free from evil, corruption and dissensions, and that its inhabitants lived in perfect happiness and in pure pleasure but that no sooner was Ahriman brought forth than evil, corruption and dissensions began to prevail." 3 70 No discussion as to these questions of origin is found in the Sassanide literature which we possess. On the con- trary Aharman is represented therein as having existed from all eternity like Auharmazd himself. For the Bun- Dehesh says that the latter (Auharmazd) has been, and is, and 1 always shall be, but as to Aharman on the contrary it says that 3^ there shall be a time when he will exist no more. 4 Now, this ^ idea implies that the only difference between these two spirits/ s?( as to the duration of life will be in the future. It follows thai ,\> Aharman has existed as long as Ahuramazda, that is to sa^ - from all eternity. The following is the remaining description of the Evil Spirit given in the Bun-Dehesh: " Revelation is the explanation of both spirits; the one is endowed with the infinite time... (cf. § 11) and Aharma:,i is darkness with backward knowledge (akhar-ddnishmh) a.<**\d 1 Translated by Haarbriicker, quoted by Spiegel, E A-, II., I< ( 2 Sse §§ i'S, 16. 3 Spiegel, E A., II., 176. * B D., i., 3., West translates; 'And it is he who will no / We, prefer the version of Spiegel (TL., p. 95), Windischmann (' ^tud., p. 56) and de Harlez {Manuel du Pehlevi, p. 211). 54 EVIL. desire for destruction was in the abyss and there will be a time when he will not be. And the place of that destruction (Zatdrlh) and also of that darkness is what they call 'the endless darkness.' 1 Ganak minoi on account of his back- ward knowledge did know nothing about the existence of Auharmazd. But afterwards he rose from the abyss and came towards the light; and he rushed in to destroy this splendour of Auharmazd, which he perceived unassailable by the demons on account of their malicious and cruel nature.' 2 This passage appears to give us a very clear and decisive idea of the dualistic doctrine of the Mazdayasnian religion. It now remains for us to examine the details relating to the Evil Spirit. 3 - //. — Names, Attributes and Qualities of the Evil Spirit. 71. The two most common names in the Pehlevi literature are those of Aharman (Ahriman) and Ganak-minoi (Ganrak minoi). Most Eranists, among whom are Spiegel and West,* think that these two words are alterations of the same Avestaic form Anro mainyus 'the destroying spirit.' How- ever de Harlez 3 as well as Justi 6 and Destur Peshotun 7 separate the two words and admit the abovementioned etymology only for the form Aharman, which is also that of the Sassanian inscriptions (Aharmani). For the other they suggest a root gan, ghan =jan = ' to strike, to beat, to kill, tc destroy.' 1 B D., i., 3. * B D., i., 9, 10. s !"The Bun-Dehesh identifies the Good Principle, Qpendk-minoi, with f trmazd, and puts the Evil principle, Ganak-?}iin6i, in antagonism v rlim. For explanations of the term Cpenak-minoi, and the theory ox 'sm, see notes on pp. 4 and 17. — Tr.] \., II., 121, n.; edition of M K., Glossary, p. 83; translation of B L 3, 4. * duction, p. cxxvii. 6 i Glossary, p. 222. « ^ alary to D K., I. s. v. f»f NAMES, ATTRIBUTES AND QUALITIES OF THE EVIL SPIRIT. 55 We may remark that the orthography of the latter term is extremely variable. We have Ganak-minol,' 1 Ganrdk-minoi, 2 Ganrd-mlnoi, 3 Ganrag-i rninoi* Ganag-i mlnoi 5 and also Ganak or Gand quite alone. West objects to the suggested derivation on the ground that the root gan has already given a verb in the form zan, zatano. We might, however, insist upon the same objection being taken to the double derivation of the names Aharman and Ganrak minoi from one and the same Avestaic form. The evident opposition between Qpendk- mvnoi = Qpento-mainyus and Gan(r)dk-minoi seems to decide in favour of the derivation which traces the last word from the Avestaic Anro-mainyus. But even in this case, the first part (ganrak) might probably be a translation and not a simple transcription of the Avesta Anro (the root of which seems to be anh = as= ' to strike, to beat ' 7 otherwise how is the initial £■ to be explained ? s We must add- that there are two forms of the name even in the Avesta : AnrS- mainyus (-«o>";'*£-W) and Angro-mainyus (■«e>"jJ»6-Vo-»' 3 West reads it as khayebtt and translates it 'condemnation,' 'destruc- tion, ' and adds that the word is often used as the name of a principal demon 41 ; thus the Mainyo-i Khard says that activity is good in keeping back aibigad and opposition from us. 3 He (West) derives this term from the Semitic (Chald. Nn^Jl)' P esn °tun reads it alb-dat, and translates it constantly as 'blemish-giver,' and derives it from the Semitic ;^m 'blame', 'fault.' 6 But he applies this term especiallv to Aharman, and even takes it as one of his ordin names. De Harlez is of the same opinion, but his rea' 1 PT., I., pp. ii2, 128, n. ' PD., xxx., 30. 8 Dk., II., ioi, 2 ; 73, 3. * MK„ Glossary, p. 4. 8 Ibid., ii., 74. 8 Dk., I. and II., Glossary. Wk^ 58 EVIL. is quite different. He reads it ag-i-ddt, and translates it as 'evil creator,' 1 from ag=agk = 'sinful', 'evil.' We wonder however whether the frequent term pai* vo- 1 " which, it appears, must be read aibl-biit 2 and which seems to signify 'corrupted', 'deformed,' does not decide in favour of Peshotun, because it would be difficult to explain that term by ag. As to the signification of the second word, though Peshotun trans- lates it as an equivalent of the first and as a name of Ahar- man, yet it seems to be rather the name of one of the inferior demons. We hesitate therefore to recognize it as a new title of the Evil Spirit. 75. As to the qualities of Aharman, we have to notice: — (i.) His malice. — Whatever be his origin Aharman is of an essentially malicious nature {arashk guharih)? There is a perpetual opposition between him and the Good Spirit. 4 For this reason he is always occupied in attacking His creatures and in doing evil to them, as we shall see later on. He is cowardly and cruel, because he scoffs at the wretches who are thrown into hell in his power. 5 (ii.) His ignorance. — In opposition to Auharmazd Aharman is ignorant {afarjanak) and blind (avenak) 6 and possesses a bad or imperfect knowledge (dus-dkafih) 7 as contrasted with the omniscience of God. His knowledge, as we have said, is a knowledge after the event (dkkar-danis/mik) 8 and not a foreknowledge as that of Auharmazd. He was ignorant at first even of the existence of the latter; he had a knowledge of him Manuel du Pehlevi, p, 325. Cf. duzddo. Ok., IV. 154, &c. 'D., i., 10; MK., x, 7, 8, 10. K., x, BD., xxviii. 'N., c. I., 19- X, 84. •> >., 3. 9> & c - NAMES, ATTRIBUTES AND QUALITIES OF THE EVIL SPIRIT. 59 only by accident. 1 Thus Auharmazd deceived him easily. 2 He was ignorant of the result of his great war with Auharmazd till the latter revealed to him his future defeat and ruin, which re- velation overwhelmed him with despair and dread. 3 And he is still ignorant of thedate of the end of the world, and will perceive it only at the time of its approach on account of the signs which will then be accumulated. 4 (iii.) His timidity. — When Auharmazd announced to him his future destruction and recited the prayer Ahunvar, he was so much confounded and terrified that at the first part of this formula his whole body was contracted through fear ( men bun tano yin avaato), at the second part he fell upon his knees, at'the third he was reduced to a pitiful state of confusion and impotence, which lasted 3000 years. 5 Later on, after the creation of the righteous Gayomard, Aharmara and his demons were equally confounded. He himself fell in a state of lethargy, to rouse him out from which the archdemons {kam&rakan) tried in vain. " Arise, our father !" they cried, " for we will raise up a conflict in the world, the distress and injuries of which <=h.all reach to Auhar- mazd and the Amec,hocpands/' Then they exposed to him in detail {gvlt gvlt hushmorlt) the evil actions which they proposed to do, but such was his rear of the righteous man that he was unable to lift up his head. Finally came the female demon Jeh, who twice recounted to him her evil actions, but in vain. 6 It was only at the third and fourth repetition of the evils which she was going to produce against the good creation, after having excited him by the words, " Rise up, O our father !" that the EviJ Spirit found the courage to come out from his miserable state and to 1 BD., i., 9 , 10. 2 BD. f i., 13, 15, 17, 19. On the character of Aharman as ' dummer TeufeV (stupid devil) cf. Spiegel, TL., p. 184; West, PT., I., lxix. 3 BD., i., 21, 22. J * Dk., IV., 167. 9 BD., i., 22. • B.D.J iii., 3, 4, 5. 60 EVIL. commence his war against the creation of his rival. 1 Even then, on seeing the sky he trembled as a sheep does before a wolf. a 76. (iv.) His spirituality. — Although Aharman is a spirit like Auharmazd, yet he can assume a body. We know the history of his subjugation to Tehmurath under Jhe form of a horse. 3 In the Bvn-Dehesh his ordinary form is described as the body of a log-like lizard (vazak).* But when Jeh encouraged and excited him, as we have just seen, he appeared to her, if we accept West's translation, under the form of a young man of fifteen. 6 Arda-i Viraf on arriving at the deepest hell was likewise able to see the Evil Spirit (adlk am khad'ttunt Ganrak-minoi)^ although he cou'id not see Auharmazd, 7 as we have already seen. One might therefore say that a grosser kind of spirituality, if we may use such an expression, than that of Auharmazd, is attributed to him. 8 77. (v.) There is nothing astonishing in the fact that Aharman is finite, because we have seen that Auharmazd him- self is so 9 : both of them are limited by the intermediate space {aigshan viiyan\t6hiK), and also as regards their person. But it is also said that both of them are equally infinite. In the case of Auharmazd, we have already seen tl.e explanation of this fact (§ 35): it is His omniscience and eternity that obtain for Hirri this title. 10 But there is no such explanation for Aharman, because these two qualities are expressly denied 1 BD. iii., 7. * Ibid., 12 (Cf. § 101.) 8 MK., xxvii., 22; cf. Spiegel, TL., p. 317. * BD., xxviii., I- ; iii., 9, according to West. 8 BD., iii., 9. 9 AVN.,c,i. 7 Ibid, ci, n. 8 Later on (A.D. 881) complete spirituality and invisioility were ascribed to Aharman ; for example, Manuschihar in the Dddestan-i Dxnik xix., West, PT., II. * BD., i., S . J ° BD., i., 6, 7. AHARMAN, THE CREATOR OF EVIL, *;, him. Perhaps his infinite malice and the 'endless darkness' (zofat afarl tdrlk) where he dwells, 1 were taken into consi- deration. 78. We might notice the following epithets often applied to Aharman : he is called full of death {pur- marg), 2 this being his Avestaic title ; destroyer of the world (gehdn marencinitdr) 5 ; of evil religion (dush-dini)* ; wicked (darvand) 3 ; the druj par excellence 6 ; the demon of demons [shedddn sheddj 7 ; evil creator {dusddt) 8 ; of evil knowledge (dush dandk) 9 and many other similar epithets. 79. Like Aviharmazd he had a dwelling (finak) from the beginning exactly contrary to that of the Good Spirit. " Aharman was in the abyss (zufdi), in darkness (tarikih), and that place of ruin and darkness is called endlessly dark (acarl tarik)." 10 Later on he came out of this abyss in order to attack the splendour of Auharmazd, and it is in the interme- diate space that the long war between the two creations takes place. We must not confound this original dwelling of the Evil Spirit with hell, 11 about which we shall speak at the proper time and place. III. — Aharman, the Creator of Evil. *"" 80. But the most distinguishing characteristic of Aharman, whichraises him above all other beings except Auharmazd him- self is that he is a creator. Whatever is bad in the material as well as in the spiritual sense is bis creation. All the demons, even the most powerful and formidable, are his creatures. He 1 BD„ I., S . ■ AVN., c, I. * Ibid. ♦ Ibid. 8 Patet-i-khod, 2J; MK., viii., 10. 6 D*., IV., 148, 3. 1 Vd., xix;, I. « Vd., six., 2. J 8 Vd., xix., 32. 10 BD., i, 3. X1 Spieg-1, EA., II., 121. 60 EVIL. has created all his creatures in opposition to those of Auhar* mazd but after them. In this they are inferior to the creatures of the Good Spirit, because they are wanting, if we may so say, in respect of originality. Having seen by accident the glory and splendour of Auharmazd and being envious of this scene, Aharman rushed back into darkness and immediately formed {karhiit) many male and female demons {kabed sheda va druj); these are therefore the creation of the murderous Spirit (dam-i marencinitar.) l Auharmazd saw this creation of Ganrak-minoi [dam-i Ganrdk-m'inol) and found it terrible, stinking, bad and good for nothing. 2 The evil Spirit produced (yehdbunt) 5 first of all falsehood {mitokht) and Akoman.* 81. We have noticed that the term dam is applied to the evil creation as well as to that of God; and the other verbs are employed in the same sense. There is however a special Pazend verb to designate the creation proceeding from Ahar- man, which is found in the Maino-i Khard.* It is vashudan, which can be translated as 'to misform, misproduce, deform/ thus combining the ideas of creation and of ruin as Dr West remarks. 6 Indeed, it seems that the authors of this book have felt the difficulty of applying to Aharman the same terms of creation which they applied to Auharmazd. 7 They have specially hesitated to admit of a true creation ex nihilo, and have tried to get a clear idea of the evil production of i BD., i, 10. a Ibid., ii. 3 On this verb, see West, PT., I, 9, n. c * BD., i., II. • MK., viii., 4, 10. 6 MK., Glossary, p, 210. T [This distinction is also found in the Avesta. In the first fargard of the Vendidad the verb frd-thivare$ is used for the creation of Auhar- mazd and the verb frd-keret for that of Aharman. The lattev term contains in itself the ideas both of creation and destruction. The Pehlevi translators of the Vendidad seem to have marked the difference between these two terms, because they translate the term fra-t1vware$ by frdz- barhinidan and frd-keret by frdz-karinidun. — Tr.] AHARMAN, THE CREATOR OF EVIL. 63 Aharman by means of a personal pollution. 1 It is therefore, no more a real creation, but rather a self-emanation. It is doubtful whether this explanation is to be found in the other Pehlevi books, and we can therefore believe with Spiegel 2 that the authors of these books considered the creation of both the spirits as a true creation without any pre-existing matter. Aharman not only created evil beings but also introduced every species of sickness into the creation of Auharmzd. He was able to render immortal heroes like Jim, Fredun and Kaus mortal, though he could not give immortality to his own creatures. 3 He can seduce even the best of the creatures of Auharmazd to gain them on his side. 4 He can spoil every thing that Auharmazd has created; 3 for instance, the plants are the creation of Auharmazd, but Aharman has given them thorns and bark and often the poison which did not exist in them before. Hence the origin of the poisonous plants, as the bis (Napellus Moysis), and the tall hemp (kand), which kill those who eat them. 6 Aharman is the only cause of all the diseases which afflict men, and there are 4,333 kinds of them. 7 But it is chiefly moral evil that he brings upon men. He deceives them and leads them to hell through prosperity or adversity, through infidelity, doubt or avarice. 8 He takes pleasure in breeding discord among men. 9 If he deprives a man of his wife, his children, his whole terrestrial wealth, nay even his life, he does not consider it as a great misfortune; 1 MK., viii., 10. , » EA>., II., 144. 3 MK., viii., 24—30. * BD., i., 17. 5 MK., xxxiv. 6 BD., xxvii., 1. On the dangerous qualities of the drink (Hashish, beng, cf. Skt. Bhanga) prepared from hemp in Persia see Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur, p. 152. 1 Dk., IV., 157, 41, 43 ; 162. But 10,000 according to BD-, ix., 4; and 99,999 according to the Avesta, Vcl, xxii., 6, (Wester. 2). s MK., xlv., 8. 9 Ibid., 9. 64 EVIL. but if he succeeds in carrying off his soul and in ruining it, he considers it indeed a great wrong that he has done him. 1 We shali have to discuss in our chapter on Ethics the man- ner in which Aharman seduces man, and the duty of man in the combat which he has to carry on against him. a The perpetual war between the two spirits and their respective creations will also be the subject of another part of this essay. 3 IV. — The End of Aharman and of Evil. 82. It now remains for us to say something about the end of the Evil Spirit. The question is whether Aharman is immortal or not? A* we have seen, the testimony of the Bun-DeheSh on this pointy is not doubtful. Therein Aharman is distinguished from Auharmazd in the following manner: — ait ma no la yehevunit.* Now, whether we translate these words by ' there shall be a time when he will no more exist/ (§ 73), or like West by ' it is he who will be no more/ the sense is evidently that the Evil Spirit will cease to exist, and that he will be destroyed \ at the end of the world. 3 We have similarly seen (§ 73) that after the great attack by the good spirits upon the demons, which will take place at this final crisis, only two spirits, Ganrak-minoiand the serpent (Azh, Mar), will be restored to liberty. Then this serpent will be burnt in the melted metal which will be poured out on the earth. 6 This metal will purify the whole earth and also hell. 7 According to another source it seems that although 1 MK., xlvi., 3-5. s Chap, vi., §§ 212-213. 3 Ibid., §§ 214-216. * BD., i., 3. 8 [This description of the end of Aharman does not seem to cor- respond with that given in the Avesta. According to Yt. arin., 96, Angro- mainyus will not perish in the final resurrection, but will become weak and helpless and will obey the Good Spirit. — Tr.] e BD., xxx., 31- » Ibid., 32. THE END OF AHARMAN AND OF EVIL. 65 the demons will be destroyed, yet the wicked who are in hell will be purified and saved 'by the fire.' 1 The passage which we quote below seems to offer us yet another doctrine con- cerning the end of the Evil Spirit, based upon the immortality of an intelligent nature. The following is the transcription and an attempt at translation, as it is written in a very difficult style : — 83. (2.) Kush{l)tano va marinltano-i gohar mindavam Id anaitkd/ih-i gohar, zdk-i Id shay et yehevunto. Bard gvlta- kih alto mindavam men mindavam zakash pavan hamlh karlha yehevunto. Zaki pavan gvitdklh akdrihi ham tano ychevilnlt. Benafshman alto mano ham-tano kushtano va akdrhutano. Cigun tano man gvitok'ih-i khayd-i afash rat analtih bard akdrlh, altuno vashuf yditunand. 2 Gandk-mhiol frashkereto avgdm, hamdk kutak afzdr, benafshman akdmak, hanjamlhd pavan andydftano-i mindavamca blhar val benafshman biir- tanOj men zak-i patash jumbdctano 3 mehim kilshito, va pur burto lakhvdr, avbash anaiydrlh va anaiyddlh* karto, lakh- vdr val garlstak 5 afash val dd/n G sJiakrunlto, 1 ramltunt- (ano) fruto, kushishlto. 8 Alto men dino pltdk : (3.) Tdcd vispd Ahurd thwahmi mazdd khshathrui a voya- thrd. (4.) Zak-ca pavan harvirpo Aiiharmazd pavan hand-i lak khutdlh froto kilshito 9 [Gawlk-mlnol pavan harvicpo vand- gkarih). (5.) Va Zandlk mano Aharman tar pavan far jam val kun zlveshni men roshanlh virdr;to, vc ramltiintano payatak 10 pavan 1 Dk. III., 114. 'Reading ^J^-*) e)W) instead of ->) l^^^O) •"• Cf . Pers jumbidan = to move. 4 Cf. Pers. ydd= memory. 5 Cf. Avesta. gdrez, Pers. ghurzidan. (Spiegel, AEG., p. 152 ) 6 Cf. «Pers. ddm = fetters. 7 Peshotun quotes the Semitic ^n ; j>-~>- inclose. b Cf. Pers. k».shish = endeavour, exhaustion, fatigue. 9 In Spiegel's Yac., xxxiv.', 10, Pehl. translation, there is kushto. 10 Cf. Pers paydddh = standing, walking on foot, 10 66 EVIL. zdm'uutano-i tar, men roshanlh aiva-kocto, ham cdmdniha val tarmo ham kocto roshano. Ash ham roshano beshitdrtar karto, va ctavar dafto caritar pavan akandrdno karto. Val nefshman ham pirdmuno* parvactak' 2 va khiimbo* mdndk-i ziveshno yetibiinaQto. Akandri zakash mehin tar-cyan* cashi- to. Ham 5 kocto kandr-homand 6 gufto. Pish milyd zakash mehim akandrak tanoih-i tar pavan hanbeshnih 7 va shuftano. Akhar milya zakash mehim akandrak dam lianarak-homand shno. 8 Parvactano pavan yehevuntano la shayito, avin- kharto yeheviinit. 84. "(2) Striking or killing the essence of a thing is not the annihilation of the essence; this is impossible. It is (simply) the separation of a thing from the other with which it worked in common. It is that which happens in the dissolution, of the body, (which is its) inaction. That is (only) what is to kill the compound or to reduce it incapable. As the body, by the separation of the soul and on account of that only, (is reduced to) annihilation or incapability, so on the arrival of Frashkereto (renovation of the world at the end of the time) Ganak-minoi will undergo destruction ; all his means are cut off (lit. 'small'), he is in himself without (more power to) wish, reduced to no more power to attain anything, (having) his lot to support himself, deprived (of the means) to rise up again, thrown completely back (to the bottom), and thereby without resource and without memory, besides shut up in lamentation and in chains, fallen, exhaust- ed. This is declared in the religion. 1 Corrected from pirimuno. 2 Peshotun derives it from the Avestaic pairi-ba^ta, and compares it with Pers. Paivaftak, which rather is fiatva$tano in Pehlevi. s Cf. Pers. khvfta?i = to hide, conceal. Perhaps it ought to be read nihumb- 1 From s'tj = perishable, perished. 5 Probably for ham. r ' Corrected from liomnand. 1 Beshnih, cf. bishit&r above. 8 Unless it should be corrected to zindagdno (Pers. zbidag&ni = dura- tion of life), which seems to be indicated by the sign ^)ove : ' &' THE END OF AHARMAN AN'D OF EVIL. 67 " (3) Tacd vlcpd, etc. 1 that is to say : "(4) And that in everything, O Auharmazd ! by this thy sovereignty beat down, 2 (that is to say, Ganak-minoi with all his criminality). "(5) And the schismatic, 3 who (was in) the darkness of Aharman, will, on the arrival of the future life, be adorned with light ; and those who were thrown far away (?) by the diffusion* of darkness, having light only from one side, will suitably have light from both sides. And (also) a small light will be very tormenting for him and a very strong, formidable hand will be placed (on him) by the immortals. (Aharman) by himself, having around him a wall and a narrow place for his life, will bo seated. The infinity of the wretches of dark- ness is revealed. Their punishment is called finite. The first word refers to the infinite extent of the darkness with its punishment and its depth. The other term refers to the finite duration of this infinite prison. It is not possible to restrict him as to his essence, (but) he will be blind of knowledge." 5 85. If we have understood this very difficult chapter cor- rectly, it seems to us that the author wishes to prove: (i) That it is impossible that Aharman should be destroyed, be- cause nature (soul) does not perish (ii) that his destruc- tion must be understood in the sense of the death of the human compound, that is to say, as a man is supposed to die when his soul and his body are separated, although the 1 Ya'y xxxiv, 10. " And all these things, O Ahura Mazda ! are con- ducing to thy realm." Cf. de Harlez, Ai-esta traduit, p. 332. 2 The Pehlevi translation, according to Spiegel's texts, Avesta ubersetzt, II., 133, has understood a •voyathra as ' to drive away,' which seems to be impossible. 3 The term Zandik is specially applied to the Manicheans. Spiegel, EA., II., 2231 * Perhaps causative from Zam=jam = \.o ccme, to, arrive (?). 5 [This description of the end of Aharman at the resurrection rather seems to correspond with, and to be a development of, that in the Yasht xix., 96, for which see p. 64, note 5. — Tr.] 68 EVIL. soul does not die : it is rather an inactivity and torpor of the being ; (iii) that at the end the Evil Spirit will be destroy- ed in this way that his whole creation will be separated from him, and he will remain alone, motionless, desireless, devoid of memory, a prisoner during the whole eternity. Evil will perish, but not the Evil Spirit: this will be like the separation of the soul and body; (iv.) that one can say that he is limited or mortal, because the infernal region will have an end; ^* but one can also say that he is immortal, because his existence itself (the soul of the compound) will never perish. It will be seen that the author here combats the doctrine inculcated in the Bun-Dehesh, basing himself on the immor- tality of the soul. Is it not possible that we hf.ve again some traces of the influence of Christian doctrines? 1 86. It is evident, therefore, that the Mazdayasnian schools of the Sassanide period did not always agree on the questions connected with the origin and the final destiny of Evil. These differences have been perpetuated, because they are formally mentioned again in that small work of later date, Ulemd-i islam. It cites some five different opinions 2 ; and at the end of his book the author admits: " There is a veil over Evil, which should not exist and yet exists. We cannot com- prehend it by our knowledge. But as it is a work of God, we must therefore leave it to God, and do what he commands and avoid what he forbids/' 3 This is a theory quite contrary to the spirit of the Mazda- yasnian religion. It seems to us very doubtful that such opinions could have existed before the Arab conquest., 1 [The description of the end of Ahartnan in the Avesta is itself based upon the immortality of the soul, because it is clearly said in Yt. xix., 06, that Ahartnan will not be totally destroyed at the resurrection, but will become very iveak and annihilated and will obey his opponent. That shows that the description of the end of Aharman in the Pinkart is not influenced by Christian doctrines, but is based upon, and is a develop, ment of, the original doctrine of the Avesta. — Tr.] 2 UI., p. 4-5, Vullers' translation, p. 52. 3 Ibid., p. 10, Vullers' translation, p. 67. DISTINCTION BETWEEN MATERIAL AND SPIRITUAL WORLD. 69 CHAPTER III. The Spirits. / — Distinction between the Material and the Spiritual World. 87. Along with dualism in the notion of good and evil, Mazdeism has also always scrupulously maintained a sort of dualism of the spiritual beings and the material ones. 1 In this symmetry we again meet with the innate tendency of the Eranian mind to systematization, of which we have already had so many proofs. This symmetry appears in both the evil as well as the good creation. One is induced to think that the Eranians had not a very precise idea of spirituality. We have already remarked that the principal element seems to be invisibility; but opinions agree very little also on this point. Here is the explanation of the Dinkart, which distinguishes three kinds of beings (aUoan) : — 88. " Attoan ainyok denman ca ce. Aivak zak mano klrut'ih amarg, a/ash patmocano agdnishnih. Va aivak zak mano khutih marg-homand, afas1> patmocano vanacanishno. Men avlnishlnk ctihano Amarcpenda.no, mano Yazdano khu- tih, amarg. Va men vinishnik ctihano, khorshet manosh amarg alto gti khutih, acanhhnih patmocano aito." 1 ''There are these three kinds of beings : the first comprises those whose nature is immortal and whose garment is im- passible (lit. in repose). And another, those whose nature is mortal and garment passible (lit. susceptible of injury). To the invisible creation belong the Ameshocpands who have the immortal nature of God. And in the visible creation there is the sun, whose nature, (though) material, is immortal and whose garment is impassible. " 1 See this kind of parallelism represented in a graphic manner in the curious table (nakhsli) attributed to Destur Adarbad in the Dinkart, IV., 137. 23- Dk., I.. 51, 2, 3, 4. 6. 70 THE SPIRITS. 89. Here, immortality is openly distinguished from spi- rituality, because the sun, who is said to be an immortal being, is however only material; and the good spirits are said to be participating in the nature of God, because they belong to the invisible world (avinis/inik ftihuno). 1 The last term is very remarkable, as although etymolo- gically $tih signifies simply 'creation,' yet it is strictly em- ployed in Pehlevi to indicate the material world in op- position to Minoi {Mainyo)^ which designates the spiritual world. 2 90. There is a spiritual world even in the evil creation; but we see that an endeavour is made to introduce into it a kind of inferiority as compared with the spiritual world of Auharmazd. Thus, in the vision of Arda-i Viraf, £rosh and Ataro promise to show him the reality ( ditili) of God and the Ameshogpands and the non-reality (loltih) of Aharman and the demons. 3 Evidently we cannot take these terms aitih and loitlh very literally: to deny the real objective existence of the Evil Spirit and his creatures would be to overthrow the whole system of the Mazdayasnian religion. One must see therein an expression of the inferiority of nature of the one creation as compared with the other. II. — Origin of the Good and Evil Spirits. 91. In order to expound the theories relating to the spirits of each of the two creations, it will be necessary to anticipate partly the Mazdayasnian cosmogony, as the spiritual worlds form the first stage in this history. We have already seen from the Bun-Dehesh the original constitution in which the two primordial spirits of Good and Evil are found. "Au- harmazd," the author continues, "by his omniscience knew the existence of Aharman and his projects. He knew that 1 One may compare SIS, xv., 3, where Auharmazd and ^the Amesh- ocpands are called the intangible and invisible beings. 3 The Avesta, however, distinguishes between the Mainyava pti and . the Gaethya pti. Cf. Windischmann, Zor. Stud,, p. 148. 3 AVN., v., 11. ORIGIN OF THE GOOD AND EVIL SPIRITS. 7 1 in his desire for injury he would produce confusion (yin gitmljd) 1 till the completion (of things). He also knew by what means the completion would take place." Then in a spiritual manner he created the creation which was necessary for these means. During three thousand years it (the crea- tion) was in a spiritual state, so that it was immutable, un- changeable, and its body was intangible. 2 This passage offers certain difficulties. What is this 'spiritual state' in which the creation was plunged for three thousand years? West explains it as ' a preparatory creation of embryonic and immaterial existences, the prototypes, Fravashis, spiritual counterparts, or guardian angels of the spiritual and material creatures afterwards produced.' 3 Spiegel and Windischmann understand this as a creation existing at first in heaven, and which was afterwards let down (herabgelassen) into space.' 4. As to the three epithets, West reads the first term as aminltar and translates it ' unthink- inoY 5 W'indischmann and Justi, on the contrary reading the term as amuitar, translate it 'invulnerable/ and they take for their basis the Avestaic term amuyamna 6 with which it seems to correspond. We have followed the version of Professor de Harlez. 7 But if one accepts either of these last interpretations, he cannot agree with that of West. Indeed how can we imagine spirits (minot) who exist without think- ing (minitano) ? This would be a contradiction in terms even to the Eranian mind. We might ask whether this passage does not simply signify that Aiiharmazd first of all created the World of the spirits, the Ameshogpands and the Yazds and 1 We follow the version of M. de Harlez, {Manuel du Pehlevi, p. 320), which is justified by the technical term gwnijkhntti in BD., i., 17. 2 BD., i., 8; also xxxiv., I. 3 PT. I./S. n - * Spiegel, EA., I., 503. Windischmann, Zor. Stud., p. 57. » In accordance with the MS. M6 in chap, xxxiv., 1. • See Yt. xiii., 35. 133; xvii - l 7 > xix "' 75- 7 Who compares it with Lat. movere. 72 JMK SPIRITS.' the other beings mentioned at the end of the first chapter? 1 These spirits then existed without being attacked by the Evil Spirit, who became acquainted with them only afterwards. The spirits also did not move (arevd) from their shining residence to enter the intermediate space where the war between the two creations subsequently took place. But at last Aharman happens to see the light and splen- dour of Auharmazd, and disturbed by this splendour, he fled back into the darkness. There he 'formed {karinit) many demons and drujs, a murderous creation.' 2 Auharmazd saw these creatures of Ganak-minoi, and found them 'a frightful, stinking, and evil creation, which he did not consider to be of any value. 92. Such is, therefore, the origin of the spiritual creation on either side according to the narrative of the Bun-Dehesh. We see that the Evil Spirit produced his creatures after and in opposition to those of Auharmazd. If it is said that Aiih- armazd has created his creatures for the confusion of Ahar- man {pavan Qtartlh-i Aharman) * it must refer to the divine foreknowledge of the combat which was to happen. 5 It now remains to see what were the spirits thus produced. III. — The Good Spirits. (i.) — VOHUMAN. 93. As we have seen before, Voh&manwas the first "of the creatures of Auharmazd. 6 God made use of his assistance in the development of the other creatures. This position gives him superiority over other beings. It is he who produced 1 BD.,i., 23, 27. a Ibid., 10. Ibid., II. 1 Ibid., 23. This verse is not the continuation of the narrative in verse 22, but it agrees with v. S. The narrative is resumed in order to enter inio details. It is, perhaps, a new genealogy like that of the chap. II ., and several documents may have been combined in the narrative. 5 BD., i., 8. Ibid., 23; Dk., I., 40, 3. etc. THE GOOD SPIRITS. 73 later on the light of the world [ctik roshaiuh), with which was the good Mazdayasnian Law (Din-i shapir-i M.). 1 Commenting upon this passage, Dr. West rightly says that ' the position here ascribed to Vohdman, or the good thought of Auharmazd, bears some resemblance to that of the Word in John i. i — 5.'- And indeed we have seen that there was very probably a Mazdayasnian school which wished to identify him with the Aoyds (^ 60). But it is equally true that in orthodox Mazdeism Vohuman essentially differs from him in this that he is only a creature. One is surprised at the resemblance between many traits of Vohuman and those of Wisdom, of which we have spoken in the first chapter. It is,not always easy to get a precise idea of the relations of the one to the other. In the Avesta there is mention of the wisdom {khratics) of Vohtiman, and the tra- dition explains it as Acno-khart. In the Diukart also it is said that the Acno-khart and the good religion {shapir d'ino) and the virtuous incarnation of Agno-khart (kerfani hiina- rdvad-i Acno-khart) are born together (ham-zuk). 3 Subse- quently it seems that this incarnation is explained as being Vohuman himself, because it is elsewhere said "And Ac.no- khart and also his virtuous incarnation, Vohuman, are be- gotten of the 9penak-minoi" [va Acno-khart afash herf&ho hunar&no Vohuman QpenaU minoi salt). Here the good reli- gion, which, according to the Biln-Dehesh, has been produced by Vohuman, is born with him. Therefore these three ideas — Wisdom, Vohuman and Religion — form one group, the exact relations of the elements of which it is difficult to determine. 94. Vohuman seats in heaven on a throne of gold.* As for men, Vohuman is the protector [patdrah) of their conscience and intellect (hosh va hhart). 5 He also gives 1 BD., i, 25. • P7., I., 9, n. 3 DK., III., 122, 2. * * AVN., xi., I. So in the Avesta : Vd. xix.,102 (Wester. 31). a DK., III., 116. 11 ' 74 THE SPiRITS. them wisdom. 1 He aids Tishtar in pouring down the rain water on the earth. 2 He is also the special protector of cattle, and he is pleased when men take care of the flocks. 3 The cock is his favourite bird 4 and the white jasamin [caman) is his flower. 5 In the last combat, which will close the war between the two creations, it is he who will seize Akoman, his special adversary among the demons. 6 (ii.) — The Other Ameshocpands. 95. So far we have considered Vohuman in the unique position which he occupies as the first creature of Auharmazd and as His principal agent in the development and growth of the whole creation. But he has also his place in a spe- cial group of the good spirits, the Ameshocpands, of whom he is the principal and the chief. These spirits form again, as in the Avesta t a group inti- mately connected with the Creator, though, perhaps, there is no longer a very clear distinction between them and the other spirits. The latter are raised to a position scarcely inferior to that of the former; and we see them pell-mell together. 7 We have neither to discuss here the origin nor the Avestaic character of the Amesha$pentas, for which we refer to the work of Professor de Harlez {Origines du Zo- roastrisme, pp. 43-74). In the Sassanide time, both these characteristic Eranian spirits and the other Yazatas of every kind form the spiritual court of Auharmazd, which* differs 1 SIS., xxii., 2. 2 BD., vii., 3; ZS., vi., 3. * SIS., xv., 5, 9-11. 4 Ibid., x., 9. 8 BD., xxvii., 24. 6 BD., xxx., 29. [In Yt. xix., 96, it is also said that Vohumano will des- troy Akemmano. — Tr.] 1 In the BD., xxii., 24, all the spirits to whom the days' of the month are dedicated are ca-lled Amesho§pands. In SIS., xxii., 14, Gtisk&rvan is called an Ameshocpand. Qrosh is raised to an analogous position tc that of the Ameshocpands (cf. BD., xxx., 29). For Wisdom as an Ameshocpand, see chap. I., § 50. THE GOOD SPIRITS. 75 scarcely in anything from the angelic hierarchies of the Christian theology. Thus there are some, like Dr. West and others, who prefer to translate the names Ameshogpands and Yazds by 'archangels' and 'angels', though we cannot app»ove this incorrect usage. 96. The name of the former set of angels occurs under the form of Amesho?pands, or more rarely under that of Amdraspands. A list of them is often given. Sometimes we see mentioned therein seven Ameshogpands, Auharmazd himself being reckoned in the number; then Vohuman, Artavahisht, Shatvairio, £pendarmat, Horvadat and Amero- dat. l But generally Auharmazd is clearly distinguished from them : he is the only being who is independent [ami- hanak), 2 and for that reason he is above other creatures who are dependent, among whom are firstly the Ameshogpands, just like the inferior beings, 3 for Auharmazd has created them by his wisdom. 4 They were among his first creatures, for after having created Vohuman and produced the light of the world and the good religion, Auharmazd created Artavahisht, Shatvairio, (ppendarmat, Horvadat and Amero- dat. 5 97. They are said to be males and females, 6 since among the number there is the female spirit Cpendarmat. A de- scription is given of their qualities, of the creatures (d&jak) which each of them has formed as his earthly representatives, of the benefits which each procures for men, of the flowers which are dedicated to each of them, and of the special adversary among the demons whom each shall have to crush in the final battle. 7 1 SIS., xv., 3, 4. 2 For this term see § 34. 3 Dk. II., g\. * MK.Jvii., 5 ;cf. §51. - 5 BD., i., 26. 6 BY. ii., 64. 7 S1S-, XAiii., xv., xxii.; BD., xxvii.? 24; xxx, 29. 76 THE SPIRITS. (iii.) — The Yazus. 98. In the Avestaic system the Yazatas are spirits of an inferior rank to the Ameshagpentas. In Sassanian Parseeism the distinction between the two classes is little more than nominal. The name of Yazds is used in a very general manner to signify all good spirits, like that of ' angels ' in the Christian theology. Even Auharmazd and all the good spirits are called 'all the Yazdan of the heaven and earth.' 1 99. The Yazds play the intermediary part between the Diety and man. They spread benedictions like Auharmazd and the Ameshocpands and like the spirits of the blessed in heaven. 2 With the Ameshocpands they assist in the distribution of rain on the earth. 3 Their duty is to develop and increase the creation and to fight against Evil: it is for this very reason that Auharmazd has created them in a great num- ber (kabed Yazdan) "in order to keep watch over the heaven and the earth, the blowing of the winds, the flowing of the waters, the growth of the trees, and the life and nourishment of cattle and men, and also to protect the material worlds against the creation of .the murderous demons " {val vinarishno- i a$mano va damili, va vato vtidishno va mayo, tactshno, va hurvar vakhshishno, va gocpand va anshuta yehevunishno va fravarishno : afash val pdnalcth-i ctih dahishnano men dam marendnltarano shedaho).* 100. Their beneficent action extends also to spiritual things, the good religion and its adherents. For this pur- pose they must be assisted by the practice of the good wor- ship (veh yajishno) and the recitation of the liturgical prayers (Jiusmorishno), as the demons are thereby defeated. 3 It is again by the explanation of the law that man is made expert 1 ZS., i., o. The phrase is a modern one and belongs to Zad Sparam himself (A.D. S81). 2 AVN., iii., 8— ft. 3 Dk., III., 112. * Dk., III.. 125. 8 Ibid. THE GOOD SPIRITS. 77 in intelligence, and that the power of the Yazds is exerted in the battle against the Drujs, and the deliverance of the body and soul and hence the power of directing the rest of the material world, are brought about {men dino nak'izo dato s/iAtif viartum pavan nirufc, va patuklh zak-i Yazddn yin koshhhno-i levatman drujo va bocishno-i tano va rub&no, a/ask tubano mehim rdcimtano-i afanih fti/i dahishno). 1 Auhar- mazd has placed the prosperity of man in the hands of the Yazds {men datar andajishno martum mehim Yazddn rdcini- tarih alto yehebunto va nlr tiki nit o).' J (iv) The Primordial War of the Spirits, ioi. The Yazds form the army of Auharmazd against the •evil spirits. In the beginning of things, there was a great Avar in the heavens; it is related in five chapters in the Bun- Dehesh. We cannot enter here into the question of the origin of the remarkable tradition of these " Gotterkampfe" (combats of the gods) 3 as Spiegel calls them-; but we may note the striking analogies with the celebrated war of the •evil spirits against the sky in the Babylonian traditions. Instigated by Jeh, the Evil Spirit conducted his allied {ham- dastY demons against the sky, of which he penetrated the third part. 5 It was at noon in the "month of June of the vernal equinox. 6 But on seeing the sky this cowardly spirit was frightened like a sheep before a wolf. 7 Because the » Dk., 11,77,2. 2 Dk., II., 77, 2. 3 EA., II., 212. * West translates the term ham-dast as 'confederate,' See PT., I., p w 15, n.* * BD., iii., 10, II ; ZS., iv., I. 6 BD., iii., 12. 7 BD., iii., 12 ; ZS., ii., 2. It is curious that West translates this pas- sage : " Thereby the sky was as shattered and frightened by him as a sheep by a wolf," It is, indeed, quite conformable to, the character of Aha^man to appear timid and cowardly (cf. § 75) and that he was terri- fied at the sight of the sky (Cf. de Harlez, Origirtes, p. 162). However it seems to us that in ZS., ii., 2, the passage must be translated : " He sees the sky, and according to his nature he (Aharman) fears as much as a shee^D fears a wolf," which is just contrary to the version of West. 78 THE SPIRITS. spirit of the sky (mmo-i a$mdn), according to West, 1 (01, perhaps, the spiritual sky) 2 put on arms like a warrior; and Auharmazd made a rampart ( driipusht'ih) round the sky. stronger than the sky itself. 3 Elsewhere 'the second ram- part' is called ' the righteous forethought' {ashok dkhrib)* The Fravahars, as numerous as the hair on the head, gathered round on horseback with lances in their hands. 5 The demons, being, unable to penetrate, precipitated themselves from the sky to the earth. 6 They however found the gate of their former abyss closed against them. 7 It seems that since then Aharman and his demons have been obliged to remain in this visible world, 8 where the combat lasts for ever. c 102. In the subsequent stages of the great war, Aharman and his army successively attacked the different parts of the creation in the same order in which they were created ; first of all, the water, whose principal protector is Tishtar (Tir) 9 ; then the earth, in which they produced the mountains 10 ; then the plants 1 ' ; then the primeval ox; 12 then the primitive man, Gayomard; 13 and lastly, the fire. 14. This primeval war is ever continued under the command of the Creator [men Datar farmdno). The Yazds are oc- cupied in fighting against and driving out [vdnltano va bard 1 PT.,1.,25. 2 Windischmann, Zor. Stud., p. 67. Cf. Spiegel, EA., II., 10. 3 BD., vi, 2. * ZS., v, 2. 8 BD.,vi., 3 . 6 BD., vi., 4; iii., II. 7 ZS., v., 3 ; cf. ii., 4 ; BD., vi., 4. 8 Spiegel, EA. II., 121. 9 BD., vii. ; ZS, vi. 10 Ibid., viii.; Ibid., vii. « 11 Ibid., ix.; Ibid., viii. 12 BD., x.; ZS, ix. » ZS., x. ** Ibid., xi. THE GOOD SPIRITS. .. 79 burtano) every evil and all the oppositions of innumerable kinds which proceed from all sides {patydrak men amarkano aivocak aivak mato). x (v.) — The Principal Yazds. *>3. It would be impossible to give here a complete description of each of the numerous Yazds. We can speak only about the principal ones. a. — Genii of the Last Things. A very important group is composed of the Yazds who are placed in charge of the dead; these are Mitro, Qrosh and Rushnu. The Sassarjan Mitro (Mihir) has no longer the same importance as the Mithra of the Avesta and bears very few traces of his Aryan origin. With Qrosh, the spirit of obe- dience to the law (religion), and Rashmc, the spirit of rec- titude, Mitro stands near the Cinvat Bridge to weigh the actions of the man just deceased and to make him pass the bridge or not to pass it according to his merits. 2 These three Yazds are called Miazhi? which term is translated by West ' in mediation.' 1 It is however certain that the idea of mediation never existed in Mazdeism. The phrase signi- fies nothing more than 'intervening between, not as a me- diator but as a judge pronouncing the sentence, giving up the sinful to punishment and preserving from the attacks of the demons the righteous, who need no mediation to obtain heaven.' 5 This is evident from the following verses 6 : — 104. Of the three funeral spirits, Rashno is specially entrusted with the weighing of the merits of the dead : " He 1 Dk., I., 44. 2 MK., ii., 118; AVN., v. 3 MK., ii., 118. * MK., p. 133, and Glossary, p. 139. Spiegel translates this term ' Ver-jtittlev'' (mediator), TL., II., 138. 5 De Harlez, Introduction, pp. xcix. — c., where fhe'.question is discuss- ed at length. 8 See MK., ii., 119, sqq. So THE SPIRITS. makes no unjust balance of the spirits on either side, neither for the pious nor for the wicked, neither for lords nor for rulers; he varies not even as much as a hair's breadth and he shows no favour; he treats the sovereign and the ruler on an equal footing with the humblest." 1 The balance (tarazuk) which he holds in his hands is of yellow gold. 2 105. The duty of Qrosh is to assist the righteous in passing the Cinvat Bridge. 3 It was he who with Ataro conducted Arda-i Viraf through hell and heaven and explained to him all the scenes which he saw there. 4 For invoking these Yazds the following prayer is recited: — " May Mitro be thy judge; may not Crush, the righteous, seize thee as unjust ; may Rashna conduct thee to the resplendent heaven I" 5 « 106. Qrush has some attributes in the present world. He protects the world during the darkness of night from demons and sorcerers; for this purpose the cock and the dog are specially consecrated to him. 6 At the time of the end of the world he will have also a very important place. Among the Yazds he is the only one who is mentioned with Auhar- mazd and the Ameshocpands as an adversary and destroyer of one of the principal demons, Atshm or K/ias/iw, the demon of wrath, who will oppose him. 7 And after this battle when Auharmazd himself will come into this world as pontiff (Zo/a) to complete the destruction of Evil, it is Crash who will accompany him as assistant priest (rasfli). 8 1 Ibid, 120 — 122. This is why a person celebrated for his justice is called • the Rashno of Cin5.' BD., xxxi., 3. ( * AVN., v., 5. 3 MK., ii., 124. * AVN., passim. 6 SIS., xxii., 16-18. * BD., xix., 33; GF., ii., 25—26. 1 BD. f xxx., 29. According to BY., iii., 35, it is Mitro who will" smite him. 9 BD., xxx., 30. THE GOOD SPIRITS. ol 107. As these three Yazds — Mitro, Rashno and £rosh — play such an important part at the end of human life, it is natural that they have also to perform certain most important duties in the las"t days of the world. Thus, they will all three assist Peshyutanu, who is destined to smite the demons and to destroy idolatry 'at the end of time. M When the prophet Hoshedar will command the sun, like Joshua, saying: 'stand still,' it is Mitro who after ten days and nights will give the signal to command him again ' to move on ! ' 2 And it is Crosh assisted by Neryosang, who will be sent by God to excite Sam or Keree/isp 3 who has been sleeping for centuries and has to put Azh-i Dahak to death.' 1 108. There»are other Yazds who are often associated with the preceding three as angels of the time of resurrection. These are Vai the good, Vahram the victorious and Ashtad, who receive the soul of the deceased person at the Cinvat Bridge, 3 who received Arda-i Viraf at the entrance of his pilgrimage to the other world, 6 and who will play a part in the last days of the world. 7 But all of them are auxiliaries of an inferior rank to the three judges of the dead. All these angels are well known in the A vesta; we need not insist upon their origin. {b.) — Genii of the Physical World, Abstract Genii, &c. 109. Genii of the Physical World. — Among these there is Acmano, the personification of the material sky. We have 1 BY., iii., 31-38. 2 Ibia., 45-49. 3 [It is very doubtful whether Sam and Kerecasp are the names of one and the same personage. According to the Avesta they are two different persons. In Ya§., ix., 10, Sam is mentioned as an ancestor of Kerecasp, but in Yt., xiii., 61, 136, he is called a descendant of Kerecasp. Thus there were two persons of the name of Sam, of whom one seems to bean ancestor and the other a descendant of Kerecasp. — Tr.] * BY., iii., 59-60. * 1 5 MK., ii , 115. 6 AVN., v., 3. ' BY, hi., 32. 12 82 THE SPIRITS. already seen him fighting against the demons and defended by a rampart stronger than himself. 1 Then come Zamyad, 2 the spirit of the earth, Aban or Avan, the personification of water to whom the water-lily is quite naturally dedicated, Khur or Khilrshet, the sun, and Mali, the moon. Tishtar or Tir is probably Sirius and therefore the repre- sentative of the stars in general. It is he who is chiefly entrusted with the rain, which he defends from the attack of the demon Apaosh 3 ; it is he who in the beginning caused rain on the earth and thereby produced the ocean which divides the earth into seven kes/ivars,* and now he draws water from the ocean to form it into rain 5 which he pours down again with the seeds of plants upon the Carth. 6 1 10. Abstract Genii. — Arshisang or Art is a female yazd, personifying rectitude, who bestows riches and well-bein«-. 7 Dino, the religion, the good Mazdayasnian Law, is a very important personage ; born with Acno-khart and apparently with Vohuman, according to one system 8 ; but according to others formed by the latter. 9 Dino seems to be 'an abstract being rather than a person ' according to the expression of Spiegel. 10 He is ranked among the very numerous spirits who aid Tishtar in producing rain. 11 in. We must silently pass over a good number of spirits of a certain importance, Avhose enumeration is of little use for the illustration of philosophical principles. YVe find very complete lists of them in our authorities. 1 -' 1 See § 101. 2 BD., xxvii., 24. 8 BD., vii.; ix, ; ZS., vi. * Ibid., ix. 5 Ibid., xix., II? Dk. Ill, 112. BD., xxvii., 3; ZS., viii., 1 ; MK., Ixii., 42. 7 Ibid, xii., 4. s Dk., III., 122. 9 BD., i., 26. 10 EA., II., 104. 11 Dk., III., ii2. 12 BD., xxvii., 23 ; SIS., xxii., xxiii. THE GOOD SPIRITS. 83 (vi.)— The Fravahars. 1 12. There are few subjects which present more difficulty, both in the A vestaic system as well as in that of the more recent Mazdeism, than that of the spirits called fravMars, farohars, fravash or fruhars. The principal embarrassment proceeds from this that the name is applied both to a faculty of the human soul, united with the body during life, and to that faculty detached from the body and leading the independent life of a celestial spirit. It is on account of this double nature, or rather of this double state, that it is necessary for us to treat the fravahars in two distinct chapters. 113-. It is not our business to relate here the history of the fravahars of the Avesta, whose double origin and development have been treated in a very complete manner by Professor de Harlez. 1 This learned Eranist has also ffiven a summary with many details of what is said of them in the literature of the period with whicK we are occupied. He is perfectly justified when he says on this point: "Of all these explanations relating to the nature of the fravashis there are not two which agree with each other... Do not all these in- congruities evidently show that too much importance is generally attached to the isolated affirmations of the one or the other Parsi book, and that the Mazdayasnian authors trust themselves very often to the inspiration, to the imagination of the moment rather than trouble themselves about an accepted system or real orthodoxy? Must it not be admitted at least that the systems have often varied and that it is ver,» dangerous to affirm that some more modern work reproduces exactly the primitive doctrines?" 2 114. It therefore remains for us to pass rapidly in review the doctrines concerning these remarkable beings which are found in our Sassanian texts. Let us put aside to begin with » 1 Introduction a I' Avesta, pp. cxix-cxxv; Origines du Zoroastrisme, 'pp. 196-210 ; cf. Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, pp. 199-201. 2 introduction, pp. cxxiii., cxxiv. 84 THE SPIRITS. the passages which speak about the jravahar only asa faculty of the soul. We shall have to speak about this in chapter V. 115. The farvahars existed before the creation of the material world, 1 apparently also with human intellects (bol), — and Auharmazd consulted them before sending them into men. " Which seems to you the more advantageous, when I shall present you to the world ? that you shall contend in a bodily form with the Druj and the Druj shall perish, and in the end I shall have you prepared again perfect and immortal, and give you back to the material world, and you will be wholly immortal, undecaying, and undisturbed; or that it be always necessary 'io provide you protection from the Creator of Evil (agititif). This worship is performed first by prayers and benedictions. At the commencement of every ceremony and of the consecration of the Drdn, it is necessary to invite the Yazds and the Fravahars.* It is not because these spirits have need of this worship for themselves, but it is because they cannot protect men from evil if the latter do not invoke them ; 5 very minute details are given for these invocations. Then there are certain offerings and sacrifices which a man must offer them. When one sacrifices a sheep there are exact rules for the division of the parts of the offering amongst several Yazds and Ameshocpands. Thus the tongue, the jaw and the left eye belong to Horn, the neck to Ashavahist, the -right shoulder to Ardvisur, the left shoulder to Druacp, &c. 6 Eggs, drdns and other offerings of food are also offered to the sovereign Moon (Mah-i-khudai) and to the other Yazds. One must neither be niggardly nor estimate too closely the quantity of the presents. 7 One should often go to the fire-temple and perform there the salutation [niyayishnd) of fire with much reverence, because the Ameshocpands assemble there thrice a day and distribute benedictions to the righteous. 8 At the 1 MK., xxvii., 17. 2 De Harlez, Introduction, p. cxxiv andn. 3 For example, in chap. V. 1 SlS.,ix.,»n. 5 Ibid., 13; cf. Dk., III., 125. • 8 SIS., xi., 4. ■> SIS., xii., 8, 9. 8 Ibid., kx., 1. 88 THE SPIRITS. •end of the world Peshyotanu and his disciples will honour the Ameshocpands and Auharmazd with blessings. 1 We see that there is no distinction between the worship rendered to Auharmazd and that rendered to the other spirits. VI. — The Evil Spirits. 122. We can examine these evil beings very rapidly, because, though their names are more numerous than those of the Yazds, yet all of them were created after the Yazds, of whom they are the opposites and, so to say, parodies. The general name which is applied to these evil creatures is the Avestaic dev (written «^5 ), a term which is however almost everywhere replaced by its corresponding Aramaic shedd (-^OOO)* Even the Sassanian inscriptions employ this name in the plural form shidan. As in the Avesta, the name of druj -'@r:>) 2 i s use d f° r the female devs, without the distinc- tion of the sex being scrupulously observed ; so also the term druj is often used to signify demon in general. (i.) — The Six Principal Devs. 123. As the Ameshocpands hold the first rank among the spirits of Auharmazd, so there is a group of spirits in the creation of Aharman who are specially opposed to them. It does not appear, however, that these spirits ever had a •collective and distinctive name like those of the Ameshoc- pands ; unless the word kdmarakan (i"^^) which is translated by West as 'arch fiends,' may be considered a? such* In the beginning of the Biin-Dehesh they are mentioned as those who tried first of all to awake Aharman from his lethargy; 3 and later on the six demons opposed to the Ameshocpands are expressly said to be the k&marlkdn,* 'the 1 BY., iii, 28, 37.^ 2 Sometimes written j>jo e.g. in Dk., I., 56, 8. 3 BD., iii., 2. Ibid., xxviii., 12. THE EVIL SPIRITS. 89 other demons being only their co-operators and allies.' But in the same chapter, the seven planets and other astronomical beings are equally called kamarikan ('ring-leaders/ West) of the new demons. 1 124.. The first of the creatures of Ailharmazd is Vohuman, 'the good thought'; so the first of those of Aharman ought to be Akoman, ' the evil thought. ' We are therefore astonished to read that Ganrak-minoi produced first Mitokht, the spirit of falsehood, and then Akoman* ; which disarranges the systematical parallelism of which the Mazdayasnians are generally so jealous. This Mitokht is afterwards called 'the liar (drojan) of Ganrak-minoi' 3 or 'the demon of scepticism' (driij gumanikik).* Elsewhere, however, we read that as Vohiiman and the good religion and the Afno-khart are born together, so Akoman and Variin are equally born together with Ganrak-minoi. In this difficult passage, it appears to be said that Akoman is the incarnation of the vices of Variin {kerfano-i ahukan-i miitak Variin Akoman), in the same manner as Vohiiman is said to be the incarnation of the virtues of Aeno-khart. 5 125. The Bun-Dehesh sums up the names, qualities and occupations of the six principal demons in the following manner: "The business of Akoman is this, that he gave vile thoughts and discord to the creatures. The business of the demon Andar is this that he constrains {afshard) the thoughts of the creatures from deeds of virtue, just like a leader {sirdar) who has well-constrained [khup afshhrto) ; and he casts this into the thoughts of men, that it is not necessary to have the sacred shirt and thread girdle. The business of the demon Sdvar, that is a leader of the demons, is this, that is, misgovernment, oppressive anarchy, and drunkenness. The business of the demon Ndikias (otherwise written 1 BD., iii., 44. 2 BD.,i., 24. » 3 BD., xxviii., 14. 4 According to MS. TD. 5 See § <&■ 13 90 THE SPIRITS. Nakahct 1 or Naunghas 2 ) is this, that he gives discontent to the creatures The demon Taprev or Tdirev 5 is he who mingles poison with plants and creatures ; as it says thus : ' Taprev the frustrater and Zairik the maker of poison/'* Each of these demons is opposed, in the order mentioned above, to one of the Ameshocpands, as we have shown in § 96. The opposition between their respective actions, however, is not always very striking. (ii.) — The Other Demons. 126. Among the inferior and auxiliary demons 5 we have to mention first Atshma or Khashm, 6 who is intimately con- nected with Akoman. Thus the influence c£ Akoman and Aeshm on the human soul is opposed to that of Vohuman, and in the case where this influence prevails, the sense and intelligence are disturbed : then the government of the three [talita), that is to say, a mixed government, is substituted for that of the one, that is to say of Vohuman. 1 Aeshm is the spirit of anger and violence. 8 His instruments (afzar) are the same as those of Mitokht, Taromat and Arashk; it is said that seven powers (zor) have been given to him so that he 1 BD,i., 27. 2 Ibid., xxs., 29. 3 Ibid., i., 27. 1 Ibid., xxviii., 7-11. 5 Ibid., xxviii., 12. The name A&shma is Avestaic. In Pazendand Persian it is Khaslim (*m^=>.) or Hishm ( ^ioA^ winch is afterwards identified with the Arabic Awa* signifying angor, angustia mentis. 7 Dk., III., 116. s As to Atshma daeva = Asmo-deus of the book of Tobias, see Windis- chmann. Zor. Stud., p. 138 and sqq. ; Spiegel EA. II., 132; de Cara, Esame critico del sistemo Jilologico e lingnistico, p. 329 (Prato, 1884)- We must however remark that we meet with the Pehlev< name Acs/i- mashedd (written as a single word in BD ., xxviii., 15), which would suppose as an Avestaic form Aesh?na-daeva ; and according to the theory which is met with in the Hurv&resh words of simple ideograms, this name would even be pronounced as Ai.shm-dt'v. i THE EVIL SPIRITS. 9 1 may completely destroy the creatures. 1 It is he who mostly causes evil to the creatures of Auharmazd. 2 Just as Crosh J s raised to a position similar to that of the Ameshocpands, in like manrer Aeshm, his adversary, is also brought together with the six principal demons; and at the end of things it is lie who shall be vanquished by Crosh. 3 Aeshm truly seems to play a predominant part in the introduction of evils in this world, because it is mentioned that he once rushed into the presence of Aharman complaining that Auharmazd had pro- duced three things in the world which prevented him from doing anything: the Gahambar feasts, the Myazd feast (of the druns) and the Khvetukdac (next-of-kin marriages). 4. We have already seen that Varun is supposed to be born with Akoman. He is the demon of evil cupidity. 5 With Akoman and Aeshm he reigns over the hearts of the wicked. He is specially opposed to Acno-khartJ From what we have seen we may believe that the group of Mitokht, Varun and Akoman is opposed, member for member, to the group of Dlno (or the good religion), Khartand Vohuman. 127. There is a long list of different Devs in the Bun- Dches/i, but it would be irksome to mention all of them. 8 Among the principal Devs we may mention Acto-vidhat who inflicts death on man, the demon of death. 9 He is sometimes identified with Vae-i caritar or the evil wind, 'who seizes life.' 10 None can escape from him. 11 He keeps himself ready with Frezhist, Nizist and Aeshm to seize upon the soul of 1 BD., xxviii., 15. 2 IbTd., xxviii., 17. 3 Ibid., xxx., 29 * SIS., xviii., 1-3. (See Justi, in the BD). s Probably he is Varc.no of BD.. xxviii., 25. Dk., I., 33. 1 Dk., Ill , 109, 4; cf. 122. 9 BD., xxviii. 37. 8 GF., ii., 41, sqq. , 10 BD., xxviii., 35; but neither in the Avesta (Vd. V.) nor in the Mainyo-i Khard (ii., 115). 11 MK,' xjvii ., 8. 92 THE SPIRITS. the dead before it proceeds to the Cinvat Bridge. 1 Another demon occupied in tormenting the soul after death is Viza- resh.' 2 We have already spoken about Jeh (§ 75) as well as about Apaosh, the demon of drought and enemy of rain (§109). Bushasp is the female spirit of untimely sleep (slothfulness). 3 Besides these "other demons who are furies (khashmakan) are very numerous. They are demons of ruin, pain, old age (zudrdn), producers of vexation and bile, revivers of grief, the progeny of gloom, bringers of stench, decay and vileness, who are many, very numerous, and very notorious; and a portion of all of them is mingled in the bodies of men, and their characteristics are glaring in mankind/' 4 These evil spirits are so numerous that new' demons arise from each new sin. 5 Among others there is the White Demon (Sheda Qplh), who is the Demon of Christianity, 6 called 'the Rmnan Sheda-cpth of Kiltsyakih' (ixx^i^^o-nxv)- 7 We find very little about the pairik (Parsi Farydn), the patrika of the Avesta and the modern peri, demoness or sorceress. 8 (iii.) — Questions relating to the Demons. 128. We have already seen how Aharman has created or produced (vashud) the demons by a kind of emanation from himself (§ 80). From this fact Spiegel deduces the answer to very interesting questions, viz., whether the evil beings have fravahars or fravashis like the creatures of Auharmazd. The doctrine of the Mainyo-i Khard on this emanation appears to exclude the possibility of it 9 ; however, there is no trace of it in our texts. 1 MK., ii., 115. 2 Ibid., 161 -164. [Cf. Vd. xix., 29.— Tr.] 3 BD., xxviii., 26. * Ibid., xxviii., 37, 38. 6 Ibid., 43. « BY., iii., 3 ; cf. West, PT. I, p. 215, n. » Ibid., 8; cf. West, PT., I, p. 200, n. 8 The pairiks are mentioned in MK., xlix., 13, lb; lvii., 28. ( 9 Spiegel, EA., II., 145. « THE EVIL SPIRITS. 93 Another question not less important is that concerning the end of the demons. A passage of the Dinkard expressly shows that it is revealed that not only the wicked but also the demons themselves will be saved at the time of the end of the world (pitak aigh shcdac levatman glra.no vanasih afdvm men zak ahuo val bbcishno yamtttnit). 1 However, we have quoted above another chapter of the Dinkard which seems to express the idea that the demons will be destroyed, though Aharman himself will remain immortal (§ 83). This last doctrine appears to agree better with the ordinary system of the Mazdayasnian books. 129. If the author of the Ulema-i Islam 2 teaches that the demons have bodies and are also composed of four elements, this idea seems to us quite recent and altogether contrary to the Mazdayasnian philosophy of both the Avesta and the Sassanide times. Before leaving this subject we must remark that the North* is the quarter specially appropriated to the demons. The ugly and abominable maiden, who comes to meet the soul of a wicked man after his death, tells him: "Though 1 dwell in the northern regions, yet I am placed further north through thee, by the evil thoughts, words and deeds that thou hast practised." 4 " It is from the North that the demons come and thither they return. If we can trust the Mainyo-i Khard, there are no less than 99i999 demons, drujs and peris, — in equal number to that of the fravahars* 5 However, this is the favourite number of Mazdeism. 1 Dk., III., no, 12. 2 UI-, p. £• (Vullers' translation, p. 55.) 3 Or else the West, the abode of darkness ; cf . Pers. bdkhtar. See de Harlez, Manuel de la langue de V Avesta, I edit. (I878), p. 117. * AVN.,xvii., 24-25. 6 MK.,'xlix., 16. 94 COSMOLOGY. CHAPTER IV. Cosmology. I. — Distinction between the Spiritual Firmament and the Material Sky. 130. We have already spoken about the 'Dualism' that characterizes the Mazdayasnian cosmology, that is to say, the distinction between the spiritual world and the material one. This Dualism is indicated by a quite particular term in Parsi, which speaks 'of the body and soul of the two worlds' (du akhdni tano riidn), 1 which is elsewhere explained by the expression Mainyo u gethl daheshndn (the spiritual and temporal creations). 2 We have just spoken about the spi- ritual creation in the preceding chapter. It must not, however, be imagined that the division of these two creations in the Mazdayasnian system corresponds exactly with our ideas on this subject. Mazdeism, on the contrary, comprises in the spiritual world some creatures which are material accord- ing to our idea and which belong to the material world. 3 131. In order to put ourselves in the Mazdayasnian point of view, we must first of all mark the difference between the two heavens — the one spiritual, the other material; these are the cpihar and the dcmdn. It is better to give them different names, viz., those of the firmament and the sky. For the Mazdayasnian philosophy this cp'ihar (or cplhdr), as we have already seen (§12), occupies the first place in the spiritual creation of Auharmazd, as the acman does in the material creation. This sphere is always revolving and is the strongest of all things, 4 — which (as we have already remarked) means that it was regarded as a form of destiny. » MK.,1.,9. 2 Ibid., 1. » [According to the Mazdayasnian idea everything in the good creation is presided over by an angel or guardian spirit. Therefore by the material creature^ being comprised by Mazdeism in the spiritual world, it must be understood that not those creatures themselves but the yazd= or guardian spirits presiding over them are meant.— Tr.] * MK., xxviii., 10. FIRMAMENT. 95 132. Neryosengh in his translation of the Mainyo-i K/iard was careful to distinguish this firmament from the material sky by the term ufa^Tf^T, ' the circle of the Zodiac and the planets.' In fact, for a Mazdayasnian these astronomical bodies were not material but belonged to the world of spirits. If we are surprised at this, it must be remembered that the Mazdayasnians regarded light most probably as having a spiritual nature; because, even Auharmazd, although being 'the Spirit of the Spirits' and 'invisible,' was seen as light (§37)- If we had, therefore, wished to follow closely the Mazdayasnian classification, we should have already treated these celestial bodies in the preceding chapter. But it has appearr>d more convenient to group together here, in one chapter, everything that corresponds with the visible creation, as understood in our sense. However, the distinc- tions, which we have established, must not be lost sight of. It may have been seen in the last chapter how the celestial bodies, stars, planets, &c, are absolutely treated as the spirits of both creations, as Yazds or Devs. II.— Firmament. (a) — Signs of the Zodiac, Constellations. 133. Auharmazd, therefore, having first of all created the firmament or sphere, fixed thereon the twelve signs of the Zodiac, which have a common revolution with it. 1 The names of them are the same as in our languages,'- every • 1 BD., ii., 2. 2 SIS., xxi., 2 ; BD., ii., 2 ; The names are : — Varak (Lamb). Tardzuk (Balance). Tord (Bull). Gazdum (Scorpion). Do patktr (Two figures). Nimasp (Half-horse, Centaur). Kalacang (Crab). Vahtk (perhaps Nah&zik, Capricornus). Sher (Lion). Bui (VVaterpot). Khushak (Virgin). Mdhik (Fish). See West, PT., I., p. 11. 96 COSMOLOGY. constellation has three forms. 1 They are divided into twenty- eight parts or lunar mansions (khurtak-i hdmdnkan 'frag- ments of the calculators') 2 . The whole history of the world is divided into twelve parts, over each of which presides one of the Zodiacal signs : every period being of a thousand years. 3 Not only do these constella- tions (akhtaran) preside over the epochs, but the Creator has specially entrusted to them all His original creatures of the material world (bundahis/in&n-i gti/i), in order that they may defend and protect them from the attacks of the adver- sary {aglddt).* Also they are the twelve generals (spahvad) on the side of Auharmazd, who prepare and impel the worlds. 5 They themselves, however, depend upon the constellation Haptoirang or the Great Bear who holds them by the hand and makes them rise and set, so that they implore his assist- ance. 6 This constellation (called also Haptukring) is specially the guardian of the Northern region ; the other three celestial regions have also their chiefs. That of the East is Tlshtar, the star Sirius ; those of the South and West are respectively called Yanand and Sataves, which, according to Dr. West, may be identified with the stars Fomalhaut and Antares in Scorpio. 1 1 BD., vii., 4. May we compare this curious detail with the notion of the Babylonian cosmogony mentioned by Lenormant? " He excellently made the mansions (twelve) in number for the great gods. ..for each of the twelve months he fixed three stars" Origins de V Histoire, torn I., pp. 498-501. 2 BD„ii., 3 . 8 BD., xxxiv. * BD., ii., 4. 5 MK-, viii., 18, 21 ; xii., 5. 6 MK., xlix., 18-21.' ■> P.T., I., pp. 12-13, n - Geiger rather thinks that Sataixs must be Arcturus of Bootes or Vega of Lyra. OK., pp. 312-313. < THE MATERIAL WORLD. 105 148. We offer, with hesitation, an attempted translation of this passage, the version of which as given by Destur Peshotun does not at all seem admissible to us : — " The world is material by corporiety, visible, tangible. Then the creation is excited by itself to the struggle. (Because) there is a creation opposed and with an aggres- sive hostility against the perpetual good progress (of things) ; and its action is of this nature. And the revela- tion of it was made when there was (as yet) no material creation. The manifest action (proceeding) from this, excitation of hostility of one half of the material world is something visible and tangible. And everything that is visible to the 'corporeal eye and tangible by the corporeal hand is the world (ctl). And the origin of the existing world is by the creation of the Creator, and the creation (has taken place) by means of an instrumentality of force. Then it has the scriptural name of existence. It is called the primary foundation of the world and is known as the mother (source) of the creations. Then the first corpo- real existence was produced by .the Creator, and its formation (proceeds) in proportion to its existence itself. The scriptural name of this production is the progress of existence. Thence the four elements are named : air, fire, water and earth, the four foundations of the beings of the world. And the second corporeal existence was (produced) by the wise action of the Creator in the progress of existence. Thence its name the continuation of existence. And thence the foyr (elements) are said to be mortal, mixed, living, and organised. In the third place, the fravahars and the souls are by the supreme action 1 of the Creator united with the mortals and direct the world. Thence mankind, animals^ and the other good living beings have their names. As they become endowed with terrestrial life {gciyak), they are defini- tively made to abide in the bodies and the bodies are 1 Perhaps " elevation" {avadgarih) from avad-gar, one who makes superior, one who elevates (?). , 14 106 COSMOLOGY. (made) for them. But the force is peculiar to each [that is to say to the body and soul]; ant] this is the reason (why) the separation of the compound happens." 149. Here we have a much larger scope assigned to matter. Not only what has a body and is tangible, but also what is visible, is material. There are some indications which lead us to believe that the Dinkart would also include the firmament of the stars and celestial bodies themselves in the ranks of matter. W r e have already seen this opinion asserted for the Sun and the Moon (§ 88), and we shall after- wards see other traces of it. Here we have likewise an attempted ontology : existence (or being, yeheviinishn) being supposed as the foundation of all the creatures. From this indifferent foundation the ani- mated beings are formed ' in three stages' : first of all there come the four elements which are the basis of all matter; then intervenes apparently a sort of vitality given to a mixture of these elements, which are organised in the form of body and thus become alive though mortal. Finally, the spiritual parts — the fravahar and the soul — are added to it, and the human or animal compound is formed. This com- pound lasts till its dissolution by death, when the material portion or body dies by its separation from the spiritual parts, the existence of which continues. 1 We think we can also see an indication of the high spirituality of the Dinkart in the doctrine of the complete independence (ayotak) of the spiritual and material forces (sor) in the compound. {d) — Form of the World. 150. The form of the material world is clearly determined. In reply to the question of the sage, the Spirit of Wis- dom teaches him that " the sky (dfmdn), eartl\ water, and whatever else that is found in the midst of the sky (andarun acmdn) is formed like an egg of a bird. The sky above and 1 Cf. also the passage quoted in our § 84. THE MATERIAL WORLD. I07 below the earth is formed like an egg by the hand (dast-kar'i) of the Creator, Auharmazd, and the earth in the midst of the sky is like the yolk amidst the egg." 1 S#ich is also the doctrine of the Dink art, which gives a similar description of the arrangement of the material world; it is worth while to quote the passage : — 151. Men dhio nakizo t, acmano fratum dam men zaki ctih'ik. Qiihik va afar'ik d&m&ni hamdk yehebunt yekavimunit {men) andarun-i acmano, cigiui vai andaruni kliaik ycJiebxint yekavimunit; acmano piramuni vicpano, cigun kJuuk mchim vai. 2 " According to the interpretation of the Law, the sky was the first creation of the material world. The world 5 and the other creations were placed together in the midst of the sky, like the bird in the midst of the egg; the sky surrounded everything as the egg (surrounds) the bird." 152. Spiegel seems to think that he can find in this metaphor some signs of a doctrine of the cosmic egg (das Weltci), similar to that of the Phoenician and Babylonian cosmogonies. 4 And if we trust to the translation of the above passage of the Dinkart, as given by Destur Peshotun, 5 this idea would be fully confirmed. But his translation is altogether erroneous, as may easily be seen from our quota- 1 MK-, xliv., 7-10. The MS. B adds : "And the water on the earth and in the skv is like the water in the egg." 2 DK., II., 74, 2. 8 The material (sffliik) world seems here to be distinguished from the material sky {d<;»idn). If we compare this fact with another, viz., that the Dinkart calls the sun and the moon material (§ 88), we shall be led to believe that this work followed another cosmological system more simi- lar to our own. In this case the first phrase should be translated : " The sky was a creation a?itcrior to this material world. " The same conclusion may be drawn from Dk., II., 81, 3, where the revolving sky (gartd-i dfman) is mentioned before the celestial bodies and without any mention of the firmament or of the sphere. 4 EA., I., 452-453. 5 Vol. II, p. 79. " Just as a bird is produced from an egg,, so the creatures of this wjrld and other creation ,have been produced." 108 COSMOLOGY. tation. It seems to us that only the form of the material world is thought of; on account of its apparent rotundity which causes the celestial vault to appear to embrace our earth, they very naturally compared it with t*he egg, having the yolk or the bird in its centre. There is certainly no question of a production by means of the 'egg, as in the my- thologies quoted. IV. — Material Sky. — Meteorology. 153 In the creation of the ctUi, the material sky {acman) occupies an analogous position to that of the firmament {fplhar) in the creation of the spiritual world. We must not forget that this sky was not to the Mazdayar nian eye the space of the astronomical bodies, which were literally fixed to the ever-revolving sphere of the firmament. It was rather w*hat it has been called ' the atmospheric sky.' 1 It is often said that the sky is formed from the substance called Tchun- ahino," literally ' blood-iron.' This adjective is translated by Neryosengh rfniFr^r which means c steel/ The Persian version is exactly the same. Windischmann, 5 however, followed by Justi and West, has preferred to translate the word by 'ruby/ as if the compound word meant ' blood- stone.' 154. It is in the region governed by this material sky that the meteorological phenomena are produced. It seems that the term andarvdi is sometimes used as a designation of the atmosphere. 4 However, it is not always so, because the andarvdi is spoken of in hell where there is no atmosphere; 5 and it generally signifies the void between light and primeval 1 Probably this was also the sense of the. Biblical j-j^tVi-T ( as m tne expressions ' the mountains under the sky,' 'the birds of the sky') distinguished from the \>«i^v 2 MK., ix., 7; BD. xii., 6; xxx., 5. 3 Zor. Stud., p. 72, iq chap, xxx., he translates the word by ' Edelstein' (precious stone, jewel, p. 114). * Dk.,II.,8i,3. 6 AVN., xxvi., 2 ; Cf. de Harlez, Manuel du Peldevi, p. 209. MATERIAL SKY— METEOROLOGY. 109 darkness. Tims it is said that Aiiharmazd conducted the sun, moon and stars in this andarv&i or space. 1 , The atmospheric air [v&i) conveys or communicates eye- sight by means of the wind [vat).' 2 The wind, which blows according to its will and which one is not able to catch by the hand, 3 has the task of stirring the atmosphere, as the life in the body has the task of purifying it.' 1 The clouds rest and abide on the Alburz. 5 Tishtar pours out rain from the clouds as from a jar (fc/iiimb) 6 , and it is the wind that restrains the rain from becoming excessive and divides it into springs, seas and oceans. 7 Lightning and thunder proceed from the conflict between the sacred fire Vdzlsht (personification of thunderbolt) and the demon Aspenjargak, whose club produces the noise of the storm. 8 155. The Sassanian cosmology being the inheritor of the doctrines of the Avesta attributed to rain an importance which is .indeed remarkable. Its production was superna- tural. It was by the action of numerous yazds that the whole economy of waters and their circulation were directed. The chief of these yazds was Tishtar, assisted by Staves and also by Vohiiman, Aredvisur, Vat, Horn, Dino, Burj and the fravahars. 9 These genii drew water from the springs, rivers and seas, and formed it into clouds. The rain is essentially water, and the instruments (for the production) of rain are wind, cloud and mist {varano khurthl maya va vurano afzur vato musndh 10 va awar). 11 Whether this humidity falls in small ot large drops of rain, or in the form of hail or snow, 1 BD.,xxx., 5. 5 MK, xhv., i6;lvi. 5. 2 Ibid. 6 BD., vii., if. 3 Ibid. 7 BD., vii., 14, 6. * BD., vii., 6. 8 Ibid, 12. 9 Dk., III., 112; BD., vii., 3. 10 Cf. Arab, musnat = cloud. There is also Pers. migh = Av . maigha • = Skt. megha ; but the Pehlevi z would scarcely correspond to a gh. There is another word muzh in Persian (Justi, Kurdish Dictionary, P- 397)- ' , 11 Dk., III., 112,6. no COSMOLOGY. depends upon its meeting with a wind endowed with one of the four elementary qualities mentioned above: 1 if the wind contains heat, the drops are small; if it contains humidity, the drops are large ; if (the wind contains) cold, there is snow, and if (the wind contains) dryness (there is) hail {carishk-i khbrto va ctavar, ttherg- va vafr 5 men gvito patyaraslin'ih-i vato cahdr-i salcdno : zak-i amat vato garvuh yehcumt, carisliki khurto; amat Jcholtlh yehcunit carisliki ftavar ; amat cart\h, vafr ; amat liiishkih, telierg.* 156. The evil spirits are always occupied in hindering the production of rain : hence the eternal struggle between the yazds and the demons. The latter are under the command of Apabsh, the demon of drought. For, the demons try to impede the progress of nature and also the health of mankind especially by the two evil qualities, cold and dryness. 5 But not only do the yazds triumph over these wicked beings, but often Auharmazd uses their own arms against themselves: thus, like one who would cause the heads of his enemies to be crushed by their own clubs, he makes the winter (damectdn), produced by the Evil Spirit, to destroy the khrafctars or noxious animals of the evil creation. 5 157. The beneficent action of rain, so highly esteemed at every time in regions like those of Eran, did not consist in the eyes of the Mazdayasnians only in irrigating the earth ; they believed that the rain itseff brought down the seeds of the plants and distributed them everywhere. 7 V.— The Earth. (a) — Mountains, Ktshvars. Geology. 158. The earth which is in the centre of the sky seems to have a round form according to the Dinkart which even 1 Lit. 'the elements,' cf above § 146. s Cf. Pers. tegerk, Kurd, tegcr (Zddm. G., vol. xxxviii.< p. 58.) 3 Cf. Kurd, w./fr, Pers. Barf {Zddm. G., vol. xxxviii., p. 94.) * Dk., III., 112, 7.., s Dk., IV., 162, 2-7. Dk., IV., 162, 11, 12. , 1 BD., ix., 2 ; MK, lxii., 4K 42 ; cf. BY., ii., 42. THE EARTH. 1 I I relies upon the Avesta [damik dashak men dlno girto-i pitdk). 1 But according to other books the earth, though circular, is rather a flat space wholly surrounded by a vast chain of mountains called the Alburz.'-' This chain, as we have seen, is bored with 360 gates or openings, through which the sun passes every day of the year while rising and setting (§ 137). The Alburz, like all other mountains, is the result of the \s violent attacks made by Aharman upon the earth 3 , for' in the beginning the earth was flat, as it will be again after the final destruction of evil, when all the inequalities of its sur- face will be smooth, and cold will exist no more.* The Alburz has taken 800 years to attain to its present height, and now it reaches to t T je summit of the material sky, up to the eternal light. 5 All other mountains are offshoots of the Alburz, 6 with which they remain in connection (evidently by their subterranean roots). 7 There are in all 2,244 mountains, the principal of which are described in the Bundehesh. 8 159. In the first instance seven of them are very great 9 from which the other mountains have been produced. 10 Finally, the hills, scattered through the regions of the Mazdayasnians, grew separately in several places (pdra/c parak pavan ciiak). xi It is not necessary to give here all the details about these mountains: we have only to consult the excellent essay of Windischmann. 12 These mountains although produced by 1 Dk., I., 19. Such is the explanation of Peshotun. Perhaps girto may simply mean circular and not spherical. 2 BD., v., 3-5; Dk., T., 19; jUK., lvji., 13. 3 Bl/., viii., 1, 2; ZS., vii., I. * BD., xxs., 33. 5 BD., xii., 1 ; ZS., vii. ,'6. a.BD., xii., 2. » BD., viii., 2, 3. 8 BD., xii., 2-40. 9 Ibid., 3-27. 10 Ibid., 28-40. ^ 11 West has translated the phrase by ' piecemeal.' BD., xii., 41. 12 Zor, Stud., pp. 1-19. See also the commentary of West, PT. I., pp. 34-41- ' 112 COSMOLOGY. Aharman are nevertheless sources of happiness and pros- perity to mankind. 1 Great rivers flow from them a The rain- producing clouds dwellj as we have seen, on the Albiirz (§ 154). They keep back and moderate the force of the wind. Further, "they are the destroyers of Aharman and his demons, and the preservers and vivifiers of the creatures and creations of the Lord, Auharmazd." 3 160. In the beginning the material world formed only one vast continent. But at the second phase of the great combat in which Aharman, after his defeat in the sky, attacked the waters, Tishtar, after having conquered Apaosh, produced a vast inundation in which perished all the kliraf- qtars and evil creatures. 4. From this inundation the seas were formed, which covered one-half of the earth and also divided it into seven parts. 5 These parts are called keshvars. The central ktshvar is as great as the other six taken together, and forms the country known to the Eranians, of which Pars (Persia) itself was the centre. 6 The other keshvars are : Savah on the East, Arzah on the West, Vorujarst on the North-East, Voriibarst on the North-West, Fradadafsh on the South- West, and Vidadafsh on the South-East. 7 These conti- nents are now separated by the ocean in such a manner as to render the passage from the one to the other impossible, without the supernatural aid of the yazds or of the devs 3 . The last six keshvars however, are inhabited by men, who, like primitive men, do not eat meat but live exclusively upon milk. 9 1 BD., xii.; 28, 41. 2 BD., vii., 15; viii., 4, &c. ; MK., lvi., 7. 3 MK., lvi., 6. * BD., vii. West remarks that this deluge preceded the creation of man. 6 BD., xi. 6 ZS., vii., 10. » BD., v., 8-9; xi., 3. 3 MK., ix., 6; BD., xi., 4. In the reign of Takhmorup, however, men constantly passed fron: one region to the other on the back of the mythical ox Carraok ; (a reminiscence undoubtedly of the first migra- tions into Europe). BD., xvii., 4. v 9 Mk., xvi., 10. THE EARTH. 113 The continent known by the name of Khvantras is not only the greatest of the keshvars, but it is also that place where there is most good and most evil, for it is the scene of the struggle between the two creations. 1 161. Earthquakes are produced by the action of air which circulates in the interior of the earth as it circulates in the human body. This air (vato), when overheated by fire, shakes and splits the earth. This is again the effect of a want of proportion among the elements. 2 There are thirty- three kinds of lands. 3 The earth does not only produce plants but contains also mineral riches ; and what is most astonishing is that the metals themselves have also had an animal origin *like the plants : they were produced from the body of the first man, Gayomart. 4, From his limbs were- made the seven metals, viz., silver, iron, brass, tin, lead, quick- silver and diamond. But gold, on account of its excellence, was produced from his life and semen. 5 {b) — Water. Its Circulation. Seas, Rivers. 162. The extreme value attached to water by the Eranians of all epochs is explained by the requirements of their soil and the importance of rain and of irrigation for their agricul- ture. They have observed very carefully every thing that relates to water and its circulation ; and the ideas that we find exposed on these points in the Eranian authors are very precise. The water itself is one of the 17 kinds of liquids 6 to which 1 BD., xi., I. Windischmann has shown that Khvaniras is probably ' the whole of the central Asia from Syria to China. Zor. Stud., p. 230. 2 Dk., II., 93. Peshotun quotes a similar account from the Zdrep&stdn the translation of which is assigned by tradition to Azarpajoh in the time of Anoshirevan. 3 BD., xi., t,. * MK., xxvii., 18. 8 ZS., x., 2. 6 Yet in the detailed list, it will be observed that only fourteen are given. •> 15 114 COSMOLOGY. the general name of may a, Semitic in origin, is given ; follow- ing is the list of them : — i. The water in the plants. 2. The water of the rivers. 3. Rain water. 4. The water of the reser- voirs. 5. Animal seed. 6. Animal urine. 7. Animal sweat. 8. The liquid in the skin. 9. Tears. 10. Blood. 1 1. Animal oil. 12. The saliva. 1 13. The liquid beneath the barks (?) of the plants. 2 14. Milk. 3 163. All these liquids mingle finally again with the rivers.* The water is on the earth just as the blood is in the body. 5 The circulation of this water is regulated by the action of the wind. 6 The clouds seize water from the seas, carry it in the atmosphere and make it fall in drops on the earth. 7 The water which is concealed under the earth does not escape'the action of the sun who attracts it for the cultivation of lands and for the advantage and happiness of men and animals. 8 But the seas themselves are produced by rain. 9 The circulation of these waters follows a regular course. Every kind of water enters into the world by the ktshvar Arzah (on the West) ; at the rising of the sun it flows into Savah and at the setting of the sun it enters into the sea Putik (the Persian Gulf), whence it passes into the great 1 The text adds : ' which nourishes the embryo.' 8 Doubtful. This translation is suggested by West. [Just r in his glossary of the Bundehesh has also translated the word avyan by ' Rinde,' i.e., *bark.'— Tr.] 3 BD., xxi., 1. [Compare this detail of waters with that given in the Pehlevi version of Yac., xxxviii. — Tr.] * BD., xxi., 2. s MK., ix., 8. « Dk., III., 123. 7 MK., Ivii., 14. 8 Ibid., 17. • BD., xi., 2. * THE EARTH. I 15 ocean. 1 The ocean extends to the seven keshvars and sepa- rates them from each other. 2 It is salt on account of the venom of the khrafftars, the noxious creatures, mixed with its waters during the great deluge caused by Tishtar. 3 There is a flow and ebb in some great seas, as in the sea Putik ;* and this tide is regulated by the moon and the wind. 5 For the Gulf of Satavesh (the Arabian Sea), the phenomenon is explained in the following manner: there blow two kinds of winds at the rising of the moon, one of which attracts the tide towards the moon and the other repels it to the opposite direction. 6 The other seas have no tide. 7 Certain lakes or small seas which are mentioned were also originally pure and contained fresh water. Now they have become salt and send forth a very bad smell ; but at the time of the end of the world, they will be once more puri- fied. 8 164. The circulation of water through the rivers is describ- ed with much detail. Auharmazd has created the rivers on the borders of the Alburz for the protection and vivification of His creatures. 9 However Aharmari, who spoils the creation everywhere, has introduced into them cataracts ; but these differences in level will disappear after the destruction of the Evil Spirit. 10 All the rivers are derived from the two great primeval semi-mythical rivers, which flow from the northern part of the Alburz; these are theArag and the Veh. 11 We shall not enter here upon the question as to what are the 1 MI^., xliv., 12-15. 3 BD., xix., 10. 3 BD., vii., 13. * BD., xiii., 8. 5 Ibid., 11. • Ibid., 13, and cf. West's note. 7 Ibid., 14, 8 BD., xiii., 16, 17. 9 MK.,lvi., 7. s 10 BD., xx., 6. 11 Ibid., e ; vii., 16. I 16 COSMOLOGY. present rivers which may correspond with these names : for it is probable that their significations have frequently changed. According to the Sassanian authors, the Arag was generally the great river on the West, and they seem to have included in it the Oxus, the Araxes, the Cyrus, and even the Nile. 1 The Veh was on the East and has been identified with the Indus. 2 After these two rivers eighteen other great navigable rivers are described, whose geography is given in detail. 5 They all flow back into the Arag and the Veh, and it is there that the fertilization {hhvapardd/ih) of the world takes place. 4 Finally, these two rivers, after having circulated through the whole world, fall into the ocean, and all the keshvars live upon the water thus discharged^ {zahak) ; then these waters flow back to the sources in the Alburz whence they proceeded. 5 (c) — Fire and its Different Species. 165. The great importance attached to fire in the Mazda- yasnian religion is well known. It is esteemed to such an extent that the name of ' Fire Worshippers' has been abusively applied to all the followers of this religion. Fire, though be- longing to the elements, seems to have had also a spiritual and celestial origin. In the beginning, fire was diffused through the six substances, that is to say, the works of the six periods of creation. It enveloped each of these substances just as the eyelid envelopes the eye. 6 Five kinds of fire are known. 7 (i) The fire Berezi-savang shines near the Lord, Auhar- mazd. 8 It seems to be a spiritual fire which is incorporated 1 BD., xx., 8; cf. West's note. c 2 BD., xx., 9. It is sometimes confounded with the Oxus, see West, PT., I., pp. 78, 80, note. 3 BD., xx. * BD., vii., 17; xx., 3. 6 BD., xx., 4. e ZS., I., 21. * BD., xvii. s The Bun-Dehesh <-does not agree in its definition with the Pehlevi version of the Avesta : There is an inversion of the attributes of the first and the fifth fire. See Spiegel, E. A., II., 48. * ORGANIC WORLD. II7 in the various forms of material fire, especially like three souls (nismo) } in the three sacred fires, 2 and -which dwells in the earth and in the mountains, 3 — probably in volcanoes, petroleum springs, etc. 4 (ii) The fire Vohu-fryan dwells in the bodies of men and animals and feeds upon water and solid food. (iii) The fire Urvazist is the fire which is found in plants. It feeds upon water and has no other food. (iv) The fire Vazist is the lightning which dwells in the clouds; it is the weapon by which the demon Cpenjargak is struck. This fire has no need either of food or drink. 5 (v) The fire Qptnist is the common fire of this world, which consumes food but not water. 166. The fire Vahram, the sacred fire of the Mazdayasnian altar, is associated with the fire last mentioned. As we have seen, this fire is rather an incarnation of the celestial fire. It has three/bodies or principal centres, viz., Frbbak, which is in the mountains of Kabulistan; Gushacp, on the Asnavand mountain ; and Bilrzln Mitru, on the mount Revand. 6 The three souls of the celestial fire lodge in these three corpo- real fires, all of which form the entire body of the fire Vahram, just as the human soul enters into the embryo whilst it is still in the womb of the mother and imparts life to it. 7 {VI.)— Organic World. (a) — Sex. i6y. t The transition from the inorganic world to the organic one is facilitated by a very remarkable doctrine of the Bun-Dehesh, according to which all beings, even inorganic 1 BD., xvii., 3. 2 Ibid., 4, 9. 3 Ibid., 3. , 4 West, PT. I., p. 62, n. 5 BD., xvii., 2. » 6 Ibid., 4-8. > 7 Ibid., 5. Il8 COSMOLOGY. ones, are endowed with sex. Thus the sky (aqman), metals, wind and fire are always and exclusively males, but the water, earth, plants and fishes are exclusively females. Other crea- tures are divided into male and female. 1 (3) — Vegetable Kingdom. — Botanical Notions. 168. As we have seen an animal origin attributed to the metals, so it is the same with the plants. But whilst the metals were produced from the body of Gayomard (§161), the plants and the animals were developed from the several parts of the primeval ox. 2 Thus 55 species of grain and 12 species of medicinal plants grew up from the marrow. From the horns arose peas {mijuk)-* from the nose, the leek (gandiiak)-* from the lungs, rue (cpendan); from the middle of the heart (head or liver) 5 the thyme which keeps off evil odours. From the blood arose the vine, from which wine is made : It is on this account that wine is rich in blood. 6 169. However, quite another origin and a much more natural one is assigned to the plants in another passage. The earth had become quite dry during the primitive battle of the spirits. Then the Ameshogpand Amerodat pounded the plants and mixed them up with water. Tishtar poured this water in the form of rain upon the earth; then innumer- able plants grew up on the whole earth like the hair upon our heads. There grew forth first of all 10,000 species possessing the property of keeping away diseases ; and from these, 100,000 more species have been developed. 7 These plants are perhaps different from those produced from the body of the primeval ox ; for it is said that the seeds 1 BD., xvi., 6. 2 BD., xiv.; x., 1. s Or lentils, mizhu, Kurd. Mnzlii. * Undoubtedly on account of its odour (rl. gaud = to stink). 5 J-*» can be read either as dil, far or jigar. This is a curious example of theambiguVy of Pehlevi ! 6 BD., xiv., 1,2. 7 BD., ix., 3. Cf. xxvii., 2, and ZS., viii., 2. « ORGANIC WORLD. Iig of these 110,000 plants as well as those coming forth from the ox are on the tree of all seeds (van-i harvic.p tokhmak), 1 also called gvit dish, ' opposed to harm.' 2 This tree itself grew forth from this action of Amerodat and Tishtar. 3 It is in the ocean by the side of the other mystic tree called Gokart or the White Hum, which is the chief of the plants, the tree of life, whose fruits bring on immortality. 4 Near the tree of all seeds is the mystic bird Camrosh, and on the tree is the Slnamru (Shnurgh). 5 The latter, when it rises aloft, shakes off the seeds from the tree, 6 which seeds are gathered by the bird Camrosh and are carried by it to Tishtar, who mixes them up with rain, and in this manner the seeds are agaii# spread over the whole world. 7 According to the Bun-dehesh this action of the bird happens once a year, probably in spring. According to the Mainyo-i Khard, it seems to be often repeated. 170. The water (maya) or sap in the plants circulates like the waters of the earth, or like the blessings (afrin) which the righteous utter, and which come back to themselves. 8 It is this sap which connects the plant with its root. It seems to be distinguished from that liquid which appears in the form of a drop, when a twig {tekli) is placed at a little distance before a fire, and which is called the maya in the avyan (probably the bark). 9 1 [In Yt., xii., 17, this tree is called Qaena which is in the middle of the sea Vaurukasha. It is also called hubisli (the tree of good remedies), eredhvobish (the tree of powerful remedies), and Vfypobisli (the tree of all remedies). — Tr.] 2 BD., xxvii., 2; cf. xviii., 9. * BD.,ix., 5. 4 BD., xxvii., 4 ; ix., 6 ; xviii., 1-6. 8 MK., lxii,, 37-42. 8 Ibid., 38. 7 Ibid., 41-42; xxvii., 3. s « BD., xxi., 5. / 8 Ibid., 1. 120 COSMOLOGY. 171. The classification of plants according to the Bun- Dehesh comprises 16 genera as given in the following table : — 1. Perennial trees (sdlvdr) which do not bear any fruit: as the cypress, the plane, the white poplar, etc. 2. Perennial trees that give food : as the date, the myrtle, the vine, the apple-tree, etc. 3. Grains (cereals : jilrdak). 4. Aromatic herbs {ciparam). 5. Cultivated flowers {gill). 6. Wild plants (vahar? or nihal). 7. Grass {giydh: food for animals). 8. Spices (avzariha : for cakes, tarts, etc.) 9. Salad {terak). * 10. Textile plants {jamah, as cotton). 11. Oilplants {rokano). 12. Dyeing plants {rag). 13. Perfumes {bod: as frankincense, camphor, etc.) 14. Gums {zatak). 15. Wood {ciba). 16. Medicinal plants {ddriik). 1 172. This simple classification is commercial rather than scientific and does not differ much from what would be found in a collection of commercial products. The fruits are divided in the following manner : — 1. Those of which both the inner and outer parts are eaten. — They are of ten kinds: as the fig, apple, grape, etc. 2. Those oj 'which the inner part only is eaten and not the outer one. — They are of ten kinds : as the almond, wal- nut, chesnut, etc. 3. Those of which the outer part only is eaten and not the inner one. — They are of ten kinds : as the date, the peach, apricot, etc. In all, thirty principal species. 2 ^ _ 1 BD., xxvii., 5-22. v a Ibid., 23. ORGANIC WORLD. 121 All the flowers, as we have already seen, are dedicated to some one of the Ameshogpandsand yazds : thirty-one of them are mentioned. 1 . Mystic Trees. 173. The Dinkart also teaches, undoubtedly in the same sense as the Bun-dehesh, that all the medicines are derived from the Gokart tree. 2 But, if we may believe Peshotun, the Dinkart distinguishes this tree from the White H6m; because therein the Gokart, the source of all medicines, is spoken of as growing out of the earth (vano-i angbn men damik Gokarto), and afterwards the White Horn (which will furnish man with immortality at the time of the resurrection) is spoken of as'being in the ocean, or the sea with the wide shores (cigiin hom-i cpeto-i yin frakhu-karto-zrai, pavan frashkarto ahoshih-i martiim patash karto yem/alunit). s Destur Peshotun thinks that Spiegel, West and Justi are mistaken in regarding these two trees as one and the same. In support of what he says, he does not only rely upon the above-quoted text and the Avesta, but also upon the Bun- dehesh and the Mainyo-i Khard^ The first of these Pehlevi books, however, seems clearly to confirm the identification of the two mystic trees, 5 whilst the other speaks only of the Jad-besh tree, the tree of all seeds (the harvicpo tokhmak vano-i gvit-bish, about which we have already spoken). It is possible, however, that the Dinkart has intended to identify the latter, rather than the White Horn, with the Gokart, on account of the medicaments which it produced. Peshotum prefer! this last identification, 6 which, however, does not seem 1 BD., xxvii., 24. 2 [Cf. Vend., xx., 4, where it is said that Ahuramazda has produced innumerable health-giving and medicinal plants round the Gaokerena tree. — Tr.] 3 See the translation of Dinkart, IV., 157, 45. * Translation, Dk., IV., p. 235, n. 8 BD., xxvii., 4. /^ 4 Dk., T,V, p. 23S . / 16 » 122 COSMUI.OGY. to agree either with the Avesta or with the other Pehlevi books. 1 174. It does not lie in our plan to discuss here the origins of the Mazdayasnian notions: but we must remark by the way with surprise that in the two mystic trees of the Eranians Spiegel seems to see the origin of the Trees of Knowledge and of Life mentioned in the book of Genesis. 2 The illustrious Eranist remarks that " the mention of the Tree of Life made in the Old Testament is altogether isolated, and that we only know of it from what the biblical account teaches us, viz., that immortality was obtained by eating of its fruit. On the other hand among the Aryas, both the Hindus and the Eranians, the legends regarding this mystic/ tree are fully developed : it is therefore quite reasonable to believe that the Jews borrowed this legend from the Aryan mythology." 175. In answer to this objection, it is sufficient to refer to the discoveries made in Assyriology since the publication of Spiegel's Alterthumskimde. We quote what Lenormant says about it : "The decipherment of the cuneiform texts has now greatly changed the point of view of science and destroyed the Aryan theory from top to bottom, which now counts not more than a very small number of tardy defenders." 3 The whole question of the comparative mythology regarding the two trees may be seen treated at full length by the same author.* We should not wonder, however, if Spiegel by this time agreed with this opinion. 5 1 As regards the Dinkart, I now think Peshotun is clearly in the right ; see my Traite de Medecine Mazdecnne (Louvain, 1886), pp. 6, 40. 2 EA., I., 464-468. s Les Origiiies de V ' His*oire,t. I. p. no. On the remark of Spiegel on the name yety (p. 467) cf. Lenormant, p. hi. * Les Origines de I' 'Histoire, I., pp. 74-98. 5 [Other eminent scholars who are in favour of the Aryan theory bring forward decisive arguments in defence of their theory and prove the anti-Aryan theory of lenormant and other Assyriologists to be false. -Tr.] ORGANIC WORLD. 123 We must also notice the very sensible development which the legend of the two divine trees has undergone in the Sassanian system as compared with the Avestaic doctrine. Thus, we can easily see a real evolution of a pure Aryan nature-worship of the natural plant, effected under influences evidently foreign and clearly Semitic; 1 an evolution the history of which commences with the Gathas and is continued down even to the most recent parts of the Avesta, where these Semitic influences distinctly appear. 2 In Yt. xii. r 17, for example, we find for the first time the second tree, ' that of the good remedies.' The Gaoherena makes its appearance in the Vendidad, and has again nothing to do with the Haoma. But at the time of which we are speaking the systematizing spirit of the Eranians has distin- guished two kinds of Haoma., — one the yellow and terrestrial one, the other the white and supernatural one, and this latter is identified with the Gokart {Gaokerena). The ' Tree of Remedies' or ' of All Seeds' has acquired a very great impor- tance, it has been placed by the side of the first tree in order to obtain the symmetry so dear to the Eranians. And the whole legend of the two trees has assumed an essentially non-Aryan character and leaves no doubt as to its origin. 3 1 Even the form given to the White Horn in plastic art is of Semitic origin. See Lenormant, Les Origines de V Histoire, I., 78. The figure of the Horn is reproduced by Reuseus in ' Petoffe de Chinon.' See Arclieologie Chretienne, 2nd edit. (1884), t. I., p. 266. Here we see not only the tree but also the bird Camrosh. One is tempted to ask whether the figifte called ' Pyrseus or Fire Altar' is not rather the Tree of All Seeds? L'e'toffe de Chinon belongs to the Sassanide epoch. 2 [In refutation of this remark of the author, see the opinions of other scholars quoted in the translator's note 3 on p. 47-49- — Tr.] 3 [The two kinds of Haoma plant were also known to the Avestaic people, viz., the Haoma zdiri and the Haoma duraosha, of which the former is the yellow and the latter the white Horn of the Pehlevi books. Haoma dura- osha appears to have borne in the Avestaic time the same supernatural qualities as the white Horn possessed in the JSassanian time, which is also evident from the root itself of the wocd duraosha [from dura = iar, distant, and aosha [aoahanh from ush = to burn) = sickness, death.] Thus 124 COSMOLOGY. (c) — Animal Kingdo?n : Zoological Notions. 176. The animals like the plants have been formed from the body of the primeval ox. His semen was carried up to the lunar heaven (mah-pdyak), where it was purified. Then a pair of oxen, male and female, was produced from it, and afterwards a pair of every species of animals. Hence it is said that the ox was created twice (dobar yehebunt) : first as ox, and secondly as having produced the animals of manifold species (pavan gocpend pur cartak). x Spiegel remarks that nothing is said of the formation of birds and fishes. 2 177. The classification of the animal kingdom is more systematic than that of the plants. We give Kelow its three classes, 5 genera and 282 species arranged in a table : — Class (kartak). Genus (khaduinak). Species (cartak). r i Goat 5 kinds. ii Sheep... 5 ,, iii Camel.. 2 ,, iv Ox 15 ,, (_2. 'Ass-footed.' v Horse. 3 ... 8 „ I. Animals that graze j~i. With cloven and are found in j feet, the valleys. \ duraosha literally means ' keeping off sickness or death,' hence ' giving immortality.' The Pehlevi authors, instead of identifying their white Hdm with the Haoma duraosha of the Avesta, have wrongly identified it with the Gokart tree, the Gaokerena of the Avesta. Again the Avestaic Gaokerena from its description in Yd. xx., 4, and Gaena of Yt., xii., 17, seem to be one and the same tree, but quite different from the Hadma duraosha or white Horn of the Pehlevi books. But the legend of these two trees in the Pehlevi books and that of the Trees of Life and Knowledge in the Genesis seem to have originated and to have been developed from two quite different sources. There is no doubt, however, that the former legend has the Avesta for its origin and development, which indeed owes nothing to the Semitic people for its ideas and theories.— Tr.] 1 BD., xiv., 3, 4. a EA.,I,5II. V 3 Comprising ass, hippopotamus, &c. * ■4 ORGANIC WORLD. 125 II. Animals that tra- f 3. With toes, f vi Dog '... 10 kinds vel afar and dwell vii Hare ... 5 ,, on the hills. «J viii Weasel. 2 5 ,, I ix Musk ani- mal ...8 „ 4. Winged... x Birds 3 (in 8 groups)... 1 10, , III. Aquatic animals. 5... ?...xi Fishes*.. .10 „ xii Wild ani- mals. 5 178. These numbers give a total of 186 species. The remaini^der of the 282 species mentioned above are ' the species created within species, '^ — the sub-species as we should call them. Also, observes Zad Sparam, some species must be added for the pigs, which are hot mentioned above : so that, with the species mentioned and those that are not mentioned, there are in all 282 ; and again these species are divided into a thousand varieties. 7 179. One must have already noticed that many superior animals, all reptiles and all insects, are wanting in this list. It is because a great part of the beings in the animal kingdom are the creatures of Aharman, who created them in opposi- tion to those of Auharmazd. Thus the animals are arranged in two hostile armies, and every animal of the good creation 1 Comprising the otter, fox, ichneumon, porcupine, and civet cat. 9 Comprising squirrel, &c. s Comprising (according to West) the bat which partakes of the three- fold nature of a dog, bird and musk, says the text, (v. 24). The Qin- murg (Simurgh) is also referred to here. * The latter divisions do not agree in the MSS. Windischmann gives the following'order : — xi. Bat, 2 kinds, xii. Fishes, 10 kinds, xiii. Wild beasts. Zor. Stud., p. 80. 5 BD., xiv ; ZS., ix. « BD., xiv., 27. 7 ZS., ix., 14. / / 126 COSMOLOGY. has its adversary in the hostile rank. 1 Among these opposed . animals we find the following mentioned: — The white falcon destroying the serpent. The magpie (kaskinak) ,, ,, locust. The vulture (kahrkas) "") The crow (valdk) > ,, „ putrefying matter. The kite. ) The mountain ox, the "1 mountain goat, the > ,, , , snakes, wild ass, etc. J The dog ,, ,, wolf. The fox ,, ,, demon Khava The ichneumon ,, „ venomous serpent c {garzak). The musk animals ,, ,, intestinal worms. The hedge-hog ,, ,, ants. The otter ,, ,, demon of the waters. The cock and the dog ,, ,, demons and the Yatus.' 1 1 80. The noxious animals, chiefly reptiles and insects, are grouped under the name kh> afctars, often associated with the demons and drujs. The ant is placed among them as the thief of grain. 5 The wolf is said to be the destroyer of its own young. 4. Besides, every animal that has no fear whatever of the hand (of man) is evil. 5 The Bun-dehesh gives many particulars of the various animals belonging to both creations. These are mostly frag- ments of popular beliefs and superstitions, very interesting for the students of folk-lore, but to which we need pa,v little attention at present. 6 1 BD., xix., 2r. 2 Ibid., 21-36. 3 Ibid., 28, and also in the Vendidad. * Dk., II., 78-9. 5 BD., xxiv., 10, 6 For the principal animals of every species, see Buu-delicsh, xxiv. The animals which men k"e forbidden to kill are chiefly : the lamb, goat, ox, horse, hare, bat, cock ' c^te bird of Vohdman,' magpie, Jvite, eagle and swallow. SIS., x., 9. s» ORGANIC WORLD. I 27 Although the fox belongs to the good creation, we find il mentioned as descended from dog and wolf, and par- taking to a certain extent of the qualities of either. 1 Besides the ignorance of natural history, which this fact betrays, it also proves that there can be an intercourse between the two creations, and that some creatures can even belong partly to one and partly to the other. 18 (. However, the principle of heredity and the trans- mission of qualities of the parents on both sides by genera- tion and also the sterility of hybrids were known to the Eranians. 2 The books of the Sassanide period do not allude directly to the question oi^the souls of the* inferior animals, though they distinguish between the instinct of animals and the moral knowledge of man 5 : but the Ulema-i Islam formally denies that they have a soul or z.fravahar.* On this last point it is in contradiction with the Pehlevi authorities, which assign fravahars to all the good creatures, even to inanimate beings. Mythical Animals. 182. It will be no more necessary to insist upon the different mythical animals, good or evil, of which mention is made. Nothing can be more extravagant than this odd mythology. Among the good creation we find the three-legged ass of gigantic proportion and grotesque attributes ; 5 the ox Hadhayos or Qarcaok, who, like the bull of Europa, trans- ported on his back the first emigrants to the other keshvar across ^he ocean. 6 Among the birds, we find Gamrosh men- tioned above (§ 169); Karshipt which can speak, and which 1 Dk., II., 80, 7. According to the version of West (PT., II., 403) who translates the word rufai (?) as ruwds in BD., xiv. Peshotun translates quite differently. 8 Dk., II., 80, 8-9. 3 MK., xiii., I. * UL, p. 8 (Vullers' translation, p. 63). y 6 BD., xix., 1-12: MK., lxii., 26, 27. 6 BD., xtf., 27; xvii., 4; xix., 13. / 128 COSMOLOGY. carried religion into the Var of Yim ; l Qin-murg or Simurg of colossal size and of ' three natures.' 2 Among the fishes we find the Kar fish, which protects the Gokard tree from the lizard [vazagh) created by Aharman, 3 and the Ox-fish.* The strange being Gopatshah, half bull and half man, who dwells on the shores of the sea, pouring out into it holy water, 5 reminds us in a striking manner of the great bulls with human heads of the Assyrian sculptures, and seems to have been borrowed from those monuments. Of the evil creation we find mentioned only the serpent Qruvar, the wolf Kapoda, which is also called Pehan ; and the bird Kamak. We do not find, however, any description of them in detail. 6 • # 1 BD., xiv ; xxiv., II, 29;xix. 16; MK. lxii., etc. There are other birds which speak, BD., xix., 19. |_Cf. Vend, ii., 42 , according to which Vish- karipta carried religion into the Var of Yima. — Tr.]. 2 BD., xiv; xxiv; xix. MK.Mxii. ' BD., xviii ; xxiv. * BD., xix., 17. 5 MK., lxii., 31-36, is the only passage where he is spoken of. 6 [Some of the animals described in § 182, such as the three-legged ass, the bird Camrosh, the Kar and Ox fishes, appear only to be allusions to some natural phenomena. — Tr.] \ ANTHROPOGENY. 129 CHAPTER V. L— ANTHROPOGENY.— THE FIRST MAN. 183. Man rules over the rest of the world [tubano mehim ra$initano afamk $t'ih). 1 He was the last of the creations of Auharmazd, and the Evil' Spirit has never been able to create a being in opposition to him. 2 The Mazdayasnian anthropogeny is of the most eccentric kind. The human race is not only descended from the primeval man, Gayomart, from whom the metals are also derived (§ 161), but it has also passed through a vegetable existence before being constituted in its present state. 184. Man was in fact the work of the sixth epoch of the creation. 3 Auharmazd formed Gayomart, a solitary male human being, from the earth. 4 He was white, brilliant-look- ing as the sun. 5 He had three characteristics, viz. life, speech and mortality. The first two were communicated to him by Auharmazd, the last is owing to the influence of Aharman. The whole of mankind has inherited these characteristics by its descent from Gayomart. 6 He and the primeval ox were the only living beings on earth during the first 3,000 years. Both of them lived in peace and happiness till the commencement of the millen- nium of the constellation of Libra. Then Aharman attacked and overwhelmed them with evils during 30 years, and at length put them to death. 7 Gayomart, while succumbing under the blows of his adversary, predicted that mankind 1 Dk., II., 77, 2. 2 Spiegel, EA., II, 145. 8 BD.fi-, 28, * Dk., II., 80, 3. 9 BD., xxiv., 1. « Dk., II, 80, 3. 7 BD., Xi&iv., 1, 2; iii, 20-24, / 17 130 MAN. would be born of him. 1 Then he bequeathed his body very justly (mcfi daestanihd) to Aharman.- //. — VEGETABLE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN RACES. 185. Gaydmart while dying dropped his semen, which was purified by the light of the sun. Two-thirds of it were absorb- ed by the earth. 3 Forty years 'after, it produced two human beings under the form of a plant (the rivets),* having only one stem, fifteen leaves, and of 15 years of age. These two beings, Mashya and Mashyoi (otherwise Matroand Matrdyad), were united together at the middle, in such a manner that it , was impossible to know which was the male and which the female. It was not either known if Cney possessed reason (sense, nismo). 5 Then they passed from the vege- table form to the human one; the reasoning faculty (sense) which is the soul (nismo mun alt rubdn) spiritually entered into them. 6 We give below the comments of Windischmann on this curious legend 7 : — "The plant with a single stem is the type of the unique origin of the two sexes, or of their original inseparableness. The stem is aged fifteen years, for this is the perfect age assigned to Gaydmart himself. It has fifteen leaves, for an equal number of human races inhabited the Keshvars, The plant appeared after forty years, for that is the normal age of generation in the Var. ...Mashya and Mashyoi 1 BD., iii , 23. 2 MK,, xxvii., 14. Mankind could not have been formed from his body if he had not died, yielding to the attacks of the Evil Spirit. 3 BD., xv., 1; Dk., II., 80, 4. * According to West this is " a plant allied to the rhubarb, the shoots of which supply an acid juice used by the Persians for acidulating preserves and drinks." According to Windischmann it is the rheum ribes. 5 BD., xv., 2, 3; cf. West, n. a BD., xv., 5. ^ 1 As to the traditious ohother nations relating to the vegetable origin of man, cf. Windischmann, tor. Stud., pp. 214, 215. EARLIEST GENEALOGIES. 131 were twins, like Yama and Yami in the Vedas, like Yima and his sister in the Biin-dehcsh (xxiii., 1 ; xxxi., 4), which derives its information from more ancient sources." 1 186. Another plant was formed resembling this one: it produced ten races of monstrous and fabulous men, as the cynocephalus, winged men, men having tails and others; but all of them were the issues of the semen of Gayomart.'-' Those ' of the forests having tails and hairy bodies ' are undoubtedly the great quadrumana, like the gorilla of Africa. Besides other cases of relationship between men and some inferior animals were admitted. The Pehlevi version of the Vendiddd also asserts that " all that which appertains to t he monkey {kaptt^ is precisely like (that which appertains to) man." 3 Elsewhere the monkey, bear and negro are group- ed together as degraded human races, issued from the inter- course between men and evil spirits, — devs, drujs and pariks.* III.— EARLIEST GENEALOGIES. 187. The remarkable legend of Mashya and Mashyoi has been expounded and commented upon at full length by Win- dischmann and Spiegel. 5 We shall therefore be content with a cursory examination of the most salient points of the extraordinary account. (i) As soon as the two beings obtained their soul or sense, Auharmazd spoke to them. He declared them to be perfectly created, and commanded them to obey the Law with good thoughts, words, and deeds. After which, both tried to please each otdier and declared aloud Auharmazd as the Creator of all the creatures. They covered their bodies with grass [giyah), and had no need of food but drank only water. 1 Zor. Stud., pp. 216, 217. 2 BD., xv., 5, 31 and n. of West. One may compare the fabulous races mentiotted by Ctesias and Scylax and the Hindus. 3 Vend , v., 107, mentioned by West. 4 BD., xxiii. 5 Zor. Stud., pp. 215-231. EA., I. 511-514. 6 BD., xv., 6, 7 ; cf. xxx., I. / 132 MAN. (iij Afterwards enmity took possession of their minds. The Evil Spirit got hold of their souls and induced them to say — what was untrue — that the earth and all the beings were created by him (Aharman). Then they went forth into the wilderness, where having found a she-goat, they began to milk her. Milk was thus the first human food, 1 and for that reason it is always the best of all foods.' 2 (iii) The taste of this animal food induced them to utter'a falsehood a second time ; and after thirty days and nights the two beings came across a fat sheep, which they killed and ate. At the same time they found the means of producing lire by friction from the wood (of the Jcunar 5 and of the box tree) ; but it is very remarkable that, although 'driven by evil instinct at that time, they were still directed by the celestial Yazds in the production of fire. By means of this fire, which was nourished by grass and the leaves of several aromatic plants, they roasted the sheep. They offered a portion of it to the fire and a portion to the Yazds. On this very occasion they covered themselves with garments of skin, and a little after they learned to weave garments in the wilderness (ac- cording to West they perhaps wove the wool of the sheep?). 4. They also found the iron by digging in the earth, they ham- mered it and made it into tools, with which they built a hut \pesh-khdr) of wood. 5 Here is an entire epoch of the history of development of the human race digested into a few years. (iv) This third stage was followed by bloody struggles between these two primeval human beings. Even thedevs succeeded in persuading them to make offerings to the^ arch- 1 BD., xsr., 10. Cf. Windischmann, Zor. Stud,, p. 221. 2 MK., Xvi., 4-12. 3 " A thorny tree allied to the Jujube and bearing a small plum-like fruit."— West. * Windischmann translates quite otherwise : sie ginge nauf die Jagd der Thiere, jener Thiere von vvelchem man Kleider macht, p. 222. [" They went a-hunting s animals, those animals, from which garments are made." — Tr]. 8 BD., xv., 11-16. \ * EARLIEST GENEALOGIES. 133 demon. They lived without concupiscence till the end of their fiftieth year. This was owing to the influence of the Evil Spirit, who does not at all like the propagation of man- kind. 1 At the end of fifty years they drew nearer to each other and knew at the same time that it had been their duty to do so even in the past fifty years. After nine months a pair of children was born unto them.- They devoured these first-born children. 3 But Auharmazd deprived them of this unnatural taste. Then, during seven years, seven pairs of children were again torn unto them, who were to each other as brother and sister, husband and wife. From the first couple, Syakmak and Nashak, are descended the fifteen human races v- - Jio inhabit the seven keshvars. 188. It seems tTTat the six other couples had no children, for the very explicit genealogy of the Btin-dehesh* can be represented in the following table : — Gayomart. The plant riv&s from which : Mfishya Mashyoi (xv., 1-5) A second plant (xv., 5) from which ; First pair (devoured) (xv., 22) Siyakmak Nashak Six other pairs (xv., 24, 25) I Fravak_ Fravakain I? races of which J 'X 6 inhabit Khvaniras (xv , 28.) 9 inhabit the other Kesh- vars (xv., 27.) The ten (monstrous) races of man (xv., 5) which, with the fifteen races issued from Fravak, m ake in all twenty-five Gaydmar- dian races (xv., 31.) 1 Dk., II., 80, 5. 2 BD., xxxiv., 3; xv., 20, 21. 3 BD., xv.-J 22. West supports his translation, against Justi and Windischmann, by a very explicit quotation from a Pehlevi Rivdyet: "Mdshya va Mdshybi...nazdistofarzand-i nafshman bard vaslitamund." PT., I., p. y, n. 4 BD., xv., 2431. / 134 MAN. Of these fifteen races, being too numerous, six remained in Khvaniras and nine migrated on the back of the mystic ox of Socrates, because it must warn bQth body and soul to act virtuously and to avoid evil. It is not easy to make a distinction between it and the ahu. The latter, which designates nature, is written exactly like akho 1 Spiegel, EA., II., 228, 234, Mazdak distinguishes four faculties, viz. discernment (die Unterscheidung), intelligence (die Einsicht), memory ( das Gediichtniss), and joyfulness (die Freude). ' Sad-dar Bundehesh, according to Spiegel, TL. p. 174. 3 UL, p. 7 (Vuller's Translation, p. 61.) v * EA., II., 228, 92. PSYCHOLOGICAL NOTIONS. 14I The jan or vital force, according to the same Eranist, is the element most intimately connected with the body, and therefore it is destroyed on the dissolution of the latter. The three parts which remain together, viz. the soul, sense (boi) J and fravdhar must obtain the reward for their merits and chastisement for their crimes. 1 The fravdhar, adds Spie- gel, seems to be the intermediate part, 'der vermittelnde Theil,' between the soul and the body, and to possess a dis- tinct personality. 2 202. We are here once more brought back to the pre-, sence of these mysterious beings of the Eranian philosophy. We have already discussed in Chap. III. the nature* of the fravahars co-^sidered as members of the spiritual world (§§ 1 13-120). Vve have seen from our authorities that these spirits have existed like the Platonic Ibeu, before the creation of the individuals for whom they are destined; and that it is by their own wish that they enter into the bodies. They are closely united with the souls during life. It is the duty of the fravdhar to purify (hilshtavinih) the air in the body by means of fire, and thus to maintain life. 3 This trait recalls its part in the post-Sassanian writings, where it has become a mere principle of digestion! 4, 203. The word boi (according to West and Peshotun bod), which we have translated as 'consciousness,' seems to mean the internal reflex or sentiment by which a man knows himself ('das Bevvusstsein,' according to Spiegel). He 1 [According to the Avestaic philosophy only the soul seems to be responsible for its actions and to obtain reward for its merits and chastisement for its sins, while the fravaslii or fravdhar seems to be irresponsible. The business of the fravashi in connection with man in this world is only to guide the soul aright, turning it aside from evil actions and leading it to the path of heaven. Cf. Dastur Dr. Jamaspji Minocheher^i, Lecture on Frohar, (Bombay, 1874), p. 4 — Tr.] * EA.. II., 92. 3 DK., III., 123. The word hushtdvinih is perhaps from hosh = death, and tavd== destroyed ? Is it the animal heat ? * In the Sad-dar Bundehesh, cf. Spiegel, TL., p. 174. 142 MAN. who is dead is said to be separated from the body and the bol, ' which seems to be contrary to the doctrine of the Sad- dar Bundehesh quoted by Spiegel. On the death of man, the bol passes at first to the nearest fire, then to the stars, to the moon and finally to the sun. 2 204. The faculties properly called intellectual are the khart, vlr and hosh. In our first chapter we have spoken of the khart con- sidered as the Divine Wisdom, the being who holds his place near God. But there is also a human khart: the faculty of intelligence in man. This intelligence comprises the innate intelligence {a<-no khart) and the acquired intelligence (gosh- anfrut khart). 3 The innate intelligence is .^ie source, the foundation of knowledge (ddndkih bun).* The (acquired) intelligence 'commences in the marrow of the finger,' — that is to say, from experience of the material world, — and then settles itself in the heart. 5 The innate intelligence expresses outwardly what exists in the interior of the being. The acquired intelligence communicates to the interior what is outside. 6 205. All the sources agree in representing the Vlr as the faculty of reason or deduction. Hosh is generally associa- ted with vir. Is it perhaps the memory or rather prudence, the practical good sense, like the hosh of the modern Persian, which would explain the fact that makes man the possessor and protector of force (aoj'o dast&r va patdar) ? 7 Wine moderately taken not only assists the digestion and the animal heat and increases the seed and blood, but also augments the vir and hosh ; whilst drunk excessively it 1 MK., ii., 156. 2 SIS., xii., 5 (quoted) from the Ddmddd Nosk. 3 Dk., II, 81,4. * Dk., III., 109, 4. 5 MK., xlvii., 8, 9. Cf. DK., III., 109, 5. • DK., I., 63, 2. 1 Ibid., 60, 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL NOTIONS. 1 43 lessens them. 1 Nobody can buy the v%r and hash at any price, as nobody can rob us of our knowledge and talent {far- hang va lihunar). One can never be quite satisfied with know- ledge {dandi) ; wisdom (khart) makes all those who possess it satisfied and contented. 2 We see that psychological terms are not here wanting, so much so that we are often at a loss to know how to translate them. 206. Religion (dino) is continually mentioned among the spiritual elements or faculties. This word indicates religion not only in its objective sense, — which was indivi- dualised as existing with God from the beginning, created with Vohuman and Wisdom, 3 — but also in its subjective sense, — piety orthe religious spirit. 207. We are surprised not to find in these psychological enumerations any mention made of Free Will, the supreme faculty of the human soul. It is only in the Dinlcart that we find any precise notions about this faculty. It is said therein that man is distinguished from the other creatures by this that he is the master of his wishes [ham khutdi). It is in this sense that the Avestaic term ahui act {i.e. anhus aqtvao) is interpreted* as ' the lord of the corporeal world' {khutdi tanu homand). Thus he has the power of governing himself the power which the rest of the material creation has not. 5 Paul the Persian has already informed us that there were some philosophers in his time who denied the Free Will of man. 6 1 MIL, xvi., 40. 2 MK., xl., 19-22. a See chap. III., § 93. * For example, Yas., xix., 24; Vd., i., 4; xv., I, &c. These words signify 'the corporeal world.' It is curious to note how they have by this time lost their real signification. 8 DK., IV*., 174, 2. The same idea seems to be expressed by the words: az Yazddno aivak khutdi, anshutd, which we would translate: ' except God, the only master is man.' We have already referred to Peshotun's translation of it in § 24. a Chap. I., § I. 144 MEN. 208. The fatalist doctrine that every man has his star \£tar), which he must obey in the same manner as he obeys 1 his other superiors, is found only in the Mainyo-i Khard y l whose tendencies we know well enough. VI.— MEN AND DEMONS. 209. Though there are men created by the Evil Spirit/ yet men can become devs by their crimes. Thus Afrasyab has become a dev and for that reason he will not be saved at the end of creation. 3 Those very wicked beings, who have only the name of humanity, whose actions are all bad, and who understand neither virtue nor sin, are called ' demi-devs. '* There are also demi-devs properly so called, produced from the intercourse of pif^ and demons. For these demi-devs there will be no resurrection, for on account of their demoniacal origin they are themselves called devs, and for that reason they are not immortal. 5 It is the same with those who commit sodomy and apostasy. The souls of such men will become respectively devs and \ serpents, and shall therefore deserve to be destroyed. From this we see that the Eranians had no very clear notion of the spirituality of the devs, nor of the essential difference between human nature and that of the devs. 1 MK., xxxix., 40. 2 Ezing rightly ridicules the Mazdayasnians of his time for believing in the animals hurtful to men as created by Aharman, and not men who are more injurious to animals. Refutation des Sectcs, II., 11 (Translation of Levaillant de Florival, 1853). 3 Dk., III., no, 13. K * MK., xlii., 12-16. 5 SIS., xvii., 7. BASES OF ETHICS. M5 CHAPTER VI. ETHICS. 210. If the Mazdayasnian writers were fond of psychologi- cal distinctions, they were still fonder of ethical problems. The quantity of materials gathered for this chapter is so considerable, that we shall be obliged to confine ourselves to a very rapid summary, leaving aside a great deal of these data. Among- all other non-Christian religions, the Mazdayasnian religion can justly boast of having the soundest, the highest and the most reasonable system of ethics. Yet along with this eulogium, v ^t v .m i ust not be forgotten that some eccentric and ridiculous elements are also found in it, — chiefly in J what regards the legal purifications. Again we shall also meet with certain notions scarcely reconcilable with true morality, as for example, the striking instance of the khvetuk- da$, which will be discussed in the course of this chapter. I. — Bases of Ethics. (a) — Intellectual Nature of Man. 211. The bases of morality are in the intellectual nature and consequently in the Free Will of Alan. This is the reason why infants who can not yet exercise their reason, as wellasthe insane, are irresponsible. 1 The age of reason has no fixed }imit ; it varies between seven 2 and eight 3 years, for before this age 'sin does not take root' (vandg fratumca val bun la yehevunit).* The reason for this is that without intelligence or sense (hash) one can neither lean towards 1 Dk., Ill* no. 13. 2 Ibid., 14. 3 AVN. In the Persian translation (of the MS. H 28, quoted by Hang, p. xvi.). * Dk., IV., 170, 2. 19 146 ETHICS. good nor towards evil. 1 And the soul is only judged by its natural desires and by its faculties of knowledge and learning. 2 (b) — Action of the Evil Spirit. 212. Man is naturally created good. 5 If he does evil and obeys Aharman, it is on account of his being ignorant of the nature of the latter.* Why does not man then perceive with his intellectual powers the nature and deceit of the Evil Spirit? Ut is because Aharman blinds his intelligence, concealing from his eyes the future reward of virtue and punishment of sin. 5 We have already seen in the history of the fall of Mashya and Mashyoi, how they were induced by degrees, both by the temptations of the demons and by the weakness of their appetite, to eat animal food, to be angry with each other, and lastly to deny God and to offer sacrifices to the demons, forgetting even that God had created them and all other things. 6 The same is the case with every sinner. 213. Aharman wishes chiefly to gain the soul of man. This is the greatest damage which he can do him. 7 Auhar- mazd has revealed to Zartdsht that it is better for one in this life to cause his body to be lean and hungry and to have his soul fat in heaven, than to make the body fat here and thereby his soul lean and famished in hell. 8 Qui odit ani- mam suam in hoc mundo, in vitam aeternam conservet earn ! For righteousness is the unum necessarium and heaven {garotman) is the only thing which has any worth. 9 This 1 Dk., IV., 136. 2 Dk., III., 79. 3 Ibid , 105. * MK, xl., 26-28. s MK., xiii. 6 See chap IV., § 187. 7 MK , xlvi.,4. 5, cf. also i., 27-29 (the quotation from a lost portion of the Avesta). s BY., ii., 56. 9 SIS., xi., 3- BASES OF ETHICS. 1 47 world must be regarded as nothing (/6ito). ] This world and everything that exists in it is worth only for the welfare of the other world, i. e., the spiritual world.' 2 (c) — The Spiritual Combat. 214. There is a real spiritual combat, an incessant warfare, which is being waged in all ages between the Good and the Evil, in which every man must take his part, as this world is only a place of trial. 5 The cause (/car) of this struggle of the worlds (gehano rajam) is the Spirit of Evil Knowledge (dush- akcic) ; he who brings it to an end is the Spirit of Wisdom ( Ddnali mlnoi) ; the Creator, Auharmazd, is the general who directs everything (riiqnak). The field of battle fgufj is the intermediate spS:-*? o{ the two rivals in the combat, which extends up to the stellar heaven (gar.-i giouikhfano i men ham- actar kushishntkan vad ctar-payak). The whole material creation (ctlh dahishnan) takes part in it. The commander (^r^ar)among men is either a superior being, a good, victuous k ing {hil-khuthi dd^upato), or a _Destur well-versed in law {hu-danak dlno Dactobar^. He who delivers men from the battle is also the holy spiritual director (ratii-i ahrubo), and he who causes them to perish (yemitilntano) in this battle is wicked (darvand).* 215. Pursuing this same image, the Spirit of Wisdom counsels us to take up a spiritual armour: The Spirit of Contentment as a coat of mail (zare/i), the Spirit of Truth as a buckler, the Spirit of Thankfulness as a club, the Spirit of Devcjtion (burida maneshni) as a bow, the Spirit of Liberality as an arrow, the Spirit of Moderation as a javelin, and the Spirit of Perseverance as a gauntlet. The Spirit of Wisdom will be our support and the Spirit of Destiny our protection. 5 1 Dk., I., 5$, 3. 2 Dk., IV., 137. ^ DU., IV., 17,4. * Dk., III., 124. 5 MK., xlni. The comparison of this passage with St. Paul, Eph. vi. 14 — 17 has not escaped the commentators. 148 ETHICS. 2 1 6. Three kinds of enemies attack us: the spiritual enemies who are the devs and drujs, our passions (pavan cihar), and corporeal enemies. 1 Are these not the three adversaries of Christianity, viz. the devil, the flesh and the world ? It must be remembered that the corporeal enemies are only those who cause us a material wrong, such as the worshippers of devs (deva yafno), wolves and khrafctars ; because the Mazdayasnians did not distinguish moral evil from physical one. The temptations of the demons that prompt men to do evil commence from the time when the faculty of thought is developed in the child. 2 (d) — Destiny. 21 J. The above are certain moral notions that correspond exactly with our own. We must not be surprised if in a work like the Mainyo-i Khard we come across some fatalistic doctrines irreconcilable with the principles enunciated. We have seen that similar contradictions occur elsewhere, for example in what concerns the nature of God. Thus this book teaches that it is impossible to contend with Destiny even with the assistance of wisdom and knowledge ; since "when there is predestination {brehineshn) z for good or for evil, the wise man becomes foolish, and the foolish becomes wise in action ; the coward becomes courageous, and the coura- geous becomes a coward ; and the industrious becomes lazy, and the lazy becomes industrious: just as it is. predes- tined for a certain thing, the cause enters into that thing."* On the other hand it is said that though no exertion can 1 Dk., I., 48. 2 Dk., IV., 170, 3. 5 Cf. the word bveh, quoted in our chap. I., § 7. * iMK ., xxiii. The Armenian historian Eznig quotes a passage more similar to this as the doctrine of the Persians of his tirtv: (in the 6th century). Refutation des Sectes, II., 15. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 149 prevail against Destiny in this world, yet it will not remain unfruitful,— it will outweigh in the balance {pa tardzha) of deeds in our favour in the future life. 1 218. It is in the same order of notions that this work teaches that though the good deeds done unwittingly by man have no merit, the sins committed unwittingly remain as sins. 2 It is needless to add that these fatalistic notions are not found in the other writings of the period ; that they were current among the Mazdayasnians under the Sassanian kings is certain, and we have a formal testimony of it in the contemporary Armenian writer, often quoted above. II.— CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. {a) — Virtues and Good Deeds. (ii.) — General Lists. 2*9. The enumerations and classifications of the virtues and vices are often met with and even developed at length in our authorities. We shall mention some of them. Sometimes the virtues {hitnar) and the good deeds (kerfak, hukunishn) are arranged in the order of value. Thus the following list is arranged according to the excellence of the virtues: 1 Liberality, 2 veracity, 3 practice of khvetuJc-dac, 4 celebration of the season festivals (ga ham bars), 5 observa- tion of the ritual, 6 the worship of God, 7 erection of cara- vanseiais for merchants, 8 kindness 'towards everybody, 9 friendliness towards the good. 3 We see that these are almost all external acts. 220. Much more elevated is the enumeration in another chapter : ''kindness towards every one, thankfulness unto God and the g.9od, continual meditation on the creative power of 1 MK„ xxii. 2 MK.,,i., 25, 26. 3 MK.,iv. 150 ETHICS. Auharmazd and the malice of Aharman, firm belief in the existence of God, and also in the religion, the soul and heaven, and in the judgment, the resurrection and a future life." This is what is called "the most essential good work (kerba), which is the greatest, the best, the most precious, the most advantageous of all good works, and which can be accomplished without trouble or expense. 1 The two most excellent virtues (hunardn) of wisdom {khart) again are liberality and love of peace {>dtih va ashtih). These are the virtues belonging to the na ture of God(& hutlh yazdan). 2 221. Again we read that the virtues fnundr&n) which depend upon the innate wisdom (apio khart) are six in number: i Virtuous (bunik) thought, without thought of infidelity (ag-dbio). 2 Courage (fak'iki/i), without discord (ashmokih). 3 Industry, without avarice (ajurih). 4. Contentment, without idleness (asheshdnlh). 5. Love of Wisdom {khart-doshakih), without egotism (kh iit-doshak ih ) . 6. Research of knowledge (purcitarih danishriih) , without illegal research {arunak bavihunishnlh). These virtues form three pairs of daughters (ham-dokhto) of wisdom; and he who has through perseverance [awdklh) attained to these three couples of means is a superior posses- sor (avartar biirtar) of wisdom, the best delivered from sin {bokhtaktar) and the most sublime {burjishniktar)} 222. The practice {varjlh) of the good Law embraces liberality, veracity, gratitude, obedience (airya), 1 modesty 1 MK., lxiii. 2 Dk., IV., 141,2. * 3 Dk., II., 74»4- CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 151 {sliartn), contentment (khorfandih) , perseverance (? khvd- parih), 1 justice (dato), ' and the other virtues.' 2 223. It is interesting to compare with this the commence- ment of a list of thirty-three good works (kerba) given in the Mainyo-i Khard, by which one attains to heaven. 3 These are: liberality, veracity, gratitude and contentment (oarf au- di) ; then come the desire of doing good to the good and o|f being a friend to everybody, firmness of faith in the creative power of Auharmazd, in the malice of Aharman, in the resur- rection of the dead and the future life ; the practice of khvttudac, astrology, industry, firm belief in religion, the ' good eye' (hucasm) towards the efforts of every one, seeking the favour of the good and appreciation of their virtues. The other gooa^wcjks consisting of the absence of certain evil qualities and vices are negative, with the exception of two or three which are positive. Let us now examine certain virtues of which special men- tion is made in our sources. (ii) — Special Virtues. 224. Faith (avigiimani/i) or 'want of firm belief in God {Yazdun)* and in the creation of the whole world by Auhar- mazd and in other dogmas of the religion is often inculcated. 5 The good Mazdayasnian proclaims with emphasis : " I am without the slightest doubt as to the Law (religion) and I believe {hemnunam) in it as Auharmazd has taught it to Zartusht." 6 Lo ye>towards the Creat or (kam val datar) , too, is taught in express terms. It seems to be considered as necessary and sufficient for salvation, except in the case where a man is 1 Derived from a difficult word which we have spoken of in chap, I., §3i- 2 Dk., Ill,, 109. 3 MK., xxxvii; cf. Dk. I., 56. * MK., xxxvii., 27; lii., 6; lxiii., 7. 5 MK., xxxvii., 9, seqq. ; lxiii., J; xlii., 6. 6 Patit-i Ichod, 28. 152 ETHICS. deficient in respect of it by some defect of his nature (ahu), in which case he is no more responsible for it. 1 The passage which we allude to here we shall have occasion to deal with afterwards from a different point of view. 235. If we turn to the virtues which have to do with our neighbours, we remark first of all the importance attached to liberality {ratih). This importance is clearly perceived from the place assigned to this virtue in the lists mentioned above. Arda-i Viraf saw the souls of those who practised liberality in this world elevated above all others in heaven, because Auharmazd ever exalts them, and they were brilliant, exalted and powerful; and Arda-i Viraf cried out: "Happy art thou who art a soul of the liberal {#atfcn) that is thus above the other souls V" 2 The deeds of spiritual mercy are also recommended. Thus he who possesses the power of learning and wealth should instruct those who are ignorant in religious matters. 3 A father is bound to reform his children and instruct them. 4 Honesty (frarunih) is better than riches. 5 Justice is so great a virtue that a judge who is just is compared to Auharmazd and to the Ameshogpands ; whilst an unjust judge is similar to Aharman and the demons. 6 226. Among the virtues which the priests should practise is the keeping of the five senses in restraint. 7 Every one in his heart must abandon the world and seek rather what is 1 Dk., II., 79. 2 AVN. xii., 1-6. This tradition is perpetuated to the present day among the Mazdayasnians, for the princely liberality of the wealthy Parsis of Bombay is something incredible. 3 Dk., 1., 43. * Dk., IV., 170. '" UK., xv. 6 MK., xxxix., 45, 46. \ ' Dk., IV., 157, IS- CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 153 spiritual.' He must also endure with patience and with a will accept the afflictions that come upon him from Aharman.* Every man must hope for heaven; even the sinner must never despair. 3 Industry is specially praised and is often mentioned, chiefly combined with honesty, as the source of real happi- ness.* (iii.) — Duties of the State of Life. 227. Every state of life has its duties which must be scrupulously discharged. Thus, taking the four classes or professions {p\shakino) into which the people were divided, we are informed that the duties of the p riest s are to preserve the religion, the worship of God, the decrees, traditions and practices of the good Law, the instruction of the people in the matter of virtues and vices. They must also show the way to heaven and keep the world back from hell. The duties of the warriors are to chastise enemies and to keep the people in peace and safety. The duty of the agriculturists is to till the earth. The duties of the artisans are to do their work well and to ask only fair and reasonable wages. 5 The duties of the rich are also mentioned: It is their busi- ness to assist the most indigent and to bring agriculture into a flourishing state. The inferior classes have other obliga- tions. 6 22S. The duties of husband and wife are often mentioned in the vision of Arda-i Viraf. It follows from this that the husband should instruct and reform his wife; otherwise he 1 MK , xxxix., 29. 3 MK., xxxix., 31. 8 SIS., xii., 28, 2g. * MK., If; Ok. I., 56, 2. • M K., xxxi., xxxii. See Dk., II., 69, 2-5 (this passage is very obscure). In the BD., xix., 36, the five qualities of the priests are treated. See West's ncxe. It is also very interesting to compare the passage of the Bhagavadgitd, xviii., 42-44. « Dk., II., 69, 6, 20 154 ETHICS. will be responsible for her faults; whilst the wife should be faithful to her husband and obey and honour him. Her body, life and soul are his ; but the husband should furnish her with what is necessary for her life. 1 229. But it is the duties of the king and those of the subjects towards the king that are most frequently and tinutely related. It is chiefly in the Dinkart that this subject is treated. [ There is, first of all, the praise of the good king. He is like the water on the mountains, which, while flowing from them, spreads fertility. He is like the light on a mountain, which reflects its splendour afar. 2 We give below the nine- teen virtues and duties enjoined to a king: m m i The good religion, 2 good wisdom, 3 good natural dis- position {Jiu ahulh), 4 beneficence ( hva'panhj 3 , 5 submission to the commandments of God, 6 good thought, 7 cheerful nature, 8 constant holding in mind 'that sovereignty passeth away,' 4 9 patronage of the arts, 10 severity towards the wicked, 11 communion of will with the people, 12 just orders, 13 sitting openly at the gate of the city for the dispensation of justice to everybody, 14 liberality, 15 repression of avarice, 16 delivering his subjects from fear, 17 bestowing favours on the good, 18 carefulness in the observation of the conduct of governors, 19 the service of God 5 230. It is the duty of a king to extend his protection to his subjects by defending them from every danger; to agriculture and industry, by supplying cattle and implements; 1 AVN., lxviii., lxiii., etc a Dk., III., 133. In Dk., IV., 154, a king is also compared to the cool refreshing water. 3 For this word, see §§ 31, 222, etc. * King Chosoes Anosharavan must have had this in mi*nd when he spoke his dving discourse, see Andarj-i Khusro-i Kavdtdn, ed. Peshotun, Bombay, 1885, which I have translated in the Babylonian and Oriental Record, vol. 1, No. 7, 1887. % s Dk., III., 133. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 155 to defenceless women and children, and to the old ; to hos- pitals and medicine; to the purity (good , perfume hu boi) of the fire, water and earth; and to the preservation of the atmosphere (pahrico-i andarvai), i.e., to the hygiene, as we should call it. 1 The prosperity and adversity, the virtues and vices, of the kingdom, depend upon its king, who is responsible for it. 2 This is why a really incapable (Id tubano) king deserves to be conquered and deprived of his kingdom. 3 231. The power of the king in return becomes exalted to the highest point, even, it seems, above the religion and conscience. 4 ' Obedience to the laws of a good king (aiAh- i y\n valmtn hiikhutdi dafupato ddtdn) is declared to be the most beneficial of all human actions (kunishnan-i martiim) 5 . And the most pleasing to God. Also the recompenses of a good king in the future life are altogether peculiar. 6 G6sht-i Fryano in answer to the eleventh enigma of the demon compares a king with Auhar- mazd, and his courtiers with the Ameshocpands. 7 The excellence of the union of the glory {gadmano) 8 of royalty with the good religion is again praised as very fatal (shikafttar) to the Evil Spirit and very beneficial to the Good Spirit 9 Moreover, the reciprocal benefits of the good religion and the royal power are frequently mentioned in the Dinkart, and furnish hints of a high value for the determi- nation of the age of this work. 1 Dk., I., 46. 2 Dk., II., 96. 3 Ibid., 92. * Dk., IV., 164. 5 Dk., I., 15. 6 AVN., ix. ■ GF..H., 55-61. 8 Peshotun is probably right in considering this to be ' the royal splendour,^he ancient qareno of the Eranian kings. 9 Dk., III., 129. 156 ETHICS. fiv.) — Good Deeds peculiar to Mazdeism. 232. We have spoken about the principal virtues and meritorious works which are inculcated in the Pehlevi books. The reader will have certainly formed a very favourable opinion of the level of these Mazdayasnian Ethics. There remain upon this point some notions in which the Eranian mind goes much beyond ours, and even boldly contradicts our principles. 233. Quite a special value is attached to agriculture and to the breeding of cattle. These works are exalted even above the sublimest virtues. Arda-i Viraf describes fully the splen- dour and happiness in heaven of the agriculturists (z"7C- tryoshan), shepherds {shapinan) and those who labour for the irrigation of the fields and for the tillage of the earth. All of them are in the society of the spirits (mindi) 1 of water and earth, of trees and cattle, and they utter praise and bene- dictions to them.'^ This importance of agriculture is ex- plained both by the influence of the Avestaic doctrines, from which the Pehlevi traditions are derived, and by the natural requirements of the soil of Eran, which render agriculture and the proper care of cattle necessary in the highest degree for the welfare of the inhabitants. ( v. ) — Khvetvkdaq. 234. But among certain doctrines which are sound and reasonable, some even which, according to our notions, are strange, we are surprised to find the approbation given to a custom -which is quite inconsistent with our principles of morality. This is the khvetnkdac exalted, as we have already seen, as one of the most holy and meritorious deeds. And yet this is nothing else but incestuous marriage between near relations, even between father and daughter, son and mother, brother and sister ! What could be more disgusting to true morality? And how could a religion of so high a nature as Mazdeism inculcate such a practice? These 1 In Chap, xv , they are the fravdhars. * AVN , xiv., xv. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 157 are historical questions that are connected with the Avesta itself. We shall therefore pass them over. The modern Parsis have not retained this practice, nay they even energe- tically defend their religion from the imputation of having ever taught such a doctrine. 235. After the profound and judicious study of this ques- tion by Dr. West in the second volume of his Pahlavi Texts, 1 it will be henceforth impossible for the Pfirsi scholars themselves to deny that the practice of the khvetukda? in its strictest sense, — that is to say, the marriage between parents and children, between brothers and sisters, — was taught and vehemently recommended by the Mazdayasnian priests of the Sassanian period and probably also in the time of the Avesta. 2 - 1 PT., II., 389-430. a [Hardly a trace of such a practice as the incestuous marriage be- tween near relations is found in the Avesta. Neither could anything of the sort be interred from the etymology of the Avestaic term qaetva- datha, which is found employed in ihe Avesta only as a qualifying attribute in some passages. The term qaetvadatha is a compound of two wordi q letva (from q.i = Sans. ^ = self) = ' one's self, one's own,' hence, ' related, allied, ' and dutha (from da. = to give) = 'a giving, ' or ' what is given,' and means ' a giving of one's self, a giving in relationship, self- dedication, devotion.' In Yac. xii., 9, the term is used as an epithet of the Mazdayasnian religion, and means 'bearing relationship with God' or ' teaching devotion.' In Visp. iii., 3, Yt. xxiv., 17, and Gah iv., 8, the term is an attribute of yavana = youth, and means 'devout.' In Vd., viii., 13. the words qietvadathagca qaetvadatheqca are also adjectives qualifying nuram and ndirinam and mean ' devout men and women.' Thus ttae word has no meaning of 'marriage ' at all. The words which bear any such meaning in the Avesta are upa-vddhaya (in Vd. iv , 44 and xiv., 15), vazyamna (in Yas. liii., 5I, and t-adh re (in Aban Yasht,87). Moreover these passages, which really treat of marriage, do not say anything of such incestuous custom. On the contrary the term qaetva- dutha implies a highly meritorious and religious action, whose nature, ho%vever, is not clearly described. It is therefore quite unjust to accuse the Avesta of inculcating such a sinful practice. (Cf. West, Pahlavi Texts, II, Appendix I II, pp. 390-392 ; K. R. Kama, Zartoshti Abhids, vol. 1, p 43 : Zarthotht Ndmu, p. 170; and Darab Dastur Peshotan Sanjana, 'lhe Alleged Practice of Next-of-kin Marriages in Old Iran, London, 1888, pp. 21-26). — Tr.] 158 ETHICS. 236. It is chiefly in the Dinkart that a long chapter is wholly devoted to an enthusiastic defence of this practice, which it explains and tries to justify by some mythological absurdities. It is indeed strange to find how the Destur, to whom we are indebted for the edition of this work, has struggled to give quite the contrary signification to this chapter, — a condemnation of what it approves ! One wonders if one can believe his eyes while reading the version which the learned Parsi gives of his text. Let us be satisfied with quoting just a short passage from it : (12) va roshano jasto az roi ddto hamdi khaditvnact, yin anbdmi aigha avir vasto rdmishwk mano-ash farzandlhi far zand ait, hamatca men hhadihi gvit tj^Jzhmak va g.vt dato: zak-acakhar cand vayag sazit yehevuntano zak shatih va sirln- yeh va ramishno mano bentnan i gabra men nafshman-ash dokhto zaranoit, mano akh-ac yehevitnit va ham matar? (13) va zaki men benman va matar zaranott akh-ac yehevunit va ham abitar. Hama rdci vesh rdmishno, nyaish- no va huravdkhm [inishti], Id va ait patash hie zydno prde men citto, Idea ahuki parde men khup-gar. 1 (12) "And a light flashing from the face of the law is constantly seen, 2 at the moment when pleasure is pro- duced, which (comes when) one gets children through his own children, even when it is by some one of a different race and different religion : then how much delicious that joy, that sweetness and pleasure must be, when the son of a man is born of his own daughter and when he becomes also a brother of this same mother ?" 1 Dk., II., 80, 12, 13. a We do not understand how Dr. West has been able to translate the phrase: "Light flashed forth or unflashed is always seen at the time when it is much exposed." (p. 404I. What does this mean ? Nevertheless he seems to read the very explicit terms az^foi ddto as aparvdkhto. The phrase appears to us as simple as it is clear. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 159 ( 13) " And he who is born of a son and a mother is also brother of this same father. This is the way of a geat plea- sure, benediction, and joy, and there is neither any harm in it that can counterbalance its advantages, nor any vice that can surpass its good work." 237. It must be remembered that this passage is only a small portion of a long special pleading, in which this kind of marriage is defended with every species of mythological, physiological, political, social and religious arguments. The translation of the whole chapter is given by West in his Pahlaz'i Texts, II., pp. 399 — 410 ; so that it is no longer necessary to dwell upon it. ' Here is then a case where I [The whole chapter in which the passage in question occurs is very obscure and difficult, and contains a long controversy between a Jew and an Airpat regarding the propriety or impropriety of the doctrine concern- ing the creation of mankind and the advisability or inadvisability con- cerning marriages between Mazdayasnians and non Mazdaya^nians. Notwithstanding the general ambiguities and difficulties that'liein the way of reading and interpreting the Pehlevi language, the confusion of different, ideas contained in this chapter of the Dlnkart augments our doubts and renders us quite unable to distinguish the words of the Airpat from those of the Jew, and to determine whether it is the Airpat or the Jew who advocates or attacks a certain dogma. The above passage, therefore, may be attributed to the Jew as well as to the Airpat, and may be read and translated according to the sense in which it is understood. It cannot, then, be positively affirmed whether Dr. Casartelli or Dastur Peshotun is right in his reading and interpretation of the passage. Either of them followed his own way. Perhaps a third gentleman would make out quite a different sense from his own point of view ar j thus change the meaning of the same passage altogether ; for, in the case of the obscure and ambiguous Pehlevi it often happens that one and the same passage is translated by different eminent scholars in such different ways that it becomes quite difficult for one to say whether they arc versions of one and the same passage or of two altogether distinct ones. Moreover, it is quite impossible for a work like the Dinkart, wh ch in a certain passage severely attacks and denounces those who indulged in the sinful practice of promiscuous intercourse between the sexes as of the nature of wolves and other lowani-nals (see Darab Dastur Peshotan Sanjana, The AllegedjPractice of Next-of-kin Marriages in Old Iran, p. 37), to advocate in another passage the same abominable custom. I, therefore, prefer Dastur Peshotan's translation and venture to say that the l6o ETHICS. a practice, considered by our Ethics and even that of the other religions of antiquity 1 as one of the most shocking of vices, is transformed by Mazdeism into a transcendent virtue. (b) — Sins and Evil Actions. (i.) — General Lists. 238. These contrasts however between the Ethics of the Mazdayasnian religion and our own are much more frequent in the sins than in the virtues. Here the complicated system of legal impurities and other particularly Eranian notions have included a goodly number of indifferent actions in the list of grave sins, and created quite an artificial morality. We may, therefore, follow Haug- in distinguishing between (i) sins contrary to the Christian morality as well as to that of Mazdeism, and (ii) sins which are considered so only in the Mazdayasnian code. But we shall first of all give some lists of crimes in order to give an idea of the scale of their gravity according to the Mazdayasnian principles. . Thus there are thirty sins and evil practices opposed to the thirty-three good deeds, which are as follows : 1 Sodomy, 2 pederasty, 3 murder of a pious man, 4 dissolution of khvetitkd;-i res/2), and as ' having no pleasure, praise and joy ' {ramnshni nyiishni orviik'ima la), buch a work, it says, ' instead of bringing any advantage does much harm, and of however good aspect it may be, it is yet very unpleasant ' (va at patash hie zydn-i farh-i men $ut, va ld-ca jashnak-i frah-i men hu-ci/uir). — 1 r.] 1 It is very carious to compare the strange dialogue between Yama and his sister VamI, regarding the same notions and also the same mythological arguments, that we find in a more recent portion of the Rig Veda, with the doctrine of the A vesta and Pehlevi books : the doctrine developed therein is precisely the reverse of the Eranian theory. RV.,x., 10. v a Edition of the Ardd-i FirafNdmuk, Introduction. CLASSIFICATION' OF VIRTUES AND VICES. l6l sacred fire, 7 destruction of the water-otter, S idolatry, 9 carelessness for religion, 10 breach of trust, n assistance afforded to falsehood, 12 idleness, 13 heresy hand'ikih), 14 sorcery, 15 apostacy, 16 worship of demons, 17 theft and assistance given to thieves, 18 breach of promise, 19 malice, 20 oppression in seizing the things of others, 21 persecution of the just, 22 calumny, 23 pride, 24 adultery, 25 ingratitude, 26 falsehood, 27 affliction given to the helpless or' to the dead, 1 28 pleasure in disturbing the good, 29 continual sinning, 30 regret for having done good to others.-' 239. The deeds of the evil religion {ca/itzr dhio) opposed to those of the good Law are : avarice, deception, ingratitude, discontent, disobedience, violence, absence of mercy, tyranny, heresy, spiritual blindness (kiklh), spiritual deafness (karajih), opposition to the Law (ad&iih), 3 and other vices. 4 The faults and vices of the four classes of the people in the Mainyo-i-Khard must be again compared to their virtues mentioned before in the same chapter (§ 227). (i) The vices of the priests are: hypocrisy, covetousness, negligence, sloth- fulness, attention to trifles, and unbelief in religion, (ii) The vices of the warriors are : oppression, violence, breach of promise, encouragement of evil, ostentation, 5 arrogance and insolence, (iii) The vices of the agriculturists are: ignorance, envy, ill-will and malice, (iv) The vices of the artisans are : incredulity ingratitude, improper discourse, rudeness and slander. 6 It must be confessed that the Eranian moralists were not wanting in accuracy in their appreciation of characters ! 1 Substituting -ee West, in the Huston, torn. II. No. 3 (1883). 2 MR. xx^vi. 8 This word is written just like the virtue dshtih, i. e., 'peace.' See § 220. * Dk. Ill rog. 3. 5 Substituting dakhshih for vehih. See West, ut. sup.- '' MK, lix. 21 1 62 ETHICS. 240. Elsewhere we find some precepts which forbid certain vices. Thus we have : do not slander, do not covet, do not give way to anger, be not anxious, commit no impurity, bear no envy, commit no sin through shame, indulge not in slothful sleep, do not talk out of season, plunder not the wealth of others, commit no adultery with another's wife. But along with these excellent precepts we find therein others very ridiculous, as for example : walk not with one shoe, 1 &c. 2 (ii.) — Sims Specially Condemned. 241. Among the sins specially reprobated we can mention pride and contempt for others, 3 adulteration of food, false weights and measures,* cruelty to animals, and needless destruction of cattle. 5 We do not understand how illegiti- macy of birth can be punished as a crime of the children themselves. 6 As for intemperance and drunkenness, the doctrine is very curious. These sins are blamed not on account of their effect on the mind, but because excess in drinking produces excess in eating, and excess of food makes one unable to recite the Gat has. 1 242. The Dinkart often speaks of faraebut dXi&.aWibutf apparently two vices or faults. For the first, -Peshotun quotes 1 [The word aimok may also mean 'without a shoe, ' 'barefooted,' from a#=not and mok = a shoe). The word in the MK.,ii., 37, probably, bears this meaning which also appears more reasonable. Cf. also West SIS., iv., 12 n, and x., 12. — Tr.] 3 MK., ii., 8-50. 3 Dk., III., 104. 4 AVN., xxvii. 5 AVN., lxxvii and xxx. See Haug's note. 8 AVN., xlii. See Haug's note. » Dk., 1,9. 8 Dk., I., 45, etc. ( foH-jJoJe) and q»i* jo-»> \ CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 163 the following definition from the Ganj-i Shayagdn of Vajorg Mihir: 1 fracbiit minishnih and mano ctih pavan mdh-mdnih, va minoi pavan muctigar ycheiinit, kdmak mehim zak mindavam yedriinyen mano pavari farj&m vasofishno-i tano va puhal va pdtfrac~i rubdn afash yehcvunii. M Frdebiit is the opinion which maintains that the material world is a durable abode {lit. hospitality), 2 and that the spiritual world is full of trouble, the love for which will cause at the end (of things) the destruction of the body constituting the bridge (Cinvat) and the retribution of the soul." It is, therefore, the crime of neglecting eternal interests for temporal ones. • 243. For aibibut Peshotun quotes a phrase of the Pehlevi version of the Khordeh Avesta, which says : aibibutih, khor- ishno cm \ patmdno dashtano va kem fsush. " Albibiitlh consists in keeping the measure (strictly) and in giving little food (during) a famine." (?) But elsewhere the Dinkart itself, in associating these two crimes {drujlh) as the cause of the sickness of life {vimarih-i khayd)' explains these terms in the following manner: — " l Fardebilt is the proud thought (avar minishmh) which says: 'there is no person who can be superior to me' (la khavit'&nam aigha li frets mehim) ; and aibibut is arrogance (tar minishnih) which thinks: 'this other does not know (anything, being) backward and inferior' (zak tani Id khavi- tunit lakhv&r va avir) " 3 (iii.) — Legal Impurities — Philosophical Theory, 244. We shall dispense with entering into the ques- tion of legal impurities. The ceremonial legislation of the 1 About the middle of § 7 in Peshotun's edition, Bombay, 1S85. 8 See AVN., vii., viii., ix., and Haug's Glossary, s. v. a Dk., III., 104. 164 ETHICS. Avesta finds its continuation and itsnatural evolution in the Pehlevi treatises. The legal defilements caused by contact -with a dead body, or with the excretions of man or dog, or with a woman in her period of menstruation, the distinc- tion between direct and indirect pollutions, the ceremonies of purification, and all other points which are in the Avesta, are here reproduced. But the details cf them are generally more minute, a greater number of cases have been examined and explained :in a word casuistic science has been developed, 245. • It is of some consequence, however, to remark that the doctrine of legal defilements among the Eranians rests upon a philosophical basis quite different from that among other ancient people, — the Jews, for example. For the Eranians there was question of something more than ceremonial purity. Indeed we must recollect the Mazdayasnian theory of death. Mortality was not only the effect of sin, 1 but death itself was the work of the Evil Spirit. This is the reason why it was already denied in the Avesta that the good creatures of Auharmazd, such as fire and water, could kill anybody: it was the invisible demon who struck, the mystical biids carried away the corpse which the water even tried to throw off. 2 This corpse was impure, for the druj Nagus seized it at the time of its death, and being thus possessed by an impure spirit, it was itself impure and defiled those who touched it. In other words, the inanimate body then belonged to the evil creation, to the beings of AhSrman. The same principle was applied to the solid or liquid excre- tions proceeding from the body, including hair and paring of nails, — for everything that proceeded from the body was dead matter. The same notions are applied to women in the state of menstruation. The demons take possession of all this rejected matter and turn it into weapons against 1 M K., viii., 27-30. 2 Vd., v. CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND VICES. 165 living creatures. 1 Hence two consequences : (i) defilement of those who come in contact with this matter now become diabolical ; (ii) prohibition of throwing it into fire or water, of burying it in the earth, — the holy and pure elements. 2 246. It therefore remained for men either to avoid these defilements, or to purify themselves from the defilements contracted, or to extricate themselves from the consequences of the fault committed by defiling fire, water, or earth. Hence all these prescriptions, all these decisions in doubtful cases, of which we have just spoken. 3 This likewise explains the reason why the sins against morality properly so called and legal defilements are not dis- tinguished. In this^case Mazdeism logically followed its philosophical principles. 247. We may likewise silently pass over some cases of crimes purely fictitious, proceeding from notions peculiar to the Mazdayasnians : the killing of certain animals sacred to the Mazdayasnians, viz. dog, water-otter, cattle, &C., 4, use of warm-baths, 5 negligence in taking care of the sacred fire, 6 use of cosmetics on the face and of artificial hair by women, 7 mourning and weeping, the habit of walking with one shoe, 9 and others. The Shdyast la-Shdyast, a treatise on moral theology, translated by West in his Pahlavi Texts, part I., is a collection of all the prescriptions of this kind. 1 SIS., xii.,4. 2 This is the reason for the use of the Dakhmds or • Towers of Silence* by the Parsis, in which they expose their dead bodies to be devoured by carnivorous birds. The animals of Auharrhazd are the agents employed by Him for clearing the earth from all impurities. 3 See de Harlez, Introduction, pp. ccxxxii-ccxxxiv. * AVN., xlv, lxxv, lxxvii, &c. 5 AVN./xli. • AVN , lv, &c. 7 AVN., lxxiii. 8 AVN.Ovii. 8 AVN., xxv ; SIS., iv, 12. [See the translator's note I on p. 162.] 166 ETHICS. (iv.) — Classification of Sins. 248. We see that some attempts are made to classify offences. On the one hand two classes are distinguished: the sins which do injury to one's neighbour (called hame- malan,) and those that affect only the soul of the sinner (called robanlk). 1 On the other hand the vices [ahuk&n) are divided into two sections : antecedent {frdz) evil attributes, such as covetousness (azo), anger (khaskm), &c, and the consequent (avdz) sins, such as slothfulness {^uctth), murder (fpojkdri/i), &c. 2 ; that is to say, into internal and external sins. 3 249. It is a favourite custom to assimilate 'the diseases of the soul ' with those of the body, and the ^azdayasnian medicine comprised the treatment both of bodily diseases and of sins. This was, however, quite natural, for the diseases as well as the sins were attributed to the action of Aharman and his demons. Thus the soul had certain principles of spiritual diseases, viz. " ignorance, deception {frifthrili),* anger {khashmvadlh), idleness (ciigtih), 5 pride, contempt for others, immodesty, murderous intention, impurity (jehih) and sloth- fulness," 6 just as the body contained certain principles or germs of diseases. 7 These principles closely resemble the 'capital sins' of the Christian theology. In other words they are natural passions (cihar) exploited by the demon Varun (the personification of passions). 3 They were also con- ceived as female demons (druj), peculiar to each person — ■ & 1 SIS., viii., I, see West's note. 2 Dk, IV, 157, 45. 3 They are also compared with the internal and external corporeal diseases. See Dk., IV., 157, 44. * This word is wrongly transcribed fragftarik in the text of Peshotun. 6 Peshotun reads this word devaiyapnih, which is impossible. At least it must be devayagtih, but the sense does not agree here. For pwp/, see Haug, Old Pahlavi Pazend Glossary, p. 209. « Dk., IV., 157,41. 1 Cf., our § 146. 9 Dk.,1.,48; IV., 157,43. MERIT, RESPONSIBILITY, CASUISTRY. 167 He who is able to fight against ' his own peculiar driij ) and to keep off from his body these five drujs } viz. avarice, anger, impurity, shame and discontent, is the strongest of men. 1 III.— MERIT— RESPONSIBILITY—CASUISTRY. 250. The Eranians had very precise notions about merits and demerits, about the responsibility and recompense of actions. We have already seen that the good works done carelessly or unwittingly have very little or rather no merit. 2 In the same way the sacrifices of the worship are always productive of merit {kerfak), but in case of any neglect of the officiating priest, that merit is not attained. However, it is not lost altogether but passes to the treasure (ganj) of merits, placed in the hands of the yazds, who can give it to the souls of the pious. 3 In the same manner the merits of the good deeds, lost by sins, revive in the soul after the repentance and confession of the sins, accompanied by the determination to improve. 4 A righteous man should instruct his sinning friend, other- wise he becomes, in a measure, culpable of his faults and will reap great shame on the day of the last judgment. 5 It is the same with a husband who does not instruct and correct his wife. 6 Mention is often made of the responsibility of parents for their children 7 and of superiors for their subjects. 8 251. If the righteous do not receive their recompense in this world, it must be on account of the influence of Aharman. 9 This is the manner in which the retributions of the future 1 MK., xli.,8-11. 2 MK., i., 25, 26. 3 SIS., viii., 4. Spiegel has shown the Semitic origin of this doctrine. * SIS., viii, 8. 5 BD., xxx., 11. 6 AVN., lsviii. ■> Dk., IV, 170. 8 Dk., r., 46. \ • MK, xxxviii. £68 ETHICS. life take place: at the end of every one's life, his good and evil actions are weighed, and the result determines the condition of the soul after death, ' as we shall see in the following chapter. 252. Again, man will be judged from the natural gifts which he possesses. These gilts have some connection with the (innate) love for God {kdm val datar) and the capacity of intelligence (ddnishno tub&no). Thus, the man who naturally possesses these two gifts as well as love for religion, who desires to know the truth and to make the search for it, and who is moreover virtuous, will be saved, even if he does not attain to the complete truth. In the same manner, one who is wanting in the capacity of investigating the truth, but who possesses the love for God and for religion and knowledge, and who performs good deeds, will also be saved. Again one who has the love for God and religion, and who is capable of making inquiries, but does not possess the knowledge of the Law, will be saved by his natural knowledge of God. And again one who has only the love of God and religion, and who is wanting in intelli- gence, will nevertheless be saved. Lastly, he who has never received the natural gifts of the love for God and religion, on account of this involuntary deprivation (bar'itak-ashi kam rai), will also be saved in spite of his sins. 2 253. Elsewhere the principle necessitas non habet legen* is admitted; also in cases of legal defilements, a certain «»«ui is made use of;* it is considered that intention is* more important than the action itself. 3 In case of doubt, where one can not know whether the action is lawful or unlawful, he must not do it, but avoid it, if possible. 6 It is taught 1 AVN., vi., 9-1 1 ; xxiix; Ix. 2 Dk.,IL, 72. s SIS., ii., 53. * Ibid., 38,39- " Ibid., 90, sqq. 6 SIS. x., 25, 27. CONTRITION, CONFESSION, PENANCE. 169 that one must always speak the truth, even in cases where that truth might bring him or others into trouble, or where the lie might be fruitful of advantage. 1 However, one can do harm even by speaking the truth, for " there is one who speaks the truth and thereby becomes wicked, and also there is one who tells a lie and thereby becomes righteous." 2 Apparently, therefore, it was not permitted to speak the truth in certain cases. / v.— CONTRITION— CONFESSION— PENA NCE. 254. The means for extricating oneself from sins and their consequences are contrition, resolution to amend, and confession. West believed that he could find in the Mazdayasnian Patet a penance, which " bears a closer resemblance to the Protestant repentance than to the Romish penance," and for this reason " the remission (in the Parsi system) is dependent upon the mental change rather than upon the bodily act." 3 We admit that we can- not understand this at all. Has any religion ever made the remission principally dependent upon a bodily act and not upon a mental change ? But we have only to look upon the text itself, which West comments according to his own version. "For the renunciation (of sin) the principal thing is this, that he commits no sin voluntarily ; but if a sin arises through inexperience, weakness or ignorance, then the sinner presents himself before the Desturs and the pious for confession (Patet ); after that, if he commits (the sin) no more, then that sin which he has committed is removed from his person, in the same way that a hundred-fold powerful, quick and strong wind sweeps over a wilderness, carrying off all grass and weeds that are lyyig therein." 4 1 Dk., I., 32, 3, 4, 5. 2 SIS., xx., 14. 3 MK., p. 178, n. Version of the Pazend and Sanskrit texts. * MK., lii., 16, sqq. 22 170 ETHICS. The principal thing is evidently the internal change, but the public confession before the priests is an essential condition, which differs toto coelo from the justification of the Protestant system. 255. Repentance of mind and penitence by word and action also deliver the soul from hell, under the direction of the Destur of the good Law, who is the Doctor of the soul [rubano bezashk) and who is always mentioned as absolutely indis- pensable for the Patet. 1 Again, repentance (patetih) is necessarily internal and external. The external duty consists in this that the sin which the penitent knows to have assailed him must be specially confessed (in words, bam gobishno) by him. The mental duty consists in this that the ffenitent renounces the sin with this thought: "henceforth I will no more commit the sin." 2 It is a crime to conceal any committed sin, and this doctrine is supported by the anecdote of Ataropat, the son of Zartusht. 3 Again it is said that " grief and repentance and the con- fession of the sin must be followed as much as possible by good actions for the remission of the sins." 4 256. These penances were organised by the priesthood to such an extent that they minutely systematised all sins as a development of the seven degrees of violence against the body mentioned in the Avesta. 5 The scale was applied to all crimes, and the gravity of each crime was estimated by weights {dirhams and gtirS, Greek SpaxM, orarijp). These weights were those of the golden scale of Rashnu, who weighs the deeds of the dead. 6 Then these values were 1 Dk., I., 14. [In MK., liii., it is said that if a sin is committed, one is to be sorry, repentant, and in renunciation of sins either before the sun, Mihir, the moon, or the sacred fire of Auharmazd. — Tr.] 2 SIS., viii., 8. 3 Ibid., 9, 10. * MK., liii., 7-9. 8 Vd., iv. • AVN., v., 5. RELIGION. IJI reduced into real silver coins, and thus a true scale of fines, a tax upon sins, was established. 1 We can thus estimate the tax upon a certain sin mentioned by Arda-i Viraf at £ 2000. 2 257. There still exist certain formulas of Patet or confes- sion, of which some is long and some short. These formulae commence with a prayer, an act of praise of God, a procla- mation of good thoughts, words, and deeds, and a detestation of the evil thoughts, words and deeds. Then follows a long- list of sins with their respective gravity, sins 'in thought, word, and deed' (minishnlk, gubishnlk, kunishnik). It ends with an act of faith in Auharmazd and in the truths of religion. 3 V.— RELIGION, DUTIES OF THE FAITHFUL WITH REGARD TO IT. [a) — The Good Law. — The Only True Religion. 258. The relations of the faithful with religion, ' the good Law ' [veh dino, shaplr dino) are so important, that it will be necessary for us to devote a special paragraph to their consideration. This good religion is personified as existing from the commencement together with Auharmazd. It can be known to men only by revelation (pitdkih).* This revelation was first made to Mashya and Mashyoi, and then to Yim. 5 There is only one religion (aivak dino), 6 all other religions are severely attacked andcondemnedj — chiefly those of the Jews, the Manicheans, and the Christians. 1 For its detail see West, PT. I., pp. 239-242, and de Harlez, Intro- duction, ccxxviii-ccxxix. p 2 Haug, edit, of AVN., p. 170, n. 3 See the Patet -i khud, de Harlez, Manuel du Pehlevi, pp. 144- 151. • 4 Dk., I., 57. 8 Ibid., {2. 6 Dk., IV., 150. 172 ETHICS. The tradition is highly respected. 1 There are six authorised systems of interpretation, but they do not always agree with one another. 2 259. The sage, who is spoken of in the Mainyo-i Khard, was sorely troubled by the variety and number of religions on the earth. "If it is certain," he said, "that the religion of God is the truth, that His law is excellent, and that He is benevolent and merciful to His creatures, wherefore are there so many religions, beliefs and principles among men ?" Then he considered that much trouble must be undergone by the soul, because the body returns to dust and everything depends only upon the soul. It is for this reason that he travelled from town to town and from c/Ae country to another, consulting the learned doctors of each and every religion. But he was grieved to see them all differ from and contradict one another. And this made him confirmed in the good (Mazdayasnian) religion. He eagerly asked for instructions from the priests on the questions that troubled him; so that the Spirit of Wisdom at length disclosed itself to instruct him. 5 260. All those who belong to the good religion do not neces- sarily belong to it in the same fashion. They can adhere to it either from wisdom (danishno) or by natural disposition (heni) or by simple habit (Iritk). Thus eight kinds of men are dis- tinguished. Those who belong to the religion by these three bonds, those who adhere to it by two of them (and there are three varieties among them), those who are attached to it by only one of these means (there are three kinds of these), and lastly, those who are in no way attached to the religion. 4 1 Dk.,I„ 17. » SIS., i., 4. 3 MK.j i., 14-fin. * Dk., IV., 149. RELIGION. 173 (6) — The Priesthood — Its Importance. 261. The importance of the Mazdayasnian religion assured that of the priesthood, not only in the social body, but also in its relations with every individual. Indeed, the priest had to be not only the minister of worship, the preserver and doctor of the sacred traditions, the judge (vacir) of the Law, 1 but also was the spiritual physician of every soul. 2 In cases of difficulty a Mazdayasnian must consult his Des- tur, for he has been created with qualities which enable him to fight against error. 3 It is he who assists us in avoiding hell. 4. Among the four professions (pishak) of the people his is the most excellent (afartiim). 5 There are five reasons for this superiority : (i) The priest possesses the attributes of the two classes of the warriors and agriculturists ; for it is his duty to declare war against the demons and to cultivate (the earth) with the worship of God. (ii) All men must learn from the priests the rules of morality and their religious duties, (iii) The priest is superior on account of the excellence of his recitations (of the sacred books), by his position and the marks of the priesthood, (iv) In the social body the priest corresponds to the head, whilst the warrior corresponds to the hand, the agriculturist to the stomach, and the artisan to the foot, (v) The priest is nearest the soul and com- mands it. 262. The high priest, the mobed of mobeds (magupatan magiipat), 6 is a kind of supreme pontiff, whose decisions ex catheUra are of the highest authority. 7 In the Pehlevi book, Kdrnamak-i Ardeshir-i Papakan (Deeds of king Ardeshir, 1 Dk., II., 69, 2. 2 Dk., IV., 157. 3 BD., xix., 36, 37. 4 Dk., I" 14. 5 Dk., II., 69. 6 The term was evidently meant to correspond with the title shdhan shah or m&lkdu malkd of the king in the civil order. 7 Dk., II., 67. 174 ETHICS. the founder of the Sassanian dynasty), the king is made to consult the mobed of mobeds as to how he must act {meman yehcumh afash meman kunishno) in a difficult case. 1 Support and aid for the religion was expected from the civil power ; hence the importance of the union between the two powers. 2 (c) — Other Religions — Infidels — Apostates. 263. The Mazdayasnian religion was anything but tole- rant. It was the only good one among several other religions ; all others were bad. 3 The Jewish, Manichean, and Christian religions were specially condemned^ 4 A Mazdayasnian should fight against "the Jewish religion (kesk-i Yihad) of Arum (the Greek Empire), against that of the Messiah {MasJuh) of the West, and that of Mani (Mdndi) of Turkestan." It is elsewhere said that the only pure religion is the Mazdayasnian ;. that of the Sinik is mixed ; that of the Zendik, the Christian {Tarsdk), the Jewish and other religions are still worse. The Christian religion had a third name that of Kilicyakih, 5 for which we have the authority of Neryosangh in his Sanskrit translation of the Yacna. This word is formed from the Persian kilicya = Grk. eKKkrjaia. 6 We have seen that there is a special demon, Shedd-fpihj 'the White Demon/ attributed to Christianity. 7 It is very remarkable and, at the same time, very important for determining the date of our authorities, that none of these passages, while attacking evil religions, breathe a single word about Islamism. Moreover, they always 1 Text given by Peshotun in his Dinkart, vol., II, p. 69, n. 2 Dk., I., 58. 3 Dk., IV., 156, 138. 4 Dk., I., 29; IV., 150; SIS., vi., 7. 5 BY., ii., 19. 6 West, PT., I., p. 200. These explanations are taken from M. Darmesteter. l ' BY.,iii., 3, 5, 8;cf. our'§ 127. SENTENTIOUS MORALITY. 1 75 associate Christianity with Arum 2 or Rum, that is to say, the Greek Empire, which was constantly at war with the Sassanian kings. All these indications are valuable, from the historical point of view. 264. Speaking about the non-Aryan worshippers of demons (dtvayagn&n analr) and about the sectarians or apostates (aharmokan), the Dinkart teaches that any communication with them is a cause of impurity; that one should not eat with them ; that one should wash three times with hot water the vessels from which they have eaten or drunk ( tashto va patishvar-i "valmansha.no patash vahdunand ge-b&r pavan zak-i garm dvo shoftan); a Mazdayasnian is polluted by eating out of these vessels. 2 V 265. The conversion of an adherent of an evil religion {akdlno) into the good religion is permitted. 3 Such an infidel {akdlno) can, according to Kushtano-bujed, the com- mentator, escape from hell by good deeds. 4 But for an apostate (ahramok) there is no more hope: he will not rise up again from the dead even on the last day. 5 The government must not be tolerant to apostates but " must deliver up their bodies (to torture) on account of the soul." fi VI.— SENTENTIOUS MORALITY OF MAZ DEISM. 266. In conclusion we. must say a word on the proverbial form which the Pehlevi treatises and specially the Mainyo-i Khard affect. 7 These are the moral sentences that strikingly 1 It is scarcely necessary to notice the error of Peshotun, who identi- fies this with Armenia in Dk., II., Glossary. 3 Dk., I., 36; 49,3- 3 Dk., 15., 70. * SlS.,vi., 6;Dk., IL 97, 5. 5 SIS., xvii., 7. 6 MK.„xv., 22. 25. 7 See our remarks in chap. I., § 53. 176 ETHICS. remind us of those of the sapiential books of the Old Testa- ment. The enumeration of contraries, the aphorisms, were specially favoured. It would be evidently impossible to mention here all of them ; we shall briefly indicate just a few. 267. The following are the things which cannot be relied upon: wealth, a king, human respect, relations, ancestry, and life. 1 Do not dispute with a wicked man ; be not partner with a covetous man; go not to the door of kings with a slanderer; form no connection with a man of evil repute; be not an asso- ciate with an ignorant man ; do not quarrel with a foolish man; walk not in the streets with a drunkard ; accept no loan from an ill-natured man. 2 268. There are four kinds of women : one who is good and not bad ; one who is good as well as bad ; one who is bad and not good ; one who is neither good nor bad. If you wish to be happy select the first; the second, however, will also be able to become a good house-wife ; but take care not to select either of the last two ! 3 The following four things must always be thought of : the mutability of the world, death, judgment and hell. 4, 269. The seven worst things are : a king who is unable to maintain his kingdom in peace ; a governor who is without skill, ungrateful and without affability ; a friend who is noi fit to be relied upon ; a kinsman who does not assist in adversity; a wife with whom one cannot live in peace ; a child who does not behave well; a city where there is neither virtue nor safety. 5 1 MK., ii., 102-110. 2 Ibid., 54-63; cf. Bccles. viii, 1-5, 18-21. :t Dk., II., 72. * MK., xviii. 5 MK., xxxiii. SENTENTIOUS MORALITY. I 77 The four things which must be taken great care of are : a child, a wife, a beast of burden, and lire. 1 270. Poverty with honesty is better than wealth without honesty. 2 Liberality out of the wealth of others does not benefit the donor, but blesses those from whom it has been robbed. 3 The root {bun) is known by the fruit {bar) and the fruit by the root.* Wine moderately taken is good, but drunk in excess is injurious. Wine manifests the good and the evil disposition. 5 1 MK., xxix. * MK.,xv.,4;Dk., H.,'68. 3 MK., xv., 7,8. * Dk., IV., 153, 2. 5 M.K., xvi.; cf. Eccles., xxxi , 31-39- M 17S ESCHATOLOGY. CHAPTER VII. ESCHATOLOGY. 271. Our description of the Mazdayasnian Ethics would be incomplete without a sketch of Eschatology, which forms the necessary complement to it. For, here below Auharmazd bestows his benefits upon the good as well as upon the evil, pluit super justos ct injustos, — and the benefits of this world do not always accrue to the virtuous. It is only in heaven and hell that the righteous and the wicked will have their recompense and their punishment. 1 Undoubtedly, we have not much to add on this point to the doctrine of the Avesta, except certain natural developments. This circumstance will admit of our stretching this part of the religious philosophy as briefly as possible. We have, then, to consider, (i) the last end, the novis- sima, of men taken individually : death, judgment and the state after death ; and (ii) the novissima of the whole world : the last days, resurrection and cnro/cardo-Too-if. I.— FATE OF THE SOUL AFTER DEATH, [a) — Before the Individual Judgment. 272. The adventures of the soul after death form the favourite subject of the descriptions of the Mazdayasnian literature. This picturesque history is already told twice in the Avesta.- In our Pehlevi treatises of the Sassanian period we find it repeated thrice, viz. in the Mainyo-i Khard, in the Ardd-i Viraf ' Nam ah and in the Dinkart. We shall endeavour to reproduce briefly the striking scene beyond the tomb from these three sources. 1 MK-, xxxviii. a Vd., xix., 89-112 (Wester., 27-34), Yt - xxi '-> (HdJoklu Nash), ii. and iii. FATE OF THE SOUL AFTER DEATH. I 79 273. The dogs and birds devour the body after death and the perishable {stjinak) part of it falls to the earth. 1 Rut the soul, separated from the body, remains seated near the head of the body for three days and nights, reciting a verse of the Gathiis ; during this time the soul enjoys an immense happiness, if it is one of a righteous man. 2 On the dawn of the fourth day 3 the soul of the righteous advances towards a place, where blows a wind from the southern quarter, from the direction of God, — a wind surcharged with sweet perfume of the trees, sweeter even than any which the man has ever scented in this life.' 1 ' It must be remembered that the soul in the Mazdayasnian system is represented by a young man, an idea contrary to our poetical and mystical language, which attributes to the soul the chnrms of the fair sex. On his way the soul meets a beautiful apparition: a damsel of graceful form, very beautiful, virtuous, charming to the heart and soul, brilliant, delightful to the eyes, 5 and more beautiful than any damsel in this world. 6 The soul cries out in wonder: "Who art thou? For I have never seen in my life a damsel more beautiful and more elegant than thee.'' "I am not a damsel," answers the apparition, c 'but, oh youth of good thoughts, words, deeds and religion ! I am thy good actions. It is on account of thy will and actions that I appear to thee so great, good, sweet-scented, trium- phant and imdistressecV as thou seest. When thou didst 1 MK., ii., 113. \Ye2 275. We have already noticed the strange idea of Haug about fravdhars. He considers these two damsels meeting the soul as the fravdhars of the righteous and of the wicked. 3 A fravahar is never considered as wicked or hideous, neither is it considered as capable of being changed nor 1 AVN., xvii., 12; Dk., II, 75. The latter book calls the evil and ugly woman Cardityo, transcribed in the Avestaic characters, in opposition to the name Kalno, in the same characters, applied to the beautiful virgin Apparently' for the Dinkart the Avestaic word cavj.hi had a bad mean- ing; but it seems to signify merely a young, hard-working woman. See Justi, Handbuch ; de Harlez, Vd., v., 171 [Wester., 61). ' AV\.' xvii 13-26; MK, ii, 168-181 ■1 Chap II § 117. I 82 ESCHATOLOGY. corrupted by the actions of the soul. They arc never repre- sented by women but rather by warriors. 1 Moreover, these damsels explicitly tell us what they are, viz., the personifica- tion of the good or evil deeds of man 2 ; this is, then, a perfectly reliable testimony. But one cannot believe his eyes when he reads the statement of the learned editorof the Dinkart that these two apparitions are respectively the forms of what he calls the ' Spenamz'no' and the ' Ghanamino'P The whole idea of the exact signification of these terms must have been lost to allow such a confusion.* {b) — The Cinvat Bridge and the Ji{dgmcnt of the Soul. 276. Quite close to the place of these interviews there is the celebrated Chj^at_Brj_dge {C invar or Cinvat puhai) 5 which unites this world with the world beyond the grave. This bridge is situated upon 'the peak of judgment' [Cdkad-i dditi/c), which is in the middle of the world and which seems to be a part of the Albiirz. This is 'the Bridge of the Soul/ the place for judgment. 7 When there is mention of future retribution * the Bridge' only is sometimes men- tioned: thus our omissions of the ceremonies of worship ' go to the Bridge as sins.' 8 A certain man on account of his 1 BD., vi., 3. [In Yt. xiii., the frjzi/ashis are often represented by warriors. (See paras. 17, 23, 31, 33, 37, 38, 39, 45, &c.)— Tr.] 2 ' Ebenbild seiner guten Werke ' [Image of his good dee'ds], as Spiegel calls it, EA., II., 228. "' Translation of the Dinkart, vol., II., pp. 82, 83. 4 In Mani's system also a damsel meets the soul of the righteous after his death, and the description given therein of the fate of the soul during this time, except that of the judgment, agrees exactly with that of the Dinkart. Cf. Spiegel, EA., II, 227, 22S. 5 The Paz. name is Candor. r ' BD., xii., 7. ' Ibid. H SIS . xii , 31. FATE OF THE SOUL AFTER DEATH. 1S3 sins will pass over ' the Bridge' {pavan vanity dahhhmh puhal).^ 277. This is the place where are found the three judges of the dead, — Mitro, -*000 1 Dk., II., 74, 2. 24 -A K lS6 ESCHATOLOGY. Garotman. This supreme (place) is the region of habitation of the Creator Auharmazd, and the region of habitation of the Ameshocpands and of the other yazds, and of the fravahars of those who have not yet taken birth, and of the brilliant visions, and possesses stainless purity." Here, therefore, we have a triple heaven, above which is Garotman, the supreme heaven, the dwelling of God and of the good spirits. 282. Elsewhere four other heavens are mentioned: (i) Humat, the heaven of good thoughts, (ii) Hiik/it, the heaven of good words, (iii) Hilvarsht, the heaven of good deeds, and above all these heavens is (iv) the brilliant Garot- man, which is pre-eminent. 1 The Humat region extends from the stars to the moon, the Hiikht from the moon to the sun, and the Huvarsht from the sun to the heaven Garotman, where dwells the Creator. 2 283. The same division precisely is found in the vision of Arda-i Viraf. We know that this holy Destur, according to the legend, flourished under the Sassanian king Shahpur II. (A.D. 309- 380). The Mazdayasnian religion was exceedingly corrupted, the traditions were altered or lost, and the prime minister of this king, the zealous Ataropad-i Marcpandan (known in 1 MK., lvii., 13. [These four heavens are also found mentioned in Yt. xxii., 15, and Yt. xxiv., 61. But according to Rashnu Yaslit, 25-38, there are seven heavens, viz. (ij that of the stars or Satarpdya, (ii) that of the moon or Mahpay a, (iii) that of the sun or Khurshedpaya, (iv) that of endless light or Anagar roshan, (v) the bright, happy and blissful abode of the pious, (vi) the shining Grdnamdna, and (vii) the Hadhana Hadhand Tanasu$. The three heavens : Humat, Hnkht and Huvarsht, described by Arda-i-Viraf, may be identified with the Satarpdya, Mdhpaya and Khurshedpaya ol the Rashnu Yasht, which identification has the support of MK., vii., 12. The last heaven of the Rashnu Yasht has no definite meaning, but it is certainly a place superior to the Grdna- mdna or Garotman. — Tr.] a MK., vii., 1- 12. THE WORLD BEYOND THE GRAVE. 1 87 history under the name of Adarbad Muhrespand), sought means to re-establish them in their original purity* Arda-i Viraf was chosen as the most holy of all the Desturs of the kingdom. It seems that one of his principal claims to this reputation had been his practice of the khvetukdaCj — he had each of his seven sisters for wives. ! l After performing several ceremonies a dose of the narcotic called mang was administered to this holy man, who soon fell into a kind of sleep and his soul departed to the next world and remained there for seven days. During this time Arda-i Viraf, like Dante, traversed the Cinvat Bridge and visited in detail the heavens and, hells, a minute description of which he has left us, and which reminds us in a striking manner of the immortal Italian epic. His guides were the two ai.gels, £rosh and Ataro.. 1 AVN., ii., 1-2. [These seven sisters of Viraf were not actually his wives, but were quite dependent upon him for their maintenance and support, just as a wife is dependent upon her husband ; which is clear from the second chapter of the Arda-i Viraf Nameh. In the beginning of this chapter it is said : " A-nd that Viraf had seven sisters and every one of these seven sisters of Viraf was like a wife unto him " [ya varman Virdf rai haft khdtman yehevunt, va varmanshdn kand haft khdtmandn Viraf cigun neshman yehevunt homand, paras 1, 2.) Here the term cigun implies a condition similar to that of a wife and not the actual condition of a wife. Further on these seven sisters themselves say : " And we all seven sisters are (like) wives unto that brother, just as the door of a house whose seven lintels are fixed in one pillar. He who shall remove that pillar will make these lintels fall. In like manner, for us seven sisters is this the only brother who is our life and maintenance" (va kahd haft khdtman varman akh neshmanih homanwi, cigun khdnak-i babd mavan haft fra$p i>a $tun-i azir dayan andtondd jaknimimad. Mavan zak gtun band josgund varmanshdn fragpdn band oftinand. Avin roman haft khdtman rai akh goman aivak ait mavan man zivashna va dd^unashna, paras. 10-13). Thus these seven sisters of Viraf were not actually married to their brother, but being unmarried and without any support in life were merely dependent upon him for their mainten- ance. It is still a custom among the modern Zoroastrians, as it was in the time of Arda-i Viraf, that unmarried sisters and daughters remain dependent for their support in life only upon their parents or a brother or even a 'brother-in-law. Cf, Darab Dastur Peshotan Sanjana, Tlie Alleged Practice of Next-of-kin Marriages in Old Iran, p. 35. — Tr.] l88 ESCHATOLOGY. 284. After having passed the bridge he first of all visited the place of Hamestakdn, 1 about which we shall speak later on. Then he traversed the three inferior heavens. In the Humat heaven which occupies the starry region {ftar-f>aik) he saw some souls whose radiance was glittering like stars. These souls belonged to those who had offered no prayers and chanted no Gdthds and practised no khvttukdac ; they had exercised no sovereignty and had governed no province or tribe {khutdth, da^upatlh, fardari/i); but they had been pious and had done good works. - In the second heaven Hiikht the souls had the splendour of the moon. Nothing is said of their social position, but they had not practised the three acts of piety mentioned above, though otherwise they had been virtuous. 3 The third heaven Huvarsht contained good kings, rulers and chiefs.* fc 285. Each pious soul has to go by exactly the same path to the three heavens in order to arrive at the supreme light of the Garutman. At the threshold of the supreme heaven, all the Ameshoc- pands 5 and the yazds as well as the souls of the pious 6 , with genuine oriental courtesy, advance to receive the new-comer, as they did for Viraf. They ask him how he has been able to come from the material world to immortality? and invite him to accept the hospitality of heaven. 7 1 AVN., vi. 3 Ibid., vii. 3 Ibid., viii. * AVN., ix. Haug is of opinion that the inhabitants of these three inferior heavens are not the righteous- belonging to the Mazdayasnian religion but to the foreign religions; and this seems probable enough. Introductory Essay, p. Ixii. c 5 MK., ii., 147. 6 AVN., x., 2. » MK., ii., 148, 149; AVN., x., 3-5. [Cf. also Yt. xxii.. \i, and Yt. xxiv., 62 .— Tr.] X THE WORLD BEYOND THE GRAVE. 189 " Do not ask him anything," then cries out the Creator Auharmazd, " since he, separated from his body, has arrived by the terrible way; but bring him the most delicious food, the Maidyozarem ravgan, 1 so that he may rest himself from 'the bridge of the three nights,' and make him sit on a throne adorned with precious stones." 2 This celestial food is called anush by Arda-i Viraf, which literally means 'ambrosia' (from hosh=death). The former name signifies 'oil or butter of the Maidyozarm feast,' one of the Gahambars or feasts of the seasons, — a kind of thick liquor. This drink is offered by the yazds to the soul of every pious man and woman who enters into glory. 3 2S6. Arrived at this point of his itinerary, Viraf tells us that Vohuman held him by the hand 4, and presented him to Auharmazd himself, who, however, as we have seen, is only visible under the form of light, like the n-^ty 1 °f the Old /Testament. There he met the fravahars of Gayomart, Zar- \ tiist, Vishtasp, and other heroes of antiquity, as well as the / yazds. Are these fravahars united with the souls of the ( saints mentioned above ? Viraf does not say anything about \this, but one may deduce it from psychological principles. 287. Then he went round the supreme heaven and saw all the recompenses of the righteous. His description of them is however very short. Haug has drawn up a list of virtues and good deeds worthy of recompense. 5 These are again 1 those which we have already spoken of in the preceding chapter, viz. liberality, chanting of the Gcithds, practice of khvetukdac, good government, veracity, destruction of 1 [Cf. Yt. xxii., 17, 18 and Yt., xxiv., 63, 64 — Tr.j 2 MK., ii., 150-154. 3 Ibid., ^56. [Cf. Yt., xxii., 18 and Yt., xxiv., 64— Tr.] * [Cf. Vd., xix., 31— Tr.] 5 AVN., Introductory Essays, pp. Ixiii.-Ixiv. 6 The kings and chiefs in the Hwarsht heaven are probably non- Mazdayasnians. 190 ESCHATOLOGY. kkrafgtars, care of cattle and agriculture, instruction of the ignorant, peace-making, etc. 1 All these souls were in glory, splendidly clothed and full of happiness. The souls of women, virtuous and obedient to their husbands, seemed to be placed apart. 2 258. As to the pleasures of heaven Viraf does not say anything. But we learn from the other sources that the souls of the blessed are immortal, impassible, fearless, resplendent, full of joy, full of happiness, and full of kindness. They per- petually enjoy an odoriferous breeze, the fragrance of which resembles that of basil (cparham) ; they have no satiety of their celestial life; they enjoy for ever and ever the society of the Yazds, Ameshocpands and all the righteous. 3 (\\)—Hell. 259. The souls whose sins exceed their good deeds go to hell (dushahu, the bad place (world)). We have a descrip- tion of this place of torments given by Viraf. It is much longer and more full of details than that of heaven. There are first three primary hells, corresponding to the three divisions of heaven, and a deeper place. The first three are called Diishmat, Dushukht and Dushvarsht, after which a fourth step conducts the soul of the wicked to the deepest darkness (tank turn), where Aharman himself rules.* 290. Hell is in the middle of the earth (dushahii yln-m'-han dam'tk)^ It must also be distinguished from the 'endless darkness/ where Aharman lived before the creation. 6 The evil spirits come out from it through a hole, the opening of 1 AVN., xii.-xv. , 2 AVN.,xiii. 3 MK., vii., 13-17; AVN., xv., 21-22. * MK., vii., 20-22. [Cf. Yt., xxii., 33— Tr.] 5 BD., iii., 27. Spiegel, EA., II, 121. THE WORLD BEYOND THE GRAVE. I91 which is on the mount Arezur, which is in the direction of Arum (the Greek Empire). 1 All around hell there is a great river, which is gloomy and miserable. It is formed of the tears of those who had made lamentations for their departed,- which action was forbidden by Mazdeism. 291. After having described at length the pains of those condemned to hell, Viraf says that Crosh and Ataro con- ducted him ' into a desert on the mount Ckat-i daitifc, 5 below the Cinvat Bridge/ and showed him 'the hell on the earth in the middle of this desert, below the Cinvat Bridge.'* Haug believes that this passage refers to a different hell. But although this passage is obscure, yet it seems to us that it describes nothing else than the darkest hell where Aharman lives, because the groans and cries of Aharman and his demons resounded from this place in such terrible wise that Viraf was frightened and much disturbed, for he imagined they would shake the seven keshvars of the world. Then re-assured by his guides, he went on ' further into this gloomy hell,' 5 the description of which is given by him in the next chapter. 292. As soon as the soul enters this frightful place the cowardly and cruel Aharman and his demons begin to treat him with mockery. " What evil hast thou done to Auharmazd and his sweet- scented, well-pleasing heaven ? Why comest thou to see us and our gloomy hell. 3 Is it in order that we may do thee harm and have no pity on thee, that thou mayst suffer a torture of long duration ?" 6 1 BD., xii., 8, 16. 2 AV.N-, xvi. 3 See § 276. 4 AVN., liii., 1,3. 5 Ibi^., 4-II. « [Cfi, Yt, xxii., 34-Tr.] IQ2 ESCHATOLOGY. Then they begin to maltreat him. Here he suffers a cold like unto that of the coldest ice and snow ; there he suffers heat equal to that of a burning fire ; elsewhere the khraftlars gnaw him just as a dog does a bone ; there is such a stench as he totters and falls. 1 There the darkness is such that one can hold it by the hand. 2 293. Viraf describes with full particulars the torments of dif- ferent sinners, which he saw in hell. There is a total want of order in his description, and the same sins are often repeated in several places. The faults punishable in hell are those which we have already described in our chapter on Ethics. Haug has arranged all of them in order in his introduction, 3 where we find no less than fifty sins compared. 294. The punishments of sins are highly varied. Nothing is more hideous and more horrible than these atrocious torments, which surpass the most grotesque representa- tions of the Middle Ages. Heat and cold, noxious animals, all kinds of filth and every manner of torturing the body are made use of in this punishment. There is no doubt that during the life-time of the author many such tortures were employed in Persia, perhaps as at present : the cruelty of the executioners of the East is well known. 295. There is often a certain analogy between sins and their punishments, — an application of the law of retaliation, which reminds us of many of the pains of hell described by Dante. 4, Those who have maltreated cattle are trodden under their feet. Serpents gnaw the tongues of slanderers. The tongues of liars are cut off. Those who have used false weights and measures are always occupied in weighing and measuring ashes which they are forced to swallow, &c. 5 1 Barzend, see West, Museon, vol. II., No. 3. ■ MK., vii., 23-31. 3 pp. lxx.-lxxi. * Cf. Ortolan, Les Penaliles dc V Enfcr de Dante. h AVN,, lv,, Ixvi., xcvii., xxvii. THE WORLD BEYOND THE GRAVE. 193 296. Zartiisht also had a vision of hell, which reminds us, 511 a striking manner, of the parable of the wicked Dives and Lazarus : " I have seen a celebrated man possessing much wealth, whose soul, (which had lived) infamously in the body, was sickly and famished in hell, and did not seem to me (more) exalted ; and I have seen a beggar, without either wealth or help, whose soul was flourishing in heaven." 1 297. The interior of hell, as described by the Bun-Dehesh, V is cold, drv, stony and dark. Its darkness is such as can be grasped by the hand, and its stench is such as can be cut with a knife. But its solitude is worse than its punishments, because if there be a thousand men in the space of a span, each of them thinks himself to be alone. The seven planets exercise their malignaTit influence over it. The food of the souls condemned to hell is brimstone, lizards and other abominable dishes. 2 298. In the same manner Viraf says that the souls of the wicked stand as close as the ear is to the eye, and they are as many in number as there are hairs in the mane of a horse, but they neither see nor hear each other, and each of them thinks: 'I am quite alone'! And when a soul has been only one day in this place, he thinks that he has been there for three thousand years. 3 299. In another chapter we have already remarked that the bodies which the condemned souls assume are probably special bodies formed ad hoc before the time of the final resur- rection. There is also a case in which a man condemned to hell assumes the body of a serpent with a human head. 4 300. The justice of the punishment in hell is so scrupu- lous that the lazy Davanos, who is punished for not having 1 BY., ii., 12. 2 BD., x.wiii., 47, 48. [Cf. Yt xxii., 36. According to Yacna xxxi., 20, a long duration of misery and darkness, bad food and woful words are the punishments in hell. See A. V. Williams Jackson, A Hymn of Zoroaster : Yagna 31, p. 15; also Darmesteter, the Zend Ai'esla, p^art II., p 321 n. I — Tr.] 3 AVN., liv., 5-11 ; xviii., io, II. * AVN., xxxvi. 25 IQ4 ESCHATOLOGY. made a good use oi his riches during life, suffers nothing in his right foot, with which he once pushed a bundle of grass before a ploughing ox 1 or a sheep, 2 for no good deed remains without its recompense. In the same manner the right foot of a lascivious man is exempt from the punishment of the boiling caldron, because in his life-time he destroyed with this foot the khrafctars of Aharman. 3 It is in the same order of ideas that a husband, though in heaven, is reproached for having neglected the instruction and correction of his wife, whose punishment in hell is only darkness and stench. 4 301. As regards the duration of the pains of hell the Mainyo-i Khard says that the punishment of the wicked in hell is for all eternity (anda hame u hame raveshnt) , 5 How- ever, other authorities do not agree on this point, as we shall see when we speak about the end of the world. But the Mainyo-i Khard itself expressly mentions that Aharman will be annihilated or destroyed ; 6 it is therefore evident that the abovementioned expression indicates only the end of the world as it is well shown by Windischmann. 7 (iii) — The Hameqtag&n. 302. We must not consider the Hamectagan or the third place where the souls go as the Purgatory of the Christians. It is rather the place where go the souls of those whose good and evil deeds are in equilibrium at the end of this life. 8 This region extends from the earth to the stars. The souls suffer there only,the heat and cold produced in the atmos- phere. 9 303. This remarkable conception is altogether post- Avestaic and offers us one of those developments so natural to the Eranian mind, ever fond of systematisation. However, 1 AVN.xxxii. 2 SIS., xii., 20 3 AVN., Ix. * AVN., Ixviii. s MK„ xl., 31. 6 MK, viii., 13. ' Zor Stud., p. 232. s MK., siii , 15 ; AVN. vi ; SIS., \\, 2. • MK 19; AVN , vi THE WORLD BEYOND THE GRAVE. IQ5 Dr. Roth has recently 1 tried to prove that this doctrine is found also in the Avesta, by giving a new translation of a stanza of the Yacna, xxxiii.,i. We do not think that the learned Sanskritist of Tubingen will be successful in convinc- ing his readers. His theory is principally based upon an altogether new interpretation of the word hem-yacaite, which he translates ' sich ausgleichen ' = to equalize one's self, and identifies with the name of ha?nectag(in* Further he believes to have found a related term in Pehlevi, the hamyaeto of the Dinkart. 3 304. Although the argument of Dr. Roth on the Avestaic words seems to us feeble enough, yet it does not fall within our limits to refute it. It will be sufficient for us to refer on this subject to an articie which Professor de Harlez has con- tributed to Bezzenberger's Beitrdge."' In the meantime it remains for us to raise some points regarding the argument drawn from the Pehlevi language. (i) There can exist no doubt of the etymology of the word hamectagan or hametfakan. It is, as Roth himself sees, a plural, and was first applied to the souls themselves; but it is evidently composed of hami and ctak derived from the root eta ; it signifies therefore 'those who are in equilibrium/ or according to West, 'the ever stationary.' No Pehlevi scholar would admit its connection with the root yaq, what- ever signification may yet be given to this word. (ii) Roth would like to read the Pehlevi term rather as hamyaqtakan. But although this reading can be quoted for several texts (along with such forms as hamyactakan, hamaq- takan, etc.), yet it is seen at once that for the theory of Roth it should be hamyactakan with a long a in the middle, of which there is positively no trace. 1 Z. D. ftl. G., xxxvii., pp. 223-228. ' Die Seelen des Mittelreichs in Parsismus.' * He is surprised that neither Bartholomse nor de Harlez has dis- covered th#s etymology, p. 226. 3 Dk., II., 87, 3. * Tom ix., pp. 294-299. ig6 ESCHATOLOGY. (iii) That Dr. West 1 may rather be right in interpreting the word hamih acto given in the Dinkart as 'is with' or ' is in harmony with,' follows from the fact that the whole chapter treats of this hamih or harmony, which even gives its name to the chapter : 'the harmony of the lowest, of the mid- dle and of the highest;' JcacUt va mlhanak va maliict hamih. Thus, again, the word has no connection with the root ydr. 305. Moreover, Roth has misunderstood the phrase that he quotes, which simply means: 'all mankind in the material world are in harmony with the spiritual world' {ham gthano murium nunishn\k levatman ahao hamih acto). We therefore come to the conclusion that the Avesta does not know anything about the ffamtctagan. 2 W.—END OF THE WORLD, (a) — The last Millennia. 306. The Mazdayasnians possess a kind of Apocalypse which describes with much detail the end of the world: this is the Bahman Yasht, translated by West in his Pehlavi Texts, 1 Quoted by Roth, (p. 226), who confesses that the eminent Pehlevi scholar is against him, and recognises the possibility of the necessity of abandoning the argument. 2 [Though the doctrine of Hamegtagdn is not to be found in the extant Avesta texts, yet there is possibility to believe that, like other doctrines, it was developed in the Pehlevi works from some Avesta Nask which is now lost but which might be extant in the times of the Sassa- nians. However, Ervad K. E. Kanga in his Glossary of the Vendidad, p. 204, translates the word miqi'dna gdtu by 'the place of the middling reward, i.e., Hamectagan,' and Professor Justi in his handbucli, p. 233, under the word migvana says that it is 'the always useful place, i.e., the place where the supernumerary work of the pious is preserved in order to add something, if necessary, at the judgment of a believing soul, which is yet wanting to counterbalance the number of evil works. This treasure is preserved in a space which the Minok Khirad and the Ardai Viraf Nameh call Hamer-tagan." But mit^vdna gdttf-\s probably the Cinvat Bridge which is the place of perpetual retribution. This is also evident from Vd., xix., 7fi:Nizbayemi miqvdnahe gdtvahe qadhdtahe cinvat-ptretfum mazdadhdtdm. " I praise the Mazda-creaked Cinvat Bridge of the natural place of perpetual retribution." — Tr.] END OF THE WORLD. 197 vol. I. The Brtn-Dehesh also contains an important chapter on the last days. It is at the end of the millennium of Zartusht, — the millen- nium in which we are, (and which therefore should have ended many centuries since), — that the signs of the end of things will begin to appear. These will be the spots on the sun, the growth of all kinds of crimes, the barrenness of the earth, the physical and moral degeneration of man. The demon Aeshm will rage everywhere, the religious rites will be neglected. There will be hot and cool winds but no rain, the sky will be covered with the clouds of night. The Turanians and the Aryans will be the sovereigns of the world. 1 307. Then come the three millennia of Hoshedar, Hoshe- dar Mah and Soshyans. 2 Each of these prophets, born mira- culously, makes the true religion and the Eranian people triumphant for a time. The first is he who as the sign of his mission makes the sun to stop for three days. 3 During the millennium of Hoshedar Mah men will make an extraordinary progress in the science of medicine and will no more die so easily. Also Kerecacp will be roused up from his sleep of centuries and will kill Azh-i Dahak. 4 308. At last comes the millennium of Soshyans, the last prophet. During this epoch the appetite will gradually dimi- nish and men will desist at first from eating meat, then from eating vegetable and milk, then from eating bread and lastly thay will live only upon water. 5 (d) — Resurrection of the Dead. 309. Then there will be the resurrection of the dead. We know that it will be easily accomplished by the power of 1 BY,, ii., 31-53. 2 [Tfcese are Ukhshyat-erta, Ukhshyat-nema and Astvat-erta of the Avesta. — Tr.J 3 BY., iii., 45. * Ibid., 52, sqq. 5 BD., xxx., 1-3. [Cf. Yt., xix., 96. Horvatat and Ameretat, i.e., health and immortality shall destroy hunger and thirst. — Tr.] 198 ESCHATOLOGY. Auharmazd. 1 Every man will rise from the same place where he fell dead. 2 Sodomites, apostates, and men born of the demons are excluded from the resurrection, 3 and among these will be Afrasyab who has himself become a demon by his crimes. 4 Men will revive in the order of their creation firstly Gayomart, then Mashya and Mashyoi, then the other righte- ous and wicked men ; and this resurrection will take up a period of fifty-seven years. 5 They will know their relations and friends. All will be brilliant, but Gayomart will have as much lustre as that of all others taken collectively. Then will take place the great assembly where the good and evil actions of each man will be made visible. The wicked will become as conspicuous ' as a white sheep among the black ones.' The righteous man, who has hcwever neglected to check his friend who acted sinfully, will reap great shame for his negligence. 6 Then will follow the separation of the righteous from the wicked, a separation painful even to the righteous. Then the wicked will be horribly tortured in hell for three days. 7 310. All this regeneration (tanii-i pacln) 3 will be accom- plished under the direction of the prophet Soshy t Hns, who will have for assistants certain men and women who have been preserved from death in the mystical regions, like that of Airan Vej, the reminiscence of the primitive country of the Aryas, which has become a sort of officina gentium for the last ages. This country seems to be in Khvanirac 9 , on the shores of the ocean. 10 It contains the Var or the enclosure 1 BD., xxx., 4-6. 3 SIS., xvii., 11-14. [Cf. Yt., xix , 89. Yat irida paiii v^eliista. — Tr.] » SIS., xvii., 7. * Dk., III'., 116, 13. 5 BD, xxx, 7-8. a BD., xxx., 9 11. » BD., xxx., 12-16. 8 Literally ' the future body,' the new body that every one will assume at the time of the resurrection. This term is generally used for the resurrection itself, cf. § 52. • MK.Jxii., 31. 10 MK., lxii., 34. END OF THE WORLD. 199 formed and governed by Yim ; it is under the earth 1 and is one of the abodes of these immortals. 2 Professor de Harlez has demonstrated that this minute description of the resurrection of the body is probably a second apocalyptical narration inserted in the midst of the other, which occupies the remainder of the chapter of the Bun-Dehesh, 3 and which runs on in the following manner: — ' AiroKaTaaraais . 311. The star or comet Gocihar will fall from the sky and will make the whole earth tremble like a sheep before a wolf. Then will burst out the great conflagration of the earth, which will melt all the metals even in the mountains, and will make a vast river of burning liquid metal. This river will be the ordeal which all the righteous and wicked must pass \through. For the righteous it will be pleasant and agreeable like warm milk, and will be the source of their splendour. But for the wicked it will be a terrible punishment. 4 ;I2. But this burning matter will purify everything. Even the wicked will be purified by it from all stains. Sosh- yans will make the great sacrifice of the ox Hadhayos, 3 and from his fat and the juice of the white Horn the ambrosia (Jiush) will be prepared and given to all men. Thus men will become immortal. The adults will have the age of forty years, and the young that of fifteen. Husband and wife, parents and children will meet together, but they will I iget no more children. 6 313. Then will follow the last great battle of the spirits \ of which we have spoken before, 7 and the destruction of Azh 1 MK.,lxii., 15. 2 BD., xxix., 1-5. 3 Introduction, p. cxlvii. The first narration occupies chap, xxx , 1-3 and 17-35 '■> tne second occupies chap, xxx., 4-16. * BD., xxx., 18-20; Dk., vi., 169. 5 See chap. IV., § 182. BD, xxx., 25, 26. 7 See chap., III.. § 102. 200 ESCHAT0L0GY. in the molten metal by the power of the star Gocihar. 1 We have already treated elsewhere of the end of Aharman.'*' 314. But the river of the molten metal will finally purify hell itself, so that this place of punishment will be restored and added to the world. " By the will of Auharmazd the renovation of the universe will be accomplished and the world will be immortal for ever and ever" 3 "Praise be to Him," cry out the faithful, "praise be to the merciful Lord, who makes the final retribution and who will at the end deliver the wicked from hell and restore the whole creation in purity !"* i « 1 BD., xxx., 30, 31. 2 See chap., II., § 82, sqq. 3 BD., xxx., 31, 32. See the Dissertation of Windischmann on the end of the world, Zor. Stud., pp. 231-259. * Dk., II., 81, 6. [It will not be out of place to give here the follow- ing description of the final resurrection of the world which is found in the Avesta, chiefly in Yasht xix : Astavat-erta (^aoshyac) shall take birth in a place on the lake Kacava (Yt., xix., 92) of a woman of the name of Vigpa-taurvairi, otherwise called Eredat-fedhri (Yt., xiii., 142 and Yt., xix., 92). He shall look down upon the whole creation of the world with the eye of wisdom. He shall see the good creation with an eye of love, and the evil one with an eye of contempt, and the whole of the living creation shall get immortality merely by his sight. (Yt. xix., 94). Those who are victorious and of wood thought, words, and deeds, and who follow the good Law and speak nothing but the truth, shall be his friends and will assist him in making the resurrection (Yt., xix., 95). Then shall follow a mighty combat between good and evil, befween angels and demons, between the powers of light and those of darkness, and this all end in the final destruction of the evil spirits : Aeshma shall bow and flee before Qoshyiic and his comrades. Coshyac; shall smite the most wicked Druj (Yt., xix., 95). Vohumano shall smite Akemmano, truth shall smite falsehood, Haurvatat and Ameretat shall smite hunger and thirst, and the evil-doing Angro-mainyu becoming powerless shall bow and flee (Yt., xix., 96). The Druj and her'hundred- fold progeny shall thenceforth perish (Yt., xix., 90). Then the world shall become fresh ; it shall never decay nor become rotten ; it shall live and increase for ever, and shall rule according to its wish. Thenrfhe dead will rise up and the living will be immortal (Yt., xix., 89).-— Tr.] INDEX I. THINGS PLACES AND PERSONS REFERRED TO. Aban § log. Abraham § 54. Achaemenian Artaxerxes § 3 n. dynasty ii n. Achmaenians iii. Achaemenide kings ii. Adam § 54- ^ Aderbad Mahrespand (Des- tur, Prime Minister of Shahpur II.) iii, §§ 87 n., 283. Aeshm 1 §§ 126, 127, 277, Aeshma J 306, 314 n. daeva § 126 n. Afrasyab §§ 209, 309. Africa § 186. Afrin-i-Ardafravash § 116 n. i-Gahambar § 143 n. Aharman §§ 5, 44, 45, 52, 53, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73. 74, 75. 76, 77» 78, 79, 80, 81 & n, 82 & n, 84 & n, 85 & n, 90, 91, ^2, 101, 102, 115, 123, 124, 126, 128, 139, 158, 159, 160, 164, 179, 182, 184, 187, 193, 208, 212, 213, 220, 223, 225, 226, 245, 249 250, 274, 2S9, 290, 291; 292, 300, 301, 3i3.*7 I -73 > 80-S5. Aharmani § 71. Ahriman ^ 24, 69, 71, 72. Ahiina-vairva § 13 n. Ahura § 24. Almramazda §§4 n, 13 n, 17 n, 23 & n, 52 n, 59 n, 6411, .'73 n. Ainin Nameh § 145 n. Airan Vej § 310. Airpat § 237 n. Akem-mano§23 n, 94 n, 31411, Akoman §§ 80, 94, 124, 125, 126. Alburz §§ 52, 54. i3S, ^37, I 54, 158, i59» 164, 276. Alexander the Great ii n, iii. — 's Empire ii n. Alexandrine School § 57, Alexandrines § 55. Alger (W. R.) §61 n. Amarac_pands § 96. Ambrosia §§ 285, 312. Amerctat §§ 308 n, 314 n„ America § 61 n. American author § 61 n. Amerodat §§ 96, 169. Amesha-cjpentas §§ 13 n, 24, 60, 95,98.^ Ameshaspands § 24. Ameshoc.pand § 169 — (pi.) §§ 34, 415 50, 52, 75, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 1 16, 1 18, i2i, 123, 125, 126, 172, 225, 231, 281, 285, 288, 93-97. Andar § 125. Andarj-i Khusro-i Kavatan § 229 n. 26 INDEX Angel § 130 n, the fallen — §§ 65, 66 & n, the repro- bate)- (pl.)§§ 24, 34, 61 n, 95, 96, 98, 108, 130 n, 277, 278, 283 guardian — § 91, inferior — § 24 — of resurrection § 108. Angelic Hierarchies § 95. Angromainyush §§ 17 n, 23 n, 82 n. Anklesharia (Tehmuras Din- shahji) § 1 16 n. Annals of the Mazdayasnian religion, ii. Anosharavan § 161 n. Anquetil Du Perron § 17 n. Anthropomorphism § 37. Anti- Aryan theory § 175 n. Apaosh §§ 109, 127, 156, 160. Apocalypse § 306. Apocalyptical narration ^310. Apostate §265. —(pi.) ^§ 264, 265, 309- Arab Conquest, i, iv, vi, §86. Arabian Sea § 163. Arabs, i. A rag § 164. Aramaic § 122. Araxes § 164. Archangels §§95, 96. Arch demon § 187 — (pi. ) § 75. Arch fiends ^ 123. Arcturus § 133 n. Arda-i Viraf §^ 37, 76, 90, 105, 108, 191, 225, 228, 233. 2 5 6 > 2 7 2 > 273, 278, 282 n, 283 & n, 285, 286, 288, 289, 291, 293, 298. vision of — §§ 279, 280. — (holy Destur) § 283. Arda-i Viraf Nameh, iv, §S 3, 238 n, 272, 283 n, 305 n. Pope's English trans- lation of — § 279. Ardeshir I., iii. — Papakan. ii. — the founder ol theSas- sanian Dynasty § 262. Ardvicur §§ 121, 155. Arezur (mount) § 290. Aristotle, ii n. Arhmen § 16. Armenia § 263 n. Armenian historian § 217 — (P 1 -) §| 3- IS— writer § 218— (pi.,) § 9 & n .— Vartabed § 6. Armenians § 17. Arsasides ) Arsacidae / " "' m ' Arshisang § 1 10. Art § no. Artavahisht § 96. Artaxerxes, II. iii. — III. iii. Arum, v. §§ 263, 290. Aryans I .. c - a < > 11 n, & 306. Arians J ' * ° Aryan Mythology § 174- — Nature worship § 175 — Origin § 103 — Theory § '75 & n. Aryas§§ 174, 310. Arzah §§ 160, 163. Acman (created heaven) § 12 — (personification 4 of the material sky) § 109 — (Spirit of the sky) $ 10 1. Acmano § 109. Acnavand § 166. Acno-khart §§ 1 io, 124, 126. Acto-vidhat § 127. Ashavahisht § t2i. Ashtad § 108. Asia § 160 n. Asmodeus § 126 n. Aspen jargak §^ 73, "154. Assyrian sculptures § 182. IN DFX 203 Assyriology § 175. Assyriologists § 175 n. Astvat-erta 307 n, 314 n. Ataro §§ 90, 105, 277, 2 7 8 , 283, 291. Ataro Frobag § 145 n. Atarqpdd-i-Marspandan [see Aderbad Mahrespand). — son of Zartiisht § 255. Auharmazd §§ 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17 & n. 23, 24, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34. 35>-3 6 , 37. 38, 39.40, 4 2 , 43> 48, 5°. 5 1 - 5 2 > 54, 59, 6 4, 66, 68, 70 & n, 7 2 > 73> 75, 7 6 > 77, 79, 80, 81 & n, 82, 89, 90, 9 1 , 9 2 . 93, 95, 9 6 , 9 8 , 99, 100, 1 01, 106, 115, 1 16, 1 19, 121, 123, 124, 126, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134, I39> H2, 150, i54» 156, 159, 164, 179, 183, 184, 187, 191, 193, 213, 214,220,223, 224, 225, 231, 245 n, 257, 258, 271, 274, 281, 285, 2S6, 29 2 , 309> 3'4, 18-22 27-44 — (beneficent to all) § 27 — Creator and Preserver § 27 n — Bene- volent and merciful §» 27 — All in all § 30 — Combats with the Evil Spirit § 28 — Creator of all creatures § 41 — author of the sacred writings § 43— God §§ 3, 14, 15, 17 — Spirit of the spirits §§27, 132 — intan- gible spirit §§ 27, 37— Omniscient and omni- potent § 27 — supreme sovereign §§ 27, 31 — Supreme possessor and Lord, § 29 — supreme in omniscience § 28 — per- fectly good § 27 — wise creator § 31 — supporter § 31 — protector § 31 — giver of good things § 31 — virtuous in actions § 31 — merciful § 31 — pure legislator § 31 — Lord of the good crea- tions § 31 — supreme being § 27 — the Lord §§159, .165. Auramazda ii. A van £ 109. Avesta i, ii n, iv 6c n, §§ 4 n, 8, 11, 13 n, 14 n, 23 & n, 24, 26, 31, 37, 43, 48, 50, 55 n. 56, 59, 60, 71, 8 1 n, 82 n, 85 n ; 89 n , 93, 94 "> 95- 103, 107 n, 108, 1 13, 1 18, 122, 127 n, 136, 142 n, 143 n, i55> 158, 165 n, 173, 175 & n, 213, 234, 235 & n, 237, 244- 245, 256, 279 n, 303, 305, 3H n. Origin of the — ii n. Commencement of the — ii. Development of the — iii. — translated into Pehlevi iii. — Nasks vi. n, § 305 n. — texts ii. — al- phabet iii. — doctrine § 85 n — document § 143 n. — beliefs §. 9 — times § 129 — traditions vi. books § 61 n. Avestaic ^ Avestean J characters § 274 — doc- trine §§ 175, 271 — doe - trines § 233 — people 2 0f INDEX § 175 n — philosophy § 201 n — religion i, ii, §§ 9> '3 n » 2 3 — system §§ 98, 112 — time§ 175 n. — words § 304. Azarpujoh § 161 n. Azh §§ 82, 313. — i Dahak §1 107, 307. Babylonia § 9. Babylonian 1 Captivity $61 n. Babylonish J ■ 3 — Cosmogony §§ 133 n. 152 — traditions § 101. Babylonian and Oriental Record § 229 n. Babylonians ii. n. Bactria ii, § 61 n. Bactro-Persian Circle of ideas § 61 n — doctrinal belief § 61 n — speculations §61 n. Bagdad § 26. Bahman Yasht iv, § 306. Bartholomae § 303. Battle of the Spirits §313. Beelen §§ 54, 56 n. Barezisavang § 165. Bezzenberger's Beitrage §304. Bhagavadgita § 227 n. Bible § 143. Biblical account § 174. Bombay v, § 1 16 n, 225. Bootes § 133. Brucker (Haar) § 69. Bun-Dehesh iv, vi, §§ 3, 11, 13, 17 n, 28, 30, 35, 38, Si, 65, 70 & n, 73, 76, 82, 85, 9 t, 92, 93, 101, 123, 125, 127, 134, 14311, 144, 158, 162 n, 165 & n, 167, 169, 171, 173, 180, 185, i88, 297. 306, 3J0. BArj § 155. Burzin Mitro § 166. Bushasp § 127. Cakat-i-daitik (mount) § 291. Camrosh §§ 169, 175 n, 182 & n. Candor Bridge § 52. de Cara § 126 n. Casuistic science § 244. Categorical assertion v. Celestial archetypes § 1 19 — antitypes § 1 19. Cerberus § 279. China § 160 n. Chosr.oes Anosharavtin§229 n. Christ § 61 n. Christian art § 37 — circle of belief § 61 n — circle of ideas § 61 n — doctrine §§ 60, 61, 65 — doctrines § 85 & n — idea§ 5 — ideas, vi & n,§ 61 & n — influ- ence § 23 — influences § 5 — morality § 238 — reli- gion v, §§23 n,6i n, 263 — sense § 1 1 — source § 61 n — theology §§ 61 n, 65, 95> 9 8 » 249- Christianity §§ 61 n ; 64, 66 & n, 263. Christians §§ 61 & n, 64, 66, 258. Cinvat Bridge §§ 103, 105, 108, 127, 242, 273, 276, 279,-283, 291 ; 276-280; 305 n. Comparative Mythology § I.75- Cosmic egg § 152. l Cosmogony §§ 13, 134 Baby- lonian— §§ 133 n, 152, Mazdayasnian— r§ 91 Phoenician — § 152. INDEX 205 Cosmological system §§ 147, 151. Cosmology §§ 52, 281 ; 130-1S2, Mazdayasnian — § 130, Sassanian — § 154. Ctesias § 186 n. Cuneiform inscriptions, iii, § 26— texts § 175. Cynocephalis § 186. Cyrus (the anointed of the Lord) i., the river — § 164. Dadistan-i-Dinik. vii, §§ 30 n 76, 27S n. Dair-i-Shar § I. Dakhmas § 245 n. Damasius § 13. Damdad nask §' 203 n. Dante §§ 37 n, 283, 295. Darius, i. iii, § 3 n. Darmesteter §§ 263 n, 297 n. Davanos § 300. Demi-devs § 209. Demon §§ 122, 193,231,245, 309 — of Anger § 106 — of Christianity § 127 — of Death § 127 — of Drought § 156 — of Scep- ticism § 124 — (pi) §§ 44 52, 66, 70, 73, 74, 75, 80, 82, 90, 94, 97, 99, tt 100, 101, 103, 106, 107, 1 16, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 135, 139, 156, i59» l6o > i79> l8 o> 187, 188, 193, 209, 212, 216,225, 238, 245, 249, 261, 277, 278, 279, 291, 2^2, 309 ; 22- 1 29. Destiny §| 5, 6 n, 7, 8, 9, 10, 33, 40, 46, 47, 48, 6;, 2J7; S-J3 — attached to Sphere § 13 — attached to Infinite Time § 13 — of the Greeks § 13 — the strongest being § 13 — (cipihr) § 13. Destur \ 00 a „.,. Dastur J» 214,236,251- of the Good Law §§ 311 255 — (pi-) §§ 17 n > 21, 254, 283. Dev §§ 122, 209 — (pi.) §§ 186, 209,216, female — §§ 122, 127, Christian — §§ 65, 66. Devil (Jewish) §§ 65, 66. Dina-i-Mainog-i-Khirad § 49. Dinkart. v, vi & n, vii n, §§ 3, 5, 23 n, 24, 31, 32, 33, 34^ 35. 3 6 > 37> 3 8 , 41, 55 & n, 57, 60, 61, 6z, 74, 85 n, 87, 93, 128, i47> H9> 150, 151, l S2> i5 8 » *73 & n > J 92 n, 196, 197, 198, 207, 229, 231, 236, 237 n, 242, 243, 262 n, 264, 272, 275 278, 281, 303, 304. Dino§§ no, 155. Dirhams § 256. Dives § 296. Divine name § 21 — nature § 14— Wisdom § 48-56, 56 n, 204 Divinity §§ 10, 99 — of time § 6— (pi.) § 22. Divs § 17. Doctor of the Soul § 255 — of the sacred traditions § 261— (pi.) §§ 21, 259. Doctrine of Angels § 61 n — of Destiny § 7 — of Eter- nity § 7 — of Eternal Zrvan § 9 — of Zrvan § 9 n — of Resurrection § 61 n — of Satan §§61 n, 66 n — of Wisdom § 55 n, 2o6 INDEX Dron ceremony $ 121 — consecration § 121 — (pl.)§§ 121, 126. Driiasp § 121. Drnj §§ 78, 115, 122, 314 n — (female demon) § 249 — Na§fts§245— (pl.)§§ 100, 129, 135, 180, 186, 216, 249. Dualism §§ 4 & n, 10, 17 n, 23, 35> 6 3, 64, 66, 67, 70 n, 87, 130. Dualistic doctrine § 70 — symmetry § 262 n — sys- tem §§ 14,67, 63-70. Diishmat (hell) § 287. Dushukht (hell) § 289. Dushvarsht (hell) § 289. Ecclesiasts § 54. Ecclesiasticus § 54. Edict of MihirNarseh iii, §§ 3, 9> l 5> 16. Egypt § 61 n. Egyptian culture § 61 n — doctrinal belief § 61 n — speculations § 61 n. Elisius (historian) ^§ 3, 16. Encyclopaedia Britannicaii n. Epistles of Maniishcihar. vii, §76. Eran I Iran /'» vi > §§ 6l n ' I5 ?> 2 33- Eranian 1 ,, e r„ T . > authors q 162 — Iranian J kings § 231 — languages iv. — literature § 21 — love of dualistic symmetry § 262 n — mind §§67, 87, 91, 232, 303 — moralists § 239 — notions § 238 — people § 307 — philosophy § 202 — religion §§ 2, 21, 61 n — religions § 4 — sects §§ 2, 24 — spirits § 95 — terms § 56 — theo- logy § 21 — theory § 237. I §§ 4, 12, 13, 14, I 35", 37, 55 & n, Eranians ' 56, 72, 87, 160, Iranians J 162, 174, 175, I 181, 209 245, . J 2 5°- Eranist 1. §§ 1 13, 201 — (pi ) iv > §§ I9> 7 1 - Eredat fedhri § 314 n. Eschatology §§ 271, 271-31 Eternity §§ 5, 7, 54. Ethics §§ 55, 81, 189,210-270, 210, 237, 238. l'Etoffe*-de Chinon § 175 n. Europa § 182. Europe § 61 n, 160. Evolution §§ 23, 175, 244 — of a pure Aryan Nature- worship § 175. Extramundane deities § 36. Eznig (the Armenian histo- rian), iii, §§ 16, 209, 217 — (Vartabed) § 6. Fargard §§ 4 n, 23 n. Farohars § 112. Farvardyan § 52. Fatalism § 47. Fatalist doctrine § 20S — doc- trines § 2 1 7 — ideas*; 10 — notions § 218 — tendency § 120 * Female spirit §§ 97, 127. Fire altar § 175 n — temple §121 —worshippers^ 165. Firmament (space) § i<2. Firozabad § 37 n. Florival (Levaillant de) § 209 Folk-lore § 180. Fomalhaut § 133. INDEX 207 Formula of Patet § 257. Fradadafsh § 160. Frashkereto § 194. Fravakain § 188. Fravahar §§ 114, 117, 118, 119, 149, 181, 191, 197, 199, 201 & n, 202, 275 — of Aiiharmazd § 118 — of Zartusht § 116 — (pi.) §§ 101, 112, 115, 116, 118, 1 19, 120, 121, 128, 129, 135, 148, 155, 181, 202, 233, 275, 281, 286, 1 12-120, 201-202, — of celestial spirits § 118 — of animals and inanimate objects § 118. Fravash § 112. Fravashi § 201 11. Fravashis § 113, 120 n, 13511, 275 n — (prototypes) §§ 91, 128. Fredun §§ 53, 54, 81. Free Will § 207. Frezhist §§ 127 & 277. Frobak § 166. Frohar § 199— (pi.) § 112, 120 n. Funeral spirits §§ 103, 116; 103-108. Grahambar feasts § 126, Ganambars §§ 52, 219, 285 — (feasts of the seasons) §285. Ganakminoi §§ 70 & n, 71, 72,73, 84; 71-73. Ganj-i Shayagan §§ 198, 242. Ganrakminoi §§ 71, 73, 82, A 124. Gaokerena §§ 173 n, 175. Garothman "j §§41, 51, 52, Grotman > 116, 281, 282, Grot ma no J 285. Gathas. vi n, §§ 4 n, 5 n, 28 n, 64 n, 175,241,273, 274, 284, 287. Gatteyrias §§ 6 n, 16 n. §§ 9» 53, 75> 102, 120, 161, 168, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, Gayomard Gayomart 286, 309— the first man § 54. Gayomarthiyans §§ 24, 68, 69. Geiger (Wilhelm, Dr.), ii n, §§ ^ r J J 33 n - Geldner (Karl F., Prof. Dr.) ii n. Genesis §§ 143, 174, 175 n— of Aharman § 68. Genii § 155, abstract— § no, physical — § 109. Gesenius § 61 n. Ghanamino § 275. Gheyn (Van den) § 279. Gnostics § 55. Gocihar §§ 140, 311, 313. God of Destiny § 8. Gokard "1 §§ 169, 173, 175, Gokart j 182. Gopatshah § 182. Gosht-i-Fryano iv, § 231. Goshurvan § 95 n, 116. . Gospel (the fourth) §62 — (pi ) §62. Great Bear § 133. Grecian circle of ideas § 61 n, — kings iii. — philosophy § 61 n. Greece § 2. Greek authors §9 n— civilisa- tion iv. — Empire v, §§263, 290 — writers ii n, § 9. Greeks § 13. Guardian spirit § 130 n — (pi.) . § f 30 n. Gujarati version vi. 808 INDEX 302; Gushasp § 1 66. Gilshtasp §§ 53, 54. Haoma § 175 n — Zairi § 1 75 n — duraosha § 1 75 n. Hadhayos §§ 182, 312. Hadokht Nask § 272. Hamectagan ) „„ g Hamegtakan J ^ 2 * 3 ' 305 & n, 302-30S. Haptoirang §§ 133, 135 n. Haptokring § 133. Haraman § 17. Hareman § 66. Harlez (C. de, Prof.) i, §§ 411, ion, 11 n, 13 n, 19, 21 n, 23 "> 3 1 ' 7°> l l > 74» 84. 91 n, 95, ioiv 103 n, 1 13, 1 18 n, 120 n, 129 n, 147 n, 154 n, 175 n, 246 n, 256 n, 257 n, 274 n, 279 n, 303, 304, 310. Haug, (Martin, Prof.) §§ 9 n, 17 n, 19, 20 n, 22 n, 23 n, 43 n, 52 n, 59 n, 61 n, 117, 21 1 n, 238, 241 n, 242 n, 249 n, 256 n, 27S, 279 n, 284 n, 287, 291,293. Heaven §§ 281-288, Humat — §§ 282, 284, Hukht— §§ 282, 284, Huvarsht — §§ 282, 284, 287 n, Anagar Roshan — §282 n, Garotman — §§41,51, 52, 116, 281, 282, & n, 285, Starpayak — § 282 n, Mahpayak — § 282 n, Khurshidpayak — § 282 n, Hadhana Hadhana Ta- nasus — § 282 n. Hebrew, §§ 24, 43 — origin § 143 n. Hell §§ 289-301, Dushmat— § 289 ,Dushukht— § 289, Dushvarsth — § 289. Hermippos ii n. Herodotus §§ 3 n, 13 & n. Heroes of Antiquity § 286. Hierarchy § 56. High Priest § 262. Hindus §§ 34, 174, 186 n. Holy Spirit § 23 & n. — of Auharmazd § 23. Horn §§ 121, 155, 175 n — (yellow) §i75n — (white) §§ 169, 173, 175 &n, 312. Hormazd § 23. Horvadat § 96. Horvatdt §§ 308 n, 314 n. Hdshedar §§ 107, 138, 307. Hoshedar-mah §§ 138, 307. Huris § 1 17 n. Hukht (the heaven of good words) §§ 282, 284, 287 n — region § 282. Humat (the heaven of good thoughts) §§ 282, 284 — region § 282. Huvarsht (the heaven of good deeds) §§ 282, 284, 2S7 n — region § 282. Huzvaresh §§ 18, 38 — words § 126 n. Hybrids § 181. Indus § 164. Innate Wisdom §§51, 54, 56, 221. Inscriptions of Darius i., Cuneiform — iii, § 26, Pehlevi — §§ 19, 20 Sas- sanian — §§ 19, 20, 26. Islamism §§ ion, 263. Israel § 54. Italian epic (of Dante) § 283 INDE X 209 Jackson (A. V. Williams) §297 n. Jad-besh tree § 173. Jamaspji Minocheherji Ja- masp Asana (Dastur, Dr.) § 201 n. Jeh §§ 101, 127 — female demon §§ 75, 76. Jem 1 .... ,, jj m j^53» 54, 81. Jews §§ 21, 55 n, 6o, 61 n, 66, 174, 237 n, 245, 258. Jewish circle of belief § 6 1 n — doctrine of faith §61 n — influences § 5 — nation § 61 n — religion v, §§6 in, 263 — theology § 61 n — writings § 61 n. Jondishapur § 2. Job § 3911. John (St.) §§ 62, 93. Joshua § 107. Judea § 61 n. Judeism §§ 61 n, 66 n. Judge of the Law § 261. Judges of the Dead § 277. Justi (Ferdinand, Prof.) §§ 3 n, 15 n, 17 n, 37 n, 71,91, 126, 153, 155 n, '62 n, 173, 187 n, 274 n, 305 n. Justinius (the Latin Historian) 11. n. Kabulistan § 166. Kaikhusrav § 52. Kama, (K. R.) ii n, 235 n- Kamak § 182. Kamarakan 1 ee jr. a. a V SS 123, Kamankan J " Kapoda § 1,82. Kar-fishes § 182 & n. 27 §§61 n, 140. Karnamak Ardeshirji Papa- kan § 262. Karshipt § 182. Kacava § 314 n. Kails §§ 53, 54, 81. Kavasji Edalji Kanga (Ervad) §§ 12 n, 17 n, 305 n. Kayomarthian belief § 9 n. Kayomarthias § 9 n. Kerccasp §§ 107 & n, 307: Keshvar §§ 160, 163 —(pi.) §§ 52, 54, 109, 160, 161, 182, 185, 187, 188, 293. Khashm § 126. Khava § 179. Khordeh A vesta § 243. Khosrav § 2 — Anosharavan iv, §§ 1, 198. Khrafstar § 274 — (pi.) §§ 160, 163, 164, 180, 216, 287, 292, 300. Khundak § 73. Khur § 109. Khurshct § 109. Khvaniras §§ 160, 188, 310. Khvetudac 1 .. cc ,, Khvetuk-dac J VU n ' ^ l26 > 210, 223, 234, 235, 238, 284, 287, 234-237. Prac- tice of— §§ 219, 283. Kobad iii. Kurdish § 2 n. Kushtano Bujed § 265. Kiisti formula § 73. Laing (Samuel) § 4 n. Land §§ 1, 2, 61, 141. Law (religion) §§58, 187, 214, 222, 224, 227, 236, 239, 252, 258, 259, 314 n. rus § 296 — of Pharp (the historian) §§ 3, 16. 3\0 INDEX Lenormant (author of the Chaldean Magi) §§ 4 n, 113 "> l 31 n , x 75n- Libra (millennium of) § 184. Lord of men § 24. L'ucke § 61 n. Lyra § 133 n. Magi §§ 3 n, 6, 17 n. Tura- nian — & § 4. Magism § 3 & n. Magu § 3 n. Mih § 109. Maidyozarm feast § 285 — Raogan § 285. Mainyo-iKhard. iv, §§ 3, 5, 7, 10, 13, 24, 31 n, 40, 45, 47>49> So, SL 55 & n, 56 n, 74, 81, 120 & n, 128, 129, 132/ 134, 135. 14°» 169, 173, 198, 208, 217, 223, 239, 259, 266, 272, 280, 301. Mainyu Spenishta § 23 n. Mainyus spentotemo § 23 n. Manes § 1 18. Mani §§ 9 n, 263, heresy of ( — iii, system of — §§ 3, 199, 275 n. Manichean religion v, § 263. Manicheans §§ 23 n, 84 n, 258. Manuscript material, v. Manushcihar. vii, § 76. Mashya §§ 185, 187, 188, 195, 212, 258, 309. Mashyoi §§ 185, 187, 188, 195, 212, 258, 309. Matro § 185. Matroyao § 185. Mazdak § 9 n, (heresy of — iii., system of — §§3, 191 n, 199 n. Mazdakyas § 9 n. Mazdayasnian §§ 132, 224, 261, 263, 264 — (pi.) i, §§ 9 n, 17, 44> 52, 54, l *4> 132, 157, ^9. 208, 216, 218, 225, 237 n, 247, 287 n, — altar § 166 — anthropogeny § 183, — authors § 113 — beliefs § 9 n — books §§ 128, 146, — classification § 132 — code § 238, — cosmology § 130,— cosmogony § 71 — doctrine § 64 — doctrines § 67 — dualism § 9 — ethics §§ 232, 271 — idea § 1 30 n — kings, iii — law vi, §§ 93, no — literature § 272, — medicine § 249 — notions § 173 — Patet § 254 — philosophers § 200 — philosophy §§ 129 131— priests § 235 — principle § 238 — religion »»iv, §§ 3»6, 10, 13 n, 16, 17, 60, 66, 70, 90, 165, 210, 235 n, 238, 259,261, 263, 283, 284 n — school §§ 9> 93> schools §§ 17, 86 — sects §§ 9 n, 10 — system •§§ 130, 143. 273 — theory of death § 245 — theories §§ 11, 193 n — writers § 210. Mazdeism. iii, iv, v, vii, §§ 3 & n, 9 n, 60, 61 n, 63, 64, 87> 93> 103, 112, 120, 129, 130 & n, 189, 193, 234, 237, 238, 246, 290 doctrines of — §9 n, decay of — under Alexander iii., final suppression of — by the Arabs iv., re- cords of — ii. < Media, ii, § 3 n. INDEX 21 I Medians! .. Medes J Messiah § 263. Middle Ages §§ 64, 294. Mihr Narseh (Minister of Yazdegard I.) ii, §§ 9, IS, '7- Mihir § 103, 255 n. Millennium § 306 — (pi.) §§ 138, 307 ; 306 308,— of Hoshedar §§ 138, 307 — of Hoshedar Mah §§ 138, 337 — of Shoshyas §§ 307, 308 — of Zartftsht §§ 138, 306. Minoi § 89. Mino-khirad § 49. * Minok- khirad § 305 n Mithra § 103. Mitokht §§ 124, 126, Mitro §§ 103, 105, 106, 107, 277, Sassanian — § 103. Mobed of mobeds § 262. Mody (Jivanji Jamshedji) § 120 n. Mohammed § 117 11. Mohammedanism, v. Monotheism, vi & n §§ 4 n, 5» 2 3» 33, 47. 6 7- Monotheistic notions, vi n. Muhammedan 1 writers §§ 9 Mohamedan J n., 64 — wri- •ter § 9 n. Musalman conquest, vii — period § 9. Museon §§ 49, 23S n., 273, 292. Mush par § 140. Myazd feast § 126. Mythology §§ 3 n, 182, North-Iranian — § 3 n. Naikias § 125. Nakahet § 125. Naksh-i Rajab §37 n — Rus- tam § 37 n. Nashak §§ 167, 188. Nasks § 55 n. Naunghas § 125. Neandir § 61 n. Neriosangh T §§31 n, 107, Neryosangh J 132, 153,263. Nile, § 164. Nisibis § 2. Nizhisht §§ 127, 277. Noah § 54. Non-Aryan § 264 — character § 175— (pi.) §§ 52, 54. Non-Mazdayasnian races § 237 n. Non-Mazdayasnians ^ 237 n. Novissima § 271. Nyaishes § 136. Oecumenical Councils § 61. Ontology § 149. Oriental religions §§ 10, 34. Ormizd \ » Ormizt j j > Ortolan § 295 n. Ox-fish § 182 n. Oxus § 164. • Pairik § 127,— (pi.) § 127. Parable of the wicked Dives and Lazarus § 296. Paragna ceremony § 35 n. Parallelisms § 54. Pariks § 186. Parodies § 122. Pars § 160. pZT } § 2 36-{pl.)5§.8, 23, 37> 61 n > 64-225, 234, 245 n — books § 1 1 3 — doc- tors § 21 — religion § 66 — savants § 19 — scholars § 235 — scriptures § 61 n. 212 INDEX Parthian kings iii. Parthian s. ii n. Patet §§ 234, 259, 261. Patt A ;t-i-khod §§ 224 n, 257 n. Patriarchs § 54. Paul (St.) § 215 n —the Per- sian iv. §§ 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 141 n, 207. Pazend § 45 n — texts § 279. Pchan § 182. Pehlevi vii n, §§ 23, 45, 49, 71, 89, 168 n, 303 — authors § 175 n — autho- rities § 181 — book § 262 — books §§ 24, 25, 42, 56, 73, 81, 118, 119, l 73, 1 75 n . 2 32, 237 — characters § 21, — coins § 18 — inscriptions §§ 18, 20 — language §§ 237 n, 304 — literature iv, §§ 18, 71 — Rivayet § 187 n — scholar § 304 — system § 254 — term § 304 — texts ii. n, viii, §§ 9, 59, 235, 237. 247,279,306— tradi- tions § 283 — translators # § 81 n — translation § 84 n — treatises i, iv, §§ 195, 244, 266, 272— version §§ 165, 186,243 — writers § 4 n. Peris § 135. Persepolis §§ 26 n, 37 n. Persia ii, iv, §§ 3 n, 17.11, 61 n, 81, 160, 294. Persian (old) §§ 24 n, 26 — (modern) §§ 24, 205 — Empire i, ii n — faith § 61 n — Gulf § 163 — people § 13 n — province § 61 n — Rivayets vii — supremacy § 61 n — theology § 61 n — tradi- liini § 3 n — translation §§ 211, 279— writers § 4 n. Persians, ii n, §§ 3 n, 18, 61 n, 217. Peshotun Behramji Sanjana (Dastur, Dr.) v, vi 7 viin, §§ 20 n, 23 n, 24, 27, 31,34, 37> 57, 7h 74, 83, 147 n, 148, 152, 158 n, 161 n, 173, 180 n, 192 n, 197, 198 &n, 20711, 229 n, 231 n, 237 n, 242, 243, 249 n, 262 n, 263 n. Peshyotanu §§ 107, 121. Pharisees § 61 n. Philosophumena § 145 n. Philosophy (religious) § 13, Sassanian — § 13, specu- lative — § 4 n. Phoenician cosmogony § 152. Plastic Art § 175. Pizz^i § 6 n. Polarity § 4 n. Polemics, v. Pontiff § 106. Pope (translator of the Per- sian A rdd-i Virdf Ndma) § 279. Post-Avestaic conception § 303. Post-Sassanian writers § 199. — writings § 202. Pre-Achaemenian epoch, ii n. Pre- Median epoch ii n. Priesthood, v, §§ 256, 261. Priests §§ 254, 259, 261 — of Ormazd § 3 n. Principle (evil) §§ 4 23, 63, 70 n, good — §§' 4, 23, 63, 70 n, primaeval — § 5, — of vitality. Principles (unity oi\ § 4, good and evil — §§ 5, 24. 1NDKX 2 I Protestant repentance § 254. —system § 254. Prototypes § 91. Proverbs § 54. Providence § 26, Divine — §45- Purgatory of the Christians § 302- Putik § 163. Pyro § 175 n. Q,uadrumana § 186. Rabbis § 21. , Ragha. ii n. Rashn § 103. Rashno §§ 104, 107, 277 — of Cino § 104 n — the Just § 277. Rashnu §§ 105, 256. Ratanshah Erachshah Kohi- yar. vi. Rawlinson (George) § 3 n. Regulus § 139 n. Religion (Mazdayasnian) i, § 10, Naturalist — § 13 n, Zoroastrian — i. Religions (Oriental) §§ 10, 34 — of Antiquity § 237. ReJigious doctrines, i, § 64 — ideas § 37 — philosophy § 23 — writings i. Resurrection §§ 89, 84 n, 85 n, 309, 310 n, 314 n— of the body § 310 — of the dead §§ 51, 61 n. 309, 82 n. 310, final— §§ 39, Retribution (final) §314. Revand § 166. Reusias § 175 n. Rhetorical figure § 50. Rig Veda § 237. Rivayet (Pehlevi) § 187 n, Rivayets (Persian) vii. Roman authors § 9 n. — writers ii n. Romish penance § 254. Rosenmiiller § 61 n. Roth (Prof., Dr.) §§303, 304, 305.— (the learned Sans- kritist of Tubingen) § 303. Roth (Edward, Dr.) § 61 n. Rum, v., § 263. Caena §§ 169 n, 175 n. Caoshyac 314 n. Cargaok § 160, 182, 188. Cin-murg §§ 177 n, 182. Cpenak-minoi §§ 54, 61, 70 n, ' 7*. 7 2 > 73, 93- Cpendarmat §§ 96, 97. Cpenist § 165. Cpenjargak § 165. Cpento-mainyus \ §§23n,64n, Spenta-mainyusJ 71. Crosh §§ 90, 95 n, 103, 105, 106, 107, 126, 277, 278, 280, 283, 291. Cruvar § 182. Sabean doctrine § 47 — ten- dency § 120. Sacred books § 261 — Books 47 — of the East writings § 43. Saddar. vii. Saddar-i-Bun-Dehesh viii, §§ 199 n, 202 n. Saints § 280. Sam § 107 & n. Sanjana (Darab Dastur Peshotun). ii n, §§ 235 n, 237 n > 28 3 n - Sanskrit §§ 24, 192 n. — trans- lation §§ 31 n, 263. ' I 1 INDEX Sanskritist § 303. Sapential Books §§ 54, 55, 266 — writings § 56. Sassanian ) , , , , R o j r alphabet 5 io. Sassamde J r — authors § 164 — cha- racters § 18 — cosmo- logy § 1-55 —Dynasty, i, —epoch iv, v, §§ 17, 19, 37, 175 n- —form § 22 — inscriptions §§ 19, 26, 7 i _ king §§ 198, 283 —kings i, §§ i, 218, 263 — literature iv, §§ 49, 70 — Mitro § 103 — Parsee- ism § 98 — period v, §§ 9, 48, 86, 181, 135, 272— philosophy §§ 13, 55 — religion § 17 — sculptures § 37 — speculation § 23 — system § 175 — texts § 114— time §§ 2, 9, 35 n, 59. J 75 n —times §§ 5, 9 n, 22, 61, 129, 141 — treatises vi — writings §§ Hi 33 —work § 10 — works §55 n.— (pi), i, iii, ' v , §§ 3 n. 69 n, 17 & n, 18, 23, 55 n, 60, 199, 305 n. Satan § 61 n, 66 n, 69. Sataves §§ 133, 135, 139, 155. Satavesh (gulf) § 163. Savah §§ 160, 163. Savants § 143 n, European — vi n, § 4 n, Parsi — vi n, § 19, Zoroastrian — §4n. Savar § 125. Schindler (Houtum) § 2 n. Schools §§ 3, 5, 14, 15, Mazdayasnian — § 17. Scorpio § 133. Schismatic § 84. Scylax § 186 n. Season festivals § 219. Sectarians § 264. Seleucides. iii. Semitic §§ 18, 20 n, 21, 24, 38, 74, 143, 162 —influ- ence § 23 — influences § 1 75 —origin § 143 n, 175, 250 — peoples ii, § 175 n — religion § 23 n. Shahnameh §§6, 13 n. Shahpur II. iii, § 283. Shahristani (Muhammad-ash) §§3, 9 n, 68, 69. Shatvairio § 96. Shayast la-Shayast. iv, §§ 3, 196, 247. Simurgh §§ 169, 177 n, 182. Sinamru § 169. Sinik religion § 263. Sirius § 133. Sirozah § 56. Socrates § 201. Soshyos 1 §§ 52, 138, 307, Soshyas J 308, 310, 312. Space § 12 — (a creature) § 13. — (firmament) § 12, in- finite— §§ 12, 13, 14, vague and immense — § 12. Speculative ideas § 61 n — theories § 14 — philoso- a P h y § a 4 n - Spenamino § 275. Sphere (celestial) § 13 — (a creature of Auhar- mazd) § 13. Spiegel (Friedrich, Prof., Dr.) h §§ 3. S> 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17, 20 n, 21-23, n, 24 n, 36,37» 38,40,45 n > 55. 56, 59. 6 9> 70, 71, 75 n, 81, 83, 84 n, 91, 101, 103, 1 10, 126 n, 128, INDEX 215 139, 143, 144, 145 n, 147, 152, 165 n, 173, 174, 175 & n, 176, 183 n, 187, 191 n, 199 n, 201, 202 n, 203, 250, 275 n, 279. — (great Eranist) § 3 — (illustrious Eranist) § 174 Spiegel's Alterthumskunde § 175- Spirit (celestial) § 112. Evil — §§ 5, 23, 28, 35, 43» 52 n, 63, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 85, 9°> 9 1 * I0I > *45i J 56, 164, 183,18411,187,209, 212,231,245. Good — §§ 5. 63,68, 7579,82*11,231. Holy— §§ 54, 58, impure — § 245, murderous — § 80, systematising — § 175 — of Auharmazd § 51 — of Ameshospands §51 — of Anger § 126 — of Contentment § 215 — of Destiny § 215 — of Devotion § 215 — of Evil Knowledge § 214 — of Liberality § 215 — of the Mazdayasnian Re- ligion § 86 — of Modera- tion § 215 — of Perseve- rance § 215 — of the * Spirits § 37 — of Thank- fulness § 215 — of Truth § 215 — of Wisdom §§ 49> 5°> 54. W 191, 214, 215. ,259 —(pi.) §§ 35, 82, 95,98, 104, no, III, 112, 119, 121, 123, 132, 169 2t>2, 233/ 313— of the Blessed § 99, evil — §§ 66, 73, 91, 10 1, 127, 156, 290, good — §§ 24, 73, 89, 9 l > 95. 9 8 > J 39; 281, funeral — § 104. Spiritual Archetype § 120 — armour § 215 — counter- parts §91 — court § 95 — enemies § 216. Stirs § 256. Stuart § 61 n. Syakmak §§ 187, 188. Syria § 160 n. Syriac civilisation, iv. Tacitus § 24 n. Tahmurath § 76. Tairev § 125. Takhmorup § 160. Talmud § 61 n. Taprev § 125. Terminology § 24. Testament (New) §§ 23, 60, 61 & n. Old— §§ 23, 37, 54,55,61 n, 174,266,286. Theodore of Mopsuestia (Greek author) §§ 6, 17. Theology, vi n. Theological doctrines iv. Time §f 7, 12, 13, 33. Bound- less — §§ 1 1, 12, 40.1nfinite — §§ 9> l 3> l 4- Unlimited -§5- Tir §§ 102, 109, 139. Tishtar §§ 94, 102, no, 133, r 3S, 139, 154, 155, l6 o, 163, 169— (Sirius) § 109. Tobias § 126 n. Towers of Silence § 245 n. Traditional version § 50. Treasure of Princes § 198 n. Tree of All Seeds § 175 — of the good remedies § 175— of Life § 174, 175 n — of Knowledge §§ 175 n, 174. Tubingen § 303. INDEX Turanian Magi § 4. Turanians § 306. Turkestan § 263. TJkhshyat-erta § 307 n — nema 307 n. Ulema-i Islam §§ 5, 9, 17, 40, 86, 129, 139, 142, 181. Urvazist § 165. Vahram § 108, 166, 277. Vai § 10S — the bad § 277 — the good § 277. Vanand §§ 133, 135, 139. Var §§ 182 & n, 185, 310. Vareno § 126. Varun §§ 124, 126 — (the personification of pas- sions) § 249. Vat§ 155- Vaorukasha § 169 n. Vazist § 165. (Minister Vazorg Mihir Mithro Vedas § 185. Vedic hells § 279. Vega of Lyra § 133 n. Veh § 164. Vendidad Vandidad of Koshrav Anosheravan) §§ 198, 249. "J §§ 4n, 12 n, 23 n, > 3511,81 n, 175, J 180 n, 186 &n. Vernal Equinox §101. Vidadafsh § 160. Vigpa-taurvairi § 314 n. Vishtasp § 286. Vishtaspa § 3 n. Vishkaripta § 182 n. Vizareshl§§ 127, 274, Vizarsh J 278 and n. Vohu Fryan § 165. 277. Vohuman §§ 43, 50, 54, 59, 60, 61, 93, 94, 95, 96, no, 124, 126, 155, 206, 286, 314 n, the bird of — § 180 n — (good conscience) § 23 — (good mind) § 23, — the son of Auharmazd §§ 5, 7, 62 ; 58. Vohumano § 23 n, 59 n, 49 n. Vorubarst § 160. Vorujarst § 160. Vullers (Translator of Ulema-i Islam) §§ 5n, 86 n, 129 n, 139 n, 142 n, 181 n, 199 n. West '(E. W., Dr., the illus- trious Eranist). i, vi. n, §§9, 11, 19,23 n, 30 n, 3i,36, 38, 45, 49, 64, 6s, 66 > 70, 7J> 73, 74, 75, 76 n, 80, 81, 82, 91, 93, 95, 101, 103, 123, 127 n f l 33> 139 n, Ho n, 144, J 53, J 59 n , l6 on, 162 n, 163 n, 164 n, 165 n, 173, i77n, i8on, 185 n, 186 n, 187 n, 203, 227 n, 235 & n, 236 n, 237, 238 n, 239 n, 240 n, 247, 248 n, 254, 256 n, 263 n, 273, 278 n, 292 n, 304, 306., Westergaard (N. L., Prof.) §§ 3 n, 12 n, 23 n, 24, 50 n, 5911,81. de Wette § 61 n. White Demon §§ 127, 263. Wjndischmann (Fr.) §§ 7, 89 n, 91, 101 n, 126 n, H4, 153, *59» 177 n» l8 5 & n, 187 & n, 301, 314. Wisdom §§ 28, 51, 52 & n, S3, 54, 5 6 , 93, 9S **, 206, 217, the Book of — § 56 INDEX 217 n, Divine, —§§ 56 n, 204 ; 4.5-56, Innate,— §§51,52, 54. 5 5, 22i. Word (Ahuna \airyn) § 93. Worshippers ol demons § 204. Xerxes I. iii. Yajasbn ceremony § 35 n. Yacna§§ 24, 56, 59, 263, 303. Yama §§ 185, 237. Yami §§ 185, 237. Yasi.t § 56. Yatus § 179. Yazata §§ 5 n, 14 n,— pi. §§ 95<9 8 - Yazd (female) § 1 10. Yazdan §§ 24, 69, 98. Yazds §§ 24, 41, 43, 45, 47, 52, 91, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 05, 106, ro8, 1 16, 1 18, [2i, 122, 130 n, 132, 135, 155, 156, 160, 172, L&7, 250, 281, 2S5, 266, 288 — of the material and spiritual worlds § 52. — -of heaven and earth § 54. Yezdegard II. iii, §§ 3, 9, 15. Ill, iv. Yim §§ 182, 258, 310. Yirr^a § 182 n, 185. Yozdathregar Mobeds § 35 n. Zkl-Sparam §§ 9, 98 n, 178. Za.rik § 125. Zaman derang qadae § 8. Zamyad § 109. Zandik religion § 263. Zarates the Chaldean § 145 n. Zarathushtra. ii & n. Zartngosh § 279. Zartfisht §§ 3, 37. 39, 53, 54, 13S, 218, 224, 255, 295. Zarvana § 14 n. Zarvaua Akarna §§ 5 n, 17 n. Zend Avesta § 17 n. — texts § 3 n. Zendiks § 17 n. Zi.rv;inic belief § 9 n. Zervanism §§ 48, 67. Zervanist § 40. — doctrine § 68- — school § 69. — system § 17.— systems §§ 5 17.— §§9 & n, 17. 69. School of.— § 9. zTodiac (circle of) § 132. Signs of the— §§ 12. 13. 133. Zodiacal constellations §§ 120. 135.— signs §§ 133. *44- Zore pas tan § 16 r n. Zoroastre § 3 n, 61 n, — Zore of— § 3 n. Zoroastrian belief § 3 n. — religion, i, ii, § 61 n. — Mazdeism § 4 n, — savants § 4 n. — system § 61 n. Zoroastrianism §§ 3 n, 61 n. Z'»roastrians § 283 n. Zorvdn §§9, 15. Zrvan §§ 6, 8, 11, 40,69.— Akarna §§ 5, 6, 8. — dare- ghoqadhata§ 8. — (father of Ormizt and Arhman) §§ 16, 17. — (fortune) § 6. --(glory) § 6. — iinhnite time) § II. — (intangible being) § 10. Premordia.' — § 14. (primary bein i4 ' ° Amat §§ 147, 155. Ameshoc-pand § 41. Amihanak §§ 34, 96. Amihanakih § 34. Amijishavand § 147. Aminitar § 91. Amuiiar § 91. Amuyamna § 91'. An § 40. Ana § 242. Anahit (Venus) § 139. Anair § 263. Anaitih § 83. Anaitkarih § 83. Ananadih § 83. Anaiyarih § 8^. A nam § 41. Anantasya § 40. Anatonad § 283 n. Anayaftano § 83. Anbami § 236. And^ 57 . An da § 301. Andajishno § 100. Andar § 134 Andarun §§ 15c, 151, 281. Andarvai §§ 40, 154,230. Ang§7i. Angon § 173. Atigro § 71. Angro-mainyus § 71. Anh § 71. Anhoma §§ 18, 19, 21, 139. Anhus aQtvao § 207. Anosh § 285. Anro § 71. Anro-mainyus § 71. Anshiita §§ 24, 41, 99, '207 n. Aojo §§ 147.205. Aosha § 175 n. Aoshanh § 175 n. Apakhtar § 134, INDEX 221 Apakhtaran § 139. Apartar §§ 57, 59. Apartunib § 5 7. Aparvakhto § 236 n. Arfig § 237 n. Arba § 147. Areva § 91. Arunak-baviliiinishnih § 221. A<;anishnih § 88. Agari§§^6 77, Agaritan 1 J Agm&n - sv, 134, 139, 142, 150, 151, 153, 167. Agmano §§ 36, 41, 99, 151, 281. Agn-khard § ^o. , Agno-khart §§ 28, 55, 56, 60, 93, 197, 221. Agno-khratus § 56, As § 71. Ash §§ 83, 236. Asheshanih § 221. Asliirvadeua § 40. Ashmokih § 221. Ashokakadh § 10 1. Ashtih §§ 220, 239. At § 237 n. Ata-h § 147. Atesh § 41. Auharma § 22. Auharmazd §§ 19, 23, 36, 57. , 83, 281. Auliarmazdi §§ 18, 19, 22. Auramazda §§ 22, 26 n. Avacito § 75. Avad-gar § 148 n. Avad-garih §§ 147, 148 n. Avarik §§34^147, 281. Avar-minishrnh § 243. Avartar §§ 41, 221, Avar-turn § 281. Avaz § 248. Avbasji §§83, 144. H7- Avegumanih §§ 44, 224. Avenak § 75. Avgam § 83. Avianjam § 35 n. Avih §§ 57, 59. Avijid § 238 n. Avin § 283 n. Avinishnik § 88. Aviukharto § 83. Avir §§ 236, 243. Avir-vashtan-. Avizak §31. Av5zakili § 281. Avo § 264. Avokhshutar § 31. Avorakih 34. Avoragto § 57. Avoriyto §§57. 59- Avoiishno § 147. Avoritano § 38. Avorito § 57. Avoyathra § 84 n. Avyan §§ ^162 n, 170. Avzariha §171. Awakih § 221. Awar § ^55. Axtaw § 2 n. Ayazishno §§ 57, 59. Ayokhshucto § 41. Ayomaik § 281. Ayomaiktum § 281 n. Ayomaik-lum § 281. Ayotak §§ 147, 149. Ayuf § 57. Az §§ 24, 20; n, 236. Azarj 31. Azaranatano § 281. Azaranotanofrohar § 116. Azh §§ 73, 74, 82. Azir § 283 n. Azo § 248. Baba § 283 n. Bag § 26. Baga § 26 & n. 222 INDEX Bagh § 26, 45 n. Bagha § 26. Baghobakht §§ 26, 45, 47. Bagi § 26. Bakht §§ 6 n, 45. Bakhtar § 129 n. Bakhtari § 32. Balisto § 28. Bamig § 41. Bana § 283 n. Bandik § 32 & n. Bar § 270. Bar § 264. Bara §§ 57, 83, 187,255. Baraburtano § 102. Barf §155 n. Barhinitano § 38. Baritak-ash § 252. Barzend § 292 n. Bathir § 139. Bavihunishnih § 221. Bejashk § 255. Benafshman §§23, 32, 57, -59, 83. H7- Benman §§ 57, 72, 236. Benmanih § 57. Beshitar § 83. Beshitartar § 83. Beshnih § 83. Bhanga § 81. Bihar §§ 7 11,38 n, 57, 83. Biharinitano §§ 38 n, 57 n. Biharinito § 57. Biharvar § 32. Biruno § 192. Bis § 81. Bish §§ 193, 281. Bod §§ 171, 203. Bocishno §§ ioo, 128. Boi §§ 115, 197, 19 8 » r 99> 201, 203, 230. Bokhtaktar § 221. BrSh §§ 7, 217. Brehinid § 40. Brehinishn § 217. Brin § 7. Bumim § 26 n. Bun §§28, 75, 141, 147, 204, 21 I, 2/0. Bufida maneshni § 215. Bund datik § 57. Bundehishnan-i-§tih §§ 133, 144. Bundehishno § 138. Bundik § 32 n. Bunik § 221. Burhanah § 147 n. Biirhanak § 147. Burjishniktar § 22 1. Burtano § 83. Burtar'§ 221. Burto § 83. Butig §41. Ca§§ 4 o, 57, 83,88, 147, 2I1 ^ 236. Cahar §§ 147, 155. Cakad-i-daitik § 276. Cand §§ 57, 236. Candor § 276. Caraiti § 274. Caraityo § 274. Cashito § 83. Casm § 147. Ciba § 171. Cigun §§ 57. 8 3> M7» l Sh 173, 281, 283 n. Ciharj§ 57, 216, 249. Ciharih § 196. Cinvar § 276. Cinvat puhal § 276. Curshid § 2 & n. Da §§ 38, 235 n. Dadash § 6. Daestaniha § 184. Dahishnan §§ 34, 130,- ! 47> 214. INDEX 223 Dahishnano § 99. Dahishnih §§ 57, 276. Dahishno §§ ioo, 147. Dakhshih § 239 n. Damj§ 80, 81, 83, 99, 151. Daman § 1 1. Damani § 151- Damectan § 156. Damik §§99, 134, 158, 173, 290. Danak §§ 196, 214. Danak-datar § 31. Danak-minoi § 214. Danakih §§41, 57, 196, 204. Danakinito § 57. Danish § 260. Danishnih § 221. Danishno §§ 32, 57, 59, 147, 252. Danishnchomand § 147. Darmanito § 147. Daruk § 71. Darvand §§ 78, 214. Dacto § 83. Dagunashna § 283 n. Da§upatih § 284. Dacupato §§ 214, 231, Dashak § 158. Dashtano § 243. Dastar §§ 27 n, 205. Dast-kari § 156. Dat§28i. Oatan § 231. Datano § 38. Datar §§ 23,2711,38, 57, ioo, 102, 147, 224, 252, 281. Datha § 235 n. Datigar § 147. Datistanik § 31. Dato*vi, §§ 100, 222, 236. Dayan vi n, § 283 n Dehi § 147 n. Denman §§ 88, 147. Denman-ac § 147. Derang § 7. Dev § 122. Devayacno § 216. Devaiya^nih § 249 n. DevayaQtih § 249 n. Deviya§nan § 264. Didi § 45 n. Dil § 168 n. Din. vi n, § 93. Qinik § 147. Dino vi, §§ 83, 57, ioo, 117, 126, 151, 158, 196, 197, 206, 239, 258. Dino-dactobar § 214. Dinoik § 147. Dirang § 6. Dirham § 256. Dit §^37. D6-bar§ 176. — patkar§ 133 n. Dokhto §§ 221, 236. Doshakih § 221. Drojan § 124. Druj §§ 80, 122 & n. Druj-gumanikih § 124. Drivjo § 100. Drupushtih § 101. Drupusht-tar § 24. Dii §§ 57. 58, 130. Dul § 133 n. Dura § I75 n. Duraosha § 175 n. Dfic-akagih § 75. Dush-ahu §§ 289, 290. Dush-akac § 214. Dush-cashmih § 193. Dush-danak § 78. Dush-dino § 78. Duzdao § 74 n. Duzdat § 78. E r edhvobish § 169 n, Ezh § 40. 224 INDEX Farhang § 205. Farjam §§ 83, 242. Farjanak § 147. Farjanakih § 196. Farmano § 102. Far ran §§ 12;, 1 A- md §5 32, 18;, 136. Farzandiki § 236. Fra § 23 n. Fraebut §§ 242 & a, 243. Fraftarih § 249. Fra § 237, n. Fra-keret § 81 n. Frakhu-karto-zrai § 173. Frarunih § 225. Fracftarih § 249 n. Fracp § 283 n. Frag jan § 283 n. Frashegard § 120. Frashkarto § 173. Frasbkereto §§ 83. 84, 193. Fratum §§ 57, 59= *47i l S* 21 1. Fra-thwareg §§ 8 1 n. Fravahar §§ 147, i97> 28l; Fravarishno § 99. Fravartar § 31. Fravash § 120. Fravasbi § 201 n. Fraz §§ 23 n, 243, 248. Fraz-barhinidan § 81 n. Fraz-karinidan § Sin. Freshta-muttazrab § 5. Fr6to § 8. Fsush § 343- Gabra §§ 57, 236. Gadman §§ 72, 231. GaSthya giih § 83 n. Gan §71. Gana § 71. Ganag-min6i § 71. Ganak §71. Ganak-minoi §§ 23, 83. Gand § 168. Gandan § 71. Gandftak § 168. Ganj § 250*. Ganrd-mittdi §71. Ganr; & no $, /I. Ganrii.. A 7 1 Ganrak-minoi §§ 76, So. Garez § 83. Garih § 147. Garictak § 83. Garm § 264. Gar mih § 155. Gardtman §§ 41, 213, 281. Gartoi §§ 41, 151. Garzak § 179. Gag §§ §6, 214, 281. Gatu § 305 n. Gatvahe § 305 n. Gayak §§ 147, x 4 8 - Gayakvad § 147 • Gazdum.§ 133 n. Gehan § 78. Gehano §§ 214, 305. Gethi § 130. Ghan §§ 59, 71. Gbanca §§ 23, 57. Ghanakik § 71. Ghanamino § 23. Gburzidan § 83. Girano § 128. . Girto § 158 & n. G!yah §§171, 187. Gobishno § 255. Gocihar § 139. Gohar §§ 83, 190. Gokarto § 173. Goman § 283 n. G6§pand §§4i,99- Gdshangrutihart §§56, 19^,204. Gfibishnik § 257. Gubishno § 196. Guft § 23 n. Guftano § 57. INDEX 225 GAfto §83, GAharih § 75. (Jul § 171. Gumijishnih § 91. Gumikhtano § 214. Gussa § 126 n. Gvit-bish §§ [69, 173. — dato §236. — Gvit § 75. — tukh- mak § 236. Gvitakih § 83. Gvitih § 147. Gvito § 155. Haft § 283 n. Halkunto § 147. Ham §§ 83, 236, 304. — dast § 101. — dokhto § '221. — gohar § 147. — kartar § 32. — niazakih § 57. — pat- vandi § 147. — rictakan § 147.— tano § 83. — vakh- gakih § 57— yagto' § 303. — Zak § 93. Ham §§ 83, 305. Hama § 236. Hamagtakan § 304. Hamanishno § 196. Hemnunam § 224. Hemyacaite § 303. Heshm § 139. Hie § 236, 237 n. H150 § 147- Hishm § 126 n. Horn § 173. H6manand§§34, 83, 141, 147. Homand, §§ 144, 147. Homandih § 147. Hormazd §§ 18, 19, 21. Hosh §§ 94, 197, 198, 199, 202 n, 204, 205, 211, 285. Hoshtaf § 147. Hoshtafak § 147. Hu-ahuik § 229. — bish § 169 n. — boi § 230. — casm § 223. — casmih § 193. — cihar § 237 n. — danak § 214. — khutai §§214,231. — ku- nishn § 219. Huapar § 31. Huazar § 31. Huk § 260. Humet § 197. 226 JNDEX Hunar § 2ig. Hunaran §§220, 22'i. Hunarano § 93. •Hunaravad § 93. Hfiravakhminishn § 236. HGrvar §§41, 99. Hftsh § 312. Hashkih § 155. HAshmorit § 75. Mushtavinih § 202. Husmorishno § ioo* Hustikan § 31. Hvaparih § 229. Hvar § 41. •Hvarinitak § 32. Hvarinitar § 32. Hya § 26 n. Imam § 26 n, Izates § 24 n, Jaknimimad § 283 n. Jam § 84 n. Jamak § 171. Jan § 71. Jan>§§ 198, 199, 201. Jashnak § 237 n. J as to § 236. Jav£tandik § 147. Jeh § 274. Jekih § 249. Jigar § 168 n. Jinak § 79. Joggilnd § 283 n. Joz §40. Jumbactano § 83. Jumbidan § 83. Jurd&k § 171. Kabed §§ 41, 80, 99. Kabedi § 41. Kahrkas § 179. Kaino § 274. Kair § 147. Kalacang § 133 n. Kam § 83. Kam §§ 196, 207, 224, 252. Kamak § 242. Kamarakan § 75, 123. Kamarikano § 123. Kanar-homand § 83. Kanarak-homand § 83. Kand § 81. Kapfk § 186. K» r §§ 57. Hi, «47» 2I 4- Karafih § 239. Kardaram § .120. Kariha §§ 83, 147. Karinit § 80. Kart § J44. Kartak § 177. Karto §§ 83, 173. Kagi§t § 304. Ka^kinak § 179. Katak-khutai § 192. Kern §243. Kerba §§ 220, 223. Kerfak §§ 219, 259. Kerfakgar § 31. Kerfan §§ 93, 147. Kerfano §§ 93, 124. Kesh §§ 57, 263. Keshyarano §§ 57, 59, Kevan § 139. Khadihi § 236. Khaditunact § 236. Khaditunt § 76. t Khadiiinak § a 77. . Khaih§28r. Khaik § 151. Khaki § 194. Khanak § 283 n . Khapara § 31. Khart §§ 28, 51, 56, 94, 115. 126, 198, 199, 204/220, Khart-doshaldh § 221. Kharto § 196. - Khashm §§ 106, 126 n, 248. ' Khashmakan § 127. INDEX 227 Khashmvadih § 249, Khatmanan § 283 n. Khavar § 31 n. Khsivarik § 31 n. Khavituna9to § 147, Khavitilnam § 243. Khaya §§83, 243. Khay6bit § 74. Khoda § 29. Khoitih § 155. Khorishno § 243, Khonjandih § 222. Khorshet § 88. Khorto §§ 155, 198,. Khota §31, Khrafgtar § 156. , Khratus §£ 50, 93,. Khshathroi § 83. Khuftan § 83. Khumb § 154. Khumbo § 83. Khunahino § 153.. KMnar § 205. KMp § 125. Khupgar §. 236. Khilr^aodih § 197. Khurtak § 133. Khushak § 133 n. Khushito § 83. KMt-doshakih § 22 r. KMtai §§ 24, 29, 32, 207 n. KMtaih §§, 83, 207, 284. KMtih §§ 57, 59, 88, 136, 1.55, 220. Khvapar § 31. Khvapardarih § 164* Khvaparih § 222. Khveshih § 34. Khveshnik § 32. Khvet&k-da^ § 126. Khvitunit § 243. Kikih § 239. Kili§ya § 263. Kilicyakih §§ 127, 262. Kola §§57, 141, 147. Kokhshashnik § 147. K6?to § 83. Koshishno § 100. Klin § 83. Kunar § 187. Kflnishnan. § 231. Kunishnik § 257. Kunishno §§ 57, 196, 262. Kushitano § 83. Kushish § 83. Kushishito § 83. Kushishnikan § 214. KAshito § 83. Kushtano § 83. KAshto § 83. Kusti § 73. Kutak § 83. La §§32, 3,7, 39, 57, 82, 83, 211, 236, 237 n, 243. La-tubano § 230. Laca §§ 236, 237 n. Lak § 83. Lakhvar §§ 83, 243. Levatman §§ 57, 100, 128,. 305- Li 1 §§ 23 n, 243. Loitth § 90. Loito §§ 147, 213.. IVTaegha § 155 n. Magiipat § 262. Magupatan § 262. Magiipatan Magftpat § 262. Mah §§4,1, 139. Mahik § 133 n. Mah-i khudai § 121. Mahi§t § 304. Mahmanih § 242. Mahpayak § 176. Mainyava (jti §89 n Mainyo §§ 88, 130. 228 INDEX Mainyus § 72. Malka, § 262 n. Malkan § 262 n. Malkan malka § 262 n. Man §§ 72, 83. Man § 283 n. Manai § 263. Manak § 83. Manak-i ziveshno § 83. Manash § 144. Mang § 283. Manestak § 32. Manivao § 23 n. Mano §§ 57, 72, 82, 83, 88, 236, 242. Mano-ash § 236. Manosh § 88. Mar § 82. Marencinitar § 80. Marencinitaran § 99. Marg § 88. Marghomand § 88. Marinitano § 83. Martum §§ 100, 147, 173, 231, Ma9 § 139 n. Mashih § 263, Mashya § 187. Mashyoi § 187. Matar § 236. Matica § 147. Mato §§ 57, 102, 147. Mavan § 283 n. Maya §§ 41, 99, 147, *55, 162, 170. Mazda § 83. Mazda^tan § 93. Mazdayacno. vi. Mazdayasna § 22 n. Mazdayasna § 22 n. Mazista § 24. Me § 23 n. Megha § 15s n. Meh § 184. Mehim §§ 57, 83, 100, 151, 183, 196, 242, 242, 138. Mehim-monishno § 196. Meman §§ 37, 147, 262. Men §§ 34, 39, 57, 75, 83, 88, 99, 100, 102, 128, 147, ij>i» 155, i5»» 173. 214, 236, 237 & n, 281. Miazhi § 103. Migh § 155 n. Mihan §§ 139, 290. Mihanak §§ 34, 304. Mihir § 2 & n. Mij&k § 168. Milya § 83. Mindavam §§ 57,-83, 147, 242. Minishnih §§ 242, 243. Minishnik §§257, 305, Minishno § 196. Minoi § 101, 214, 233, 242. Min6i-ac,man §101. Minoi-ash § 23 n. Minoyan mino § 27 n. Minoyan minoi §§ 27 n, 37. Minoyano § 27 n, 34. Minoyano minoyih § 27 n. Mi§vana § 305 11. Mit § 40. Mitohkt § 80. Miyan § 77. Mizhu § 168. Mok § 240 n. Man § 185. Miie,tigar § 242. Miitak § 124. Muzh § 155 n. Muzhi § 168. Muznah § 155. Muznat § 155 n. Na §6. Naenkisb § 139. Nafshman §§ 41, 57, 83; 187, 236. INDEX 229 Nahazik § 133 n. Nairinam § 235 n. Nakhsh § 87 n. Nakizo §§ 57, 100, 151. Namcistik § 147. Namcisto § 147. Naram § 235 n. Naunghas § 139. Nazdisto § 187. Neshman § 283 n. Neshmanih § 283 n. Niha] § 171. Nihumbo § 82 n. Nimandi § 147. Nima$p § 133 n. Niriik 5 100. JMirukinito § 100. Nismo §§ 165, 185. Niuk § 147. Nyaishni § 237 n. Niyaishno §§ 121, 236. Nyazo § 141. 0§i 3 o. Oftinand § 283 n. Orvakhma § 237 n. Pa §§ 40, 217. Padishah § 7. Pahrico § 230, Paik§§5 7 , 281. Poiri-bacta § 83 n. Pairik § 127. Pairika § 127. Paivastah § 83 n. Palana § 31 n. Panak § 32. Panak §§ 24, 31. Panakjli § 99. Parae § 236. Parak § 159. Parak parak § 159. P'ark ,§ 6. Parvac,tak § 83. Parva^tano § 82* Pa?ajakih §§ 57, 59. Pacjn § 310. Patak §§ 32, 83, 1 28. Patarak § 94. Patash §§ 57, 83, 173, 236, 237 n, 264. Patdar § 205. Patet § 254. Patedh § 255. Patfrac § 242. Patishvar § 264. Patmankarih § 147. Patmano § 243. Patmocano § 88. Patokhshahi § 32. Patukih § 100. Patvastano § 82 n. Patyarak § 102. Patyarashnih § 155. Pavan §§ 2311,41, 57, 83, 92, 100, 138, 141, 147, 159, l 73> l 7 6 > 216, 242, 264, 276, 281. Payadah § 83 n. Payatak § 83. Peri § 127. PSsh §§ 57, 58, 83. Pesh-kur § 187. Peshca § 57. Peshih § 57. Peshik § 32. Pirjamuni §§ 151, 281. Piramuno § 83. Pirimuno § 83 n. Pishakano § 227. Pitak > . Petak } vl - n '§§ 2 3>57> 15& Pitakih §§ 57, 147, 258. Pratipalana § 31 n. Pnhal §§ 242, 276. Piimman § 72. Pur §§83, 176. Pur-marg § 78. 230 INDEX Purgitarih § 221. Qa § 235 n. Qadae § 7. Qad-hast § 7. Qadhata § 12. Qaetva § 235 n. Quetvadatha § 235 n. Qapara § 31. Qareno | 231 n. Qargandi § 223.. Qazid § 238 n.. Qesh § 40. Quda § 40. Raba § 3 1 , Rag § 171. Rai §§ 83, 252- 283 n.. Rajam § 214. Ramashni § 237 n. Ramishnik § 236; Ramishno § 236. Ramituntano § 83. Rae § 147. Racj § 236. Racjnishnik § 3-2. Racjnitano §§ 100, 183. Raginitar § 32, Racinitarih § 100. Ra§nak § 214 Ragpi § 106. Rasigrahcakra § 132. Ratan § 225. Ratih §§ 220, 22.5. Rato § 32. Ratu § 214. Ratvad § 32. Raved § 7. Raveshni § 301. Regelman § 72. Revan §§ 198, 199. Revano § 57. Rigtakan § 147. Ri^takhavand § 147. Rivas §§ 185, i8S» Robanik § 248. Roi § 236. Rojin § 137. Rokano § 171. Roman § 2.83 n. Roshan § 41. Roshnan § 281. Roshani § 40. Roshanih §§ 36, 37;, 83, 93. Roshanik § 36. Roshano §§ 36, 83/236, 28 1„. Ruan § 130. Ruban §§ 185, 191, 242. Rubano §§ 100, 147, 255. Rubishnih § 147. Riibishmk § 147. Rufai § 180 n. Ruman sheda §pih § 127. Ruwas § 180 n. Camaniha § 83. Car § 168 n. Gardar § 214. Cardarih § 284. Qarisbk ^ 155. Caritar § 83. — dino § 239* Caritarih § 281. Cartak §§ 176, 177. Cartih § 155. Cash § 41. Ce §§ 88, 2S1.— bar § 264, Cij § 83 n. • Ciparam § 171. Citigar § 147. Cpacs § 121. Gparham § 288. (Jpenak minor §§ 23 & n, 57,. 59; 93- Cpendan § 168. " Qpenta armaiti § 56 n. Cpenta mainyus §§ 23, 56. Cpeto § 173. (Jpihr §§ 12, 13, I3». INDEX 231 Opihar §§ 131., 153. 'Qpfhar § 131. C/pojkarih § 248. Cpujih § 147. Qta § 304. Ctaishno § 121. Ctak § 304. Ctar-paik § 284. — paya, § 143. — payak § 214. Ctartih § 92. C/tavar §§ 83, 155. gti §§ 88, 136, 148. Ctih §§ 89, 99, 100, 133. Hi, 144, 147, 153, 183, 214, 242. Ctihano §§ 88, 147. Ctihik § 151. Ctik §§ 36, 93, 147. Otun § 283 n. Ciiak §§ 159, 281. Ciiaki §§ 36, 281. Cu9t § 249 n. Ciujtih §§ 248, 249. CM § 243. Cut § 237 n. Cuto § 236. Salvar § 171. Sakra § 83. Saman § 94. Samayasya § 40. Sazit § 236. Sebih 139. Sejinak § 273. Shakriinito § 83- Shahan-shah § 262 n. Shapanan § 233. Shapir §§ 93, 147, 258. Sharm § 222. ■Sharing § 236, 281 & n„ Shaya9tano § 57. Shayagto § 57. Shayet § 83. Shayito § 83. Shed § 139. Sheda §§ 78, 80, 122. Shedaan sheda § 78. Shedac § 128. Sheda gpih §§ 127, 263. Shedan § 122. Shedano § 99. fchem §§ 147, 281. Sher § 133 n. Shikaft-tar § 231. Shna§ § 100. Shn^kih § 196. Sho9tan § 264. Shiiftano § 83. Sipihr §§ 12, 13. Sirdar § 125. Sirinyeh § 236. Spahvad § 133. Spanyao § 23 n. Spenamino § 23. Star § 41. Sviyah § 40. Taca § 83. Tacishno § 99. Tairev § 139. Talita § 126. Takikih § 221. Tan § 139 -i pacin § 51. Tani §§ 57» 75' 45 n > 2 43- Tano §§ 83, 100, 242. Tanoih § 83. Tanu §§ 37, H7» 190.— i pa9in § 310. — homand § 207. Tar § 83. — minishnih § 243. — 9ijan § 83. Tar § 83. Tarazha § 217. Tarazuk §§ 104, 133 n. Tarik § 77. Tarikih § 79. Tariktum § 289. Tarmed § 139. 232 INDEX Taromat § 139. Tarsak § 263. Tashto § 264. Tasmat § 40. Tava § 202 n. Teger § 155 n. Tegerk § 155 n. Tekerg § 155. Tekh § 170. Terak § 171. Thwahmi § 83. Thwasha §§ 12 & n, 13. Tejak § 41. Tikshanaloha § 153. Tina § 147 Tirej § 139. Tohik § 77. Tokhmak "I §§ 41, 169, 173, Tukhmak J 236. Tokhmako § 147. T6ra § 133 n. [252. Tubano §§ 57, 100, 183, 230, Tukhm § 198. Tukhmakho § 57. Tuliman § 192 n. Turiman § 192 n. Tiirjaman § 192. Twakhsh § 13. U §§ 7. 40, 130. 30I. Udumbala § 279. Udyotah § 40. Upa-vadhaya § 235 n. Ush § 175 n. Va§^ 27 n, 31, 34, 4*> 57 80, 83, 88, 93, 99, 100, 102, 147, 151, 155. l8 7. 196, 205, 220, 236, 237 n, 242, 243, 264, 281, 283 n. Vacir ^261. Vad §^'83 n, 214. Vad-dil § 46. Vadhre § 235 n. VadishnS § 99. Vadunand § 57. Vae-i £aritar § 127. Vafr§ 155. Vahanag § 147. Vahar § 171. Vahdunand § 264. Vahdiinishno-homand § 147. Vahik § 133 n. Vahist I?? ,, o F Vahisto / §§4i.28i. Vahrani § 139. Vai §§ 151, 154. 281. Vakhdund § 73. Vakhsh § 199. Vakhahishno ^ 99. Val §§ 57, 83, 99, 128, 141, 147, 21 1. Valak S 179. Valea $§ 57, 147. Valman §§ 147, 231. Valmanshano § 264. Van § 169. Vanac, 1 § 21 1, 276. Vana§anishno ^ 88. Vanaqih § 128. Vana§karih § 83. Vanend § 73. Vanitano § 102. Vano 24. • INDEX 2 33 Vasto § 236. Vat §§ 41, 154. Yato §§ 99, 147, 155, 161. Yavaca § 23 n. Vayag § 236. Vazak § 76. Vazagh§ 182. \ azar § 7. Vazisht § 154. X'azraka § 26 n. Yazyamna § 235 n. Yeh ^§ 100, 258, Vehih §§ 239 n, 281. Yesh §§ 231, 237 n. Yeshno § 83. Yimarih § 243. Yinarishno § 99. Vinartak § 32. Yinarvand § 32. Vinishnik §§ 88, 147, 281. Vir §§ 196, 197, 198, 199, 204, 205, Yira$to § 83. Viruk § 57. Vigp-akacih § 57. — khutaih § S7-— tubanih §57. Yi^pa § 83. Vicpano §§ 30 n, 151, 281. Yicpano vicpo § 30 n. Yicp6-aka§ih §§ 27 n, 30. — bish § 169 n. — c,utih § 30. — khutih § 30. — khutaiyh §§ 27 n, 29 — tubanih §§ 27 n, 28, 30. — vehih §§27 n, 29/30. Yohuman §§ 57, 72. 93. Vohumananho § 50. Vohiimano §§ 29, 56 n. Voyathra § 83. Wafr § 155 n. Yann § 22. Yad § 83 n. 30 Yadman §§ 72, 147. Yah § 40. Yaitunand § 83. Yajata § 24. Yajishno § 100. Yakart § 22. Yamtunit § 128. Ya§ § 304. Yazata § 24. Yazatan § 41. Yazd §§ 20, 24. Yazdakarti §§ 20, 22. Yazdan §§ 19, 22, 24, 45 11, 47, 99, ioo, 220, 224, 281. Yazdano §§ 24, 88, 207 n. Yazdegard § 20. Yedriinyen § 242. Yehebunt §§ 80, 147, 151, 176. Yehebimto § 100. Yehevuninahik § 34. Yehevunishno §§ 99, 147. Yehevunit §§ 39, 57, 82, 83, 211, 236, 242. Yehevunt §§ 39, 283 n. Yeheviintak § 147. Yehevuntano §§ 57, &3, 236. Yehevunto §§23, 57, 83. Yehcunih § 262. Y