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I 
 
I 
 
A 
 
 COMPENDIOUS SYSTEM 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 IN SIX PA.RTS. 
 
 Part I. Osteology. 
 
 II. Of the Muscles, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 III. Of the Abdomen. 
 
 Part. IV. Of the Thorax. 
 
 V. Of the Brain 
 
 and Nerves. 
 
 VI. Of the senses. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH TWELVE LARGE COPPERPLATES. 
 
 EXTRACTED from the American CBlsition 
 OF THE ENCYCLOP.(E,DlA. 
 
 NOW PUBLISHING, 
 
 BY THOMAS DOBSON, AT TllE STONE HOUSE, N® 41, 
 SECOND STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 M DCCilCII. 
 

 J- 
 
 e 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
 9 . 
 
 I 
 
A 
 
 SYSTEM! 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 z 
 
 A natomy is the art of difle^ting, or arti- 
 ficially feparating and taking to pieces, the 
 different parts of the human body, in order to an 
 exa£t difcovery of their fituation, ftrudure and 
 oeconomy. The word is Greek, derived 
 
 from to diffed, or feparate by Cutting. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 § I. Hijlory of Anatomy. 
 
 This art feems to have been very ancient; 
 though, for a long time, known only in an im- 
 perfedt manner. — The firft men who lived muft 
 
 A 2 have 
 
4 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 have foon acquired fome notions of the ftrudure 
 of their own bodies, particularly of the external 
 parts, and of fome even of the internal, fuch as 
 bones, joints, and finews, which are expofed 
 to the examination of the fenfes in living bodies. 
 
 This rude knowledge mull have been gradu- 
 ally improved, by the accidents to which che 
 body is expofed, by the neceffities of life, and 
 by the various cuftoms, ceremonies, and fuper- 
 ftitions, of different nations. 'I'hus, the obferv- 
 ance of bodies killed by violence, attention to 
 wounded men, and to many difeafes, the vari- 
 ous ways of putting criminals to death, the fune- 
 ral ceremonies, and a variety of fuch things, muft 
 have fhown men every day more and more of 
 themfelves ; efpecially as curiofity and felf-love 
 would here urge them powerfully to obfervation 
 and reflection. 
 
 The brute-creation having fuch an affinity to 
 man in outward form, motions, fenfes, and ways 
 of life ; the generation of the fpecies, and the 
 effect of death upon the body, being obferved 
 to be fo nearly the fame in both ; the conclufion 
 was not only obvious, but unavoidable, that their 
 bodies were formed nearly upon the fame model. 
 And the opportunities of examining the bodies 
 of brutes were fo eafily procured, indeed fo ne- 
 ceiTarily occurred in the common bufmefs of 
 life, that the huntfman in making ufe of his 
 prey, the priefl in facrificing, the augur in di- 
 vination, and, above all, the butcher, or thofe 
 
 who 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 who might out of curiofity attend upon his ope-= 
 rations, muft have been daily adding to the little 
 flock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly 
 we find, in fa£t, that the South-fea-iflanders, who 
 have been left to their own obfervation and rea- 
 foning, without the alfiftance of letters, have 
 yet a confiderable lhare of rude or wild anatomi- 
 cal and phyfiological knowledge. -Dr Hunter 
 informs us, that when Omai was in his mufeum 
 with Mr Banks, though he could not explain 
 himfelf intelligibly, they plainly faw that he 
 knew the principal parts of the body, and fome- 
 thing likewife of their ufes ; and manifefled a 
 great curiofity or defire of having the funftions 
 of the internal parts of the body explained to 
 him ; particularly the relative functions of the 
 two fexes, which with him feemed to be the moft 
 interefting objed; of the human mind. 
 
 We may further imagine, that the Philofo- 
 phers of the moft early ages, that is, the men 
 of curiofity, obfervation, experience and reflec- 
 tion, could not overlook an inftance of natural 
 organization, which was fo interefting, and at the 
 fame time fo wonderful, more efpecially fuch of 
 them as applied to the ftudy and cure of difeafes. 
 We know that phyfic was a branch of philofo- 
 phy till the age of Hippocrates. 
 
 Thus the art muft have been circumftanced in 
 its beginning. We lhall next fee from the tef- 
 timony of hiftorians and other writers, how it 
 adually appeared as an art, from the time that 
 
 writing 
 
6 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 writing was introduced among men ; how it waf 
 improved and conveyed down to us through a 
 long feries of ages. 
 
 Civilization, and improvements of every kind, 
 would naturally begin in fertile countries and 
 healthful climates, where there would be leifure 
 for reflection, and an appetite for amufement. 
 Accordingly, writing, and many other ufeful 
 and ornamental inventions and arts, appear to 
 have been cultivated in the eaftern parts of Afia 
 long before the earlieft times that are treated of 
 by the Greek or other European writers ; and 
 that the arts and learning of thofe eaftern people 
 were in fubfequent times gradually communi- 
 cated to adjacent countries, efpecially by the me- 
 dium of traffic. The cuftoms, fuperftitions, and 
 climate of eaftern countries, however, appear to 
 have been as unfavorable to practical anatomy, 
 as they were inviting to the ftudy of aftronomy, 
 geometry, poetry, and all the fofter arts of peace. 
 
 Animal bodies there, run fo quickly into nau- 
 feous putrefaction, that the early inhabitants muft 
 have avoided fuch offenfive employments, as ana- 
 tomical inquiries, like their pofterity at this day. 
 And, in fad:, it does not appear, by the writ- 
 ings of the Grecians, or Jews, or Phoenicians, 
 or of other eaftern countries, that anatomy was 
 particularly cultivated by any of thofe eaftern na- 
 tions. In tracing it backwards to its infancy, we 
 cannot go farther into antiquity than the times 
 of the Grecian philofophers. As an art in the 
 
 ftate 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 ftate of fome cultivation, it may be faid to have 
 been brought forth and bred up among them as 
 a branch of natural knowledge* 
 
 The sera of philofophy, as it was called, be- 
 gan with Thales the Milefian being declared by 
 a very general confent of the people, the moft 
 wife of all the Grecians, 480 years before Chrift. 
 The philofophers of his fchool, which was called 
 the Ionian, cultivated principally natural know- 
 ledge. Socrates, the feventh in fucceffion of their 
 great teachers, introduced the ftudy of morals, 
 and was thence faid to bring down philofophy 
 from heaven, to make men truly wife and hap- 
 
 In the writings of his fcholar and fuccelfor 
 Plato, we fee that the philofophers had carefully 
 ccmfidered the human body, both in its organi- 
 zation and funfhions ; and though they had not 
 arrived at the knowledge of the more minute and 
 intricate parts, which required the fucceffive la- 
 bour and attention of many ages, they had made 
 up very noble and comprehenfive ideas of the 
 fubjeft in general. The anatomical defcriptions 
 of Xenophon and Plato have had the honour of 
 being quoted by Longinus (§ xxxii.) as fpeci- 
 mens of fublime writing : and the extract from 
 Plato is ftill more remarkable for its containing 
 the rudiments of the circulation of the blood. 
 “ The heart (fays Plato) is the centre or knot of 
 the blood-veifels ; the fpring or fountain of the 
 blood which is carried impetuoufly round ; the 
 
 blood 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 blood is the pabulum or lood of the flefh ; and, 
 
 for the purpofe of nourifhment, the body is laid 
 
 out into canals, like thofe which are drawn 
 
 through gardens, that the blood maybe conveyed, 
 
 as from a fountain, to every part of the pervious 
 
 body.” 
 
 - Hippocrates was nearly contemporary with the 
 great philofophers of whom we have been fpeak- 
 ing, about 400 years before the Chriftian- aera. 
 He is faid to have feparated the profeflion of 
 philofophy and phyfic, and to have been the firft 
 who applied to phyfic alone as the bufmefs of 
 his life. He is likewife generally fuppofed to be 
 the firft who wrote upon anatomy. We know 
 of nothing that was written exprefsly upon the 
 fubjedt before ; and the firft anatomical dilfedHon 
 which has been recorded, was made by his friend 
 Democritus of Abdera. 
 
 If, however, we read the works of Hippo- 
 crates with impartiality, and apply his accounts 
 of the parts to what we now know of the human 
 body, we muft allow his defcriptions to be im- 
 perfect, incorrect, fometimes extravagant, and 
 often unintelligible, that of the bones only ex- 
 cepted. He feems to have ftudied thefe with 
 more fuccefs than the other parts, and tells us 
 that he had an opportunity of feeing a human 
 fkeleton. 
 
 From Flippocrates to Galen, who fiourifhed 
 towards the end of the fecond century, in the 
 decline of the Roman empire, that is, in the 
 
 fpace 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 fpace of 600 years, anatomy was greatly im- 
 proved ; the philofophers ftill confidering it as a 
 moft curious and interefting branch of natural 
 knowledge, and the phyficians, as a principal 
 foundation of their art. Both of them, in that 
 interval of time, contributed daily to the com- 
 mon ftock, by more accurate and extended ob- 
 fervations, and by the lights of improving philo- 
 fophy. 
 
 As thefe two great men had applied very par- 
 ticularly to the ftudy of animal bodies, they not 
 only made great improvements, efpecially in 
 phyfiology, but raifed the credit of natural 
 knowledge, and fpread it as wide as Alexander’s 
 empire. 
 
 Few of Ariftotle’s writings were made public 
 in his lifetime. He affected to fay that they 
 would be unintelligible to thofe who had not 
 heard them explained at his ledtures : and, ex- 
 cept the ufe which Theophraftus made of them, 
 they were loft to the public for above 130 years 
 after the death of Theophraftus j and laft came 
 out defedtive from bad prefervation, and corrupt- 
 ed by men, who, v/ithout proper qualifications, 
 prefumed to corredl and fupply what was loft. 
 
 From the time of Theophraftus, the ftudy of 
 natural knowledge at Athens was forever on the 
 decline ; and the reputation of the Lycseum and 
 Academy was almoft confined to the ftudies 
 which are fubfervient to oratory and public 
 fpeaking. 
 
 The 
 
lO 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ITe other great inftitution for Grecian edu- 
 cation, was at Alexandria in Egypt. The firft 
 Ptolemies, both from their love of literature, 
 and to give true and permanent dignity to their 
 empire, and to Alexander’s favorite city, fet up 
 a grand fchool in the palace itfelf, with a mufeum 
 and library, which, we may fay, has been the 
 moT famed in the world. Anatomy, among 
 other fciences, was publicly taught ; and the two 
 diftinguidied anatomifts were Erafiftratus the pu- 
 pil and friend of Theophraftus, and Herophilus. 
 Their voluminous works are all loft ; but they 
 are quoted by Galen almoft in every page. Thefe 
 profeffors were probably the firft who were au- 
 thorized to difTed; human bodies ; a peculiarity 
 which marks ftrongly the philofophical magnani- 
 mity of the firft Ptolemy, and fixes a great sera 
 in the hiftory of anatomy. And it was, no doubt, 
 from this particular advantage which the Alex- 
 andrians had above all others, that their fchool 
 not only gained, but for many centuries pre- 
 ferved, the firft reputation for medical education. 
 Ammianus Marcelliims, who lived about 650 
 years after the fciiools w^ere fet up, fays, they were 
 lb famous in his time, that it was enough to fe- 
 cure credit to any phyfician, if he could fay he 
 had ftudied at Alexandria. 
 
 Heroi^hilus has been laid to have anatomized 
 
 i • 
 
 700 bodies. W e mull allow for exaggeration. 
 Kkiy, it was faid, that both he and Erafiftratus 
 made it a common practice to open living bodies, 
 
 that 
 
INTRODUCTION. ii 
 
 that they might difcover the more fecret fprings 
 of life. But this, no doubt, was only a ^'Tligar 
 opinion, rifmg from the prejudices of mankind ; 
 and accordingly, without any good reafon, fuch 
 tales have been told of modern anatomifts, and 
 have been believed by the vulgar. 
 
 Among the Romans, though it is probable they 
 had phyhcians and furgeons from the founda- 
 tion of the city, yet we have no account of any 
 of thefe applying themfelves to anatomy for a 
 very long time. Archagathus was the hrft 
 Greek phyfician eftablifhed in Rome, and he was 
 banifhed the city on account of the feverity of 
 his operations. — Afclepiades, who flourifhed in 
 Rome I o I years after Archagathus, in the time 
 of Pompey, attained fuch a high reputation as 
 to be ranked in the fame clafs with Hippocrates. 
 He feemed to have fome notion of the air in res- 
 piration acting by its weight ; and in accounting 
 for digeftion, he fuppofed the food to be no far- 
 ther changed than by a comminution into ex- 
 tremely fmall parts, which being diftributed to 
 the Several parts of the body, is affimilated to the 
 nature of each. One Caffius, commonly thought 
 to be a difciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the 
 right fide of the body becoming paralytic on 
 hurting the left fide of the brain, in the fame 
 manner as has been done by the moderns, viz. 
 by the croffing of the nerves from the right to 
 the left fide of the brain. 
 
 From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond 
 
 centurv. 
 
12 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 century, phyficians feem to have been greatly 
 encouraged at Rome ; and, in the writings of 
 Celfus, Rufus, Pliny, Coelius, Aurelianus, and 
 Arseteus, we find feveral anatomical obfervations, 
 but moftly very fuperficial and inaccurate. To- 
 wards the end of the fecond century lived Clau- 
 dius Gallenus Pergamus, whofe name is fo well 
 known in the medical world. He applied him- 
 felf particularly to the ftudy of anatomy, and 
 did more in that way than all that went before 
 him. He feems, however, to have been at a^ 
 great lofs for human fubjedts to operate Upon ; 
 and therefore his defcription of the parts are 
 moftly taken from brute animals. His works 
 contain the fulleft hiftory of anatomifts, and the 
 moft complete fyftem of the fcience, to be met 
 with any where before him, or for feveral cen- 
 turies after ; fo that a number of paftages in them 
 were reckoned abfolutely unintelligible for many 
 ages, until explained by the difcoveries of fuc- 
 ceeding anatomifts. 
 
 About the end of the fourth century, Nimefi- 
 us bifhop of Emifia wrote a treatife on the na- 
 ture of man, in which it is faid were contained 
 two celebrated modern difcoveries ; the one, the 
 ufes of the bile, boafted of by Sylvius de la Boe ; 
 and the other, the circulation of the blood. This 
 laft, however, is proved by Dr Friend, in his 
 Hiftory of phyfic, p. 229. to be falfely afcribed 
 to this author. 
 
 The Roman empire beginning now to be op- 
 
 prefted 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 prefTed by the barbarians, and funk in grofs fu- 
 peritition, learning of all kinds decreafed ; and 
 when the empire was totally overwhelmed by 
 thofe barbarous nations, every appearance of 
 fcience was almofl extinguiflied in Europe. The 
 only remains of it were among the Arabians in 
 Spain and in Afia. — -The Saracens who came into 
 Spain, deftroyed at firft all the Greek books 
 which the Vandals had fpared : but though their 
 government Wc s in a conftant ftruggle and fluc- 
 tuation during 800 years before they were driven 
 out, they received a tafte for learning from their 
 eountrymen of the eaft ; feveral of their princes 
 encouraged liberal ftudies ; public fchools were 
 fet up at Cordova, Toledo, and other towns, 
 and tranflations of the Greeks into the Arabic 
 were univerfally in the hands of their teachers. 
 
 - Thus was the learning of the Grecians trans- 
 ferred to the Arabians. But though they had fo 
 good a foundation to build upon, this art was ne- 
 ver improved while they were mafters of the 
 world ; for they were fatisfied with commenting 
 upon Galen ; and feem to have made no diflec- 
 tions of human bodies. 
 
 Abdollaliph, who was himfelf a teacher of 
 anatomy, a man eminent in his time (at and 
 before 1203) for his learning and curiofity; a 
 great traveller, who had been bred at Bagdad, 
 and had feen many of the great cities and prin- 
 cipal places for ftudy in the Saracen em.pire ; 
 who had a favourable opinion of original obfer- 
 
 vation, 
 
14 INTRODUCTION, 
 vation, in oppofition to book-learning ; who 
 boldly corrected fome of Galen’s errors, and 
 was perfuaded that many more might be detect- 
 ed ; this man, we fay, never made or faw, or 
 feemed to think of a human diffeCtion. He dif- 
 covered Galen’s errors in the ofteology, by going 
 to burying-grounds, with his ftudents and others, 
 where he examined and demonftraced the bones ; 
 he earneftly recommended that method of Itudy, 
 in preference even to the reading of Galen, and 
 thought that many further improvements might 
 be made ; yet he feemed not to have an idea that 
 a frefh fubjeCl might be diffeCted with that view. 
 
 Perhaps the Jewiih tenets, which the Maho- 
 metans adopted, about uncleanlinels and pollu- 
 tion, might prevent their handling dead bodies ; 
 or their opinion of what was fuppofed to pafs 
 between an angel and the dead perfon, might 
 make them think difturbing the dead highly fa- 
 crilegious. Such, howxver, as Arabian learning 
 was, for many ages together there was hardly 
 any other in all the weftern countries of Europe. 
 It was introduced by the eftablifhment of the 
 Saracens in Spain in 7 1 1 , and kept its ground 
 till the reftoration of learning in the end of the 
 15th century. The ftate of anatomy in Europe, 
 in the times of Arabian influence, may be feen 
 by reading a very fhort fyftem of anatomy drawn 
 up by Mundinus, in the year 1315. It was ex- 
 traded principally from what the Arabians had 
 preferved of Galen’s doClrine ; and, rude as it is, 
 
 in 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 in that age, it was judged to be fo mafterly a 
 performance, that it was ordered by a public 
 decree, that it Ihould be read in all the fchools 
 of Italy ; and it actually continued to be almoft 
 the only book which was read upon the fubjedt 
 for above 200 years. Cortefius gives him the 
 credit of being the great reftorer of anatomy, 
 and the firft who diffecled human bodies among 
 the moderns. 
 
 A general prejudice againft difledtion, howe- 
 ver, prevailed till the i6th century. The em- 
 peror Charles V. ordered a confultation to be 
 held by the divines of Salamanca, in order to 
 determine whether or not it was lawful in point 
 of confcience to diffedt a dead body. In Muf- 
 covy, till very lately, both anatomy and the ufe 
 of fkeletons were forbidden, the firft as inhu- 
 man, and the latter as fubfervient to with- 
 craft. 
 
 In the beginning of the 15th century, learn- 
 ing revived confiderably in Europe, and parti- 
 cularly phyfic, by means of copies of the Greek 
 authors brought from the fack of Conftantinople; 
 after which the number of anatomifts and ana- 
 tomical books increafed to a prodigious degree. 
 — The Europeans becoming thus pofteffed of 
 the antient Greek fathers of medicine, were for 
 a long time fo much occupied in corredling the 
 copies they could obtain, ftudying the meaning, 
 and commenting upon them, that they at- 
 tempted 
 
i6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tempted nothing of their own, efpecially in ana- 
 tomy. 
 
 And here the late Dr. Hunter introduces in- 
 to the annals of this art, a genius of the firft 
 rate, Leonardo da Vinci, who had been formerly 
 overlooked, becaufe he was of another profeffion, 
 and becaufe he publifhed nothing upon the fub- 
 jedl. He is confidered by the Doctor as by far 
 the beft anatomift and phyfiologift of his time ; 
 and was certainly the firft man we know of who 
 introduced the pradice of making anatomical 
 drawings. 
 
 Vaflare, in his lives of the painters, fpeaks of 
 Leonardo thus, after telling us that he had com- 
 pofed a book of the anatomy of a horfe, for 
 his own ftudy : “ He afterwards applied him- 
 felf with more diligence to the human anatomy; 
 in which ftudy he reciprocally received and 
 communicated affiftance to Marc Antonio della 
 Torre, an excellent philofopher, who then read 
 ledures in Pavia, and wrote upon this fubjed ; 
 and who was the firft, as I have heard, who 
 began to illiiftrate medicine from the dodrine 
 of Galen, and to give true light to anatomy, 
 which till that time had been involved in clouds 
 of darknefs and ignorance. In this he availed 
 himfelf exceedingly of the genius and labour of 
 Leonardo, who made a book of ftudies, drawn 
 with red chalk, and touched with a pen, with 
 great diligence, of fuch fubjeds as he had him- 
 felf difieded ; where he made all the bones, and 
 3 to 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 to thofe he joined, in their order, all the nerves, 
 and covered them with the mufcles. And con- 
 cerning thofe, from part to part, he wrote re- 
 marks in letters of an ugly form, which are 
 written by the left hand, backwards, and not 
 to be underftood but by thofe who >know the 
 method of reading them ; for they are not to 
 be read without a looking-glafs. Of thefe pa- 
 pers of the human anatomy, there is a great 
 part in the poifeffion of M. Francefco daMelzo, 
 a Milanefe gentleman, who, in the time of Leo- 
 nardo, was a mofl; beautiful boy, and much be- 
 loved by him, as he is now a beautiful and gen- 
 teel old man, who reads thofe writings, and care- 
 fully preferves them, as precious relid-s, toge- 
 ther with the portrait of Leonardo, of happy 
 memory. It appears impoffible that that divine 
 fpirit fhould reafon fo well upon the arteries, 
 and mufcles, and nerves, and veins ; and with 
 fuch diligence of every thing, &c. &c.” 
 
 Thofe very drawings and the writings are 
 happily found to be preferved in his Britannic 
 Majefty’s great colledtion of original drawings, 
 where the Dodior was permitted to examine 
 them ; and his fentiments upon the occafion he 
 thus exprelTes : “ I expeded to fee little more 
 than fuch defigns in anatomy, as might be ufe- 
 ful to a painter in his own profeffion ; but I faw, 
 and indeed with aftonifhment, that Leonardo 
 had been a general and a deep ftudent. When 
 I confider what pains he has taken upon every 
 
 B part 
 
i8 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 part of the body, the fuperiority of his univer- 
 fal genius, his particular excellence in mecha- 
 nics and hydraulics, and the attention with which 
 fuch a man would examine and fee objects which 
 he was to draw, I am fully perfuaded that Leo- 
 nardo was the heft anatomift at that time in the 
 world. We muft give the 1 5th century the cre- 
 dit of Leonardo’s anatomical ftudies, as he was 
 55 years of age at the clofe of that century.” 
 
 In the beginning of the 1 6th century, Achil- 
 linus and Benedidfus, but particularly Beren- 
 garius and Maffa, followed out the improvement 
 of anatomy in Italy, where they taught it, and 
 publifhed upon the fubjedt. Thefe firft im- 
 provers made fome difcoveries from their own 
 diffedbions ; but it is not furprifing that they 
 ihould have been diffident of themfelves, and 
 I lave follovred Galen almoft blindly, when his 
 authority had been fo long eftabliffied, and when 
 the enthufiafm for Greek authors was rifmg to 
 fuch a pitch. 
 
 Soon after this, we may fay about the year 
 1540, the great Vefalius appeared. He was 
 Itudious, laborious, a.nd ambitious. From Bruf- 
 fels, the place of his birth, he went to Louvain, 
 and thence to Paris, where anatomy was riot 
 yet making confiderable figure, and then to 
 Louvain to teach ; from which place, very for- 
 tunately for his reputation, he was called to Italy, 
 vrhere he met with every opportunity that fuch 
 a fuch genius for anatomy defire, that is, books, 
 
 fubjedts. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 fubje(?LS, and excellent draughtlinen. He was 
 equally laborious in reading the ancients, and in 
 dilTedting bodies. And in making the compa- 
 rifon, he could not but fee, that there was great 
 room for improvement, and that many of Ga- 
 len’s defcriptions were erroneous. When he 
 was but a young man, he publifhed a noble fyf- 
 tem of anatomy, illuftrated with a great num- 
 ber of elegant figures. — In this work he found 
 fo many occaficns of correcting Galen, that his 
 contemporaries, partial to antiquity, and jealous 
 of his reputation, complained that he carried his 
 turn for improvement and criticifms to licentiouf- 
 nefs. The fpirit of oppofition and emulation was 
 prefently roufed ; and Silvius in France, Colum- 
 bus, Fallopius, and Euftachius in Italy, who 
 were all in high anatomical reputation about the 
 middle of the 1 6th century, endeavoured to de- 
 fend Galen at the expence of Vefalius. In 
 their difputes they made their appeals to the hu- 
 man body : and thus in a few years the art w'as 
 greatly improved. And Vefalius being deted;- 
 ed in the very fault which he condemned in Ga- 
 len, to wit, defcribing from the difl'eCiions of 
 brutes, and not of the human body, it expofed 
 fo fully that blunder of the older anatomifts, that 
 in fucceeding times there has been little reafon 
 for fuch complaint. — Befides the above, he pub- 
 lifhed feveral other anatomical treatifes. He 
 has been particularly fervdceable by impofmg 
 names on the mufcles, moft of which are retain- 
 
 B 2 ed 
 
20 INTRODUCTION, 
 cd to this day. Formerly they were diftinguifh- 
 ed by numbers, which were differently applied 
 by almoft every author. 
 
 In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profeflbr of ana- 
 tomy at Padua, publifhed a treatife of anatomy 
 under the title of Obfervatio?ies Anatomicce. This 
 was defigned as a fupplement to Vefalius ; many 
 of whofe defcriptions he corrects, though he 
 always makes mention of him in an honourable 
 manner. Fallopius made many great difcoveries, 
 and his book is well worth the perufal of every 
 anatomift. 
 
 In 1563, Bartholomseus Euftachius publifh- 
 ed his Opujcula Anatomlca at Venice, which 
 have ever fince been juftly admired for the ex- 
 adlnefs of the defcriptions, and the difcoveries- 
 contained in them. He publifhed afterwards 
 forne other pieces, in which there is little of ana- 
 tomy ; but never publifhed the great work he 
 had promifed, which was to be adorned with 
 copperplates reprefenting all the parts of the 
 human body. Thefe plates, after lying buried 
 in an old cabinet for upwards of 150 years, were 
 at laft difcovered and publifhed in the year 1714, 
 by Lancifi the pope’s phyfician ; who added a 
 fhort explicatory text, becaufe Euftachius’s own 
 writing could not be found. 
 
 From this time the ftudy of anatomy gradu- 
 ally diffuled itfelf over Europe ; infomuch that 
 for the laft hundred years it has been daily im- 
 proving by the labour of a number of pro- 
 
 feffed 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 •feffed anatomifts almoft in every country of Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 We may form a judgment about the ftate of 
 anatomy even in Italy, in the beginning of the 
 I yth century, from the information of Cortefius. 
 He had been profeffbr of anatomy at Bologna, 
 and was then profelTor of medicine at Maflana ; 
 where, though he had a great defire to improve 
 himfelf in the art, and to finifh a treatife which 
 he had begun on practical anatomy, in 24 years 
 he could twice only procure an opportunity of 
 diflediing a human body, and then it was with 
 difficulties and in hurry ; whereas he had ex- 
 pected to have done fo, he fays, onct eve?y year, 
 according to the ciijiom in the famous academies of 
 Italy. 
 
 In the very end of the 1 6th centry, the great 
 Harvey, as was the cuftom of the times, went 
 to Italy to ftudy medicine ; for Italy was ftill the 
 favourite feat of the arts : And in the very be- 
 ginning of the I yth century, foon after Har- 
 vey’s return to England, his mafter in anatomy, 
 Fabricius ab Aquapendente, publiffied an ac- 
 count of the valves in the veins, which he had 
 difcovered many years before, and no doubt 
 taught in his ledures when Harvey attended him. 
 
 This difcovery evidently affeded the eftabliffi- 
 ed dodrine of all ages, that the veias carried 
 the blood from the liver to all parts of the body 
 for nouriffiment. It fet Harvey to work upon 
 the ufe of the heart and vafcular fyftems in ani- 
 mals ; 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 mals ; and in the courfe of fome years he was 
 fo happy as to difcover, and to prove beyond all 
 poflibility of doubt, the circulation of tl^e blood. 
 He taught his new dodlrine in his le^ures about 
 the year i6i6, and printed it in 1628. 
 
 It was by far the moll important Hep that had 
 been made in the knowledge of animal bodies 
 in any age. It not only refledled ufeful lights 
 upon what had been already found out in ana- 
 tomy, but alfo pointed out the means of further 
 inveftigation. And accordingly we fee, that 
 from Harvey to the prefent time, anatomy has 
 been fo much improved, that we may realbna- 
 bly quellion if the ancients have been further 
 outdone by the moderns in any other branch of 
 knowledge. From one day to another there has 
 been a conftant fucceffion of difcoveries, relating 
 either to the ftrudlure or fundlions of our body ; 
 and new anatomical procelTes, both of inveftiga- 
 tion and demonftration, have been daily invent- 
 ed. Many parts of the body, which were not 
 known in Harvey’s time, have hnce then been 
 brought to light : and of thofe which were 
 known, the internal compofition and fun£tions 
 remained unexplained ; and indeed muft have 
 remained unexplicable without the knowledge 
 of the circulation. 
 
 Harvqy’s dodrine at firft met with confider- 
 able oppofttion ; but in the fpace of about 20 
 years it was fo generally and fo warmly embrac- 
 ed, that it was imagined every thing in phyfic 
 would be explained. But time and experience 
 
 have 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 have taught us, that we ftill are, and probably 
 mufl long continue to be, very ignorant ; and 
 that in the ftudy of the human body, and of its 
 difeafes, there will always be an extenfive field 
 for the exercife of fagacity. 
 
 After the difcovery and knowledge of the 
 circulation of the blood, the next queftion would 
 naturally have been about the paflage and route 
 of nutritious part of the food or chyle from the 
 bowels to the blood-veflels : And, by good for- 
 tune, in a few years after Harvey had made his 
 difcovery, Afellius, an Italian phyfician, found 
 out the la<fi;eals, or velTels which carry the chyle 
 from the inteftines ; and printed his account of 
 them, with coloured prints, in the year 1627, 
 the very year before Harvey’s book came out. 
 
 For a number of years after thefe two publi- 
 cations, the anatomifts in all parts of Europe 
 were daily opening living dogs, either to fee the 
 lafteals or to obferve the phenomena of the cir- 
 culation. In making an experiment of this 
 kind, Pecquet in France Vv^as fortunate enough 
 to difcover the thoracic dud;, or common trunk 
 of all the ladeals, which conveys the chyle into 
 the fubclavian vein. He printed his difcovery in 
 the year 1651. And now the ladeals having; been 
 traced from the inteftines to the thoracic duct, 
 and that dud having been traced to its termina- 
 tion in a blood-veftel, the paflage of the chyle 
 was completely made out. 
 
 The fame pradice of opening living animals 
 
 furnifli- 
 
24 INTRODUCTION, 
 furniflied occafions of difcovering the lymphatic 
 veffels. This good fortune fell to the lot of 
 Rudbec firft, a young Swedifh anatomift ; and 
 then to Thomas Bartholine, a Danifh anato- 
 mifl, who was the firfl; who appeared in print 
 upon the lymphatics. His book came out 
 in the year 1653, years after that of 
 
 Pecquet. And then it was very evident that 
 they had been feen before by Dr. Higmore and 
 others, who had miftaken them for ladeais. But 
 none of the anatomifts of thofe times could make 
 out the origin of the lymphatics, and none o^ 
 of the phyfiologifts could give a fatisfaftory ac- 
 Cou*nt of their ufe, , ; 
 
 The circulation of the blood and the palTage 
 of the chyle having been fatisfa<ftorily traced out 
 in full grown animals, the anatomifts were na- 
 turally led next to confider how thefe animal 
 procefies w^ere carried on in the child while in 
 the womb of the mother. Accordingly the 
 male and female organs, the appearances and 
 contents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated 
 egg, and every phenomenon wdiich could illuf- 
 trate generation, became the favourite fubjeft, 
 for about 30 years, with the principal anatomifts 
 of Europe. 
 
 Thus it would appear to have been in theory: 
 but Dr. Hunter believes, that in fad;, as Har- 
 vey’s mafcer Fabricius laid the foundation for 
 the difcovery of the circulation of the blood by 
 teaching him the valves of the veins, and there- 
 by 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 by inviting him to confider that fubjedt ; fo Fa- 
 bricius by his lectures, and by his elegant work 
 De formato fcetu^ et de formatione ovi et pulli^ 
 probably made that likewife a favourite fubjedt 
 with Dr. Harvey. But whether he took up 
 the fubjedt of generation in confequence of his 
 difcovery of the circulation, or was led to it by 
 his honoured mafter Fabricius, he fpent a great 
 deal of his time in the enquiry ; and publilTied 
 his obfervations in a book De generatione anama-^ 
 lium^ in the year 1 65 1 , that is fix years before 
 his death. 
 
 In a few years after this, Sv'ammerdam, Van 
 Horn, Steno, and De Graaf, excited great atten- 
 tion to the fubjedt of generation, by their fup- 
 pofed difcovery that the females of vivaparous 
 animals have ovaria, that is, clufters of eggs in 
 their loins, like oviparous animals ; which when 
 impregnated by the male, are conveyed into the 
 uterus : fo that a child is produced from an egg 
 as well as a chick ; with this difference, that one 
 is hatched within, and the other without, the 
 body of the mother. 
 
 Malpighi, a great Italian genius, fome time 
 after, made confiderable advances upon the fub- 
 jedl of generation. He had the good fortune 
 to be the lirft who ufed magnifying glaffes with 
 addrefs in tracing the firft appearances in the for- 
 mation of animals. He likewife made many 
 other obfervations and improvements in the mi- 
 
 nutiae 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of anatomy by his mifcrofcopical labours, 
 and by cultivating comparative anatomy. 
 
 This diftinguilhed anatomift gave the firft 
 public fpecimen of his abilities, by printing a dif- 
 fertation on the lungs a?mo i66i ; a period fo 
 remarkable for the ftudy of nature, that it 
 would be injuftice to pafs it without particular 
 notice. 
 
 At the fame time flourifhed Laurentius Belli- 
 nus at Florence, and was the firft who intro- 
 duced mathematical reafoning in phyfic. In 
 1662, Simon Pauli publiftied a treatife Dc Al- 
 bandis ojjibus. He had long been admired for the 
 white fkeletons he prepared ; and at laft difcove- 
 red his method, which was by expofing the bones 
 all winter to the weather. 
 
 Johannes Swammerdam of Amfterdam alfo 
 publifhed fome anatomical treatifes ; but was 
 moft remarkable for his knowledge of preferv- 
 ing the parts of bodies entire for many years, 
 by injedting their vefTels. He alfo publiftied a 
 treatife on infpiration ; wherein he mentioned 
 his having figures of all the parts of the body 
 at big as the life, cut in copper, which he de- 
 figned to publifli, with a complete fyftem of 
 anatomy. Thefe, however, were never made 
 public by Swammerdam; but, in 1683, Go- 
 thofridus Bidloo, profeftbr of anactomy at Ley- 
 den, publifhed a work intitled Anatomla corporis 
 humani^ where all the parts were delineated in 
 very large plates as alm.oft as big as the life. Mr. 
 
 Cow'^per, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 Cowper, an Englifli furgeon, bought 300 co- 
 pies of thefe figures ; and in 1698, publifhed 
 them witli an Englifh text, quite different from 
 Bidioo’sLatin one; to which were added letters in 
 Bidloo’s figures, and fome few figures, of Mr. 
 Cowper’s own. To this w^ork Cowper’s name 
 was prefixed, without the leafl mention of Bid- 
 loo, except on purpofe to confute him. Bid- 
 loo immediately publifhed a ver)' ill-natured 
 pamphlet, called Gulidmus Co’wperus citatiis coram 
 tribimali ; appealing to the Royal Society, how 
 far Cowper ought to be punifhed as a plagiary 
 of the wcrit kind, and endeaYCuring to prove 
 him an ignorant deceitful fellow. Cowper an- 
 fwered him in his own flyle, in a pamphlet call- 
 ed his Vindlcics ; endeavouring to prove, either 
 that Bidloo did not underftand his own ta- 
 bles, or that they were none of his. It was 
 even alledged that thofe w^ere the tables promif- 
 ed by Swammerdam, and which Bidloo had 
 got from his widow. This, however, appears 
 to have been only an invidious furmife, there 
 being unqueftionable evidence that they were 
 really the performance of Bidloo. 
 
 Soon after, Ifbrandus Diembroeck, profelfor 
 of anatomy at Utrecht, began to appear as 
 an author. His work contained very little ori- 
 ginal ; but he was at great pains to coll eel from 
 others what was valuable in their veritings, and 
 his fyftem was the common ftandard among ana- 
 tomical feudents for many years. 
 
 About the fame time, Antonius Liewmn- 
 
 hoeck 
 
28 INTRODUCTION, 
 hoeck of Delft, improved confiderably on Mal- 
 pighi’s ufe of microfcopes. Thefe two authors 
 took up anatomy where' others had dropt it ; 
 and, by this new art, they brought a number 
 of amazing things to light. They difcovered 
 the red globules of the blood ; they were ena- 
 bled to fee the adtual circulation of the blood in 
 the tranfparent parts of living animals, and could 
 meafure the velocity of its motion; they difco- 
 vered that the arteries and veins had no interme- 
 diate cells or fpungy fubftance, as Harvey and 
 all the preceding anatomifts had fuppofed, but 
 communicated one with the other by a continu- 
 ation of the fame tube. 
 
 Liewenhoeck was in great fam.e likewife for 
 his difcovery of the animalcula in the femen. 
 Indeed there was fcarcely a part of the body, 
 folid or fluid, which efcaped his examination ; 
 and he almoft every where found, that what 
 appeared to the naked eye to be rude undigeft- 
 ed matter, was in reality a beautiful and regular 
 compound. 
 
 After this period, Nuck added to our know- 
 ledge of the abforbent fyftem already mentioned, 
 by his injeftions of the lymphatic glands; Ruyfch,- 
 by his defcription of the valves of the lymphatic 
 veffels ; and Dr. Meckel, by his accurate ac- 
 count of the whole fyftem, and by tracing thofe 
 velTels in many parts where they had not before 
 been defcribed. 
 
 Befides thefe authors, Drs. Hunter and Monro 
 
 have 
 
INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 have called the attention of the public to this 
 part of anatomy, in their controverfy concern- 
 ing the difcovery of the office of the lympha- ' 
 tics. 
 
 When the lymphatic veffels were hrft feen and 
 traced into the thoracic dudt, it was natural for 
 anatomifcs to fufpedt, that as the ladeals abforb- 
 ed from the cavity of the inteftines, the lym- 
 phatics, which are fimilar in figure and fcruc- 
 ture, might poffibly do the fame office with 
 refped; to other parts of the body : and accord- 
 ingly, Dr. Gliffon, who wrote in 1654, fup- 
 pofes thefe veffels arofe from cavities, and that 
 their ufe was to abforb ; and Frederic Floffman 
 has very explicitly laid down the dodtrine of the 
 lymphatic veffels being a fyftem of abforbents. 
 But anatomifts in general have been of a con- 
 trary opinion ; for, from experiments, particu- 
 larly fuch as were made by injedtions, they have 
 been perfuaded that the lymphatic veffels did not 
 arife from cavities, and did not abforb, but were 
 merely continuations from finall arteries. The 
 dodtrine, therefore, that the lymphatics, like 
 the ladteals, were abforbents, as had been fug- 
 gefted by Gliffon and by Hoffman, has been 
 revived by Dr. Hunter and Dr. Monro, who 
 have controverted the experiments of their pre- 
 deceffbrs in anatomy, and have endeavoured to 
 prove that the lymphatic veffels are not continu- 
 ed from arteries, but are abforbents. 
 
 To this dodlrine, however, fevera) objedions 
 
 have 
 
30 INTRODUCTION, 
 have been ftarted, particularly by Haller (Elm. 
 Phyf. 1 . 24. § 2, 3.) ; and it has been found, that 
 before thedo£trine of thelymphaticsbeingafyftem 
 of abforbents can be eftablifhed, it muft firft be 
 determined w^hether this fyftem is to be found in 
 other animals belides man and quadrupeds. Mr. 
 Hewfon claims the merit of having proved the 
 afnrmative of this queftion, by difcovering the 
 lymphatic fyftem in birds, ftih, and amphibious 
 animals. See Fhil. 'Tranf. vol. Iviii. and Ixix. 
 — And latterly, Mr. Cruikfhank has traced the 
 ramifications of that fyftem in almoft every part 
 of the body ; and from his diftefiions, figures 
 have been made and lately publifhed to the 
 v/orld. To Mr. Seldon alfo we are much in- 
 debted for his illuftration of this fyftem, which 
 promifes to give great fatisfacftion, but of which 
 only a part has yet been publifhed. 
 
 The gravid uterus is a fubjedt likewife which 
 has received confiderable improvements, parti- 
 cularly relating to one very important difcovery ; 
 viz. that the internal membrane of the uterus, 
 which Dr. Hunter has named decidua^ confti- 
 tutes the exterior part of the fecundines or after- 
 birth, and feparates from the reft of the uterus 
 every time that a woman either bears a child or 
 fuffers a mifcarriage. This difcovery includes 
 another, to vrit, that the placenta is partly made 
 up of an excrefcence or efflorefcence from the 
 uterus itfelf, 
 
 Thefe difcoveries are of the utmoft confe- 
 3 quence. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 quence, both in the phyfiological queftion about 
 the connection betvveen the mother and child, 
 and likewife in explaining the phenomena of 
 births and abortions, as well as in regulating ob- 
 ftetrical praCtice. 
 
 The anatomifts of this century have improv- 
 ed anatomy, and have made the ftudy of it luuch 
 more eafy by giving us more correCt as well as 
 more numerous figures. It is amazing to think 
 of what has been done in that time. We have 
 had four large folio books of figures of the 
 bones, viz. Chefelden’s, Albinus’s, Sue’s and 
 Trew’s. Of the mufcles, we have had two large 
 folio’s ; one from Cowper, which is elegant ; 
 and one from Albinus, which from the accuracy 
 and labour of the work, we may fuppofe will 
 never be outdone. Of the blood veffels we 
 have a large folio from Dr. Haller. We have 
 had one upon the nerves from Dr. Meckel, and 
 another by Dr. Monro, junior. We have had 
 Albinus’s, Roederer’s, Jenty’s, and Hunter’s 
 works upon the pregnant uterus ; Weitbrecht 
 and Leber on the joints and frefh bones ; Soe- 
 merring on the brain ; Zin on the eye ; Cotun- 
 nius, Mekel, junior, &c. on the ear ; Walterus 
 on the nerves of the thorax and abdomen ; Dr. 
 Monro on the buiTse mucofae, &c. 
 
 It would be endlefs to mention the ana.tomical 
 figures that have been publifhed in this centuiy, 
 of particular and fmaller parts of the body, by 
 Morgagni, Ruyfch, Valfalva, SanCcorini, Hei- 
 
32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fter, Vater, Cant, Zimmerman, Waltems, and 
 
 others. 
 
 Thofe elegant plates of the brain, however, 
 juft publilhed by M. Vicq. d’Azyr, muft not 
 pafs without notice, efpecially as they form part 
 of an univerfal fyftem of anatomy and phyfi- 
 ology, both human and comparative, propofed 
 to be executed in the fame fplendid ftyle. Up- 
 on the brain alone 1 9 folio plates are employed j 
 of which feveral are coloured. The figures are 
 delineated with accuracy and clearnefs ; but the 
 colouring is rather beautiful than correct. Such 
 parts of this work as may be publifhed, cannot 
 fail to be equally acceptable to the anatomift and 
 the philofopher ; but the entire defign is appa- 
 rently too extenfive to be accomplifhed within 
 the period of a fingle life. In Great Britain, 
 alfo, a very great anatomical work is carrying 
 on by Andrew Bell, F.S.A.S. engraver to his 
 Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales, with the 
 approbation of Dr. Monro, and under the in- 
 fpeTion of his very ingenious affiftant Mr. Fyfe. 
 It is to compofe a complete illuftration, both ge- 
 neral and particular, of the human body, by a 
 felecftion from the beft plates of all the greateft 
 anatomifts, as well foreign as Britifh, exhibit- 
 ing the lateft cliicoveries in the fcience, and ac- 
 companied with copious explanations. The 
 whole number of plates mentioned in the Pro- 
 fpecftus is 240, of which 152 are already done ; 
 all in royal folio. 
 
 To 
 
, INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 To the foreign treat ifes already mentioned may 
 be added thofe recently publiflied by babbatier 
 and Plenck on anatomy in general. In Great- 
 Britain, the writings of Keil, Douglas, Chefel- 
 den, the firft M onro, Winflow, &c. are too well 
 known to need defcription. The laft of thefe 
 ufed to be recommended as a ftandard for the ltu« 
 dents of anatomy : but it has of late given place 
 to a more accurate and comprehenfive fyilem, 
 in three volumes, publifhed by Mr Elliot of 
 Edinburgh, upon a plan approved of by Dr Mon- 
 ro, and executed by Mr Fyfe. Dr Simmons 
 of I.ondon has alfo obliged the world with an 
 excellent fyftem of anatomy ; and another work, 
 under the title of “ Elements of Anatomy and 
 the Animal QHconomy : in which the fubjedts 
 are treated with uncommon elegance and perfpi- 
 cuity. 
 
 In the latter part of the laft century, anatomy 
 made two great fteps, by the invention of injec- 
 tions, and the method of making what we com- 
 monly call preparations. Thefe two modern arts 
 have really been of infinite ufe to anatomy ; and 
 befides have introduced an elegance into our ad- 
 miniftrations, which in former times could not 
 have been fuppofed to be polfible. They arofe 
 in Holland under Swammerdam and Ruyfch, 
 and afterwards in England under Cowper, St. 
 Andre, and others, where they have been greatly 
 improved. 
 
 C 
 
 The 
 
34 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The anatom ifts of former ages had no other 
 knov/ledge of the blood-veffels, than what they 
 were able to collect from laborious dilfedtions, 
 and from examining the fmaller branches of them, 
 upon fome lucky occafion, when they were found 
 more than commonly loaded with red blood. 
 But filling the vafcular fyftem with a bright co- 
 loured wax, enables us to trace the large velfels 
 with great eafe, renders the fmaller much more 
 confpicuous, and makes thoufands of the very 
 minute ones vifible, which from their delicacy, 
 and the tranfparency of their natural contents, 
 are otherwife imperceptible. 
 
 The mmdern art of corroding the flelhy parts 
 with a menftruum, and of leaving the moulded 
 wax entire, is fo exceedingly ufeful, and at the 
 fame time fo ornamental, that it does great honour 
 tp the ingenious inventor Dr Nicholls. 
 
 The wax-work art of the moderns might de- 
 fcrve notice in any hiftory of anatomy, if the 
 mafters in that way had not been fo carelefs in 
 their imitation. Many of the wax-figures are 
 fo tawdry with a Iliow of unnatural colours, and 
 fo very incorrect in the circumftances of figure, 
 fituation, and the like, that though they ftrike 
 a vulgar eye with admiration, they muft appear 
 ridiculous to an anatomift. But thofe figures 
 which are caft in wax, plafter, or lead, from the 
 real fubjedr, and which of late years have been 
 frequently made, are, of courfe, very correct in 
 all the principal parts, and may be confidered as 
 
 no 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 no infignificant acquifition to modern anatomy. 
 The proper, or principal ufe of this art is, to pre- 
 ferve a very perfect likenefs of fuch fubje(3:s as 
 we but feidom can meet with, or cannot v/ell 
 preferve in a natural ftate j a fubjed; in pregnan- 
 cy, for example. 
 
 The modern improved methods of preferving 
 animal bodies, or parts of them, has been of 
 the greateft fervice to anatomy ; efpecially in 
 faving the time and labour of the anatomift in 
 the nicer diffedions of the fmall parts of the bo- 
 dy. For now, whatever he has prepared with 
 care, he can preferve ; and the objed is ready to 
 be feen at any time. And in the fame manner 
 he can preferve anatomical curiofities, or rarities 
 of every kind ; fach as, parts that are uncom- 
 monly formed ; parts that are difeafed ; the parts 
 of the pregnant uterus and its contents. Large 
 colledions of fuch curiofities which modern 
 anatomifts are ftriving almoft every where to 
 procure, are of infinite fervice to the art, efpe- 
 cially in the hands of teachers. They give Un- 
 dents clear ideas about many things which it is 
 very elTential to know, and yet which it is im- 
 poffible that a teacher fhould be able to fhow 
 otherwife, were he ever fo well fupplied with 
 frefh fubjeds. 
 
36 . INTRODUCTION. 
 
 § 2. Vie-w of the Subject in general^ and Plan of 
 the follo’wing Preatife. 
 
 The etymology of the word anatomy^ as above 
 given, implies fimply dif'eclion ; but by this term 
 lomething more is ufually underftood. 
 
 It is every day made ufe of to exprefs a know- 
 ledge of the human body ; and a perfon who 
 is faid to underftand anatomy, is fuppofed to be 
 converfant with the hrufture and arrangement of 
 the different folid parts of the body. 
 
 It is commonly divided into Anatomy^ pro- 
 perly fo called ; and Comparative Anatomy ; the 
 firft of thefe is confined folely to the human bo- 
 dy ; the latter includes all animals, fo far as a 
 knowledge of their ftruflure may tend to perfect 
 our ideas of the human body. See Compara- 
 tive A'fiatomy. 
 
 The term anatomy may alfo have another and 
 more extenfive fignification : it may be employ- 
 ed to exprefs not only a knowledge of the ftruc- 
 ture and difpofition of the parts but likewife of 
 their economy and ufe. Confidered in this light, 
 it will feldom fail to excite the curiofity of peo- 
 ple of tafce, as a branch of philofophy ; fince, if 
 it is pleafing to be acquainted with the ftrufture 
 of the body, it is certainly more fo to difcover all 
 the fprings which give life and motion to the 
 machine, and to obferve the admirable mechan- 
 ifm by which fo many different functions are ex- 
 ecuted. 
 
 Aftronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after 
 
 Fontenelle, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 37 
 
 Fontenelle, obferves, are the ftudies which pre- 
 fent us with the moft ftriking view of the two 
 greateft attributes of the Supreme Being. The 
 firif of thefe fills the mind with the idea of his 
 immenfity, in the largenefs, diftances, and num- 
 ber of the heavenly bodies ; the laft, aftoniflies 
 with his intelligence and art in the variety and 
 delicacy of animal mechanifm. 
 
 The human body has been commonly enough 
 known by the name of microcofmus ^ or the little 
 world ; as if it did not differ fo much from the 
 univerfal fyftem of nature in the fymmetry and 
 number of its parts as in their fize. 
 
 Galen’s excellent treatife De ufu -partium^ was 
 compofed as a profe hymn to the Creator ; and 
 abounds with as irrefiffible proofs of a fupreme 
 Caufe and governing Providence, as we find in 
 modern phyficotheology. And Cicero dwells more 
 on the ftrudfure and oeconomy of animals than 
 on all the produdfions of nature befides, when he 
 wants to prove the exiftence of the gods from 
 the order and beauty of the univerfe. He there 
 takes a furvey of the body of man in a moft ele- 
 gant fynopfis of anatomy, and concludes thus ; 
 “ Quibus rebus expofitis, fatis docuiffe videor, 
 hominis natura, quanto omnes anteiret animan- 
 tes. Ex quo debet intelligi, nee figuram fitumque 
 rnembrorum, nec ingenii mentifque vijn talem 
 effici potuiffe fortuna.” 
 
 The fatisfadlion of mind which arifes from the 
 ftudy of anatomy, and the influence which it 
 
 muft 
 
38 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 mud naturally have upon our minds as philofo- 
 phcrs, cannot be better conveyed than by the 
 following paflage from the fame author : “ Quae 
 contuens animus, accepit ab his cognitionem de- 
 orem, ex qua oritur pietas : cui conjundfa juffci- 
 tia eft, reliquaeque virtutes: ex quibus vita beata 
 exfiftit, par et fimiles deomm, nulla alia re nib 
 imrnortalitate, qu^ nihil ad bene vivendum per- 
 tinet, cedens coelePcibus.” 
 
 It would be endlefs to quote the animated 
 pafl'ages of this fort which are to be found in the 
 phyficians, philofophers, and theologifts, who 
 have confidered the ftruflure and fundlions of 
 animals with a viev/ towards the Creator. It is 
 a view which muft ftrike one with a moft awful 
 conviftion. Who can know and confider the 
 thoufand evident proofs of the alfonifliing art of 
 the Creator, in forming and fuftaining an animal 
 body fuch as ours, without feeling the moft plea- 
 fant enthufiafm? Can we ferioufly refledt upon 
 this awful fabjedf, without being almoft loft in 
 adoration ? without longing for another life 
 after this, in v^^hich we may be gratified with the 
 higheft enjoyment, which our faculties and na- 
 ture feem capable of,' the feeing and comprehend- 
 ing the whole plan of the Creator, in forming 
 the iiniverfe and in diredfing all its operations ? 
 
 But the more immediate purpofes of anatomy 
 concern thofe who are to be the guardians of 
 health, as this ftudy is neceffary to lay a foun- 
 dation for all the branches of medicine. The 
 
 more 
 
INTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 more we know of our fabric, the more reafon 
 we have to believe, that if our fenfes vv^ere more 
 acute, and our judgment more enlarged, we 
 fhould be able to trace many fprings of life which 
 are now hidden from us : by the fame fagacity 
 we fhould difcover the true caufes and nature of 
 difeafes ; and thereby be enabled to reftore the 
 health of many, who are now, from our more 
 confined knowledge, faid to labor under incura- 
 ble diforders. By fuch an intimate acquaintance 
 with the oeconomy of our bodies, we Ihould dif- 
 cover even the feeds of difeafes, and deftroy 
 them before they had taken root in the conftitu- 
 tion. 
 
 That anatomy is the very bafis of furgery eve- 
 ry body allows. It is diffedlion alone that can 
 teach us, where we may cut the living body 
 with freedom and difpatch ; and where we may 
 venture with great circumfpedtion and delicacy ; 
 and where we muft not, upon any account, at- 
 tempt it. This informs the head^ gives dexterity 
 to the hand^ and familiarizes the heart with a 
 fort of necelfary inhumanity, the ufe of cutting- 
 inftruments upon our fellow-creatures. 
 
 Befides the knowledge of our body, through 
 all the variety of its JlruElure and operatmis in a 
 found ftate, it is by anatomy only that we can ar- 
 rive at the knowledge of the true nature of mofi; 
 of the difeafes which afflidt humanity. The 
 fymptoms of many diforders are often equivo- 
 cal j and difeafes themifelves are thence frequent- 
 
40 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 ly miftaken, even by fenfible, experienced, and 
 attentive pliylicians. But by anatomical exa~ 
 mination after death, w^e can with certainty find 
 out the miftake, and learn to avoid it in any fimi- 
 lar cafe. 
 
 This ufe of anatomy has been fo generally 
 adopted by the moderns, that the cafes already 
 piibliflied are a^moft innumerable; Mangetus, 
 Morgagni, indeed many of the beft modern 
 writings in phyfic, are full of them. And if 
 we look among the phyficians of the beft charac- 
 ter, and obferve thofe who have the art itfelf, 
 rather than the craft of the profeftion at heart ; 
 we (hall find them conftantly taking pains to pro- 
 cure leave to examine the bodies of their pati- 
 ents after death. 
 
 After having confidered the rife and progrefs 
 of anatomy ; the various difcoveries that have 
 been made in it, from time to time ; the great 
 number of diligent obfervers who have applied 
 themfelvcs to this art ; and the importance of 
 the ftudy, not only for the prevention and cure 
 of difeafes, but in furnifhing the livelieft proofs 
 of divine wifdom ; the following queftions feem 
 naturally to arife : For what purpofe is there 
 ftich a variety of parts in the human body ? Why 
 fudi a complication of nice and tender machine- 
 ry ? Why was there not rather a more fimple, 
 lefs delicate, and lefs expenfive frame (a) ? 
 
 In 
 
 (a) The folloving beautiful repreleutation is taken from 
 the late Dr Hunter’s Introduclory Lecture in Anatomy. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 41 
 
 In order to acquire a fatisfa£tory general idea 
 of this fubjed:, and find a folution of all fiich 
 queftions, let us, in our imaginations, make a 
 man : in other words let Us fuppofe that the 
 mhid^ or immaterial part, is to be placed in a cor- 
 poreal fabric, in order to hold a correfpondence 
 with other material beings by the intervention of 
 the body ; and then confider, a priori.^ what will- 
 be wanted for her accommodation. In this in- 
 quiry, we fhall plainly fee the neceffity or advan- 
 tage, and therefore the final caufe, of mofi: of 
 the parts which we adualiy find in the human 
 body. And if we confider that, in order to an- 
 fwer fome of the requifites, h aman wit and in- 
 vention would be very infufficient ; we need not 
 be furprifed if we meet with fome parts of the 
 body whofe ufe we cannot yet perceive, and with 
 fome operations and fundions which we cannot 
 explain. We can fee that the whole bears the 
 moft ftriking charaders of excelling wifdom and 
 ingenuity ; but the imperfed fenfes and capacity 
 of man cannot pretend to reach ever)^ part of a 
 machine, which nothing lefs than the intelligence 
 and power of the Supreme Being could contrive 
 and execute. 
 
 Firft, then, the mind^ the thinking, immate- 
 rial agent, mu ft be provided with a place of im- 
 mediate refidence, which fhall have all the re- 
 quifites for the union of fpirit and body ; ac- 
 accordingly fhe is provided with the brain, where 
 
 fhe 
 
42 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fhe dwells as governor and fuperintendant of the 
 
 whole fabric. 
 
 In the next place, as fhe is to hold a corref- 
 pondence with ail the material beings around her, 
 the muft be fupplied with organs fitted to receive 
 the different kinds of impreffions which they will 
 make. In fadl, therefore, we fee that fhe is pro- 
 vided with the organs of fenfe, as we call them : 
 the eye is adapted to light ; the ear to found ; the 
 nofe to fmell ; the mouth to tafte ; and the fkin 
 to touch. 
 
 Further : She muft be furnifhed with organs 
 of communication between herfelf in the brain 
 and thofe organs of fenfe, to give her informa- 
 tion of all the impreffions that are made upon 
 them : and fhe muft have organs between herfelf 
 in the brain and every other part of the body, 
 fitted to convey her commands and influence over 
 the whole. For thefe purpofes the nerves are 
 acftually fgiven. They are chords, which rife 
 from the brain, the immediate refidence of the 
 mind, and difperfe themfelves in branches 
 through all parts of the body. They convey all 
 the different kinds of fenfations to the mind, in 
 the brain ; and iikewife carry out from thence 
 ail her commands or influence to the other parts 
 of the body. They are intended to be occafion- 
 al monitors againft all fuch impreffions as might 
 endanger the well-being of the whole, or of any 
 particular pait ; vrhich vindicates the Creator of 
 ail things, in having adluaily fubjedted us to 
 
INTRODUCTION. 43 
 
 thofe many difagreeable and painful fenfations 
 which we are expofed to from a thoufand acci- 
 dents in life. 
 
 Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal fyftem, 
 muft be endued with the power of moving from 
 place to place, that £he may have intercourfe 
 with a variety of objects ; that Ihe may Hy from 
 fuch as are difagreeable, dangerous or hurtful, 
 and purfue fuch as are pleafapt or ufeful to her. 
 And accordingly Ihe is furniflred with limbs, and 
 with mufcles and tendons, the inftruments of mo- 
 tion, which are found in every part of the fabric 
 where motion is neceffary. 
 
 But to fupport, to give nrmnefs and fhape to 
 the fabric ; to keep the fcfter parts in their pro- 
 per places ; to give fixed points for, and the pro- 
 per direction to its motions, as well as to protedl 
 fome of the more important and tender organs 
 from external injuries ; there muft be fome firm 
 prop-work interwoven through the whole. And, 
 in faft, for fuch purpofes the bones' are given. 
 
 The prop-work mufi: not be made into one 
 rigid fabric, for that would prevent motion. 
 Therefore there are a number of bones. 
 
 Thefe pieces muft ail be firmly bound toge- 
 ther, to prevent their diflccation. And this end 
 is perfectly well anfwered by the ligaments. 
 
 The extrematies of thefe bony pieces, where 
 they move and rub upon one another, muft have 
 fmooth and flippery furfaces for eafy motion. 
 
 This 
 
44 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This is moft happily provided for, by the carti- 
 lages and mucus of the joints. 
 
 The interftices of all thofe parts muft be filled 
 up with fome foft and ductile matter, which fhall 
 keep them in their places, unite them, and at 
 the fame time allow them to move a little upon 
 one another. And thefe purpofes are anfwered 
 by the cellular membrane or adipofe fubftance. 
 
 There muft be an outward covering over the 
 whole apparatus, both to give it compaftnefs and 
 to defend it from a thoufand injuries : which, in 
 fad;, are the very purpofes of the fkin and other 
 integuments. 
 
 Laftly, the mind being formed for fociety and 
 intercourfe with beings of her own kind, fhe 
 muft be endued with powers of expreffing and 
 communicating her thoughts by fome fenfible 
 marks or figns ; which iliall be both ealy to her- 
 felf, and admit of great variety ; and according- 
 ly fhe is provided with the organs and faculty of 
 fpeech, by which fhe can throw out figns with 
 amazing facility, and vary them without end. 
 
 Thus we have built up an animal body which 
 would feem to be pretty complete : but as it is 
 the nature of matter to be altered and worked 
 upon by matter ; fo in a very little time fuch a 
 living creature muft be deftroyed, if there is no 
 provifion for repairing the injuries which fhe 
 muft commit upon herfeif, and thofe which fhe 
 muft be expofed to from without. Therefore a 
 treafure of blood is adually provided in the heart 
 
 and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 45 
 
 and vafcular fyftem, full of nutritious and heal- 
 ing particles, fluid enough to penetrate into the 
 minutefl: parts of the animal ; impelled by the 
 heart, and conveyed by the arteries, it waflies 
 every part, builds up what was broken down, 
 and Iweeps away the old and ufelefs materials. 
 Hence we fee the necelTity or advantage of the 
 heart and arterial fyftem. 
 
 What more there was of this blood than 
 enough to repair the prefent damages of the ma- 
 chine, muft not be loft, but Ihouid be teturned 
 again to the heart ; and for this purpofe the ve- 
 nous fyftem is actually provided. Thefe requi- 
 fites in the animal explain, a priori^ the circula- 
 tion of the blood. 
 
 The old materials which were become ufelefs, 
 and are fwept off by the current of blood, muft 
 be feparated and thrown out of the fyftem. 
 Therefore glands, the organs of Secretion, are 
 given for ftraining whatever is rudundant, vapid, 
 or noxious, from the mafs of blood ; and when 
 ftrained, they are thrown out by emunfLOries, 
 called organs of Excretion. 
 
 But now, as the machine muft be coiiftantly 
 wearing the reparation muft- be carried on with- 
 out intermiflion, and the ftraiiiers muft always 
 be employed. Therefore there is adlually a per- 
 petual circulation of the blood, and the fecretions 
 are always going on. 
 
 Even all this provifion, however, would not 
 be fufhcient ; for that ftore of blood v/ould loon 
 
 be 
 
a6 introduction. 
 
 be confumed, and the fabric would break down, 
 if there were not a provifion made for frefh fup- 
 plies. Thefe we obferve, in fa£t, are profufely 
 Icattered round her in the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms ; and Ihe is furnifhed with hands, the 
 fitteft inftruments that could have been contrived, 
 for gathering them, and for preparing them in a 
 variety of ways for the mouth. 
 
 But thefe fupplies, which we call food, muft 
 be confiderably changed ; they muft be convert- 
 ed into blood. Therefore fhe is provided with 
 teeth for cutting and bruifmg the food, and with 
 a ftomach for melting it down : In fhort, with 
 all the organs fubfervient to digeftion. The finer 
 parts of the aliments only can be ufeful in the 
 conftitution : thefe muft be taken up and con- 
 veyed into the blood, and the dregs muft be 
 thrown off. With this view the inteftinal canal 
 is adually given. It feparates the nutritious 
 part, which vre call chyle^ to be conveyed into 
 the blood by the fyftem of abforbent veflels ; and 
 the feces pafs downwards, to be conduded out 
 of the body. 
 
 Now we have got our animal not only furniftr- 
 ed with what is wanted for its immediate exift- 
 ence, but alfo Vv^ith the powers of protrading that 
 exiftence to an indefinite length of time. But its 
 duration, we may prefume, muft neceffarily be 
 limited : for as it is nourifhed, grows, and is 
 raifed up to its full ftrength and utinoft perfedion ; 
 fo it muft, in time, in common with all material 
 
 beings, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 47 
 
 beings, begin to decay, and then hurry on to fi- 
 nal ruin. Hence we fee the neceffity of a fcheme 
 for renovation. Accordingly vfife Providence, 
 to perpetuate as well as preferve his work, be- 
 fides giving a ftrong appetite for life and felf-pre- 
 fervation, has made animals male and female, 
 and given them fuch organs and pafiions as will 
 fecure the propagation of the fpecies to the end 
 of time. 
 
 Thus we fee, that by the veiy imperfedl fur- 
 vey which human reafon is able to take of this 
 fubjedl, the animal man muft necelfarily be 
 complex in his corporeal fyftem, and in its ope- 
 rations. 
 
 He muft have one great and general fyftem, 
 the vafcular, branching through the whole for cir- 
 culation ; Another, the nen-ous, with its append- 
 ages the organs of fenfe, for every kind of feel- 
 ing : And a third, for the union and connexion 
 of all thofe parts. 
 
 Befides thefe primary and general fyftems, he 
 requires others v/hich may be more local or con- 
 fined : One for ftrength, fiipport, and protection ; 
 the bony compages : Another for the requifite 
 motions of the parts among themfelves, as well 
 as for moving from place to place ; the raufcu- 
 lar part of the body : Another to prepare nourifh- 
 ment for the daily recruit of the body ; the di- 
 geftive organs : And one for propagating the fpe- 
 cies ; the organs of generation. 
 
 And in taking this general furvey of what 
 
 would 
 
48 INTRODUCTION, 
 would appear, a prkri^ to be neceffary for adapt- 
 ing an animal to the fituations of life, we obferve, 
 with great fatisfadtion, that man is accordingly 
 made of fuch fyftems, and for fuch purpofes. 
 He has them all ; and he has nothing more, ex- 
 cept the organs of refpiration. Breathing it 
 feemeth difficult to account for a priori : we only 
 knew it to be in fadt effentially neceffary to life. 
 Notwithftanding this, when we faw all the other 
 parts of the body, and their functions, fo well 
 accounted for, and fo wifely adapted to their fe- 
 veral purpofes, there could be no doubt that ref- 
 piration was fo likewife : And accordingly, the 
 difcoveries of Dr Prieftley have lately thrown 
 light. upon this fundtion alfo, as will be fhown in 
 its proper place. 
 
 Of all the different fyftems in the human bo- 
 dy, the ufe and neceffity are not more apparent, 
 than the wifdom and contrivance which has been 
 exerted in putting them all into the moft com- 
 padl and convenient form ; in difpofmg them fo, 
 that they fhall mutually receive, and give helps 
 to one another ; and that all, or many of the 
 parts, fhall not only anfwer their principal end 
 or purpofe, but operate fuccefsfully and ufefully 
 in a variety of fecondary ways. 
 
 If we confider the whole animal machine in 
 this light, and compare it with any machine in 
 vrhich human art has exerted its utmoft j fup- 
 pofe the beft conftrudled ffiip tha‘: ever was built, 
 xve fttali be convinced beyond the poffibility of 
 0. doul t. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 49 
 doubt, that there are intelligence and power far 
 furpaffing what humanity can boaft of. 
 
 One fuperiority in the natural machine is pe- 
 culiarly ftriking. In machines of human con- 
 trivance or art, there is no internal power, no 
 principle in the machine itfelf, by which it can 
 alter and accommodate itfelf to any injury which 
 it may fuffer, or make up any injury which ad- 
 mits of repair. But in the natural machine, the 
 animal body, this is moft wonderfully provided 
 for, by internal powers in the machine itfelf; 
 many of which are not more certain and obvious 
 in their elfedts, than they are above all human 
 comprehenfion as to the manner and means of 
 their operation. Thus, a wound heals up of it- 
 felf ; a broken bone is made firm again by a cal- 
 lus ; a dead part is feparated and thrown off ; 
 noxious juices are driven out by fome of the 
 emundlories ; a redundancy is removed by fome 
 fpontaneous bleeding ; a bleeding naturally flops 
 of itfelf ; and a great lofs of blood, from any 
 caufe, is in fome meafure compenfated, by a con- 
 trading power in the vafcular fyftem, which ac- 
 commodates the capacity of the veffels to the 
 quantity contained. The flomach gives informa- 
 tion when the fupplies have been expended ; re- 
 prefents, with great exadnefs, the quantity and 
 the quality of what is wanted in the prefent ftate 
 of the machine ; and in proportion as fhe meets 
 with neged, rifes in her demand, urges her pe- 
 tition in a louder tone, and with more forcible 
 D arguments. 
 
50 INTRODUCTION, 
 arguments. For its protedion, an animal bo- 
 dy refifts heat and cold in a very wonderful 
 manner, and preferves an equal temperature in a 
 burning and in a freezing atmofphere. 
 
 A farther excellence or fuperiority in the na- 
 tural machine, if poflible, ftill more aftonifhing, 
 more beyond ail human comprehenfion, than 
 ■\yhat we have been fpealdng of, is the follow- 
 ing Befides thofe internal powers of felf-pre- 
 fervation in each individual, when two of them 
 co-operate, or ad in concert, they are endued 
 with powers of making other animals or ma- 
 chines like themfelves, which again are polfelfed 
 of the fame powers of producing others, and fo 
 of multiplying the fpecies without end. 
 
 Thefe are powers which mock all human in- 
 vention or imitation. They are charaderiftics 
 of the divine Archited. 
 
 Having premifed this general account of the 
 fubjed, we fhall next ^onfider the method to be 
 obferved in treating it. 
 
 The ftudy of the human body, as already no- 
 ticed, is commonly divided into two parts. The 
 hrft, which is, called Anatomy^ relates to the mat- 
 ter and ftrudure of its parts ; the fecond, called 
 Phyfwlogy and Ajiimal ceconomy^ relates to the 
 principles and lavv^s of its internal operations and 
 fundions. 
 
 As the body is a compound of folids and fluids, 
 yjuatomy^ is divided into, 
 
 I . The Anatomy of the folids, and 
 
51 
 
 INTR ODtJCTION. 
 
 2. The Anatomy of the fluids. 
 
 I. The Solids, by which we mean all parts 
 of oUr body, which are not fluid, are generally 
 divided into two clalfes, viz. 
 
 1. The hard folids or bones. This part of 
 anatomy is called OJIeology ; which fignifies the 
 doctrine of the bones. 
 
 2. The fofter folids ; which part is called 
 Sarcology, viz. the doftrine of flefli. 
 
 This divifion of the folids, we may obferve, 
 has probably taken its origin from the vulgar ob- 
 fervation, that the body is made of bone and 
 fiefh. And as there are many different kinds of 
 what are called foft or flefhy parts, Sarcology is 
 fubdivided into, 
 
 (i.) Angeiology^ of the dodirine of veflels ; by 
 which is commonly underftood blood vejfels : 
 
 (2.] Adenology^ of glands: 
 
 (3.) Neurology^ of nerves: 
 
 (4.) Myology^ of mufcles : and, 
 
 (3.) Splanchnology^ of the vifcera or bowels. 
 There is, befides, that part which treats of the 
 organs of fenfe and of the integuments. 
 
 This divifion of the folids has been here men- 
 tioned, rather for the fake of explaining fo ma- 
 ny words, which are conftantly ufed by anato- 
 mifts, than for its importance or accuracy. For 
 befides many other objedtions that might be urg- 
 ed, there are in the body three fpecies of folids, 
 viz. griftle or cartilage, hair, and nails ; which 
 are of an intermediate nature between bone and 
 
 D2 flefh; 
 
52 INTRODUCTION, 
 flefh ; and therefore cannot fo properly be 
 brought into the ofteology or the farcology. The 
 cartilages were claffed with the bones ; becaufe 
 the greateft number of them are appendages to 
 bones : and for the like reafon the hair and the 
 nails were claffed with the integuments. 
 
 II. The FLUIDS of the human body may be 
 divided into three kinds, which Dr. Hunter calls 
 the crude ^ the general or perfect ^ and the local 
 or fecreted fluid. 
 
 1. By \h.Q crude fluid is meant the chyle, and 
 whatever is abforbed at the furface of the body, 
 in other words, what is recently taken into the 
 body, and is not yet mixed with or converted 
 into blood. 
 
 2. The general or perfeEl fluid is the blood 
 itfelf, to wit, what is contained in the heart, 
 arteries, and veins, and is going on in the round 
 of the circulation. 
 
 3. The local or fecreted are thofe fluids pe- 
 culiar to particular parts of the body, which 
 are ftrained off from the blood, and yet are very 
 different in their properties from the blood. They 
 are commonly called fecretions ; and fomeare 
 ufeful, others excrementitious. 
 
 In treating of the Phyfiology.^ it is very diffi- 
 cult to fay what plan fhould be followed ; for 
 eveiy method which has been yet propofed, is 
 attended with manifeft inconvenience. The 
 powers and operations of the machine have fuch 
 a dependence upon one another, fuch connec- 
 tions 
 
INTRODUCTI ON. 53 
 tions and reciprocal influerxe, that they cannot 
 well be underflood or explained leparately. In 
 this fenfe our body may be compared to a 
 circular chain of powers, in which nothing 
 is firll or iaft, nothing folitary or indepen- 
 dent ; fo that wherever we begin, we find 
 that there is fomething preceding which we 
 ought to have known. If we begin with the 
 brain and the nerves, for example, we fhall 
 find that thefe cannot exift, even in idea, with- 
 out the heart : if we fet out with the heart and 
 vafcular fyftem, we fhall prefently be fenfible, 
 that the brain and nerves muft be fuppofed : or, 
 fhould we take up the mouth, and follow the 
 courfe of the aliment, we fhould fee that the very 
 firft organ which prefents itfelf, fuppofes the 
 exiftence of both the heart and the brain : v/here- 
 fore we fhall incorporate the Phyfiology with 
 the Anatomy, by attempting to explain the 
 functions after we have demonfttated the or- 
 gans. 
 
 PART I. 
 
54 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 Part L 
 
 PARTI. 
 
 OSTEOLO G Y. 
 
 W E begin with the bones, which may be 
 confidered as the great fupport of the body, tend- 
 ing to give it fnape and firmnefs.— But before 
 v/e enter into the detail of each particular bone, 
 it will be neceffary to defcribe their compofition 
 and connections, and to explaiu the nature of 
 the different parts which have an immediate re- 
 lation to them ; as the cartilages, ligaments, 
 periofteum, marrow, and fynovial glands. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Bones in general y vijith their 
 appendagesy &c. 
 
 The bones are of a firm and hard (b) fub'’ 
 fiance, of a white colour, and perfectly infen- 
 fible. They are the moft compad: parts of the 
 body, and ferve for the attachment and fupport 
 of all the other parts. 
 
 Three different fubftances are ufually diftin- 
 guifiied in them ; their exterior or bony part, 
 properly fo called ; their fpongy cells ; and their 
 
 reticular 
 
 (b) Mr. Scheele has lately difcovered that bones contain 
 the phofphnric add united v.'ith calcareous earth ; and that 
 to this combination they owe their firmnefs. 
 
Part I. O S t E O L Q G T. 5^ 
 
 reticular fubftaiice. . The firft of thefe is form- 
 ed of tnany lafnih^ or plates, compofmg a firm 
 hard fiibftance^Thd ]^ngy or cfelhilar part is 
 fo called ofi account of its refemblan.ee to a fponge, 
 from the little cells which compofe it. This 
 fubftance forms almoft the v/ncle of the extre- 
 mities of cylindrical bones. The reticular part 
 is compofed of fibres, which crofs each other 
 in different directions. This net-’^ork forms 
 the internal furface of thofe bones which have 
 cavities. 
 
 The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are com- 
 pofed only of the laminse and the cellular fub- 
 ftance. This lafl; is ufually found in the middle 
 of the bone dividing it into two plates, and is 
 there called diploe. 
 
 Gagliardi, who pretended to have difeovered 
 an infinite number of claviculi (c)., or bony 
 proceffes, which he deferibes as traverfmg the la- 
 minae to unite them together, has endeavoured 
 to fupport this pretended difeovery by the ana- 
 logy of bones to the bark of trees, in which cer- 
 tain woody nails have been remarked ; but this 
 opinion feems to be altogether fanciful. 
 
 Some writers have fuppofed, that the bones 
 are formed by layers of the periofteum, which 
 gradually offify, in the fame manner as the tim- 
 ber is formed in trees by the hardening of the 
 
 white 
 
 (c) In his opium nov. invent, iliuprat. he deferibes 
 
 four kinds of thefe clavieuli or nails, viz. the perpendicular, 
 oblique, headed, and crooked. 
 
S6 OSTEOLOGY, Part 1, 
 
 white fubftance that is found between the inner 
 bark and the wood. M. Duhamel, who has 
 adopted this opinion, fed different animals with 
 madder and their ordinary food alternately du- 
 ring a certain time ; and he afTerts, that in dif- 
 fedting their bones, he conftantly obferved dif- 
 tinft layers of red and white, which correfponded 
 with the length of time they they had lived on 
 madder or their ufual aliment. But it has fince 
 been proved by Detleff, that M. Duhamel’s ex- 
 periments were inaccurate, and that neither the 
 periofteum nor the cartilages are tinged by the ufe 
 of madder, vvhich is known to affedt the bones 
 only. 
 
 We ufually confider in a bone, its body and 
 its extremities. The ancients gave the name of 
 diaphyfis to the body or middle part, and divi- 
 ded the extremities into apophyfis and epiphyfis. 
 An apophyfis, or procefs, as it is more common- 
 ly called, is an eminence continued from the bo- 
 dy of the bone, whereas an epiphyfis is at flrft a 
 fort of appendage to the bone, by means of an 
 intermediate cartilage. Many epiphyfes, which 
 appear as diftlndt bones in the foetus, afterwards 
 become apophyfes ; for they are at length fo com- 
 pletely united to the body of the bone as not to 
 be difiiinguifhable from it in the adult ftate. It 
 is not unufual, however, at the age of 1 8 and 
 even 20 years, to find the extremities of bones, 
 ftill in the ftate of epiphyfis. 
 
 The names given to the proceffes of bones 
 
 are 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 57 
 
 are expreffive of their fliape, fize, or ufe ; thus 
 if a procefs is large and of a fpherical form, it is 
 called caput ^ or head; if the head is flatted, it 
 is termed ccjidyle. Some proceffes, from their 
 refemblance to a ftiletto, a breaft, or the beak of 
 a crow, are called f.yloid^ nwjioid^ or coracoid : 
 others are ftyled ridges or fpines. The tw^o pro^ 
 celfes of the os femoris derive their name of 
 trochanters from their ufe. 
 
 A bone has its cavities as well as, proceflTes. 
 Thefe cavities either extend quite Through its 
 fubftance, or appear only as depreflTicns. The 
 former are called foramina or holes ^ and thefe ' 
 foramina are fometimes termed canals or conduits^ 
 according to their form and extent. Of the de- 
 preflions, fome are ufeful in articulation. Thefe 
 are called cotyloid when they are deep, as is the 
 cafe with the os innominatum, where it receives 
 the head of the os femoris ; ox glenoid when they 
 are fuperficial, as in the fcapula, where it re- 
 ceives os humeri. Of the depreflTions that are 
 not defigned for articulation, thofe which have 
 fmall apertures are called finufes ; others that are 
 large, and not equally Surrounded by high brims, 
 are ftyled fojfa ; fuch as are long and narrow, 
 furrows ; or if broad and fuperficial without 
 brims, finuofities. Some are called digital im- 
 prejfions^ from their refemblance to the traces of 
 a finger on foft bodies. 
 
 We Ihall abridge this article, which is exceed-- 
 ingly diffufe in the generality of anatomical 
 
 books. 
 
58 O S T E O L O G Y. Part I. 
 
 books, and will endeavour to delcribe it with all 
 the cleamefs it will allow. 
 
 The BONES compoling the fl?:eleton are fo eon'* 
 ftrufted, that the end of every bone is perfect- 
 ly adapted to the extremity of that with which it 
 is connected, and this connection forms what is 
 called their articiilatmi. 
 
 Articulation is divided into diarthrojis ^ fynar- 
 throjis^ and amphiarthrofis^ or moveable, im- 
 moveable, and mixed articulation. Each of the 
 two iirft has its fubdivifions. Thus the Diar- 
 tbrofis^ or moveable articulation, includes, i . The 
 enarthrofis, as it is called, when a large head is 
 admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articula-^ 
 tion of the os femoris with the os innominatum. 
 2. Arthrodia, when a round head is articulated 
 with a fupeficial cavity, as is the cafe of the os 
 humeri and fcapula. 3. Ginglimus, or hinge- 
 like articulation, as in the connexion of the 
 thigh-bone with the tibia. The enarthrofis and 
 arthrodia allow of motion to all fides ; the gin- 
 glimus only of flexion and extcnfion. 
 
 The fynartbrofis^ or immoveable articulation, 
 includes, i. The future, when the two bones 
 are indented into each other, as is the cafe with 
 the parietal bones. 2. Gomphofis, when one 
 bone is fixed into another, in the manner the 
 teeth are placed in their fockets. 
 
 The term amplnartbrofis is applied to tiiofe 
 articulations which partake both of the fynar- 
 throfis and diarthrofis, as is tlie cafe with the 
 
 boeris 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 59 
 
 bones of tli,e veitebrse, which are capable of mo- 
 tjqn in a ee-rtain degree, although they are. firm- 
 ly connected together by intermediate carti- 
 lages. . 
 
 What is called fymphjfis is the union, of two 
 bones into one ; as in the lower .jaw-, for in- 
 ftance, which in the foetus, confifts o£ two dif- 
 tinft bones, but becomes one in a more advanc- 
 ed age, by the offification of the uniting carti- 
 lage. 
 
 When bone-s, are thus joined by the. means of 
 cartilages, the union is ^j\^ijy'n;hojidrofis ; when 
 by ligaments, fyneurofts. 
 
 Cartilages are white, foiid, fmooth, and 
 elaftic fubftances, between the hardnefs ci' bones 
 and ligaments, and feemingly of a fibrous tex- 
 ture. We are not able to trace any ve.fie's into 
 their fubftance by injeflion, nor are they evex 
 found tinged in animals thai, have been fed 
 with madder. 
 
 They may be- diftingiiifhed into, in. Thcfe 
 which aae connected with the bones ; and 2dly, 
 Thofe which belong to other parts of the body. 
 The firft ferve either to cover the ends and ca- 
 vities of bones intended for motion, as in the 
 articulations, where by their fmootfinefs they fa- 
 cilitate motions, which the bones alone could not 
 execute- with fo much freedom ; or they ferve 
 to unite bones together, as in the fymphyfis pu- 
 bis, or to lengthem them, as in the ribs. 
 
 Many of them offifying as we advance in life. 
 
6o OSTEOLOGY. Part I. ? 
 
 their number is lefs in the adult than in the fcetus, * 
 and of courfe there are fewer bones in the old ' 
 than in the young fubjedt. | 
 
 Of the fecond clafs of cartilages or thofe be- 
 longing to the foft parts, we have inftances in 
 the larynx, where we find them ufeful in the 
 formation of the voice, and for the attachment 
 of mufcles. 
 
 The PERIOSTEUM is a fine membrane of a 
 compadt cellular texture, reflected from one joint 
 to another, and ferving as a common covering, to 
 the bones. It has fanguiferous and lymphatic 
 vefiels, and is fupplied with nerves from the 
 neighbouring parts. It adheres very firmly to 
 their furface, and by its fmoothnefs facilitates the 
 motion of mufcles. It likewife fupports the vef- 
 fels that go to be diftributedlhrough the fubftance 
 of the bones, and may ferve to ftrengthen the 
 articulations. At the extremities of bones, where 
 it is found covering a cartilage, it has by fome 
 been improperly confidered as a diftindl mem- 
 brane, and named perichondrium. This, in its 
 life and ftmdture, refembles the periofteum. 
 Where it covers the bones of the Ikull, it has 
 gotten the name of pericranium. 
 
 The periofteum is not a produdtion of the dura 
 mater, as the ancients, and after them Havers, 
 imagined ; nor are the bones formed by the olli- 
 fication of this membrane, at leaft when it is in 
 a found ftate, as fome late writers have fuppofed. 
 
 the 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 6i 
 
 the fockets, and in thofe parts of bones to which 
 ligaments or tendons are attached. 
 
 The MARROW is a fat oily fubftance, filling 
 the cavities of bones. In the great cavities of 
 long bones it is of much firmer confiftence than 
 in the cells of their fpongy part. In the former 
 it inclines fomewhat to a yellowifli tinge, and 
 is of the confiftence of fat ; in the latter it is 
 more fluid, and of a red colour. This diffe- 
 rence in colour and confiftence is owing to ac- 
 cidental caufes ; both kinds are of the fame na- 
 ture, and may both be defcribed under the com- 
 mon name of marrow, though fome writers give 
 the name only to the fat-like fubftance, and call 
 the other the medullary juice. 
 
 The marrow is contained in a very fine and 
 tranfparent membrane, which is fupplied with a 
 great number of blood veffels, chiefly from the 
 periofteum. This membrana medullaris adheres 
 to the inner furface of the bones, and furnifhes 
 an infinite number of minute bags or veficles 
 for inclofing the marrow, which is likewife fup- 
 ported in the cavities of the bones by the long 
 filaments of their reticular fubftance. 
 
 Befides the veffels from the periofteum, the 
 membrana medullaris is furnifhed with others, 
 which in the long bones may be feen palling in 
 near the extremities of the bone, and fending off 
 numerous branches that ramify through all the 
 veficles of this membrane. 
 
 The bones, and the cells containing the mar- 
 row 
 
62 OSTEOLOGY. pAJLt I. 
 
 row, are likewife fiirnifhed with lyrtiphatics. By 
 their means, the marrow, like the fat, tnay be 
 taken up in a greater quantity than it is fecreted ; 
 and hence it is that fo little are found in the bones 
 of thofe who die of lingering difeafes. 
 
 It is ftill a matter of contrOverfy, Whether 
 the marrow is fenlible or not ? We are certaiii'- 
 ly not able to trace any nerves to it ; and from 
 this circurnhaiiGe, and its analogy to fat, Haller 
 has ventured to confider it as infeiifible. Oh the 
 other hand, Duverney aiTerts, that an injury 
 done to this fubftance in a living animal was at- 
 tended with great pain. In this difpute phyfi- 
 ologifts do not feem to have fufficiently difcri- 
 minated between the m_arrow itfelf and the mem- 
 branous cells in which it is contained. The 
 former, like the fat, being nothing more than a 
 fecreted, and of courfe an inorganized, matter, 
 may with propriety be ranked among the infenli- 
 ble parts, as much as infpiflated mucus or any 
 other fecreted matter in the body ; whereas the 
 membrana medullaris being vafcular, though it 
 poffeffes but an obfcure degree of feeling in a 
 found ftate, is not perfedtly infenfible. 
 
 The marrow was formerly fuppofed to be in- 
 tended for the nourifhment and renewal of the 
 bones ; but this dodrine is now ptetty generally 
 and defervedly exploded. It feems probable that 
 the marrow is to the bones what fat is to the foft 
 parts. They both ferve for fome important pur- 
 pofes in the animal oecoxiomy ; but their parti- 
 cular 
 
Part L OSTEOLOGY. 63 
 
 cular life has ne-veryet been clearly afceitained. 
 The marrow, from the tranfudation of the oil 
 through the bones of a fkeleton, is iuppofed to 
 diminiih th|^ir brittlenefs ; and Havers, who 
 has written profefledly on the bones, defcribes 
 the canals by which the marrow is conveyed 
 through every part of their fubftance, and di- 
 vides them into longitudinal and tranfverfe ones. 
 He fpeaks of the firft as extending tlirough the 
 whole length of the bone ; and of the latter, as 
 the palfages by which the longitudinal ones com- 
 municate vrith each other. The fimiliarity of 
 thefe to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and 
 the tranfudation of the oil through the bones of 
 the fkeleton, feems to prove that fome fuch paf- 
 fages do adtually exift. 
 
 The SYNOVIAL GLANDS are fmall bodies (d), 
 fuppofed to be of a glandular l^frudture, and ex- 
 ceedingly vafcular, fecreting a fluid of a clear mu- 
 cilaginous nature, which ferves to lubricate the 
 joints. They are placed in fmall cavities in the 
 articulations, fo as to be capable of being gently 
 compreffed by the motion of the joint, which ex- 
 preffes their juice in proportion to the degree of 
 fridtion. When the fynovia is wanting, or is of 
 too thick a CDiififtence, the joint becomes ftiff 
 
 and 
 
 (d) It is now much doubted, however, whether the ap- 
 pearances in the joints, which are ulually called glands^ are 
 any thing more than aiTemblages of fat. 
 
64 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 and incapable of flexion or extenfion. This is 
 what is termed anchylojis. 
 
 Ligaments are white, gliftening, inelaftic 
 bands, of a compa(St fubftance, more or lefs 
 broad or thick, and ferving to conned; the bones 
 together. They are diftinguifhed by different 
 names adapted to their different forms and ufes. 
 Thofe of the joints are called either round or 
 burfal. The round ligaments are white, tendi- 
 nous, and inefaftic. They are ffrong and flexi- 
 ble, and are found only in the joint of the knee, 
 and in the articulation of the osfembris with the 
 os innominatum. The burfal, or capfular liga- 
 ments, furround the whole joint like a purfe, and 
 are to be found in the articulations which allow 
 motion every way, as in the articulation of the 
 arm with the fcapula. 
 
 Of thofe facs called Bursje mucosa, a few 
 were known to former anatomifls, but by much 
 the greater number have been fmce difcovered by 
 Dr. Monro (e), who obferves, that they are to 
 be met with in the extremities of the body on- 
 ly ; that many of them are placed entirely on 
 the inner fides of the tendons, between thefe 
 and the bones. Many others cover not only the 
 innner, but the outer fides of the tendons, 
 or are interpofed between the tendons and 
 external parts, as well as between thofe and the 
 bones. 
 
 3 Some 
 
 (e) See Dcfcription of the Burfce Mucofe^ See. 
 
Part % OSTEOLOGY. 6 $ 
 
 ■ Some arefituated between the tendofi^ and exr 
 ternal parts onVy or chieflyy fome between con- 
 tiguous tendons, or between the tendons or thi 
 ligaments and the joints. A few fuch facs are 
 ebferved where the proceffes of bonds' play upon 
 the ligaments, or where one bone plays upori 
 another. Where two or rbore tendonsrare cOn-' 
 tiguous, and afterwards f^arate from each othefy 
 we generally find a common burfa di'vkJed inte> 
 branches, with which it communicates and § 
 fewbnrfsd of contiguous tendons epmmUnicate 
 with each other.-"=^ome-y in healthy childrdn,- 
 eommtmicate with the- Cavities of the- joints ; 
 and m many oM people he has feen fueh com- 
 munications formed by ufo or worn by fridlioh. 
 Independent- of difeafe. 
 
 Their proper membrane is thin and tranfpa-* 
 renty bnt very denfe and capable of confining 
 air or any other fiuid.' It is joined to the neigh- 
 bouring^ parts by tile common cellular fubftanee.- 
 Betweeen the burfa and- the hardr fubftanee of 
 bone, a thin- layer of cartilage or Of tough mem-' 
 brane is ve-ry ggnerally interpofed. To the cel- 
 lular fubftanee on the oiitfide of the burfa, the 
 adipofe fiibftance- is Gonne<fted; except where 
 the burfa covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, 
 much eifpofed to prefiure or fridion. 
 
 In feveral places a mafs of fat, covered with 
 the continuation of the membrane of the burfa, 
 projects into its cavity. The edges of this are 
 divided into fringes. 
 
 E 
 
 The 
 
66 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 The inner fide of the membrane is fmooth, 
 and is extremely flippery from the liquor fecret- 
 ed in it. 
 
 The ftrudture of the burfae bears a ftrong re- 
 femblance to the capfular ligaments of the joints. 
 I . The inner layer of the ligament, like that of 
 the burfas, is thin and denfe. 2. It is connedted 
 to the external ligaments by the common cellu- 
 lar fubftance. 3. Between it and the bones, lay- 
 ers of cartilage, or the articular cartilages, are in- 
 terpofed. 4. At the Tides of the joints, where 
 it is not fubjedt to violent preffure and fridlion, 
 the adipofe fubftance is connected with the cel- 
 lular membrane. 5. Within the cavities of the 
 joints we obferve mafles of fat projedling, cover- 
 ed with fimilar blood-veflels, and with fimilar 
 fimbrise hanging from their edges. 6. In the 
 knee the upper part of fuch a mafs of fat forms 
 what has been called the jmfcilaginous gland of 
 the joints and the under part projects into the 
 burfa behind the ligament which ties the patella 
 to the tibia. 7. The liquor which lubricates the 
 burfse has the fame colour, confiftence, and pro- 
 perties as that of the joints, and both are affedled 
 in the fame manner by heat, mineral acids, and 
 ardent fpirits. 8. In fome places the burfe con- 
 ftantly communicate with the cavities of the 
 joints, in others they generally do fo ; from 
 which we may infer a famenefs of ftrudxure. 
 
 When we examine the ftmbri;^ common to 
 the fatty bodies of the joints and burfe, and 
 which have been fuppofed to be the dudfs of glands 
 
 lodged 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 67 
 
 lodged within the mafles of fat, we are not able 
 to difcover any glandular appearance within 
 them. And although we obfenm many veffels 
 difperfed upon the membranes of the fatty bo- 
 dies and fimbrisE ; and that we cannot doubt that 
 thefe fimbrise confift of ducTs which contain a 
 lubricating liquor, and can even prefs fuch a li- 
 quor from them ; yet their cavities and orifices 
 are fo minute, that they are not difcoverabie 
 even by the afliftance of magnifying-glalfes. 
 Thefe fimbrise appear, therefore, to be dudts 
 like thofe of urethra, which prepare a mucila- 
 inous liquor without the afliftance of any knotty 
 gr glandular organ. 
 
 Upon the whole, the fynovia feems to be fur- 
 niftied by invifible exhalent arteries by the dudls 
 of the fimbrise, and by oil exuding from the adi- 
 pofe follicles by' paffages not yet difcovered. 
 
 The word Jkcleton^ which by its etymology 
 fimply implies a dry preparation, is ufually ap- 
 plied to an aflTemblage of all the bones of an 
 animal united together in their natural order. 
 It is faid to be a natural fkeleton, when the bones 
 are connected together by their own proper li- 
 gaments ; and an artificial one, when they are 
 joined by any other fubftance, as wire, &c. 
 
 The fkeleton is generally divided into the 
 head, trunk, and extremities. The firft divifion 
 includes the bones of the cranium and face. 
 The bones of the trunk are the fpine, ribs, fter- 
 num, and bones of the pelvis. 
 
 E 2 \ 
 
 The 
 
6S OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 The upper extremity on each fide confifts of 
 the two bones of the fhoulder, viz. the fcapula 
 and clavicle ; the bone of the airm, or os hu- 
 meri j the bones of the fore-arm, and thofe 
 of the hand. 
 
 The lower extremity on each fide of the trunk 
 confifts of the thigh-bones and the bones of the 
 leg and foot. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Bones of the Head. 
 
 The head is of a roundifti figure, and fome- 
 what oval (p). Its greateft diameter is from the 
 forehead to the occiput ; its upper part is called 
 •vertex^ or crown of the head ; its anterior or 
 fore-part the face ; and the upper part of this 
 fmdputy or forehead ; its fides the temples ; its 
 pofterior, or hind-part, the occiput ; and its in- 
 ferior part the laps. 
 
 The bones of the head may be divided into 
 tliofe of the cranium and face. 
 
 § I Boffci 
 
 (lO The bones of the foetus being perfedlly diftinfl,, and 
 the muicles in young perfons not afting much, the fliape of 
 the head has been fuppofed to depend much on the manage- 
 ment of children when very young. Vefalius, who has 
 remarked the difference in people of different nations, ob- 
 ierves, for inftance, that the head of a Turk is conical, 
 from the early ufe of the turban j v/hilft that of an EugUfh- 
 man is flattened by the chin-ftay. Some of tlie lateft phy- 
 fiolog'illu fuppofe, with good reafon, that this difference is 
 chiefly owing to certain natural caufes with which we are as, 
 vet unacquainted. 
 
Part I. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 § I. Bones of the Cranium and face. 
 
 There are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the 
 coronal bone, or os frontis ; the two parietal 
 bones ; or offa bregmatis ; the os occipitis ; the 
 two temporal bones ; the fphenoid bone j and the 
 os ethmoides, or cribriforme. 
 
 Of thefe, only the os occipitis and ofla breg- 
 matis are coniidered as proper to the cranium ; 
 the reft being common both to the cranium and 
 face. 
 
 Thefe bones are all harder at their furface than 
 in their middle ; and on this account they are 
 divided into two tables, and a middle fpongy 
 fubftance called dtploe. 
 
 Os Frontis. In this, as in all other bones, we 
 ftiall confider its figure, ftrudnre, procefles, de- 
 preffions and cavities ; and the manner in which 
 it is articulated with the other bones. 
 
 The os fronds has fome refemblance in fhape 
 to the ftiell of the cockle. Externally it is con- 
 vex, its concave fide being turned towards the 
 brain. This bone, in the places where it is uni- 
 ted to the temporal bones, is very thin, and has 
 there no diplde. It is likewife exceedingly thin 
 in that part of the orbit of the eye winch is 
 neareft to the nofe. Hence it is, that a wound 
 in the eye, by a fword or any other pointed in- 
 ftrument, is fometimes productive of immedi- 
 ate death. In thefe cafes, the fword pafling through 
 
 the 
 
70 OSTEOLOGY. Part I, 
 
 the weak part of the bone, penetrates the brain, 
 and divides the nerves at their origin ; or per- 
 haps opens fome blood-veffei, the confequences 
 of which are foon fatal. 
 
 We obferve on the exterior furface of this 
 bone five apophyfes or procefles, which are ear- 
 fily to be diflinguiflied. One of thefe is placed 
 at the bottom and narroweft part of the bone, 
 and is called the nafal procefs, from its fupport- 
 ing the upper end of the bones of the nofe. 
 The four others are called angular or orbitar pro- 
 cefles. They affift to form the orbits, which 
 are the cavities on which the eyes are placed. In 
 each of thefe orbits there are two proceffes, one 
 at the interior or great angle, and the other at 
 the exterior or little angle of the orbit. They 
 are called the angular proceffes. Between thefe 
 a ridge is extended in form of an arch, and on 
 this the eye-brows are placed. It is called the 
 orbitar or fuperciliary ridge, and in fome mea- 
 fiire covers and defends the globe of the eye. 
 There is a hole in this for the paffage of the 
 frontal veffels and nerves. This arch is inter- 
 rupted near the nofe by a fmail pit, in which' the 
 tendon of the mufculus obliquus major of the 
 eye is fixed. From the under part of each fu- 
 perciliary ridge a thin plate runs a confiderable 
 way backwards, and has the name of orbitar ; 
 the external and fore-part of this plate forms a 
 finuofity for lodging the lacrymal gland. Betv/een 
 the orbitar plates there is a large dilcontinuation 
 
PartT. osteology. 71 
 
 of the boiie, which is filled up by the cribriform 
 part of the os ethmoides. 
 
 On examining the inner furface of this bone 
 at its under and middle part, we obferve an ele- 
 vation in form of a ridge, which has been called 
 the fpinous procefs ; it afcends forfome way, di- 
 viding the bone into two confiderable foflse, in 
 which the anterior lobes of the brain are placed. 
 To a narrow furrow in this ridge is attached the 
 extremity of the falx, as the membrane is called, 
 which divides the brain into two hemifpheres. 
 The furrow becoming gradually wider, is conti- 
 nued to the upper and back part of the bone. It 
 has the falx fixed to it, and part of the longitudi- 
 nal finus lodged in it. Befides the two foflse, 
 there are many deprefiions, which appear like 
 digital impreffions, • and owe their formation to 
 the prominent circumvolutions of the brain. 
 
 In the foetus, the forehead is compofed of two 
 diftind; bones ; fo that in them the fagittal future 
 reaches from the os occipitis to the nofe. This 
 bone is almofl; every where compofed of two ta- 
 bles and a diploe. Thefe two tables feparating 
 from each other under the eyes, form two cavi- 
 ties, one on each fide of the face, called the 
 frontal finufes. Thefe fmufes are lined with a 
 foft membrane, called membrana pituitaria. In 
 thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is con- 
 ftantly paffing through two fmall holes into the 
 noftrils, which it ferves to moiften. 
 
 The os frontis is joined by future to many of 
 
 the 
 
19 S T E O L O a Y. ?A%T !. 
 tji€ feo^ies of th,e Jiea4, yi?. to thf p^fletgl, maX‘» 
 illary, and temporal bones ; to the o.s ethmoides } 
 OS Ipl^eopides ; o§ ungojs ; and ojia mf^r The 
 future which .copned^s it with the parietal bones 
 is called the forqn^l futurt^, 
 
 The PARipiTAP SQNps are twa in number; 
 they are very thin, and even tranfparent ip fame 
 places,. The particular figure of each of thefe 
 hones is that pf an irregular fquare, bordered with 
 indentations through its whole circumference, ex- 
 cept at jts lower part. It will be eafily conceiv- 
 ed, that thefe bones which eompofe the fuperior 
 and lateral parts of the cranium, and cover the 
 greateft part of the brain, form a kind of vault. 
 On their inner fiirface we obferve the marks of 
 the veffels pf the dura mater ; and at their upr- 
 per edge the groove for the iuperior longitudinal 
 fmus. 
 
 The olTa parietalia are joined to each other 
 by the fagittal future ; to the ps fphenoides 
 and offa tempprum by the fquamous future ; 
 to the os OGcipitis by the lambdoidai future (a), 
 fo called from its refemblance to the Greek letter 
 lambda ; and to the ps firputis by the coronal fu? 
 tore. 
 
 In the foetus, the parietal bones are feparated 
 from the middle of the divided os frontis by a 
 portion of tfie cranium then unoffified. 
 
 The 
 
 (a) The lambdoidai future is Ibmetimes very irregular, be- 
 ing compofed of many fmall futures, which furround fo many 
 little bones called ojfa triquetra^ though perhaps improperly, 
 as rhey are jiot always triangular. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 The OCCIPITAL BONE forms the pofterior 
 and inferior parts of the Ikull ; it approaches 
 nearly to the fhape of a lozenge, and is indented 
 throughout three parts of its circumference. 
 
 There is a confiderable hole in the inferior 
 portion of this bone, called the foramen magniLWf^ 
 through which the medulla oblongata pafles into 
 the fpine. The nervi accelTorii, and vertebral 
 arteries, like wife pafs through it. Behind the 
 condyles are two holes for the palTage of cervical 
 veins into the lateral finufes ; and above them 
 are two others for the paflage of the eighth pair 
 and accelTory nerves out of the head. At the 
 fides, and a little on the anterior part of the fora- 
 men magnum, are two procefles,’ called the con- 
 dyles, one on each fide ; they are of an oval fi- 
 gure, and are covered with cartilage. 
 
 The external furface of this bone Jias a large 
 tranfverfe arched ridge, under which the bone is 
 very irregular, where it affords attachment to fe- 
 veral mufcles. On examining its inner furface, 
 we may obferve two ridges in form of a crofs ; 
 one afcending from near the foramen magnum to 
 the top of the bone ; the upper end of this in 
 which the falx is fixed, is hollow, for lodging 
 the fuperior longitudinal finus, and the under end 
 has the third procefs of the dura mater fixed to 
 it. The other ridge, which runs horizontally, 
 is likewife hollow for containing the lateral finufes. 
 Four foffse are formed by the crofs, two above 
 and two below. In the former are placed the pof- 
 
 terior 
 
^4 O S T E O L O G Y. Part I. 
 
 terlor lobes of the brain, and in the latter the lobes 
 of the cerebellum. 
 
 At the bafis of the cranium, we obferve the 
 cuneiform procefs (which is the name given to 
 the great apophyfis at the fore part of this bone) ; 
 it ferves for the reception of the medulla oblon- 
 gata. 
 
 The os occipitis is of greater ftrength and 
 thicknefs than either of the other bones of the 
 head, though irregularly fo : at its inferior part, 
 where it is thinneft, it is covered by a great num- 
 ber of mufcles. 
 
 This bone, from its fituation, being more lia- 
 ble to be injured by falls, than any other bone 
 of the head, nature has wifely given it the greateft 
 ftrength at its upper part, where it is moft expof- 
 ed to danger. 
 
 It is joined to the parietal bones by the lamb- 
 doidai future, and to the offa temporum, by the 
 additaraentum of the temporal future. It is like- 
 wife connefted to the os fphenoides.by the cunei- 
 form procefs. It is by means of the os occipitis 
 that the head is united to the trunk, the two con- 
 dyles of this bone being connedled to the fupe- 
 rior oblique proceffes of the firft vertebra of the 
 neck. 
 
 There are two temporal bones, one on each 
 ftde. — ^\Ve may diftinguifli in them two parts; 
 one of which is called the fquamous ovfcaly part^ 
 and the other^^rr pctroja from its hardnefs. This 
 laft is ftiaped like a pyramid. 
 
 Each 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 75 
 
 Each of thefe divifions affords proceffes and ca- 
 vities : externally there are three proceffes ; one 
 anterior, called the zygomatic procefs , one pos- 
 terior, called the 77 wJloid or mamillary procefs^ 
 from its refemblance to a nipple ; and one infe- 
 rior, called the Jiylold procefs^ becaufe it is fliaped 
 like a ftiletto, or dagger. 
 
 The cavities are, i . The meatus aiiditorius ex- 
 temus. 2. A large foffa which ferv^es for the ar- 
 ticulation of the lower jaw ; it is before the mea- 
 tus auditorius, and immediately under the zygo- 
 matic procefs. 3. The ftylo-maftoid hole, fo 
 called from its fituation between the ftyloid and 
 maftoid proceffes ; it is likevrife fcyled the aqus- 
 du£b of Fallopius, and affords a paffage to the 
 portio dura of the auditory, or feventh pair of 
 nerves. 4. Belowg and on the fore-pait of the 
 laft foramen, we obferve part of the jugular folia, 
 in which the beginning of the- internal jugular 
 vein is lodged. Anterior and fuperior to this 
 foffa is the orifice of a foramen, through which, 
 paffes the carotid artery. This foramen runs firft 
 upwards and then forwards, forming a kind of 
 elbow, and terminates at the end of the os pe- 
 trofum. — At this part of each temporal bone, we 
 may obfeire the opening of the Euftachian tube, 
 a canal which paffes from the ear to the back part 
 of the nofe. 
 
 In examining the internal furface of thefe 
 bones, we may remark the triangular figure of 
 their petrous part which feparates two foffse ; one 
 
 fuperior 
 
76 OSTEOLOGY. Part L 
 
 fuperior and anterior ; the other inferior and 
 pofterior : the latter of thefe cpmpofcs part of 
 the foffa, in which the cerebellum is placed ; 
 and the former, a portion of the leaft folTa for 
 the bafis of the brain. On the pofterior fide of 
 the pars petrofa, we obferve the meatus auditorus 
 inteiVms, into which enters the double nerve of 
 the fcventh pair. Oh the under fide of this pro- 
 cefs, part of a hole appears, which is common 
 to the temporal and occipital bones ; through it 
 ftie lateral fmus, the eighth pair, and acceftbry 
 nerves, pafs out of the head. 
 
 The pars petrofa contains feveral little bones 
 called the bones of the ear ; which, as they do 
 not enter into the formation of the cranium, ftiall 
 be defcribed when we are treating of the organs 
 of hearing. 
 
 The ofla temponim are joined to theoffa ma- 
 famm, by the zygomatic futures ; to the pa- 
 rietal bones, by the fquamous futures ; to the 
 os occipitis, by the lambdoidal future ; and to 
 ihe fphenoid bone, by the future of that name. 
 
 Os fphenoldes. This bone, from its fituation 
 amidft the other bones of the head, has fometimes 
 been called cuneiforme. It is of a very irregular 
 figure, and has been compared to a bat with its 
 wings extended. 
 
 It is commonly divided into its middle part or^ 
 body, and its fides or wings. 
 
 The fore part of the body has a fpine or ridge, 
 which makes part of the feptum narium. The 
 
 upper 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 77 
 
 Upper part of each wing forms a fhare of the 
 temple. The fore part of this belongs to the or- 
 bit ; while the under and back part, termed 
 Jpinous procefs^ is lodged in the bafe of the ikuil 
 at the point of the pars petrofa. But two of the 
 moft remarkable proceffes are the ptergoid or ali- 
 form, one on each fide of the body of the bone, 
 and at no great diftance from it. Each of thefe 
 proceffes is divided into two wings, and of the^ 
 the exterior one is the wideft. The other ter- 
 minates in a hook-like procefs. 
 
 The internal furface of this bone aflbrds three 
 foffsB. Two of thefe are formed by the wings 
 of the bone, and make a part of the leffer foflk: 
 of the balls of the cranium. The third, which 
 b fmalier, is on the top of the body of the bone; 
 and is called fella turcica^ from its refemblance 
 to a Turkilh faddle. This foffa, in which the 
 pituitary gland is placed, has pofteriorly and an- 
 teriorly proceffes called the dinoid proceffes. 
 
 There are twelve holes in this bone, viz. fix 
 on each fide. The firft is the paffage 01 the op^ 
 tic nerve and ocular artery ; the fecond, or large 
 flit, tranfmits the third, fourth, fixth, and firll 
 part of the fifth pair of nerves with the ocular 
 vein ; the third hole gives paffage to the fecond 
 branch of the fifth pair ; and the fourth hole to 
 the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves. The 
 fifth hole is the paffage of the artery of the dura 
 mater. The fixth hole is fituated above the 
 ptergoid prqpefs of the fphenoid bone ; through 
 
78 OSTEOLOGY. Part t 
 
 It a reflected branch of the fecond part of the 
 fifth pairpafies. 
 
 Within the fubftance of the'os fphenoides there 
 are two finiifes feparated by a bony plate. They 
 are lined with the pituitary membrane ; and, 
 like the frontal fmufes, feparate a mucus which 
 pafies into the noftrils. 
 
 The os fphenoides is joined to all the 
 bones of the cranium ; and likewife to the 
 offa maxillaria, ofia malarum, olTa palati, and 
 vomer. ' 
 
 This bone makes part of the bafis of the flcull, 
 affifts in forming the orbits, and affords -attach- 
 ment to feveral mufcles. 
 
 The os ethmoides is fituated at the fore part of 
 the balls of the cranium, and is of a very irre- 
 gular figure. From the great number of holes 
 with which it is pierced, it is fometimes called os 
 crlbrlforme or fieve-like bone 
 
 j 
 
 The os ethmoides or cribriforme confifts of a 
 middle part and two fides. The middle part is 
 formed of a thin bony plate, in which are an 
 infinite number of holes that afford a palfage to 
 filaments of the olfailory nerve. From the mid- 
 dle of this plate, both on the outfide and from 
 within, there rifes up a procefs, which may be 
 cafily diftinguifhed. The inner one is called 
 crijla galli^ from its fuppofed refemblance to a 
 cock’s comb. To this procefs the falx of the 
 dura mater is attached. The exterior procefs, 
 which has the fame common bafis as the crifla 
 
 galli, 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 79 
 
 gain, is a fine lamella which is united to the 
 vomer ; and divides the cavity of the noftrils, 
 though unequally, it being generally a little in- 
 clined to one fide. 
 
 The lateral parts of this bone are compofed 
 of a cellular fubftance ; and thefe cells are lb ve- 
 ry intricate, that their figure or number cannot 
 be defcribed. Many -writers have on this account 
 called this part of the bone the labyrinth. Thefe 
 cells are externally covered with a very thin bony 
 lamella. This part of the bone is called the os 
 planum.^ and forms part of the orbit. 
 
 The different cells of this bone, which are 
 numerous, and which are every where lined with 
 the pituitary membrane, evidently ferv'^e to en- 
 large the cavity of the nofe, in which the organ 
 of fmelling refides. 
 
 This bone is joined to the os fphenoides, os 
 frontis, offa maxillaria, offa palati, offa nafi, offa 
 unguis, and vomer. 
 
 The ancients, who confidered the brcdn as the 
 feat of all the humours, ima.gined that this vifcus 
 difcharged its redundant moifture through the 
 holes of the ethmoid bone. And the vulear flili 
 think, that abfceffes of the brain difcharge them- 
 felves through the mouth and ears, and that fniifi 
 is liable to get into the head ; but neither fiiuff 
 nor the matter of an abfcefs are more capable of 
 paffing through the cribriform bone, than the 
 ferofity which they fuppofed -^vas difcharged 
 through it in a common cold,— -All the holes of 
 
 th: 
 
8o OSTEOLOGY. Part h 
 
 the ethmoid bone are filled Up with the branches' 
 of the ojfadory nerve. Its iuner part is likewife 
 
 covered with the dura mater, and its cells are 
 every where lined with the pituitary membrane ; 
 fo that neither matter nor any other 3uid can 
 poffibly pafs through this bone either externally 
 or internally. Matter is indeed fometimes dif^ 
 charged through the noftrils ; but the feat of the 
 difeafe is in the finufes of the nofe, and not in 
 the brain ; and impofthumations are obferved to 
 take place in the ear, which fuppUrate and difs 
 charge themfelves externally. 
 
 Before we leave the bones of the head, we wifh 
 to make fome general obfervations on its ftruc- 
 ture and figure. As the cranium might have 
 been compofed of a fingle bone, the aTticulation. 
 of its feveral bones being abfolutely without mo- 
 tion, it may be afked perhaps. Why fuch a mul- 
 tiplicity of bones, and fo great number of fu- 
 tures ? Many advantages may poffibly arife from 
 this plurality of bones and futures, which may 
 not yet have been obferved. We are able, how- 
 ever, to point out many ufeful ends, which cOuld 
 only be accomplifhed by this peculiarity of ftruc- 
 ture. — In this, as in all the other works of na- 
 ture, the great wifdom of the Creator is evinced, 
 and cannot fail to excite our admiration and gra- 
 titude. 
 
 The cranium, by being divided into feveral 
 bones, grows much fafter and with greater faci- 
 lity, than if it was compofed of one piece only. 
 
 3 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 8i 
 
 In the foetus, the bones, as we have before oh- 
 ferved, are perfectly diftindf from each other. 
 The offification begins in the middle of each 
 bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfer- 
 ence. Hence the offification, and of courfe the 
 increafe of the head, is carried on from an infi- 
 nite number of points at the fame time, and the 
 bones confequently approach each other in the 
 fame proportion. To illuftrate this dodirine 
 rnore clearly, if it can want further illuftration,-.; 
 fuppofe it neceffary for the parietal bones which 
 compofe the upper part of the head, to extend 
 their offification, and form the fore part of the 
 head likewife. — Is it not evident, that this pro- 
 cefs would be much more tedious than it is now, 
 when the os fronds and the parietal bones are 
 both growing at the fame time ? Hence it hap- 
 pens, that the heads of young people, in which 
 the bones begin to touch each other, increafe 
 flowly ; and that the proportionate increafe of 
 the volume of the head is greater in three months 
 in the foetus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four 
 months at the age of fourteen or fifteen years. 
 
 The futures, exclufive of their advantage in 
 fufpending the proceffes of the dura mater, are 
 evidently of great utility in preventing the too 
 great extent of fractures of the Ikull. — Suppofe, 
 for inftance, that by a fall or blow, one of the 
 bones of the cranium becomes fradtured. The 
 fiffure, which in a head compofed of only one 
 bone, would be liable to extend itfelf through 
 
 F the 
 
82 OSTEOLOGY. Part!. 
 
 the whole of it, is checked, and fometimes per- 
 haps hopped by the firft future it meets, and the 
 effedls of the injury are confined to the bone on 
 which the blow was received. Ruyfch indeed, 
 and fome others, will not allow the futures to be 
 of any fuch ufe ; but cafes have been met with 
 where they feemed to have had this elFe£t, and 
 in young fubjedts their utility in this refpe£t muft 
 be ftill more obvious. 
 
 The fpherical fhape of the head feems likewife 
 to render it more capable of refilling external vi- 
 olence than any other fhape would do. In a 
 vault, the parts mutually fupport and llrengthen 
 each other, and this happens in the cranium. 
 
 § 2. Proper Bones of the Face. 
 
 The face, which confifts of a great num- 
 ber of bones, is commonly divided into the up- 
 per and lower jaws. The upper jaw confifts of 
 thirteen bones, exclufive of the teeth. Of thefe, 
 fix are placed on each fide of the maxilla fuperior, 
 and one in the middle. 
 
 The bones, which are in pairs, are the ofla 
 malarum, ofia maxillaria, ofla nafi, oflTa unguis, 
 ofl'a palati, and olTa fpongiofa inferiora. The 
 fingle bone is the vomer. 
 
 The o([a malarum are the prominent fquare 
 bones which are placed under the eyes, forming- 
 part of the orbits and the upper part of the cheeks. 
 Each of them affords three furfaces ; one exte- 
 rior and a little convex ; a fecond fuperior and 
 
 concave. 
 
PartI. osteology. 83 
 
 jconeave, forming the inferior part and Tides of 
 the orbit ; and a third pollerior, irregular, and 
 hollowed for the lodgement of the lower part of 
 the temporal mufcle. ' 
 
 The angles of each bone form four procelTes, 
 two of which may be called orbitar proeejfes ; of 
 thefe the npper one is joined by future to the os 
 frontis, and that below to the maxillary bone. 
 The third is connedled with the os fphenoideS 
 by means of the tranfverfe future ; and the fourth 
 is joined to the zygomatic procels of the tempo- 
 ral bone, with which it forms the zygoma. 
 
 The ojfa ma^illaria fiiperiora, Thefe bones, 
 which are of a very irregular figure, are fo called 
 becaufe they form the moft confiderable por- 
 tion of the upper jaw. They are two in 
 number, and generally remain diftin<5l through 
 life. 
 
 Of the many procelTes which are to be feen 
 on thefe bones, and which are conneded with 
 the bones of the face and Ikull, we lhall defcribe 
 only the moft remarkable. 
 
 One of thefe procelTes is at the upper and fore 
 part of the bone, making part of the fide of the 
 nofe, and called the ?iafal procefs. Another forms 
 a kind of circular fweep at the inferior part of the 
 bone, in which are the alveoli or fockets for the 
 teeth : this is called the alveolar procefs. A third 
 procefs is united to the os malae on each fide. Be- 
 tween this and the nafal procefs there is a thin 
 plate, which forms a lhare of the orbit, and lies 
 F 1 over 
 
84 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 over a pafTage for the fuperior maxillary veffels 
 and nerves. — -The alveolar procefs has pofteriorly 
 a confiderable tuberofity on its internal furface, 
 called the maxilla7~y tuberojity. 
 
 Behind the alveolar procefs we obferve two 
 horizontal lamellas, which uniting together, form 
 a part of the roof of the mouth, and divide it 
 from the nofe. The hollownefs of the roof of 
 the mouth is owing to this partition’s being feat- 
 ed fomewhat higher than the alveolar procefs.-— 
 At the fore part of the horizontal lamellse there 
 is a hole called foramen inclfivum^ through which 
 fmall blood-velfels and nerves go between the 
 mouth and nofe. 
 
 In viewing thefe bones internally, we ob- 
 ferve a foffa in the inferior portion of the nafal 
 procefs, which, with the os unguis and os fpon- 
 giofum inferius, forms a pafTage for the lachrymal 
 du£t. 
 
 Where thefe two bones are united to each 
 other, they projedf fomewhat upwards and for- 
 wards', leaving between them a furrow, into 
 which the lower portion of the feptum nafi is 
 admitted. 
 
 Each of thefe bones being hollow, a confider- 
 able fmus is formed under its orbitar part. This 
 cavity, which is ufually named after Highmore, 
 though it v^ras defcribed by Fallopius and others 
 before his time, is lined with the pituitary mem- 
 brane. It is intended for the fame purpofes as 
 
 th€ 
 
Part!. OSTEOLOGY. S5 
 
 the other finufes of the nofe, and opens into the 
 noftrils. 
 
 The ofla maxillaria are connected with the 
 greater part of the bones of the face and crani- 
 um, and affift in forming not only the cheeks, 
 but likewife the palate, nofe, and orbits. 
 
 The ojfa Jiafi form two irregular fquares. They 
 are thicker and narrower above than below. Ex- 
 ternally they are fomewhat convex, and inter- 
 nally flightly concave. Thefe bones conftitutc 
 the upper part of the nofe. At their fore part 
 they are united to each other, above to the os 
 frontis, by their fides to the olTa maxillaria fupe- 
 riora, pofteriorly and interiorly to the feptum na- 
 rium, and below to the cartilages that compofe 
 the reft of the noftrils. 
 
 The oJfa unguis. Thefe little tranfparent 
 bones owe their name to their fuppofed refem- 
 blance to a finger-nail. Sometimes they are 
 called ojja lachrymalia, from their concurring 
 with the nafal procefs of each maxillary bone 
 in forming a lodgement for the lachrymal fac and 
 du£t. 
 
 The ofla unguis are of an irregular figure. 
 Their external furface confifts of two finooth 
 parts, divided by a middle ridge. One of thefe 
 parts, which is concave and neareft to the nofe, 
 ferves to fupportthe lachrymal fac and part of the 
 lachrymal dudt. The other, which is flat, forms 
 a fmall part of the orbit. 
 
 Each 
 
86 O S t E O L O G Y. Part I. 
 
 Each of thefe bories is conne<Si:ed with thtJ 
 os frontis, os ethmoides, and os maxillare fu- 
 perius. 
 
 The ojfa palati. Thefe bones, which are fi- 
 tuated at the back part of the roof of the mouthy 
 between the os fphenoides and the olTa inaxillaria 
 fuperiora, are of a very irregular thape, and ferve 
 to form the nafal and maxillary fotfa^ and a fmall 
 portion of the orbit. Where they are united to 
 each other, they rife up into a fpine On their in^ 
 ternal furface. This fpine appears to be a con- 
 tinuation of that of the fuperior maxillary bones, 
 and helps to form the feptum narium. 
 
 Thefe bones are joined tO the olfa maxillaria 
 fuper-i'ora, os ethmoides, os fphenoides, and vo- 
 mer, 
 
 The vomer. This bone derives its name from 
 its refemblance to a ploughftiare. It is a long 
 and flat bone, fomewhat thicker at its back than 
 at its fore part. At its upper part we obferve a 
 furrow extending through its whole length. The 
 pofterior and largeft part of this furrow receives 
 a procefs of the fphenoid bone. From this the 
 farrow advances forwards, and becorhing nar- 
 rower and fhalloWer, receives fome part of the 
 nafal larnella ethmoidea ; the reft fer^es to fup- 
 port the middle cartilage of the nofe. 
 
 The inferior portion of this bone is placed on 
 the nafal fpine Of the maxillary and palate bonOs, 
 which we mentioned in our defeription of the 
 €)ffa paiati. 
 
 The 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 87 
 
 The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os 
 ethmoides, offa maxillaria fuperiora, and oiTa 
 palati. It forms part of the feptum nariurrv, 
 by dividing the back part of the nofe into two 
 noftrils. 
 
 The ojja fpongiofa hiferiora. The parts which 
 are ufually defcribed by this name, do not feem 
 to deferve to be diftinguifhed as diftind; bones, 
 except in young fubjeds. They confift of a 
 fpongy lamella in each noftril, which is united 
 to the fpongy lamina of the ethmoid bone, of 
 which they are by fome confidered as a pait. 
 
 Each of thefe lamellse is longeft from I ■ - 
 hind forwards ; with its convex furface tmn- 
 ed towards the feptum narium, and its con 
 cave part towards the maxillary bone, co- 
 vering the opening of the lachrymal dud into 
 the nofe. 
 
 Thefe bones are covered with the pituita- 
 ry membrane ; and, befides their connedion 
 with the ethmoid bone, are joined to the olTa 
 maxillaria fuperiora, ofla palati, and oifa un- 
 guis. 
 
 The maxilla inferior^ or lower jaw, which in 
 its fhape refembles a horfe-lhoe, confifts of two 
 diftind bones in the foetus ; but thefe unite to- 
 gether|foon after birth, fo as to form only one 
 bone.' The upper edge of this bone, like the os 
 maxillare fuperius, has an alveolar procefs, fur- 
 niflied with fockets for the teeth. 
 
 On 
 
88 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 On each fide, the pofterior part of the bone 
 rifes almoft perpendicularly into two proceifes. 
 The higheft of thefe called the coronoid procefs, 
 is pointed and thin, and ferves for the infertion 
 of the temporal mufcle. The other, or condy- 
 loid procefs, as it is called, is Ihorter and thicker, 
 and ends in an oblong rounded head, which is 
 received into a foffa of the temporal bone, and 
 is formed for a moveable articulation with the 
 cranium. This joint is furniflied with a move- 
 able cartilage. At the bottom of each coronoid 
 procefs, on its inner part, we obferve a foramen 
 extending under the roots of all the teeth, and 
 terminating at the outer furface of the bone near 
 the chin. Each of thefe canals tranfmits an ar- 
 tery, vein, and neiwe, from which branches are 
 fent off to the teeth. 
 
 The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of 
 motion. By Hiding the condyles from the cavi- 
 ty towards the eminences on each fide, we bring 
 it horizontally forwards, as in biting ; or we 
 may bring the condyles only for^vard,and tilt the 
 reft of the jaw backward, as in opening the 
 mouth. We are likewife able to Aide the con- 
 dyles alternately backwards and forwards from 
 the cavity to the eminence, and vice vcrfa^ as 
 in giinding the teeth. The cartilages, b^^dapt- 
 ing themfelves to the different inequaf^s in 
 thefe feveral motions of the jaw, ferve toYecure 
 the articulation, and to prevent any injuries from 
 fri<ftion. 
 
 Th.e 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 89 
 
 The alveolar procefles are compofed of an 
 outer and inner bony plate, united together by 
 thin partitions, which at the fore part of the 
 jaw divide the procefles into as many fockets as 
 there are teeth. But at the back part of the jav/, 
 where the teeth have more than one root, we 
 find a difl;in<St cell for each root. In both jaws 
 thefe procelTes begin to be formed with the 
 teeth ; they likewife accompany them in their 
 growth, and gradually difappear when the teeth 
 are removed. 
 
 § 3 * Teeth. 
 
 TuETEETHare bones of a particular ftrudure, 
 formed for the purpofes of maftication and the 
 articulation of the voice. It will be necelfary to 
 confider their compofition and figure, their num- 
 ber and arrangement, and the time and order in 
 which they appear. 
 
 In each tooth we may diftinguifh a body, a 
 neck, and a root or fangs. 
 
 The body of the tooth is that part which ap- 
 pears above the gums. The root is fixed into 
 the focket, and the neck is the middle part be- 
 tween the two. 
 
 The teeth are compofed of two fubflances, 
 viz. enamel and bone. The enamel, or the vi- 
 terous or cortical part of the tooth, is a white and 
 very hard and compadi fubftance peculiar to the 
 teeth, and appears fibrous or ftriated when broken. 
 This fubftance is thickeft on the grinding fur- 
 
 face, 
 
90 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. ^ 
 
 face, and becoming gradually thinner, terminates 
 infenfibly at the neck of the tooth. Ruyfch ^ 
 affirmed, that he could trace the arteries into the 
 hardeft part of the teeth j Liewenhoeck f fuf- i 
 pefted the fibres of the enamel to be fo many 
 vefTels : and Monro X fays, he has frequently in- 
 jefted the vefTels of the teeth in children, fo as 
 to make the infide of the cortex appear perfedily 
 red. But it is certain, that it is not tinged by a j 
 madder diet; and that no injection will ever 
 reach it, fo that it has no appearance of being 
 vafcular §. 
 
 The bony part, which compofes the inner 
 fubftance of the body, neck, and root of the 
 tooth, refembles other bones in its ftrufture, but 
 it is much harder than the moft compact part 
 of bones in general. As a tooth when once 
 formed receives no tinge from a madder diet, 
 and as the minuteft injedtions do not penetrate 
 into its fubftance, this part of the tooth has, like 
 the enamel, been fuppofed not to be vafcular. 
 
 But when we confider that the fangs of a tooth 
 are invefted by a periofteum, and that the fwell- | 
 ings of thefe fangs are analogous to the iwellings 
 of other bones, we may reafonably conclude, 
 that there is a fimilarity of ftrufture ; and that 
 this bony part has a circulation througi its fub- 
 
 ftanpe, 
 
 * Thefaur lo. no. 27. 
 
 Arcan. Natur. continuat. Epiftol. 
 
 -j Anat. of the Human Bones. 
 
 ^ Hunter on the Teeth. 
 
VajltL osteology. 91 
 
 ftancc, although from its hardueft wg are unable 
 to demonftrate its veflels. 
 
 In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into 
 Tvhich enter an artefy, vein, and neiwe. This 
 cavity begins by a fmall opening, and becoming 
 larger, terminates in the body of the tooth. In 
 advanced life this hole fometimes clofes, and the 
 tooth is of courfe rendered infenfible. 
 
 The periofteum fiirrounds the teeth from their 
 fengs to a little beyond their bony fockets, where 
 we find it adhering to the gums. This mem- 
 brane, while it inclofes the teeth, fei*ves at the 
 fame time to line the fockets, fo that it may be 
 confidered as common to both. 
 
 The teeth are likewife fecured in their fock- 
 ets by means of the gums ; a red, vafcular, firm, 
 and elaftic fubftance, that polTeffes but little fen- 
 fibility. In the gums of infants we find a hard 
 ridge extending through their whole length, but 
 no fuch ridge is to be feen in old people who 
 have loft tlieir teeth. 
 
 'The number of the teeth in both jaws at full 
 EMturity, ufually varies from tv/enty-eight to 
 tlmfy-two. They are commonly divided into 
 three clafles, viz. incifores, canini, and grind- 
 ers or molares (h). The incifores are the four 
 teeth imlae fore part of each jaw. They have 
 
 each 
 
 Yh) Mr, Hunter h>as thought proper to vary this divifion. 
 Hwetaius the old name incifores to the four fore teeth, but 
 he diftinguifhes the canine teeth by the name of the afpidati. 
 
 The 
 
^2 OSTEOLOGY; Part h 
 
 each of them two furfaces ; one anterior and 
 convex, the other pofterior and (lightly concave, 
 both of which terminate in a lharp edge. They 
 are called incifores from their ufe in dividing the 
 food. They are ufually broader and thicker in 
 the upper than in the under jaw ; and, by be- 
 ing placed fomewhat obliquely, generally fall 
 over the latter. 
 
 The canini derive their name from their re- 
 femblance to a dog’s tulks, being the longeft of 
 all the teeth. We find one on each fide of the 
 incifores, fo that there are two canini in each 
 jaw. Their fang refembles that of the incifores, 
 but is much larger; and in their fhape they appear 
 like an incifor with its edge worn off, fq as to 
 terminate in a narrow point. 
 
 Thefe teeth not being calculated for cutting 
 and dividing the food like the incifores, or for 
 grinding it like the molares, feem to be intend- 
 ed for laying hold of fubflances (i). 
 
 The molares or grinders, of which there are 
 ten in each jaw, are fo called, becaufe from their 
 fhape and fize they are fitted for grinding the 
 food. Each of the incifores and canini is fur- 
 
 nifhed 
 
 ‘‘The two teeth which are next to thefe, and whicl^’'-<ave beea 
 ufually ranked with the molares, he calls the bicujpides ; and 
 he frir^es the name of grinders only to the three laft teeth on 
 each fide. 
 
 (i) Mr. Hunter remarks of thefe teeth, that Wc may trace 
 in them a fimilarity in fhape, fituaticn, and ule, from the 
 moft imperfectly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be 
 the human fpecies, to the lion, which is the mofi: perfeftly 
 carnivorous. 
 
Part L OSTEOLOGY. 95 
 
 niflied only with one fang ; but in the molares 
 of the under jaw we conftantly find two fangs, 
 and in thofe of the upper jaw three fangs. Thefe 
 fangs are fometimes feparated into two points, 
 and each of thefe points has fometimes been de- 
 fcribed as a diftind; fang. 
 
 The two firft of the molares, or thofe near- 
 eft to the canine teeth on each fide, differ from 
 the other three, and are with great propriety 
 named bicufpides by Mr. Hunter. They have 
 fometimes only one root, and feem to be of a 
 middle nature between the incifores and the 
 larger molares. The two next are much larger. 
 The fifth or laft grinder on each fide is fmaller 
 and fliorter than the reft ; and from its not cut- 
 ting the gum till after the age of twenty, and 
 fometimes not till much later in life, is called 
 dens faplentia. 
 
 There is in the ftru£ture and arrangement of 
 all thefe teeth an art which cannot be fufficiently 
 admired. To underhand it properly, it will be 
 neceflary to confider the under jaw as a kind of 
 lever, with its fixed points at its articulations with 
 the temporal bones : — it will be right to obferve, 
 too, that its powers arife from its different muf- 
 cles, but in elevation chiefly from the tempora- 
 lis and maffeter ; and that the aliment conftitutes 
 the objedt of refiftance. It will appear, then, 
 that the molares, by being placed neareft the cen- 
 tre of motion, are calculated to prefs with a much 
 greater force than the other teeth, independent 
 ©f their grinding powers which they poflefs by 
 
 means 
 
94 OSTEOLOGY. fAm % 
 
 means of the pterygoid mufcles ; and that jt js 
 for this reafon we put between them any ha^d 
 body we wifh to break. 
 
 The canini and incifores are placed farthc^r 
 from this point, and of eo.urfe cannot e;?eert fq 
 much force ; but they are made for cutting and 
 tearing the food, and this form feems tq make 
 amends for their deficiency in ftrength. 
 
 There are examples of children who have 
 come into the world with two, three, and even 
 four teeth ; but thefe examples are very rare :; 
 and it is feldom before the feventh, eighth, or 
 ninth month after birth, that the incifores, whieh 
 are the firft formed, begin to pafs through the 
 gum. The fymptoms of dentition, however, 
 in confequence of irritation from the teeth, fre- 
 quently take place in the fourth or fifth month. 
 About the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, 
 the canini and two molares make their appear- 
 ance. 
 
 The dangerous fymptoms that fometimes aCr 
 company dentition, are owing to the prefllire 
 of the teeth on the gum, which they irritate fq 
 as to excite pain and inflammation, This irri- 
 tation feems to occafion a gradual wafting of th:^ 
 gum at the part, till at length the tooth make$its 
 appearance. 
 
 The fymptoms are more or lefs alarming, in 
 proportion to the refiftance which the gum 
 affords to the teeth, and according to the number 
 of teeth which may chance to feek a pafiagc .at the 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 95 
 
 fame time. Were they all to appear at once, 
 children would fall vidims to the pain and ex- 
 ceffive irritation ; but nature has fo very wifely 
 difpofed them, that they ufually appear one af- 
 ter the other, with fome diftance of time between 
 each. The firft incifor that appears is generally 
 in the lower jaw, and is followed by one in the 
 upper jaw. Sometimes the canini, but more 
 commonly one of the molares, begins - to pafs 
 through the gum firft. 
 
 Thefe 20 teeth, viz. eight incifores, four ca- 
 nini, and eight molares, are called temporary or 
 milk teeth ^ becaufe they are all ftied between the 
 age of feven and fourteen, and are fucceeded by 
 what are called the permanent or adult teeth. 
 The latter are of a firmer texture, and have 
 larger fangs. 
 
 Thefe adult teeth being placed in a diftindl fet 
 of alveoli, the upper fockets gradually dil'appear, 
 as the under ones increafe in fize, till at length 
 the temporary, or upper teeth, having no longer 
 any fupport, confequently fall out. 
 
 To thefe 20 teeth, which fucceed the tempo- 
 rary ones, 1 2 others are afterwards added, viz. 
 three molares on each fide in both jaws : and in 
 order to make room for this addition, we find 
 that the jaws gradually lengthen in proportion 
 to the growth of the teeth ; fo that with 20 teeth, 
 they feem to be as completely filled as they are 
 aftervyards with 32. This is the reafon why 
 
 3 
 
^6 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 the face is rounder and and flatter in children thaii 
 in adults. 
 
 With regard to the formation of the teeth, we 
 may obferve, that in a foetus of four months, the 
 alveolar procefs appears only as a flrallow longi- 
 tudinal groove, divided by minute ridges into a 
 number of intermediate depreflions ; in each of 
 which we find a fmall pulpy fubflance, furround- 
 ed by a vafcular membrane. This gradually 
 offifles, and its lower part is lengthened out to 
 form the fang. When the bony part of the 
 tooth is formed, its furface begins to be incrufl- 
 ed with the enamel. How the latter is formed 
 and depofited, we are not yet able to determine. 
 
 The rudiments of fome of the adult teeth be- 
 gin to be formed at a very early period, for the 
 pulp of one of the incifores may generally be 
 perceived in a foetus of eight months, and the 
 oflification begins in it foon after birth. The 
 firft bicufpis begins to offify about the fifth or 
 fixth, and the fecond about the feventh year. 
 The firff adult grinder cuts the gum about the 
 1 2th, the fecond about the 1 8th, and the third, 
 or dens fapientice^ ufually between the 20th and 
 30th year. 
 
 The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be 
 affedfed by difeafe. Their removal is likewife 
 the natural confequence of old age ; for as we 
 advance in life, the alveoli fill up, and the teeth, 
 efpecially the incifores, fall out. When this hap- 
 pens. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY* 97 
 
 pens, the chin projects forward, and the face is 
 much fhortened. 
 
 § 4. Of the Os Hy aides, (k) 
 
 The os hyoides, which is placed at the root 
 of the tongue, was fo called by the the ancients 
 on account of its fuppofed refemblance to the 
 Greek letter i,. 
 
 It will be necelfary to diftinguifh in it, its bo- 
 dy, horns, and appendices. 
 
 The body, which is the middle and broadeft 
 part of the bone, is fo placed that it may be ea- 
 fily felt at the fore part of the throat. Anteri- 
 orly it is irregularly convex, and its inner fur- 
 face is unequally concave. Its cornua, or horns, 
 which are flat and a little bent, being much longer 
 than the body part, may be defcribed as forming 
 the fides of the v. The appendices, or little 
 horns, as they are called by M. Winflow, and 
 fome other writers, are two procelTes which rife 
 up from the articulations of the cornua with the 
 body, and are ufually connefted with the fty- 
 loid procefs on each fide by means of a liga- 
 ment. 
 
 G The 
 
 (k) This bone Is very feldom preferved with the fkeleton, 
 and cannot be included among the bones of the head, or inany 
 other divifion of the fkeleton. Thomas Bartholin has per- 
 haps very properly defcribed it among parts contained In the 
 mouth ; but the generality of anatomical writers have plac- 
 ed it, as it is here, after the bones of the face. 
 
9S OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 The ufes of this bone are to fupportthe tongue, 
 and afford attachment to a great number of mufr 
 cles ; fome of which perform the motions of 
 the tongue, while others ad; on the larynx and 
 fauces. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Bones of the Trunk. 
 
 The trunk of the fkeleton confifts of the 
 fpine, the thorax, and the pelvis. 
 
 § I. Of the Spine. 
 
 The fpine is compofed of a great number of 
 bones called vertrebcd.^ forming a long bony co- 
 lumn, in figure not much unlike the letter f. 
 This column, which extends from the head to 
 the lower part of the body, may be faid to con- 
 fift of two irregular and unequal pyramids, uni- 
 ted to each other in that part of the loins where 
 the laft lumbar vertebra joins the os facrum. 
 
 The vertebrae of the upper and longeft pyra- 
 mid are called true vertebrce^ in contradiftindion 
 to thofe of the lowermoft pyramid, which, from 
 their being immoveable in the adult, are 
 ftyled vertebra. It is upon the bones of the 
 fpine that the body turns ; and it is to this cir- 
 ciimftance they owe their name, which is deriv- 
 ed from the Latin verb vert ere., to turn. 
 
 'I he true vertebrae are divided into three claffes 
 of cervfical, dorfal, and lumbar vertebrae. — The 
 
 falfe 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 99 
 
 falfe vertebrse confift of the os facrum and os oc- 
 cygis. 
 
 In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be 
 neceffary to remark the body of the bone, its pro- 
 celfes, and cavities. 
 
 The body, which is convex before, and con- 
 cave behind, where it allifts in forming the ca- 
 vity of the fpine, may be compared to part of a 
 cylinder cut off tranfverfely. 
 
 Each vertebra affords feven proceffes. The 
 firft is at the back part of the vertebra, and from 
 its fhape and direction is named the fpinoiis pro- 
 cefs. On each fide of this are two others, which, 
 from their fituation with refpedl to the fpine, 
 are called trajifuerfe procejfes. The four others 
 are ftyled oblique or articular procejfes. They 
 are much fmaller than the fpinous or tranfverfe 
 ones. Two of them are placed on the upper, 
 and two on the lower part of each vertebra, ri- 
 fmg from near the bafis of each tranfverfe pro- 
 eefs. They have gotten the name of oblique pro- 
 cejfes^ from their fituation with refped; to the 
 proceffes with which they are articulated ; and 
 they are fometimes ftyled articular procejfes . from 
 the manner in which they are articulated Vv^ith 
 each other ; the two fuperior proceffes of one 
 vertebra being articulated with the two other in- 
 ferior proceffes of the vertebra above it. Each 
 of thefe proceffes is covered with cartilage at its 
 articulation, and their articulations with each 
 other are by a fpecies of ginglimua. 
 
 G 2 
 
 In 
 
lOO 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 In each vertebra, between its body and its 
 proceffes, we find a hole large enough to admit 
 a finger. Thefe holes or foramina, correfpond 
 with each other through all the vertebrse, and 
 form the long bony channel in which the fpinal 
 marrow is placed. We may likewife obferve 
 four notches in each vertebra. Two of thefe 
 notches are at the upper, and two at the lower 
 part of the bone, between the oblique procefles 
 and the body of the vertebra. Each of thofe 
 notches meeting with a fimilar opening in the 
 vertebra above or below it, forms a foramen for 
 the paflage of blood-veflels, and of the nerves 
 out of die fpine. 
 
 The bones of the" fpine are united together by 
 means of a fubftance, which in young fubjedts 
 appears to be of a ligamentous, but in adults 
 more of a cartilaginous nature. This interver- 
 tebral fubftance, which forms a kind of partition 
 betw'een the feveral vertebrae, is thicker and more 
 flexible between the lumbar vertebrae than in the 
 other parts of the; fpine, the moft confiderable 
 motions of the triuik being performed on thofe 
 vertebrae. This fubftance being very elaftic, 
 the extenlion and flexion of the body, and its 
 motion backwards and forwards, or to either fide, 
 are performed with great facility. This elafti- 
 city feems to be the reafon why people who have 
 been long ftanding, or have carried a confidera- 
 ble weight, are found to be fhorter than when 
 they have been long in bed. In the two firft 
 
 inftances 
 
101 
 
 Part I. OSTEOIOGY. 
 inftances the intervertebral cartilages (as they are 
 ufually called) are evidently more expofed to 
 compreffion than when we are in bed in an ho- 
 rizontal pofture. 
 
 In advanced life thefe cartilages become fhri- 
 velled, and of courfe lofe much of their elafti- 
 city. This may ferve to account for the decreafe 
 in ftature and the ftooping forward which are 
 ufually to be obferved in old people. 
 
 Befides the connection of the feveral vertebrse 
 by means of this intervertebral fubftance, there 
 are likewife many ftrong ligaments, both exter- 
 nal and internal, which unite the bones of the 
 fpine to each other. Their union is alfo ftrength- 
 ed by a variety of ftrong mufcles that cover and 
 furround the fpine. 
 
 The bones of the fpine are found to diminifti 
 in denfity, and to be lefs firm in their texture in 
 proportion as they increafe in bulk ; fo that the 
 lowermoft veitebrse, though the largeft, are not 
 fo heavy in proportion as the upper ones. By 
 this means the fize of thefe bones is increafed 
 without adding to their weight ; a circumftance 
 of no little importance in a part like the fpine, 
 which, befides flexibility and fupplenefs, feems 
 to require lightnefs as one of its eflential proper- 
 ties. 
 
 In very young chiidaien, each veterbra con- 
 fifts of three- bony pidces united by cartilages 
 which afterwards olfify. 
 
 There are feven vertebra of the neck — they 
 
 are 
 
102 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 are of a firmer texture than the other bones of 
 the fpine. Their tranfverfe procelTes are forked 
 for the lodgement of mufcles, and at the bottom of 
 each we obferve a foramen, through which pafs 
 the cervical artery and vein. The firft and fe- 
 cond of thefe vertebrse muft be defcribed more 
 par' iculaiiy. The firft approaches almoft to an 
 c al lhape — On its fuperior furface it has two 
 cities which admit the condyles of the occipi- 
 ai bone with which it is articulated. This ver- 
 ebra, which is called atlas from its fupporting 
 the head, cannot well be defcribed as having 
 either body or fpinous procefs, being a kind of 
 bony ring. Anteriorly, where it is articulated 
 to the odontoid procefs of the fecond vertebra, 
 it is very thin. On its upper furface it has two 
 cavities which admit the condyles of the occipi- 
 tal bone. By this connexion the head is allow- 
 ed to move forwards and backwards, but has very 
 little motion in any other direction. 
 
 The fecond vertebra has gotten the name of 
 dentata^ from its having, at its upper and anterior 
 part, a procefs called the odontoid or tooth-like 
 procefs^ which is articulated with the atlas, to 
 which this fecond vertebra may be faid to ferve as 
 an axis. This odontoid procefs is of a cylindri- 
 cal fhape, fomewhat flattened, however, ante- 
 riorly and pofteriorly. At its fore-part where 
 it is received by the atlas, we may obferve a 
 fmooth, convex, articulating furface. It is by 
 means of this articulation that the head performs 
 
 ks 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 103 
 
 its rotatory motion, the atlas in that cafe moving 
 upon this odontoid procefs as upon a pivot. But 
 when this motion is in any confiderable degree, 
 or, in other words, when the head moves much 
 either to the right or left, all the cervical verte- 
 brse feem to affift, otherwife the fpinal m.arrow 
 would be in danger of being divided tranfverfe- 
 ly by the firft vertebra. 
 
 Vertebra of the back. The fpinous procefs of 
 each of the cervical vertebrse is fhorter, and their 
 articular procelfes more oblique, than in the other 
 bones of the fpine. 
 
 Thefe 12 vertebr;^ are of a middle fize be- 
 tween thofe of the neck and loins. At their 
 fides we may obferve two depreffions, one at the 
 upper and the other at the lower part of the bo- 
 dy of each vertebra ; which uniting with fimi- 
 lar depreffions in the vertebrae above and below, 
 form articulating furfaces, covered with cartilages 
 for receiving the heads of the ribs ; and at the 
 fore-part of their tranfverfe procefs (excepting 
 the two laft) we find an articulating furface for 
 receiving the tuberofity of the ribs. 
 
 Lumbar vertebra. Thefe five vertebrae differ 
 only from thofe of the back in their being larger, 
 and in having their fpinous proceffes at a greater 
 diftance from each other. The moft confider- 
 able motions of the trunk are made on thefe 
 vertebrae ; and thefe motions could not be per- 
 formed with fo much eafe, were the proceffes 
 placed nearer to each other. 
 
 The 
 
104 OSTEOLOGY. Part L 
 
 The os SACRUM which is compofed of five 
 or fix pieces in young fubjedfs, becomes one 
 bone in more advanced age. 
 
 It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior 
 portion being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior 
 part has two oblique procefl'es which are articu^ 
 lated with the laft of the lumbar vertebrse ; and_ 
 it has likewife commonly three fmall fpinous 
 proceffes, which gradually become fhorter, fo 
 that the lowermoft is not fo long as the fecond, 
 nor the fecond as the uppermoft. Its tranfverfe 
 proceffes are formed into one oblong procefs, 
 which becomes gradually fmaller as it defcends. 
 Its concave or anterior fide is ufually fmooth, but 
 its pofterior convex fide has many prominences 
 (the moft remarkable of which are the fpinous 
 proceffes juft now mentioned), which are filled 
 up and covered with the mufcular and tendinous 
 parts behind, 
 
 This bone has five pair of holes, which af- 
 ford a paffage to blood-veffels, and likewife to 
 the nerves that are derived from the fpinal 
 marrow, which is continued even here, being 
 lodged in a triangular cavity, that becomes fmaller 
 as it defcends, and at length terminates oblique-r 
 ly at the lowey part of this bone. Below the 
 third divifion of the os facrum, this canal is not 
 completely bony as in the reft of the fpine, be- 
 ing fecured as its back part only by a very ftrong 
 membrane, fo that a wound at this part muft be 
 extremely dangerous. 
 
 The 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 105 
 
 , The os facrum is united laterally to the olTa 
 Innominata or hip-bones, and belov/ to the" 
 coccyx. 
 
 Os Coccyx. The coccyx, which, like the os 
 facrum, is in young people made up of three 
 or four diftindt parts, ufually becomes one bone 
 in the adult ftate. 
 
 It ferves to fupport the inteftinum redlum ; and, 
 by its being capable of fome degree of motion 
 at its articulation with the facrum, and being 
 like that bone bent forwards, we are enabled to 
 fit with eafe. 
 
 This bone is nearly of a triangular fhape, be- 
 ing broadeft at its upper part, and from thence 
 growing narower to its apex, where it is not 
 bigger than the little finger. 
 
 It has got its name from its fuppofed refem- 
 blance a cuckow’s beak. It differs greatly from 
 the vertebrae, being commonly without any pro- 
 ceffes, and having no cavity for the fpinal mar- 
 row, or foramina for the tranfmiflion of nerves. 
 
 The fpine, of which we have now finifhed 
 the anatomical defcription, is deftined for many 
 great and important ufes. The medulla fpinalis 
 is lodged in its bony canal fecure from external 
 injury. It ferves as a defence to the abdominal 
 and thoracic vifcera, and at the fame time fup- 
 ports the head, and gives a general firmnefs to 
 the whole trunk. 
 
 We have before compared it to the letteryj and 
 its different turns will be found to render it not 
 
 very 
 
io6 OSTEOLOGY. Part L 
 
 Very unlike the figure of that letter. — In the neck 
 “vve fee it projecting fomewhat forward to fupport 
 the head, which without this affiftance would 
 require a great number of mufcles. — Lower 
 down, in the thorax, we find it taking a curved 
 direction backwards, and of courfe increafing 
 the cavity of the cheft. After this, in the loins, 
 it again projects forwards in a direction with the 
 centre of gravity, by which means we are eafi-^ 
 ly enabled to keep the body in an ereCt pofture, 
 for otherwife we fhould be liable to fall forward. 
 Towards its inferior extremity, however, it 
 again recedes backward, and thus aflifts in form-r 
 ing the pelvis, the name given to the cavity in 
 which the urinary bladder, inteftinum reCtum, 
 and other vifcera are placed. 
 
 If this bony column had been formed only of 
 one piece, it would have been much more eafi-* 
 ly fractured than it is now : and by confining the 
 trunk to a ftiff fituation, a variety of motions 
 would have been altogether prevented, which 
 are now performed with eafe by the great num- 
 ber of bones of which it is compofed. 
 
 It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is 
 added a perfeCt flexibility. • If it be required to 
 carry a load upon the head, the neck becomes 
 ftiff with the affiftance of its mufcles, and ac- 
 commodates itfelf to the load, as if it was com- 
 pofed only of one bone — In ftooping likewife, 
 or turning to either fide, the fpine turns in itfelf 
 
 every 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 107 
 
 every direction, as if all its bones were feparated 
 from each other. 
 
 In a part of the body like the fpine, that is 
 made up of fo great number of bones, and in- 
 tended for fuch a variety of motion, there muft 
 be a greater danger of diflocation than fracture ; 
 but we fhall find, that is very wifely guarded 
 againft in every direction by the procelTes belong- 
 ing to each vertebra, and by the ligaments, car- 
 tilages, &c. by which thefe bones are conned- 
 ed with each other. 
 
 § 2. Of the Bones of the I’horax. 
 
 The thorax, or cheft, is compofed of many 
 bones, viz. the fternum which is placed at its an- 
 terior part, twelve ribs on each fide which make 
 up its lateral parts, and the dorfal vertebrse which 
 conftitute its pofterior part. Thefe laft have been 
 already defcribed. 
 
 The fernum is the long bone which extends 
 itfelf from the upper to the lower part of the 
 breaft anteriorly, and to which the ribs and the 
 clavicles are articulated. 
 
 In children it is cqmpofed of feveral bones 
 united by cartilages ; but as we advance in life, 
 moft of thefe cartilages oflify, and the flernum 
 in the adult ftate is found to confift only of three 
 pieces, and fometimes become one bone. It is 
 however generally defcribed as being compofed 
 of three parts — one fuperior, which is broad, 
 
 thick, 
 
ro8 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 thick, and fhort ; and one in the middle, which 
 is thinner, narrower, and longer than the other. 
 
 It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, ' 
 which is called the xyphoid^ ox fword-Uke carti-r 
 lage^ from its fuppofed refemblance to the blade 
 of a fword, and becaufe in young fubjedts it is 'I 
 commonly in a cartilaginous ftate. 
 
 We have already obferved, that this bone is 
 articulated with the clavicle on each fide. It is , 
 likewife joined to the fourteen true ribs, viz. 
 feven on its right and feven on its left fide. 
 
 The rtbs are bones fhaped like a bow, form- 
 ing the fides of the cheft. There are twelve on J 
 each fide. They are diftinguifhed into true andil 
 falfe ribs ; the feven upper ribs which are arti- 
 culated to the fternum are called true ribs^ and 
 the five lower ones that are not immediately at- 
 tached to that bone are called falfe ribs. 
 
 ,j On the inferior and interior furface of each rib,.) 
 we obferve a finuofity for the lodgement of an 
 artery, vein, and nerve. 
 
 The ribs are not bony through their whole 
 length, their anterior part being cartilaginous*): 
 They are articulated with the vertebrae aiid fter- ' 
 num. Every rib (or at leaft the greater num- 
 ber of them) has at its pofterior part two pro- 
 celfes ; one at its extremity called the head of 
 the rib, by meanss of which it is articulated with 
 the body of two vertebrae ; and another, call- 
 ed its tuberofity, by which it is articulated with 
 the tranfverfe procefs of the loweft of thefe two 
 
 vertebrae. 
 
PartL osteology. 109 
 
 vertebrae. The firft rib is not articulated by its 
 extremity to two vertebrae, being fimply attach- 
 • ^ ed to the upper part of the firft vertebra of the 
 back. , The feven fuperior or true ribs are arti- 
 culated anteriorly with the fternum by their car- 
 tilages ; but the falfe ribs are fupported in a dif- 
 ferent manner — the eighth, which is the firft of 
 thefe fibs, being attached by its cartilages to the 
 feventh ; the ninth to the eighth, &c. 
 
 The two lowermoft ribs differ likewife from 
 all the reft in the following particulars : They are 
 articulated only with the body of the vertebra, 
 and not with a tranfverfe procefs ; and anterior- 
 ly, their cartilage is loofe, not being attached 
 to the cartilages of the other ribs ; and this feems 
 to be, becaufe the moft confiderable motions of 
 !the trunk are not performed on the lumbar verte- 
 brae alone, but likewife on the two laft vertebrae 
 ilii of the back ; fo that if thefe two ribs had been 
 an confined at the fore part like the other ribs, and 
 had been likewife articulated with the bodies of 
 :-two vertebrae, and with the tranfverfe proceffes, 
 the motion of the two laft vertebrae, and con- 
 fequently of the whole trunk, would have been 
 impeded. 
 
 The ribs help to form the cavity of the 
 ; thorax ; they afford attachment to different 
 mufcles ; they are ufeful in refpiration ; and 
 they ferve as a fecurity to the heart and lungs. 
 
 ffi. 
 
 § 3 - Of 
 
no 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 Part L 
 
 § 3* Bones of the Pelvis. 
 
 The pelvis is compofed of the os facrum, os 
 coccygis, and two offa innomiriata. The tvsro 
 jfirft of thefe bones w^ere included in the account i 
 of the fpine, to which they more properly be- 
 long. 
 
 In children, each os innominatum is compof- 
 ed of three diftindt bones ; but as we advance in 
 life the intermediate cartilages gradually offify, 
 and the marks of the original feparation difap- 
 pear, fo that they become one irregular bone ; 
 ftill however continuing to retain the names of 
 ilium, ifchium, and pubis, by which their divi- 
 fions were originally diftinguifhed, and to be de- 
 fcribed as three different bones by the generality 
 of anatomifts. The os ilium forms the upper 
 and moft confiderable part of the bone, the os 
 ifchium its lower and pofterior portion, and the 
 os pubis its fore part. 
 
 The os ilium or haunch bone, is articulated 
 pofteriorly to the os facrum by a firm cartilagin- 
 ous fubftance, and is united to the os pubis be- 
 fore and to the os ifchium below. Its faperior 
 portion is thin, and terminates in a ridge called 
 the crifta or fpine of the ilium, and more com- 
 monly known by the name of the haunch. This 
 crilfa rifes up like an arch ; being turned fome- 
 what outwards, fo as to refemble the wings of a | 
 phaeton. 
 
 Externally this bone is unequally prominent i 
 
 and ; 
 
1 1 1 
 
 Part I. OSTEOLOGY, 
 and hollowed for the lodgement of mufcles ; in- 
 ternally we find it fmooth and concave. At its 
 lower part there is a confiderable ridge on its in- 
 ner furface. This ridge extends from the os fa- 
 crum, and correfponds v/ith a fimilar prominence 
 both on that bone and the ifchium ; forms with 
 the inner part of the offa pubis what in midwifery 
 is termed the brim of the pelvis. 
 
 The crifta, or fpine, which at firft is an epi- 
 phyfis, has two confiderable tuberofities ; one 
 anteriorly, and the other pofteriorly, which is 
 the largeft of the two : Thefe, from their pro- 
 jecting more than the parts of the bone below 
 them, have gotten the name of fpinal procefTes. 
 From the anterior fpinous procefs, the fartorius 
 and tenfor vagina femoris mufcles have their ori- 
 gin ; and below the pofterior procefs we obferve 
 a confiderable niche in the bone, which, in the 
 recent fubjeCt, is formed into a large foramen, 
 by means of a ftrong ligament that is ftretched 
 over its lower part from the os facrum to the 
 fharp-pointed procefs of the ifchium. This 
 hole affords a paffage to the great fciatic nerve, 
 and to the pofferior crural veffels under the py- 
 riform mufcle, part of which likewife paffes out 
 here. 
 
 The os ifchium^ or hip-bone, which is of a very 
 irregular figure, conflitutes the lower lateral parts 
 of the pelvis, and is commonly divided into its 
 body, tuberofity, and ramus. The body forms 
 the lower and moft confiderable portion of the 
 
 acetabulum, 
 
1 12 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. Part 1 
 acetabulum, and fends a fharp-pointed procefs 
 backwards, called the fpine of the ifchiiim. To 
 this procefs the ligament adheres, which was juft 
 now fpoken of, as forming a foramen for the 
 paffage of the fciatic nerve. — T he tuberofity,' 
 which is the loweft part of the trunk, and fup- 
 ports us when we fit, is large and irregular, af- 
 fording origin to feveral mufcles. From this tu- 
 berofity we find the bone becoming thinner and 
 narrower. This part, which has the name of 
 ramus or branch, paffes forwards and upwards, 
 and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis, to 
 form a large hole called the foramen magnum 
 ifchli^ or thyroideiim^ as it is fometimes named, 
 from its refemblance to a door or fhield. This 
 hole, which in the recent fubjedt is clofed by a 
 ftrong membrane called the obturator ligament, 
 affords through its whole circumference attach- 
 ment to mufcles. At its upper part where we 
 obferve a niche in the bone, it gives paffage to 
 the obturator veffels and nerves, which go to the 
 inner part of the thigh. Nature feems every 
 where to avoid an unneceffary weight of bone, 
 and this foramen, no doubt, ferves to lighten the 
 bones of the pelvis. 
 
 The os pubis ^ or fhare-bone, which with its 
 fellow forms the fore-part of the pelvis, is the 
 fmalleft divifion of the os innominatum. It is 
 united to its fellow by means of a ftrong car- 
 tilage, which forms what is called the fymphyfis 
 pubis. 
 
 3 
 
 In 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGT. iij 
 
 In each os pubis we may diilinguifh the body 
 of the bone, its angle, and ramus. The body 
 or outer part is united to the os ilium. The angle 
 comes forward to form the fymphyfis, and the 
 ramus is a thin procefs which unites with the 
 ramus of the ifchium, to form the foramen thy- 
 roideum. 
 
 The three^bones we have defcribed as compof- 
 ing each os innominatum, all affift in forming 
 the acetabulum, in which the head of the os 
 femoris is received. 
 
 This cavity is every where lined withafmooth 
 cartilage, excepting at its inner part, where we 
 may obferve a little folTa, in which are lodged 
 the mucilaginous glands of the joint. We may 
 likewife notice the pit or depreffion made by the 
 round ligament, as it is improperly called, which, 
 by adhering to this cavity and to the head of 
 the thigh-bone, helps to feeure the latter in the 
 focket. 
 
 Thefe bones, which are united to each other 
 and to the fpine by many very ftrong ligaments, 
 ferve to fupport the trunk, and to conneft it with 
 the lower extremities ; and at the fame time to 
 form the pelvis or bafon, in which are lodg- 
 ed the inteftines and urinary bladder, and in 
 women the uterus ; fo that the ftudy of this part 
 of ofteology is of the utmoft importance in mid- 
 wifery. 
 
 It is worthy of obfervation, that in women 
 the os facrum is ufually fhorter, broader, and 
 
 H more 
 
II4 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 more hollowed, the offa ilia more expanded, 
 and the inferior opening of the pelvis larger than 
 in men. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the ^Extremities. 
 
 These parts of the fkeleton confift of the up- 
 per extremity and the lower. 
 
 % Of the Upper Extremity. 
 
 This confifts of the fhoulder, the arm, and 
 the hand. 
 
 I. Of the Shoulder. 
 
 The fhoulder confifts of two bones, the cla- 
 vicula and the fcapula. 
 
 The former, which is fo named from its re- 
 femblance to the key in ufe amongft the ancients, 
 is a little, curved at both its extremities like an 
 italic f. It is likewife called jugulum^ or collar- 
 bone, from its fituation. It is about the fize of 
 the little finger, but longer, and being of a very 
 fpongy fubftance is very liable to be fractured. In 
 this, as in other long bones, we may diftinguifli 
 a body and two extremities. The body is rather 
 flattened than rounded. The anterior extremity 
 is formed into a llightly convex head, which is 
 nearly of a triangular ftiape. The inferior fur- 
 face of the head is articulated with the fternum. 
 The pofterior extremity, which is flatter and 
 broader than the other, is connected to a pro- 
 cefs of the fcapula, called acromion. Both 
 
 thefe 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 115 
 
 thefe articulations are fecured by ligaments, and 
 in that with the fternuin we meet with a move- 
 able cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric- 
 tion. 
 
 The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions of 
 the fcapula, by preventing it from being brought 
 too much forwards, or carried too far back- 
 wards. It affords origin to feveral mufcles, and 
 helps to cover and protect the fubclavian veffels, 
 which derive their name from their fituation un- 
 der this bone. 
 
 The fcapula^ or fhoulder-blade, which is near- 
 ly of a triangular fhape, is fixed to the pofterior 
 part of the true ribs, fomewhat in the manner 
 of a buckler. It is of a very unequal thicknefs, 
 and, like all other broad, flat bones, is fomewhat 
 cellular. Exteriorly it is convex, and interiorly 
 concave, to accommodate itfelf to the convexity 
 of the ribs. We obferve in this bone three un- 
 equal fides, which are thicker and fironger than 
 the body of the bone, and are therefore termed 
 its cojia. The largeft of the three, called alfo 
 the bafis, is turned towards the vertebrae. An- 
 other, which is lefs than the former, is below 
 this ; and the third, which is the leaft of the 
 three, is at the upper part of the bone. Exter- 
 nally the bone is elevated into a confiderable fpine, 
 which rifmgTmali at the bafis of the fcapula, be- 
 comes gradually higher and broader, and divides 
 the outer furface of the bone into two foiTse. 
 
 H 2 The 
 
ii6 OSTEOLOGY. Part I, 
 
 The ruperior of thefe, which is the fmalleft, ferves 
 to lodge the fupra fpinatiis mufcle ; and the in- 
 ferior folfa, which is much larger than the other, 
 gives origin to the infra fpinatus. This fpine 
 terminates in a broad and flat procefs at the top 
 of the Ihoulder, called the pj~oceJfus acromion^ to 
 which the clavicle is articulated. This procefs is 
 hollowed at its lower part to allow a paflfage to 
 the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles. The fcapula 
 has likewife another conliderable procefs at its 
 upper part, which, from its refemblance to the 
 beak of a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From 
 the outer fide of this coracoid procefs, a ftrong 
 ligament palfes to the proceflTus acromion, v/hich 
 prevents a luxation of the os humeri upwards. 
 A third procefs begins by a narrow neck, and 
 ends in a cavity called glenoid., for the conne<ff ion 
 of the os humeri. 
 
 The fcapula is articulated with the clavicle and 
 os humeri, to which lafl; it fer^'es as a fulcrum ; 
 and by varying its pofition it affords a greater 
 fcope to the bones of the arm in their different 
 motions. It likewife gives origin to feveral 
 mufcles, and pofteriorly ferves as a defence to 
 the trunk. 
 
 2. Bones of the Arm. 
 
 The arm is commonly divided into two parts, 
 which are articulated to each other at the elbow. 
 The upper part retains the name of arm, proper^ 
 
 ly 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 117 
 
 ly fo called, and the lower part is ufually called 
 the fore arm. 
 
 The arm is compofed of a fmgle bone called 
 os humeri. This bone, which is almoft of a cy- 
 lindrical fhape, may be divided into its body and 
 its extremities. 
 
 The upper extremity begins by a large, round 
 fmooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid 
 cavity of the fcapula. On the upper and fore 
 part of the bone there is a groove for lodging the 
 long head of the biceps mufcle of the arm ; and 
 on each fide of the groove, at the upper end of the 
 bone, there is a tubercle to which the fpinata 
 mufcles are fixed. 
 
 The lower extremity has feveral proceffes and 
 cavities. The principal proceffes are its two con- 
 dyles, one exterior and the other interior, and 
 of thefe the laft is the largeft. Between thefe 
 two we obferve two lateral protuberances, which, 
 together with a middle cavity, form as it were a 
 kind of pully upon which the motions of the 
 fore-arm are chiefly performed. At each fide 
 of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interiorly, 
 there is another eminence which gives origin to 
 feveral mufcles of the hand and fingers. Pofte- 
 riorly and fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpedt to 
 the condyles, we obferve a deep foffa which re- 
 ceives a confiderable procefs of the ulna : and 
 anteriorly and oppofite to this foffa, we obferve 
 another, which is much lefs and receives another 
 procefs of the fame bone. 
 
 The 
 
ii8 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 The body of the bone has at its upper and 
 and anterior part a furrow which begins from be- 
 hind the head of the bone, and ferves to lodge 
 the tendon of a mufcie. The body of the os 
 humeri is hollow through its whole length, and, 
 like all other long bones, has its marrow. 
 
 Tills bone is articulated at its upper part to the 
 fcapula. This articulation, which allows motion 
 every way, is fiirrounded by a capfular ligament; 
 tliat is fometim.es torn in luxation, and becomes 
 an obftacle to the eafy redudtion of the bone. 
 Its lower extremity is articulated with the bones 
 of the fore-arm. 
 
 The fore-arm is compofed of two bones, the 
 ulna and radius. 
 
 The ulna or elbow-bone is much Icfs than the 
 os humeri, and becomes gradually fmaller as it 
 defcends to the wrift. At is upper part it has 
 two procefles and two cavities. Of the two pro- 
 cefles, the largeft, which is fituated pofleriorly, 
 and called the olecranon^ is admitted into the pof- 
 terior foffa of the os humeri. The other procefs 
 is placed anteriorly, and is called the coronoid pro- 
 cefs. In bending the arm it enters into the ante- 
 rior foffa of the os humeri. This procefs being 
 much fmaller than the other, permits the fore- 
 arm to bend inwards ; whereas the olecranon, 
 which is fhaped like a hook, reaches the bottom 
 cf its foffa in the os humeri as foon as the arm 
 becomes ftraight, and will not permit the fore-arm 
 
 tcv^ 
 
PartL osteology. 119 
 
 to be bent backwards. The ligaments llkewife 
 oppofe this motion. 
 
 Between the two proceffes we have defcribed^ 
 there is a conhderable cavity called the fygmoid 
 cavity, divided into two folfe by a fmall eminence, 
 which paffes from one procefs to the other ; it is 
 by means of this cavity and the two proceffes, 
 that the ulna is articulated with the os humeri by 
 ginglimus. ^ 
 
 At the bottom of the coronoid procefs inte- 
 riorly, there is a fmall fygmoid cavity, which 
 ferves for the articulation of the ulna with the 
 radius. 
 
 The body of the ulna is of a triangular lhape ; 
 Its lower extremity terminates by a fmall head 
 and a little ftyloid procefs. The ulna is articu- 
 lated above to the os humeri — both above and 
 below to the radius, and to the wrift at its lower 
 extremity. All thefe articulations are fecm'ed by 
 means of ligaments. The chief ufe of this bone 
 feems to be to fupport and regulate the motions 
 of the radius. 
 
 The radius^ which is fo named from its fup- 
 pofed refemblance to the fpoke of a wheel, is 
 placed at the infide of the fore-arm. It is fome- 
 what larger than the ulna, but not quite fo long 
 as that bone. Its upper part is cylindrical, hol- 
 lowed fuperiorly to receive the outer condyle of 
 the os humeri. Laterally it is admitted into the 
 little fygmoid cavity of the ulna, and the cylin- 
 drical part of the bone turns in this cavity in the 
 
 motions 
 
220 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 motions of pronation and fupination (i). This 
 bone follows the ulna in flexion and extenfion, 
 and may likewife be moved round its axis in any 
 direction. The lower extremity of the radius 
 is much larger and ftronger than its upper part ; 
 the ulna, on the contrary, is fmaller and weak- 
 er below than above ; fo that they ferve to fup- 
 ply each others deficiencies in both thofe parts. 
 
 On the external fide of this bone, we obferve 
 a fmall cavity which is deftined to receive the 
 lower end of the ulna ; and its lower extremity 
 is formed into a large cavity, by means of which 
 it is articulated with the bones of the wrift, and 
 on this account it is fometimes called manubrium 
 ma?ms. It fupports the two firft bones of the 
 wrift on the fide of the thumb, whereas the ulna 
 is articulated with that bone of the wrift which 
 correfponds with the little finger. 
 
 Through the whole length both of this bone 
 and the ulna, a ridge is obferved-, which af- 
 fords attachment to an interolTeous ligament. 
 This ligament fills up the fpace between the two 
 bones. 
 
 3. Bones of the Hand, 
 
 The carpus or wrift confifts of eight fmall 
 
 bones 
 
 (i)Tke motions of pronation and fiipination maybe eail- 
 ly defcribed. If the palm of the hand, for inftance, is placed 
 on the furface of a table, the hand may be faid to be in a ftate 
 of pronation ; but if the back part of the hand is turned to- 
 wards the table, the hand will be then in a ftate of fupination. 
 
I 21 
 
 Pae^t I. OSTEOLOGY, 
 bones of an irregular fhape, and difpofed in 
 two unequal rows. Thole of the upper row 
 are articulated with the bones of the fore-arm, 
 and thofe of the lower one vrith the metacarpus. 
 
 The ancient anatomifts delcilbed thefe bones 
 numerically ; Lyferus feems to have been the 
 firft who gave to each of them a particular name, 
 
 Tiie names he adopted are founded on the fi- 
 gure of the bones, and are now pretty general- 
 ly received, except the firft, which inftead of 
 X OTVXOUef'i^ (the name given to it by Lyferus, on 
 account of its finus that admits a part of the os 
 magnum), has by later writers been named Scap- 
 hoides or Naviculare. This, which is the outer- 
 moft of the upper row (confidering the thumb as 
 the outer fide of the hand) is articulated with 
 the radius ; on its inner fide it is connected v/ith 
 the os lunare, and below to the trapezium and 
 trapezoides. Next to this is a fmaller bone, called 
 the os lunare : becaufe its outer fide, which is 
 connected with the fcaphoides, is fhaped like a 
 crefcent. This is likewife articulated with the 
 radius. On its inner fide it joins the os cunei- 
 forme, and anteriorly, the os magnum and os 
 unciforme. 
 
 The os cuneiforme, which is the third bone in 
 the upper row, is compared to a wedge, from 
 its being broader above, at the back of the 
 hand, than it is below. Pofteriorly it is articu- 
 lated with the ulna, and anteriorly with the os 
 uncjforme. 
 
 Thefe 
 
122 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 Thefe three bones form an oblong articulating 
 furface, covered by cartilage, by which the hand 
 is connedied with the fore-arm. 
 
 The os pififorme, or pea-like bone, which is 
 fmaller than the three jull now defcribed, though 
 generally claffed with the bones of the upper row, 
 does not properly belong to either feries, being 
 placed on the under furface of the os cuneiforme, 
 fo as to projed; into the palm of the hand. The 
 four bones of the fecond row correfpond with 
 the bones of the thumb and fingers ; the firft, 
 fecond, and fourth, are from their lhapes named 
 trape'ztum^ trapezoidcs^ and unciforme; the third, 
 from its being the largeft bone of the carpus, is 
 fcyled os mag7ium. 
 
 All thefe bones are convex towards the back, 
 and flightly concave towards the palm of the 
 hand ; their articulating furfaces are covered with 
 cartilages, and fecured by many ftrong ligaments, 
 particularly by two ligamentous expanfions, call- 
 ed the external and internal annular ligaments of 
 the wrift. The former extends in an oblique 
 diredtion from the os pififorme to the ftyloid pro- 
 cefs of the radius, and is an inch and an half in 
 breadth ; the latter or internal annular ligament 
 is ftretched from the os pififorme and os iinci- 
 forme, to the os fcaphoides and trapezium. Thefe 
 annular ligaments likewife ferve to bind down 
 the tendons of the wrifi and fingers. 
 
 The metacarpus confifts of four bones, which 
 fupport the fingers ; externally they are a little 
 
 convex. 
 
PartI. osteology. 123 
 
 convex, and internally fomewhat concave, where 
 they form the palm of the hand. They are hol- 
 low, and of a cylindrical fhape. 
 
 At each extremity they are a little hollowed 
 for their articulation j fuperiorly with the bones 
 of the carpus, and inferiorly with the firft phalanx 
 of the lingers, in the fame manner as the feveral 
 phalanges of the fingers are articulated with each 
 other. 
 
 The Jivs Jingers of each hand are compofed 
 of fifteen bones, difpofed in three ranks called 
 phalanges : The bones of the firft phalanx, which 
 are articulated with the metacarpus, are the largeft, 
 and thofe of the laft phalanx the fmalleft. Ail 
 thefe bones are larger at their extremities tha.n iir 
 their middle part. 
 
 We obferve at the extremities ©f the bones 
 of the carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, feve- 
 ral inequalities that ferve for their articulation 
 with each other ; and thefe articulations arc 
 ftrengthened by means of the ligaments \vhich 
 furround them. 
 
 It will be eafily underftood that this multipli- 
 city of bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each 
 hand) is eflential to the different motions we wilh 
 to pefform- If each finger was compofed only 
 of one bone inftead of three, it would be impoffi- 
 blc for us to grafp any thing. 
 
 §2. Of 
 
124 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 ^ 2. Of the Lower Extremities. 
 
 Each lower extremity is divided into four 
 parts, viz. the os femoris, or thigh bone ; the 
 rotula, or knee-pan ; the leg and the foot. 
 
 I. Of the Thigh. 
 
 The os femoris. The thigh is compofed only 
 of this bone, which is the largeft and ftrongeft 
 we have. It will be neceffary to diftinguifh its 
 body and extremities : Its body, which is of a 
 cylindrical fhape, is convex before and con- 
 cave behind, where it ferves to lodge feveral 
 mufcles. 
 
 Throughout two-thirds of its length we obferve 
 a ridge called Itnea afpera., which originates from 
 the trochanters, and after running for fome way 
 downwards, divides into two branches, that ter- 
 minate in the tuberofities at the lower extremity 
 of the bone. 
 
 At its upper extremity we muft defcribe the 
 neck and fmooth head of the bone, and likewife 
 two confiderable procelTes : The head, which 
 forms the greater portion of a fphere unequally 
 divided, is turned inwards, and received into the 
 great cotyloid cavity of the os innominatum. At 
 this part of the bone there is a little foffa to be 
 obferved, to which the round ligament is attach- 
 ed, and which we have already defcribed as tend- 
 ing to fecure the head of this bone in the great 
 
 acetabulum. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 125 
 
 acetabulum. The neck is almoft horizontal, con- 
 fidered with refpeft to its fituation with the body 
 of the bone. Of the two procefles, the external 
 one, which is the largeft, is called trochanter 
 major ; and the other, which is placed on the 
 infide of the bone, trochanter minor. They both 
 afford attachment to mufcles. The articulation 
 of the os femoris with the trunk is ftrengthened 
 by means of a capfular ligament, which adheres 
 every ,where round the edge of the great cotyloid 
 cavity of the os innominatum, and furrounds the 
 head of the bone. 
 
 The os femoris moves upon the trunk in evei*y 
 diredfion. 
 
 At the lower extremity of the bone are two 
 proteffes called the condyles, and an intermedi- 
 ate fmooth cavity, by means of which it is arti- 
 culated with the leg by ginglimus. 
 
 All round the under end of the bone there is 
 an irregular furface where the capfular ligament 
 of the joint has its origin, and where blood-veffels 
 go into the fubftance of the bone. 
 
 Between the condyles there is a cavity pofte- 
 Aorly, in which the blood-veffels and nerves 
 are placed, fecure from the compreffion to which 
 they would otherwife be expofed in the adfion 
 of bending the leg, and which would not fail to 
 be hurtful. 
 
 At the fide of each condyle externally, there 
 is a tuberofity, from whence the lateral ligaments 
 originate, which are extended down to the tibia. 
 
 A 
 
126 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 A ligament likewife arifes from each condyle 
 pofteriorly. One of thefe ligaments pafles from 
 the right to the left, and the other from the 
 left to the right, fo that they interfe6t each 
 other, and for that reafon are called the crofs li- 
 gaments. 
 
 The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of 
 the leg upon the thigh to the right or left ; and 
 the crofs ligaments, which are alfo attached to 
 the tibia, prevent the latter from being brought 
 forwards. 
 
 In new-born children all the proceffes of this 
 bone are cartilaginous. 
 
 2 . The Rotula, or Knee-pan. 
 
 The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is dif- 
 ferently called, is a flat bone about four or five 
 inches in circumference, and is placed at the fore- 
 part of the joint of the knee. In its Ihape it is 
 fomewhat like the common figure of the heart, 
 with its point downward. 
 
 It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part ; 
 at its fore-part it is fmooth and fomewhat con^ 
 vex ; its pofterior furface, which is more un- 
 equal, affords an elevation in the middle which 
 is admitted between the two condyles of the os 
 femoris. 
 
 This bone is retained in its proper fituation by 
 a ftrong ligament which every where furrounds 
 it, and adheres both to the tibia and os femoris ; 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 127 
 
 it is likewife firmly connected with the tibia by 
 means of a ftrong tendinous ligament of an inch 
 in breadth, and upwards of two inches in length, 
 which adheres to the lower part of the patella, and 
 to the tuberofity at the upper end of the tibia. 
 On account of this connection, it is very pro- 
 perly confidered as an appendage to the tibia, 
 which it follows in all its motions, fo as to be to 
 it what the olecranon is to the ulna. There is 
 this difference, however, that the olecranon is 
 a fixed procefs ; whereas the patella is moveable, 
 being capable of Aiding from above downv^^a^ds 
 and from below upwards. This mobility is ef- 
 fential to the rotatory motion of the leg. 
 
 In very young children this bone is entirely 
 cartilaginous. 
 
 The principal ufe of the patella feems to be 
 to defend the articulation of the the knee from 
 external injury ; it likewife tends to increafe the 
 power of the extenfor mufcles to the leg, by re- 
 moving their direction farther from the centre 
 of motion in the manner of a pulley. 
 
 3. Of the leg. 
 
 The leg is compofed of two bones ; Of thefe 
 the inner one, which is the largeft, is called ti- 
 bia ; the other is much fmaller, and named fi- 
 bula. 
 
 The TIBIA, which is fo called from, its refem- 
 blance to the mufical pipe of the ancients, has 
 
 three 
 
128 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 three furfaces, and is not veiy unlike a triangu- 
 lar pril'm. Its pofterior furface is the broadeft ; 
 anteriorly it has a confiderable ridge called the 
 Ihin, between which and the ildn there are no 
 mufcles. At the upper extremity of this bone 
 are two furfaces, a little concave, and feparated 
 from each other by an intermediate elevation. 
 The two little cavities receive the condyles of 
 the os femoris, and the eminence between 
 them is admitted into the cavity which we fpoke 
 of as being between the two condyles ; fo that 
 this articulation affords a fpecimen of the com- 
 plete ginglimus. Under the external edge of 
 the upper end of this bone is a circular flat fur- 
 face, which receives the head of the fibula. 
 
 At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, 
 we obferve a confiderable procefs called mal- 
 leolus internus. The bafis of the bone termi- 
 nates in a large tranverfe cavity, by which it is 
 articulated with the uppermoft bone of the 
 foot. It has likewife another cavity at its lower 
 end and outer fide, which is fomewhat oblong, 
 and receives the lower end of the fibula. 
 
 The tibia is hollow through its whole length. 
 
 The FIBULA is a final 1 long bone fituated on 
 the outfide of the tibia. Its fuperior extremity 
 does not reach quite fo high as the upper part of 
 the tibia, but its lower end defcends fomewhat 
 lower. Both above and below, it is articulated 
 wdth the tibia by means of the lateral cavities we 
 poticed in our defcription of that bone. 
 
 3 
 
 Its 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 129 
 
 Its lower extremity is ftretched out into a co- 
 ronoid procefs, which is flattened at its infide, 
 and is convex externally, forming what is called 
 the malleolus extemus^ or outer ancle. This is 
 rather lower than the malleolus internus of the 
 tibia. 
 
 The body of this bone, which is in'egularly 
 triangular, is a little hollow at its internal fur- 
 face, which is turned towards the tibia ; and it 
 affords like that bone, through its whole length, 
 attachment to a ligament, which from its litua- 
 tion is called the interoffeous ligament. 
 
 4. Of the foot. 
 
 The foot confifls of the tarfus, metatarfus, and 
 toes. 
 
 The TARSUS is compofed of feven bones, 
 viz. the aftragalus, os calcis, os naviculare, 
 os cuboid^s, and three others called cuneiform 
 bones. 
 
 The ASTRAGALUS isa large bone with which 
 both the tibia and fibula are articulated. It is 
 the uppermofl bone of the foot ; it has feveral 
 furfaces to be confidered ; its upper, and fome- 
 what poflerior part, which is fmooth and con- 
 vex, is admitted into the cavity of the tibia. Its 
 lateral parts are connected with the malleoli of 
 the two bones of the leg ; below, it is articula- 
 ted with the os calcis, and its anterior furface is 
 
 I received 
 
130 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 received by the os naviculare. All thefe arti- 
 culations are fecured by means of ligaments. 
 
 The os CALCis, or calcaneiim, which is of 
 a very irregular figure, it is the iargeft bone of 
 the foot. Behind, it is formed into a confider- 
 able tuberofity called the heel ; without this tu- 
 berofity, which fupports us in an eredf pofture, 
 and when we walk, we fhould be liable to fall 
 backwards. 
 
 On the internal furface of this bone, we ob- 
 ferve a confiderable fmuofity, which affords a 
 paffage to the tendon of a mufcle ; and to the pof- 
 terior part of the os calcis, a ftrong tendinous 
 cord called tendo achillis (m) is attached, which 
 is formed by the tendons of feveral mufcles uni- 
 ted together. The articulation of this with the 
 other bones is fecured by means of ligaments. 
 
 The Os NAVICULARE, or fcaphoides, (for 
 thefe two terms have the fame fignification), is 
 fo called on account of its refemblance to a little 
 hark. At its pofterior part, which is concave, 
 it receives the aftragalus ; anteriorly it is articu- 
 lated with the cuneiform bones, and laterally it 
 is connected with the os cuboides. 
 
 The os CUBOIDES forms an irregular cube. 
 Pofteriorly ft is articulated with the os calcis j 
 anteriorly it fupports the two laft bones of the 
 metatarfus, and laterally it joins the third cunei- 
 form bone and the os naviculare. 
 
 Each 
 
 (m) This tendon isfometimes ruptured bj^jumping, danc- 
 ing, or other violent efforts. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 131 
 
 Each of the OSSA cuneiformia, whichare 
 three in number, refembles a wedge, and from 
 this fimilitude their name is derived. They are 
 placed next to the metatarfus by the lides of each 
 other,: and are ufually diftinguilhed into os cu- 
 neiforme externum^ medium or minimum^ and in- 
 ternum or maximum. The fuperior furface of 
 thefe bones, from their wedge-like Ihape, is 
 broader than that which is below, where they 
 help to form the foie of the foot ; pofteriorly 
 they are united to the os naviculare, and ante- 
 riorly they fupport the three firft metatarfal 
 bones. 
 
 When thefe feven bones compofmg the tarfus 
 are viewed together in the fkeleton, they appeat 
 convex above, where they help to form the up- 
 per part of the foot ; and concave underneath, 
 where they form the hollow of the foot, in 
 which the veffels, tendons and nerves of the 
 foot are placed fecure from prelTure. 
 
 They are united to each other by very ftrong 
 ligaments, and their articulation with the foot is 
 fecured by a cafpular and two lateral ligaments j 
 each of the latter is covered by an annular liga- 
 ment of confiderable breadth and thicknefs, which 
 ferves to bind down the tendons of the foot, 
 and at the fame time to ftrengthen the articula- 
 tion. 
 
 The oscuneiforme externum is joined laterally 
 to the os cuboides. 
 
 Thefe bones complete our account of the tar- 
 I 2 fus. 
 
132 OStEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 fus. Though what we have faid of this part of 
 the ofteology has been very fimple and concife, 
 yet many readers may not clearly underhand it : 
 but if they will be pleafed to view thefe bones 
 in their proper fituation in the fkeleton, all that 
 we have faid of them will ■ ■ eafily underftood. 
 
 The METATARSUS is made up of five bones, 
 whereas the metacarpus confifts only of four. 
 The caufe of this difference is, that in the hand 
 the laft bone of the thumb is not included among 
 the metacarpal bones ; whereas in the foot the 
 great toe has only two bones. The firft of thefe 
 bones fupports the great toe and is much larger 
 than the reft, which nearly refemble each other 
 in fize. 
 
 Thefe bones are articulated by one extremity 
 with the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, 
 and by their other end with the toes. 
 
 Each of the toes, like the fingers, confifts 
 of three bones, except the great toe, which is 
 formed of two bones. Thofe of the other four are 
 diftinguifhed into three phalanges. Although the 
 toes are more confined in their motion than the fin- 
 gers, yet they appear to be perfedUy fitted for the 
 purpofes they are defignedfor. In walking, the toes 
 bring the centre of gravity perpendicular to the 
 advanced foot ; and as the foies of the foot are 
 naturally concave, we can at pleafure increafe 
 this cavity, and form a kind of vault, which ad- 
 jufts itfelf to the different inequalities that occur 
 to us in walking ; and which, without this mode 
 
 of 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 133 
 
 of arrangement, would incommode us exceed- 
 ingly, efpecially when bare-footed. 
 
 § 4. the OJfa Sesamoidea. 
 
 Besides the bones we Lave already defcrib- 
 ed, there are feveral fmall ones that are met with 
 only in the adult fkeleton, and in perfons who 
 are advanced in life ; which, from their fuppof- 
 cd general refemblance to the feeds of the fela- 
 mum, are called oJJ'a fefamoidea. They are com- 
 monly to be feen at the firft joint of the great 
 toe, and fometimes at the joints of the thumb ^ 
 they are likewife now and then to be found at the 
 lower extremity of the fibula, upon the con- 
 fiyles of the thigh-bone, under the os cuboides 
 of the tarfus, and in other parts of the body. 
 Their fize and number feem conftantly to be in- 
 creafed by age and hard labour ; and as they are 
 generally found in fituations where tendons and 
 ligaments are moft expofed to the adtion of 
 mufcles, they are now generally confidered as 
 ofiified portions of ligaments or tendons. 
 
 The upper furface of thefe bones is ufually 
 convex, and adherent to the tendon that covers 
 it ; the fide which is next to the joint is fmooth 
 and flat. Though their formation is accidental, 
 yet they feem to be of fome ufe, by raifmg tjbe 
 tendons farther from the centre of motion, and 
 confequently increafing the power of the muf- 
 cles. In the great toe and thumb they are like- 
 wife 
 
134 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 wife ufeful, by forming a groove for the flexor 
 tendons. 
 
 EXPLANATION of the Pl.ATES of OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 Fig. I. A front view of the Male Skeleton. 
 
 A, The os frontis. B, The os parietale. C, 
 The coronal future. D, The fquamous part of 
 the temporal bones. E, The fquamous future. 
 F, The zygoma. G, The maftoid procefs. H, 
 The temporal procefs of the fpenoid bone. I, 
 The orbit. K, The os maldS. L, The os max- 
 illare fuperius. M, Its nafal procefs. N, The 
 ciTa nafi. O, The os unguis. P, The maxilla in- 
 ferior. Q^, The teeth, which are fixteen in 
 number in each jaw. R, The feven cervical ver- 
 tebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. S, 
 Their tranfverfe proceffes. T, The twelve dor- 
 fal vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. 
 U, The five lumbar vertebrae. V, Their tranf- 
 verfe proceffes. W, The upper part of the os 
 facrum, X, Its lateral parts. The holes feen 
 on its fore part are the paffages of the under- 
 moft fpinai nerves and fmall veffels. Oppofite 
 to the holes, the marks of the original divifions 
 of the bone are feen. Y, The os ilium. Z, Its 
 creft or fpine. a. The anterior fpinous pro- 
 
 cefles. 
 
Part L OSTEOLOGY. 135 
 
 cefles. b, The brim of the pelvis, c, The if- 
 chiatic niche, d, The os ifchium. e, Its tube- 
 rofity. f, Its fpinous procefs. g, Its cms. h. 
 The foramen thyroldeum. i, The os pubis, k, 
 The fymphyfis pubis. 1 , The crus pubis, m, 
 The acetabulum, n, The feventh or lafl true 
 rib. o, The twelfth or lafl: falfe rib. p, The up- 
 per end of the fternum. q, The middle piece, 
 r. The under end, or cartilage enfiformis. s, The 
 clavicle, t, The internal furface of the fcapula. 
 u, Its acromion, v, Its coracoid procefs. vr, Its 
 cervix, x, The glenoid cavity, y, The os hu- 
 meri. z, Its head, which is coniiedfed to the 
 glenoid cavity, i, Its external tubercle. 2, Its 
 internal tubercle. 3, The groove for lodging 
 the long head of the biceps mufcle of the arm. 
 4, The internal condyle. 5, The external con- 
 dyle. Between 4 and 5, the trochlea. 6. The 
 radius, y, Its head. 8, Its tubercle. 9, The ulna. 
 JO, Its coronoid procefs. 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 
 16, 17, 18, The carpus ; compofed of os na- 
 viculare, os lunare, os cuneiforme, os pihforme, 
 os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum, os 
 unciforme. 1 9, The five bones of the metacar- 
 pus, 20, The two bones of the thumb. 21, 
 The three bones of each of the fingers. 22, The 
 os femoris. 23, Its head. 24, Its cei^^ix. 25, 
 The trochanter major. 26, The trochanter mi- 
 nor. 27, The internal condyle. 28, The ex- 
 ternal condyle. 29, The rotula. 30, The tibia, 
 3 1, Its head. 32, Its tubercle, 33, Its fpine. 
 
 34. The 
 
136 OSTEOLOGY, Part I. 
 
 34, The malleolus internus. 35, The fibula. 
 
 36, Its head. 37. The malleolus externus. The 
 tarfus is compofed of, 38, The aftragalus ; 39, 
 
 The os calcis; 40, The os naviculare ; 41, Three 
 ofla cuneiformia, and the os cuboides, which is 
 notfeen in this figure. 42, The five bones of 
 the metatarfus. 43, The two bones of the great 
 toe. 44, The three bones of each of the fmall 
 toes. 
 
 Fig. 2. A front view of the Skull. 
 
 A, The os frontis. B, The lateral part of the 
 os frontis, which gives origin to part of the tem- 
 poral mufcle. C, The fuperciliary ridge. D, 
 
 The fuperciliary hole through which the frontal 
 veflels and nerves pafs. EE, The orbitar pro- 
 cefies. F, The middle of the tranfverfe future. 
 
 G, The upper part of the orbit. H, The fora- 
 me¥i opticum. I, The foramen lacerum. K, 
 
 The infei'ior orbitar filTure. L, The os unguis 
 M, The offa nafi. N, The os maxillare fuperius. 
 
 O, Its, nafal procefs, P, The external orbitar 
 hole through which the fuperior maxillary vef- 
 fels and nerves pafs, Q^, The 03 malae. R, A 
 paffage for fmall veflels into, or out of the orbit. 
 
 S, The under part of the left noftril. T, The 
 feptum narium. U. The os fpongiofum fupe- 
 rius. V, The os fpongiofum infernus. W, The 
 edge of the alveoli, or fpongy fockets, for the 1 
 
 teeth. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 137 
 
 teeth. X, The maxilla inferior. Y, The paf- 
 fage for the inferior maxillary veflels and nerves. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fide-view of the Skull. 
 
 A, The os frontis. B, The coronal future. 
 C, The os parietale. D, An arched ridge which 
 gives origin to the temporal mufcle. E, The 
 fquamous future. F, The fquamous part of the 
 temporal bone ; and, farther forwards, the tem- 
 poral procefs of the fphenoid bone. G, The zy- 
 gomatic procefs of the temporal bone. H, The 
 zygomatic future. I, The maftoid procefs of the 
 temporal bone. K, The meatus auditorius ex- 
 ternus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal bone, 
 under which is feen the tranfverfe future. M, 
 The pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The 
 os unguis. O, The right os nafi. P, The fu- 
 perior maxillary bone. Q^, Its nafal procefs. 
 R, The two dentes incifores. S, The dens ca- 
 ninus. T, The two molaies. U, The three 
 large molares. V, The os malae. W, The 
 lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The coronoid 
 procefs. Z, The condyloid procefs, by which 
 the jaw is articulated with the temporal bone. 
 
 Fjg. 4. The pofterior and right fide of the 
 Skull. 
 
 A, The os frontis. BB, The olfa parietalia. 
 C, The fagittal future. D, The parietal hole, 
 through which a fmall vein runs to the fuperior 
 
 longitu-r 
 
138 OSTEOLOGY. Part L 
 
 longitudinal linus. E. The lambdoid future. 
 FF, OfTa triquetra. G, The os occipitis. H, 
 The fquamous part of the temporal bone. I, 
 The maftoid procefs. K, The zygoma. L, The 
 os malsE. M, The temporal part of the fphenoid 
 bone. N, The fuperior maxillary bone and 
 teeth. 
 
 Fig. 5. The external Surface of theOspRONTis, 
 
 A, The convex part. B, Part of the tempo- 
 ral folTa. C, The external angular procefs. I)^ 
 The internal angular procefs. E, The nafal 
 procefs. F, The fuperciliary hole. H, The 
 orbitar pla,te. 
 
 Fig. 6. The interior furface of the Os FronTiS. 
 
 AA, The ferrated edge which affifts to form 
 the coronal future. B, The external angular 
 procefs. C, The internal angular procefs. D, 
 The nafal procefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, The 
 cells which correfpond with thofe of the eth- 
 moid bone. G, The paffage from the frontal 
 fmus. H, The opening which receives the cri- 
 briform plate of the ethmoid bone. I, The ca- 
 vity which lodges the fore part of the brain. K, 
 The fpine to which the falx is fixed. L, The 
 groove which lodges the fuperior longitudinal 
 fmus. 
 
 PlatR 
 
Part L 
 
 OST’EOLOGY. 
 
 139 
 
 Plate aX. 
 
 Fig. I. A back view of the Skeleton. 
 
 AA, The offa parietalia. B, The fagittal fu- 
 ture. C, The lambdoid future. D, The occi- 
 pital bone. E,The fquamous future. F, The maf- 
 toid procefs of the temporal bone. G, The os 
 malse. H, The palate plate of the fuperior max- 
 illary bones. I, T he maxilla inferior. K, The 
 teeth of both jaws. L, The feven cervical ver- 
 tebrsE. M, Their fpiiious proceffes. N, Their 
 tranfverfe and oblique proceffes. O, The laft of 
 •the twelve dorfal vertebra. P, The fifth or 
 laft lumbar vertebra. The tranfverfe pfo- 
 
 celTes. R, The oblique procefl'es. S, The fpi- 
 nous procefles. T, The upper part of the os 
 facrum. U, The pofterior holes which tranf- 
 mit fmall blood-veflels and nerves. V, The un- 
 der part of the os facrum which is covered by a 
 membrane. W, The os coccygis. , X, The os 
 ilium. Y, Its fpine or creft. Z, The ifchi- 
 atic niche, a, The os ifchium. b, Its tubero- 
 fity. c, Its fpine. d, The os pubis, e, The forar 
 men hydroideum. f, The feventh or laft true rib, 
 g, The twelfth or laft falfe rib. h, The clavicle, 
 i, The fcapula. k, its fpine. 1, Its acromion, 
 m, Its cervix, n, Its fuperior cofta. o, Its pofterior 
 cofta. p, Its inferior cofta. q, The os humeri, 
 r, The radius, s, The ulna, t, Its olecranon, u, 
 All the bones of the carpus, exceting the os 
 
 pififorme, 
 
140 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 plfiforme, which is feen in Plate XIX. fig. i. 
 V, The five bones of the metacarpus, w, The 
 two bones of the thumb, x, The three bones 
 of each of the fingers, y, The two fefamoid 
 bones at the root of the left thumb, z, The os 
 femoris. i , The trochanter major. 2, The tro- 
 chanter minor. 3, The linea afpera. 4, The 
 internal condyle. 5, The external condyle. 6 6, 
 The femilunar cartilages. 7, The tibia. 8, The 
 malleolus internus. 9, The fibula. 10, The 
 
 malleolus externus. 11, The tarfus. 12, The 
 metatarfus. 13, The toes. 
 
 Fig. 2. The external Surface of the left Os Pa- 
 
 RIETALE. 
 
 A, The convex fmooth furface. B, The pa- 
 rietal hole. C, An arch made by the beginning 
 of the temporal mufcle. 
 
 Fig 3. The intern^ Surface of the fame bone. 
 
 A, Itsfuperior edge, which, joined, with the 
 other, forms the fagittal future. B, The anterior 
 edge, which alfifts in the formation of the co- 
 ronal future. C. The inferior edge for the fqua- 
 mous future. D, The pofterior edge for the 
 lambdoid future. E, A depreffion made by the 
 latera,! finus. FF, The prints of the arteries of 
 the dura mater. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 141 
 
 Fig. 4. The external Surface of the Left OsTem- 
 
 PORUM. 
 
 A, The fquamous part. B, The maftoid pro- 
 cefs. C, The zygomatic procefs. D, The fty- 
 loid procefs. E, The petrofal procefs. F, The 
 meatus auditorius externus. G, The glenoid 
 cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw. H, 
 The foramen ftylo-maftoideum for the portio 
 dura of the feventh pair of nerves. I, Paflages 
 for blood-veflels into the bone. K, The fora- 
 men maftoideum through which a vein goes to 
 the lateral finus. 
 
 Fig. 5. The Internal furface of the Left Os T em- 
 
 PORUM. 
 
 A, The fquamous part ; the upper edge of 
 which affifts in forming the fquamous future. B, 
 The maftoid procefs. C, The ftyloid procefs. D, 
 The pars petrofa. E, The entry of the feventh 
 pair, or auditory nerve. F, The foffa, which 
 lodges a part of the lateral finus. G, The for- 
 amen maftoideum. 
 
 Fig. 6 . The External Surface of the Osseous 
 
 Circle, which terminates the meatus audi- 
 
 trius externus. 
 
 A, The anterior part. B, A fmall part of the 
 groove in which the membrana tympani is fixed. 
 
 N. B. This, with the fubfequent bones of the 
 ear, are here delineated as large as the life. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
142 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Fig, 7. The Internal Surface of the Osseous 
 Circle. 
 
 A, The anterior part. B, The groove in 
 which the membrana tympani is fixed. 
 
 Fig. 8. The fituation and connection of the 
 fmall Bones of the Ear. 
 
 A, The malleus. B, The incus. C, The 
 os orbiculare. D, The ftapes. 
 
 Fig. 9. The Malleus, with its Head, Han- 
 dle, and Small Procefles. 
 
 Fig. 10. The Incus, with its Body, Superior 
 and Inferior branches. 
 
 Fig, II. The Os Orbiculare. 
 
 Fig. 12. The Stapes, with its Head, Bafe, and 
 two cura. 
 
 Fig. 13. An Internal View of theLBYARiNTii 
 of the Ear. 
 
 A, The hollow part of the cochlea, which 
 forms a fhare of the meatus auditorius intemus. 
 B, The veftibulum. CCC, The femicircular 
 canals. 
 
 Fig. 14. An External View of the Labyrinth. 
 
 A, The femicircular canals. B, The feneftra 
 
 ovalis- 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 143 
 
 ovalis which leads into the veftibulum. C, The 
 feneftra rotunda which opens into the cochlea- 
 D, The different turns of the cochlea. 
 
 Fig 15. The Internal Surface of the Os Sphe- 
 
 NOIDES. 
 
 A A, The temporal proceffes. B B, The pte- 
 rygoid proceffes. CC, The fpinous proceffes; 
 DD, The anterior clinoid proceffes. E. The 
 pofterior clinoid procefs. F, The anterior pro- 
 cefs which joins the ethmoid bone. G, The 
 fella turcica for lodging the glandula pituitaria. 
 H, The foramen opticum. K, The foramen 
 lacerum, L, The foramen rotundum. M, The 
 foramen ovale. N, The foramen fpinale. 
 
 Fig. 16. The External Surface of the Os Sphe- 
 
 NOIDES. 
 
 AA, The temporal proceffes. BB, The 
 pterygoid proceffes. CC, The fpinous pro- 
 ceffes. D, The proceffus azygos. E, The fmall 
 triangular proceffes which grow from the body 
 of the bone. FF, The orifices of the fpfienoid 
 fmufes. G, The foramen lacerum. H, The 
 foramen rotundum. I, The foramen ovale. K, 
 The foramen pterygoideum. 
 
 Fig. 17. The External Tiew of the Os Eth- 
 
 MOIDES. 
 
 A, The nafal lamella. B B, The grooves be- 
 tween 
 
144 OSTEOLOGY. Part!. 
 
 tween the nafal lamella and ofFa fponglofa fupe- 
 riora. CC, The oiTa fponglofa fuperiora. DD, 
 The fphenoidal cornua. See Fig. 1 6. E. 
 
 Fig. 1 8 . The Internal View of the Os Eth- 
 
 MOIDES. 
 
 A, The crilfa galli. B, The cribriform plate, 
 with the different paffages of the olfadory nerves. 
 CC, Some of the ethmoidal cells. D, The right 
 os planum. EE, The fphenoidal cornua. 
 
 Fig. 19. The right Sphenoidal Cornu. 
 
 Fig. 20. The left Sphenoidal Cornu. 
 
 Fig. 21. The external Surface of the Os Occi- 
 
 PITIS. 
 
 A, The upper part of the bone. B, The fu- 
 perior arched ridge. C, The inferior arched 
 ridge. Under the arches are prints made by the 
 mufclfis of the neck. DD, The two condy- 
 loid proceffes which articulate the head with the: 
 fpine. E, The cuneiform procefs. F, The 
 foramen magnum through which the fpinal mar- 
 row paffes. G G, The pofterior condyloid for- 
 amina which tranfmit veins into the lateral fi- 
 nufes. HH, The foramina lingualia for the 
 paffage of the nine pair of nerves. 
 
 1 | 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
PI;ttelX 
 
Part I. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 H5 
 
 Fig. 22 . The Internal Surface of the Os Occi- 
 
 PITIS. 
 
 A A, The two fides which affift to form the 
 lambdoid future. B, The point of the cunei- 
 form procefs, where it joins the fphenoid bone. 
 CC, The prints made by the pofterior lobes of 
 the brain. DD, Prints made by the lobes of the 
 cerebellum. E, The cruciform ridge for the 
 attachment of the proceffes of the dura mater. 
 F, The courfe of the fuperior longitudinal fi- 
 nufes. GG, The courfe of the two lateral fi- 
 nufes. H, The foramen magnum. 1 1, The 
 pofterior condyloid foramina. 
 
 Plate XXL 
 
 Fig. I. A Side-view of the Skeleton. 
 
 AA, The ofla parietalia. B, The fagittal fu- 
 ture. C, The os occipitis, DD, The lambdoid 
 future. E, The fquamous part of the temporal 
 bone. F, The maftoid procefs. G, The mea- 
 tus auditorius externus. H, The os frontis. 
 I, The os malse. K, The os maxillare fupe- 
 rius. L, The maxilla inferior. M, The teeth 
 of both jaws. N, The feventh, or laft cervical 
 vertebra. O, The fpinous procefles. P, Their 
 Tranfverfe and oblique procefles. Q^, The 
 twelfth or laft dorfal vertebra. R, The fifth or 
 laft lumbar vertebra. S, The fpinous proceffes. 
 
 K T, Open- 
 
146 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 T, Openings between the vertebras for the paf- 
 fage of the fpinal nerves. U, The under end 
 of the os facrum. V, The os coccygis. W, The 
 os ilium. X, The anterior fpinous proceffes. 
 Y, The pofterior fpinous proceffes. Z, The 
 ifchiatic niche, a, The right os ilium, b, The 
 ofl'a pubis, c, The tuberofity of the left os if- 
 chium. d, The fcapula. e, Its fpine. f, The 
 os humeri, g, The radius, h, The ulna, i, 
 The carpus, k. The metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb. 1 , The metacarpal boneof the fingers, 
 m, The two bones of the thumb, n, The three 
 bones of each of the fingers, o, The os femoris. 
 p, Its head, q, The trochanter major, r, The 
 external condyle, s, The rotula. t, The tibia, 
 u, The fibula, v, The malleolus externus. w, 
 The aftragalus. x, The os calcis. y, The os 
 naviculare, z, The three offa cuneiformia. i, 
 The os cuboides. 2, The five metatarfal bones. 
 3, The two bones of the great toe. 4, The 
 three bones of each of the fmall toes. 
 
 Fig. 2. A View of the Internal Surface of the 
 Bafe of the Skull. 
 
 AAA, The two tables of the fkull with the 
 diplbe. BB, The orbitar plates of the frontal 
 bone. C, The crifta galli, with cribriform plate 
 of the ethmoidal bone on each fide of it, through 
 which the firft pair of nerves pafs. D, The 
 cuneiform procefs of the occipital bone. E. 
 The cruciform ridge. F, The foramen mag- 
 num 
 
! . Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 147 
 
 < num for the paiTage of the fpinal marrow. G, 
 
 ; The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo- 
 I made proceifes of the os temporum. I, The 
 [ pars mamillaris. K, The pars petrofa. L, The 
 I temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. MM, 
 The anterior clinoid procefles. N, The pofte- 
 rior clinoid procefs. O, The fella turcica. P, 
 The foramen opticum, for the palTage of the op- 
 tic nerve and occular artery of the left fide. Q^, 
 The foramen lacerum, for the third, fourth, 
 fixth, and firft of the fifth pair of the nerves 
 and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum, 
 for the fecond of the fifth pair. T, The fora- 
 men fpinale, for the principal artery of the du- 
 ra mater. U, The entry of the auditory nerve. 
 V, The paffage for the lateral finus. W, The 
 paffage of the eighth pair of nerves. X, The 
 paffage of the ninth pair. 
 
 Fig. 3. A View of the External furface of the 
 Bafe of the Skull. 
 
 A, The two dentes incifores of the right fide. 
 B, The dens caninus. C, The two fmall mo- 
 lares. D, The three large molares. E, The 
 foramen incifivum, which gives paffage to fmall 
 blood-veffels and neiwes. F, The palate-plates 
 of the offa maxillaria and palati, joined by the 
 longitudinal and tranfverfe palate futures. G, 
 The foramen palatinum pofterius, for the pala- , 
 tine veffels and nerv^es. H, The os maxillare 
 
 K 2 fuperius 
 
148 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 fuperms of the right fide. I, The os malas. 
 
 K, The zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone- 
 
 L, The pollerior extremity of the offa fpongiofa. 
 
 M, The pofterior extremity of the vomer, which 
 forms the back-part of the feptum nafi. N, The 
 pterygoid procels of the right fide of the fphenoid 
 bone. O O, The foramina ovalia. P P, The 
 foramina fpinalia. QjQ^ The paffages of the 
 internal carotid arteries. R, A hole between 
 the point of each pars petrofa and cuneiform pro- 
 cefs of the occipital bone, which is hlled up with 
 a ligamentous fubftance in the recent fuhjedf. S, 
 The paifage of the left lateral fmus. T, The 
 pofterior condyloid foramen of the left fide. U, 
 The foramen maftoideum. V, The foramen 
 magnum. W„ The inferior orbitar fiffure. X, 
 The glenoid cavity, for the articulation of the 
 lower jaw. Y, The fquamous part of the tem- 
 poral bone. Z, The maftoid procefs, at the 
 inner fide of vriiich is a fofl'a for the pofterior bel- 
 ly of the digaftric mufcle. a. The ftyloid pro- 
 cefs. b. The meatus auditorius externus. c, 
 The left condyle of the occipital bone, d. The 
 perpendicular occipital fpine. e e. The inferior 
 horizontal ridge of the occipital bone, f f. The 
 fuperior horizontal ridge, which is oppofite to 
 the crucial ridge where the longitudinal fmus di- 
 vides to form the lateral fmufes. ggg? The 
 lambdoid future, h. The left fquamous future, 
 i, The parietal bone. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
Part L OSTEOLOGY. 149 
 
 Fig. 4. The anterior furface of the Ossa Nasi. 
 
 A, The upper part, which joins the os frontis. 
 
 B, The under end, which joins the cartilage of 
 the nofe. C, The inner edge, where they join 
 each other. 
 
 Fig. 5. The pofterior furface of the Ossa Nasi. 
 
 A A, Their cavity, which forms part of the 
 arch of the nofe. B B, Their ridge or fpine, 
 which projedfs a little to be fixed to the fore-part 
 of the feptum narium. 
 
 Fig. 6. The external furface of the Os Maxil- 
 LARE SuPERius of the left fide. 
 
 A, The nafal procefs. B, The orbitar plate. 
 
 C, The unequal furface which joins the os malse. 
 
 D, The external orbitar hole. E, The opening 
 into the noftril. F, The palate-plate. G, The 
 maxillary tuberofity. H, part of the os palati. 
 I, The two dentes incifores. K, The dens ca- 
 ninus. L, The twm fmall dentes molares. M, 
 The three large dentes molares. 
 
 Fig. 7. The internal furface of the OsMaxil- 
 LARE SuPERius and Os Palati. 
 
 A, The nafal procefs. B B, Eminences for 
 the connedtion of the os fpongiofum inferius. 
 D, The under end of the lachrymal groove. E, 
 
 The 
 
150 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 The antrum maxillare. F, The nafal fpine, be- 
 tween which and B is the cavity of the noftril. 
 
 The palate-plate. H, The orbitar part of 
 the os palati. I, The nafal plate. K, The fu- 
 ture which unites the maxillary and palate 
 bones. L, The pterygoid procefs of the palate 
 bones. 
 
 Fig. 8. The external furface of the right Os 
 Unguis. 
 
 A, The orbitar part. B, The lachrymal part. 
 
 C, The ridge between them. 
 
 Fig. 9. The internal furface of the right Os 
 Unguis. 
 
 This fide of the bone has a furrow oppofite to 
 the external ridge ; all behind that is irregular, 
 where it covers part of the ethmoidal cells. 
 
 Fi G. 10. The external furface of the left Os 
 Mal^. 
 
 A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The 
 inferior orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. 
 
 D, The zygomatic procefs. E, The orbitar 
 plate. F, A paffage for fmall veffels into or out 
 of the orbit. 
 
 Fig. II. The internal furface of the left Os 
 M ALiE. 
 
 A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The in- 
 ferior 
 
f Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 151 
 
 ferior orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. 
 
 I D, The zygomatic procefs. E, The internal or- 
 ' bitar plate or procefs. 
 
 Fig. 12. The external furface of the right Os 
 Spongiosum Inferius. 
 
 A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like pro- 
 cefs for covering part of the antrum maxillare. 
 C, A fmall procefs which covers part of the un- 
 [ der end of the lachrymal groove. D, The in- 
 ferior edge turned a little outwards. 
 
 Fig. 13. The internal furface of the Os Spon- 
 giosum Inferius. 
 
 A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper 
 edge which joins the fuperior maxillary and pa- 
 late bones. 
 
 Fig. 14. The pofterior and external furface of 
 the right Os Palati. 
 
 A, The orbitar procefs. B, The nafal lam- 
 ella. C, The pterygoid procefs. D, The pa- 
 late procefs. 
 
 Fig. 15. The anterior and external furface of 
 the right Os Palati. 
 
 A, The orbitar procefs. B, An opening 
 through which the lateral nafal velfgls and nerves 
 
 pafs. 
 
152 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. ! 
 
 pafs. C, The nafal lamella. D, The pterygoid | 
 procefs. E, The pofterior edge of the palate ’ 
 procefs for the connedion of the velum palati. 
 
 F, The inner edge by which the two offa palati , 
 are connected. 
 
 Fig. i 6. The right fide of the Vomer. 
 
 A, The upper edge which joins the nafal lam- 
 ella of the ethmoid bone and the middle cartilage 
 of the nofe. B, The inferior edge, which is 
 conneded to the fuperior maxillary and palate 
 bones. C, The fuperior and pofterior part 
 which receives the proceflus azygos of the fphe- I 
 noid bone. 
 
 Fig. 17. The Maxilla Inferior. 
 
 A, The chin. B, The bafe and left fide. C, 
 The angle. D, Thecoronoid procefs. E, The 
 condyloid procefs. F, The beginning of the 
 inferior maxillary canal of the right fide, for 
 the entry of the nerve and blood- veflels. G, 
 The termination of the left canal. H, The 
 two dentes incifores. I, The dens caninus. K, 
 The two fmall molares. L, The three large mo- 
 lares. 
 
 Fig. 18. The different claftes of the Teeth. 
 
 I, 2, A fore and back view of the two ante- 
 rior dentes incifores of the lov/er jaw. 3, 4, 
 
 Similar 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 153 
 
 Similar teeth of the upper jaw. 3, 6, A fore 
 and back view of the dentes canini. y, 8, The 
 anterior dentes molares. 9, 10, ii, Thepofte- 
 rior dentes molares. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, Un- 
 ufual appearances in the fhape and fize of the 
 teeth. 
 
 Fig, 19. The external furface of the Os Hy- 
 
 OIDES. 
 
 A, The body. B B, The cornua. C C, The 
 appendices. 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. I. A Pofterior View of the Sternum and 
 Clavicles, with the ligament connecting 
 the clavicles to each other. 
 
 a, The pofterior furface of the fternum. bb, 
 The broken ends of the clavicles, c c c c, The 
 tubercles near the extremity of each clavicle, d, 
 The ligament connecting the clavicles. 
 
 Fig. 3. A Fore-view of the Left Scapula, 
 and of a half of the Clavicle, with their 
 Ligaments. 
 
 a. The fpine of the fcapula. b. The acro- 
 mion. c. The inferior angle, d. Inferior cofta. 
 e. Cervix. f. Glenoid cavity, covered with 
 cartilage for the arm-bone, gg. The capfular 
 ligament of the joint, h. Coracoid procefs. i. 
 
 The 
 
154 OSTEOLOGY. PartL 
 
 The broken end of the clavicle, k, Its extremity 
 joined to the acromion. 1, A ligament coming 
 out fmgle from the acromion to the coracoid pro- 
 cefs. m, A ligament coming out fmgle from the 
 acromion, and dividing into two, which are fixed 
 to the coracoid procefs. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Joint of the Elbow of the Left 
 Arm, with the Ligaments. 
 
 a, The os humeri, b. Its internal condyle, 
 c c, The two prominent parts of its trochlea ap- 
 pearing through the capfular ligament, d. The ! 
 ulna, e, he radius, f. The part of the liga- 
 ment including the head of the radius. 
 
 Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right-Hand, with 
 
 the Palm in view. I 
 
 a. The radius, b. The ulna, c. The fcap- j 
 
 hold bone of the carpus, d, The os lunare. \ 
 
 e, The os cuneiforme. f, The os pififorme. g, Ij 
 Trapezium, h, Trapezoides. i, Capitatum. k, I 
 unciforme. 1, The four metacarpal bones of ■ 
 the fingers, m. The firfi: phalanx, n, The ' 
 fecond phalanx, o. The third phalanx, p, 
 The metacarpal bone of the thumb, q, The 
 firfi: joint, r. The fecond joint. 
 
 Fig. 5 . The Pofterior View of the Bones of the 
 Left-Hand. 
 
 The explication of Fig. 4 . ferves for this fi- 
 gure ; ; 
 
Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 155 
 
 gure ; the fame letters pointing out the fame 
 bones, though in a different view. 
 
 Fig. 6 . The Upper Extremity of the Tibia, 
 with the Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of 
 the Knee, and fome Ligaments. 
 
 a. The ftrong ligament which connedts the 
 rotula to the tubercle of the tibia, b b. The 
 parts of the extremity of the tibia, covered with 
 cartilage, which appear within the femilunar 
 cartilages. c c. The femilunar cartilages, d. 
 The two parts of what is called the crofs liga- 
 ment. 
 
 Fig. y. The Pofterior View of the Joint of the 
 Right-Knee. 
 
 a. The os femoris cut. b. Its internal con- 
 dyle. c. Its external condyle, d. The back- 
 part of the tibia, e, The fuperior extremity of 
 the fibula, f. The edge of the internal femilu- 
 nar cartilage, g. An oblique ligament, h, A 
 larger perpendicular ligament. i, A ligament 
 connedting the femur and fibula. 
 
 Fig. 8. The Anterior View of the Joint of the 
 Right Knee. 
 
 b. The internal condyle, c. Its external con- 
 dyle. d. The part of the os femoris, on which 
 the patella moves, e, A perpendicular ligament. 
 
 ff. The 
 
156 OSTEOLOGY. Part I. 
 
 f f, The two parts of the crucial ligaments, g g, 
 The edges of the two moveable femilunar carti- 
 lages. h, The tibia, i, The ftrong ligament 
 of the patella, k, The back part of it where 
 the fat has been dilfedted away. 1 , The exter- 
 nal depreffion. m, The internal one. n, The 
 cut tibia. 
 
 Fig. 9. A View of the inferior part of the Bones 
 of the Right Foot. 
 
 a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, A pro- 
 minence on its outfide. c, The hollow for the 
 tendons, nerves, and blood-veifels. d, The an- 
 terior extremity of the os calcis. e. Part of the 
 ahragalus. f, Its head covered with cartilage. 
 
 g, The internal prominence of the os naviculare. 
 
 h. The os cuboides. i. The os cuneiforme inter- 
 num ; k, — Medium ; — 1 , — Externum, m, The 
 metatarfal bones of the four leffer toes, n, The 
 firft — o, The fecond — p. The third phalanx 
 of the four leffer toes, q, The metatarfal bones 
 of the great toe. r,Its firft — s, Its fecond joint. 
 
 Fig. 10. The Inferior Surface of the two large 
 Sesamoid Bones, at the firft Joint of the 
 Great Toe. 
 
 Fig. II, The Superior View of the Bones of 
 the Right Foot. 
 
 a, b, as in Fig. 9. c. The fuperior head of 
 the aftragalus. — d, as in Fig. 9, 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
PartI. osteology. 157 
 
 Fig. 12 . The View of the Sole of the Foot, 
 with its Ligaments. 
 
 a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, The 
 hollow for the tendons, nerves, and blood-veffels. 
 c. The {heaths of the fiexores pollicis and digi- 
 torum longi opened, d, The ftrong cartilagin- 
 ous ligament fupporting the head of the aftraga- 
 lus. e, h, T wo ligaments which unite into one, 
 and are fixed to the metatarfal bone of the great 
 toe. f, A ligament from the knob of the os cal- 
 cis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe. g, A 
 ftrong triangular ligament, which fuppoits the 
 bones of the tarfus. i, The ligaments of the 
 joints of the five metatarfal bones. 
 
 Fig. 13. a, The head of the thigh bone of a 
 child, b, The ligamentum rotundum connedf- 
 ing it to the acetabulum, c, The capfukir liga- 
 ment of the joint with its arteries injected, d. 
 The numerous veffels of the mucilaginous gland 
 injedted. 
 
 Fig. 14. The Back-view of the Cartilages of the 
 Larynx, with the Os Hyoides. 
 
 a. The pofterior part of the bafe of the os 
 hyoides. b b, Its cornua, c. The appendix of 
 the right fide, d, A ligament fent out from the 
 appendix of the left fide, to the ftyloid procefs 
 of the temporal bone, e, The union of the 
 bafe with the left cornu, f f, The pofterior Tides 
 
 of 
 
15S OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part IL 
 of (g) the thyroid cartilage, h h, Its fuperior 
 cornua, i i, Its inferior cornua, k, The cricoid 
 cartilage. 1 1 , The arytenoid cartilages, m, The 
 entry into the lungs, named glottis, n, The 
 epiglottis, o o, The fuperior cartilages of the 
 trachea, p, Its ligamentous back part. 
 
 Fig. 15. The Superior Concave furface of the 
 Sesamoid Bones at the firft joint of the 
 Great Toe, with their Ligaments. 
 
 a. Three fefamoid bones, b. The ligament- 
 ous fubftance in which they are formed. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Of the soft PARTS in General; 
 
 0/' Common Integuments, luith their Appendagts ■, 
 And of the Muscles. 
 
 A natomical writers ufually proceed to 
 a defcription of the mufcles after having 
 finifhed the ofteology ; but we Ihall deviate a 
 little from the common method, with a view to 
 defcribe every thing clearly and diftindtly, and 
 to avoid a tautology which would otherwife be 
 unavoidable. All the parts of the body are fo 
 intimately conneded with each other, that it 
 
 feetns 
 
Plate XXI 
 
 
TOM\r 
 
 
Part II. AND MUSCXES. 159 
 
 feems inipoffible to convey a juft idea of any one 
 of them, without being in foine meafure oblig- 
 ed to fay foinething of others ; and on this ac- 
 count we wifti to mention in this place the names 
 and fituation of the principal vifcera of the body, 
 that when mention is hereafter made of any one 
 of them in the courfe of the work, the reader 
 may at leaft know where they are placed. 
 
 After this little digreflion, the common inte- 
 guments, and after them the mufcles will be de- 
 fcribed ; we then propofe to enter into an exa- 
 mination of the feveral vifcera and their differ- 
 ent functions. In defcribing the brain, occafion 
 will be taken to fpeak of the nerves and animal 
 fpirits. The circulation of the blood will follow 
 the anatomy of the heart, and the fecretions and 
 other matters will be introduced in their proper 
 places. 
 
 The body is divided into three great cavi- 
 ties. Of thefe the uppermoft is formed by the 
 bones of the cranium, and inclofes the brain and 
 cerebellum. 
 
 The fecond is compofed of the vertebrae of 
 the back, the fternum, and true ribs, with the ad- 
 ditional affiftance of mufcles, membranes, and 
 common integuments, and is called the thorax — 
 It contains the heart and lungs. 
 
 The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdo- 
 men. It is feparated from the thorax by means 
 of the diaphragm, and is formed by the lumbar 
 vertebrae, the os facrum, the offa innominata, 
 
 and 
 
i6o OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II, 
 and the fade ribs, to which we may add the pe- 
 ritonaEum, and a variety of mufcles. This ca- 
 vity inclofes the ftomach, inteftines, omentum or 
 cawl, liver, pancreas, fpleen, kidneys, urinary , 
 bladder, and parts of generation. 
 
 Under the divifion of common integuments 
 are ufually included the epidermis, or fcarf-Ikin, | 
 the reticulum mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis or 
 true fkin, and the membrana adipofa. — The hair 
 and nails, as v^^ell as the febaceous glands may 
 be confidered as appendages to the fkin. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Skin. 
 
 \ Of the ScARF^/;^. 
 
 The epidermis^ cuticula^ or fcarffdn^ is a 
 •fine tranfparent, and infenfible pellicle, deftitute 
 of nerves and blood-veffels, which invefts the 
 body, and everywhere covers the true fkin. T his 
 fcarf~fl?:in, which feems to be very fimple, ap~ ' 
 pears, when examined with a microfcope, to be 
 compofed of feveral laminas or fcales which are 
 increafed by preffure, as we may obferve in the 
 hands and feet, where it is frequently much I 
 thickened, and becomes perfedfly callous. It 
 fe-ems to adhere to the cutis by a number of very 
 minute filaments, but may eafily be feparated 
 from it by heat, or by maceration in water. Some 
 anatomical writers have fuppofed that it is formed 
 by a moifture exhaled from the whole furface of 
 I the 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. i6r 
 
 the body, which gradually hardens when it 
 comes into contad: with the air. They were per- 
 haps induced to adopt this opinion, by obfendng 
 the fpeedy regeneration of this part of the body 
 when it has been by any means deftroyed, it ap- 
 pearing to be renewed on all parts of the furface 
 at the fame time ; whereas other parts which have 
 been injured, are found to dired their growth 
 from their circumference only towards their cen- 
 tre. But a demonftrative proof that the epider- 
 mis is not a fluid hardened by means of the ex- 
 ternal air, is that the foetus in utero is f^und to 
 have this covering. Lieuwenhoeck fuppofed its 
 formation to be owing to the expanhon of the 
 extremities of the excretory vefl'els which are 
 found every where upon the furface of the true 
 fkin. Ruyfch attributed its origin to the nervous 
 papilljE of the flcin ; and Heifter thinks it pro- 
 bable, that it may be owing both to the papills 
 and the excretory veifels. The celebrated Mor- 
 gagni, on the other hand, contends that it is 
 nothing more than the furface of the cutis, har- 
 dened and rendered infenfible by the liquor am- 
 nii in utero, and by the prefTure of the air. This 
 is a fubjed, hoM^'ever, on which we can advance 
 nothing wdth certainty. 
 
 The cuticle is pierced with an inflnite number 
 of pores or little holes, v/hich afford a paffage to 
 the hairs, fweat, and infenfible perfpiration, and 
 
 L likewife 
 
 * Adverfar. Anar. 1 1 . Auimadver. 2. 
 
i 62 of the integuments Part II. 
 
 likewife to warm water, mercury, and whatever 
 elfe is capable of being taken in by the abforbents 
 of the fkin. The lines which we obferve on 
 the epidermis belong to the true fkin. The cu- 
 ticle adjufts itfelf to them, but does not form 
 them. 
 
 § 2. Of the Rete Miicofum. 
 
 Between the epidermis and cutis we meet 
 with an appearance to which Malpighi, who 
 firft defcpibed it, gave the name of rete mucofum^ 
 fuppofmg it to be of a membranous ftrud;ure, 
 and pierced with an infinite number of pores ; 
 but the fail is, that it feems to be nothing more 
 than a mucous fubftance which may be diflblved 
 by macerating it in water, while the cuticle and 
 cutis preferve their texture. 
 
 The colour of the body is found to depend on 
 the colour of this rete mucofum ; for in negroes 
 it is obferved to be perfedlly black, whilft the 
 true fldn is of the ordinary colour. 
 
 The blifters which raife the fkin when burnt 
 or fcalded, have been fuppofed by fome to be 
 owing to a rarefadtion of this mucus ; but they 
 are more probably occafioned by an increafed 
 addon of the veffels of the part, together with 
 an afflux and effufion of the thinner parts of the 
 blood 
 
 § 3 - Of 
 
Part IL 
 
 AND MUSCLES. . 
 
 163 
 
 § 3 * Cutis, or True Skin. 
 
 The cutis is compofed of fibres clofely com- 
 padted together, as we may obferve in leather, 
 which is the prepared fkin of animals. Thefe 
 fibres form a thick net-work, which every where 
 admits the filaments of nerves, and an infinite 
 number of blood-veffels and lymphatics. 
 
 The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off, is 
 found to have, throughout its whole furface, in- 
 numerable papillse, which appear like very mi- 
 nute granulations, and feem to be calculated to 
 receive the impreffions of the touch, being the 
 moll eafily obferved where the fenfe of feeling is 
 the moft delicate, as in the palms of the hands 
 and on the fingers. 
 
 Thefe papillae are fuppofed by many anatomi- 
 cal writers to be continuations of the pulpy fub- 
 llance of nerves, whofe coats have terminated 
 in the cellular texture of the fkin. The great 
 fenfibility of thefe papillse evidently proves them 
 to be exceedingly nervous ; but furely the nerv- 
 ous fibrillse of the fkin are of themfelves fcarcely 
 equal to the formation of thefe papillse, and it 
 feems to be more probable that they are formed 
 like the reft of the cutis. 
 
 Thefe papillse being defcribed, the ufes of the 
 epidermis and the reticulum mucofum will be 
 more eafily underftood ; the latter ferving to 
 keep them conftantly moift, while the former 
 
 L 2 protedls 
 
1 64 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 protedls them from the external air, and modifies 
 their too great fenfihility. 
 
 § 4. Of the Glands of the Skin. 
 
 In different parts of the body we meet, with- 
 in the fubftance of the flcin, with certain glands 
 or follicles, which difcharge a fat and oily humor 
 that ferves to lubricate and foften the fkin. When 
 the fluid they fecrete has acquired a certain de- 
 gree of thicknefs, it approaches to the colour 
 and confiftence of fuet ; and from this appearance 
 they have derived their name of fehaceous glands. 
 They are found in the greateft number in the 
 nofe, ear, nipple, axilla, groin, fcrotum, vagina, 
 and prepuce, 
 
 Befides thefe febaceous glands, we read, in 
 anatomical books, of others that are defcribed 
 as fmall fpherical bodies placed in all parts of the 
 fkin, in much greater abundance than thofe juft 
 now mentioned, and named miliary^ from their 
 fuppofed refemblance to millet-feed. Steno, who 
 firft defcribed thefe glands, and Malpighi, Ruyfch, 
 V erheyen, Winflow, and others, who have adopt- 
 ed his opinions on this fubje£t, fpeak of them as 
 having excretory ducfts, that open on the furface 
 of the cuticle, and diftil the fweat and matter of 
 infenfible perfpiration ; and yet, notwithftand- 
 ing the pofitive manner in which thefe pretend- 
 ed glands have been fpoken of, we are now fuf- 
 
 ficiently 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 165 
 
 fidently convinced that their exiftence is altoge- 
 ther imaginary. 
 
 § y. Of the Insensible Pcrfpiration and 
 Sweat. 
 
 The matter of infenfible perfpiration, or in 
 other words, the fiibtile vapour that is continu- 
 ally exhaling from the furface of the body, is 
 not fecreted by any particular glands, but feems 
 to be derived wholly from the extremities of the 
 minute arteries that are every where difperfed 
 through the fkin. Thefe exhaling velfels are 
 eafily demonftrated in the dead fubjed;, by throw- 
 ing water into the arteries ; for then fmall drops 
 exude from ail parts of the fkin, and raife up 
 the cuticle, the pores of which are clofed by 
 death ; and in the living fubjed, a looking-glaJs 
 placed againft the fldn, is foon obfcured by the 
 vapour. Bidloo fancied he had difcovered duds 
 leading from the cutis to the cuticle, and tranf- 
 mitting this fluid ; but in this he was miftaken. 
 
 When the perfpiration is by any means in- 
 creafed, and feveral drops that were infenflble 
 when feparate, are united together and condenf- 
 ed by the external air, they form upon the fkin 
 fmall, but vifible, drops called fweat (n). This 
 particularly happens after much exercife, or 
 whatever occafions an increafed determination of 
 
 fluids 
 
 (n) Liemveiihoeck afFerts that one drop of fweat is formed 
 by the conflux of fifteen drops of perfpirable vapour. 
 
1 66 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 fluids to the furface of the body ; a greater quan- 
 tity of perfpirable matter being in fuch cafes 
 carried through the palfages that are deftined to 
 convey it off. 
 
 It has been difputed, indeed, whether the in- 
 fenfible perfpiration and fweat are to be confider- 
 ed as one and the fame excretion, differing only li 
 in degree ; or whether they are two diffindt ex- 
 cretions derived from different fources. In fup- 
 port of the latter opinion, it has been alledged, 
 that the infenfible perfpiration is agreeable to na- 
 ture, and effential to health, whereas fweat may 
 be confidered as a fpecies of difeafe. But this 
 argument proves nothing ; and it feems probable, 
 that both the infenfible vapour and the fweat arerj- 
 exhaled in a fimilar manner, though they differ li 
 in quantity, and probably in their qualities ; the 
 former being more limpid, and feemingly lefs 
 impregnated with falts than the latter : at any 
 rate we may confider the fkin as an emundtory , 
 through which the redundant water, and fome- 
 times the other more faline parts of the blood, 
 are carried off. But the infenfible perfpiration 
 is not confined to the fkin only — a great part of 
 what we are conftantly throwing off in this way | 
 is from the lungs. The quantity of fluid exhal- 
 ed from the human body by this infenfible per 
 fpiration is vei*y confiderable. Sandtorius (o) 
 
 an 
 
 i 
 
 (o) The infenfible perfpiration is fometimes diftinguifhed 
 by the name of this phyfician, who was born in the territo- 
 ries 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 167 
 
 an Italian phyfician, who indefatigably pafled a 
 great many years in a feries of ftatical experiments, 
 demonftrated long ago what has been confirmed 
 by later obfervations, that the quantity of vapour 
 exhaled from the fkin and from the furface of 
 the lungs, amounts nearly to 5-8ths of the ali- 
 ment we take in. So that if in the warm climate 
 of Italy a perfon eats and drinks the quantity of 
 eight pounds in the courfe of a day, five pounds 
 of it will pafs off by infenfible perfpiration, while 
 three pounds only will be evacuated by ftool, u- 
 rine, faliva, &c. But in countries where the 
 degree of cold is greater than in Italy, the quan- 
 tity of perfpired matter is lefs ; in fome of the 
 more northern climates, it being found not to 
 equal the difcharge by urine. It is likewife ob- 
 ferved to vary according to the feafon of the year, 
 and according to the conftitution, age, fex, dif- 
 eafes, diet, exercife, palTions, &c. of different 
 people. 
 
 From 
 
 ries of Venice, and was afterwards a profefTor in the nni- 
 verficy of Padua. After effimating the aliment he took in, 
 and the fenfible fecretions and difcharges, he was enabled to 
 afcertain with great accuracy the weight or quantity of in- 
 fenlible perfpiration by means of a ftatical chair which he 
 contrived for this purpofe ; and from his experiments, which 
 were conducted with great induftry and patience, he was 
 led to determine what kinds of folid or liquid aliment in- 
 creafed ordiminifhed it. From thefe experiments he form- 
 ed a fyftem, which he publifhed at Venice in .614, in the 
 form of aphorifms, under the title of “ Ars de Medicina 
 Statica.” 
 
1 68 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II, 
 
 From what has been faid on this fubjed;, it 
 will be eafily conceived, that this evacuation can- 
 not be either much increafed or diminifhed in 
 quantity without alFeding the health. 
 
 The perfpirable matter and the fweat are in 
 fome meafure analogous to the urine, as appears 
 from their tafte and faline nature (p). And it is 
 w^orthy of ohfervation, that when either of thefe 
 fecretions is increafed in quantity, the other is di-^ 
 minifhed ; fo that they who perfpire the leaft, 
 ufuaily pafs the greateft quantity of urine, and 
 vice verfa. 
 
 § 6. Of the Nai ls. 
 
 The NAILS are of a compad texture, hard 
 and tranfparent like horn. Their origin is ftili 
 a fubjed of difpute. Malpighi fuppofed them 
 to be formed by a continuation of the papillse 
 of the Ikin : Ludwig, on the other hand, main- 
 tained, that they were compofed of the extre- 
 mities of blood-veflels and nerves ; both thefe 
 opinions are now defen^edly rejeded. 
 
 They feem to poffefs many properties in com- 
 mon with the cuticle ; like it they are neither 
 vafcular nor fenfible, and when the cuticle is fe- 
 parated from the true fkin by maceration or 
 other means, the nails come away with it. 
 
 They 
 
 (p) Minute chryftals have been obferved to fltoot upon the 
 cloaths of men who work in glafs-houfes. Haller Elm. 
 Phyf 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. i6g 
 
 They appear to be compofed of different lay- 
 ers, of unequal fize, applied one over the other. 
 Each layer feems to be formed of longitudinal 
 fibres. 
 
 In each nail we may diftinguifh three parts, 
 viz. the root, the body or middle, and the extre- 
 mity. The root is a foft, thin, and white fub- 
 ftance terminating in the form of a crefcent ; the 
 epidermis adheres very ftrongly to this part ; 
 the body of the nail is broader, redder and 
 thicker, and the extremity is of ftill greater firm- 
 nefs. 
 
 The nails increafe from their roots, and not 
 from their upper extremity. 
 
 Their principal ufe is to cover and defend the 
 ends of the fingers and toes from external in- 
 jury. 
 
 ^ j. Of the Hair. 
 
 The hairs, which from their being general- 
 ly known do not feem to require any definition, 
 arile from diftincl capfules or bulbs feated in the 
 cellular membrane under the fkin (cl)’ Some 
 
 of 
 
 (q^) Malpighi, and after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fup- 
 pofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves, being of opi- 
 nion that they originated from the papillse of the iTcin, which 
 they confidered as nervous ; and as a corroborating proof 
 of what they advanced, they argued the pain we feci in 
 plucking them out ; but later anatomifts feem to have re- 
 jefted this doftrine, and confider the hairs as particular bo- 
 dies,. not arifing from the papillse (for in the parts where 
 the papillse abound moft there *re no hairs), but from bulbs 
 or capfules, which are peculiar to them. 
 
170 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 of thefe bulbs inclofe feveral hairs. They may 
 be obferved at the roots of the hairs which form 
 the beard or whifkers of a cat. 
 
 The hairs, like the nails, grow only from be- 
 low by a regular propulfion from the root, where 
 they receive nourifhment. Their bulbs, when 
 viewed with a microfcope, are found to be of 
 various fhapes. In the head and fcrotum they 
 are roundifh ; in the eye-brows they are oval ; 
 in the other parts of the body they are nearly 
 of a cylindrical fhape. Each bulb feems to con- >- 
 lift of two membranes, between which there is 11 
 a certain quantity of moifture. Within the bulb 
 the hair feparates into three or four fibrillse ; the 
 bodies of the hairs, which are the parts without 
 the fkin, vary in foftnefs and colour according 
 to the difference of climate, age, or tempera- 
 ment of the body (r). 
 
 Their general ufe in the body does not feem 
 to be abfolutely determined ; but hairs in parti- 
 cular parts, as on the eye-brows and eye-lids, 
 are deftined for particular ufes, which will be 
 mentioned when thofe parts are defcribed. 
 
 §8. Of 
 
 (R)The hairs differ likewlfe from each other, and may not 
 be improperly divided into two claffes ; one of which may in- 
 clude the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillae ; and 
 the other, the fofter hairs, which are to be obferved almoft 
 every where on the furface of the body. 
 
Part II. 
 
 AND MUSCLES. 
 
 171 
 
 ^S. Of the Cellular Membrane and Fat. 
 
 Thb cellular Membrane is found to in- 
 veft the moft minute fibres we are able to trace ; 
 fo that by modern phyfiologifts, it is very pro- 
 perly confidered as the univerfal connedling me- 
 dium of every part of the body. 
 
 It is compofed of an infinite number of mi- 
 nute cells united together, and communicating 
 with each other. The two difeafes peculiar to 
 this membrane are proofs of fuch a communica- 
 tion ; for in the emphyfcma all its cells are filled 
 with air, and in the anafarca they are univer- 
 fally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs 
 of communication from difeafe, a familiar in- 
 ftance of it may be obferved amongft butchers, 
 who ufually puncture this membrane, and by 
 inflating it with air add to the good appearance 
 of their meat. 
 
 The cells of this membrane ferve as refer- 
 voirs to the oily part of the blood or iv?/, which 
 feems to be depofited in them, either by tranfu- 
 dation through the coats of the arteries, that ra- 
 mify through thefe cells, or by particular vef- 
 fels, continued from the end of arteries. Thefe 
 cells are not of a glandular ftrudture, as Malpi- 
 ghi and others after him have fiippofed. The 
 fat is abforbed and carried back into the fyftem 
 by the lymphatics. The great waflie of it in 
 many difeafes, particularly in the confumption, 
 is a fufficient proof that fuch an abforption takes 
 place. The 
 
172 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 
 The fullnefs and fize of the body are in a 
 great meafure proportioned to the quantity of 
 fat contained in the cells of this membrane. 
 
 In the living body it feems to be a fluid oil, 
 which concretes after death. In graminivorous 
 animals, it is found to be of a firmer confiftence 
 than in man. 
 
 The fat is confined to the fkin alone, being 
 met with every where in the interftices of muf- 
 cles, in the omentum, about the kidneys, at the 
 bafis of the heart, in the orbits, &c. 
 
 The chief ufes of the fat feem to be to afford 
 moifture to all the parts with which it is con- 
 necTed ; to facilitate the adlion of the mufcles ; 
 and to add to the beauty of the body, by making 
 it every where fmooth and equal. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles are the organs of motion. The 
 parts that are ufually included under this name 
 confift of diftind; portions of flefh, fufceptible' 
 of contraction and relaxation ; the motions of 
 which, in a natural and healthy ftate, are fub-i 
 jed to the will, and for this reafon they are call4 
 ed voluntary mufcles. But befides thefe, ther^ 
 are other parts of the body that owe their power 
 of contradion to their mufcular fibres ; thus] 
 the heart is of a mufcular texture, forming what; 
 is called a hollow miifcle ; and the urinary blad- 
 der, fcomach, inteftines, &c. are enabled to 
 ad upon their contents, merely becaufe they are 
 
 provided 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 173 
 
 provided with mufcular fibres. Thefe are called 
 involuntary mufcles, becaufe their motions are 
 not dependent on the will. The mufcles of ref- 
 piration, being in fome meafure influenced by 
 the will, are faid to have a mixed motion. 
 
 The names by which the voluntary mufcks 
 are diftinguifhed, are founded on their fize, fi- 
 gure, fituation, ufe, or the arrangement of their 
 fibres, or their origin and infertion. But be- 
 fides thefe particular diftindions, there are cer- 
 tain general ones that require to be noticed. 
 Thus, if the fibres of a miifcle are placed pa- 
 rallel to each other in a flraight diredion, they 
 form what is ftyled a re^ilinear mufcle ; if the 
 fibres crofs and interfed each other, they confti- 
 Itute a compound mufcle ; a radiated one, if the 
 ifibres are difpofed in the manner of rays ; or a 
 penniform mufcle, if, like the plume of a pen, 
 they are placed obliquely with refped to the 
 tendon. 
 
 Mufcles that ad in oppofition to each other, 
 are called antagonijia ; thus every extenfor or 
 mufcle has a flexor for its antagonifl;, and vice 
 verfa. Mufcles that concur in the fame adion 
 are ftyled congeneres. 
 
 The mufcles being attached to the bones, the 
 latter may be confidered as levers that are mov- 
 ed in different diredions by the contradion of 
 thofe organs. 
 
 The end of a mufcle which adheres to the 
 moft fixed part is ufually called the origin^ and 
 
 that 
 
 1 
 
1 74 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 that which adheres to the more moveable part 
 the infertion^ of the mufcle. 
 
 In every mufcle we may diftingulfh two kinds 
 of fibres ; the one foft, of a red colour, fenfi- 
 ble, and irritable, called JieJhy fibres ; the other 
 of a firmer texture, of a white gliftening colour, 
 infenfible without irritability or the power of 
 contracting, and named tendinous fibres. They 
 are occafionally intermixed ; but the flefhy fi- 
 bres generally prevail in the belly or middle part 
 of the mufcle, and the tendinous ones in the ex- 
 tremities. If thefe tendinous fibres are formed 
 into a round {lender chord, they form what is 
 called the tetido?i of the mufcle ; on the other 
 hand, if they are fpread into a broad flat fur- 
 face, the extremity of the mufcle is ftyled apo- 
 neurofis. 
 
 The tendons of many mufcles, efpecially when 
 they are long and expofed to preflTure or friCtion 
 in the grooves formed for them in the bones, are 
 furrounded by a tendinous {heath or fafcla^ in 
 which we fometimes find afmall mucous fac or 
 burja miicofa^ which obviates any inconvenience 
 from friction. Sometimes we find whole muC- 
 cles, and even feveral mufcles, covered by a faf- 
 cia of the fame kind, that affords origin to ma- 
 ny of their fibres, dipping down between them, 
 adhering to the ridges of the bones, and thus 
 preventing them from fwelling too much when 
 in action. The moft remarkable inftance of 
 fuch a covering is the fafcia lata of the the thigh. 
 
 Each 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 175 
 
 Each mufcle is inclofed by a thin covering of 
 cellular membrane, which has been fomctimes 
 improperly confidered as peculiar to the mufcles, 
 and defcribed under the name of propria mem- 
 brana mufculofa. This cellular covering dips 
 down into the fubftance of .the mufcle, conned;- 
 ing and furrounding the moft minute fibres we 
 are able to demonftrate, and affording a fupport 
 to their veffels and nerves. 
 
 Lieuwhenhock fancied he had difcovered, by 
 means of his microfcope, the ultimate divifion 
 of a mufcle, and that he could point out the fim- 
 ple fibre, which appeared to him to be an hun- 
 dred times lefs than a hair ; but he was after- 
 wards convinced how much he was miftaken on 
 this fubjed, and candidly acknowledged, that 
 what he had taken for a fimple fibre was in fad 
 a bundle of fibres. 
 
 It is eafy to obferve feveral of thefe fafculi or 
 bundles in a piece of beef, in which, from the 
 coarfenefs of its texture, they are very evident. 
 
 The red colour which fo particularly diftin- 
 guifhes the mufcular or flefhy parts of animals, 
 is owing to an infinite number of blood-veffels 
 that are difperfed through their fubftance. When 
 we macerate the fibres of a mufcle in wa- 
 ter, it becomes of a white colour like all other 
 parts of the body divefted their blood. The 
 blood-veffels are accompanied by nerves, and 
 they are both diftributed in fuch abundance to 
 thefe parts, that in endeavouring to trace the 
 
 coiu'fe 
 
176 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part IL 
 coiirfe of the blood-veffels in a mufcle, it would 
 appear to be formed altogether by their ramifica- 
 tions ; and in an attempt to follow the branches 
 of its nerves, they would be found to be equal 
 in proportion. 
 
 If a mufcle is pricked or irritated, it imme- 
 diately contradls. This is called its irritable 
 principle ; and this irritability is to be confider- 
 ed as the chara£teriftic of mufcular fibres, and 
 may ferve to prove their exiftence in parts that 
 are too minute to be examined by the eye. This 
 power, which difpofes the mufcles to contract 
 when ftimulated, independent of the will, is 
 fuppofed to be inherent in them ; and is there- 
 fore named vis infita. This property is not to 
 be confounded with elafticity, which the mem- 
 branes and other parts of the body pofl'efs in a 
 greater or lefs degree in common with the muf- 
 cles; nor with fenfibility, for the heart though 
 the moft irritable, feems to be the leaf! fenfible 
 of any of the mufcular parts of the body. 
 
 After a mufcular fibre has contradled, it foon 
 returns to a ftate of relaxation, till it is excited 
 afrefh, and then it contracts and relaxes again. 
 
 W e may likewife produce fuch a contradlion, 
 by irritating the nerve leading to a mufcle, al- 
 though the nerve itfelf is not affedied. 
 
 This principle is found to be greater in fmall 
 than in large, and in young than in old, ani- 
 mals. 
 
 In the voluntary mufcles thefe effe( 5 ts of con- 
 I tradlion 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 177 
 
 tradion and relaxation of the flefliy fibres are 
 produced in obedience to the will, by what may 
 be called the vis tiervofa^ a property that is not 
 to be confounded with the vis infita. As the 
 exiftence of a vis infita different from a vis ner- 
 vea, was the doftrine taught by Dodfor Haller 
 in his Mem. Phyf but is at prefent called in quef- 
 tion by feveral, particularly Dodfor Monro, we 
 think it neceffary to give a few objedfions, as Ha- 
 ted in his Obfervations on the Nervous Syftem : 
 
 Vis Nervea. “ The chief experiment (fays 
 the Dodlor) which feems to have led Dr. Hal- 
 ier to this opinion, is the well known one, that 
 ;he heart and other mufcles, after being detach- 
 ed from the brain, continue to adf fpontaneoufly, 
 pr by ftimuli may be roufed into adfion for a 
 fonfiderable length of time ; and when it cannot 
 i)e alledged, fays Dr. Haller, that the nervous 
 luid is by the mind, or otherwife, impelled into 
 he mufcle. 
 
 “ That in this inftance we cannot compre- 
 end by what power the nervous fluid or energy 
 an be put in motion, mufl; perhaps be granted : 
 >ut has Dr. Halier given a better explanation of 
 le manner in which his fuppofed vis infita be- 
 ames adf ive ? 
 
 “ If it be as difficult to point out the caufe of 
 le adfion of the vis infita as that of the adfion 
 f the vis nervea, the admiflion of that new 
 Dwer, inftead of relieving, would add to our 
 i^rplexity. 
 
 M 
 
 « We 
 
178 OF THE INTEGUMENTS Pa^t II. 
 
 “We fhould then have admitted, that two 
 caufes of a different nature were capable of pro- 
 ducing exadtly the fame effedt ; which is not in 
 general agreeable to the laws of nature. 
 
 “ We fhould find other confequences arife 
 from fuch an hypothefis, which tend to weaken 
 the credibility of it. For inftance, if in a found 
 animal the vis nervea alone produces the contrac- 
 tion of the mufcles, we will afk what purpofe 
 the vis infita ferves ? If both operate, are we to 
 fuppofe that the vis nervea, impelled by the 
 mind or living principle, gives the order, which 
 the vis infita executes, and that the nerves are 
 the internuntii ; and fo admit two wife agents 
 employed in every the moft fimple adtion ? But 
 inftead of fpeculating farther, let us learn the ef- 
 fedt of experiments, and endeavour from thefe 
 to draw plain conclufions. 
 
 “ I. When I poured a folution of opium in 
 water under the fkin of the leg of a frog, the muf- 
 cles, to the furface of which it was applied, were 
 veiyfoon deprived of the power of contradtion. 
 In like manner, when I poured this folution in- 
 to the cavity of the heart, by opening the 
 vena cava, the heart was almoft inftantly de- 
 prived of its power of motion, whether the ex- 
 periment was performed on it fixed in its place,] 
 or cut out of the body. 
 
 “ 2. I opened the thorax of a living frog ; and! 
 then tied or cut its aorta, fo as to put a flop to' 
 the circulation of its blood. 
 
 “ I then 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. 179 
 
 “ I then opehed the veii'a cava, and' poured 
 the foiution of opium into the heart ; and found 
 not only that this organ was inftantly deprived 
 of its powers of ad:ion, but that in a few mi- 
 nutes the moft diftant mufcles of the limbs were 
 extremely weakened. Yet this weaknefs waa 
 not owing to want of circulation, for the frog 
 could jump about for more than an hour after 
 the heart was cut out. 
 
 “ In' the firft of thefe two experiments, we 
 obferved the fuppofed vis infita deftroyed by the 
 opium ; in the latter, the vis nefvea ; for it is 
 evident that the limbs were affected by the fym- 
 pathy of the brain, and of the nervous fyftem 
 in general, with the nerves of the heart. 
 
 “ 3. When the nerve of any mufcle is firft 
 divided by a ttanfverfe fe£tion, and then burnt 
 with a hot iron, or punctured with a needle, 
 the mufcle in which it terminates contracts vio- 
 lently, exadtly in the fame manner as when the 
 irritation is applied to the fibres of the mufele. 
 But when the hot iron, or needle, is confined 
 to the nerve. Dr. Haller himfelf muft have ad- 
 mitted, that this vis nervea, and not the vis in- 
 fita, was excited! But here I would afk two 
 queftions. 
 
 “ Firft, Whether we do not as well under- 
 hand how the vis nervea is excited when irrita- 
 tion is applied to the mufcle as when it is appli- 
 ed to the trunk' of the nerve, the impelling 
 M 2 power 
 
i8o OF THE INTEGUMENTS Part II. 
 power of the mind feeming to be equally want- 
 ing in both cafes ? 
 
 “ Secondly, If it appears that irritation ap- 
 plied to the trunk of a nerve excites the vis ner- 
 vca, why fhould we doubt that it can equally 
 well excite it when applied to the fmall and ve- 
 ry fenlible branches and terminations of the ne?;ye 
 in the mufcle ? \ 
 
 “ As, therefore, it appears that the fuppofe^ 
 vis infita is deftroyed or excited by the fame 
 means as the vis nervea ; nay, that when, by 
 the application of the opium to the heart of a frog, 
 after the aorta is cut and the circulation in- 
 terrupted, we have deftroyed the vis infita, the 
 vis nervea is fo much extinguiftied, that the 
 animal cannot adt with the diftant mufcles of the 
 limb ; and that thefe afterward grow very tor- 
 pid, or lofe much of their fuppofed vis infita ; 
 it feems clearly to follow, that there is no juft 
 ground for fuppofmg that any other principle 
 produces the contraftion of a mufcle.” 
 
 The vis nervofa^ or operation of the mind, if 
 w^e may fo call it, by which a mufcle is brought 
 into contradion, is not inherent in the mufcle 
 like the vis mfita j neither is it perpetual, like 
 this latter property. After long continued or 
 violent exercife, for example, the voluntary 
 mufcles become painful, and at length incapa- 
 ble of further adion ; whereas the heart and 
 other involuntary mufcles, the motions of which 1 
 depend folely on the vis infita^ continue through a 
 
 life * 
 
Part II. AND MUSCLES. i8i 
 
 life in a conftant ftate of adion, without any 
 inconvenience or wafte of this inherent principle. 
 
 The adion of the vis nervofa on the volun- 
 tary mufcles, conftitutes what is called miifcidar - 
 motion ; a fubjed that has given rife to a variety 
 of hypothefes, many of them ingenious, but 
 none of them latisfadory. 
 
 Borelli and fome others have undertaken to 
 explain the caufe of contradion, by fuppofmg 
 that every mufcular fibre forms as it were a chain 
 of very minute bladders, while the nerves which 
 are diftributed through the mufcle, bring with 
 them a fiipply to animal fpirits, which at our 
 will fill thefe bladders, and by increafing their 
 diameter in width, fhorten them, and of courfe 
 the whole fibre. 
 
 Borelli fuppofes thefe bladders to be of a 
 rhomboidal Ihape ; Bernouilli on the other hand 
 contends that they are oval. Our countryman, 
 Cowper, fancied he had filled them wfith mer- 
 cury ; the caufe of this miftake was probably 
 owing to the mercury’s infinuating itfelf into 
 fome of the lymphatic velTels. The late inge- 
 nius Mr. Elliot undertook to account for the phe- 
 nomena of mufcular motion on principles very 
 different from thofe juft now mentioned. He 
 fuppofed that a deplogifticated ftate of the blood 
 is requifite for mufcular adion, and that a com- 
 munication of phlogifton to the blood is a necef- 
 fary effed of fuch adion. 
 
 We know that the mufcular fibre is Ihorten- 
 
 ed, 
 
iSs OF THE INTEGUMENTS, &c. Part II. 
 ed, and that the mufcle itfelf fwells when in 
 adion : but how thefe phenomena are produced^ 
 we are unable to determine. We likewife know 
 that the nerves are eflential to piufculaj* motion ; 
 for upon dividing or making a ligature round 
 the nerve leading to ^ mufcle, the latter beconie§ 
 incapable of motion. A ligature made on the 
 artery of a mufcle produces a fimilar effe<T ; a 
 proof this, that a regular fupply of blood is alfo 
 equally necelfary to mulcular motion. The 
 caufe of palfy is ufually not to be fought for in 
 the mufcle affefted, but in the nerve leading to 
 that mufcle, or in that par|: of the brain or fpir 
 nal marrow from vv'hich the nerve 4erives itf 
 origin. 
 
 Of the pqrticulfir Mufcles. 
 
 As the enun]ieration and defcnption of the^ 
 the particular mufcles mull be dry apd uninter- J| 
 taining to the generality of readprs, yet canppt^f 
 be altogether ofnitted in q wprk pf this nature, it 
 appeared eligible to j;hrow this part of the fubr- 
 jedt into the form of a table ; in which the 
 name, origin, infertion, an<l pripcipal ufe of 
 each mufcle, will be found defcribed ip few words, 
 and occafionally its etypiology when it is of 
 Greek derivation or difficult to be pnderftood. 
 
 A TABLED 
 
A TABLE of the MUSCLES arranged according to their Situation. 
 
 [N. B. This table does not inelude all the mufcles of the body ; thofe belonging to the eyes, internal ear, inteftinum rc(5timi, 
 and the male and female organs of generation, being defcribed in other parts of the work. The reader will bo pleafed to 
 obferve likewife, that although all the mufeles (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mention is here made only of the mufcles 
 of one fide.] 
 
 Part II. 
 
 A TABLE OF the MUSCLES. 183 
 
 
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Part II. A TABLT of the MUSCLES. 185 
 
 
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 I'gS A TABLE OF the MUSCLES, Part II. 
 
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i88 A TABLE OF THE MUSCLES. Part II 
 
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192 A TABLE of the MUSCLES. Part II. 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 193 
 
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194 A table of thf muscles. 
 
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Part n. A TABLE of MtJSCLES. 19^ 
 
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ig6 . A TABLE of the MUSCLES. Part II. 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 1 97 
 
 
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198 A TABLE op THE MUSCLES. Part II. 
 
 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES, 
 
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 ^s) The tendon formed by the upper ^ar part of this mufcle in its way to the linca alba is divided into two layers. The 
 pofterior layer runs under, and the anterior one over, the reftus mufcle. 
 
 (t) From this part it detaches fomc fibres which extends downwards upon the fpermatic chord, and form what is de- 
 kribed as the cremafier mufcle. 
 
200 A TABLE of the MUSCLES. Part II. 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 201 
 
 
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202 A TABLE OF THE MUSCLES, Part IL 
 
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Part II. A TABAE of the MUSCLES. 203 
 
 
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204 -A- TABLE OF the MUSCLES. Part II, 
 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 205 
 
 
 
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 ( 1 ) According to fome writers, this mufcle has gotten its name from its refemblance to the fpleen ; others derive Lt 
 from fpenium fplint. 
 
 (g) So named on account of ite complicated ftrufture. 
 
 (h) So named from its origin from the neck (Tfa;;^»^cl(c) and its infertion into the maftoid procefs. 
 
3o6 a table of the muscles. Part II. 
 
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 1} Several thin fafciculi of flefliy fibres arife from the lower ribs, and terminate in the inner fide of this mufde. Steno 
 names them mafadi ad facm kimkatem acceffori'i. The facro-lumbalis likewife fends off a flethy flip from its upper part, 
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PAitir II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES* 211 
 
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 US A t ABLi OF THE MtiSGLES. I^rt II. 
 
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 *ART II. A TASINI PF the MTJSCI^gS. 
 
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PartH. a table of the MUSCLES. 215 
 
 
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2i6 a table the muscles. Part II. 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 217 
 
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v8 A TABLE of the MUSCLES. Part II. 
 
 
 
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Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 219 
 
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 ments, os facrum, 
 and os coccygis. 
 
 The tldrd mterofTeus internus (for there are four of the exterai and three of the interni) differs from the reft in 
 rLing the middle finger from the thumb. (c) From qcA^toc, naies. 
 
220 A TABLE QF THE MUSCLES, P^rt II. 
 
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 So named from its pear-Ufce fliape. 
 
 The two portions of this naufcle. having been defcribed as two diftindl: mufcles 'by fonri’e anatonaifts, have 'occafioned 
 named n-effw/z/. The tcndon^of the obturator intcrnus runs between thefc two portions. 
 
Part II. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 
 
 ^ -a 
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 221 
 
 (g) The iTuifcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called fafcia lata-, that furroiinds 
 
 ll«em in the manner of a Ihcath It is lent off from, the tendons of tlie glutaei and other mufcles, and dipping down be- 
 tween the mufcles it covers, adheres to the linea afpera, and fpreading ovet' the joint of the knee, gradually dilappears 
 on the leg. It is thickefl on the infide of the thigh. ' 
 
 (h) The tendon of this muhie fonj>s the outer- ham -J1 ring. 
 
222 A TABLE OF THE MUSCLES* Part IL 
 
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Part II. A TA3LE of the MUSCLES. 225 
 
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224 A table of the muscles. Part IL 
 
 3 
 
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 Part II. 
 
 
 A TABLE OF THE MUSCJ^ES. 225 
 
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 226 A TABLE OF THE MUSCLES, Part IL 
 
 
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Part il. A TABLE of the MUSCLES. 229 
 
 
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Name. Origin. 
 
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 — exter- 
 
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 230 A TABLE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 
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 Part II 
 
I PahtH. of the muscles. £3j 
 
 EXPLANATION op PI.ATES XXIII and XXIV. 
 Plate XXIII. 
 
 Fig. I. The Muscles immediately under 
 the common teguments on the anterior part of 
 the body are reprefented on the right fide ; and 
 on the left fide the Muscles are feen which 
 eome in view when the exterior ones are taken 
 away. 
 
 A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous 
 aponeurofis which joins it to the occipital ; hence 
 both named occipito-frontalis. C, Attolens au- 
 rem. D, The ear. E, Anterior auris. F F, 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum. G. Levator labii fu- 
 perioris alseque nafu H, Levator anguli oris. 
 I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zygomaticus ma- 
 jor. L, Maffater. M, Orbicularis oris. N, 
 DeprelTor labii inferioris. O, DeprelTor anguli 
 oris. P, Buccinator. Qj^> Platyfma myoides. 
 R R, Sterno-cleido-maftoidaeus. S, Part of the 
 trapezius, T, Part of the fcaleni. 
 
 Superior Extremity. — U, Deltoides. V, 
 Pedloralis major. W, Part of the latiffimus dor- 
 fi. X X, Biceps flexor cubiti. Y Y, Part of 
 the brachialis externus. Z Z, The beginning of 
 the tendinous aponeurofis (from the biceps), 
 which is fpread over the mufcles of the fore-arm. 
 a a, Its ftrong tendon inferted into the tubercle 
 of the radius, b b, Part of the brachialis inter- 
 nus. c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor carpi 
 
 radialis. 
 
232 OF THE MUSCLES. Part IT. 
 
 radialis. e, Part of the flexor carpi ulnaris. f, 
 Palmaris longus. g, Aponeurofis palmaris. 3, 
 Palmaris brevis, i , Ligamentiim carpi annulare. 
 
 2 2, Abduttor minimi digiti. h, Supinator radii l 
 longus. i, The tendons of the thumb, k, Ab-^, 
 dudtor pollicis. I, Flexor pollicis longus. m m,-^| 
 The tendons of the flexor fnblimis perforatus,* 
 profundus perforans, and lumbricales.— The 
 Iheaths are entire in the right hand, — in the left 
 cut open to fhow the tendons of the flexor pro- 
 fundus perforating the fublimis. 
 
 Muscles not referred to — in the left fuperior 
 extremity.— n, Pedloralis minoi^ leu ferratus an- 
 ticus minor, o, The two heads of (x x) the i 
 biceps, p, Coraco-brachialis. q The long | 
 
 head of the triceps extenfor cubiti. rr, Teres j 
 major, ff, Subfcapularis. 1 1, ■ Extenfores ra- 
 diales, u, Supinator brevis, v, The cut extre- i 
 mity of the pronator teres, w, Flexor fublimis 
 perforatus. x, Part of the flexor profundus-, y, | 
 Flexor pollicis longus. z, Part of the flexor pol- 
 licis brevis. 4, Abdu£tor minimi digiti. 5, The 
 four lumbricales-. 
 
 Trunk.' — 6, Serrated extremities of the fer- 
 ratus anticus major, y y, Obliquus externus ab- 
 dominis. 8 8, The linea alba. 9, T he umbi- 
 licus. I o, Pyramidalis. 1 1 1 1 , The fperma- 
 tic cord. On the left fide it is covered by the 
 cremafter. 12 12, Redtus abdominis. 13, 
 Obliquus internus. 14 14, &c. Intercolfal 
 mulcles. 
 
 Inferior 
 
Part II. OF THE MUSCLES. 233 
 
 Inferior Extremities. — aa^ The gra- 
 cilis. h Parts of the triceps, c c, Pedialis. 
 d d, Pfoas magnus. e e. Iliacus internus. 
 
 Part of the gluteus medius. Part of the glu- 
 
 tEEUs minimus. /?, Cut extremity of the redus 
 cruris, i Vaftus externus. Tendon of the 
 redus cruris. //, Vaftus internus. Sartorius 
 mufcle. Fldhy origin of the tenfor vaginse 
 
 faemoris or membranoftis. Its tendinous apo- 
 neurofis covers (i), the vaftus externus in the 
 right fide, m vv, Patella, n Ligament or 
 tendon from it to the tibia. 0, Redus cruris. 
 /», Crura: us. q The tibia, r r, Part of the 
 Gemellus or gaftrocnemius externus.* fff^ Part 
 of the foleus or gaftrocnemius internus. /, Tibi- 
 alis anticus. ?/, Tibialis pofticus. v Peronsi 
 mufcles. w ‘lu, Extenfor longus digitoriim pe- 
 dis. X X, Extenfor longus pollicis pedis, y, Ab-r 
 dudor pollicis pedis. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Muscles, Glands, &c. of the 
 Left Side of the face and neck, after the com- 
 mon Teguments and Piatyfma myoides have 
 been taken off. 
 
 a, The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and 
 temporal artery. c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, 
 d, Levator labii fuperioris alasque nafi. e, Le- 
 vator anguli oris, f, Zygomaticus. g, Depreftbr 
 labii inferioris. h, Depreftbr anguli oris, i, Buc- 
 cinator. k, Maffeter. 1 1 , Parotid gland, m, Its 
 
 dud. 
 
234. OF the muscles. Part II. 
 
 n, Sterno-deido-maftoidseus. o. Part of 
 the trapezius, p, Sterno-hyoidsus. q, Sterno 
 thyroidsus. r, Omo-hyoldasus. f, Levator 
 fcapulse. 1 1, Scaleni. u, Part of the fplenius. 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 3. The Muscles of the Face and Neck inj 
 
 view after the exterior ones are taken away. 
 
 a a, Corrugator fupercilii. b, Temporalis, c, 
 Tendon of the levator palpebrse fuperioris. d,^ 
 Tendon of the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Maf-T 
 feter. f, Buccinator, g, Levator anguli oris,^ 
 h, Deprellbr labii fuperioris alseque nafi. i, Or- ' 
 bicularis oris, k, Depreffor anguli oris. 1, Muf-^ 
 •cles of the os hyoides. m, Sterno-cleido-mafto-j, , 
 idseus. ^ ; 
 
 Fig. 4. Some of the Muscles of the Os Ffy-^ 
 oides and Submaxillary Gland. 1 
 
 a, Pait of the malTeter mufcle. b, Pofterior * 
 head of the digraftic. c, Its anterior head, dd, * 
 Sterno-hyoidseus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. f, Stylo- ‘ 
 hyoidaeus. g, Submaxillary gland in fitu. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 5. The fubmaxillar)^ Gland and Dud. ! 
 
 a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidaeus. b. Hyo-glof- , 
 fus. c, Submaxillary gland extra fitu. d, Its 
 dud. i 
 
 Plate 
 
1 ART II. 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES. 235 
 
 Plate XXIV. 
 
 I Fig. I. The muscles immediately under 
 le common teguments on the pofterior part of 
 i le body, are reprefented in the right fide ; and 
 n the left fide the Muscles are feen which 
 ome in view when the exterior ones are taken 
 way. 
 
 Head. — A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, At- 
 ollens aurem. C, Part of the orbicularis pal- 
 lebrarum. D, MalTeter. E, Pterygoidseus in- 
 ernus. 
 
 Trunk. — Right fide. FFF, Trapezius feu 
 ucullaris. GGGG, Latiffimus dorfi. H,Part 
 )f the obliquus externus abdominis, 
 i Trunk. — Left fide. I, Splenius. K, Part 
 )f the complexus. L, Levator fcapulse. M, 
 Ihomboides. NN, Serratus pofticus inferior. 
 3 , Part of the longiffimus dorfi. P, Part of the 
 acro-lumbalis. Part of the femi-fpinalis 
 
 lorfr. R, Part of the ferratus anticus major. S, 
 Part of the obliquus internus abdominis. 
 
 Superior Extremity. — Right fide. T, 
 Deltoides. U, Triceps extenforcubiti. V, Sur- 
 pinator longus. W W, Extenfores carpi radia- 
 lis longior and brevior. X X, Extenfor carpi 
 ulnaris. Y Y, Extenfor digitorum communis. 
 Z, Abdudtor indicis. 123, Extenfores pol^ 
 licis. 
 
 Superior Extremity. — ^Leftfide. a, Su- 
 pra fpinatus. b, Infra-fpinatus. c, Teres mi- 
 
236 OF THE MUSCLES. Part 1 1 
 
 nor d, Teres major, e, Triceps extenfor cu 
 biti. f i, Extenfores carpi radiales. g, Supi c 
 nator brevis, h, Indicator, i 2 3, Extenfore 
 pollicis, i, Abdudtor minimi digiti. k, Inter i 
 oflei. ' : 
 
 Inferior Extremity. — Right fide. i| 
 Gliitsens maximus. m, Part of the Glut:su 
 iTtedius. n, Tenfor vagina femoris. o, Graci 
 -lis. p p. Abductor femoris magniis. q. Par 
 of the vahus interniis. r, Semimembranofuf 
 s, Semitendinofus. t, Long head of the bicep = 
 flexor cruris, u u, Gaftrocnemius exteriius fei 
 gemellus, v, Tendo Achillis. w, Soleus fer 
 gaftrocnemius internus. x x, Peronsus longd 1 
 and brevis, y, Tendons of the flexor longus diga 
 toriim pedis — -and under them * flexor brevis ^ ! 
 gitorum pedis, z, Abdudior minimi digiti pediS 
 Inferior Extremity. Left fide, niyii 
 !?, r, r, j, js, Point the faiiii 
 
 parts as in the right flde. n, Pyriformis. h h, 
 Gemini, c r, Obturator internus. Quadra 
 tus femoris. e>, Coccygseus. The Ihort heat 
 of the biceps flexor cruris, g Plaiitaris. h 
 Poplita^us. Flexor longus pollicis pedis. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Palm of the Left Fland after th< 
 common Teguments are removed, to IhoVi 
 the Muscles of the Fingers, 
 a, Tendon of the flexor caipii radialis. b 
 Tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendon! 
 of the flexor fublimis perforatus, profundus pen 
 
 forani 
 

 A ]Ni AT OMT. 
 
Anatomy 
 
 CY , IL 
 
[ at II. OF THE MUSCLES. 237 
 
 f-rans and lumbricales. d, Abductor pollicis. 
 e?, Flexor pollicis longus. f, Flexor pollicis 
 hevis. g, Palmaris brevis, h, Abdudor mi- 
 rmi digiti. i, Ligamentum carpi annulare, k, 
 t probe put under the tendons of the flexor di- 
 j[orum lublimis ; which are perforated by 1, the 
 f xor digitorum profundus, m m m m, Lum- 
 licales. n, Abdudor pollicis. 
 
 ] G. 3. A Fore -view of tne foot and Tendons of 
 the Flexores Digitorum. 
 a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, 
 Ipper part of the aflragalus. c, Os calcis. d, 
 ’endon of the tibialis anticus. e, Tendon of 
 le extenfor pollicis longus. f, Tendon of the 
 ]*ronseus brevis, g, Tendons of the flexor di- 
 ' torum longus, with the nonus Vefalii. h h, 
 'he whole of the flexor digitorum brevis. 
 
 Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus, 
 a a, An out line of the buttocks, and upper 
 art of the thighs, b. The teftes contained in 
 le fcrotum. c c, Sphinder ani. d. Anus, e, 
 .evator ani. f f, Eredor penis, g g, Accele- 
 itor urinsE. h, Corpus cavernofum urethra?. 
 
 Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis, 
 a a, b, d, e e, f f, h, point the fame as in fig. 
 u c, Sphinder ani. g g, Tranfverfalis penis. 
 
 PART 
 
238 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part I] 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Of the abdomen, or LOWER BELLY. 
 HE abdomen, or lower belly, extends froi 
 
 the lower extremity of the fternum, or tl 
 hollow, ufually called the pit of the ftomacl 
 and more properly fcrobiculus cordis^ to the lo^ 
 er part of the trunk. 
 
 It is diftinguilhed into three divifions calle 
 regions ; of thefe the upper one, which is called 
 the epigajlric region^ begins immediately und(‘ 
 the fternum, and extends to within two fingei 
 breadth of the navel, where the middle or nm 
 bilical region begins, and reaches to the fame dilf 
 lance below the navel. The third, which i 
 called the hypogqftric^ includes the reft of th 
 abdomen, as far as the os pubis. 
 
 Each of thefe regions is fubdivided into thr^ 
 others ; two of which compofe the fides, am 
 the other the middle part of each region. ' 
 
 The middle part of the upper region is calle' 
 epigajirium^ and its two fides Th(j 
 
 middle part of the next region is the umbilica 
 region, properly fo called, and its two fides ari | 
 the flanks, or iliac regions. Laftly, the middli : 
 part of the lower region retains the name of hy 
 pogaftrium, and its fides are called inguina oii 
 groins. The back part of the abdomen bearij 
 the name of lumbar region. 
 
 Thdi 
 
^,?ART III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 239 
 
 I Thefe are tfie divifions of the lower belly, 
 \Arhich are neceflary to be held in remembrance, 
 as they frequently occur in furgical and anato- 
 mical writing. We will now proceed to exa- 
 mine the contents of the abdomen ; and after 
 1 having pointed out the names and arrangement 
 .of the feveral vifcera contained in it, defcribe 
 each of them feparately. 
 
 After having removed the Ikin, adipofe mem- 
 brane, and abdominal mufcles, we difcover the 
 , peritonsEum or membrane that envelopes all the 
 rifcera of the lower belly. This being opened, 
 the firft part that prefents itfelf is the omentum 
 □r cawl, floating on the furface of the inteftines, 
 
 1 which are likewife feen every where loofe and 
 moift, and making a great number of circum- 
 volutions through the whole cavity of the abdo- 
 men. The ftomach is placed in the epigaftrium, 
 and under the ftomach is the pancreas. The 
 liver fills the right hypochondrium, and the 
 fpleen is fituated in the left. The kidneys are 
 feen about the middle of the lumbar region, and 
 the urinary bladder and parts of generation are 
 are feated in the lower divifion of the belly. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Peritoneum. 
 
 The peritonsEum is a ftrong fimple mem- 
 brane, by which all the vifcera of the abdomen 
 are furrounded, and in fome meafure fupported. 
 Many anatomical writers, particularly Winflow, 
 
 have 
 
540 ' OF THE ABDOMEN. Part HI. j 
 
 have defcribed it as being compofed of two dif- 1 
 membranous laminse ; but tbeir defcripdoq 
 feems to be erroneous. What perhaps appeared 
 to be a fecond lamina, being found to be hmply 
 a cellular coat, which fends off productions to 
 the blood-veffels paffing out of the abdominal 
 cavity. The aorta and vena cava likewife de- 
 rive a covering from the fame membrane, which 
 feems to be apjrt of the cellular membrane we 
 -have already defcribed. 
 
 The peritonasum, by its productions and re- 
 duplications, envelopes the greateft part of the 
 abdominal vifcera. It is foft, and capable oI 
 confiderable extenfion ; and is kept fmooth and 
 moift by a vapour, which is conftantly exhaling ; 
 from its inner furface, and is returned again intoj 
 the circulation by the abforbents. 
 
 This moift ure not only contributes to the foft- 
 nefs of the peritonseum, but prevents the attri- 
 tion, and other ill effects which would other- 
 wife probably be occafioned, by the motion of i 
 the vifcera upon each other. 
 
 When this fluid is fupplied in too great a 
 quantity, or the abforbents becorne incapable of 
 carrying it off, it accumulates, and conftitutes an|i 
 afcites or dropfy of the belly ; and when by 
 any means the exhalation is difcontinued, the 
 peritonasum thickens, becomes difeafed, andthej 
 vifcera are fometimes found adhering to eaelil 
 other. 
 
 The peritonaeum is not a very vafcular menvJ 
 ft braneJ 
 
Part III. OF THF ABDOMEN. 341 
 
 brane. In a found Hate it feems to be endued 
 with little or no feeling, and the nerves that 
 pafs through it appear to belong to the abdomi- 
 nal mufcles. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Omentum* 
 
 The omentum, epiploon, or cawl, is a dou- 
 ble membrane, produced from the peritonseum. 
 It is interlarded with fat, and adheres to the fto- 
 nach, fpleen, duodenum, and colon ; from thence 
 ranging down loofe and floating on the furface 
 rf the inteftines. Its fize is different in different 
 ubjedls. In fome it defcends as low as the pel- 
 /is, and it is commonly longer at the left fide 
 han the right. 
 
 This part, the fituation of which we have juft 
 low defcribed, was the only one known to the 
 ncients under the name of epiploon ; but at pre- 
 ent we diftinguifh three omenta, viz. omcntuITt 
 lagniim collco gafricum^ omentum parvum hepa-^ 
 'CO gafricum^ and omentum coUcum. Tliey all 
 gree in being formed of two very delicate la- 
 linse, feparated by a thin layer of cellular mem- 
 ' rane. 
 
 The omentum magnum colico gaftricum, of 
 rhich we have already fpoken, derives its ar- 
 mies from the fplenetic and hepatic. Its veins 
 Tminate in the vena portae. Its nen’^es, which 
 •e very few, come from the fplenetic and he- 
 a.tic plexus. 
 
 CL 
 
 The 
 
^42 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 The omentum parvum hepatico gaftricum, 
 abounds lefs with fat than the great epiploon. It 
 begins at the upper part of the duodenum, ex- 
 tends along the lelfer curvature of the ftomach 
 as far as the oefophagus, and terminates about 
 the neck of the gall-bladder, and behind the 
 left ligament of the liver, fo that it covers the 
 lefler lobe ; near the beginning of which we may 
 obferve a fmall opening, firft defcribed by Win- 
 dow, through which the whole pouch may ea- 
 fily be diftended with air (x). The velfels of 
 the omentum parvum are derived chiefly from 
 the coronary ftomachic arteries and veins. 
 
 The omentum olicum begins at the fore part 
 of the coecum and right fide of the colon. It ap- 
 pears as a hollow conical appendage to thefe 
 inteftines, and ufually terminates at the backj 
 of the omentum magnum. It feems to be no^ 
 thing more than a membranous coat of th(|| 
 coecum and colon, affuming a conical fhape with' 
 air. I 
 
 The ufes of the omentum are not yet fatisfaci 
 toril'y determined. Perhaps by its foftnefs anJ 
 loofenefs it may ferve to prevent thofe adhefioni; 
 of the abdominal vifcera, which have been foum 
 Co take place when the fat of the omentum ha 
 been much wafted. Some authors have fup 
 
 pofe( 
 
 (x) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin an 
 rranfparent, is found capable of fupporting mercury> throw 
 into it by the fame channel. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. .243 
 
 pofed, that it affifts in the preparation of bile j 
 but this idea is founded merely on conjecture. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Stomach, 
 
 The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular 
 bag, in fliape notunlike a bagpipe, lying acrofs 
 the upper part of the abdomen, and inclining ra- 
 ther more to the left than the right fide. 
 
 It has two orifices, one of which receives ' the 
 end of the oefophagus, and is called the cardia^ 
 and fometimes the left and upper orifice of the 
 flomach ; though its fituation is not much higher 
 than the other, which is ftyled the right and in- 
 ferior orifice, and more commonly the pylorus : 
 both thefe openings are more elevated than the 
 body of the ftomach. 
 
 The aliment pafTes down the oefophagus into 
 the flomach through the cardia, and after hav- 
 ing undergone the neceffary digeftion, paffes 
 out at the pylorus where the inteflinal canal 
 commences. 
 
 The flomach is compofed of four tunics or 
 coats, which are fo intimately connected toge- 
 ther that it requires no little dexterity in the ana- 
 tomifl to demonflrate them. The exterior one 
 is membranous, being derived from the perito- 
 nseum. — The fecond is a mufcular tunic, com- 
 pofed of flefhy fibres which are in the greatefl 
 number about the two orifices. — The third is 
 called the nervous coat, and within this is the 
 
 villous 
 
244 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 villous or velvet-like coat which conlpofes the 
 
 infide of the ftomach. 
 
 The two laft coats being more extenfive than 
 the two firft, form the folds, which are obferv- 
 ed every where in the cavity of this vifcus, and 
 more particularly about the pylorus ; where they 
 feem to impede the too hafty exclulion of the 
 aliment, making a confiderable plait, called val- 
 vula pylori. 
 
 The inner coat is conftantly moiftened by a 
 mucus, which approaches to the nature of the 
 faliva, and is called the gaftric juice ; this liquor 
 has been fuppofed to be fecreted by certain mi- 
 nute glands (y) feated in the nervous tunic, whofe 
 excretory dudfs open to the furface of the villous 
 coat. 
 
 The arteries of the ftomach called the gaf- 
 tric arteries are principally derived from the cse- 
 liac ; fome of its veins pafs to the fplentic, and 
 others to the vena portae ; and its nerves are 
 chiefly from the eight pair or par vagum. 
 
 The account given of the tunics of the fto- 
 mach may be applied to the whole alimentary 
 
 canal ; I 
 
 (y) Heifter, fpeaking of thefe glands, very properly fays, 
 “ in porch facile, in homine raro oblervantur for although 
 many anatomical writers have defcribed their appearance 
 and figure, yet they do not feem to have been hitherto fa- 
 tisfaftorily demonflrated in the human ftomach ; and the 
 gaftric juice is now more generally believed to be derived 
 from the exhalent arteries of the ftomach. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 145 
 
 canal j for both the oefophagus and inteftines 
 are, like this vifcus, compofed of four coats. 
 
 Before we defcribe the courfe of the aliment 
 and the ufes of the ftomach, it will be neceffary 
 to fpeak of other parts which affift in the pro- 
 cefs of digeftion. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the Oefophagus. 
 
 The oefophagus or gullet is a membranous 
 and mufcular canal, extending from the bottom 
 of the mouth to the upper orifice of the ftomach. 
 — Its upper part where the aliment is received is 
 lhaped fomewhat like a funnel, and is called the 
 pharynx. 
 
 From hence it runs down clofe to the bodies 
 of the vertebrae as far as the diaphragm, in which 
 there is an opening through which it palfes, and 
 then terminates in the ftomach about the ele- 
 venth or twelfth vertebra of the back. 
 
 The oefophagus is plentifully fupplied with 
 arteries from the external carotid, bronchial, and 
 fuperior intercoftal arteries ; its veins empty 
 themfelves into the vena azygos, internal jugu- 
 lar, and mammary veins, &c. 
 
 Its nerves are derived chiefly from the eighth 
 pair. 
 
 We likewife meet with a mucus in the oefopha- 
 gus, which every where lubricates its inner furface, 
 and tends to affift in deglutition. — This mucus 
 feems to be fecreted by very minute glands, like 
 
 the 
 
246 
 
 OF THE ABDOMFN. Part III. 
 
 the mucus in other parts of the alimentary ca- 
 nal. 
 
 The inteftines form a canal, which is ufually 
 fix times longer than the body to which it be- 
 longs. This canal extends from the pylorus, or 
 inferior orilice of the ftomach, to the anus. 
 
 It will be eafily underftood, that a part of fuch 
 great length muft neceffarily make many circum- 
 volutions, to be confined with fo many other 
 vifcera wiTdn the cavity of the lower belly. 
 
 Although the inteftines are in facft, as we have 
 obferved, only one long and extenfive canal, yet 
 different parts have been diftinguilhed by dijfFe- 
 rent names. 
 
 The inteftines are firft diftinguifhed into two 
 parts, one of which begins at the ftomach, and 
 is called the thin or fmall intejlines^ from the 
 fmall fize of the canal, when compared with the 
 other part, which is called the large intejiines^ 
 and includes the lower portion of the canal down 
 to the anus. 
 
 Each of thefe parts has it its fubdivifions. — 
 The fmall inteftines being diftinguifhed into 
 duodenum, jejunum, and ilium, and the 
 larger portion into coecum, colon, and rec- 
 tum. 
 
 The fmall inteftines fill the middle and fore 
 parts of the belly, while the large inteftine 
 
 Sect. V. Of the Intefines. 
 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 247 
 
 the fides and both the upper and lower parts of 
 the cavity. 
 
 The duodenum, which is the firft of the 
 fmall inteftines, is fo called, becaufe it is about 
 1 2 inches long. It begins at the pylorus and 
 terminates in the jejunum, which is a part of 
 the canal obferved to be ufually more empty than 
 the other inteftines. — This appearance gives it 
 its name, and likewife ferves to point out where 
 it begins. 
 
 The next divifion is the ilium, which of it- 
 felf exceeds the united length of the duodenum 
 and jejunum, and has received its name from its 
 numerous circumvolutions. The large circum- 
 volution of the ilium covers the firft of the large 
 inteftines called the cacum (x) which feems pro- 
 perly to belong to the colon, being a kind of 
 pouch of about four fingers in width, and near- 
 ly of the fame length, having anteriorly a lit- 
 tle appendix, called appendix cceci. 
 
 The coecum is placed in the cavity of the os 
 ilium on the right fide, and terminates in the 
 colon, which is the largeft of all the inteftines. 
 
 This inteftine afcends by the right kidney to 
 which it is attached, paifes under the hollow 
 
 part 
 
 / 
 
 (x) Anatomlfts have differed with refpect to this divifion 
 of the inteftines. — The method here followed is now gene- 
 rally adopted ; but there are authors who allow the name 
 of cacim only, to the little appendix, which has likewife 
 been called the vermiform appendix^ from its rei'emblance to 
 a v/orm in fize and length. 
 
OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 part of the liver, and the bottom of the ftomach, 
 to the fpleen, to which it is likewife fecured, as 
 it is alfo to the left kidney ; and from thence 
 pafles down towards the os facrum, where, from 
 its ftraight courfe, the canal begins to take the 
 name of reBum. 
 
 There are three ligamentous bands extending 
 through the whole length of the colon, which, 
 by being fhorter than its two inner coats, ferve 
 to increafe the plaits on the inner furface of this 
 
 gut. 
 
 The anus which terminates the inteftinum 
 redum, is furnifhed with three mufcles ; one of 
 thefe is compofed of circular fibres, and from its 
 life in {hutting the paifage of the anus is called 
 fphiiiBer ani. 
 
 The other two are the levatores ani^ fo called, 
 becaufe they elevate the anus after dejedion. 
 When thefe by palfy, or any other difeafe, lofe 
 the power of contrading, the anus prolapfes ; 
 and whenthefphinderis affeded byfimilar caufes, 
 the feces are voided involuntarily. 
 
 It has been already obferved, that the inteftinal 
 canal is compofed of four tunics ; but it remains ' 
 to be remarked, that here, as in the ftomach, 
 the two inner tunics being more extenfive than 
 the other two, form the plaits which are to be 
 feen in the inner furface of the inteftines, and 
 are called valvula conniventes. 
 
 Some authors have confidered thefe plaits as 
 tending to retard the motion of the feces, in 
 
 order 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN, 249 
 
 order to afford more time for the feparation of the 
 chyle ; but there are others who attiibute to them 
 a different ufe : they contend, that thefe valves, 
 by being naturally inclined downwards, can- 
 not impede the defcent of the fseces, but that 
 they are intended to prevent their return up- 
 wards. 
 
 They are probably deftined for both thefe ufes; 
 for although thefe folds incline to their lower 
 fide, yet the inequalities they occafion in the ca- 
 nal are fufficient to retard, in fome meafure, the 
 progreffive motion of the fseces, and to afford a 
 greater fiirface of the absorption of chyle, and 
 their natural pofition feems to oppofe Itielf to the 
 return of the aliment. 
 
 Befides thefe valvules conniventes^ there is one 
 more confiderable than the reft, called the valve 
 of the colon ; which is found at that part of the 
 canal where the inteftinum ilium is joined to 
 the colon. 'This valve permits the alimentary 
 pulp to pafs downwards, but Serves to prevent 
 its return upwards ; and it is by this valve, that 
 glyfters are prevented from paffing into the fmall 
 inteftines (y). 
 
 Of the little vermiform appendix of the coe- 
 cum, it v/ill be fufHcient to fay, that its ufes have 
 
 never 
 
 (y) This is not invariably the cafe, for the contents of a 
 glyfter have been found not only to reach the fcnall intef- 
 tines, but to be voided at the mouth. Such infiances, how- 
 ever, are not common. 
 
■■m 
 
 2JO OF THE ABDOMEN. Part 111.^ 
 
 never yet been afcertained.- In birds we meet 
 with two of thefc appendices. 
 
 The inteftines are lubricated by a conftant 
 fupply of mucus, which is probably fecreted by 
 very minute folicies (z). This mucus promotes 
 the defcent of the alimentary pulp, and in fome 
 meafure defends the inner furface of the intef- , 
 tines from the irritation to which it would, per- 
 haps, otherwife be continually expofed from the 
 aliment ; and which, when in a certain degree, . 
 excites a painful diforder called co/ic, a name 
 given to the difeafe, becaufe its moft ufual feat 
 is in the inteftinum colon. 
 
 The inteftines are likewife frequently diftend- 
 ed with air, and this diftenfion fometimes occa- 
 fions pain, and conftitutes the flatulent colic. 
 
 The arteries of the inteftines are continuati- 
 ons of the mefenteric arteries, which are deriv- 
 ed in two confiderable branches from the aorta. 
 — The redundant blood is carried back into the 
 vena portarum. 
 
 In 
 
 (z) Some writers have diftingiiinied thefe glands into mi- 
 liary, lenticular, See . — Brunner and Peyer were the firfl ana- 
 tomifts who deferibed the glands of the inteftines, and their 
 deferiptions were chiefly taken from animals, thefe glandular 
 appearances not feeming to have been hitherto fatisfadlorily 
 pointed out in the human ftibjeft. — It is now pretty general- 
 ly believed, that the mucus which every where lubricates 
 the alimentary canal, is exhaled from the minute ends of ar- 
 teries, and that theie extremities firft open into a hollow ve- 
 ficle, from whence the depofited juice of feveral branches 
 flows out through one common orifice. 
 
'art III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 251 
 
 In the refcum the veins are called hemorrhoi- 
 'al^ and are there diftinguifned into internal and 
 xternal ; the rirft are branches of the inferior 
 iiefenteric vein, but the latter pafs into other 
 'eins. Sometimes thefe veins are diftended with 
 )lood from obftrudtions, from weaknefs of their 
 :oats, or from other caufes, and what we call 
 he ha??io?Thoids takes place. In this difeafe they 
 ire fometimes ruptured ; and the difcharge of 
 )lood which confequently follovrs, has probably 
 )ccafioned them to be called hcemorrhoidal veins. 
 
 The nerves of the inteftines are derived from 
 he eight pair. 
 
 Sect. VI. Of the Mefentery. 
 
 The name of the mefentery implies the litua- 
 tion amidft the inteftines. It is in hidt a part of 
 the peritonseum, being a reduplication (a) of that 
 
 membrane 
 
 (a) He who only reads of the reduplication of mem- 
 branes, will perhaps not ealily underftand how the peritc- 
 nseura and pleura are rellecled over the vifcera in their feveral 
 cavities ; for one of thefe ferves the fame purpofes in the tho- 
 rax that the other does in the abdomen. This dilpofition, 
 for the difcovery of which we are indebted to modem anato- 
 mies, conftitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge; 
 but the ftudenp unaided by experience, and alTifled only by 
 what the limits of this work would permit us to fay on the 
 occafion, would probably imbibe only confufed ideas of the 
 matter ; and it will perfedlly anfwer the prefent purpofe, if 
 he confiders the mefentery as a membiane attached by one 
 of its fides to the lumbar vertebra, and by the other to the 
 iatellines. 
 
252 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part Il| 
 
 membrane from each fide of the lumbar verte 
 brae, to which it is firmly attached, fo that it ii 
 formed of two laminae, connected to ea^ch othe 
 by cellular membrane. 
 
 The inteftines, in their different circumvolu 
 tions, form a great number of arches, and th 
 mefentry accompanies them through all thef 
 turns ; but by being attached only to the holloM, 
 part of each arch ; it is found to have only , 
 third of the extent of the inteftines. 
 
 That part of this membrane which accompa 
 nies the fmall inteftines is the mefentery^ properl] 
 fo called ; but thofe parts of it which are attach 
 ed to the colon and redtum are diftinguiflied b] 
 the names of mefo-colon and mefo~reBum. 
 
 There are many conglobate glands difperfec 
 through this double membrane, through whicl 
 the ladfeals and lymphatics pafs in their way tc 
 the thoracic dud;. The blood-veflels of the 
 mefentery were defcribed in fpeaking of the in*| 
 teftines. I 
 
 This membrane, by its attachment to the 
 vertebrse, ferves to keep the inteftines in their na- 
 tural fituation. The idea ufually formed of the^ 
 colic called mijerere^ is perfedly erroneous ; itj 
 being impoflible that the inteftines can be twifted, 
 as many fuppofe they are, in that difeafe, their 
 attachment to the mefentery effedually prevent- 
 ing fuch an accident ^but a difarrangement 
 
 fometimes takes place in the inteftinal canal it- 
 fclf, which is productive of difagreeable and 
 
 fome- 
 
krt hi. of thl abdomen. 253 
 
 MTietimes fatal confequences.- — This is by an in- 
 •ofufception of the inteftine, an idea of which 
 lay be eafily formed, by taking the finger of 
 glove, and involving one part of it within the 
 ■her. 
 
 If inflammation takes place, the ftrifture In 
 lis cafe is increafed, and the periftaltic motion 
 f the inteftines (by which is meant the pro- 
 reflive motion of the fseces downwards) is in- 
 erted, and what is called the iliac pajfion takes 
 lace. The fame effedt may be occafioned by 
 defcent of the inteftine, or of the omentum 
 ither with it or by itfelf, and thus conftituting 
 (That is called an hernia or rupture ; a term by 
 v^hich in general is meant the falling down or 
 )rotrufion of any part of the inteftine or omen- 
 urn, which ought naturally to be contained with- 
 n the cavity of the belly. 
 
 To convey an idea of the manner in which 
 iich a defcent takes place, it will be neceflary to 
 )bferve, that the lower edge of the tendon of 
 T the mufculus obliquus externus, is ftretched 
 From the fore-part of the os ilium or haunch- 
 Done of the os pubis, and conftitutes what is 
 called Pouparfs or Fallopius's ligament^ forming 
 an opening, through which pafs the great crural 
 artery and vein. Near the os pubis the fame 
 tendinous fibres are feparated from each other^ 
 and form an opening on each fide, called the 
 abdominal ring, through which the fpermatic 
 veflels pafs in men, and the ligamenta uteri in 
 
 women. 
 
254 
 
 women. 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part 111 
 
 I n confeqoence 
 
 of violent efibits, o; 
 
 perhaps of natural caufes, the inteftines are foun(! 
 Ibmetirnes to pafs through thefe openings ; bui 
 the peritonaeum v/hich indofes them when ir 
 their natural cavity, ftiil continues to furrounc 
 them even in their natural cavity, ftiil continues 
 to furround them even in their defcent. This 
 membrane does not become torn or lacerated by 
 the violence, as might be eafily imagined ; but 
 its dilatibility enables it to pafs out with the vif- 
 cus, which it indofes as it were in a bag, and 
 thus forms wdiat is called the hernial fac. 
 
 If the hernia be under Poupart’s ligamenfj^ 
 it is calledy^ 7 ?/ora/ ; if in the ^rdn\ inguinal (b), 
 and fcrotal^ if in the fcrotum. Different names 
 are likewife given to the hernia as the contents^ 
 of the fac differ, whether of omentum only or 
 inteftine, or both ; — but thefe definitions more 
 properly belong to the province of furgery. 
 
 Sect. VII Of the Pancreas. 
 
 The pancreas is a conglomerate gland placed 
 behind the bottom of the ftomach, towards the 
 firft vertebra of the loins 5 fhaped like a dog’s 
 tongue with its point ftretched out towards the 
 fpleen, and its other end extending towards the 
 duodenum. It is about eight fingers breadth in 
 
 length, 
 
 (b) The hernia congenita will be confidered with themiile 
 organs of generation, with which it is intimately connefted. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 255 
 length, two or three in width, and one in thick- 
 nefs. 
 
 This vifcus, which is of a y ellowifh colour, 
 fomewhat inclined to red, is covered with a mem- 
 brane which it derives from the peritonaeum. 
 Its arteries, which are rather numerous than 
 large, are derived chiefly from the fplenic and 
 hepatic, and its veins pafs into the veins of the 
 fame name. — Its nerves are derived from the in- 
 tercoftal. 
 
 The many little glands of which it has been 
 obferved the pancreas is compofed, all ferve to 
 fecrete a liquor called the pancreatic juice^ which 
 in its colour, confiftence, and other properties, 
 does not feem to differ from the faliva. Each of 
 thefe glands fends out a little excretory du£t, 
 which, uniting with others, help to form larger 
 dudfs ; and all thefe at laft terminate in one com- 
 mon excretory du£t (firft difcovered by Virtfun- 
 gus in 1642), which runs through the middle 
 of the gland, and is now ufually called diiBus 
 pancreaticus Virtfimgi. This canal opens into the 
 inteftinum duodenum, fometimes by the fame 
 orifice with the biliary dud:, and fometimes by 
 a diftind opening. The liquor it difcharges be- 
 ing of a mild and infipid nature, ferves to dilute 
 the alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more 
 eafily with the bile. 
 
 Sect. 
 
256 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 Sect. VIII. Of the Liver, 
 
 The liver is avifcusof confiderable fize, and 
 of a reddifh colour ; convex fuperiorly and an- 
 teriorly where it is placed under the ribs and di- 
 aphragm, and of an unequal furface pofteriorly. 
 It is chiefly fituated in the right hypochondrium, 
 and under the falfe ribs ; but it like wife extends 
 into the epigaftric region, where it borders upon 
 the fliomach. It is covered by a production of 
 the peritonaeum, which ferves to attach it by 
 three of its reduplications to the falfe ribs. Theie 
 reduplications are called ligaments^ though very 
 different in their texture from what are called by 
 the fame name in other parts of the body. The 
 umbilical cord, too, which in the foetus is per- 
 vious, gradually becomes a fimple ligament after 
 birth ; and, by pafling to the liver, ferves like- 
 wife to fecure it in its fituation. 
 
 At the pofterior part of this organ where the 
 umbilical veffels enter, it is found divided into 
 two lobes. Of thefe, the largeft is placed in the 
 right hypochondrium ; the other, which covers 
 part of the flomach, is called the little lobe. All 
 the t'effels which go to the liver pafs in at the 
 fiffure we have mentioned ; and the production 
 of the peritonaeum, which invefts the liver, was 
 defcnbed by Gliflbn, an Englifh anatomifl, as 
 accompanying them in their paffage, and fur- 
 rounding them like a glove ; hence this produc- 
 2 tion 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 257 
 tion has been commonly known by the name of 
 capfula of Glijfon : but it appears to be chiefly a 
 continuation of the cellular membrane which co- 
 vers the vena porta ventralis. 
 
 The liver was confidered by the ancients as 
 an organ deftined to prepare and perfect the 
 blood ; but later difcoveries have proved, that 
 this opinion was wrong, and that the liver is a 
 glandular fubftance formed for the fecretion of 
 the bile. 
 
 The blood is conveyed to the liver by the he- 
 patic artery and the vena porta. This is contra- 
 ry to the mode of circulation in other parts, 
 where veins only ferve to carry off the redundant 
 blood : but in this vifcus the hepatic artery, 
 which is derived from the caeliac, is principally 
 deftined for its nourifhment ; and the vena por- 
 ta, which is formed by the union of the veins 
 from moft of the abdominal vifcera, furnifties the 
 blood from which the bile is chiefly to be feparat- 
 ed ; fo that thefe two feries of veflels ferve very 
 diftindt purpofes. The vena porta, as it is rami- 
 fied through the liver, performs the office both 
 of a vein and an artery ; for like the former it 
 returns the blood from the extremities of arte- 
 ries, while as the latter it prepares it for fecrc- 
 tion. 
 
 The nerves of the liver are branches of the 
 intercoftal and par vagum. The bile, after be- 
 ing feparated from the mafs of blood, in a man- 
 ner of which mention will be made in another 
 
 R place 
 
258 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III, 
 place, is conveyed out of this organ by very mi- 
 nute excretory du£ts, called poribiliarii ; thefe 
 uniting together like the excretory du£ts in the 
 pencreas, gradually form larger ones, which at 
 length terminate in a confiderable canal called 
 iluStus hepaticus. 
 
 Sect. IX. Of the Gall-bladder. 
 
 The gall-bladder is a little membranous bag, 
 fliapcd like a pear, and attached to the pofterior 
 and almoft inferior part of the great lobe of the 
 liver. 
 
 It has two tunics ; of which the exterior one 
 is a production of the peritonaeum. The inte- 
 rior^ or villous coat, is fupplied with a mucus 
 that defends it from the acrimony of the bile. 
 Thefe two coverings are intimately connected by 
 means of cellular membrane, which from its firm 
 gliftening appearance has generally been fpoken 
 of as a mufcular tunic. 
 
 The gall-bladder is fupplied with blood-veifeh 
 from the hepatic arteries. Thefe branches are 
 called the cyfic arteries and the cyftic veins car- 
 ry back the blood. 
 
 Its nerves are derived from the fame origin ai 
 thofe of the liver. 
 
 The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in 
 the form of a canal called dublus cyficus, which 
 foon unites with the duftus hepaticus we deferib- 
 ed as the excretory dud; of the liver j and form- 
 ing 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 255 
 ing one common canal, takes the name of dulJhis 
 choledochus commimis^ through which both the 
 cyftic and hepatic bile are difcharged into the du- 
 odenum. This canal opens into the inteftine in 
 an oblique diredion, firft paffing through the 
 exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats 
 after running between each of them a very little 
 way. This oeconomy ferves two ufeful pur- 
 pofes ; — to promote the difcharge of bile and to 
 prevent its return. 
 
 The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid 
 foap, fomewhat unduous and bitter, and of a 
 yellowifli colour, which eafily mixes with water, 
 oil, and vinous fpirits, and is capable of diffolv- 
 ing refinous fubftances. From fome late experi- 
 ments made by M. Cadet*, it appears .to be 
 formed of an animal oil, combined with the al-» 
 kaline bafe of fea-falt, a fait of the nature of 
 milk, and a calcareous earth which is (lightly fer- 
 ruginous. 
 
 Its definition feems fufficiently to point out 
 the ufes for which it is intended (c). It blends 
 the alimentary mafs, by dividing and attenuating 
 it ; corredfs the too great difpofition to aeefcency, 
 which the aliment acquires in the ftomach ; and, 
 finally, by its acrimony, tends to excite the pe- 
 riftaltic motion of the inteftines. 
 
 R a After 
 
 * Mem. de f AcacL lies Sciences. 1767. 
 
 (c) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the real 
 ule of the liver, confidered the bile as an eKcreinentitious 
 and ufelefs fluid. 
 
i6o GF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 After what has been faid, it will be conceived 
 that there are two forts of bile ; one of which 
 is derived immediately from the liver through the 
 hepatic du£t, and the other from the gall-blad-r- 
 der. Thefe two biles, however, do not effenti- 
 ally differ from each other. The hepatic bile in- 
 deed is milder, and more liquid than the cyftic, 
 which is conftantly thicker and yellower ; and 
 by being bitterer, feems to poffefs greater activity 
 than the other. 
 
 Every body knows the fonrce of the hepatic 
 bile, that it is fecreted from the mafs of blood 
 by the liver ; but the origin of the cyllic bile has 
 occafioned no little controverfy amonjgft anato- 
 mical writers. There are fome who contend, 
 that it is feparated in the fubftance of the liver, 
 from whence it paffes into the gall-bladder 
 through particular veffels. In deer, and in fome 
 other quadrupeds, as well as in feveral birds and 
 fifhes, there is an evident communication, hy 
 means of particular veffels, between the liver 
 and the gall-bladder, Bianchi, Winflow, and 
 others, have afferted the exiftence of fuch veffels 
 in the human fubjed:, and named them hepati- 
 cvftic duSh ; but it is. certain that no fuch duds 
 exift. — ^In obftrudions of the cyftic dud, the 
 gall-bladder has been found fhrivelled and emp^ 
 ty : fo that we may confider the gall-bladder as 
 a refervoir of hepatic bile ; and that it is an ef- 
 tablifhed fad, that the whole of the bile con- 
 tained in the gall-bladder is derived from the li- 
 ver > 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 261 
 ver ; that it paflhs from the hepatic to the cyftic 
 duft, aiid from that to the gall-bladder. The 
 difference in the colour, confiftence, and tafle of 
 the bile, is merely the confequence of ftagnation 
 and abforption. When the ftomach is diftend- 
 od with aliment, this refervoir undergoes a cer- 
 tain degree of compreffion, and the bile paffes 
 out into the inteftinal canal ; and in the efforts to 
 vomit, the gall-bladder feeitis to be conftantly af- 
 fedled, and at fuch times difcharges itfelf of its 
 contents. 
 
 Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall-blad- 
 der, fo as to form what are cdX\&di gall-Jlones (d). 
 When thefe concretions pafs into the cyflic dud:, 
 they fometimes occafion exquifite pain, by dif- 
 tending the canal in their Way to the duodenum ; 
 and by lodging in the dudus choledochus com- 
 munis, and obflruding the courfe of the bile, 
 this fluid will be abforbed, and by being carried 
 back into the circulation occafion a temporary 
 jaundice. 
 
 Sect. X. Of the Spleen. 
 
 The fpleen is a foft and fpongy vifcus, of a 
 
 bluifh 
 
 (d) Thefe concretions fotnetlines remain in the gall-blad- 
 ■der without cauling any uneafinefs. Dr. Heberden relates, 
 that a gall-ftone weighing two drams was found in the gall- 
 bladder of the late Lord Bath, though he had never com- 
 plained of the jaundice, nor of any di'lbrder which he could 
 attribute to thatcaufe. Med. Tranf. Vol. ii. 
 
262 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 bluifh colour, and about five or fix fingers 
 breadth in length, and three in width, fitu- 
 ated in the left hypochondrium, between the 
 llomach and the falfe ribs. That fide of it which 
 is placed on the fide of the ribs is convex ; and 
 the other, which is turned toward the ftomach, 
 is concave. 
 
 The fplenic artery, which is a branch from 
 the cseliac, fupplies this vifcus with blood, and 
 a vein of the lame name carries it back into the L 
 vena porta. 
 
 Its nerves are derived from a particular plexusw 
 called the fpknic^ which is formed by branches a 
 of the intercoftal nerve, and by the eight pair, | 
 or par vagum. 
 
 The ancients, who fuppofed two forts of hile, 
 confidered the fpleen as the receptacle of what 
 they called atra bills. Havers, who wrote pro- 
 felfedly on the bones, determined its ufe to be 
 that of fecreting the fynovia ; and the late Mr. 
 Hewfon imagined, that it concurred with the 
 thymus and lymphatic glands of the body in 
 forming the red globules of the blood. All thefe 
 opinions feem to be equally fanciful. The want 
 of an excretory druT has occafioned the real ufe 
 of this vifcus to be ftill doubtful. Perhaps the 
 blood undergoes fome change in it, which may 
 alfift in the preparation of the bile. This is the 
 
 opinion of the generality of modern phyfiolo- 
 gifts ; and the great quantity of blood with 
 which it is fupplied, together with the courfe of 
 
 its 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 263 
 its veins into the vena portae, feem to render this 
 notion probable. 
 
 Sect. XL OJ' the Glandule RenaleSy Kidneys y 
 and Uretas, 
 
 The glandulse renales, which were by the ’ 
 ancients fuppofed to fecrete the atra bilis, and by 
 them named capfula atrabilares ^ are two fiat bo- 
 dies of an irregular figure, one on each fide be- 
 tween the kidney and the aorta. 
 
 In the foetus they are as large as the kidneys : 
 but they do not increafe afterwards in proportion 
 to thofe parts ; and in adults and old people they 
 are generally found fhrivelled, and much wafted. 
 They have their arteries and veins. Their ar- 
 teries ufually arife from the Jplenic or the emul- 
 gent, and fometimes from the aorta ; and their 
 veins go to the neighbouring veins, or to the 
 vena cava. Their nerves are branches of the 
 intercoftal. 
 
 The ufe of thefe parts is not yet perfedHy 
 known. In the foetus the fecretion of urine muft 
 be in a very fmall quantity, and a part of the 
 blood may perhaps then pafs through thefe chan- 
 nels, which in the adult is carried to the kidneys 
 to fupply the matter of urine. 
 
 The kidneys are two in number, fituated one 
 on the right and the other on the left fide in the 
 lumbar region, between the laft falfe rib and the 
 os ilium, by the fides of the vertebra. Each 
 
■264 OE THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 kidney in its figure refembles a fort of bean, 
 which from its fhape is called kidney-bean. The 
 concave part of each kidney is turned towards 
 the aorta and vena cava afcendens. They are 
 furrounded by a good deal of fat, and receive 
 a coat from the peritonaeum ; and when this is 
 removed, a very fine membrane is found inveft- 
 ing their fubftance and the veffels which ramify 
 through them. 
 
 Each kidney has a confiderable artery and 
 vein, which are called the emidgent. The arte- 
 ry is a branch from the aorta, and the vein pafles 
 into the vena cava. Their nerves, which every 
 where accompany the blood-veflels, arife from a 
 confiderable plexus, which is derived from the 
 interpoftal. 
 
 In each kidney, which in the adult is of a 
 pretty firm texture, there are three fubftances to 
 be diftinguiflied (e). The outer part is glandu- 
 lar or cortical, beyond this is the vafcular or tU'r 
 bular fubftance, and the inner part is papillary or 
 membranous. 
 
 It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the 
 fecretion is carried on ; the urine being here re- 
 ceived from the minute extremities of the capilla- 
 ry arteries, is conveyed out of this cortical fub-: 
 ftance by an infinite number of very fmall cylin- 
 drical canals or excretory veflels, which confti- 
 
 tute 
 
 (e) The kidneys in the foetus are diflinftly lobulated ; but 
 m the adult they become perfe<^ly firm, fmooth, and re- 
 gular. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 265 
 tute the tubular part. Thefe tubes, as they ap- 
 proach the inner fubftance of the kidney, gradu- 
 ally unite together ; and thus forming larger ca- 
 nals, at length terminate in ten or twelve little 
 protuberances called papilla^ the orifices of which 
 may be feen without the affiftance of gialfes. 
 Thefe papillae open into a fmall cavity or refer- 
 voir called the pelvis of the kidney^ and formed 
 by a diftimff membranous bag which embraces 
 the papillae. From this pelvis the urine is con- 
 veyed through a membranous canal which paifes 
 out from the hollow fide of the kidney, a little 
 below the blood veffels, and is called ureter. 
 
 The ureters are each about as large as a com- 
 mon writing-pen. They are fomewhat curved 
 in their courfe from the kidneys, like the letter 
 f and at length terminate in the pofterior and 
 almoft inferior part of the bladder, at fome dif- 
 tance from each other. They pafs into the blad- 
 der in the fame manner as the du<Tus choledoc- 
 dus communis pafles into the inteftinum duode- 
 num, not by a dired; paffage, but by an obliqu6 
 courfe between the tv/o coats ; fo that the dif- 
 charge of urine into the bladder is promoted, 
 whilft its return is prevented. Nor does this 
 mode of ftrudure prevent the palTage of fluids 
 only from the bladder into the ureters, but like- 
 wife air : — for air thrown into the bladder in- 
 flates it, and it continues to be diftended if a 
 Figature is pafled round its neck ; which feems 
 
 to 
 
266 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part lit. 
 to prove fufficiently that it cannot pafs into the 
 ureters. 
 
 Sect. XII. Of the Urinary Bladder. 
 
 The urinary bladder is a membranous and 
 mufcular bag of an oblong round ifh fbape, fitu- 
 ated in the pelvis, between the os pubis and in- 
 teftinuin re£tum in men, and between the os pu- | 
 bis and uterus in women. Its upper and wideft 
 part is ufnaSly called the bottom.^ its ifarrow part 
 the neck of the bladder ; the former only is co- ij 
 vered by the peritonaeum. - 
 
 The bladder is formed of three coats, connect- 
 ed together by means of cellular membrane. 
 The external or peritonaeal, is only a partial one,^" 
 covering the upper and back part of the bladder. 
 The middle, or mufcular coat, is compofed of 
 irritable, and of courfe mufcular fibres, which 
 are moft collected around the neck of the blad- 
 der, but not fo as to form a diftinCt mufcle, or 
 fphinCter, as the generality of anatomifts have 
 hitherto fuppofed. 
 
 The inner coat, though much fmoother, has 
 been faid to refemble the, villous tunic of the in- 
 tefiines, and like that is provided with a mu- 
 cus, which defends it againft the acrimony of 
 the urine. 
 
 It will be eafily conceived from what has 
 been faid, that the kidneys are two glandular bo- 
 dies, through which a faline and excrementitious 
 
 fluid 
 
Part 111. OF THE ABDOMEN. 267 
 fluid called urine is conftantly filtering firom the 
 mafs of blood. 
 
 While only a fmall quantity of urine is col- 
 lected in the bladder, it excites no kind of un- 
 eafinefs ; but when a greater quantity is accu- 
 mulated, fo that the bladder is dillended in a cer- 
 tain degree, it excites in us a certain fenfation, 
 which brings on as it were a voluntaiy contrac- 
 tion of the bladder to promote its difcharge. — 
 But this contraction is not effeCled by the muf- 
 cular fibres of the bladder alone : for all the ab- 
 dominal mufcles contract in obedience to our 
 will, and prefs downwards all the vifcera of the 
 lower belly ; and thefe powers being united, at 
 length overcome the refiftance of the fibres fur- 
 rounding the neck of the bladder, which dilates 
 and affords a pafTage to the urine through the 
 urethra. 
 
 The frequency of this evacuation depends on 
 the quantity of urine fecreted ; on the degree of 
 acrimony it pofTeffes ; on the fize of the bladder, 
 and on its degree of fenfibility. 
 
 The urine varies much in its colour and con- 
 tents. Thefe varieties depend, on age, fex, climate, 
 iiet, and other circumftances. In infants it is ge- 
 aerally a clear wateiy fluid, without fmell or 
 :afte. As we advance in life, it acquires more 
 :olour and fmell, and becomes more impregnat- 
 ’d with falts. In old people it becomes flill more 
 icrid and fetid. 
 
 In 
 
268 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 In a healthy ftate it is nearly of a ftraw co- 
 lour. — After being kept for fome time, it depp- 
 lites a tartarous matter, which is found to be 
 compofed chiefly of earth and fait, and foon in- 
 crufts the Tides of the veflTel in which it is con- 
 tained. While this reparation is taking place, 
 appearances like minute fibres or threads of a 
 whitifli colour, may be feen in the middle of the 
 urine, and an oily fcum obferved floating on its 
 furface. So that the moft common appearances 
 of the urine are fuflicient to afcertain that it is a 
 watery fubftance, impregnated with earthy, fa- 
 line, and oily particles. 
 
 The urine is not always voided of the fame 
 colour and confiftence ; for thefe arc found te 
 depend on the proportion of its watery part to 
 that of its other conftituent principles. — Its co- 
 lour and degree of fluidity feem to depend of) 
 the quantity of faline and inflammable particle^ 
 contained in it : fo that an increafed proportion 
 of thofe parts will conftantly give the urine ^ 
 higher colour, and add to the quantity of fedi 
 ment. 
 
 The variety in the appearance of the urine 
 depends on the nature and quantity of folid anfji 
 fluid aliment we take in ; and it is likewife occa 
 fioned by the different ftate of the urinary veflTelf 
 by which we mean the channels through whid: 
 it is fepai'ated from the blood, and conveye 
 through the pelvis into the ureters. The caufe 
 of calculous concretions in the urinary palfageij 
 
 aij 
 
Part. Ill GF THE ABDOMEN. 269 
 sure to be looked for in the natural conftitution of 
 the body, mode of life, &c. 
 
 It having been obferved, that after drinking 
 any light wine or Spa water, it very foon pafled 
 off by urine, it has been fuppoled by fome, that 
 the urine is not altogether conveyed to the blad- 
 der by the ordinary courfe of circulation, but 
 that there muft certainly exift fome other fhorter 
 means of communication, perhaps by certain 
 veflels between the ftomach and the bladder, or 
 by a retrograde motion in the lymphatics. But 
 it is certain, that if we open the belly of a dog, 
 prefs out the urine from the bladder, pafs a liga- 
 ture round the emulgent arteries, and then few 
 up the abdomen, and give him even the moll 
 diuretic liquor to drink, the ftomach and other 
 channels will be diftended with it, but not a drop 
 of urine will be found to have pafled into the 
 bladder ; or the fame thing happens when a liga- 
 ture is thrown round the two ureters. This ex- 
 periment then feems to be a fufficient proof, that 
 all the urine we evacuate, is conveyed to the 
 kidneys through the emulgent arteries, in the 
 manner we have defcrihed. — It is true, that wine 
 and other liquors promote a fpeedy evacuation of 
 urine : but the difcharge feems to be merely the 
 effe<ft of the ftimulds they occafion ; by which the 
 bladder and urinary parts arefolicited to a more co- 
 pious difcharge of the urine, which was before in 
 the body, and not immediately of that which was 
 laft drank ; and this increafed difcharge, if the 
 
 fupply 
 
270 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 Eupply is kept up, will continue : nor will this 
 appear wonderful, if we confider the great capa- 
 city of the veffels that go to the kidneys ; the 
 conftant fupply of frefh blood that is elTential to 
 health ; and the rapidity with which it is incef- 
 fandy circulated through the heart to all parts of 
 the body. 
 
 Sect. XIII. Of Digefion. 
 
 W E are now proceeding to fpeak of digefion^ 
 which feems to be introduced in this place with 
 propriety, after a defcription of the abdominal 
 vifcera, the greater part of which contribute to 
 this fundlion. By digefion is to be underftood, 
 the changes the aliment undergoes for the forma- 
 tion of chyle ; — thefe changes are effedted in the 
 mouth, ftomach, and fmall inteftines. 
 
 The mouth, of which every body has a ge- 
 neral knowledge, is the cavity between the two 
 jaws, formed anteriorly and laterally by the lips, 
 teeth, and cheeks, and terminating pofceriorly in 
 the throat. 
 
 The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and 
 mufcles, covered by the cuticle, which is conti- 
 nued over the whole inner furface of the mouth, 
 like a fine and delicate membrane. — Belide this 
 membrane, the infide of the mouth is furniilied 
 with a fpongy and very vafcular fubftance called 
 gums ^ by means of which the teeth are fe- 
 cured in their fockets. A fimilar fubftance covers 
 the roof of the mouth, and forms what is called 
 
 the 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 271 
 the velum pendulum palati^ which is fixed to the 
 extremity of the arch formed by the ofla max- 
 illaria and ofla palati, and terminates in a foft, 
 fmall, and conical body, named uvula ; which 
 appears, as it were, fufpended from the middle 
 of the arch over the bafis of the tongue. 
 
 The velum pendulum palati performs the of- 
 fice of a valve between the cavity of the mouth 
 and the pharynx, being moved by feveral muf- 
 cles (f). 
 
 The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles 
 (g) which enable it to perform a variety of mo- 
 tions for the articulation of the voice ; for the 
 purpofes of maftication; and for conveying the 
 aliment into the pharynx. Its upper part is co- 
 vered with papillse, which conftitute the organ 
 of tafte, and are eafily to be diftinguifhed ; it is 
 covered by the fame membrane that lines the in- 
 fide of the mouth, and which makes at its infe- 
 rior part towards its bafis a reduplication called 
 freenum. 
 
 Pofteriorly, under the vel,um palati, and at 
 the bafis of the tongue, is the pharynx : which 
 is the beginning of the oefophagus, ftretched out 
 every way, fo as to refemble the top of a fun- 
 
 (f) Thefe are the drcmnflexus palati, le\'ator palati mol- 
 lis, palato-pharyngaeus conftriftor iflhmi faucium and azyjros 
 uvulas. 
 
 (g) Thefe are, the genio-gloJTas, hyo-gloffus, lingualis,. 
 »nd ftylo-gloflTos; 
 
272 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 nel, through which the aliment paffes into the 
 ftomach. 
 
 The mouth has a communication with the 
 noftrils at its pofterior and upper part ; with the 
 ears, by the Euftachian tubes ; with the lungs, 
 by means of the laiynx ; and with the ftomach, 
 by means of the osfophagus. 
 
 The pharynx is conftantly moiftened by a 
 fluid, fecreted by two confiderable glands called 
 the tonfils^ one on each fide of the velum palati. 
 Thefe glands, from their fuppofed refemblance 
 to almonds, have likewife been called 
 dalis. 
 
 The mouth , is moiftened by a confiderable 
 quantity of faliva, lliis fluid is derived from 
 the parotid ghmds ; a name which by its ety- 
 
 one common channel, that runs over the cheek, 
 and piercing the buccinator mufcle, opens into 
 the mouth on each fide, by an orifice into which 
 a briftle may be eafily introduced. — Befides 
 thefe, the maxillary glands, which are placed 
 near the inner furface of the angle of the lower 
 jaw on each fide ; the fublingual glands, which 
 are fituated at the root of the tongue : the glands 
 of the palate, which are feated in the velum pa- 
 lati ; 
 
 mology points out their fituation to be near th^ 
 ears. They are two in number, one on eacly 
 fide under the os malae : and they are of the com 
 glomerate kind ; being formed of many fmaller^ 
 glands, each of which fends out a very fmall ex-^ 
 cretory du<ft, which unites with the reft, to form 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 273 
 lati ; and thofe of the cheeks, lips, &c. together 
 with many other lefs confiderable ones, — pour 
 the fahva into the mouth through their feveral 
 excretory du(3;s. 
 
 The faiiva, like all the other humours of the 
 body, is found to be different in different peo* 
 pie ; but in general, it is a limpid and infipid 
 fluid, without fmell in healthy fubje£ts ; and thefe 
 properties would feem to prove that it contains 
 very few faline or inflammable particles. 
 
 The ufes of the faiiva feem to be to moiften 
 and lubricate the mouth, and to adift in reducing 
 the aliment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed 
 into the ftomach. 
 
 The variety of fimd;ions which are conftant- 
 ly performed by the living body, muft neceffa- 
 rily occafion a continual wafte and diffipation of 
 its feveral parts. A great quantity is every day 
 thrown off by the infenfible perfpiration and 
 other difcharges; and were not thefe Ioffes 
 conftantly recruited by a frefh fuppiy of chyle, 
 the body would foon effe(ff its own diffo- 
 lutioru But nature has very wifely favour- 
 ed us with organs fitted to produce fuch a fup- 
 piy ; and has at the fame time endued us with 
 the fenfations of hunger and third, that our at- 
 tention may not be diverted from the neceffary 
 bufmefs of nutrition. The fenfation of hunger 
 is univerfally known ; but it would perhaps be 
 difficult to defcribe it perfedlly in words. It may, 
 however, be definedtobe a certain uneafy fenfation 
 
 S in 
 
^74 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 in the ftomach, which induces us to wifli for fo- 
 lid food ; and which likewife ferves to point out 
 the proper quantity, and time for taking it. 1 n 
 dclcribing the ftomach, mention was made of the 
 gaftric juice, as every where lubricating its inner 
 coat. This humour mixes itfelf with the aliment 
 in tlie ftomach, and helps to prepare it for its paf- 
 iage into the inteftines ; but when the ftomach is 
 perfedly empty, this fame fluid irritates the coats 
 of the ftomach itfelf, and produces the fenfation 
 of hunger. 
 
 A certain proportion of liquid aliment is 
 required to aflift in the procefs of digeftion, 
 and to afford that moifture to the body, of which 
 there isfuch a conftant difflpation. — Thirft in- 
 duces us to take this neceffary fupply of drink; 
 and the feat of this fenfation is in the tongue, 
 ftiuces, and oefophagus, which from their great 
 fenfibility are required to be kept moift : for 
 though the fauces are naturally moiftened by the 
 mucus and falival juices ; yet the blood, when 
 deprived of its watery part or rendered acrimo- 
 nious by any natural caufes, never fails particu- 
 larly to afi’e(ft thefe parts, and the whole alimen- 
 tary canal, and to occafion thirft. — This is the 
 common effed; of fevers and of hard labour, by 
 both which too much of the watery part of the 
 blood is diffipated. 
 
 MaJUcatlon and deglutition. It has been ob- 
 ferved, that the aliment undergoes fome prepa- 
 tion in the mouth before it palfes into the fto- 
 mach ; 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 275 
 
 mach ; and this preparation is the effeT of maf- 
 tication. In treating of the upper and lower 
 jaws, mention was made of the number and ar- 
 rangement of the teeth. The upper jaw was 
 defcribed as being immoveable ; but the lovrer 
 javr was fpoken of as being capable of eleva- 
 tion and depreffion, and of a grinding motion. 
 The aliment, when firft carried into the mouth, 
 is preffed between the teeth of the two jaws by 
 nvery ftrong and frequent motion of the lower 
 jaw ; and the tongue and the cheeks aifi fling in 
 this procefs, continue to replace the food be- 
 tween the teeth till it is perfeflly divided, and 
 reduced to the confiftence of pulp. The inci- 
 fores and canini divide it firft into fmaller pieces, 
 but it is between the furfaces of the dentes mo- 
 lares by the grinding motion of the javr that the 
 maftication is completed. 
 
 During this procefs, the falival glands being 
 gently comprefled by the contradlion of the muf- 
 cles that move the lower jaw, pour out their ia- 
 liva : this helps to divide and break down the 
 food, which at length becomes a kind of pulp, 
 and is then carried over the bafts of the tongue 
 into the fauces. But to efteft this pafTage into 
 the oefophagus, it is necelTary that the other 
 openings which were mentioned as having a 
 communication with the mouth as well as the 
 pharynx, fliould be clofed ; that none of the ali- 
 ment, whether folid or licjuid, may pafs into 
 them, whilft the pharynx alone is dilated to re- 
 
 S 2 ceive 
 
276 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 ceive It : — And fuch a difpofition ailually takes 
 place in a manner we will endeavour to de- 
 fcribe. 
 
 The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through 
 which the air is conveyed to the lungs, is plac- ' 
 ed before the oefophagus-^in the a<T of fwailow- 
 ing, therefore, if the larynx (for fo the upper 
 part of the trachea is called) is not clofed, the 
 aliment will pafs into it in its way to the oefo- 
 phagus. But this is prevented by a fmall and 
 very elaftic cartilage, called epiglottis^ which is 
 attached only to the fore-part of the larynx ; fo 
 that the food in its paifage to the oefophagus prefles 
 down this cartilage, which then covers the glot- 
 tis or opening of the larynx ; and at the lame 
 time the velum palati being capable of fome de- 
 gree of motion, is drawn backwards by its muf- 
 cles, and clofes the openings into the nofe and 
 the Euftachian tubes.— ^This, however, is not 
 all. The larynx, which being compofed of car- 
 tilaginous rings, cannot fail in its ordinary ftate 
 to comprefs the membranous canal of the eefo- 
 piiagus, is in, the adt of deglutition carried for- 
 wards and upwards by mufcles deftined for that 
 purpofe ; and confequently drawing the fore-' 
 part of the pharjmx with it, that opening is ful- 
 ly dilated. A¥hen the aliment has reached the 
 pharynx, its defcent is promoted by its own pro- 
 per weight, and by the mufcular fibres of the 
 cefophagus, which continue to contradf from 
 above downwards, until the aliment has reach- 
 ed 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 277 
 
 ed the ftomach. That thefe fibres have no in- 
 confiiderable Ihare in deglutition, any perfon may 
 experience, by fwallowing with his head down- 
 wards, when the defcent of the aliment xannot 
 pofiTibly be effedted by its weight. 
 
 It is neceflary that the noftrils and the lungs 
 Ihould communicate with the mouth, for the 
 purpofes of fpeech and refpiration : but if the 
 moll minute part of our food happens to be in- 
 troduced into the trachea, it never fails to pro- 
 duce a violent cough, and fometimes the moft 
 alarming fymptoms. This is liable to happen 
 when we laugh or fpeak in the ad; of degluti- 
 tion : the food is then faid to have palfed the 
 wrong way. And indeed this is not improper- 
 ly exprelTed : for death would foon follow, if 
 the quantity of aliment introduced into the 
 trachea Ihould be fufficient to obflrad the refpi- 
 ration only during a very fhort time ; or if the 
 irritating particles of food flrould not be thrown 
 up again by means of the cough, which in thefe 
 cafes very feafonably increafes in proportion to 
 the degree of irritation. 
 
 If the velum palati did not clofe the palfage to 
 the noftrils, deglutition would be performed 
 with difficulty, and perhaps not at all ; for the ali- 
 ment would return through the nofe, as is fome- 
 times the cafe in drinking. Children, from a 
 deficiency in this velum palati, have been feen 
 to die a few hours after birth ; and they who 
 
 from 
 
278 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 from difeafe or any other caufes have not this 
 part perfecT, hvallow with difficulty. 
 
 Idle aliment after having been fufficiently di- 
 vided by the adlion of the teeth, and attenuated 
 by the faliva, is received into the ftomach, where 
 it is dellined to undergo a more confiderable 
 change. 
 
 d'he properties of the aliment not being much 
 altered at its firft entrance into the homach, and 
 before it is thoroughly blended with the gaftric 
 juice, is capable of irritating the inner coat of 
 the ftomach to a certain degree, and occafions a 
 contradtion of its two orifices. — In tliis mem- 
 branous bag, furrounded by the abdominal vif- 
 cera, and with a certain degree of natural heat, 
 the aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by 
 means of abdominal mufcles and of the dia- 
 phragm, and likewife by a certain contraction or 
 expanfion of the mufcular fibres of the ftomach f 
 itfelf. By this motion, every part of the food' " 
 is expofed to the adtion of the gaftric juice, which 
 gradually divides and attenuates it, and prepares 
 It for its paflage into the inteftines. 
 
 Some obfervations lately publiftied by Mr. 
 Hunter in the Philofophical Tranfactions, tend 
 to throw confiderable light on the principles of 
 digeftion. There are few dead bodies in which |j 
 the ftomach, at its great end, is not found to be 
 in fome degree digefted (h). Animals, or parts 
 
 of 
 
 (H)The Abbe Spallanzani, who has lately written upon Ji- ij 
 refiion, finis, frotn a variety of experiments, niaue upon 
 
 opukiri!’ 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 2jg 
 
 of animals, poflefl'ed of the living principle, 
 when taken into the ftomach, are not in the 
 leaft affedted by the action of that vifcus ; but 
 the moment they lofe the living principle, they 
 become fubjedt to its digeftive powers. This 
 feems to be the cafe with the ftomach, which is 
 enabled to refift the aftion of its juices in the 
 living body : but when deprived of the living 
 principle, it is then no longer able to refift the 
 powers of that menftruum, which it had itfelf 
 formed for the digeftion of its contents ; the pro- 
 cefs of digeftion appearing to be continued after 
 death. This is confirmed by what happens in 
 the ftomachs of fifties : they frequently fwal- 
 low, without maftication, fifh which are larger 
 than the digefting parts of their ftomach can 
 
 contain ; 
 
 quadrupeds, birds, and fifnes, that digeftion goes on for 
 Jbme time after death, though far lefs confiderable than in 
 living animals, or at leaft promotes it in a m.uch greater de- 
 gree. He found alfo, that when the ftomach was cut out of 
 the body, it had fomewhat of the power of digeftion, though 
 this was trifling when compared with that which took place 
 when the ftomach was left in the body. In not one ol the 
 animals was the great curvature of the ftomach diflblved, 
 or much eroded after death. There was often a little ero- 
 fion, efpecially in different filhes ; in which, when he had 
 cleared the ftomach of its contents, the internal coat was 
 wanting. In other animals there was only a flight excoria- 
 tion ; and the injury in all of them was at the inferior part, 
 or great curvature. The cc'ats of the ftomach fuffer lefs af- 
 ter death than flefh, or part of the ftomach of fimilar animals 
 put into it: the author affigns as a reafon for this, that thefe 
 bodies are invefted on all fides by the gaftric fluid, whereas 
 it only afls on the internal furf.ice of the ftomach. 
 
28o of the abdomen. Part III. 
 
 contain ; and in fuch cafes, that part which is 
 taken into the ftomach k more or lefs diffolved, 
 while that part which remains in the oefo- 
 phagus is perfectly found ; and here, as well 
 as in the human body, the digefting part of 
 the ftomach is often reduced to the fame 
 ftate as the digefted part of the food. Thefe 
 appearances tend to prove, that digeftion is not 
 effed:ed by a mechanical power, by contractions 
 of the ftomach, or by heat ; but by a fluid fe- 
 creted in the coats of the ftomach, which is 
 poured into its cavity, and there animalizes the 
 food, or alTimijates it to the nature of the blood. 
 
 From feme late experiments by M. Sage*, it 
 appears, that inflammable air has the property 
 of deftroying and dilfolving the animal texture : 
 -and as we fwallow with the fubftances which 
 ferve us for food a great quantity of atmofphe- 
 rical air, M. Sage thinks it poflible, that de- 
 plogifticated, which is its principle, may be con- 
 verted in the ftomach into inflammable air, or 
 may modify into inflammable air a portion of 
 the oily fubftance which is the principle of ali- 
 ments. In this cafe, would not the inflammable 
 air (he afxs), by diffolving our food, facilitate 
 its converfion into chyle ? 
 
 Be this as it may, the food, after having re- 
 mained one, twOj or three hours in the ftomach, 
 
 is 
 
 Hift. Cie I’Academie ro3'alc des Sciences, &c. pour 1 78.5, 
 rr=em. i c. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 281 
 
 is converted into a greyifli pulp, which is ufual- 
 ly called chynius^ a word of Greek etymology, 
 fignifyingy^/V^, and fome few milky or chylous 
 particles begin to appear. — But the term of its 
 refidence in this bag is proportioned to the na- 
 ture of the aliment, and to the ftate of the fto- 
 mach and its juices. The thinner and more 
 perfectly digefted parts of the food pafs by a lit- 
 tle at a time into the duodenum, through the py- 
 lorus, the fibres of which relax to afford it a paf- 
 fage ; and the groffer and lefs digefted particles 
 remain in the ftomach, till they acquire a fuffi- 
 cient fluidity to pafs into the inteftines, where 
 the nature of the chymus is perfectly changed. 
 The bile and pancreatic juice which flow into the 
 duodenum, and the mucus, which is every 
 wli.rc d'. led from the furface of the inteftines, 
 mix themlelves vfith the alimentary pulp, which 
 they ftill farther attenuate and diffolve, and in- 
 to which they feem to infufe new properties. 
 
 Two matters very different from each other 
 in their nature and deftination, are the refult of 
 this combination. — One of thefe, which is com- 
 pofed of the liquid parts of the aliment, and of 
 fome of its more folid particles, extremely di- 
 vided and mixed with the juices we have de- 
 fcribed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and 
 whitifh fluid, refembling milk, and diftinguifh- 
 ed by the name of chyle. This fluid is abforb- 
 ed by the ladleal veins, which convey it into 
 the circulation, where, bv being affimilated into 
 
 the 
 
2S2 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 the nature of blood, it affords that fupply of nu- 
 trition which the continual wafte of the body is 
 found to require. — The other is the remains of 
 the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nu- 
 tritious particles, and containing only fuch parts 
 as were rejected by the abforbing mouths of the 
 ladfeals. This gtoffer part, called the faces ^ 
 paffes on through the courfe of the inteftines, to 
 be voided at the anus, as will be explained here- 
 after ; for this procefs in the oeconomy cannot 
 be well underftood till the motion of refpiration 
 has been explained. But the ftrudlure of the 
 intePdncs is a fubjcd; which may be properly 
 ddcribed in this })lace, and defcrves to be at- 
 tended to. 
 
 It has been already obferved, that the intefli- 
 nal canal is five or fix times as long as the body, 
 and that it forms many circumvolutions in the 
 cavity of the abdomen, which it traverfes from 
 the right to the left, and again from the left to 
 the right : in one place defcending, and in ano- 
 ther extending itfelf upwards. It was noticed 
 likewife, that the inner coat of the inteftines, by 
 being more capacious than their exterior tunics, 
 formed a multitude of plaits placed at a certain 
 diftance from each other, and called valvula con- 
 ■nlventcs. Now this difpofition v;ill be found to 
 afford a farther proof of that divine wifdom, which 
 the anatcmift and phyiiologift cannot fail to dif- 
 < over in ail their purfuits. — For if the intefti- 
 nal canal was much Ihorter than it naturally is ; 
 if inftcad of the prcfent circumvolutions it pafi- 
 
 cd 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 283 
 
 ed in a dire£t courfe from the ftomach ; and if 
 its inner furface was. fmooth and deftitute of 
 valves ; the aliment would confequently pafs 
 with great rapidity to the anus, and fufficient 
 time would be wanting to aflimilate the chyle, 
 and for the necefl'ary abforption of it into the 
 ladteals ; lb that the body would be deprived of 
 the fupply of nutrition, which is fo elTential to 
 life and health ; but the length and circumvo- 
 lutions of the inteftines, the inequality of their 
 internal furface, and the courfe of the aliment 
 through them, all concur to perfect the fepara- 
 tion of the chyle from the feces, and to afford 
 the necelfary nourilhment to the body. 
 
 Sect. XIV. Of the Courfe of the Chyle ^ a 7 id of 
 the Lymphatic S \fem. 
 
 An infinite number of very minute velfels, 
 called the laCeal veins ^ arife like net-work from 
 the inner furface of the inteftines, (but princi- 
 pally from the jejunum and illump which are 
 diftendedto imbibe the nutritious fluid or chyle. 
 Thefe velfels, which were difcovered by Afel- 
 lius in 1622 (i), pafs obliquely through the 
 
 coats 
 
 (i) Wc are informed by Galen, that the lafteals had been 
 hen in kids by Eraliftratns, who confidered them as arteries 
 tarrying a milky fluid: but from the remote time in vthich 
 he lived, they do not fecm to have been noticed till they were 
 dilcovered in a living dog by Afelllus, who denominated them 
 lacteah^ and confidered tliem as ferving to convey the chyle 
 from the inttfrines to the liver ; for before the difcovery of 
 the thoracic duct, the ufe of the liver was univerfally fup- 
 
284 OF THE ABCOMEN. Pai?t III. 
 
 coats of the inteftine, • and running along the 
 mefentery, unite as they advance, and form 
 larger branches, all of which pafs through the 
 mefenteric or conglobate glands, which are very 
 numerous in the human fubjedt. As they run 
 between the inteftines and thefe glands, they 
 are ftyled vencd laElea primis generis : but after 
 leaving thefe glands, they are found to be lefs 
 numerous, and being increafed in fize, are then 
 called vena laEiea Jeaindi generis^ which go to 
 depofit their contents in the thoracic duB^ through 
 which the chyle is conveyed into the blood. 
 
 This thoracic duB begins about the lower part 
 of the firft vertebra lumborum, from whence it 
 pafles up by the fide of the aorta, between that 
 and the vena azygos, clofe to the vertebrse, be- 
 ing covered by the pleura. Sometimes it is found 
 divided into branches ; but they ufually unite 
 again into one canal, which opens into the left 
 fubclavian vein, after having run a little way in 
 an oblique courfe between its coats. The fub- 
 clavian vein communicates with the vena cava, 
 which ptlTes to the right auricle of the heart. 
 
 The 
 
 pofed to be that of converting the chyle into blood. But the 
 difcovery of the thoracic dudl by Pecquet, not long after, 
 corrected this error. Pecquet very candidly confeffes that 
 this difcovery acccidentally arofe from his obferving a 
 ■white fluid, mixed with the blood, flowing out of the 
 vena cava, after he had cut off the heart of a living dog 5 
 which he fufpcdted to be chyle, and afterwards traced to its 
 fource from the thoracic duft : this dudf had been feen near 
 an hundred years before in ahorfeby Euflachius, who fpeaks 
 of it as a vein of a particular ftruff'are, but without know- 
 ing any thing of its termination or ule. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 285 
 
 The lower part of this dudt being ufualiy 
 larger than any other part of it, has been nam- 
 ed receptaculum chyli^ or P-ecquef s receptacle^ in 
 honour of the anatomift who firft diicovered it 
 in 1 65 1 . In fome quadrupeds, in turtle and in 
 filh, this enlargement * is more confiderable in 
 proportion to the fize of the du<St, than it ufu- 
 ally is in the human fubjeft, where it is not com- 
 monly found large enough to merit the name of 
 receptaculum. 
 
 Opportunities of obferving the ladteals in the • 
 human fubje£t do not often occur ; but they 
 may be ealily demonftrated in a dog or any other 
 quadruped that is killed two or three hours af- 
 ter feeding upon milk; for then they appear fill- 
 ed with white chyle. 
 
 But thefe la&eals which we have defcribed, as 
 palling from the inteftines through the mefen- 
 tery to the thoracic du6t, compofe only a part of 
 a fyftem of veflels which perform the office of 
 abforption^ and which conftitute, Math their 
 common trunk, the thoracic du<ff, and the 
 conglobate glands that are difperfed through the 
 body, what may be ftyled the lymphatic fyjlem. 
 
 So that what is faid of the ftrudlure of one of 
 thefe feries of veflels may very properly be ap- 
 plied to that of the other. 
 
 The lymphatics veins (k) are minute pellu- 
 cid 
 
 * Hcwfon’s Exp. Inq. Part IL 
 
 (k) The arteries in their courfe through the body becom- 
 ing gradually too minute to admit the red globule« of the 
 
 blood. 
 
286 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part BL 
 
 cid tubes, which like the ladteals, dired; their 
 courle towards the centre of the body, where 
 they pour a colourlefs fluid into the thoracic dud. 
 The lymphatics from all the lower parts of the 
 body gradually unite as they approach this dud, 
 into which they enter by three or four very large 
 trunks, that leem to form the lov/er extremity 
 of this canal, or reccptaculum chyli^ wliich may 
 be ccnfidered as the great trunk of the lympha- 
 tic fyftem. The ladeals open into it near thc; 
 fame place; and the lymphatics, from a large 
 lharc of the upper parts of the body, pour their 
 lymph into different parts of this dud as it runs 
 upwards, to terminate in the left fubclavian vein. 
 The lymphatics from the right fide of the neck, 
 thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate in the 
 fight fubclavian vein. 
 
 As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the 
 large blood-veflels, a ligature pafTed round the 
 
 crural 
 
 blood, hav'e then been flyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. 
 The velFels which are here deferibed as conlUtuting the lym- 
 phatic fyftem, were at firlt fuppofei to be continued from 
 thofe arteries, and to convey back the lymph, either into the 
 red veins or the thoracic duft j the ofnee of abforption hav- 
 ing been attributed to the red veins. But we know that the 
 lymphatic veins are not’ continuations of the lymphatic arteries^ 
 but that they conrtitute the ahforbent fyjlcm. There are ftill, 
 however, fome very refpeftable names among the anatomifls 
 of the prefent age, who contend, that the red veins aA like- 
 wife as abforbents : — but it Items to have been clearly prov- 
 ed, that the red veins do ablbrb no where but in the caver- 
 n'.)us cells of the penis, the ereffion of which is occafioned 
 by a diffenfion of thofe cells with arterial blood. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 2S7 
 
 crural artery in a living animal, by including the 
 lymphatics, will occafion a diftenfion of thefe 
 velTels below the ligature, fo as to clemonfti'ate 
 them with eafe ; and a ligature paffed round the 
 thoracic du(T, inftantly after killing an animal, 
 will, by flopping the courfe of its contents into 
 the fubclavian vein, diflend not only the la(!deals, 
 but alfo the lymphatics in the abdomen and 
 lower extremities, with their natural fluids (l). 
 
 The coats of thefe veffels are too thin to be 
 feparated from each other ; but the mercury they 
 are capable of fuflaining, proves them to be ve- 
 ry flrong ; and their great power of contraftion, 
 after undergoing confiderable diflenfion, toge- 
 ther with the irritability with which Baron Hal- 
 ler found them to be endued feems to render 
 it probable, that like the blood-veffels, they have 
 a mufcular coat. 
 
 The lymphatics are nouriflied after the fame 
 manner as all the other parts of the body. For 
 even the mofl minute of thefe veiTels are pro- 
 bably fupplied with flill more minute arteries 
 and veins. This feems to be proved by the in- 
 flammation of which they are fufceptible ; and 
 
 the 
 
 (l) In the dead body they may be eafdy demonftrated bv 
 opening the artery ramifying through any vifcus, as in the 
 fpleen, for inftance, and then throwing in air ; by which 
 the lymphatics will be diflended. One of them may be 
 punftured, and mercury introduced into it through a blow- 
 pipe. 
 
 * Sur le movement dll fang Ex. 29 c, 298, 
 
288 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part Ilf. 
 the painful fwellings which fometimes take place 
 in lymphatic veflels, prove that they have nerves 
 as well as blood-veflels. 
 
 Both the la(Teals, lymphatics, and thoracic 
 dudt, are furnilhed with valves, which are much 
 more common in thefe veflels tlian in the red 
 veins. Thefe valves are ufually in pairs, and 
 ferve to promote the courfe of the chyle and 
 lymph towards the thoracic duct, and to pre- 
 vent its return. Mention has been made of the j: J 
 glands, through which the ladeals pafs in theif^; ,! 
 courfe through the mefentery ; and it is to be ob- 
 ferved, that the lymphatics pafs through fimiiar^ 
 glands in their way to the thoracic du(T. The^^^ 
 glands are all of a conglobate kind, but the 
 changes which the chyle and lymph undergo ini 
 their paffage through them, have not yet been' 
 afceitained. 
 
 The lymphatic vejfds begin from furfaces and^ 
 cavities in all parts of the body as ahforbents. ^ 
 This is a fadl now univerfally allowed ; but 
 how the fluids they abforb are poured into thofe ' 
 carnties, is a fubjedt of controverfy. The con- 
 tents of the abdomen, for inRance, were de-,^ 
 fcribed as being conftantly moiftened by a very- j 
 thin watery fluid. The fame thing takes place M 
 in the pericardium, pleura, and all the other ca-.^ 
 vities of the body, and this wateiy fluid is the ^ 
 ly?nph. But whether it is exhaled into thofe,.jj^ 
 cavities through the minute ends of arteries, or 
 tranfuded through their coats, are the points in : , 
 
 2 difpute. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 289 
 difpute. We cannot here be permitted to re- 
 late the many ingenious arguments that have 
 been advanced in favour of each thefe opinions ; 
 nor is it perhaps of confequence to our prefent 
 purpofe to enter into the difpute. It will be fuffi- 
 cient if the reader can form an idea of what the 
 lymph is, and of the manner in which it is ab- 
 forbed. 
 
 The lymph ^ from ife tranlparency and want of 
 colour, would feem to be nothing but water ; 
 and hence the firftdifcoverers of thefe veffels ftiled 
 them duSlus aqiioji : but experiments prove, that 
 the lymph of an healthy animal coagulates by 
 being expofed to the air, or a certain degree of 
 heat, and likewife by being fulfered to reft; feem- 
 ing to agree in this property with that part of the 
 blood called the coagulable lymph . — This proper- 
 ty of the lymph leads to determine its life, in 
 moiftening and lubricating the feveral cavities of 
 the body in which it is found ; and for which, 
 by its gelatinous principle, it feems to be much, 
 better calculated than a pure and watery fluid 
 would be, for fuch it has been fuppofed to be by 
 fome anatomifts. 
 
 The mouths of the lymphatics and laBeah\ 
 by acting as capillary tubes, feem to abforb the 
 lymph and chyle fomewhat in the fame manner 
 as a capillary tube of glafs, when put into a 
 bafon of water, is enabled to attrad; the wa- 
 ter into it to a certain height, but it is pro- 
 bable that they likewife polfefs a living power, 
 
 T wdiich 
 
290 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 which affifts in performing this office. In 
 the human body the lymph or the chyle^ is pro- 
 bably conveyed upon this principle as far as the 
 hrft pair of valves, which feem to be placed not 
 far from the orifice of the abforbing veffel, whe- 
 ther lymphaiic or laSleaJ : and the fluid will then 
 be propelled forwards, by a continuation of the 
 abfoiyition at the orifice. But this does not feem 
 to be the only inducemeift to its progrefs to- 
 wards the thoracic dud; ; thefe veffels have pro- 
 bably a mufcular coat, which may ferve to prefs 
 the fluid forwards from one pair of valves to ano- 
 ther; and as the large lymphatic veflTels and the 
 thoracic dud are placed clofe to the large 
 arteries, which have a confiderable pulfa- 
 tion, it is reafonable to fuppofe, that they de- 
 rive fome advantage from this fituation. 
 
 Sect. XV. Of the Generative Organs ; of Con- 
 ception &c. 
 
 § I, The Male Organs, 
 
 The male organs of generation have beeri 
 ufually divided into the parts which ferve to pre- 
 pare the femen from the blood, and thofe which 
 are diftended to convey it into the womb. But 
 it feems to be more proper to diftinguilh them 
 into preparing y the containing y and the ex- 
 
 pelling parts, which are the different offices of the 
 tefesy the veficula feminaksy and the penis ; and, 
 
 this 
 
Part III. . OF THE ABDOMEN. 2gi 
 
 this is the order in which we propofe to defcribe 
 them. 
 
 The teftes are two glandular bodies, ferving 
 to fecrete the femen from the blood. They are 
 originally formed and lodged within the cavity 
 of the abdomen ; and it is not till after the child 
 is born, or very near that time, that they begin 
 to pafs into the groin, and from thence into the 
 fcrotum (m). By this difpofition they are very 
 wifely protected from the injuries to which they 
 would be liable to be expofed, from the different 
 pofitions of the child at the time of parturition. 
 
 The tefticles in this ftate are loofely attached 
 to the pfose mufcles, by means of the peritonae- 
 um by which they are covered ; and they are at 
 this time of life connected in a very particular 
 
 T 2 manner 
 
 (m) It fometimes happens in difTefting ruptures, that the 
 intefUne is found in the fame fac, and in contaft with the teftis. 
 This appearance was at firfl attributed to a fuppofed lacera- 
 tion of the peritonseum ; but later obfervations, by pointing 
 out the fituationof the tefticles in the foetus, have led to prove, 
 that the teftis, as it defcends into the fcrotum, carries with 
 it a portion or elongation of the peritonaeum, which becomes 
 its tunica vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the tefticle is 
 lodged, as will be explained in the courfe of this feftion. 
 The communication between this fac and the cavity of the 
 abdomen, is ufually foon cut off ; but in fomefubjefts it con- 
 tinues open during life j|and when an hernia or defcent of the 
 inteftine takes place in a fuch fubjeft,it does not pulh down 
 a portion of the peritonaeum before it, as it muft otherwife 
 neceffarily do, but paffes at once through this opening, and 
 comes in contaft with the naked tefticle, conftituting that 
 f articular fpedes of rupture called hernia congenita. 
 
292 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 manner to the parietes of the abdornen, and like- 
 wife to the fcrotiim, by means of a fubftance 
 which Mr. Hunter calls the ligament ox guberna- 
 culiim teJUs^ becaufe it connedln the teftis with 
 the fcrotiim, and diteds its courfe in its defcent. 
 This gubernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with 
 its bulbous head fixed to the lower end of the 
 teftis and epididymis, and lofes its lower and 
 {lender extremity in the cellular membrane of the 
 fcrotum. It is difficult to afcertain what the 
 ftrudlure and compofition of this gubernaculum 
 is, but it is certainly vafcular and fibrous ; and* 
 from certain circumftances* it would feem to be 
 in part compofed of the cfemafter mufcle, run- ! 
 ning upwards to join the lower end of the teftis. 
 
 We are not to fuppofe that the tefticle, when 
 defcended into the fcrotum, is to be feen loofe as 
 a piece of gut or omentum would be in a com- 
 mon hernial fac. We have already obfetved, 
 that during its refidence in the cavity of the ab- 
 domen it is attached to the peritonaeum, which 
 defcends with it ; fo that when the fac is com- 
 pleted in the fcrotum, the tefticle is at firft at- 
 tached only to the pofterior part of it, while the 
 fore part of it lies loofe, and for fome time 
 fords a communication with the abdomen. The 
 fpermatic chord, which is made up of the fper- 
 matic artery and vein, and of the vas deferens or 
 excretory dudt of the teftis, is clofely attached 
 behind to the pofterior part of this elongation of 
 the peritonaeum. But the fore part of the peri- 1 
 
 toneal I 
 
Part 111. OF TOL ABDOMEN. 293 
 
 toneal fac, which is at firft loofe and not attached 
 to the tefticle, clofes after a certain time, and be- 
 comes united the pofterior part, and thus per- 
 fedily furrounds the tefticle as it were in a 
 purfe. 
 
 The tefticles of the foetus differ only in their 
 fize and fituation from thofe of the adult. In 
 their paffage from the abdomen they defeend 
 through the abdominal rings into the ferotum, 
 where they are fupported and defended by vari- 
 ous integuments. 
 
 What the immediate caufe of this defeent is, 
 has not yet been fatisfaeftorily determined. It 
 4 has been aferibed to the effects of refpiration, but 
 the tefticles have fometimes been found in the 
 ferotum before the child has breathed ; and it 
 does not feem to be occafioned by the aeftion of 
 the cremafter mufcle, becaufe the fame effefl 
 would be liable to happen to the hedge-hog, and 
 fome other quadrupeds, w^hofe tefticles remain in 
 the abdomen during life. 
 
 The ferotum, v^^hieh is the external or com- 
 mon covering of both tefticles, is a kind of fac 
 formed by the common integuments, and exter- 
 nally divided into two equal parts by a promi- 
 nent line called raphe. 
 
 In the inner part of the ferotum we meet with 
 a cellular coat called dartos (n), which by its 
 
 duplicature 
 
 (n) The dartos has nfually been confidered as a mufcle, 
 and is deferibed as fnch both by Douglas and Winflow. But 
 
 there 
 
294 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 duplicature divides the fcrotum into two equal 
 parts, and forms what is called feptum fcroti, 
 which correfponds with the raphe. The collap- 
 fion which is fo often obferved to take place in 
 the fcrotum of the healthy fubjedt, when excit- 
 ed by cold or by the ftimulus of venery, feems 
 to be very properly attributed to the contrac- 
 tile motion of the fkin, and not to any mufcular 
 fibres, as is the cafe in dogs and fome other quad- 
 rupeds. 
 
 The fcrotum, then, by means of its feptum, 
 is found to make two diftindl bags, in which the 
 tefticles, invefted by their proper tunics, are fe- 
 cured lodged and feparated from each other, j 
 Thefe coats are the cremafter, the tunica vagina- 
 lis, and the tunica albuginea. The ftrft of thefe 
 is compofed of mufcular fibres, and is to be con- 
 fidered only as a partial covering of the teftis ; 
 for it furrounds only the fpermatic chord, and 
 terminates upon the upper and external parts of 
 the tunica vaginalis teftis, ferving to draw up 
 and fufpend the tefticle (o). The tunica vaginalis 
 teftis has already been defcribed as being a thin 
 
 production 
 
 there being no part of the fcrotum of the human fubjeft 
 ■which can be laid to confift of mufcular fibres, Albinus and 
 Haller have very properly omitted to defcribe the dartos as 
 a mufcle, and confider it merely as a cellular coat. 
 
 (o) The cremafter mufcle is compofed of a few fibres 
 from the obliquus internus abdominis, which uniting with a 
 few from the tranfverfalis, defcend upon the fpermatic chord, 
 and are infenfibly loft upon the tunica vaginalis of the tefti- 
 cle. It ferves to fufpend and draw up the tefticle. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 295 
 
 produdion of the peritonaeum, loofely adhering 
 every where to the tefticle, which it includes as 
 it were in a bag. The tunica albuginea is a firm, 
 white, and veiy compadl: membrane of a glif- 
 tening appearance, which immediately invefts 
 the hody of the teftis and the epididymus ; ferv- 
 ing in fome meafure to connedt them to each 
 other, but without extending itielf at all to the 
 fpermatic chord. This tunica albuginea ferves 
 to confine the growth of the teftis and epididy- 
 mus within certain limits, and by giving them 
 a due degree of firmnefs, enables them to per- 
 form their proper fundfions. 
 
 Having removed this laft tunic, we discover 
 the fubftance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears 
 to be made up of an infinite number of very 
 elaftic filaments, which may be beft diftinguiih- 
 ed after macerating the tefticle in v,nater. Each 
 tefticle is made up of the fpermatic artery and 
 vein, and the excretory veffels or tubuli femini- 
 feri. There are likewife a great number of ab- 
 forbent velfels, and fome branches of nerves to be 
 met with in the tefticles. 
 
 The fpermatic arteries arife one on each fide 
 from the aorta, generally about an inch below 
 the emulgents. The right fpermatic vein com- 
 monly pafles into the vena cava ; but the left 
 fpermatic vein ufually empties itfelf into the 
 emulgent on that fide ; and it is fuppofed to take 
 this courfe into the emulgent, that it may avoid 
 
 paifing 
 
296 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part IIL 
 palling over the aorta, which it would be oblig- 
 ed to do in its way to the vena cava. 
 
 The blood is circulated very flowly through 
 the fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite 
 number of circumvolutions in the fubftance of 
 thetefticle, where it depofitesthe femen, which 
 palTes through the tubuli feminiferi. Thefe tu- 
 buli feminiferi are feen running in ftiort waves 
 from the tunica albuginea to the axis of the tefti- 
 cle ; and are divided into diftinT portions by 
 certain thin membranous produdions, which 
 originate from the tunica albuginea. They at 
 length unite, and by an infinite number of con- 
 volutions form a fort of appendix to the teftis 
 called epididymis (p), which is a vafcular body 
 of an oblong fhape,fituated upon the fuperior part 
 of each tefticle. Thefe tubuli of the epididymis 
 at length form an excretory dudf called vas de- 
 ferens^ which afcends towards the abdominal 
 rings, with the other parts that make up the 
 fpermatic chord, and then a feparation takes 
 places the neiA'^es and blood-veffels palfing on to 
 their feveral terminations, and the vas deferens 
 going to depofit its femen in the veficula! femi- 
 nales, which are two foft bodies of a white and 
 convoluted appearance externally, fituatcd ob- 
 liquely between the redlum and the lower part 
 
 of 
 
 (p) The tefticles were named diclymi by the ancients, and 
 the name of this part was given to it on account of its fitua- 
 tlon upon the telUcle, 
 
Part lil. OF THE ABDOMEN. 297 
 
 of the bladder, and uniting together at the lower 
 extremity. From thefe refervoirs (q^), which 
 
 are 
 
 (o^) That the bags called veficiilx femhmles are refervoirs 
 of femen, is a circumftance which has been by anatomifts 
 univerfally believed. Mr. J. Hunter, however, from feveral 
 circumflances, has been induced to think this opinion erro- 
 neous. 
 
 He has examined thefe veficulse in people who have died 
 fuddenly, and he found their contents to be different in their 
 properties from the femen. In thofe who had loft one of 
 the tefticles, or the ufe of one of them, by difeafe, both the 
 veficulse were full, and their contents ftmilar. And in a 
 lufus nature, where there was no communication between 
 the vafa deferentia and veficulae, nor between the veficulae 
 and penis, the fame thing took place. 
 
 From thefe obfervations, bethinks we have a prefumptlv« 
 proof. That the femen can be abforbed in the body of the 
 tefticle and in the epididymis, and that the veficulae fecrete 
 a mucus which they are capable of abforbing when it cannot 
 be made ufe of : That the femen is not retained in refervoirs 
 after it is lecreted, and kept there till it is ufed ; but that it 
 is fecreted at the time, in confequcnce of certain afteftions 
 of the mind ftimulating the tefticles to this aflion. 
 
 He corroborates his obfervations by the appearance on 
 diffeflion in other animals •, and here he finds. That the fhape 
 and contents of the veficulse vary much in different animals, 
 while the femen in moft of them he has examined is nearly 
 the fame : That the vafa deferentia in many animals do not 
 communicate with the veficulse : That the contents of the 
 veficulse of caftrated and perfefl animals are ftmilar, and 
 nearly equal in quantity, in no way refembling the femen 
 as emitted from the animal in coitu, or what is found in the 
 vas deferens after death. He obferves likewilc, that the 
 bulb of the urethra of perfeft males is conftderably larger 
 than in caftrated animals. 
 
 From the whole, he thinks the following inferences may 
 
 be 
 
298 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part Ilf. 
 are plentifully fupplied with blood-veffels and 
 nerves, the femen is occafionally difcharged 
 through two fhort paflages, which open into the 
 
 urethra 
 
 be fairly drawn : That the bags called veficultz feminales are 
 not feminal refervoirs, but glands fecreting a peculiar mucus ; 
 and that the bulb of the urethra is properly fpeaking the 
 receptacle of the femen, in which it is accumulated previous 
 to ejeftion. 
 
 But although he has endeavoured to prove that the vefi- 
 culas do not contain the femen, he has not been able to af- 
 certain their particular ufe. He thinks, however, we may 
 be allowed upon the whole to conclude, that they are, toge- 
 ther with other parts, fubfervient to the purpofes of gene- 1 
 ration. 
 
 Although the author has treated this fubjedf very ably, 
 and made many Ingenious obfervations, fome things may be ! 
 objeffed to what he has advanced •, of which the following 
 are a few : That thofe animals who have bags called veficuhz 
 fe 7 ninales perform copulation quickly 5 whereas others that 
 want them, as in the dog kind, are tedious in copulation : 
 That in the human body, at leaft, there is a free communica- 
 tion between the vafa deferentia and veficulas ; and in ani- 
 mals where the author has obferved no communication be- 
 tween the vala deferentia and veficulas, there may be a com- 
 munication by veffels not yet difcovered, and which may be 
 compared to the hepato-cyftic dufts in fowls and fifhes : — . 
 That the fluid in the end of the vafa deferentia and the vefi -^1 
 culfE feminales are fimilar, according to the author’s own ob- J|[ 
 fervation : That the veficuls in fome animals increafe and 
 decreafewith the tefticle at particular feafons : That in birds 
 and certain fiflres, there is a dilatation of the ends of the vafa„ 
 deferentia, which the author himfelf allows to be a refer- 
 voir for the femen. ^,^1 
 
 AVith refpedl to the circumftance of the bulb of the u're- „ 
 thra anfwering the purpofe of a refervoir, the author has 
 mention no fafts which tend to eftablifh this opinion. Sec 
 Obfervations on certain Parts of the Animal Oeconomy^ 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 299 
 
 urethra clofe to a little eminence called verumon^ 
 taniim. 
 
 Near this eminence we meet with the prof- 
 tate, which is fituated at the neck of the 
 bladder, and is defcribed as being of a glandu- 
 lar ftrudfure. It is fhaped fomewhat like a heart 
 with its fmall end foremoft, and inverts the ori- 
 gin of the urethra. Internally it appears to be 
 of a firm fubrtance, and compofed of feveral fol- 
 licles, fecreting a whitirti vifcid fluid, that is dif- 
 charged by ten or twelve excretory dudls into 
 the urethra, on each fide of the openings of the 
 veficulae feminales at the fame time, and from the 
 fame caufes that the femen is expelled. As this 
 latter fluid is found to be exceedingly limpid in 
 the veficulae feminales of the dead fubjedt, it 
 probably owes its whitenefs and vifcidity to this 
 liquor of the prortate. 
 
 The penis, which is to be confidered as the 
 vehicle or adfive organ of procreation, is com- 
 pofed of two columns, the corpora cavernofa, 
 corpus fpongiofum. The corpora cavernofa, 
 which conrtitute the greatert part of the penis, 
 may be defcribed as two cylindrical ligamentous 
 tubes, each of which is compofed of an infinite 
 number of minute cells of a fpongy texture, 
 which communicate with each other. Thefe 
 two bodies are of a very pliant texture, and ca- 
 pable of confiderable diftenfion : and being unit- 
 ed laterally to each other, occafion by this union 
 a fpace above and another below. The upper- 
 
 and 
 
300 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 moft of thefe fpaces is filled by the blood veflels, 
 and the lower one, which is larger than the j 
 other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongiofum. 
 Thefe two cavernous bodies are at firft only fe- 
 parated by a partition of tendinous fibres, which li 
 allow them to communicate with each other ; but t 
 they afterwards divaricate from each other like 
 the branches of the letter Y, and diminifhing 
 gradually in fize, are attached, one on each fidei, ' 
 by means of the ligamentum fufpenforium penis 
 to the ramus ifchii, and to the inferior portion of 
 the os pubis. 
 
 The corpus fpongiofum penis, or corpus fpon- | 
 giofum urethi'se, as it is ftyled by fome authors, 
 begins as foon as the urethra has paffed the prof- 
 tate, with a thick origin almoft like a heart, firft 
 under the urethra, and afterwards above it, be- 
 coming gradually thinner, and furrounding the 
 whole canal of the urethra, till it terminates in a 
 confiderable expanfion, and conftitutes what is 
 called the glans penis ^ which is exceedingly vaf- 
 cular, and covered with papillse like the tongue. 
 The cuticle which lines the inner furface of || 
 the urethra, is continued over the glans in the 
 fame manner as it is fpread over the lips. 
 
 The penis is invefled by the common integu- || 
 ments, but the cutis is refiefted back every where 
 from the glans as it is in the eye-lids ; fo that it 
 covers this part, when the penis is in a relaxed 
 ftate, as it were with a hood, and from this ufe is I 
 called prepuce. 
 
 The 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 301 
 
 The prepuce is tied down to the under part 
 of the glans by a fmall ligament called franum^ 
 which is in faO; only a continuation of the cuticle 
 and cutis. There are many fimple febaceous 
 follicles called glandules odorifera^ placed round 
 the balls of the glans ; and the fluid they fecrete 
 fen'^es to preferve the exquifite fenfibility of this 
 part of the penis, and to prevent the ill effedts 
 of attrition from the prepuce. 
 
 The urethra may be deiined to be a membran- 
 ous canal, paflTmg from the bladder through the 
 whole extent of the penis. Several very frnail 
 openings, called lacunee^ communicate with this 
 canal, trough which a mucus is difeharged into 
 it ; and befides thefe, there are two glands, firft 
 deferibed by Cowper, as fecreting a fluid for lu- 
 bricating the urethra, and called Copper s glands 
 (r) ; and Littre * fpeaks of a gland fituated- 
 near the proftate, as being deftined for the fame 
 ufe. 
 
 The urethra being continued from the neck 
 of the bladder, is to be confidered as making part 
 of the urinary palTage ; and it likewife afibrds a 
 conveyance to the femen, which we have obfen?^- 
 ed is occalionally difeh^ged into it from the ve- 
 ficulae feminales. The dired;ion of this canal 
 being firfl; under and then before the pubis, oc~ 
 
 cafions 
 
 (r) Both Heifter and Morgagni obferve, that they have 
 rometimes not been able to find thefe glands ; lb that they do 
 not feem to exifi: in all fubjefts. 
 
 * Menioires da I'Acad. Royak des Sciaiccsy i "oo. 
 
302 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 cafions a winding in its courfe from, the blad- 
 der to the penis not unlike the turns of the let- 
 ter S. 
 
 The penis has three pair of mufcles, the erec- 
 tores, acceleratores, and tranfverfales. They 
 pufh the blood from the crura to the fore part of 
 the corpora cavernofa. The firft originate from 
 the tuberofity of the ifchium, and terminate in 
 the corpora cavernofa. The acceleratores arife 
 from the fphinfter, and by their infertion ferve 
 to comprefs the bulbous part of the urethra ; 
 and the tranfverfales are deftined to afford a paf- 
 fage to the femen, by dilating the canal of the 
 urethra. 
 
 The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived 
 from the internal iliacs. Some of them are fup- 
 pofed to terminate by pabulous orifices within 
 the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongiofum ; 
 and others terminate in veins, which at lafl make 
 up the vena magna dorfi penis, and other fmall- 
 er veins, which are in general diflributed in like 
 order with the arteries. 
 
 Its nerves are large and numerous. They 
 arife from the great fciatic nerve, and accom- 
 pany the arteries in their courfe through the 
 penis. 
 
 We have now defcribed the anatomy of this 
 organ ; and there only remains to be explained, 
 how it is enabled to att^lin that degree of firmnefs 
 and diflenfion which is effential to the great work 
 of generation. 
 
 0 
 
 The 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 3(53 
 The greateft part of the penis has been fpokeii 
 of as being of a fpongy and cellular texture, 
 plentifully fupplied with blood-veflels and nerves, 
 and as having mufcles to move it in different di- 
 red;ions. Now, the blood is conftantly palling 
 into its cells through the fmall branches of the 
 arteries which which open into them, and is 
 from thence as conftantly returned by the veins, 
 fo long as the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpon- 
 giofum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant 
 ftate. But when, from any nervous influence, 
 or other means, which it is not neceflfary here 
 I to define or explain, the eredlores penis, ejacu- 
 ^ latores feminis, levatores ani, &c. are induced 
 r to contraft, the veins undergo a certain degree 
 ( of compreflion, and the paffage of the blood 
 ' through them is fo much impeded, that it col- 
 ! lefts in them in a greater proportion than they 
 ' are enabled to carry off, fo that the penis gradu- 
 ally enlarges ; and being more and more forcibly 
 drawn up againft the os pubis, the vena magna 
 itfelf is at length compreffed, and the penis be- 
 comes fully diftended. But as the caufes which 
 firft occafioned this diftenfion fubfide, the peni^ 
 gradually returns to its ftate of relaxation. 
 
 § 2. Female Organs of Generation. 
 
 Anatomical writers ufually divide the fe- 
 tnale organs of generation into external and inter- 
 nal. In the firft divifion they include the mons 
 ^3 . veneris. 
 
304 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part HE* 
 
 veneris^ Libia pudendi^ perinaum^ clltvris^ nymph ce^ 
 and carunculix myrtiformes ; and in the latter, the 
 vagina-, with the ntsrm and its appendages. ^ 
 
 The mans veneris^ which is placed on the upper j 
 part of the fymphyfis pubis, is internally com- 
 pofed of adipofe membranes, which makes it * 
 i'oft and prominent : it divides into two parts 
 called labia pudendi^ which defcending towards 
 the redtum, from which they are divided by the 
 perinasum, form what is called the jhurckttte^ | 
 The perinaeum is that flefhy fpace which extends i 
 about an inch and an half from the fourchette to 
 the anus, and from thence about two inches to 
 the coccyx. 
 
 The labia pudendi being feparated, we obferve^ 
 a fulcus called fo^a magni ; in the upper part of vjl 
 which is placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy 
 body, in fome meafure refembling the male pe- 
 nis, but impervious, compofed of two corpora 
 cavernofa, arifmg from the tuberofities of the ‘ 
 oha iichii ; fiirnifhed with two pair of mufcles, | 
 the eredtores clitoridis, and the fphin£ter or con- 
 ftri(Tor oftii vaginse ; and terminating in a glans, 
 which is covered with its prepuce. From the 
 lower part, on each fide of the folia, pafs the 
 nymphse, tvs^o membranous and fpongy folds 
 which feem deftined for ufcful purpofes in partu- 
 rition, by tending to enlarge the volume of the 
 vagina as the child’s head paffes through it. Be- 
 tween thefe, about the middle of the foffa mag- 
 na, -WQ perceive the orifice of the vagina or os ex- 
 2 ternum, 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 305 
 
 ternum, clofed by folds and wrinkles ; and about 
 ^ half an inch above this, and about an inch be- 
 / low the clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or 
 i orifice of the urethra, much fhorter, though 
 fomewhat larger, than in men, with a little pro- 
 minence at its lower edge, which facilitates the 
 introduction of the catheter. 
 
 The os externum is furrounded internally by 
 J feveral membranous folds called caruticulce myr~ 
 ' tiformes^ which are partly the remains of a thin 
 ^ membrane called hymen ^ that covers the vagina 
 in children. In general the hymen is fufficiently 
 *iOpen to admit the paffage of the menfes, if 
 i it exifts at the time of their appearance ; fome- 
 j times, however, it has been found perfectly 
 clofed. 
 
 ' The vagina, fituated between the urethra and 
 the reCtum, is a membranous cavity, furround- 
 led efpecially at its external extremity with a 
 fpongy and vafcular fubftance, which is covered 
 by the fphinCter oftii vaginae. It terminates in 
 the uterus, about half an inch above the os tin- 
 , cae, and is wider and fliorter in women who 
 ^ have had children than in virgins. 
 
 » All thefe parts are plentifully fupplied with 
 H blood-veflels and nerves. Around the nymphse 
 I there are febaceous follicles, which pour out a 
 f fluid to lubricate the inner furface of the vagina ; 
 l and the meatus urinarius, like the urethra in the 
 ' male fubjeCt, is conftantly raoiftened by a mu- 
 
 U cus, 
 
3o5 of the ABDOMEJT. Part III. 
 
 cus, which, defends it againft the acrimony of 
 the urine. 
 
 The uterus is a hollow vifcus, fituated in the 
 hypogaftric region, between the redtum and blad- 
 der. It is deftined to receive the firft rudiments 
 of the foetus, and to alTift in the developement 
 of all its parts, till it arrives at a ftate of per- 
 feftion, and is fitted to enter into the world, 
 at the time appointed by the wife Author of 
 nature. 
 
 The uterus, in its unimpregnated ftate, refem- 
 bles a pear in fhape, fomewhat flattened, with 
 its fundus or bottom part turned towards the ab- 
 domen, and its cervix or neck furrounded by the 
 vagina. The entrance into its cavity forms a 
 little protuberance, which has been compared to 
 the mouth of a tench, and is therefore called os 
 titiccs. 
 
 The fubftance of the uterus, which is of a 
 confiderable thicknefs, appears to be compofed 
 of mufcular and fmall ligamentous fibres, fmall 
 branches of nerves, fortie lymphatics, and with II 
 arteries and veins innumerable. Its nerves are 
 chiefly derived from the intercoftal, and its arte- 
 ries and veins from the hypogaftric and fpermatic. 
 The membrane which lines its cervix, is a con- 
 tinuation of the inner membrane of the vagina ; 
 but the outer furface of the body of the uterus 
 is covered with the peritonaeum, which is re- 
 fle<fted over it, and defcends from thence to the 
 inteftinum recftum. This duplicature of the 
 
 peritonaeum, 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 307 
 
 peritonseum, by paffirig off from the fides of 
 the uterus to the ftdes of the pelvis, is there 
 firmly connedted, and forms what are called 
 ligamenta uteri lata ; which not only ferve to 
 fupport the uterus, but to convey nerves and 
 blood- vefTels to it. 
 
 The ligamenta uteri rotunda arife from the 
 Tides of the fundus uteri, and paffing along with- 
 in the fore-part of the ligamenta lata, defcend 
 through the abdominal rings, and terminate in 
 the fubftance of the mens veneris. The fiib- 
 ftance of thefe ligaments is vafcular, and al- 
 though both they and the ligamenta lata admit 
 the uterus in the virgin ftate, to move only about 
 I an inch up and down, yet in the courfe of preg- 
 i nancy they admit of confiderable diftenfion, and 
 j after parturition return nearly to their original 
 ftate with furprifing quicknefs. 
 
 ! On each fide of the inner furface of the ute- 
 rus, in the angle near the fundus, a fmall orilice 
 is to be difeovered, which is the beginning of 
 one of the tubse fallopian^. Each of thefe tubes, 
 which are two in number, paffing through the 
 fubftance of the uterus, is extended along the 
 broad ligaments-, till it reaches the edge of the 
 pelvis, from whence it refiedts back ; and turn- 
 ing over behind the ligaments, about an inch of 
 its extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis, 
 near the ovarium. Thefe extremities, having 
 a jagged appearance, are called fimhrice^ or morfus 
 dlaboli. Each tuba Fallopiana is ufually about 
 
 U 2 three 
 
'o8 OF THE ABDOMEN. , Part IIL 
 three or four inches long. Their cavities are 
 at firft very fmall, but become gradually larger, 
 like a trumpet, as they approach the fimbriae. 
 
 Near the fimbriae of each tuba Fallopiana, 
 about an inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval 
 body called ovarium^ of about half the fize of 
 the male tefticle. Each of thefe ovaria is cover- 
 ed by a production of the peritonaeum, and 
 hangs loofe in the pehis. They are of a flat 
 and angular form, and appear to be compofed 
 of a white and cellular fubftance, in which we 
 are able to difcover feveral minute veficles filled 
 with a coagulable lymph, of an uncertain num- 
 ber, commonly exceeding 1 2 in each ovary. In 
 the female of riper years, thefe veficles become 
 exceedingly turgid, and a kind of yellow coa- 
 gulum is gradually formed within one of them, 
 which increafes for a certain time. In concep- 
 tion, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofed to be 
 impregnated with the male femen, and to be 
 fqueezed out of its nidus into the Fallopian 
 tube ; after which the ruptured part forms a 
 fubftance which in fome animals is of a yel- 
 low colour, and is therefore called corpus lute- 
 um ; and it is obfervable, that the number of 
 thefe fears or filTures in the ovarium, conftantly 
 correfponds with the number of foetufes exclud- 
 ed by the mother. 
 
 § 3 - Of 
 
Part III. 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 3'^9 
 
 § 3. Of Conception. 
 
 Man, being ever curious and inquifitive, has 
 naturally been led to enquire after the origin of 
 his exiftence ; and the fubjedl of generation has 
 employed the philofophical world in all ages : 
 but in following nature up to her minute re- 
 cefles, the philofopher foon finds himfelf bewil- 
 dered, and his imagination often fupples that 
 which he fo eagerly wifhes to difcover, but which 
 is deftined perhaps never to be revealed to him. 
 Of the many theories which have been formed 
 on this fubjeft, that of the ancient philofophers 
 feems to have been the moll fimple ; they con- 
 fidered the male femen as alone capable of form- 
 ing the foetus, and believed that the female only 
 afforded it a lodging in the womb, and fuppiied 
 it with a nourilhment after it was perfeftly form- 
 ed. This opinion, however, foon gave place to 
 another, in which the female was allowed a more 
 confiderable fhare in conception. 
 
 This fecond fyftem confidered the foetus as 
 being formed by the mixture of the feminal li- 
 quor of both fexes, by a certain arrangement of 
 its feveral particles in the uterus. But in the 
 1 6th century, veficles or eggs were difcovered 
 in the ovaria or female tefticles ; the foetus had 
 been found fometimes in the abdomen, and 
 fometimes in the Fallopian tubes ; and the two 
 former opinions were exploded in favour of a 
 
 nev7 
 
210 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 new do(Triiie. The ovaria were compared to a 
 bunch of grapes, being fuppofed to confift of ve- 
 ficles, each of which had a ftalk ; fo that it might 
 be difengaged without hurting the reft, or fpill- 
 ing the liquor it contained. Each veficle was 
 faid to include a little animal, almoft complete 
 in all its parts ; and the vapour of the male fe- 
 men being conveyed to the ovarium, was fup- 
 pofed to produce a fermentation in the veficle, 
 which approached the neareft to maturity ; and 
 inducing it to difengage itfelf from the ovarium, 
 it paffed into the tuba Fallopiana, through 
 which it was conveyed to the uterus. Here it 
 was fuppofed to take root like a vegetable feed, 
 and to form, with the veffels originating from 
 the uterus, what is called placenta ; by means 
 of which the circulation is carried on between 
 the mother and the foetus. 
 
 This opinion, with all its abfurdities, conti- 
 nued to be almoft univerfally adopted till the 
 clofe of the fame century, when Lieuwenhoeck, 
 by means of his glaffes, difeovered certain 
 opake particles, which he deferibed as fo many 
 animalcula, floating in the feminal fluid of the 
 male. 
 
 This difeovery introduced a new fchifm among 
 the philofophers of that time, and gave rife to 
 a fyftcm vv'hich is not yet entirely exploded. 
 According to this theory the male femen palling 
 into the tubas' Fallopianse, one of the animalcula 
 penetrates into the fubftance of the ovarium, 
 
 and 
 
21 I 
 
 Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN, 
 and enters into one of its veficles or ova. This 
 impregnated ovum is then fqueezed from its 
 hulk, through the coats of the ovarium, and be- 
 ing feized by the fimbriae, is conduced through 
 the tube to the uterus, -where it is nourifhed till 
 it arrives at a ftate of perfection. In this fyf- 
 tem there is much ingenuity ; but there are cer- 
 tain circumftances fuppofed to take place, which 
 have been hitherto inexplicable. A celebrated 
 modern writer, M. Buffon, endeavours to re- 
 ftore, in fome meafure, the moft ancient opi- 
 nion, by allowing the female femen a fhare in 
 this office ; aflerting, that animalcula or organic 
 particles are to be difcovered in the feminal li- 
 quor of both fexes : he derives the female femen 
 from the ovaria, and he contends that no ovum 
 exifts in thofe parts. But in this idea he is evi- 
 dently miftaken ; and the opinion now moft ge- 
 nerally adopted is, that an impregnation of the 
 ovum, by the influence of the male femen, is 
 elTential to conception (s). That the ovum is to 
 be impregnated, there can be no doubt ; but as 
 the manner in which fuch an impregnation is 
 fuppofed to take place, and the means by which 
 the ovum afterwards get into the Fallopian tube, 
 
 and 
 
 (s) The learned Abbe Spallanzani has thrown much light 
 on this curious lubjedt, and has proved by a variety of ex- 
 periments than the animalcule exifts entire inthefemale ovum, 
 and that the male feed is only neceftary to vivily and put it 
 in motion. — His experiments and obfervations are worthy 
 of the attentive perufal of every phyfiologift. 
 
212 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part HI. 
 and from thence into the uterus, are ftill found- 
 ed chiefly on hypothefis, we will not attempt to 
 extend farther the inveftigation of a fubjedl; con- 
 cerning which fo little can be advanced with cer- 
 tainty. 
 
 § 4. Of the Foetus in Utero. 
 
 Opportunities of diffediing the human 
 gravid uterus occurring but feldom, the ftate of 
 the embryo (t) immediately after conception 
 cannot be perfectly known. 
 
 When the ovum defcends into the uterus, it 
 is fuppofed to be very minute ; and it is not till 
 a confiderable time after conception that the 
 rudiments of the embryo begin to be afcer- 
 tained. 
 
 About the third or fourth week the eye may 
 difcover the firft lineaments of the foetus ; but 
 thefe lineaments are as yet very imperfect, it be- 
 ing only about the fize of a houfe-fly. Two 
 little velTels appear in an almofl; tranfparent jel- 
 ly ; the largeft of which is deftined to become 
 the head of the foetus, and the other fmaller one 
 is referved for the trunk. But at this period no 
 extremities are to be feen ; the umbilical cord 
 appears only as a very minute thread, and the 
 
 placenta 
 
 (t) The rudiments of the child are ufnally diftingihfhed by 
 this name till the human figure can be diftinftly alcertained, 
 and then it has the appellation of faeius. 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 213 
 placenta does not yet abforb the red particles of 
 the blood. At' fix weeks, not only the head but 
 the features of the face begin to be developed. 
 The nofe appears like a fmall prominent line, 
 and we are able to difcover another line under it, 
 which is deftined for the feparation of the lips. 
 Two black points appear in the place of eyes, 
 and two minute holes mark the ears. At the 
 fides of the trunk, both above and below, we 
 fee four minute protuberances, which are the 
 the rudiments of the arms and legs. At the end 
 of eight weeks the body of the foetus is upwards 
 of an inch in length, and both the hands and 
 feet are to be diftinguilhed. The upper extre- 
 mities are found to increafe fafter than the lower 
 ones, and the feparation of the fingers is accom- 
 plifhed fooner than that of the toes. 
 
 At this period the human form may be deci- 
 fively afceitained ; — all the parts of the face may 
 be diftinguilhed, the fliape of the body is clearly 
 marked out, the haunches and the abdomen are 
 elevated, the fingers and toes are feparated from 
 each other, and the inteftines appear like minute 
 threads. 
 
 At the end of the third month, the foetus mea- 
 fures about three inches ; at the end of thd fourth 
 month, five inches ; in the fifth month, fix or 
 feven inches ; in the fixth month, eight or nine 
 inches ; in the feventh month, eleven or twelve 
 inches ; in the eighth month, fourteen or fif- 
 teen inches ; and at the end of the ninth month. 
 
 or 
 
214 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part HI. 
 or full time, from eighteen to twenty-two in- 
 ches. But as we have not an opportunity of ex- 
 amining the fame fetus at different periods of 
 pregnancy, and as their fize and length may be 
 influenced by the conftitution and mode of life- 
 of the mother, calculations of this kind muft be 
 very uncertain. 
 
 The fetus during all this time affumes an dval 
 figure, which correfponds with the fhape of the 
 uterus. Its chin is found reclining on its breafl 
 with its knees drawn up towards its chin, and its 
 arms folded over them. But it feems likely, 
 that the pofture of fome of thefe parts is varied 
 in the latter months of pregnancy, fo as to caufe 
 thofe painful twitches which its mother ufually 
 feels from time to time. In natural cafes, its' 
 head is probably placed towards the os tinc;^ from 
 the time of conception to that of its birth ; 
 though formerly it was confidered as being plac- 
 ed towards the fundis uteri till about the eighth 
 or ninth mouth, when the head, by becom- 
 ing fpecifically heavier than the other parts 
 of the body, was fuppofed to be turned down- 
 wards. 
 
 The capacity of the uterus increafes in pro- 
 portion to the growth of the fetus, but without 
 becoming thinner in its fuhflance, as might na- 
 turally be expeded. The nourifliment of the 
 fetus, during all this time, feems to be derived 
 from the placenta, which appears to be original- 
 ly formed by that part of the ovum which is 
 
 next 
 
Part HI. OF THE ABDOMEN. 215 
 
 next the fundis uteri. The remamg part of the 
 ovum is covered by a membrane called fpongy 
 chorion {u) ; within which is another called true 
 chorion^ which includes a third termed mnnios (v): 
 this contains a watery fluid, which is the liquor 
 amnii (w), in which the foetus floats till the 
 time of its birth. On the fide next the foetus, the 
 placenta is covered by the amnios and true cho- 
 rion ; on the fide next the mother it has a pro- 
 duction continued from the fpongy chorion. 
 
 The 
 
 (u) Dr. Hunter has defcribed this as a lamella from the 
 inner furface of the uterus. In the latter months of preg- 
 nancy it becomes gradually thinner and more connefled with 
 the chorion : he has named it membrana caduca, or decidua^ 
 as it is call off with the placenta. Signior Scarpa, with 
 more probability, confiders it as being compofed of an in- 
 fpifiated co.igulable lymph. 
 
 (v) In fome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be con- 
 veyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus, to 
 the allantois, which is a refervoir, refembling a large and 
 blind gut, fituated between the chorion and amnios. The 
 human foetus feems to have no fuch refervoir, though fome 
 writers have fuppofedthat it doesexift. From the top of the 
 bladder afew longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical 
 chord ; and thefe fibres have been confidered as the urachus, 
 though without having been ever found pervious. 
 
 (w) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has 
 been fuppofed to pafs into the osfophagus, and to afford nou- 
 rifliment to the foetus ; but this does not feem probable. 
 Children have come into the world without an oefophagus, 
 or any communication between the ftomach and the mouth ; 
 but there has been no well attefled inftance of a child’s hav- 
 ing been born without a placenta; and it does not feem like- 
 ly, that any of the fluid can be abforbed through the pores 
 of the fkin, the Ikin in the foetus being every where covered 
 with a great quantity of mucus. 
 
2i6 of the abdomen. Part III. 
 
 The amnios and chorion are remarkably thin and 
 tranfparent, having no blood-veflels entering in- 
 to their compofition. The fpongy chorion is 
 opake and vafcular. 
 
 In the firft months of pregnancy, the involu- 
 cra bear a large proportion to their contents ; but 
 this proportion is afterwards reverfed, as the foe- 
 tus increafes in bulk. 
 
 The placenta, which is the medium through 
 which the blood is conveyed from the mother 
 to the foetus, and the manner in which this 
 conveyance takes place, deferve next to be con- 
 iidered. 
 
 The placenta is a broad, flat, and fpongy fub- 
 ftance, like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner 
 furface of the womb, ufually near the fundus, 
 and appearing to be chiefly made up of the rami- 
 fications of the umbilical arteries and vein, and 
 partly of the extremities of the uterine veflels. 
 The arteries of the uterus difcharge their con- 
 tents into the fubftance of this cake ; and the 
 veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either 
 by a diredt communication of veffels, or by ab- 
 forption, at length form the umbilical vein, 
 which paffes on to the finus of the vena porta, 
 and from thence to the vena cava, by means of 
 the canalis venofus, a communication that is 
 clofed in the adult. But the circulation of the 
 blood through the heart is not conducted in the 
 foetus as in the adult : in the latter the blood is 
 carriedfrom the right auricle of the heart through 
 
 the 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 217 
 the pulmonary artery, and is returned to the left 
 auricle by the pulmonary vein ; but a dilatation 
 of the lungs is eflential to the paflage of the 
 blood through the pulmonary veflels, and this 
 dilatation cannot take place till after the child is 
 bom and has refpired. This deficiency, howe- 
 ver, is fupplied in the foetus by the immediate 
 communication between the right and left auri- 
 cle, through an oval opening, in the feptum 
 which divides the two auricles, called foramen 
 ovale. The blood is likewife tranfmitted from 
 the pulmonary artery to the aorta, by means of 
 a du(ft called canalis arteriofus^ which, like the. 
 canalis venofus, and foramen ovale, gradually 
 clofes after birth. 
 
 The blood is returned again from the foetus 
 through two arteries called the umbilical arteries^ 
 which arife from the iliacs. Thefe two veflels 
 taking a winding courfe with the vein, form 
 with that, and the membranes by which they 
 are furrounded, what is called the umbilical chord. 
 Thefe arteries, after ramifying through the fub- 
 ftance of the placenta, difcharge their blood into 
 the veins of the uterus ; in the fame manner as 
 the uterine arteries difcharged their blood into 
 the branches of the umbilical vein. So that the 
 blood is conftantly paffing in at one fide of the 
 placenta and out at the other ; but in what par- 
 ticular manner it gets through the placenta is a 
 point not yet determined. 
 
 EXPLA- 
 
OE THE ABDOMEN. Part III. 
 
 2tB 
 
 EXPLANATION of Plates XXV. XXVL and XXVII. 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 Fig. 1. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and 
 Abdomen in fitu. 
 
 I. Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 22, 
 The internal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubcla- 
 vian veins. 4, The vena cava defcendens. 5, 
 The right auricle of the heart. 6, The right 
 ventricle. 7, Part of the left ventricle. 8, The 
 aorta defcendens. 9, The pulmonary artery. 
 I o, The right lung, part of which is cut off to 
 fhow the great blood-veifels. 1 1 , The left lung, 
 entire. 1212, The anterior edge of the dia- 
 phragm. 1 3 1 3) The two great lobes of the 
 liver. 14, The ligamentum rotundum. 15, 
 The gall-bladder. 16, The ftomach. 17 I7> 
 The jejunum and ilium. 1 8, The fpleen. 
 
 Fig. 2. Shows the Organs fubfervient to the 
 Chylopoietic Vifcera, — ^with thofe of the U- 
 rine and Generation. 
 
 I I , The under fide of the two great lobes 
 of the liver, a, Lobulus Spigelii. 2, The li- 
 gamentum rotundum. 3, The gall-bladder. 
 4, The pancreas, 5, The fpleen. 6 6, The 
 kidneys. 7, The aorta defcendens. 8, Vena 
 
 cava 
 
? Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 31^ 
 cava afcendens. 9 9, The renal veins covering 
 the arteries, i o, A probe under the fpermatic 
 veflels and a bit of the inferior mefenteric artery, 
 and over the ureters. 1 1 1 1 , The ureters. 
 12 12, The iliac arteries and veins. 1 3, The 
 redtum inteftinum. 14, The bladder of urine. 
 
 Fio. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Vifcera, and 
 Organs fubfervient to them, taken out of the 
 Body entire. 
 
 A[A the under fide of the two great lobes of 
 I the liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The 
 gall-bladder. D, Dudfus cyfticus. E, Dudius 
 hepaticus. F, Dudiis communis choledochus. 
 •G, Venaportarum. H, Arteria hepatica. II, 
 The ftomach. K K, Venae & arteriae gaftro- 
 epiploicse, dextrse & fmiftrs. L L, Venae & 
 arteriae coronariae ventriculi. M, The fpleen, 
 N N, Mefocolon, with its veflels. O O O, In- 
 teftinum colon. P, One of the ligaments of 
 the colon, which is a bundle of longitudinal 
 'mufcular fibres. Jejunum and 
 
 ilium. R R, Sigmoid flexure of the colon with 
 the ligament continued, and over S, The rec- 
 tum inteftinum. T T, Levatores ani. U, 
 Sphindfer ani. V, The place to which the pro^ 
 ftate glandis canne<fted. W, The anus. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
320 OF THE ABDOMEN, Part III. 
 Fig 4. Shows the heart of a Foetus at the full 
 time, with the Right Auricle cut open to 
 fhow the Foramen Ovale, or paffage between 
 both Auricles. 
 
 a. The right ventricle, b. The left ventricle, 
 c c. The outer fide of the right auricle ftretched 
 out. d d, The pofterior fide, which forms the 
 anterior fide of the feptum. e. The foramen 
 ovale, which the membrane or valve which co- 
 vers the left fide, f. Vena cava inferior paffing 
 through g, A portion of the diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 5*. Shows the Heart and Large Veffels of a 
 Foetus at the full time. 
 
 a. The left ventricle, b. The right ventri- 
 cle. c, A part of the right auricle, d. Left 
 auricle, ee. The right branch of the pulmona- 
 ry artery, f, Arteria pulmonalis. g g. The 
 left branch of the pulmonary artery, with a num- 
 ber of its largeft branches dilTedied from the 
 lungs, h. The canalis arteriofus. i. The arch 
 of the aorta, kk. The aorta defcendens. 1, The 
 left fubclavian artery, m. The left carotid ar- 
 tery. n. The right carotid artery, o. The 
 right fubclavian artery, p. The origin of the 
 right carotid and right fubclavian arteries in one 
 common trunk, q. The vena cava fuperior or 
 defcendens. r. The right common fubclavian 
 vein, s. The left common fubclavian vein. 
 
 N. B. All the parts defcribed in this figure 
 are to be found in the adult, except the canalis 
 arteriofus. Plate 
 
Ax AT OXLY 
 
 PlateXXY 
 
331 
 
 Part. Ill OF TfJE ABCOteN. 
 
 Plate XXVL 
 
 Fig.- I. Exhibits the more fuperficial Lympha- 
 tie Veflek of the Lower Extremity. 
 
 Ay The fpine of the os ilium. B, The es 
 t pubis. G, The iliac artery. D, The knee, E E Fj 
 I Branches of the crural artery.- Gy The mufcu- 
 I lus ga-ftrocnemius. H, The tibia. I, The teh- 
 \ don of the mufculu's tibialis antieus. On the 
 < Out-hnes, a, A lymphatic veifel belonging to 
 { the top of the footi b^ Its firft divifion into 
 ( branches.* c,- c, e,- Other divifions of the fame 
 ‘ lymphatic veffek d, A fmall lymphatic gland, 
 e, The lymphatic veffels which lie between the 
 {kin and the mufcles of the thigh, f f, Two 
 lymphatic glands at the upper part of the thigh 
 below the groin, g g, Other glands, h, A 
 lymphatic velTel which palfes by the fide of thofe 
 glands without communicating with them ; and, 
 bending towards the infide of the groin at (i), 
 Opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 1, 1, Lyni*- 
 
 phatie' glands in the groin, which are common 
 to the lymphatic veifels of the genitals and thofe 
 of the lower extremity, m, n, A ple!xus of 
 lymphatic vellels palling on the infide of the iliac 
 artery. 
 
 X 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
322 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Fig. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Ex- 
 tremity, difledied fo as to fhow the deeper- 
 feated Lymphatic Veflels which accompany 
 the arteries. 
 
 A, The os pubis. B, The tuberofity of the I 
 ifchium. C, That part of the os ilium which 
 was articulated with the os facrum. D, The 
 extremity of the iliac artery appearing above 
 the groin. E, The knee. F F, The two cut 
 furfaces of the triceps mufcle, which was divid- 
 ed to fhow the lymphatic veffels that pafs through 
 its perforation along with the crural artery. G, 
 The edge of the mufculus gracilis. H, The gaf- 
 troncnemius and foleus, much fhrunk by being | 
 dried, and by the foleus being feparated from 
 the tibia to expofe the veffels. I, The heel. 
 K, The foie of the foot. L, The fupefficial j 
 lymphatic veffels paffmg over the knee, to get | 
 to the thigh. On the out-lines ; M, The pofte- 
 rior tibial artery, a, A lymphatic veffel accom- 
 panying the poflerior tibial artery, b. The fame 
 veffel croffmg the artery, c, A fmall lymphatic 
 gland, through which this deep-feated lympha- 
 fic veffel paffes. d. The lymphatic veffel paf- 
 fmg under a fmall part of the foleus, which 
 is left attached to the bone, the reft being re- 
 moved. e. The lymphatic veffel crofting the 
 popliteal artery, f, g, h. Lymphatic glands in 
 the ham, through which the lymphatic veffel 
 paffes. i. The lymphatic veffel palfing with 
 
 the 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 323 
 
 the crural artery, through the perforation of the 
 triceps mufcle. k, The lymphatic veffel, af- 
 ^ ter it had palTed the perforation of the triceps, 
 dividing into branches which embrace the ar- 
 < tery ( 1 ). m, A lymphatic gland belonging to 
 I the deep-feated lymphatic veffel. At this 
 ! place thofe veffels pafs to the fore-part of- the 
 groin, where they communicate with the fuper- 
 ficial lymphatic veffel appearing on the brim of 
 the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human Sub- 
 ject prepared to fhow the Lymphatic Veffels 
 and the Du£tus Thoracicus. 
 
 ^ A, The neck. B B, The two jugular veins. 
 I C, The vena cava luperior. D D D D, The 
 I fubclavian veins. E, The beginning of the 
 1 aorta, pulled to the left fide by means of a liga- 
 i ture, in order to fhow the thoracic du6l behind 
 i it. F, The branches arifing from the curvature 
 I of the aorta. G G, The two carotid arteries. 
 
 [ H H, The firft ribs, 1 1 , The trachea. K K, 
 The fpine. L L, The vena azygos. M M, 
 The defcending aorta. N, The cceliac artery, 
 ' dividing into three branches. O, The fuperior 
 mefenteric artery. P, The right crus diaphrag- 
 matis. The two kidneys. R, The right 
 
 emulgent artery. S S, The external iliac , arte- 
 ries. g d. The mufculi pfose. T, The inter- 
 nal iliac artery. U, The cavity of the pelvis. 
 
 X 2 XX, The 
 
324 OF THE ABDOMEN. Part III, 
 
 X X, The fpine of the os ilium. Y Y, The 
 groins, A lymphatic gland in the groin, in- 
 to which lymphatic veffels from the lower ex- 
 tremity are feen to enter, bh^ The lymphatic 
 veffels of the lower extremities paffing under 
 Poupart’s ligament, ec, A plexus of the lym- 
 phatic veffels lying on each fide of the pelvis, 
 The pfoas mufcle with lymphatic veffels lying 
 upon its infide. A plexus of lymphatics, 
 which having paffed over the brim of the pel- 
 vis at (e), having entered the cavity of the pel- 
 vis, and received the lymphatic veffels belong- 
 ing to the vifcera contained in that cavity, next 
 afcends, and paffes behind the iliac artery to (^). 
 
 Some lymphatic veffels of the left fide paf- 
 fing over the upper part of the os facrum, to 
 meet thofe of the right fide, The right 
 pfoas, with a large plexus of lymphatics lying on 
 its infide. h Z>, The plexus lying on each fide 
 of the fpine. i i /, Spaces occupied by the lym- 
 phatic glands, The trunk of the lafteals, 
 lying on the under fide of the fuperior mefente- 
 ric artery. /, The fame dividing into two 
 branches, one of which paffes on each fide of 
 the aorta ; that of the right fide being feen to 
 enter the thoracic du£t at [ni). The thora- 
 cic beginning from the large lymphatics, 
 
 The du6; paffmg under the lower part of the crus 
 diaphragmatis, and under the right emulgent ar- 
 tery. The thoracic dudl penetrating the 
 'thorax, Some lymphatic veffels joining that 
 
 duff 
 
Part III. OF THE ABDOMEN. 325 
 
 du£tin the thorax, The thoracic duft paF- 
 fmg under the curv^ature of the aorta to get to 
 the left fubclavian vein. The aorta being drawn 
 afide to fhow the du£t. r, A plexus of lym- 
 phatic veffels pafling upon the trachea from the 
 thyroid gland to the thoracic duft. 
 
 Plate XXVII. 
 
 Fig. I. Reprefents the Under and Poilerior 
 Side of the Bladder of Urine, &c. 
 
 a, The bladder, bb. The infertion of the 
 iiterers, c c. The vafa deferentia, which con- 
 vey the femen from the tefticles to d d, The ve- 
 ficulT feminales,-^ — >and pais through e, The pro- 
 ftate gland, to difcharge themfelves into f, The 
 beginning of the urethra. 
 
 Fig. 2. A tranfverfe Sedion of the Penis. 
 
 g g. Corpora carvernofa penis, h. Corpus 
 cavernofum urethrse. i. Urethra, k, Septum 
 penis. 1 1 , The feptum between the corpus ca- 
 vernofurn urethrte and that of the penis. 
 
 Fig. 3, A longitudinal Sedtion of the Penis 
 
 m m. The corpora carvernofa penis, divided 
 by o. The feptum penis, n. The corpus ca- 
 vernofum glandis, which is the continuation of 
 that of the urethra. 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
Part III. 
 
 326 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 Fig. 4. Reprefents the Female Organs of Ge- 
 neration. 
 
 a, That fide of the uterus which is next the 
 os facrum. i , Its fundus. 2, Its cervix, b b, 
 The Fallopian or uterine tubes, which open in- 
 to the cavity of the uterus ; — but the other end 
 is open within the pelvis, and fu ' ounded by 
 c c, The fimbrise. d d. The ovaria. e. The 
 os internum uteri, or mouth of the womb, f f. 
 The ligamenta rotunda, which paffes without the 
 belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi. g g. The 
 cut edges of the ligamenta lata which connects 
 the uterus to the pelvis, h, The infide of the 
 vagina, i. The orifice of the urethra, k. The 
 clitoris furrounded by ( 1 ,) The prseputium. 
 m m. The labia pudendi. n n. The nympho. 
 
 Fig. 5, Shows the Spermatic Dudls of theTef- 
 ticle filled with Mercury. 
 
 A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, 
 which forms the pofterior part of the epididy- 
 misi C, The middle of the epididymis, com- 
 pofed of ferpentine du£ts. D, The head or an- 
 terior part of the epididymis unravelled, e e e e, 
 T he whole dudls which compofe the head of 
 the epiddiymis unravelled, f f. The vafa defe- 
 rentia. g g, Rete tefiis. h h, Some redilineal 
 
 duds 
 
Plate MVI 
 
 
 € 
 

Plate ZZV 11 
 
 
Part III. 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 327 
 
 duds which fend off the vafa deferentia. i i. 
 The fubftance of the tefticle. 
 
 Fig. 6. The right Tefticle entire, and the Epi- 
 didymis filled with Mercury. 
 
 A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, 
 The vas deferens afcending towards the abdomen. 
 C, The pofterior part of the epididymis, named 
 globus minor. D, The fpermatic veflels inclofed in 
 cellular fubftance. E, The body of the epidy- 
 dimis. F, Its head, named^/o^z/j- major. G, Its 
 beginnning from the tefticle. H, The body of 
 the tefticle, inclofed in the tunica albuginea 
 
 PART IV, 
 
, Of: TTORiiS. 
 
 52 a 
 
 P A R T IV. 
 
 OF THE THORAX, 
 
 ^ I "^HE THORAX, or CHEST, is that cavity 
 j§_ of the tr,un|c whicji e^jids from the cla- 
 vicles, or the lower paj:t of tjji.e ppcjk, tp dia- 
 phrag^H, .and tAclwdes the vha| prgaas, .'F'diich 
 are the heart and lui>ga ; atiddikewife t^e tE4“ 
 chea and aTophagus.— This cavity h formed j>y 
 the ribs and vertebras of the bac^, covered by a 
 great number of mulcles^ adfJ eoptlPPii 
 
 integumejrt!?|> ai^td anteriorly by two glapdolar 
 bodies called the hreajls. The fpaces between 
 the ribs are filled by the mufcular fibres, which 1 
 from their fituation are called mtercojlal mufcles. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Breajls. 
 
 'Fhe h‘eafs may be defined to be two large 
 conglomerate glands, mixed with a good deal of ^ 
 adipofe membrane. The glandular part is com- 
 pofed of an infinite number of minute arteries, [ 
 veins, and nerves. 
 
 The arteries are derived from two different 
 trunks ; one of which is called the internal^ and 
 the other the external^ mawmary artery. The 
 firft of thefe arifes from the fubclavian, and the 
 latter from the axillary, 
 
 The 
 
Pai^tIV. of the thorax. 329 
 
 The ¥eins every where accompany the arte- 
 ries, and are diftinguiflred by the lame name. 
 Tlie iiervesi are chiefly from the vertebral pairs. 
 Like all other conglomerate glands, the breafts 
 are made up of a great many fmall diftinci glands, 
 m which tire milk is fecreted from the ultimate 
 branches of arteries. The excretory duds of 
 thefe feveral glands gradually uniting as they ap^t 
 proach the nipple, form the tubuii ladiferi, 
 which are ufually more than a dozen in number, 
 and open at its apex, but have little or no com- 
 munication, as has been fuppoled, at the root of 
 the nipple. Thefe duds:, in liieir courte from the 
 glands, are furrounded by a ligamentaiy elaftic 
 fubftance, which terminates with them in the 
 nipple. Both this fubPrance, and the duds 
 which it contains, are capable of conliderable 
 extenfion and contradion 5 but in their natural 
 ftate are moderately corrugated, fo as to prevent 
 an involuntary flow of milk, uniefs the diftendr- 
 ing force be very great from the accumulation of 
 too great a quantity. 
 
 The whole fubftance of the nipple is very 
 fpongy and elalfic : its external furfaee is une- 
 ven, and full of fmall tubercles. I'he nipple is 
 ftirrounded with a difk or circle of a diiferent 
 colour, called tfte ai'eola ; and on the inftde of 
 the fkin, under the areola, are many febaceous 
 glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the 
 areola and nipple ; for the fl^in upon thefe parts 
 
 is 
 
330 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 is very thin ; and the nervous papillae lying very 
 bare, are much expofed to irritation. 
 
 The breafts are formed for the fecretion of 
 milk, which is deftined for the nourifhment of 
 the child for fome time after its birth. This fe- 
 cretion begins to take place foon after delivery, 
 and continues to flow for many months in very 
 large quantities, if the woman fuckles her child. 
 
 The operation of fudion depends on the prin- 
 ciples of the air-pump, and the flow of milk 
 through the ladiferous tubes is facilitated by their 
 being ftretched out. 
 
 The milk, examined chemically, appears to 
 be compofed of oil, mucilage, and water, and 
 of a confiderable quantity of fugar. The ge- 
 nerality of phyfiologifts have fuppofed that, like 
 the chyle, it frequently retains the properties of 
 the aliment and medicines taken into the flo- 
 mach ; but from fome late experiments this 
 luppofition appears to be ill-founded. 
 
 Sfct. II. Of the Pleura. 
 
 The cavity of the thorax is every where lin- 
 ed by a great membrane of a firm texture call- 
 ed pleura. It is compofed of two diftind porti- 
 ons or bags, which, by being applied to each 
 other laterally, form a feptum called mediafinum; 
 
 which 
 
 * Journ. de Med. 1781. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 331 
 
 which divides the cavity into two parts, and is 
 attached pofterioriy to the vertebrse of the back, 
 and anteriorly to the fternum. But the two la- 
 minae of which this feptum is formed, do not 
 every where adhere to each other ; for at the 
 lower part of the thorax they are feparated, to 
 afford a lodgement to the heart ; and at the upper 
 part of the cavity, they receive between them 
 the thymus. 
 
 The pleura is plentifully fupplied with arte- 
 ries and veins from the internal mammary and 
 the intercoftals. Its nerves, which are very in- 
 confiderable, are derived chiefly from the dorfal 
 and intercoftal nerves. 
 
 The furface of the pleura, like that of the pe- 
 ritonaeum and other membranes lining cavities, 
 is conftantly bedewed with a ferous moifture (w) 
 which prevents adhefion of the vifcera. 
 
 The mediaflinum, by dividing the breaft into 
 two cavities, obviates many inconveniences, to 
 which we fhould otherwile be liable. It pre- 
 vents the two lobes of the lungs from compref- 
 fmg each other when we lie on one fide ; and 
 confequently contributes to the freedom of ref- 
 piration, which is difturbed by the leafl: preffure 
 on the lungs. If the point of a fword pene- 
 trates between the ribs into the cavity of the tho- 
 rax, the lungs on that fide ceafe to perform their 
 
 office ; 
 
 (w) When this fluid is exhaled in too great a quantity, or 
 is not properly carried off, it accumulates and conftltutes 
 the hydrops peftoris. 
 
332 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 oflice ; becaufe the air being admitted through 
 the wound, prevente the dil^ation of that lobe ; 
 while the other lobe, which is feparated from it 
 by the rnediaftinum, remains unhurt, and con^ 
 tinues to perform its funSion as ufual. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Thymus. 
 
 The thymus is a glandular fubftance, the ufe 
 of which is not perfectly afcertained, its excre- 
 tory du^ not having yet been difcovered. It is 
 of an objong figure, and is larger in the foetus 
 and in yofing children than in adults, being fome- 
 times nearly effaced in very old fubje£ts. It is 
 placed in the upper part of the thorax, between 
 the two laminse of the rnediaftinum ; but at firft 
 is not altogether contained within the cavity of 
 the cheft, being found to border upon the upper 
 e?ftremity of the fternum. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the Diaphragm. 
 
 The cavity of the thorax is feparated from that 
 of the addomen, by a flefhy and membranous 
 fubftance called the diaphragm or midriff. The 
 greateft part of it is compofed of mufcular fibres ; 
 and on this account fyftematic writers ufually 
 place very properly among the mufcles. Its mid*- 
 die part is tendinous, and it is covered by the 
 pleura above, and by the peritonseum below. 
 It feems to have been improperly named feptum 
 
Part IT. Of THE THORAX. 333 
 
 tranfuerfum^ as it does not make a plane tranf- 
 verie divifion of the two cavities, but forms a 
 kind of vault, the fore-part of which is attach- 
 ed to the fternum. Laterally it is fixed to the 
 laft of the true ribs, and to all the falfe ribs ; and 
 its lower and pofterior part is attached to the 
 vertebrae lumborum, where it may be faid to be 
 divided in two portions or crura (x). 
 
 The principal arteries of the diaphragm are 
 derived from the aorta, and its veins pafs into 
 the vena cava. It nerves are chiefly derived 
 from the cervical pairs. It affords a paffage to 
 the vena cava through its tendinous part, and to 
 the oefophagus through its flefhy portion. TI e 
 aorta paffes down behind it between its cura. 
 
 The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the 
 thorax from the abdomen, but by its mufcular 
 ftrudlure is is rendered one of the chief agents 
 in refpirationi. When its fibres contract, its 
 convex fide, which is turned towards the tho- 
 rax, becomes gradually flat, and by increafing 
 the cavity of the breaft, affords room for a com- 
 plete dilatation of the lungs, by means of thn 
 air which is then drawn into them by the a<T of 
 infpiration. The fibres of the diaphragm thefl 
 relax 5 and as it refumes its former Rate, the ca- 
 vity 
 
 (x) Anatomical "writers have ufnally defcrlbed the dia- 
 phragm as being made up of two mufcles united by a middle 
 tendon ; and thefe two portions or crura form what they 
 •fpeak of as the inferior mufcles arifmg from the fidcs and 
 fore part of the vertebrse. 
 
334 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 vity of thorax becomes gradually diminifhed, 
 and the air is driven out again from the lungs by 
 a motion contrary to the former one, called ex- 
 fplration. 
 
 It is in fome meafure, by means of the dia- 
 phragm, that we void the fseces at the anus, and 
 empty the urinary bladder. Befides thefe offices, 
 the ad:s of coughing, fneezing, fpeaking, laugh- 
 ing, gaping, and fighing, could not take place 
 without its affiftance ; and the gentle preffure 
 which all the abdominal vifcera receive from its 
 conftant and regular motion, cannot fail to affift 
 in the performance of the feveral fundions which I 
 were afcribed to thofe vifcera. 
 
 Slot. V. Of the Trachea. :i 
 
 The trachea or windpipe, is a cartilaginous i 
 and membranous canal, through which the air i 
 paffes into the lungs. Its upper part, which is 
 called the larynx., is compofed of five cartilages. 
 The uppermoft of thefe cartilages is placed over 
 the glottis or mouth of the larynx, and is called 
 epiglottis., which has been before fpoken of, as 
 clofing the paffage to the lungs in the a6t of ^ 
 fwallowing. At the fides of the glottis are 
 placed the two arytenoide cartilages, which are 
 of a very complex figure, not eafy to be de- 
 fcrihed. The anterior and' larger part of the 
 larynx is made up of two cartilages ; one of 
 v’^hich is called, thyroides or fcutiformis., from its 
 
 being 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 335 
 
 being ftiaped like a buckler ; and the other C 7 'U 
 coides or annularis^ from, its refembling a ring. 
 Both thefe cartilages may be felt immediately 
 under the fkin, at the fore-part of the throat, 
 and the thyroides, by its convexity, forms an 
 eminence called pomum adami^ which is ufually 
 more confiderable in the male than in the female 
 fubjed. 
 
 All thefe cartilages are united to each other by 
 means of very elaftic, ligamentous fibres ; and 
 are enabled, by the affiftance of their feveral 
 I mufcles, to dilate or contrad the paflage of 
 f the larynx, and to perform that variety of mo- 
 1 tion which feems to point out the larynx as the 
 1 principal organ of the voice ; for when the air 
 pafTes out through a wound in the trachea, it pro- 
 duces no found. 
 
 Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, 
 which feems to be fecreted by minute glands fi- 
 tuated near them. The upper part of the trachea 
 is covered anteriorly and laterally by a confider- 
 able body, which is fuppofed to be of a glandu- 
 lar ftrudure, and from its fituation near the thy- 
 roid cartilage is called the thyroid gland; though 
 its excretory dud has not yet been difcovered, 
 or its ufe afcertained. 
 
 The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine 
 membrane, which is moiftened by a conftant 
 fupply of a watery fluid. From the larynx the 
 canal begins to take the name of trachea or af- 
 pera arteria^ and extends from thence as far down 
 
 1 
 
■;o OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 RS tlie third or fourth veftebra of {he baek^ where 
 it divides into two branches^ which at'e the right 
 and left bronchial tube. Each of thefe brcmehi 
 (y) ramifies' through the fubfisanc€ of that lobe 
 of the lungs to which it is diftributed,.by in in- 
 finite rm-mber of branches,, which are formed of 
 cartilages feparated from- each other like thofe of 
 the trachea, by an intervening membranous: afid 
 ligamentary fubftanee. Each of thefe cartilages 
 is of an angular figure ^ and as t-hey become gra- 
 dually lefs and Ids in- their diameter,- the lower 
 ones are in fome meafure received into th-ofe 
 above tliem,- when the lungs^ after being infiaf-* 
 ed, gradually coilapfe by the- air being pufbed 
 out from them in exfpiration. As the bra-nel^s j 
 of tire bronchi becotn'e more minut-e. their i&r- I 
 tilages become more and more angu-lan and memu 
 branous, till at length they are found to be per- 
 fectly membranous, and- at laft become invifible-f 
 The trachea is furn-ifhed with fldhy or muf* 
 cular fibres ; fome of which p'afs through iw j 
 whole extent longit-ud-maHy^ while the othefs 
 are carried round it in a circmlar direction 5 fo 
 that by the contraction or relaxation of thefe fi- 
 bres, 
 
 2 
 
 (y) The right bronchial tube is ufually found to be fome- 
 ■\r hat Oiorter and thicker fh'ail the left j and M. Portal, who ^ 
 has pubiifhed a' memoir on' the aCfioil of t'he lungs on thli^. 
 aorta in refpiration,- obferves, that the left bronchial tube is 
 dofely connected by' the aorta ; and from fome experiments 
 he is iriduced to conclude, that in the firfl refpirations, the 
 air only enters irit-o the right lobe of the lungs. M^fTtbirc.^ 
 
 Je /’ Acadc.niie Royale des Sciences, 1 769. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 337 
 
 bres, it is enabled to fliorten or lengthen itfelf, 
 and likewife to dilate or contrad; the diameter of 
 its paffage. 
 
 The trachea and its branches, in all their ra- 
 mifications, are furnifhed with a great number of 
 fmall glands which are lodged in their cellular 
 fubftance, and difcharge a mucous fluid on the 
 inner furface of thefe tubes. 
 
 The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it 
 conftantly open, afford a free palfage to the air, 
 which we are obliged to be incelfantly refpiring ; 
 and its membranous part, by being capable of 
 contraction and dilatation, enables us to receive 
 and expel the air in a greater or lefs quantity, 
 and with more or lefs velocity, as may be requir- 
 ed in flinging or in declamation. This membran- 
 ous ftrudure of the trachea pofteriorly, fleems 
 likewife to affift in the defeent of the food, by 
 preventing that impediment to its paffage down 
 the oefophagus, which might be expeCted if the 
 cartilages were complete rings. 
 
 The trachea receives its arteries from the ca- 
 rotid and fubclavian arteries, and its veins pafls 
 into the jugulars. Its nerves arifle from the re- 
 current branch of the eighth pair, and from the 
 Cervical plexus. 
 
 Sect. VI. 0 /' the Lungs. 
 
 The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of 
 the breaft. They are of a foft and flpongy tex- 
 
 Y ture. 
 
33^ Ol^ THE TH0R4X. Part IV. 
 
 ture, and are divided into two lobes^ which are 
 feparated from each other by the mediaftinum, 
 and are externally covered by a pfodudion of 
 the pleura. Each of thefe is divided into two 
 or three feffer lobes ; and we commonly find 
 three in the right fide of the cavity, and two in 
 the left. 
 
 To difeover the ftmdure of the lungs, it is 
 required to follow the ramifications of the bron- 
 chi, which were deferibed in the laft fedtion. 
 Thefe becoming gradually more and more mi- 
 nute, at length terminate in the cellular fpaces or 
 veficles, which make up the greateft part of the 
 fubftance of the lungs, and readily communicate 
 with each other. 
 
 The lungs feem to poflefs but little fenfibility. 
 Their nerves, which are fmall, and few in num- 
 ber, are derived from the intercoftal and eighth 
 pair. This laft pair having reached the thorax, 
 fends off a branch on each fide of the trachea, 
 called the reeurrent^ which reafeends at the back 
 of the trachea, to which it furnifhes branches in 
 its afeent, as w^ell as to the oefophagus, but it is 
 chiefly diftributed to the larynx and its muffles. 
 By dividing the recurrent and fuperior laryngeal 
 nerves at their origin, an animal is deprived of 
 its voice. 
 
 There are two feries of arteries which carry 
 blood to the lungs : thefe are the arterise bron- 
 chiales, and the pulmonary arteiy. 
 
 The 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 339 
 
 The arteriae bronchiales begin ufually by two 
 branches ; one of which commonly arifes from 
 the right intercoftal, and the other from the trunk 
 of the aorta : but fometimes there are three of 
 thefe arteries, and in fome fubjeds only one. 
 The ufe of thefe arteries is to ferve for the riou- 
 rifhment of the lungs, and their ramifications are 
 feen creeping every where on the branches of the 
 bronchi. The blood is brought back from them 
 by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos. 
 
 The pulmonary artery and vein are not in- 
 tended for the nourifhment of the lungs ; but 
 the blood in its paflage through them is deftined 
 to undergo fome changes, or to acquire certain 
 eflential properties (from the action of the air), 
 which it has loft in its circulation through 
 the other parts of. the body. The pulmo- 
 nary artery receives the blood from the right 
 ventricle of the heart, and dividing into two 
 branches, accompanies the bronchi every where, 
 by its ramifications through the lungs ; and the 
 blood is afterwards conveyed back by the pulmo- 
 nary vein, which gradually forming a confider- 
 able trunk, goes to empty itfelf intb the left 
 ventricle of the heart ; fo that the quantity of 
 blood which enters into the lungs, is perhaps 
 greater than that which is fent in the fame pro- 
 portion of time through all the other parts of 
 the body. 
 
'340 
 
 OF THE THORAX. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 Sect. VII. Of Refpiralion. 
 
 Respiration conftitutes one of thofe func- 
 tions which are properly termed vital, as being 
 elfential to life j for to live and to breathe are in 
 fa(T fynonyraous terms. It confifts in an alter- 
 nate contraftion and dilatation of the thorax, by 
 firft infpiring air into the lungs, and then expell- 
 ing it from them in exfpiration. 
 
 It will perhaps be eafy to diftinguifh and point 
 out the feveral phenomena of refpiration ; but 
 to explain their phyfical caufe will be attended 
 with difficulty : for it will naturally be enquir- 
 ed, how the lungs, when emptied of the air, 
 and contracted by exfpiration, become again in- 
 flated, they themfelves being perfectly paffive ? 
 How the ribs are elevated in oppofition to their 
 own natural fituation ? and why the diaphragm 
 is contracted downwards towards the abdomen ? 
 Were we to alfert that the air, by forcing its way 
 into the cavity of the lungs, dilated them, and 
 confequently elevated the ribs, and prelfed down 
 the diaphragm, we fhould fpeak erroneoufly. 
 What induces the firft infpiration, it is not eafy 
 to afcertain ; but after an animal has once refpir- 
 ed, it would feem likely that the blood, after ex* 
 Ipiration, finding its paflage through the lungs 
 obftruCled, becomes a llimulus, which induces 
 the intercoftal mufcles and the diaphragm to con- 
 iraCl', and enlarge the cavity of the thorax, in 
 
 Gonfequence 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 341 
 
 confequence perhaps of a certain nervous influ- 
 ence, which we will not here attempt to explain. 
 The air then rufhes into the lungs ; every branch 
 of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular fpaces 
 into which they open, become fully dilated ; 
 and the pulmonary veifels being equally diftend- 
 ed, the blood flows through them with eafe. But 
 as the ftimulus which firfl; occafioned this dila- 
 tation ceafes to operate, the mufcles gradually 
 contraft, the diaphragm rifes upwards again, and 
 diminifhes the cavity of the cheft ; the ribs re- 
 turn to their former Rate ; and as the air palfes 
 out in exfpiration, the lungs gradually collapfe, 
 and a refiftance to the palTage ot the blood again 
 takes place. But the heart continuing to receive 
 and expel the blood, the pulmonary artery be- 
 gins again to be diftended, the ftimulus is re- 
 newed, and the fame procefs is repeated, and 
 continues to be repeated, in a regular fucceffion, 
 during life : for though the mufcles of relpiration, 
 having a mixed motion, are (unlike the heart) 
 in fome meafure dependent on the will, yet no 
 human being, after having once refpired, can 
 live many moments without it. In an attempt 
 to hold one’s breath, the blood foon begins to 
 diftend the veins, which are unable to empty 
 their contents into the heart ; and we are able 
 only, during a very little time, to refift the fti- 
 mulus to infpiration. In drowning, the circu- 
 lation feems to be ftopped upon this principle ; 
 and in hanging, the preflTure made on the jugu- 
 lar 
 
342 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 lar veins, may co-operate with the ftoppage of 
 refpiration in bringing on death. 
 
 Till within thefe few years phyfiologifts were 
 entirely ignorant of the ufe of refpiration. It 
 was at length difcovered in part by the illuftrious 
 Dr. Prieftley. He found that the air exfpired 
 by animals was phlogifticated ; and that the air 
 was fitter for refpiration, or for fupporting ani- 
 mal life, in proportion as it was freer from the 
 phlogiftic principle. It had long been obferv- 
 ed, that the blood in paffing through the lungs 
 acquired a more florid colour. He therefore 
 fufpefted, that it was owing to its having im- 
 parted phlogifton to the air : and he fatisfied 
 himfelf of the truth of this idea, by experi- 
 ments, which fhowed, that the craflamentum of 
 extravafated blood, phlogifticated air in propor- 
 tion as it loft its dark colour. He farther found, 
 that blood thus reddened had a ftrong attra(ftion 
 for phlogifton ; infomuch that it was capable of 
 taking it from phlogifticated air, thereby becom- 
 ing of a darker colour. From hence it appeared 
 that the blood, in its circulation through the ar- 
 terial fyftem, imbibes a confiderable quantity of 
 phlogifton, which is difcharged from it to the 
 air in the lungs. 
 
 This difcovery has fince been profecuted by 
 two very ingenious phyfiologifts. Dr. Crawford 
 and Mr. Elliot. It had been fhown by profef- 
 fors Black and Irvine, that different bodies have 
 differertt capacities for containing fire. For ex- 
 ample, 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 343 
 
 ample, that oil and water, when equally hot to 
 the fenfe and the thermometer, contain different 
 proportions of that principle ; and that unequal 
 quantities of it are required, in order to raife 
 thofe fubftances to like temperatures. The en- 
 quiries of Dr. Crawford and JVi r. Elliot tend to 
 prove, that the capacities of bodies for contain- 
 ing fire are diminifhed by the addition of phlo- 
 gifton, and increafed by its feparation ; the ca- 
 pacity of calx of antimony, for example, being 
 greater than that of the antimony idelf. Com- 
 mon air contains a great quantity of fire ; com- 
 buftible bodies very little. In combuftion, a 
 double elective attraction takes place ; the phlo- 
 gifton of the body being transferred to the air, 
 the fire contained in the air to the combuftible 
 body. But as the capacity of the latter is not 
 increafed fo much as that of the former is dimi- 
 niflied, only part of the extricated fire will be 
 abforbed by the body. The remainder therefore 
 will raife the temperature of the compound ; and 
 hence we may account for the heat attending^ 
 combuftion. As the ufe of refpiration is to 
 dephlogifticate the blood, it feems probable, that 
 a like double eleClive attraction takes place in 
 this procefs ; the phlogifton of the blood being 
 transferred to the air, and the fire contained in 
 the air to the blood ; but with this difference, 
 that the capacities being equal, the whole of the 
 extricated fire is abforbed by the latter. The 
 blood in this ftate circulating through the body, 
 
 imbibes 
 
344 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 imbibes phlogifton, and of coiirfe gives out its 
 fire ; part only of which is abforbed by the parts 
 furnifhing the phlogifton ; the remainder, as in 
 combuftion, becoming fenfible ; and is therefore 
 the caufe of the heat of the body, or what is 
 called animal heat. 
 
 In confirmation of this doctrine it may be 
 obferved, that the venous blood contains lefs 
 fire than the arterial ; combuftible bodies lefs 
 than incombuftible ones ; and that air contains 
 lefs of this principle, according as it is rendered, 
 by combination with phlogifton, lefs fit for ref- 
 piration (z). 
 
 In afcending very high mountains, refpiration 
 is found to become fhort and frequent, and fome- 
 times to be attended with a fpitting of blood. 
 Thefe fymptoms feem to be occafioned by the 
 air being too rare and thin to dilate the lungs 
 fufficiently ; and the blood gradually accumulat- 
 ing in the pulmonary veflels, fometimes burfts 
 through their coats, and is brought up by cough- 
 ing. This has likewife been accounted for in a 
 different way, by fuppofmg that the air contain- 
 ed in the blood, not receiving an equal preffure 
 from that of the atmofphere, expands, and at 
 length ruptures the very minute branches of the 
 pulmonary veffels ; upon the fame principle that 
 fruits and animals put under the receiver of an 
 
 airr 
 
 (z) See Crawford’s Experiments and Obfervations on 
 Animal Heat, and Elliot’s Philolophical Obfervations- 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 345 
 
 air-pump, are feen to fwell as the outer air be- 
 comes exhaufted. But Dr. Darwin of Litchfield 
 has lately publifhed fome experiments, which 
 feem to prove, that no air or elaftic vapour does 
 exift in the blood-veflels, as has been generally 
 fiippofed : and he is induced to impute the fpit- 
 ting of blood, which has fometimes taken place 
 in. afcending high mountains, to accident, or to 
 violent exertions ; as it never happens to animals 
 that are put into the exhaufted receiver of an air- 
 pump, where the diminution of preflure is ma- 
 ny times greater than on the fummit of the high- 
 eft mountains. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Of the Voice. 
 
 Respiration has already been defcribed as 
 affording us many advantages ; and next to that 
 of life, its moft important ufe feems to be that 
 of forming the voice and fpeech. The ancients, 
 and almoft all the moderns, have confidered the 
 organ of fpeech as a kind of mufical inftrument, 
 which may be compared to a flute, to an hautr- 
 boy, to an organ, &c. and they argue after the 
 following manner. 
 
 The trachea, which begins at the root of the 
 tongue, and goes to terminate in the lungs, may 
 be compared to the pipe of an organ the lungs di- 
 lating like bellows during the time of infpiration ; 
 and as the air is driven out from them in exfpi- 
 rafion, it finds its paffage ftraitened by the carti- 
 lages 
 
34(5 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 lages of the larynx, againft which it ftrikes. As 
 thefe cartilages are more or lefs elaftic, they occa- 
 fion in their turn more or lefs vibration in the 
 air, and thus produce the found of the voice ; 
 the variation in the found and tone of which de- 
 pends on the hate of the glottis, which, when 
 ftraitened, produces an acute tone, and a grave 
 one when dilated. 
 
 The late M. Ferein communicated to the 
 French Academy of Sciences a very ingenious 
 theory on the formation of the voice. He con- 
 fidered the organ of the voice as a Jlring^ as well 
 as a 'wtnd^ inftrument; fo that what art has hi- 
 therto been unable to conftrud;, and what both 
 the fathers Merfenne and Kircher fo much wifti- 
 ed to fee, M. Ferein imagined he had at length 
 difcovered in the human body. He cjbferves, 
 that there are at the edges of the glottis certain 
 tendinous chords, placed horizontally acrofs it, 
 which are capable of confiderable vibration, fo 
 as to produce found, in the fame manner as it is 
 produced by the firings of a violin or a harpfi-' 
 chord : and he fuppofes that the air, as it pafles 
 out from the lungs, adts as a bow on thefe firings, 
 while the efforts of the breafl and lungs regulate 
 its motion, and produce the variety of tones. 
 So that according to this fyflem the variation in 
 the voice is not occafioned by the dilatation or 
 contradtion of the glottis, but by the diflenfion or 
 relaxation of thefe firings, the found being more 
 or lefs acute in proportion as they are more or 
 
Part IV. OF THL THORAX. 347 
 
 lefs ftretched out. Another writer on this fub- 
 je£t fuppofes, that the organ of voice is a double 
 inftrument, which produces in unifon two founds 
 of a different nature ; one by means of the air, 
 and the other by means of the chords of the 
 glottis. Neither of thefe fyftems, however, are 
 univerfally adopted. They are both liable to 
 infuperable difficulties ; fo that the manner in 
 which the voice is formed has never yet been fa- 
 tisfadtorily afcertained : we may obferve, how- 
 ever, that the found produced by the glottis is 
 not articulated. To effedt this, it is required to 
 pafs through the mouth, where it is differently 
 modified by the adtion of the tongue, which is 
 either puffied againft the teeth, or upwards to- 
 wards the palate; detaining it in its paffage, or 
 permitting it to flow freely, by contradling or di- 
 lating the mouth. 
 
 Sect. IX. Of Deje£lloft. 
 
 By dejedlion we mean the adt of voiding the 
 fseces at the anus ; and an account of the man- 
 ner in which this is condudled was referved for 
 this part of the work, becaufe it feemed to re- 
 quire a knowledge of refpiration to be perfedtly 
 underflood. 
 
 The inteftines were defcribed as having a pe- 
 riftaltic motion, by which the faeces were gra- 
 dually advancing towards the anus. Now, when- 
 ever the faeces are accumulated in the inteftinum 
 
 redtum 
 
348 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 redlum in a fiifficient quantity to become trouble- 
 fome, either by their weight or acrimony, they 
 excite a certain uneafmefs which induces us to 
 go to ftool. — To efFed: this, we begin by mak- 
 ing a confiderable infpiration ; in eonfequence of 
 which the diaphragm is carried downwards to- 
 wards the lower belly ; the abdominal mufcles 
 are at the fame time contraded in obedience to 
 the will ; and the inteftines being comprefled on 
 all fides, the refiftance of the fphin£ier is over- 
 come, and the feces pafs out at the anus ; which 
 is afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal fibres, 
 which are called levatores ani^ and then by means 
 of its fphinBer is again contraded : but it fome- 
 times happens, as in dyfenteries, for inftance, 
 that the feces are very liquid, and have confi- 
 derable acrimony ; and then the irritation they 
 occafion is more frequent, fo as to promote their 
 difcharge without any prefliire from the dia- 
 phragm or abdominal mufcles ; and fometimes 
 involuntarily, as is the cafe when the fphinder 
 becomes paralytic. 
 
 Sect. X. Of the Pericardium^ and of the Heart 
 a7id its Auricles. 
 
 The two membranous bags of the pleura, 
 which were deferibed as forming the mediafti- 
 num, recede one from the other, fo as to afford 
 a lodgement to a firm membranous fac, in which 
 the heart is fecurely lodged ; this fac, which is 
 
 the 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 349 
 
 the pericardium^ appears to be compofed of two 
 tunics, united to each other by cellular mem- 
 brane. — The outer coat, which is thick, and in 
 fome places of tendinous complexion, is a pro- 
 duction of the mediaftinum ; the inner coat, 
 which is extremely thin, is reflected over the 
 auricles and ventricles of the heart, in the fame 
 manner as the tunica conjunCtiva, after lining the 
 eye lids, is reflected over the eye. 
 
 This bag adheres to the tendinous part of 
 the diaphragm, and contains a coagulable lymph, 
 the liquor pericardii^ which ferves to lubricate 
 the heart and facilitate its motions ; and feems to 
 be fecreted and abforbed in the fame manner as 
 it is in the other cavities of the body. 
 
 The arteries of the pericardium are derived 
 from the phrenic, and its veins pafs into veins of 
 the fame name ; its nerves are likewife branches 
 of the phrenic. 
 
 The fize of the pericardium is adapted to that 
 of the heart, being ufually large enough to con- 
 tain it loofely. As its cavity does not extend to 
 the fternum, the lungs cover it in infpiration ; 
 and as it every where invefts the heart, it effectu- 
 ally fecures it from being injured by lymph, pus, 
 or any other ffuid, extravafated into the cavities 
 of the thorax. 
 
 The heart is a hollow mufcle of a conical fliape, 
 fituated tranfverfely between the two laminse of 
 the mediaftinum, at the lower part of the thorax ; 
 having its bafis turned towards the right fide, and 
 
 its 
 
350 OF THE THORAX. Part IV; 
 
 its point or apex towards the left. — Its lower fuf- 
 face is fomewhat flattened towards the diaphragm. 
 Its balls, from which the great velTels originate^ 
 is covered with fat, and it has two hollow and 
 fielhy appendages, called auricles , — Round thefe 
 feveral openings, the heart feems to be of a firm 
 ligamentous texture, from which all its fibres 
 feem to originate ; and as they advance from 
 thence tovsrards the apex, the fubftance of the 
 heart feems to become thinner. 
 
 The heart includes twm cavities or ventricles,, 
 which are feparated from each other by a flelhy 
 feptum ; one of thefe is called the right and the 
 other the left,, ventricle ; though perhaps, with 
 refpeftto their fituation, it would be more pro-i 
 per to diftingi^ilh them into the anterior and pof- 
 tCrior ventricles. 
 
 The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine 
 membrane ; and its ftruilure is perfectly mufcu- 
 lar or fleiliy, being compofed of fibres which 
 are defcribed as palling in different directions ; 
 fome as being extended longitudinally from the 
 bafis to the apex ; others, as taking an oblique or 
 fpiral courfe; and a third fort as being placed in 
 a tranfverfe direction (a).— -Within the two 
 ventricles we obferve feveral furrows ; and there 
 
 are 
 
 (a) Authors dlfFer about the courfe and diftlndtlons of 
 thefe fibres ; and it feems right to obferve, that the fcru^fiire 
 of the heart being more compaft titan that of ether mufdes> 
 its fibres are not eafiiy feparated. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 351 
 
 are likewife tendinous firings, which arlfe from 
 columna in the two cavities, and are attach- 
 ed to the valves of the auricles ; That the ufe of 
 thefe and the other valves of the heart may be 
 underflood, it mull be obferved, that four large 
 veffels pafs out from the bafis of the heart, viz. 
 two arteries and two veins ; and that each of 
 thefe veffels is furnifhed with a thin membran- 
 ous production, which is attached all round to 
 the borders of their feveral orifices, from whence 
 hanging loofely down they appear to be divided 
 into two or three diflinCt portions. But as their 
 ufes in the arteries and veins are different, fo are 
 they differently difpofed. Thbfe of the arteries 
 are intended to give way to the paffage of the 
 blood into them from the ventricles, but to op- 
 pofe its return : and, on the contrary, the valves 
 of the veins are conflruded fo as to allow the 
 blood only to pafs into the heart. In confequence 
 of thefe different ufes, we find the valves of the 
 pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to 
 the orifices of thofe veffels, fb as to have their 
 concave furfaces turned towards the artery ; and 
 their convex furfaces, which mutually meet to- 
 gether, being placed towards the ventricle, only 
 permit the blood to pafs one way, which is into 
 the arteries. There are ufually three of thefe 
 valves belonging to the pulmonary artery, and 
 as many to the aorta ; and from their figure they 
 are called valvula femilunares. The communi- 
 cation between the two great veins and the ven- 
 tricles 
 
352 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 tricles is by means of the two appendages or au- 
 ricles into which the blood is difcharged ; fo that 
 the other valves which may be faid to belong to 
 the veins, are placed in each ventricle, where 
 the auricle opens into it. The valves in the 
 right ventricle are ufually three in number, and 
 are named valvula tricufpides ; but in the left 
 ventricle we commonly obferve only two, and 
 thefe arc the valvida mitrales. The membranes 
 which form thefe valves in each cavity are at- 
 tached fo as to project fomewhat forward ; and 
 both the tricufpides and the mitrales are conne<ft- 
 ed with the tendjnous ftrings, which were de- 
 fcribed as arifmg from the flefhy coliimnee. By 
 the contraction of either ventricle, the blood is 
 driven into the artery which communicates with 
 that ventricle; and thefe tendinous ftrings being 
 gradually relaxed as the fides of the cavity arc 
 brought nearer to each other, the valves natu- 
 rally clofe the opening into the auricle, and the 
 blood necefl'arily directs its courfe into the then 
 only open paflage, which is into the artery ; but 
 after this contraction, the heart becomes relaxed, 
 the tendinous ftrings are again ftretched out, and, 
 drawing the valves of the auricle downwards, 
 the blood is poured by the veins into the ventri- 
 cle, from whence, by another contraction, it is 
 again thrown into the artery, as will be defcrib- 
 ed hereafter. The right ventricle is not quite fo 
 long, though fomewhat larger, than the left ; 
 but the latter has more fubftance than the other : 
 3 and 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAlC. 353 
 
 and this feems to be, becaufe it is intended to 
 tranfmit the blood to the moft diftant parts of the 
 body, whereas the right ventricle diftributes it 
 only to the lungs. 
 
 The heart receives its nerves from the par va- 
 gum and the intercoftals. The arteries which 
 ferve for its nourifhment are two in number, and 
 arife from the aorta. They furround in fome 
 meafure the bafis of the heart, and from this 
 courfe are called the coronary arteries. From 
 thefe arteries the blood is returned by veins of 
 the fame name into the auricles, and even into the 
 Ventricles. 
 
 The mufcular bags called the auricles are fitu- 
 ated at the bafis of the heart, at the fides of each 
 oth^r ; and, correfponding with the two ventri- 
 cles, are like thofe two cavities diftinguiflied in- 
 to right and left. Thefe facs, which are inte- 
 riorly unequal, have externally a jagged appen- 
 dix ; which, from its having been compared to 
 th€ extremity of an ear, has given them their 
 name of auricles. 
 
 Sect. XL Angiology, or a Defcription of the 
 Blood-vefels. 
 
 The heart has been defcribed as contracting 
 kfelf, and throwing the blood from its two 
 ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the 
 aorta, and then as relaxing itfelf and receiv- 
 ing a frefh fupply from two large veins, which 
 
 Z arc 
 
354 OF TOE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 are the pulmonary vein and the vena cava. We 
 will now point out the principal diftributions of 
 thefe veffels. 
 
 The pulmonary artery arifes from the right 
 ventricle by a large trunk, which foon divides 
 into two confiderable branches, which pafs to 
 the right and left lobes of the lungs : each of 
 thefe branches is afterwards divided and fubdi- 
 vided into an infinite number of branches and 
 ramifications, which extend through the whole 
 fubftance of the lungs ; and from thefe branches 
 the blood is returned by the veins, which, con- 
 trary to the courfe of the arteries, begin by very 
 minute canals, and gradually become larger, 
 forming at length four large trunks called pul- 
 sno?iary veins ^ which terminate in the left auricle 
 by one common opening, from whence the 
 blood palfes into the left ventricle. From this 
 fame ventricle arifes the aorta or great artery,^ 
 which at its beginning is nearly an inch in dia- 
 meter : it foon fends off two branches, the coro- 
 naries^ which go to be diftributed to the heart 
 and its auricles. After this, at or about the third 
 or fourth vertebra of the back, it makes a con- 
 fiderable curvature j from this curvature (b) arife 
 
 three 
 
 (b) Anatomifts ufually call the upper part of this curva- 
 ture aorta afcendens j and the other part of the artery to its 
 divifion at the iliacs, aorta defcendens : but they differ about 
 the place where this diflinftion is to be introduced j and it 
 feems fufficiently to anfwer every purpofe, to {peak only of 
 lire aorta and its curvature. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 355 
 
 three arteries ; one of which foon divides into 
 two branches. The firft two are the left fub- 
 clavian and the left carotid, and the third is a 
 common trunk to the right fubclavian and right 
 carotid ; though fometimes both the carotids 
 arife diftindlly from the ac#k. 
 
 Thefe two carotids afcend within the fubcla- 
 vians, along the fides of the trachea ; and when 
 they have reached the larynx, divide into two 
 principal branches, the internal and extern4l ca- 
 rotid. The lirft of thefe runs a little way back- 
 wards in a bending dire6:ion ; and having reach- 
 ed the under part of the ear, palTes through the 
 canal into the os petrofum, and entering into the 
 cavity of the cranium, is diftributed to the brain 
 and the membranes which invelope it, and like- 
 wife to the eye. The external carotid divides 
 intofeveral branches, which are diftributed to 
 the larynx, pharynx, and other parts of the 
 neck ; and to the jaws, lips, tongue, eyes, 
 temples ; and all the external parts of the head. 
 
 Each fubclavian is likewife divided injto a 
 great number of branches. It fends off the ver- 
 tebral artery., which pafles through the openings 
 we fee at the bottom of the tranfverfe procefles 
 of the vertebras of the neck, and in its courfe 
 fends off many ramifications to the neighbour- 
 ing parts. Some of its branches are diftributed 
 to the fpinal marrow, and after a confiderable 
 inflexion it enters into the cranium, and is dif- 
 tributed to the brain. The fubclavian likewife 
 
 Z 2 fends 
 
35(5 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 fends off branches to the mufcles of the neck 
 and the fcapula ;and mediaftinum, thymus, peri- 
 cardium, diaphragm, the breafts, and the muf- 
 cles of the thorax, and even of the abdomen, 
 derive branches from the fubclavian, which are 
 diftinguilhed by different names, alluding to the 
 parts to which they are diftributed ; and the 
 mammary^ the phrenic^ the 'mtercojlal^ &c. But 
 notwithftanding the great number of branches 
 which have been defcribed as arifmg from the 
 fubclavian, it is ftill a confiderable artery when 
 it reaches the axilla^ where it drops its former 
 name, which alludes to its paffage under the cla- 
 vicle. and is called the axillary artery ; from 
 which a variety of branches are diftributed to the 
 mufcles of the breaft, fcapula, and arm. — But 
 its main trunk taking the name of brachialls^ 
 runs along ou the infide of the arm near the os 
 humeri, till it reaches the joint of the fore-arm, 
 and theu it divides into branches. This divi- 
 lion however is different in different fubjedls ; 
 for in, fome it takes place higher up and in others 
 lower down. When it happens to divide above 
 the joint, it rnay be confidered as a happy dif- 
 pofition in caie of an accident by bleeding ; for 
 iuppoiing the artery to be unfortunately punc- 
 tured by the lancet, and that the h:emorrhage 
 could only be ftopped by making a ligatmre on 
 the veffel, one branch would remain unhurt,, 
 through which the blood would pafs uninterupt- 
 ed to the fore-arm and hand. One of the two 
 
 branches 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 357 
 
 branches of the brachialls plunges down under 
 the flexor mufcles, and runs along the edge of 
 the ulna ; while the other is carried along the 
 outer furface of the radius, and is eafily felt at 
 the wrift, where it is only covered by the com- 
 mon integuments. Both thefe branches comi- 
 monly unite in the palm of the hand, and form 
 an arterial arch from whence branches are de- 
 tached to the fingers. 
 
 The aorta^ after having given off* at its cur- 
 vature the carotids and fubclavians which convey 
 blood to all the upper parts of the body, defcends 
 upon the bodies of the vertebras a little to the left, 
 as far as the os facrum, where it drops the nameof 
 aorta^ and divides into two confiderable branches. 
 In this courfe, from its curv’^ature to its bifurca- 
 tion, it fends off feveral arteries in the following 
 order : i . One or two little arteries, firfc demon- 
 ftrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi, and 
 called arteria bronchinales Ruyfch li. 2. The ar- 
 
 terias oefophageas. Thefe are commonly three 
 or four in number. They arife from the fore- 
 part of the aorta, and are difiributed chiefly to 
 the oefophagus. 3. The inferior intercoflal ar- 
 teries, which are difiributed between the ribs in 
 the fame manner as the arteries of the three or 
 four fuperior ribs are, which are derived from 
 the fiibclavian. Thefe arteries fend off branches 
 to the medulla fpinalis. 4. The diaphragmatic 
 or inferior phrenic arteries, which go to the 
 diaphragm, ftomach, omentum, duodenum, 
 
 pancreas 
 
358 OF THE THORAX. Part IV, 
 
 pancreas, fpleen, liver, and gall-bladder. 5. 
 The cceliac, which fends off the coronary-fto- 
 machic, the fplenic, and the hepatic artery. 6. 
 The fuperior mefenteric artery and fmall intef- 
 tines. 7. The emulgents, which go to the kid- 
 neys. 8. The arteries, which are diftributed 
 to the glandul^E renales. 9. The fpermatic. 
 10. The inferior mefenteric artery, which ra- 
 mifies through the lower portions of the mefen- 
 tery and the large inteftines. — A branch of this 
 artery which goes to the reftum is called the in- 
 ternal hemorrhoidal. 1 1 . The lumbar arteries, 
 and a very fmall branch called the facra., which 
 are diftributed to the mufcles of the loins and 
 abdomen, and to the os facrum and medulla 
 fpinalis. 
 
 The trunk of the aorta, when it has reached 
 thelaft vertebra lumborum,or the os facrum, drops 
 the name of aorta., and feparates into two fork- 
 ed branches called the iliacs. Each of thefe foon 
 divides into two branches ; one of which is call- 
 ed internal iliac., or hypogajlrie artery., and is dif-i 
 tributed upon the contents of the pelvis and up- 
 on the mufcles on its outer fide. One branch, 
 called pudenda communis, fends fmall ramifica- 
 tions to the end of the re£tum under the name 
 of hcemorrhoides cxte?ma, and is afterwards dif- 
 tributed upon the penis. The other branch, the 
 external iliac, after having given off the cir- 
 cumflex artery of the os ilium and the epigaftric, 
 which is diftributed to the redti-mufcles, paffes 
 
 out 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 3 59 
 
 out of the abdomen under Poupart’s ligament, 
 and takes the name of crural artery, it de- 
 fcends on the inner part of the thigh clofe to 
 the os femoris, fending off branches to the muf- 
 cles, and then finking deeper in the hind part of 
 the thigh, reaches the ham, where it takes the 
 name of popliteal : after this it feparates into two 
 conliderable branches : one of which is called 
 the anterior tibial artery ; the other divides into 
 two branches, and thefe arteries all go to be dif- 
 tributed to the leg and foot. 
 
 The blood, which is thus diftributed by the 
 aorta to all parts of the body, is brought back by 
 the veins, which are fuppofed to be continued 
 from the ultimate branches of arteries ; and 
 uniting together as they approach the heart, at 
 length from the large trunks, the vena cava 
 afcendens, and vena cava defccndens. 
 
 All the veins which bring back the blood from 
 the upper extremities, and from the head and 
 breaft, pafs into the vena cava defcendens ; and 
 thofe which return it from the lower parts of 
 the body terminate in the vena cava afcendens ; 
 and thefe two cavas uniting together as they ap- 
 proach the heart, open by one common orifice 
 into the left auricle. 
 
 It does not here feem to be neceffary to fol- 
 low the different divifions of the veins as we did 
 thofe of the arteries ; and it will be fufficient to 
 remark, that in- general every artery is accom- 
 panied by its vein, and that both are difliiiguiflied 
 
 by 
 
360 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 by the fame name. But, like many other ge- 
 neral rules, this too has its exceptions (c). The 
 veins for inftance, which accompany the exter- 
 nal and internal carotid, are not called the car- 
 told veins ^ but the external and internal jugular, 
 — In the thorax, there is a vein diftinguifhed 
 by a proper name, and this is the a%ygos^ or ve- 
 na fine parti. This vein, which is a pretty con- 
 fiderable one, runs along by the right fide of 
 the vertebrse of the back, and is chiefly deftin- 
 ed to receive the blood from the intercoftals on 
 that fide, and from the lower half of thofe on 
 the left fide, and to convey it into the vena cava 
 defcendens. In the abdomen we meet with a 
 vein, which is ftill a more remarkable one, and 
 this is the vena porta ^ which performs the office 
 both of an artery and a vein. It is formed by 
 a re-union of all the veins which come from the 
 ftomach, inteftines, omentum, pancreas, and 
 fpleen, fo as to compofe one great trunk, which 
 goes to ramify through the liver ; and after hav- 
 ing depofited the bile, its ramifications unite and 
 bring back into the vena cava, not only the blood 
 which the vena portse had carried into the fiver, 
 but likewife the blood from the hepatic artery. 
 Every artery has a vein which correfponds with 
 it ; but the trunks and branches of the veins 
 
 are 
 
 (c) In the extremities, fome of the deep-feated veins, 
 and all the fuperfidal one, take a courfe dilFerent from 
 that of the arteries. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 361 
 
 are more numerous than thofe of the arteries. 
 — The reafons for this difpofition are perhaps 
 more difficult to be explained ; the blood in its 
 courfe through the veins is much farther remov- 
 ed from the fource and caufe of its motion, 
 which are in the heart, than it was when in the 
 arteries ; fo that its courfe is confequently lefs 
 rapid, and enough of it could not poffibly be 
 brought back to the heart in the moment of its 
 dilatation, to equal the quantity which is driven 
 into the arteries from the two ventricles, at the 
 time they contract ; and the equilibrium which 
 is fo effential to the continuance of life and 
 health would confequently be deftroyed, if the 
 capacity of the veins did not exceed that of 
 the arteries, in the fame proportion that the ra- 
 pidity of the blood’s motion through the arteries 
 exceeds that of its return through the veins. 
 
 A large artery ramifying through the body, 
 and continued to the minute branches of veins, 
 which gradually unite together to form a large 
 trunk, may be compared to two trees united to 
 each other at their tops ; or rather as having 
 their ramifications fo difpofed that the two trunks 
 terminate in one common point ; and if we 
 farther fuppofe, that both thefe trunks and their 
 branches are hollow, and that a fluid is incef- 
 fantly circulated through them, by entering into 
 one of the trunks and returning through the other, 
 we {hall be enabled to conceive how the blood 
 
 IS 
 
362 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 is circulated through the veffels of the human 
 body. 
 
 Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, 
 is nearly cylindrical, or of equal diameter through 
 its whole length, and fo are all its branches 
 when examined feparately. But every trunk 
 feems to contain lefs blood than the many 
 branches do into which that trunk feparates ; 
 and each of thefe branches probably contains 
 lefs blood than the ramifications do into which 
 it is fubdivided: and it is the fame with the 
 reins ; the volume of their feveral ramifications, 
 when confidered together, being found to exceed 
 that of the great trunk which they form by their 
 union. 
 
 The return of the blood through the veins to 
 the heart, is promoted by the a< 3 :ion of the muf- 
 cles, and the pulfation of the arteries. And 
 this return is likewife greatly affifted by the 
 valves which are to be met with in the veins, 
 and which conftitute one of the great diftinftions 
 between them and the arteries. Thefe valves, 
 which are fuppofed to be formed by the inner 
 coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from 
 the extremities towards the heart, but oppofe its 
 return. They are moft frequent in the Imaller 
 veins. As the column of blood increafes, they 
 feem to become lefs neceifary ; and therefore in 
 the vena cava afcendens, we meet with only one 
 valve, which is near its origin. 
 
 The ciiteries are compofed of feveral tunics. 
 
 Some 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 363 
 
 Some writers enumerate five of thefe tunics ; 
 but perhaps we may more properly reckon only 
 three, viz. the ?iervous^ mufcular^ and cut'icular 
 coats. The veins are by Ibme anatomifls de- 
 fcribed as having the fame number of coats as 
 arteries ; but as they do not feem to be irrita- 
 ble, we cannot with propriety fuppofe them to 
 have a mufcular tunic. We are aware of Dr. 
 Verfchuir’s * experiments to prove that the ju- 
 gular and fome other veins poii'efs a certain de- 
 gree of irritability ; but it is certain, that his 
 experiments, repeated by others, have produc- 
 ed a different refult ; and even he himfelf allows, 
 that fometimes he was unable to diftinguifh any 
 fuch property in the veins. Both thefe feries of 
 veffels are nourifned by ftill more minute arteries 
 and veins, which are feen creeping over their coats, 
 and ramifying through their whole fubfiance, 
 and are called vafa vaforuni ; they have likewife 
 many minute branches of nerves. 
 
 The arteries are much ftronger than the veins, 
 and they feem to require this force to be enabled 
 to refill; the impetus with which the blood circu- 
 lates through them, and to impel it on towards 
 the veins. 
 
 When the heart contrads, it impels the blood 
 into the arteries, and fenfibly diftends them ; 
 and thefe veffels again contrad, as the heart be- 
 comes relaxed to receive more blood from the 
 
 auricles ; 
 
 * Dc Arteriarum et Veuarum vi irritabili, 410, 
 
364 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 auricles ; fo that the caufe of the contraction 
 and dilatation of the arteries feems to be eafy 
 to be underftood, being owing in part to 
 their own contraCtile power, and in part to 
 the action of the heart ; but in the veins ^ the ef- 
 fects of this impulfe not being fo fenfibly felt, 
 and the veffels themfelves having little or no con- 
 tractile power, the blood feems to flow in a con- 
 ftant and equal ftream : and this, together with 
 its paffing gradually from a fmall channel into a 
 larger one, feems to be the reafon why the veins 
 have no pulfatory motion, except the large ones 
 near the heart ; and in thefe it feems to be oc- 
 cafioned by the motion of the diaphragm, and 
 by the regurgitation of the blood in the cavas. 
 
 Sect. XII. Of the A&ion of the Hearty Auri~ 
 cles^ and Arteries. 
 
 The heart, at the time it contracts, drives 
 the blood from its ventricles into the arteries ; 
 and the arteries being thus filled and diftended, 
 are naturally inclined to contraCt the moment 
 the heart begins to dilate, and ceafes to fupply 
 them with blood. Thefe alternate motions of 
 contraction and dilatation of the heart and arte- 
 ries, are diftinguifiied by the names of fyfole and 
 diafole. When the heart is in a ftate of con- 
 traction or fyftole, the arteries are at that inftant 
 diftended with blood, and in their dialtole ; and 
 
 it 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 365 
 
 it is in this ftate we feel their pulfatory motion, 
 which we call t\iQ.pulfe. When the heart dilates, 
 and the arteries contract, the blood is impelled 
 onwards into the veins, through which it is re- 
 turned back to the heart. While the heart, how- 
 ever, is in its fyftole, the blood cannot pafs from 
 the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in 
 the auricles, which are two refervoirs formed 
 for this ufe, till the diaftole, or dilatation of the 
 heart, takes place ; and then the diftended au- 
 ricles contradl, and drive the blood into the ven- 
 tricles : fo that the auricles have an alternate fyf- 
 tole and diaftole as well as the heart. 
 
 Although both the ventricles of the heart con- 
 trad: at the fame time, yet the blood pafles from 
 one to the other. In the fame moment, for in- 
 ftance, that the left ventricle drives the blood 
 into the aorta, the right ventricle impels it into 
 pulmonary artery, which is diftributed through 
 all the fubftance of the lungs. The blood is 
 afterwards brought back into the left ventricle by 
 the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that the 
 blood is returned by the cavas, into the right 
 ventricle, from all the other parts of the body. 
 
 This feems to be the mode of adion of the 
 heart and its veflels : but the caufe of this adion 
 has, like all other intricate and interefting fub- 
 jeds, been differently explained. It feems to 
 depend on the ftimulus made on the different 
 parts of the heart by the blood itfelf, which by 
 
 iu 
 
366 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 its quantity and heat, or other properties (d), is 
 perhaps capable of hrfl: exciting that motion, 
 which is afterwards continued through life, in- 
 dependent of the wall, by a regular return of 
 blood to the auricles, in a quantity proportion- 
 ed to that which is thrown into the arteries. 
 
 The heart pofl'elles the vis infita^ or principle 
 of irritability, in a much greater degree than any 
 other mufcle of the body. The pulfe is quicker 
 in young than in old fubjefts, becaufe the former 
 are ca;t. par. more irritable than the latter. Up- 
 on the fame principle we may explain, why the 
 pulfe is conftantly quicker in weak than in ro- 
 buft perfons. 
 
 S E c T . X I II. Of the Circulation. 
 
 After what has been obferved of the ftruc-> 
 ture and adtion of the heart and its auricles, and 
 iikewnfe of the arteries and veins, there feem to 
 [)e but veiy few arguments required to demon- 
 ftrate the circulation of the blood.^ which has long 
 Imce been eftabliflied as a medical truth. This 
 circulation may he denned to be a perpetual mo- 
 tion of the blood, in confeqtiencc of the aftion 
 
 of 
 
 (d) Dr. Harvey long ago fuggefled, that the blood is pof- 
 icffed ul a livip.g principle ; and Mr. J. Hunter has lately en- 
 ileavourcd to rc\h e this do6lrine-, in fupport of which he 
 has adduced many ingenious arguments. The fiibjeft is a 
 curious one, and deferves to be profecuted as an inquiry 
 which cannot but be Interefting to phyfiologifls. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 367 
 
 of the heart and arteries, which impel it 
 through all the parts of the body, from whence 
 it is brought back by the veins of the heart. 
 
 A very fatisfadlory proof of this circulation, 
 and a proof eafy to be underftood. may be de- 
 ducted from the different eifeCls of preffure on 
 an artery and a vein. If a ligature, for inftance, 
 is paffed round an artery, the veffel fwells con- 
 fiderably between the ligature and the heart ; 
 whereas, if we tie up a vein, it only becomes 
 filled between the extremity and the ligature, 
 and this is what we every day obferve in bleed- 
 ing. The ligature we pafs round the arm on 
 thefe occafions, compreffes the fuperficial veins; 
 and the return of the blood through them be- 
 ing impeded, they become diflended. When 
 the ligature is too loofe, the veins are not fuffi- 
 ciently compreffed, and the blood continues its 
 progrefs towards the heart ; and, on the con- 
 trary, when it is made too tight, the arteries 
 themfefves becomes comprefl'ed ; and the flow of 
 the blood through them being impeded, the 
 veins cannot be diflended. 
 
 Another phsenomenon, which effectually 
 proves the circulation, is the lofs of blood that 
 every living animal fuflains by opening only a 
 Angle artery of a moderate fize ; for it continues 
 to flow from the wounded veffel till the equili- 
 brium is deflroyed which is ellential to life. This 
 truth was not unknown to the ancients ; and it 
 feems ftrange. thaf*it did not lead them to a 
 
 knowledge 
 
368 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 knowledge of the circulation, as it fufficiently 
 proves, that all the other veflels muft communi- 
 cate with that which is opened. Galen, who 
 lived more than 1500 years ago, drew this con- 
 clufion from it ; and if we farther obferve,* that 
 he defcribes (after Erafiftratus, who flourifhed 
 about 450 years before him) the feveral valves 
 of the heart, and determines their difpofition 
 and ufes, it will appear wonderful, that a pe- 
 riod of near 200 years fhould afterwards elapfe 
 before the true eourfe of the blood was afcertain- 
 ed. This difcovery, for which we are indebt- 
 ed to the immortal Harvey, has thrown new 
 lights on phyfiology and the dodlrine of dif- 
 eafes, and conftitutes one of the moft impor- 
 tant periods of anatomical hiftory. 
 
 Sect. XIV. Of the Nature of the Blood. 
 
 Blood, recently drawn from a vein into a 
 bafon, would feem to be an homogeneous fluid 
 of a red colour (e) ; but when fuffered to reft, 
 it foon coagulates, and divides into two parts, 
 which are diftinguifhed by the names of crajfa- 
 vientum and ferum. The cralfamentum is the 
 red coagulum, and the ferum is the water in 
 which it floats. Each of thefe may be agmn fe- 
 parated into two others ; for the cralfamentum, 
 
 by 
 
 (e) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, is ob- 
 ferved to be more florid than it is in the veins ; and this red- 
 nefsis acquired in its paflage through the lungs. Vid. fe£t. vii. 
 
Part IV. OF THE TFIORAX. 369 
 
 by being repeatedly wafhed in warm water, gives 
 out all its red globules, and what remains ap- 
 pears to be compoled of the coagulablelymph(F), 
 which is a gelatinous fubftance, capable of being 
 hardened by fire till it becomes perfedfly horny : 
 and if we expofe the ferum to a certain degree 
 of heat, part of it will be' found to coagulate 
 like the white of an egg, and there will remain 
 a clear and lympid water, refembling urine both 
 in its appearance and fmell. 
 
 The ferum and craffamentum differ in their 
 proportion in different conftitutions ; in a flrong 
 perfon, the craffamentum is in a greater pro- 
 portion to the ferum than in a weak one and 
 the fame difference-is found to take place in dif- 
 eafes (g). 
 
 A a Sect. XV. 
 
 (f) It may not be Improper to obferve, that till of late the 
 c oagalable lymph hiishttn confounded with they^rw?? of the 
 blood, which contains a fubftance that is likewife coagula- 
 ble, though only when expofed to heat, or combined with 
 certain chemical fubftances ; whereas the other coagulates 
 fpontaneoufty when expofed to the air or to reft. 
 
 * Hewfon’s Experinj. Enq. Part. I. 
 
 (g) When the blood feparates into ferum and crajfaine?i- 
 tum, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whitifti or 
 buff colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain 
 proof of the blood’s being in a ftate of too great vilddity. 
 This appearance commonly taking place in inflammatory 
 difeales, has longferved to confirm the theory which afcribes 
 the caufe of inflammation to lentor and obftrudtions. But 
 from thq late Mr. Hewfon’s experiments it appears, that 
 when the adlion of the arteries is increafed, the blood, in- 
 ftead of being more vifcid, is, on the conrtary, more fluid 
 
 than 
 
370 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 Sect. XV. Of Nutrition. 
 
 The variety of functions which we have de- 
 fcribed as being inceflantly performed by the liv- 
 ing body, and the continual circulation of the 
 blood 'through it, mult neceffarily occafion a 
 conftant diflipation of the feveral parts which 
 enter into its cornpofition. In fpeaking of the 
 infenfible perfpiration, we obferved how much 
 was inceflantly -pafling off from the lungs and 
 the flirfao'e of the fkin. The difcharge by urine 
 is likewife every day confiderable ; and great 
 part of the bile, faliva, &c. are excluded by 
 ftool. But the folid, as well as the fluid ipatts 
 of the body, require a conftant renewal of nu- 
 tritious :particles. They are expofed to the at- 
 trition of the fluids w'^hich are circulated through 
 them ; and the contraction and relaxation they 
 repeat fo many thoufand times in every day, 
 would neccflTarily occafion a diflolution of the 
 machine, if the renewal was not proportioned 
 to the wafte. 
 
 It is eafy to conceive how the chyle Formed 
 from the aliment is aflimilated into the nature of 
 
 the 
 
 fhaninthe ordinary ftate, previous to Inflammation: and 
 that in conlequence of this, the coa:gulaSle lymph fuffers 
 the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, 
 to fall down to the bottom before it coagulates : fo that 
 the dra'flamentum is divided into two parts ; one of which 
 is found to confifl: of the coagulable lymph alone (in this cafe 
 termed the and the other, partly. of this and paitly 
 
 of the red globules^ 
 
Part IV. OF THE TEIORAX. 371 
 
 the blood, and repairs the lofs of the fluid parts 
 of our body ; but how the folids are renewed, 
 has never yet been fatisfadloriiy explained. The 
 nutritious parts of the blood are probably de- 
 pofited by the arteries by exfudation through 
 their pores into the tela cellulofa ; and as the 
 folid parts of the body are in the embryo only 
 a kind of jelly, which gradually acquires the 
 degree of confiftence they are found to have 
 when the body arrives at a more advanced age ; 
 and thefe fame parts which confift of bones, 
 cartilages, ligaments, mufcles, &c. are fome- 
 times reduced again by difeafes to a gelati- 
 nous ftate ; we may, with fome degree of pro- 
 bability, confider the coagulable lymph as the 
 fource of nutrition. 
 
 If the fupply of nourilhment exceeds the de- 
 gree of wafte, the body increafes ; and this hap- 
 pens in infancy and in youth : for at thofe peri- 
 ods, but more particularly the former one, the 
 fluids bear a large proportion to the folids ; and 
 the fibres being foft and yielding, are proporti- 
 onably more capable of extenfion and increafe. 
 But when the fupply of nutrition only equals 
 the wafte, we neither increafe or decreafe ; and 
 we find this to be the cafe when the body has 
 attained its full growth or acme : for the folids 
 having then acquired a certain degree of firm- 
 nefs and rigidity do not permit a farther in- 
 creafe of the body. But as we approach to old 
 age, rigidity begins to be in excefs, and the 
 
 A a 2 fluids 
 
572 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 fluids (h) bear a much lefs proportion to thefo- 
 iids than before. The diffipation of the body 
 is greater than the fupply of nourifhment ; many 
 of 'the fmailer veflels become gradually imper- 
 vious (i) ; and the fibres lofing their moifture 
 and their elafticity, appear flaccid and wrinkled. 
 The lilies and the rofes difappear,becaufe the fluids 
 by which they were produced can no longer reach 
 the extremities of the capillary veflels of the Ikin. 
 As thefe changes take place, the nervous power 
 being proportionably weakened, the irritability 
 and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly 
 fo remarkable, are greatly diminifhed ; and in 
 advanced life, the hearing, the eye-fight, and 
 all the other fenfes, become gradually impaired. 
 
 Sect. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions. 
 
 The glands are commonly underftood to be 
 finall, roundifh, or oval bodies formed by the 
 convolution of a great number of veflels, and 
 deftined to feparate particular humours from the 
 mafs of blood. 
 
 They are ufually divided into two clafles ; but 
 
 it 
 
 (h) As the fluids become lels in proportion to the folids, 
 their acrimony is found to increafe ; and this may perhaps 
 compenfate for the want of fluidity in the blood, by dimi- 
 nilhing its cohefion. 
 
 (i) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in 
 refpeft to the veins, and the lymphatic glands are larger 
 than at any other time of life ; whereas, in aid age, the ca- 
 pacity of the venous fyftem exceeds that of the arteries, and 
 the lymphatic fyftem almoft difappears. 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 373 
 
 it feems more proper to diftinguifh three kinds 
 of glands, viz. the mucous, conglobate, and con- 
 glomerate. 
 
 The mucous glands^ or follicles, as they are moft 
 commonly called, are fmall cylindrical tubes 
 continued from the ends of arteries. In fome 
 parts of the body, as in the tonfils, for example, 
 feveral of thefe follicles may be feen folded to- 
 gether in one common covering, and opening 
 into one common iinus. Thefe follicles are the 
 velfels that fecrete and pour out mucus in the 
 mouth, oefophagus, ftomach, intefdnes, and other 
 parts of the body. 
 
 The conglobate glands are peculiar to the lym- 
 phatic fyftem. Every lymphatic vein paffes 
 through a gland of this kind in its way to the 
 thoracic duft. They are met with in different 
 parts of the body, particularly in the axilla, groin, 
 and mefenteiy , and are either folitary or in diftindf 
 duffers. 
 
 The conglomerate glands are of much greater 
 bulk than the conglobate, and feem to be an af- 
 lemblage of many fmaller glands. Of this kind 
 are the liver, kidneys, &e. Some of them, as 
 the pancreas, parotids, &c. have a granulated ap- 
 pearance. All thefe conglomerate glands are 
 plentifully fupplied with blood-veffels ; but their 
 nerves are in general very minute, and few in 
 number. Each little granulated portion fur- 
 niflies a fmall tube, which unites with other fi- 
 
 milar 
 
374 OF the thorax. Part IV. 
 
 milar ducSls, to form the common excretory du£t 
 of the gland. 
 
 The principal glands, and the humours they 
 fecrete, have been already defcribed in different 
 parts of this work ; and there only remains for 
 us to examine the general ftru£ture of the glands, 
 and to explain the mechanifm of fecretion. On 
 thefirftof thefe fubjedts two different fyftems 
 have been formed ; each of which has had, and 
 fall continues to have, its adherents. One of 
 thefe fyftems was advanced by Malpighi, who 
 fuppofed that an artery entering into a gland ra- 
 mifies very minutely through its whole fubftance ; 
 and that its branches ultimately terminate in a 
 veficular cavity or follicle, from whence the fe- 
 creted fluid paffes out through the excretory dudf. 
 This dodtrine at firft met with few opponents ; 
 but the celebrated Ruyfch, who firft attempted 
 minute injedtions with wax, afterwards difputed 
 the exiftence of thefe follicles, and afferted, that 
 every gland appears to be a continued feries of 
 veffels, which after being repeatedly convoluted 
 in their courfe through its fubftance, at length 
 terminate in the excretory dudt. Anatomifts 
 are ftill divided between thefe two fyftems : that 
 of Malpighi, however, feems to be the beft 
 founded, ^ , 
 
 The mode of fecretion has been explained in 
 a variety of ways, and they are all perfedlly hy- 
 pothetical. In fuch an inquiiy it is natural to 
 afle, how one gland conftantly feparates a parti- 
 cular 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 37 5 
 
 cular humour, while another gland fecretes one 
 of a very different nature from the blood ? The 
 bile, for infta.nce, is feparated by the liver, and 
 the urine by the kidneys. Are thefe fecretions 
 to be imputed to any particular difpofitions in 
 the fluids, or is their caufe to be looked for in 
 the folids ? 
 
 It has been fuppofed, that every gland con- 
 tains within itfeif a fermenting principle, by 
 which it is enabled to change the nature of the 
 blood it receives, and to endue it with a particu- 
 lar property. So that, according to this fyftem, 
 the blood, as it circulates through the kidneys, 
 becomes mixed with the fermenting principle of 
 thofe glands, and a part of it is converted hito 
 urine ; and again, in the liver, in the faliyal and 
 other glands, the bile, tire faliva, and other 
 juices, are generated from a fimilar caufe. But 
 it feems to be impoffible for any liquor to be con- 
 fined in a place expofed to the circulation, with- 
 out being carried away by the ton'ent of blood, 
 every part of which would be equally affefted ; 
 and this fyftem of fermentation has long been 
 rejected as vague and chimerical. But as the 
 caufe of fecretion continued to be looked for in 
 the fluids, the former fyftem was fucceeded by 
 another, in which recourfe was had to the ana- 
 logy of the humours. It was obferved, that if 
 paper is moiftened with water, and oil and wa- 
 ter are afterwards poured upon it, that the water 
 only will be permitted to pafs through it ; but 
 
 that, 
 
376 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 that, on the other hand, if the paper has been 
 previoufly foaked in oil inftead of water, the oil 
 only, and not the water, will be filtered through 
 it. Thefe obfervations led to a fuppofition, that 
 every fecretory organ is originally furnilhed with 
 a humour analogous to that w^hich it is after- 
 wards deftined to feparate from the blood ; aiid 
 that in confequence of this difpofition, tl)e fecre- 
 tory vefiels of the liver, for inftance, will only 
 admit the bilous particles of the blood, while all 
 the other humours will be excluded. This fyf- 
 tem is an ingenious one, but the difficulties with 
 which it abounds are unanfwerable ; for oil and 
 water are immifcible ; whereas the blood, as it 
 is circulated through the body, appears to be an 
 homogeneous fluid. Every oil will pafs through 
 a paper moiftened only with one kind of oil ; 
 and wine, or fpirits mixed with water, will eafily 
 be filtered through a paper previoufly foaked in 
 water. Upon the fame principle, all our humours, 
 though differing in their other properties, yet 
 agreeing in that of being perfectly mifcible with 
 eachother,willalleafilypafsthroughthefamefiltre. 
 But thefe are not all the objedlions to this fyftem. 
 The humours which are fuppofed to be placed in 
 the fecretory velfels for the determination of fimi- 
 lar particles of the blood, muff be originally fe- 
 parated without any analogous fluid ; and that 
 which happens once, may as eafily happen al- 
 ways. Again, it fometimes happens from a vi- 
 cious difpofition, that humours are filtered 
 through glands which are naturally not intended 
 
 to 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX. 377 
 
 to afford them a paffage ; and when this once 
 has happened, it ought, according to this fyftem, 
 to be expected always to do fo : whereas this is 
 not the cafe ; and we are, after all, naturally led 
 to feek for the caufe of fecretions in the folids. 
 It does not feem right to afcribe it to any parti- 
 cular figure of the excretory veffels ; becaufe the 
 foft texture of thofe parts does not permit them 
 to preferve any conftant fhape, and our fluids 
 feem to be capable of accommodating themfelves 
 to every kind of figure. Some have imputed 
 it to the difference of diameter in the orifices of 
 the different fecretoiy veffels. To this doctrine 
 objediions have likewife been railed ; and it has 
 been argued, that the veffels of the liver, for in- 
 ftance, would, upon this principle, afford a paf- 
 fage not only to the bile, but to all the other hu- 
 mours of lefs confiftence with it. In reply to 
 this objediiion, it has been fuppofed, that fecon- 
 dary veffels exift, which originate from the firft, 
 and permit all the humours thinner than the bile 
 to pafs through them. 
 
 Each of thefe hypothefes is probably very re- 
 mote from the truth. 
 
 EXPLANATION of PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 This plate reprefents the Heart in fitu, all 
 the large Arteries and Veins, with fome of the 
 Mufcles, &c. 
 
 Muscles, &c. — Superior Extremity. — 
 a, Maffeter. b, Complexus. C, Digaftricus. 
 
 d, Os 
 
378 OF THE THORAX. Part IV. 
 
 d, Os hyoides. e, Thyroid gland, f, Levator 
 fcapulaj. g, Cucullaris. h h, The clavicles cut. 
 i, The deltoid mufcle. k, Biceps flexor cubiti 
 cut. I, Caraco-brachialis. m, Triceps, exten-* 
 for cubiti. n, The heads of the pronator teres^ 
 flexor carpi radiales, and flexor digitorum ful> 
 limis, cut. o, The flexor carpi ulnaris^ cut at. 
 its exteremity. p, Flexor digitorum profundus. 
 
 q, Supinator radii longus, cut at its extremity. 
 
 r, Ligamentum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores 
 carpi radiales. t, Latiffimus dorfi. u, Anterior 
 edge of the ferratus anticus major, v v, The in- 
 ferior part of the diaphragm, w w, Its anterior 
 edge cut. x x, The kidneys, y, Tranfverfus 
 abdominis, z, Os ilium. 
 
 Inferior Extremity. — Pfoas magnus. 
 
 Iliacus intemus. r, The flefhy origin of the 
 tenfor vagina femoris. d The olfa pubis cut 
 from each other, Mufculus pe£lineus cut 
 from its origin, Short head of the triceps ab- 
 ductor femoris cut. The great head of the 
 triceps, The long head cut. z, Vaftus in- 
 turnus. Vaftus externus. /, Crureus. 
 Gemellus. Soleus. o, Tibia, Peronaeus 
 longus. y, Peronaeus brevis, r, Fibula. 
 
 Heart and Blood-vessels. — A, The heart, 
 with the coronary arteries and veins. B, The 
 right auricle of the heart. C, The aorta afcen- 
 dens. D, The left fubclavian artery. E, The 
 left carotid artery. F, The common trunk which 
 fends off the right fubclavian and right carotid 
 
 arteries, 
 
cPhiUf 
 
 i 
 
Part IV. OF THE THORAX, 379 
 
 arteries. G, The carotis externa. H, Arteria 
 facialis, which lends olF the coronary arteries of 
 the lips. I. Arteria temporalis profunda. K, 
 Aorta defcendens. L L, The iliac arteries, — 
 which fend off M M, The femoral or crural ar- 
 teries. N. B. The other arteries in this figure 
 have the fame diftribution as the veins of the 
 fame name : — And generally, in the anatomi- 
 cal plates, the defcription to be found on the one 
 fide, points out the fame parts in the other, i , 
 The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena 
 temporalis profunda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, 
 Vena jugularis externa. 6, Vena jugularis in- 
 terna, covering the arteria carotis communis. 7, 
 The vafcular arch on the palm of the hand, which 
 is formed by, 8, The radial artery and vein, and, 
 9, The ulnar artery and vein. 10 10, Cephalic 
 vein. II, Balilic vein, that on the right fide 
 cut. 12, Median vein. 13, Tlie humeral vein, 
 wdiich, with the median, covers the humeral ar- 
 tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mam- 
 mar^" arteries and veins. 15, The axillary vein, 
 covering the artery. 16 16, The fubclavian 
 veins, which, with (6 6) the jugulars, form, 17, 
 The vena cava fuperior. 18, The cutaneous 
 arch of veins on the fore part of the foot. 1 9, 
 The vena tibialis antica, covering the arterj^ 20, 
 The vena profunda femcris, covering the artery? 
 
 21, The upper part of the vena faphena major. 
 
 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac veins. 
 
 24 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal 
 veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The dia- 
 phragmatic veins. PART V. 
 
OF THE BRAIN 
 
 Part V. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 Of the brain and NERVES, 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Brain and its Integuments. 
 HE bones of the cranium were defcribed 
 
 in the ofteological part of this work, as in- 
 
 clofmg the brain, and defending it from external 
 injury : but they are not its only protection ; for 
 when we make an horizontal feClion through 
 thefe bones, we find this mafs every where fur- 
 rounded by two membranes (k), the dura and 
 pia mater. — The firft of thefe lines the interior 
 furface of the cranium, to which it every where 
 adheres ftrongly (l), but more particularly at the 
 futures, and at the many foramina through which 
 veflels pafs between it and the pericranium. The 
 
 (k) The Greeks called thefe membranes meninges \ but 
 the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all the 
 other membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the 
 names of dura and pia mater ; by which they are now ufu- 
 ally diftinguiflied. 
 
 (l) In young fubjecfs this adhefion is greater than in 
 adults ; but even then, in the healthy fubjeft, it is no v/here 
 eafily feparated, without breaking through fome of the mi^ 
 nute vehels by means of which it is attached to the bone. 
 
 dura 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 381 
 
 dura mater (m) is perfedlly fmooth and melaftic, 
 and its inner furface is conftantly bedewed with 
 a fine pellucid fluid, which eveiy where feparates 
 it from the pia mater. The dura mater fends oflT 
 feveral confiderable procefles, which divide the 
 brain into feparate portions, and prevent them 
 from comprelfing each other. Of thefe procefles 
 thetjs is one fuperior and longitudinal, called the 
 falx^ or falciform procefs^ from its refemblance 
 to a fcythe. It arifes from the fpine of the os 
 frontis, near the chrifta galli, and extending along 
 in the direction of the fagittal future, to beyond 
 the lambdoidal future, divides the brain into two 
 hemifpheres. A little below the lambdoidal fu- 
 ture, it divides into two broad wings or expan- 
 fions called the tranfuerfe or lateral procejfes^ 
 which prevents the lobes of the cerebrum from 
 prefling on the cerebellum. Befides thefe there 
 is a fourth, which is fituated under the tranf- 
 verfe proceifes, and being continued to the fpine 
 of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two 
 lobes. 
 
 The 
 
 (m) This membrane is commonly defcribed as confifting 
 of two laminae ; of which the external one is fuppofed to 
 perform the office of periofteum internum to the cranium, 
 while the internal one forms the folds and procefles of the 
 dura mater. In the natural date, however, no fuch ffipara- 
 tiefn is apparent j like other membranes, ;sve may indeed di- 
 vide it, not into two only, but many lamintEj but this divi- 
 fion is artificial, and dejjends on the dexterity of the ana- 
 tomift.. 
 
382 OF THE BRAIN Pa rt V. 
 
 The blood, after being diftributed through 
 the cavity of the cranium by means of the ar- 
 teries, is returned, as in the other parts of the 
 body, by veins which all pafs on to certain chan- 
 nels, (ituated behind thefe feveral procefles. 
 
 Thefe canals or iinufes communicate with each 
 other, and empty themfeives into the internal 
 jugular veins, which convey the blood into^ the 
 v£na cava. They are in fa<^f triangular veins, 
 
 ' running through the fubftance of the dura mater, 
 and, like the proceffes, are diRinguifhed into 
 longitudinal and lateral ; and where thefe three 
 meet, and where the fourth procefs paflTes off, we 
 obferve a fourth fmus, which is called torcular ; 
 Herophilus, who firft defcribed it, having fup- 
 pofed that the blood at the union of thel'e two 
 veins, is, as it were, in a prefs. 
 
 Befides tliefe four canals, which were known 
 to the ancients, modern anatomifts enumerate 
 many others, by giving the appellation of finufes 
 to other veins of the dura mater, which for the 
 moil part empty themfeives into fome of thofe 
 we have juft now defcribed. There are the in- 
 ferior longitudinal fmus, the fuperior and inferior 
 ]’>etrous fmufes, the cavernous fmufes, the circu- 
 lar linus, and the anterior and pofterior occipital 
 fmufes. 
 
 Thefe fmufes or veins, by being conveyed 
 through a thick denfe membrane, firmly fufpend- 
 ed, as the dura mater is, within the cranium, 
 are lefs liable to rupture ; at the fame time they 
 
 3 
 
Part. V. AND NERVES. 383 
 
 ■are well fupported, and by running every where 
 along the inner furface of the bones, they are 
 prevented from prefling on the fubftance of the 
 •brain. To prevent too great a dilatation of them, 
 we find filaments (called chorda Willifii^ from 
 their having been firft noticed by Willis] ftretch- 
 ed acrofs their cavities ; and the oblique manner 
 in which the veins from the brain run through 
 the fubftance of the brain into thefe channels^ 
 ferves the purpofe of a valve, which prevents 
 the blood from turning back into the fmaller and 
 weaker veflels of the brain. 
 
 'T\\&pia mater is a much fofter and finer mem- 
 brane than the dura mater ; being exceedingly 
 delicate, tranfparent, and vafcular. It invefts 
 every part of the brain, and fends off an infinite 
 number of elongations, which infinuate th^m- 
 felves between the convolutions, and even into 
 the fubftance of the brain. This membrane is 
 compofed of two larainse ; of which the exterior 
 one is named tunica arachnoidea^ from its thin- 
 neis, which is equal to that of a fpider’s web. 
 Thefe two laminse are intimately adherent to each 
 Other at the upper part of the brain, but are eafily 
 feparable at the bafis of the brain, and through 
 the whole length of the medulla fpinalis. The 
 external layer, or tunica arachnoidea, appears to 
 be fpread uniformly over the furface of the brain, 
 but without entering into its furrows as the in- 
 ner layer does ; the latter being found to infinu- 
 ate itfelf between the convolutions, and even into 
 
 the 
 
384 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 the interior cavities of the brain. The blood- 
 veffels of the brain are diftributed through it in 
 their way to that organ, and are therefore divided 
 into very minute ramifications, before they pene- 
 trate the fubftance of the brain. 
 
 There are feveral parts included under the ge- 
 neral denomination of brain. One of thefe, 
 which is of the fofteft confiftence, and fills the 
 greateft part of the cavity of the cranium, is the 
 cerebrum., or brain properly fo called. Another 
 portion, which is feated in the inferior and pof- 
 terior part of the head, is the cerebellum ; and a 
 third, which derives its origin from both thefe, 
 is the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The cerebrum is a medullary mafs of a mode- 
 rate confiftence, filling up exactly all the upper 
 part of the cavity of the cranium, and divided 
 into two hemifpheres by the falx of the dura 
 mater. Each of thefe hemifpheres is ufually dif- 
 tinguifhed into a7i interior., a middle, and a pof- 
 terior lobe. The firft of thefe is lodged on the 
 orbital procefles of the os frontis ; the middle 
 lobes lie on the middle foffse of the bafis of the 
 cranium, and the pofterior lobes are placed on 
 the tranfverfe feptum of the os occipitis, imme- 
 diately over the cerebellum, from which they are 
 feparated by the lateral procefles of the dura ma- 
 ter. Thefe two portions afford no diftinguifhing 
 mark of feparation ; and on this account Haller, 
 and many other modern anatomifts, omit the 
 
 diftindtion 
 
PartV. and nerves. 385 
 
 diftind;ion of middle lobe, and fpeak only of the 
 anterior and pofterior lobes of the brain. 
 
 The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two 
 diftindt fubftances. Of thefe, the exterior one, 
 which is of a greyifh or alh-colour, is called the 
 cortex^ and is fomev/hat fofter than the other, 
 which is very white, and is called medulla or fiib- 
 Jlatitla alba. 
 
 After having removed the falx, and feparated 
 the two hemifpheres from each other, we per- 
 ceive a white convex body, the corpus callofum, 
 which is a portion of the medullary fubftance, 
 uniting the two ' hemifpheres to each other, and 
 not invefted by the cortex. By making an ho- 
 rizontal incifion in the brain, on a level with this 
 corpus callofum, we 'difeover two oblong cavi- 
 ties, named the anterior or lateral ventricles.^ one 
 in each hemifphere. Thefe two ventricles, 
 which communicate with each other by a hole 
 immediately under the plexus choroides, are fe- 
 parated laterally by a very fine medullary parti- 
 tion, called feptum lucidiim.^ from its thinnefs and 
 tranfparency. The lower edge of this feptum is 
 fixed to the fornix, v/hich is a kind of medullary 
 arch (as its name implies) fituated under the cor- 
 pus callofum, and nearly of a triangular Ihape. 
 Anteriorly the fornix fends off two medullary 
 chords, called its antc7-lor crura ; V\^hich feem to 
 be united to each other by a portion of medulla- 
 ry fubftance, named commijjlira antej'ior cerebri, 
 Thefe crura diverging from one another, are loft 
 
 B b at 
 
386 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 at the other fide of the lower and fore-part of the 
 third ventricle. Pofteriorly the fornix is formed 
 into two other crura, which unite with two me- 
 dullary protuberances called pedes bippocampiy 
 and Ibmetimes CGrnaa ammonls^ that extend along 
 the back-part of the lateral ventricles. The 
 concave edge of the pedes hippocampi is co- 
 vered by a medullary lamina, called corpus fim- 
 briahim. 
 
 Neither the edges of the fornix, nor its pofte- 
 rior crura, can be well diftinguiflied, till we have 
 removed the plexus choroides. This is a pro- 
 duction of the pia mater, which is fpread over 
 the lateral ventricles. Its loofe edges are collect- 
 ed, fo as to appear like a vafcular band on each 
 fide. 
 
 When we have removed this plexus, we 
 difeover feveral other protuberances included in 
 the lateral ventricles. Thefe are the corpora 
 ftriata, the thalami nervorum opticorum, the 
 tubercula quadrugemina, and the pineal gland. 
 
 The corpora Jlriata are two curved oblong emi- 
 nences, that extend along the anterior part of the 
 lateral ventricles. They derive their name from 
 their ftriated appearance, which is owing to an 
 intermixture of the cortical and medullary fub- 
 ftances of the brain. The thalami nervorum op- 
 iicorum, are fo called, becaufe the optic nerves 
 arife chiefly from them, and they are likewife 
 compol’ed both of the cortex and medulla. They 
 are feparated from the corpora ftriata only by a 
 
 kind 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 387 
 
 kind of medullary chord, the geminum centrum 
 femi-circulare. The thalami are nearly of an 
 oval fhape, and are fituated at the bottom of the 
 upper cavity of the lateral ventricles. They are 
 clofely united, and at their convex part feem to 
 become one body. 
 
 Anteriorly, in the fpace between the thalami, 
 we obferve an orifice by which the lateral ven- 
 tricles communicate, and another leads down 
 from this, under the different appellations of 
 foramen commune anterius^ vulva iter ad infundi- 
 btdiim^ but more properly iter ad tertium ventri- 
 culiim : and the feparation of the thalami from 
 each other pofteriorly, forms another opening or 
 interftice called anns. This has been fuppofed 
 to communicate with the third ventricle ; but it 
 does not, the bottom of it being fhut up by the 
 pia mater. The back part of the anus is formed 
 by a kind of medullary band, which connects the 
 thalami to each other, and is called coimnijfura 
 poferior cerebri. 
 
 Behind the thalami and commiffura pofterior, 
 we obferve a fmall, foft, greyifli, and oval body, 
 about the fize of a pea. This is the glandula pi- 
 nealis ; it is defcribed by Galen under the name 
 of conarion^ and has been rendered famous by 
 Defcartes, who fuppofed it to be the feat of the 
 foul. Galen feems formerly to have entertained 
 the fame opinion. Some modern writers have, 
 with as little reafon, imagined that the foul is 
 placed in the corpus callofum. 
 
 Bb 2 
 
 The 
 
388 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 The pineal gland refts upon four remarkable 
 eminences, difpofed in pairs, and feated imme- 
 diately below it. Thefe tubercles, which by the 
 ancients were called itfics and nates^ have, fmce 
 the time of Winllovc, beeii more commonly nam- 
 ed tnbercula cm a drug emir/ a. 
 
 Under thethalami we obferve another cavity, 
 the third ventricle, which terminates anteriorly 
 in a fmall medullary canal, the infundibulum, 
 that leads to the glandula pituitaria. it has been 
 doubted, whether the infundibulum is really hol- 
 low ; but fome late experiments on this part of 
 the brain by ProfelTor Murray of Upfal, clearly 
 prove it to be a medullary canal, furrounded by 
 both laminse of the pia mater. After freezing 
 the brain, this channel was found filled with ice ; 
 and de Haen tells "j' us, he found it dilated, and 
 filled with a calcareous matter (n). 
 
 The foft fpongy body in which the infundibu- 
 lum terminates, was by the ancients fuppofed to 
 be of a. glandular firudiure, and deftined to filter 
 the ferofity of the brain. Spigelius pretended 
 to have diicovered its excretory dudt, but it feems 
 certain tliat no fuch dudt exifts. It is of an 
 
 oblong 
 
 * Difl). de Infundibula Cerebri. 
 
 I Ratio Med. tom. vi. p. 271. 
 
 (n) The under part of it, however, appears to be imper- 
 vious ; at lead no injeftion that can be depended on has been 
 made to pafs from it into the glandula pituitaria without lace- 
 ration of parts. 
 
PartV. and nerves. 389 
 
 oblong fliape, compofed, as it were, 01 two 
 lobes. In ruminant animals it is much larger 
 than in man. 
 
 From the pofterior part of the third ven- 
 tricle, we fee a fmall gTOOve or channel, de- 
 feending obliquely backwards. This channel, 
 which is called the aqueduct oj Sylvias^ though it 
 was known to the ancients, opens into another 
 cavity of the brain, placed between the cerebel- 
 lum and medulla oblongata, and called the foiii'ih 
 ventricle. 
 
 The cerehelliim., v/hich is divided into two 
 lobes, is commonly fuppofed to be of a firmer 
 texture than the cerebrum ; but the truth is, 
 that in the greater number of fubjedts, there ap- 
 pears to be no fenfible difference in the con- 
 liftence of fhefe two parts. It has more of the 
 cortical than of the medulku-y iubftance in its 
 compofition. 
 
 The furrow that divides the two lobes of the 
 cerebellum leads anteriorly to a prccefs, compof- 
 ed of medullary and cortical fubllances, covered 
 by the pia mater ; and which, from its being di- 
 vided into numerous furrow's, refembling the 
 rings of the earth-worm, is named p'occfj'us ver- 
 mifermis. This procefs forms a kind of ring in 
 its coude between the lobes. 
 
 •*. The furface of the cerebellum does not af- 
 ford thofe circumvolutions which appear in the 
 cerebrum ; but infeead of thefe, vre cbferve a 
 great number of minute furrow's, running pa- 
 
390 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 rallel to each other, and nearly in a tranfverfe di- 
 redion. The pia mater infmuates itfelf into 
 thefe furrows. 
 
 When we cut into the fubftance of the cere- 
 bellum, from above downwards, we find the 
 medullary part running in a kind of ramifying 
 courfe, and exhibiting an appearance that has 
 gotten the name of arbor vita. Thefe ramifi- 
 cations unite to form a medullary trunk ; the 
 the middle, anterior, and mofi; confiderable part 
 of which forms tv/o procelTes, the crura cerebel- 
 li, which unite with the crura cerebri, to form 
 the medulla oblongata. The laft furnifhes two 
 other proceiTes, which lofe themfelves under the 
 nates, and thus unite the lobes of the cerebellum 
 to the pofterior part of the cerebrum. Under 
 the nates we obferve a tranfverfe medullary line, 
 or linea alba, running from one of thefe procefles 
 to the other ; and between them we find a very 
 thin medullary lamina, covered with the pia ma- 
 ter, which the generality of anatomifls have 
 (though feemingly without reafon) confidered 
 as a valve formed for clofing the communica- 
 tion between the fourth ventricle and the aquae- 
 dudus Sylvii. Vieufiens named it valvula ma- 
 jor cerebri. 
 
 The medulla oblongata is fituated in the mid- 
 dle, lower, and pofterior part of the cranium, 
 and may be confidered as a produftion or con- 
 tinuation of the whole medullary fubftance of 
 the cerebrum and cerebellum, being formed by 
 
 the 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 391 
 
 the of two confiderable medullary procefies of 
 the cerebrum, called crii 7 ~a cerebri., with two 
 other fmaller ones from the cerebellum, which 
 were juft now fpoken of under the name of 
 crura cerebellL 
 
 The crura cerebri arife from the middle and 
 lower part of each hemifphere. They are fepa- 
 rated from each other at their origin, but are 
 united below, where they terminate in a middle 
 protuberance, xhtponsVaroUi., fo called, becauie 
 Varolius compared it to a bridge. This name, 
 however, can convey no idea of its real appear- 
 ance. It is, in faft, nothing more than a me- 
 dullary protuberance, nearly of a femi-fpherical 
 fhape, which unites the crura cerebri to thofe of 
 the cerebellum. 
 
 Between the crura cerebri, and near the ante- 
 rior edge of the pons Yarolii, are two tubercles, 
 compofed externally of medullary, and internal- 
 ly of cineritious fubftance, to which Euftachius 
 firft gave the name of emme?itia mamillares. 
 
 Along the middle of the pofterior furface of 
 the medulla oblongata, where it forms the ante- 
 rior part of the fourth ventricle, we obfer ve a 
 kind of furrow which runs downwards and ter- 
 minates in a point. About an inch above the 
 lower extremity of this ftlfure, feveral medullary 
 filaments are to be feen running towards it on 
 each fide in an oblique dirediion, fo as to give 
 it the appearance of a writing-pen ; hence it is 
 called calamus fcriptorius. 
 
 From 
 
392 OF THE BRAIN. Part V. 
 
 From the pofterior part of the pons Varolii, 
 the medulla oblongata defeends obliquely back- 
 wards ; at its fore -part, immediately behind the 
 pons Varolii, we obferve two pair of eminences, 
 Vv'hich were defcribed by Euftachius, but receiv- 
 ed no particular appellation till the time of Vi- 
 euffens, who gaAm them the names of corpora 
 ouvaria and corpora pyramidalia. The former 
 are the outermoft, being placed one on each fide. 
 They are nearly of an oval ihape, and are com- 
 pofed of medulla, with ttreaks of cortical fub- 
 ftance. Between thefe are the corpora pyra- 
 midalia, each of which terminates in a point. 
 In the human fubjed; thefe four eminences are 
 fometimes not eafiiy diftinguifned. 
 
 The medulla fpinalis^ or Jpinal marrow^ which 
 is the name given to the medullary chord that 
 is extended down the vertebral canal, from the 
 great foramen of the occipital bone to the bot- 
 tom of the lafl; lumbar vertebra, is a continua- 
 tion of the medulla oblongata. Like the other 
 parts of the brain, it is invefted by the dura and 
 pia mater. The firft of thefe, in its paffage out 
 of the cranium, adheres to the foramen of the 
 03 occipids. Its connedion with the ligamentary 
 fubftance that lines the cavity of the fpine, is on- 
 ly by means of cellular membrane ; but between 
 the ieveral vertebras, where the nerves pafs out 
 of die fpine, it fends off prolongations, which 
 adhere ftrongly to the vertebral ligaments. Here, 
 as in the cranium, the dura mater has its finufes 
 
 or 
 
PartV. and nerves. 393 
 
 or large veins. Thefe are two in number, and 
 are feen running on each fide of the medullary 
 column, from the foramen magnum of the os 
 occipitis to the lower part of the os facriim. They 
 communicate together by ramifying branches at 
 each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebral, 
 intercoftal, and facral veins. 
 
 The pia mater is connefiied with the dura ma- 
 ter by means of a thin tranfparent fubftance, 
 which from its indentations between the fpinal 
 nerves has obtained the name of ligamentum den- 
 tic iilat uni. It is fo me what firmer than the tu- 
 nica arachnoidea, but in other refpefls refem- 
 bles that membrane. Its ufe is to fupport the fpi- 
 nal marrow, that it may not affed: the medulla 
 oblongata by its weight. 
 
 The fpinal marrow itfelf is externally of a 
 white colour ; but upon cutting into it we find 
 its middle-part compofed of a darker coloured 
 mafs, refembling the cortex of the brain. When 
 the marrow has reached the hrft lumbar verte- 
 bra, it becomes extremely narrow, and at length 
 terminates in an oblong protuberance ; from the 
 extremity of which the pia mater fends off a 
 prolongation or ligament, refembling a nerve, 
 that perforates the dura mater, and is fixed to 
 the os coccygis. 
 
 The medulla fpinalis gives rife to 30 or 3 1 
 pair of neiwes, but they are not all of the fame 
 fize, nor do they all fun into in the fame direc- 
 tion. The upper ones are thinner than the refl, 
 
 and 
 
394 THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 and are placed almoft tranfverfely : as we defcend 
 we find them running more and more obliquely 
 downwards, till at length their courfe is almoft 
 perpendicular, fo that the lowermoft nerves ex- 
 hibit an appearance that is called cauda equina^ 
 from its refemblance to a horfe’s tail. 
 
 The arteries that ramify through the different 
 parts of the brain, are derived from the inter- 
 nal carotid and from the vertebral arteries. The 
 medulla fpinalis is fupplied by the anterior and 
 pofterior fpinal arteries, and likewife receives 
 branches, from the cervical, the inferior and fu- 
 perior intercoftal, the lumbar, and the facral ar- 
 .teries. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Nerves. 
 
 The nerves are medullary chords, differing 
 from each other in fize, colour, and confiftence, 
 •and deriving their origin from the medulla ob- 
 longata and medulla fpinalis. There are 39, and 
 fometimes 40, pair of thefe nerves ; nine (o) of 
 which originate from the medulla oblongata, and 
 30 or 3 1 from the medulla fpinalis. They ap- 
 pear to be perfedxly inelaftic, and likewife to pof- 
 
 fefs 
 
 (o) It has been ufual to defcribe the ten pair of nerves as 
 arihng from the medulla oblongata; but as the tenth pair 
 arile in the fame manner as the otl^er fpinal nerves, Santorini, 
 Heifter, Halier, and others, feem very properly to have 
 clalTed them among the nerves of the fpine. 
 
PartV. and nerves. 395 
 
 fefs no irritability. If we irritate mufcular 
 bres, they immediately contradl ; but nothing 
 of this fort happens if we irritate a nerve. They 
 carry with them a covering from the pia mater; 
 but derive no tunic from the dura mater, as hath 
 been generally, though erroneoufly, fuppofed, 
 ever fmce the time of Galen (p), the outer cover- 
 ing of the nerves being in fa£t /nothing more 
 than the cellular membrane. This covering is 
 very thick where the nerve is expofed to the 
 adtion of mufcles ; but where it runs through a 
 bony canal, or is fecure from prelTure, the cel- 
 lular tunic is extremely thin, or altogether want- 
 ing. We have inftances of this in the portio 
 mollis of the auditory nerve, and in the nerves 
 of the heart. 
 
 By elevating, carefully and gently, the brain 
 from the bafis of the cranium, we find the firft 
 nine pair arifmg in the following order : i . The 
 nervi olfadforii, diftributed through the pituita- 
 ry membrane, vv^hich conftitutes the organ of 
 fmell. 2. The optici, which go to the eyes, where 
 they receive the impreffions of vifible objedis. 
 3. The oculorum motores, fo called becaufe they 
 are diftributed to the mufcles of the eye. 4. 
 
 The 
 
 (p) Baron Haller and ProfefTor Zinn feem to have been 
 the firll; who demonftrated, that the dura mater is reflefted 
 upon and adheres to the periofteum at the edges of the fora- 
 mina that afford a palTage to the nerves out of the cranium, 
 and vertebral canal, or is foon loft in the cellular fubftance. 
 
396 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 The patheticl, diftributed to the fuperior oblique 
 mufcles of the eyes, the motion of which is 
 expreffive of certain paffions of the foul. 5. The 
 nerves of this pair foon divide into three prin- 
 cipal branches, and each of thefe has a different 
 name. Its upper divifion its he ophthalamicus, 
 which is diffributed to various parts of the i 
 eyes, eye-lids, forehead, nofe, and integu- | 
 ments of the face. The fecond is called the > 
 maxillaris fiiperior^ and the third maxUlaris in- 
 ferior ; both of which names allude to their dif- 
 tribution. 6. The abdudtores ; each of thefe 
 nerves is diftributed to the abductor mufcle of 
 the eye, fo called, becaufe it helps to draw the 
 globe of the eye, from the nofe. y. The 
 auditorii (q^), which are diftributed through 
 the organs of hearing. 8. The par vagum, 
 which derives its name from the great number of 
 parts to vrhich it gives branches both in the tho- 
 rax and abdomen. 9. The linguales, or hypo- 
 gloffi, which are diftributed to the tongue, and 
 
 appear 
 
 (o^)This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus audi- 
 Eorius internus, feparates into two branches. One of thefe 
 is of a very foft and pulpy confiftence, it is called the 
 KZ3//.V of the feventh pair, and is fpread over the inner part 
 of the ear. The other paiTes out through the aquednft of 
 Tallopius in a firm chord, which is difiinguiflied as the por- 
 tio dura, and is diftributed to the external ear and other 
 pafts of the neck and face. 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 397 
 
 appear to contribute both to the organ of tafte 
 and to the motions of the tongue (r). 
 
 It has already been obferved, that the fpinai 
 marrow fends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves ; thefe 
 are chiefly diftributed to the exterior parts of the 
 trunk and to the extremities. They are com- 
 monly diftinguiflied into the cervical^ dorfal, 
 lumbar^ and. facral nerves. The ceiwical, which 
 pafs out from between the feveral vertebrs of 
 the neck, are eight (s) in number ; the dorfal, 
 twelve ; the lumbar five ; and the facral, five or 
 fix ; the number of the latter depending on the 
 number of holes in the os facrum. Each fpinai 
 nerve at its origin is compofed of two fafciculi of 
 medullary fibres. One of thefe fafciculi arifes 
 from the anterior, and the other from the pof- 
 terior furface of the medulla. Thefe fafciculi 
 
 are 
 
 (r) Heifter has fummed up the uTes of thefe nine pair of 
 nerves in the two following Latin verfes : 
 
 Glfaciens, cernens, oculofque noveiis, patienfquc, 
 
 “ Caftans, abducens, audienjque, vaganfque ^ loquevfque.'" 
 
 (s) Bcfidcs thcle, there is another pair called acceft'-v 'n, which 
 arifes from the medulla fpinalis at its beginning ; and alcending 
 the great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, pafles 
 out again clofe to the eighth pair, with which, however, it 
 does not unite ; and it is afterwards diilributcd chiefly to the 
 mufclesof the neck, back, and fcapiila. In this courfe it fends 
 off filaments to different parts, and likewife communicates with 
 feveral other nerves. Phyfiologiffs are at a lofs liow to account 
 for the fingular origin and courfe of thefe nervi accefibrii. The 
 ajicients confidered them as a branches of the eighth pair, dif- 
 tributed to mufcles of the fcapnla ; Willis likewife confidered 
 them as appendages to that pair, and on that account named 
 them accefforii. They are fomeiimes called the fpinai pair ; 
 but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of the fpinc 
 iudifcriminately, it feems better to adopt that given by Wiilis. 
 
398 OF THE BRAIN PartV. 
 
 are feparated by the ligamentum denticulatum ; 
 after which we find them contiguous to one ano- 
 ther. They then perforate the dura mater, and 
 unite to form a confiderable knot or ganglion. 
 Each oi thefe ganglions fends off two branches ; 
 one anterior, and the other pofterior. The an- 
 terior branches communicate with each other at 
 their coming out of the fpine, and likewife fend 
 off one, and fometimes more branches, to affift 
 in the formation of the intercoftal nerve. 
 
 The knots or ganglions of the nerves juft 
 now fpoken of, are not only to be met with at 
 their exit from the fpine, but likewife in various 
 parts of the body. They occur in nerves of 
 the medulla oblongata, as well as in thofe 
 of the fpine. They are not the effedfs of dif- 
 eafe, but are to be met with in the fame parts 
 of the fame nerves, both in the foetus and adult. 
 They are commonly of an oblong ftiape, and 
 of a greyifli colour, fomewhat inclined to red, 
 which is perhaps owing to their being extreme- 
 ly vafcular. Internally we are able to diftinguifh 
 fomething like an intermixture of the nervous 
 filaments. 
 
 Some writers have confidered them as fo ma- 
 ny little brains ; Lancifi fancied he had difeo- 
 vered mufcular fibres in them, but they are cer- 
 tainly not of an irritable nature. A late writer, 
 Dr. Johnftone*, imagines they are intended to 
 deprive us of the power of the will over cer- 
 tain 
 
 * ElTay on the Ufe of the Ganglions of the Nerves. 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 399 
 
 tain parts, as the heart, for inftance : but if this 
 hypothefis were well founded, we fhould meet 
 with them only in the nerves leading to involun- 
 tary mufcles ; whereas it is certain, that the vo- 
 luntary mufcles receive their nerves through gan- 
 glions. Dodtor Monro, from obferving the ac- 
 curate intermixture of the minute nerves which 
 coihpofe them, confiders them as new fources of 
 nervous energy 
 
 The nerves, like the blood-veffels, in their 
 courfe through the body, communicate with 
 each other ; and each of thefe communications 
 conftitutes wTat is called a plexus^ from whence 
 branches are again detached to different parts of 
 the body. Some of thefe are conftant and con- 
 fiderable enongh to be diftinguifhed by particu- 
 lar names, as the femilunar plexus ; the pulmo- 
 nary plexus ■, hepatic^ cardiac, &c. 
 
 It would be foreign to the purpofe of this 
 work, to follow the nerves through all their dif- 
 tributions ; but it may be remembered, that in 
 defcribing the different vifcera, mention was 
 made of the nerves diftributed to them. There 
 is one pair, however, called the intcrcojlal or 
 great Sympathetic nerve, which feems to require 
 particular notice, becaufe it has an almoft uni- 
 verfal conned;ion and correfpondence with all 
 the other nerves of the body. Authors are not 
 perfectly agreed about the origin of the intercof- 
 
 tal ; 
 
 f Obfervations oa the Nervous fyftem. 
 
400 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 tal ; but it may perhaps not improperly be de- 
 fcribed, as beginning from filaments of the fifth 
 and fixth pair ; it then pafl'es out of the cranium, 
 through the bony canal of the carotid, from 
 whence it defcends laterally clofe to the bodies 
 of the vertebrsE, and receives branches from al- 
 moft all the v ertebral nerves ; forming almoft as 
 many ganglions in its courfe through the thorax 
 and abdomen. It fends oft an infinite number 
 of branches to the vifcera in thofe cavities, and 
 forms feveral plexufes with the branches of the 
 eight pair or par vagum. 
 
 That the nerves are deftined to convey the 
 principles of motion and fenfibility to the brain 
 from all parts of the fyftem, there can be no 
 doubt ; but how' thefe effedts are produced, no 
 one has ever yet been able to to determine. The 
 inquiry has been a conftant fource of hypothe- 
 fis in all ages, and has produced fome ingenious 
 ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but with- 
 out having hitherto afforded much fatisfadlory 
 information. 
 
 Some phyfiologifts have ponfidered a trunk of 
 nerves as a folid chord, capable of being divided 
 into an infinite number of filaments, by means 
 of which the impreffions of feeling are convey- 
 ed to the fenforium commune. Others ha,ve 
 fuppofed it to be a canal, which afterwards fe- 
 paratesinto more minute channels ; or, perhaps, 
 as being an aiTemblage of many very fmall and 
 diftindl tubes, conneded to each other, and thus 
 3 forming 
 
Part V, AND NERVES. 401 
 
 forming a cylindrical chord. They who con- 
 tend for their being folid bodies, are of opinion 
 that feeling is occafioned by vibration ; fo that, 
 for inftance, according to this fyftem, by prick- 
 ing the finger, a vibration would be occafioned 
 in the nerve, diftributed through its fubftance ; 
 and the effects of this vibration, when extended 
 to the fenforium, would be an excital of pain. 
 But the inelafticity, the foftnefs, the connexion, 
 and the fituation of the nerves, are fo many 
 proofs that vibration has no fhare in the caufe of 
 feeling. 
 
 Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and 
 fpinal marrow, a very fubtile fluid is fecreted, 
 and from thence conveyed through the imper- 
 ceptible tubes, which they confider as exilling 
 in the nerves. They have farther fuppofed, 
 that this very fubtile fluid, to which they have 
 given the name of animal fpirits^ is fecreted in 
 the cortical fubftance of the brain and fpinal 
 marrow, from whence it paffes through the me- 
 dullary fubftance. This, like the other fyftem, 
 is founded altogether on hypothefis ; but it 
 feems to be an hypothefis derived from much 
 more probable principles, and there are many 
 ingenious arguments to be brought in its fup- 
 port. 
 
 C c 
 
 EXPLA- 
 
402 
 
 OF THE BRAIN 
 
 Part V. 
 
 EXPLANATION or PLATE XXIX. 
 
 Eig. 1. Reprefents the inferior part of the 
 brain ;-~thc Anterior part of the whole Spine, 
 including the Medulla Spinalis ; — with the ori- 
 gin and large portions of all the Nerves. 
 
 A A, Ihe anterior lobes of the cerebrum. 
 B B, The lateral lobes of the cerebrum. C C, 
 The two lobes of the cerebellum. D, Tuber 
 annulare. E, The pafl'age from the third ven- 
 tricle to the infundibulum. F, The medulla ob- 
 longata, which fends off the medulla fpinalis 
 through the fpine. G G, That part of the os 
 occipitis which is placed above (H H) the tranf- 
 verfeproceflesofthefirfl; cervical vertebra. II,&c. 
 The feven cervical vertebrse, with their interme- 
 diate cartilages. K K, &c. The twelve dorfal 
 vertebrse, with their intermediate cartilages. L L, 
 &c. The five lumbar vertebrse, with their in- 
 termediate cartilages. M, The osfacrum. N, 
 The oscoccygis. 
 
 Nerves. — i i. The firft pair of nerves, 
 named olfacl'ory^ which go to the nofe. 2 2, The 
 fecond pair, named optic^ which goes to form 
 ihe tunica retina of the eye. 3 3, The third, 
 named motor oculi ; it fupplies moil of the muf- 
 des of the eye-ball. 4 4, The fourth pair, 
 named pathdic ^ — which is wholly fpent upon 
 the muictilus trochlearis of the eye. 5 5, The 
 
 fifth 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 403 
 
 fifth pair divides into three branches. — The firft, 
 named ophthalmic^ goes to the orbit, fupplies the 
 lachrymal gland, and fends branches out to the 
 forehead and nofe. — The fecond, named fupe- 
 rior maxillary^ fupplies the teeth of the upper 
 jaw, and fome of the mufcles of the lips. — The 
 third named mferior maxillary^ is fpent upon the 
 mufcles and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue, and 
 mufcles of the lips. 6 6, The fixth pair, which, 
 after fending olf the beginning of the intercof- 
 tal or great fympathetic, is fpent upon the ab- 
 ductor oculi. 7 7, The feventh pair, named au- 
 ditory^ divides into two branches. — The largeft, 
 named7'or//o mollis^ is fpent upon the internal 
 ear. — The fmalleft, portio diira^ joins to the 
 fifth pair within the internal ear by a reflected 
 branch from the fecond of the fifth ; and with- 
 in the tympanum, by a branch from the third 
 of the fifth, named chorda tympa 7 ii. — ^Vid. fig. 
 3. near B. 8 8, &c. The eighth pair, named 
 par vagum, — which accompanies the intercoftal, 
 and is fpent upon the tongue, larynx, pharynx, 
 lungs, and abdominal vifcera. 9 9, The ninth 
 pair, which are fpent upon the tongue. 1010, 
 &c. The intercofial, or great fympathetic, 
 which is feen from the fixth pair to the bottom 
 of the pelvis on each fide of the fpine, and 
 joining with all the nerves of the fpine ; — in its 
 progrefs fupplying the heart, and, with the par 
 vagum, the contents of the abdomen and pelvis. 
 II, II, The accefforius, which is fpent upon 
 C c 2 the 
 
404 OF THE BRAIN Part V. 
 
 tlie ftemocleidomafloidEEiis and trapezius muf- 
 cles. 12 12, The hrft cervical nerves ; — 13 1 3, 
 The fecond cervical nerves ; — both fpent up- 
 on the mufcles that lie on the neck, and te- 
 guments of the neck and head. 14 14, The third 
 cervical nerves, which, after fending off (15 15, 
 &c.) the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm, fupply 
 the mufcles and teguments that lie on the fide 
 of the neck and top of the Ihoulder. 16 16, 
 The brachial plexus, formed by the fourth, fifth, 
 fixth, feventh cervicals, and firft dorfal nerves. 
 
 ■ — which fupply the mufcles and teguments of 
 the fuperior extremity, ij The twelve 
 dorfal, or proper intercoftal nerves, which are 
 fpent upon the intercoftal mufcles and fome of 
 the large mufcles which lie upon the thorax. 
 1818, The five lumbar pairs of nerves, w'hich 
 fupply the lumbar and abdominal mufcles, and 
 fome of the teguments and mufcles of the infe- 
 rior extremity. 19 19? The facro-fciatic, or 
 poilerior crural nerve, formed by the two infe- 
 rior lumbar, and three fuperior of the os facrum. 
 This large nerve fupplies the greateft part of the 
 mufcles and teguments of the inferior extremity. 
 20, The ftomachic plexus, formed by the eighth 
 pair. 2121, Branches of the folar or cseliac 
 plexus, formed by the eighth pair and intercof- 
 tals, which fupply the ftomach and chylopoietic 
 vifccra. 22 22, Branches of the fuperior and 
 inferior mefenteric plexufes, formed by the eighth 
 pair and intercoftals, which fupply the chylo- 
 poietic vifcera, with part of the organs of urine 
 
 and 
 

 Plate XXIX 
 
Part V. AND NERVES. 405 
 
 and generation. 23 23, Nerves which accom- 
 pany the fphermatic chord. 24 24, The hypo- 
 gaftric plexus, which fupplies the organs of u- 
 line and generation within the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5. Shows different Views of the 
 Inferior part of the Brain, cut perpendicular- 
 ly through the Middle, — ^with the origin and 
 large Portions of the Nerves which pafs out 
 through the bones of the Cranium, — and the 
 three firft Cervical. 
 
 A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of 
 the cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the ce- 
 rebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus py- 
 ramidale, in the middle of the medulla oblon- 
 gata. F, The corpus olivare, in the fide of the 
 medulla oblongata. G, The medulla oblongata. 
 H, The medulla fpinalis. 
 
 Nerves. — i 2345678 and 9, Pairs of nerves. 
 10 10, Nervus accefforius, which comes from 
 — II, 12, and 13, The three firft cervical 
 gaerves. 
 
 Part VI. 
 
4o6 
 
 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 Of the senses, and their ORGANS. 
 
 I N treating of the fenfes, we mean to confine 
 ourfelves to the external ones of touchy tajie, 
 fmdlhig^ hearings and vifion. The word fenje, 
 when applied to thefe five, feems to imply not 
 only the fenfation excited in the mind by certain 
 impreffions made on the body, but likewife the 
 organ deftined to receive and tranfmit thefe im- 
 preflions to the fenforium. Each of thefe or- 
 gans being of a peculiar fl;ru<Ture, is fufcepti- 
 ble only of particular impreffions, which will be 
 pointed out as we proceed to defcribe each of 
 them feparately. 
 
 Sect. I. Of Touch. 
 
 The fenfe of touch may be defined to be the 
 faculty of diftinguiffiing certain properties of bo- 
 dies by the feel. In a general acceptation, this 
 definition might perhaps not improperly be ex- 
 tended to every part of the body poffeffed of 
 fenfibility (t), but it is commonly confined to 
 
 the 
 
 (t) In the courfe of this article, mention has often been 
 made of the fenfibility or infenfibility of different parts of 
 the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be amifs to obferve 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 407 
 the nervous papillee of the cutis, or true Ikin, 
 which, with its appendages, and their feveral 
 ufes, have been already defcribed. 
 
 The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as 
 their folidity, moifture, inequality, fmoothnefs, 
 drynefs, or fluidity, and likewife their degree of 
 heat, feem all to be capable of making different 
 impreflions on the papilla, and confequently of 
 exciting different ideas in the fenforium com- 
 mune. But the organ of touch, like all the 
 other fenfes, is not equally delicate in every 
 part of the body, or in every fubjefl ; being in 
 fome much more exquifite than it is in others. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 in this place, that many parts which were formerly fuppof- 
 ed to poflefs the moft exquifite fenfe. are now known to 
 have but little or no feeling, at leaf; in a found ftate: for in 
 an inflamed ftate, even the bones, the moft infenflble parts 
 of any, become fufceptible of the moft painful fenfations. 
 This curious difeovery is due to the late Baron Haller. His 
 experiments prove, that the bones, cartilages, ligaments, 
 tendons, epidermis, and membranes (as the pleura, pericar- 
 dium, dura and pia mater, periofteum, 8cc.) may in a healthy 
 ftate be confidered as infenflble. As fenfibility depends on 
 the brain and nerves, of courfe dilFcrent parts will polTefs 
 a greater or lefs degree of feeling, in proportion as they 
 are fupplied with a greater or fmallcr number of nerves. 
 Upon this principle it is, that the Ikin, mnlcles, ftomach, 
 inteftines, urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, vagina, penis, 
 tongue, and retina, are extremely fenfiblc, while the lungs 
 and glands have only an oblcure degree of feelingr 
 
4o8 
 
 OF THE SENSES 
 
 Part VI. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Tafe. 
 
 The fenfe of tafte is feated chiefly in the 
 tongue ; the fituation and figure of which are 
 fufliciently known. 
 
 On the upper furface of this organ we may 
 obferve a great number of papillae, which, on 
 account of their difference in fize and fhape, 
 are commonly divided into three claffes. The 
 largefl; are fituated towards the bafis of the 
 tongue. Their number commonly varies from 
 feven to nine, and they feem to be mucous fol- 
 licles. Thofe of the fecond clafs are fomewhat 
 fmaller, and of a cylindrical fhape. They are 
 moft numerous about the middle of the tongue. 
 Thofe of the third clafs are very minute, and of 
 a conical fhape. They are very numerous on 
 the apex and edges of the tongue, and have been 
 fuppofed to be formed by the extremities of its 
 nerves. 
 
 We obferve a line, the linea lingua mediana^ 
 running along the middle of the tongue, and di- 
 viding it as it were into portions. Towards the 
 bafis of the tongue, we meet with a little cavity, 
 named by Morgagni foramen c cecum ^ which 
 feems to be nothing more than a common termi- 
 nation of fome of the excretory du£ts of mu- 
 cous glands fituated within the fubftance of the 
 tongue. 
 
 We 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 409 
 
 We have already obferved, that this organ is 
 every where covered by the cuticle, which, by 
 forming a reduplication, called the franum^ at 
 its under part, ferves to prevent the too great 
 motion of the tongue, and to fix in it its fituation. 
 But, befides this attachment, the tongue is con- 
 nected by means of its mufcles and membranou?' 
 ligaments, to the lower jaw, the os hyoides, and 
 the ftyloid proceffes. 
 
 The principal arteries of the tongue are the 
 linguales, which arife from the external carotid. 
 Its veins empty themfelves into the external ju- 
 gulars. Its nerves arife from the fifth, eighth, 
 and ninth, pair. 
 
 The variety of taftes feems to be occafioned 
 by the different impreffions made on the papil- 
 Ise by the food. The different Rate of the pa- 
 pilla with refped to their moifture, their figure, 
 or their covering, feems to produce a confidera- 
 ble difference in the tafte, not only in diffe- 
 rent people, but in the fame fubjeCt, in ficknefs 
 and in health. The great ufe of the tafte feems 
 to be to enable us to diftinguifh wholefome and 
 falutary food from that which is unhealthy ; 
 and we obferve that many quadrupeds, by hav- 
 ing their papilla (u) very large and long, have 
 
 the 
 
 (u) Malpighi’s defcription of the papillse, which has been 
 cepied by many anatomical writers, feems to have been 
 taken chiefly front the tongues of fleep. 
 
410 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 the faculty of diftinguifhing flavours with infi- 
 nite accuracy. 
 
 Sect III. Of fmelling. 
 
 The fenfe of fmelling, like the fenfe of tafte, 
 feems intended to dired; us to a proper choice of 
 aliment, and is chiefly feated in the nofe, which 
 is diftinguiflied into its external and internal parts. 
 The fituation and figure of the former of thefe 
 do not feem to require a definition. It is compof- 
 ed of bones and cartilages, covered by mufcu- 
 lar fibres and by the common teguments. The 
 bones make up the upper portion, and the car- 
 tilages the lower one. The feptum narium, 
 like the nofe, is likewife in part bony, and in 
 part cartilaginous. Thefe bones and their con- 
 nexions were defcribed in the ofteology. 
 
 The internal part of the nofe, befides the olTa 
 fpongiofa, has fix cavities or finufes, the max- 
 illary, the frontal, and the fphenoid, which were 
 all defcribed with the bones of the head. They 
 all open into the noftrils ; and the nofe likewife 
 communicates with the mouth, larynx, and 
 pharynx, pofteriorly behind the velum palati. 
 
 All thefe feveral parts, which are included in 
 the internal divifion of the nofe, viz. the inner 
 furface of the noftrils, the lamellae of the olTa 
 fpongiofa, and the finufes, are lined by a very 
 vafcular membrane, which though not unknown 
 to the ancients, was firft well defcribed by 
 
 Schneider 
 
PartVI.'^ and their organs. 41 1 
 
 Schneider and is therefore now commonly 
 named memhrana pituitaria Schneideri. This 
 membrane is truly the organ of fmelling ; but 
 its real ftrudture does not yet feem to be perfect- 
 ly uriderftood. It appears to be a continuation 
 of the cuticle, which lines the inner furface of 
 the mouth. In fome parts of the nofe it is 
 fmooth and firm, and in others it is loofe and 
 fpongy. It is conftantly moiltened by a mu- 
 cous fecretion ; the finer parts of which are 
 carried off by the air we breathe, and the re- 
 mainder, by being retained in the fmufes, ac- 
 quires confiderable confiftence. The manner in 
 which this mucus is fecreted has not yet been fa- 
 tisfaCtorily afcertained ; but it feems to be by 
 means of mucous follicles. 
 
 Its arteries are branches of the internal max- 
 illary and internal carotid. Its veins empty 
 themfelves into the internal jugulars. The firfl 
 pair of nerves, the olfaCtory, are fpread over 
 every part of it, and it likewife receives branches 
 from the fifth pair. 
 
 After what has been faid of the pituitary mem- 
 brane, it will not be difficult to conceive how 
 the air we draw in at the noftrils, being im- 
 pregnated with the effluvia of bodies, excites in 
 us that kind of fenfation we call fmdUng. As 
 thefe effluvia, from their being exceedingly 
 light and volatile, cannot be capable in a fmall 
 
 quantity 
 
 DeCatarrho, lib. iii. 
 
41 2 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 quantity of making any great impreflion on the 
 extremities of the olfactory nerves, it was ne- 
 ceffary to give confiderable extent to the pituitary 
 membrane, that by this means a greater num- 
 ber of odoriferous particles might be admitted 
 at the fame time. When we wifh to take in 
 much of the effluvia of any thing, we naturally 
 clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpire may 
 pafs through the noftrils ; and at the fame time, 
 by means of the mufcles of the nofe, the nof- 
 trils are dilated, and a greater quantity of air 
 is drawn into them. 
 
 In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling 
 is much more extenlive and delicate than it is in 
 the human fubjed; ; and in the human fubjed it 
 feems to be more perfed the lefs it is vitiated by 
 a variety of fmells. It is not always in the 
 fame ftate of perfedion, being naturally affed- 
 ed by every change of the pituitary membrane, 
 and of the lymph with which that membrane is 
 moiftened. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of Hearing. 
 
 Before we undertake to explain the manner 
 in which we are enabled to receive the impreffi- 
 ons of found, it will be neceffary to defcribe the 
 which is the organ of hearing. It is com- 
 monly diftinguifhed into external and internal, 
 The former of thefe divifions includes all that 
 we are able to difcover without diffedion, and 
 
 the 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS 413 
 the meatus auditorius, as far as the typanum ; 
 and the latter, all the other parts of the ear. 
 
 The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel co- 
 vered by the common integuments, and attach- 
 ed by means of its ligaments and mufcles, to 
 the temporal bone. Although capable only of 
 a very obfcure motion, it is found to have feve- 
 ral ^pufcles. Different parts of it are diftinguilh- 
 ed by feveral names ; all its cartilaginous part is 
 called ala or w'lng^ to diftinguifh it from the 
 foft and pendent part below, called the lobe. Its 
 outer circle or border is called helix.^ and the fe- 
 micircle within this, atitibelix. The moveable 
 cartHage placed immediately before the meatus 
 auditorius, which it may be made to clofe ex- 
 actly, is named tragus ; and an eminence op- 
 pofite to this at the extremity of the antihelix, 
 is called antitragus. The concha is a confider- 
 able cavity formed by the extremities of the he- 
 lix and antihelix.' The meatus auditorius, 
 which at its opening is cartilaginous, is lined 
 with a very thin membrane, which is a conti- 
 nuation of the cuticle from the furface of the 
 ear. 
 
 In this canal we find a yellow wax, which is 
 fecreted by a number of minute glands or folli- 
 cles, each of which has an excretory dufi:. This 
 fecretion; which is at firft of an oily confiftence, 
 defends the membrane of the typanum from the 
 injuries of the air ; and by its bitternefs, pre- 
 vents minute infeds from entering into the ear. 
 
 But 
 
41 4 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 But when from negleS: or difeafe it accumulates 
 in too great a quantity, it fometimes occafions 
 deafnefs. The inner extremity of the meatus is 
 clofed by a ver^:^ thin traidpai ent membrane, the 
 membrana tympani, which is fet in a bony cir- 
 cle like the head of a dnini. In the laft century 
 Rivinus, profelTor at Leipfic, fancied he had 
 difcovered a hole in this membrane, furrounded 
 by a fphindter, and affording a paffage to the 
 air, between the external and internal ear. Cow- 
 per, Heifter, and fome other anatomifts, have 
 admitted this fuppofed foramen, which certain- 
 ly does not exift. Whenever there is any open- 
 ing in the membrana tympani, it may be confi- 
 dered as accidental. Under the membrana tym- 
 pani runs a branch of the fifth pair of the nerves, 
 called chorda tympani ; and beyond this mem- 
 brane is the cavity of the tympanum, which is 
 about feven or eight lines wide, and half fo ma- 
 ny in depth ; it is femifplierical, and every 
 where lined by a very fine membrane. There 
 are four openings to be obferved in this cavity. 
 It communicates with the mouth by means of 
 the Euhachian tube. This canal, which is in 
 part bony and in part cartilaginous, begins by a 
 very narrow opening at the anterior and almoft 
 fuperior part of the tympanum, increafmg in 
 fize as it advances towards the palate of the 
 mouth, where it terminates by an oval opening. 
 This tube is every where lined by the fame mem- 
 brane that covers the infide of the mouth. The 
 
 real 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 41 5 
 real ufe of this canal does notfeem to have been 
 hitherto fatisfadlorily afcertained ; but found 
 would feem to be conveyed through it to the 
 membrana tympani, deaf perfons being often 
 obferved to liften attentively with their mouths 
 open. Oppofite to this is a minute palTage, 
 which leads to the fmuofities of the maftoid pro- 
 cefs ; and the two other openings, which are in 
 the internal procefs of the os petrofum, are the 
 feneftra ovalis, and feneftra rotunda, both of 
 which are covered by a very fine membrane. 
 
 There are three diftin£t bones in the cavity 
 of the tympanum ; and thefe are the malleus, 
 incus, and Rapes. Befides thefe there is a fourth, 
 which is the os orbiculare^ confidered by fome 
 anatomifts as a procefs of the Rapes, which is 
 neceffarily broken off by the violence we are 
 obliged to ufe in getting at thefe bones ; but 
 when accurately confidered, it feems to be a 
 diRinft bone. 
 
 The malleus is fuppofed to refemble a ham- 
 mer, being larger at one extremity, which is its 
 head, than it is at the other, which is its han- 
 dle. The latter is attached to the membrana 
 tympani, and the head of the bone is articulat- 
 ed with the incus. 
 
 The incus ^ as it is called from its fhape, though 
 it feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than 
 to one of the dentes molares with its roots wide- 
 ly feparated from each other, is diRinguifhed in- 
 to its body and its legs. One of its legs is plac- 
 
4i6 of the senses Part VI. 
 
 ed at the entry of the canal which leads to the 
 maftoid procefs ; and the other, which is fome- 
 what longer, is articulated with the ftapes, or 
 rather with the os orbiculare, which is placed 
 between them. 
 
 The third bone is very properly named Jiapes^ 
 being perfectly fhaped like a ftirrup. Its bafis 
 is fixed into the feneftra ovalis, and its upper 
 part is articulated with the os orbiculare. What 
 is called the fenejl7'a rotunda^ though perhaps 
 improperly, as it is more oval than round, is 
 obferved a little above the other, in an emi- 
 nence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofed 
 by a continuation of the membrane that lines 
 the inner furface of the tympanum. The 
 ftapes and malleus are each of them furniftied 
 with a little mufcle, the ftapedeus and tenfor tym- 
 pani. The firft of thefe, which is the fmalleft in 
 the body, arifes from a little cavern in the pof- 
 terior and upper part of the cavity of the tym- 
 panum ; and its tendon, after pafling through 
 a hole in the fame cavern, is inferted at the 
 back part of the head of the ftapes. This mufj 
 cle, by drawing the ftapes obliquely upwards, af- 
 fifts in ftretching the membrana tympani. 
 
 The tenfor tympani (x,) or internus malei, 
 as it is called by fome writers, arifes from the 
 
 carti- 
 
 (x) Some anatom’ifts defcribe three mufcles of the mal- 
 leus : but only this onefeems to deferve the name of mufcle; 
 what are called the externus and obliquus molleif feeming to 
 be ligaments rather than mufcles. 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 417 
 cartilaginous extremity of the Euftachian tube, 
 and is inferted into the back part of the handle 
 of the malleus, which it ferves to pull inwards, 
 and of courfe helps to flretch the membrana tym- 
 pani. 
 
 The labyrinth is the only part of the ear which 
 remains to be defcribed. It is fituated in the os 
 petrofum, and is feparated from the tympanum 
 by a partition which is every where bony, except 
 at the two feneftrae. It is compofed of three 
 parts ; and thefe are the veftibulum, the femicir- 
 cular canals, and the cochlea. 
 
 The vejiibulum is an irregular cavity, much 
 fmaller than the tympanum, fituated nearly in 
 the centre of the os petrofum, between the tym- 
 panum, the cochlea, and the femicircular canals. 
 It is open on the fide of the tympanum by means- 
 of the feneftra ovalis, and communicates with 
 the upper portion of the cochlea by an oblong- 
 foramen, which is under the feneftra ovalis, from 
 which it is feparated only by a very thin parti- 
 tion. 
 
 Each of the three femicircular canals forms 
 about half a circle of nearly a line in diameter, 
 and running each in a different direflion, they 
 are diftinguifhed into vertical^ oblique^ and hot'i- 
 %ontal. Thefe three canals open by both their 
 extremities into the veftibulum ; but the vertical 
 and the oblique being united together at one of 
 their extremities, there are only five orifices to be 
 feen in the veftibulum. 
 
 Dd 
 
 The 
 
41 8 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral 
 courfe, not unlike the fhell of a fnail. From its 
 bafis to its apex it makes two turns and a half ; 
 and is divided into two canals by a very thin la- 
 mina or feptum, which is in part bony and in 
 part membranous, in fuch a manner that thefe 
 two canals only communicate with each other at 
 the point. One of them opens into the veftibu- 
 lum, and the other is covered by the membrane 
 that clofes the feneftra rotunda. The bony la- 
 mella which feparates the two canals is exceed- 
 ingly thin, and fills about two thirds of the dia- 
 meter of the canal. The reft of the feptum is 
 compofed of a moft delicate membrane, which 
 lines the whole inner furface of the cochlea, and 
 feems to form this divifion in the fame man- 
 ner as the two membranous bags of the pleura, 
 by being applied to each other, form the mediaf- 
 tinum. 
 
 Every part of the labyrinth is furniftied with 
 a very delicate periofteum, and filled with a wa- 
 tery fluid, fecreted as in other cavities. This 
 fluid tranfmits to the nerves the vibrations it re- 
 ceives from the membrane clofing the feneftra ro- 
 tunda, and from the bafis of the ftapes, where 
 it refts on the feneftrum ovale. When this fluid 
 is colledfed in too great quantity, or is comprefled 
 by the ftapes, it is fuppofed to efcape through 
 two minute canals or aqueducts, lately defcribed 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 419 
 by Dr Cotunni an ingenious phyfician at Na- 
 ples. One of thefe aqueducts opens into the 
 bottom of the veftibulum, and the other into 
 the cochlea, near the feneftra rotunda. They 
 both pafs through the os petrofum, and com- 
 municate with the cavity of the cranium where 
 the fluid that paflTes through them is abforbed ; 
 and they are lined by a membrane which is fup- 
 pofed to be a production of the dura mater. 
 
 The arteries of the external ear come from 
 the temporal and other branches of the external 
 carotid, and its veins pafs into the jugular. The 
 internal ear receives branches of arteries from the 
 bafilary and carotids, and its veins empty them- 
 felves into the finufes of the dura mater, and into 
 the internal jugular. 
 
 The portio mollis of the feventh pair is 
 diftributed through the cochlea, the veftibu- 
 lum, and the femi-circular canals ; and the 
 portio dura fends off a branch to the tympa- 
 num, and other branches to the external ear and 
 parts near it. 
 
 The Jenfe of hearings in producing which all 
 the parts we have delcribed aflift, is occafioned 
 by a certain modulation of the air collected by the 
 funnel-like flhiape of the external ear, and con- 
 veyed through the meatus auditorius to the mem- 
 brana tympani. That found is propagated by- 
 means of the air, is very eafily proved by ring- 
 D d 2 ing 
 
 *- De aquxduCtibus Auris Humanse Interns, 8vc, 176a. 
 
420 OF THE SENSES Part VL 
 
 ing a bell under the receiver of an air-pump ; 
 the found it affords being found to diminifh gra- 
 dually as the air becomes exhaufled, till at length 
 it ceafes to be heard at all. Sound moves through 
 the air with infinite velocity ; but the degree of 
 its motion feems to depend on the ftate of the 
 rdf, as it conftantly moves fafter in a denfe and 
 dry, than it does in a moifl and rarefied air. See 
 Acoujlics^ n^ 20. 
 
 That the air vibrating on the membrana tym- 
 pani communicates its vibration to the different 
 parts of the labyrinth, and by means of the 
 fluid contained in this cavity affedts the auditory 
 nerve fo as to produce found, feems to be very 
 probable : but the fituation, the minutenefs, and 
 the variety of the parts which compofe the ear, 
 do not permit much to be advanced with certain- 
 ty concerning their mode of addon. 
 
 Some of thefe parts feem to conftitute the im- 
 mediate organ of hearing, and thefe are all the 
 parts of the veftibulum : but there are others 
 which feem intended for the perfedtion of this 
 fenfe, without being abfolutely effential to it. It 
 has happened, for inflance, that the membrana 
 tympani, and the little bones of the ear, have 
 been deftroyed by difeafe, without depriving the 
 patient of the fenfe of hearing (y). 
 
 Sound 
 
 (y) This obfervation has led to a fuppofitlon, that a per- 
 foration of this membrane may in fome cafes of deafnefs be 
 vifeful;. and Mr. Cheielden relates, that, fome years' ago, a 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 42 1 
 
 Sound is more or lefs loud in proportion to 
 the ftrength of the vibration ; and the variety 
 of founds feems to depend on the difference of 
 this vibration ; for the more quick and frequent 
 it is, the more acute will be the found, and vice 
 verfa. 
 
 Before we conclude this article, it will be 
 right to explain certain phenomena, which 
 will be found to have a relation to the organ of 
 hearing. 
 
 Every body has, in confequence of particular 
 founds, occafionally felt that difagreeable fenfa- 
 tion which is ufually called Jetting the teeth on 
 edge : and the caufe of this fenfation may be 
 traced to the communication which the portio 
 dura of the auditory nerve has with the branches 
 of the fifth pair that are diftributed to the teeth, 
 being probably occafioned by the violent tremor 
 produced in the membrana tympani by thefe ve- 
 ry acute founds. Upon the fame principle we 
 may explain the ftrong idea of found which a 
 perfon has who holds a vibrating firing between 
 his teeth. 
 
 The humming which is fometimes perceived 
 in the ear, without any exterior caufe, may be 
 occafioned either by an increafed adtion of the 
 arteries in the ears, or by convulfive contractions 
 
 of 
 
 malefaftor was pardoned on condition that he flaould fiibinit 
 to this operation ; but the public clamour railed againfl; it 
 was fo great, that it was thought right not to perform it. 
 
422 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 of the mufcles of the malleus and ftapes, affecting 
 the auditory nerve in fuch a manner as to produce 
 the idea of found. An ingenious philofophical 
 writer * has lately difcovered, that there are 
 founds liable to be excited in the ear by irritation, 
 and without any alTiftance from the vibrations of 
 the air. 
 
 Sect. V. Of Vifion. 
 
 The eyes, which conftitute the organ of vi- 
 fion, are fituated in two bony cavities named 
 orbits^ where they are furrounded by feveral 
 parts, which are either intended to protedf 
 them from external injury, or to ailift in their 
 motion. 
 
 The globe of the eye is immediately covered 
 by two eye-lids or palpebrse, which are compof- 
 ed of mufcular fibres covered by the common in- 
 teguments, and lined by a very fine and fmooth 
 membrane, which is from thence extended over 
 pan of the globe of the eye, and is called tunica 
 conjunBiva. Each eye-lid is cartilaginous at its 
 edge ; and this border which is called tarfus, is 
 furnifhed with a row of hairs named cilia or eye- 
 lafdcs. 
 
 The 
 
 * Elliot’s Philofophical Obfervations on the Senfes of Yj- 
 fion and Hearing, bvo. 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 423 
 
 The cilia ferve to protect the eye from infers 
 and minute bodies floating in the air, and like- 
 wife to moderate the action of the rays of light 
 in their paflage to the retina. At the roots of 
 thefe hairs there are febaceous follicles, firfl: No- 
 ticed by Meibomius, which difcharge a glutinous 
 liniment. Sometimes the fluid they fecrete has 
 too much vifcidity, and the eye-lids become 
 glued to each other. 
 
 The upper border of the orbit is covered by 
 the eye-brows or fupercilia, which by means of 
 their two mufcles are capable of being brought 
 towards each other, or of being carried upwards. 
 They have been confidered as ferving to protect 
 the eyes, but they are probably intended more for 
 ornament than utility (z). 
 
 The orbits, in which the eyes are placed, are 
 furnifhed with a good deal of fat, which affords 
 a foft bed on which the eye performs its feveral 
 motions. The inner angle of each orbit, or that 
 part of it which is near the nofe, is called canthus 
 major ^ or the great angle ; and the outer angle, 
 which is on the oppofite fide of the eye, is the 
 canthus minor ^ or little angle. 
 
 The little reddifli body which we obferve in 
 the great angle of the eye-lids, and which is call- 
 ed caruncula lachrymalis.^ is fuppofed to be of a 
 glandular ftru£lure, and, like the follicles of the 
 
 eye-r 
 
 (z) It is obfervable, that the eye-brows are peculiar to the 
 Tiuman fpecies. 
 
424 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 eye-lids, to fecrete an oily humour. But its 
 ftrud:ure and ufe do not feein to have been hi- 
 therto accurately determined. The furface of the 
 eye is conftantly moiftened by a very fine limpid 
 fluid called the tears ^ which is chiefly, and per- 
 haps wholly, derived from a large gland of the 
 conglomerate kind, fituated in a fmall depreflion 
 of the os frontis near the outer angle of the eye. 
 Its excretory dudls pierce the tunica conjunctiva 
 juft above the cartilaginous borders of the upper 
 eye-lids. When the tears were fuppofed to be 
 fecreted by the caruncule, this gland was called 
 giandula innoyninata ; but now that its ftructure 
 and ufes arc afeertained, it very properly has the 
 name of glandula lachrymalis. The tears pour- 
 ed out by the ducts of this gland are, in a natu- 
 ral and healthy ftate, incefiantly fpread over the 
 furface of the eye, to keep it clear and tranfpa- 
 rent, by means of the eye-lids, and as conftantly 
 pafs out at the oppofite corner of the eye or in- 
 ner ^nglc, through tw^o minute orifices, thepunc- 
 ta lachrymalia (a) ; being determined into thefe 
 little openings by a duplication of the tunica con- 
 junctiva, fhaped like a crefeent, the two points 
 of which anfwer to the puncta This reduplica- 
 tion is named memhrana^ or valvula femilunaris. 
 
 Each 
 
 (a) It fometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid, 
 which moiftens the eye, being poured out through the ex- 
 cretory dufts of the lachrymal gland fafter than it can be 
 carried off through the pundta, triddes down the cheek, 
 and is then ftriftly and properly called tears. 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 425 
 Each of thefe punda is the beginning of a fmall 
 excretory tube, through which the tears pafs into 
 a little pouch or refervoir, the facculus lachryma- 
 lis, which lies in an excavation formed partly by 
 the nafal procefs of the os maxillare fuperius, 
 and partly by the os unguis. The lower part of 
 this fac forms a dud called the duBiis ad nares^ 
 which is continued through a bony channel, and 
 opens into the nofe, through which the tears are 
 occafionally difcharged (b). 
 
 The motions of the eye are performed by fix 
 mufcles : four of which are ftraight and two 
 oblique. The ftraight mufcles are diftinguiftied 
 by the names of elevator ^ deprejfor^ adductor^ and 
 abduBor^ from their feveral ufes in elevating and 
 deprefling the eye, drawing it towards the nofe, 
 or carrying it from the nofe towards the temple. 
 All thefe four mufcles arife from the bottom of 
 the orbit, and are inferted by fiat tendons into 
 the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles are 
 intended for the more compound motions of the 
 eye. The firft of thefe mufcles, the obliquus 
 fuperior, does not, like the other four mufcles 
 we have defcribed, arife from the bottom of the 
 orbit, but from the edge of the foramen that 
 tranfmits the optic nerve, which feparates the 
 
 origin 
 
 (e) When the duftns ad nares becomes obltrucled in con- 
 fequence of difeafe, the tears are no longer able to pafs into 
 the noftrils ; the facculus lachryinalis becomes dillended ; 
 and inflammation, and fometimes ulceration, taking place, 
 conflitute the difeafe called fijlula lachrymaiis. • 
 
426 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 origin of this mufcle from that of the others. 
 From this beginning it paffes in a ftraight line 
 towards a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fitu- 
 ation of which is marked in the fkeleton by a 
 little hollow in the internal orbitar procefs of the 
 os frontis. The tendon of the mufcle, after 
 palling through this ring, is inferted into the up- 
 per part of the globe of the eye, which it ferves 
 to draw forwards, at the fame time turning the 
 pupil downwards. 
 
 The obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of 
 the orbit, under the opening of the du£tus lach- 
 rymalis ; and is inferted fomewhat pofteriorly 
 into the outer fide of the globe, ferving to draw 
 the eye forwards and turn the pupil upwards, 
 When either of thefe two mufcles afts feparately, 
 the eye is moved on its axis ; but when they a£t 
 together, it is comprelTed both above and below. 
 The eye itfelf, which is now to be defcribed, 
 with its tunics, humours, and component parts, 
 is nearly of a fpherical figure. Of its tunics, tho 
 conjunctiva has been already defcribed as a par- 
 tial covering, refledled from the inner furface of 
 the eye-lids over the anterior portion of the eye. 
 What has been named albuginea cannot pro- 
 perly be confidered as a coat of the eye, being 
 in fadt nothing more than the tendons of the 
 ftraight mufcles fpread over fome parts of the 
 fclerotica. 
 
 The immediate tunics of the eye, which are 
 to be demonftrated when its partial coverings, 
 
 and 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 427 
 and all the other parts with which it is furround- 
 ed, are removed, are the fclerotica, cornea, cho- 
 roides, and retina. 
 
 The fclerotica^ which is the exterior coat, is 
 every where white and opaque, and is joined at 
 its anterior edge to another, which has more 
 convexity than any other part of the globe, and 
 being exceedingly tranfparent is called cornea (c). 
 Thefe two parts are perfedlly different in their 
 ftrufture ; fo that fome anatomifts fuppofe them 
 to be as diftindl; from each other as the glafs of 
 a watch is from the cafe into which it is fixed. 
 The fclerotica is of a compadl fibrous ftrudture ; 
 the cornea, on the other hand, is compofed of a 
 great number of lamina united by cellular mem- 
 brane. By macerating them in boiling water, 
 they do not feparate from each other, as fome 
 writers have afferted ; but the cornea foon foft- 
 ens, and becomes of a glutinous confiftence. 
 
 The ancients fuppofed the fclerotica to be a 
 continuation of the dura mater. Morgagni and 
 fome other modern writers are of the fame opi- 
 nion ; but this point is difputed by Winflow, 
 Haller, Zin, and others. The truth feems to 
 be, that the fclerotica, though not a production 
 of the dura mater, adheres intimately to that 
 membrane. 
 
 The 
 
 (c) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to 
 all this outer coat, have named what is here and moft com- 
 monly called fclerotica^ cornea opaca ; and its anterior and 
 tranfparent portion, cornea lucida. 
 
428 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 The cboroides is fo called becaufe it is furnifli- 
 cd with a great number of veffels. It has like- 
 wife been named uvea^ on account of its refem- 
 blance to a grape. Many modern anatomical 
 writers have confidered it as a produdtion of the 
 pia mater. This was likewife the opinion of the 
 ancients ; but the ftrength and thicknefs of the 
 choroides, when compared with the delicate 
 ftrudture of the pia mater, are fulhcient proofs of 
 their being two diftind: membranes. 
 
 The choroides has of late generally been de>* 
 feribed as confifting of two laminse ; the inner- 
 moft of which has been named after Ruyfch, who 
 firft deferibed it. It is certain, however, that 
 Ruyfeh’s diftindion is ill founded, at leaft with 
 refped to the human eye, in which we are una- 
 ble to demonftrate any fuch ftrudure, although 
 the tunica choroides of fheep and fome other 
 quadrupeds may eafily be feparated into two 
 layers. 
 
 The choroides adheres intimately to the fcle- 
 rotica round the edge of the cornea ; and at the 
 place of this union, we may obferve a little 
 whitilh areola, named ligamentum ciliare^ though 
 it is not of a ligamentous nature. 
 
 They who fuppofe the choroides to be com- 
 pofed of two laminse, deferibe the external one 
 as terminating in the ligamentum ciliare, and the 
 internal one as extending farther to form the 
 iris, v/hich is the circle we are able to diftinguihr 
 through the cornea : but this part is of a very 
 
 different 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 429 
 different ftnidure from the choroides } fo that 
 fome late writers have perhaps not improperly 
 confidered the iris as a diftind; membrane. It 
 derives its name from the variety of its colours, 
 and is perforated in the middle. This perfora- 
 tion, which is called the pupil or fight of the 
 eye, is clofed in the foetus by a very thin vafcular 
 membrane. This membrana pupillaris common- 
 ly difappears about the feventh month. 
 
 On the under fide of the iris we obferve many 
 minute fibres, called ciliary procsjfies^ which pafs 
 in radii or parallel lines from the circumference 
 to the centre. The contradion and dilatation 
 of the pupil are fuppofed to depend on the ac- 
 tion of thefe proceffes. Some have confidered 
 them as mufcular, but they are not of an irritable 
 nature ; others have fuppofed them to be fila- 
 ments of nerves : but their real ftrudure has 
 never yet been clearly afcertained. 
 
 Befides thefe ciliary proceffes, anatomiffs ufu- 
 ally fpeak of the circular fibres of the iris, but 
 no filch feem to exift. 
 
 The pofterior furface of the iris, the ciliary 
 procefl'es, and part of the tunica choroides, are 
 covered by a black mucus for the purpofes of ac- 
 curate and diftind vifion ; but the manner in 
 which it has been fecreted has not been deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Immediately under the tunica choroides. we 
 find the third and inner coat, called the retina^ 
 
 which. 
 
430 OF THE SENSES Part VL 
 
 which feems to be merely an expanfion of the 
 pulpy fubftance of the optic nerve, extending to 
 the border of the cryftaline humour. 
 
 The greateft part of the globe of the eye, 
 within thefe feveral tunics, is filled by a very 
 tranfparent and gelatinous humour of confider- 
 able confiftence, which, from its fuppofed refem- 
 blance to fufed glafs, is called the vitreous humour. 
 It is invefted by a very fine and delicate mem- 
 brane, called tunica vitfea, and fometimes arach- 
 noides. — It is fuppofed to be compofed of two 
 laminae ; one of which dips into its fubftance, 
 and by dividing the humour into cells adds to 
 its firmnefs. The fore-part of the vitreous hu- 
 mour is a little hollowed, to receive a very white 
 and tranfparent fubftance of a firm texture, and 
 of a lenticular and fomewhat convex fhape, 
 named the cryjialine humour. It is included in a 
 capfula, which feems to be formed by a fepara- 
 tion of the two laminae of the tunica vitrea. 
 
 The fore-part of the eye is filled by a very thin 
 and tranfparent fluid, named the aqueous humour^ 
 which occupies all the fpace between the cryftal- 
 line and the prominent cornea. — The part of the 
 choroides which is called the /m, and which 
 comes forward to form the pupil, appears to be 
 fufpended as it were in this humour, and has oc- 
 cafioned this portion of the eye to be diftin- 
 guiftied into two parts. One of thefe, which is 
 the little fpace between the anterior furface of 
 the cryftalline and the iris, is called the pojlerior 
 
 chamber y 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 431 
 chamber; and the other, which is the fpace 
 between the iris and the cornea, is called the 
 anterior chamber of the eye (d). Both thele 
 fpaces are completely filled with the aqueous 
 humour, (e). 
 
 The eye receives its arteries from the internal 
 carotid through the foramina optica j and its 
 veins pafs through the foramina lacera, and 
 empty themfelves into the lateral finufes. Some 
 of the ramifications of thefe veffels appear on the 
 inner furface of the iris, where they are feen 
 to make very minute convolutions, which are 
 fufficiently remarkable to be diftinguifhed by 
 the name of circulus arteriofus^ though per- 
 haps improperly, as they are chiefly branches of 
 veins. 
 
 The 
 
 (d) We are aware that fome anatomifts, particularly Lleu- 
 taud, are of opinion, that the iris is every where in ciofe 
 contaft with the cryftalline, and that it is of courfe righf to 
 Ipeak only of one chamber of the eye ; but as this does 
 not appear to be the cafe, the fituation of the iris and the 
 two ciaambers of the eye are here defcribed in the ufual 
 way. 
 
 (e) When the cryftalline becomes opaque, fo as to pre- 
 vent the paffing of the rays of light to the retina, it con- 
 flitutes what is called a contraEl ; and the operation of 
 couching confifts in removing the difeafed cryftalline from 
 its bed in the vitreous huinq,ur. In this operation the cor- 
 nea is perforateed, and the aqueous humour elcapes out of 
 the eye, but it is conftantly renewed again in a very ftiort 
 time. The manner, however, in which it is fecreted, has 
 not yef been determined. 
 
432 OF THE SENSES Part VI. 
 
 The optic nerve pafles in at the pofterior part 
 of the eye, in a confiderable trunk, to be ex- 
 panded for the purpofes of vifion, of which it 
 is now univerfally fuppofed to be the immediate 
 feat. But Meflrs. Mariotte and Mery contend- 
 ed, that the choroides is the feat of this fenfe ; 
 and the ancients fuppofed the cryftalline to be 
 fo. Befides the optic, the eye receives branches 
 from the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth pair of 
 nerves. 
 
 The humours of the eye, together with the 
 cornea, are calculated to refrad: and converge 
 the rays of light in fuch a manner as to form at 
 the bottom of the eye a diftind image of the 
 objed we look at ; and the point where thefe 
 rays meet is called the focus of the eye. On the 
 the retina, as in the camera ohfcura^ the objed 
 is painted in an inverted pofition ; and it is on- 
 ly by habit that we are enabled to judge of its 
 true fituation, and likewife of its diftance and 
 magnitude. To a young gentleman who was 
 born blind, and who was couched by Mr. Che- 
 felden, every objed (as he expreffed himfelf) 
 feemed to touch his eyes as what he felt did his 
 fkin ; and he thought no objeds fo agreeable as 
 thofe which were fmooth and regular, although 
 for fome time he could form no judgment of 
 their fhape, or guefs what it was in any of them 
 that was pleafmg to him. 
 
 In order to paint objeds diftindly on the re- 
 tina, the cornea is required to have fuch a de- 
 3 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORIGIN. 433 
 
 gree of convexity, that the rays of light may be 
 collected at a certain point, fo as to terminate 
 exactly on the retina-^ — If the cornea is too pro- 
 minent, the rays, by diverging too foon, will 
 be united before they reach the retina, as is 
 the cafe with near-fighted people or myopes ; and 
 ^ on the‘ Contrary, if it is not fufficiently convex, 
 the rays -will not be perfectly united when they 
 reach the back part of the eye ; and this hap- 
 pens to long-fighted people oxprejhi^ being found 
 conftantly to take place as we approach to old 
 age, when the eye gradually flattens (f). Thefe 
 defeats are to be fupplied by means of glalTes. 
 He who has too prominent an eye, will find 
 his vifion improved by means of a concave glafs ; 
 and upon the fame principles, a convex glafs 
 will be found ufeful to a perfon whofe eye is na- 
 turally too flat. 
 
 (f) Upon this principle, they who in their youth are 
 near-fighted may expeft to fee better as they advant^ in life, 
 as their eyes gradually become more flat. ' 
 
 E e 
 
 EXPLA- 
 
OF THE SENSES 
 
 Part VL 
 
 '434 
 
 EXPLANATION cf PLATE XXX. 
 
 Figure i. Shows the Lachrymal Canals, after 
 the Common Teguments and Bones have been 
 cut away. 
 
 a, The lachrymal gland, b, The two pundla 
 lachrymalia, from which the two lychrymal ca- 
 nals proceed to c, The lachrymal fac. d, The 
 large lachrymal du(T. e, Its opening into the 
 nofe. f, The caruncula lachrymalis. g, The 
 ■ eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 2. An interior View of the Coats and Hu- 
 mours of the Eye. 
 
 a a a a, The tunica fclerotica cut in four an- 
 gles, and turned back, bbbb. The tunica cho- 
 roides adhering to the infide of the fclerotica, 
 and the ciliary veffels are feen paffing over — c c. 
 The retina which covers the vitreous humour, 
 dd. The ciliary procelTes, which were conti- 
 nued from the choroid coat, e e. The iris, f. 
 The pupil. 
 
 Fig. 3. Shows the Optic Nerves, and Mufcles 
 of the Eye. 
 
 a a. The two optic nerves before they meet, 
 h, The two optic nerves conjoined, c. The 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 435 
 right optic nerve, d, Mufculus attolens palpe- 
 brse fuperioris. e, Attoilens oculi. f, Abduc- 
 tor. g g, Obliquus fuperior, or trochlearis. h, 
 Addudtor. i, The eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 4. Shows the Eye-balls with its Mufcles. 
 
 a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis, 
 c, Part of the os frontis, to which the trochlea 
 or pully is fixed, through which, — d. The ten- 
 dons of the trochlearis palfes, e, Attoilens oc^ 
 culi. f, Addudtor oculi. g, Abdudtor oculr. 
 h, Obliquus inferior, i. Part of the fuperior 
 maxillary bone to which it is fixed, k, The 
 eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 5. Reprefents the Nerves and Mufcles of 
 the Right Eye, after part of the Bones of the 
 orbit have been cut away. 
 
 A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland. 
 C, Mufculus abduftor oculi. D, Attolens. E, 
 Levator palpebrse fuperioris. F, DeprelTor oculi. 
 G. Adduftor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pul- 
 ly. I, Its infertion into the fclerotic coat. K, 
 Part of the obliquus inferior. L, The anterior 
 part of the os frontis cut. M, The crifta galli 
 of the ethmoid bone. N, The pofterior part of 
 the fphenoid bone. O, Tranfverfe fpinous pro- 
 cefs of the fphenoid bone. P, The carotid ar- 
 tery, denuded vv^here it palfes through the bones. 
 
 Q^, The 
 
436 OF THE SENSES. Part VI. 
 
 Q^, The carotid artery within the cranium. 
 R, The ocular artery. 
 
 Nerves — a a, The optic nerve, b, The , 
 third pair. — c, Its joining with a branch of the 
 firit branch of the fifth pair, to form l,“The len- 
 ticular ganglion, which fends off the ciliary 
 nerves, d, e e, The fourth pair, f. The trunk 
 of the fifth pair, g, The firfl branch of the fifth 
 pair, named ophthalmic, h. The frontal branch 
 of it. i, Its ciliary branches, along with which 
 the nafal twig is fent to the nofe. k, Its branch 
 to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticular gan- 
 glion, m, The fecond branch of the fifth pair, 
 named fuperior maxillary, n. The third branch 
 of the fifth pair, named inferior maxillary. Oj 
 The fixth pair of nerves, — which fends off p, 
 The beginning of the great fympathetic. q. The 
 remainder of the fixth pair, fpent on c. The ab- 
 dudtor oculi. 
 
 Fig. 6. Reprefeiits the head of a youth, where 
 the upper part of the cranium is fawed off, — ^to 
 Ihow the upper part of the brain, covered by the 
 pia mater, the veffels of which are minutely 
 filled wdth wax. 
 
 A A, The cut edges of the upper part of the 
 cranium. B, The two tables and intermediate 
 diploe. B B, The two hemifpheres of the ce- 
 rebrum. C C, The incifure made by the falx. 
 D, Part of the tentorium cerebello fuper ex- 
 
 panfum. 
 
Part VI. AND THEIR ORGANS. 437 
 panfum. E, Part of the falx, which is fixed to 
 the crifta galli. 
 
 Fig. 7. Reprefents the parts of the external 
 Ear, with the Parotid Gland and its Du£ts. 
 
 a a. The helix, b. The antihelix, c. The 
 antitragus, d. The tragus, e. The lobe of the 
 ear. f, The cavitas innominata. g. The fcapha. 
 h. The concha, ii. The parotid gland, k, A 
 lymphatic gland, which is often found before 
 the tragus. 1 . The dud; "of the parotic gland, 
 m. Its opening into the mouth. 
 
 Eig. 8 . A view of the pofterior part of the ex- 
 ternal ear, meatus auditorius, tyrnpanum^ 
 with its fmall bones, and Euftachian tube of 
 the right fide. 
 
 a, The back part of the meatus, with the 
 fmall ceruminous glands, b. The incus, c. 
 Malleus, d. The chorda tympani. e, Mem- 
 brana tympani. f, Euftachian tube, g. Its 
 mouth from the fauces. 
 
 FrG. 9. Reprefents the anterior part of the right 
 external ear, the cavity of the tympanum— 
 its fmall bones, cochlea, and femicircular ca- 
 nals. 
 
 a, The malleus, b. Incus with its long leg, 
 refting upon the ftapes. c, Membrana tympani. 
 
 I d e. The 
 
438 OF THE SENSES, &c. Part VI, 
 
 d, e, The Euftachian tube, covered by part of 
 — f f, The mufculus circumfiexus palati. 123, 
 The three femicircular canals. 4, The veftible. 
 5, The cochlea. 6, The portio mollis of the 
 feventh pair of nerves. 
 
 Fig. 10. Shews the mufcles which compofe the 
 flefhy fubftance of the tongue. 
 
 a a. The tip of the tongue, with fome of the 
 papillae minimae. b, The root of the tongue, 
 c, Part of the membrane of the tongue, which 
 covered the epiglottis, d d, Part of the muf- 
 culus hyo-gloffus. e, The lingualis. f, Genio- 
 gloffus. g g, Part of the ftylo-gloffus. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING the PLATES. 
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