^ \i. \-\ \h^ ■H^ ...^'Jfc -a-»iiTi' ^- ■ w? PERKINS LIBRARY Uuke University Kare Dooks i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Duke University Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/essaysrelatingto01ande ESSAYS RELATING TO AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS. ESSAY S RELATING TO AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS. VOLUME FIRST. TI!E SECOND EDITION, WITH LARGE ADDITIONS, B Y JAMES ANDERSON, VARMER AT MONKS-HILL, ABERDEENSHIRE, And he gave it for his opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two btaJcs of grafs, to grow upon a jpot of ground, where only one grew before, would defer ve better of jriankind, and do more efltntial fervice to his country, than the uliolc lace uf politicians put together. Swift. EDINBURGH: r R 1 N T 1. D FOR WILLIAM CREECH; AND T, C A D E L L, LONDON. »1>DCC,LXXV1I. T O V. / WILLIAM CULLEN, M.D. PROFESSOR OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, AND FIRST PHYSICIAN TO HIS MAJESTY IN SCOTLAND, &c. &c. SIR, ^ I "* H E favourable reception gi- -■- ven by the pubKc to the firft edition of the following Eflays em- boldens mc to infcribe the fecond to b you. ii DEDICATION. you. Juftlcc, as ^vcll as gratitude, demand this of me : For, if there is any merit i.i the following per- formance, I have no hefitation in a- fcribing ic to the imprelTion that your judicious inftruffions have made upon my mind : If I were capable of forgetting the many o- bl'gations I owe to your tender fol- licitudc for my welfare, when I had no other perfon to direct my youthful fteps^ I \vouId, in'-leed, be unworthy of the attention you beftowed. ; • . Accept, D E D I C A T I O N. iii /vcc^pc, then, Dear Sir^.pf this iinall tefti-mony of my gratkude and efreem. I^^'as afraid to offer it, foon- er, left I might have diihonoured your name by prefixing h to a work unworthy of your patronage. Ic fliail always bemy ftudy'f?) to ad as noc to make you aflian^ed of che partiality you have fliown me. This is tl>g pi^ly j€iCur^>, in my power to make for all your kindnefs j andj if I can fully fucgeed in this attempt, I am wxU alTured it will be to you the moft acceptable return I could give. 1 fliall iv DEDICATION. I fhall always efteem it my higheft honour to be, with the warmeft afFec- tioB, and moft grateful efteem^ S IR, Your much obliged, Moft obedient, and Moft humble fervant, MOMKS-HILL, 7 Aug. 1776. 5 JAk ANDERSON, CONTENTS. Pk EFACE, p XI Essay I. Oninclofures and fences, 3 5 I. Comparative value of dikes and hedges, 4 $ II. Of dry ftone dikes, 6 § III. Of fail or earthen dikes, 8 § IV. Of white thorn hedges, 21 5 V. Of the mod eligible method of planting thefe, 22 $ VI. Of the choice of a proper foil for the nurfery of white thorn plants, 24 § VII. Diredions for managing the plants while in the nurfery, 26 § VIII, Rules for chufing the plants, 41 § IX. Of the proper fize of plants, 43 5 X. Of the proper feafon for planting thefe, 45 ^ XI. Of trimming before planting, 47 § XII. vi CONTENTS. § XII. Directions for the manner of planting, p. 50 § XIII- Directions for planting in a very expofed fitu- ^^on, 55 § XIV. Of the ufe of the eglantine in fencing, 59 § XV. Of the neceffary attention to the hedge thf nrfl; year after planting, 60 § XVI. Directions for clipping and pruning hedges, 6a § XVII. How to recover a hedge after it has been ftinted in its growth, 75 § XVIII. Of recovering old oppi hedges by plafU- ing, 77 § XIX. Directions for preventing the young twigs of 'i. hedge from being killed in winter, 80 § XX. Of lopping full grown hedges, 86 § XXI. Of ornamental plants in hedging, 89 § XXII. Of the life of the willow in fencing, 92 § XXIII. Of the ufe of the Lombardy poplar in fen- cing, * 1,02 ^ XXIV. Of the ufe of t)ie qujqkfbcap? or rawn tree in fencing, 107 § XXV. Of the ufe of the alder in fencing, 109 « XXVI. CONTENTS. Vll ^ XXVI. Of furze or whins as a fenee, p. 1 1© \ XXV! I, A pirdcular kind of fence defcribed for orchards, blcaching-greens, &c. ii^ ^ XXVni. Of fecu'ring the banks of rivers fo as to prevent th6 earth from being wafhed away by the violence of the ftream, 120 § XXIX. Of fencing the banks of rivers fo as to con- fine the water within proper bounds, and prevent the damage that might be done by its overflowing the fields upon its banks in the time of inunda- tions, i^o ^ XXX. Method of fccuring'the fields thus defended from the river, from the danger of being overflowed by extraneous Water coming from the high ground behind them, i^^ §, XXXI. Of freeing the fields thus fenced from wa- ter that might arife from fprings within the fame, 138 ^ XXXII. Diredlicns for floating thefe fields at plea- fure, 141 § XXXIII. Of fencing and fecuring flat meadow- •ground* irom ttic danger of being drowned, or of floating them at plealurc, j^S § XXXIV. nil CONTENTS. $ XXXIV. Obfervations on the mofl oeconomical wiy of making fences where rills or running water is the boundary, 153 ^ XXXV. General obfervations with regard to the pro- per divifion of a farm into inclofures, 159 Essay II. On draining bogs and fwampy ground, ^dy Essay III. On the proper method of levelling high ridges, 197 Essay IV. On the proper method of fowing grafs- feeds, 233 Essay V. On Hay-making, 245 Essay VI. On quick-lime, 261 Part I. Of quick-lime as a cement, 269 Part II. Of quicklime, and other calca- reous fubftances, as a manure, 385 A D V E R. ADVERTISEMENT. TH E following EfTays were written by the per- fuafion of the late ingenious Dr John Gregory of Edinburgh, who always wiflied to turn the attention of mankind to the purfuit of -svhat was folid and ufe. ful in arts and fciences, rather than to what might be more lliowy and unimportant: And, as the writer concurred entirely with him in opinion in this refpeft, he has aimed, in thefe Eflays, rather to inftrudl the ignorant by a (impie enumeration of a few well efta- bliflicd fa£ls, than to amufe the fpeculative by an idle difplay of ufelefs ingenuity. The firfl: part of this book was nearly in the fame ftate in which it now appears when that gentleman died, February 1773 ; fince which time the author has found in himfelf little inclination to profecute a fub- jeQ, which he was chiefly prompted to undertake by the pleafure he had in doing what he thought might be agreeable to a friend he fo much efleemed ; and from the profpect of having his performance revifed by ono w^ho Avould have been no lefs ready to have corredled the faults, than to have approved of what he might have deemed praife- worthy. But the manufcript ha« ving been carclefsly allowed to be fcen by feveral per- fons, and there being reafon to fufped that it might be publifhed under another form, it was judged proper to commit it to the prcfs as it originally came from the hand of the Author. b In ( ^ ) In this edition, feveral new articles are added, efpc- cially with ree:ard to the rearing of hedges, which' fome of the Author's frienJs thought neceffary ; — fome notes, and other illuRrRtions, are interfperfed through the whole; — and accuiMtc figures of the graflcs and other plants recommended in the fixth Eflay are given, which, it is hoped, will be of ufe to all readers, but efpecially to fuch as are not much verfed in botanical rcfearches ; as it will enable them to know the feveral plants at fight. An entire Eflay on the nature and properties of Quick-lime, is likewife added. — To the whole is fubjoined an Appendix, containing upwards of two thoufand experiments, made with a view to af- certain what plants are eat or rejedled by the different domeftic animals commonly reared in Europe, from the Amoenitatti Academ'icae. Thefe additions are fo confiderable, that the Author judged it neceflary to caufe them to be printed fepa- rately, and fold by th-emfelves, that the purchafcrs of the former edition might not be put to any unneceflary expence. If this work fhould go through another edition, the refult of experiments, and fuch other fmall additions as may be neceflary, will be given to the purchafers of this and the former edition gratis. PREFACE. PREFACE. IT may not perhaps be looked upon as one of the fmallcft inconveniencies at- tending the profeffion of Agriculture, that fo many of the moft confpicuous writers on that fubjedl, liaving been themfelves entirely unacquainted with the pradice of that art, and of confequence unable to feleiSl with judgment from the works of others, have frequently copied their errors with the fame fcrupulous nicety as the moft vahiable parts of their works. And, as it ufually happens that, when a man indulges his ima- gination, and creates to himfelf ideal plans of improvement, he can render them appa- rently Xll PREFACE. rently much more perfedt than any thing that really takes place in pradice, it is but natural to expedt that thefe places fhould catch the attention of an unexperienced compiler j who being thus feduced himftlf, employs the utmofl: of his rhetorical powers to perfuade his readers to adopt rhefe parti- cular praclices. In this manner is the judgment of the young and unexperienced farmer but too often m»ifled ; and he is made to adopt peculiar opinions, and follow cer- tain favourite practices with a perfevering obfiinacy that his own better judgment ne- ver would have allowed him to do, if he had proceeded with that attentive diffidence that always accompanies ignorance when attended with i^ative good fenfc. So that, although books of that kind often contain obfervations that PREFACE. Kill that may be of very great utility to an ex- perienced farmer, who may be able to di- flinguiili between the good and the bad ; yet, to thofe who have moft need of inftruc- tion, and who ofteneft confsilt them, thefc books frequently prove the fource of very capital errors : So tliat it would ufually be better for fuch fat mers that no fuch books had ever been written. The writer of the following pages ftrong- ly felt the inconveniencies here complained of, in the early part of his life, and would be glad if he could in any way contribute to prevent others from fuffering in the fame way. With this view, he has penned, at his leifure hours, the following Eflays, on luch fubjeds as have in the courfe ot his pradice parti- xlv PREFACE. particularly engaged his attention ; and now offers them to the public in that native fim- plicity of drefs in which he thinks truth ought always to appear. The obfervations contained in the following fheets are chiefly the refult of his own experience ; but if, at any time, he has ventured to extend his views a little farther, with a defign to turn the attention of the reader to a few other objeds of importance, he has always taken care to inform him of it, that he may never be at a lofs to know what degree of credit he ought to beftow upon every particular part. And, as he had no other aim but to afford a few plain inftrudions to the inex- perienced reader, upon which he might fafe- ly rely without fear of being mifled ; he has followed no other plan but to mark down with PREFACE.- xf with candour fuch fads relating to the fub- jeds that he has treated of, as he knew could be relied upon, or fuch obfervations as natu^ rally flowed from thefe ; without ever once propofing to give a complete treatife on any- one fubjed, or being anxious in purfuit of novelty, or folicitous about collecting what- ever others may have faid concerning it. The proper bufinefs of a farmer is to furnifli fads to others, and not to pilfer from them"; and he thinks it would tend much to the advancement of this art, if men of know- ledge and experience in any branch of Agri- culture would be fatisfied with communica- ting to the public fuch ufeful fads as they may have been enabled to afcertain with re- gard to that particular branch of their art, without endeavouring to extend their obfer- vations xvl . PREFACE. vations to every other branch thereof, or thinking It a duty Incumbent upon them to give a phyfical Inveftlgation of the caufe or every phaenomenon ; which too often tends to divert the mind from attending to ufeful fadts, and to lead It, In fearch of a phantom of the brain, into the inextricable mazes of error. For, although a Bacon or a Newton may fometimes appear, whofc towering ge- nius Is capable of taking a comprehenfive furvey of narure, — of comparing the depen- dence that each part has upon another, and the relation it bears to the whole, — of tra- cing out the laws by which they are united or disjoined, and of thus exalting an art in- to a fciei'ce ; yet, as there are but few who are thus peculiarly favoured by heaven, it is becoming in others, who have reafon to feel that PREFACE. xvii (hat they are not poffeffed of fuch fuperlatlve abilities, to be more humble in their aim, and to content themfelvcs with moving in a lefs exalted fphere. Yet how natural is it for man, whofe heart is ever fufceptible of the imprefTions of vanity, and whole mind muft always be delighted with that fuhlime beauty that refults from a knowledge of na- ture, to be ready to indulge himfelf a little too freely in refearches which coincide fo well with the natural bias of the mind ! Let him who has not erred in this way criticifc with afperity the failings of his brethren : It does not belong to me. For, when at times I have been tempted, by fome concur- ring fads, to think that I had got a gliir.pfe of fome fundamental law, the knowledge of which brought order from confuficn ; — i C when xvlii PREFACE. when the imagination has been fired, and I have been ready to enter an unbidden gueft into the facred temple of fcience ; — when I was ready, in my own imagination, to with- draw the myfterioiis veil that covers nature's works ; — when I firetched forth my hand — methought I heard a voice, which, with awful folemnity faid. Mortal, Know THYSELF, — Be humble. Confounded at the juft reproof, I ftarted from my dream, and with an humble mind, refolved difcreet- ly to purfue the inferior path that nature had afligned mc. Purity of language will not be looked for in a treatife of this nature. A man educa- ted in a remote province, at a diftance froni jnen of letters, in a great meafure deprived Pf PREFACE. xix toJF the ufe of books, and attending more to the objeds of his profeflion, than to the de- licacies of ilyle, cannot be expected to write with that purity that might be required in a book of mere amufement. It is the matter rather than the form that ought to conllitute the principal merit of every didaclic per- formance. And, as the writer hereof knew that it would be in vain for him to expcd: to arrive at a clafTical elegance of language* it has been his principal aim to convey his meaning to the reader in the cleared and moft diflind manner that he could, without any attempt at ornament. Ke obferves, however, with regret, upon perufing his book, that the great attention he has beftow- ed to render every thing he fays intelligible to every capacity, has introduced into hi3 ftyle. XX PREFACE. ftyle, a certain languor and diffafe prolixity- that is extremely difagreeable to himfelf ; and doubts not but many of his readers will find it much more difgufting to them ; but he finds, at the fame time, that it requires different tc^lenrs to perceive a defed:, and to be'alile to corred it properly. However, a& he has not wilfully offended, lie hopes for the indulgence of the candid reader iu this refpedt. Ke is, nevcrthelefs. fenfible that he has not rejeded with fuch fcrupulous nicety all provincial wcrJs as fome may wilh he had done; foine of which he has even knowifi'^-- ly inserted, bccaufe he was not fo well ac- quainted with the language as to have been ?.bie to have conveyed his meaning in fuch a determinate or cafy manner without them. This PREFACE. Kxi This he was likewife in feme meafuie indu- ced to do, from having frequently obferved, that fuch inexperienced fcriblers as himfelf, by too ftudioufly avoiding to employ every word that they could not meet with in their di6)ionaries, have given to their writings an air of pedantry and aftedarion that is ex- tremely difagreeable ; and, whichisworfe, by being obliged to employ other wo ds In their flead, the precife meaning of which they have not been able exactly to le^irn, they have helped to dcbaie our bnguage, by in- troducing a vague and indeterminate appli- cation of phrafes, which he deems an evil of far greater ccnfequence than that they endeavoured to iliun. On thefe accounts he has always eniployed fuch words as he found conveyed his idea in the cafieft manner, without XKi'i PREFACE. without being anxioufly folicitous to exa- mine whether they were much in fafhion or not : Always taking care, however, to mark at the bottom of the page, the precife mean- ing of every uncommon word that he was confcious ot employing. Some readers may perhaps be difgufted at this, while others may poflibly think, that, as every other art has fome particular terms appropriated to it- felf, which could not be rejected without oc- cafioning great circumlocution or inaccuracy when treating of it, fo muft agriculture havd fome peculiar to it, which ought not to be expunged from the language ; and that, therefore, they would find fault with no word that conveyed a diftindt idea to the mind, if the meaning of it was duly explain- ed, and if it could not be exadly fupplied by any other ftandard-word of the language. ESSAY ESSAYS. RELATING TO AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS, ESSAY O Y INCLOSURES AND FENCES. *4'4'*4"f«t'4>4'4*'*'^f++<*'**f*'t'*'^*4**^-f*^*f*4'*4'ff'^ TH E ufes and value of inclofures are now fo generally underftood, that It will not be ncceflary to fay any thing upon that head in this place. I only propofe, in this effay, to make fome obfervations on the principal ufes, comparative value, and manner of rearing feveral kinds of fences, with a view to enable the young farmer 4 OF INCLOSURES farmer to make choice of fuch kinds as may beft anfwer the purpofe that he may defire. § I. Comparative Value of Dikes and Hedges. The fences that are moft univerfally em- ployed, are either ftone-dikes or hedges *. Dikes, if well built, as effectually preferve a field from the intrufion of domeftic ani- rnalc, ao aiiv olUci kliid uf fence yvKatcvcr , but they afford little warmth or fhelter to the field : Whereas hedges, if good, anfwer both thefe purpofes equally well. But the moft material diflindion between dikes and hedges is, that dikes are in their higheft de- gree of perfe or any other low growing annual plant, that may beft fuit the circumfiances or fitu- ation of the polTeflbr, may be fowed in their ftead. But, Vv'hatevcr crop may be put upon the ground the firft year after the thorns are tranfpianted, it is neceffary that it fhould be at all times kept quite clear of weeds. In the fuccecding winter, the earth between the rows ought to be dug over with the fpade, taking A N D F E N C E S. 35 taking care to go very clofe to the rows, and to work with a very fharp edged tool, fo as to cut the greateft part of the lateral roots as near the body of the plants as may be, which will tend to make them branch out into flill more numerous ramifi- cations. And, if the ground is dug very winter afterwards, keeping at a little greater diftance from the plant at each fucceffive digging, the roots will be kept at all times fo fhort, and their ramifications will be fo numerous near the ftem, that, when they fhall be lifted to be put into the hedge, they will not fail to be provided with fuch.an a- bundance of mouths to imbibe nourifhment with, as to be in no danger of fufi^ering much by that operation. If the foil of the nurfery is fufficiently rich, and if the thorns have been tranfplant- ed while young, and early in winter, they will rufh up chiefly in heighth, and fend out but few lateral branches ; which is a thing much 36 OF INCLQSURES much to be wlfhed for in a nurfery ; there- fore care ought to be taken, when they are tranfplanted, not to bruife or injure the ftem of the plant, nor, on almoft any account, to cut it over, unlefs the ftem was before nirly and ftinted. Neither ought the upright fhoots to be, in any cafe, fhortened while in the nurfery : But, to facilitate the operations between the rows, any ftraggling fide- branches that may fprlng out, ought to be cut off by the kuifc or (hears at the begin- ning of winter. In every fituation, it will be proper that the earth between the rows be ftirred the firft winter by the fpade ; but, if the nurfery is of great extent, it may be afterwards done by means of the plough, with the utmoft fa* cility. The courfe of crops that would fcem to be the moll eligible, would be as follows : I ft Year, AND FENCES, 37 I ft Year, Dwarf-peafe or onions. 2d, Earlyturnlps, or col wart plants, if there is a demand for them on the fpot; and, after thefe come off the ground, winter turnips. 3d, Early peafe, and, as a fecond crop, winter turnips. 4th, And every fucceeding year, early peafe and turnips. The reafon why I would advife peafe fo often is, that this is a meliorating as well as a very profitable crop, and would be peculi- arly proper in the prefent cafe. For, as the young thorns would foon attain a conlider- able height, they would aftord much ihelter to the ground, and bring the peafe forward pretty early in the fealbn. And, if a row were fowed on each fide of every row of thorns, at a foot or fixteen inches from them, there would be fufficient room to hoe the interval between them and the thorns, fo as to keep down the weeds with little trouble ; ^nd, when the peafe grow fo high as to need fupport, t 38 OF IN CLOSURES fupport, they could be laid towards the hedge, which would anfwer the purpofe of ftakes perfedly well, and admit of their being pulled with the utmofl: facility. Ifthefe peafe are of the early fort, and the foil and fituation favourable, they may be off the ground in fufficient time to admit of rearing in perfedion a crop of winter tur- nip upon the fame ground. And, as this plant ferves to meliorate the ground more than almoll any other, there is little doubt but the nurfery could be kept, for any length of time that could be neceffary, in very high order, by this fucceflion of crops, without almoft any expence of manure whatever. By this, or fome fimilar mode of ma- nagement, the nurfery will always afford its owner very profitable crops, and the thorns will be reared to the utmoft perfe6tion» and have their roots formed as properly as could be defired, at little or no expence. But, as it is impoffible to purchafe fuch plants 'f AND FENCES. 39 plants as thefe from an ordinary nurfery gar- den, — and, as the young thorns always fufFer very much by being long kept out of the ground, not to mention the expence that would attend the tranfporting fuch large plants from a^ confiderable diftance, it is of much confdquence for every improving farmer to rear plants for himfelf : Or, if he buys them at all from a nurfery, to take them when only one or two years old, and nurfe them afterwards for himfelf. The only thing that can make the plan here propofed mifcarry, is the negleding to make the nurfery rich enough before the thorns are planted in it ; for, I have fre- quently obferved, that gentlemen in the country, or farmers, who are at a diftance from manures, err exceedingly in this re- rpe<3:. I therefore again repeat it, that it is of the utmoft conjcquence., on all occafions, to have the nurfery as rich as poffible. And indeed, unlefs this be the cafe, he who fhall attempt 4(5 of liSlCLOSURES attempt to rear thorns in the manner above defcribed,will certainly be alofer, and, there- fore, had better not attempt it at all, than do it in an imperfedl manner : For a poor foil could never produce to advantage the crops above enumerated. But, if the ground is once put into proper tilth, it may be conti- nued as a nurfery ever afterwards, without almoft any expence at all. To put the ground into that high tilth the year before you intend to turn it to a nurfery, give it a fallow in the beginning of fummer, and a very thick drefling of dung, and lime, if it needs it, and take a crop of winter tur- nips. This will clean, enrich, and mellow the foil. If it has been in good order before, this will be fufficient; but, if the foil was na- turally poor, it may be proper to repeat this fame dreffmg a fecond year, which will ajGTu- redly effed the purpofe. Starve not your plants at firft ; for the richer your foil is at firft, the more quickly and abundantly will it repay you. § viir. AND FENCES. 41 ^ VIII. Rules for chufing the Plants. 'If you wifh to have a good fence, free of •gaps, and of an equal degree of ftrength throughout, pick your pilants with great care, fo as to have them all as nearly as pofTible of one fize, and of an equal degree of healthinefs. But, if you fhould have oc- cafion for fo many plants at one time, as makes it neceflary for you to take them as you can find them, you had much better affort them into feveral lots of different fizes, and plant each of thefe lots in a place by itfelf, than plant the whole promifcuoufly ; it being much better to have two inclofures fenced with hedges of different degrees of ftrength throughout their whole extent, but equal in every part, than one which is in f fome 42 OF INCLOSURES fome places flronger than in others; becaufe, fo long as any one part of it is weak, all the ftronger places can be of no ufe as a fence ; and if, with a view to remedy that evil, you plant your weak plants by the fide of the ftrongeft, they are apt to be overtopt by thefe, and itinted in their growth ; fo that the hedge, in thcfe places, continuing al- ways weak, is liable to be broke down by cattle, hogs, &c. ; which occafions thefe un- fightly and irremediable gaps that farmers fo generally have reafon to complain of. But, if all the plants are at firft quite equal, their firft fhoots will be nearly equal in vi- gour, and will continue to advance at the fame rate, fo as to form a hedge equally ilrong in every part. §ix. AND FENCES. 43 § IX. Of the -proper Size of Plants, If the young thorns are of an equally heahhy temperament, the vigour with which they advance will be nearly in proportion to the fize of the plant ; fo that it is of great confequence that thefe be not too fmall. The leaft fize of (horns that I think fhould ever be planted out, if the plants can be got, fhould be fuch as are about the bignefs of a man's little finger ; but they will be better if about the fize of the thumb. If plants are reared in a very rich nurfery, till they are of this fize, and have had the earth carefully dug about them each year, fo as to make them have their roots very much multiplied clofe by the ftem, and be planted in a good foil in the manner after mentioned, few perfons 44 OF INCLOSURES perfons have any comprehenfion of the de- gree of vigour with which they will ad- vance. In fiich a cafe, the farmer may rea- fonably expect that the (hoots of the firft year will be, at a medium, between three and four feet in length, and fome ot them confiderably beyond that. It would be dif- ficult to rear plants to a larger fize than this in a nurlcry ; and, altliough they may be fometimes got of a larger fize, by grubbing up a hedge which it is neceifary to remove ; yet as, in this cafe, the roots have been al- lowed to extend to a greater diftance when growing, there is a neceffity of cutting off many of thefe at raifing them, fo as to leave but few fibres adhering to the plant ; on which account, it is not to beexpcded, that they will advance fo faft as plants of a fmall- er fize, v/liich have had their roots properly formed by a judicious management in the nurfery ; yet plants of this kind ought not to be rcje<5ted, as I have fometimes kea them AND FENCES. 45 them fend out fhoots of very great ftrength and vigour. § X. OJ the proper Sea/on for plantmg thefe. As the ftrength and future healthinefs of a hedge in a great meafure depend upon the vigour of the fhoots it makes the firft year, too much care cannot be taken to guard againft every circumftance that may tend to retard its progrcfs at that period. On this account, it is of very great confe- quence, to have every hedge planted as early in winter as poffible. For, I have found, by long experience, that, if one part of a hedge has been planted early in winter, and ano- ther part of it in the months of March or April, when the buds begin to fwell, all other cir- 46 OF INCLOSURES circumftances being equal, the flioots of the firft year, from that part which has been flrft planted, have always been nearly double the fize of thofe of the other part-t and con- tinue ever afterwards to be more healthy and vigorous in every refpedt ; which is a circumftance that few, who have not expe- rienced it, would naturally have expected. If the fpring be not very backward, thorns fhould feldom be planted after the beginning of February ; and, in the moft backward feafons that we ever experience, none fhould ever be planted after the beginning of March, if it can pofTibly be avoided. It is a good method, in general, for thofe who have a great deal of work of this kind to perform, to begin to plant early in autumn; taking only lo much earth from the ditch at that time, as is ncceflary to cover the roots of the plants fufficiently ; and running along the whole in this manner as quickly as pofTible, fo as to have the quicks all plant- . AND FENCES. 47 planted early in winter ; after which the ditches may be finiilied, without any lofs, in the fpring. But, even in this cafe, the whole ought to be liniflied in the month of March, otherwife the young ihoots will be much injured by the difturbance they will meet with. § XI. Of Trimming before Planting^ As the vigour of the firft fhoots of a hedge, like wife, in a great meafure, depends upon the proper trimming of the young thorns before planting, I fhall beg to make a few obfervations on that head. Every tree, when it is tranfplanted, lofes a part of its roots, and is on this account un- able 48 OF INCLOSURES able to abforb fomuch nourifhment as would be neceflary to make it pufh out (hoots with an equal degree of vigour as it it had not been removed ; it, therefore, becomes necef- fary to lop off fome part of the top of every tree when tranfplanted, that th-e remaining roots may be able to abforb abundant nou- riOiment for thefe branches that we leave behind. If the plant is old, the proportion of roots that it lofes by being tranfplanted is always greater than when it is young; but, in all cafes, It is neceflary to lop off fome part of the top of the plant, otherwife there is great danger that it will then receive a check in its growth and become ftinted ; which is a dif- eafe that hardly admits of a cure but by amputation. To prevent this dangerous difeafe in a hedge, it is always proper to cut off the t;op of the quick entirely ; which ne- ver fails to make it fend out fhoots the firj3: year of a more than ordinary degree of vi- gour. This amputation ought always to be per- AND FENCES. 49 formed by a fharp tool, that the wound may be as clean as poflible ; and, when the hedge is to be planted on the face of a bank, it ought to be made about twelve inches above the root. Although this operation is not fo indifpenhbly neceflary on young plants as on thofe that are older j yet it is always of ufe, and ought never to be omit- ted. Gardeners too often negled this moft ne- ceflary operation, and almoft as univerfally prune the roots too much. If the plants have not been brought from a diftance, or long kept out of the ground, it is only ne- ceflary to cut off the points of fuch roots as have been lacerated in taking up the plants; leaving as many fmall roots as poflTible, if they are found. If, indeed, they have been too long expofed to the weather, fo as to have fome part of the fmalleft fibres killed, it will not be improper to cut away thefe dead fibres ; but, it is in general the G faf^ft so OF INCLOSURES fafeft plan, to prune the roots but very little bciore planting. ^ XII. Dire Bions for the Manner of Planting, The proper method of planting this kind of hedge is, firft to turn up a little of the earth from the place where the ditch is to be made, and lay it upon the bank rever- fed ; fo as to form a bed for the plant about two inches thick above the folid -ground. Upon this the thorns fhould be laid nearly in a horizontal diredion, but enclining a little upward in the point, aad having the ends of the flems juft equal with the face of the bank, or projecting beyond it a very little, not more than half an inch; by which means, every plant will fend out only one or two fhoots, which Will be the more vigorous as there are fo few of them. But, if any of thefe plants fhould AND FENCES. 51 fhoiild fend out a greater number of fhoots, it will be proper to prune away all thefe fiipernumeraries the firft winter after plant- ing ; cutting them with a knife clofe by the ftem from which they fpring : For, it is the iargenefs of thefe original rtamina of the hedge that will afterwards conftitute its ftrength, and not the number of fmall ra- mifications, as is too generally imagined. But, If the fhoots are numerous, they never do acquire fuch a degree of ftrength as whea there are fewer of themi» The plants being thus regularly laid, fhould have their roots immediately covered with the beft mold taken from the furiace of the ditch ; and the workmen fhould take care to keep that good mold well back upon the bank, and rather behind the roots, lea- ving the breaft of the bank to be made up by the lefs fertile earth taken from the bot- tom of the ditch. By this means the roots Vi'ill have all the good earth about them ; in 52 OF INCLOSURES in which ihty will fpread with freedomy and draw from it abundant nourifhment 5 and the bad earth which forms the breaft of the bank will produce much fewer weeds- there, than the good earth would have done, if it had been kept near the furface. You will now likewife perceive the reafon for cut- ting the plants at fuch a diftance above the roots, (§ XI.) viz. that you may be thus allowed to put the roots among the good mold, and ftill leave room for a bread-work of bad earth of a fufficient thicknefs ; where- as, if they had been cut fhorter than is there mentioned, you would not only have been deprived of this convenlency, but would alfo have been obliged to plant the roots fo near to tlie breaft of the ditch, as to expofe them very much to the droughts of fummer, which would greatly retard their growth ; for no plant delights more in a moderate degree of moifture than the white thorn ;^ which is probably one reafon why it thrives A N D F E N C E S. 53 thrives better in this methoJ of planting than any other, and advances much fafter in rai- ny feafons, or in wet climates, than in fuch as are drier. If the foil in which they are planted is poor, I would advife to mix fome Well made dung * with the earth that covers the roots of the thorns, which would greatly pro- * I have met with many gentlemen who are firmly perfuaded, that dung of every kind is hurtful to hedges, and many other plants. It is much to be regretted, that mankind fhould adopt any kind of theory with fo little referve, as to ihut their eyes a- gainfl the plaineft di£^ates of experience. I will not here attempt to undeceive thofe who may have a- dopted this opinion, by any kind of reafoning, which, in matters of this fort, is always in danger of being fallacious ; but leave the decifion of the matter to their own experience and obfervation ; not doubting but that they will find, that, if there are any plants which are not forwarded in their growth, by the judicious application of dung to the foil in which they are reared, the number is extremely fmall, and that the hawthorn is not one of thefe. 54 OF INCLOSURES promote their growth, and be attended witH very little expence ; as the quantity neceflji- ry could be but very fmall *. § XIII; * It will hardly be neceflary here to remark, that the hedge ought to be carefully kept clear of weeds for leveral years ; and that it ought likewiie to be preferved from being broke down by cattle, by means of any kind of dead fence that may beft fuit the cir- cumftance of the farmer to rear. A nobleman in Scotland, who is eminently diftinguifl^cu by his at- tention to agriculture, and the many improvements that he hath made in that art, has lately contrived to efFe£l both thefe purpofes at once, by facing with ftones the ditch in which the hedge is planted, ma- king a fmall fquare hole for each thorn-plant, and cutting the Hems of a fufficient length, fo as to per- mit them to come quite through the dike ; in which fituation they advance as well as if no facing of flone had been there. In this way of planting, great care ought to be taken to rejedl bad plants, as it is more dlfRcult to fupply deficiencies afterwards than in the common way ; large plants are here alfo more eflentially necefTary than in the ordinary mode of planting hedges. AND FENCES. 55 § XIII. P.ireSlions for the Manner of Planting in a njery expofcd Situation, Thofe who live in an open uncultivated country have many difficuhiss to encoun- ter, which others who inhabit more warm and Ihekered regions'^ never experience ; and, among thefe difficuUies, may be reckoned that of hardly getting hedges to grow with facihty. For, where a young hedge is much expofed to violent and continued guits of wind, no art will ever make it rife with fo much freedom, or grow with fuch luxuri- ance as it would do in a more fheltered fitti-» ation, and favourable expofure. 'But, although it is impofTible to rear hedges, in this fituation, to fo much perfec- tion as in the others, yet they may be reared even 56 OF INCLOSURES evcQ there with a little attention and pains, fo as to become very fine fences. If it is advifeable, in other cafes, to plant the hedges upon the face of a bank, it be- comes abfoiutely neceflary in fuch an expo- fed fituatlon as that I have now defcribed : For the bank, by breaking the force of the wind, fcreens the young hedge from the violence of the blaft, and allows it to ad- vance, for fome time, at firft, with much greater luxuriance than it otherwife could have done. But, as it may be expeded foon to grow as high as the bank, it behoves the provi- ding hufbandman to prepare for that event, and guard, with a wife forecaft, againft the inconvenience that may be expeded to arife from that circumftance. With this view, it will be proper for him, inftead of making a fingte ditch, and plant- ing one hedt^e, to raife a j.retty high bank, with a ditch on each fide oi it, and a hed^e pn AND FENCES.' 57 on each face of the bank ; in which fitua- tion, the bank will equally Ihelter each of the two hedges, while they are lower than it ; and, when they at length become as high as the bank, the one hedge will in a manner afford fhelter to the other, fo as to enable them to advance with much greater luxuri- ance than either of them would have done fingly. To effeduate this ftill more perfectly, let a row of fervice-trees be planted along the top of the bank, at the diftance of eighteen inches from each other, with a plant of e- glantine between each too fervices. This plant will advance, in feme degree, even in this expofed fituation ; and, by its numerous fhoots, covered with large leaves, will effec- tually fcreen the hedge on each fide of it, which, in its turn, will receive fome fupport and Ihelter from them, fo that they will be enabled to advance altogether, and form, in time, a clofe, ftrong, and beautiful fence. H The k / 58 OF INC L OS U RES ^hefervice is a tree but little known in Scotland, although it is one of thofe that ought perhaps to be often cultivated there in preference to any other tree whatever, as it is more hardy, and, inanexpofcd fituation, affords more {helter to other plants than al- moft any other tree I know : For it fends out a great many flrong branches from the under part of the ftem, which, in time, af- fume an upright direction, and continue to advance with vigour, and carry many leaves to the very bottom, almoft as long as the tree exifts ; io that, If it is not pruned, it rifes a large clofe bufli, till it attains the height of a foreft-tree. It is of the fame genus with the rawn-- tree — and has a great refemblance to it both in flower and fruit ; its branches are more waving and pliant — its leaves undivided — broad and round, fomewhat refembling the elm, but white and mealy on the under fide. It deferves to be better known than it is at prefent. § XIV. A N D F E N C E S. 59 § XIV. Of the Ufe of the Eglantine in Fencing, Although the hawthorn makes a very fine fence when planted alone ; yet, It is rather improved, by having fome plants of fweet- briar {Eglantine) intermixed with it. For, although this plant is fo weak and ftraggling as never to make a fence ftrong enough by itfelf ; yet, as it advances with fuch prodi- gious rapidity, and is fo entirely covered with prickles, it ferves admirably well for intermixing with other ftronger plants, for the purpofe of thickening a hedge : And, as the plants can be reared at a very trifling expence, I think they may, on many occa- fions, be employed with great propriety. If you employ nothing elfe than haw- thorns, they fliould be planted about kven or 6o OF INCLOSURES or eight inches a-part. But, your hedge will be more quickly reared, and at a more moderate expence, if they are planted at twelve inches a-part, with a plant of eglan- tine between every two thorns. But the e- glantine fliould be planted out when very young ; for, if the plants were large and ftrongly rooted, the fhoots would be fo lu- xuriant as to be in fome danger of overtop- ping the thorns and choaking them. Plants of one year's growth, if vigorous, are of the proper fize for this purpofe ; and thefe will require no lopping before they are planted. § XV. Of the necejjary Attention to the Hedge the jirjl Tear after Planting. It will be neceflary to examine the hedge with care, thefirft winter after planting ; and, if AND FENCES. 6i if there are any plants, either ftintedor dead, they fhould be taken out, and their places be immediately fupplied by others, more vi- gorous, if poflible, than thofe that were planted the year before. For this purpofe, every good hufbandman fhould take care to referve a few of the fineft plants that he can pick out, and of the freell fhooting kinds of thorn,(for there is a very great dif- ference in this refped) which fhould be kept in the richefl part of the nurfery, and have the earth dug about them during the fummer- feafon, with the greatefl care, that their roots may be numerous and well formed. If he has taken this precaution, and is at pains to open the bank with a fpade, fo as to allow the roots to be properly placed, and lifts them from the nurfery with due care, co- vering them immediately after planting with the richefl earth that can be got, which ought to be further meliorated by a little well rotted dung, and cuts off the whole of 62 OF INCLOSURES of the top at the time of planting; they will, in all probability, make fuch fhoots next year as to be at once out of all danger of being choaked by the others. But, if this fmall degree of care had been hegleded, or even deferred till another feafon, it would then have been too late, and the hedge muft have remained for ever afterwards full of incu- rable gaps, that might have been effcdually prevented by this well-timed attention. § XVI. DireBions for Clipping and Priming Hedges, Nothing can be more prejudicial to a young hedge than an injudicious applica- tion of the fcifl'ars ; and, although it be ex- tremely common to clip the top of a hedge for a few years at firft, even where it is to be difcontinued ever afterwards ; yet, it would ANDFENCES. 6^ would hardly be pofTible to contrive a prac- tice that would be more prejudicial to it than this is. The chief properties that conRitute the excellence of a hedge, are ftrength and clofenefs. Now, a hedge can be made ftrong by nothing elfe than the vigour and fize of the principal ftems of which it is compofed. But, it is evident, that, by cut- ting the tops of all the radical fhoots, each of them is forced to fend out a great many fmaller ones, as in a pollard-tree ; and each of thefe fmall ftems being cut again and a- galn, are divided into ftill fmaller and more numerous ramifications, till the number of thefe are increafed to fuch a degree, and their fize, of confequence, fo much dlminiih- ed, that the hedge may be faid to confift en- tirely of an infinite number of fmall twigs, clofely interwoven with one another, which have not fufficient ftrength to m.akeanycon- fiderable refiftance to a furious bull, who win 64 OF INCLOSURES will eafily break through any part of luch a hedge that he may chance to attack, how- evenclofe it may it may appear to be. But if, inftead of being cut in the top, the thorn be allowed to advance upwards without any interruption, its ftem, like that of any other tree, will continue to encreafe in fize and ftrength, and, in a ihort time, become fo large as to be able to refift the whole force of any animal that we may have occafion to fear. They even, in time, become fo large as to occupy almoft the whole fpace that was origin?!! 7 left between the plants, io as to form a foiid vegetable wall (if I may ufe that expreflion) which it is almoft impoflible for any force to overturn. It is, therefore, ob- vious, that cutting the tcp of a Mcdge, when young, tends greatly to diminifh the ftrength of it. It will, perhaps, be a more difficult talk to convince the reader, that this pradice like- wife tends to diminifla the thicknefs of the hedge; AND FENCES. 65 hedge ; although, I flatter myfelf, that I fhall be able to demonftrate this as clearly as the other. When the principal ftem of any tree is cut over, the fap that would have gone to encreafe the fize of its top, being ftopt in its afcent, forces out a great many flioots all round the ftem, immediately below the place where it has been cut over. And, when this is the cafe with a hedge, the number of Ihoots that are crowded together draw the fap fo powerfully to that place, and occafion fuch a deep fliade below it, that all the ho- rizontal flioots that had fprung out from the ftem near the roots, being deprived of their nourifhmcnt, and the influences of the air, are checked in their growth, and in a fhort time totally perifh ; leaving the ftem at the root quite naked and bare *. And, as there I are, * As thofe who have not paid much attention to the growth of trees, may, perhaps, be at a Jofs to com- 66 OF INCLOSURES are, from that period, no branches fprlng- ing immediately from the under part of the ftem, comprehend llie full force of the argument made ufc of, I fliall here fubjoin a few obfervations tend- ing to illuftrateit more clearly. The principal ufe of the branches of a tree, is, to pump up die fap from the roots, and diflribute it pro- perly through the whole plant ; fo that the health of the tree, and form of the trunk, in a great meafure depend upon the proper arrangement of thefe. Every branch carries off from the ftem a part of the nourifliment that is imbibed by the roots ; and altho', in its paffage, it ferves to augment the fize of that part of the ilem that is below it, yet the parts that are above it receive no addition from the fap that is pumped up by this branch ; fo that, if feme branches are allowed to remain upon the flem near the root and others at regular diftances above one another to the top, the under part of the ftem will beof a confi- derable fize, and it will taper gradually upwards, fo as to ftand extremely firm and fecure. But, if all the branches are at once lopped away from the ftem and it is allowed to remain naked to a confiderable height, it continues nearly of the fame fize from the root to the part where the branches begin to fet out • and. AND FENCES. 67 ftem, to detain the Tap in Its paflage, and make that part of it encreafe in its fize, it there and, being thus fo long and (lender, it is not of a fufEcient ftrength to fupport the top, fo as to be, in many cafes, bent down towards the ground, and con- tinue to grow in a diftorted and languifhing condition. This is more particularly obfervable in the broad- leaved Scots elm, and the freed fliooting pear-trees, than in any other fpecies of trees that I know.: jBut the fame phaenomenon is obfervable in all trees, in a fmaller or great degree, according to the vigoiH" or pliability of their fhoots. But, as the fap always more naturally afcends in an upright than in a lateral direction, if, by any means, feveral ftrong fhoots are made tofpring from any part of the ftem, thefe afTume an upright direc- tion, and continue to draw away a great deal of nou. rifliment to themfclves ; fo that the weaker horizon tal flioots below them, not being able to attract to tbemfelves a fuflicient quantity of fap, they begin to languifli, till at length, more and more weakened by the fliade and dripping of the branches above them, they gradually fall away. Having thus, for a time, helped to encreafe the fize of the under part of 68 OF IN CLOSURES there continues fmall and weakly ; while the top, continuing to advance with luxu- riance, becomes fo large and weighty as to be, with difficulty, fupported by thefe fmall 4 naked fhanks, which gradually become ba- rer and barer every year. But every one knows, that, if the bottom of a hedge is o- pen, it is of very little confequence whether it be clofe above or not : And, I leave it to be determined by experience, whether this is not, in general, the condition of hedges which have been clipped in the top when young ; efpecially in thofe cafes where the hedge of ihe flem, fo as to enable it properly to fupport its top, nature gradually frees herfelf from thefe ufelefs branches; and, by their gradual decay, the ftem is left of that delicate taper-form which is befl adapted both for flrength and beauty. This is the regular progrefs of nature, if left to herfelf. It ought to be the fludy of man to improve upon the hints that fhe affords him, and to dire£l her operations fo as that they may beft concur with him in promoting his de^ fign. AND FENCES. 69 hedge has made vigorous fhoots the firft year. And, if it fhall be found, that this is, in general, the cafe, we muft conclude, that this pradice tends to make the hedge thin- ner, as well as weaker than it would have been, if it had been entirely omitted. But, if an hedge is allowed to advance in height, without being cut in the top, the fmall branches that fpring out near the root, not being ftarved by the extraordinary fuc- tion, or fufpocated by the fhade of too luxu- riant branches above them, continue to live, and detain a part of the fap ; fo as to make the under part of the ftem ftill continue to encreafe in fize and ftrength, and be well able to fupport the fmall top that it thus ac- quires. And, if the moft luxuriant fide- branches that may fpring out above, are, from time to time, pruned away, fo as not to be allowed to overfhade thofe that may be below ; thefe lafl will continue to grow as long as the hedge exifts. And as, by this manage- 70 OF INCLOSURES management, there will be but few fide- branches of any confiderable fize, the prinr- cipal ftems will advance with very great vi- gour, gradually tapering from the root up^ wards. I cannot be too particular in advifing the hufbandman to beftow almoft his whole at- tention to the proper formation of the up- right ftems of the hedge : Becaufe, upon this, the whole future ftrength of the hedge muft entirely depend. And, if thefe are once rightly formed, it will be an eafy mat- ter to give it every quality that we could wi(h for in a hedge. For, if thefe ftrong ftems fliould even be entirely deftitute pf fmall branches, they may be made to puft\ out abundance of them whenever it may be thought necelfary, only by making a flight wound in the naked ftem, where-ever you defire that young branches fliould appear : For, below every fuch wound, a number of fmall flioots will fpring forth, the enfuing feaion ; AND FENCES. 71 feafon ; the points of which being cut off, will fend out a ftill greater number of finall twigs, which, by being frequently cut, will, in a fhort time, form a covering as clofe as could be defired. The truth of this reafoning I rayfelf ex- perienced at a very early period of my life ; for, having then had occafion to drefs a gar- den that was furrounded by an old hedge, which had always been allowed to grow as nature prompted ; never, that I know of, having been touched either by knife or fcif- fars, I found the branches ftraggling very far on every fide, all of which I caufed to be cut off quite clofc by the upright ftems, which then were left entirely naked, and ap- peared like as many may-poles placed be- fide one another. But, by cutting a good many flight notches all along thefe ftems, at the diftance of a few inches from one ano- ther, they were, in one year, entirely covered with young {hoots ; w^hich, by being cut once or 7^ OF INCLOSURES or twice in one feafon, put out fuch a num-* ber of fmaller ramifications, as in a fhort time formed a covering fo very clofe, that it was hardly polTibleto fee any objed through it at any part. Nor did I ever, in my Hfe, fee a hedge, thatj either for ftrength or beau- ty, could be compared with this one. Ma- ny of the ftems being fix or eight inches in diameter ; and they grew fo clofe to one a- nother, that no animal larger than a fmall bird could poffibly have penetrated it. From thefe obfervations, I hope, it will appear evident, that, if we wifh to have a right hedge, either for ftrength or clofe- nefs, it is of importance never to fhorten the top-dioots ; at leaft, while it is young. But, it is always of ufc to prune the fides ; cutting off all the lateral fhoots, with the fciffars, quite clofs to the upright ftems, af- ter the firft year's growth. And if, after the growth of the fecond year, it fliould fo happen, that too many fhoots have fprung out AND FENCES. 73 out at the top of the firft year's (hoots, (which very frequently is the cafe,) thele fuDernumeraries Ihould be cautioully pruned away with a knife ; taking out all the ftrong upright growing branches, excepting one for a Hem ; being always particularly careful to cut them away quite clofe to the ftem from which they fpring : For, if this caution were negledtcd, a greater number of fhoots would rpring out from the wound, and the malady be increafed rather than di- miniihed. If thefe circumftances are attended to, the hedge will need no other care ever afterwards, but to be defended from cattle, kept free of weeds, and clipped in the fides once a-year forfome time ; being always careful, at each clipping, to go as clofe to the laft as can be eafily done. But, in a particular manner, be attentive, the firft time you perform this ope- ration, to clip it as near to the upright ftems as poflible : For, as thefe fide-branches muft K always, 74 OF IN CLOSURES always extend a little farther at every cut- ting, if this caution is not obferved, thefe lateral fhanks will, in time, become naked ; and the interval between the ribs, (as the upright fhoots may properly be called,) and the reticular tegument (or fkin) that covers the furface, would be too great, and form a very difagreeable void. If thefe rules are obferved for a few years, the hedge, while it advances in height, will become as clofe in the fides as could be wifhed for. And, although the clipping of the fides fhould be difcontinued after a few years, it will be in no danger of running into great diforder; for, as the vigour of the fide- fhoots will have been much diminifhed by having been fo frequently divided, none of them will afterwards advance to fuch a di- fiance as to deform or hurt the hedge; fo that this operation may be difcontinued, unlefs where very great neatnefs is requi- red. § XVIL AND FENCES. 75 § XVII. H01V to recover a Hedge after it has been Jlinted in its Growth. But if, from the poornefs of the foil In which your hedge is planted, or from any bther caufe, it fhould fo happen, that, after a few years, the hedge becomes fickly, and the plants turn poor and ftinted in appear- ance, the eafieft and only efFedual remedy for that difeafe, is to cut the ftems of the plants clean over, at the height of an inch or two above the ground ; after which they will fend forth muchftronger fhootsthan they (Ever would have done without this operation. And, if the hedge be kept free of weeds, and trained afterwards in the manner above defcribed, it will, in almoft every cafe, be re- covered, and rendered frefh and vigorous. This 76 OF INCLOSURES This amputation ought to be performed in autumn, or the beginning of winter ; and, in the fpring, when the young buds begin to fliow themfelves, the ftumps ought to be exa- mined with care, and all the buds be rubbed off, excepting one or two of the ftrongeft and beft placed, which fhould be left for a ftcm. For, if the numerous buds that fpring forth round the ftem are allowed to fpring upundifturbed, they will become, in a few years, as weak and ftinted as before ; and the hedge will never afterwards be able to attain any confiderable height, ftrength, or healthfulnefs. — I have feen many hedges that have been repeatedly cut over, totally ruined, by not having attended to this eir- cumftance in proper time. If the ground, for fixteen or twenty feet on each fide of the hedge, be fallowed at the time that this operation is performed, and get a thorough drefling with rich manures, and be kept in high order for feme years after- AND FENCES. 11 afterwards, by good culture and meliorating crops, the hedge will profper much better than if this had been omitted, efpecially if it has been planted on the level ground, or on the bank of a fliallow ditch. §. XVIII. Of recovering old open Hedges by Pla/hingi It fometimes happens, that a hedge may have been long negle and be, in gene- ral, in a healthy ftate, but full of gaps and openings, or fo thin and ftraggling, as to form but a very imperfect fort of fence. On thefe occafions, it is in vain to hope to fill up the gaps by planting young quicks ; for thefe would always be outgrown, choaked, and ftarved by the old plants : Nor could it be recovered by cutting clear over by the roots 5 8 OF INCLOSURES roots ; as the gaps would fllll continue where they formerly were. The only me- thods that I know of rendering this a fence are, either to mend up the gaps with dead wood, or to phPo the hedge : Which laft o- peration is always the mofl; eligible, where the gaps are not too large to admit of being cured by this means. The operation I here call plafhing, may be defined, ^ aivattling made of living *wood^ To form this, fome ftems are firft feleded, to be left as ftakes, at proper diftances, the tops of which are all cut over at the height of four feet from the root. The ftraggling fide-branches of the other part of the hedge are alfo lopped away. Several of the; re- maining plants are then cut over, clofe by the ground, at convenient diftances ; and the remaining plants are cut, perhaps half through, fo as to permit them to be bent to one fide. They are then 'bent down almofl: to a horizontal pofition, and interwoven with AND FENCES. 79 .with the upright flakes, fo as to retain them in that pofitlon. Care ought to be taken, that thefe be laid very low, at thofe places where there were formerly gaps ; which ought to be farther ftrengthened by fome (dead flakes, or truncheons of willows, which will frequently take root in this cafe, and continue to live. And fometimes a plant of Eglantine will be able to overcome the diffi- culties it there meets with, ftrike root, and grow up fo as to ftrengthen the hedge in a moft effedual manner. The operator begins at one end of the jBeld, and proceeds regularly forward, bend- ing all the ftems in one diredtion, fo as that the points rife above the roots of the others, till the whole wattling is compleated to the fame height as the uprights ; after which it aflumes an appearance fomcwhat refembling that which is rcprefented in Fig. 5. An expert operator will perform this work y\^ith much greater expedition, than one who has 8o OF INCLOSURES not feen it done could eafily imagine. And, as all the diagonal wattlings continue to live, and fend out llioots from many parts of their flcms, and, as the upright (hoots that rife from the flumps of thofe plants that have been cut over, quickly rufh up through the whole hedge, thefe ferve to unite the whole into one entire mafs, that forms a ftrong, durable, and beautiful fence. This is the beft method of recovering an old negleded hedge, that hath as yet come to my knowledge. § XIX. Dlreclions for preventing the young Tivigs of a Hedge from being killed in Winter. In fome cafes, it happens that the young fhoots of a hedge are killed every winter ; in which cafe, it foon becomes dea4 AND FENCES. 8i dead and unfightly, and can never rife to any confiderable height. A remedy for this dileafe may therefore be wiilied for. Young hedges are obferved to be chiefly afFeded with this diforder ; and it is al- moft always occafioned by an injudicious management of the hedge, by means of which it has been forced to fend out too great a number of fhoots in fummer, that arc thus rendered fo fmall and weakly, as to be unable to refifl: the fevere weather in winter. It often h:.ppens that the owner of a young hedge, with a view to render it very thick and clofe, cuts it over with the fhears a few inches above the ground, the firll win- ter after planting ; in confequence of which many fmall fhoots fpring out from each of the ftems that has been cut over : — Each of which being afterwards cut over in the lame manner, fends forth a dill greater number of fhoots, which are fmalier and fmaller, in proportion to their number. L If 82 OF INCLOSURES If the foil in which the hedge has been planted is poor, in confequence of this ma- nagement, the branches, after a few years, become fo numerous, that the hedge is unable to fend out any fhoots at all, and the utmoft exertion of the vegetative powers enables it only to put forth leaves. Thefe leaves are renewed in a fickly fiate for fome years, and, at laft, ceafe to grow at all — the branches become covered with fog, and the hedge perifhes entirely. But, if the foil be very rich, notwithftand- ing this great multiplication of the ftems, the roots will flill have fufficient vigour to force out a great many fmall fhoots, which ad- vance to a great length, but never attain a proportional thicknefs. And, as the vigour of the licdge makes them continue to ve- getate very late in autum.n, the frofts come on before the tops of thefe dangling flioots have attained any degree of woody firmnefs ; fo that they aie killed almoft entirely ANDFENCES. 83 entirely by It ; the whole hedge becomes co- vered with thefe long dead llioots, which are always difagreeable to look at, and ufually indicate the approaching end of the hedge. The caufes of the diforder being thus ex- plained, it will readily occur, that the only radical cure is amputation ; which, by giving an opportunity to begin with training the hedge anew, gives us alib an opportunity of avoiding the errors that occafioned it. In this cafe, care ought to be taken to cut the plants as clofe to the ground as polTible, as there the ftems will be lefs numerous than at any greater height. And particular attention ought to be had to allow very few fhoots to arife from the ftems that have been cut over, and to guard carefully againft iliortening them. But, as the roots, In the cafe here fuppo- fed, will be very ftrong, the fhoots that are allowed to fpring from the ftems will be very vigorous, and there will be fome danger of their continuing to grow later in the feafon than 84 OF INCLOSURES than they ought In fafety to do ; in which cafe, fome part of the top of the fhoot may perhaps be killed the firft winter, which ought, if poflible, to be prevented. This can only be efFedually done, by giving a check to the vegetation in autumn, fo as to allow the young flioots to harden in the points before the winter approaches. If any of the leaves or branches of a tree are cut away, while it is in the ftate of vegeta- tion, the whole plant feels the lofs, and it fuffers a temporary check in its growth, in proportion to the lofs that it thus fuftains. To check, therefore, the vigorous vegetation at the end of autumn, it will be prudent to chufe the beginning of September for the time of lopping off all the fupernumera- ry branches from the young hedge, and for clipping off the fide-branches that have have fprung out from it ; which will, in ge- neral, be fufRcient to give it fuch a check in its growth at that feafon, as will prevent any of AND FENCES. 85 of the fhoots from advancing afterwards. If the hedge is extremely vigorous, a few buds may be allowed to grow upon the large flumps in the fpring, with a view to be cut off at this feafon, which will tend to flop the vegetation of the hedge ftill more efFedu- ally. By this mode of management, the hedge may be preferved entire through the firfl winter. And, as the Ihoots become lefs vigorous every fucceflive feafon, there will be lefs difficulty in preferving them at any future period. It will always be proper, however, to trim the fides of a very vigo^ rous hedge for fome years, while it is young, about the fame feafon of the year, which will tend powerfully to prevent this malady. But, when the hedge has advanced to any confiderable height, it will be equally proper to clip it during any of the winter-months, before Candlemas. It deferves to be remarked, before we leave this article, that the difeafe here complained of 86 OF INCLOSURES of Is feldom dangerous, but in fituations that are pretty much expofed. — And there are fome fituations fo very much expofed to boifterous winds, that no care in training the hedge will be fufficient to preferve it. In thefe cafes, the hedges muft be proteded from the violence of the bJaits, by the means prefcri- bed § XIII. which, united with the manage- ment here recommended, will feldom fail to prove efficacious. § XX. ^ Of Lopping full grown Hedges, If you live in a country where fewel is not fcarce, I would advife never to cut the top of the hedge at all, but rather allow it to advance upwards in all the beautiful luxu- riance of nature ; by which means it will not only afford a much better fhelter to the fields, but will alfo, in time, come to be an- nually covered with beautiful tufts of blof- fom, which diffufe an agreeable aromatic o- dour AND FENCES. 87 dour to a confidcrable diftance around, and are fucceeded by large cluflers of berries that are very agreeable to the eye ; fo that it becomes, in this ftate, one of the fineft ornamental flirubs that this climate produ- ces. But, if ftrong neceflity compels you to cut your hedge, for the fake of billets, at any rate, allow it to have attained a confiderable degree of ftrength before you think of cut- ting it for the firft time, and then cut the tops clean over, at the height of four or five feet from the ground j which operation may be repeated afterwards, as often as fhall be found neceffary ; taking care, after each cut- ting, to lop off all the luxuriant fide-branches that may chance to fpring out in confequence of that operation, which might be in danger of hurting the fide-fhoots that may be be- low. In this way, you may have a very good hedge ; but, it will neither afford fuch Ihelter to OF INCLOSURES your field, nor be fo beautiful, as if it had \'er been touched at all at the top. to nev § XXI. Of Ornamental Plants in Hedging, Although ornament ought only to be con- fidered as a fecondary objed by the farmer ; yet, where it can be united with the ufeful, it need not be wholly difregarded. The country is, perhaps, the beft field for allow- ing the fympathetic afFedions of the mind to be exerted with the moft unbounded free- dom, which forms the bafis of that defire for univerfal harmony, that conftitutes a true and corred tafte ; which is, perhaps, the beft prefervative that the mind can ever meet with, againft every low and fordid affedion. Let not, then, the man, who wilhes to be extenfively ufeful to his country, to his fa- mily, and, of confequence, to himfelf, clofe his AND FENCES. 89 his eyes upon the beauties of nature ; but ra- ther allow them to fhed their benign influ- ences on his fpirit. It will ferve to fhorten his labour and fweeten his toil ; will help to brighten thofe gloomy intervals that the mind, which is totally occupied with fordid views, muft frequently experience, and be a fource of content and chearfulnefs, which muft ever conftitute one principal ingredient of rural and domeftic felicity. If, then, you do not defpife ornament en- tirely, or difregard the beauties of nature, you may render your hedges very beautiful, without any additional expencf, by inter- mixing a few plants of pyracantha with your thorns when you plant them. The pyra- cantha (evergreen thorn) is one of the moft beautiful evergreens that we have in this country ; but, as it is a weakly plant, unable to fupport itfelf, it has, in general, been but little attended to. If a flip of this were planted between every fecorid or third thorn. 90 OF INCLOSURES it would, in a fhort time, fpread fo far on every fide, as to meet ; and, being fupportcd by the hawthorn, would rife to the top of the hedge, and render the whole as beauti-r ful as if it were compofed of this plant alone. And, as its large clufters of fcarlet berries hang upon it during the grcateft part of the winter-feafon, by it, the hedge would be made not only clofer and warmer during the winter, but alfo, more pleafing to the eye than it otherwife would have been. This; plant is not an exceeding quick grower, but it is by no means difficult to rear; every twig of it, if ftuck into a good foil, taking root as. readily as a willow. As I have planted it in this manner among my own hedges, and find it anfwer the intended purpofe, I cau recommend it with the greater freedom. If you are defirous of rendering your hedges flill more agreeable, it may be eafily done,by planting, through them, a few twigs of different kinds of honeyfuckles (wood- bine^ ; AND FENCES. 91 bine) ; or intermixing with them a few of th& moft hardy and freeft {hooting kinds of rofes, which will grow without any extraor- dinary degree of attention or care. It will be heft, however, not to plant the honey- fuckles till the hedge is two or three years old ; as fgme kinds of thefe grow fo very faft as might put the hedge in fome danger of being choaked by them, if they were pi uited at the fame time with it. A fevr may incline ; and have the f^me advantage from watering as the haugas a- bove defcribed. I have leen many extenlive trads 152 OF INCLOSURES trads of very valuable land of this fort 5 which, by being fenced and divided in this manner, might have been made of three or four times its former value, at an expence fo inconfiderable as to be fcarce worth mention- ing. There are, indeed, fome fituations fo very low, that it might be on fome occafions neceffary to raife the water out of them by artificial aids, as is done in Holland, and perhaps in many other low countries ; but there are many extenfive trads that are juft now in a great meafure ufelefs, that might be perfedly recovered by this method of inclo- fmg, without any other aid whatever, I make no doubt, but that theie methods of fencing are well underftood and pradifed in the fens of Cambridge, Lincolnfhire, &c. with others perhaps more efficacious than any of thefe. — But, it is not to inftrud a- depts, like the inhabitants of thefe counties, that I write, but the induftrious farmer who may AND FENCES. 153 may not have had accefs to fee thefe im- provements. § XXXIV. Obfervations on the mojl oecomm'ical Way of inaking Fences lubere Rills or running Water is the Boundary, It is imagined, that, by employing one or other of the kinds of fences already mention- ed, it will be in the power of the farmer to fecure almoft every field that he can be pof- fefled of, whatever i:s fituation may be. But, fome cafes may occur, in which he will find much greater difficulty than others in this refped:. This he will find to be particularly the cafe, where he means to fence any ground that is bounded by any kin^ of itreani of Running water. When this ftreani is confi- \J derablej, 154 OF INCLGSURES derable, it may be in fome meafure fenced (as is defcribed in § XXIX.) ; as the river would form upon one fide a boundary fuf- ficient for flieep, which might be employed for eating the grafs that Ihould grow upon the banks. But, where it is only a rivulet, or fmall rill, this could not be pradtifed. And, if we attempt to make 4 fence of any kind that fhall be wafhed by the water iji its courfe, it will always be found difficult to execute, and next to impoffible to preferve in proper order, unlefs where the declivity is fo fmall as never to allow of a brifk cur- rent of water at any time. It will, there- fore, be prudent in the farmer to avoid ma- king fences in this fituation as much as pof-* fible. But, unluckily for the views of the im- prover, it happens that, as running water, forms fuch a natural and eafily defined boun- dary in an open and uncultivated country, thefe rills are mod commonly employed A N D F E N C E S. xj5 as inarches between the grounds of one pro- prietor or tenant and another ; fo that the poflelTors of all fuch fields find themfelves under the neceflity of making fences in thefe places. Where this is the cafe, and the pro- •prietor of the adjacent ground will not agree to make any exchange of ground, this in- convenience muft be fubmitted to as an evil that cannot be removed. But, in all cafes tvhere it can be done, it would be much for the intereft of both parties to alter the marchj fo much as to allow a fence to be reared upon it, on folid ground ; making thfe rill entirely the property of one man for i certain part of its courfe, and entirely thti property of the other, at another part of its courfe, (as is reprefented in Fig. 2Cth), where ABCL reprefents a (mall rivulet flowing Ih its natural ferpentine courfe, which is fuppo- fed to have been the march between two different farms, X and Z ; the poiTellbrs of which, for their mutual accommodation, have 156 OF INCLOSURES have agreed to make the line D E F G H I,' &c. the march in all time to come ; fo that the proprietor Z, gets the rivulet wholly upon his own farm from A to B, and from C to L; and the proprietor X enjoys it, as entirely as his own, from B to C ; each of them re- ferving to himfelf, if need be, a liberty to bring a fmall canal from the rill, as at M and N, to afford vv^ater to the cattle in his inclo-» fures. By this means, the fences will not only be more eafjly made and kept in repair, but the fields w^ill Hkewife be more properly di- vided, and admit of being more oeconomi- cally employed, than if a large ditch had beer> dug as a bed for the rill, and employed as a fence, as is commonly pra€tifed in cafes of this kind. For, as rivulets of this fort ufu- ally run in a fort of level ftrath *, which extends' » Strath Is a rxP.rrow piece of low ground contain- ed between hil .^ or any fort :f higher ground of coiV»' fi4erable length in proportion to its breadtb. AND FENCES. 15^ Extends to fome diftance on each fide the wa- ter-courfe, before the fields on each fide be-^ gin to rife from it ; this level piece of low ground being frequently overflowed by the fWelling of the rill, and being moreover continually kept moift by the water running at no great depth below its furface, is render- ed extremely fertile, and is much richer pa- fture than the drier ground on each fide of it, fo as to be of very great value to the farmer, and requires to be managed in a very differ- ent way from what would be proper for the higher ground on either fide of it. But, when a large ditch is made, and that be- comes the fences it draws off the moifture from this level ground entirely, fo that it, in a very fhort time, lofesagreat deal of that fertility for which it ufed to be fo remark- able. And, as this low ground comes to be thus joined with the reft of the field above it, the farmer is fubjected to a good deal of inconvenience. For, as it is ufually of a na- ture 158 OF INCLbSURfes tare fo different from the reft of the grduiid,' it Can rieithet- be ploughed, fowi^d, hor reap- ed at the fame time with the other parts of the field, nor itianured in the fame manner j hoTj on tbany occafionsi ckn be fowed tvItH the fame fpecies of grain. But, by altering the nlarch, as defcribed above^ it is plain,' that all thefe incop.Veniencies are entirely obviated. For, by riinniiig the march-fence along the line that divides this ground ot different qualities, hethrowis all the meadow- ground to one fide; and, by ered;ing another* fence on the oppofi te fide of the rill, between the high and low ground, (as is reprefehted by the doted hnes OFj EH, and GP), th'e gtound of different qualities are kept fepa- rate, and may each of th^in be managed in the manner that fhall be thought moft pro- per for it. § XXXY, AND FENQE§. 1^9 § XXXV. General Obfer'vations iv'ith regard to the pro-t per Div'ifton of a Farm into Inclofures^ Before I conclude this effay, I fhall beg leave to make one other remark with regard to the diftribution of inclofures, that may, perhaps, on fome occafions, be of ufe to the young improver ; and that is, to be guided in general, with regard to the form and dif- pofition of his inclofures, rather by the na- ture and fite of the ground, than by any i- (ieal form of beauty that he may conceive, from exa£t regularity in a plan drawn upon pa- per. Nature will in no cafe adinit of being direQly thwarted in her operations ; and all that induftry ought to attempt is, to purfue her footfteps, obierve her dupoiitions, and gently i6o OF INGLOSURES gently bend them, where it can be done, tp make them concur with our defigns. Among men of tafte, that extravagant fondnefs for ftraight lines, and perfe(St uni- formity, which for fome time paft fo univer- fally prevailed, is now juftly exploded. But, let not the judicious farmer be hurried away into the pppofite extreme, by follow- ing too clofely the idea of beauty that mo- dern improvers have adopted. Ornament with him ought ever to be but a fecondary cpnfideration ; and, as ftraight lines are al- ways the moft convenient boundaries for hi$ fields, let him never deviate ffom that, but where the fituation of hisj ground abfolytely requires it. But, where his ground is fo ir- regular as not to admit of thefe, it would be fplly in him to attempt i^. For ground that is to be kept in tillage, it Vill be of confequence to ftudy, ^s much as may be, to have the fences of the two fides parallel to one another and ftraight, a^ at A N D F E N C E S. i6i at QQCK (Fig. 20th) ; but it is of much fmaller confequence to have the boundaries, at the two ends of the ridges, either ftraight dr parallel to one another ; and, therefore, on occafions which may require it, the farmer ought always to humour the fi- tuation of the ground ia thofe fences that are oppofite to the ends of the ridges, as in the curve line FGP, (Fig. 20th) which is fuppofed to be the natural form of the banks of the rill, rather than the Itraight lines ON, NG, GT, or any other flra-.ght line whatever. Nor ought the oeconomical farmer to con- ftilt only the fituation of his grounds, but alfo their quality, when he means to divide tliem into inclofures. For it often hap- pens that two lielas of very different quali- ties lie quite contiguous to one another ; and if thefe, for the fake of regularity, fhould be included in the fame inclofure, and form, perhaps, different parts of the fame ridge, X he i62 OF INCLOSURES he may very foon lofe more, by the damage that the one part may fuftain by his being obliged to labour it improperly along with the other, than he can gain by the greater quantity of work that he can perform in a regular than in an irregular field. He will, therefore, in general, make it his ftudy to have all the ground in one inclofure as much of the fame quality as poffible ; and make the exa(5> regularity of his field, in fome meafure, give VvMy to conveniency in this refpedt j although he will not be fo fcrupu- loufly attentive hereto, as to diftort his fences for every trifling inequality in this refpevfl. * t~ *- * * The foregoing Jljsets ivere tbroivn off before I had an opportunity oj perufnig Mr Bout cherts judicious Treatfe on Forejl Trees. It givei me AND FENCES. 163 me much fatisfaSiion to ohferve^ that the opU nion I have been obliged from experience to adopts of the neceffity of having a rich foil for a nurfery of thorn-pLnts^ isfoflrongly con" firmed by the experience of that attentive mtr-^ feryman, — Injome refpctis^ that getitlcfnan re- commends a mode of culture for rearing hedges different from that luhich I have tnof appro* ved of: Buty upon a careful revifal of vuhat has been advanced in the prcceeding pagcs^ 1 find no reajon to alter any thing that has been faid on that head. His experience has been chiefly in thegarden^ or in rich fheltered parts of the country ; — mine has been in the fields ^ and in expofed fituations. This ivill account for his approving of fome modes of prat i ice that I have not^ nor can recommend. Thofe 'who are in a fwiilar fit nation vuith himfelf may^ ivithout danger^ adopt his pr attic e^^ ivhat I have recommended ivill anfiver as ivell in thefc fituations y and is the only prac- tice / have yetfcen thxit can be fiiccefsfully folhw^d I 164 OF INCLOSURES, &c. folloived in others that are more unfavourable. My aim has been to extend this improvement to the bare and expojed fields of Scotland, IV here the difficulty of rearing hedges is 1 much greater than thofe ivho have lived in floeltered countries can ivell imagine. I might anjiverfome objedions he has made^ and -point out the reajons for my retaining j07}'ie opinions different from him:- — but, thinks ing this ivould only, ^without necefftty, add to the bulk of this volume^ I chufe to engage no farther at prefent in this difcuffion. ESgAY Pl.-ite IT. >^><><>i><><><>o<><><><><><>o<><><><><>:^^ ESSAY II. DRAINING BOGg AND SWAMPY GROUND, KKX>o<><>oc<><><><>:>i>o<;»<><>»<>.>;>0^ ESSAY II. On Draining Bogs and Swampy Ground. Necejfity of rcmo'u'ing fuperfluous moijlure from the foil — Of fprings — A philofophical ac» count of the origin of thefe — Of fpouting fandy foils — method of draining thefe-^^ Of IV et foils ariftng from an under ^Jlratum of clay — method of draining thefe — High ridges onfuch a foil pernicious — and ivhy ^ Drains in the Jurroivs offuch ridges of no utility — and ix'hy — Of the bog or quag-^ tnire — Manner in ivhich this is forme d--^ An efficacious method oj draining bogs dc" fcrihed^ as pra^ifed ivith Juccefs by the author. .a IN the preceeding Eflay, I have fliowed* that water may, on feme occafions, be of great utiHty to the farmer ; yet, as there are few t68 ON DRAINING BOGS few things more prejudicial to him than at fuperabundance of it, when too long conti- nued upon the ground, it bfeho- the whole foon becomes as dry as could be AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. i8i *be defired ; and continues (o ever afterwards, if the ditch is always kept open. Tliis I fpeak from experience, I having rendered fome fields of this kind that were very wet, quite dry, by this method of treating them. It will hardly be neceflary for me here to put the farmer upon his guard, to be parti- cularly careful in his obfervations, that he may diftinguifli between the wetnefs that is produced from this caufe, and that which proceeds from the caufe before mentioned. Becaufe the treatment that would cure the one, would be of no ufe at all to the other. The attentive obferver likewife will readily perceive, that, if any field that is wet from this caufe admits of being ploughed, it will be in equal danger of being hurt by being raifed into high ridges, with the other kind of damp ground before mentioned. For, as the depth of earth above the refervoir would be fmaller in the deep furrows than any where elfe, there would, of confequence, be lefs i82 ON DRAINING BOGS lefs refiftance to the water in that place, fe' that it would rife there in greater abundance. And if, in this cafe, a farmer fhould dig a drain in each furrow ; — as a confiderablc quantity of water would rife into them, in fome cafes> the ground might be improved, or even quite drained thereby ; efpecially if they fhould have accidentally reached the gravel in any one place ; although at an ex- pence much greater than was neceflary. I take notice of this clrcumflance, in fome meafure to prevent the prejudice that fome inattentive obfervers might entertain againft what was faid before of this method of draining, from their having accidentally (een fome fields that may have been bettered by it. Bogs are only a variety of this laft men* tioned kind of wet ground ; and, therefore', ought in general to be drained after the fame manner with them. Clay is a fub*- fl:anc& AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 183 iknce that itrongly refills the entrance of water into it ; but, when it is long drenched with it, it is, in procefs of time, in feme -meafure diflblved thereby ; — lofes its origi- nal firmnefs of texture and confidence, and becomes a fort of femi-fluid mafs, which is called a bog. And, as thefe bogs are fome- times covered with a ftrong fcurf of a parti- cular kind of grafs, with very matted roots, which is ftrong enough to bear a fmall weight without breaking, although it yields very much, it is, in thefe circumftances, call- ed a Stvaggle, But, whatever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably occafioned by water being forced up through a bed of clay, as juft now defcribed, and diffolving or foftening, if you will, a part thereof. I fay only a part, be- caufe, whatever may be the depth of the bog or fwaggle, it generally has a partition of folid clay between it and the refervoir of water under it, from whence it originally pro- i84 ON DRAINING BOGS proceeds. For, if this were not the cafe, and the quantity of water were confiderable, it would meet with no fufficient refiftence from the bog, and would iffue through it with violence, and carry the whole femi-fluid mafs along with it. But this would more inevitably be the cafe, if there was a cru'r at the bottom of the bog, and if that ciuft ihould ever be broken ; efpecially if the quantity of water under it were very confi- derable. And, as it is probable, that, in many cafes of this fort, the water flowly dif- folves more and more of this under cruft, I make no doubt, but that, in the revolution of many ages, a great many irruptions of this kind may have happened ; although they may not have been deemed of impor- tance enough to have the hiftory of them tranfmitted to poiterity. Of this kind, although formed of a differ- ent fubftance, I confider the flow of the Sol- way»mofs in Cumberland to have been; whichj AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 185 which, upon the i6th November lyyif burfl its former boundaries, and poured forth a prodigious ftream of femi- fluid matter, which, in a fliort time, covered feveral hun- dred acres of very tine arable ground. Nor will any one, who is acquainted with the nature of mofs, — who knows its re- femblance to clay in its quality of abiorbing and retaining water, and its very eafy dif- fufibility therein, be furprifed at this ; as, from all thele properties, it is much better adapted for forming an extenfive bog; and, therefore, in greater danger of producing an extenfive devaftation, by an eruption of the water into it, than thofe that are formed of any kind of clay whatever. If the bog, or fwampy ground, is upon a declivity, the ditch ought to be carried acrofs the field about the place where the loweft fprings arife. But, if the furface of the ground is level, or nearly fo, as between A and B, (Fig. 24th), and the fprings break A a out i86 ON DRAINING BOGS out in feveral places, qq q(] q^t To as to form foft quagmires interfperfed through the whole of the field, it will be of little con-' fequence in what part the drain is opened ; for, if it is dug fo deep as to allow the wa- ter to rife in it with freedom, it will ifTue through that opening, and the field will be left perfectly dry. But, as it may frequently happen that the ftratum of gravel fhall be at a confiderable depth beneath the furface of the earth, and as it may be fometimes even below the level of the place into which the drain muft be emptied, it might fometimes be extremely difficult to make a ditch fo deep as to reach the bed of fand or gravel. But, it is lucky for us, that this is not abfolutely neceffary in the prefent cafe ; as a drain of two or three feet deep, as at D, will be equally ef- fedual with one that fhould go to the gra- vel. All that is neceffary, in this cafe, is, to fink pits (P) in the courfe of the drain, at a moderate AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 187 moderate diftance from one another, which go fo deep as to reach the gravel. For, as the water there meets with no refiftancc, it readi- ly flows out at thefe openings, and is carried off by the drain, without bemg forced up through the earth ; fo that the ground is left entirely dry ever after. I have likewife drained feveral fields in this way ; and, as 1 have generally found the appearances pretty much alike, I Ihall, for the information of the inexperienced reader, give a fliort account of them. If you attempt to make your pit in one of thefe foft quaggy places where the water is found in great abundance, you will meet with very great difficulty in forming it. For, as the fubftance of which it is compofcd is foft, it will always flow into the hole as fall as you dig it. On this account, I would ad- vife, not to attempt to make the pit in the fwaggle, but as near it in the folid earth as you conveniently can. However, if it is pretty iSS ON DRAINING BOGS pretty firm, and of no great extent, it is fometlmes pradlicable to make a pit in the foft bog, at the drieft time of the year. This I have fometimes prafti^ed, which gave me an opportunity of obferving the na- ture of thefe bogs more perfedly than I o- therwife would have had. In the trials of this kind that I have made, the foft quaggy ground has feldom been above three or four feet deep, below which 1 have always found a ftratum of hard tough clay ufually mixed with ftones ; and fo firm, that nothing but a mattock or pick-axe could penetrate it. And, as this is comparatively fo much drier than the ground above it, an inexperienced operator is very apt to imrgine that it is the bottom that he is in fearch or. In d'gging through this ftratum, you will frequently meet vith fmall fprings oo- zing out in all diredions. Some of them that might fill the lube of a fmall quill, and AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 189 and others fo fmall as to be fcarce percep- tible. But, without regarding thefe, you mufl continue to dig on without intermifTion till you come to the main body of the rel'er- voir, if I may fo call it, that is contained in the rock, gravel, or land ; which you will generally find from two to four feet below the bottom of the fwaggle, and which you will be in no danger of miftaking when you come to it. Fur, if there has been no open- ing made before that in the field, as foon as you break the cruft immediately above the gravel or rock, the water will burft forth like a torrent, and, on fome occafions, v/ill rife like a jet d^eau, to a confiderable height a- bove the bottom of the ditch ; and continue to flow off with great impetuofity for fome time, till the pent up water being drained off, the violent boiling up will begin to fubfide, and the ftrength of the current to abate; and, in a fhort time, to flow gently out like any ordinary fpriog. Allow- 190 ON DRAINING BOGS Allowing it to remain in this ftate for fome time, the quaggy earth will foon begin to fubfide, and gradually become iirmer and firmer every day j fo that, hi the ipace of a few months, thofe bogs that were former- ly fo foft as hardly to fupport the weight of a fmall dog, will become fo firm, that oxen and horfes may tread upon them with- out any danger of finking, at the very wet- ted feafon of the year. I have had a field of this nature, that, by having only one fuch pit as I have now de- fcribed, opened in it, was entirely drained to the diftance of above a hundred yards around it in every dired:ion. But, as it is pofTible that the ftratum in which the water runs may be in fome places interrupted, it will be in general expedient to make feveral of thefe pits, if the field is of great extent ; always carrying the drain for- ward through the lowermoft part of the field, or as near the quag as you conveniently can ; and AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 191 and finking a pit where-ever you may judge it will be moft neceflary. But, if the ftratum of gravel is not interrupted, there will be no violent burft of water at opening any of thefe after the firft, as I have frequently ex- perienced. To keep thefe wells from clodng up after they are made, it is always expedi- ent to fill them up with fmall ftones imme- diately after they are made, which ought to rife to the height of the bottom of the drain. I have often imagined that the expence of digging thefe pits might be faved by bo- ring a hole through this folid ftratum of clay with a large wimble made on purpofe ; but, as I never experienced this, I cannot fay whether or not it would anfwer the defired end exadly. If the whole field that is to be drained coq- fifts of one extenfive bog, it will require a long time before the whole work can be en- tirely finifhed ; as it will be impoflible to o- pen a drain through it, till one part of it is firft 192 ON DRAINING BOGS firft drained, and becomes folid ground. In a fituation of this kind, the undertaker, after having opened a drain to convey the water from the loweft part of the bog, muft ap^ proach as near to the fwampy ground as he can, and there make his firft pit ; which will drain off the water from the neareft parts of the bog. When this has continued open for fome time, and that part of the bog is become fo folid as to admit of being worked, let hinl continue the ditch as far forward through it as the fituation it is in will admit of, and there fink another pit ; and proceed gradual- ly forward in the, fame manner ; making crofs cuts where necelfary, till the whole be finifhed. In this manner may any bog, or trad: of fpouting ground of this nature, be rendered dry at a very inconfiderable expence. And> as there can be no other method of draining ground of this fort effedtually, I recommend the AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 193 the ftudy of It to the attention of every dili- gent farmer who may have occafion for it. Let him firft be extremely cautious in exa- mining all the circumftances ot his particu- lar fields, that he may be certain which of the clafles above enumerated it may be rank- ed with ; and, when he is perfeftly fure of that, he may proceed without fear ; being morally certain of fuccefs. There is, however, one kind of damp ground not yet particularly fpecified, that I have purpofely omitted taking notice of till this time, as I have never had an opportunity of examining particularly into the nature of it ; nor of afcertaining, by experience, what is the moft proper method of treating it.— The foil I have now particularly in my eye confifts of a deep ftrong clay, that does not vary its nature even on the furface, but in as far as manures may have rendered it more friable and tender. The colour ufually in- clines to a reddilh caft ; and, for the moft B b partj 194 ON DRAINING BOGS part, it is ntuated upon the fide of fome de- clivity. This bed of clay reaches to a great depth, without any variation, and is inter- mixed with a confiderable quantity of fmall round ftones. Many foils of the fort now defcribed, are apt to be continually moift and full of water during the winter feafon. But, when the dry weather of fummer fets in, the moifture is diminiflied, and the furface becomes hard ; and it is rent into many large gaps, which allow free admiffion to the fun and air, fo as to fcorch up almoft every plant that is fowed upon it. And, as thcfe foils are ufually in themfelves naturally fertile when drained, it were to be wifhed that fome method could be difcovered that v^ould be lefs expenfive than what is ufually pradlifed with regard to fome foils of this kind in Effex, where they make covered drains of two and a half feet deep, running diagonally through the whole field, at the diftance of twenty feet from each other. Were AND SWAMPY GROUNDS. 195 Were T to indulge myfelf in conjedturing, I miglit here offer fome remarks tending to fliow the probable caufe of this phaenome- non, and point out an eafier method of cure. But, as it is extremely dangerous, for one who pretends to inftrud others, to give way to the tempting fedudtions of a warm ima- gination, I fhall content miyfelf with having pointed out this evil to thofe who may iiave it in their power to examine into the caufes of this particular malady, and to point out to others the eafieft and mod efficacious cure. ESSAY ESSAY III. ON THE PROPER METHOD or LEVELLING HIGH RIDGES. J^Mf- /* rjatcur. j>^f.i 7}'><>O<>C>CO<:XX?0<>OCOO< ESSAY IV. ON THE PROPER METHOD O F SOWING GRASS SEEDS. ^;xxx:5<><>o::>c><:>i:.3s>oo When grafs-feeds alone are fowed, (I here fpeak of cluver, rye-grals, .and other grafs- feeds, uiually fov.-cd tor hay), upon a foil in tolerable good order, as they make but fmall progrefs at tirA, a great number cf fmall annual weeds are allowed 10 rufh up, which, quickly acquiring ftrength, fill up the whole ground fo much, as to be in great danger of ehoaking the grafs entirely ; or, if the foil is not overftocked with weeds, the drought of the fummcr makes fuch an impreffion on the open porous ground, thus deilitute of plants to attradt moiilure td it, that the ten- der plants of grafs are in great danger of being fcorched and burnt up : Whereas, Vvhen the grafs-feeds are fowed with any Jiind of grain, it quickly rufties up in abun- dance, !138 OF SOWING dance, and prevents the growth of annual weeds, while its broad leaves fhade the ten- der plants of grafs from the dired^ rays of the fun, and preferve the earth in a proper degree of moifture, fo as to nurfe up the tender grafs in the moft kindly manner that could be defired. And, as the leaves of the corn decay towards the end of fummer, the grafs gets then as much air as is neceffary, (unlefs in the cafe after mentioned) and continues to vegetate with a fufficient de- gree of vigour, till the grain is cut down ; fo as to be ufually in a healthier and more flourifhing ftate at that time than if it had been fowed alone ; and will, in general, be afterwards much freer from natural grafles and other perennial weeds. But, although ground can feldom be too rich for carrying a crop of grafs, yet it may be often [o rich as to be improper for pro- ducing an advantageous crop of grain. And as it may fometimes happen that we may have GRASS SEEDS. 239 have occafion to lay a field down with grafs- feeds when it is in this ftate, it would, on this occafion, be improper for the farmer to be determined to get a crop of grain, as he would run a great rifk of lofing both craps, by the lodging of the corn before harveft. In this cafe, it is prudent in him to forego the hope of a crop of grain, but not to omit fowing the feeds of fome kind of grain with his grafs-feeds. This fhould be fcattered thinly over the field, and will help to bring up the grafs-feeds in a kindly manner ; and if the feafon proves very dry, he may thus fomctimes reap a very great crop, Btit, if the feafon is rainy, or if his crop, from any other caufe, is too luxuriant, whenever he fees it begin to lodge, and be in danger of choaking his grafs, he ought to cut it imme- diately, and employ the whole as a green fodder for his cows or other cattle. The extraordinary quantity of provender pro- cured in this way, will be more than fuffi- cient 240 . O F S O W I N G cient to indemnify him for the price of the feed of the grain ; as he willhave two full crops of fucculent green fodder in one fea- fon, which wiJlihe. about three times the quantity that he would have had, if the grafs- feeds had been fowed alone. (^-.Xhis is the beft method for laying down very rich land to, grafs that I; have ever feen pradiifedv ,(j :.;;;^i ^ ::.;..) -i^;' : '^ii^ As to fuch' ground as is in a proper con- dition for, carrying a moderate crop of grain, I am .entirely fatisfied, not only from the reafoning above, but alfo from repeated ex- periment, that the crop ol grafs is at leaft equally good wheiXiit^has been fowed with'' grain,, and the crop, allowed to ripen, as when it has been fowed without any crop at all ; fo that farjners do well to continue their common practice in this refpedt, however inuch it may be oppofed or decried by theo- retical writers. f\l nW: As GRASS SEEDS. 241 As to autumnal fowing of grafs-feeds, I have found, that it is much more precarious than the vernal, and therefore would never recommend it but in cafes of great necefTity; when a lefler €vil ought to be preferred to a greater. With regard to the kinds of grain with which grafs-feeds may be fowed : — Barley is, in general, the beft, as the ground is ufually w^ll prepared for that crop, and the feafon of fowing it anfwers very well for grafs-feeds. Oats are not fo proper, in ge- neral ; although, when the ground is very well prepared for them, the grafs will fuc- ceed extremely well; but it ought never to be fowed with wheat, excepting in cafes of necefTity, as it oftener fails in this way than in any other; although I have known it fometimes to fucceed extremely well. The circumftances neceflary to be attend- ed to for making the feeds vegetate kindly when fowed, are, in general, fo obvious, as Hh to 24i» O F S O W I N G to be eafily diflingulfhed by any one who attentively confiders the fubjed:. The feeds are, for the moft part, fmall, and therefore require the mold to be pretty fine, that they may not be covered too deep by falling be- low, or be fcorched up by lying above great clods. — Like every other feed, they require a due degree of n\oifl:ure to caufe them vege- tate, and therefore ought never to be left expofed to the rays of the fun, without being covered ; as, unlefs a trad of rainy weather comes immediately after fowing, many of the feeds will be deftroyed. On this ac- count, it is always neceflary to harrow the ground immediately after fowing with a light clofe toothed harrow, which fhould be kept for that purpofe ; and fometimes a gentle rolling is of ufe after that, efpecially upon light fpungy ground : But no one circum- ftance fo efFedually infurcs the vegetating of thefe fmall feedsr, as fowing them as foon jis pofTible after the ground is ploughed ; as the GRASS SEEDS. 243 the moderate moifturc that ne^' turned up ground always has when it is in good order, feems to be more peculiarly fitted for pro- moting the vegetation of every, kind of feed, than that which may arife from any other caufe whatever. On which account, every induftrious farmer will take care to prevent, as much as pofTible, the withering of the ground after ploughing, fo as not to lofe the benefit of this circumftance. Before I quit this fubjedt, it may not per- haps be improper to obferve, that the farmer is more abundantly repaid for an extraordi- nary dreffing as a preparation for a crop of grafs, than for almoft any other crop that . he can fow ; and that, of confequence, it is always good oeconomy to lay down rich, and not poor ground, to grafs. It is like- wife of the utmoll confequence to have the ground as free as' poffible from perennial weeds ; fo that it ought not only to be rich, but clean allc, if you wilh to have a very fine 244 OF SOWING, &(^. fine crop of grafs. This I the rather take notice of here, becaufe I know that it is a practice pretty general in many parts of the kingdom, to lay only fuch fields into grafs as are in fuch bad order as to carry very poor crops of grain, without any fort of pre- paration whatever ; the bad ceconomy of which pradice they would foon be convin- ced of, if they would only be perfuaded, for once, to try one diredly oppofite to it ESSAY >,.-<»-..»«».._^....0""<>'»«>"««>"«»""0""<>""<»'-0"-<>""<^'<>""<>" •<>—«»—<»••••<>•'••<»—«•• ESSAY V. ON H/VY-MAKING. ESSAY V. On Hay-Making. Hay not to be alloived to lie in the Jhvathe after it is cut. — A particular method of fnaking hay defcribed^ that has been long praciifed by the author ivith fuccefs. — Ad~ vantages attending this method of hay~ making. — Hay much damaged by a 'very flight degree of moifure after it is cut. — Cautions to be attended to in this method of ivinning hay. — It is, in a particular man^ ner, recommended to thofe "who intend to fave rye-grajs feed. BEFORE artificial grafles were introdu- ced into this ifland, hay-making was a very tedious and troublefome operation. But, as the grafles now ufually cultivated for yielding 243 ON HAY-MAKING. yielding hay are. not (o foft and fucculent as the natural meadow-grafles, in general, we have it in our power greatly to fhorten that operation, and, at the fame time, keep our hay much fweeter than it would be if treat- ed after the old method. For the fake, therefore, of fuch as may not be well ac- quainted with the beft method of making hay from artificial graffes, (I chiefly mean rye-grafs and clover) I fhall here fubjoin an account of a very fimple mode of practice in this refped, that I have followed for many years with the greateft fuccefs. Inflead of allowing the hay to lie, as u- fual in moft places, for fome days in the fw^athe after it is cut, and afterwards alter- nately putting it up into cocks, and fpread- ing it out, and tedding it in the fun, which tends greatly to bleach the hay, — exhales its natural juices, and fubjeds it very much to the danger of getting rain, and thus runs a, great rifk of being made good for little, I make ON HAY-MAKING. 249 make it a general rule, if poJTible, never to cut hay but when the grafs is quite dry ; and then make the gatherers follow clofe upon the cutters, — putting it up immediate- ly into fmall cocks, about three feet high each, when new put up, and of as fmall a diameter as they can be made to ftand with ; always giving each of them a flight kind of thatching, by drawing a few handfuls of the hay from the bottom of the cock all around» and laying it lightly upon the top, with one of the ends hanging downward. This is done with the utmoft eafe and expedition ; and, when it is once in that ftate, I confider my hay as, in a great meafure, out of dan- ger. For, unlefs a violent wind fliould rife immediately after the cocks are put up, fo as to overturn them, nothing elfe can hurt the hay; as I have often experienced that no rain, however violent, ever penetrates into thefe cocks but for a very little way. And, if they are dry put up, they never fit toge- I i ther 25© ON H A Y - M A K I N G. ther fo clofely as to heat ; although they ac- quire, in a clay or two, fuch a degree of firmnefs, as to be in no danger of being o- verturned by wind after that time, unlefs it blows a hurricane. In thefe cocks, I allow the hay to remain until, upon infpeOiion, I judge that it will keep in pretty large tramp-cocks, (which is ufually in one or two weeks, according as the weather is more or lefs favourable), when two men, each with a long pronged pitch- fork, lift up one of thefe fmall cocks be- tween them with the greateft eafe, and carry them, one after another, to the place where the tramp-cock is to be built * : And in this manner they proceed over the field till the whole is finilhed. The * If the hay is to be carried to any confiderable di- ftance, this part of the labour may be greatly a- bridged, by caufing the carriers take two long flicks, of a fufficient (Irength, and, having laid them dowa fey the fmall cocks parallel to one another, at the diftancc ON HAY- MAKING. 251 The advantages that attend this n^.ethod of inaklng; hay are, that it greatly abridges the labour ; as it does not require above the one half of the work that is neceflary in the old method of turning and tedding it ; — that it allows the hay to continue almofl as green as when it is cut, and prcferves its natural juices in the greateft perfedion. For, unlefs it be the little thgit is expofed to the fun and air upon the furface of the cocks, which is no more bleached than every ftraw of hay favcd in the ordinary way, the whole is dried in the moft flow and equal manner that could be defired. And, lajily, that it is thus, in a great meafure, fecured from al- moft the poffibility of being damaged by rain. This diflance of one ami a half, or two feet afundcr ; let them lift three or four cocks, one after another, and place them carefully above the flicks, and then carry ihem all together, as if upon a hand-barrow, to the place where the lr.rgc rick is to be built. 252 ON HAY-MAKING. This laft circumftance deferves to be much more attended to by the farmer than it u- fually is at prefent; as I have feen few who are fufficiently aware of the lofs that the quality of their hay fuftains by receiving a flight (hower after it is cut, and before it is gathered ; the generality of farmers feeming to be very well fatisfied if they get in their hay without being abfolutely rotted; never paying the leaft attention to its having been feveral times thoroughly wetted while the hay was making. But, if thefe gentlemen will take the trouble at any time to compare any parcel of hay that has been made per- fedly dry, with another parcel, from the fame field, that has received a fhower while in the fwathe, or even a copious dew, they will foon be fenfible of a very manifeft dif- ference between them ; nor will their horfes or ON HAY-MAKING. 253 or cattle ever commit a miftake in chufing between the two *. Let it be particularly remarked, that, in this manner of making hay, great care muft be taken that it be dry when firft put into the cocks ; for, if it is in the leaft degree wet at that time, it will turn inftantly moul- dy, and fit together, fo as to become totally impervious to the air, and will never after- wards * I have met with feveral gentlemen in Scotland who have complained, that they found it impoflible ever to get their clover hay to look like that they met with in London, — as the leaves were always of ^ dark tobacco-like colour, and parted from the ftalks with the flighted handling, inftead of being of a dark olive green, and foft and pliable to the touch, and not readily feparable from the ftalks. This dif- ference is entirely occafioned by the winning : For, if clover is allowed to be wetted after it is cut, it will infallibly be brown and brittle ; but, if it has been carefully preferved from moiftare, and flowly made into hay, it is tough and pliable, and retains jts greennefs in fome degree. 254 ON HAY-MAKING. wards become dry, till it is fpread out to the fun. For this reafon, if at any time, during a courfe of good fettled weather, you fhould begin to cut in the morning, before the dew is off the grafs, keep back the gatherers till the dew is evaporated, allowing that which was firft cut to lie till it is dry before it is cocked. In this cafe, you will almoft always find, that the uncut grafs will dry fooner than that which has been cut when wet ; and, therefore, the gatherers may al- ways begin to put up that which is frefli cut before the other ; which will ufually re- quire two or three hours to dry after the new cut hay may be cocked. And if at any time, in cafe of neceffity, you fhould be obliged to cut your hay be- fore it is dry, the fame rule muft be obfer- ved, always to allow it to remain in the fwathe till it is quite dry : But, as there is al- ways a great rilk of being long in getting it up, ON HAY-MAKING. ^ss up, and as It never, in this cafe, 'wins * fo kindly as if it had been dry cut, the farmer ought to endeavour, if pofTible, in all cafes, to cut his hay only when dry, even if it fhould coft him fome additional expence to the cutters, by keeping them employed at any other work, or even allowing them to remain idle, if the weather Ihould be va-^ riable or rainy. But if there is a great proportion of clo- ver, and the weather fhould chance to be clofe and calm at the time, it may, on fome oc- cafions, be neceflary to open thefe cocks a little, to admit fome frefh air into them ; in which cafe, after they have flood a day or two, it may be of great ufe to turn thefe cocks, and open them up a little, which ought to be done in the drieft time of the day J * By winning hay, is meant the operation by which it brought from the fucculent flate of grafs to that of a dry fodder. 356 ON HAY-MAKING. day ; the operator taking that part of each cock which was the top, and with it form- ing the bafe of a new one, fo that the part which was moft expofed to the air becomes excluded from it, and that which was un- dermoft comes to be placed upon the top, fo as to make it all dry as equally as pof- fible. If the hay has not been damp when it was firft put up, the cock may be imme- diately finished out at once; but, if it is at all wet, it will be of great ufe to turn over on- ly a little of the top of the cock at firft, and, leaving it in that ftate to dry a little, pro- ceed to another, and a third, and fourth, &c. treating each in the fame way ; going on in that manner, till you find that the infide of the firft opened cock is fiifficiently dried, when it will be proper to return to it, turning over a little more of it, till you come to what is ftill damp, when you leave ON HAY-MAKING. 257 leave it and proceed to another, and (o on round the whole ; always returning afreih, till the cocks are entirely finifhed. This is the bed way of faving your hay, if you have been under the neceffity of cutting it while damp ; but it is always befl: to guard againft this inconvenience, if poffible. Although I am convinced that this me- thod of making hay is, in all cafes, the beft that ever 1 have heard of, yet it is iri a more efpecial manner worthy of being recom- mended to fuch as intend to fave the feed of rye-grafs ; as, in that cafe, it is attended with many and great advantages. Every one, who is in the leafl: acquainted with this fubjedt, knows, that this kind of grafs is fo very apt to fhed its feeds, that, if the hay is allowed to lie in the fwathe till it is dry, a very great proportion of the feed will inevitably be loft by the neceflary handling when it is gathered, however carefully this may be done. Kk To 253 ON HAY-MAKING. To avoid this inconvenience, I have known feveral farmers who have thought it worth the expencc of caufmg it to be gathered immediately after the cutters, and then bound up into iheavcs, and put up in- to (looks (fhocks) Uke corn, till it is tho- roughly dried ; for, by being in this ftate' more eafily lifted than when it is quite loofe, lefs of it will be loft in carrying to be threfh- ed. But, not to mention the expencfe necelfari- ly attending this pradice, it is likewife at- tended with another inconvenience, which fubjc£l:s the farmer, on many occafions, to a greater lofs than he would fuilain by hand- ling in the ordinary v^^ay. For, if it fhould chance to come a tratt of rainy weather when it is in the ftook, the whole of the hay rs at once drenched with water; and, if it Gontii\ues wet for any length of time, the feed quick: y lofes its colour, and becomes- mufty, and even begins to granv before it can be- ON HAY-MAKING. 259 be threfhed out ; fo that both the hay and the feed will be totally, or in a great mcafure loft. But, in the mode of practice here recom- mended, all the benefit that could be expec- ted from this procedure is fully obtained, and the inconvenicncies attending it en- tirely avoided. For, by putting it into ilie cocks as foon as it is cut, while the feed adheres more firmly to the hay than after it is dry, little is iliaked off by the gather- ing ; and ftill lefs is loft in carrying it to the place where it is to be threflied (which ought to be in the field at the place where a tramp- cock is intended) in this way, than when bound up into flieaves. And, as thefe cocks refift the rain perfedly well, the feed or hay- are in no danger of being fpoiled by rainy weather, if it fliould chance to come after they are once put up. And, befides, as the hay is not thus fo much exppfed to the weather, it is not near fo much fpoiled in its colour,^ 26o ON HAY-MAKING colour, or dried In the ivining^ as it is in the uibal method. On all which accounts, I deem it by far the moft eligible method of faving this kind of grafs-feed. The truth of thefe remarks I had an oppor- tunity of experiencing this very year 1772 j the latter part of the hay-feafon having pro- ved extremely rainy, infomnch that a very good and experienced hufbandman of my ac- quaintance, who' took the former method of faving his grafs-feeds, had them fo much fpoiled by the rain, and his hay, at the fame time, fo much damaged by it, that he was afhamed to offer either of them to lale ; whereas mine, which were treated in the manner I now re- comnend, were both as fweet and whole- fome as any good judge could wifli them to be : My hay, in particular, being as green and fuccule.it as any hay got in the ufual method is, even when it is not threfhed. ESSAY .^•^^^♦♦♦♦^♦^"^'♦^•^^♦♦♦♦♦♦♦^♦♦♦^♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦^ ESSAY VI, O N Q^UICK-LIME. ♦t****'>**<"Hf'lfff*f*^**f *♦♦♦♦♦♦'!•♦♦*-♦♦'?♦♦ ADVERTISEMENT. THE nature of the fuhjeEl difcufjedin the following Ejfay^ necejfarily required that it fldould be treated in a more fcientijic manfier than any of the others. The Author has en- deavoured to render it as perfpicuous as pof- fihle ; hat is afraid that^ to thofe ivho may ne- ver have been v erf ant injludies of this fort, it may flilU in fome places, appear a little ab- frufe. — On this occafion, he hopes to meet ivith the indulgence of thofe, ivho think no exertion of mmd improperly befoived ivhen it is in the purfu'it of ifeful knoivledge. — Others, ivho do not care to engage in intricate difctiffions of any fort, he uuouid advife to pafs over this EJfay entirely ; — or, at leaf, the firft part of it. The reaibnsy^r ivhat is advanced in thefecond part ivill not indeed be, in that cafe,fo clearly fe en; hut the practical farmer, if not thoroughly inftruvllcd by that, may at leaf be di reded to ivhat he ought to do. I ESSAY VI. On QJL; I C K - L I M E; QUICK-LIME is a calx, or a very fine powder, obtained by burning marble, chalk, or lime-ftone, and afterwards throwing' water upon it. This powder, when newly burnt, is fo- hible * in water ; — is capable of being form- ed into a firm cement, if properly mixed up with water, and is poficired of many other peculiar qualities that it is unneceflary here to enumerate. L 1 But, • Capable of being diffolved. To avoid difagreeable circumlocution, Ifliill be obliged, in this Eflay, to employ fome technical terms not commonly underftood j — but fliall explain their meaning as I go along. 266 O N CLU I C K - L I M E. But, if this powder has been expofed to the iniiuence of the air for fome time, it is found to be no longer capable of being dif- folvcd in water; — it has become incapable of being formed into a cement, and has loft ma- ny of the other peculiar qualities for which it was at firft remarkable. In common language, this powder is ufu- ally diftinguiflied by the name of Lime fim- ply. But, in the language of philofophic precifion, < it is called Quick-Lime, fo long as it remains loluble in water, and capable of being ufed as a cement. After it lofes thefe properties, it is diftinguifhed by the name of Effete lime. In either of thefe ftates, it is employed by the farmer as a manure. And, as it is the manure of moft univerfal utility that has yet been difcovered, its nature and quali- ties delerve to be very particularly invefti- gated. The O N QJJ I C K - L T M E. 267 The defign of this EITiy is to point out fome of the peculiarities that conflitute the excellence of this fubflancc as a manure, and as a cement. And, as what may be faid of it, as a manure, will be better unde;ftood after its nature, as a cement, has been ex- plained, it will be neceflary to confider it firfl in that point of view. PART PART FIRST, Of Quick-lime as a Cement. § I. F llme-ftone, or marble, be expofed to the adtion of a pretty intenle tire for a fuf- ficlent length of time, its colour is altered, and its weight confiderably diminiflied ; but it retains its former figure and dimenlions. In this ftate of burnt ftone, it is in many places diftinguidied by the name of lime- Jhells^ ox PodUlhney or ^\m^\y JJje lis. If water be thrown upon thefe I'lme-Jloells^ ^ tonfiderable heat is in a fliort time gene- rated ; 270 O F QJJ I C K - L I M E rated ; the burnt flones begin to crack and fall afunder, and the mafs encreafes in bulk as It gradually crumbles down, or falU^ as it is more commonly faid, Into a fine powder ; which is always of a white colour, whatever was the colour of the ftone before calcina^ tion *. This powder is zd!^t^ Jlacked lime, or fim- ply lime ; and the operation that reduces it ixom Jhells to this ftate, is ZdWt^Jlaking, § 3. If this powder is intimately mixed with as much water as reduces it to the confiftence of a thin pafte» and afterwards dried, it con- cretes inioone coh' rent mafs, which adheres to ftones, or other unpoliflied bodies, very firmly ; • Calcination is the operation by which any folid compart body is, by means of fire, reduced from its former coherent ftate, to th-it of a dry incoherent powder, which is caiicd a calx. p AS A CEMENT. ^71 firmly J and thus it becomes a proper cement for building walls of any fort. After this parte has been once fully dried, it becomes indliToluble in water, fo as never to be foftened by the moiilure of the air ; on which account it greatly exceeds clay, or any other cement that can be eafily o:)tained. This cement, when compofed for building walls, is called mortar. When intended to be applied only as a fmooth coating upoa the furface of any place, without being mix- ed with ftones, it is called in this country Cim^lj plajicr, §4. It has been found by experience, that the cement made of lime that had been obtained from a lime-ftone that confifted of pure cal- careous * earth alone, without any propor- tion * Calcarems is a general term denoting all thofe fubftances that confift of the matter of which lime may 272 O F C^U I C K - L I M E tion of fand, never attained any great degr^ of hardnefs, but remained a foft crumbly mafs, that might be eafily broke down by any fmall force applied to it. And, on the contrary, if the original lime- ftone contained a very large proportion of fand, the cement made of it alone was a much harder, firmer, and more durable fubftance. And, as it was difcovered that the purefl: lime might be rendered a very firm cement by the addition of a due propdrtion of clean hard fand, the pradice of mixing fand with lime, when intended for mortar, came to pre- vail very univerfally. — The oldeft lime-built walls that are now to be found, clearly fhow that this pradlice has been adopted before thefe were built. But may be made, in whatever flate it may be found — whether alone — or mixed with other fubftances, that prevent it from being reduced to powder after calci- nation* A S A G E M E N T. 1^3 But it ftill remains a defideratwn, to afcer- tain the due proportion of fand ; as authors, as well as practical mafons, differ very much from one another as to this particular. They likewife differ very much in their diredions about the mode of mixing the ma- terials, and of appl)nng the cement ; — fome modern authors, efpecialiy, attributing ama- zing effects to a fri;all variation in thele par- ticulars, while others deny that thefe circum- fiances have any fenfible effed on the dura- bility or firmnefs of the cement* Thefe different and contradictory opinions feem to arife from an imperfe^ knowledge of the nature of quick-lime, and the varia- tions it may admit of: For thefe variations are fo very great, as to render it impolllble to give any general rules that can poffibly apply in all cafes. It, therefore, behoves thofe who wifh to attain any confiftency of knowledge on this fubjed, to endeavour, firft to afcertain the circumftanccs that render M m cal- 274 OF QJJICK-LIME calcareous fubftances capable of becoming a cement at alU and then to trace the feveral changes that may be produced upon it by other extraneous caufcs. This I fhall endeavour briefly to do. §5- Lime-ftone and marble are nothing elfe than a calcareous matter chryflallized'^^ and affui""" diffp' "nt r.ppearances a':cordi;':g to acci' ental cin: :rriP .tic.!S that have occurred at the time of their original formation. ift, The * Saline fubfl-inces, when diflblved in water, and put into prop'?! cij'jumftances for thatpurpofe, feparate from rlif waicr, zr^.^ jl:'Oot into regular figures, which af^' me difft-rcni forms, and are more or lefs tranfpa- rtnt i:ccoraing to the different nature of the fait, as nitie, alum, &c. Thefe regular tranfparent boi» dies are property called chry/ials. — Hence every bo- dy in naiuic t. at aliumts a form and appearance fimilar to thtfe, and is produced in the fame manner, is fa*d to be chrjfiallized. AS A CEMENT. 275 I ft, The more perfect thefe chryftpls are, the harder and more compad: will the flone be that confifts of them. 2d, The fmaller the proportion of extraneous matter that is entangled among thefe chry- ftals, the purer and finer will the lime be that is made from the ftonc of which ti.ey confift. From a variation in one or other of thefe two particulars, arifcail the varieties of calca- reous matter, that can beconvertea intolime; which varieties may be diilinguiihed from one another by the following particulars. I ft, When the calcareous matter is pure^ and perfedly chryftalllzed; when it aflumes a clear and fomewhat tranfparent appearance, and is found in regulary?r^//^j, without many fiflures, it is then called marble, 2d, When the calcareous matter ispure^ but the chryftallization lefs perfed, tho* in regu- lar ftrata, it ftill obtains the name of marble ; but, as it is more opaque, and lefs compadt than ^76 F QJJ I C K - L I M E than the former, if is reckoned lefs valuable, and coarfer. 3d, When the calcareous matter is ftill pretty pure, but haftily concreted into an u- niform mafs, without having been in a ftate that permitted it to chryftallize, or to fubfide into regular ftrata, it is called chalk \ which, when reduced to a powder, without calcina- tion, is called ivhitening. 4th, When the chryflals are tolerably perfedt, but have had a confiderable propor- tion of fand entangled among them, it is no longer called marble, but lime-Jlone. And this is more or le!s pure^ or affords a richer or poorer lime, as it contains a greater or fmall- er proportion of calcareous matter ; and i$ more or lefs hard according to the degree of perfedion of the chryftals. Even the pureft calcareous matter perfedl- iy chryftallized, is called lime-ftone, and not marble, when it confifts of fmall pieces that have not been concreted into regular ftrata. 5th, When AS A CEMENT. 277 5th, When the calcareous matter is per- fedly pure, and fhot into fmaller chryftals of a tranfparent whitenefs, it is called ^^rr, ' — and, in other circumftances,y?(^/ in the ftate we f ^d it i? al- ways a con~ pound ful fiance. — ri .ts pu-eft £late, it confiils of a cfixcd air aUb in this Ibte, — in a jfhort time Icfes all its qualities as a quick-lime, and, chemically conlidered, dif- fers in no refped: from the itone of which it was compofed. If no more water has been added at fla- king than was barely Tuflicient to make it fall^ and, if it be kept dry ever afterwards, or mixed with any dry powder, it does not harden as it abforbs its air, but- remains m a powdery fl:ate, to all appearance in no refpe^fl' differing from quick-lime. But, if a larger proportion of water has been added th?.n was neceflary for flaking the lime, — in proportion as it abforbs its air and becomes mild-i it concretes into a cohe- P p rent 298 OF QJJICK-LIME rent mafs ; firft upon the furface, which quickly becomes covered with a hard cruft, greatly refembling the thin cruft that is formed on the furface of moift earth by a moderate froft.— Mafons, ignorant of the real caufe of this phaenomenon, call it frojled lime ; although their own experience ought to fatisfy them, that this cruft is formed as readily in fuinmer as in winter. As lime that has abforbed its air in any of thefe ways, is altogether unfit for beco- ming a cement, it is evident that a great change may be produced upon the quality of any lime, by having allowed lefs or more of it to be in this ftate, before it is worked up into mortar. § 13. If a large quantity of water be added to frefti flaked quick-lime, and beat up with it into AS A CEMENT. 299 into a thin pafte, the water diflblves a fmall proportion of the hme, which, as it gradual- ly ablbrbs its air, is converted into chryftals ; between the particles of which chryflals, that part of the Hme that was not diflblved, and the other extraneous matters that may have been mixed with it, are entangled, fo as to form a firm coherent mafs of the whole. The pafte formed in this manner is called mortar ; and this heterogenous, imperfectly femi-chryftallized mafs, conftitutes the com- mon cement ufed for building ordinary walls. Thefe circumftances being premifed, it will not be difficult to comprehend wiiat are the particulars that are neceflary to form the moft perfed cement of this fort. i 14- 500 OF Q^U I C K - L I M E § 14. Since lime becomes a cement only in con- fequence of a certain degree of chryRalliza- tion taking place in the whole mafs, it is fufficiently obvious* that the firmnefs and perfedion of that cement muft depend upon the perfediion of the chryftals, and the hard- nels of the matters that arc entangled among them. For, if the chryftals are ever fo per- fed: and hard of themfelves, if they be fe- parated from one another by any brittle in- coherent medium, it is evident that the whole mafs mud remain in feme degree brittle and incoherent. § '5- "Water can only diffolve a very fmall pro- portion of lime, even when in its moft per- fed AS A CEMENT. 30J feO: faline ftate * ; and, as happens with all other faline matters, do more of the lin>e <;an be reduced to a chryAalJinemafs than has l>een adnally diffolved in the water.— Hence it happens, tliat, if mortar be made of pure lime and water alone, a very fmall proportion of the lime only can be diflbl- ved by that fmall quantity of water that is added to it. And, as this fmall proportion alone can be afterwards chryflallizcd, all the remaining undifTolved particles of the lime will be entangled among the few chryftals that are formed. And, as the undiffolved lime in this mafs will in time abforb its air, and be converted into * The reader will obfcrve, thatl'often fpeakof Jirtife in hs/alhie ftate. I prcfumc he will eafrly un\d c(uij:iccalx* And, as it does not yet appear th£>t there is the fmalleQ difference between tlie chemical qualities cf anv one kind of foflile calcareous earth and anothLT, ivhenperjedlly puve^ there is no reafon to fufpedl that there can be any difference hetv^'een one kind of Ii??ie2ind ano- ther, as a cetnent^ unlefs what may arife from the nature of the extraneous bodies that mav be accidentally mixed with that calcareouo matter in its native f>aie, — or from its being more or lefs perfcdly crlcined. But the only extraneous matter that is ever found in iime-flone is fancU in greater or o 68 OF Q^U I C K - L I M E or frnaller proportions. And, as no lime^ ftone thai c in be calcined^ contains Inch a large proportion of fand as is neceffary for making a perfed cen.ient, we mav natu- rally conclude, that every kind of lime is e- qually fit for becoming a firm cement, if it b^ firfl: reduced to a proper degree of cauiii- clty, and has afterwards a due proportion of fand properly mixed with it, before it be employed in work. Different forts of lime, no doubt, vary very much from one another in the proportion of fand they naturally contain, and therefore muft require very different proportions of fand to be pc'ded to them before they can be made cqudly perfect as a cement. This is an oeconomicil coiifideration of no fmall moment in fome cafes, as it may make one fort of lime valUy cheaper tban another' on fome occafions, and tb.erefore deferves to be attended to by every builder. — Diredions fhall AS A CEMENT. 369 fliall be given In the Second Part of this Ef- fav, by the help of which he may be enabled to difcover the exa^ proportion of fan :1 con- tained in any furt of lime he may wiih to examine. In the preceeding parts of this Eflay, I have fpoken of JiHh/ as the only fubitance that is ever added to lime in forming ce- ment ; but, as others have, on fome oc- cafions, been employed for this purpofe, it will be proper here to point out their fe- veral excellencies and defedts. Almofl: the only fubriances that I have known ufed as an addition to mortar, befides find of various denominations, are /) drive this manure from a great diftdnce, will find a very confi- derable faving by driving it in the (late of JJoelh. — But, if it were reduced to a powder, by mechanical triture, he could not be bene- fited by this circumllance. Many perfons choofe to drive lime-Hone from a confiderable di (lance, and burn it at home : — But, it is obvious they then fubjedl: themfelves to a very heavy charge in car- riage, which would be avoided by an oppo- fite condud:. — This, therefore, ought never to be pradifed, but where other circumftan- ces may counterbalance this unfavourable one. S6. AS A MANURE. 397 § 6. But, as lime-ftone is often, in its native ftate, mixed with land in various propor- tions ; — and, as fand loies nothing of its weight by calcination, it mufl: happen, that thofe kinds of lime-ftone that contain the largefl; proportion of fand will lofe leaft in calcination ; and, of courfe, afford the weightieft lime-fhells. Hence, it is obvious, that thofe who are under the neccffity of driving lime from a great diftance, ought to be particularly care- ful to make choice of a kind of lime-ftone as free from fand as poflible, and to drive it in the ftate oi JJoells ; as they will thus obtain an equal quantity of manure at the leaft ex- pence of carriage that is poflible. §7- 398 O F QJJ I G K - L I M E §7- When lime is flaked, that which contains moft fandy^/Zx moft quickly, and abforbs the fmalleft proportion of water. — What is pure requires a very large proportion of water, and is much longer before it begins to fall. • Hence it happens, that thofe who drive Tan- dy lime-lhells in open carriages, muft be very careful to guard againft rain ; becaufe a hea- vy fhower would make the whole fall, and generate fuch a heat, as to be in danger of fetting the carts on tire. — Whereas pure lime- ihells are in no danger of being damaged by that circumftance. — I have feen a cart load- ed with fuch (hells, which had been expofed to a continued fliower of rain, as violent as is ever known in this country, for more thari three hours, and feemed hardly to be affedted by it in the fmalleft degree. §8. AS A MANURE, 399 § 8. Lime-ftiells formed from the pureft lime^ (lone, require more than their own weight of water to flake them properly *; — whereas fome kinds of lime-fhells that contain much fand, do not require above one fourth part of that quantity. Hence, it is much worfe oeconomy in thofc who have pure Hme-fliells, to flake and carry them home in the ftate of powdered lime, than it is in thofe who have only ^ fandy kind of lime-fhells. § 9. * I have found, by experiment, that pure lime- ihells cannot be flaked with lefs than about one fourth more than their own weight of water. "When flaked in the ordinary way, the fame lime-fhells took more than double their weight of water. 409 OF QJJICK-LIME §9- It is even, on fome occafions, more ad- vifeable for thofe who have very fandy lime to drive it in the (late of powdered lime, than in that ot JJjells. For, as it is dan- gerous to give that kind of lime-ftone too much heat, left it fhculd be vitritied, thofe who burn it can never be certain that the whole of the ftone will fall to powder when wa- ter is added, till they have adually tried it. — Nor do they think it a great lofs if lome part of it fhould be imperfedly burned, as it requires much lefs feuel on a future oc- cafion than fiefh lime-ftone; and therefore they much rather chufe to err on this than on the oppofite extreme. But, ftiould any one attempt to drive this poor fort of lime in the ftate okjhells^ he would be in danger of carrying home many ftones that would never fall^ which would more ASA MANURE. 401 more than' counterbalance the benefit he would derive from the want of the fmall quantity of water that is required to flake it. On thcfe accounts, it n-aybe admitted as a general rule, that thole who can have ac- cefs to lime-ftone that is free of land, will fave 2ij{reat deal in the carriajre of it bv dii- ving it in the (late oi Jhdls ; — and that, on the contrary, it will be mofl oeconomicai m thole who can only get lime of a very fandy quility, to drive it in the ftate of powdered lime. From hence it follows, that the practice which now prevails of carrying fliell-lime by water from one part of the country to a- nother, is only an imaginary faving, obtain- ed at a very high rifque, to thofe who drive fhtlls of a fandy quality ; but a real and Unequivocal advantage of very high im- portance to the community at large, if E e e thefe 402 O F Q^U I C K - L I M E thefe Jloells are obtained from a pure lime- ftone. Thcfe obfervations relate only to the fa- ving of carriage to the farmer — an article of capital importance to him. — It is proper now to take notice of fome other particulars that may equally affeiit him in this way, as well as in the application of the lime to his ground. % 10. A vague opinion, in general, prevails in e^^ery p.art of the country, thai one fort cf lime may be more valuable than another ; but it dees not appear that farmers have hi- therto had ahnoft any rule to dire^ft them in the choice of different forts of lime ; fune efteeming one fort Jlrongeft;^ as they t.na is and AS A MANURE. 403 and fome valuing another ibrt more high- ly, without being able to aliign any latisfac- tory reafon for the preference they give in either cafe. it is of importance that this matter fnould be elucidatea. Altho* it does not always happen, yet, in many parts of the couiiCry, tlie real nature of liu e is to htlle underftood, that the wei'jh- tied hme is preferred to that which is hght- er ; becaufe it is imagined the firlt has more JubJhincC', and will theretore produce a more powerful efFeift upon ground than the tmeft and lighted lime. But there Items to be no reafon to think that there is any diiference in the Ipecilic gravity of different parcels ot ^«/f calcareous matter, when fuliy calcined ; ihereio.e, if there is any difference in the w.ight ot va- rious forts of lime, it mufi: arife entirely from ti variation in the quantity, or grainly of fome 404 OF QUICK -LI ME fome extraneous matter that is mixed with the hme. And, 7i^ /and is almoft the only extraneous body that is ever found in lime-ftone; — and, asfand is always of much greater fpeciiic gra- vity than pure quick-Hme,— it follows, that the weighty lime only owes its fuperior gra- vity to a larger proportion of fand that is mixed with it. Bui Jand is of no value as a manure; fo that he who voluntarily purchafes this kind of lime in preference to the other, is guilty of a great degree of folly ; v\hich will be the greater, if he has likewife to drive it from aconiiderable diftance. — it would be better tor him, if he is determined to ufe nothing but weighty lime, to buy fuch as is pure, u it can beob- tair.ed, and mix it wiih land atter ue has got it home, fo as to give it tfe grayity requiied. Some ii.ii^ht hiugh ai liiib as a [luoi oi his folly ; ai.d juiily ; — Lui ii is iLicl) lefs fooiiih in him to do this than to pay Uioney for I II AS A MANURE. 405 for the fand, which he would thus obtain for nothing, and drive it from a diftance, when he might h:.ve it at his door. This pradlice would alio be attended with the further advantage, of enabling linn to know cxadly what quantity ot real lime he ap- plied to his ground, as he would not be in d-iriger of confidering the fand as a part of it. § IT, Thofe who have accefs to only one fort of ilme-ftone mull be contented with it, what- ever may be its quality. But, fuch as have an opportunity of thufing, may be benefited by the foUowi g oolervations : Pure Ume-lione, when fully calcined and flaked, is reduced to a fine impalpable pow- der, that tcels f;ft between the fingers, without the fmalleft tendency to grittinefs. —-Such 4o6 OF QJJICK-LIME — Such lime as contains fand, is never fo fine nor fo foft, but feels gri ty berw^cn the fingers ; and is more or l.fs fo, as the fand is coarfer, or finer, or in greater or fmaller proportions. The lime from pure hme-ftone is always of a bright white, when perfectly calcined, without a tendency to a,ny colour. — When it has any cobur, it proceeds from the fand in its compofition. — There are, howevei, ibme forts of fand that are of fuch a pure white- nefs as not to debafe the coi/)ur of the lime in the imalleft degree ; but thefe are rare. Hence it follows, that the beit lime for the purpofe of the farmer is that which is lightefl, foiteft to the touch, and whiteft. — The more they dev-ate from either of thefe lefts of purity, the worfe they -are for him. § 12, AS A MANURE. 407 § 12. That the farmer may have under his eye at one time the feveral cri eria 01 the purity of hrne that have been enumerated in diffe- rent places of this Lflciy, 1 chufe to mention them here al! at one time. — it he is atten- tive to remark thefe peculiarities, he needs be very lit le follicitous about examining the qualities of his lime by any more minute and troublefome trials. — They are as under : If the lime-ftone lofes n^.uch of its weight In calcination, and the liine-fhells are ex- tremely light ; — if the (hells require a very large proportion of water to flake them fully j ■ — if it is long before they begin u> fall j — if the lime-ftone is not apt tv) run (or be vl- triBed) in the o*^ .radon of burning; — If it falls eniiit'y when it gets a fufnclent quanti- ty of water after it has been pro^.-erly calci- ned ; 4o8 OF Q^UICK-LIME ned ; — if it fwells very much in flaking, and if the lime is light, fine to the touch, and of a pure white ; he may be fatisfied that it is extremely good, and may ufe it in prefe- rence to any other lime that is inferior to it in any of thefe refpeds. Thefe rules are perfe^^ly fufficient to de- cide as to the comparative value of any two kinds of lime that may be oppofed to one afiother, and may be relied upon with cer- tainty. § 12. But, fuch as m.ay difcover a new quarry of lime-ftone, and who wifh to afcercain with certainty its real value, before they put themfelves to any expence about it, will do well to employ the following more accurate, and, in that cafe, more eafy analyfis. AS A MANURE. 409 As all calcareous matters are cnpiblc of being diffblved in acids — and as no other earthy matter can be diffjlved in them — it follows, that, if a fufficient quantity of acid is poured upon any body that contains cal- cireous matter, this matter will be quickly dilTolved, while the others are left behind; and the proportions of each may be accu- rately afcertained. To try the ex3.ft value of any kind of llme- ftone, or other calcareous matter — take a quantity of aquafortis *, or fpirit of faltf; and having prepared them, as in the margin J, put them into a glafs or earthen velTel — add * Nitrous acid. f Muriatic acid. X All the mineral acids effervefce and unite with calcareous earths. — But, as the vitriolic acid {fpirit» or oil of vitriol) does not difolve the calca- reous matter, but forms a new concrete, that ftill retains its foHd ftate, it is not fit for this experi- ment. And, 410 OF QJJICK-LIME add to that, by little and little, a known quantity of the matter you mean to examine, which And, as it fometimes- happens, that a little vitrio- lic acid is mixed with either the nitrous or muriatic acids — it becomes neceflary to be certain that this is not the cafe, before it is employed in this experiment. The eafieff' way of trying if thefe acids ace free from the vitriolic is, to put a little chalk into them be- fore you employ them. — If the acid is pur€, the chalk ■will diflblve very readily — but, if not, fome part of the chalk will fall to the bottom, in the form of a pure white fediment. — When this is the cafe, add fmall bits of chalk, by little and little, till no more of that white fediment appears — after which the acid may be kept for ufe, as fufficiently pure. If the nitrous acid is fo ftrong as to have a flight brown or reddifli appearance, it ought to be diluted with water till it alTumes a greeniih look — As it is bought in the fhops for the ufe of dyers, &c. it is ufually weak enough. If the muriatic acid is fo ftrong as to have a bright yellow colour — or emits fumes when the bottle is o- pened — it ought to be diluted, by adding water tilf it AS A MANURE. 411 which had been previoufly dried, and re- duced to powder. — After each addition, fuf- fer the violent efFervefcence, or ebullition, that will enfue, to abate before more is ad- ded. — When the whole of the powder is put to the acid, and the efFervefcence entirely fubfided, ftir it about feveral times with a piece of tobacco-pipe, and allow it to re- main for fome time, that the acid may a6t upon every particle of the matter, and tho- roughly diffolve it. And, to be certain that there has not been too little acid, put a few drops of frefli acid to the folution, which will excite a frefh efFervefcence, if the whole is not fully difFolved. — When no change is produced by this addition, it is a certain proof that the whole is already difFolved. Take it aflumes almofl: a colourlefs tranfparency, with a very faint tinge of yellow. When they are thus prepared, either of thefe a- cids may be ufed indifcriminately for this experi- ment, as they are equally proper. 412 OF CLUICK-LIME Take then a piece of filtring paper, tho-' roughly dry, the weight of which is alfo known — fold it properly, and put it in a glafs funnel — pour the whole of the folu- tion, with the matter that may have fubfi- ded, into the funnel, and allow it to filtre through the paper flowly. — When the fluid part has thus drained off, fill up the filtre again with pure water, to walh off the whole of the faline parts from the reji-^ duum *. — Add water in this manner till it comes off without any faline tafle — -fuffer it then to drop off entirely — dry it thoroughly — and weigh the paper with its contents. — The difference between which, and what the powder ^nd paper were at the begin- ning, is the whole weight of the calcareous matter ; fo that its proportion to the whole mais is perfectly afcertained. In this manner, I liave examined a great many different kinds of lime-ftone, and have found them vary in all degrees of pu- rity, '^ The matter that remains undiffolved. AS A MANURE. 413 rity, from fuch as were entirely foluble in acids, as fugar or fait is in water, to others that contained only one twelfth of their weight of foluble matter, and eleven twelfths of fand.-:^— The ordinary kinds of lime- ftone contain from one third to two thirds of their weight of fand. — Hard chalk is ufual- ly a pure calcareous earth foluble in acids : — And fome forts of lime-ftone may be met with that are equally pure ; — but thefe are rare. The only extieufive lime-quarries of fuch a pure lime-ftone that i have met with are at Sundeiland, in the county of Dur- ham, where there are feveral quarries of ex- ceeding fine lime-ftone ; the beft of which belongs juft now to Mr James Gulley of that place — There are fome quarries farther up the river Were, the ftone of which is of a much inferior quality. Were all the ftones in the fame quarry equally pure, the above would be a pened: and 414 O F Q.U I C K - L I M E and unexceptionable method of afcertaining the purity of any lime-ftone: But it often happens, that, in a quarry of the very word quality, there are fome pieces fouad that confiil of pure fpar, that are entirely free of any mixture of fand ; and, in other quar- ries of a better fort, there are often fmall veins of an impure fort of ftone mixed through the rock ; fo that, if either of thefe fhould chance to be picked out as a^fpeci- menfor trial, the refult would not be juft. To avoid falling into this miftake, any one who wifhes to make an accurate analy- fis of any new difcovered lime-ftone, will do well to take eight or ten ftones from dif- ferent parts of the quarry, that are fome- what different in appearance from one ano- ther ; and, having taken a chip from each, pound the whole together, to afford a pro- per fubjedt for the experiment. The fame experiment might be tried with lime — but it is evident, the propor- tions AS A MANURE. 415 tions would be different in the fame ftone, from what they would be if tried before calcination — as lime wants its fixed air, &c. which it had when in the ftate of lime-ftone. But, as the lime is more liable to be varied by accidental circum- ftances, it is beft to try the experiment with lime-ftone. § '4- It is, in general, believed, that the lime made of the hardeft lime-ftone xsjlrongery as it is called, by which is meant more powerfully efficacious as a manure, than that which is made from materials of a fofter nature. — Hence it is, in general, aflerted, that lime made chalk from is much weaker, as a manure, than that which is made from harder iiiiiC-ftone. Nothing, 416 OF QJLJICK-LIME Nothing, however, can be more erro-' neous than this hypothefis. — In the former part of this EiTay, I have had occafion to • explain pretty fully what is the real difFe- rence between chalk and lime-ftone — -and no- thing can be more certain, than that the hmc made of chalk is purer than that made from almoft any lime-ftone — and contains a much larger proportion of calcareous matter ; — on which account it muft be more effica- cious as a manure than any of thefe more impure kinds of lime. The hardeft lime-ftone that I know is that belonging to Mr Galley at Sunderland. — Its external appearance rather refembles flint than lime-ftone ; and I have known it ftiaped into flints for guns,, and ufed as fuch with fuccefs — yet the lime made of this exceeding hard flone is as light, as white, and as foft to the touch, as the pu- reft chalk-lime. — It diff^ers not from that in any refped — infomuch, that i defy the great- eft AS A MANURE. 417 eft connoifTeiir in thefe matters to diftin- gui(h between it and the pureft chalk-lime, when perfedly calcined, by any other means than by the pieces of flint that are fo often m::t with among chalk-lime. And from this lime, obtained irom thefe very hard ftones, as perfe<5t chalk may be artificially made, by the fimple proccls de- fcribed p. 363. as was ever obtained from any quarry in England. From thefe conliderations, therefore, I am obliged to conclude, contrary to the com- mon opinion, that chalk-lime is, almoft in all cafes, more efficacious, as a manure, than anv lime obtained from lime-ftone, in equal quantities — as it is extremely rare to meet with a lime-ftone that contains near fuch a large proportion of calcareous matter ; on which account it ought always to be prefer- red by the farmer, wdiere both can be had at the fame price. 4i8 OF QJUICK-LIME § We know little certain about the mode in which lime operates, excepting that it a(Sts merely in confequence of its being mixed with the foil in fubftance. — If a heap of lime (hall have Iain ever fo long upon one fpot, and be afterwards carried clean a- way from it, fo that none of the particles of the lime remain to be mixed with the foil — that fpot will not be richer, or carry more luxuriant crops, than the places a- round it — which, every one knows, is not the cafe with regard to dung. Again — if lime be fpread upon the fur- face of the foil, and allowed to remain there without being ploughed in, its effeds will fcarcely be perceived for feveral years, till if has had time gradually to fmk through the fward and mix with the foil ; after which ita AS A MANURE. 419 its efFeds begin to be perceived — although much lefs fenfibly, than if the fame quanti- ty of Hme had been intimately mixed with the foil, by means of the plough and har- row. I am no ftranger to the improvements that have been made in Derbyfhire, by means of lime without the plough ; but this !S no exception to what I have faid. — The cfFeds are flow, though certain. Thofe who inhabit countries that admit of the plough, are often advifed to lay lime upon the grafs, and are made to believe, that their paflure will be inftantly mended by it, near- ly in the fame perceptible manner as if it had been dunged. This I myfelf have tried, and have (een. it tried by others — but al- ways found that the grafs, for the Uv{\. year, was rather hurt than benefited by it ; nor was it fo much improved in fucceeding years as if the fame quantity of lime had been ap- plied and intimately mixed with the foil.-r- 420 OF QJJICK-LIME In this n-rde of applying lime, therefore, it is long befor.: it yields a proper return, and is not to be recommended to a poor man, unlefs \\ here neceliity obliges him to pradife it. 1 6. If, then, lime afts upon the foil more ef- ficacioufly in confequence of being intimate- ly mixed with it, we may naturally con- clude, that it will produce a more fenfible effedl w^hen it is reduced to exceeding fmall particles, than when it is applied to the foil in larger lumps, as thefe do not admit of being fo intimately mixed with the particles of the foil. But no method has ever yet been difco- vered for reducing calcareous matter to fuch fmall component parts, or of fpreading it fo evenly ever, or of m.ixing it fo intimately with the foil, as by calcination. Accor- dingly AS A MANURE. 421 dingly it is found, that lime will produce a very lenfible effed upon the foil when applied in infinitely fmaller quantities, than any other calcareous matter whatever. Confidercd in this view, it can never be expedled that lime-ftone, reduced to powder by any kind of mechanical triture, will pro- duce fuch a fenfible efted: upon the foil, as the fame quantity of calcareous matter, in the ftate of lime, if properly applied ; be- caule it is impoffible, by mechanical means, ever to reduce it to fuch a fine powder as it naturally falls into after calcination. § ^7- Much, however, depends upon the mode of applying the lime to the foil after calci- nation. If it is fpread as foon as it is flaked, while yet in a powdery ftate, a very frriall quantity may be made to cover the wnole furlace 422 OF QJJICK-LIME furface of the ground, and to touch an exceeding great number of particles of earth. But, if it is fufFered to lie for fome time after flaking, and to get fo much moi- fture as to make it run into clods, or cake into large lumps, it can never be afrain di- vided into fuch fmall parts ; and therefore a much greater quantity is neceffary to produce the fame effed, than if it had been applied in its powdery flate. But if the foil is afterwards to be conti- nued long in tillage — as thefe clods are an- nually broken fmaller by the adlion of the plough and harrows, the lime muft conti- nue to exert its influence a-new upon the foil for a great courfe of years — it will pro- duce an efFeth of heath. It is found, by experience, that, in all po- rous foils which are not expofed to too much darripnefs, in every part of Scotland where lime has not been employed, heath has a natural and almoft irrefiflible propenfity to eftablifh itfelf. In thofe parts of the country, where lime has been much ufed as a manure, we find that the fields may be allowed to remain long in grafs, without becoming covered with that noxious plant. Again ; AS A MANURE. 435 Again : — It is well known, by thofe who have been attentive, and have had opportuni- ties of obferving the fad:, that peafe of any fort can never be fuccersfuUy cultivated in any part of the country where lime or o- ther calcareous manures have never been em- ployed. If the ground be made as rich as poffii;le with common dung, although the peafe in that cafe will vegetate and grow for fome time with .vigour j yet, before they begin to ripen, they become blighted, — ufu^ ally die away entirely before a pod is form- ed, and but rarely produce a few half-formed peafe. But, if the ground has ever been limed, altho*, perhaps, at the didance of thoulands of years from that period, it never lofes its power of producing good c/ops of peafe, if it is put in a proper tilth for carrying them at that time. Again : — In countries that have never been limed, the kinds of grafs that fponta- neoully 436 O F QJJ I C K - L I M E neoufly appear, if left to themfelves, are the fmall ibent grafs, and feather-grafs. — In pla- ces where lime has ever been ufed, the ground, if exhaufied, produces fewer plants of thefe graiTes ; — but, in their (lead, white clover, the poa and fefcue gralfes chiefly a- bound. The foil, in either of thefe cafes, may be- come equally poor ;■ — that is, may produce equally fcanty crops ; But the means of re- covering them will be fomewhat different. In the firR cafe, a fallow is almofl always of ufe. In the laft, it Is often of no effed, fometimes even hurtful. — In tlie firft, a moderate dreffing of dung produces a much more fenfible and iaRing effed than in the other.— In the firft, the quality of the grafs, as well as its quan- tity, rather improves by age. — In the laft, thefe circumftances are reverfed. I might mention feveral other obfervations tending to fhow that ground which has been once impregnated with calcareous mat- ter. A S A M A N U R E. 437 ter, acquires qualities from that moment which it did not {Kjflefs before, which it ever af- terwards retains, and never returns exadly to its former ftaie. — But 1 have faid enough to fuggefl this idea j — future obfervalions will fhow how juRly it is founded. § 22. Akho' lime has fuch powerful efFeds on the foil, it does not feem ever to incorporate with the mold fo as to form one homogeneous mafs ; but the lime remains always in detached par- ticles, which are larger or fmaller in proportion as it has been more or Icfs f erfe61y divided when it was fpread, or broken down by the fubfequent mechanical operations the foil may have been made to undergo. Hence it happens, that, in ploughing, if there chance to be any lumps of calcareous matter 438 O F QJLJ I C K - L I M E matter in a dry ftate upon the furface, they naturally tumble into the bottom of the open furrow, as foon as the earth is edged up up- on the mold-board, fo as to fall into the loweft place that has been made by the plough before the farrow is fairly turned over. In confequence of this circum (lance, it muft hap^-en, that, in the courfe of many repeated ploughings, more of the lime will be accumulated at the bottom of the foil than in any other part of it. And, as the plough fometlmes goes a little reeperthan ordinary, the lime that on thefe occafions chances to be depr>fited in the bottom of thefe furrows, will be /y/ow the ordinary llaple o[ the foil, it wiil be urelefsior the purpofes of the farmer. It is c:^mi; only thoy.ght that the lime has funk thn/ the foil by its own gravity ; — al- though it is certain that lime is fpecifically lighitr than any foil, and can only be accu-; mulated there by the means above defcribed. Ta AS A MANURE. 439 To obviate this inconvenience, it behoves the fanner, — in the firfl: place, to be ex- tremely attentive to have his lime divided into as fmall particles as pofliblt; at the time of fpreading : For, if thefe are fufiicieiuly fmall, they incorporate fo intimately with the mold as to be incapable of being ca- fily detached from it. — On this account, as well as others, it is always moft advif^able to fpread the lime when in its dry powdery ftate, immediately after flaking, before it has had time to run into lumps. It is alfo of importance to plough the foil with a morefhallow furrow than ufual, when lime is put upon it ; — efpecially the firli: time it is ploughed after the lime has been fpread upon its furface. Becaufe, at that plourh- ing, the lime being all on the furface, a lar- ger proportion of ii is turned into the bot-om of the laii made furrow, than at any lucceed- ing ploughing; and therefore more of it will be buried beneath the ftaple than at any other 440 O F QJJ I C K - L I M E other time, if the furrow fhall have been very deep. This circumftance becomes more effential- \y neceffiry in ploughing grafs-ground that has been newly limed ; bccaule, in this cafe, the lime is lefs capable ot being mix- ed with any part of the foil than in any o- ther. It alfo becomes extremely neceffary, in all fucceeding times, to guard as much as poiTible againft ploughing to unequal depths. 1 have hitherto fpoke only of Iwie as a manure; — but moft of thefe obfervations, it ■will appear, may be equally applied to other calcareous matters. That the comparative va- lue of thefe, and the real difference between them, when compared feparately with lime, as well as vv'ith one another, may be fully un- derftood, it will be neccflary to confidcr each clafs of thefe fubftances feparately, and point out AS A MANURE. 441 out with precifion its peculiar dlftlndive qualities. § 23. OF CHALK. All the writers ou agriculture whom I have ever yet met with have confidered the feve- ral clailes of calcareous fub^.ances as dlftindt kinds of m anures, and as pofleiling quail ties ex- tremely different from one another on manv occafions. And hence it happens, that Tome- times one of thefc, which chances to have become the favourite of the author, and fometimes another, is highly recommended, while the others are dcfpifed as ufelefs, or reprobated as pernicious. In this manner, a very late writer *, with whom chalk is a peculiar favourite, fays, K k k * I * The author of the complete Englifh farmer. 442 OF CLUICK-LIME * I will lay it down as a certain and uncon- trovertible maxim, xhdiiJhcUs frefh from the pit, laid on and managed as before dire(Sted, in the proper feafon, will enrich every fort of earth it is laid upon ; and that lime^ on the contrary, laid on, at whatever time, or ma- naged in whatever maimer, will, after the firft and fecond year, impoverifh every fpil it mixes with.' It would be no difficult matter to produce other authors who, in a like decifive man- ner, reprobate the ufe of chalky while they enlarge, without bounds, on the qualities of lime — and others who prefer mark of dif- ferent forts, or fome of the other claffes of calcareous earths, as the moft valuable of all manures— while they condemn the others beyond all bounds of moderation. The truth, however, is, that, although thefe authors may be right in recommend- ing their own favourite manures, the bene- ficial effects of which they may have often expe- AS A MANURE. 443 experienced ; as they ufually condemn the others, merely from early prejudices, or im- perfe<3: trials of them which have not fuc- ceeded, their decifions ought only to be confidered as a proof of their being unac- quainted with the real qualities of the mat- ters they condemn, and of that prefumptuous weaknefs which is ever the" attendant of ig- norance. Nothing can afford a ftronger proof that the author above mentioned was totally un- acquainted, either in theory or pradtice, with the real difference between chalk and lime, than the pofitive diflindion he has made between thefe two fubftances as a ma*' nure *. § 25. * The reader ought to be informed, that the lime he condemns is Jime made from the very chalk he fo much approves of. 444 F QJJ I C K - L I M E §2J- It has been demonftrated, in the prc- ceeding part of this Effay, that lime differs not in any of its qualities from chalk, ex- cept that it is deprived of its fixed air — which can have no effedt on it as a manure; becaufe it again abforbs that fixed air before it has been a few days applied to the foil. After this period, therefore, what was ori- ginally. /i;;/^. is now chalky and muft have tjie f^ine effeds upon the foil, in every re- fpecl-,,2^ an equal quantity of chalk, e^qually fpread upon it, would have had. -^ It is eafy, however, for thofc who attend to the practice of this gentleman, to ac- count- for his partiality for chalk. The quantity of chalk he recommends is twenty- five loads per acre ; which, I fuppofe, may be AS A MANURE. 445 be about twelve hundred bufhcls *. He advifes only ten or fifteen buihels of lime. ]s it furprifing that the effeds of thefe two dreflings fhould be extremely different ? He ventured once to give a field of clay a drefTing of fixty bufliels of lime — after which he took, 1. wheat, produce 16 bufhels, 2. oats, - - 4 quarters, 3. barley, - 5 bufhels, 4. clover, - worth nothing. Hence, fays he, the lime has ruined my foil. The foil was acknowledged to be poor — Inflead of fixty, it is doubtful if fix hundred bufhels would have been lufficient to make it produce good crrps under a management fo execrable in other refpeds. But—. * A load I underftand to be a waggon- load — •which, I fuppofe, may contain between hve and fix quarters. 446 OF QUICK-LIME But — to leave ofF thefe ungracious ftric- tures, 1 now proceed. § 26. Chalk, as has been often faid in the courfe of this eflay, is a pure calcareous earth hafti- ly concreted. Sometimes it is mixed with a fmall proportion of argillaceous * matter, in which ftate it approaches to the nature of mark. In either the one or the other of thefe ftates, it is employed as a manure in the countries where it abounds. Chalk differs not from lime in any parti- cular that can affedt the farmer, unlefs it be that lime, by being in the ftate of a fine powder, admits of being more equally fpread upon the ground, and more intimately mix- ed with the foil, than chalk ; from whence it follows, that a much fmaller quantity of lime • Clayey. AS A MANURE. 447 lime may be employed fucceffively as a dref- fing for ground, than could polTibly be the cafe with chalk. In order, therefore, to make chalk pro- duce the greateft poiTible effect upon the foil, it becomes neceffary to reduce it into as fmall pieces as can be done — fo that it ought to be an objed of great importance to thofe farmers who have an opportunity of employing this fubftancc, to difcover what is the eafieft and lead expenfive method of reducing it, as foon as poiTible after it is fpread upon the foil, into very fmall portions. Chalk is fuch a porous fubftance, that, when in its native bed, after long and con-, tinned rains, it is found to have imbibed a great deal of moifture by which it af- fumes a foftifh feel to the touch. But if chalk be dug out of the pit, and dried flowly and perfedly by the heat of a fummer's fun, its pores become, in fome de- gree, contracted j — it refiffs, in a great mea- fure, 448 OF QjnCK-LIME fure, the frefh admiffion of water, and acquires a much greater degree of hard- nefs, than when it was originally dug from the quarry. On the contrary, If it be taken from the pit during the wet weather in winter, and expofed to the rains that ufually fall at that feafon, it has never time to dry — its pores remain quite full of water ; and, when the froft comes on, that water, in the ad of freezing, being greatly expanded, burlis it forcibly afunder^ and makes it crumble down into a flimey kind of powder, x^nd, as the pieces that may remain undecompofed con- tinue to abforb more as the rains fall from the heavens, the frofts that may fucceed occa- fion a new difiblution — fo that, by thefe al- ternate rains and frofts, the whole is in time totally divided, fo as to admit of being pretty evenly fpread and mixed with the foil. For AS A MANURE. 449 For thefe reafons, it is always expedient to dig the chalk in the beginning of winter, and to fpread it immediately upon the field as well as can be done, fo as to expofe it to the vi- cifTitudes of the winter weather before it has had time to harden after being taken from the pit. § 27. As the chalk ought always to be carried to the field while yet wet, it in a great mea- fure prevents thofe who may be at a diilance from the place where it is found, from being benefited by this manure ; becaufe the car- riage of it would, in thefe circumftances, be extremely burdenfome. To obviate this inconvenience, it becomes a very oeconomical practice to reduce it to the ftate of lime before it is carried home. For, in this way, the weight is not only much diminilhed by the dilFipation of all L 11 the 450 O F Q^U I C K - L I M E the raoifture from the chalk, hut it can alfo be carried home in fummer, when the weather and roads are at the belt; and a much fmal- ler quantity will produce an equal effect, than when it is iu the ilate of chalk. Thofe, therefore, who have no other cal- careous manure within reach of them but chalk, — when that is at a confiderahle dif- tance, ought always to drive it in the fldte of lime. — But thofe who are clofe by the pit will, in general, find it more oeconomical to employ it in the ftate of chalk. §28. Chalk fo much abounds in the fouthera parts of Britain, that fliips fometimes bring it as ballaft to the north ; — on which occa- fions it may be purchafed at a moderate price by the farmer. — But, although it contains, perhaps, i:iearly an equal quantity of calca- reous matter as the fame bulk of fome very pure AS A MANURE. 451 pure kinds of lime, yet it will not be good qeconomy in him to purchafe it at the fame price with the lime, — as at leaft three or four times more chalk than li.ne will need to be applied to his foil before it produces an equal effect. For, as it is impofTibie to get that hard dry chalk reduced to fmall enough parts, a great quantity mufl: be applied be- fore it can produce any fenfible effect: ; and, although the efFedls of this manure may be lafting, yet it is never any thing nearly equal to lime, if applied in equal quantities. Another calcareous matter of great utili- ty as a manure is marie; the diflindive pro- perties of which fall now to be confidered. §29. OF MA RLE. Few fubftances appear under a greater di- yerfity of forms than n.arle. Hence it is u- fual 452 O F Q^U I C K - L I M E fual for writers on agriculture to enumerate as diftin(3: manures the feveral varieties of this general clafs of bodies. But, as all the different kinds of marie that have hitherto been difcovered may be reduced to two ge- neral clafTes, viz. earthy marles, which are always found in foffd rtrata under the earth, and Jhell marie, which always retains evi- dent marks of its animal origin, I fhall confider each of thefe feparately, as diftin^t iubftances. §30. Of Earthy or Fofftl Mark. The varieties of this clafs of bodies are diftinguifhed by names, fuggefted by the ap- pearance they affume when frefli dug from their native beds. When they are foft and of an uniform texture, they are called clay marles ; — when firm and hard, ftone marles; — when thefe alTume a thin foliacious ap- pearance, they are denominated flate marles, and fo on. But, AS A MANURE. 453 But, whatever appearance they affume when frefh dug, or by whatever name they are known, they all agree in t' is, tliat, if they be expofed for a fufficient time to the ac- tion of the air, they crumble into fmaller parts, and fertilize the earth to which they have been properly applied. The ingenious Dr Ainllie has demonftra- ted, by an accurate fet of experiments, recorded in the Phyi'cal and literary elTays, volume third. That all the varieties of this clafs of bodies contain a confiderable proportion of clay, un ted with calcareous matter ; where- as limcltone, if it does not confifl: of pure calcareous matter, is ufually united with fand in various proportions. The calcareous matter in marie docs not differ in any refped from thit in limeltone, and Its proportions in many cales is the fame in rnarle as in limeilone, — fo thjt the diffe- rence between the appearance and qualities pf thefe two fubiiaaces arifes intirely from the 454 ^F QUICK-LIME the nature of the heterogeneous bodies mix- ed with the calcareous matter. When viarle is expofed to the air, the clay in its compofition abforbs the moifture that falls from the clouds, — fweils with it, — becomes foft, and, gradually lofing its co- hefion, crumbles to pieces. — if limeftone is expofed to the air, the fand in its compofi- tion is not in the leaft affeded by moifture, — and it retains its original figure and dimen- fions for a great length of time. When fand is mixed with the clay that enters into the compofition of marie, it af- fumes a ftony like appearance — and is more or lefs firm according to the quantity of fand, or other circum fiances. — But, where there is clay at all in the compofition, it will be gra- dually foftened by water ading upon it; and, it is owing to this circumftance alone, that ftone-marles fall in time to pieces when ex- pofed to the air. But, AS A MANURE. 455 But, it jiiarle be expofed to the a£tioQ of a moderate fire, the clay in its compofition becomes hard, — it is no longer capable of abforbing water, or of being affevited by it in any degree ; fo that tiie marie, if not of a very pure Tort, or Inch as contains only a very fmall prop.^-tion of clay mixed with the fand in its compofition, will become firm- er after burning than it was before, and be in this flate with more difficulty reduced to powder, which is the reverfe of what hap- pens with limeftone. Marie, therefore, is fit to a6t as a manure without any other preparation than digging it from the pit and fpreading it upon the ground, — whereas, limeftone always requires to be reduced to a powder, either by burning or otherwife, before it can be of any ufe in that way. But, as limeftone is at once reduced into much fmaller parts by calcination than marie can ever be brought to at firft, a much fmal- Icr 456 O F QJJ I C K . L I M E ler proportion of lime may be equally fpread over an acre of ground, than of marie j and therefore it will produce, in equal quantities, a much more fenfible effedt. § 31. The difcerning reader, who attends to thefe circum.ftances, will eafily perceive the reafons for all the peculiarities of practice that prevail with regard to the application of lime and marie, and be able, v^ithout em- barraffment, to judge in what cafes it may be moft for his profit to employ the one or the other of thefe manures, when they are both within his power. He may afcertain the proportion of cal- careous matter contained in the marie, by the fame procefs already defer ibed for trying limeftone, p. 409, and thus compare the in- trinfic value of the lime and marie in any cafe. For this is always in proportion to the calcareous matter contained in either. He A S A M A N U R E 457 He will eafily perceive, however, - that the fame quantity of calcareous matter in the ftate oi' limey will produce a much great- er effed, than when it is in the ikte o^" marie ; becaufe it is divided into infinitely fmaller panicles, — can be more equally fpread upon the ground, and more intimAte- ly mixed with the foil. Hence it univerfally happens, that a much larger quantity of marie i^ applied at one dreffing, than of lime. From one to two hundred cart loads of marie, is a com- mon drefling to an acre ; — that is, from three thoufand to fix thoufand bufliiels ; — whereas, from thirty to three hundred bufh- els of lime, is a common drefling for an acre of ground. In thefe proportions, it is reafonable to think, that the effects of the marie will continue to be longer felt, than thofe of the lime: For, as the marie is gradually broken in- to fmaller pieces every year, thefe will fuccef- M m ni fively 458 OF QUICK-LIME fively mix with the foil, and produce an ef- fedt nearly fiinilar to what might be ex- pe^rcJ frOLii an an-Mial dreffing of lime. It n.ay likewife be expeded, that a full drefiing of marie, in the proportions above named, will produce a more capital improve- ment upon light fpungy grounds, than an ordinary drelhng of lime; — becaufe, indepen- dent ot the calcareous matter, the large pro- portion of clay applied in this manner may produce fome alteration on the quality of the foil. This alteration, however, will be different according to the nature of the ex- traneous matter contained in the marie. But, as all marles contain clay, — it is na- tural to think, that clay lands will not be benefited at all by this circumftance, — as the calcareous matter alone in the marie will be to thefe an ufeful addition. — Hence, light land will be in general more highly benefited by this manure than clay land. ii AS A MANURE. 459 land, which has given rife to the following vulgar rhyme. He that marks fand. Will foon buy land ; But he that niarlcs clay, Ihrows all aw;ty. The truth, however, is, that clay Is as high- ly benefited by thecalrareous mitrcr In m^;rle as fand is, — (o that a rich i; aile wiii be nearly equally beneficial in both cafes. But, there are foir.e kinds of clays that are very free from ai^y m'xtiire of land, and affume the appearance of ir.arle, and are fo called, altho' they hardly contain al- moft any calcareous matter at all. — Thefe may, perhaps, on fome occafions, he an ufe- ful addition to light foils, and worth the ex- pence of carrying to them when near, — but could never be of almoft any uie at ali upon clayey foils. It has probably been fome poor kind of marie of this fort that has gi- ven rifeto the proverb above quoted. § 32. 46o OF QJJICK-LIME §32. I fliall not pretend to prefcribe pofitlve rules for determining when the one or the other of thefe fnbftances, lime or marle^ ought to be preferred as a manure ; as a de- cifion in favour of the one or the other, muft in a great meafure depend upon the fi- tuation of the place where they can be both obtained ; — the purity of either of them re- fpedivelv, — the price at which they may be purchafed, and the expence of carriage ; — all thefe circuniftances may be beft a- fcertained by every individual for himfelf. But 1 may be allowed to obferve, that it argues a great want of knowledge of the real qualities of thefe fubftances, when a man prefers the one of thefe and condemns the other in all cafes. For it is merely a matter of calculation, nvhen the one, or ijuhen the other may be moft valuable to any particular perfon. If A S A M A N U R E. 461 ' If the marie be tolerably rich, and can be obtained at little expence near the field, in the proportions ufually employed; — ^it will be in general more advantageous to the podef- for, who has a profpcdl of enjoying his farra for a longtime, to ufe marie in preference to lime. But, when it niufl: be brought from a diftance, lime, in all cafes, will be cheaper, and on that account better, than niarle. If marie contains a great proportion of clay, — it may be worth the expence of dri- vinc: to a light foil on fome occafions, even where lime could be procured as cheap: But, on all occafions, if the fame quantity ot calcareous matter in the llate of liine can be obtained at the Ikmc price, — that will be a much more beneficial nanure for ciavev foils than mariv^ — Im. are marie is indeed feldom Worth the expence of carting on a clayey foil. Some readers will be much dlflatisfied at reading 462 O F CLU I C K - L I M E reading this fhori account of the nature of marie, aad its operations as a manure. — Far, as they have been accuftomed to look upon this manure as poffeiTmg feme very fmgular qualities peculiar to itfelf, and to think that it differed from lime in fome very effeatial refpedls, and would produce effeds upon the foil, nowiie fimiljr to that which would be produced by lime in any cafe ; — they will feel a kind of uneafmefs at being obliged to llrike this one off their lift of diftin^t and fe- parate manures — But it is the bufinefa of true philofophy, to eradicate that fpirii for myfterious credulity, which is fo apt to lull the reafoning faculty afleep, and make the mind reft fatisfied with the contemplation of ideal phantoms created by the fancy, inftead of real objeds of ufeful knowledge. §33. AS A MANURE. 463 § 33. Of Shell Mark. Shell marie is always found in low places, that either are, or have been, covered with water. It is a whitifh powder, that has been formed by the gradual decompolition of Ihells, in the courfe ot many ages. — It is, therefore, a pure calcareous matter, without any other mixture than the mud, and other fediments that may have funk to the Dottom of the water, in the ponds where it has been formed. As the proportion of fcdiment that may have mixed with the fliells, may be very different in different fituations ; this kind of marie, like all others, may be more or lefs pure, and, of confequence, of greater or fmal!- er value to the farmer. — its purity may be dctermired 464 OF Q^UICK-LIME determined by the mode prefcribed page 409, and its value afcertained with precifion. It is ufually a light, fpongy fubrtance, very (lightly coherent, and contains more calcareous matter in proportion to its weight, than the common forts ot lime. And, as it admits of being fpread as equally as lime, it may in general be carried with profit a§ far as lime. But, as it is more fpongy than lime, per- haps a fmaller quantity will fill the meaiurej; on which account, the prime coit of the fame quantity of marie ought to be a lit- tle below that of lime, to be equally profit- able to the farmer. Shell marie, however, cannot be carried fo far with profit as (hell lime of the heft fort ; as this laft, in that ftate, wants a great proportion of its moiflure, air, &c. which greatly diminiflies its weight. It is, neverthelefs, a very great treafurc to thofe who can difcove^: it, as it is almoft in AS A MANURE. 465 ia all cafes of equal value with li;ae,— pro- duces the fame efFed upon the foil, — ad- mits of being equally eafily fprcad, aad can, for the molt part, be obtained upon the fpot at a much fiuailcr expence. But, in fituations where feuel is fcarce and dear, it is of much greater value than the bcft lime-ftone, — and ouf:;ht to be pri- zed accordingly by every pofleflbr of ground ; nor ought any one, in fuch a fituation, to o- mit fearching diligently every place, where there is the fmalleft probability of finding it. §34- Of Shelly Sand, Ori many parts of the fea-coafl:, great beds of ihells are to be found, which have been broken into fuch fmall parts as to af- fumc the appearance of fand. This is a rich and valuable manure, that dcfcrves co N n n be 466 OF CLUICK-LIME be highly prized by thofe who are wlthlri reach of it ; but, it is too often neglected and unobferved, as this kind of fand has, on many occafions, very much the appearance of ordinary fand. This may readily be difcovered, by pour- ing a little aqua fortis, or any other mine- ral acid *, upon the fand you wilh to exa- mine. If it contains fhells, an effervefcence will enfue ; and the proportion of calcare- ous matter, contained in any fort of fand, may be afcertained by the fame procefs al- ready * M?ny perfons make this trial with vinegar, in- ftead of the mineral acids ; but this ought never to be done, as it often happens, that vinegar makes no fenfible efFervefcence with calcareous fubftances. I would, thereforej advife every country-gentleman, to keep aph^alofaqua forfs, or muriatic acid, al- ways by him, for making trials of calcareous fubftan- ces ; the expenee is nothing, and, I am perfuaded, from the ivant of it alone, many perfons have failed to make diTcoveries of calcareous matteib> that might have been of high importance to themfelves and fa- milies. A S A M A N U R E. 467 ready fo often referred to, p. 409. Nor ought this trial ever to be omitted before the fand be employed as a manure ; becaufe, a very fmall proportion of fliells will make it eftervefce violently, fo that the de- gree of effervefcence is no proof of its puri- ty, — and becauie the proportion of Ihells varies in all pcffiblc degrees. If the Ihells are broken into very fmall fragments, and, if the proportion of fand is inconfiderable, it will be nearly as vaiua^ ble as lime, and may be driven to a great- diftance with profit. If the proportion of fand be very great, the expence in ufing it will be greater, as the quantity muft be con- fiderably increafed. But, as it may, for the moll part, be pro- cured at little expence, thofe w4io are polTelf-^ ed of it, are ufually able to employ it in great quantities ; in which cafe, it will pro- duce amazing effedts, efpecially upon flrong clay land. 468 OF CLUICK-LIME A much fmaller quantity of calcareous matter, in this ftate, wiil produce a more fen- fible effedx, than when itisinany fort of earthy marie; becaufe, it admits of being more c- qua^Iy fpread upon the ground, and more intimately mixed v/ith the foil. Thofe^ there- fore, who are upon the fea-coaft, ought to fearch for it with care, as they will ufually obtain an invaluable treafure when they dif- cover it. 1 his fort of fand is much more common in tl'ie eaft coaft ot Scotland, than is ufually imagined.— Ail along the coaft of Fife, e- fpecially about St. Andrew's, the fand upon the fiiore is richly impregnated with (hells ; — but it has never there been employed as a manure. — — On the north coafl of Aber- deenfnire, flielly fand abounds, and has been of late employed as a manure with the greateft fuccefs, by a gentleman dillinguilh- cd fov iiis knovJedge and public ipirit in that corner. — ■ — It is likewife found in Banf- fhire, A S A M A N U R E. 469 {hire, where it has been applied with the -high eft fuccefs. — And all along the coaft of Sutherland and Caithnefs, the fands upon the /hore coniift almofi: entirely of (hells. Theie are treafures which will enrich pof- terity, alrho' they are at prefent in a great meafure negle£led. I mention them here to induce my countrymen, not to neglect a trea- fure ot luch ineftimable vaUie. The ingenious Mr Craik in Dumfries- fhire, — fo well known for his judicious im- provements in the dnll hulbandry, has, I am told, employed this manure for a longer time, and in greater quantities, than any other perfon in Scotland, and has been high- ly benefited by it. 1 wiOi to produce fuch a refpedable authority, with a view to in- duce others to follow his example. § 35- Mr Arthur Young, in one of his Tours, mentions a bed of Ihells near Colchelter, in Eflex, which the inhabitants diflinguifli by the 470 O F QJU I C K - L I M E the name of Craggy and employ as a ma-* nure with the greateft fuccefs. From his account of this fubftance, it would feem doubtful, whether it was a real calcareous matter or not. But he only tried it with vinegar, — an acid too weak to produce any fenfible efFed; on many forts of calcare- ous matters, in certain circumftances. There is little room to doubt, but that, with a mi- neral arid, the effervercence would have been fufficiently violent. , §36. In fome places there are found large beds of oyftei ftiells almoft entire. Tiiefe are fo large, as to require to be broken into linal- ler fragments, before they can be profitably en ployed as a manure. — And, as thefe may- be eafily calcined, they ought always to be reduced to the ttate of Imie before they are Vifed. Whoever finds a bed of thefe, finds a AS A MANURE* 471 A lime quarry of the mofl: valuable fort, and Ought to value it accordingly. It may be fometiines neceflary, to burn fhelly fand into lime, and this mav, on ex- traordinary emergencies, be piattifed, al- tho* it is rather a troublefome operation. For, as the incoherent fand always mixes with the feuel, and extingui'hes the fire, when in its native fta'^e, it becomes neeef- fary to reduce it firft to fome degree of con* fiftency. — This may be effected by knead- ing the fand with a little clay, and moulding it into the form of bricks; which, when dri- ed, will retain their form fo long as to per- mit the fire to a£t upon the Ihells, and burn them to lime, which may be afterwards fla- ked and ufed. A manufadure of this kind is carried on at the Duke of Bridgewater's great works, near Warrinton, in Lancafliire. In fituations where limeftone cannot pof- fibly be had, — and where the carriage of lime would be extremely expenfive, — it may 471 OF QJLJICK-LIME may fometimes be advifeable, to burn fome of this {helly fand into lime, for the purpofe of building', but, if the lime is to be employed as a manure, it is a very idle and a uielels pro- cefs : For the burnings in this cafe, can on- ly be of ufe in dividing the calcareous mat- ter into fmall parts, v^hich has already been performed by nature, when the flielli Were reduced to the ilate of fine (and. S37* Of Lime-Stone GraveL This is a manure little known in Britain^ altho' it is common in many parts of Ire- land, it is a hard fort of marie, that af- furries the appearance of fmall flones, or gra- velj— which, when fpread upon the ground^ and AS A MANURE. 4- ^nd mixed with it, gradually falls into fmall- er pieces, and fertilizes the foil in propor- tion as it breaks down and mixes wiih it. After what has already occurred, little needs be faid as to the qualities or n-.'- Je of applying this manure ; as the reader ^^ili ea- fily be able to perceive, that, if the pieces of which this gravel confili are large, and dif- folve but flowly, the quantity applied at one dreffing ought to be great, and the efTefls will be flow and lafting ; — and if the gravel is fmall, it will require a fmaller quantity, — will operate more quickly, and laft for a fhorter time, like all other calcareous fub- ftances in the fame circumftances. Thefe are all the varieties of calcareous matter, that 1 have ever known to be u!ed as a manure. They are all extremely ufe- ful in proper circumftances, — perhaps e- qually fo, if thefe circumfiances are duly at- tended to. To aflift the farn^.er ftill further, the following general aphorifms relating to O o o the 474 OF QUICK-LIME the application of calcareous rr.atters as a manure mav be of ufe. §3^ There feems to be only one kind of calca- reous matter ; and all the varieties of cal- careous fubftances that we meet with, are entirely occaiioned by a diverfity in the nature of the extraneous bodies with which the calcareous matter is united, or a difference in the form it may appear in at the time. Confidered as a manure, thefe extraneous matters may be more or Icfs beneficial, accor- ding to particular circumftances, relating to the foil, &c. In all the foflil calcareous con- cretions, clay or fand feem to be the only extraneous matters worth attending to, — neither of which can ever be of great confe- quence as a manure, altho' they may be more or AS A MANURE. 475 or lefs proper for different foils. la tliofe calcnreoLis fubdances that belong to the ani- mal kingdom, the fleiliy parts of the ani- mals may be, fometime?, united with the calcar*^ous, which will greatly promote their effects as a manure, on every kind of foil whatever. This docs not, however, feem to be the cafe, either with fhell marie, or fine fheily fand ; as, in both thefe cafes, the ani- mals, which once inhabited thefe flu'lls, have been fo long dead, that no part of the flefhy fubftance can remain. But the recent fhclls, obtained from fifhing towns, operate much more powerfully as an animal manure, than as a calcareous matter, when firft ap- plied. It is not Impoffihle, but that man may, in time, fall upon fo;T;e contrivance, for obtaln- ningthis animal calcareous manure, in much greater abundance and perfedtlon, than it has hitherto been ever obtained. There Is 476 O F Q^U I C K - L I M E a finall fpecies of frelli water ivtik^ which encrsaies fo laft, as in a furpriring fhort time fo ill! a confidera'ale ipace witii foUd wilxs, if a icA^ ^i thern have been placed in a pronei receptacle for that piirpofc, and wa- tCi li'-lv adminiflred to them. — If then, poiids were prepared tor this purpofe, and properly flocked with this animal, and if they were allowed to increafe, till a bed of them of confiderable thicknefs was accumu- lated, might they not, then, be taken out in abundance to be employed as a manure ? Thefe, if bruifed under a ftone like a tanner's wheel, to reduce the (hells to fmall frag-, ments, would certainly form as rich and effi- cacious a manure as could poffibly be devi- fed : — Nor could there be any difficulty ia difpofing the ponds in fuch a manner, as to afford a conftant annual fupply. It has probably been by a natural procefs, fimilar to this, that all thofe beds of fhell niarle we now meet with, have been origi- nally I AS A MANURE. 477 nally pr-^duced. This fpecies of marie is generally found to con i ft of the fh;lls of this fort ot Imall wilk, more or lels d^- compofed. The an mals vv..ich inhabited thefe fhells, have been once nourUlied by the water contained in thofe hollow places where this fort of marie is always f»;.ind, and have probably been entirely aeltroyea oy fome accidental drought, which deprived them of the water Leccffary for their e?;ift- ence, — or to fome other difaftrjus cu'cum- ftance that it is impoffible for us now to point out ; — and the fhells remaining be- hind, have gradually mouldred down to the ftate in which we now find them. §39- The fame quantity of calcareous matter, ^ill, in all cafes, operate equally pow er- fuUy 478 OF aUICK-LIME fully on foils of a fimllar quality, and in a fimilar ftate. But thele effed:s may be more accelerated or retarded, — be more uniform or unequal, according as the calcareous matter is more or lefs perfedily divided when it is firft ap- plied to the foil. If the calcareous matter be divided into very fmall parcicles, fo as to admit of being eqv.aliy fprend ever a very large lurface, a fmall qi:;in."ity of it will produce a much more fenfible clfedt, than if the fa'ne quantity of calcaieous matter had been applied in large lumps, which could, in that cafe, have ope- rated only upon a very few particles of the foil ; — ^Therefore, Ume^ fins f nelly Jand^ or Jhtllmarh^ if equally pure, m.ay be applied with profit, in mitch fmaller quantities than any other clafs of calcareous rr^i-nures. Hence alfo it follows^ tliat, '. equal quan- tities of cr.lcareous matter arc employed as a manure, that which adaiits of being moft minutely AS A MANURE. 479 minutely divided, will produce the grcaieft efFed: at the beginning ; becauie, the ieparate particles will be at liberty to aCt on a much greater number of particles of the foil at once, than when it Is lefs perfectly divided. But, ifafufficlent quantity of calcareous matter has been applied, when in pretty large maifes, fo as to cover the ground pretty equally; and if thefe lamps continue to diC* folve in the foil in all after periods, the ef- fe£t of this drefling will be much longer perceived, than that of a drefling of calcare- ous matter in fine powder, that Ihould pro- duce at firrt an effed: equal to this. — Perhaps, in this cafe, the virtue of every particle of the calcareous matter will come in time to produce a full effect upon the foil, and benefit it as much as an equal quantity of very fine powdeied calcareous matter would have done, applied at different times. Stone and clay mailes, therefore, are equally effi- cacious 48o O F dU I C K - L I M E cacious manures as powdered lime, altho' more flow in their operation. But, as lime that has been fufFered to run into folid cakes, before it is applied to the foil, can neither be properly fpread upon it, nor has any chance of being diflblved by the adion of the air afterwards, — it never can be made to produce its full influence on the foil ; and therefore this mode of applying calcareous matter is the moft unoeconomi- cal that could ever be pradifed. S40. Calcareous matter, alone, is not capable of rearing plants to perfection, — mold is neceflary to be mixed with it in certain proportions before it can form a proper foil. — It remains, however, to be deter- mined, what is the due proportion of thefc AS A MANURE. 4^t thefe ingredients for forming a propei* foiK We know that neither chalk, nor marie, nor lime, can he made to nourirti plants a- lone ; — and foils are fometimes found, that naturally abound with the two firft of thefe to a faulty degree. — But, the proportion of calcareous matter in thefe, is fo much larger than could ever be produced by art, where the foil was naturally deftitute of thefe fub- ftances, that there feems to be no danger of erring on that fide. Probably, it would 1 e much eafier to corre^St the defe(£t:s of thofe foils in wlilch calcareous matters fuper- abounti, by driving earth upon them as a ma- nure, than is generally imagined, — as a ve- ry fmall proportion of it fometimes affords a very perfe<^ foil. I fliall Illufl-rate my meaning by a few examples. Near Sandfide, in the county of Ciiith- nefs, there is a pretty extenfive plain on the P p p fea-coaft, 482 OF Q U T C K - L J M E fea-coafi-, eadowc J wicli a moftfingukr degree of fertility. In all fear^ns, it produces a moft luxiTrian.t herbage, altn j' it never got any manure fine? fhe creation, and has been for lime immemorial iubjeded to the following courfe of crops. 1. Bear after once ploughing from grafs, — ivf —lly a good :rop. 2. ' -ear after o ce ploughing, — a better crop '.ned with calcareous matter, that there is no pof- fibility of afcertaining the exait point where marie ends and lime-ftone begins. A very Imall proportion of clay is fuffi- cient to make an exceeding hard lime-ftone relent in tioie in the air, and fad to |:ieces ; fo that there are many forts of ftone marie that confift chiefly of fand and calcareous, earth, and only a very little clay. Thefi" very ha* d kinds of marie may be eafily burnt into lime, — fo that they may be. AS A M A N U R E. 497 be indifferently called marie or lime- done. 3d, The fame rnay be faid of the diftinc- tion between marie and chalk, (p. 274. § 5.) Many fubftances, which have the appear- ance and diiiinguifhing properties of chalk, contain clay in different proportions. — Thefe diffolve ia the air, or ruti, as it is termed, more readily .than the pure har4 kinds of chalk, and ^'eel more undtuous or fatty 10 the .touch, from whence they are called y^/ chalks. — ^Thefe, however, may be converted into lime, fo that they might in- differently be called chalk^marki or I'lme-Jione, The jime that is made from any of thofe fubftances that contain clay in their compo- fition, is more proper for manure than for cement, efpecially that made from thofe fubftances that may be made to fall after they have undergone orjy a fmall degree of heat in calcining them, as in chalky becaufc, in thefe ca^es, the clay will not be fufficient- ly burnt to prevent it from being affeded by water, and rendered foft by it. R r r The 495 OF CLU I C K -» L I M E The proportion of clay and fand contain- ed in any lime-ltone or marie, may be afcer- taiaed, by diffuiing, in water, the refiduum obtained by the analyfis § 12. p. 408. — al- lowing it to fublide a httle, and gently pour- ing ofF the fluid parts from the coarfer fe- di" ent chat fubfides to the bottom ; for, as clay remains much longer fufpended in water than fand, it may be thus feparated from the fandentirely; — when the water comes off clear, after having been left to fubfide a little, the refiduum may be evaporated to drynefs,-«^ and the lofs of weight it has fuftained by this operation, denotes the quantity of clay. This is rather a mechanical, than a che- mical procefs, — which is called elutriation, §4- It has been demonftrated above, p. 338. §25, that the quality of lime, confidered as a ce- ment, is greatly altered, by being more or lefs AS A MANURE. 499 lefs perfedly calcined ; it may therefore be, on many occafions, of ufe to thofe who are concerned in building, to be able to af- certain what proportion of any particular kind of lime is really reduced to a cauftic ftare. — This may be done as under. Take a known quantity of the quick-lime, perfedly dry, — add to that its own weight, or more, of common crude fal ammoniac *, previoufly diifolved in a large proportion of water, and filtred, — digefl: this nearly in a boiling heat for lome hours, till no more fmell of volatile alkali is found to arife from it, — adding frefh water as it evaporates. When the volatile alkaline fmell is no longer perceived, throw the whole into a filtre, — let that pafs off, — add more hot water, — and more ftill, till it comes through the filtre tallelefs and pure ; — then dry the refidimm and weigh it ; — the difference between that and the weight of the original lime, denotes the * Obferve, it is not volatile fal ammoniac. 500 OF QJJICK-LIME, &c. the proportion of pure cauftic lime that was contained in the original mafs. For, as the muriatic acid attracts caiijlic calcareous earth more ftrongly than it does the volatile alkali, the acid of the fal ammo- niac *, during the procefs, quits tlie alkali, and unites with the lime, and the alkali is fiUci-ed to fly off in a pungent vapour. The new fu'jtlance formed by the union of •the quick lime v^ith the niuriatic acid, ji.s called dquid JJjell ; and., as this is readily fo- iublc in water, it paifes off, together with the remaining uridecompoied ammoniacal fait, with the water through thefiltre; while theuncauiliclirae, as it was neither capable of ading upon the ammoniac, or of being dilTolved in the water, remains jbeh^nd in i^s folid ftate. * CruHe fal ammoniac, is a compound fait, con- j^fifting of the muriatic acid and the volatile alkali. THE END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Volume I. Plate I. fronting page - - 130 -2. - - - - 164 3. - , - - 199 ERRATA. page 33. 1. 14. for diftance rrrtidiftant 34. 1 17. y»r may read ihall 3y. 1 7. for very read e\ery * 40, I 10. for tilth the read tilth, the; and, 1. Ij. for dung, and lime, if it needs it, read dung — and lime it it needs it 56. 1 14. for providing read provident 105. 1 6. for Fig. 6th read Fig. 7th xl6. 1 4. for L. I : 10 : o read L. o : lo : o 230. I laft, for fet read fets 285. I i«. for Vol. ift read Vol. id 304. I 3. for thirtieth read thoulaiidth. The fame in the note * 308. notes, 1 6. for acid damp read damp air 3S7. note, 1 11. for unite into read unite detached matters into 385. § I. 1 I. read The firll idea that occurs in reflecting on this fubjcft 413. 1 8. for Were read Wear. 415. 1 i