PRETTY ARTS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF LEISURE HOURS. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/prettyartsforempOOdavi PBETTY AETS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF LEISURE HOURS % §00k fat gabies. BY ELLIS A. DAVIDSON, AUTHOR OF "THE HAPPY NURSERY," " THE AMATEUR HOUSE CARPENTER/' "THE BO\ JOINER," "THE USES OF PLANTS," " THE ANIMAL KINGDOM," ETC., ETC. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON : CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 1879. [ The RigM of Translation is reserved. ] LONDON : BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WIIITEFRIARS. INTKODUCTION. In presenting this work to the notice of the Ladies of England, the author feels assured that his purpose will be appreciated by them, that purpose being to suggest a variety of Arts in which their leisure time may be employed, and in the practice of which they may give pleasure to others. The taste and refinement which Ladies bring to bear in the various branches of fancy work, leave no doubt that, aided by a few hints, they will be able to exercise their powers in arts requiring more practical skill ; and the experience of the author has shown him, that Ladies are not by any means deficient in ability for such manual work as may be suited to them, and, further, that they enter on it with interest and pleasure. vi Introduction. The sculptor's chisel and mallet have been wielded by the hands of Ladies, and many of the publications of our day are illustrated by their gravers ; not only, therefore, have the subjects of wood-carving, modelling in clay, and wood-engraving, been treated of in these pages, but the readers have been asked to use the tenon- saw, the hammer, and the chisel, in the construction of drawing-models, and thus they will be enabled to apply their powers in making such other small fancy articles as they may desire. Although Art, in its higher sense, is not the subject of the present work, the principles of Perspective and some hints on Design are given, in parts where such information is necessary to the proper working out of the subject, — the readers being urged to pursue the study of fine Art, with the aid of some of the numerous works extant, and to avail themselves of the opportunities for receiving Art instruction now open to them. E. A. D. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGB WOOD CARVING 1 CHAPTER II. FRET SAWING 29 CHAPTER III. MODELLING IN CLAY AND CASTING IN PLASTER .... 40 CHAPTER IV. MODELLING IN WAX . Gl CHAPTER V. LEATHER WORK 66 CHAPTER VI. DRAWING ON WOOD 72 Vlll Contents. CHAPTER VII. 1-A(3E THE ELEMENTS OF WOOD ENGRAVING 81 CHAPTER VIII. LITHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 89 CHAPTER IX. ETCHING ON COPPER 93 CHAPTER X. DRAWING FROM OBJECTS 102 CHAPTER XI. DRAWING-MODELS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM . . . .117 CHAPTER XII. METHODS OF TRANSFERRING DESIGNS 135 CHAPTER XIII. TOYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM 149 CHAPTER XIV. COTTAGES, ETC., MODELLED IN CARDBOARD 163 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE END OF BOOK CRADLE 2 chisel afiyk-*-- * 4 GOUGES 6 CARVED IVY LEAF 9 CLAMP 18 PAPER KNIFE 25 FRONT OF READING STAND 30 TURNING SAW 34 SIDE VIEW OF READING STAND 38 LAUREL LEAF 44 WIRE TOOL 46 WIRE TOOLS 47 SPRIG OF VINE 67 GROUP OF BLOCKS 73 GRAVERS 83 VASE 85 VIEW OF A LITHO-STONE 91 ETCHING MATERIxlLS 94 X List of Illustrations. PAGE PERSPECTIVE . . 104 DOUBLE ROW OF COLUMNS 106 CUBE 109 VANISHING POINTS Ill ROW OF BOOKS 112 PLAN OF A CIRCLE IN PERSPECTIVE 112 CUBE AND PYRAMID 114 CHURCH 115 HOLLOW CUBE 120 EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE , . 123 PYRAMID, BASE, AND SIDE 126 MODEL OF A FIELD OR ROAD GATE 128 MORTISE AND TENON 129 MODEL OF A GARDEN GATE 133 GREEK HONEYSUCKLE BORDER 0 137 SLIDE FOR MODEL 152 ANIMAL FOR SLIDE 153 COTTAGE, ROOF, GABLE, AND CHIMNEY 165 PRETTY ARTS FOR LEISURE HOURS. CHAPTER I. WOOD CARVING. This delightful art is well adapted for ladies, calling forth, as it does, the exercise of refined taste and demanding the lightness of touch and delicacy of exertion which are, as a rule, characteristic of the work done by the fair sex. We will, in the first place, describe the tools used, and on this point we advise our readers not to purchase those called in trade " Carving tools," which, adapted, as they are, for the large work of the progressive wood carver or artisan, will be found much too heavy to be satisfactorily wielded by the hands of ladies — and too ponderous for the small subjects and refined work they are likely to undertake. B Fig. 1.— End of Book Cradle. Wood Carving. 3 Sets of ladies' carving tools may be purchased ; but it is surprising how very few tools are required in this art, and how much may be done with the simplest instru- ments when guided by intelligence and taste ; and thus it is desirable that amateurs should not, at starting, be troubled with a multiplicity of implements, but that they should supply themselves only with such as are absolutely needed for their work. Ladies, then, should purchase what are called " print- cutters' tools," which are miniature copies of the im- plements used by the working carver ; these may be obtained at any respectable tool shop, and range in price from 3d. to 6d. each. Neat little rosewood handles may also be bought, and the tools being fixed in these, present really such a dainty appearance, that they cause their possessor to feel quite anxious to be able to use them properly. The first tools required are the chisels. These should be of three sizes, namely, one eighth, one quarter, and half an inch in width. Now, cutting tools, when sold, are not ready for use ; they require grinding, and this is generally undertaken E 2 4 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. at the tool shop. For wood carving it is advisable that some of the chisels should be ground rather slantingly at the end, so that the cutting edge may be at an angle with the sides instead of being square with them, as in the case Fig. 2.— Chisel. of joiners' chisels. A more acute point is thus obtained, and this is of great service in carving the extreme angles in the design. When the chisels have been ground, they still require finishing on the oil-stone, and though this may, in the first instance, be done at the tool shop, the power of setting her own tools should, as soon as possible, be acquired by the lady carver. The setting is done on an oil-stone, which is purchased with the tools. There are various kinds : Turkey, Arkansas, &c. The stone should be fixed in a block in such a manner that it may be covered with a lid ; the block affording a stand in which the stone Wood Carving. 5 is firmly held. A few drops of oil are poured on the stone, and the tool, held slantingly, is moved to and fro ; it should be grasped with the right hand, the fore and middle fingers pressing on it, and the thumb supporting it underneath. The movement should be regular, and the tool must be kept at the same slant throughout the operation. The stone should be well wiped each time it has been used, so that it may not become incrusted with the steel rubbed from the tool, by which its grinding quality becomes of course diminished. In reference to setting chisels on the oil-stone, another hint may be given, namely, that whilst for joiners work the tool is sharpened on the one side only, it is desirable for wood carving to grind it on both sides, so that the sharp edge may be, as it were, towards the middle of the thickness of the chisel. When the tool is thus ground, a smoother cut can be made with it, and the depth to which it is worked can be more easily regulated. In order to test if the chisel is truly sharp, it should be loosely held in the right hand, and the 6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. thumb nail of the left hand just touched with the sharp edge : a chisel which is not properly sharpened will slip, whilst one which is in fit condition for work will catch in the nail. When the chisel has been set, and the oil wiped off, the point should be firmly struck two or three times with a piece of waste wood before testing the sharpness. By this means, the burr, or remains of the steel ground off, is removed, and the edge rendered smooth. The next group of tools consists of gouges, which are simply chisels, the surfaces of which are bent in a direction parallel with the length, so that on using them, a curved groove is formed instead of a flat cut. Gouges may be obtained in numerous degrees of curvature ; some nearly flat, others semi-circular in section. The two forms best adapted for the present purpose are shown in Figure 3, a and b, and each of Wood Carving. 7 these should be purchased in smaller sizes as well. In sharpening gouges on the oil-stone, the tool must be kept turning, so that the curved edge may not be ground more at one part than another. The inside must be whetted with pieces of stone rounded at their edges ; these are called " Turkey slips." The inner edge, however, of the gouge should be only very slightly ground. Two or three bent tools are also required for cutting surfaces, which are below others. These are made in various forms. The most advisable plan, however, is to try as far as possible to accomplish the work with the chisel and gouge, and purchase extra tools when circum- stances render their use indispensable. The table on which the work is done should be a four-legged one, and should, if possible, be placed against a wall in front of a window — or certainly in the position in which the best light can be obtained. And now we will proceed with our first attempts at wood-carving, the subject being a simple ivy leaf. The wood in which this is to be carved should be pine s Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. or lime, of as smooth a grain, and as free from knots as possible ; it may be of the size of our example, or larger ; in the first case, the thickness should be about three quarters of an inch, which must be increased in proportion to the size adopted. The wood should be per- fectly dry, or, as it is termed, " well seasoned," and there- fore, if any old boards can be found in the house, they may be economised with great advantage to the carver. The sketch must, in the first case, be made on paper, the back of which is subsequently to be rubbed with red chalk. It is then to be placed on the wood, to the edges of which it is to be temporarily attached by means of tacks or drawing pins. The outline is next to be passed over with a bodkin, crochet-needle, knitting-needle, or some other blunt point, a small degree of pressure being used. On removing the sketch, the outline in red will be found on the wood. This is to be corrected with a blacklead pencil, or when oak, or the harder woods are used, or when the design is of a more complex character, the outline should be repeated with a (quill) pen and writing ink. Wood Carving. 9 The first stage of the work is called "stabbing out." This is done in the following manner. Using one of the small chisels, the end of which is not ground angularly, Fig. 4. — Carved Ivy Leaf. "stab" the outline of the leaf; in doing this, hold the tool in an upright position, and press directly down- wards. As each cut is made, move the tool until io Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. the whole of the outline has thus been stabbed to about the depth of the sixteenth of an inch. This may also be accomplished by means of an instrument called a " parting " tool — which is a V- shaped gouge ; this is worked in a continuous manner, and an angular groove is thus made. At a later stage, the amateur will do well to adopt this tool ; but for the first few subjects, the above described plan will be found the most convenient. Next, beginning at about a quarter of an inch from the outline, cut slanting towards it, relieving some of the wood at each cut and setting the leaf free ; it will at this stage resemble a piece of land with a dyke around it. In this operation a certain amount of care is required ; the direction of the fibre of the wood must be studied, so that the cuts may not extend further than desired by causing chips of wood to split off. Very little practice will give the required experience. It must once for all be impressed on the amateur, that the position in which the tool is held in stabbing is of the utmost importance ; for if it be allowed to slant Wood Carving. inwardly, namely, towards the leaf, the pattern will be undermined ; and although the design may render under- cutting necessary in certain parts, these should be regulated by the will of the artist, but should not be the result of accident. Want of care in this respect frequently leads to the very disagreeable occurrence of a part of the pattern breaking off at an advanced stage of the work ; the whole being thus spoiled, time wasted and great annoyance caused. We have said that the tool should be held upright, but we may add that an outward tendency, namely, from the work, rather than the opposite, may be given to it, since by this means the danger hinted at is averted. The outline having been stabbed out and relieved, the next process is clearing the ground, that is, removing the whole of the wood not covered by the design. This is in the first instance to be done with a, gouge, using one w^hich is not of a very deep curvature, and working across the wood, that is, not in the direction of the fibres. In doing this, the beginner is advised not to display 12 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. too much anxiety to get over the ground ; it is, we are aware, the rough part of the work, such as might be intrusted to the apprentice ; but for the time, we must assume the learner to be an apprentice, and we assure her, that in this apparently undignified portion of the undertaking, she is acquiring that manipulative power, that mastery over her tools, which will stand her in good stead in future stages, and will enable her to work with confidence in the more artistic parts of the design. Care is required so that the gouge may not work too deeply into the wood, for then the required depth of the surface may be exceeded, and, secondly, so that no portion of the design may be chipped off. The necessary power of regulating the work of the tool is not difficult of attainment ; the intelligent lady will only require that her attention should be called to the necessary conditions of success in this minor point, the accomplish- ment will then be within her own grasp. The mid-ribs of the separate lobes of the leaf next demand attention ; these are, in the first case, to be stabbed, and then the surface of the lobe is to be slanted Wood Carving. 13 down to them from each side, so that as there are in the present design a central rib and four others, the leaf will, as a whole, be made up of ten slanting surfaces. Of course, these will not be absolutely plane surfaces ; they will bend and undulate in graceful curves, but this effect will be given them at a future stage. The edges of the stalk are now to be rounded, and the whole piece of carving will then have passed through its first stage. In the second stage, the whole of the first process is to be repeated, and the ground lowered. The leaf itself must then be considered. Now it will be clear that an ivy leaf would not, unless glued down, present the general level seen in the piece in hand, in which, although the mid-ribs have been sunk, the edges are all of one height It becomes necessary, therefore, to lower certain portions of the surface, bringing some parts down to the present level of the ground; whilst others remain at their original elevation. The manual work must now act in perfect harmony with artistic taste, and the design must be carried out 14 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hows. with due attention to the proper distribution of light and shade. A few rough sketches from nature, made from time to time, will be the best mode of acquiring a knowledge of the effect which it is required to imitate ; and now the under-cutting may be referred to. The perpendicular edges of the leaf are to be slanted inwards, so that it may eventually be as much separated from the ground as possible. In doing this, the wood from underneath the leaf must be removed with care and patience. It is a good plan to free the points of the leaves first, so that there may be no risk of breaking them off accidentally whilst working at the sides. In the third stage, the whole of the previous operations are to be repeated, the ground being taken down to the full depth required, and the levels of the different points finally settled. The work of the artist is now required, the surfaces that were flat are to be rendered undulating, the gouges of different degrees of curvature being used. Every touch should add to the beauty and natural Wood Carving. 15 appearance of the work, and each time the tool is used, the effect should be improved. Now on this point a few remarks are necessary. Our readers who are accustomed to see works of art will, no doubt, have felt how painful it is to look at pictures, either in oils or water-colours, which seem to have been painted with a piece of wool, or to have been smoothed down with the finger; they will have felt the refreshing, cheering effect of some wholesome, honest brush-work, done as if the painter were in earnest, and meant every touch to tell. This, in carving, constitutes the difference between work of the cabinet maker, and that of the artist ; the one is to be " French polished " or varnished, the other is to remain as it is left by the tool, and it must be therefore understood, that smoothening with glass-paper or sand-paper is totally inadmissible. By means of sharp tools and a firm confident touch, a good clean cut may be given, and the marks then left add infinitely more to the beauty of the work than the most velvety smoothness could do. Let our readers look at the work of Grinling 1 6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Honrs. Gibbons and other celebrated wood carvers, let them examine the beautiful " poppy heads " and groups on the stall ends, &c, of the cathedrals and churches, and they will see that, although some of the latter seem as if they had just been hacked out with a small axe, the forms are perfect and the effect charming. We must not, however, be misunderstood, and our instructions exaggerated. When we denounce the over- laboured and excessively smooth appearance in a paint- ing, giving the idea of the whole subject having been specially sand-papered before its portrait was taken, we do not advocate the "sloppy" and careless style in which some beginners think the artistic quality consists. The true artist works roughly and boldly because he can by a single touch carry out his purpose; but for amateurs to affect this is absurd, and we therefore point out the proper medium in the branch of art under considera- tion. Very little practice will show the way in which the tool is to be worked so as best to accomplish its purpose, but the artistic feeling must be imparted by following the direction which the fibres would take in the leaf Wood Carving. 17 represented, and this requires a certain amount of thought and knowledge. In floral carving the study of nature is most desirable; thus in the ivy, the vine, and other reticulated leaves, the fibres tend towards the larger veins and ribs, whilst in the tulip and similar leaves they run parallel. The ground which is removed from the artistic sphere, but which is still of great importance in the effect, may, in the first place, (after it has been rendered as level as possible) be scraped with the end of the chisel until it is tolerably smooth ; it may then be purposely roughened by a diaper or other pattern. This may be done by means of a common bradawl, held upright and struck with a mallet, the tool being constantly turned about, so that nothing like accuracy of position may be attempted ; still, a certain amount of care must be exercised even in this minor department, for the little indentations made must be equally distributed ; they must not be crowded at one part and sparse at others, and the general depth of all must be the same, or the deeper ones will look darker than the others. The bradawl must be held so that the indentations c 1 8 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hotirs. made may be across — not parallel with the fibre of — the wood. The patterns for grounds may be varied in the following manner : by means of a three-sided file cut a deep groove around the bradawl, break off the piece beyond this, file the end until it is flat, and on it, with the angle of the file, cut two deep indentations at right tm A Fig. 5. — Clamp. angles to each other ; a punch will thus be made, which on being struck will give the impression of a four-leaved flower. Numerous other patterns may thus be formed, by which beautiful effects can be produced, but it must be borne in mind that such patterns require geometrical Wood Carving: 19 distribution arid, as the ground should be kept as un- obtrusive as possible, the simpler the design used the better. In clearing the ground, and in other parts of the work, it is necessary that the piece of carving should be in some way held down ; small pieces of work should be screwed to a larger piece of board, which may be placed so as to press against the wall or against screws deeply driven into the bench or table, but a most con- venient appliance is the clamp, which may be obtained at tool shops, made either of wood or iron. The clamps consist simply of three sides of a frame, strongly mor- tised together at the angles ; through the lower member a screw, worked by a small lever, passes ; by means of this the piece of carving may be firmly held down to the table, as shown in the annexed sketch, in which a is the table, B the carving, and c the clamp. The present subject is not intended to be applied to any special purpose ; it is a study only ; but it is by far more satisfactory that the work should be " made up," and we therefore suggest that our reader will now design for herself a pattern consisting of a sprig of c 2 20 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. either ivy or other graceful plant ; a rosebud with leaves, or some similar form ; and as a certain freedom of rendering is allowable in such cases, there is every opportunity for the exercise of taste and skill. Such a design might be adapted for the lid of a glove or handkerchief-box, or other useful or fancy article. The lid should, when the box is made up, be finished with a plain edge or projecting border. It is advisable to employ a proper cabinet maker, who will supply the lid for carving and subsequently complete the object. The carving should receive its finishing touches after the box leaves the hands of the cabinet maker, so that the refinement of the work may not be injured in the process of making up. We shall not be much increasing the difficulties of the carver when we propose as the next subject a book- cradle ; a design for the end of which is submitted at the beginning of this paper. The work is carried on in precisely the same manner as in the subjects already described. The wood should be oak, of about half an inch in thickness. The pieces should not be sawed into their Wood Carving. 2 I intended shape until the carving is nearly finished, as the superfluous part serves conveniently for places for the screws, by which the work is attached to a larger board during execution. When finished, a piece of oak carving may be left in the natural condition of the wood, or it may be oiled. This is done with sweet oil, using an old tooth or nail brush. The oil should be allowed to soak well into the wood and another coat should then be given, the work being well rubbed with the brush. A small quantity of umber may be mixed with the oil, if it be desired, to darken the oak. It is not desirable to oil a book- cradle, as there is a certain risk of a small quantity of grease remaining, and soiling the books. It will be seen that in our design the usual finger holes are omitted. The author has found that lift- ing the book-cradle by these causes the sides to be bent outward, to become loosened, and eventually to be altogether detached, since the whole weight of the books rests on the screws by which the hinges are attached. If the cradle be just raised from the table by means of little feet, the hands may be placed 22 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. underneath it ; the form will thus be preserved and the strength remain unimpaired. The steps of progress are very gradual and to an intelligent mind each one reached qualifies for further ascent ; thus, if a lady has satisfactorily carved the lid of a glove-box, there is no reason why she should not then carve an envelope-case. This will be merely a question of increase of work, as there will be the lid, front, and two sides to be ornamented, whilst the design will necessarily be of a smaller character. It is desirable that the whole case should be tempo- rarily made up, so that the designs may be precisely adapted to the positions they are to occupy : the parts must first be separated, then carved and put permanently together. It is of course possible to have the case or any other box made up before carving, but such an object is by far more difficult to fix or to work on than the separate parts, and therefore that course is not recommended to the amateur. We have already spoken of an envelope-case, and this will, no doubt, have suggested the idea of a writing-case, or portfolio. Wood Carving. 23 This is composed of two pieces of very well seasoned oak, the thickness of which may be about a quarter of an inch, and the size nine inches long, and five and a half inches wide. The piece which is to form the lower side need only be well smoothened and its edges rounded by the cabinet maker. The upper side is to be the subject of the efforts of the carver. The design may be floral or conventional; but whatever the style, the carving should be in low relief. Under- cutting is, in this case, out of place; since the relieved parts would be likely to be broken off in use. The pattern may be in the first case composed of a frame, the corners being filled in with the ornamental design. The general surface contained within the frame may be covered with a diaper pattern, and in the centre may be a shield on which a crest or monogram may be carved. The portfolio and envelope- case, however, still leave the set incomplete, for neither can be put to practical use without an inkstand. We must leave general form to the lady who desires to carve the object. It may consist of a mere tray, for a single ink-glass, 24 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hozirs. and with a channel for pens, &c. ; in such case a simple wreath should be carved on a slanting edge, and in this situation also under-cutting must be avoided, so that the edges of petals or of leaves may not be chipped off. The stand may, however, be made to contain a drawer, and should then be constructed like a flat box — the ink-glasses to stand in shallow recesses cut on the upper surface, and the drawer entering on one of the long sides. In such an object there is plenty of scope for design and execution. A border should surround the whole of the upper surface ; the sides — one of which forms the front of the drawer — should be carved accord- ing to the taste of the artist and her powers of execu- tion. As in the instance of the envelope-case, we recom- mend that the inkstand should be temporarily made up, so that the exact size of the designs and their appropriateness of form may be judged of. We beg to add a hint, which, although not exactly within the range of wood-carving, may still be found useful ; — it is that the glasses should be purchased before the design o. — Paper Knife. 26 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. for the inkstand is quite decided on, so that a har- monious whole may be the result. This is not always attainable when the stand is made first, as the exact glasses to correspond with it in form, character, and size cannot always be obtained. One small object still remains to be carved before our set can be deemed complete — a paper-knife. This should be carved on satin-wood, as oak is of too coarse a grain, and does not retain the smooth edge necessary for cutting or folding paper. The first process consists in sawing or cutting the wood into the required shape, the work being subse- quently advanced by means of the chisel ; and here it is necessary to point out that decoration, however beau- tiful, becomes an absurdity if it interferes with the usefulness of the object. The test of all beauty is fitness. Thus, if the carving on the handle of a paper-knife is in such high relief, or so much undercut that the hand cannot grasp it, the object is rendered useless by the very carving which was intended for its ornamentation — it becomes an object to look at, but not to use. The work, then, must be in low relief; there must Wood Carving. 27 be no delicate tendrils outside the outline of the general form, with which the design must not in any way interfere. The construction must be decorated. The decoration must not be purposely constructed. The smallest of the tools should be used, and the utmost refinement should be given to the work. The knife should be gradually tapered in thickness from the handle to the point ; it may be shaped first with the chisel, and then with a file ; it may then be scraped with a piece of glass, and in this portion of the work finishing with sand-paper is allowable. The covers for a Bible form a beautiful subject for carving in oak. They should be designed in the frame style, the ornamentation being to a certain extent symbolic. The framework should be Gothic in character. Many beautiful specimens may be seen in the panel work in the churches and cathedrals of our country ; and as a knowledge of the characteristic features of the various periods of the Gothic style will materially aid the artist, we recommend for her use our little manual of 28 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours, " Gothic Stonework," from which she may gain many- hints of importance. Several lady pupils of the author have executed beautiful works of this kind. The Bible should then be finished with a couple of brass clasps. A charity box for a church forms another appropriate object for the exercise of this beautiful art. It should be made of oak, at least two inches thick, joined in the method called the "mitre dovetail," i. e., that in which the ends of the dovetails are not visible on the surface. The designs must be carefully made on paper, as they require accurate adaptation to their position. Many are the beautiful works of amateur carvers which decorate our homes of England, and these, not only from their artistic merit, but from other associa- tions, become exceedingly valuable to their possessors. CHAPTER II. FEET SAWING. Although fret sawing cannot be considered as artistic as wood carving, many beautiful articles may- be made by its means ; and when the work of the saw is supplemented by that of the chisel, the results are highly satisfactory. In designing a pattern for fret sawing, certain conditions must be borne in mind ; the first of these is, that there must be an equal and well-balanced distribution of form and space, so that there may not in the finished work be too great a quantity of wood at one part, or too large openings at others. In order to test the design it is advisable, when the outline has been completed, to fill in all the parts which are to be removed with Indian ink or some dark colour, leaving the pattern itself quite white. 30 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. The general effect will then at once be seen, as the eye will detect the points at which the work would look Fig. 7. — Fkont of Reading Stand. heavy, or the reverse. No absolute rule can be given in this respect, the eye alone must be the guide ; for, as all the spaces will be different in shape, measurement Fret Sawing. 3i will not be a sufficient aid. A small amount of experience, and the exercise of good taste, will remove any difficulty which may at first appear. Another point to be attended to, is the arrangement or adaptation of the design, so that the pattern, whilst standing apparently free from the border, may still at certain points be connected with it — this refers also to the different parts which must be to a certain degree dependent on each other, so that the scrolls, leaves, flowers, or tendrils may not be liable to be broken off. The necessity for this arrangement will be obvious, when it is remembered that the fibres of the wood do not follow the direction of the curves in the design, but run parallel with each other — and thus, where they cross any stem or branch, that portion would of necessity be weakened, and liable to be broken off : the design must therefore be so arranged that some parts touch, and thus support each other ; this will be understood on reference to the sketch, which represents the front of a reading stand. And now let us consider the construction and method of using the turning- saw, with which the work is to be 32 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. done. This instrument consists in the first place, of the frame, which is made up of the two side pieces, A A, and a crossbar, B. The blade or saw is kept in its place by two iron pins, which pass through the ends of the handles at c c. A cord is wound round the upper ends of the side pieces, and a slip of wood, d, being inserted in the middle of the bank thus formed, and being turned round several times, the cord is twisted, and in consequence tightened. The lower end of the slip of wood is then passed over the crossbar at E, and by this means it is prevented from returning. This is, however, a description of the saw when not being used, but when it is to be brought into action, the following is the method of proceeding. By means of a gimlet, bore a hole in the part which is to be sawn out. This must be done with the utmost care, in order to avoid splitting the wood, or injuring the pattern which, by the way, is to be transferred and corrected, as already showm in relation to wood- carving. The hole may be enlarged by means of a gouge, in order to allow of the free passage of the saw. The Fret Sawing. 33 frame of the saw is now to be loosened by slightly- untwisting the cord ; the pin which is the most distant from the hand is then to be removed ; the saw will thus be separated from the handle ; it may next be passed through the aperture, after which the end is again to be secured to the handle and the frame tightened up as before. In commencing the work great care must be taken that the saw is quite straight and not in the smallest degree twisted, as in such case it would be liable to snap. This may be regulated by the handles to which the ends of the blade are attached. Whilst sawing, the blade must be kept at right angles to the surface of the wood so that the edges of the pattern may not slant ; the pattern should, in fact, be equally perfect on back and front of the piece. Only very little force is necessary in using the saw, which may be made to follow the most intricate portions of the design. The blade is rather thicker at the cutting edge than at the back, and thus, to use a technical term, it " clears itself" whilst being worked: that is, the cut made by the teeth is wider than the 34 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. back of the blade, which may therefore be turned in any direction. The blades are made in different widths and thicknesses. The sizes generally required for work such as the present are quarter inch, eighth of an inch, Fig. 8.— Turning Saw. and a size smaller ; the first is for the external form or for very flat curves, but the smaller the curves in the pattern the narrower must be the saw. The curves, however, should never be too small or very sudden, for then the difficulties would be increased and success less likely to be attained. Another difficulty here presents itself, namely, that the frame would prevent the saw acting beyond a certain distance. This obstacle is, however, overcome by Fret Sawing. 35 turning the saw, which is made to rotate in the frame by means of the handles, to the iron ends of which it is attached ; both handles must be grasped at once ; they should be turned simultaneously, the frame being at the same time prevented from moving. The external form should not be given until the whole of the pattern is completed, so that as much strength as possible may be retained during the process of sawing, the whole piece being held to the edge of a table by means of a clamp, or secured in a vice. It has already been said that as little force as possible should be used in sawing. The handles should be firmly held, the thumbs pressing against the frame so as to be ready to push it towards the right, whilst it is pressed towards the left by the forefingers of both hands. If force be used, there is a chance amounting almost to certainty that the saw will be driven out of the proper curve ; and, if that should occur, every touch would increase the divergence. The power used will be well understood by ladies when we say it is " gentle force," so nearly allied to persuasion ; this will be all D 2 36 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. the more necessary in cases of difficulty, which will occasionally occur, such as the saw catching in a rather sudden curve, owing to its having become slightly twisted or its having been worked slantingly. In this case the work must at once be stopped, and the whole effort must be directed to the extrication of the saw : care being taken in the first place that any twist in the blade is corrected; next, that it is held straight, and that it is "coaxed" rather than pulled out, the motion being towards the back of the blade, not forward, so that no damage may be done to the work. Another hint may here be given, and this refers to saws of every kind ; and there is no reason why ladies should not learn to use a small hand, or a tenon saw, so that they may be enabled to cut a piece of wood to the required size, or to make up any simple article. We have seen several such works completed by ladies in the most satisfactory manner. The hint then which we would give is, that the saw only cuts as it is pressed forward ; and thus, when the stroke has been given, the saw is to be drawn back by Fret Sawing. 37 a lifting motion, pressure being carefully avoided : this will be readily done after a very little practice. The instructions given refer to subjects which are to be worked entirely by the saw ; that is to say, the surface of the wood is not to be interfered with, and the angles are to be kept as sharp as possible. It is, however, allowable to smoothen the edges, and to clear parts not perfected by the saw, by using the chisel. The surface may be rubbed with sand-paper, a sheet of which should be laid on the table, and the work is then to be rubbed on it, the pressure being uniform, so that every part of the surface may be equally smoothened. If the piece be a large one, a strip of sand-paper should be wrapped round a little block of wood or cork so as to form as it were a kind of brush ; and this is to be rubbed over the surface, and the rounding of the edges will thus be prevented. The front of the reading-stand having been com- pleted, the object may be made up in various ways ; and here the services of the cabinet-maker must be called into requisition. In one form of reading-stand a frame is made of 38 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. precisely the same size as the front, and another smaller frame is attached by hinges to the back of the carved part, the lower edge moving in grooves in the Fig. 9.— Side View of Heading Stand. stand, and by this means the slant of the front is regulated. A simpler form, however, is sometimes adopted. This consists in so simple a construction that the amateur will not find any difficulty in making it. In this sketch A is the edge of the front, and B the Fret Saiving. 39 shelf on which a book is to rest ; this may be finished either by the edging shown in the sketch, or by two brass catches such as are used on the music desk of a piano. The front is supported in an oblique position by the stay, c, which is attached by a hinge to a piece of wood, D, screwed to the back of the carved surface. Care must be taken, however, that this does not interfere with the pattern, and that the screws do not pass through to the front. It will of course be seen that this plan is only fitted for small slight reading- stands, the previously described form being adapted for large ones. CHAPTEE III. MODELLING IN CLAY AND CASTING IN PLASTEE. Modelling in clay must be considered as the first stage of sculpture, since the original model is in every case made in clay ; and, from a plaster cast taken from this, the work is subsequently executed in stone. The question might perhaps suggest itself, why take the trouble to make a plaster cast 1 why not work direct from the original model ? The reason is that the clay shrinks as it dries, and the measurements taken from it would not therefore be accurate, for they would vary from day to day until the clay had become perfectly dry ; and further, the clay is liable to crack, and in consequence parts of the model occasionally chip oft', especially when additions have been made during the progress of the work. Still, when the piece has been allowed to dry gradually, and when all the parts of the Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 41 design are well supported, the model may often be preserved. The safer plan, however, is to make a cast in plaster, which has not only the advantage of greater permanence, but admits of better finish. Nor is this all, for in the plaster mould taken from the clay model several casts may be made, and the artist is thus enabled to distribute copies, all precisely equal to the original, amongst her friends. This affords especial pleasure when the work is a portrait medallion of a friend or relative ; and we have known many such portraits of local celebrities or benefactors sold in goodly numbers at bazaars organised in aid of charitable and other objects. The material used for modelling is pipeclay. It may be obtained at any pipe-makers, at the shops of most vendors of plaster figures, or at any plasterers. The lump should, in the first place, be cut into several pieces, in order to see if there are any chips of plaster of Paris or other extraneous matters imbedded in it. This precaution is necessary, as the same clay is used re- peatedly by plasterers, and thus it is very likely to contain small pieces of plaster broken off from the 42 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. mould, &c. These must be removed by means of one of the tools, and further search must be made, as the appearance of such matters when the work is advancing causes great annoyance and trouble. The clay obtained from pipe-makers does not as a rule contain any of these objectionable particles. We have said that the lump of clay should in the first place be cut into pieces ; and this operation is ren- dered quite easy by using a piece of copper wire, fastened at each end to a handle made of a simple piece of wood. The wire is then to be drawn through the clay by pulling both handles at the same time. When all objectionable matters have been extracted, the pieces are to be thrown heavily on each other, and are to be kneaded by being thrown down several times on the table, or may be beaten with a heavy stick, by which the texture will become closer, and thoroughly fit for work. Wherever possible, it is advisable that a room should be set apart entirely for modelling purposes; the floor should either be laid with oilcloth or should be left without any covering at all ; carpets should not be used. Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 43 If however only part of a room can be spared, that part may be covered with oilcloth, at the edge of which a mat may be placed. A strong table is necessary, and this should be placed either in front of the window, or in such a position that the light may fall on it from the left side. The modelling board is simply a board strongly clamped. It is highly important that it should be made of well-seasoned wood, so that it may not suffer from the moisture it necessarily absorbs from the clay. A roofing slate may be used instead of the modelling board, where great size is not required. We will now proceed to give instructions for modelling a very simple study, Figure 10, consisting of a single laurel leaf. In the first place, spread some clay over the slate, to form a ground about six inches long, and four inches wide. This is best spread by pressing the clay with the thumb and knuckles, the great object being to compress the whole into one compact mass, so that there may not be any chance of pieces breaking off. When the surface Fig. 10. — Laurel Leaf. Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 45 is tolerably level, the roughness is in the first place to be worked away by means of the modelling tool, Figure 11, which is merely a flat blade, made of boxwood, and having teeth or notches at one end and a perfectly smooth edge at the other ; or, it may have coarse teeth at the one end and smaller ones at the other. This tool is to be worked with a scraping movement, and in various directions, so that the indentations made may cross each other ; in this way a level surface is obtained in a mucn more rapid manner than if the blade were smooth. The end of the tool not provided with teeth may be used in finishing, but is not absolutely necessary. The next tool is that the end of which is sketched in Figure 12, which unites the toothed blade with a kind of rake. This is not generally sold in the sets of modelling tools, but any brazier or tinman will make the end, which is easily inserted into a handle. The end is made of brass wire, as iron would rust when exposed to the action of the moist clay. The portion k is formed by beating out the wire whilst in a heated condition ; the edge is to be reduced to its proper degree Fig. 11.— Wire Tool. Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 47 of fineness, and the teeth are to be indented by means of a small triangular file. This tool should be made in various sizes; the Fig. 12.— Wire Tool. Fig. 13.— Wire Tool. smallest measuring half an inch across A, the others may be three quarter inch and one inch, and of course larger ones may be obtained as occasion may require. The thickness of the wire used, and the length of the tools, must be increased in proportion to their size. The advantage of this open tool is that in drawing it over the surface of the work, the clay which is dislodged, instead of gathering under the tool and thus obstructing its progress, passes out through the space between the 48 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. wire sides ; the instrument may thus be freely worked and is at the same time much lighter than if it were made solid. Another form of wire tool is that shown in Figure 13, which is a blade made of flattened brass wire, fixed in a light handle. This too should be made in different sizes, and is one of the most useful of all the tools. It may be combined with the last, by placing both in the same handle. The rest of the tools are made of boxwood and bone, and may be purchased at from four to six shillings per dozen : they are of numerous shapes and sizes and the necessity for the different shapes will be suggested by circumstances. The amateur is, however, advised not to encumber herself with a great number of tools, as she can easily alter any of those made of boxwood, by means of a penknife and file, and will soon learn to make others out of "boxwood chips," which may be obtained at most turners. Modelling in clay depends really more upon the worker than on the tools ; for the merest pieces of fire- wood may be shaped so as to serve most purposes, Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 49 whilst very useful instruments may be made by bending hair-pins or shawl-pins, &c, into the form which may at the moment be required j handles for these may be made of quills, penholders, or any other light pieces of wood. We often find ladies purchasing large sets of imple- ments and instruments on commencing to learn various " pretty arts ; " but experience has shown that this is a mistake, as much time is spent in endeavouring to find out the uses of the various articles and in applying them to such use, whereas, had the numerous things not been obtained, the work would have been accomplished equally well, or perhaps better. A little manual skill and the exercise of a certain amount of ingenuity will enable the amateur to make most of her own tools ; in fact, a lady who possesses ability in a sufficient degree to model and cast, will not usually be found deficient in this respect. Eeturning now to our work, the slab of clay is next to be raked over with the square end of the wire tool, which must be worked in every direction so that the indentations may cross each other. Only a very small 50 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. degree of pressure is to be used, so that the tool may not sink into the clay and an undulating surface be thereby produced. In order to obtain a perfectly level surface, a straight edge, something like a flat rule, may be drawn edge- wise over the clay ; in small pieces, the smooth blade of some of the tools will effect the purpose with sufficient accuracy. Absolute smoothness is not re- quired in the model, as the cast can be " finished up " to any extent that may be desired. When, however, the subject is large it is a good plan to nail two strips of wood, of a thickness equal to the height of the ground, at the required distance from each other on the modelling board ; the clay having been spread between them, a piece of wood slightly sharpened at one edge should be drawn over it, and as this, when the roughnesses of the mass have been removed, will rest upon the guide pieces, the uniform thickness of the ground will be ensured. The leaf is now to be formed. If the work is to be executed in low relief, the outline must be marked with a pointed tool, and the ground must then be Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 5 1 worked away with the square end of the wire tool ; in this case the ground need not be previously smoothened ; hut the finishing of it may be postponed until the leaf is near completion. If, however, the piece is to be modelled in high relief, the leaf must be separately shaped. The amateur must not by this, however, understand that it is just to be cut out of a flat piece of clay and affixed to the ground. When the general shape has been marked on the ground, some very deep cuts and indentations are to be made within the space to be covered. These should not be quite perpendicular, but should slant in different directions ; the whole of the space is then to be roughened by deep cuts crossing each other : some clay is now to be pressed on the ground thus prepared, and this may extend slightly beyond the outline. Some force should be used, so that the separate pieces may be well incorporated with the ground, a result which will be promoted by parts of the clay being pressed into the perforations and cuts previously made. The exact form is next to be given to the leaf, by cutting the outline down to the ground ; the extraneous E 2 52 Pretty Arts for Leisure Honrs. clay being removed by pressing the tool outward 01 by the square end of one of the wire tools. It must, however, be borne in mind that, for a reason which will be explained presently, the edges of the leaf must not in the slightest decree be undercut. CD O They must in fact slant outward at the bottom. The actual work of modelling is in the first instance done with the hand alone ; the general form of the leaf — its main undulations, &c. — being given by pressure of the thumb and fingers. This may be carried on until the work is somewhat advanced. The mid-rib and other ribs are then to be worked out with the tool, and the clay to be removed (Fig. 13) from the middle towards the edge, by a scraping move- ment, not by using the tool as a knife. The proper depth of the mid-rib should not be reached at first, if the two lobes of the leaf are much inclined to each other. In the present example this is not the case, the whole surface being in some specimens nearly flat. The required result may, in this instance, therefore, be obtained in one operation ; in other cases it must be repeated, as it is not desirable to attempt Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 53 to remove too much clay at once. The modelling tool should be held almost horizontally ; the points of the four fingers resting on it on the one side, and the thumb supporting it on the other ; or, three fingers may touch the tool, which may emerge over the little finger, and this will act as a rest. The purpose of holding the tool horizontally is that, as great a length as possible of the edge may be brought into action, the point being only used in very narrow spaces. At some parts of the model it may be necessary to use the cylindrical and smooth tools, but as a rule the toothed ones are employed, and the marks left add much to the beauty of the work. It will be clear that, during the progress, the clay must be kept moist ; this is accomplished by cover- ing it with a piece of rag soaked in water and well wrung out. If the work is not resumed the next day, this should be again moistened as before, or by sprinkling water over the cloth without removing it ; but care must be taken not to make the clay too wet ; in such case ail accuracy and refinement would be lost. 54 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. If the work is of a delicate character, or when it is nearly finished, a few pieces of wood may be placed upright at different parts of the ground ; or balls of clay higher than the modelling, may be, as it were, strewn about, which will then bear the weight of the wet cloth and prevent its touching the work, which will be kept in proper condition by the moist air thus confined. In the final stage of the work, it may be left entirely uncovered. The clay will then become so firm, that the most refined finishing touches may be given ; after which the model should be allowed to dry very gradually. "We now proceed to give instructions as to casting, the first process of which is to make the mould. The ground having been squared, some clay is to be flattened out into a strip ; and this is to be placed around the ground, so as to form a border or wall. Supposing the thickness of the ground to be one inch, and the leaf to stand a quarter of an inch above it, then the wall should be about two inches high. This wall must be pressed closely against the ground, so Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 55 as to avoid all chance of the liquid plaster running through. The model is now to be oiled ; linseed oil and a soft brush being used. The oil should be allowed to soak well into the clay, after which the operation is to be repeated. Care must be taken that no drops or streaks of oil are left on the surface, and that none is deposited in the deeper parts of the model, as this would inter- fere with the clearness of the casting. The model being thus prepared, the plaster of Paris is to be mixed. In doing this, some water is to be poured into a basin, and the plaster is to be thrown into it : the whole must be at once stirred with a strong stick or common table-spoon. In this operation, how- ever, the motion is not to be merely a stirring one ; the plaster is to be " rubbed" against the side of the basin, so that it may, as it were, be ground up in the water ; otherwise, some of the dry particles will be gathered into a ball, which, becoming imbedded in the properly mixed plaster, may, in the process of casting, come near the surface. On being cut into by the finishing tool, this would cause a cavity in 56 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. a part where it might be of serious injury, and occasion much trouble to repair. The mixture should be perfectly smooth, and of about the consistence of cream. The basin used should have a bend in its edge called a lip, so that the mixture may be conveniently poured out of it. This must be done with some rapidity, so that the plaster may at once be spread over the whole surface ; the lip or edge of the basin must, however, be held near the edge of the wall, so that the liquid plaster may not be splashed about. The moment the whole of the plaster has been poured in, the slate or board should be sharply jerked or tapped with a stick, so that the plaster may be shaken into any of the recesses into which it may not at first have flowed. "When all the plaster has been poured out, the basin should be filled up with water, and the spoon or stick immersed in it ; otherwise the remaining plaster will harden, and there will be great difficulty in cleaning the utensils. In about ten minutes the plaster will be found Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 57 sufficiently "set" to admit of the clay wall being removed. The surface of the plaster is then to be levelled with the largest of the brass tools. When this has been done, the whole should be left until the next day, when the plaster will be found perfectly hard. The model and mould, thus adhering, are to be raised ; and the double edge having been well trimmed, so that the line of junction may be perfectly clear all round, a broad and thin blade is then to be inserted between them, first at one side and then at the other. This must be done carefully, and the moment it becomes evident that the two are separating, the whole should be placed horizontally, the model being below ; the mould is then to be carefully lifted off. The mould will of course be an exact copy of the model, but all parts which are raised in the latter will be sunk in the former. The mould now requires cleaning up, any roughness being removed. Should clay be found adhering at any part, it would show that the model has not delivered freely, but that some portion of the clay had been torn away by the mould 58 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. which is formed of a harder substance, but if both had been of plaster, the separation could not have been effected without injury to the model or the mould — perhaps to both. The parts of the mould, therefore, at which the clay adheres must be cleared, so as to ensure free egress to the cast to be made in it. The mould must now be allowed to become thoroughly dry; in order to promote this, it may be placed over night in an oven when the fire has burned out or nearly so, the door of the oven being left slightly open. When perfectly cold, the mould is to receive two coats of linseed oil ; after which a wall is to be built around it. This may, in small subjects, be made of clay ; but in large ones it should be of wood care- fully united at the angles, all the crevices being well rilled up with clay. The wall should, in the present instance, be about three-quarters or one inch higher than the mould. The plaster is now to be mixed, and poured in as before; when set, the wall is to be removed. No attempt to separate the cast from the mould should Modelling in Clay and Casting in Plaster. 59 be made, until the plaster has become thoroughly hardened. The cast is next to be taken in hand, and is in the first place to be cleaned by means of what are called " Dutch rushes," which may be obtained at any plasterer's ; many other rushes growing on the banks of our streams will answer the purpose equally well. The rush should be soaked in water and split, when it will be like a piece of sand-paper, which from its natural roughness it closely resembles. A sponge should be used to wash away the " burr " thus caused. The work is not, however, to be really smoothened — for its appearance would be thereby much injured — the rush should only be used for cleaning purposes. The real finishing is to be done with steel tools, which may be obtained at any tool or artists' colour shops. Like the modelling tools, they are of various forms, some having teeth, others being in the form of pointed or bent chisels. These must be carefully cleared of plaster after use, so that rusting may be prevented. With these the work is to be scraped where required, 6o Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. much additional refinement being thus given ; but it must be understood that the less done to the cast the better, otherwise the integrity of the original will be gradually lost. The leaf in the present example may in certain places be slightly undercut. In large designs this effect would be produced by means of piece mould- ing, but that process would as a rule be beyond the requirements of the amateur, so that a description of it would thus be beyond our present scope. CHAPTER IV. MODELLING IN WAX. This beautiful art differs principally from modelling in clay in the nature of the material employed, and in its being adapted for smaller subjects. The wax, which is the pure white, is slightly softened by the admixture of a little oil and turpentine, and is generally tinted by a very small quantity of vermilion. It is easily obtainable at artists' colour, or similar shops. As it is not likely that our readers will themselves engage in its manipulation, it is not here deemed necessary to enter further into its composition. The instruments used are the smaller ivory modelling tools and, when the general form has been roughed out, the work is done rather by pressing the wax in than by removing small portions of it. The blunt- pointed tools are thus most often called into requisition. 62 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. Unless the subject is to stand wholly free from a background, low relief is better adapted for this style than high relief ; it will, of course, be evident that the wax is necessarily delicate. Some artists advise the admixture of resinous substances with the wax. This has the effect of adding stiffness to it, but it gives a certain amount of brittleness which makes it liable to chip off at the edges if undercut ; this plan is not therefore advisable as a rule. The style is well adapted for small figures and groups, the features of which can be modelled with the utmost delicacy and refinement. Portrait medallions of rather small size are also well adapted as subjects for modelling in wax. It must be understood, however, that these should not be laid on, but should be of the same piece as the ground. In the execution of these, however, great care must be taken to preserve an accurate, or, as it is technically termed, a "clean" outline, so that the features may be well separated from the ground. In this operation, care must be taken that no indentation is made at the junction of the features Modelling in Wax. 63 with the ground, a fault which is very liable to occur unless the greatest care be exercised. The ivory tools must be kept perfectly free from the adherence of wax. This is effected by dipping them in water, or touching them from time to time against a damp cloth, kept for the purpose at the side of the worker. It is unquestionably desirable that, before attempt- ing to model in wax, the amateur should have had much practice in modelling small subjects in clay, in order to attain that refinement which is necessary, as well as to obtain the mastery over the tools and the power of managing a plastic material. It has been said that this style is better adapted for low than high relief, and this must be a gentle reminder to our readers as to the study of drawing ; as, in the first place, the outlines must be rendered as correctly as possible. This applies not only to the near but to the distant parts, although such may be only backward at a distance equal to the thickness of a sheet of paper, This requires a great amount of artistic skill and feeling ; and, in order to point out the method in which it is 64 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. to be carried out, the attention of the reader is called to the work shown on good coins, in which, though the work is raised above the surface in an almost infini- tesimal degree, perspective rendering is perfect. In the frieze from the Parthenon, portions of which may be seen in the British Museum, and casts from which are placed in the South Kensington Museum, the great sculptor Phidias has set an example for the imitation of all future generations. The frieze, which consists of a procession of horses aud riders, was placed high up against the wall of the cloister which surrounded the building. It was impossible, therefore, to step back- ward to see the sculpture from a distance : the specta- tor was compelled to view it from below. Had the figures been rendered in high relief, their underneath surface only would have been seen ; the whole is, how- ever, worked in low relief, and in such an exquisite manner that no portion is lost, whilst the perspective appearance is perfect. The illustration is a copy of a medallion portrait, modelled in wax. In this case the portrait is in wax, the ground of purple glass. In such a case, it is Modelling in Wax. 65 necessary to make several deep cuts or scratches with a diamond in cross directions and the wax, being pressed into these, is secured against dropping off. CHAPTER V. LEATHER WORK The art of decoration in leather is one by which beautiful effects may be produced. We do not class it with modelling, because the work partakes, in some degree, of a mechanical character ; the leaves and different parts of the design being first made separately, and then grouped or put together. The work may thus not be ranked as " high art ; " but it is one affording much pleasure to the worker and to those who may be the recipients of the results produced ; therefore, it is well worthy of a place amongst elegant arts for ladies. The leather used is a thin calf, and may be purchased at any leather-sellers. The skin chosen should be as smooth as possible and not too thick. In leather work the leaf, or petal, having been first Fig. 14. —Sprig of Vine. 68 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. outlined, is cut with the scissors or penknife. It is then placed for a few minutes in warm water, when the leather becomes quite softened. The leaf is then taken out of the water and rolled over with a small roller, or pressed with one of the tools, until as much of the water as possible has been pressed out of it. The midrib, the smaller ribs, the reticulations, etc., are then made with small ivory modelling tools. The undulating direction is given to the various lobes by the fingers, or such of the tools as may seem adapted for producing the required effect, and it will be understood that an infinite variety of form may thus be obtained. The various parts are then allowed to dry, when they become quite stiff, retaining the form given them. Tendrils and stalks are made by pinching or twisting narrow strips of the leather whilst wet, and in some cases the leather is rolled round thin brass or copper wire. When the different leaves, flowers, stalks, buds, and tendrils are ready, they are to be attached by glue and small pins to the surface they are to adorn — such as a wooden bracket, a frame, a box, etc. They should, however, Leather Work, 6 9 be previously painted over with a thin solution of parchment size, care being taken not to injure their form. It is advisable to apply two coats of very thin size, the first being allowed to become perfectly dry before the application of the second. The size is to be applied with a small hog's-hair brush, such as is used in painting in oil. Great care must be taken that the size enters into the most minute indentations and veins, and that the cut edges are well covered. The ground on which the decoration is to be placed should be varnished before the work is applied, as it then presents a clear surface. This surface may be either the wood itself or may be covered with leather. The latter is by far the better and more uniform plan. In affixing the wreath or branches, it must be borne in mind that the work is not done in wood. It is a mistake to attempt to imitate wood carving in leather work ; in fact, as already intimated, the one must be classed as art, the other as pretty ornamentation — but, even as such, deserving of a proper place and of proper execution. In designs of every kind the 7o Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. material in which they are to be carried out must be considered ; and it will be obvious that, in a flexible material like leather, different effects could be attempted from those obtainable in wood, in which a certain solidity must of course be always preserved. Various kinds of varnish may be obtained, and opinions differ as to which is to be preferred. Those most generally used are the Oak varnish, the Copal, and the Mastic. As in the sizing, it is better to apply two thin coats than one heavy coat, as little varnish as possible being used each time, so that none of it may run down and collect in the veins or gather in drops on the edges. It is not intended that " Pretty Arts " should be a lesson book ; but it still comes within our province to remind the reader that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well, and that care should be taken that the different leaves and petals are correct representa- tions of nature. The form of arrangement may be according to fancy, but the natural growth must never be outraged. Thus we urgently recommend that careful sketches be made from nature, and also Leather Work. 7i that some elementary work in botany be read, so that the amateur may be enabled to produce a work not only creditable for the manual skill displayed, but which may show intellectual observation and a refined appreciation of the beautiful works of Nature, CHAPTER VI. DBA WING- ON WOOD. The pleasure of looking through the portfolio of the sketches of a friend is very great ; but a certain very natural regret is felt, on closing the portfolio, that the sketches are left behind. The original sketches, of course, could not be hoped for, but it might always be desired to have copies of them. We highly appreciate photographs, but cannot value them as we should the absolute handiwork of our friend the artist. The pleasure therefore which the amateur herself may experience is greatly enhanced if she possess the power of spreading that pleasure amongst others. For this reason we purpose giving some of the " Pretty Arts " by which copies of drawings may be taken ; but in every case, our instructions will be Drawing on Wood. 73 restricted to such departments of the different arts as can be accomplished by the amateur herself, merely giving general notions of the workshop processes or Fig. 15. — Group of Blocks. mechanical portions which it would not be advisable for her to attempt. Drawing on wood is one of the simplest arts in connection with our subject. In plain terms, it is no more difficult than drawing on paper, excepting 74 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hoars. that the india-rubber is not available; and, therefore, until a very fair amount of power has been attained, drawing on wood should not be attempted. The wood used is box, which has, it is said, the finest and closest grain of any wood yet discovered. We receive it principally from Turkey, as the English box is too small. The box is, in fact, not a tree of thick stem ; so that when large blocks are required they are made up of several pieces, the joints being made in the most exquisitely refined manner. The blocks used for engraving are absolutely " slices " cut crosswise, so that, before they are further advanced, each slice is nearly round in shape, and they are cut to precisely the same height as type, in order that the engravings may be printed together with letter-press. The blocks are beautifully squared, and the surface smoothened and polished to an almost inconceivable degree. These blocks may be obtained at engravers' block-makers at about three half-pence to three pence the square inch, according to the size of the block, and the number of pieces of which it is made. We must consider our subject from two points of Drawing on Wood. 75 view ; but these practically merge into one, the difference being only in the process of starting. The one system we would allude to is, where a sketch or drawing has been made and is to be copied ; the other, where the drawing is to be made at once on the wood. Unless great power of drawing has been attained, the first is by far the safer plan, even though the general features only are in the first place drawn on paper. The wood, on being received from the block-maker, presents a beautifully smooth pale yellow surface, too smooth to draw upon ; nor would the pencil-work be sufficiently visible if the wood were left in this condition. A wash of Chinese white is therefore passed over it. This must be very thin indeed, and is to be rapidly and evenly spread over the block with a flat camels-hair brush, care being taken to avoid the colour becoming streaky. This is done by passing the brush first in one direction and then in another, the touch in the second motion being so light that not any marks of the brush are left. The pencils used range from hhhh. to b. ; but, as we have assumed a certain power in drawing, it 7 6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. will be unnecessary here to describe the uses of these. It is only required to say that, although a clear and firm line and good sharp touches are indispensable, care must be taken that the touches and lines may not indent the wood, for then exactly the opposite effect to that desired will result in the engraving. We will now assume that a drawing is to be copied on wood. A tracing is in the first place to be made of it. This, as no doubt most of our readers will know, is done by placing a piece of prepared tracing-paper over the drawing, and tracing over the lines with a pencil. Now rub a little powdered red chalk over a piece of thin writing-paper, removing all superfluous particles with a piece of rag or wool, until the surface of the paper is of a uniform pale red colour. Place this, the red side downward, on the whitened surface of the wood ; and, on this, place the tracing, the face of the drawing being downward, so that the whole may be reversed. Secure both the papers to the block, by means of drawing-pins placed outside the boundary of the drawing ; then, with a blunt tracing- Drawing on Wood. 77 point, such as the end of a crochet needle or similar instrument, pass over the lines of the drawing, pressing lightly on the needle, which should be held as nearly upright as possible. When all the lines have been thus passed over, remove the two papers, and the whole will be found traced in red on the block. It must, however, be impressed on the amateur that this is not intended to be a complete and per- fect outline. It is to be strictly correct in every particular, but is to be simply indicative of the exact position of the leading lines ; the most minute details need not be given. The whole is then to be gone over with a very light pencil, the outline being corrected in the most accurate and refined manner, and all the minute portions are to be added ; in fact, the work is now to be made a finished outline. The shading is next to be proceeded with. This may be done entirely with the pencils of different degrees ; or it may, in the darker parts, be partially done with a brush and Indian ink, which must be after- 78 Pretty Arts for Leistire Hours. wards worked over with the pencil. It is, of course, understood that the work of the engraver is executed entirely in lines, and the direction of these lines must be indicated in the drawing as a guide to the engraver. This is, indeed, a very important point, when it is considered that by lines, and by lines alone, the engraver has to produce the entire effect required. By mere lines, their curvature and their direction, he has to represent the different forms, their rise and fall ; the light and shade, and, above all, the very texture of the substances — the delicate features of the Madonna, the stern face of the warrior ; all by lines alone, their disposition and quality. The engraver must represent the texture of the various substances : the polished marble or the rough granite, the bright wrought-steel, the unpolished cast-iron, the vestments of linen or cloth, the drapery of silk, satin, or velvet — all has to be shown by lines ; the pendent foliage of the aspen and weeping willow, the sturdy leaves of the oak, and the upward-pointing poplar, must all be indicated ; the very difference between the soft fur Drawing on Wood. 79 of the cat and the stiff hair of the dog must be shown ; the calm sky and fleecy cloud, the still lake or the rising waves of the sea — all must be shown by single lines ; the term " colour/' in engrav- ing, being only understood to mean the lightness or darkness of the work. Although, therefore, the artist is not expected to execute the whole of the drawing in lines, it is of course necessary that the work should be rendered with such intelligence that the engraver may be fully aware of what is required of him. It has already been said that this is not intended to be a drawing-book ; but we cannot help impressing on the reader that the result indicated above is only attainable by a sound knowledge of drawing ; not merely the so-called " drawing " which consists in copying another's design, but in drawing as a means of expression, — an art in which every line expresses the mind of the artist and speaks to those who look at the work. It is drawing as a mental exercise, as well as manual art, which we would have our readers cultivate ; and So Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. the present lias been deemed a fitting opportunity for these remarks* since the desire of the author is not merely to give amusement, but to impart instruction, to his fair readers. In the second system referred to, the drawing is made at once on the wood without previously tracing it. The power of doing this would imply a great amount of skill ; and unless our readers feel confident of the possession of this, they are advised to adopt the method of starting the work which has already been described. If, however, the subject be a geometrical one, in which all the leading lines are ruled, and the dis- tances set off by means of compasses, it will be un- necessary to trace, but will be found most convenient to work on the wood at once. CHAPTER VII. THE ELEMENTS OF WOOD ENGEAYING. In speaking of engraving as a medium for trans- ferring impressions of a drawing, it is necessary to describe the difference between the work executed on wood blocks, and that done on metal plates. This difference is soon told. When the drawing has been made on the block, all the surrounding part of the wood is cut away, leaving the lines which constitute the drawing standing up. In printing from such a block, a roller charged with printing ink is passed over it, by which the work becomes blackened. The paper is then put on, pressure applied, and an impression thus taken. Now in copper-plate, and steel-plate engraving, the system is precisely the reverse. The lines are cut into the surface of the metal, which is kept Q 82 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. perfectly smooth and bright. In printing, the ink is rubbed into the incised lines, and wiped clean off the surface. The paper is then laid on, and covered with a cloth. The plate next passes on a board, forming part of the press, between two rollers, by the upper one of which pressure is given, and thus the impression is taken. In this way the paper is pressed into the lines, and the ink is, as it were, brought out ; whilst the impression from the wood-block is taken from the surface. In wood the drawing is raised above the surface ; in metal it is sunk. We purpose here to give only general instructions as to wood-engraving — sufficient to enable the amateur to start ; but we do not think it likely that she will, from reading only, be able to attain proficiency beyond a certain point, and we shall be satisfied if we have, in the elementary instruction, interested her sufficiently to induce the seeking a course of practical lessons from a professional wood-engraver. To a certain stage, however, we would encourage ladies to proceed in this beautiful art. We have seen several good speci- mens produced by amateurs, and so would encourage The Elements of Wood Engraving. 83 our readers to make a beginning and to proceed until they can make a fair wood-cut in outline. Then they should obtain practical instruction in the method of cutting what is termed "hatching/' that is, shading by means of lines crossing each other in different directions. The tools used are, as a rule, classed into three Fig. 16. — Gravers. kinds: 1, Gravers proper, with which the greater amount of outline work is done ; 2, Tint tools ; 3, Scoopers. Fig. 16 shows one of the tools fixed in a handle. The tools are merely small rods of well- tempered steel, the difference consisting in the square, diamond-like or knife-like form; whilst the scoopers G 2 84 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. are more solid and are nearly allied to chisels. The handle is neatly turned in rosewood or mahogany, one part being flattened ; on this, when the handle is grasped, the little finger rests, the other fingers grasping the tool, and the hand resting upon the thumb. It is this position which must be seen to be well understood, and one practical lesson at this stage is strongly advised. We would, in fact, urge on our readers, that observation is the best school ; but it is by all means important to obtain previously a fair amount of know- ledge of the subject, and then all that is seen done mechanically will bear rich fruits. Let us now assume Fig. 17 is to be engraved. As we have already explained, the lines are to be left standing, and all the ground is to be cut away. "With one of the gravers, — the lozenge or diamond shaped, — cut a line all round the outline, on the inner and outer side, leaving the pencil line quite clear. We do not, however, advise the beginner to cut quite up to the line in the first instance, but just to leave a clearance for finishing and correction. Of course, as she improves, The Elements of Wood Engraving. 85 she will learn to work with the utmost exactitude and refinement. When this double outline has been engraved, the Fig. 17.— Vase. block will, if printed, give an impression, but not a finished one. The next stage consists in cutting away the ground around the outline, so as to leave the single black line standing clear. The whole of the ground is then to be cleared away by means of the scooper and other chisel-like tools. When this has been done, then the 86 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours, block, if printed from, will give an impression as shown in Fig. 1 7. Flat tints, such as would be employed in represent- ing a calm sky, are cut on the wood by means of the tint tools, which are very thin gravers, almost like penknives. They are of different degrees of fineness; and it will of course be understood that the thinner the tool the finer the line it will cut, and thus the lines left standing will be closer together : hence, in cutting the lighter shades, the broader tools are used. The darkness of the tint will, however, depend mainly on the thickness of the lines which are left standing. The end of the graver is called its face, and this is ground obliquely in relation to the length. The tools should be ground at the shop at which they are purchased; they will then only require occasional setting on the oil-stone. In the gravers, the two under sides are bright, and the two upper sides are unpolished. The two bright sides will require occasional whetting on the oil-stone. In this operation, a few drops of oil having been placed on the stone, the graver is to be laid on one of the bright sides and slightly pressed The Elements of Wood Engraving. 87 with the forefinger whilst gently moving it to and fro. Of course the tool only requires sharpening towards the point ; not, like a knife, over the whole of its length. Great care must be taken to keep the graver flat on the stone, and not to twist it during motion ; as it is most important that the two bright sides should be perfectly straight and that they should meet in a clean sharp edge. The face or end will have been ground on the grindstone before purchase. In sharpening the tool during use, it is to be held at such an angle that the surface of the face may be ground perfectly flat. A little practice will give the necessary power of sharpening the tools, which it is very important that the amateur should acquire. When the tool has been ground, the point should be firmly struck into some piece of waste board. This has the effect of removing the burr, or powdered steel which has been ground off, rendering the cut of the tool clean and sharp. When this has been done, the tool should be held in the right hand, and its point is to be gently touched on the thumb-nail of the left hand. If it 88 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. has been perfectly sharpened it will catch the nail at once ; if not, it will slip. In using the graver, it is important that it should be held as horizontal as possible, so that the point may, in the first instance, barely touch the wood ; for if the point enters deeply, the amateur will find the tool unmanageable, and mischief will soon occur which it will be difficult to remedy. It will be obvious that it is easy to repeat the cut, and thus deepen and widen it. During work, the block rests on a hard cushion, made of leather filled with sand, called a sandbag, on which it can be easily turned about. This may of course be placed on a box or book so that it may be raised to a convenient height, by which stooping may be avoided. CHAPTER VIII. LITHOGRAPHIC DRAWING. Lithographic drawing — that is, drawing on litho- graphic stones — -is an art in every respect well adapted for ladies, and may be easily acquired by those who have already attained the power of drawing in chalks. The principle of lithography consists in the chemical property of the stone to absorb grease. The chalk with which the drawing is made is composed of greasy substances, bound together by others to give them stiffness, and mixed of course with a black pigment ; the drawing made with these is absorbed into the surface of the stone and becomes fixed. The stone is supplied, prepared for drawing, by the printer : the preparation is called c< graining." There are two kinds of drawing on stone ; the one in ink, and the other in chalks. The first is adapted 90 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. specially for linear work ; such as maps, plans, archi- tectural work and other subjects in which geometrical accuracy and lettering are required. This branch is one scarcely likely to be practised by ladies. We shall, however, briefly refer to it presently. The stone, having been previously ground face to face with another with fine sand and water between them, is subsequently grained by the workman, by a similar but more refined process, so as to leave on it a fine " toothed " surface like that of very fine drawing paper. The general outline of the subject will of course be traced on the stone by means of the red chalked paper, as already described in relation to other branches of art. The drawing is then to be proceeded with in the usual way, observing that the work must be done in the most gradual manner possible. Of course, bold, spirited touches must be done at once ; but all fine shading, and all soft tints, must be worked up gradually, from the palest tone to that required. No individual part should be finished at first ; the whole work should be passed through certain stages, the effect being gradually worked up. The shading should be executed L it hog rap hie Drawing. 9i in touches, the spaces between which should be filled up as the work proceeds; but the touches or patching should never be entirely worked away, as in such case a smooth and unpleasant effect is produced as if the Fig. 18. — View of a Litho-Stone. drawing had been executed with a piece of wood. The chalks should be held as nearly upright as possible whilst drawing with them, in order to avoid breaking the points, which, from the nature of the chalks, are, necessarily, liable to so break off. 92 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. Instead of metal port- crayons, it is advisable to use quills as holders, being much lighter ; in fact, a good holder may be made by rolling a strip of drawing paper spirally around the stick of chalk. The drawing, when finished, passes into the hands of the printer ; by him it is, in the first place, subjected to the action of nitric acid very much diluted with water and with the addition of a small quantity of gum arabic. By the action of this mixture, those parts of the stone not covered by the chalk are burnt away in an infinitesimal degree, and thus the work is left more clear than it would otherwise be. As the processes of printing are quite beyond those likely to be undertaken by the amateur, we shall of course not any further refer to them. For drawing in ink, the stone is not grained or roughened, but is highly polished by being ground first with pumice-stone, and then with " Water of Ayr " stone. The work is to be executed with lithographic ink, fine pens and brushes being employed. CHAPTEK IX. ETCHING ON COPPER. We are quite aware that in proposing etching on copper as an elegant art for amateurs, we shall be, by some, charged with suggesting an art in which, from the difficulties attending it, they will not be likely to succeed. We shall, however, endeavour in the first place to simplify our instructions as far as possible ; and by reducing the magnitude of the obstacles, and showing how they may be overcome, we hope to encourage our readers to attempt this beautiful branch of art. Only a certain amount of knowledge can, however, be imparted in written instructions ; and this having been obtained, the amateur is advised to seek a few lessons from a practical hand ; which, together with the information here given, will, without doubt, produce the desired effect. 94 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. Fig. 19. — Etching Materials. for use. The size which for an amateur will perhaps be found most convenient, is that called "common size." This is of the same dimensions as a lady's card. On taking the plate in hand, it is in the first place to Etching on Copper. 95 be well rubbed with a rag dipped in fine chalk, so that any particle of grease adhering to it may be removed and the surface be left perfectly clean. Holding the plate, then, by means of a small hand- vice or pair of pliers, it is to be well heated over a gas-light or spirit-lamp. Then, whilst resting on a board, it is to be touched on several parts of the surface with " etching ground," a composition which is sold in balls, which should be wrapped in pieces of thin silk. The plate is then again to be held over the lamp, so that the " etching ground " may be kept thoroughly melted, and then it is to be spread equally over the plate by means of a dabber. This is a small ball-like pad or cushion made of fine silk stuffed with wool. The " ground " is to be spread by repeated dabs, until a thin but equal film covers the plate at every part. If any fissures or cracks of the smallest size should be visible in the " ground " when cold, the whole process must be repeated. A little practice will give the power of laying the " etching ground," and this may be repeated without proceeding further with the work. The plate held by the pliers is then to be moved 9 6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. about, face downwards, over the flame of a candle, by the smoke of which the surface will become blackened. In doing this, care must be taken not to burn the " ground." It must, however, be pointed out that, although it is highly necessary that the amateur should as soon as possible become competent to carry out the whole of the work she attempts, still, in the first place, it is possible to meet with an engraver who will provide the plate ready covered with the "ground," and seeing the opera- tion performed will be a great advantage. Yet we feel bound to say that there is no reason why the amateur should not be able to lay the " ground " from the instruc- tions here given. Our further suggestion is made with the view of easing the early stage of the study. The plate should now present a perfectly smooth, blackened surface. On this is to be laid a piece of thin paper, over which a small quantity of red chalk has been rubbed, and on this the tracing of the drawing to be etched is to be laid. These may be fastened to each other, and to the corners of the plate, by means of small pieces of wax, Etching on Copper. 97 The lines of the tracing are then to be gone over with a blunt tracing point, — only sufficient pressure being used to transfer the drawing to the blackened surface of the copper, where the whole will then appear in pale red lines. And now the work itself is to be commenced. The tools used are simply needles of various sizes. These tools may be bought, or the amateur can easily make them. The needles are to be broken off at about half their length, and are then to be fixed in small handles made of pieces of wood of about the thickness of pencils. They should be driven firmly into the handles, until they project only about a quarter of an inch, or a little more, according to their thickness ; for it is most important that they do not bend in the slightest degree during work. Some of them may be left in their original round form, some may be ground on the oil- stone to a rather flattened shape ; or, a slightly slanting direction may be given to the points of some of them. With these needles the whole of the drawing is now to be executed, the ground being removed by each stroke, and the copper thus exposed ; but care must be H 98 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. taken that in this process no indentation is really made on the copper itself. During work it will be convenient to adopt the plan recommended in lithographic drawing, viz., to fix a little strip of wood slightly thicker than the copper on each side of the plate, and on these a little board should be placed : this will serve as a kind of bridge for the hand to rest on without touching the plate. It will of course be understood that the finer and coarser needles will be used according to the lines required, and the quality of the lines may also be varied by the manner of holding the needle, whether upright or slantingly; the particles of the ground removed by the needles are to be from time to time swept off by a camels-hair brush. The amateur is advised to prepare another small piece of copper in the same manner, and to make a small drawing, consisting perhaps of a few lines only on it : this to be used as a test plate. The drawing being thus completed, a border or wall, say about half-an-inch in height, made of wax, is to be placed around the plate, great care being taken Etching on Copper. 99 that it is perfectly secure and water-tight at every part. The plate is now to be subjected to the action of nitric acid, which must be previously much diluted with water. The strength may be tried on the test plate, to which a drop may be applied ; it should not at once begin to blister and turn green, but the process should set in very gradually ; for if the acid be too strong, the lines burnt will be coarse, the ground will be likely to give way and the work will be spoiled. The safer plan is to use the acid weak, for its action can be increased according to the time it is left on the plate. The bubbles which arise should be gently brushed away by a camel's-hair brush, so that the progress of the work may be observed. The darkness of the lines in the impression will not, however, depend only on their width, but on their depth ; for it will be clear that as the impression is formed by the ink which has been dis- charged from the plate, a deep incision will contain more than a shallow one ; it follows, therefore, that the lines must vary in depth in works where strong effects are to be produced. H 2 ioo Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. The whole plate is, therefore, subjected to one general action of the acid in the first instance, the time being limited to that required for the " biting in " of the palest parts. The acid is then poured off ; the plate is rinsed and allowed to drain and become dry. The parts, which are assumed to be sufficiently etched are then to be covered with a composition called " stopping out varnish." When this is dry, the acid is again poured on the plate, and this operation is repeated until the desired effect is obtained. When the " biting in " is completed, the plate is to be heated and the " ground" melted and wiped off. The plate should subsequently be well washed with turpen- tine, a brush being used, so that no particles of the ground may be left in any of the lines. When the plate has been cleaned it is to be examined and, if any single line should appear too heavy or coarse, it must be smoothened down by means of a burnisher : this is a smooth tool which acts by being pressed in the direction of the line which is to be softened or erased — not across it — it must be used gently at first, so that the line may, as it were, be closed Etching on Copper. 101 up, and the surface subsequently pressed smooth by gentle rubbing. When it is deemed desirable to lighten or tone off any whole portion of the work, this is done by rubbing it down with a piece of engravers' charcoal (sold at the tool shops), a drop or two of oil having been previously placed on the plate. This operation must, however, be limited to the parts which are specially desired to be softened ; the rest of the work should be left in its original condition, the natural roughness giving a boldness which is considered one of the greatest beauties of etching. CHAPTER X. DRAWING FEOM OBJECTS. We have already stated that this is not intended to be put forth as a drawing-book. We have, in the arts described, assumed a certain knowledge of drawing, but as many of our readers may have been taught under the system of drawing only from copies, so much in vogue until a very recent period, we think that some instruction in drawing direct from the model may be received by them with satisfaction. We do not purpose, however, giving a hard and dry - course of lessons, but will endeavour to make the few hints we shall give on perspective in as simple and clear a manner as possible. We desire, however, that our lessons in pretty arts shall be absolutely practical, and feel sure our readers will follow with some interest the hints on Drawing from Objects, 103 the method of drawing from objects, bearing in mind that the ability of merely copying a picture, however creditably, does not give the power of representing the simplest objects direct from nature, since the effort is confined to the careful imitation of the forms and effects, without the mental faculty of inquiry as to the why and because of either being of necessity exercised. To one who can draw from nature a deficiency of copies can never arise ; for every object, however commonplace, can be represented in so many different ways, that the simplest box becomes a subject of interest, and we shall hope, in the following pages, to show how out of such elementary forms more complex ones may be developed. But we shall advance even a step further, and presuming that the ladies who have followed our instructions, and have had the courage to grasp the carving chisel and the fret-cutting saw, will not object to wielding the tenon saw and miniature hammer in the construction of a few useful drawing models. It is, of course, necessary in the first place to decide on the position of the spectator in relation to the 104 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. object to be delineated. The point in the picture, which is supposed to be immediately opposite to the eye, is called the Point of Sight. Fig. 20.— Perspective. All lines, which in the object are at right angles to the picture, that is, which run directly from the spectator into the distance, converge in the drawing . to the point of sight. It is of course needless to say that the view of the object depends actually on its position in rela- tion to the eye of the spectator, and that if it be placed above, the underneath surface will be seen, and if below, the upper will be presented to view. Drawing from Objects. This is exemplified in Fig. 20, in which P S is the point of sight. The same principle will necessarily apply in relation to the position of objects when placed on the left or right side of the spectator. Thus, the point of sight being situated at S, in Fig. 21, on the right- hand side of the columns a, b, c, their left side becomes visible, whilst the opposite is the case in relation to the columns d, e,f. It must be pointed out that as the front of each of the columns is parallel with the picture, they will retain their original geometrical shape, diminishing only in size as they recede into the distance, whilst the lines bounding their sides at top and bottom, being at right angles to the plane of the picture, will converge to the point of sight. In the present i] lustration the columns are all supposed to be of equal height, and to stand in two parallel rows. The edges, therefore, of the tops and bottoms form continuous lines at right angles to the plane of the picture, and therefore converge to the point of sight. io6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. This would of course not always be the case, the height of the columns might each be different from the other, and they might vary in their distance to the Fig. 21. — Double Row of Columns. right or left, but so long as one of their lines is parallel to the plane of the picture, all lines at right angles thereto would converge to the point of sight. Drawing from Objects, 107 In a drawing worked as a perspective study, the height and position of the spectator, the dimensions and distances of the objects, would be set out accord- ing to given measurements, and all the lines would be ruled. It is our desire in the present elementary paper to lead the amateur, by gradual steps, to the study of the more scientific branch of the subject, to induce her to feel the want of really scientific data, and for the acquirement of a knowledge of accurate principles, such as can be obtained from works specially devoted to the subject — which will then be followed up with greater interest than would otherwise be the case. The ex- perience of many years has shown us, that a certain amount of actual practice in drawing from objects, with a few elementary but sound instructions, acts beneficially as an introduction to perspective. The eye thus learns to feel and to appreciate the want of power in obtaining certain accurate results, so very necessary in true art, and the mind is thus prepared to go through the discipline of a scientific study, with pleasure and interest. io8 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. The cube is one of the most important elements in object-drawing, but the study must not be restricted to the simple cube or solid square ; the idea must be extended to cubical figures of different proportions ; the boundaries of which comprise the containing lines of a vast number of the objects we see around us. In commencing this practice it is advisable to con- sider the cubical figure as if transparent, or as if made of wires ; in this way the student will learn to account for lines which may not at the moment be visible, but on which the position of others may depend. In drawing a cubical figure of any given proportion, any side which may be supposed to be parallel to the plane of the picture, should be drawn first. It will in this position not be in any way altered in shape, but will retain its geometrical proportion ; the edges, however, of the sides which are at right angles to the plane of the picture, will, as already shown, converge to the point of sight. These lines need not of course be fully drawn, but their convergence should in sketching be indicated by a few touches. The vertical and Drawing from Objects. 109 horizontal edges of the distant side are then to be added. Their position must at this stage be the result Fig. 22.— Cube. of observation and judgment, guided by their apparent proportion to the sides which are parallel with the picture. The method of determining such sizes forms one of the earliest lessons in perspective. The positions of the lines which in the solid cube would be hidden are shown in the sketch. This study gives the basis of the method of drawing a box, a table, a stool, a birdcage, a group of books, and no Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. a host of other subjects, which are rectangular in their general form. "We have hitherto spoken only of objects which are in themselves rectangular, and which are so placed that some of their sides are parallel, whilst others are at right angles to the plane of the picture. But the conditions are not by any means constant, and the artist must be prepared to draw the object as she sees it; whether it be square or triangular, and whether it be placed parallel with, or at any angle to, the picture. It is in fact most important in grouping models, that the positions should be varied ; and, in sketching from nature, it is most desirable to choose a position which may give as much variety as possible to the view obtained. It has been stated that the horizontal lines in surfaces which are at right angles to the picture converge to the point of sight. This is not the case in relation to the lines of surfaces, which are oblique to the picture plane ; these converge to vanishing points, on the horizontal line, but at distances on the right and left side, which will be dependent on the angle Drawing from Objects. 1 1 1 at which the plane recedes. This is in perspective determined by accurate principles; the present Fig. 23 must be taken as a mere indication of the principle. It must, however, be impressed on the student that all Fig. 23. —Vanishing Points. lines, which in the object are parallel to each other, converge in the drawing to the same point. This is shown in Fig. 24. Here the group of books should, in the first instance, be sketched simply as one solid block. The thickness of each volume is next to be marked on the perpendicular nearest to the front, and from these points lines are to be drawn to the vanish- ing points, to which the boundary lines of the respective sides have already converged, for to these the divisions ii2 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. between the books are parallel. As a guide in drawing objects thus placed it may be mentioned that the Fig. 24. — Row of Books. vanishing points should not be placed too close together, or to the object — which in such case has the appearance B Fig. 25.— Plan of a Circle in Perspective. of being tilted up, as if resting on one angle, which is very unpleasant. Circles are represented by curved Drawing from Objects. forms, varying in width according to the position of the circle in relation to the eye of the spectator. In commencing such a figure, a view of the square which would contain the circle is first to be sketched in the desired position, and. in this the curved form is to be drawn. The various polygons are also drawn in rectangular figures, which would enclose them. We have already intimated that the effort of the student of object drawing must not be confined to drawing the simple geometrical forms, of which, as a rule, " sets of models " consist. These must be taken to represent principles, and the student should combine and group them so that their range may be much extended. Thus Fig. 26 is a group, consisting simply of a cube and pyramid, but it is easy to see that it gives the form of a lodge, or other simple quadrangular building with a pyramidical roof. Again it will be seen that the leading principles in drawing a cottage or house are contained in the two models, the square and triangular prisms shown in Fig. 27. Another oblong block, surmounted b}^ H4 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. a pyramid, added to the former group, gives the general idea of a small Early English Church, and in this way the most complex churches and other Fig. 26.— Cube and Pyramid. buildings may be composed ; the whole being sketched in geometrical masses, in which the minor parts and details are subsequently to be drawn. We must at this point close our paper on object drawing, which, as already stated, must be considered Fig. 27.— Church. ti6 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. simply as introductory, and we venture to hope that what we have said may have sufficiently interested our readers to induce them to enter more fully into the subject of perspective — a study which they will find abounding with interest and intellectual pleasure. CHAPTER XI. DRAWING MODELS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. We do not purpose asking ladies to become amateur house carpenters, but we have known many who have derived much pleasure from their ability in using simple tools and making, by their aid, many useful and pretty articles. The power of construction is not merely manual, but various mental faculties are thereby brought out. In making drawing models, ladies will find the opportunity for exercising their skill in this direction, and the results will not only become useful objects of study for themselves and their friends but, at the same time, they may be made ornaments for a room. The wood required for making the models here described should be pine. 1 1 8 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. It should be planed on both sides ; in which con- dition it can be supplied by the carpenter. For general purposes, it should be inch and \ inch in thickness. It will be easily understood that only very few and very light tools will be needed for working such thin wood; a good strong penknife is, in fact, a most useful instrument — (an admission, allowable of course only to amateurs). The tools necessary are the tenon saw, a hammer, three chisels, the "print cutters' tools/' referred to in our paper on wood carving (the sizes of these should be \, \, and \ inch), a gimlet, a bradawl, a pair of pliers, and a mallet. All these may be purchased in small sizes fit for ladies' use, and a miniature smoothing-plane may also be added : this tool requires some skill in using, which will be attained after a little practice. We do not, however, wish to imply that we expect ladies to " plane up timber," but there is no reason why they should not acquire the power of smooth ening the edges of the material they arc using, of gracefully rounding the corners, and in various ways improving Drawing Models, and how to make them. 1 1 9 the work by the aid of this useful tool, which when of the small size recommended, is not by any means the troublesome and heavy implement it is supposed to be, when the idea is associated with the " long-plane " used by the working carpenter. When a piece of board is to be sawn across, a line should be drawn out ; the cut must be care- fully made, the saw being held upright, so that the edge of the cut may be absolutely at right angles to the surface of the board. It must be pointed out that the teeth of the saw are formed so as to act in one direction ; and that, therefore, force should be used only when pushing the tool forward ; not in drawing it back, which should be done without pressing on it at all ■ the backward movement should in fact be more a lifting than a pressing one. We will now describe the method of making a simple cube, the size of which is to be 4 inches. This will consist of six pieces ; two of which may be made of the I inch wood, and the rest of the ^ inch. The two made of the thicker wood are to be 3 1 120 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. inches square, for as these will be surrounded by the other sides made of wood \ inch thick, the required size of 4 inches will thus be reached. Prepare two pieces, 3f inches square, and two pieces Fig. 28. — Hollow Cube. 3f wide, and 4 inches long. When these have been attached at their ends to the square pieces, four sides of the cube will be formed, each 4 inches long, and 3f high. Two more pieces of the \ wood, 4 inches square, are then to be cut, and these will form the two remaining sides, which on being attached, will complete the cube, each side of which will be 4 inches square. In a cube of this size, quite sufficient strength Drawing Models, and how to make them. 1 2 1 is obtained by nailing, but a little glue acids to the closeness of the joints, and may therefore be employed. No attempt should be made to use the nails without first boring holes in the outer piece of wood ; using the bradawl. The holes should be bored at a distance from the edge, equal to half the thickness of the wood, into the edge of which the nails are to pass. The nails used are those called " sprigs," which may be obtained as short as \ inch. In nailing two sides together great care must be taken to hold them at right angles, and in such a manner that the one does not project beyond the ether. In using the hammer, the hand should be placed at the end of the handle, as distant from the head as possible, the elbow being slightly raised. The nail can then be struck on the top, and may thus be driven perpendicularly ; otherwise it might be beDt sideways, and split the wood. The nails must be well driven in, so that the heads may not project in the slightest degree from the surface. 122 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hotws. The edges and surface of the whole should now be rubbed down with fine sand-paper, a piece of which should be wrapped round a small block of cork or wood so that a flat surface may be presented. Care must, however, be taken that in this process the angles of the cube may not be in any way rounded, but that they are kept perfectly sharp. The method of constructing a cube will of course be found applicable to all the rectilineal models — the difference being only in the relative proportions of parts. Thus a square prism, or as it would in general conversation be termed, an oblong block, would have only its two ends square, whilst the four sides would be oblong ; but in the method of construction there would be no difference. In triangular and other prisms the ends must be formed according to the geometrical method. For instance, in constructing the equilateral triangle, abc, (Fig. 29), which is to be the end of a triangular prism, take in the compass the length A B, the base of the triangle, and from A and b, as centres, describe arcs, intersecting each other in c. Draw the lines A c Drawing Models, and how to make them. 123 and B c, completing the figure, which is then to be sawn out. We have already hinted at the use of a penknife, and this instrument will, in the present instance, be found most convenient to cut the lines a c, A b, and b c, guided by a rule, provided that the c A B Fig. 29. — Equilateral Triangle. wood be only \ inch thick. The knife must be held as nearly upright as possible, only very little pressure being used. When it becomes obvious that the wood is nearly penetrated, the cut should be repeated on the other side, so as to meet the previous one, by which means a rough edge will be avoided ; but great caxe must be taken to insure that the cut from the back coincides precisely with that made from the front, so that both may merge into one smooth cut. We of course advise the amateur to acquire as soon 124 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. as possible the power of using the saw, working with the penknife being only described, so that no time may be lost in the constructive portion of the subject ; but, speaking technically, the knife must be considered as an expedient permissible only at starting. The long sides of the prism must now be prepared. Their width must be precisely equal to the side of the triangle ; but the loug edges must be bevelled, or slanted off towards the inner side, as shown in Fig. 29, at a a, b b, and c c. This bevelling should be done with the plane, the piece of wood lying near the edge of the table. The same object may be accomplished by using the largest chisel ; but for the purpose this tool is not so efficient as the plane, by which the absolute straightness of the edge is insured. Whichever tool be used great care must be taken in this respect ; for it will be evident that unless the edges of the sides are kept perfectly straight the three pieces will not unite accurately, and the angles of the prism will be irregular and unequal. The three sides should in the first place be glued together, great care being taken in insuring their Drawing Models, and how to make them. 125 accurate meeting at the angles ; they should then be further secured by means of nails. In this last operation great care is necessary to avoid splitting the wood, which at the extreme edge is of course very thin and liable to chip. The smallest of the sprigs should, therefore, be selected for the purpose. Care must also be taken to give the proper direction to the hole bored, so that the nails may run parallel with the sides into which they are to pass; in this case these would not be at right angles to the sides into which they at first enter. When the three sides have been thus put together, the ends are to be added, a part of the work in which no difficulty will be found, provided the rest has been accurately done ; the test of this accuracy will be in the exact fitting of the end with the sides, the edges of the end becoming, when the whole is made up, absolute portions of the sides of the whole. Another method of constructing this model is to make up the triangular body, consisting of the three sides, and then cut the ends to fit into the triangular openings. 126 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. The (Figs. 30, 31, 32) pyramid is a very important model, since forms based upon it are of very frequent occurrence. In commencing to make a pyramid the Figs. 30, 31. 32.— Pyramid, Base, and Side. square base (Fig. 31) is to be cut first, and then the four triangular sides — the precise form of which will be regulated by the height it is desired to give the pyramid. The edges of each of these five pieces are Drawing Models, and how to make them. 127 then to be bevelled off inwardly, using either the plane or the chisel ; but, as already said in relation to the prism, the greatest care must be taken to keep the slanting edge perfectly straight, and not in any way to injure the extreme edges of the pieces. When the edges have been sufficiently bevelled, the four sides are to be united, first with glue, and subsequently by the addition of sprigs, the thinner and smaller ones being used, and the greatest care being exercised in driving them in. The base is now to be added, and if the edges have been properly bevelled this should fit accurately into its place and complete the object. In making these simple geometrical models, the amateur is advised to observe a certain uniformity in size and proportion. Thus, the base of the pyramid should be the same as the side of the cube, the end of the oblong block, and the base of the triangular end of the prism. There is, of course, no principle involved in this, but uniformity in size is of material aid in the elementary stage of model drawing. Fig. 33 is a model of a small field or road gate, 128 Pretty Arts for Leisitre Hours. and in its construction the amateur will not, it is hoped, experience any difficulty. We do not purpose troubling our readers with Fig. 33.— Model of a Field or Road Gate. measurements more than necessary, as it will be obvious that, in the present instance, the size must be a matter of taste or convenience. We would, however, just mention that the gate-posts should be about 7 inches high, and to this length \ inch is Drawing Models, and how to make them. 129 to be added. This extra \ inch is to be reduced by \ inch of the wood being removed all round, leaving the end \ inch square. This is called a tenon Fig. 34.— Mortise and Tenon. (a, Fig. 34), and is to fit into a square hole of cor- responding size, called the mortise, b, cut in the stand. The gate-posts, in the present model, we assume to be made of wood 1 inch square, the upright end pieces of the gate itself to be \ inch square, and the K 130 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. bars and cross-pieces of wood \ inch wide and J inch thick. Wood of these dimensions can be supplied by any carpenter, and the work of the amateur will thus be confined to absolute construction. The upper part of the post is to be bevelled off, so that a pyramidical top may be formed. The upright end pieces of the gate itself are next to be cut; they are, of course, to be shorter than the gate-posts, and, as has already been said, they are to be of the smaller sized wood. When these have been cut to their intended length, two lines are to be drawn along one of their sides, at a distance apart equal to the intended thickness of the horizontal bars of the gate. Between these lines the width of the horizontal bars is to be marked, and this will give the forms of the recesses into which the ends of the bars are to enter. These are then to be cut with the chisel. If absolute strength were required these recesses would be taken quite through the side post ; but in the present instance it will be sufficient to carry their depth to about half the thickness of the post. When these recesses have all been made and the horizontal bars have been cut Drawing Models, a7id how to make them. 131 to the exact size, the gate is to be made up, the ends of the horizontals being glued into the recesses. The cross-piece is then to be fixed as shown in the sketch. The hinges are to be two simple rectangular hooks made of wire and fixed in the gate-post, and two wire loops being placed in the upright of the gate itself. These loops when placed over the upright hooks will form a hinge which will act very well. The latch of the gate may be made of wire or wood, according to the pattern it may be desired to imitate ; and for drawing purposes the simpler the form adopted the better. We may, perhaps, be allowed to give, in this place, a few words of advice which refer not only to model making but to model drawing. Our advice is : Be careful not to overdo details, either in construction or in imitation. The general form and position of the whole and of the leading points should be boldly and correctly rendered, but the minor points should be merely indicated or hinted at as portions of a complete whole. K 2 132 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. Several views of this model may, with advantage, be drawn. The first should be taken when the whole gate is parallel with the plane of the picture, as if crossing, at right angles, a road along which the spectator is advancing, the gate being closed. A second view should represent the gate as open, parallel with the road, that is, at right angles to its normal position ; and in a third view, the gate should be shown partially open. These studies may be rendered doubly advantageous by views being taken from the back as well as from the front : in the one case, the open gate being directed towards, and in the other from the spectator. Garden gate, Fig. 35, represents a model of a small garden gate, the construction of which is of the most simple character. The gate-posts may be made of wood, \ inch square, the height being about six inches. These are to be placed at the proper distance apart in the stand, being fixed by the mortise and tenon joint shown in figure 34. The gate itself is next to be taken in hand. It Drawing Models, and how to make them. 133 consists simply of upright staves, pointed at their upper end, and these are held together by two cross- pieces, to which the staves are to be attached by sprigs. The distance between the staves may be A A Fig. 35.— Model of a Garden Gate. equal to their width, but this is of course a matter of taste ; they may, in fact, be so attached that each alternate one may be taken off whilst an elementary study is being made or added as a subsequent lesson. It is unnecessary to suggest the forms in which hinges and fastenings may be made ? The ingenuity 134 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. of the amateur will no doubt suggest these, and the materials may be easily obtained. This model, like the former one, should be drawn from various points of view. The gate should, in the first place, be sketched as a whole ; as if, in fact, it were a door, in order that the upper and lower ends of all the staves may be governed by the same perspective lines. The whole plane is then to be divided by vertical lines ; and in this the artist must be reminded that whilst the front surfaces of all the staves would, if the whole plane were parallel to the picture, be equal, this would not be the case if the gate were open, the whole surface being either at right angles or placed obliquely to the plane of the picture. In such case, the staves would be rendered narrower in proportion to their distance, and the height. CHAPTER XII. METHODS OF TRANSFERRING DESIGNS. We are aware that for the various branches of orna- mental needlework, the material may be purchased with the pattern <{ ready drawn " on it We know, however, that many ladies are able to make their own designs, or to copy others, and we therefore give the following methods of transferring from the original drawings or from prints. We must, however, take the liberty of pointing out to our readers, that this portion of the work is to a certain extent mechanical, and that we should be misleading them if we allowed them to suppose that the process here shown can in any degree supersede the necessity of actual power of drawing, and of a knowledge of the principles of design. We urgently recommend those readers who wish to 136 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. pursue needlework as an art, or any work indeed in which design is concerned, to study the subject first, and to practise freehand drawing. They will then be able to accomplish their object with much greater success than if they merely work mechanically ; and of course it will be by far more interesting during the progress of the work to be engaged in carrying out their own designs than those of others. Floral designs are those principally used in em- broidering and similar branches of Art needlework, and we therefore advise all who would engage in such work to study the natural growth of plants. The designer, like the poet, is permitted a certain latitude, but this must in designing be kept within the bounds of truth. Thus, although branches, twigs, tendrils, leaves and flowers may be bent, interwoven or dis- posed in such a manner as may carry out the designer's ideas, the natural characteristics of each plant must be carefully observed, and their mode of growth must not be departed from. We advise our readers, therefore, to avail themselves of every opportunity of making drawings from plants, Methods of transferring Designs. placing them in various positions so that each part may be observed, a plan which will bring to the student the richest results. For there can be nothing Fig. 36. — Greek Honeysuckle Border. more absurd than to see in a design all the flowers and leaves rendered as if seen from one point of view, or as if placed carefully in position "to be looked at." We advise our readers to form collections of the plants adapted for designing, and for this purpose 1 38 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. they will, in course of their country rambles in the summer, find hundreds of wild flowers which will afford them pleasant study and employment in the winter hours; for in the flowers which twine so elegantly amidst our hedges, and in those which spring up amongst the grass in our fields, there will be found as much beauty of form and colour as in the most scarce exotics, whilst their mode of growth in many cases is more graceful. The flowers and leaves which are to be saved (for our process is too simple to allow of the term "pre- served " being used), must in the first place be laid between several sheets of thick blotting-paper, and the whole should then be placed between two drawing boards, and laid horizontally; a number of heavy books or other weights being placed on the upper board. In course of about a week, the plants are to be removed with dry blotting-paper, and in about another week they will be ready to be fixed in the book to be kept. This may be a scrap book— provided the paper be Methods of transferring Designs. 139 strong — the colour of the pages should be white and grey, or grey only ; any other colours would interfere with the appearance of the plants. Between the pages " guards " must be bound : these are narrow strips of thick paper which cause a space between the adjoining surfaces, and prevent the covers being forced open by the intervening plants. The plants may in some cases be gummed down, and in others they may be secured by strips of gummed paper crossing the branches at intervals. Having given these few hints 011 the general subject, we proceed to our immediate purpose of showing the method of transferring designs from the original drawings to the fabrics on which they are to be worked, or the wood in which they are to be carved, or out of which they are to be sawn. We have already, in our chapter on wood carving, described how the back of the design may be rubbed over with black chalk and then, by drawing over the lines with a blunt point, the design may be transferred to the wood ; but this implies that the design is specially made on rather thin paper, and that the 140 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. outline on the wood can be corrected. We purpose now showing methods of transferring designs to materials which require more refined treatment, and on which the design must be at once drawn with absolute cor- rectness, as none of the lines can be erased or cut away as could be done in the case of wood carving:. The design having been completed, a tracing is to be made of it. Tracing-paper, which may be purchased at any Art repository, is prepared so as to be quite transparent, and at the same time tolerably stiff. A piece of tracing-paper having been placed over the design, and pinned down at the corners, so that it may not be liable to move whilst the work is progressing, the lines of the design, which will be visible through the tracing-paper, are to be drawn over either with pencil or pen and ink ; the latter is in most cases to be preferred, as the lines can be kept finer and more accurate, without the trouble of repeatedly pointing the pencil. If the tracing is to be used many times for embroidering the monogram on a dozen or two of pocket-handkerchiefs, it is advisable to use "tracing cloth," which is a thin woven material, Methods of transferring Designs. 141 prepared so that it can be drawn upon in pencil or ink, and is also rendered perfectly transparent, whilst, at the same time, it is not liable to be worn out in the process of tracing. We suggest to our readers that it is useful to keep a book something like that Used for saving plants, in which these tracings may be kept, in case they may be required for future use. They should simply be attached by a little gum, at two of the angles, that they may be easily detached when required. In both tracing-paper and tracing-cloth, the side which is rather more glossy than the other is that on which the tracing is to be made. Black or red transferring paper is now required. This is made by scraping black French chalk (Comte Crayon) No. 1 or 2, over one side of rather thin paper, such as foreign letter paper, and rubbing the powder over the paper with a ball of cotton wool. This should be done very lightly at first, so that the powder may be equally spread. The pressure used must be very light and equal, for when greater pressure is applied at one part more than at another, 142 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. that part will be blacker than the rest which is not desirable. As much as possible of the powder is to be rubbed away by the cotton wool, so that the black may not rub off when touched accidentally, but only when pressure is used in a manner to be presently described. Eed "setoff" paper is made in precisely the same manner, red chalk being used instead of black. In commencing to transfer the design to the material on which it is to be worked, adjust the tracing carefully on the required spot, and secure it temporarily by means of a couple of small pins. Next, pass the set-off paper under the tracing, the black or red downward. Insert a few more small pins, so that the tracing, set-off paper, and material may be kept perfectly flat. Now with a blunt point, such as that of a crochet needle, or an ivory tracing point, which may be purchased, trace over the lines of the design, using just enough pressure to cause the lines which have been passed over to appear on the surface, on which the work is to be executed. In passing over the lines of the tracing, the tracing-point should be Methods of transferring Designs. 143 held as upright as possible, so that the lines transferred may be fine and uniform. Should any little inaccuracy in tracing cause a line to appear outside the needlework, this may be removed by a piece of dry stale bread being carefully rubbed over it. The following method is adapted for transferring a pattern to cloth or velvet, or other fabric having a soft or yielding surface. Select some good clear paper, of the quarto post or foolscap size, and pin a sheet down at its corners to a drawing board. The paper used for this purpose should be a good writing paper, smooth and very clear, and of a medium thickness ; and the part of the sheet which is free from the water-mark (the name of the manufacturer, date, &c), should be used. This may be ascertained by holding the paper up to the light, when the water-mark will become visible. The paper, having been attached to the board, is to be painted over with copal varnish, which may be obtained of any artists' colourman. The brush used for this purpose should be a "flat 144 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. hog's hair " of about one inch in width ; it should be kept well filled with varnish, and should be held upright. Great care should be taken to spread the varnish equally over the paper, which may be done by working the brush in cross directions. When the varnishing has been done, the brush must at once be washed out in turpentine and afterwards rinsed in water. The paper should be left on the board placed in a horizontal position for three or four days, when, if the materials used are of good quality, the paper will present a glossy surface and will be nearly transparent The varnished paper, which we will call the " stencil paper," is now to be placed over the design, and the lines are to be traced on it with a pen and ink. In this last operation, care must be taken that the varnish is not scratched off by the pen, for in such case the stencil would be useless. The ink lines having become perfectly dry, the whole of the design is to be pricked through. The instru- ment to be employed for this purpose should be made Methods of transferring Designs. 145 of the lower half of a rather thick needle, fixed in a light wooden handle, or a fine stiletto may be used. It is necessary that the small holes which are to be pricked in the design should not, on the reverse side, be surrounded by a projecting edge to a greater degree than can be avoided. It will be easily understood that this will, in a very great degree, depend on the manner in which the stencil paper is placed during the piercing process ; for, if it lies on a soft cushion, the force of the needle will press the paper into the too- yielding surface underneath, and each hole will be surrounded by a ridge, which will give it the appearance of a volcanic mountain with its yawning crater. As this projection will give way under the pressure used in the subsequent process, and fill up the hole, it is of course important that there should be as little of it as possible. The stencil paper should, therefore, during the process of piercing, rest on a pad made of several sheets of blotting paper, which will allow the needle to pass sufficiently far through the stencil paper, whilst it will 146 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. resist to a great extent the rising of the edge of the hole. In piercing the design, care must be taken that the holes are not pricked too closely together ; in such case the stencil will be liable to tear, and part of the design will be set free. It must be mentioned that the smaller the holes are pricked, the better, so long as they admit of the passage of the points of the hairs of the brush to be subsequently used. This may of course be easily settled by trial. In commencing to use the stencil, it is to be carefully placed on the required spot on the material, which should be spread over a drawing-board ; both being care- fully secured by pins, so that there may be no chance of either moving during the brushing which follows. The brush used is that called a velvet painting brush ; the hairs of this are short, straight, and stiff, but are soft and fine at the points. If the design is to be transferred to a dark material, white is to be used ; this may be either Chinese white sold in bottles, or moist colour sold in tubes or pans. A small quantity of this having been rubbed up with Methods of transferring Designs. 47 water on a slab or plate is to be allowed to dry. For transferring to coloured materials, water-colours (either the tube or the moist in pans, or the cakes) may be used ; the colour to be rather lighter than the material. The brush, having been soaked, is to be squeezed, so that it may retain as little water as possible; it is then to be rubbed over the colour which has dried on the slab and, being held perfectly upright, it is next to be worked over the stencil, care being taken that every portion of the design is gone over. The brush is to be pressed only sufficiently to cause the points of the hairs to pass through the holes in the design ; but not to bend under the stencil, in which case the pattern would be blotted. Each time that the brush requires replenishing, it is to be pressed on a wet sponge, and then rubbed on the dry colour on the slab ; by this method a clear im- pression will be obtained, which would not be the case if the brush were dipped into wet colour, as this would run and cause blotches on the material. For large designs, stencil brass may be used. This L 2 148 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours, material is of about the same thickness as paper, and may with ease be penetrated by the stiletto or a strong needle ; it will, however, be necessary to pass a small file over the back of the stencil in order to clear off the roughness which will necessarily occur around each hole. CHAPTER XIII. TOYS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. Of all the work with which our fair readers may while away their leisure hours, there is no one which can bring greater pleasure than that of toy-making. For this gives not only pleasure to the worker, but brings joy into the hearts of the little ones, who watch the progress of the work with the deepest interest. Children do not value toys according to the price paid for them; but are, as a rule, as pleased with the cheapest as with the most expensive. The greatest enjoyment consists, however, in seeing the toys made, and in the idea that they have helped in the work. Any one who has been associated with children will have noticed the warm tone in which they say " Please cut something out for me," or, " Please make me some- thing ; " and having seen the toy made, they are more 150 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. careful of it than if they had seen a goodly sum paid for it. Nor is this all. Children, by seeing toys or other objects made, learn accuracy and care. Their ideas are called out, and they learn to amuse themselves and others in attempting to imitate what they may have seen done ; they thus acquire habits of industry and the power of amusing themselves. It would be beyond our purpose were we, in this place, to enter upon a disquisition on the educational uses of toys ; but we feel that we shall only be keeping within our limits when we urge that ugly toys should be most carefully avoided. Comic ones and caricatures are admissible; but those which are absolutely ugly should never be given, as the child, by constant as- sociation with them, is likely to acquire ideas of form which may militate against lessons in beauty which may subsequently be given. Animals cut out are amongst the simplest and best toys ; and the power of cutting them is soon acquired by any one who has some knowledge of drawing. But we recommend our readers to practise sketching the forms of animals before attempting to cut them Toys, and hoiv to make them. 151 out for children, so that they may give their absolute characteristics to each animal. The perceptive faculties of most children are, as a rule, far stronger than many persons not accustomed to watch them suppose. We know from actual experience that they will call out the name of the animal about being cut the moment the general form of the back or head has been given ; that is, when the form given is that which they have seen either alive, or represented by drawing. Excellent drawings of animals are to be found in most of the works on Natural History now published. In copying these, the general outline should be given, with only sufficient additional lines to show the eyes or such other details as may be necessary. These animals may be gummed to little card-board stands, and may then be drawn along by a piece of string, but in such case the animal should be represented as walking or running, not as standing still or lying down. Wheels under animals, however unlike Nature, cannot be avoided ; but there is no danger of misleading the children in this respect, for of course they all know that horses and cows do not move on wheels ; still, 152 Pretty Arts for Leisure Honrs. Avhenever the natural motion of the animal can be better imitated it is desirable. Swans, ducks, geese and other water-fowl may be made to glide along in a very simple manner by the contrivance shown in Fig. 37. Here a b is the end of a strip of wood, about 2 inches wide, about \ inch thick, and of such length as may agree with the mantelpiece of the room, or of a table on which the model is to be worked. Fig. 37.— Slide fok Model. On this, two strips of wood, about \ inch wide, are to be fixed, leaving a space between them of 1 inch. These must be accurately placed against Hues previously ruled, so that the distance between them may be the same throughout the whole length. A simple tramway may thus be formed. A piece of wood, of \ inch thickness, and exactly 1 inch in breadth, and about 2 inches long, and on this piece two strips are to be nailed, leaving a space between them just Toys, and how to make them. 153 wide enough for the insertion of the animal — that is, just equal to the thickness of the cardboard. And in this groove the animal is to be placed. At each end of the piece, e f, a small wire loop (g) is to be Fig. 38. — Animal ron Slide. inserted ; and, to these, pieces of string are to be attached. By these strings, carried over the end of the stand, the block on which the animal is placed is to be drawn along, an operation which will afford great amusement to the children. When it reaches the end, the animal is to be taken out and reversed for return ; 154 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hoitrs. the eye, wing, and other details must therefore be drawn on both sides. It will add to the interest of the children if the toy be worked by means of weights attached to the ends of the strings. The weights should in the first place be equal, but they should be attached in such a manner that an additional one may be used at the end towards which the figure is to be drawn. A slight groove should be cut on the edge of the end of the ground-piece, in which the string may run, and this must be made very smooth. A roller, made of a cotton-reel, may be inserted here, and over this the string will roll smoothly; but, for small and light figures, the plan we have described will be quite sufficient. The galloping or rocking-horse motion is a very favourite one with children and is not difficult of accomplishment. One method is to imitate as nearly as possible the stand of a rocking-horse by cutting the curved portions out of thin wood and uniting them by cross pieces. The pattern should first be cut out of cardboard ; so that, by laying it down on the wood and Toys, and how to make them. 155 marking round it with a pencil, the exact similarity of the two sides may be ensured. This kind of stand may also be made of strong cardboard. A very simple stand for a small horse may be made by marking a line with a stiletto or penknife along a piece of cardboard and folding the piece exactly in the line. The opposite edge is then to be cut so as to form a part of a circle, and the piece will then form a slight stand ; the bottom edges may be attached to each other by strips of cardboard. Carts, carriages, and cabs, are amongst the most favourite objects that can be made for children ; and it is astonishing to see the rapidity with which some of them acquire the power of making very pretty models of the various kinds of conveyances. It is un- necessary here to give illustrations of the various parts of a cab, which are well known to all ; we confine ourselves therefore to giving a few suggestions as to the general method of construction. The two sides are to be first cut out ; and it will be found convenient to let the side of the coachman's box be in the same piece with each side, as the 156 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. trouble of attaching a box made separately is thus saved. The door is next to be cut out of this ; and of course the window is to be cut. In cutting out the door, a broad ridge must be left at top and bottom so that the sides may not be too much weakened. It will also add materially to the strength of the door if a narrow strip of cardboard is gummed all round the edge on the inner side. The door is afterwards to be attached to the body of the cab by small hinges made of pieces of leather. The top of the cab is next to be made ; it is not rectangular, but is rather wider across the middle. This is not really a matter of importance in a toy such as this, but still it is best to make the general form as correct as possible. When the form of the top has been marked out, an edging must be left on all four sides, to be bent downward for the attachment of the sides, the back, and the front. If the shape of the top be curved, it will be necessary to jag out this edging into pieces, otherwise it will not bend down. The back, bottom, and front may be formed of one Toys, and how to make them. 157 long piece, which, if the top of the cab be curved, will require to be shaped at the bottom to correspond with the top. A similar piece is to be carried to the back of the coachman's box, aud will also form the " splash board " in front of the coachman. The axles of the wheels, and the shafts, are of course to be made of wood, and should be as simple as possible. The wheels should be made of cardboard, rather thicker than that previously used ; and if the model be of a large size, an additional thickness should be glued on to one side of the rim, and on to the nave or central part. The spokes of the wheels may be designed according to taste, and should be arranged at equal distances in the wheel. From each of the dividing points, a line is to be drawn to the centre, and lines are to be drawn on each side of these centre lines, at a distance equal to half the thickness of the spokes. The intermediate piece of cardboard is then to be cut away. It will be at once seen that, as the wheels are to move on pins, the holes through which the pins pass at the centre would soon become enlarged, owiug to 158 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. the wearing away of the cardboard. If the model be small, this may be prevented by two or three thick- nesses of cardboard being gummed or glued over the nave, as already mentioned ,* but, for a larger wheel, the better plan is to cut away a circular piece of the centre, and glue in a piece of wood, cut so that it may pass endwise into the nave ; this will form a strong centre. Each wheel is to be attached to the end of the axle by means of a pin or rather a part of a pin ; the pin being cut across by a small file, and the upper portion being used, the end having been previously filed to a point. A hole is now to be bored through the piece of wood forming the centre of the wheel, and the pin is to be passed through this into the end of the axle, into which it is to be driven by the hammer until the centre of the wheel is nearly close to the axle, just enough space being left to allow of the free rotation of the wheel. It must be mentioned that, in making up the body of the cab, the broad strip forming the back, bottom, and front, should be affixed first ; the seats, made of cardboard, are then to be fixed, and the whole of the Toys, and how to make thetJt. 159 interior lined with thin cloth or velvet — a portion of the work which we may safely entrust to the taste of our readers. The inside of the roof is of course to be similarly covered. It must be borne in mind that, in lining the sides, the lining must not be attached near the upper edge, but a narrow space must be left into which the edging, bent down for the attachment of the top, is to be inserted. The model would not be complete without a horse ; and it must be pointed out, that as the cab is solid, that is, it represents a cab in its proper proportions, a simple horse cut of cardboard would not harmonize because it would be flat. It will be necessary, therefore to obtain a horse at a toy-shop ; and in this our reader is advised to select one representing a natural horse as nearly as possible, carefully avoiding those sold under the name of the noble animal, but consisting of a rounded piece of wood, supported on four square sticks, with a head and neck cut out of a flat piece of wood, a piece of fur for a mane, and another for a tail, the whole coloured black, and bespattered with large red spots. We have already given our 160 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. reasons for objecting to such libels on nature being presented to children. It is almost needless to say that an omnibus can be constructed in the same manner; from its rectangular form it is perhaps even easier. The vehicles, being finished, are to be painted; the colours used may be the usual water-colours sold in cakes, but the moist colours in tubes are better, as they have more consistency, and therefore cover the surface better. Or, the colours may be purchased in powder, and these when ground up with water and a little gum arabic, give the best body colours that can be used. Gold for edging or ornamentation may either be that sold in shells, or in powder called " gold bronze ; " this, when ground up with water and gum, covers better and is by far more economical than the shell gold. Any small doll can be made to do duty as a driver, and our readers will not, we are sure, find any difficulty in providing the proper attire. Open carriages may be made in the manner here described ; and these afford great amusement to children, Toys, and how to make them. 1 6 1 in giving them the opportunity of handing the ladies — their little dolls — into the vehicles, and giving them a drive. The general method of constructing wheeled vehicles having been thus described, our readers will have but little difficulty in making a few railway carriages and goods waggons ; and a little observation and ingenuity will enable them to make a model representing a locomotive engine. We say "representing" the loco- motive ; for of course a working model is not required, but merely a model in which the leading parts are represented, and having moveable wheels. A train may be thus formed, and a line of rails, formed of strips of wood nailed to a flat piece, as in Fig. 37, will form a railway ; the train being drawn along by weights as named on page 154. We have, in our "Boy Joiner," given a more complete description of this toy. In concluding this brief addition to "Pretty Arts/' we would express the hope that our remarks may not be misunderstood. We do not by any means imply that every lady can make toys equal to those she can buy, but we have M \6i Pretty Arts for Leisure Hours. endeavoured to show how several amusing objects may be made for children ; their interest being, as we have already said, enhanced by the fact that they have seen them produced, and that they have, in their own estimation at least, assisted materially in the work. CHAPTER XIV. COTTAGES, &c, MODELLED IN CARDBOARD. We can scarcely dignify the present subject by the name Architectural Modelling ; since by that term a knowledge of the history and scientific details of archi- tecture would be implied, and to attempt to give this would be far beyond the scope of this work. We pur- pose giving instructions as to the mode of constructing simple models of rustic and other buildings, which it may be desired to imitate ; to form simple ornaments in rooms ; and in many cases keeping alive the memory of some place around which pleasant associations may cling. Our object for illustration is therefore one of the simplest character — a small cottage. Elementary, as the subject may however be, it will, it is hoped, convey sufficient practical information to enable our 164 Pretty Arts for Leisicre Hours. readers to construct much larger and handsomer models. The material used may be either cardboard or thin wood, and in some models both these may be combined. We assume the former to be employed in the present model. The material should be a good stout cardboard, having a slightly rough surface. If the model is to be a rather large one, representing a rubble stone building, or one the walls of which are, as it is technically called, " rough cast/' a sheet of rough drawing paper, such as is used for water-colour drawing, may be pasted over the sheet of card- board. In doing this, paste should be equally spread over the drawing-paper, which is then to be laid on the cardboard, covered with a sheet of waste paper, and well rubbed down with a closely folded cloth ; great care being taken that the whole is equally rubbed, and that no inequalities or blisters are allowed to remain. When nearly dry, a warm flat-iron is to be passed over the surface, a sheet of clean paper inter- vening, and gentle pressure being used. Cardboards 1 66 Pretty Arts for Leisure Hoitrs. of various degrees of thickness and roughness may be purchased in some localities : the foregoing hints are given for the benefit of those readers who may not be able readily to obtain the material they require. The object now under consideration is formed, in the first place, of a front and back, and two gable- ends. We give one of these. The rectangle a, b, c, d, having been drawn, take in the compass the length of the line B, c, and describe an arc at E, the point B being the centre. Next, with the same length, using c as a centre, describe another arc at E, which will intersect the previous arc in e, which will be the gable point. Now draw the lines B, E, and c, E, which will complete the general form of the gable-end. On the vertical sides the slips F and G are to be left ; the vertical lines are to be cut to about half the thick- ness of the cardboard. The upper portion of the slips can then be stripped off with the penknife ; the re- mainder is then to be folded back at right angles to the surface for the attachment of the front and back. Similar slips are also to be left at h and I, which Cottages, &c, Modelled in Cardboard. 167 being bent down will serve for the attachment of the roof. It will, however, be seen that these slips on the slanting sides of the gable do not extend as far as the gable point, but the gable is continued in the form of a rectangle, forming the sides of the chimney. This rectangle having been extended, vertical lines are to be drawn to mark the widths of the sides of the chimney- stack. These lines being cut half through, the sides are to be bent into their places, and the edge glued up ; a piece of cardboard is then to be put over the top of the stack, and over this the chimney-pots are subsequently to be placed. It may be mentioned that, if the cottage is to be of only a small or medium size, the gable-ends, front and back, may all be made of one piece of cardboard, the lines at the angles being cut half through to allow of the parts being bent into their respective positions; there will then be only one joint, at the meeting of the one edge of the gable-side, with one of the back. The roof is to be cut to the form shown in Fig. 39. The entire length should equal that of the front of the 1 68 Pretty Arts for Leisitre Hours. cottage, with the addition of the projection of the eaves. The width on each side of the centre line or ridge A, b, should be equal to the slanting side of the gable-end with the addition also of a certain width of the eaves to overhang the front of the cottage. The roof is to be bent on the ridge line, which must be partially cut through until the sides are inclined to each other at the same angle as the sides of the gable- end. Before the forms of the different parts of the cottage are cut out, the windows and door must be drawn. The windows may either be painted in water colours, or the spaces may be cut out and pieces of glass placed at the back. The glass best adapted for this purpose is that used in mounting objects for the microscope, called " thin glass." When the piece of glass has been placed at the back of the space cut out for the window, strips of paper or card are to be glued over the edges, so that it may be attached to the wall. The roof should be coloured before it is fixed in its place, so that the lines showing the slates may be accurately measured and ruled. The chimney-pots are to be made of cardboard, Cottages, &c, Modelled in Cardboard. 169 and may be either cylindrical or square. We leave the further details to the wishes and taste of the worker. Flower boxes may be placed at the windows ; a porch may be added to the door ; the cottage may be sur- rounded by a garden, the verdure being composed of dried moss, some of which may be carried up the sides of the walls to represent ivy, etc. We have no doubt that, with the practical suggestions here given, and with the hints thrown out, many of our readers will accomplish very satisfactory results. THE END. hKADBl'liV. AONEW, & CO, PRtNl'EXfi, VVHITES'RfA.K.S, LONDON. N ii, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. (Late 193, Piccadilly, W.) March, 1882. CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, INCLUDING DRAWING EXAMPLES, DIAGRAMS, MODELS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. NEW NOVELS. New Novel by the Author of '" Aunt Hepsfs Foundling:' LADY DEANE AND OTHER STORIES. By Mrs. Leith Adams. 3 vols. FAUCIT OF BALLIOL. By Herman Merivale. 3 vols. Second Edition. 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Cloth, 9s. *J* The remainder of Dickens's Works were not originally printed in Demy Svo. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 21 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS- Continued. LIBRARY EDITION. In Post 8vo. With the Original Illustrations, 30 vols. , cloth, £12. 43 Illustrns. , 2 vols. , 2 vols. 2 vols. PICKWICK PAPERS ... NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 39 MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 40 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP & REPRINTED PIECES 36 BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES 36 BLEAK HOUSE 40 LITTLE DORRIT 40 DOMBEY AND SON 38 DAVID COPPERFIELD 38 OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 40 SKETCHES BY "BOZ" 39 OLIVER TWIST 24 CHRISTMAS BOOKS 17 A TALE OF TWO CITIES 16 GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 PICTURES FROM ITALY & AMERICAN NOTES 8 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 8 CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 8 EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES 12 CHRISTMAS STORIES from " Household Words," &c. 14 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster 2 vols. 2 VOls. 2 VOls. 2 VOls. 2 VOls. 2 VOls. 2 VOlS. I vol. i vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. With Illustrations. Uniform with this Edition. " 1 vol, 10s. 6d. THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION. In Crown 8vo. In 21 vols., cloth, with Illustrations, £3 16s. s. d. PICKWICK PAPERS . 8 Illustrations . • 4 0 MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT .8 .. 4 0 DOMBEY AND SON .8 .. 4 0 NICHOLAS NICKLEBY • 8 .. 4 0 DAVID COPPERFIELD • 8 •• 4 0 BLEAK HOUSE • 8 .. 4 0 LITTLE DORRIT • 8 ■ 4 0 OUR MUTUAL FRIEND .8 .. 4 0 BARNABY RUDGE • 8 • 3 6 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP • 8 ■• 3 6 A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND • 4 •• 3 6 EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES •8 •• 3 6 CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " .. •8 3 6 SKETCHES BY "BOZ" .8 •• 3 6 AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES . • 8 •• 3 6 CHRISTMAS BOOKS • 8 •• 3 6 OLIVER TWIST .8 •• 3 6 GREAT EXPECTATIONS .8 •• 3 6 TALE OF TWO CITIES .8 •• 3 0 HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY • 8 3 0 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER • 4 3 0 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Numerous Illustrations. Uniform with 2 vols. 7s. this Edition, with 22 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS— Continued. THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION. Complete in jo Volu?nes. Demy 8vo, ios. each ; or set, This Edition is printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and the page is of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations. No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever w r idely-increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really handsome library form. The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to preserve. SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank. PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz. OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. With Illus- trations by Cattermole, &c. 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CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 23 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS— Continued. HOUSEHOLD EDITION. Complete in 22 Volumes. Crown 410, cloth, £\ Ss. 6d. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. DAVID COPPERFIELD, with 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, cloth, 5s. BLEAK HOUSE, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. LITTLE DORRIT, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 56 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. OUR MUTUAL FRIEND, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. DOMBEY AND SON, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. EDWIN DROOD ; REPRINTED PIECES ; and other Stories, with 30 Illustra- tions, cloth, 5s. THE LIFE OF DICKENS. By John Forster. With 40 Illustrations. Cloth, 5s. BARNABY RUDGE, with 46 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 32 Illustrations, cloth, 4 s. CHRISTMAS STORIES, with 23 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLIVER TWIST, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. GREAT EXPECTATIONS, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, 3 s. 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An Edition printed on good paper, containing Illustrations selected from the Household Edition, on Plate Paper. Each Volume has about 450 pages and 16 full-page Illustrations. SKETCHES BY "BOZ." PICKWICK. 2 vols. OLIVER TWIST. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS BOOKS. OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS STORIES. BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. BARNABY RUDGE. 2 vols. UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVEL- LER. GREAT EXPECTATIONS. TALE OF TWO CITIES. CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENG- LAND. EDWIN DROOD and MISCEL- LANIES. PICTURES FROM ITALY and AMERICAN NOTES. The Cheapest and Handiest Edition of THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. The Pocket- Volume Edition of Charles Dickens's Works. In 30 Vols, small /cap. 8vo, £2 5s. Neu> and Cheap Issue of THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. l2mo. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, 2s. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, 2s. 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A Stand with a universal joint, to show the solid models, &c, £1 18s. *One Wire Quadrangle, with a circle and cross within it, and one straight wire. One solid cube. One Skeleton Wire Cube. One Sphere. One Cone. One Cylinder. One Hexagonal Prism. £2 2s. Skeleton Cube in wood, 3s. 6d. 18-inch Skeleton Cube in wood, 12s. "Three objects of form in Pottery: Indian Jar, \ Celadon Jar, > 18s. 6d. Bottle, ) *Five selected Vases in Majolica Ware, £2 us. "Three selected Vases in Earthenware, 18s. Imperial Deal Frames, glazed, without sunk rings, 10s. each. "Davidson's Smaller Solid Models, in Box, £2, containing — 2 Square Slabs. Octagon Prism. Triangular Prism. ' 9 Oblong Blocks (steps). Cylinder. Pyramid, Equilateral. 2 Cubes. Cone. Pyramid, Isosceles. Square Blocks. Jointed Cross. Square Block. * Model?, &c, entered as sets, can only be"supplied in sets. CHAPMAN &> HALL, LIMITED. 29 SOLID MODELS, &c— Continued. * Davidson's Advanced Drawing Models, £g. — The following is a brief description of the Models : — An Obelisk — composed of 2 Octagonal Slabs, 26 and 20 inches across, and each 3 inches high ; 1 Cube, 12 inches edge ; 1 Monolith (forming the body of the obelisk) 3 feet high ; 1 Pyramid, 6 inches base ; the complete object is thus nearly 5 feet high. A Market Cross— composed of 3 Slabs, 24, 18, and 12 inches across, and each 3 inches high ; 1 Upright, 3 feet high ; 2 Cross Arms, united by mortise and tenon joints ; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step- Ladder, 23 inches high. A Kitchen Table, 14% inches high. A Chair to corre- spond. A Four-legged Stool, with projecting top and cross rails, height 14 inches. A Tub, with handles and projecting hoops, and the divisions between the staves plainly marked. A strong Trestle, 18 inches high. A Hollow Cylinder, 9 inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, divided lengthwise. A Hollow Sphere, 9 inches in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into quarters ; the semi-sphere, when placed on the cylinder, gives the form and principles of shading a dome, whilst one of the quarters placed on half the cylinder forms a niche. Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22 models), ^5. *Binn's Models for Illustrating the Elementary Principles of Orthographic Projection as applied to Mechanical Drawing, in box, £1 10s. Miller's Class Drawing Models. — These Models are particularly adapted for teaching large classes ; the stand is very strong, and the universal joint will hold the Models in any position. Wood Models : Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ; Cube, 14 inches side Cylinder, 13 inches diameter, 16 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches diameter, 22% inches side ; Square Pyramid, 14 inches side, 22^ inches side ; Cone, 13 inches diameter, 22% inches side ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches solid wood z% inch square ; Intersecting Circles, 19 inches solid wood 2% by x% inches. Wire Models : Triangular Prism, 17 inches side, 22 inches high ; Square Prism, 14 inches side, 20 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 18 inches diameter, 24 inches high ; Square Pyramid, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Cone, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches side; Intersecting Circles, 19 inches side ; Plain Circle, 19 inches side ; Plain Square, 19 inches side. Table, 27 inches by 21% inches. Stand. The set complete, ,£14 13s. Vulcanite Set Square, 5s. Large Compasses, with chalk-holder, 5s. *Slip, two set squares and T square, 5s. *Parkes's Case of Instruments, containing 6-inch compasses with pen and pencil leg, 5s. *Prize Instrument Case, with 6-inch compasses, pen and pencil leg, 2 small compasses, pen and scale, 18s. 6-inch Compasses, with shifting pen and point, 4s. 6d. TWELVE SHEETS. By John Drew, Ph. Dr., F.R.S.A. Prepared for the Com- mittee of Council on Education. Sheets, £2 8s.; on rollers and varnished, £4 4s. NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a Practical Method of Teaching Botany. By Professor Henslow, F.L.S. £2; on rollers and varnished, £3 3s. ASTRONOMICAL : BOTANICAL : CLASS. DIVISION. SECTION. Thalamifloral DIAGRAM. Dicotyledon 4 5 6 7 8 9 Monocotyledons . . ( Superior t Inferior . Glumaceous Models, &c, entered as sets, can only be supplied in sets. 30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION : TEN SHEETS. By William J. Glenny, Professor of Drawing, King's College. In sets, £1 is. LAXTON'S EXAMPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN TWO DIVISIONS, containing 32 Imperial Plates, £1. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, n Sheets. 2S. 9d. Mounted, 5s. 6d. GEOLOGICAL : DIAGRAM OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. Bristow, F.R.S., F.G.S. A Sheet, 4s.; on roller and varnished, 7s. 6d. MECHANICAL: DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN MACHINERY AND THE ARTS GENERALLY. By Dr. John Anderson. 8 Diagrams, highly coloured on stout paper, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. Sheets £1 per set ; mounted on rollers, £2. DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Professor Goodeve and Professor Shelley. Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured. Sets of 41 Diagrams {$2% Sheets), £6 [6s. ; varnished and mounted on rollers, ^11 us. MACHINE DETAILS. By Professor Unwin. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets, £2 2S. ; mounted on rollers and varnished, £3 14s. SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French). By Stanislas Pettit. 60 Sheets, £3 5s. ; 13s. per dozen. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. 50 Sheets, 12s. 6d. Mounted, £1 5s. PHYSIOLOGICAL : ELEVEN SHEETS. Illustrating Human Physiology, Life Size and Coloured from Nature. Prepared under the direction of John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., &c. Each Sheet, 12s. 6d. On canvas and rollers, varnished, £1 is. 1. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS. 2. THE MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS. 3. THE VISCERA IN POSITION.— THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS. 4. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 5. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS. 6. THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 7. THE BRAIN AND NERVES.— THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE. 8. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 9. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 10. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. 11. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE. By John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each Sheet, 12s. 6d. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, £1 is. Explanatory Key, is. 1. THE SKELETON, Front View. 2. THE MUSCLES, Front View. 3. THE SKELETON, Back View. 4. THE MUSCLES, Back View. ZOOLOGICAL : TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals, £2 ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, ^3 10s. The same, reduced in size on Royal paper, in 9 Sheets, uncoloured, 12s THE SKELETON, Side View. THE MUSCLES, Side View. THE FEMALE SKELETON, Front View. By Robert Patterson. PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE HONEY BEE. Two Diagrams. 7s. 6d MODERN ARTISTS. A SERIES OF ILLUSTRATED BIOGRAPHIES. Edited by F. G. DUMAS. UNDER the above title a Series of Biographical Sketches, with Characteristic Portraits, and of Critical Studies of the works of the Great Painters of the day, has been in preparation for some time. In the publication of the work the co-operation of the highest authorities on Art, and the most noted Etchers, has fortunately been obtained. The publication is divided into TWELVE BIOGRAPHIES, each containing 24 folio pages of Text (20 x 14 inches), profusely Illustrated with facsimile reproductions of original Drawings by the Artists themselves, and views of their studios and residences, printed on fine plate paper, numbered 1 to 1,200, and accompanied by 36 Lettered Proofs of the various Etchings stamped by the Printsellers' Association. The greatest care has been exercised in the selection of the works for engraving, in order to obtain the subjects more characteristic of the personality of each Artist. The first section of Three Parts will consist of— SIR FREDERICK LEIGHTON, P.R.A. Portrait by Rajon, after G. F. Watts, R.A. The Athlete Wrestling with a Python. A Group from The Arts of War. JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS, R.A. Portrait by Waltner, after the Artist. The North-West Passage. Forbidden Fruit. HUBERT HERKOMER, A.R.A. Portrait by himself. The Poacher's Fate. The Woodcutters. Artists' Proofs of the above, also stamped by the Printsellers' Association, may be had ; special attention has been paid to the selection of the proper materials for the printing of these Proofs. The Twelve Biographies (not sold separately), £12 72s. GRAND EDITION DE LUXE. * There will also be printed Twenty-five Copies of this Edition, on paper from the Imperial Factories of Japan, and numbered in the press, from i to 25, containing Thirty-six Proofs before Letters of the Etchings, stamped by. the Printsellers' Association. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £63. AMATEUR'S EDITION. Fifty Copies of this Edition will be printed on the finest tinted Dutch paper of Van Gelder, numbered in the press from i to 50, with the accompanying Etchings printed on Japan. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £31 10s. 32 BOOKS PUBLISHED B Y CHAPMAN &> HALL, LIMITED. THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. Edited by JOHN MORLEY, HTHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of every month (the issue on the 15th being suspended), and a Volume is completed every Six Months. The following are among the Contributors : — SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK. MATHEW ARNOLD. PROFESSOR BAIN. PROFESSOR BEESLY. DR. BRIDGES. HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P. PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN. MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C. L. H. COURTNEY, M.P. G. H. DARWIN. F. W. FARRAR. PROFESSOR FAWCETT, M.P. EDWARD A. FREEMAN. MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON. M. E. GRANT DUFF, M.P. THOMAS HARE. F. HARRISON. LORD HOUGHTON. PROFESSOR HUXLEY. PROFESSOR JEVONS. EMILE DE LAVELEYE. T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE. RIGHT HON. R. LOWE, M.P. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P. LORD LYTTON. SIR H. S. MAINE. DR. MAUDSLEY. PROFESSOR MAX MULLER. PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY. G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C, M.P. WILLIAM MORRIS. F. W. NEWMAN. W. G. PALGRAVE. WALTER H. PATER. RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P. DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. HERBERT SPENCER. HON. E. L. STANLEY. SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C. LESLIE STEPHEN. J. HUTCHISON STIRLING. A. C. SWINBURNE. DR. VON SYBEL. J. A. SYMONDS. W. T. THORNTON. HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE. ANTHONY TROLLOPE. PROFESSOR TYNDALL. THE EDITOR. &c. &c. &c. The Fortnightly Review is published at 2s. 6d. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, 11, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W.C. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,] [CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. /