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CHRONOLOGIA MEDICA 
 
 A HANDLIST OF PERSONS, PERIODS AND EVENTS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 BY 
 
 Sir D’ARCY POWER, K.B.E., 
 M.B.Oxon., F.R.C.S.Eng. 
 
 Consulting Surgeon to St. Bartholomew' s Hospital 
 AND 
 
 C. J. S. THOMPSON, M.B.E. 
 
 Associate of the Royal Academy of Medicine ( Turin ) 
 Curator of the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, London 
 
 R 
 
 104 PAUL B. HOEBER, Inc. 
 
 • P88 
 
 1923 67-69, EAST 59TH STREET, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 MCMXXIII. 
 
P 8 7c 
 I 9 2 3 
 
 Made and Printed in Great Britain. 
 
FOREWORD. 
 
 It has been our endeavour in the following pages to 
 present a handlist of the chief persons, periods and events 
 in the history of the healing art from traditional times far 
 back in the mists of antiquity, onwards through the ages 
 to the present time. 
 
 The importance of dates and periods to the student of 
 the history of medicine is obvious. They help to memorize 
 the names of those who made the discoveries forming 
 the milestones in the march of progress which have raised 
 medicine to its present position. 
 
 In the traditional period chronology is largely conjec- 
 tural, accuracy is often impossible : dates must necessarily 
 be approximate, and discrepancies, sometimes of thousands 
 of years, occur between epochs about which we can only 
 guess : such as are instanced in the accounts of many 
 physicians and surgeons in Greek and Roman times. 
 The date, therefore, at which a physician flourished is only 
 obtained with difficulty, unless he was so distinguished 
 as to have found a biographer. In many cases he was 
 attached to the court of a monarch or he may have 
 been the master or pupil of some distinguished personage 
 whose epoch is known, and from this his period may 
 be determined. 
 
 111 
 
Foreword 
 
 The works of many of the older and even the most 
 celebrated physicians have been entirely lost and their 
 names alone remain with a few facts about their teaching 
 or practice. But in most cases the writers of antiquity 
 were industrious copyists, commentators and even gross 
 plagiarists. They have interpolated in their own writings 
 long passages and sometimes whole treatises of their pre- 
 decessors, whilst, thanks to their respect for authority and 
 for the written word, much has been preserved which 
 would otherwise have been lost beyond recovery, 
 
 A mere collection of names and dates, however, would 
 be of little interest or use, so a semblance of vitality has 
 been given to our chronology by the addition of some 
 interesting facts concerning each person, epoch or event. 
 
 These are not intended to be complete biographies of 
 the individual, nor does this list purpose to be in any sense 
 a history of medicine. 
 
 To clothe the skeleton the student is referred to and 
 should consult the works mentioned in the Bibliography. 
 
 ERRATUM. 
 
 The portrait on page 177 is that of James Gregory, F.R.S. (1638- 
 1675) professor of mathematics at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and 
 inventor of the reflecting telescope in 1662. 
 
 He was the great-grandfather of James Gregory, the physician 
 mentioned in the text. 
 
 iv 
 
CH RONOLOGIA MEDICA. 
 
 TRADITIONAL PERIOD. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 ca. = circa , the approximate date only can be given, 
 fi. = floruit , the time at which he is thought to have 
 reached his maximum, 
 d. = died. 
 
 BABYLONIA, CHALDEA, ASSYRIA. 
 
 ca. 5000 b.c. — Ea, or Oannes. “ He who knows all 
 things.” “The Lord of Deep Wisdom.” The 
 earliest known deity associated with healing. 
 Called “ Lord of the Deep,” for according to 
 Berossus “ He arose from the sea and in- 
 instructed the people in learning.” He is 
 represented as a man with the head of a fish 
 or clothed in a fish skin. His worship is asso- 
 ciated with Eridu, the holy city of South 
 Babylonia. 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
Babylonian Medicine 
 
 ca. 4500 B.C.— Marduk, or Merodach. The chief Baby- 
 lonian deity of healing, and, 
 according to tradition, son of 
 Ea. As supposed founder of 
 the Zodiac and “ Lord of the 
 Planets ” he was believed to 
 be the healer of all diseases, 
 and also to influence health 
 and disease in mankind through 
 the medium of the heavenly 
 bodies. His powers are thus 
 described in a Babylonian tablet 
 ca. 4500 b.c. : — 
 
 O Marduk, thou art glorious among the great gods ! 
 No will is greater than thine. 
 
 Thou canst inflict upon the guilty one a dropsy 
 which no incantation can cure. 
 
 Thou art the merciful one who taketh pleasure in 
 raising the dead to life” (i.e. healing of the sick). 
 
 ca. 4500 b.c. — Nina. Chief deity of Lagash or Sirpurra 
 and according to tradition a daughter of Ea. 
 ca. 3500 b.c.— Adapa. Believed to be the human incarna- 
 tion of Marduk, the divine son of Ea. Became 
 recognized as a deity of healing about 3500 B.c. 
 and said to possess the spells of Life and Death. 
 He is often called the “ son or man of Eridu,” 
 the holy city of South Babylonia. Generali- 
 represented as a fisherman with a figure in- 
 dicative of great physical strength. He is 
 thus referred to in a Babylonian tablet, 
 ca. 3500 b.c. : — 
 
 2 
 
Babylonian Medicine 
 “ Ea gave him wisdom, 
 
 So that his command was like unto the word of a god- 
 To him also he gave deep knowledge : 
 
 With the healing spell of Life and Death he was 
 made.” 
 
 ca. 3500 b.c. — Ellil. A minor deity of healing. A temple 
 dedicated to him was erected at Nippur to 
 which the sick were brought to be healed, 
 ca. 3000 b.c. — Gula. “The Great Healer,” “The Mis- 
 tress of Charms and Spells,” “ The Terrible 
 Goddess.” This deity had a dual character 
 and was revered as a goddess of healing also 
 as the “ mistress of poisons and death-dealing 
 diseases.” She was the deified form of the 
 sorceress and the medical schools at Borsippa 
 and Sirpurra were both under her protection. 
 At a later period Gula appears to have been 
 definitely established as a goddess of healing 
 with a medical school attached to her temple. 
 The dog was her sacred emblem, 
 ca. 3000 b.c. — Ninib. God of healing and consort of Gula. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Thoth. Considered by the ancient Egyptians to be the 
 embodiment of divine wisdom. To him was 
 attributed the invention of the arts, sciences, 
 learning and magic. He was especially skilled 
 in the art of healing. Reputed to be the author 
 of the six divine books dealing with these 
 subjects, and said to have “ conferred enlight- 
 enment upon doctors.” The Greeks identified 
 him with Hermes Trismegistos. 
 
 3 
 
Egyptian Medicine 
 
 Hermes Trismegistos. The “ Thrice Great.” An ancient 
 Egyptian personage who is supposed to have 
 originated the science of chemistry. He was 
 the prototype of the Greek Hermes. 
 
 Ptah. “Father of the Mighty Fathers.” “Father of 
 Beginnings,” and “ Creator of his own Image.” 
 He was the chief god in Memphis and with 
 Sekhet and I-em-Hetep formed one of the 
 great triad of deities who were worshipped 
 at Memphis, where a magnificent temple was 
 erected to him. His healing powers are chiefly 
 associated with the blind and deaf. 
 
 ca. 3500 b.c. — I-em-Hetep. “ He who cometh in peace.’’ 
 
 “ Good Physician of gods and 
 men.” Was regarded as the son of 
 Ptah and the chief deity of medi- 
 cine. His first temple was estab- 
 lished in Memphis, which became 
 a centre for healing. At a later 
 period temples were dedicated to 
 him at Edfu and various parts of 
 Upper Egypt. It is probable 
 that he w T as a real personage who 
 lived in the Third Dynasty, and 
 was a priest of Ra, the Sun-God, 
 who for his great skill in healing was raised 
 to the position of demi-god. He is said to 
 have visited the suffering to give them “ peace- 
 ful sleep and heal their pains and diseases.” 
 According to various records he is “ the 
 
 4 
 
Egyptian Medicine 
 
 beneficent god who listens to the prayers of 
 the people, and by his protection gives life to 
 all human beings in all places.” “ The god 
 who protects human beings, who gives to him 
 who calls upon him, who gives life to men and 
 women and who gives life to all who are 
 bounden to him.” He is also called the “god 
 who looks after the sick,” and “the worshipful 
 or holy god who gives a son to him who has 
 none.” 
 
 ca. 3500 b.c. — Edwin Smith Papyrus. — Found among the 
 collection of the New York Historical Society. 
 Describes forty-seven different cases of affec- 
 tions and injuries of the head, nose and mouth, 
 also methods of bandaging. 
 
 ca. 2700 b.c. — Nenekhsekhmel. Sikhit-En-Ankh. Chief 
 physician to one of the Kings of the Fifth 
 dynasty, on whose tomb at Sakkarah is re- 
 corded an inscription stating the consideration 
 he received from Pharaoh for his services. 
 
 ca. 2700 b.c. — The Petrie Papyrus. Excavated by 
 Flinders Petrie near the pyramid of Illahun. 
 
 ca. 2000 b.c. — Kahun Papyrus. Excavated 1899. Trans- 
 lated by Griffith. 
 
 ca. 1552 b.c. — Papyrus Ebers. The most complete record 
 of Egyptian medicine known, discovered by 
 Georg Ebers at Thebes in 1872. Preserved 
 at Leipsic and consists of no pages. 
 
 ca. 1550 b.c. — Hearst Medical Papyrus, discovered by 
 
 5 
 
Chinese Medicine 
 
 George A. Reisner. Consists of 17 pages pre- 
 served at the University of California. 
 
 ca. 1300 b.c . — Medical Papyrus, in Berlin. Contains 21 
 pages and was published by Brugsch. 
 
 ca. 1000 B.c. — Medical Papyrus, in the British Museum, 
 London. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 2838-2698 b.c. — Sheng Nung. Founder of the healing 
 art in China and called “the father of agricul- 
 ture.” Believed by the Chinese to have dis- 
 covered the medicinal properties of plants. 
 
 2697 b.c.-— Wong Tal. Author of the earliest known 
 Chinese book on medicine, a work in twelve 
 volumes. He was regarded as the true father 
 of Chinese medicine. 
 
 221-264 a.d. — Wa T O. Father of Chinese surgery. He is 
 said to have used a mixture of Indian hemp 
 and other substances to produce anaesthesia 
 before operating. 
 
 200 a.d. — Hua T’O. Chinese physician of the second cen- 
 tury. Skilled in the practice of acupuncture 
 and the use of the cautery. 
 
 HINDU. 
 
 Dhanwantari. Called “The Physician of the Gods,” “The 
 Health Bestowing One,” The Vedic Deity 
 of Medicine. He was believed to be master 
 of universal knowledge, and instructed the 
 
 6 
 
Indian Medicine 
 
 Hindus in the healing art. According to tra- 
 dition he was sent upon earth by Indra when 
 the world was sick to instruct physicians, 
 among whom was Susruta. Bramah revealed 
 to him the Ayur-Veda, and the sacred books of 
 medicine. 
 
 Atreya. Son of Atri, a Vedic saint who wrote the earliest 
 known treatise on medicine — the Atreya Sam- 
 hita. 
 
 Agnivesha. A physician and pupil of Atreya who wrote 
 on ophthalmology and a treatise on the dia- 
 gnosis of disease. 
 
 Harita. A pupil of Atreya. Author of a treatise on 
 medicine in which he describes the circulation 
 of the blood. 
 
 ca. 4500-2500 b.c. — Yedas. The sacred writings of the 
 Hindus which contain many allusions to medi- 
 cine. To the second of the Vedas belongs the 
 Ayur-Vedas of the physicians Charaka and 
 Susruta, which were composed about 1000 b.c. 
 The Vedas originated about 4500-2500 b.c. 
 and are said to have been preserved by oral 
 tradition until about 1500 a.d. 
 
 ca. 1000 b.c. — The AtharYa Yeda. Contains many allu- 
 sions to the healing art — the tenth book 
 includes a hymn on the creation of man in 
 which several bones ol the body are enumer- 
 ated in complete agreement with the system 
 of Atreya. 
 
 7 
 
Persian and Phoenician Medicine 
 
 ca. 625 b.c. — Yagbhatai. Author of an important work 
 on medicine and diseases^ 
 
 ca. 600 b.c. — Charaka. Disciple of Atreya and Agni- 
 vesha. His work on medicine contains 120 
 chapters, mentioning leprosy, epilepsy and 
 ^ tuberculous disease. 
 
 ca. 600 b.c. — Susruta. Disciple of Dhanwantari. Author 
 of the first Hindu book on surgery, in which 
 he describes many operations and enumerates 
 1 21 surgical instruments, 760 medicinal plants 
 and alludes to malarial fever. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 2000 b.c. — Zoroaster. Author of Zend-Avesta (Living 
 Word), a portion of which deals with healing, 
 and was the foundation of ancient Persian 
 medicine. 
 
 500 b.c. — Ainyama. Persian deity of healing. 
 
 500 b.c. — Thrita. Persian deity of the physicians “ who 
 first combated disease and death.” 
 
 PHCENICIA. 
 
 Baal-Zebal. Ancient Phoenician deity of healing. 
 
 Esmun. Son of Synyk. Deity of healing. The eighth 
 of the Cabiri. Temples dedicated to him stood 
 at Carthage and Berytus. Was believed to 
 endow mankind with health. 
 
Scandinavian, Prussian, Aztec and Greek Medicine 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 Eir. An ancient female goddess of healing and one of 
 the attendant deities of Frigg. In ancient 
 times the women attended the wounded on the 
 field of battle under the protection of this 
 goddess. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 PerkuntlOS. An ancient deity of healing, to whom a 
 temple was erected at Romove. 
 
 AZTEC. 
 
 Ixtlilton. Ancient Aztec deity of healing, especially asso- 
 ciated with diseases of children. 
 
 Tzapotleman. Aztec deity of healing and wife of Ixtlilton. 
 Is said to have discovered healing spices. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 Apollo. According to tradition the father of Asklepios. 
 
 With his far-reaching and swift arrows (sun 
 rays) he was said to afflict men with pestilence 
 and epidemics. He was believed to possess 
 the power of restoring the dead to life. 
 
 Gheiron. The first traditional personage in Greek myth- 
 ology associated with healing. According to 
 early writers he instructed Asklepios the son 
 of Apollo in the medicinal properties of plants, 
 which he gathered on Mount Pelion, a district 
 he frequented, and where he culled his healing 
 
 9 
 
Greek Medicine 
 
 herbs. Called by Homer “ The Sire of Phar- 
 macy.” 
 
 ca. 1300 b.c.— Asklepios. The chief Greek deity of 
 
 medicine, who according to tra- 
 dition was the son of Apollo and 
 Coronis. Secrets of the heal- 
 ing art were said to have been 
 transmitted from Cheiron to 
 Asklepios. It is probable he was 
 an actual personage who lived 
 about 1300 b.c., and was deified 
 for his special skill in healing. 
 His cult became the most impor- 
 tant in Eastern Europe, and was 
 the foundation of the medical 
 art in Ancient Greece. The chief temples 
 dedicated to him, where the sick came to be 
 healed, were at Epidaurus, Athens, Tricca 
 and Cos : his symbol was the serpent. 
 
 Artemis. Greek deity and protectress of women and 
 children. Goddess of parturition. 
 
 Amphiaraos. Son of Apollo. Reverenced as a healing 
 deity. Several temples were erected in his 
 honour. According to tradition the sick came 
 from all parts of Greece to sleep in his temples 
 and await his revelations. He is said to have 
 been regarded as a second Asklepios. 
 
 Machaon. Son of Asklepios and described by Homer 
 as a military surgeon. 
 
 10 
 
Greek Medicine 
 
 Podalirios. Son of Asklepios and described by Homer 
 as a physician, 
 
 According to Homer they were both skilled in 
 extracting weapons, the binding up of wounds 
 and in applying soothing drugs. 
 
 Hygieia. Daughter of Asklepios. Described as The 
 “ handmaid of medicine and god- 
 dess of health.” She was wor- 
 shipped in the Asklepion temples 
 at Athens and Corinth. She 
 assisted in the temples of healing 
 and the feeding of the sacred 
 serpents was entrusted to her. 
 Known to the Romans as Salus. 
 They erected a temple in her 
 honour at Rome, the priests of 
 which had the privilege of offering 
 supplications for the health of in- 
 well as for the well-being of the 
 
 Panaceia. A daughter of Asklepios. 
 
 Amynos. Athenian god of healing. Helper and pro- 
 tector of the sick. 
 
 Telesphoros. Associated with Asklepios as the genius 
 of convalescence. 
 
 Melampous. Tradition states that by means of hellebore 
 he cured the daughters of Proetos, King of 
 Argus, when suffering from melancholy and 
 leprosy. 
 
Roman and Scythian Medicine 
 ROMAN. 
 
 291 b.c. — ASsculapius. The Roman god of medicine. Id 
 the year 293 b.c. a great epidemic of plague 
 broke out in Rome. The Sibylline books were 
 consulted and Asklepios, the Greek god of 
 medicine, was asked for aid. He was brought 
 as an Icon from Epidaurus accompanied by 
 one of the sacred serpents and was landed on 
 the Tiberine Island. He is said to have freed 
 the city from the plague and under the name 
 of AEsculapius became the chief Roman deity 
 of medicine. 
 
 Bona Dea. “ The Good Goddess.” Patroness of chastity 
 and fruitfulness in women. All kinds of healing 
 plants were preserved in her sanctuary. 
 
 Minerva Memor. Goddess of Intellect and deity of 
 physicians. Her medical significance is sym- 
 bolized by a coiled snake. 
 
 Dea Febris. Deity associated with fever and malaria. 
 
 Dea Salus. Roman embodiment of Hygieia and regarded 
 as a goddess of health. 
 
 SCYTHIA. 
 
 ca. 696 b.c. Abaris. Priest-physician of the Scythians, 
 reverenced for his skill in healing. 
 
 ERIN. 
 
 ca. 580 b.c. Diancecht. “ God of Health ” and ancient 
 Celtic father of medicine. His name signifies 
 
 12 
 
Irish Medicine 
 
 “vehement skill.” He probably flourished 
 about 480 b.c. According to the “ Annals of 
 Clonmacnoise ” he accompanied the army of 
 King Nuada, and was present at the battle 
 of Moytura, ca. 460 b.c. At the rear he pre- 
 pared a great bath of healing herbs, into 
 which soldiers wounded in the fight were 
 plunged and emerged healed and able to fight 
 the enemy again. According to tradition he 
 was the first to construct an artificial hand, 
 which he made of silver for King Nuada. 
 This he did “ so skilfully that it moved in 
 all its joints and was as strong and supple as 
 a real one.” 
 
 GREEK MEDICINE. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF GYMNAST PHYSICIANS. Who 
 
 relied on exercise and massage as therapeutic 
 remedies. 
 
 fl. 570 b.c. — Ikkos of Tarentum. A leading exponent of 
 the School. 
 
 Herodicos. Also called Prodicos of Selymbria, a gymnast 
 physician who is said frequently to have ordered 
 his patients suffering from fever to walk with- 
 out stopping from Athens to Megara, a distance 
 of five and a half miles. He was probably 
 contemporary with Plato [428-347 b.c. J , 
 
 ca. 600 b.c.— IONIC SCHOOL. 
 
 639-561 (?) b.c. — Thales of Miletus. Founder of the Ionic 
 School. Said to have studied under the 
 
 J 3 
 
Pythagorean School oj Medicine 
 
 Egyptian priests. He believed water to be the 
 primary element from which all matter was 
 derived. 
 
 611-547 b.c. — Anaximander of Miletus. Assumed undi- 
 vided matter to be the primary principle from 
 which heat, cold, dryness and moisture deve- 
 loped themselves. 
 
 THE PYTHAGOREAN SCHOOL. 
 
 570-489 b.c. — Pythagoras. Philosopher and Sage. He 
 roamed through Egypt and the 
 East in search of knowledge. 
 He introduced a regular system 
 of dietetics, eschewing meat and 
 instructing his pupils in the theory 
 of medicine. He paid great at- 
 tention to arithmetic and its ap- 
 plications to weights, measures and 
 the theory of music. His disciples 
 to the number of 300 formed them- 
 selves into a brotherhood with 
 secrets, grades and an oath. 
 
 fl. 500 b.c. — Alcmaeon of Crotona. A pupil of Pythago- 
 Alkmaion ) ras, skilled in anatomy. He is 
 said to have discovered the optic nerves and 
 taught that the brain was the seat of the in- 
 tellect. The first known Greek medical author. 
 He dissected animals and possibly man. He 
 was the first to extirpate the eyeball. He con- 
 
 H 
 
Pythagorean School of Medicine 
 
 sidered the external causes of disease to be 
 plethora, inanition and fatigue. 
 
 ca. 500 b.c. — Democedes. Greek physician to Darius, 
 
 King of Persia. 
 
 505-453 b c.— Empedocles of Agrigentum. Philosopher 
 and Physiologist. Taught that fire, air, water 
 and earth were the four elements and that 
 the human body compounded of these four 
 elements was in health when they were in 
 equilibrium and disease when they were dis- 
 proportioned. He perceived that atmospheric 
 air was a substance distinct from space and 
 from vapour. He showed experimentally how 
 air could keep water out of, or hold it up in, 
 a vessel or tube. When a pestilence broke out 
 in Selinous due to the stagnant overflow of a 
 river, he is said to have stopped the disease by 
 restoring the current and draining the land. 
 He supposed that emanations from external 
 bodies passed through pores into and through 
 the organs of sense. By hygienic measures he 
 also fought the plague at Agrigentum in Sicily. 
 
 Philolaos. A Greek physician and seer regarded as a god 
 by his contemporaries. He was probably con- 
 temporary with Socrates, 468-399 b.c. Taught 
 that the causes of disease are bile, blood and 
 phlegm. 
 
 500 -428 b.c. — Anaxagoras of Clazomene. Contemporary 
 of Empedocles and a teacher of Pericles. As 
 an anatomist he dissected the brain and drew 
 
 
Pythagorean School oj Medicine 
 
 attention to the lateral ventricles, and as a 
 physician he taught that many affections were 
 due to the bile, of which he recognized two 
 varieties : the black and the yellow. 
 
 fl. $50 b.c. — Archelaos of Athens. A pupil of Anaxagoras. 
 
 He regarded air as the fundamental principle 
 and taught that it gave rise to heat and cold 
 by condensation and rarefaction. He was an 
 intermediary between the older physical and 
 the newer ethical or Socratic Greek philosophy. 
 
 $9$-$0$ b.c. — Democritus of Abdera. Founder of the 
 Atomistic Theory. He wrote on the anatomy 
 of the chameleon and believed inflammation to 
 be the result of an accumulation of phlegm. 
 
 ca. $70 b.c. — iEgimios of Elis. Author of the first treatise 
 on the pulse. He attributed plethora to over- 
 feeding and regarded it as a fertile cause of 
 disease. He opposed venesection and drastic 
 purgation. 
 
 Hippon. Carried on the teaching of Democritus. He 
 explained sickness as being due to excess or 
 lack of moisture. 
 
 430 b.c. — Diogenes of Apollonia. Wrote several works 
 on medicine and described the blood-vessels 
 passing to the left ventricle of the heart. He 
 also described the vena cava with its main 
 branches. He was an advocate of tffenesection 
 and an observer of the tongue and pulse in 
 disease. Taught that air endued with reason 
 
 16 
 
Cnidian School of Medicine 
 
 was the origin of bodily and mental life, air 
 being the vehicle of sense appreciation. 
 
 430-425 b.c. — Plague of Athens. 
 
 ca. 360 b.c. — Syennsis the Cypriote. Studied the blood- 
 vessels and wrote on the origin of the veins. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF CNIDOS. Flourished as an offshoot 
 of the Asclepiad School. It was at first clinical 
 and physiological rather than anatomical but 
 degenerated into speculation, phlegm and bile 
 playing the chief part. Obstetrics and gynaeco- 
 logy were amongst the subjects taught. 
 
 fl. 450 b.c. — Euryphon of Cnidos. Lived a little before 
 Hippocrates. He is said to have compiled the 
 Cnidian sentences. He explained pleurisy as 
 an affection of the lung and treated phthisis 
 with human and asses’ milk. He knew the 
 difference between the arteries and veins and 
 that the former contained blood. 
 
 fl. 400 b.c. — Ctesias of Cnidos. Was a contemporary 
 of Xenophon and lived at the Persian Court. 
 It was partly through his writings that Eastern 
 medicine became known in Greece. 
 
 fl. 400 b.c. — Polycreitos of Mende. Was living at the 
 Persian Court at the same time as Ctesias. 
 
 408-355 b.c — Euddxos of Cnidos. A friend of Chry- 
 sippos. He defended the opinions of Plato. 
 Both Eudoxos and Chrysippos, who was a 
 surgeon, travelled through Egypt to gather 
 
 b 
 
 i7 
 
Sicilian School of Medicine 
 
 medical knowledge from the priests. They 
 were both pupils of Philistion of Locris. 
 
 300 b.c. — Chrysippos. Son of Chrysippos. Was physi- 
 cian to the Egyptian King Ptolemy. Observed 
 fever by means of the pulse. 
 
 Aristogenes of Cnidos. Physician to the Macedonian 
 King Antigonus Gonatas (283-240 b.c.). He 
 is said to have been a pupil of the younger 
 Chrysippos. 
 
 THE SICILIAN SCHOOL. Laid especial stress on diet, 
 a legacy from the teaching of Pythagoras. The 
 teaching of the School was essentially anato- 
 mical and physiological and its traditions were 
 carried on and improved by the Hippocratic or 
 Coan School. 
 
 400 b.c. — Akron of Agrigentum. Physician and pupil of 
 Alcmaeon. He is said to have arrested the 
 great plague which ravaged Athens about 
 473 B.c. He wrote in Doric a treatise on 
 dietetics. 
 
 Pausanias. A Sicilian physician, said to have been a 
 pupil of Empedocles who dedicated to him his 
 poem on Nature. 
 
 fl. 370 b.c. —Philistion of Locris. A contemporary of 
 Plato and the most distinguished of the Sicilian 
 School. He wrote on surgery, pharmacology 
 and dietetics, lived for a time in Athens and 
 indirectly paved the way for the amalgamation 
 
 18 
 
Hippocratic School of Medicine 
 
 of the Sicilian with the Coan and Cnidian 
 teaching. 
 
 THE HIPPOCRATIC OR COAN SCHOOL. The second 
 great offshoot of the Asclepiads. It was char- 
 acterized by the value it laid upon prognosis 
 in disease, and coincided with the highest de- 
 velopment of Greek culture. 
 
 560-377 b.c. — Hippocrates. Son of the Asclepiad Hera- 
 cleides. Called “the Father of 
 Medicine.” He was the first to 
 free medicine from philosophic 
 delusions and superstitions and 
 to establish its fundamental prin- 
 ciples upon a solid and rational 
 basis. He propounded aphorisms 
 for the cure of disease and called 
 attention to the value of diet and 
 exercise. He prescribed fumiga- 
 tions, gargles, oils, ointments, 
 poultices and collyria. The 
 Hippocratic collections have been repeatedly 
 printed and translated. 
 
 THE DOGMATIC SCHOOL. Infused speculation into the 
 true Hippocratic method. The teaching was 
 derived partly from the Sicilian and partly 
 from the Hippocratic Schools. 
 
 fl. 388 b.c. — Euenor of Argos. A Dogmatist physician 
 who practised at Athens with such success 
 
 i9 
 
Dogmatic School of Medicine 
 
 that he was rewarded for his services to the 
 State. He was distinguished for his knowledge 
 of obstetrics and diseases of the eye. 
 
 380 b.c. — Thessalos and Dracon. Sons of Hippocrates, 
 were amongst the founders of this School. 
 They applied mystical speculations to the study 
 of medicine and believed that “ where observa- 
 tion failed Reason might surprise.” 
 
 Polybos. A son - in - law of Hippocrates. Writings 
 ascribed to him were printed at Basle in 1544 
 and at Venice in 1545. 
 
 370 b.c. — Dioxippos of Cos, or Dexippus. Was a pupil 
 of Hippocrates. He is said to have written 
 two books on prognosis. 
 
 Apollonios. A pupil of Hippocrates, was at the head 
 of the series of physicians who laid emphasis 
 upon theory as opposed to observation, thus 
 giving to Greek medicine in the fourth century 
 b.c. its speculative colouring. 
 
 350 b.c. — Dioclesion. A Greek physician who is said 
 to have distinguished between pleurisy and 
 pneumonia. 
 
 350 b.c. — Diokles of Euboea. Son of Archidamus, the 
 physician. He wrote several medical works, 
 lived for some time in Athens, and was con- 
 sidered second only to Hippocrates himself. 
 
 ca. 350 b.c. — Diokles of Carystos. The last of the 
 Hippocratic physicians and the first to write 
 in Attic Greek. He was a believer in the 
 
 20 
 
Dogmatic School of Medicine 
 
 value of regulation of diet, exercises and baths 
 and wrote a treatise on hygiene. He urged 
 temperance in all things, and the avoidance of 
 excess. He is said to have been an anatomist 
 and embryologist and was the discoverer of the 
 “ Punctum Saliens.” He wrote the first book 
 on anatomy describing the lungs, heart, gall 
 bladder, ileo-caecal valve, ureters, ovaries and 
 tubes. 
 
 fi. 340-320 b.c. — Praxagoras of Cos. The teacher of 
 Herophilus. He lived shortly after Hippocrates 
 and was the first ro use the word “ pulse” in 
 its modern sense. He distinguished between 
 the arteries and the veins but taught that the 
 arteries originated in the lungs and ended in 
 the nerves. He wrote on the diagnosis of acute 
 diseases and operated to cure intussusception. 
 
 340 b.c. — Mnesitheos of Athens. A pupil of Praxagoras. 
 
 He wrote on systematic medicine and dietetics. 
 
 Xenophon of Cos, Pleistonikos, Philotimos. All dogma- 
 tists and pupils of Praxagoras. 
 
 Dieuches. A physician at Athens. He is quoted several 
 times by Pliny, but only fragments of his 
 writings are now extant. 
 
 Numenios of Heraklea. A pupil of Dieuches. A 
 dogmatist. He wrote a poem on fishing. 
 
 THE PERIPATETIC SCHOOL. 
 
 430-347 b.c. — Plato. The “ myriad minded ” Greek 
 philospher and friend of Socrates. Taught that 
 
 21 
 
Peripatetic School of Medicine 
 
 the heart was the organ which set the blood in 
 motion and was amongst the first to call the 
 great artery of the body “ the Aorta.” 
 
 384-322 b.c.— Aristotle, the Stagirite. So called because 
 he was born at Stageira, a Greek colony near 
 the frontiers of Macedonia and Mount Athos. 
 Founder of the Peripatetic School. The pupil 
 of Plato, student, reader, lecturer and writer. 
 A great naturalist as well as philosopher. 
 Dante speaks of him as “ the master of all that 
 know.” Aristotelian anatomy and physiology 
 show an intimate blending of speculation and 
 empiricism. 
 
 370 285 b.c. — Theophrastos. Called “the Father of 
 Botany.” Born at Eresos in Lesbos. He was 
 a pupil of Plato at Athens, at whose death he 
 became a pupil of Aristotle to whom he was 
 deeply attached. In his work “ Enquiry into 
 Plants ” he describes five hundred specimens. 
 He also wrote on mineralogy. His works were 
 translated into English by John Goodyer in 
 1621, but the version remains in manuscript 
 in the Library of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 An English translation by Sir Arthur Hort, 
 Bart., M.A., was published in 1916. 
 
 Metrddoros of Athens. Son-in-law of Aristotle, pupil of 
 Chrysipposof Cnidos, instructor of Erasistratus 
 and teacher of medicine at the Lyceum. 
 
 290 b.c.— Eudemos. He studied the anatomy of the 
 bones, nerves and glands, and demonstrated 
 
 22 
 
Peripatetic School of Medicine 
 
 the abdominal system of glands and the meta- 
 carpal bones of the fingers and toes. He must 
 not be confused with Eudemos of Rhodes, the 
 editor of and commentator on the writings of 
 Aristotle. Theophrastos and Eudemos, both 
 pupils of Aristotle, were alone esteemed worthy 
 by the Peripatetic School to take the place of 
 their master. 
 
 280 b.c. — Stratdn of Lampsacos. The son of Arcesilaos, 
 and the tutor of Ptolemaios Philadelphos. A 
 distinguished gynaecologist. He succeeded 
 Theophrastos in 288 b.c. as head of the 
 Peripatetic School. He is said to have de- 
 scribed Elephantiasis. He opposed vene- 
 section. 
 
 300 b.c. — Philaretos. A physician of Alexandria. He 
 belonged to the Peripatetic School of medicine. 
 His treatises on the pulse, urine and excreta 
 have twice been published in Latin translations. 
 
 Clearchos of Soloi- A physician of the Peripatetic School 
 and a pupil of Aristotle. He wrote on Osteo- 
 logy and Biography. 
 
 Callisthenes of Olynthos. Cousin and pupil of Aristotle. 
 Physician to Alexander the Great. 
 
 Menon. A physician of the Peripatetic School who wrote 
 an historical compilation of his art. He was a 
 pupil of Aristotle. 
 
 340-260 b.c. — Zenon the Stoio. He advocated a “natural” 
 mode of life as the chief means of happiness. 
 
 23 
 
Alexandrian School of Medicine 
 
 He taught at Athens in the porch adorned 
 with the paintings of Polygnotus — the Stoa 
 Poikile — and his school thus gained the name 
 of Stoics. He was more philosopher than 
 physician. 
 
 THE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE The 
 
 great Anatomical School. 
 
 ca. 300 b.c. — Herophilos of Chalcedon. Born at Chal- 
 cedon. A pupil of Praxagoras and Chrysippos. 
 The father of systematic anatomical investiga- 
 tion. He was the first to distinguish between 
 the two coats of the eye, and probably the first 
 to describe the lens. He was one of the early 
 gynaecologists. He is said to have noted a 
 disease which he called “ palsy of the heart,” 
 possibly angina pectoris. His name is still 
 remembered in anatomy by the term “ Torcula 
 Herophili.” He practised bandaging of the 
 limbs in or against haemorrhage, and was the 
 great investigator of the brain. He distin- 
 guished between the motor and sensory nerves. 
 
 ca. 300 b.c. — Apollodorus of Alexandria. Greek botanist 
 and writer on poisons. 
 
 fl. 295 b.c. — Erasistratos of Julis. Anatomist and 
 surgeon. He looked upon disease as a distur- 
 bance of physiological function and had gained 
 a correct knowledge of the action of the valves 
 of the heart. He was opposed to bleeding and 
 the use of purgatives, advocating in their place 
 
 24 
 
Alexandrian School of Medicine 
 
 emetics and enemata, and is said to have 
 received ^”24,375 for restoring to health 
 Antiochus, the eldest son of Seleuchus Nicator, 
 King of Syria, in b.c. 294. 
 
 283-247 b.c. — Ammonios Lithotomus. A surgeon of 
 Alexandria who first performed lithotrity. 
 
 250 b.c. — Demetrius of Apameia. A disciple of Hero- 
 philos. Clinical observer and obstetrician. 
 
 Apollophanes of Seleucia. Physician to Antiochus the 
 Great [b.c. 223-187]. He wrote about venom- 
 ous animals. 
 
 ca. 250 b.c. — Apollonios of Memphis. Wrote on the 
 pulse, surgery and diseases of the eye. 
 
 132 b.c. The Alexandrian School became divided into: — 
 
 (a) THE HEROPHILAN SCHOOL. Founded near 
 Laodicea, which lasted until the second 
 century a.d. 
 
 The chief physicians of the Herophilan School 
 were : — . I 
 
 50, b.c. — Zeuxis. The first head of the Herophilan 
 School. He does not appear to be Zeuxis 
 of Tarentum who belonged to the Empiric 
 School, and was one of the earliest commen- 
 tators on the Hippocratic writings. Zeuxis 
 was succeded by 
 
 ca. 1 a.d. —Alexander Philalethes. Head of the Phry- 
 gian School of Medicine near Laodicea. He 
 wrote on the pulse and on gynaecology. 
 
 25 
 
Herophilan Schuol of Medicine 
 
 Bakcheios of Tanagra. He elaborated the lore of the 
 pulse. 
 
 ca. 30 b.c. — Heracleides of Erythrea. Commentator on 
 the “ Epidemic diseases” of Hippocrates. 
 
 Andreas of Carystos. Physician to Ptolemy Philopator. 
 
 He wrote on toxicology and was probably the 
 first to write on rabies. 
 
 ca. 30 b.c. — Apollonios Mus. He wrote at least twenty- 
 nine books on the teachings of Herophilos. 
 He was a pupil of Alexander Philalethes and 
 was distinguished as a pharmacologist. 
 
 ca. 20 b.c. — Meges. A surgeon, born at Sidon in Phoenicia, 
 who observed tumours of the breast and forward 
 dislocation of the knee-joint, and invented in- 
 struments for lithotomy. He practised at Rome. 
 
 Demosthenes of Massilia (Marseilles). He is quoted by 
 Galen for the treatment of malignant pustule. 
 Fragments of his writings have been printed. 
 
 Demosthenes the Oculist. He wrote a “ liber ophthal- 
 micus” which was greatly esteemed. He is 
 said to have been also the author of a work 
 on paediatrics and another on the pulse. Both 
 physicians who bore the name of Demosthenes 
 were also called Philalethes. 
 
 50 a.d. — Aristoxenos. A pupil of Alexander Philalethes. 
 
 He wrote several books on the teachings of 
 Herophilos. 
 
 Gaius of Neapolis. A gynaecologist. 
 
 26 
 
Erasistratan School of Medicine 
 
 (b) THE ERASISTRATAN SCHOOL. Founded 
 in Smyrna 132 B.c. and lasted well into the 
 second century a.d. 
 
 fl. 60 a.d. — Hikesios of Smyrna— “A physician of no 
 mean authority.” Is said to have been the 
 first head of the School. He wrote on drugs 
 and diet. Two medals were struck in his 
 honour by the people of Syracuse. 
 
 ca. 70 a.d. — Menodorus. A friend of Hikesios and a 
 writer on drugs. 
 
 fl. 60 a.d. — Andromachos the Elder. The reviser of 
 a formula for a universal remedy and antidote 
 to poisons called “ Theriaca ” or “ Galene ” 
 composed of more than sixty-one ingredients, 
 which is still used in some parts of Europe. 
 He wrote the formula in a Greek elegiac poem 
 which has been printed in the original and in 
 two Latin translations. He is said to have 
 been the first Archiater, and the Physician in 
 Ordinary to Nero. 
 
 150 a.d. — Ptolemaios of Alexandria. Wrote on Optics. 
 
 A follower of Erasistratus. 
 
 fl. 165 a.d. — Marcianus, or Martialis. A distinguished 
 anatomist at Rome. Galen says he was an 
 envious and quarrelsome person. 
 
 285 b.c. THE EMPIRIC SCHOOL. Arose in Alexandria 
 with the teaching that medicine was essentially 
 clinical and that the cure of the patient should 
 
 27 
 
Empiric School of Medicine 
 
 be its object. Experience, therefore, was the 
 only source of medical skill. The more notable 
 Empirics were : — 
 
 ca. 250 b.c. — Phillnos of Cos. A pupil of Herophilus. 
 
 He wrote a commentary on the Hippocratic 
 writings. A parallel has been drawn between 
 Philinos and Hahnemann. 
 
 ca. 250 b.c. — Zeuxis the Elder. — One of the earliest com- 
 mentators on Hippocrates. 
 
 ca 220 b.c.— Serapion of Alexandria. He wrote a book 
 on Treatment and was antagonistic to the 
 Hippocratic teaching. 
 
 219 b.c. — Archagathos. The son of Lysanias. A Pelo- 
 ponnesian surgeon who settled in Rome and is 
 said to have been the first person who made 
 medicine a distinct profession in that city. He 
 was honourably received at first. The Jus 
 Quiritium, or lower rank of citizenship, was 
 conferred upon him and his surgery was pur- 
 chased at the expense of the State. 
 
 fl. 200 b.c. — Apollonios the Empiric. Was probably the 
 
 son of Apollonios of Antioch who was also an 
 Empiric. He wrote in answer to Zeno’s book 
 on the Hippocratic “characters” or “marks” 
 at the end of the third book of the Epidemics. 
 
 ca. 180 b.c. - Glaucias of Taros. One of the earliest 
 commentators on the whole of the Hippocratic 
 writings. He also wrote an alphabetical glos- 
 sary on the difficult words in Hippocrates. 
 
 28 
 
Empiric School oj Medicine 
 
 Heracleides of Tarentum. Said to have been a pupil of 
 Glaucias. He was called the Prince of the 
 Empirics and was skilled both in surgery and 
 pharmacy. 
 
 185-135 b.c. — Nicander of Colophon. Was born at Claros 
 in Ionia. He wrote a thousand hexameters on 
 Theriaca, treating of venomous animals and the 
 wounds inflicted by them, and six hundred lines 
 on Alexipharmaca, besides many other poems. 
 The two medical poems have been printed 
 several times. He was the first writer to men- 
 tion the leech in medicine. 
 
 ca. 180-160 b.c. — Apollonios Biblas, or the Bookworm. 
 
 He answered Zeno’s reply to the book of 
 Apollonios the Empiric. 
 
 200-138 b.c. — Attalos II. Surnamed Philadelphos. King 
 of Pergamos. Gave great encouragement to 
 the liberal arts and sciences and is said to have 
 studied the properties of medicines and poisons. 
 
 132-63 b.c. — Mithridates VI. Surnamed Eupator. '“The 
 Great King of Pontus.” The enemy of Rome 
 who was conquered by Pompey. He was of 
 the Empiric School and is famous for his study 
 of poisons. He is said personally to have carried 
 out many experiments with poisons and their 
 antidotes and to have rendered himself immune 
 from poisoning by swallowing small doses of 
 poisonous substances daily, including the blood 
 of ducks fed upon toxic principles. His name is 
 preserved in “ Mithridatum,” a universal anti- 
 
 29 
 
Methodic School of Medicine 
 
 dote, which he professed to devise, and which 
 was modified by Andromachus, physician to the 
 Emperor Nero. It became known as “ Mithri- 
 date ” or “ Theriaca ” and was prepared from 
 many formulae, containing a large number of 
 ingredients, up to the end of the 18th century, 
 ca. 100-80 b.c. — Zopyros. A surgeon of Alexandria. He 
 classified drugs according to their action and 
 claimed to have discovered a universal antidote, 
 “ Ambrosia.” 
 
 100 b.c, — Asclepiades of Bithynia. Visited Rome first 
 as a rhetorician and failing in this turned his 
 attention to medicine. Being something of a 
 charlatan he rejected the doctrines of Hippo- 
 crates and his successors. He is said to have 
 been the first to classify diseases into Acute and 
 Chronic. As a follower of Epicurus he held 
 that acute diseases were due to constriction of 
 the pores and chronic to their relaxation, 
 ca. 60 b.c. — Apollonios Citiensis. A pupil of Zopyros. 
 
 Author of a commentary on Hippocrates’ work 
 on joints and of a work on epilepsy, 
 ca. 60 b.c. — Pdseidonios. A pupil of Zopyros, who wrote 
 on the bubonic or true plague. 
 
 60 b.c. — METHODIC SCHOOL. Founded by Themison. 
 
 This School afterwards gave rise to the Eclec- 
 tic and the Pneumatic Schools. The Metho- 
 dists compared one disease with another in 
 search of common characteristics. They under- 
 
 30 
 
Pneumatic School of Medicine 
 
 took the early treatment of acute disease by 
 expectant treatment and elaborated a systematic 
 therapy of particular days and cycles, 
 ca. 123-43 b.c. — Themisdn A pupil of Asclepiades of 
 Bithynia and a native of Laodicea in Syria. 
 He endeavoured to classify disease and based 
 treatment on set rules. Founded the Methodic 
 School. He used leeches and added many com- 
 pound medicines to the materia medica and also 
 wrote on gynaecology. 
 
 25 b.c.-50 (?) a.d. — Celsus (Aurelius Cornelius). Said to 
 
 have been born in Rome. Author of an im- 
 portant work on medicine in eight books. He 
 was the first writer to deal professedly with 
 surgery and his pharmacy shows that the art had 
 made considerable advances. His book remained 
 a textbook until the middle of the last century 
 and was repeatedly translated into the chief 
 European languages. He gives directions for 
 lithotomy by the apparatus minor. The first 
 edition of his “De Re Medicina ” was printed 
 at Florence 1478. 
 
 26 a.d. — Damocrates. Surnamed Servilius. A Greek 
 
 physician practising at Rome : originator of 
 
 the Damocratic Confection. He wrote several 
 pharmaceutical works in Greek Iambics. 
 
 THE PNEUMATIC SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. Was 
 
 essentially physiological. It taught that health 
 depended on a normal condition of the pneuma 
 
 3i 
 
Pneumatic School of Medicine 
 
 or vital spirit and is promoted by its tension, 
 which was estimated by the pulse. Sickness 
 was the result of disorder of the vital spirits. 
 
 The chief teachers of the Pneumatic School were : — 
 
 30-90 a.d. — Aretaios. “ The Incomparable Aretaeus.” 
 
 Cappadocian anatomist and phy- 
 sician. Expounder of the Doc- 
 trine of the Pneumatic cult. He 
 wrote a general treatise on disease 
 in Ionic Greek. His works have 
 often been printed and are valu- 
 able for their clinical details and 
 power of diagnosis. He distin- 
 guished between the conveyance 
 of a disease by contact and at 
 a distance. He remarks on the 
 reaction between body and mind. 
 
 30 a.d. — Tiberius Claudius Menecrates of Zeophleta. 
 
 Physician in ordinary to the Emperor Tiberius 
 and the originator of diachylon plaster. He 
 wrote a treatise on pharmacology entitled 
 “ Autocrator Hologrammatos ” which was 
 dedicated to the Emperor. The formula for 
 diachylon and the directions for compounding 
 it were put into iambic verse by Servilius 
 Damocrates. 
 
 47 a.d.— Scribonius Largus. Author of a medical for- 
 mulary which has been printed several times. 
 First accurately described the method of ob- 
 
 32 
 
Pneumatic School oj Medicine 
 
 taining opium. Was physician to the Emperor 
 Claudius and perhaps came with him to Britain. 
 
 ca. 40-90 a.d.— Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazaba in 
 Silesia. The Father of Phar- 
 macy. Famous for his great 
 work “ In re Materia Medica.” 
 An independent investigator and 
 writer upon the medicines of his 
 time. He travelled extensively 
 in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Germany 
 and Greece. He describes 600 
 plants. The earliest manuscript 
 of his work extant is that known 
 as the “ Manuscript Anicia,” VI 
 century, now in the Royal Library 
 It was translated into Latin in the 
 XVI century and continued to be a popular 
 work on the subject for centuries. There is an 
 unpublished interlinear translation into English 
 in the Magdalen College Library at Oxford. It 
 was made by John Goodyer 1652-1655. 
 
 60 a.d.— Thessalus of Tralles. A contemporary of the 
 Emperor Nero. He termed himself the “ Van- 
 quisher of the Physicians.” A pupil of Themi- 
 son and a born charlatan. He taught, however, 
 at the bedside. 
 
 ca. 69 a.d. — Athenaius of Attaleia. He practised in 
 Rome at the time of Claudius the Emperor. 
 He operated for cancer of the breast and uterus 
 
 c 
 
 33 
 
Pneumatic School of Medicine 
 
 and was skilled in controlling haemorrhage. 
 He is said to have differentiated measles. He 
 published a work on medicine in thirty volumes 
 and laid great stress on the development of the 
 body as well as of the mind in educating the 
 young. He taught that women should learn 
 chiefly domestic economy and should actually 
 knead, bake, make the beds and distribute the 
 household supplies, since bodily movement 
 improves the appetite and produces a healthy 
 complexion. 
 
 ca. 75 a.d. — Magnus. A pneumatist who lived about the 
 same time as Archigenes and after that of 
 Themison, for he wrote a treatise in Greek in 
 three volumes on things discovered since the 
 time of Themison. 
 
 ca. 80 a.d. — Theodorus. A pupil of Athenaios. He is 
 quoted by Pliny. 
 
 Appollonios the Pneumatist. He was an advocate of 
 venesection and believed that in plethora the 
 permeation of the periphery by the animal spirit 
 was retarded. 
 
 ca. 100 A.D. — Rufus of Ephesus. Lived in the reign of 
 Trajan. Physician and anatomist. Regarded 
 the heart as the seat of life and the organ of 
 pulsation. He wrote an anatomical treatise 
 upon the eye and described the oviduct in the 
 sheep. He introduced a “ Hiera ” containing 
 colocynth into the materia medica, which is 
 
 34 
 
Eclectic School of Medicine 
 
 still sold by pharmacists in many parts and has 
 survived to the present day in the form of 
 Pit. Rufi. 
 
 THE ECLECTIC SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. Developed 
 from the Pneumatic School by bringing its 
 tenets into harmony with the best of Empiric 
 and Methodic medicine. It flourished in Rome 
 under the first Emperors and did much for the 
 development of surgery. 
 
 The chief Eclectics were : — 
 
 10 a.d. — Antonius Musa. He urged the importance of 
 the study of the normal conditions and the 
 earliest deviations from health. He prescribed 
 periodic abstinence and regular baths. He was 
 physician to the Emperor Augustus and cured 
 him of a disorder of the liver by means of cold 
 bathing and cooling drinks, for which service 
 he was awarded a statue near that of Htsculapius 
 in Rome. He was also physician to Horace. 
 
 90 a.d. — Claudius Agathlnos of Sparta. Founder of the 
 Eclectic, or as he called it the Episynthetic 
 School. He was a pupil of Athenaius and 
 endeavoured to consolidate the doctrines of the 
 Empirics and Methodists. He wrote on the 
 pulse and taught that cold was preferable to 
 hot bathing. He is also said to have deter- 
 mined the action of hellebore by experiments 
 on dogs. 
 
 35 
 
Eclectic School of Medicine 
 
 48-117 a.d. — Archigenes of Apameia. The most dis- 
 tinguished pupil of Agathinos, whose life he is 
 said to have saved when he was delirious from 
 want of sleep. He lived in Rome under the 
 Emperor Trajan. Galen said that he was 
 inspired by his writings. As a physician he 
 raised the study of the pulse to its highest point 
 and described diphtheria ; as a practical surgeon 
 he ligatured bleeding vessels and operated for 
 cancer of the breast. He was also renowned 
 as a pharmacologist and is mentioned by 
 Juvenal. 
 
 ca. 50 a.d. — Claudius Philoxenos. An Egyptian surgeon 
 who wrote several valuable treatises on surgery. 
 
 ca. 100 a. d.— Herodotus. A pupil of Agathinos who 
 practised in Rome. Some fragments of his 
 work have been printed. 
 
 ca. 200. — Leonidas of Alexandria. An important surgeon 
 of his time who modelled himself on Philoxenos. 
 He improved the methods of amputation, 
 operated for piles, studied injuries of the head 
 and the treatment of tumours and hernia. He 
 was familiar with the fact that Filaria meditunsis 
 was endemic in India and Ethiopia. 
 
 20 a.d. — Herennius Philo of Tarsus. The inventor of 
 “ Philonium,” a remedy greatly esteemed for a 
 peculiar form of colic common in Rome, in 
 his time. He also originated a confection of 
 opium, which remained in our Pharmacopoeias 
 
 36 
 
Eclectic School of Medicine 
 
 till 1867. Until 1746 it was called Philonium 
 Romanum, but in that year the name was 
 changed in the London Pharmacopoeia to 
 Philonium Londinense. 
 
 ca. 75 a.d. — Heliodorus. A surgeon at Rome who was 
 contemporary with Juvenal. Some fragments 
 of his writings were printed in 1754. He 
 operated for hernia and performed internal 
 urethrotomy. 
 
 ca. 100 a.d. — Marinus. Anatomist and discoverer of the 
 inferior laryngeal nerves and the mesenteric 
 glands. Said to have discovered the vagus, his 
 “ 6th ” nerve. Author of a treatise on the 
 muscles which was used freely by Galen who 
 described Marinus as the restorer of anatomy. 
 
 fl. 98-117 a.d. — Soranus of Ephesus. Anatomist, physician 
 and obstetrician. Renowned for his sagacity. 
 Historian of Hippocrates. In him the Methodic 
 School attained its greatest height for he based 
 his Methodism upon Epicureanism and so com- 
 bated mysticism. His obstetrical and gynae- 
 cological work was of a very high standard and 
 his ideas dominated this branch of the pro- 
 fession until modern times. A few of his 
 writings have been printed. Paulus ^Egineta 
 quotes him as the earliest Greek physician to 
 describe the Guinea-worm. 
 
 125 a.d. —Plague of Orosius. 
 
 37 
 
Eclectic School of Medicine 
 
 ca. 130 a.d. — Cassius the Iatrosophist, or Cassius Felix. 
 
 Wrote in Greek on eighty-four questions con- 
 cerning medical and physical subjects with 
 their solutions. A Latin version of his work 
 was published in 447 and with this book ends 
 the medical literature of Western Rome. An 
 iatrosophist was one who both taught and 
 practised medicine. 
 
 130 200 (?)— Claudius Galen. “The Prince of Physicians.” 
 Born at Pergamos where there 
 was a great temple to Asklepios. 
 He revived the Hippocratic sys- 
 tem of medicine, to which he 
 added principles founded on his 
 own observations. He contri- 
 buted largely to the existing 
 knowledge of anatomy and phy- 
 siology, human as well as com- 
 parative. He knew the effects of 
 dividing one half and the whole of 
 the spinal cord, and was the first 
 to describe the art of obtaining the virtues 
 of flowers and plants by distillation. He wrote 
 in Greek and was an advocate of bleeding 
 in properly selected cases. His formula for 
 “Theriaca,” a preparation containing opium, 
 was in use until quite recent times. He 
 practised sometimes in Rome and sometimes 
 in Asia, and had a large following of pupils as 
 well as patients. His treatise “ De methodo 
 
Eclectic School of Medicine 
 
 medendi,” was a students’ textbook in England 
 during the reign of Elizabeth. The first edition 
 of his “ Opera ” was printed at Venice in 1490. 
 
 ca. 230 (?).— Antyllus. The surgeon who first described 
 in detail the operation for tracheotomy. He 
 lived between the time of Galen and Ori- 
 basius, and his name is still remembered in 
 connection with the treatment of aneurysm by 
 double ligature and excision, as well as for 
 his method of cataract extraction. He also 
 described plastic operations. 
 
 164-180. — Plague of Antonius. 
 
 ca. 200. — Alexander Aphrodisiensis. He was of the 
 
 Peripatetic School, a native of Aphrodisias in 
 Caria. The most celebrated of the com- 
 mentators on Aristotle. He did much to en- 
 courage the accurate study of Aristotle. Medical 
 treatises have been assigned to him, but it is 
 doubtful whether he was a physician. 
 
 d. 212. — Quintus Serenus Sammonicus. Father and 
 son named alike. The father was put to death 
 by Caracalla. Either the father or the son 
 wrote a formulary of medicine for the poor in 
 the form of a poem, the “ Medicinse pracepta 
 saluberrima.” It was printed in 1731 and 
 consists of 1 15 hexameters. 
 
 ca. 230 (?). — Philumenos. A physician of the Methodic 
 School. He wrote rationally on the treatment 
 of various abdominal diseases, e.g., diarrhoea 
 
 39 
 
Later Roman Medicine 
 
 and upon the diseases of women in their surgical 
 aspect. He also wrote on venomous animals 
 and their remedies and upon the anomalies of 
 parturition. His date is very uncertain. 
 
 251-266. — Plague of St. Cyprian. 
 
 303 — Cosmas and Damianus. Two brothers, Arabs by 
 birth, who practised medicine gratuitously 
 among the poor of Egea in Cilicia. In the 
 Diocletian persecution they were martyred. 
 For centuries their tomb at Cyrus in Syria 
 was visited by pilgrims suffering from various 
 diseases. The Emperor Justinian in the sixth 
 century built a church in their honour at Con- 
 stantinople. Later their relics were removed 
 to Rome and placed in the church dedicated 
 to them by Pope Felix. After they were canon- 
 ized they became the patron saints of medicine 
 and pharmacy, being known as the avapyvpoi be- 
 cause they took no fees. The Confraternity of 
 Surgeons of France held them in special 
 honour, the College of St. C 6 me at Paris 
 being founded by Jean Pitard in 1210. 
 
 326-403. — Oribasius. Physician, therapeutist, anatomist 
 and politician. The friend and companion of 
 Julian the Emperor, by whom he was appointed 
 Questor of Constantinople. He advocated 
 scarification in treatment of plague and other 
 diseases and first described a peculiar form of 
 melancholia. Epitomized Galen. Wrote in 
 
 40 
 
Later Roman Medicine 
 
 Greek and his works were soon translated into 
 Arabic, Syriac and Latin. His treatise on 
 bandaging was a textbook for centuries. 
 
 369. — Hospital of St. Basil. Erected at Caesarea by 
 Justinian. • 
 
 370 —Sextus Placitus of Papyra. — A writer on drugs 
 and remedies, mainly those derived from the 
 animal kingdom. Some of his manuscripts 
 translated into Latin survive to-day. 
 
 400. — Gaelius Aurelianus. A leader in the Methodic 
 School. He made a special study of hydro- 
 phobia. Recommends music to charm pain. 
 It was through his writings that the work of 
 Soranus became popularized. 
 
 In his work on acute and chronic disease, he 
 wrote a textbook of medicine free from mys- 
 ticism and founded on rationalism. He de- 
 scribes gout and especially advanced differential 
 diagnosis and even hinted at auscultation. 
 It is probable that much of his work was 
 directly traceable to Soranus the Ephesian. 
 His works have been reprinted several times 
 from 1529. 
 
 ca. 400. — Lucius Appuleius. Writer of “ Herbarium,” 
 which is illustrated with drawings of herbs and 
 plants and has been frequently printed. He is 
 usually quoted as Appuleius Barbarus. 
 
 fl. 400 a.d. — Yegetius. Author of a systematic treatise on 
 veterinary medicine, which was largely copied 
 
 4 1 
 
Byzantine Medicine 
 
 from the work of Mago, a Carthagenian, who 
 wrote twenty-eight books on agriculture in 
 200 b . c . Vegetius alludes to an Army Medical 
 Service among the Romans. 
 
 ca. 430. — Hesychios of Damascus. Settled in Byzantium 
 after practising for forty years elsewhere. He 
 was one of the fine flowers of the Eastern 
 Empire when the Roman influence in the 
 West was reverting to Barbarism. 
 
 ca. 460 — Jacobus Psycochristus. First physician to the 
 Emperor Leo the Great, and much esteemed 
 for his skill and experience. He was the son 
 of Hesyschios of Damascus and was known 
 to his contemporaries as the “ Zeuxis and 
 Pheidias of Medicine.” His disinterestedness 
 and ardent philanthropy were marked by his 
 fellow citizens, who raised a statue to him and 
 gave him the title of “ Saviour.” He derived 
 his soubriquet of “ Psycochristus ” from the 
 value he attached to a cooling and fluid diet. 
 
 ca. 490. — Asclepiodotus. A pupil of Jacobus, well versed 
 in mathematics and music. He revived the 
 use of white hellebore in medicine and was 
 essentially a naturalist as we understand the 
 term. 
 
 502-575. — Aetius of Amida in Mesopotamia. Surgeon 
 and therapeutist, practising in Constantinople. 
 He described the Guinea-worm and he was 
 the earliest Greek medical writer among the 
 
 42 
 
Byzantine Medicine 
 
 Christians who gives any examples of the spells 
 and charms used by the Egyptians. Some of 
 his works have been printed. 
 
 525-605. — Alexander of Tralles in Lydia. Physician. 
 
 Author of many works on medicine and treat- 
 ment of disease. Recommended the use of 
 amulets and charms. He practised in Rome 
 and travelled much in Spain, Gaul and Italy. 
 He was probably a Christian with some know- 
 ledge of Hebrew. His works in Greek with 
 Latin translations have been printed and show 
 that he was more than a mere compiler. 
 
 527-565. — Plague of Justinian. 
 
 529. — The Abbey Monte Cassino. Founded by Benedict 
 of Nursia. 
 
 ca. 553 ('?). — Palladius of Alexandria. Commentator on 
 Hippocrates. His writings on Fractures and 
 Fevers have been printed. 
 
 ca. 560- — Dranius. Practised medicine in Constantinople. 
 
 Said to have been more famous for his conceit 
 than his skill. 
 
 ca. 580 (?). — Moschion. Wrote a catechism on diseases 
 of women. His manual for midwives was first 
 translated into Latin and then back to Greek 
 and is mainly taken from the work of Soranus. 
 His date is uncertain. 
 
 ca. 600. — El Harits Ben Kalada. A Christian physician 
 from El Taif near Mecca He studied at 
 Jondisabur and travelled in India. He in- 
 
 43 
 
Byzantine Medicine 
 
 fluenced Mohammed in the hygienic and medical 
 views which afterwards became incorporated in 
 the Koran. 
 
 590. Epidemic of Mai Ardent, St. Anthony’s Fire 
 
 (Gangrenous ergotism) in France. 
 
 610-641. — Theophilos. A Christian Physician. He was 
 surnamed “ Protospatharios,” a title originally 
 given to the colonels of the bodyguard of the 
 Emperor at Constantinople, but afterwards to 
 high civil dignitaries. First to write specially 
 on the study of the urine, its colour, consistence, 
 and the prognosis to be drawn from it. He 
 wrote on anatomy and urged the necessity for 
 dissection. He traced the first pair of nerves 
 from their origin. His works in Greek with 
 a Latin translation have been printed. 
 
 ca. 610-641. — Ahrun. Lived under the Emperor Heraclius. 
 
 Priest-physician of Alexandria. Described 
 small-pox, its cause, symptoms and treatment, 
 and ascribes scrofula to bad food and habits 
 of life. His work, “ Pandectae Medicinae,” in 
 thirty books, written in Greek, was translated 
 into Syriac about 68o, and also into Arabic. 
 
 621. Small pox and Measles said to have made their 
 first appearance. 
 
 625-690. — Paulos ASgineta. Surgeon. Made a special 
 study of the diseases of women. He wrote a 
 large work on medicine and surgery, and was 
 so especially consulted by midwives that he 
 
 44 
 
Byzantine Medicine 
 
 received the title: “ Al. kawabeli ” or “The 
 Accoucheur.” He was held in high esteem by 
 the Arabian physicians, and his works were 
 translated into Arabic by Joannitius. The 
 Greek text has been published and the Latin 
 versions have been repeatedly printed. He 
 advocated cupping and scarifying, and described 
 tracheotomy. There is a good English trans- 
 lation of his works by Francis Adams, of 
 Banchory. 
 
 ca. 640. — Stephanos of Athens. Pupil of Theophilos, 
 the protospatharios. Author of a commentary 
 on Hippocrates and Galen, which is said to be 
 the most important of all ancient commentaries. 
 The original Greek translations and a Latin 
 one have been printed ; also his work on 
 medicine. 
 
 651. — Hotel Dieu, Paris. Founded by Bishop Landry. 
 
 ARABIAN AND ISLAMIC PERIOD. 
 
 7,65-1258. — ARABIAN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Founded at Baghdad as a direct outcome of the 
 civilization of the Caliphate period. The School 
 is marked by the number of translations into 
 Arabic of the classical medical writers made 
 by Syrian, Persian, Greek and Jewish phy- 
 sicians. 
 
 ca. 765. — Dschordschis Bachtischua. Christian physi- 
 cian. First physician to the Caliph El- Mansur 
 
 45 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 in Baghdad. He translated many of the works 
 of the Greek fathers of medicine into Arabic. 
 His son Bachtischua Ben Dschordschis was 
 physician to the Caliph Harun-el-Raschid in 
 Baghdad. 
 
 777-857. — Mesue the Elder. Arabian physician, pro- 
 bably a Christian. He was the director of 
 the Infirmary at Baghdad and was the author 
 of several works on medicine of which his 
 Aphorisms were printed in 1489. 
 
 792. — Hospitals and Medical Schools founded in Bagh- 
 dad by Harun-El-Raschid. 
 
 794. — Hospital founded at St. Albans, England. 
 
 802-849. — Serapion the Elder, or Jahia Ben Serabi. 
 
 Christian physician of Damascus. Advocated 
 the treatment of disease by diet, regimen and 
 internal remedies. Author of the “ Aggre- 
 gator,” “ Practica,” “ Breviarium.” He em- 
 ployed venesection largely and gave directions 
 as to the veins to be “ breathed ” in particular 
 diseases. His identity was concealed by the 
 fourteenth century physicians under the name 
 of John Damascene. Serapion the Younger 
 lived about the end of the eleventh century and 
 wrote, in Arabic, a large work on pharmacology 
 which was translated into Latin. The works 
 of both Serapions have been printed. 
 
 809-873. — Joannitius or Hunayn Ibn Ishaq. The son 
 
 of a Christian apothecary and pupil of Mesue. 
 
 46 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 He was one of the great translators of medical 
 works from Greek into Arabic. His introduc- 
 tion to Galen’s “ Microtegni ” was issued in 
 Latin under the title “ Isagoge Johannitii in 
 medicinam.” It was a text-book of medicine 
 throughout the Middle Ages. He also wrote 
 two treatises on diseases of the eye, of which 
 Latin translations are preserved. 
 
 813-873. — Alkindus (Yacub Ibn Ishak El Kindi). An 
 
 Arab living in Baghdad. He was called 
 “ The Philosopher.” Author of over two 
 hundred treatises on medicine, only one of 
 which has been printed in a Latin translation. 
 
 830-950. Ishak Ben Soleiman, or Isaac Judaeus. Jewish 
 physician who practised ophthalmology in 
 Egypt. He wrote on dietetics and advocated 
 the use of senna. He wrote the Pantechni 
 which was erroneously attributed to Galen, and 
 was translated into Latin by Constantine of 
 Carthage. His treatise on fevers was one 
 of the books required of bachelors who wished 
 to graduate as Masters at the University of 
 Montpellier. These works have been trans- 
 lated into Latin and printed. 
 
 Algizar (Abu Jafar Ahmed Ben Ibrahim Al-Jezzar). 
 
 A pupil of Isaac the Jew. He wrote the Via- 
 ticum, which had a wide circulation and was 
 translated into Greek, Latin and Hebrew. The 
 “ Itinerary for the Poor” is ascribed to him, in 
 
 47 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 which he treated of the causes of the plague 
 in Egypt. 
 
 A1 Hazen. Arab ophthalmic anatomist and surgeon. 
 Author of “ Opticae Thesaurus.” 
 
 702-765. — Geber (Jabir Ibn Hayyan). Famous alchemist 
 and writer on alchemy. Most of the works in 
 Latin under his name, published in the Middle 
 Ages, are spurious. He is said to have dis- 
 covered corrosive sublimate, nitric acid, arsen- 
 ious acid, mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, &c. 
 
 The AYesta. (See also Persian Period.) The sacred book 
 of the Zoroastrians, which mentions three 
 classes of healers, viz., those who treated by 
 prayers and religious observances, by diet and 
 drugs, and by instruments. 
 
 ca. 848. — SCHOOL OF SALERNO. A great medical 
 school of medicine which grew up in a Greek- 
 speaking part of Italy and was independent of 
 the Church. From it emanated the Regimen 
 Sanitatis Salernitanum, the popular treatise on 
 health which ran through hundreds of editions 
 and was first printed ca. 1480. 
 
 ca. 850. — ’All Ibn Rabban. Arab physician and writer 
 of books on medicine, among which was the 
 “ Paradise of Wisdom,” a work dealing w r ith 
 medicine, philosophy, embryology, psychology 
 and. astronomy, also nutrition and dietetics. 
 He mentions tertian and quartan fevers, pleurisy 
 and small-pox, elephantiasis, lupus and cancer. 
 
 48 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 850-923. Rhazes. (Abu Bakr Muhammed Ibn Zakariya 
 Ar— Ray, or El Razi.) A Persian by birth. 
 One of the most illustrious of the Arabian 
 physicians, and called the “ Galen of the 
 Arabs.” He was the director of the hospital 
 at Baghdad and studied, specially, diseases of 
 the eye and skin. The first writer to treat 
 expressly of the diseases of childhood. In 
 materia medica he advocated the use of arsenic, 
 saltpetre, borax, red coral, precious stones and 
 oil of ants. He is said to have written 
 1 13 great works and twenty-eight minor works 
 during his lifetime, including a treatise on 
 small-pox and measles, the earliest monograph 
 on the subject. He wrote “ A 1 Hawl” or 
 “ Continens,” which was read until long after 
 the Renaissance in Europe. He was essentially 
 a clinical physician. His works have been re- 
 peatedly printed. An English translation of 
 the treatise on small-pox and measles with 
 extracts from some of his other books, was 
 published by Dr. Greenhill in 1848. 
 
 Ibn u’l-Baytar of Malaga. A botanist and writer of 
 several works on materia medica, who tra- 
 velled through Greece and Asia Minor in 
 search of medicinal plants. 
 
 Zaynu’d-Dm Ismail of Jurjan. Author of several 
 works on medicine, the largest of which is 
 entitled “ Dhakhira-i-Khwarazshalu,” an en- 
 cyclopedic work containing 1,403 pages, which 
 
 D 
 
 49 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 includes discourses on local diseases, diseases 
 of the heart, dropsy and materia medica. 
 
 936-1013. — Albucasis. (Abu’l-Qasim Al-ZahrawL) Also 
 called Abulkasim, Alzaharavius. (Chalaf Ben 
 Abbas Abul Casim El-Zahrewi.) Spanish- 
 Arabian physician, born near Cordova. Author 
 of the “Compendium,” “ Altasrif,” which is 
 mostly derived from the Greek doctrines. It 
 was the leading surgical textbook until the time 
 of William of Salicet. Advocated the use of the 
 actual cautery in most diseases ; also described 
 operations for fistula, cataract, goitre and 
 aneurysm and recommended the use of the 
 ligature. He was one of the first to write 
 on deformities of the mouth, and to give 
 illustrations of the instruments employed in 
 surgery. 
 
 962. — Hospice St Bernard founded. 
 
 994.— Haly Abbas. (’All Ibnu’l-Abbas Al-Majusi ) Persian 
 physician. Author of “ El-Maliki ” the “ Royal 
 Book,” the first ten chapters of which treat of 
 the theory and the second ten of the practice 
 of medicine. He deals especially well with the 
 subject of dietetics. It was the standard text- 
 book until it was superseded by the “ Canon " 
 of Avicenna. He urges the importance of the 
 regular attendance of the students of medicine 
 at the hospitals, where, he says, “they should 
 pay unremitting attention to the conditions and 
 
 50 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 circumstances of their inmates, and inquire 
 frequently as to the state of the patients and 
 the symptoms apparent in them, bearing in 
 mind what they have read about these varia- 
 tions and what they indicate of good or evil. 
 If they do this they will reach a high degree 
 in the Art.” He was also an authority of 
 his time on obstetrics. He describes per- 
 foration, cephalotripsy and extraction by a 
 hook. 
 
 980-1037 — Avicenna. (Abu All Husayn Ibn Abdu llah 
 
 Ibn Sina.) Called by his countrymen “ The 
 Prince of Physicians.” He was a Persian by 
 birth. He wrote his first book on medicine at 
 the age of 21. He issued twenty-one great 
 works and twenty-four smaller ones on medi- 
 cine, philosophy and geometry. The largest 
 and most famous of his works is the great 
 “ Canon.” In it he comments on anatomy, 
 physiology, medicine, surgery, midwifery, psy- 
 chiatry and materia medica. He is said to 
 have been the first to note that phthisis was 
 contagious. The “ Qanrin ” or “Canon” was 
 long regarded as an infallible oracle of medicine. 
 His works have been printed in Latin and 
 Hebrew as well as in Arabic. His tomb is at 
 Hamadan. 
 
 ca. 920.— Theophanes Nonnus. He was ordered by the 
 Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus to com- 
 pile the medical portion of an encyclopaedia, 
 
 5i 
 
Arabian School of Medicine 
 
 which he did in 290 short chapters embodying 
 the work of Oribasius, Aetios, Alexander of 
 Tralles and Paul of iEgineta. 
 
 960-976. — The Golden Age of Moorish Medicine at 
 Cordoba in Spain. 
 
 d. 1050. — Gariopontus. One of the early teachers in the 
 School of Salerno. Edited the “ Passionarius,’ 
 a handbook of special pathology and thera- 
 peutics of Byzantine origin. It was erroneously 
 attributed to Galen. Was the first to mention 
 anaesthesia by inhalation of narcotic vapours. 
 
 ca. 1010-1087. — Constantine the African. Born at Car- 
 thage : studied at Baghdad and banished to 
 Salerno. He was converted to Christianity 
 and became a monk at Monte Cassino in 1075. 
 Author of treatises on disorders of the stomach 
 and on melancholy. An early graduate of the 
 School of Salerno. He translated many of the 
 Arabic treatises into Latin and was thus instru- 
 mental in introducing them to Western Euro- 
 pean medicine. 
 
 fl. 1050.— Ali Ben Isa, or Jesus Haly. Writer of a “ Book 
 
 of Memoranda for Eye-Doctors,” which has 
 been preserved entire. The leading ophthalmic 
 surgeon of the eleventh century. 
 
 1113-1162. — Avenzoar, or Abumeron. (Abw el Malik; 
 
 Abu Merwan Ibn Zuhr.) Spanish physician 
 and surgeon. Probably a Jew, born near 
 Seville, of a renowned medical family, he was 
 
 52 
 
Moorish School of Medicine 
 
 called “The Wise and Illustrious.’’ Experi- 
 mented on animals and probably was the first 
 to attempt the total extirpation of the uterus. 
 Recommended goat’s milk in phthisis and noted 
 the harmful effect of emanations from swampy 
 ground. He described the A cams scabiei and 
 advocated that experience should be the sole 
 guide of the physician. He wrote “ A 1 Teisir,” 
 a treatise full of interesting details. Latin 
 translations of his works have been printed. 
 
 1020-1105.— Michael Psellus. Wrote works on “The 
 Bath,” “The Healing Power of Precious 
 Stones,” and a treatise on dietetics. 
 
 1021, 1278, 1375. — The Dancing Mania. Raged in the 
 two former years and in 1375, as an epidemic 
 of chorea, which is still perpetuated in the 
 name of “ St. Vitus’s Dance.” 
 
 1099 — Order of St. John of Jerusalem founded. 
 
 fl. 1100.— Joannes Hispanus, or John of Toledo. He 
 
 translated into Latin a pseudo- Aristotelian 
 epistle to Alexander the Great which may have 
 been the prototype of the Regimen Sanitatis 
 Salerni. 
 
 1114-1187. — Gerard of Cremona. Lived at Toledo and 
 was the translator-general of his time of the 
 works of Hippocrates. Galen and many of the 
 Arabian writers. 
 
 1126-1198. — Averroes. (Abul Welid Muhammed ben 
 Ahmed ebn Roshd Ibn Rushd.) A Moham- 
 
 53 
 
Moorish School of Medicine 
 
 medan physician of Cordova. Was a pupil of 
 Avenzoar and governor of Andalusia in 1196. 
 Exercised considerable influence in his time. 
 The followers of Averroism held a mixture 
 of peripatetic, neo-platonic and oriental con- 
 ceptions which resulted in a form of Pantheism. 
 He wrote “ Colliget,” a colossal commentary 
 on the Canon of Avicenna. 
 
 1123. — St. Bartholomew s Hospital (London) founded by 
 Rahere. 
 
 1131— Clergy forbidden to practise medicine by Council 
 of Rheims. 
 
 1132. Holy Cross Hospital founded at Winchester. 
 
 fl. 1130 50. — Matthew Platearius. A member of a dis- 
 tinguished medical family. He wrote a treatise 
 “ de simplici medicina,” which from the first 
 words of the text is usually quoted as “circa 
 instans.” 
 
 1135-1204.— Maimonides (Musa Ibn Maymun, Moses 
 ben Maimon), of Cordova. Physician and phi- 
 losopher. Author of “ Aphorisms ” and works 
 on dietetics and haemorrhoids. After much 
 persecution he settled in Cairo and became 
 physician to the sons of Saladin, for whom he 
 wrote a treatise of personal hygiene which was 
 printed in 1478. He also wrote on poisons. 
 
 1140.— King Roger II. of Sicily issued an edict forbidding 
 anyone to practise medicine without an examin- 
 ation. 
 
 54 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 ca. 1140. — Nicholaus the Salernitan. Sometimes confused 
 with Nicholas Prepositi, President of the School 
 of Salerno. He was the author of “ Antido- 
 tarium ” in which the apothecaries’ weight is 
 stated. Author of a work called “ Quid pro 
 Quo,” an alphabetically-arranged catalogue of 
 equivalent drugs. From this title the common 
 expression originated. He described the sopor- 
 ific sponge for use before operating. It was 
 steeped in a mixture of opium, hyoscyamus, 
 mulberry juice, lettuce, mandragora, and ivy, 
 dried and when moistened inhaled by the 
 patient. The Antidotarium was printed at 
 Venice in 1471. 
 
 1145.— Hospital of the Holy Ghost founded at Mont- 
 pellier by William VIII of Montpellier. 
 
 1180-1250 (?).— Gilbertus Anglicus, Gilbert of England. 
 
 The Gilbertyn of Chaucer’s prologue. Author 
 of the “ Compendium Medicinas,” a systematic 
 Latin text-book founded on Arab writers and 
 their copyists. Possibly took part in the Third 
 Crusade. Mentions the use of mercurial pre- 
 parations and acetate of ammonia in medicine 
 and makes a clear distinction between measles 
 and small-pox. He also wrote a first-hand 
 description of leprosy. 
 
 fl. 1190-1252. — Ricardus Anglicus, Richard the English- 
 man. A Master at Salerno who lived for some 
 time in France and in England. He wrote 
 
 5.5 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 “ Micrologus,” a textbook on medicine. He 
 was Master of the Hospital of St. John at 
 Rome and died in 1252. He also wrote a work 
 on anatomy which has been printed. (He is 
 not identical with Ricardus Anglicus or Richard 
 of Wendover, physician to Gregory IX). 
 
 1193-1280. — Albertus Magnus. Albert von Bollstadt 
 
 of Lauingen, Swabia. A Do- 
 minican monk and Bishop of 
 Ratisbon. He was a philosopher 
 and student of anatomy, physio- 
 logy and botany. He wrote 
 “ De Animalibus ” and “ De 
 Vegetabilibus.” He was an 
 early example of an Encyclo- 
 paedist and had as a pupil 
 Thomas Aquinas. His collected 
 works are contained in twenty- 
 one quarto volumes. 
 
 fl. 1180. — Roger of Palermo. Surgeon. Taught in the 
 
 School of Salerno. He wrote his “ Practica ” 
 in 1180. 
 
 fl. 1250.— Roland of Parma. Professor at Bologna, pupil 
 of Roger. He advocated excision of chancres, 
 scrofulous glands and goitre. He edited in 
 1264 the “Rogerina” or “The Practice of 
 Surgery,” written by Master Roger in 1180. 
 This was the textbook on which the four 
 Masters wrote their celebrated commentary. 
 
 56 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 Roland’s version of Roger’s treatise is usually 
 quoted as “ Rolandino.” 
 
 fl. 1230. — Joannes Jamerius, or Jamatus. A surgeon of 
 the School of Salerno. He wrote the “ Chi- 
 rurgia Jamati ” which has been printed. Gui 
 de Chauliac says of it: “Jamerius followed 
 (the four great masters) who made a sort of 
 rough surgery in which there were many point- 
 less things.” 
 
 1247. — Rashidu’d-Din Fadlu’llah. Born at Hamadan, 
 where Avicenna is buried and was one of the 
 most learned men and scholarly writers of his 
 time. Was Court physician to the Mongol 
 ruler Abaqa. Amassed great wealth which he 
 used in a beneficent manner for the foundation 
 of hospitals, colleges and libraries. He lived 
 at Tabriz. 
 
 1201-1277. — William of Salicet. Surgeon and professor 
 at Bologna and Verona. He was ordained 
 priest. Author of “ Chirurgia ” in 1275 and 
 works on medicine. He recognized arterial 
 bleeding by the spurting of the blood, used 
 the knife in place of the cautery, sutured divided 
 nerves and wounded intestine and understood 
 the value of crepitus in diagnosing fractures. 
 He was the first to employ chemical prepara- 
 tions in the treatment of disease. 
 
 1205-1298. — Theodorius, or Theodoric of Cervia. Son 
 
 of Hugo Borgognoni, founder of the Surgical 
 
 57 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 School at Bologna. Theodorius, trained as a 
 surgeon, entered the church and became Bishop 
 of Cervia in 1266. He compiled a work on 
 surgery which gained a considerable reputa- 
 tion and he taught that pus was not necessary 
 in the healing of wounds. He ranks as a 
 pioneer in aseptic surgery. He was surgeon to 
 Pope Innocent IV and recommended opium 
 and henbane to stupefy patients before an 
 operation. 
 
 1210.- College of St. Come in Paris founded by Jean 
 Pitard. 
 
 1215.— St. Thomas s Hospital, London, re-founded by 
 Peter, Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 1214-1292. — Roger Bacon. To whom is attributed the 
 invention of gunpowder, the telescope, lenses 
 and, probably, the microscope and the burning 
 glass. Writer on the natural sciences, 
 chemistry, physics and astronomy. 
 
 1224. Frederic II issued an Ordinance requiring 
 that candidates desiring licence to practise 
 medicine must be properly examined by the 
 masters at Salerno. 
 
 1235-1312. — Raymond Lully. A monk who wrote on 
 alchemy and philosophy and also on medical 
 subjects, viz. : “ De Pulsibus et Urinis,’ : “ De 
 Medicinse theorica et practica.” 
 
 53 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 4241. Small pox first appeared in England. 
 
 1245 (?)-1310. — Arnold of Yillanova. Physician, Al- 
 chemist and Astrologer. Born in Spain and 
 educated at Naples Practised at Barcelona, 
 Avignon and Montpellier. Physician to Peter 
 III of Aragon and Pope Clement V ; treated 
 Pope Boniface VIII for stone in the bladder. 
 Ambassador from Peter of Aragon to Philip 
 le Bel. He wrote a commentary, “ Parabolae,” 
 on the Regimen Sanitatis Salerni, and a set of 
 aphorisms dedicated to Philip le Bel, a Compen- 
 dium of Practice and a Herbal. He introduced 
 alcohol and medicinal wines into the materia 
 medica; brandy he held to be the “elixir of 
 life.” A collected edition of his works was 
 printed at Lyons in 1504, and passed through 
 nine editions. 
 
 ca. 1290. — Nicholaos Myrepsos of Nicaea. Studied at 
 Salerno. The author of an “ Antidotarium,” or 
 pharmacopoeia compiled from Greek, Latin 
 and Arab authors, containing 2,656 recipes 
 against disease. It was printed in 1541 and 
 was largely used as a book of reference until 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 ca. 1252. — Bruno of Longoburgo (Calabria). Surgeon 
 and Professor at Padua ; author of “ Chirurgia 
 nragna ” and “ Chirurgia parva.” Notices am- 
 putations in gangrene of the limbs, and ligation 
 of arteries, and was an acute observer. 
 
 59 
 
Salernitanian School of Medicine 
 
 ca. 1260. — Trotula de Ruggieri. Of the School of Salerno, 
 the reputed authoress of a treatise entitled: “De 
 passionibus mulierum ante, in et post partum/’ 
 Trotula is thought to be the diminutive of 
 Trotu. The name may have been applied to 
 the women nurses who followed the gynaeco- 
 logists at Salerno and it seems likely that the 
 name Trotula was given to the book itself and 
 not to the writer of it. 
 
 fl. 1264. — Vincent de Beauvais. Author of “Speculum 
 Majus,” a well-known encyclopaedia of the 
 scientific knowledge of the time, written for the 
 children of King Louis IX to whom he was 
 tutor. The work was printed at Strasburg in 
 seven vols., 1473-76; at Nuremburg in two vols., 
 1485 ; and at Douai in four vols, 1624. 
 
 ca. 1280 — Johannes Actuarius of Constantinople. 
 
 Physician at the Court of the Palaeologi and 
 Uroscopist at the Byzantine Court. The last 
 of the Byzantine writers. Author of “ De 
 Methodo Medendi.” Mentions the use of 
 cassia, manna, myrobalans and senna fruit as 
 mild purgatives, and observes the value of the 
 consideration of the urine and the pulse in 
 prognosis. He introduced the use of a gradu- 
 ated glass to measure the deposits in urine 
 on the principle afterwards employed in the 
 “ Chemical Weather Glass.” 
 
 60 
 
Early French Surgery 
 
 1298 (?)- 1 368. — Gui de Chauliac. Surgeon. Studied at 
 Montpellier, Toulouse, Bologna 
 and Paris. Became physician to 
 Popes Clement VI, Innocent VI 
 and Urban V at Avignon. Author 
 in 1363 of “ Chirurgia Magna” 
 which for centuries influenced the 
 art in Europe. It was translated 
 into French, Provencal, English, 
 Italian, Dutch and Hebrew. No 
 English version has been printed 
 though there are several in manu- 
 script. Advocated venesection 
 and the actual cautery, and performed litho- 
 tomy. Haemorrhage he classified as arterial and 
 venous. He used styptics, sutures, the actual 
 cautery and ligation. In 1353 he was appointed 
 Canon and Prebendary of Rheims. 
 
 d. 1315. — Lanfranc of Milan. The pupil of William de 
 Salicet who brought Italian surgery to France. 
 Surgeon and lecturer at the College de Saint 
 Come in Paris. Inaugurated clinical lectures, 
 and advocated the actual cautery. In his 
 “Chirurgia Magna” and “Minor” written 
 1295-1296, he describes thirty-two forms of 
 ulcers, diseases of the eyes, ears, nose and 
 skin, also treatment of fractures and disloca- 
 tions. He taught that anatomy was the 
 foundation of surgery and may be considered 
 the father of French surgery. 
 
 61 
 
Thirteenth Century Medicine 
 
 1285 Salvino degli Armati (d. 1317) and Spina (d. 1313 i 
 
 of Florence, are said to have invented spectacles. 
 
 1250-1320. — Peter of Abano, near Padua. Physician and 
 philosopher. Believed in astrology, and author 
 of work on poisons. His work, “ Conciliator 
 differentiarum,” was printed at Venice in 1471. 
 
 1260 (?)-1320. — Henri de Mondeyille. Surgeon. Student 
 at Montpellier, Paris and Bologna. Pupil of 
 Theodoric. Military surgeon and afterwards 
 surgeon to Philip the Fair and his son Louis le 
 Hutin. Laboured to bring surgery to a position 
 of as great honour in France as it held in 
 Italy. Used in teaching anatomical plates 
 of a more natural type than the traditional 
 pictures hitherto employed. Like Theodoric, he 
 taught that wounds should heal without sup- 
 puration. His Surgery, written between 1306 
 and 1316, has been printed and is excellent 
 reading, as he had a very caustic wit and a 
 graphic pen. 
 
 1278 (?) 1330. — Jan Yperman. Dutch surgeon. He 
 may have been a pupil of Lanfranc, but he 
 practised at Ypres as surgeon to the Belle 
 Hospital and served in the wars. He wrote 
 a textbook of surgery in Dutch which shows 
 much originality. 
 
 1276-1326 — Mundinus|de Luzzi. Surgeon and anato- 
 Mondino i mist of Bologna. First to 
 perform a dissection of the human body in 
 
 62 
 
Fourteenth Ce>itury Medicine 
 
 public, and to advocate its advantages in the 
 teaching of medicine. Author of “ Anatome 
 omnium humani corporis interiorum mem- 
 brorum,” 1316, which served as a textbook 
 for anatomy for more than a hundred years. 
 It was said of him, “ Mundinus quern omnis 
 studentium universitas colit ut Deum.” 
 
 1307-1326. — Alessandra Gigliani. Prosector to Mun- 
 dinus at Bologna. A pioneer of anatomical 
 injection and wax modelling; by her skill in 
 these forms of demonstration she added greatly 
 to the fame of Mundinus’ teaching. She died 
 “ consumed by her labours ” at the age of 19. 
 
 1315. — Mondino performs his first public dissection of 
 a human subject. 
 
 ca. 1300. — Bernard Gordon. Of Scottish descent. One 
 of the earliest professors at the 
 School of Montpellier, where he 
 began to teach in 1285. Author 
 of the “ Lilium medicinse,” issued 
 in 1305. First printed at Naples, 
 1480. It was a widely-read text- 
 book for a century. Mentions 
 the use of spectacles, calling them 
 “ oculus berellinus ” and gives the 
 first description of the modern 
 truss. His book is typical of the 
 Middle Ages in its rigid adher- 
 ence to dogma. 
 
 63 
 
Fourteenth Century Medicine 
 
 1280 (?)-1361 . — John Gaddesden, M.D.Oxon. Physician 
 in ordinary to Edward II. Author of “ Rosa 
 Anglica ” in the year 1314. First edition 
 printed in 1492. The work is largely a com- 
 pilation from the Greek, Arab and Jewish 
 physicians. He had some reputation among 
 his contemporaries as one skilled in the 
 diseases of women. 
 
 1307-1380 (?). — John Arderne. Operating surgeon, not in 
 orders. Practised in Newark 1349 to 1370, 
 and afterwards in London. Appears to have 
 served as an army surgeon in France. Specially 
 studied fistula, for which he operated success- 
 fully. He describes his method and instruments 
 in his “ Practica,” which contains a chapter on 
 “The Fistula in ano.” Some of his formulae 
 were included in the second issue of the 
 first London Pharmacopoeia of 1618, and re- 
 mained in use until 1722. Like Theodoric and 
 de Mondeville he taught that wounds should 
 not suppurate. Some of his works have been 
 translated and published recently. 
 
 d 1330. — Guilelmo Yarignana. Professor of medicine at 
 Bologna. He was a follower of the Arabian 
 School and the son of Bartolomeo Varignana 
 [d. 1318], who wrote on “The Doses of 
 Medicines." 
 
 ca. 1330.— Simon de Corco de Genoa. Botanist who 
 travelled throughout the Near East, Greece 
 
Medieval Medicine 
 
 and the Orient, to acquire a knowledge of 
 plants, to name them correctly and learn their 
 medicinal properties. He wrote “ Synonyma 
 medicinae.” 
 
 1333. — Medical Botanical Gardens founded at Venice. 
 
 ? 1355. — Record of the first apothecary’s shop in 
 
 London. There is one recorded in York in 1292. 
 
 1358 and onwards. — The Black Death. 
 
 ca. 1360. — John Mirfeld. Wrote the “ Breviarium Bar- 
 tholomei ” in 1387 in the Priory of St. Bar- 
 tholomew’s, London. The work is extremely 
 interesting and still awaits transcription and 
 publication. 
 
 1385-1550. — Thomas Morestede. Surgeon to Henry IV, 
 Henry V and Henry VI. He accompanied 
 Henry V on his second expedition to recover 
 Normandy. Master of the surgeons in the 
 abortive scheme for uniting the physicians and 
 the surgeons in London in 1423. 
 
 ca. 1500. — Petrus ab Argelata. Surgeon and professor 
 at Bologna. Pupil of Gui de Chauliac and 
 embalmer of Pope Alexander V. He recom- 
 mended compressing bandages in chronic ulcers 
 and used the cautery in varicose veins. 
 
 1509.— Asylum for the Insane, established at Seville. 
 
 fl. 1557. — Antonio Guainierio. Physician and author of 
 work on Diseases of Women. Notes pregnancy 
 in the absence of menstruation. First to men- 
 tion the use of wax bougies and metal sounds 
 e 65 
 
Mediceval Medicine 
 
 in the treatment of urethral stricture. Was 
 physician to several of the Piedmontese no- 
 bility. 
 
 Basil Valentine. Possibly the pseudonym of Johann 
 Tholde, an alchemist of Franckenhausen. He 
 described the manufacture of sulphuric and 
 hydrochloric acids and lead acetate and extolled 
 the virtues of antimony in his work : “Trium- 
 phal Chariot of Antimony,” printed in 1604. 
 He recommended a mixture of mercury, lead 
 and antimony in the treatment of syphilis. 
 
 1385-1462. — Michael Savonarola. Professor of medicine 
 at Ferrara and author of several works on 
 obstetrics and medicine. He was the grand- 
 father of the great preacher and religious 
 reformer. 
 
 ca. 1430. — Sante Arduino of Venice. Studied drugs and 
 their actions. The result of his work is em- 
 bodied in “ De Venenis,” Venice, 1492. 
 
 ca. 1450 (?).— Brancas of Catania. A family of itinerant 
 Sicilian surgeons. Said to have been the first to 
 have made use of the skin of the forehead, cheek 
 or arm to restore the lips and ears. They kept 
 their rhinoplastic methods secret until they 
 passed into the family of Vianeo and thence 
 to Tagliacozzi, who first published the method 
 in 1597. 
 
 d. 1460. — Bartolommeo Montagnana Anatomist and sur- 
 
 66 
 
Mediaeval Medicine 
 
 geon. He described strangulated hernia and 
 operated for lachrymal fistula. 
 
 d. 1463. — Gilbert Kymer, M.D.Oxon. Dean of Salisbury 
 and a Chancellor of the University of Oxford. 
 Rector of the Faculty of Medicine in London. 
 Physician to Humphry, Duke of Gloucester, 
 the founder of the first public library at Oxford. 
 
 fi. 1470. — Benevenuto Grassi. A physician of Salerno 
 and writer on ophthalmology. His work “ De 
 oculorum egritudinibus ” was printed in 1475. 
 In his “ Practica oculorum” he mentions 
 amblyopia and amaurosis. 
 
 d. 1484. — Johannes Arculanus of Verona. Professor of 
 Medicine at Bologna and Padua. He described 
 gold fillings for teeth. 
 
 ca. 1470-1490 (?).— Yalescus de Taranta. Born in Por- 
 tugal, taught and practised at Montpellier. 
 Physician to Charles VI of France. Author 
 of a treatise on the plague and “ Philonium,” 
 a work on medicine and surgery in seven books ; 
 suggested the extirpation of cancer by means 
 of a preparation containing arsenic. 
 
 1428-1524.— Nicolaus Leonicenus. Physician and pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Padua, Bologna and 
 Ferrara. A friend of Linacre. Studied syphilis, 
 regarded it as infectious, and wrote a work on 
 the subject which was published from the 
 Aldine press at Venice in 1497. He trans 
 lated the aphorisms of Hippocrates, and, in 
 67 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 spite of much opposition, pointed out the errors 
 in botany made by Pliny in his natural history. 
 
 1430149a. — Hieronymo Manfredi. Eminent philosopher 
 and astrologer. Professor of Medicine at 
 Bologna, 1463. Published a textbook of ana- 
 tomy for the entertainment of the Duke of 
 Bologna, also works on astrological medicine. 
 An anatomical manuscript preserved in the 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford has recently been 
 printed. 
 
 fl. 1450. — Ortolff von Bayrlandt. Author of a popular 
 work on midwifery which was printed before 
 1500. He lived in Wurzburg. 
 
 ca. 1450-1533.— Heinrich von Pfolspeundt. Bavarian 
 army surgeon. Treated arrow wounds and 
 alludes to gun-shot wounds. Describes the 
 operation for harelip and rhinoplasty. 
 
 1450-1533. — Hieronymus of Brunschweig, or Jerome 
 of Brunswick. An Alsatian army surgeon. 
 Author of an illustrated work on surgery and 
 one on herbs, simples, and the art of distilla- 
 tion. He describes gunshot wounds and taught 
 that they were poisoned, a subject of surgical 
 controversy until the nineteenth century. The 
 first edition of the “ Buch der Chirurgie” was 
 printed at Strasburg, 1497, and was translated 
 into English in 1525. The English version of 
 his book on distillation was published in 1527, 
 and is also an illustrated herbal. 
 
 68 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 d. 1526. — Eucharius osslin, or Rhodion of Frank- 
 
 furt and Worms. Author of the “ Rose- 
 garten,” an illustrated textbook on obstetrics, 
 which had a wide circulation and was trans- 
 lated and plagiarized. It is mainly a compi- 
 lation from Soranus of Ephesus. The first 
 edition was printed in Augsburg in 1502. 
 
 fl. 1500. — Hans von Gersdorff. German Surgeon. An 
 experienced and successful operator. After 
 amputation he applied a bandage without 
 sutures, and checked haemorrhage by a caustic 
 plaster or actual cautery. Taught that gunshot 
 wounds were not poisoned. Published the 
 “Feldtbuch der Wundarztney ” in 1517, a book 
 on military surgery, which is curiously illus- 
 trated. His works were translated into Dutch 
 and Latin. 
 
 1452-1519. — Leonardo da Vinci. Equally great as an 
 anatomist and original dissector of the human 
 body and as a painter. He inspired the work 
 of Vesalius. His notes on the drawings of his 
 dissections are interesting examples of “ mirror- 
 writing.” His MS. “ Quaderni d’Anatomia,” 
 is now in the library at Windsor Castle. 
 
 1473-1506. — Mark Antonio della Torre. Anatomist of 
 Verona. Remembered for his association with 
 Leonardo da Vinci, whose anatomical drawings 
 were intended to illustrate a work by della 
 Torre. He died before it was written. 
 
 69 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 ca. 1460-1519. — Gioyanni de Vigo, of Rapallo, near 
 Genoa. John of Yigo. Surgeon and physician 
 to Pope J ulius II. Introduced the crown trepan 
 and wrote a textbook of surgery in Latin 
 which was translated and passed through many 
 editions. 
 
 1460-1524. — Thomas Linacre. Born in Canterbury. 
 
 Studied in Oxford and Italy. 
 Physician to Henry VIII. Char- 
 ter of incorporation granted to 
 the College of Physicians, Lon- 
 don, through his influence, Sept. 
 23, 1518, and was the first Pre- 
 sident. Translated the “ Oath of 
 Hippocrates,” and the “ Mefcho- 
 dus Medendi ” and founded three 
 lectureships in medicine at Oxford 
 and Cambridge. He was a friend 
 of Erasmus and was as well 
 known for his classical as for his medical know- 
 ledge. He was admitted to priests’ orders about 
 1509 and held several positions of dignity in 
 the Church. 
 
 1460-1525. — Alexander Benedetti of Legnago. Surgeon 
 and anatomist. Professor at Padua. Operated 
 for hernia, stone and rhinoplasty. Physician 
 to Emperor Maximilian. Wrote a book on 
 anatomy and a treatise on the plague. 
 
 70 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1462- 1536. — Johannes Manardus, of Ferrara. Physician 
 
 to King Ladislaus, of Hungary. Advocated 
 the observation of Nature, and revived the 
 methods of Hippocrates. 
 
 1462. — First calendar indicating times for letting blood. 
 
 Printed at Mainz. 
 
 1463- 1525. — Alexander Achillini. “ The great philoso- 
 
 pher.” Pupil of Mundinus. Professor of 
 philosophy at Bologna and Padua. Described 
 the duct of the submaxillary gland which 
 was re-described by Thomas Wharton in 
 1656. Wrote a commentary on Mundinus in 
 1522, and a student’s note-book on anatomy 
 1516. 
 
 1464- 1534. — Otto Brunfels. Physician. Distinguished 
 
 for his work in botany, which he embodied 
 in his “ Herbarum Vivas leones,” Strasburg, 
 1530-36, illustrated with woodcuts. He was 
 originally a monk, became a follower of 
 Luther, graduated in medicine at Bale and 
 was appointed city physician at Berne in 
 1 533 - 
 
 1468-1505. Gabriel Zerbi. Professor of anatomy and 
 logic at Padua, Bologna and Rome. Was sent 
 by the Venetians to Constantinople to attend a 
 Turkish Pasha ; an apparent cure was effected, 
 but the Turk died later and Zerbi and his sons 
 were pursued and massacred. Wrote a book on 
 anatomy with some original observations (1502), 
 and a work entitled *• Cautelae medicorum.” 
 
 7i 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1472-1549.— John Chambre. Born in Northumberland : 
 educated at Oxford, and took 
 his M.D. degree at Padua. Phy- 
 sician to Henry VIII. Dean 
 of St. Stephen’s, Westminster. 
 Mentioned first of the six 
 physicians in the letters patent 
 granted to the Royal College of 
 Physicians of London in 1518. 
 
 1473-1560. — Francisco Lopez de Yillalobos. Physician 
 in ordinary to Charles V and Philip II. One 
 of the earliest to describe syphilis in a book 
 entitled “ El sumario de la medicina con un 
 tratado sobre los pestiferas bubas.” Printed 
 Salamanca, 1498. 
 
 ca. 1494.— Diego Alvarez Chanca of Seville. Physician 
 to Christopher Columbus and author of the 
 first written document about the flora, the 
 fauna, the ethnology and the anthropology of 
 America. It is in the form of a letter to the 
 municipal authority of Seville. 
 
 1473. — First edition of Avicenna’s Canon printed at 
 • Pavia. 
 
 1478. -First edition of Celsus printed at Florence. 
 
 1478. — Mondino’s “ Anathomia ” printed at Leipzig. 
 
 1478-1522. — Pierre Brissot. Physician. Practised in 
 
 72 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 Paris. Revived the Hippocratic method of 
 bleeding, which was derivative or near the 
 lesion for which it was undertaken, in opposi- 
 tion to the Arabic teaching that it should be 
 revulsive or at a distance from the lesion. The 
 teaching was considered to be subversive and 
 led to a prolonged controversy, 
 ca. 1551. — Luis Lobera d’Avila. Physician in ordinary 
 to Charles V. He described syphilis and its 
 cure by inunction. He also wrote among 
 other works “ Vanquetos de nobles Caval- 
 leros,” ca. 1530, which contains several wood- 
 cuts of surgical operations.” 
 
 1478-1555 —Jacobus Sylvius, or Jacques Dubois. Born 
 
 near Amiens. Anatomist. 
 Teacher of Vesalius and Servetus 
 at Paris. Author of “ Isagoge 
 anatomica,” several books on 
 pharmacy and treatises on Hippo- 
 crates and Galen. The names he 
 gave to many anatomical struc- 
 tures are still retained. He knew 
 the valves of the heart and taught 
 of the foramen ovale in the foetal 
 heart. He is not to be confused 
 with Franciscus Sylvius [1614- 
 1672] after whom the fissure of Sylvius is called. 
 Substituted human bodies for pigs in his dissec- 
 tions. An uncompromising Galenist, miser and 
 of barbaric manners. 
 
 73 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1480 (?)-1550. — Berengarius of Carpi, Giacomo Beren- 
 gario. Anatomist and surgeon. He extirpated 
 the prolapsed uterus and treated syphilis— Ben- 
 venuto Cellini amongst others — by mercurial 
 inunction. Professor at Bologna, 1502-1527, 
 and Pavia. He wrote a treatise on fracture of 
 the skull and a commentary on the anatomy of 
 Mundinus, in which he substituted drawings 
 from nature in place of the traditional schemata. 
 First to describe the appendix and hepatic 
 circulation, the os basilare and the sphenoidal 
 sinus. 
 
 fl. 1480. — Ketham, Johannes de. German physician, 
 who practised at Venice. Edited in 1491 
 “Fasciculus medicinse,” a collection of current 
 writings by the medical men of his time. The 
 book contains anatomical illustrations and fine 
 wood engravings. There are several editions 
 in Latin and Italian with varying blocks. 
 The drawings themselves have a long and 
 interesting antecedent history. 
 
 1481.— First edition of Rhazes in Latin printed at Milan. 
 
 1485. Caxton printed at Westminster the first book 
 
 on medicine in English : “ A litil boke for 
 the pestilence.’’ 
 
 1486. Epidemic of Sweating Sickness in England. 
 
 1486-1535.— Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettes- 
 heim. Physician, astrologer and alchemist. 
 He practised at Freiburg, Lyons and Paris, 
 
 74 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 and wrote “ De vanitate scientiarum ” and 
 “ Occulta philosophia.” 
 
 1491. — First dated edition of Ketham’s “Fasciculus 
 
 medicinae ” printed at Venice, 
 d. 1515. — Sir William Butts, M.D., Cambridge. Prin- 
 cipal of St. Mary’s Hostel, Cam- 
 bridge. Physician to Henry VIII 
 and Princess Mary, afterwards 
 Queen Mary, a friend of Wolsey, 
 Cranmer and Latimer and a 
 patron of Sir John Cheke. He 
 appears in Holbein’s picture in 
 the Barber-Surgeons’ Hall, and 
 is introduced by Shakespeare into 
 the play of “ Henry VIII.” 
 Knighted ca. 1545. 
 
 1181-1553. — Fracastorius, or Girolamo Fracastoro of 
 
 Yerona. He wrote in 1530 
 “ Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus,” 
 whence the name of the disease is 
 derived. As a geologist he ac- 
 counted for the presence of fossils 
 in a modern spirit and as a phy- 
 sicist he referred to the magnetic 
 poles of the earth. His works 
 have been frequently reprinted. 
 
 75 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1487-1574. —Johannes Guinterius, or John Winter of 
 Andernach. Professor of Greek at Louvain 
 and afterwards of Medicine at Paris and of 
 Anatomy at Strasburg. He was physician to 
 Francis I and Henry II of France. Servetus 
 and Vesalius were his pupils and prosectors. 
 Author of “ De Medicina veteri et nova,” 1571, 
 and “ Institutiones anatomicae,” 1536. 
 
 ca. 1545.— Walther Hermann Ryff. Physician and 
 surgeon of Strasburg. Author of works on 
 anatomy, surgery, obstetrics and distilling. 
 His works, illustrated with woodcuts, were 
 first printed at Strasburg and Frankfort in 
 WG- 
 
 1490 1549. — Andrew Boorde. Suffragan Bishop of Chi- 
 chester : Carthusian monk, traveller and phy- 
 sician. Author of “A Breviarie of Health,” 
 1547, and a “ Compendyous regimen* or a 
 dietary of health,” 1542. He sent rhubarb 
 seeds from Spain to England nearly two hun- 
 dred years before the plant was cultivated here. 
 He is supposed, but absurdly, says Mr. F. J. 
 Furnivall, to have been the original “Merry 
 Andrew.” 
 
 ca. 1560.— Joost van Lom. City physician of Tournai 
 and Brussels. Author of works on fevers and 
 general medicine which ran through many 
 editions. 
 
 76 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1491. — First edition of Hortus Sanitatis printed at Mainz. 
 
 1492. — First edition of John Gaddesden s Rosa Ang- 
 
 liea printed. 
 
 1492. — Syphilis first appeared in Europe. 
 
 d. 1545. — Jean Tagault, or Tagaultius. Professor of 
 Surgery in the University of Paris and Dean 
 of the Medical Faculty. He wrote a book 
 on surgery in Latin. It passed through several 
 editions and was translated into French, 
 Italian and Dutch. It became the standard 
 textbook for English students in the sixteenth 
 century and is often quoted. 
 
 ca. 1580 — Francois Rousset. Surgeon to the Duke of 
 Savoy and later in life practised in Paris. He 
 was amongst the first to practise abdominal 
 surgery. He performed successfully fifteen 
 Caesarean sections. 
 
 1490-1555. — Georg Agricola of Glauchau, in Saxony. 
 
 The father of Mineralogy. Phy- 
 sician and mineralogist. Dis- 
 coverer of bismuth. He wrote 
 “ De re metallica,” a treatise on 
 earthquakes and a book on the 
 plague. He served as city phy- 
 sician and royal historiographer 
 at Chemnitz. 
 
 77 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 ca. 1500. — Angelo Bolognini. Professor of surgery at 
 Bologna from 1493. Military surgeon. 
 
 1493-1541. — Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, 
 
 Paracelsus. Physician, surgeon, 
 alchemist and astrologer. In his 
 early days wandered throughout 
 Europe. In 1527 became city 
 physician and professor at Bale. 
 Burnt the works of Galen, Avi- 
 cenna and other fathers of medi- 
 cine before the students in his 
 lecture room. Associated with an 
 overwhelming sense of self-im- 
 portance, his writings bear evi- 
 dence of an independent spirit, 
 originality, and great force of character. He 
 abandoned the teaching of the ancients and 
 claimed to be a reformer and a true follower 
 of Nature. He originated many improvements 
 in the pharmacy of his time. He was one of 
 the first to make simple extracts of drugs and 
 tinctures. 
 
 d. 1562. — Thomas Yicary. Surgeon to Henry VIII, 
 Edward VI, Queens Mary and Elizabeth. 
 First surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital 
 after the Dissolution. Published “ The Eng- 
 lishman’s Treasure, or the true anatomy of 
 man's body,” 1548, abridged from an early 
 work on the subject written in English. 
 
 78 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 Master of the Barber-Surgeons Company. In 
 Holbein’s picture, Henry VIII is presenting a 
 document to Vicary, whose portrait is care- 
 fully painted. 
 
 1493- 1571. — Arcaeus, Francisco Arceo, of Fregenal, 
 
 Spain. Surgeon and successful operator. His 
 name is perpetuated in the Balsamum Arcaei 
 (unguentum elemi). His treatise on wounds 
 was translated into English in 1588 and in- 
 cludes a method of treating club-foot with a 
 shoe which he invented for the purpose. 
 
 ca. 1510 (?). — Gonzalo Fernandez. Introduced the use 
 of guaiacum in the treatment of syphilis. 
 
 1494- 1553. — Francois Rabelais. Originally a monk. 
 Studied medicine and became 
 professor at the University of 
 Montpellier. Held the chair of 
 pathology for a year at least and 
 lectured on the Greek text of 
 the Hippocratic Prognostics to 
 crowded audiences. Later he was 
 attached to the Lyons Hospital. 
 He displayed profound knowledge 
 of the medical sciences of his 
 time. Cure of Meudon as well as 
 practising physician. The great 
 
 exponent of Renaissance humanism. One 
 of the first to translate the Aphorisms of 
 
 79 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 Hippocrates, Lyons, 1532. Famous also as the 
 author of “ Gargantua et Pantagruel.” 
 
 1597-1558. — Fernelius, Jean Francois Fernel. Professor 
 
 of iogic and afterwards of medi- 
 cine at Paris. Physician to 
 Henry II and Catherine de 
 Medici. He taught that physi- 
 cians should stud)' the human 
 body and not accept tradition. 
 He also stated that the cause of 
 disease was to be looked for in 
 the body itself and not in the 
 fluids occasioned by the disease. 
 His learning and scholarship were 
 so great that the contemporary 
 physicians said of him, that, “ Faeces Arabum 
 melle Latinitatis condidit.” 
 
 1597- 1565. — Michel Angelo Biondo. Born in Venice. 
 
 Practised at Naples and Rome. Used warm 
 and cold water in the treatment of wounds. 
 He translated into Italian the history of plants, 
 written by Theophrastos. 
 
 1598- 1560. — Hieronymus Bock, or Tragus. Physician of 
 
 Zweibrucken. Studied botany and became 
 superintendent of the gardens of the prince. 
 He wrote the “ Neuer Kreutterbuch ” (1539). 
 
 1599- 1569. Nicolo Massa. Professor of anatomy and 
 
 surgery at Padua. Author of works on the 
 
 80 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 prostate and on contagious diseases, including 
 plague, small-pox and syphilis. For the latter 
 he recommended preparations of mercury and 
 sarsaparilla. Discovered the lymphatics of 
 kidney, 1532. Author of “ Anatomiae liber 
 introductorius ” (1559), “ De Gallico Morbo ” 
 (1:559), and “ Epistolae Medicinales ” (1542). 
 
 1559-1519. — Magnus Hundt. Studied philosophy, medi- 
 cine and theology at Leipsic. He published in 
 1529 “ Nuetzlich Regiment ” which contains 
 references to syphilis and ihe sweating sick- 
 ness. Hundt published some very crude ana- 
 tomical illustrations in his “ Anthropologia de 
 Hominis . . . Natura,” 1501. 
 
 ca. 1580. — Laurentius Phryesen. City physician of 
 Metz. Anatomist w : ho published in 1518 
 “ Spiegel der Artzny,” containing two wood- 
 cuts, which are much superior to any then 
 known, and are a great improvement on those 
 of Hundt. 
 
 b. 1530. — Leonardo Botallo. Prebendary of the Abbey 
 of St. Marie de Chelles, near Meux. Author of 
 “ De via sanguinis a dextro ad sinistrum 
 cordis ventriculum,” Venice, 1640, in which 
 he describes the duct which bears his name. 
 He revived the disputes about venesection by 
 recommending it in almost all diseases, advo- 
 cating the withdrawal of large quantities of 
 blood four or five times in an acute attack. 
 
 1500 - 1555.— Antonio Musa Brassavola, of Ferrara. 
 
 F 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 The first of his time to reintroduce tracheo- 
 tomy. He wrote on syphilis, and published 
 a botanical treatise in the form of an imaginary 
 dialogue, a method which was followed by 
 Gale, Bullin and other medical practitioners 
 in England a few years later. 
 
 1500-1558. — Jacob Rueff. Surgeon and author of a 
 work on midwifery, in which he describes 
 smooth and toothed forceps for the extraction 
 of the dead foetus. Town physician at Zurich. 
 He also cut for stone and wrote comedies, 
 some of which were played. He recommends 
 cephalic in addition to podalic version. 
 
 1500- 1569. — Yidus Vidius, or Guido Guidi, of Florence. 
 
 Chief physician to Francis I and Cosmo di 
 Medici. Professor of medicine in the College 
 de France which he reorganized. He wrote 
 on anatomy, and has given the name to the 
 Vidian canal and the Vidian nerve. A friend 
 of Benvenuto Cellini, who was godfather to his 
 daughter. He published his “ Chirurgia,” which 
 was printed by Pierre Gauthier, 1544, and an 
 illustrated anatomy edited by his nephew, 1611. 
 and a Fatin translation of the Surgery of Hippo- 
 crates. 
 
 1501- 1566. — Leonhard Fuchs. Professor of Medicine at 
 
 Tubingen. Botanist and author of “ De His- 
 toria Stirpium,” Basel, 1542, written to teach 
 medical botany. It is illustrated with fine wood- 
 cuts. He also wrote commentaries on Galen and 
 Hippocrates. 
 
 82 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1501-1576. — Hieronymus Cardanus of Pavia. Pro- 
 fessor at Milan in 1534. He professed a firm 
 belief in astrology, which he called to his 
 aid in the explanation of symptoms and the 
 administration of laxatives. 
 
 1501-1577. — Pietro Andrea Mattioli. Botanist and author 
 of the well-known commentary on Dioscorides, 
 Venice, 1544, which passed through many 
 editions. 
 
 1501-1580. — Christobal de Yega. Physician and author 
 of a work entitled “ De arte medendi liber.” 
 
 1503- 1564.— Charles Estienne. Stephanus of Paris. 
 
 A pupil of Sylvius. Professor of anatomy. 
 Author of “ De dissectione partium corporis 
 humani,” 1545, which contains a description of 
 syringomyelia. Described the difference be- 
 tween the white and grey matter of the brain. 
 An ardent Galenist, but made some original 
 discoveries. 
 
 1504- 1583. — Francois Yalleriola. Professor of medicine 
 
 in Turin and author of several works. He 
 wrote “ Enarrationum medicinalium libri sex,” 
 Lyons, 1554, “Loci medicinae communes, 
 tribus libris digesti,” Lyons, 1562. 
 
 1505 (?) 1584. — Richard Caldwell, M.B.Oxon. President 
 of the Royal College of Physicians, London, 
 1570. He founded, with the assistance of Lord 
 Lumley, the lectureship on surgery at the 
 College of Physicians of London still known 
 as the Lumleian lecture. William Harvey 
 
 83 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 announced his discovery of the circulation of 
 the blood whilst acting as a Lumleian lecturer. 
 
 1505- — Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh founded, 
 
 1505(?)-1551(?)- — Pierre Franco. Born in Provence. Prac- 
 tised in Berne, Freiburg, Lausanne and Orange. 
 Surgeon and Huguenot. The first surgeon of 
 his time to perforin suprapubic lithotomy. He 
 also wrote on hernia. He was a surgical genius 
 and a bold operator, though an unlettered man. 
 
 1507-1566. — Guillaume Rondelet. Professor of ana- 
 tomy at Montpellier. Writer on Natural 
 History and author of “ De Piscibus Marinis 
 Libri XVIII” (Lyons, 1554) and “ Methodus 
 curandorum omnium morborum corporis humani 
 in tres libros distincta ” Paris, 1575. A friend 
 of Rabelais. 
 
 1507-1587- — Thomas Gale. Army surgeon under Henry 
 VIII and Queen Elizabeth and 
 Master of the Barber Surgeons 
 Company. Opposed the theory 
 that gunshot wounds were poi- 
 soned and advocated simple treat- 
 ment. Author of “ An excellent 
 treatise of wounds made with 
 gunshot,” 1563, “An Enchiridion 
 of Chirurgerie,” 1563, “ The Insti- 
 tution of Chirurgerie,” which is 
 written in the form of a dialogue, 
 and other treatises. 
 
 84 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1509-1553 . — Michael Seryetus. Born at Villanueva Da 
 Sigena in Aragon. Physician and 
 theologian. First of the Unitar- 
 ians. He pointed out that the 
 blood passed into the heart after 
 being mixed with air in the 
 lungs. He graduated M.B. at 
 Lyons under the name of Michel 
 Villeneuve, practised at Paris, 
 wrote a treatise on syrups. Fel- 
 low prosector with Vesalius to 
 Winter in Paris. Lectured on 
 and edited works of Ptolemy. 
 Wrote the “ Christianismi Restitutio” in 1553 
 and was burnt alive at Geneva as a heretic at 
 the instigation of Calvin. 
 
 1509-1590- — Ambroise Pare. Famous military surgeon. 
 
 Born at Bourg-Hersent, Maine. 
 As a barber-surgeon became at- 
 tached to the Army at the age 
 of 19. Appointed surgeon to King 
 Henry II; and afterwards to 
 Francis II and Charles IX of 
 France. He discarded the use 
 of boiling oil as a cautery after 
 amputations and reintroduced 
 the use of the ligature and em- 
 ployed cold dressings. Improved 
 the method of trepanning and 
 devised numerous instruments. It is claimed 
 
 85 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 for him that he was the first to practise forced 
 delivery in protracted labour and to observe 
 metastatic abscesses in cases of blood-poisoning 
 from wounds. 
 
 1510-1558- — Robert Recorde, M.D.Camb. Fellow of 
 All Souls, Oxford, Physician to Edward YI 
 and Mary. Author of “ The Judicial of Urines." 
 1548, “ Urinal of Physic,” 1548, “ The Castle 
 of Knowledge,” “ The Whetstone of Wit,” also 
 works on arithmetic, anatomy and auricular 
 contession. Died in a debtors’ prison. 
 
 1510T573 — John Caius or Keys, M.D. Padua. Studied 
 in Italy where he was diligent in seeking com- 
 plete and correct versions of Galen and Hippo- 
 crates. Nine times President of the College 
 of Physicians, London. Founder and first 
 Master of Caius College, Cambridge, 1557. 
 Lectured on anatomy for nearly twenty years 
 at the Barber-Surgeons’ Hall in London. 
 Wrote a treatise on the Sweating Sickness 
 and another on “ English Dogs.” 
 
 1510-1580— GioYanni Fillippo Ingrassias, of Recal- 
 buto, Sicily. Called “ The Sicilian Hippo- 
 crates.” Osteologist and myologist. Pupil of 
 Vesalius. Professor at Naples. Discovered 
 the stapes. Saved his country from plague in 
 1575. Was Protomedicus of Sicily, 1563, and 
 became Physician to Philip II. The processes 
 of Ingrassias still remain in anatomical nomen- 
 clature. 
 
 86 
 
The Renaissance 
 
 1511-1568. — Amatus Lusitanus. A Portugese Jew. 
 
 Studied at Salamanca. Practised at Ragusa 
 in Dalmatia and afterwards at Salonica. Pie 
 wrote on Dioscorides and studied the valves 
 in the blood-vessels. His book “ Curationum 
 medicinalium centurise septem ” 1566, passed 
 through eleven editions. 
 
 1511-1575. — Hadrian Junius. Called “The Light of 
 Holland.” Pupil of Fernelius, physician to the 
 Duke of Norfolk, afterwards Rector of the Latin 
 School at Haarlem, and historian of the States 
 of Holland. Town physician at Haarlem and 
 Middleburg. He wrote a treatise correcting 
 various mistakes in preceding medical writers 
 as well as an essay on the hair, 
 ca. 1540-1560. — Thomas Geminus. Probably an Italian, 
 who is said to have settled in London, though 
 he calls himself “ of Leeds.” Published his 
 “Compendiosa totius Anatomie delineatio aere 
 exarata ” in 1545. The first edition is dedi- 
 cated to King Henry VIII, and is one of 
 the earliest books containing copper plates 
 produced in England. The first to engrave the 
 illustrations of Yesalius on copper. 
 
 1513-1572. — Giovanni Argenterio of Castelnuovo in 
 Piedmont. Professor of Medicine in Pisa, 
 Naples, Rome and Turin. He opposed Galen’s 
 theories as to the cause of disease and held 
 that medicine lay intermediate between a science 
 and an art. 
 
 87 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1514- 1564. — Andreas Yesalius of Brussels. Famous 
 
 Anatomist. He declared that 
 Galen’s Anatomy was based on 
 the lower animals and was the 
 first to use woodcuts drawn from 
 nature to illustrate his works. 
 He revised the old theories on 
 anatomy, and replaced them by 
 new and original facts based on 
 his own experience. Became 
 Professor of Anatomy at Padua, 
 and also taught at Pisa and 
 Bologna. His work was vigor- 
 
 ously opposed. He was appointed Physician 
 to Charles V, gave up the study of anatomy, 
 and died at Zante whilst returning from a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Author of “ De 
 Humani Corporis Fabrica,” 1543, of which 
 an edition on better paper was issued in 1555. 
 
 15151544- — Valerius Cordus. Discoverer of sulphuric 
 ether and the inventor of phytography. He 
 wrote a commentary on Dioscorides published 
 in 1561 by Gesner. It describes 500 new 
 species of plants. His “Dispensatorium,” 1524, 
 was recognized as an official pharmacopoeia for 
 that city by the Senate of Nuremberg. 
 
 1515- 1579. — Gianbattista Canano. Professor at Ferrara 
 
 and physician to the Duke of Ferrara and Pope 
 Julius III. Described the valves in the vena 
 azygos in 1546 and studied their action. 
 
 88 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1515- 1588. — Wierus or Johann Weyer of Grave in 
 
 Brabant. Opposed belief in witches. Author 
 of works on epidemic diseases, sweating sickness 
 and scurvy. Travelled in Africa and Greece and 
 became physician to Duke William of Cleves. 
 
 1516- 1552.— Bartolommeo Maggi, of Bologna. Surgeon. 
 
 Contradicted the theory that all gunshot wounds 
 were poisoned. Advocated the employment of 
 soft oiled dressings. 
 
 1516-(?) 1559. — Realdus Columbus or Matteo Realdo 
 Colombo of Cremona. Anatomist. Pupil, 
 deputy and successor to Vesalius at Padua 
 and Professor in Rome, 1548. Described the 
 thyroid gland and was the first to demon- 
 strate that blood passed from the lungs into 
 the pulmonary veins ; possibly borrowed this 
 idea from Servetus. Used dogs for vivisec- 
 tion instead of hogs. Author of “ De re 
 anatomica,” 1559, which was long used as a 
 text-book and is an imitation of Vesalius, 
 whom he opposed. 
 
 1516-1565-— Conrad Gesner of Zurich. Physician, medi- 
 cal biographer and naturalist, called “ The 
 German Pliny.” Professor of Natural History 
 at Zurich. The first to attempt classification 
 in natural philosophy and to describe the canary 
 bird. A man of extraordinary industry whose 
 volumes on the history of plants and the history 
 of animals long remained text-books and were 
 translated from the Latin. 
 
 89 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1517- 1585-— Rembert Dodoens, of Malines, Belgium. 
 
 Anatomist, physician and botanist. Physician 
 to Maximillian II and Rudolf II. His illus- 
 trated herbal was printed in 1583. 
 
 d. 1576 — William Bullein. Physician and botanist. 
 
 Rector of Blaxhall, Suffolk. Author of “ Bul- 
 warke of Defence against all Sickness etc.,” 
 1562, written whilst he was imprisoned for 
 debt after being charged with murder. All his 
 writings are excellent reading. 
 
 1518— Royal College of Physicians of England 
 
 founded. 
 
 15181564- — Pierre Belon. Natural historian. He tra- 
 velled through Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor 
 from 1546-1549 to investigate the source of 
 drugs and to search for plants with medicinal 
 properties. He wrote a book “ De Arboribus 
 Coniferis ” which was printed in Paris in 1553. 
 
 1518-1575- — Felix Wuertz of Basle. A clinical surgeon. 
 
 He followed Paracelsus in ignoring the earlier 
 methods, trusting the healing power of Nature. 
 Pus he regarded as a bad sign, fractures he 
 treated with splints, performed amputations of 
 the thigh, and insisted on the endeavour to 
 obtain healing by first intention. 
 
 1519 1586.— Johann Crato von Kraftheim. Physician 
 to Ferdinand I, Maximillian II and Rudolf II. 
 A member of the Rudolphine Academy of 
 Medicine at Prague. 
 
 90 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1520-1574- — Bartolommeo Eustachi. Professor of 
 anatomy at Rome. Discoverer of the Eus- 
 tachian tube, the origin of the optic nerve and 
 the thoracic duct which, however, he thought 
 was peculiar to the horse. He prepared a series 
 of thirty-eight anatomical plates which im- 
 poverished him. He died before they were 
 published, and they did not appear until 1714 
 when Lancisi issued them with a Commentary. 
 Published a small anatomical work in 1564, 
 and was the first to study the teeth. 
 
 1520-1606. — Luis Mercado (Mercatus). Physician in 
 ordinary to Philip II and writer of works on 
 plague, typhoid and other epidemic diseases. 
 
 ca. 1520- — Augustine. Physician to Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 ca. 1560 — Juan Yalverde di Hamusco of Castilla la 
 Yiega. Eminent Spanish physician, pupil of 
 Realdo Colombo and Bartolommeo Eustachi. 
 Said to have carried the knowledge of anatomy 
 from Italy to Spain. Published in 1560 “ Ana- 
 tome,” an illustrated abstract of Vesalius. 
 Author of “ Historia de la composicion del 
 cuerpo humano,” Rome, 1556. 
 
 ca. 1562 — Thomas Gibson, of Morpeth. Physician and 
 printer. He printed a concordance to the New 
 Testament in 1535, a treatise on the pestilence 
 in 1536 and the “ Great Herbal” in 1530. 
 
 ca. 1564.— Leonardo Fiorayanti of Bologna.— Physician. 
 
 9 1 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 Believed that syphilis originated from feeding 
 animals upon the flesh of their own species. 
 
 ca. 1568- — William Turner. Physician and botanist. 
 
 Born at Morpeth, educated at Cambridge. 
 Practised in Germany after the burning of 
 his friend Bishop Ridley. Became Dean of 
 Wells. Author of “ A New Herbal,” printed 
 in 1551. 
 
 1520- 1584. — Pedro Ponce of Leon. Benedictine monk 
 
 and physician. Founder of a system of in- 
 struction for the deaf and dumb based upon 
 that of Hieronymo Cardano. He first taught 
 his pupils to write, then pointed out to them 
 the various objects represented by the different 
 words, and finally conveyed to them the sounds 
 corresponding to the characters by observation 
 of the motion of the lips. 
 
 1520 — 1590. — Jac. Theod. Tabernaemontanus. Phy- 
 sician to Elector of Speyer. Studied and wrote 
 on botany and medicinal springs. Author of 
 "Neu Kreuterbuch,” first published in 1588 
 and several times reissued. 
 
 1521- 1580. — Jacob Baumann. Swiss surgeon. Educated 
 
 at Zurich and Bologna. Practised at Nurem- 
 berg. The first translator into German of the 
 anatomy of Vesalius. 
 
 1522T597- — Petrus Forestus. Dutch physician, educated 
 in Italy and practised at Delft. He collected a 
 series of cases which shows him to have been 
 
 9 2 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 a great clinical physician and at the same time 
 gives a clear insight into medical practice at 
 the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 1522- 1605- — Ulysses Aldrovandi of Bologna. Estab- 
 
 lished a botanical garden at Bologna in 1567. 
 Studied zoology as well as botany and left a 
 collection of natural curiosities to his native 
 city. Author of “ Ornithologia ” in three vols., 
 1599-1603; “ De Insectis,” 1602; and “ De 
 Piscibus et de Cetis,” 1613. 
 
 1523- 1562 — Gabrielle Falloppius of Modena. Surgeon 
 and professor at Ferrara, Pisa 
 and Padua. Made important and 
 numerous discoveries which added 
 greatly to the existing knowledge 
 of anatomy. The oviducts are 
 still called after his name— the 
 Falloppian tubes — though they 
 had been recognized by Galen, 
 Soranus, Rufus and Theophilus. 
 First to describe Poupart’s liga- 
 ment. Published also works on 
 anatomy, pharmacy and medicine. 
 
 1524- 1603- — Andreas Caesalpinus. Professor of medicine 
 
 and botany at Pisa and afterwards at Rome. 
 Physician to Clement VIII. Classified plants 
 artificially in accordance with their organs 
 of reproduction. Claimed by the Italians as 
 the discoverer of the circulation of the blood 
 
 93 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 before Harvey. Wrote on medicine, plants 
 and metals. 
 
 1526-1609 — Clusius, Charles de l’Ecluse. Botanist. 
 
 Travelled extensively and was Director of the 
 Court Botanical Gardens at Vienna, and after- 
 wards Professor of Botany at Leyden. Author 
 of “ Antidotarium florentinum,” 1561, and 
 “ Aromatum et simplicium aliquot medicamen- 
 torum apud Indos,” 1567. 
 
 1528-1586. — Adam Lonicerus. Professor of mathematics 
 at Marburg. Was town physician at Frankfort 
 and author of a “ Naturalis historic opus” in 
 2 vols, 1551, also the “Neue Krauterbuch,” 
 Frankfort, 1 557. 
 
 1528- 1591- — Anuce Foes or Foesius. Born at Mayence. 
 
 Physician to Charles III, Duke of Loraine. 
 He published in 1561 a Formulary which was 
 one of the last unofficial Pharmacopoeias; also 
 an edition of Hippocrates, 1591-1624. 
 
 1529 - 1568 — John Halle. Surgeon, of Maidstone in Kent. 
 
 He published in 1565 an English version of 
 Lanfranc’s Surgery and added to it a lively 
 essay entitled “ An Historiall expostulation 
 against the beastlye abusers both of chirurgerie 
 and physyke in oure tyme.” It is a philippic 
 against quacks and is excellent reading. 
 
 1529-1583- — Laurent Joubert of Yalenee. Professor and 
 afterwards Chancellor of the School of Mont- 
 pellier. He wrote a book on popular errors in 
 
 94 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 medicine, which had a very large circulation. 
 He asserted that foul odours were no certain 
 evidence of putridity and rejected Galen’s doc- 
 trine of forces. 
 
 1530-1589.— Julius Caesar Arantius. Professor of medi- 
 cine, surgery and anatomy at Bologna. Remem- 
 bered for his careful work on the valves of the 
 heart and by the “ nodules of Arantius.” First 
 to write a description of the coraco-brachialis as 
 a separate muscle. Published “ De humano 
 Foetu,” 1571, “ De tumoribus,” 1581, and a 
 commentary on Hippocrates’ “ On wounds of 
 the head,” 1579. 
 
 1530-1598 — Johann Schenk of Freiburg in Breisgau. 
 
 Author of work on Monsters, which was fre- 
 quently reprinted. 
 
 1530-1595 — Leonhard Thurneysser, of Thurn. Began 
 as a collector of herbs for Huber, a physician 
 of Bale. After an adventurous career he settled 
 at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder and became physician 
 in ordinary to the Elector Georg. Later he 
 practised as an astrologer and built a laboratory 
 in Berlin, where he established its first botanical 
 and zoological garden. 
 
 1530-1606- — Heironymus Mercurialis. Professor of 
 medicine at Padua, Bologna and Pisa. Ex- 
 ponent of medical gymnastics and the author 
 of the first treatise on diseases of the skin, “ De 
 morbis cutaneis” Venice, 1570. 
 
 95 
 
lhe Sixteenth Century 
 
 1533 1610.- John Banister of Nottingham. Anatomist 
 
 and surgeon. He lectured at the 
 Barber-Surgeons’ Hall. Wrote 
 several works on surgery of which 
 a collected edition was published 
 in 1633. He is not to be con- 
 fused with Richard Banister of 
 Stamford, who wrote on diseases 
 of the eye and died in 1626. 
 Served as army surgeon to the 
 Earl of Warwick’s force at Havre 
 and Leicester’s expedition to the 
 Low Countries. Worked in Lon- 
 don with Wm. Clowes. Author of “ A needful, 
 new and necessary Treatise on Chirurgery,” 
 1575, “The History of Man sucked from the 
 Sappe of the most approved Anatomists,” 
 1578, and “ A Compendious Chirurgery,” 1585. 
 
 1533- 1610. — Roch le Baillif de la Riviere. Physician in 
 
 ordinary to Henry IV. 
 
 1534- 1600 — Yolcher Coyter of Groningen. Town phy- 
 
 sician at Nuremburg and surgeon in the Lrench 
 Army. Pupil of Lalloppius, Eustacbius and 
 Rondelet. Author of ‘‘De ossibus et cartila- 
 ginibus,” 1566, and works on human and com- 
 parative anatomy in which he made great 
 progress. Described the corpus luteum, noted 
 that the contraction of the auricles precedes 
 that of the ventricles and recorded important 
 observations on the brain. 
 
 96 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1535-1617. — William Butler, of County Clare in Ireland. 
 
 An alchemist, who was greatly esteemed by 
 James I. Claimed to have discovered a stone, 
 by means of which he cured the most dangerous 
 diseases. It was investigated by Sir Ivenelm 
 Digby. 
 
 1535 1606. — Georg Bartisch. Surgeon and court-oculist 
 to the Elector of Saxony. Author in 1583 of an 
 illustrated book on ophthalmic operations “ The 
 Augendienst,” 1583, and a skilful operator on 
 the eye. He distinguished between the various 
 forms of cataract, and operated in many oph- 
 thalmic diseases. He also wrote on lithotomy. 
 Sought to show that many of the delusions 
 about witchcraft were attributable to errors of 
 sight. 
 
 1540T604. — William Clowes. Came of a Warwickshire 
 family: served in France in 1563 as an army 
 surgeon under the Earl of Warwick. Surgeon 
 to Queen Elizabeth in 1596, and surgeon to 
 St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Author of “A 
 proved practice for all young chirurgians,” 
 1591. His works are still worth reading for 
 their graphic details of the practice of surgery 
 in England in the sixteenth century. His 
 son William Clowes [1582-1648] was surgeon 
 to Henry, Prince of Wales and to Charles I. 
 1536-1614. — Guillaume Baillou, of Paris. Said to have 
 been the first to demonstrate post mortem the 
 existence of croup, and in 1578 to declare 
 
 G 
 
 97 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 whooping-cough as a hitherto undescribed form 
 of disease. 
 
 1536 1614. — Felix Plater. Anatomist and Physician to 
 the Margrave of Baden. Professor of practical 
 medicine at Bale. Earliest systematic noso- 
 logist. He divided diseases into the following 
 three classes : (i) the Mind, the senses and of 
 motion ; (2) Febrile, and diseases of the fluids ; 
 (3) Defects of formation and secretion. He 
 was one of the earliest anatomists in Germany 
 to dissect the human body. The family of 
 Plater gave four generations of distinguished 
 men to medicine. He and his step-brother, 
 Thomas, are known by their delightful diaries, 
 giving a vivid picture of student life at Mont- 
 pellier in the sixteenth century. Published 
 “ De corporis humani structura et usu,” 1583. 
 
 1537-1619 — Hieronymus Fabricius Ab Aquapendente. 
 
 Physician and surgeon. Said to 
 have been the first to distinguish 
 anatomically between goitre and 
 other tumours of the neck. A 
 pupil of Falloppius ; William 
 Harvey was his pupil at Padua, 
 where he was professor of surgery 
 for thirty years. First to de- 
 scribe the valves in the veins. 
 Published works on anatomy, 
 embryology and surgery. In- 
 vented several instruments and 
 orthopaedic appliances. 
 
 98 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1538-1616- — Matthaeus Lobelius (L’Obel). Born at Lille, 
 studied at Louvain and Montpellier. Physician 
 to William of Orange. He was invited to 
 England by James I (to whom he became phy- 
 sician in ordinary) on account of his know- 
 ledge of botany. The plant Lobelia is named 
 after him. Author of “ Plantarum seu stirpium 
 historia.” Antwerp, 1576. 
 
 1538-1616- — Mercurius, or Scipione Mercurio. Born in 
 Rome, educated at Bologna and Padua, and 
 entered the Dominican monastery at Milan. 
 Leaving the monastery, after travelling, he 
 practised with success in Padua and Venice 
 He wrote “ La Commare o raccoglitrice,” in 
 I 595> ^e first Italian work on midwifery, 
 pointed out the value of operation in con- 
 tracted pelvis, illustrated the “ hanging legs ” 
 position for delivery in cases of contracted 
 pelvis, and showed the method of bimanual 
 version. 
 
 1540. — Company of Barber Surgeons of London 
 
 founded by Act of Parliament. 
 
 1542 1602. — Peter Severin, or Peder Soerensen of Ribe 
 in Jutland. Physician in ordinary to King 
 Friedrich II. Follower of Paracelsus and 
 
 his doctrines. His work “ Idea medicinse 
 
 philosophic® ” was highly thought of by Sir 
 Frances Bacon. 
 
 99 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 1540 1603. — William Gilbert, of Colchester. M.D. 
 
 Cantab. Physician to Queen 
 Elizabeth and James I. “ The 
 father of experimental philo- 
 sophy.” Discoverer of static elec- 
 tricity and magnetism, and author 
 of “ De Magnete,” 1600, the 
 perusal of which led Galileo to 
 study magnetism. He was Presi- 
 dent of the College of Physicians 
 of London, in 1600. Drydenwrote 
 of him “ Gilbert shall live till 
 loadstones cease to draw.” 
 
 1540 1600.— Salomon Alberti. Professor of physic at 
 Wittenberg. Author of “ Historia plerar- 
 umque partium humani corporis,” 1581, which 
 contains many interesting observations. 
 
 1542. — First edition of the “ Fabrica ” by Yesalius 
 
 printed at Bale. 
 
 1543-1575-— Constantine Yarolio. Professor of anatomy 
 and surgery at Bologna and Rome. Physician 
 to Pope Gregory XIII. Published his “ Ana- 
 tomia,” 1573. The first to study carefully the 
 base of the brain, the origin of the nerves 
 and to describe the pores of the skin. Said to 
 have discovered the valve of the colon. His 
 name is preserved in the Pons Varolii. 
 
 1543-1601. — Jan van Heurne, of Utrecht. M.D. Padua. 
 
 Physician to Count Egmont, and professor at 
 
 100 
 
The Sixteenth Century 
 
 Leyden, where he introduced the clinical teach- 
 ing of medicine. He prepared an excellent 
 edition of the works of Hippocrates. 
 
 1556- 1599-— Casper Tagliacozzi, of Bologna. Became 
 
 famous for his work on the restoration of the 
 nose and rhinoplastic operations, which were 
 so condemned by the Church that his body was 
 exhumed and buried in unconsecrated ground. 
 Pioneer in rhinoplasty and author of “ De Chi- 
 rurgia curtorum per insitionem,” Venice, 1597. 
 
 1557 - — St. Mary of Bethlehem Hospital for the insane 
 
 founded in London, though Bedlem had been 
 used as an asylum since 1377. 
 
 1556-1609- — Quercetanus, or Joseph du Chesne. Born 
 in Gascony. Physician in ordinary to Henry 
 IV. The first physician in France to recom- 
 mend the antimonial remedies described by 
 Paracelsus. Practised in Bale and Geneva. 
 Studied the action of air on wounds. 
 
 1550- 1613- — - Jacques Guillemeau. Succeeded Pare as 
 physician to Charles IX of France. Enriched 
 both surgery and obstetrics and wrote a book 
 on the diseases of the eye. His collected 
 surgical works were translated into English 
 and into Dutch. 
 
 1550-1616— Timothy Bright. M.D., Cantab. Physician 
 to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital and afterwards 
 Rector ofMethley, near Wakefield in Yorkshire. 
 Author of “ A treatise on melancholy,” and an 
 epitome of “ Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.” By his 
 
 101 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 book “ Caracterie : an arte of shorte, swifte, 
 and secrete writing, by character,” 1588, he 
 became the father of modern shorthand. The 
 book was reprinted in 1888. 
 
 1550-1610-— Peter Lowe of Glasgow. Surgeon ; studied 
 in Paris and travelled much abroad. Author 
 of “ The whole course of chirurgerie,” 1596, and 
 other works. Founded the Faculty of Phy- 
 sicians and Surgeons in Glasgow in 1599. 
 
 1553- 1617- — Prosper Alpino. Natural Historian and 
 Botanist. He travelled through 
 Egypt, Crete and Greece from 
 1580101583. He wrote on plants 
 and became professor of botany at 
 Padua. He wrote “ De plantis 
 ASgypti liber,” 1592, “ Historia 
 SEgypti naturalis,” and “ De me- 
 dicina SEgyptorum,” 1591. He 
 was the last of the “ Methodists” 
 and was for some time associated 
 with Andrea Dorea for whom he 
 went to Geneva. 
 
 1554- 1636- — Giovanni Baptista Cortesi. Professor of 
 
 anatomy and surgery in Bologna and Messina. 
 He practised rhinoplastic surgery. 
 
 ca. 1593.— Etienne Gourmelen. Professor of surgery at 
 Paris and opponent of Ambroise Pare, who 
 wrote a stinging reply to him in 1580 in which 
 he calls him derisively “ mon petit maitre.” 
 
 102 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 d. 1600- — Thomas Muffett. Physician and entomologist : 
 practised in London and Ipswich. He wrote 
 on dietetics and a work entitled “ Nosoman- 
 tica Hippocratica, seu Hippocratis prognostica 
 cuncta,” Frankfort, 1588. “Health’s improve- 
 ment, or rules comprising and discovering the 
 nature, method, and manner of preparing all 
 sorts of food used in this nation,’’ London : 1655. 
 
 ca. 1596- — Albertino Bottoni. One of the first to give actual 
 clinical instruction in Padua. He was a keen 
 observer and wrote a treatise on gynaecology. 
 
 1556- (?) 1643- — John Woodall. English surgeon. Prac- 
 tised in Poland, returned to England in 1599. 
 Surgeon-General of the East India Company in 
 1613. Surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, 
 1615. Author of “The Surgeon’s mate,” 1617, 
 “The Viaticum,” 1628, and other treatises on 
 surgery. He drew attention to the value of 
 lime juice for sailors on long voyages. 
 
 1558-1609- — Andreas du Laurens of Arles. Chancellor 
 of Montpellier and afterwards physician in 
 ordinary to Henry IV of France. Author of 
 “ Historia anatomica humani corporis,” Paris, 
 1589. It went through several editions. Recalls 
 that the King had cured 1,500 persons suffering 
 from the King’s Evil or scrofula by touching 
 them. 
 
 ca. 1602- — Florian Matthis. Performed the first gas- 
 trotomy in 1692 to remove a knife which had 
 been swallowed. 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1560- 162$. — Fabricus Hildanus, or Wilhelm Fabriz, or 
 Fabry, of Hilden, near Dussel- 
 dorf. Surgeon. Educated at 
 Cologne. Practised in Switzer- 
 land, settling eventually in Berne. 
 Invented many instruments, and 
 specially studied the eye and the 
 ear. Is regarded as the father 
 of German surgery, and wrote 
 “ Observationum et curationum 
 chirurgicarum centuria,” first 
 published at Bale in 1606 and 
 frequently reprinted. He laid 
 great stress on anatomy. By 
 
 his social and professional attainments he did 
 much to raise surgery amongst the German- 
 speaking races to a higher position than it had 
 ever held. His wife, Maria Coilinet, was also a 
 surgeon and had charge of his practice during, 
 his absences. She was the first to conceive 
 the idea of removing metallic particles from 
 the eye by means of a magnet. 
 
 1560 162$.— Gaspar Bauhine. M.D., Bale. Botanist and 
 chief physician to the city of Bale and to the 
 Duke of Wurtemberg. Became director of the 
 University, professor of Greek, botany, anatomy 
 and medicine successively. Published ana- 
 tomical and botanical works. 
 
 1561- 1616. — Julius, or Placenterius Casserius. Pupil, 
 
 assistant and successor of Fabricius at Padua. 
 
 104 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 Published “Tabulae,” 1627, in which the coraco- 
 brachialis is described as a separate muscle. 
 He paid special attention to the anatomy of the 
 organs of voice and hearing. His “ De vocis 
 auditusque organis ” was published in 1601. 
 
 1561-1636. — Sanctorius, Santorio. Physician and pro- 
 fessor at Padua. Devised an instrument 
 for investigating the pulse, and a kind of 
 thermometer for taking the temperature of 
 the healthy and sick, as well as a machine for 
 weighing himself before, during and after a 
 meal. He was thus the founder of the physio- 
 logy of metabolism. His book, “ De medicina 
 statica aphorisma ” passed through twenty 
 editions between 1614 and 1736. 
 
 ca. 1562. — Louise Oliva Sabuco. Born at Alcarez, la 
 Manche, Toledo, eminent Spanish philosopher ; 
 she endeavoured to dethrone Galen and the 
 Arabs from the exalted position which they 
 held in contemporary philosophy and medicine. 
 She was not a medical woman, but displayed 
 profound knowledge of the classical medical 
 writers and of contemporary anatomy and 
 physiology. Some of her ideas on pathology 
 and epidemiology were far in advance of her 
 time 
 
 1563-1636. — Louise Bourgeoise, or Boussier. Accou- 
 cheuse to the French Court. One of the 
 pioneers of scientific midwifery. Published 
 “ Observations divers sur la sterilite,” 1609, 
 
 !°5 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 which was the vade mecum of midwives of 
 the time, also “ Recit veritable de la naissance 
 de messeigneurs et dames les enfants de 
 France,” which had a great reputation. 
 
 1568- 1640- — Baldwin Hamey. Born at Bruges, studied 
 
 at Leyden. Physician to the Czar Theodore 
 Ivenowitz. Returned to Holland 1598, and 
 afterwards settled in London. 
 
 1569- 1728- — The Chamberlens. A family of Huguenot 
 refugees practising surgery and 
 midwifery in England from 1569- 
 1728. The father, William, was 
 followed by two sons both called 
 Peter, one son James and one 
 Simon. The two Peters were 
 members of the Barber Surgeons’ 
 Company in London and the 
 younger was licensed to practise 
 midwifery by the Bishop of 
 London in 1600. He died in 
 1626. Peter the elder was re- 
 peatedly arraigned by the College 
 
 Piter Chamberlen, 1658. of Physicians for practising 
 physic instead of confining himself to surgery. 
 Peter the grandson, son of Peter the younger, 
 was born in 1601, and graduated M.D., Padua, 
 in 1619; he died in 1683. Hugh, the elder 
 son of Peter the grandson, was born in 1630. 
 Paul, his brother was born 1635 and died 
 1717. John, another brother, died about, 1700. 
 
 106 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 Hugh the younger, son of Hugh the elder, 
 was born in 1664 an( 3 took the M.D. Cantab, in 
 1689 and died in 1728. All these Chamberlens 
 practised midwifery with great success and 
 most of them attended the Queens of the time. 
 It is uncertain when exactly the obstetrical 
 forceps associated with their name were in- 
 vented, but there is proof that the profession 
 was well aware in 1634 th at t ^' e family used 
 special “instruments of iron.” The Chamber- 
 lens endeavoured to sell the secret of their 
 forceps to Mauriceau and to the British and 
 French Governments, but eventually disposed 
 of it to Roon Ruysen in Holland. It was 
 soon after acquired by the Medico-Phar- 
 maceutical College of Amsterdam, which 
 imparted the secret to their licensees for a large 
 sum. 
 
 1572-1632. — Theodore Goulston. M.D., 1610. Fellow 
 of Merton College, Oxford. Practised at 
 Wymondham and in London and wrote works 
 on Aristotle and Galen. Endowed a lecture- 
 ship at the Royal College of Physicians, “ to 
 be read by one of the four youngest doctors of 
 the College.’’ “ He was an excellent Latinist 
 and a noted Grecian, but better for theology.” 
 
 1572-16^0.— Edmund Deane. Educated at Merton Col- 
 lege, Oxford, practised at York. Published 
 in 1626 “ Spadacrene Anglica,” which first 
 called attention to the value of the Harrogate 
 
 107 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 medicinal waters. The book passed through 
 several editions and was reprinted in 1921. 
 
 1574- 1637- Robertus de Fluctibus. Robert Fludd, 
 
 M.D.Oxon. Physician, alchemist, mystic and 
 philosopher. Was interdicted from practice 
 by the College of Physicians, of which he was 
 a member. 
 
 1575- 1635- — John Hall. Married at Stratford-on-Avon, 
 
 in 1607, Susannah, the elder daughter of 
 Shakespeare, and through her inherited New 
 Place. He practised medicine but does not 
 appear to have received any licence or uni- 
 versity degree though the register of his burial 
 describes him as “ medicus peritissimus.” 
 Some notes of his cases were published by 
 James Cooke in 1657. 
 
 1575-1655. — Thomas Winston. M.D. Padua and Cam- 
 bridge. Professor of Physics at Gresham 
 College, 1615-1642. His anatomy lectures 
 were published posthumously in 1659. They 
 recognized Harvey’s work and were con- 
 sidered the most accurate and complete of 
 their time. 
 
 1577-1644- — Jean Baptiste van Helmont. Capuchin 
 Friar. Physician and chemist, Born in 
 Brussels, travelled through Europe, died at 
 Vilvorde, near Brussels. Revived the doctrine 
 of Paracelsus and founded a system of mys- 
 ticism. “‘The Faust’ of the 17th century,” 
 
 108 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 and founder of the iatro-chemical school. He 
 described gas sylvestre or carbon-dioxide and 
 made some advance in the analysis of urine. 
 
 1577- 1657- Johann Riolan the Younger. Surgeon and 
 
 anatomist of Paris. Author of works on 
 anatomy and surgery, now best remembered 
 as the opponent of Harvey’s teaching on the 
 circulation of the blood. Harvey spoke of him 
 as “The prince and leader of all the anato- 
 mists of the present age,” but Huxley wrote 
 of him as “a tympanitic Philistine who would 
 have been none the worse for a few sharp 
 incisions.” Wrote “Ars bene Medendi,” Paris, 
 1601, and “Opera cum physica turn medica,” 
 Frankfort, 1611. 
 
 1578- 1657- — William Harvey, of Folkestone. Discoverer 
 of the circulation of the blood. 
 Lumleian lecturer on anatomy and 
 surgery at the College of Physi- 
 cians in London, and physician 
 to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 
 Physician to James I and Charles 
 I. After researches extending 
 over twenty-six years, he pub- 
 lished his immortal work, “ Ex- 
 ercitatio anatomica de motu cordis 
 et sanguinis,” at Frankfort-am- 
 Main in 1628, in which he de- 
 scribed his famous discovery 
 
 which revolutionized all the theories and 
 
 iog 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 systems prior to his time and laid the founda- 
 tion of modern physiology. 
 
 1578- 1625- — Adrian Spigelius, or van den Spieghel. 
 
 Flemish anatomist and physician. Professor 
 of surgery and anatomy at Padua. Published 
 “ De corporis humani fabrica,” Lib. io, 1627. 
 
 1579- 1647.— Cesare Magati of Scandiano. Operating 
 
 surgeon and professor at Ferrara. Simplified 
 the treatment of wounds. Author of “ De 
 rara medicatione vulnerum,” printed in 1616. 
 He believed that gunshot wounds were not 
 poisoned. 
 
 1580- 1609 —Oswald Croll. Physician to Prince Christian 
 
 of Anhalt-Bernburg. A follower of Paracelsus 
 and member of the Rudolphine Academy of 
 Medicine at Prague. Author of “ Basilia 
 Chymica,” which was repeatedly reprinted. 
 He published a formula for the preparation of 
 calomel. 
 
 1580-1656- — Marco Aurelio Seyerino, of Tarsia, Cala- 
 bria. Surgeon and professor at Naples. A 
 skilful operator and forerunner of modern 
 comparative anatomists. He wrote “Zootomia 
 Democritea” in 1645. 
 
 1581 (?) -1626- — Gasparo Aselli, of Cremona. Professor 
 of anatomy at Padua. Discovered the lacteals 
 in 1622, which had, however, been observed 
 by Erasistratus. His discovery was not pub- 
 lished till after his death in his “ De lactibus,” 
 1627. It contains the earliest anatomical 
 
 no 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 illustrations printed in colour. His name 
 remains in the “ pancreas of Aselli.” 
 
 1586-1641. — Alexander Reid, Rhead, Read. Surgeon. 
 
 Lecturer on anatomy at the Barber Surgeons’ 
 Hall, 1632-1634. Published “ A description of 
 the body of man,” “The manuall of anatomy,” 
 1634 ; “ Treatise of the muscles of the body of 
 man,” 1659 ; and “ Treatise of the first part of 
 chirurgerie,” 1638 ; &c. His works had a great 
 reputation, but they are dull reading. 
 
 d. 1589- — Melchior Wieland. Professor of medicine and 
 botany at Padua and superintendent of the 
 botanical gardens of that city. 
 
 d. 1643- — Johann Georg Wirsung. Professor of 
 anatomy at Padua. He described the pan- 
 creatic duct which bears his name in a 
 letter to Riolan in 1642. Copper prints of 
 the original dissection still exist. He was 
 assassinated when entering his house at night; 
 it is said this was due to a quarrel between 
 his pupil Hoffmann and himself as to the 
 discovery of the duct. 
 
 1588-1654. — Olaus Worm. Professor of humanities at 
 
 Copenhagen, and Rector of the University. 
 Afterwards professor of physic and medicine. 
 Published works on ancient literature and 
 medicine. The “ Wormian bones ” which he 
 described had already been noted by the 
 ancients. 
 
 1 1 1 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1590- — First compound microscope made by Hans and 
 Zacharias Janssen. 
 
 1592- 1631. — Jacobus Bontius. Came of a distinguished 
 
 medical family in Holland. Was born at Ley- 
 den and became inspector of surgeons and 
 afterwards Advocat-fiscal in the Indies. His 
 works on tropical medicine were published 
 posthumously in 1646 and were translated into 
 English. Described beri-beri. 
 
 1593- 1672. — Nicholas Tulpius. Dutch anatomist. The 
 central figure in Rembrandt’s 
 “ The lesson on anatomy.” 
 Known to history as the aged 
 burgomaster whose intrepid patri- 
 otism prevented the surrender of 
 Amsterdam to the French, 1672. 
 First to describe “ A man-like 
 ape” (a young chimpanzee?). Pub- 
 lished “ Observationes medicae,” 
 1641. called by Haller “ a golden 
 work.” He strongly disapproved 
 of the practice of publishing 
 medical works in the vulgar 
 
 tongue, believing that it would lead to a great 
 increase in disease. 
 
 1595-1645. — Johann Scultetus, of Ulm. Surgeon. He 
 describes a variety of methods of bandaging 
 and the many-tailed bandage still in use 
 is often called “ Scultetus’ bandage.” Author 
 of “ Armamentarium chirurgicum,” which 
 
 1 1 2 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 appeared posthumously in 1653, and ran 
 through several editions, and of “ Chyrur- 
 geon’s Storehouse,” Englished by 
 London, 1674. 
 
 1597-1677- — Francis Glisson. Regius Professor of Physic 
 at Cambridge. One of the 
 Founders of the Royal Society 
 and President of the Royal Col- 
 lege of Physicians of London. Dis- 
 covered the cystic duct. Author 
 of a work on the anatomy of the 
 liver, “ Anatomia hepatis,” 1654, 
 in which he described that 
 investing sheath which is still 
 known as “ Glisson’s capsule.” 
 Described “ Rickets ” in 1650, 
 and published a work on the 
 intestines, in 1676. One of the few physicians 
 who remained in London throughout the 
 plague. 
 
 1599 —Royal Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of 
 
 Glasgow established at the instigation of 
 Master Peter Lowe. 
 
 1600 (?)-16M— ' Thomas Johnson. Apothecary, botanist, 
 
 Royalist colonel. Created M.D. at Oxford 
 1643. Died of wounds received in defend- 
 ing Basing House. Published in 1636 an en- 
 larged and amended edition of Gerarde’s 
 Herbal. 
 
 h 113 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1600-1676. — Baldwin Hamey. Son of Dr. Baldwin 
 Hamey. Born in London, educated at Leyden 
 and Oxford. Lectured on anatomy at the 
 College of Physicians of London, to which he 
 was a liberal benefactor. A series of MSS. 
 remain unprinted at the College entitled 
 “ Bustorum aliquot Reliquia.” They are a 
 series of sketches of his contemporaries. 
 
 1602-1680.— Athanasius Kircher, of Fulda. Physicist 
 and writer on astronomy and chemistry. Born 
 in Geysa, entered the Jesuit order. Professor 
 of mathematics and Hebrew in the Roman 
 College at Rome. An Egyptologist. Sought 
 the cause of infectious diseases, especially 
 plague and anthrax ; probably the first to 
 employ the microscope in the investigation of 
 these diseases. He wrote on magnetism and 
 described hypnotism in certain animals, and 
 wrote “ Physiologia Kircheriana,” “ Ars 
 Magnesia,” 1631 ; “ Scrutinium pestis,” 1658. 
 
 1604-1689.— Sir George Ent. M.D. Padua. President 
 of the College of Physicians, 1670 to 1675. 
 Champion of Harvey; was largely responsible 
 for the printing of Harvey’s “ De generatione.” 
 Charles II attended'one of his anatomy lectures 
 and knighted him in the Harveian Museum on 
 the spot. Published an “ Apology for the cir- 
 culation of the blood ” in 1641. 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1605-1682. — Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich. M.D. 
 
 Cantab. Physician and author 
 of “Religio Medici,” 1642, 
 “ Pseudodoxia Epidemica,” 1646, 
 and “ Hydriotaphia ; or a dis- 
 course ot Sepulchral Urns lately 
 found in Norfolk,” 1658. A 
 master of the English tongue 
 “ pure and undefiled.” His eldest 
 son Edward Browne [1664-1708] 
 was physician to St. Bartholo- 
 mew’s Hospital. He travelled 
 much and wrote accounts of his 
 journeys in 1673, J ^77 an d 1685. 
 
 1608- 1679. — Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, of Naples. 
 
 Physiologist and mathematician. Founder of 
 the Iatromathematical School. Advanced the 
 knowledge of physiology on mathematical lines. 
 He endeavoured to explain the action of the 
 muscles by the laws of tlfe lever, and believed 
 that digestion was a mechanical process. His 
 book “ De Motu animalium ” was published 
 posthumously at Rome in 1680 and 1681. 
 
 1609- 1684. — Charles Spon. Graduated at Montpellier. 
 
 Practised in Lyons. Physician to Louis XIV. 
 Rendered great service by publication of toreign 
 works in French, translated the Prognostics 
 and Aphorisms of Hippocrates into Latin verse 
 and also wrote a complete myology in rhyme. 
 1613-1685 — Nathaniel Highmore, of Sherborne in 
 Dorsetshire. M.D., Oxon. Physician and ana- 
 H5 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 tomist. A friend of Dr. William Harvey. 
 Described the “ Antrum of Highmore ” in the 
 superior maxillary bone— which had been noted 
 by Casserius — the seminal ducts and the epi- 
 didymis. He had a large practice and was a 
 magistrate for Dorset. Published the “ Cor- 
 poris humani Disquisitio Anatomica ” in 1651. 
 
 1614-1656- — Thomas Wharton. M.D., Oxon. Physician 
 and anatomist. Physician to St. Thomas’s 
 Hospital. Investigated the pancreas and dis- 
 covered the duct of the submaxillary salivary 
 gland, which is called after him “ Wharton’s 
 duct.” Professor at Gresham College and lived 
 in London throughout the plague. He was 
 a friend of Isaac Walton. 
 
 1614-1672. — Francois de la Boe (Sylvius). Professor of 
 
 medicine at Leyden. Follower 
 of the Iatrochemical school, a fan- 
 tastic system based on the ele- 
 ments of chemistry. He gave his 
 name to the fissure of Sylvius in 
 the cerebrum. One of the earliest 
 advocates of Harvey’s theory. 
 Strove to re-establish the humoral 
 pathology on a firm basis of chemi- 
 cal facts. A pioneer of bedside 
 teaching. The first representa- 
 tion of his fissure appears in his 
 contribution to the 1641 edition of the “ Insti- 
 tutiones anatomicae ” of Bartholinus. 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1614-1680. — Conrad Victor Schneider. Professor of 
 philosophy and medicine at Wittemberg. 
 Physician to the Elector of Saxony. Author 
 of “ De Catarrhis” in which lie put an end to 
 the idea that nasal mucus comes from the brain. 
 
 1616-1654. — Nicholas Culpeper. English pseudo- 
 physician and astrologer. Came into disrepute 
 through translating the London Pharmacopoeia 
 into English. Published among other works 
 “The English physician,” 1653, and “ An astro- 
 logical materia medica,” which had an enor- 
 mous vogue. He knew his herbs well and his 
 general advice was sound. He practised in 
 Spitalfields and was wounded in the Civil War. 
 There is no evidence that he ever graduated. 
 
 1616- 1680. — Thomas Bartholinus. Anatomist, physician, 
 
 archaeologist and Judge of the Supreme Court. 
 Son of Caspar Bartholinus [1585-1629] of 
 Copenhagen. Wrote on the Unicom and on 
 Monsters. Professor ot mathematics at Copen- 
 hagen, 1647, and of anatomy, 1648. Physi- 
 cian to the King of Denmark and Librarian 
 to the University. He demonstrated the exis- 
 tence of the thoracic duct in 1652. His son, 
 Caspar [b. 1654], a ^ so an anatomist, is remem- 
 bered by “ Bartholin’s Glands ” and “ Bar- 
 tholin’s Duct,” the duct of the sublingual gland. 
 
 1617- — Society of Apothecaries of London founded. 
 
 1618. — London Pharmacopoeia first issued by the Royal 
 
 College of Physicians. There were two editions 
 
 117 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 published in this year, the second being en- 
 larged. 
 
 1618-1710. — Samuel Collins. M.D. Padua. President 
 
 of the College of Physicians, 
 
 1695. Physician in Ordinary 
 
 to Charles II. Anatomy reader 
 to the College of Physicians. 
 
 Author of “ A System of Ana- 
 tomy, treating of the Body of 
 Man, Beasts, Birds, Fish, Insects 
 and Plants,” 1685, beautifully 
 illustrated, but verbose. Goul- 
 stonian and Lumleian lecturer. 
 
 1620-1683 — Robert Morrison, or Modesy. M.D. Paris and 
 Oxford. Botanist and physician to the Duke 
 of Orleans, and botanist to the Royal Gardens 
 in England. Sherardian professor of botany 
 at Oxford. He was one of the first to make 
 use of dichotomous keys to specific characters. 
 
 1620 (?) -1704. — Jean Baptiste Denis. Professor of philo- 
 sophy and mathematics at Paris. Physician to 
 Louis XIV ; performed the first transfusion in 
 man on June 15, 1667. 
 
 1620-1689- — Theophilus Bonetus. Swiss physician and 
 a precursor of Morgagni in morbid anatomy. 
 His principal works are entitled “ Sepulchretum 
 seu Anatomia Practica ” and “ Pharus Medi- 
 corum,” published in 1668. 
 
 118 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1621. — First Botanical Gardens established in Oxford, 
 by Henry Danvers, Earl of Danby, to which 
 Jacob Bobart the elder, 1596(7) -1680, a native 
 of Brunswick, was appointed hortus prefectus. 
 
 1621-1675. — Thomas Willis, of Oxford. Physician to 
 
 Charles II. Ascribed diseases, 
 especially those of the blood, to 
 “fermentation” and “efferves- 
 cence.” Advanced the know- 
 ledge of the anatomy of the 
 nervous system and was the 
 author of many works. His name 
 is preserved in “ The Circle of 
 Willis,” the original drawings 
 of which were made by Sir 
 Christopher Wren, and were 
 published in 1664 in “ Cerebri 
 Anatome.” He was also a good 
 clinical physician and drew attention to the 
 difference in sweetness of the urine in diabetes 
 mellitus and insipidus. 
 
 1638- — Countess of Chinchon cured of malarial fever by 
 Peruvian bark afterwards called cinchona. 
 
 fl. 1670- John Greenfield, Jan Groeneveldt, of Deventer 
 in Holland. Lithotomist, who settled in London 
 and wrote a treatise on the stone and gravel 
 (London, 1677) and other works on lithotomy. 
 
 d. 1696- William Cockburn. Author of a work on 
 gonorrhoea, in which he located the seat of the 
 disease in the mucous glands of the urethra. 
 
 119 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1623- 1687- — Sir William Petty. Physician and political 
 
 economist. Fellow of Brasenose College, 
 Oxford; M.D., 1649. Professor of anatomy. 
 Physician to the Army in Ireland and to the 
 Viceroy. One of the Founders of the Royal 
 Society. Invented an instrument for double 
 writing and a ship to sail against wind and tide. 
 Fie surveyed and afterwards mapped Ireland 
 under the English Commonwealth Government. 
 
 1624- 1677- — Georg Hieronymus Welsch. Physician of 
 
 Augsburg, who re-discovered the guinea-worm. 
 It was well known to the classical writers on 
 medicine. 
 
 1624-1689- — Thomas Sydenham. Physician and epide- 
 miologist. Studied at Oxford ; 
 took his M.D. degree at Cam- 
 bridge 1676. Advocated Hippo- 
 cratic doctrines and held that 
 observations and experience were 
 the standards for the physician. 
 He recognized the healing power 
 of Nature and recommended 
 simplicity in treatment and thus 
 became the great reformer of 
 practical medicine in England 
 and the founder of modern epi- 
 demiology. He wrote on epidemic 
 constitutions and was the author of many 
 works, the chief being “ Observationes 
 medicae,” 1675, also treatises on gout, fevers 
 and malaria. 
 
 120 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1624-1674- — Jean Pecquet. French anatomist. Described 
 the receptaculum chyli and thoracic duct and 
 showed conclusively that the chyle does not go 
 to the liver but by the lacteals to the recep- 
 taculum and thence to the subclavian vein. 
 
 1624- 1669.— John Sterne, or Stearne. M.D., Trinity 
 
 College, Dublin. Founder of the Irish College 
 of Physicians. 
 
 1625- 1680- — Richard Wiseman. Surgeon to the Stuart 
 Kings from Charles I to James II. 
 Skilful operator with an exten- 
 sive military experience. Prac- 
 tised flap amputation. Author of 
 “ Several Surgical Treatises,” 
 1672, and was the first English 
 surgeon to draw wide generalisa- 
 tions from the particular cases 
 which had come under his ob- 
 servation. He was the first to 
 describe tuberculosis of the joints 
 as “ tumor albus.” 
 
 1625- 1695-— Giuseppe Francisco Borri, of Milan. He 
 
 practised as an oculist at Milan, and was a 
 worker in alchemy. Becoming embroiled in 
 religious controversies he was eventually con- 
 fined in the Castle of St. Angelo, Rome, where 
 he still carried on his work and ended his life 
 after an imprisonment of twenty-five years. 
 
 1626- 1682- — Sir John Finch. Son of Sir Heneage Finch, 
 
 Speaker of the House of Commons, and brother 
 
 121 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 of the first Earl of Nottingham. Educated at 
 Oxford and Cambridge. M.D. Padua. Pro- 
 
 rector of the University of Padua. Professor 
 of anatomy at Pisa. Physician to Queen 
 Catherine, and one of the founders of the Royal 
 Society. Ambassador to the Ottoman Court. 
 Left notes dealing with many scientific matters, 
 and performed experiments on the digestion of 
 animals. The inseparable friend of Sir Thomas 
 Baines. 
 
 4626-1688. — Domenico de Merchettis. Professor of 
 anatomy at Padua. One of the first anatomists 
 to inject the vessels. Proved that arteries and 
 veins communicated by fine ramifications. 
 1627-1691. — Hon. Robert Boyle. Son of the first Earl of 
 Cork and when at Oxford took 
 up the study of chemistry ; he 
 fitted up a laboratory at Oxford, 
 where he carried on his researches. 
 He first constructed the air-pump 
 in 1660. He produced methyl 
 alcohol from the products of the 
 destructive distillation of wood 
 and acetone from the acetates of 
 lead and lime heated together. 
 His name is immortalized by 
 the law connecting volume and 
 pressure in gases known as 
 “ Boyle’s Law ” ; this he published in his 
 work entitled “ Two new experiments touching 
 
 122 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 the force of the spring of air compressed and 
 dilated,” 1662. 
 
 1628-1694- — Marcello Malpighi. Anatomist and histolo- 
 gist, Professor of Medicine at 
 Bologna. Physician to Pope 
 Innocent XII. Observed the 
 capillary circulation in the lung 
 of the frog in 1661. His name 
 is enshrined in the “ Malpighian 
 corpuscles ” of the kidney and 
 the “ Malpighian bodies” of the 
 spleen. He was the author of 
 several works on anatomy and 
 pathology. He proved that the 
 bile is secreted by the liver cells 
 and not by the gall bladder. 
 
 1628- 1711- — Nehemiah Grew. English naturalist. 
 
 F.R.S. and Fellow of the Royal College of 
 Physicians. Author of “The anatomy of vege- 
 tables,” 1672, and “ Idea of a philosophical 
 history of plants,” 1682. 
 
 1628. — Harvey published his work entitled “ De Motu 
 Cordis.” 
 
 1629- 1688.— Nathaniel Hodges. M.D.Oxon. Practised 
 
 in London through the plague of 1665, of 
 which he wrote an account in Latin under the 
 title “ Loimologia,” which was translated into 
 English by John Quincy. He died in a debtor’s 
 prison. 
 
 123 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1629- 1675 — Jean Henri Glaser. Professor of anatomy 
 
 at Bale. He published a philosophical treatise 
 on the brain, in the third chapter of which he 
 describes a “bitter excrement” that is formed 
 in the cortex of the brain and passes to the ear 
 by the auditory nerve; thence it goes to the 
 parotid by the fissure which bears his name : 
 the parotid, after imbibing it, spues it out into 
 the meatus as ear wax. The description of the 
 fissure is vague and admittedly based on the 
 dissection of the calf. Barclay in 1819 is the 
 first to call it by Glaser’s name. The treatise 
 also discusses such problems as why man is 
 the only animal that laughs and whether the 
 bilious dream only of blood and red things in 
 general. 
 
 fl. 1630. — Thuillier discovered that mal ardent, ignis sacer, 
 or gangrenous ergotism, was due to eating 
 grain contaminated with ergot. 
 
 1630- 1702. — Olof Rudbeck. Swedish naturalist, educated 
 
 at Upsala and Leyden. Professor of medicine 
 and afterwards Rector of the University at 
 Upsala in 1660 and founder of the first botani- 
 cal garden there. Shares with others the 
 discovery of the thoracic duct. Author, with 
 his son, of a great work on botany, “ Campi 
 Elysii,” 1701-2. 
 
 1631- 1685.— William Boghurst. Citizen and apothecary 
 
 of London. He wrote “ Loimographia,” the 
 
 124 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 best account of the great plague of London 
 in 1665. It is written in English and was 
 published by the Epidemiological Society in 
 1894. 
 
 1631-1717 — Pierre Brisseau, of Tournay. Professor at 
 Douay. The first to demonstrate by dissection 
 the clouded lens in cataract in 1705. 
 
 1631-1658- — George Joyliffe. M.D. Cantab. Practised in 
 London. Shares with Pecquet and Rudbeck 
 the honour of the first description of the lym- 
 phatic system, which he described to Glisson 
 in 1652. 
 
 1631- 1691- — Richard Lower. A Cornishman. M.D.Oxon. 
 
 Anatomist, physician, and a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. Practised in London ; assisted 
 Willis as his prosector in Oxford. Experi- 
 mented in physics and physiology, making funda- 
 mental original experiments. First to perform 
 direct blood transfusion at Oxford. ELis name 
 is commemorated by the “tubercle of Lower” 
 in the heart. Author of “ Tractatus de corde,” 
 1669, and “ Dissertatio de origine catarrhi,” 
 1672. 
 
 1632- 1704- — John Locke. M.B.Oxon. Better known as 
 
 a philosopher though he practised for some 
 years as a physician. He was a friend of 
 Sydenham and physician to Lord Ashley, the 
 first Earl of Shaftesbury. His “ Observationes 
 
 I2 5 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 Medicae ’ were published at Amsterdam in 
 1C99. 
 
 1632-1678. — Nicolaus Holboken. Obstetrician and pro- 
 fessor in Utrecht and Harderwyk. Delineated 
 and described with accuracy the placenta and 
 envelopes of the ovum. 
 
 1632-1723. — Anton van Leeuwenhoeck. Naturalist and 
 
 microscopist. Janitor of the Al- 
 dermen at Delft. The first to 
 describe the blood corpuscles and 
 to publish an account of the 
 capillary circulation and so com- 
 plete Harvey’s theory of the cir- 
 culation. He also described the 
 spermatozoa and discovered the 
 striped character of voluntary 
 muscle and the structure of the 
 crystalline lens. He was the first 
 to see protozoa under the micro- 
 scope (1675), and to find micro-organisms in 
 the teeth. 
 
 1632- 1723. — Sir Christopher Wren. Architect and anato- 
 
 mist. Studied medicine at Oxford and was the 
 first to demonstrate the injection of blood and 
 drugs into the veins. He acted as prosector 
 to Thomas Willis, and designed the present 
 Sc. Paul’s Cathedral. President of the Royal 
 Society in 1680. 
 
 1633- 1714.— Bernardino Ramazzini. Professor at Padua 
 
 University and author of “ De Morbis Artificum 
 
 126 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 Diatriba,” 1701, in which he describes the so- 
 called “trade-diseases.” 
 
 1633- 1684. — William Croone. Physician and founder of 
 
 the Croonian lectures. One upon “ the nature 
 and laws of muscular motion,” to be read 
 annually before the College of Physicians with 
 a sermon at St. Mary-le-bow ; the other to be 
 delivered yearly before the Royal Society, of 
 which he had been secretary. He made some 
 original observations in his “ De ovo ” antici- 
 pating Malpighi’s work on the same subject. 
 Professor ol Rhetoric at Gresham College and 
 an early promoter of the Royal Society. 
 
 1634- 1707. — Denis Dodart, of Paris. Lawyer, botanist 
 
 and consulting physician to Louis XIV. Author 
 of “ Questio medica,” 1682, and “ Enquiries 
 into the cause of the human voice and its dif- 
 ferent tones.” 
 
 1635- 1716. — William Cole. M.D. of Oxford. Practised 
 
 at Worcester : a friend of Sydenham and a 
 leader of the iatro-chemical school. Wrote 
 “ Novae hypotheseos ad explicanda febrium 
 intermittentium,” London, 1694. 
 
 1637-1686- — Jan Swammerdam, of Amsterdam and 
 Hamburg. Discovered the valves in the lym- 
 phatic vessels and proved their true nature. 
 He was best known for his discoveries in 
 connection with insects. He observed the 
 red corpuscles of the frog’s blood in 1658 and 
 saw the circulation in the capillaries though he 
 
 127 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 does not appear to have recognized its signi- 
 ficance. 
 
 1637-1698.— Richard Morton. M.D. Oxford. Physician, 
 epidemiologist and chaplain at New College, 
 Oxford. He afterwards practised in London. 
 He attributed all diseases to poisoning of the 
 “ vital spirits ” and was a firm believer in 
 drugs. Gave a clear description of scarlet 
 fever. His works “ Pyretologia,” 1692, and 
 “ Phthisiologia,” 1689, passed through several 
 editions. 
 
 1637- 1709. — Francois Mauriceau. Obstetrician and 
 
 President of the College of St. Come. He 
 introduced version and much practical know- 
 ledge into his teaching of obstetrics. Author 
 of “ Traite des maladies des femmes grosses/’ 
 Paris, 1668, which ran through many editions 
 and was often translated. 
 
 1638- 1686- — Nicolaus Steno, or Niels Stensen. Court 
 
 physician to Ferdinand II and Cosmos III at 
 Florence. Professor at Copenhagen. Proved 
 that the heart was a muscle and that conse- 
 quently it contracted actively and expelled the 
 blood. Described the histology of muscle and 
 discovered Stensen’s duct. Entered the priest- 
 hood, became Bishop of Titiopolis in 1677. As 
 Apostolic vicar of Hanover he endeavoured 
 to convert Northern Europe to Catholicism, 
 while holding the chair of anatomy at 
 Copenhagen. 
 
 1 28 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1638 1700- — Heinrich Meibom. Professor of medicine and 
 afterwards of history at Helmstadt. He de- 
 scribed the follicles of the eyelids in 1666. 
 
 1638 1731 — Fridrik Ruysch. Surgeon and anatomist. 
 
 Professor of anatomy at Amster- 
 dam. Author of “ Observationum 
 anatomico — chirurgicarum cen- 
 turia,” 1691. A master in the 
 art of the minute injection of 
 anatomical structures. “The 
 Tunica Ruyschiana" of the eye 
 commemorates his name. Peter 
 the Great, who had been his pupil, 
 bought his museum of anatomical 
 specimens, but when they arrived 
 at St. Petersburg it was found 
 that the sailors had drunk the spirit in which 
 they were preserved. With characteristic energy 
 Ruysch at once set out to make a new museum. 
 He gave the first description of bronchial blood 
 vessels and vascular plexuses of the heart. 
 
 1640-1693. — Thomas Theodore Kerckring. Physician at 
 Amsterdam and fellow-worker with Ruysch. 
 Author of “ Speciligium anatomicum,” 1670, 
 and “ Anthropogeniae iconographia,” 1670. 
 The large ossicle sometimes present at the 
 lambdoidal suture was first described by him, 
 and his name is remembered in the valvulse 
 conniventes of the small intestine. 
 
 1 
 
 129 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1650. — Cinchona bark introduced into Europe by Juan 
 del Yego, physician to the Count of Cinchon, 
 and called “ Cinchona,” or “ Countess’s bark,” 
 in honour of the Count’s wife. Sydenham 
 introduced it into England. 
 
 1640- 1700— Gideon Haryey. Born in Holland and edu- 
 
 cated abroad. Physician to King Charles II 
 and afterwards to William III. Author of 
 the “ Family Physician ” and several popular 
 works on medicine. 
 
 1641- 1687.— Cornelius van Solingen, of The Hague. 
 
 Surgeon who advanced the study of obstetrics, 
 ophthalmology and otology and originated 
 many improvements in surgical instruments. 
 
 1641-1673. — Regner de Graaf. M.D. Physician of Delft. 
 
 A pupil of Diemenbroeck and of 
 De la Boe (Sylvius), demonstrated 
 ovulation anatomically, patholo- 
 gically and by experiment. He 
 described “the tubular structure 
 of the testis.” He also studied 
 the functions of the pancreas and 
 made an artificial biliary fistula. 
 His name is preserved in “ The 
 Graafian follicle.” In 1664 he 
 experimented on the secretion of 
 glands by tying a tube in the 
 duct of Wirsung to collect the 
 secretion of the pancreas. 
 
 130 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1651-1705. — William Briggs, of Norwich. Superinten- 
 dent of St. Thomas’s Hospital in the time 
 of Charles II and physician in ordinary to 
 William III. Author of “ Ophthalmographia,” 
 1676. 
 
 1651- 1715. — Raymond Yieussens. Professor of anatomy 
 
 at Montpellier. Pagel described him as the 
 “Founder of the pathology of diseases of the 
 heart.” He is said to have dissected over five 
 hundred bodies. The inferior medullary velum 
 is known as the “Valve of Vieussens.” 
 
 1652- 1700 (?)• — John Browne. Surgeon in ordinary to 
 
 Charles II and St. Thomas’s Hospital. Author 
 of “ A complete treatise of the muscles as they 
 appear in the human body,” London, 1681, 
 illustrated with copper-plate engravings said to 
 be the first in which the names were actually 
 printed on the muscles. He also wrote on the 
 King’s Evil and the healing by Royal Touch, 
 which has an appendix containing the numbers 
 of persons “ touched ” from 1660-1682. 
 
 1653- 1703- — Laurence Bellini. Professor of Philosophy 
 
 at Pisa, until the Grand Duke Ferdinand 
 created a chair of anatomy for him. Practised 
 in Florence, 1693, and became physician to 
 Cosmo III. An important feature in his 
 teaching is the theory of counter-irritation. 
 The tubes in the kidney which bear his name 
 were first seen by him in a deer sent to his 
 master Borelli for d : ssection. Published ana- 
 
 13 1 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 tomical works on the renal system and other 
 medical subjects. 
 
 1653-1679. — John Mayow. M.D.Oxon. A Cormshman. 
 
 Physiologist and chemist. A friend of Lower 
 and pupil of Willis. Studied the process of 
 respiration and observed “ that the particles of 
 the air absorbed during respiration are designed 
 to convert the black or venous blood into the 
 red or arterial.” An enthusiastic worker in 
 chemistry. In 1668 he claimed that air was 
 a mixture of two kinds of gases : the one, 
 “ spiritus nitro-aereus,” was necessary both for 
 combustion and respiration, and the other, 
 “ spiritus igneo-aereus,” incapable of combus- 
 tion and respiration. Although he did not 
 separate the gas he called “spiritus nitro- 
 aereus” he thus practically discovered oxygen. 
 He died, all too young, of phthisis, but his 
 “ Tractatus quinque ” which was published in 
 1647 remains a classic. It deals with the source 
 of the body heat, which he showed to be situ- 
 ated in the muscles, a fact which was not gen- 
 erally accepted until it was substantiated by 
 Helmholtz two hundred years later. 
 
 1643-1724. — Thomas Guy. Founder of Guy’s Hospital. 
 
 He also built additions to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 
 
 1645-1772. — Jean Mery. Chief Surgeon to the Hotel 
 Uieu, Paris. In June, 1684, he wrote a 
 communication to a Parisian scientific journal 
 describing the bulbo-urethral glands ; fifteen 
 
 132 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 years later Cowper announced the discovery 
 of these glands in London. Mery also pub- 
 lished in 1700 a work entitled : “ New system 
 of the circulation of the blood.” 
 
 1646- 1721. — James Young. Surgeon. Author of a treatise 
 
 on wounds of the brain and other works on 
 surgery and anatomy. He wrote “ Medicaster 
 medicatus ” and “ Currus triumphalis ex tere- 
 binthina,” London, 1679. 
 
 1647- 1722.— Thomas Gibson. M.D. Leyden. Physician- 
 
 General to the English Army. His second 
 wife was the daughter of Richard Cromwell. 
 Published “ The anatomy of human bodies 
 epitomized ” in 1682. 
 
 1647- 1732. — Walter Harris. Physician. Educated at 
 
 Oxford but took his degree at Bourges in 
 France. He was physician to King William 
 III in 1688. Author of work, “ De Morbis 
 Acutis Infantum,” 1689, one of the earliest 
 books devoted especially to the diseases of 
 children. It was translated into English, 
 French and German. 
 
 1648- 1721. — Matthias Gottfried Purmann, of Luben in 
 
 Silesia. Military surgeon and oculist. He 
 treated intestinal wounds with simple suture 
 and was acquainted with bi-manual examina- 
 tion for stone. He performed the first trans- 
 fusion in Germany with the blood of a lamb. 
 
 r 33 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 1648- 1730. — Joseph Guichard Duyerney. Professor of 
 
 anatomy at Paris. First to describe the 
 diseases of the ear in accordance with their 
 anatomical position. Cleared up the confusion 
 of the nomenclature of the brachial plexus. 
 
 1649- 1713. Gottfried Bidloo. Professor of anatomy and 
 
 surgery at The Hague and Leyden. Physician 
 to William III of England. Author of “ Ana- 
 tomia humani corporis,” Amsterdam, 1685, 
 which is illustrated with one hundred and 
 seven fine plates by Gerard de Lairesse. 
 
 1649-1730. — Johann Palfyn. Gynaecologist and inventor 
 of a type of midwifery forceps which he 
 exhibited in Paris in 1721. Author of a work 
 on monsters. 
 
 1649- 1734.. — Sir “John Floyer. Physician practising at 
 
 Lichfield. Noted the relation of the frequency 
 of the pulse to that of respiration, and intro- 
 duced the minute watch to determine the pulse 
 rate. Author of “ An inquiry into the right 
 use of the hot, cold and temperate baths in 
 England,” 1697, advocating treatment with 
 cold water and bathing. It ran through six 
 editions and was translated into Latin. 
 
 1650- 1692. — Anton Nuck. Professor of anatomy and 
 
 surgery at Leyden. Famous as an oculist, 
 aurist and dentist. Published “ Adenographia,” 
 1692, “ Sialographia,” 1690, and “ Operationes 
 
 I 34 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 et experimenta Chirurgica,” 1692. His name 
 remains in anatomy in connection with the 
 canal of Nuck. 
 
 1650-1708- — Edward Tyson. M.D. Cantab. Anatomy 
 
 reader at the Surgeons’ Hall. Professor of 
 physic at Gresham College and physician to 
 Bridewell and Bethlehem Hospitals. Wrote in 
 1699 " A Philological Essay concerning the 
 Pygmies of the Ancients” and several works 
 on comparative anatomy, describing dissec- 
 tions of the opossum and porpoise, the rattle- 
 snake and the orang-outang. 
 
 ca. 1679.— R. Lowdham, of Oxford. Surgeon. Said to 
 have been the first to practise the flap method 
 in amputation. 
 
 1650-1711. — Charles Bernard. Serjeant-Surgeon to Queen 
 Anne and a friend of Swift. He noticed that 
 after an operation for cancer the growth often 
 re-appeared and was the first English surgeon 
 to place the fact on record. He collected a 
 very fine library. 
 
 ca. 1695- — John Colbatch. Apothecary, physician and 
 surgeon. Author of “ A new light on chirur- 
 gerie,” 1695, in which he recommends a vul- 
 nerary powder and hot water in the treatment 
 of wounds and haemorrhage. 
 
 1650-1729- — John Radcliffe. Physician. His fortune 
 endowed the Radcliffe Camera, the Radcliffe 
 Infirmary and the travelling medical fellowships 
 
 T 35 
 
The Seventeenth Century 
 
 at Oxford. Succeeded to the practice of Richard 
 Lower at a time when success was largely a 
 matter of politics. The first possessor of the 
 “ gold-headed cane.” His successor was the 
 “ Princely Mead.” 
 
 1651- 1725.— Hendrik vail Deventer. M.D.Gronigen. 
 
 Began as apprentice to a goldsmith but after- 
 wards studied obstetrics in which he greatly 
 advanced existing knowledge, especially in 
 connection with contracted pelvis. His obstet- 
 rical work “ Operationes chirurgicas,” 1724, 
 was translated into Dutch, French, German 
 and English. He also interested himself in 
 orthopaedics. He practised at The Hague. 
 
 1652- 1712 — Johann Conrad Peyer, of Schaffhausen. 
 
 Morbid anatomist. Professor of rhetoric, 
 logic, and medicine in the University of Bale. 
 He described the glands of the intestines, gave 
 his name to “ Peyer’s patches ” and wrote on 
 the subject of digestion in Ruminants. 
 
 J 652-1 723. Augustus Quirinus Rivinus. Botanist and 
 anatomist. Professor of physiology and ana- 
 tomy at Leipsic. He wrote “ A general 
 introduction to botany,” 1690, and medical 
 works in 1678 and 1717 describing the ducts 
 of the sublingual gland and the notch in the 
 tympanum which bear his name. 
 
 d. 1775.— Georg Arnaud de Ronsil. Surgeon. Studied 
 in Paris, practised in London. Wrote on 
 
 136 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 hernia, aneurysm, diseases of the ureters and 
 bladder, as well as two volumes on the his- 
 tory of medicine and surgery in France and 
 England. 
 
 1653-1727- — Johann Conrad Brunner, of Regensburg. 
 
 Professor of medicine in Heidelberg. Dis- 
 coverer of the duodenal glands bearing his 
 name. Court physician at Diisseldorf. Author 
 of “ Experimenta nova circa pancreas,” 1682. 
 
 1653- 1729- — Sir Richard Blackmore. Physician and 
 
 poet, educated at Westminster and Oxford, 
 practised in London. Physician to King 
 William III. Wrote “ Prince Arthur,” “ The 
 Satyr against Wit,” and “ Eliza,” with the 
 avowed object of improving the moral tone of 
 literature debased by Congreve, Dryden and 
 others. He also wrote several medical treatises. 
 
 1654- 1720. — John Maria Lancisi. Professor at the Colle- 
 
 gio da Sapiencia at Rome, 1684-97. Physician 
 and chamberlain to Popes Innocent XI and 
 XII and Clement XI. Published in 1684 “ De 
 sede animae cognitantis ” in which he described 
 the corpus callosum. He published in 1704 
 the thirty-eight plates prepared by Eustachius 
 in 1552, which were rescued by Clement XI 
 from the family of the artist. He wrote on 
 aneurysm and heart disease as causes of sudden 
 death. The “ nerves of Lancisi ” commemorate 
 him. 
 
 I 37 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1655-1735- — Bernardine Genga. Professor of anatomy 
 and surgery in Rome and surgeon to the 
 Santo Spirito Hospital. A strenuous supporter 
 of Harvey’s doctrine, which he greatly advanced 
 in Italy. He had the courage to charge Hippo- 
 crates with grave errors in surgical treatment. 
 
 1656(?)-1725(?). — Abraham Cyprianus. Practised first in 
 Amsterdam as a lithotomist ; became Professor 
 of medicine and surgeon in Franeker, 1693. 
 Operated successfully on a case of tubal 
 pregnancy in 1694. Settled in practice in 
 London, Within twelve years he performed 
 1,400 lithotomies. 
 
 1658-1751.— Francisco Torti, of Modena. Physician and 
 pharmacologist. Introduced cinchona into 
 Italy and mentions it in his book on pernicious 
 fevers published in 1712. 
 
 ca. 1658 1718. — Pierre Dionis. Surgeon-in-ordinary to the 
 Queen of France and the Empress Maria 
 . Theresa. Author of several treatises on surgery 
 and anatomy and the first to emphasize the 
 effect of rickets on the pelvis. The first to 
 demonstrate anatomical dissections and surgical 
 operations at the Jardin du Roi. 
 
 1660-1702. — Clopton Havers. M.D. of Utrecht. Prac- 
 tised in London, and studied anatomy. Was 
 the first “ Gale reader” at the Barber Surgeons’ 
 Company. Published his “ Osteologia,” in 
 which he described in 1691 the canals which 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 bear his name. He also wrote “ A Survey of 
 the Microcosm ” in 1695. 
 
 1660-1734. — Georg Ernst Stahl. Physician and professor 
 of pathology and dietetics at Halle. Founder 
 of a system of medicine in which the “soul” 
 (anima) played the leading part as the life- 
 giving principle which imparts life to dead 
 matter. He gave a clear account of lachrymal 
 fistula and foreshadowed psychotherapy. 
 
 1660-1742- — Friedrich Hoffman. Epidemiologist and 
 iatro-mechanical physician. Professor of ana- 
 tomy and surgery at Halle. He was one of 
 the first to describe rubella, gave an original 
 description of chlorosis and left an account of 
 a typhus epidemic. He revived the use of 
 mineral baths and had a clear perception that 
 pathology is an aspect of physiology. 
 
 1660- 1753. — Sir Hans Sloane. Physician, antiquary and 
 
 collector. President of the Royal Society, 1727. 
 His collection of antiquities and manuscripts 
 formed the nucleus of the British Museum. 
 
 1661- 1708. — Francois Poupart. French naturalist and 
 
 anatomist. He studied medicine because he 
 thought it necessary for the completion of his 
 knowledge of natural history. He lived and 
 died in dire poverty, but was a brilliant 
 scientist. The “hernia” surgeons of the 18th 
 century are responsible for associating the 
 
 139 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 aponeurosis with his name; Falloppius and 
 Vesalius had described it a century earlier. 
 
 1661-1719. — Sir Samuel Garth. Physician and author of 
 the famous poem “ The Dispensary,” 1699, 
 which gives a satirical account of the dispute 
 between the physicians and the apothecaries 
 over their charges. 
 
 1664-1726. — Antonio Pacchioni. Italian anatomist. Pub- 
 lished various works on the anatomy of the 
 brain and its membranes, maintaining with 
 much ingenuity a theory that the dura mater 
 acted as a muscular force by alternative con- 
 traction on the cerebrum and cerebellum. He 
 described the “ Pacchionian ” bodies. 
 
 1664-1752.- — Thomas Dover. B.A. Oxford, 1684, M.B. 
 
 Cambridge, 1687, a resident pupil of Thomas 
 Sydenham; practised in Bristol in 1708; sailed 
 as second captain and was captain of Marines in 
 the “ Duke ” belonging to the Merchant Adven- 
 turers of Bristol. He brought back Alexander 
 Selkirk, the original of Robinson Crusoe. Dr. 
 Dover practised for some time at Bristol. He 
 used crude mercury and was the originator of 
 Dover’s Powder (pulv. ipecac, et opii). 
 
 1665. — The Great Plague of London. 
 
 ca. 1665-70. — Midwifery forceps invented by Peter 
 Chamberlen. William Giffard -was the earliest 
 to describe and depict midwifery forceps, about 
 1734 (see page 165). 
 
 140 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1666-1709. — William Cowper. Surgeon and anatomist, 
 F.R.S. Published in 1694 “ Myo- 
 tomia reformata,” and “ The 
 Anatomy of Humane Bodies ” in 
 1698. He was fiercely accused 
 by Bidloo of plagiarising his 
 plates in the latter work. In the 
 course of tho ensuing contro- 
 versy he described the glands 
 which bear his name, 1702. He 
 was the first to publish a represen- 
 tation of the thoracic duct in man. 
 He had a large surgical practice 
 in London. 
 
 1666-1723. — Antonio Maria Valsalva, of Imola. Anato- 
 mist and pupil of Malpighi. He was professor 
 of anatomy at Bologna, and specialized in 
 otology. His method of inflating the middle 
 ear is still practised. Author of “ De Aure 
 humana,” 1705. 
 
 1668-1707. — Giorgio Baglivi. Iatro-mathematical physi- 
 cian and professor of medicine and anatomy 
 in Rome. Called “ The Italian Sydenham.” 
 Spent much time at experimental physiology 
 which he valued highly; he gave a clear de- 
 scription of typhoid which he called “ The 
 Mesenteric Fever of Rome.” Published several 
 works on medicine. He endeavoured to divide 
 diseases into those of the blood and vital spirits. 
 The Iatro-mathematical school taught that 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 physiological processes were explicable by the 
 laws of physics. The Iatro-chemical school 
 regarded all vital phenomena as essentially 
 chemical. Chemistry was practically non- 
 existent at the time, and the main laws of 
 physics were only dimly discerned. 
 
 1668- 1738.— Hermann Boerhaave, of Leyden. Physician. 
 Lecturer on medicine and botany, 
 and professor of chemistry at 
 Leyden. A man of great talent 
 who did much to further the 
 advance of science in the 18th 
 century. He claimed Hippocrates 
 and Sydenham as his models, and 
 was the first to establish the clin- 
 ical method of instruction. His 
 well-known aphorisms influenced 
 medical practice throughout the 
 1 8th century. He was the first 
 to make a chemical examination 
 
 of the urine. He had the largest medical 
 practice in Europe, and was remarkable alike 
 for his knowledge and for the affection he 
 inspired in his pupils and patients. 
 
 1669- 1760.— Jacques-Benigne Winslow. Danish pro- 
 
 fessor of physic, anatomy and surgery at the 
 Jardin du Roi, Paris. He was the author of ana- 
 tomical and pathological works. The ligament 
 and foramen commemorate him. 
 
 1671-1753. — George Cheyne. Physician. Declared the 
 
 142 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 lowering of the elasticity of the “ fibres ” to be a 
 general cause of disease, but deduced ordinary 
 fever from a stoppage of the glands, and linger- 
 ing fever from atony of those organs. He wrote 
 works on scurvy and longevity. 
 
 1673-1755. — Richard Mead. Physician and epidemiologist. 
 
 Author of many works on medi- 
 cine and of the first quarantine 
 regulations adopted in England. 
 He succeeded Dr. Radcliffe in 
 practice in London, and was 
 thesecond owner of the “gold- 
 headed cane.” He was known as 
 “ Princely Mead.” He was called 
 to attend Queen Anne in her final 
 illness and became the most 
 prosperous physician of his time. 
 
 1673-1719. — James Keill, of Northampton. Physician 
 who spent eight years in confirming the 
 experiments of Sanctorius. He computed 
 the velocity of the blood in the aorta at 
 73 feet per minute and the force of the heart 
 at nearly eight ounces. 
 
 -1735. — Robert Houston. M.D. Practised in Glasgow 
 where he successfully emptied an ovarian cyst 
 after incision in 1701. Afterwards he resided in 
 London and practised in Westminster, where 
 in 1717 he operated on a case of extra-uterine 
 pregnancy. 
 
 H3 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1674- 1750- — Jean Louis Petit. French surgeon and 
 
 anatomist of distinction. First director of 
 the Academie de Chirurgie of Paris. Foreign 
 member of the Royal Society of London. 
 Wrote on surgical subjects. Several ana- 
 tomical structures bear his name. 
 
 1675- • — William Cole, of Bristol. He considered 
 
 the tension of the nervous system, due to a 
 deposit of abnormal material upon the nerve 
 roots, to be the usual cause of fever and espe- 
 cially of the symptoms of irritation occurring in 
 fever. He also taught the constant expansion 
 of the arterial system towards the capillaries. 
 1675-1721. — Martin Naboth. Professor of Medicine at 
 Leipzic. Described the “ ovules ” which bear 
 his name in 1704, and published a work on 
 sterility in women in 1717. 
 
 1675-1728. — John Freind. M.D.Oxon. Classical scholar, 
 Jacobite physician and the first 
 English historian of Medicine. 
 Edited a Greek and Latin edition 
 of iEschines and Demosthenes 
 and a reprint of the Delphin 
 edition of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 
 His “ History of Physic from the 
 time of Galen to the beginning of 
 the Sixteenth Century,” written 
 while imprisoned in the Tower, 
 was published in two volumes in 
 1725 and 1726. 
 
 r 44 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1675-1742. — James Douglas. M.D. Rheims. F.R.S. 
 
 Physician to Queen Caroline. Practised in 
 Red Lion Square, and gave public dissections 
 in his house. Published in 1707 a work on 
 Myology, and in 1730, a description of the 
 peritoneum, in which he gave a description of 
 the fold and pouch which bear his name. 
 
 1678-1747- — Francois de Lapeyronie. Taught anatomy 
 and surgery at Montpellier, and at the College 
 of St. Come in Paris. Chief surgeon of the 
 Charite. One of the founders of the French 
 Academie Royale de Chirurgie. 
 
 1680- 1763- — William Smellie, of London. Obstetrician. 
 
 Inventor of numerous instruments, including 
 midwifery forceps with a simple lock, which 
 became known as the English lock, also per- 
 forators and blunt hooks. His first forceps 
 were made of wood, and afterwards he used 
 metal blades covered with leather. Author 
 of “ Treatise on the Theory and Practice of 
 Midwifery,” London, 1752. He considerably 
 advanced the knowledge of the position of the 
 head during labour, and also of the contracted 
 pelvis. 
 
 1681 — Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 
 
 founded. 
 
 1681-1737- — Giovanni Domenico Santorini. Anatomist, 
 born at Venice, a pupil of Malpighi. His name 
 is preserved in the cartilages of Santorini. 
 k H5 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1682- 1772 — Giovanni Battista Morgagni, of Forli. The 
 
 founder of pathological anatomy 
 and professor at Padua. He 
 was the first to devote exclusive 
 attention to the anatomical results 
 of common diseases. Author of 
 “ Adversaria anatomica,” 1706, 
 and “ De sedibus et causis mor- 
 borum per anatomen indagatis 
 libri quinque,” Venice, 1761, 
 which he published in his 79th 
 year. In this work he draws 
 attention to syphilitic aneurysm 
 and disease of the mitral valve. He identi- 
 fied the clinical features of pneumonia with 
 solidification of the lungs, and described what 
 is now known as the “ Morgagnian cataract.” 
 
 1683- 1758- — Lorenz Heister, of Frankfort-on-Main. 
 
 Was a military surgeon in the Dutch army. 
 Author of well -illustrated works on surgery 
 and anatomy, which were popular in his 
 time, and were translated into English. He 
 became professor of anatomy and surgery in 
 Altdorf. 
 
 1684- 1751. — Abraham Yater. Professor of botany, ana- 
 
 tomy, pathology and therapeutics at Witten- 
 berg. He describes the papilla named after 
 him, as a bile duct joined to the pancreatic 
 duct, in a work published in 1710. In his 
 146 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 “ Dissertatio de concensu partium,” 1741, he 
 described the Pacinian corpuscles. 
 
 1684-1766- — Jean Astruc. French surgeon and obstet- 
 rician. He wrote the history of 
 
 syphilis and venereal diseases in 
 
 1736 which remains a most useful 
 record. It went through several 
 editions and was translated into 
 English. Author also of “Traiteae? 
 maladies desfemmes,” Paris, 1761. 
 He became professor of anatomy 
 at Toulouse in 1710 and of 
 medicine at Montpellier in 1716. 
 
 About 1728 he removed to Paris 
 
 and was appointed consulting 
 physician to the King and professor of medicine 
 in 1730. 
 
 1686-1732. — Adrian Christian Thebesius. Practised 
 medicine at Hirschberg in Silesia. He wrote 
 a work on the circulation of the blood in the 
 heart in 1708, describing the vessels (venae 
 minimae Thebesii) and the valve of the 
 coronary sinus. 
 
 1686-1736- — Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. German natural 
 philosopher who resided in Amsterdam. He 
 is said to have been the first to use mercury 
 in a thermometer. He fixed the zero point of 
 his instrument at the lowest degree to which 
 the mercury sank in the winter of 1709. 
 
 H7 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1888 1752 — William Cheselden. Surgeon, anatomist, 
 lithotomist and oculist. Surgeon 
 to Queen Caroline, and to St. 
 Thomas’ and Chelsea Hospitals. 
 Author of “Osteology, or the 
 Anatomy of the Bones,” 1733, 
 “Anatomy of the Human Body,” 
 1714. Introduced the formation 
 of an artificial pupil by a simple 
 incision of the iris made with a 
 needle introduced through the 
 sclera. He was a very rapid 
 operator, especially in lithotomy. 
 He often performed the suprapubic operation. 
 
 -1759- — John Douglas. Surgeon to Westminster 
 Hospital. He re-introduced the operation of 
 suprapubic lithotomy. 
 
 1693 1762- — Jacques Daviel- Practised first at Marseilles 
 and from 1746 at Paris. He originated the 
 operation of extraction for cataract in place of 
 “ couching.” 
 
 1694-1768- — John Huxham. Epidemiologist ; a pupil of 
 Boerhaave. Drew attention to diphtheritic 
 paralysis in 1757 and to the colic following 
 cider drinking in Devonshire, due to lead 
 used in the presses. The association of cider 
 drinking and lead colic was not made until 
 1767, when Sir George Baker described them 
 as cause and effect. 
 
 148 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1697 1767 — Alexander Monro, Senior. Professor of 
 anatomy and surgery at the University of 
 Edinburgh. A pupil of Boerhaave and a remark- 
 able teacher. His son and grandson succeeded 
 him in the professorship, which remained in the 
 family from 1720 to 1846. Author of “ Osteo- 
 logy, or a Treatise on the Anatomy of the 
 Bones,” 1726, and “An Essay on Comparative 
 Anatomy,” 1744. The French translation of 
 the Osteology is unusually well illustrated with 
 fine copperplates, prepared under the personal 
 supervision of Mile. Genevieve d’Arconville. 
 
 1697-1770- — Bernhard Siegfried Albinus. Born at 
 Frankfort-on-Oder. Professor of Anatomy in 
 Leyden for fifty years. A pioneer in modern 
 human anatomy. He published a series of 
 illustrated anatomical works (1726-1762) in 
 which the drawings are made to scale by J. 
 Wandelaer, an artist whom he trained specially 
 for the purpose. They probably represent the 
 zenith of anatomical pictures. 
 
 ca. 1750 — Jacques Mesnard, of Rouen. Surgeon of Rouen 
 and advocate of the forceps in midwifery. He 
 described the forceps he invented in 1741. 
 Author of “ Le guide des accouchements,” 
 1743. He also devised and used a double 
 crotchet. 
 
 1700 1772- — Gerhard van Swieten, of Leyden. Settled 
 in Vienna, entered the Church, and became 
 
 149 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 physician and president of the General Medical 
 Department of Austria. Founder of the old 
 Vienna School of Medicine. He used the 
 Fahrenheit thermometer and advocated the use 
 of corrosive sublimate in the treatment of 
 syphilis. His name is preserved in the Liquor 
 van Swieten, an alcoholic solution of corrosive 
 sublimate, which is still in use. He was a 
 skilful stenographer, and acted as censor of 
 books to the Court. 
 
 1700 1778- — Samuel Sharp. Born in Jamaica. A pupil 
 of Cheselden and surgeon to Guy’s Hospital, 
 1733-1757. Wrote a “ Treatise on the Opera- 
 tions of Surgery ” which passed through manv 
 editions and was translated into French and 
 Spanish. Also a “ Critical Enquiry into the; 
 Present State of Surgery,” which was translated 
 into French, Spanish, German and Italian. He 
 was the first surgeon to practise the corneal 
 incision in the cataract operation and he 
 invented a knife for the purpose. 
 
 1703 1776. — Robert James. Physician. Practised in 
 Sheffield, Lichfield, Birmingham, and finally 
 in London. Author of several medical works, 
 and originator of the famous James’ Fever 
 Powder, a preparation of antimony, which 
 became very popular and is still used. He 
 was a friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson, the 
 lexicographer. 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1703 1780- — Andre Levret, of Paris. Obstetrician. Im- 
 
 proved the operation of version. Invented 
 a type of midwifery forceps and introduced 
 the pelvic curve in the blades. Author of 
 “ Traite sur l’art des accouchements,” Paris, 
 1 753 - 
 
 1704 1776- — Anton de Haen, of The Hague. A pupil of 
 
 Boerhaave ; a colleague of Van Swieten, and 
 associated with him in the foundation of the 
 old Vienna School. Advocate of simplicity 
 in treatment. He used a clinical thermometer, 
 wrote a treatise on medicine in fifteen volumes, 
 and was a firm believer in witchcraft. 
 
 1705 1780- — Hieronymus David Gaub, of Heidelberg. 
 
 A pupil of Boerhaave. Professor of chemistry 
 at Leyden, and author of the first complete 
 work on pathology, viz., “ Institutiones patho- 
 logiae medicinalis,” Leyden, 1750, which long 
 remained a textbook throughout Europe, and 
 was translated into Dutch, German and French. 
 
 d. 1784- — Thomas Goulard. Surgeon. Royal Demon- 
 strator of Surgery and Anatomy at Montpellier, 
 where he was also Surgeon-Major in charge 
 of the Military Hospital. Advocated and 
 introduced the use of solutions of lead salts 
 into surgery. He wrote on venereal disease 
 and was the originator of the formula for 
 Goulard water in 1760. 
 
 1706 1790. — Benjamin Franklin. Physician, of Boston. 
 
 Invented the bifocal lens and a flexible catheter. 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 He treated nervous diseases by electricity, and 
 was the chief founder of the Pennsylvania 
 Hospital. He wrote on many subjects, including 
 “ Dialogue with the gout,” Inoculation in small- 
 pox, Infant mortality, Sleep, Deafness and 
 Medical education. 
 
 1707-1779. — Nathan Alcock. M.D. Lecturer on anatomy 
 and chemistry at Oxford, pupil of Boerhaave. 
 He practised in Runcorn, Cheshire, his native 
 town. He is commemorated by the canal in 
 which the internal pudic vessels and nerves run 
 across the perineum. 
 
 1707-1788.— Louis Le Clerc, Comte de Buffon. Superin- 
 tendent of the Jardin du Roi. The first to 
 express clearly the idea that unity of plan in 
 the animal kingdom is to be explained by 
 community of origin. It is doubtful whether 
 he genuinely believed in evolution as we under- 
 stand it, or whether he only held the doctrine 
 tentatively. 
 
 1703-1777. — Albert Yon Haller. Botanist, physiologist, 
 anatomist, medical bibliographer and poet. 
 Born at Berne. He was a pupil of Boerhaave. 
 At the University of Gottingen he taught medi- 
 cine for 17 years, having already made his 
 reputation as a botanist. Was professor of 
 anatomy and director of the hospital at Berne, 
 1753. Propounded the doctrine of irritability, 
 and added greatly to the knowledge of the 
 heart. May be regarded as one of the most 
 
 152 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 acute medical intellects in the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 1708-1779. — Thomas Cadwalader. Physician of Phila- 
 delphia. Founder of the Philadelphia Library, 
 a pioneer of inoculation and the first to teach 
 anatomy in that city by dissections. Author 
 of “Essay on the West India Dry-Gripes” 
 (1745) : described lead colic and lead palsy 
 resulting from rum distilled through lead pipes. 
 
 1710-1786. — Jacques Gautier d’Agoty. Physician, 
 anatomist and artist. Pupil of le Blonde. He 
 claimed to be the inventor of the four-colour 
 process of printing. He published a number 
 of works and atlases with coloured plates on 
 myology and anatomy. 
 
 1710-1790. — William Cullen, of Lanarkshire. Physician. 
 
 A great clinical teacher. Pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Glasgow 
 and Edinburgh. Founder of a 
 system of medicine in which he 
 believed the chief agent to be the 
 nerves, and that the brain was 
 indissolubly united with the soul. 
 He divided all internal diseases 
 into four classes: (1) Pyrexiae; 
 
 (2) Neuroses, or nervous diseases; 
 
 (3) Cachexiae, or diseases arising 
 from a bad habit of the body ; (4 
 
 153 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 Locales, or local diseases. His therapeu- 
 tics were simple, and he deplored excessive 
 venesection. He introduced clinical teaching. 
 His book, “ First Lines of the Practice of 
 Physic,” published in 1776, had a very wide 
 reputation. 
 
 1710 1801. — William Heberden, of London. F.R.S. 
 
 Clinical physician. First to de- 
 scribe varicella and angina pec- 
 toris. The connecting link 
 between Sydenham and Bright. 
 His name lives in “ Heberden’s 
 nodes.” His “ Commentaries,” 
 written in Latin, were published 
 after his death. He practised 
 in London from 1748, and ac- 
 quired a high reputation. In 
 1745 he attacked the use of the- 
 riaca and other polypharmic com- 
 pounds in his “ Antitheriaka,” 
 and demonstrated their futility as serious 
 remedies. 
 
 1711-1746. — Johann Nathaniel Lieberkuhn. German 
 anatomist. Practised in Berlin. Fellow of 
 the Royal Society of London. A very skilful 
 injector. Described his crypts in a “ Dis- 
 sertation on the structure of the intestine,” 
 I 744- 
 
 J 54 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1711- 1778. — Laura Maria Catarina Bassi - Yarati. 
 
 Graduated at Bologna in 1731 ; 
 one of the most celebrated of the 
 many women who took the double 
 doctorate in philosophy and medi- 
 cine at this University. Sub- 
 sequently lectured on philosophy 
 in the University, and practised 
 medicine in the town. Was 
 chiefly an experimental physicist, 
 and became professor of this 
 subject in 1776. For many years 
 she delivered the Annual Dis- 
 course on the occasion of the 
 public dissection. 
 
 1712 1780-— John Fothergill, of London. Quaker physi- 
 cian. He wrote an excellent clinical monograph 
 “On malignant sore throat” which was either 
 scarlet fever or diphtheria. It had a large 
 circulation and was translated into several 
 languages. 
 
 1712- 1781. — Exupere Joseph Bertin. Anatomist to the 
 
 Academy in Paris. Physician to the Hospodar 
 of Wallachia and Moldavia. Made discoveries 
 in comparative anatomy, particularly with 
 reference to the musculature of the equine 
 stomach, and the lachrymal apparatus. 
 
 155 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1712- 1789.- Angelique Marguerite Leboursier du Cou- 
 dray. Midwife of Paris. Inven- 
 tor of the obstetrical “ phantome,” 
 with which she went about the 
 country lecturing to the ignorant 
 local midwives. Author, 1759, of 
 “ Abrege de l’art des accouche- 
 ments avec plusieurs observa- 
 tions sur des cas singuliers,” 
 which passed through six edi- 
 tions. She founded many mater- 
 nity hospitals in the large cities 
 of France, and in 1766 she gave 
 
 a course of lectures to the doctors of the Naval 
 School of Rochefort. 
 
 1713- 1788. — Percivall Pott. Surgeon to St. Bartholo- 
 
 mew's Hospital 1749-87, and a great teacher 
 of surgery. Author of “ Chirurgical Works,” 
 1771. Authority on spinal diseases, hernia, 
 fistula and injuries to the skull, &c. The terms 
 “ Pott’s fracture,” “ Pott’s disease of the 
 spine ” and “ Pott’s puffy swelling ” are still in 
 use and perpetuate his name. 
 
 fl. 1715. — Emanuel Timoni. A physician of Constanti- 
 nople, who studied medicine at Padua and 
 Oxford, and gave the first account of inocula- 
 tion for smallpox before the Royal Society in 
 London in 1713. 
 
 156 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1716- 1775 — Anna Morandi-Manzolini. Wife of Jean 
 
 Manzolini, the painter, who was engaged with 
 his master, Hercule Lelli, on a number of 
 anatomical wax models for the “ Camera ” of 
 Pope Benedict XIV. The two artists quar- 
 relled, and Anna took up the work in order 
 to prevent the loss of the contract, and soon 
 excelled her husband in skill. She was subse- 
 quently given a chair of anatomy at Bologna 
 in order that she might lecture in the Univer- 
 sity. Her famous models were acquired soon 
 after her death, for the city. 
 
 1717- 1783. — Charles Linnaeus (von Linne). Botanist. 
 
 The father of systematic botany. Professor of 
 physic and botany at Upsala. Physician to 
 the King of Sweden. Founder of the Stock- 
 holm Academy. Created the order Primates 
 and was the first to include man in a zoological 
 order. 
 
 -1781. — George Armstrong. Pioneer and first in 
 Europe to open a hospital for children in 1769. 
 
 -1765. — John Laurance Gasser. Professor of ana- 
 tomy at Vienna 1757-1765. Said to have 
 been a great dissector, but practically nothing 
 is known of him except that his pupil Raymund 
 Balthasar Hirsch, in his only published paper, 
 named the ganglion which he had discovered 
 the “ Gasserian ganglion ” in order that his 
 beloved master might not be forgotten. 
 
 I 57 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1718-1783. — William Hunter. Born at Long Calder- 
 wood, Scotland. Obstetrician 
 and anatomist. Settled in Lon- 
 don, 1741. Lectured on anatomy 
 and surgery in Great Windmill 
 Street, London. Appointed 
 physician to the Queen, 1764. 
 Author of “ Anatomia Humani 
 Uteri Gravidi,” 1774. It is illus- 
 trated with life-size copperplates 
 anatomically exact and artistically 
 perfect. In some ways an even 
 greater man than John Hunter, 
 his younger brother. He had wider interests, 
 but less originality. His great collection of 
 normal and pathological anatomy, manuscripts 
 and books, now forms the Hunterian Museum 
 of the University of Glasgow. 
 
 1719. — Westminster Hospital, London, established. 
 
 1720- 1793.— Charles Bonnet. French naturalist and 
 
 entomologist. Gives in his “ Contemplation 
 de la nature,” 1764, the most complete expres- 
 sion of the idea of a “ scale of beings” which 
 he extends to the whole universe. 
 
 1721- 1770. — Mark Akenside. M.D., F.R.S. Studied at 
 
 Edinburgh and Leyden. Practised at North- 
 ampton and in London. Goulstonian lecturer 
 at the Royal College of Physicians, 1755, on 
 the function of the lymphatic system ; physician 
 to St. Thomas’ Hospital. Author of various 
 
 158 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 medical papers. Harveian orator, 1760, and 
 Croonian lecturer, 1770, R.C.P. He wrote many 
 poems, the best known being “ The Pleasures 
 of Imagination,” first published in 1744. 
 
 1722- 1776. — Theophile de Bordeu. Physician and ana- 
 
 tomist of Montpellier. Maintained that every 
 disease was decided by a crisis, and his thera- 
 peutics were aimed at the production of the 
 crises, which in chronic diseases he accelerated 
 by the use of stimulants. He was one of the 
 originators of the doctrine of vital force. He 
 had some premonition of the internal secretion 
 of glands. 
 
 1722 1789. — Peter Camper. Anthropologist. Professor 
 of anatomy at Amsterdam and of medicine at 
 Genoa. He first proposed symphysiotomy, and 
 introduced the “facial angle” as a criterion of 
 race. He is remembered by the “ fascia of 
 Camper.” 
 
 1723- 1795. — Christopher Gottlob Kratzenstein, of Wer- 
 
 nigerode. Professor in Copenhagen. The first 
 to employ electricity as curative treatment in 
 cases of weakness and paralysis. 
 
 1724- 1816. — Jacques Rene Tenon. French army surgeon. 
 
 Professor of pathology at Paris. Author of 
 many medical works ; that on the anatomy, 
 pathology and surgery of the eye was pub- 
 lished in 1806. In this he described “Tenon’s 
 capsule.” 
 
 159 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1725. — Guy’s Hospital, London, established. 
 
 1725-1761. — Pierre Tarin. French physician and ana- 
 tomist. Published various works on anatomy, 
 and a translation of “ Haller’s Physiology.” He 
 is remembered by the “ valves of Tarin,” part 
 of the ependymal roof of the fourth ventricle. 
 
 1725- 1813. — Leopold Marco Antonio Caldani. Professor 
 
 of anatomy at Bologna, Venice and Padua. He 
 published an important work, “ leones anat- 
 omicae ” in 1813, illustrated with copperplates. 
 
 1726 — The Jervis Street Hospital, Dublin, established. 
 
 1726- 1787 — Johann Kempf. Physician of Hesse-Hom- 
 
 burg, and propounder of the doctrine of 
 infarctus, from which theory the clyster fashion 
 developed, that was carried to such an excess 
 in the 18th century. 
 
 1727- 1759.— Johann Gottfried Zinn. Professor of medi- 
 
 cine at Gottingen. Wrote several treatises on 
 anatomy, including a description of the human 
 eye published in 1755. The “zonule” and the 
 tendon of origin of the eye muscles commemo- 
 rate him. 
 
 1728- 1774. — Oliver Goldsmith. M.B., but of what uni- 
 
 versity is not known. He is better known as 
 a writer and as the author of the “ Deserted 
 Village” and “ The Vicar of Wakefield ” ; was 
 the friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson. He appears 
 to have made an attempt to practise at Bank- 
 side, Southwark. 
 
 160 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1728-1793. — John Hunter. Surgeon and comparative 
 anatomist. Brother of William 
 Hunter. Became surgeon to St. 
 George’s Hospital, London, 1768. 
 Surgeon extraordinary to the 
 King, 1776, and Surgeon-General 
 to the English forces, 1790. First 
 to describe phlebitis and the mus- 
 cular layer of the iris, also to ad- 
 vocate ligature of large arteries in 
 their continuity. His great collec- 
 tion forms the chief part of the 
 Hunterian Museum of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, London. He placed 
 English surgery on a scientific basis and was 
 the most original and stimulating teacher of 
 surgery of his time. 
 
 1728-1797. — Simon Andre Tissot, of Lausanne. Physician, 
 professor at Pavia. Prolific writer of popular 
 medical works which were widely translated. 
 
 1728-1799. — Joseph Black. Physicist and chemist, a 
 pupil of William Cullen. Professor of medicine 
 and chemistry at the Universities of Glasgow 
 and Edinburgh. He established the doctrine 
 of latent heat, of fusion and of vaporization, 
 and discovered carbonic acid gas. He was 
 called “The Nestor of the chemistry of the 
 eighteenth century.” 
 
 1728-1813. — Charles White, of Manchester. Surgeon 
 and obstetrician. De Quincey says of him 
 
 l ibi 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 “ he was the most distinguished surgeon in 
 the North of England. He measured innu- 
 merable skulls illustrating all the races of men.” 
 He was appointed surgeon to the Manchester 
 Infirmary when it was established in 1752. 
 He placed midwifery on a rational and humane 
 basis. 
 
 1729- 1799. — Lazzaro Spallanzani. Abbe and physiologist. 
 
 Professor of logic, metaphysics and Greek in 
 the Italian University of Reggio, and afterwards 
 professor of natural history at Pavia and 
 Modena. Pioneer in the physiology of digestion 
 and of morphology by the experimental method. 
 
 1730- 1785.— Mile. Biheron. Anatomical modeller, of Paris. 
 
 Her method is not known, but her models 
 were the wonder of all who saw them. She 
 gave a demonstration before the Academie 
 Royale des Sciences on the occasion of the visit 
 of King Gustavus III of Sweden, and taught 
 anatomy privately. Her collection was bought 
 for Catherine II of Russia. 
 
 1730-1805. — Abbe Felix Fontana. Professor of philosophy 
 in Pisa. Director of the Museum of Natural 
 History at Florence under the patronage of 
 the Grand Duke Leopold, by whose orders he 
 prepared wax anatomical models and a museum 
 of natural history. The lymphatic spaces in 
 the eye commemorate his name. 
 
 ca. 1762. — Antonio de Gimbernat. Professor at Barce- 
 lona, 1762-1774. Director of the College of 
 
 162 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 Surgeons in Madrid, and surgeon in ordinary 
 to the King. Published in 1793 “A new method 
 for operations for crural hernia,” in which 
 he described the ligament by which he is 
 remembered. 
 
 1731-1802.- — Erasmus Darwin. Physician, philosopher 
 and physiologist. Born at Not- 
 tingham. Studied in Edinburgh. 
 Practised in Lichfield, Radbourne 
 and Derby. According to his 
 theories, there are two funda- 
 mental substances, spirit and 
 matter, and the principle of life 
 is motion. He wrote “ Loves of 
 the Plants” and “ Zoonomia,” 
 which in some degree fore- 
 shadowed the hypotheses of his 
 grandson Charles Darwin. 
 
 1731- 1810. — Henry Cavendish. Son of Lord Charles 
 
 Cavendish. Chemist and scientist. Discoverer 
 of the composition of air. The inventor of 
 Cavendish’s eudiometer. In 1776 he discovered 
 hydrogen. He determined the composition of 
 water and was one of the earliest workers 
 on the subject of specific heat. He improved 
 the thermometer. 
 
 1732- 1778. — Karl Gottlieb Wagler. Anatomist and Uni- 
 
 versity Prosector at Gottingen and Brunswick. 
 Described typhoid fever and its etiology, which 
 he attributed to contaminated springs, in his 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 classical work “ De morbo mucoso liber singu- 
 lar^, ” Gottingen, 1765. 
 
 1732 1810. — Jean Descemet. Professor of physiology and 
 surgery in Paris, where he practised. In 
 1758 he published an inaugural thesis on the 
 corneal membrane. He shares with Demours 
 the honour of discovery of the membrane which 
 bears his name. 
 
 1733-1804!. — Joseph Priestley. Chemist andscientist. Ori- 
 ginally a Nonconformist minis- 
 ter. While at Leeds he turned 
 his attention to scientific ret 
 searches, the results of which 
 he published in “ Experiments 
 and Observations on different 
 kinds of Air,” 1774. He described 
 nitric and nitrous oxide gas, 
 ammonia and hydrochloric acid 
 gas. On August 1, 1774, he 
 
 discovered dephlogisticated air, 
 afterwards called oxygen by 
 Lavoisier. He died at Northum- 
 berland, America, 1804. 
 
 1733 1816. — Thomas Denman. Obstetrician. He recom- 
 mended artificial induction of premature labour 
 in cases of great contraction of the pelvis, and 
 observed the carrying of puerperal fever by 
 physicians and nurses. He invented a special 
 forceps and was the author of “ Introduction 
 to the Practice of Midwifery,” London, 1787. 
 
 164 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1733- 1817. — Alexander Monro, secundus. Younger son 
 
 of Monro, primus. Appointed assistant pro- 
 fessor with his father in Edinburgh in 1755 
 and lectured there until 1800, when his son 
 began to assist him. Published various ana- 
 tomical works and engaged in a controversy 
 with William Hunter concerning the priority 
 of certain discoveries in the lymphatic system. 
 He first described the “foramen of Monro” 
 in 1764, having observed it in a case of hydro- 
 cephalus. 
 
 1734- 1815. — Friedrich Anton Mesmer. Born at Iznang 
 
 in Switzerland, educated in medicine, law and 
 theology. Practised and wrote on mesmerism 
 and magnetism as therapeutic agencies. Held 
 lucrative seances in Paris, doing much harm 
 and some little good by drawing attention to 
 what afterwards became known as hypnotism. 
 
 ca. 1734. — William Giffard. The first to describe and 
 depict midwifery forceps. Surgeon and obstet- 
 rician. Author of “ Cases of Midwifery,” 1734, 
 in which he describes and depicts the forceps 
 used in England. He states he employed his 
 “ extractors ” in 1726. 
 
 1734. — St. George’s Hospital, London, established. 
 
 1735- 1788. — John Brown. Born at Dunse, Scotland. 
 
 Studied at Edinburgh. Physiologist and 
 author of “ Elementa medicinae,’’ 1780, in 
 which he propounds a system of medicine 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 called after him the Brunonian system, which 
 gained many adherents. 
 
 1735- 1794.— Gaspar Friedrich Wolff. Professor of ana- 
 
 tomy at Petrograd. He published in 1759 a 
 work on reproduction, in which he described 
 the “Wolffian” duct of the pronephros, and 
 the mesonephric body. 
 
 1736- 1801.— Thomas Fowler. English physician. Kept an 
 
 apothecary’s shop in York, 1760-1774. Gradu- 
 ated M.D., Edinburgh. Practised in Stafford 
 and York. In 1786 he published his treatise 
 on arsenic and originated the formula for 
 “Fowler’s solution” (liquor arsenicalis B.P.). 
 1736. — The Edinburgh Infirmary established. 
 
 1736 1819. — William Hey. F.R.S., senior surgeon to the 
 Leeds Infirmary, which he was largely instru- 
 mental in founding He lectured on anatomy in 
 Leeds, and was a friend of Priestley. Author 
 of various surgical observations. “Hey’s liga- 
 ment ” commemorates his name. 
 
 1737- 1798.— Aloysius Galvani, of Bologna. Physician 
 
 and physicist. Professor of anatomy at Bologna. 
 His researches concerning the contractions pro- 
 duced in the muscles of frogs by contact with 
 metals, led to his discovery of galvanic or vol- 
 taic electricity. He wrote “ De viribus electri- 
 citatis in motu musculari commentarius,” 1791. 
 
 1738- 1814. — Joseph Ignace Guillotine. M.D. of Rheims. 
 
 Practised in Paris and acted as one of the 
 deputies for Paris at the beginning of the 
 
 166 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 French Revolution. The machine for decapi- 
 tation which has immortalized his name was 
 first used on April 25, 1792. 
 
 1739-1774. — William Hewson. A pupil of the Hunters, 
 and assistant to William at Windmill Street. 
 Practised surgery and midwifery in London. 
 In 1772 gave lectures on anatomy in his own 
 house, and attained a very great reputation as a 
 teacher. He performed many laborious dissec- 
 tions and injections on living and dead animals, 
 for which he received the Copley medal of the 
 Royal Society. 
 
 1739- 1808. — Heinrich Auguste Wrisberg. Professor of 
 
 anatomy at Gottingen. He published his 
 observations on Nerves between 1780 and 1800. 
 He is remembered by the “ nerve of Wrisberg ” 
 and the “ pars intermedia ” of the 7th nerve. 
 
 1740- 1800. — Mathias Saxtorph. Professor of midwifery 
 
 at Copenhagen. He wrote the first handbook 
 on anatomy in the Danish language and devised 
 a midwifery forceps. 
 
 1740. — The London Hospital established. 
 
 1740-1804. — Thomas Percival, M.D. Edinburgh, F.R.S. 
 
 Practised first at Warrington and afterwards 
 at Manchester. Founder of the Manchester 
 Literary and Philosophical Society. Obtained 
 a census of Manchester in 1773, and did much 
 to promote the public health of the town. 
 1740-1817. — Johann Heinrich Jung Stilling. Ophthalm- 
 ologist. Professor at Marburg and of political 
 
 167 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 economy at Heidelberg. Friend of Goethe. 
 Author of literary works, autobiography and 
 the description of an operation for cataract. 
 1741-1770. — William Stark. He was the earliest writer 
 to distinguish between tuberculosis and scrofu- 
 losis. His work on clinical and anatomical 
 observations, with experiments, dietetical and 
 statical, was published in 1788. In “ Medical 
 Communications,” published in 1785, his trea- 
 tise on miliary tuberculosis, he describes his 
 investigations on that subject. 
 
 1741- 1799. — William Withering. M.D. Edinburgh. Prac- 
 
 tised at Edgbaston, near Birmingham. Intro- 
 duced digitalis into medicine in “ An Account 
 of the Foxglove and some of its Medical 
 Uses,” 1785. 
 
 1742- 1786. — Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Apothecary and 
 chemist. Born at Stralsund, 
 Sweden. Discovered nitrogen, 
 hydrocyanic, oxalic and uric 
 acids, glycerin, tartaric, citric, 
 lactic, gallic, benzoic and other 
 acids. He also isolated sugar 
 of milk and discovered the 
 method of producing prussian 
 blue. His name is commemo- 
 rated in Scheele’s green in ac- 
 knowledgment of his work on 
 compounds of arsenic. He died 
 at Roping in 1786. 
 
 168 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 -i 7 42-1787- — Maximilian Stoll. Epidemiologist and clini- 
 cal teacher. Studied in Vienna, and formulated 
 a system of medicine. He advocated an ex- 
 tensive use of emetics and laxatives. 
 
 1743- 1793. — Jean Paul Mara Marat. Physician and 
 
 revolutionist. Born in Switzerland. M.D. of 
 St. Andrews, 1775 ; practised in London. Took 
 an active part in the French revolution and was 
 assassinated in his bath by Charlotte Corday 
 in 1793. 
 
 1743 1794. — Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. French chemist. 
 
 Studied at the College Mazarin, Paris, and was 
 admitted to the Academy of Sciences, 1768. 
 Priestley visited him in Paris in 1774 and 
 explained his discovery of dephlogisticated 
 air. Lavoisier repeated the experiment and 
 gave the name of oxygen to the gas. He made 
 a complete investigation of its properties. The 
 substitution of his theories for those of the 
 phlogistonists led to a complete revision of 
 the language of chemistry. Lavoisier fell a 
 victim of the French revolution and was guil- 
 lotined in 1794. 
 
 1744- 1815. — John Coakley Lettsom. Quaker physician. 
 
 Born in the West Indies, practised in London. 
 One of the founders of the Medical Society of 
 London. “The Friend of Humanity, the 
 Patron of Science.” The Ipomoea, a climbing 
 plant, and a beautiful shrub now included in 
 Fraziera, are both called Lettsomia after him. 
 
 169 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 He was one of the founders of the Royal Sea- 
 Bathing Hospital at Margate. 
 
 1744- 1829. — Jean Baptiste de Lamarck. French 
 
 naturalist. He was fifty years of age before 
 he began to study zoology. Published in 1809 
 his “ Philosophie zoologique,” and in 1816 his 
 “ Natural History of Invertebrates ” in 7 vols. 
 Introduced many reforms into the classification 
 of animals and was the father of the modern 
 evolutionary doctrine on a teleological basis, 
 his idea being that new organs or new modifi- 
 cations are formed in direct reaction to needs 
 experienced by a “ sentiment interieur.” His 
 ideas took gradual root in France, which was 
 relatively unaffected by the alternative theory 
 of natural selection introduced by Darwin. 
 
 1745- 1800. — William Cumberland Cruikshank. Suc- 
 
 ceeded Hewson in William Hunter’s school of 
 medicine and followed William as lecturer. 
 After Hunter’s death he continued the school 
 in conjunction with Matthew Baillie. Attended 
 Dr. Samuel Johnson in his last illness and was 
 termed by him a “ sweet-blooded man.” 
 
 1745-1813.— Benjamin Rush. American physician and 
 philanthropist. Professor of Chemistry at 
 Philadelphia. He was a member of Congress 
 in 1776 and signed the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. Surgeon-General to the Army. 
 Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 University of Pennsylvania and a Founder of 
 the Pennsylvania Dispensary in 1786. His 
 successful treatment of yellow fever in the 
 epidemic of 1793 enhanced his reputation. 
 Among his works were “ Medical Enquiries 
 and Observations ” and “A Treatise of Diseases 
 of the Mind.” 
 
 1745-1818. — Joseph Barth, of Malta. Anatomist and 
 professor at Vienna. Oculist to Joseph II and 
 the first to give separate lectures on ophthalmo- 
 logy. He founded an ophthalmic hospital. 
 
 1745- 1827.— Alessandro Yolta. Italian physicist and 
 
 professor at Como and Pavia. His researches 
 in electricity led to his invention of the voltaic 
 pile (1800), the electrophorus and electroscope. 
 1745.— Separation of Barbers from Surgeons in England. 
 1745. — Middlesex Hospital founded. 
 
 1745.— London Lock Hospital founded. 
 
 1746- 1810. — Jean Louis Baudelocque, of Paris. Obstet- 
 
 rician who invented a type of midwifery forceps 
 and an external pelvimeter based on his views 
 about the pelvis. Author of “ L’Art des 
 Accouchements,” Paris, 1781. 
 
 1747- 1832. — Antonio Scarpa, of Motta. Surgeon and 
 
 anatomist. A pupil of Morgagni. Professor 
 at Modena and Pavia. Studied hernia, ortho- 
 paedics and ophthalmic surgery. His works 
 are beautifully illustrated, being models of 
 anatomical accuracy combined with the per- 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 fection of engraving. His name is now well 
 known in connection with “Scarpa’s triangle.” 
 
 1748-1794. — Felix Yicq d’Azyr. French anatomist. 
 
 Chief physician to Marie Antoinette. One of 
 the founders and Perpetual Secretary of the 
 Societe Royale de Medecine Published a 
 treatise on anatomy and physiology and works 
 on veterinary medicine. 
 
 1748- 1833. — Adamantios Koraes. M.D. of Montpellier. 
 
 Translator of medical books and accumulator 
 of notes for an edition of Hippocrates. The 
 great popular reformer of the Greek system 
 of instruction. He methodized the literary 
 language of his countrymen. Koraes and 
 Capodistrias (also a member of the medical 
 profession) were the originators of modern 
 Greek independence of Turkish rule. 
 
 1749- 1832. — Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Philosopher and 
 
 poet. The first to express definitely the idea 
 of the unity of plan in comparative anatomy. 
 He discovered the intermaxillary bone in man 
 in 1784, and explained differences in the organs 
 of plants by variations in the sap supplied to 
 them, his idea being that all parts were equally 
 varieties of one abstract “ plant part.” He 
 enunciated the law of balance, viz., that to 
 no part can anything be added without some- 
 thing being taken away from another part, 
 and vice versa. He was thus the prophet of 
 nineteenth century morphology. 
 
 172 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1749-1823.— Edward Jenner. Born at Berkeley, Glou- 
 cestershire. After serving his 
 apprenticeship with a firm of 
 surgeons in Sodbury he came to 
 London and became a house-pupil 
 of John Hunter. He began to 
 investigate cowpox, a disease 
 contracted by dairymen from in- 
 fected cows in 1780. He found 
 that the matter taken from a 
 human being suffering from cow- 
 pox had the power of protecting 
 another individual from smallpox, 
 which he eventually confirmed 
 after a series of experiments. In 1796 he 
 inoculated a boy of eight years with matter 
 taken from a pustule on the hand of a dairy 
 maid suffering from cowpox ; after an interval 
 he inoculated the boy with smallpox matter and 
 found that he did not contract the disease. He 
 published the result of his experiments in 1798. 
 Jenner’s great discovery of vaccination soon 
 became known and was practised throughout 
 the world with successful results. He received 
 a grant of £ 10,000 from Parliament which was 
 followed by a further grant of ^20,000 in 1806, 
 for his discovery. He died at The Chantry, 
 Berkeley, the house where he had originally 
 practised, in 1823. 
 
 1750-1795. — Francois Chopart. French surgeon. Called 
 
 I 73 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 by his mother’s name, his father being Frangois 
 Turlure. Graduated 1770. Author, with Desault, 
 of a “ Treatise on surgical maladies.” He gave 
 his name to an amputation of the foot. 
 
 1752-1808. — John Sheldon. Assistant to William Hunter 
 whom he succeeded as professor of anatomy 
 to the Royal Academy. Surgeon to the West- 
 minster Hospital. The first Englishman to 
 ascend in a balloon at Chelsea, 1784. Gave 
 much attention to injections and embalming, and 
 completed Hewson’s work on the lymphatics. 
 A portrait of him in oils hangs in the Royal 
 Devon and Exeter Hospital to which he was 
 surgeon for many years. 
 
 1752- 1815. — Paolo Mascagni, of Casteletto. Professor of 
 
 anatomy at Siena, Pisa and Florence. He 
 studied the lymphatics, and was author of an 
 anatomical atlas with life-size plates, which 
 was published posthumously in 1816. 
 
 1752 1840. — Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Anthro- 
 pologist. Professor of anatomy at Gotha. 
 Physician to the Kings of Great Britain and 
 Holland. Wrote on human and comparative 
 anatomy and on the varieties of the human 
 race. He gave his name to the slope of the 
 basi-occiput and sphenoid inside the skull. 
 
 1753- 1811.— John Christopher Stark. Obstetrician. He 
 
 devised “ Stark’s forceps,” a placental spoon 
 and instruments for Caesarean section. 
 
 174 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1754- 1846. — Benjamin Waterhouse. Professor of Medi- 
 
 cine in Harvard College. Was the first to 
 introduce vaccination into the United States. 
 
 1755- 1817. — Sir James Earle. Surgeon to St. Bartholo- 
 
 mew’s Hospital and inventor of the treatment 
 of hydrocele by injection (1791). Son-in-law 
 of Percivall Pott, whose works he edited and 
 published in two editions dated 1790 and 1808. 
 
 1755-1826.— Philippe Pinel. The first to improve the 
 condition of the insane. He placed them in 
 hospitals under the charge of physicians and 
 classified the patients according to the character 
 of their diseases. He urged the necessity of 
 their treatment by gentle means and recom- 
 mended physical labour in place of corporeal 
 punishments and inhuman physical restriction. 
 His work “Traite medico-philosophique sur 
 l’alienation mentale, ou la manie,” Paris, 1801, 
 marked an epoch in the study of psychiatry. 
 
 1755-1826. — Joseph Louis Proust. French chemist. 
 
 Became a professor of chemistry at Madrid. 
 He established the fact that chemical combina- 
 tion occurs only in definite proportions by 
 weight and that every chemical compound is 
 definite in its nature, the ratio between its 
 constituent elements being invariable. 
 1755-1830.— Samuel Thomas Yon Soemmering. Phy- 
 sician to the King of Bavaria. Professor of 
 anatomy at Mayence, Frankfort and Munich. 
 Published various works on anatomy, particu- 
 
 175 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 larly on the nervous system and the eye. He 
 believed that the nerves act independently of 
 the brain, which he did not consider necessary 
 to the continuance of life. 
 
 1755- 1843.— Samuel Christian Friedrich Hahnemann. 
 
 Born at Meissen. Educated at Erlangen. 
 Founded his system of homoeopathic medicine 
 in 1805, on the principle that “ similia similibus 
 curantur,” and that infinitesimally small doses t 
 of drugs were effective. 
 
 1756- 1805.— James Currie, of Liverpool. He advocated 
 
 affusions in acute disease, especially in typhus, 
 and was the first to insist on the importance of 
 the temperature of the patient. Currie’s ob- 
 servations are contained in his treatise on 
 “ Medical Reports on the effects of water, cold 
 and warm, as a remedy in febrile diseases,” 
 1797. He was one of the founders of the 
 Liverpool School of Medicine and published 
 an edition of the poems of Burns. 
 
 1757- 1817. — William Charles Wells, M.D. Born at 
 
 Charlestown, South Carolina. He was edu- 
 cated in Scotland, practised in London and 
 became physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 
 He determined experimentally in 1814 that 
 “ Dew is the production of a preceding cold in 
 the substances upon which it appears.” He 
 differentiated between the various causes of 
 dropsy, and established the fact that albumen 
 was present in the urine of persons suffering 
 
 176 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 from dropsy. Darwin in his “ Origin of 
 Species” gives Wells the credit of being the 
 first to enunciate the principle of natural 
 selection in 1813. 
 
 4758-1822. — James Gregory, of Aberdeen. Successor to 
 
 Cullen as professor of the prac- 
 tice of medicine at Edinburgh. 
 He advocated the doctrines of 
 Cullen, and his name is familiar 
 from the compound rhubarb pow- 
 derknovvnas “ Gregory’s powder ” 
 (pulv. rhei co., B.P.). He wrote 
 a conspectus of medicine, 1766, 
 which had a wide circulation, and 
 he exerted much influence on the 
 development of medicine in Great 
 Britain. He considered the mus- 
 cles and nerves together a nervous element 
 which was excited by the heart. 
 
 1759. — Physick Garden at Kew opened. 
 
 1759-1813. — Johann Christian Reil. Physician and pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Halle and Berlin. He 
 elaborated the doctrine of vital force, which 
 contended that each organ has its own special 
 force, but is united in sympathy with the rest 
 of the body. Changes of composition are the 
 basis of all the manifold phenomena in condi- 
 tions of health and disease, and in these lies 
 the proximate cause of disease. He founded 
 the first Journal of Physiology and the first 
 
 M 
 
 177 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 Journal of Psychiatry. His name is associated 
 with the “ island of Reil ” in the brain. 
 
 1759- 1816. — Franz Caspar Hesselbach. Surgeon and 
 
 anatomist. Pupil of Von Siebold and teacher 
 of Langenbeck. Professor of surgery at Wurz- 
 burg. Published a manual of dissection and 
 a treatise on hernia. Hesselbach’s triangle 
 and ligament commemorate him. 
 
 1760- 1818. — Caspar Wistar. Teacher of anatomy at 
 
 Pennsylvania. His “ System of Anatomy,” 
 181 1, was the first work on the subject published 
 in the New World. The “Wistaria” vine 
 was named after him. 
 
 1761- 1823. — Matthew Baillie. Physician. The father 
 
 of medical pathology. He published “The 
 Morbid Anatomy of some of the most Im- 
 portant Parts of the Human Body ” in 1793, 
 illustrated with copperplates by William Clift 
 (page 187). He demonstrated the pathological 
 anatomy of the brain, the heart and the lungs, 
 in which in 1793 he was the first to point out 
 the grey miliary tubercles of consumption. He 
 was a nephew of William and John Hunter, 
 whose private school he carried on. 
 
 1762 1838.— John Rutley. Quaker. Physician to the 
 Liverpool Dispensary. One of the founders of 
 the Liverpool Athenaeum in 1797 and of the 
 Liverpool Medical Institution, 1835. With 
 William Roscoe and Dr. James Currie he laid 
 the foundations of medical study in Liverpool. 
 
 178 
 
The Eighteenth Century 
 
 1763 1820 — John Bell. Surgeon and anatomist. Elder 
 brother of Sir Charles Bell. Pro- 
 fessor of surgery and obstetrics 
 at Edinburgh. Author of a “Sys- 
 tem of the Anatomy of the Human 
 Body,” 1793-98, and “ Principles 
 of Surgery,” 1801-07. He had 
 great artistic powers, and illus- 
 trated his own works. He was 
 an excellent classical scholar, and 
 one of the most skilful operators 
 of his day. 
 
 1763- 1832. — Sir Everard Home. Professor at the Royal 
 
 College of Surgeons, brother-in-law of John 
 Hunter, who entrusted him with the duty of 
 describing his collection. 
 
 1764- 1831. — John Abernethy. Surgeon and anatomist'. 
 
 Professor of anatomy and surgery 
 in the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 Founder of the Medical School at 
 St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. His 
 surgical teaching was based on 
 physiology rather than on ana- 
 tomy. He was the first to ligature 
 the external iliac artery for aneu- 
 rysm in 1796, also the common, 
 carotid for haemorrhage in 1798, 
 and improved the treatment of 
 lumbar abscesses by incision. 
 
 179 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1766 1822. — Wright Post. Surgeon of Long Island, New 
 York. The first American surgeon who suc- 
 cessfully tied the femoral, subclavian and 
 common carotid arteries. 
 
 1766 1852— Dominique Jean Larrey. “Baron Larrey.” 
 French military surgeon who served with 
 Napoleon throughout his great wars. He was 
 the first to amputate at the hip joint. Surgeon- 
 in-chief to the “Grande Armee,” and is said to 
 have performed two hundred amputations in 
 one. day. He invented the “ flying ambulances.’’ 
 He was professor of medicine at the Ecole 
 de Medecine, Paris, and wrote “ Memoirs of 
 Military Medicine,” 1817. 
 
 1766-1814. — John Dalton. Meteorologist, physicist and 
 chemist. Of humble Quaker origin in Cum- 
 berland, he became a D.C.L. and LL.D., of 
 Oxford and Edinburgh Universities. He de- 
 veloped the primary laws of heat and chemical 
 combination and laid the foundation of chemical 
 notation. He applied the atomic theory to 
 chemistry. In 1794 he gave to the Literar}^ 
 and Philosophical Society at Manchester the 
 first detailed discovery of colour blindness 
 which was afterwards known as “ Daltonism.” 
 1766-1811. — Sir Henry Halford, Bt. F.R.S., M.D.Oxon. 
 
 President of the Royal College of Physicians. 
 Physician to George III, George IV, William 
 IV and Queen Victoria. His name originally 
 was Henry Vaughan. Succeeded Matthew 
 
 180 
 
The N ineteenth Century 
 
 Baillie in the chief practice in London. He 
 obtained from the Crown a grant of the site 
 of the present college in Pall Mall East. 
 
 1766. —Cavendish discovers hydrogen. 
 
 1768- 1837. — Philip Syng Physick. Pupil.of John Hunter. 
 
 Professor of surgery in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania in 1805. He has been called the 
 “ Father of American Surgery.” He was the 
 inventor of a tonsillotome. 
 
 1768 1841. — Sir Astley Paston Cooper. Anatomist and 
 Surgeon to Guy’s and St. Thomas’ 
 Hospitals, Surgeon-in-ordinary to 
 George IV and Queen Victoria. 
 He counted the day lost when 
 he did not actually dissect some 
 part of the body in his private 
 dissecting room, and often made 
 presents of whole subjects to those 
 of his friends who were unable to 
 obtain them. President of the 
 Royal College of Surgeons, 1827 
 and 1836. He was especially in- 
 terested in the subjects of hernia, fractures 
 and dislocations. 
 
 1769- 1859. — Friedrich Heinrich Alexander Freiherr von 
 
 Humboldt. Traveller, naturalist and diplomat. 
 Educated at Frankfort and Gottingen. Tra- 
 velled extensively in South America and in 
 Central Asia. 
 
 181 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1770- 1853. —James Macartney. M.D. Professor of 
 
 anatomy and chirurgery in the University of 
 Dublin. He was the first in Great Britain to 
 teach systematic comparative anatomy to medi- 
 cal students and the first systematic lecturer 
 on pathology. He was a pioneer in the teaching 
 of physiological psychology and one of the fore- 
 most reformers in practical surgery. 
 
 1771- 1802. — Marie Francois Xavier Bichat French 
 
 surgeon. First studied at Nantes, 
 and afterwards at Lyons and 
 Montpellier in the department of 
 surgery under Petit. He removed 
 to Paris and gave private courses 
 in surgery and anatomy. In 1801 
 he was appointed to the Hotel 
 Dieu. He was a man of great 
 mental activity and power, an 
 ardent morbid anatomist, and 
 died at the early age of 31. His 
 chief works were the “ Traite des 
 
 Membranes,” 1800, “ Recherches physio- 
 
 logiques sur la vie et la mort,” 1800, and 
 “ Anatomie Generale,” 1801. He worked out 
 in detail the distinctions between animal and 
 vegetative functions, and was the founder of 
 the study of normal and pathological histology. 
 
 1771-1820 — Johann Christian Rosenmiiller. Professor 
 of anatomy and surgery in Leipzic. He pub- 
 lished “ Descriptive anatomy of the lachrymal 
 
 182 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 apparatus” in 1797, and a work on the foetal 
 ovary in 1802, in which he described the 
 collection of embryonic remnants known as the 
 organ of Rosenmiiller. 
 
 4771 1830. — Ephraim McDowell. American surgeon, born 
 in Virginia. “ The father of ovariotomy.” 
 Educated at Edinburgh. Practised in Kentucky 
 from 1795. Performed the first ovariotomy at 
 Danville on Mrs. Jane Todd Crawford in 
 1809, but did not publish it until 1817, when 
 he met with a storm of opposition. The opera- 
 tion was not repeated in the U.S.A. until 1821. 
 
 1771-1843.— Elisha North. A medical practitioner of Con- 
 necticut. He was a pioneer in Jennerian vacci- 
 nation ; established the first Eye Infirmary in 
 the U.S.A. (New London, 1817), and published 
 the first book on “ spotted lever.” In the course 
 of this work he recommends the use of the 
 clinical thermometer. 
 
 1771-1844.— Etienne Geoffroy, Marquis de St. Hilaire. 
 
 French morphologist. Professor of zoology at 
 the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. He endeavoured 
 to found a science of pure morphology and his 
 basic idea was that of an abstract generalized 
 type of animal to which all living beings could 
 be compared. He admitted the possibility of 
 one form giving rise to different forms by 
 sudden transformation, but was not strictly an 
 evolutionist. He insisted on the priority of 
 structure over function. 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1772- 1838 — Frangois Joseph Yictor Broussais. Born 
 at St. Malo, Brittany. Military 
 surgeon with the armies of 
 Napoleon in Holland, Germany, 
 Austria and Spain. Propounded 
 the theory of “ Physiological 
 Medicine,” and so treated patien ts 
 by starving and leeching that he 
 and his followers raised the import 
 of leeches in France from two or 
 three millions a year to forty-one 
 millions. Published his “Traite 
 de physiologie applique a la patho- 
 logie ” in 1834. 
 
 1772. — Priestley discovers nitrous oxide. 
 
 1773. — Medical Society of London founded. 
 
 1773- 1829. — Thomas Young. A Quaker physician. The 
 
 discoverer of phonetic hieroglyphics from the 
 study of the Rosetta stone. One of the master 
 minds of the nineteenth century. He appears 
 to have been equally at home in the classics, 
 in physics, mathematics, philology, music, 
 biography and actuarial science. Physician to 
 St. George’s Hospital in London. 
 
 1773-1831. — Luigi Rolando. Professor of anatomy in 
 Turin and author of various works on the 
 brain, giving his name to several parts therein. 
 He likened the cerebellum to the voltaic pile. 
 
 184 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1773 1841.— Marie Anne Yictoire Gillain Boiyin. M.D. 
 
 Marburg (hon. causa). Famous 
 obstetrician of Paris. Dupuytren 
 said of her : “ Qu’elle avait un ceil 
 au bout du doigt.” Invented a 
 trivalve expanding speculum and 
 was the first to demonstrate the 
 nature of the hydatid mole. Author 
 of “ Memorial de l'art des accou- 
 chements” in 1812 ; “Recherches 
 sur une des causes de l’avorte- 
 ment,” 1828, and in collaboration 
 with Duges, “ Traite pratique des 
 maladies de l’uterus et de ses 
 annexes,” 1833. Midwife-superintendent of the 
 Maison Royale de Sante. 
 
 1774. — Priestley published his discovery of dephlogisti- 
 cated air (oxygen), and discovers ammonia 
 gas. 
 
 1774-1819. — Robert Watt. Physician and bibliographer. 
 
 M.D. Aberdeen. Practised at Paisley and 
 afterwards at Glasgow, where he lectured on 
 the theory and practice of medicine. The 
 “ Bibliotheca Britannica ” began to be published 
 in 1819, and was completed posthumously in 
 1824. It was designed to form a general index 
 of the literature of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 ancient and modern, including such foreign 
 works as have been translated into English or 
 printed in the British Dominions. He also 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 published “ An enquiry into the relative mor- 
 tality of the principal diseases of children ” in 
 1813. It is an appendix to his “ Treatise on 
 the Chincough.” 
 
 1774-1842. — Sir Charles Bell. Surgeon. Younger 
 brother of John Bell and endowed 
 with equal artistic power. Sur- 
 geon to the Middlesex Hospital. 
 Discovered that the posterior roots 
 of the spinal nerves presided over 
 sensation and the anterior over 
 motion, in 1816. “ Bell’s palsy” 
 
 as a synonym for facial paralysis 
 commemorates his name. His 
 “ Anatomy of Expression ” was 
 published in 1806. Became pro- 
 fessor of surgery at Edinburgh 
 in 1836. Published “ A New Idea 
 of the Anatomy of the Brain and Nervous 
 System ” in 1811. 
 
 1774- 1844. — John Conrad Otto. Graduated at Penn- 
 
 sylvania 1796. He played an active part in the 
 cholera epidemic of 1833 an d was the first to 
 give an account of haemophilia in 1803. 
 
 1775- 1843. — Abraham Colies Professor of anatomy and 
 
 surgery in Dublin. A masterly operator. 
 Tied the subclavian artery for aneurysm — the 
 third time it had been done in the British Isles, 
 and was the first to tie the innominate. He is 
 
The Nineteenth Centiuy 
 
 remembered by “ Codes’ fracture” at the 
 wrist, “ Colies’ fascia ” and “ Codes’ law.” 
 
 1775- 1849. — William Clift. Prosector to John Hunter, 
 
 and curator of his Museum, subsequently 
 conservator of the Museum at the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. After the death of John 
 Hunter he lived on in great poverty in the 
 empty Castle Street house, where he employed 
 himself by transcribing Hunter's MSS. To 
 this we owe the preservation of much material. 
 1775. — Layoisier defines oxygen. 
 
 1776- 1847.— Carl Friedrich Burdach. Professor of 
 
 anatomy and physiology at Dorpat, Konigs- 
 berg and Breslau. Published a treatise on 
 “ The Structure and Life of the Brain and 
 Spinal Marrow,” in 1819. The “ column of 
 Burdach ” was described in this work. 
 
 1776- 1856.— Amedeo Avogadro. Italian chemist and 
 
 professor of mathematical physics at Turin in 
 1820. He was the first to demonstrate that 
 the molecules of many elements are composed 
 of more than one atom. 
 
 1777- 1835.— Guillaume, Baron Dupuytren. French sur- 
 
 geon and anatomist. Professor of surgery in 
 Paris. Chief surgeon of the Hotel Dieu. First 
 surgeon to Charles X. Contributed to the 
 knowledge of morbid anatomy. Invented some 
 surgical instruments and improved many opera- 
 tions. His name is commemorated in “ Dupuy- 
 tren’s contraction ” of the palmar fascia. 
 
 187 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1777- 1836. — John Cheyne. Born at Leith; educated at 
 
 Edinburgh, practised in Dublin and became 
 physician-general to the forces in Ireland. He 
 described “Cheyne-Stokes respiration ” in 1818- 
 He also described acute hydrocephalus. 
 
 1778- 1829.— Sir Humphry Davy. P.R.S. Physicist and 
 chemist. Born in Penzance, 
 Cornwall, and began life as an ap- 
 prentice to a surgeon and apothe- 
 cary. His researches in electro- 
 chemistry were carried on at the 
 Royal Institution, London, where 
 he became a lecturer in 1801 and 
 had Michael Faraday as his assis- 
 tant. He discovered the metallic 
 elements potassium and sodium. 
 His investigation of gases led to- 
 his discovery of chlorine, euchlo 
 
 rine and fluorine. In 1815 he invented the 
 safety-lamp for miners. He died at Geneva 
 and his tomb is in the cemetery of that city. 
 1778-1850. — Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. French chemist. 
 
 Became professor of chemistry in the Ecole Poly- 
 technique, Paris, and also professor of physics 
 at the Jardin des Plantes. The originator of 
 volumetric analysis and many improvements 
 in the manufacture of chemicals. 
 
 1778 1856. — John Collins Warren. Surgeon and first 
 professor of anatomy and surgery at Harvard. 
 While surgeon of the Massachusetts General 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 Hospital he was the first to administer ether 
 for the purpose of surgical anaesthesia as 
 suggested by Morton. 
 
 1779-1848. — Jons Jacob Berzelius. Swedish chemist. 
 
 He supported Dalton’s atomic theory and 
 inaugurated the quantitative as distinguished 
 from the qualitative era in chemistry. 
 
 1779-1851. — Lorenz Oken. Morphologist and embryo- 
 logist. Professor of medical sciences at Jena and 
 later at Zurich. He elaborated the idea of 
 parallelism, and taught that every animal in 
 its development passes through the stages 
 representing the classes immediately below it. 
 He laid the foundations of the vertebral theory 
 of the skull. 
 
 1781-1826. — Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec. Born 
 in Brittany. Studied at Nantes; 
 served as military surgeon ; pro- 
 fessor of clinical medicine at 
 Paris. In 1S06 he was appointed 
 physician to the Hopital Beaujon 
 andin 1816 becamephysician to the 
 Hopital Necker. He invented the 
 stethoscope in 1815, and published 
 his classical treatise on auscul- 
 tation in two volumes in 1819. 
 By his discoveries he rendered 
 important services to medicine. 
 
 1781-1868. — Sir David Brewster. Physicist who studied 
 optics and the physiology of the eye. Founder 
 
 189 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 I 
 
 of the “ British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science,” 1831. Inventor of the 
 stereoscope. 
 
 1782- 1855. Frangois Magendie, of Bordeaux. Professor 
 
 of general pathology in the College de France 
 and physician to the Hotel Dieu. He founded 
 a new epoch in French medicine and introduced 
 the experimental method into pathology and 
 pharmacology. 
 
 1783- 1853. — Louis Levin Jacobsen. Danish surgeon. 
 
 Invented the lithoclast. He described the 
 organ in the nose which bears his name in 
 1811, and published “New Nervous Anasto- 
 mosis ” in 1819. 
 
 1783 -1858. — Benjamin Travers. Serjeant - surgeon to 
 Queen Victoria and first pupil of Sir Astley 
 Cooper. He introduced the idea of “con- 
 stitutional irritation,” which he considered was 
 derived from the nervous system, or rather 
 he considered the latter the route of trans- 
 mission of the “irritation” to the whole body. 
 
 1783-1860 — John Lizars. Professor of surgery at the 
 University of London and afterwards in 
 Edinburgh. A pupil of John Bell. He was a 
 distinguished operator and several times extir- 
 pated the ovary. Author of “ Observations on 
 extirpation of diseased ovaria,” 1825, and a 
 “ System of anatomical plates,” London, 1822- 
 1826. 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1783 1862. — Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie. Surgeon, 
 Anatomist and physiologist. President of the 
 Royal Society ; Surgeon to St. George’s Hos- 
 pital. Author of “ Pathological and surgical 
 observations on diseases of the joints,” 1818. 
 
 1784- 1845.— Gilbert Breschet. French physician. Pro- 
 
 fessor of anatomy at Paris. Published 1827- 
 1830 “Anatomical, pathological and physio- 
 logical investigations on the venous system.” 
 The chief venous sinus accompanying the 
 middle meningeal artery bears his name. 
 
 1785- 1852. — Daniel Drake. Well known for his work on 
 
 the topography of disease. He published many 
 papers on professional subjects, his chief work 
 being “ Diseases of the Interior Valley of North 
 America” (1850-1854) and an encyclopaedia on 
 the Mississippi Valley. He was the founder of 
 sound medical education in Cincinnati. 
 
 1785-1853. — William Beaumont. Surgeon in the U.S. 
 
 Army. The first to study digestion and 
 movements of the stomach in situ, publishing 
 in 1833 his famous “ Experiments and Obser- 
 vations ” on a case of accidental gastric fistula, 
 which foreshadowed the work of Pavloff. His 
 experiments form the foundation of modern 
 dietetic tables and scales. 
 
 1785-1856. — George James Guthrie. Military surgeon. 
 
 Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, London. 
 He accompanied Wellington on many of his 
 
 191 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 campaigns. Author of “ A treatise on gunshot 
 wounds.” 
 
 1787-1869. — Jan Evangel Purkinje. Professor of patho- 
 logy and physiology at Prague and Breslau. 
 He made some important discoveries in physi- 
 ology. Published in 1838 “A Description of 
 the Central Nervous System.” The cells of Pur- 
 kinje m the cerebellum commemorate his name. 
 
 1787- 1872.— Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis. He was 
 
 the first to apply the “numerical method ” to 
 pathology and was opposed to Broussais’ theo- 
 ries. He was appointed physician to the 
 Hopital de la Pitie, 1835, and published his 
 work, “ Recherches anatomiques, pathologiques 
 et therapeutiques : sur la phthisie,” in 1825, 
 which was founded upon 358 dissections and 
 i960 cases of phthisis. It was translated into 
 German and twice into English. 
 
 1788- 1833.— Johann Friedrich Meckel. Professor of 
 
 surgery and anatomy at Halle. Grandson of 
 Meckel the anatomist [1714-1774] , after whom 
 the ganglion is named. Published contributions 
 to comparative anatomy and devoted much 
 time to a detailed proof of the parallelism 
 between the embryonic states of higher animals 
 and the permanent states of lower animals, 
 hinting that the development of the individual 
 is the repetition of the history of the race. He 
 founded modern zootomy and teratology in 
 Germany and was called “ the German Cuvier.” 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 His name is associated with “ Meckel’s carti- 
 lage.” 
 
 1789-1832. — George Christian Leopold Dagobert, Baron 
 Cuvier. One of the greatest comparative 
 anatomists. Professor of natural history in 
 the College de France. He was the foremost 
 champion of the fixity of species and the 
 superiority of function over form, and the 
 opponent of St. Hilaire. Published in 1800 
 “ Lecons d’anatomie comparee,” and in 1817 
 “ Le regne animal.” The corner-stone of his 
 work is the principle of correlation, namely 
 that each part depends in form and function on 
 every other part. 
 
 1789-1858. — Richard Bright, M.D. Edinburgh. Clinical 
 physician. Born at Bristol, edu- 
 cated at Edinburgh. Physician 
 to Guy’s Hospital in London and 
 to the London Fever Hospital. 
 His name is associated with those 
 morbid conditions of the kidney 
 known as “Bright’s Disease.” 
 His “ Reports of Medical Cases ” 
 published in 1827, which contained 
 his description of essential neph- 
 ritis and distinguishing between 
 cardiac and renal dropsy, estab- 
 lished his reputation throughout 
 the world. He reformed the knowledge of 
 renal pathology. 
 
 N 
 
 193 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1790-1834. — Gustav Gaertner. Danish embryologist and 
 practitioner. He described the duct in the 
 sow, which bears his name, in 1822. He named 
 it “ the Malpighian duct ” as Malpighi had 
 described it in the calf in 1681. 
 
 1790-1847.— Thomas Lisfranc. Chief surgeon of the 
 Hopital de Pitie, Paris. Author of anatomical 
 works. He is remembered in eponymy by 
 the scalene tubercle of the first rib and the 
 amputation at the tarso-metatarsal joint. 
 
 1790 1856. — August Wilhelm Edward Theodore 
 Henschel. Medical historian. Professor of 
 medicine at Breslau. He was editor of the 
 original series of Janus (1846-1851), the first 
 journal devoted to the history of medicine. 
 1790-1857. — Marshall Hall. M.D. Edinburgh. Practised 
 in Nottingham 1817 to 1826, and afterwards in 
 London. Engaged in research on the capillary 
 circulation, in the course of which he was led 
 to picture for the first time the reflex arc and 
 the action of the spinal cord in the production 
 of tonus. He was the first to realize that the 
 spinal cord is not a cable of nerves, but an active 
 workshop teeming with intricate mechanisms. 
 
 1790-1883. — Jules German Cloquet. Professor of clinical 
 surgery in Paris. He is remembered by the 
 canal and gland of Cloquet, and a textbook of 
 anatomy in 5 volumes illustrated with fine 
 plates. Published works on hernia and other 
 surgical subjects. Not to be confused with 
 
 194 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 Hippolyte Cloquet, rhinologist, 1787-1840, who 
 was professor of anatomy in Paris, and author 
 of “ Traite d’anatomie descriptive,” which was 
 published in 1816. It ran through six editions 
 and was translated into English. 
 
 1791. — The first Veterinary School founded in England 
 at the London Veterinary College. 
 
 1791-1867.— Michael Faraday. Began the study of 
 science as assistant to Davy at 
 the Royal Institution. In 1824 
 he commenced the electrical re- 
 searches which made him famous. 
 He discovered electro-magnetic 
 induction and so rendered possible 
 the invention of the induction 
 coil. In 1845 he discovered the 
 influence of a magnetic field of 
 force on polarized light, and made 
 many other important discoveries 
 in electricity and magnetism. 
 
 1791-1868. — John Elliotson. M.D. Cantab. Professor 
 of medicine ac the University of London, 
 physician to University College Hospital, and 
 President of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
 Society. First to employ hypnotism in surgical 
 operations. 
 
 1793-1873. — Thomas Turner. Surgeon and founder of 
 
 the first provincial medical school in England. 
 He opened the Pine Street School, Manchester, 
 in 1824. 
 
 195 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1793-1853. — William Edmund Horner. American 
 anatomist. Professor at Philadelphia, where 
 he founded a museum, which became in his 
 hands one of the richest in the world. He 
 described the muscle which bears his name, in 
 London in 1822. He was author of a work on 
 practical anatomy. 
 
 1793-1860. — Martin Heinrich Rathke. Comparative 
 embryologist. Professor of pathology and 
 physiology at Dorpat and of anatomy and 
 zoology at Konigsberg. Published many classi- 
 cal papers on the development of vertebrates 
 and homologies of the gill arches and the 
 skeleton. “ Rathke’s pouch ” commemorates 
 him in human embryology. 
 
 1793 - 1860. — Thomas Addison. Clinical physician. 
 
 Educated at Newcastle-on-Tyne and Edin- 
 burgh. Physician to Guy’s Hospital. His 
 name is associated with “ Addison’s disease ” of 
 the suprarenal capsules of which he first gave an 
 account in 1849, and published more in detail 
 in 1855. 
 
 1793-1876. — Karl Ernst von Baer (Bar). Professor of 
 Zoology at Konigsberg. Founder of embryo- 
 logy. He described the development of many 
 vertebrate types with great minuteness and 
 accuracy and discovered the mammalian ovum. 
 He enunciated the law that development is a 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 process of differentiation by which the germ 
 becomes more and more individualized from the 
 general to the special. He also described the 
 formation of the germ layers. 
 
 1794-1830.— John D. Godman. American anatomist 
 and professor of surgery. He was editor of the 
 first medical journal to be printed west of the 
 Alleghanies, and author of “ Contributions to 
 Physiological and Pathological Anatomy,” 
 1825, “ American Natural History,” 1826, 
 
 and a treatise on the fascia. 
 
 1794-1847. — Robert Liston. Surgeon. The most brilliant 
 surgical operator of his generation 
 in England. The first to employ 
 ether as an anaesthetic, in amputa- 
 tion of the thigh, at University 
 College Hospital, December 21, 
 1846. He distinguished himself 
 by his dissections, particularly of 
 the elbow-joint. Author of “ A 
 Treatise on Practical and Opera- 
 tive Surgery,” 1837. He is 
 known for his method of flap- 
 amputation, and in 1836 he excised 
 the upper jaw. 
 
 1794 1866. — Benjamin Guy Babington. Physician to 
 Guy’s Hospital. He studied diseases of the 
 throat and larynx and invented a type of 
 laryngoscope in 1828. 
 
 197 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1794 1866. — Sir Charles Hastings. Physician to the 
 Worcester Infirmary. Investi- 
 gated the subject of inflammation, 
 and published a treatise on the 
 subject in 1820. Founded the 
 British Medical Association under 
 the title of the “ Provincial Medi- 
 cal and Surgical Association ” in 
 1832. The first meeting was held 
 in Worcester Infirmary in July, 
 1832, under the presidency of Dr. 
 John Johnstone. In 18-.6 the 
 Society was enlarged and called 
 the Britisli Medical Association. 
 The British Medical Journal was founded in 
 ! 857 - 
 
 1795-1858. — Friedrich Schlemm. Professor of anatomy 
 and surgery at Berlin. Author of a work on the 
 eye which was published in 1828-1830. The 
 “ canal of Schlemm ” commemorates his name. 
 
 1795-1860.— James Braid. Surgeon of Fifeshire. Pioneer 
 in scientific hypnosis. Author of “Neurypno- 
 logy, or the Rationale of Nervous sleep,” 1843, 
 in which he holds that mesmeric influence is 
 entirely subjective and personal. 
 
 1795-1862. — Thomas Wakley. Medical journalist. A 
 great friend of Cobbett. He founded the 
 Lancet, 1823, and was Member of Parliament 
 for Finsbury, 1835. In 1846 he introduced a 
 Bill for Registration which led to the Medical 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 Act of 1858. In 1851 he drew attention to the 
 adulteration of food, the result being the 
 Adulteration Act, i860. His action, whilst 
 Coroner for West Middlesex, led to the aboli- 
 tion of flogging in the Army. 
 
 1795- 1873. — Moritz Heinrich Romberg. Neurologist. 
 
 Professor of special pathology and therapy 
 at Berlin. His name is associated with 
 “ Romberg’s sign.” 
 
 1796- 1860. — Anders Olof Retzius. Swedish naturalist 
 
 and physician. Professor of anatomy at Lund 
 and at a veterinary school at Stockholm. He 
 published a description of the pelvo-prostatic 
 ligaments in 1849, and other anatomical works. 
 He is commemorated anatomically by “ the 
 cave of Retzius.” 
 
 1798-1861. — Francis Adams. General practitioner, of 
 Banchory in Scotland. He found time in the 
 midst of a busy and widely scattered country 
 practice to translate “ Paulus Aegineta ” in 
 1834 an d the works of Hippocrates in 1849, as 
 well as to write accounts of the Greek, Latin 
 and Arabic medical authors for Barker’s edition 
 of “ Lempriere’s Dictionary.” 
 
 1797- 1824. — Edward Grainger. Anatomist. Taught 
 
 anatomy in London, and established a private 
 medical school which was carried on after his 
 death by his brother Richard. Wrote “ The 
 Elements of General Anatomy,” which was the 
 
 199 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 first special work on the anatomy of the tissues 
 in English form. 
 
 1797-1838.— Antoine Louis Duges. Morphologist. Pro- 
 fessor of pathology and operative medicine at 
 Montpellier. Wrote a manual of obstetrics 
 and a treatise of comparative physiology. His 
 most important conception was that the living 
 organism was a colony of lesser units, in them- 
 selves real organisms. This theory has since 
 often been revived. 
 
 1797-1853. Robert James Graves. Irish physician, 
 
 professor of the Institutes of 
 Medicine in the King’s and 
 Queen’s College, of Dublin. Au- 
 thor of “ A System of Clinical 
 Medicine,” 1843, and “Clinical 
 Lectures,” 1848. His name is 
 associated with “ Graves’ disease,” 
 exophthalmic goitre. He gave 
 early descriptions of angioneurotic 
 oedema and scleroderma. He 
 requested that the words “ He 
 fed fevers ” should be his epitaph. 
 
 1797-1858. — Emile Huschke. Professor at Jena and a 
 pupil of Oken. Published a work on splanch- 
 nology in 1845 and on the cranium and its 
 contents in men and animals in 1854. In the 
 latter he described the foramen, produced by a 
 
 200 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 failure of ossification in the tympanum, which 
 bears his name. 
 
 1797-1859 — William Fetherstone Montgomery. Irish 
 
 surgeon. Published a description of the folli- 
 cles at the areola of the nipple which bear 
 his name, in 1837. 
 
 1797-1866. — Thomas Hodgkin. Morbid anatomist. Born 
 near London, educated at Edinburgh. Was 
 
 Curator of the Museum at Guy’s Hospital. He 
 described in 1832 the morbid condition of the 
 spleen and lymphatic glands to which in 1865 
 Samuel Wilks gave the name of “ Hodgkin’s 
 Disease.” 
 
 1797-1882. — Sir Robert Christison. Professor of forensic 
 medicine and materia medica in the Edinburgh 
 University. Pharmacologist and toxicologist. 
 He did much to establish toxicology on a firm 
 scientific basis. 
 
 1797-1891. — Jean Baptiste Bouillaud. Professor and 
 chief physician to the Charite, Paris. He 
 contributed to the knowledge of diseases of the 
 heart and their connection with rheumatism 
 and also drew attention to the great value of 
 physical diagnosis. His chief works were 
 “ Traite clinique de rheumatisme articulaire ” 
 and “ Traite clinique des maladies du coeur.” 
 
 1800. — Sir Humphry Dayy discovered the anaesthetic 
 properties of nitrous oxide gas. 
 
 1800-1829. — Henry Hill Hickman. Surgeon and general 
 practitioner of Ludlow. He carried out a series 
 
 201 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 of experiments with anaesthetics on animals by 
 administering carbonic dioxide and nitrous 
 oxide gases. He amputated their legs while 
 under the anaesthetics, but was unable to carry 
 out his experiments on human subjects in 
 England. In 1828 he went to Paris and laid 
 his results, by which he claimed to render 
 patients insensible to pain when under surgical 
 operations, before the Academie de Medecine. 
 He was one of the earliest pioneers in the 
 discovery of a method of producing anaesthesia 
 by inhalation of nitrous oxide gas for the pur- 
 pose of surgical operation. 
 
 1800-1872. — Salvatore de Kenyia. Professor of the 
 history of medicine at Naples in i860. He 
 published two valuable works, Collectio 
 Saliternitana,” and “ Storia della medicine 
 Italiana,” each in five volumes. 
 
 1800-1884. — Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas. French 
 chemist and author of “ Traite du Chimie 
 applique aux Arts.” He established the 
 theory of substitution in chemistry and in- 
 vestigated the composition of carbon-dioxide. 
 He succeeded Gay Lussac as professor at the 
 Sorbonne in 1832, and finally became professor 
 of chemistry at the Ecole de Me'decine in 1839. 
 He was the first chemist in France to adopt 
 the system of practical instruction in the 
 laboratories, and added much to our knowledge 
 of organic chemistry. 
 
 202 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1800-1885.— Henri Milne Edwards. French naturalist, 
 Professor of entomology, zoology and com- 
 parative physiology in Paris. Successor to 
 St. Hilaire. Disciple of Cuvier. Interpreted 
 form on the principle that it is rational and 
 purposive, and rejected Darwinism while ad- 
 mitting the gradation of species from lower to 
 higher forms by the intervention of a super- 
 natural power. Published “ Introduction a la 
 zoologie generate,” 1851. 
 
 1800-1887. — Richard Quain. Surgeon and anatomist. 
 
 Surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and 
 with William Sharpey edited the 5th edition of 
 Jones Quain’s “ Human Anatomy.” 
 
 1800- 1890. — Sir Edwin Chadwick. The father of modern 
 
 sanitary science in England. He focused 
 public attention on the broad facts and conse- 
 quences of public neglect, and endeavoured to 
 bring the public health under the protection 
 of the law. 
 
 1801- 1858. — Johannes Muller. Professor of anatomy 
 
 and physiology, Berlin. The son of a shoe- 
 maker at Coblenz. He inspired an entire 
 school of original workers. Schwann, Henle, 
 Briicke, du Bois Reymond, Remak, Virchow 
 and Helmholtz acknowledged his influence, 
 and all endeavoured to solve the problems of 
 physiology by the methods of chemistry and 
 physics. He wrote a masterly textbook, “ The 
 
 203 
 
The Nineteenth Ceutury 
 
 Outlines of Physiology ” and his name is re- 
 membered in the “ Mullerian ducts.” 
 
 1801-1867. — Armand Trousseau, of Tours. Professor 
 in the Faculte de Medecine in Paris and physi- 
 cian to the Hotel Dieu. He was a pioneer in 
 thoracentesis. He made a speciality of croup 
 and the employment of tracheotomy in that 
 disease. His “ Traite de therapeutique et de 
 matieres medicales,” par Trousseau et Pidoux, 
 ran through eight editions in France and was 
 translated into English, Spanish and Italian. 
 
 1801- 1881. — Maxmilien Paul Emile Littre. Lexico- 
 
 grapher and medical historian. Author of the 
 great dictionary of the French language and of 
 the best editions of the works of Hippocrates 
 and of Pliny. He is not to be confused with 
 Alexis Littre (1698-1726), whose name is com- 
 memorated in “ Littre’s hernia ” and “glands.” 
 
 1802- 1845. — John Houston. Irish surgeon. Curator of 
 
 the Dublin College of Surgeons Museum of 
 which he published an accurate and graphic 
 catalogue. Surgeon to the City of Dublin 
 Hospital and lecturer on surgery. Author of a 
 book on dropsy, and various other works. The 
 “valves of Houston” in the rectum were 
 described by him. 
 
 1802-1880. — Sir Dominic Corrigan. Irish physician who 
 practised in Dublin. He wrote on diseases of 
 
 204 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 the heart ; described aortic insufficiency and 
 gave his name to “ Corrigan’s pulse.” 
 
 1802- 1880. — William Sharpey. M.D. of Edinburgh. 
 
 Professor of anatomy and physiology at 
 University College, London. One of the 
 founders of modern physiology in England. 
 Amongst his pupils were Michael Foster and 
 Burdon Sanderson. 
 
 1803- 1873. — Justus von Liebig. German chemist and 
 
 professor of chemistry at Giessen, 1824. 
 Founder of agricultural chemistry and pioneer 
 in physiological chemistry. He discovered hi p- 
 puric acid and chloral and did important work 
 on fats, blood and meat juice. He perfected the 
 method of analysing organic compounds and 
 discovered chloroform and many cyanides. He 
 also established the formula of uric acid and 
 the nature of aldehyde. His investigations 
 concerning the operations of agriculture, the 
 processes of digestion, and the source of animal 
 heat, have proved of great service to mankind. 
 In his work on organic chemistry in its applica- 
 tion to physiology and pathology, published in 
 1842, he first introduced the word metabolism. 
 His theory of fermentation was demolished by 
 Pasteur. 
 
 1804- 1873. — Peter Charles Huguier. Professor of ana- 
 
 tomy at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He 
 annotated and enlarged the work of Bichat. 
 
 205 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 He finally applied himself to gynaecology. The 
 canal through which the chorda tympani 
 emerges from the skull bears his name. 
 
 4804-1876. — Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer. Ortho- 
 paedic surgeon. Surgeon-general of the 
 Hanoverian Army, 1854. Was present at the 
 battle of Sedan, 1870. One of the founders 
 of the modern school of orthopaedic surgery. 
 
 1804-1878. — John Hilton. Surgeon to Guy’s Hospital. 
 
 President of the Royal College of Surgeons of 
 England. Surgeon to Queen Victoria. Was 
 influenced by the discoveries of Bell and 
 Marshall Hall. The great exponent, in his 
 work on “ Rest and Pain,” of treatment by 
 physiological rest. He laid much stress on the 
 necessity of combining a knowledge of the 
 anatomy and physiology of the nerves with 
 surgical treatment. 
 
 1804-1878. — Sir William Stokes. Regius professor of 
 medicine in Trinity College, Dublin, and one 
 of the great ornaments of the Irish medical 
 school. His name is associated with an ex- 
 planation in 1848 of the respiratory cycle 
 observed by John Cheyne, and with the Stokes- 
 Adams syndrome. He published four cases 
 of heart block in 1846, but it had already been 
 observed by Thomas Spens of Edinburgh, 
 1763-1842. 
 
 1804-1881. — Matthias Jakob Schleiden. Professor of 
 botany at Jena, Dresden and Dorpat ; an 
 
 206 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 exponent of the cellular structure of plants. 
 Was one of the first to use the microscope in 
 examining plants. 
 
 1804- 1892. — Sir Richard Owen. Comparative anatomist. 
 
 Born at Lancaster ; studied in Edinburgh. 
 Was conservator of the Hunterian collection 
 at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 
 and was afterwards superintendent of the 
 Natural History Department of the British 
 Museum. He is best remembered by his 
 vertebral theory of the skull which was demo- 
 lished by Parker and Huxley. 
 
 1805- 1884. — Samuel David Gross. Professor of surgery 
 
 at Louisville and Philadelphia. Author of 
 the first exhaustive treatise on pathological 
 anatomy in English, 1839. He also published 
 a work on the diseases of the genito-urinary 
 organs, 1851 ; the first systematic treatise on 
 foreign bodies in the air-passages, 1854, an d a 
 system of surgery, 1859. He invented several 
 instruments and wrote many historical and 
 biographical papers. 
 
 1806- 1865. — Joseph Frangois Malgaigne. French sur- 
 
 geon. He published a treatise on surgical 
 anatomy and experimental surgery in two 
 volumes in 1838. He is remembered by 
 “ Malgaigne’s hooks,” which were used in the 
 treatment of fractured patellae. He published 
 an edition of Ambroise Pare’s works in 1840. 
 
 207 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1806 1875. — Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne, of 
 Boulogne. One of the founders of modern 
 neurology. He described bulbar paralysis in 
 i860, and his name is commemorated in medi- 
 cine in connection with “ Duchenne’s palsy.” 
 1807-1873. — Auguste Nelaton. Professor of surgery, 
 Paris. Surgeon to Napoleon III. Wrote be- 
 sides other works “ Elements of Pathological 
 Surgery,” in five volumes. He is remembered in 
 surgery by “ Nelaton’s line ” and “sphincter” 
 and by a bullet probe he invented. 
 
 1807- 1878. — Antoine Pierre Ernest Bazin. French phy- 
 
 sician. Professor of dermatology and physi- 
 cian to the Hospital of St. Louis. “ Bazin’s 
 disease ” commemorates his name. 
 
 1808 1875. — Joachim Albin Cardozo Cazado Giraldes. 
 
 Born at Oporto. Professor of anatomy in Paris. 
 Published studies in anatomy, and described 
 the organ which bears his name in 1859. 
 
 1808- 1877. — Sir William Fergusson. Serjeant-surgeon 
 
 to Queen Victoria. Author of “ System of 
 Practical Surgery,” 1842. Was one of the 
 first surgeons to remove the upper jaw. 
 
 1809- 1872. — William Wood Gerhard. American phy- 
 
 sician. Differentiated between typhus and 
 typhoid fevers, the distinction was finally 
 made in England by Sir W. Jenner, 1849-50. 
 1809-1882.— Charles Robert Darwin. Pioneer in the 
 study of general biology. Although the idea 
 
 208 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 of evolution was known to the Greeks, he 
 established the theory and devoted the greater 
 part of his life to his great work on the “ Origin 
 of Species by means of Natural Selection,” 1859. 
 This work and “ The Descent of Man,” pub- 
 lished in 1871, gave him a place among the 
 great thinkers of his century. 
 
 1809-1884. — Sir William James Erasmus Wilson. 
 
 Dermatologist and founder of the Chair of 
 Dermatology at the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 also founder of the Chair of Pathology at the 
 University of Aberdeen. Wrote several works 
 on diseases of the skin. Was instrumental in 
 bringing Cleopatra’s Needle from Egypt to 
 London, and had it erected on the Thames 
 Embankment. 
 
 1809-1894. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. — Anatomist and 
 author. Professor of anatomy at Harvard. 
 He is best known for his poems and charming 
 writings. In 1843 he wrote a paper on 
 the Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever, which 
 attracted much attention in the United States. 
 He introduced the terms “anaesthesia” and 
 “ anaesthetic.” 
 
 1809-1896. — Friedrich Gustay Jacob Henle. Anatomist 
 and histologist. Pupil of Johannes Muller. 
 Professor of anatomy at Zurich, Heidelberg 
 and Gottingen. His name is commemorated 
 
 o 
 
 209 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 in several anatomical structures, as in “Henle’s 
 loop ” in the renal tubules, and “ Henle’s layer ” 
 in the hair sheath. 
 
 1810-1859. — Jacob Bell. Pharmacist of London. Founder 
 of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 
 1841, which was incorporated by Royal Charter 
 in 1843. 
 
 1810-1882. — Theodore Schwann. Professor of anatomy 
 at Louvain. The founder of the cell theory. A 
 brilliant cytologist. Did fundamental work on 
 the form and physiology of the cell and of bile. 
 He compared plant and animal cells and 
 described the origin of tissues from cells. 
 Applied the microscope to the elucidation of the 
 structure of animal tissues and showed that yeast 
 fermentation was due to a vegetable germ which 
 fed itself on sugar and formed alcohol. 
 
 1810-1892. — Jean Louis Armand Quatrefages de Breau. 
 
 Professor of anatomy and ethnology at the 
 Natural History Museum, Paris. Zoologist and 
 anthropologist. Worked with Milne-Edwards 
 at physiological morphology. An exponent of 
 the theory of the polyphyletic origin of 
 man. 
 
 1810-1896. — Marie Philibert Constant Sappey. Professor 
 of descriptive anatomy in Paris. Author of 
 various anatomical works, especially on the 
 lymphatic system. His “ Traite d’Anatomie ” 
 
 210 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 in four volumes is illustrated with fine steel 
 engravings. 
 
 1811-1870. — Sir James Young Simpson. — Gynaecologist 
 and archaeologist. Professor of 
 obstetrics at Edinburgh. First 
 to use chloroform as an anaes- 
 thetic in midwifery practice. In- 
 troduced acupressure, 1847, and 
 the uterine sound into medical 
 practice, 1843. He originated a 
 type of midwifery forceps, and 
 introduced the sponge tent, for 
 dilatation of the cervix uteri in 
 diagnosis. “ Simpson’s pains ” in 
 uterine cancer, 1863, and version 
 in deformed pelves are associated with his 
 name. 
 
 1811- 1895.— Andrew Yerga. Alienist. Director of the 
 
 Ospedale Maggiore in Milan. Did much 
 to improve the treatment of those mentally 
 afflicted in Italy. Described his “ventricle” 
 in 1851. 
 
 1812- 1875 — John Hughes Bennett. Studied in Germany, 
 
 Paris and Edinburgh. Became lecturer on 
 histology in Edinburgh, 1841, and was the first 
 to hold classes to teach students the use of the 
 microscope. Professor of Institutes of ediejne 
 1848. While still a student he wrote “ On 
 
 21 1 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 the Anatomy and Physiology of the Optic 
 Ganglions.” He edited the Edinburgh Monthly 
 Journal of Medical Science for many years. 
 
 1812- 1883.— Philip Pacini. Professor of anatomy at 
 
 Pisa and Florence. Employed the microscope 
 to elucidate the cause of disease, and recognized 
 the micro-organism of cholera. He investigated 
 the electric organ of Gymnotus, and his name 
 is commemorated in the Pacinian corpuscles 
 of the skin. 
 
 1813- 1833. — James Marion Sims. American surgeon. 
 
 Practised in New York, where he was instru- 
 mental in founding a hospital for the diseases of 
 women. Inventor of the well-known speculum. 
 
 1813-1873. — David Livingstone. Medical missionary and 
 
 explorer. Born at Blantyre, near 
 Glasgow. Studied at Anderson 
 College, Glasgow, and graduated 
 as Licentiate of the Faculty of 
 Physicians and Surgeons, Glas- 
 gow, 1840. Practised as medical 
 missionary among the Bechuanas 
 of South Africa from 1840-1849. 
 He discovered Lake Ngami in 
 1849 and explored the Zambesi 
 and Kuanza basins to Loanda, 
 1:851-54. He recrossed the conti- 
 nent from Loanda to Kilimane,and 
 discovered the Victoria Falls in 1855. He after 
 
 212 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 wards discovered Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, 
 1850-59, and Lakes Tanganyika, Moero and 
 Bangweolo in 1867-1868. He navigated the 
 Tanganyika, being driven back by the Manyema, 
 and was relieved by Stanley in 1871. He 
 returned to Lake Bangweolo and after enduring 
 great hardships succumbed to an attack of 
 dysentery and died at Chitambo. 
 
 1815-1867. — John Goodsir. Scottish anatomist and pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Edinburgh. He obtained 
 distinction from his investigations in cellular 
 pathology. His volume of “ Anatomical Me- 
 moirs ” was published in 1868. He was one 
 of the great and inspiring teachers of the 
 Edinburgh medical school. 
 
 1815-1876. — Francis Sibson. M.D.Lond. Physician to 
 St. Mary's Hospital in 1851. He wrote “ On 
 Changes induced in the situation and structure 
 of the internal organs under varying circum- 
 stances of Health and Disease,” 1844. Between 
 1855 and 1869 he also published in sections 
 his “ Medical Anatomy.” He gave his name 
 to the fascial diaphragm over the apex of 
 the lung. 
 
 1815-1878. — Claude Bernard. Born at St. Julien, France. 
 
 Experimental physiologist and pathologist. A 
 pupil of Magendie, whom he succeeded as 
 professor of physiology at the Sorbonne in 
 Paris. Investigated digestion of fat by the 
 
 213 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 aid of pancreatic juice, formation of sugar 
 in the liver, and the vasomotor nerves. 
 
 1814-1894. — William Alexander Greenhill. Medical his- 
 torian. Editor of Sydenham’s works in 1844 
 and of the writings of Sir Thomas Browne. 
 He translated Rhazes in 1847 and wrote many 
 of the lives of physicians in Smith’s Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Biography. He died 
 at Hastings where he had lived for many 
 years. 
 
 1814-1899.— Sir James Paget. Serjeant Surgeon to 
 
 Queen Victoria, physiologist and 
 pathologist. Surgeon to St. 
 Bartholomew’s Hospital and Pre- 
 sident of the Royal College of 
 Surgeons of England. Patho- 
 logist and investigator on the 
 subject of tumours both clinically 
 and microscopically. He pub- 
 lished “ Lectures on Tumours,” 
 1851, “ Surgical Pathology,” 
 
 1863, “ Clinical Lectures and 
 
 Essays,” 1875, and compiled the 
 catalogue of the Pathological 
 Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in 
 1882. 
 
 fl. 1840.— Crawford Williamson Long. M.D. Penn- 
 sylvania. Claimed to be the first discoverer of 
 ether anaesthesia. Performed the first operation 
 
 214 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 with a patient under its influence March 30, 
 1842. 
 
 1815 — Laennec invented the stethoscope and originated 
 mediate auscultation. 
 
 1815-1858. — Horace Wells. — Dental Surgeon of Hartford, 
 Connecticut, U.S. First to use nitrous oxide 
 gas as an anaesthetic in dentistry in 1844. 
 
 1815-1876. — Sir William Robert Wills Wilde. — Irish 
 
 ophthalmic surgeon and archaeologist. Founded 
 and edited the Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical 
 ■ Science. He was interested in antiquarian re-’ 
 search, and also published topographical works 
 and observations on ophthalmia and aural 
 surgery. Father of Oscar Wilde. 
 
 1815- 1877. — Karl Reinhold August Wunderlich. Pro- 
 
 fessor of medicine in the University of Tubingen. 
 The originator of modern clinical thermometry. 
 He published his treatise on the relation of 
 animal heat in disease in 1868. 
 
 1816- 1872. — Charles Victor Daremberg. Medical his- 
 
 torian. Librarian of the Academie de Mede- 
 cine and of the Mazarin Library at Paris. He 
 was the first professor of the history of medicine 
 in the University of Paris, and gave lectures on 
 the subject in the College de France. 
 
 1816-1880. — Ferdinand von Hebra, of Brunn. Founder 
 of the histological school of dermatology. His 
 classification of skin diseases (1845) was based 
 
 215 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 upon their pathological anatomy. He was the 
 hrst to describe impetigo herpetiformis. 
 
 1816-1880. — Jacob Augustus Lockhart Clarke. Phy- 
 sician to the Hospital for the Paralysed and 
 Epileptic. He carefully studied and illustrated 
 some original microscopical work on the brain. 
 
 1816-1890 — Sir William Gull. Physician. One of the 
 first to note the posterior spinal lesions in 
 locomotor ataxia in 1856, and to differentiate 
 typhoid fever. He described intermittent 
 
 haemoglobinuria (1866), and was a pioneer 
 in the use of static electricity in the treatment 
 of nervous diseases. 
 
 1816-1892 — Sir William Bowman. Physiologist and 
 ophthalmic surgeon. He was one of the first 
 in England to devote himself exclusively to 
 ophthalmic surgery. His name is com- 
 memorated in anatomy by “ Bowman’s 
 
 capsule” in the kidney and “ Bowman’s mem- 
 brane” in the hair follicles. 
 
 1816-1895. — Charles William Ludwig. Professor of ana- 
 tomy and physiology at Zurich, Vienna and 
 Leipzig. Author of a manual of physiology 
 and a memoir on the structure and movements 
 of the ventricles of the heart. One of the great 
 physiological teachers of his age. 
 
 1816. — Sir Thomas Longmore. Military surgeon. Director- 
 General of the Army Medical Service. Pro- 
 
 216 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 fessor of military surgery at the Army Medical 
 School at Chatham. Author of numerous 
 treatises on military surgery and hygiene. 
 Inventor of the first electric bullet-detector. 
 He published “Richard Wiseman: A Bio- 
 graphical Study,” in 1891. 
 
 1816- 1905. — Sir John Simon. Epidemiologist. Sur- 
 
 geon to St. Thomas’s Hospital and became 
 medical officer to the Privy Council. Carried 
 on the traditions of Sir Edwin Chadwick in 
 regard to public health. He wrote “ English 
 Sanitary Institutions,” a history of public 
 health from the earliest times. 
 
 1817- 1895. — August Hirsch. Medical bibliographer and 
 
 epidemiologist ; educated at Berlin, practised 
 at Danzig. Wrote on the epidemiology of the 
 plague, cholera, and malaria Edited, with 
 Pagel, Gurlt’s “Biographical Medical Lexicon” 
 in six volumes 1884-1888. 
 
 1817-1895. — Edouard Brown - Sequard. Physiologist. 
 
 Born in Mauritius of American father and 
 French mother. Educated at Paris. Professor 
 of the Institutes of Medicine at Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia. Returned to Paris, founded and edited 
 the Journal de Physiologie. He became physician 
 to the National Hospital for the Paralysed and 
 Epileptic on its foundation in London in 1859. 
 He returned to America as professor of the 
 physiology and pathology of the nervous 
 
 217 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 system at Harvard in 1863, but returned to 
 Paris in 1872. His name is more especially 
 associated with the experimental production 
 of epilepsy and the existence of vasomotor 
 nerves. 
 
 1818 1865 — Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis, of Vienna. 
 
 Obstetrician. He taught that 
 puerperal fever was due to in- 
 fection borne from the dissecting 
 room, and was preventible. In 
 1847 he carried his teaching into 
 practice by ordering his students 
 to wash in a solution of chlorin- 
 ated lime before making an ex- 
 amination in the labour wards of 
 the Vienna Lying-in Hospital. 
 He was appointed professor of 
 midwifery at Budapest in 1855, 
 but his views were bitterly opposed. 
 
 1818 1889. — Frans Cornells Donders. Ophthalmologist. 
 
 Teacher of anatomy, histology and physiology 
 at the Military Medical School of Utrecht in 
 1847. He did much to advance the knowledge 
 of colour vision and of errors in the refraction 
 of the eye, and their treatment by spectacles. 
 He improved Helmholtz’s ophthalmoscope by 
 making the central hole in the mirror. 
 
 1818-1892. — Henry Jacob Bigelow. Surgeon to the 
 Massachusetts General Hospital and professor 
 
 218 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 of surgery at Harvard, U.S. He took an 
 active part in the early anaesthetic experi- 
 ments. He published his method of reducing 
 dislocations of the shoulder in 1869. 
 
 1818- 1897. — Sir Thomas Spencer Wells. Gynaecolo- 
 
 gist. Practised in London, 1854. Served in 
 the Crimea as a naval surgeon and returned to 
 England much less afraid of abdominal wounds 
 than his contemporaries who had only civilian 
 experience. In 1858 he began to perform 
 ovariotomies in spite of great opposition. 
 President of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 A baronetcy was conferred upon him in 1882. 
 
 1819- 1868. — William Thomas Green Morton. Dentist 
 of Charlton, Massachusetts, U.S. 
 First used ether in 1846 to pro- 
 duce anaesthesia for dental opera- 
 tions, and on October 16, 1846,^ 
 he administered it successfully in 
 a case of congenital vascular 
 tumour of the neck, operated 
 upon by Dr. John Collins Warren 
 in the Massachusetts General 
 Hospital. Morton did not reveal 
 the secret of the agent he used 
 until November 1846, and called 
 it “ Letheon.” 
 
 1819-1872. — Wenzel Treitz. Professor of pathological 
 anatomy at Cracow and Prague. He described 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 his ligament in 1853, and wrote on retro- 
 peritoneal hernia in 1856. 
 
 1819-1876.— Edmund A. Parkes. Epidemiologist. 
 
 Appointed to the first Chair of Hygiene founded 
 in England at the Army Medical School at 
 Netley in i860. Established the Parkes 
 Museum of Hygiene. Author of “ Manual of 
 Practical Hygiene,” 1864. 
 
 1819- 1892. — Josef Ritter von Artha Hasner. Austrian 
 
 ophthalmologist. Professor of ophthalmology 
 at Prague. Published 1850 a work on the 
 physiology and pathology of the lachrymal 
 apparatus, describing the valve of the nasal 
 duct which is called by his name. Editor of 
 the Prager vied. Vierteljahrsschrift. 
 
 1820- 1875^ — Hubert von Luschka. Professor of anatomy 
 
 at Tubingen. Author of a human anatomy 
 in three volumes and anatomical papers 
 (1862-1867). The lateral foramina in the roof 
 of the fourth ventricle are called by his name. 
 
 1820- 1904. — Sir Henry Thompson. Surgeon and litho- 
 
 tomist. Performed lithotomy on the Emperor 
 Napoleon III in 1873. Author of many works 
 on pathology and treatment of the urethra. 
 
 1821- 1890. — Gottlieb Friedrich Heinrich Klichenmeister. 
 
 Parasitologist. Practised at Dresden and 
 studied more especially the life-history of the 
 tapeworm. 
 
 220 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1821-1894. — Herman Ludwig Ferdinand Yon Helm- 
 holtz. Successively professor of pathology at 
 Konigsberg ; of anatomy and physiology at 
 Bonn ; of physiology at Heidelberg, and of 
 physics at Berlin. He wrote on the physiology 
 of hearing and on physiological acoustics. He 
 invented an ophthalmoscope in 1851 and com- 
 pleted the demonstration of the mechanism of 
 accommodation in the eye. 
 
 1821-1898. — Carlo Giacornini. Professor of Turin Uni- 
 versity. Published his work on the hippo- 
 campus in 1833, describing the “ bundle of 
 Giacornini ” in the olfactory tract. 
 
 1821- 1902. — Rudolf Virchow. Professor of pathology at 
 
 the University of Berlin. His work on Cellu- 
 lar Pathology published in 1858 had a marked 
 influence on the pathological teaching of the 
 nineteenth century. He was also a politician, 
 an anthropologist and an archaeologist. He 
 edited the well-known Virchow's Archiv for 
 pathological anatomy. 
 
 1822- 1895. — Louis Pasteur. French chemist and scien- 
 
 tist. Professor of physics at Dijon. Professor 
 and Dean of the Faculty of Science at Lille, 
 1854. Professor at the Sorbonne. He com- 
 menced his famous researches on fermenta- 
 tion in the latter city. In 1865 he successfully 
 investigated silkworm disease, and in 1877 he 
 
 221 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 commenced his work on anthrax, announcing 
 in 1881 his discovery of a protective vaccine 
 consisting of the attenuated virus. At the 
 same time he investigated hydrophobia, com- 
 mencing in 1884, under the authority of the 
 French Government, his experiments on the 
 cortex of rabid dogs. In 1885 he performed 
 the first protective inoculation, which was 
 successful. Towards the end of his life he 
 inaugurated, in conjunction with Roux, who 
 had been his assistant throughout, a series of 
 researches on diphtheria which resulted in the 
 discovery of the serum now so largely used. 
 He was the founder of the science of bacterio- 
 logy. 
 
 1824- 1881.— Peter Paul Broca. French surgeon and 
 
 anthropologist. Professor of clinical surgery 
 at Paris. Published a descriptive anatomy, 
 T865, also various works on aphasia and cranio- 
 cerebral topography. 
 
 1825- 1893. — Jean-Martin Charcot. Physician to the 
 
 Salpetriere at Paris, wdth which his name is 
 indissolubly connected. He was a great clinical 
 teacher of neurology. His name is asso- 
 ciated with the condition of the joints known 
 as ‘‘'Charcot’s disease.” He was also an artist 
 of some ability, and studied medical history 
 on its artistic side. 
 
 1825-1895. — Thomas Henry Huxley. Biologist. Lecturer 
 on natural history at the Royal School of Mines 
 
 222 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 in London. The staunch advocate of Charles 
 Darwin and a great popularizer of biological 
 teaching in England. 
 
 1825 - 1895. — Ernest Felix Immanuel Hoppe-Seyler. 
 
 Professor of chemistry at Strasburg. A pioneer 
 in physiological chemistry. Editor of the 
 Zeitschrift fur physiologisthe Cliemie, 1877-1894. 
 
 1826-1898. — Andreas Anagnostakis. Ophthalmic surgeon. 
 
 Born in Crete. Was in general practice before 
 he devoted himself to the study of ophthalm- 
 ology. He became Professor of ophthalmology 
 at the University of Athens, and published in 
 1872 “ Contributions relating to Ophthalmic 
 Surgery amongst the Ancients.” He invented 
 an ophthalmoscope while he was a student, but 
 published no account of it until 1854. 
 Helmholtz previously published an account of 
 an instrument he had invented in 1851, which 
 was modified by Donders, who made the central 
 hole in the mirror. 
 
 1827 - 1900. — Richard Neale. M.D. London. Medical 
 bibliographer. Whilst conducting a busy 
 general practice in London for a period of 
 fifty years he edited The Medical Digest , “ a 
 successor to Watt’s Bibliotheca Britannica ” 
 and a predecessor of the “ Index Medicus.” A 
 portrait of him hangs in the Royal College of 
 Surgeons of England. 
 
 223 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1827-1912. — Lord Lister (Joseph). Surgeon. Born at 
 Upton, Essex. He became a 
 student at University College, 
 London, and graduated in 1852. 
 He studied under and became 
 
 assistant to Syme, and was 
 appointed professor of surgery at 
 Glasgow University in i860. 
 Here he commenced his 
 investigations in connection 
 
 with the use of antiseptics, 
 
 which afterwards caused a 
 
 revolution in surgery and proved 
 of incalculable value to mankind. 
 From his discoveries the present system of 
 aseptic surgery developed. He communicated 
 his successful results at a meeting of the British 
 Medical Association in Dublin in 1867. He 
 based his antiseptic teaching on the theory of 
 putrefaction, and first used undiluted carbolic 
 acid to destroy septic organisms in a case of 
 compound fracture in Glasgow Infirmary in 
 1865. He was appointed professor of clinical 
 surgery at King’s College, London, in 1877, 
 where he first used his carbolic spray. He was 
 raised to the peerage in 1897, an d died in 
 London in 1912. 
 
 1828 - 1870. — Albrecht von Graefe. Professor of 
 ophthalmic surgery in the University of Berlin, 
 son of the surgeon Carl Ferdinand von Graefe 
 
 224 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 (1787-1840) and was a pupil of Arlt, Sichel, 
 Desmarres, Von Jaeger, Bowman and Critchett. 
 Founder of the Avchiv fur Ophthalmologie (1854). 
 Invented the modern method of linear extrac- 
 tion of cataract. His name is associated with 
 “ Graefe’s knife.” 
 
 1828-1896. — Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson. Physician. 
 
 Specialised in public health and dietetics. Pub- 
 lished many works on these subjects, also on 
 alcoholism and intemperance. Author of 
 “Diseases of Modern Life,” 1876, “National 
 Health,” 1890, “ Vita Medica,” 1897. 
 
 1828- 1897. — Etienne Tarnier. French obstetrician. In- 
 
 troduced his first axis traction forceps for 
 midwifery, 1877, °f which there are several 
 types, and was the first to use carbolic solution 
 in obstetrics. 
 
 1829- 1905. — George Meissner. German anatomist. A 
 
 pupil of Joh. Muller. Professor of anatomy 
 and physiology at Bale and afterwards at 
 Gottingen. Described his tactile corpuscles in 
 1852, and published in 1853 “ Contributions to 
 the anatomy and physiology of the skin." 
 
 1830- 1914. — Silas Weir Mitchell. American neurologist 
 
 who introduced a special method of treatment 
 by rest and diet which is called after his 
 name. He is known also as a poet and 
 
 novelist. 
 
 p 
 
 225 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1 831- 1897 — Alarik Frithiof Holmgren. Swedish physi- 
 
 ologist. Professor of physiology in the 
 University of Upsala. He worked especially 
 on colour vision. His name is associated with 
 “Holmgren’s wools” which are used as tests 
 for colour blindness. 
 
 1832- 1919. — Sir William Crookes. Scientist and chemist. 
 
 Pioneer in the investigation of phenomena 
 shown by gases under greatly reduced pressure. 
 He discovered thallium, a new metallic element, 
 and in 1875 invented the radiometer. From 
 his researches Radiography became possible. 
 
 1834-1907. — Dmitri Ivanovitsch Mendeleeff. Russian 
 chemist and professor of chemistry in the Uni- 
 versity of Petrograd, 1866. In 1869 he 
 first published his famous table. He was the 
 first not only to formulate a general law 
 connecting atomic weights with properties, but 
 was also the first to indicate the character known 
 as the law of periodicity. 
 
 1834 1919. — Ernst Heinrich Haeckel. Professor of 
 zoology at Jena. The chief exponent of 
 materialistic evolution. He held the position 
 that the development of the individual is a con- 
 densed recapitulation of the development of 
 the race, and made a complete list of the steps 
 of evolution including many purely hypothetical 
 forms. 
 
 226 
 
The Nineteenth Centuiy 
 
 1834-1863 — Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters. Pupil of 
 Virchow at Berlin. His work on the me- 
 dulla oblongata, published 1865, described the 
 “nucleus of Deiters.” He also wrote various 
 papers on the Internal Ear. 
 
 1834- 1911. — John Hughlings Jackson, M.D. Pioneer in 
 
 the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the 
 nervous system. He was the first to establish 
 the use of the ophthalmoscope in the diagnosis 
 of diseases of the brain. His name is com- 
 memorated in the term “Jacksonian epilepsy,” 
 which he first described in 1S75. 
 
 1835- 1922. — Louis Ranvier. Professor of anatomy at 
 
 the College de France. Published a treatise 
 of histology, 1877-82. The “ nodes of 
 Ranvier ” commemorate his name. 
 
 1836- 1907. — Sir Michael Foster. Praelector of physio- 
 
 logy at the University of Cambridge. Founder 
 of the School of Cambridge physiologists, as 
 represented by Martin, Gaskell, Fangley and 
 Fea. His textbook of Physiology passed 
 through seven editions, and was translated into 
 several languages. 
 
 1838-1896. — Edouard Nicaise, of Paris. Medical historian, 
 Surgeon to the Hopital Eaennec in Paris. He 
 edited, with illuminating prefaces and notes, the 
 works of Mondeville, Chauliac and Franco. 
 
 1838-1913.— John Shaw Billings. Medical bibliographer. 
 
 He started and carried to a successful issue 
 
 227 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 with the help of Robert Fletcher (1823-1912) 
 the great Index Catalogue of the Surgeon- 
 General’sLibrary at Washington. 
 
 1838- 1915. — George Miller Sternberg. Epidemiologist. 
 
 Surgeon-General United States Army, 1893- 
 1902. Creator of the Army Medical School 
 and organizer of the Army Nursing Corps in 
 the United States. Demonstrated the pneumo- 
 coccus in 1880, put forward a theory of 
 phagocytosis in 1881. He demonstrated the 
 plasmodium in a malarial patient in 1885 for 
 the first time in the United States. He also 
 devoted much time to the stud}? of yellow fever. 
 
 1839- 1884. — Julius Friedrich Cohnheim. Professor of 
 
 pathology at Kiel, 1868, and afterwards at 
 Breslau and Leipzig. He wrote on tuberculosis, 
 also on embolism, and published an “ Introduc- 
 tion to General Pathology,” 1877-1880. 
 
 1840- 1910. — Joseph Frank Payne. Medical historian. 
 
 Physician to St. Thomas’ Hospital, London, 
 where he devoted himself more especially to 
 diseases of the skin. He did much by his 
 writings and research to advance the study of 
 medical history in England. 
 
 1840-1911. — Henry Pickering Bowditch. American 
 physiologist. Founder of the physiological 
 laboratory in the United States (1871). He did 
 important work on the heart muscle, knee-jerk 
 and nerve fatigue. 
 
 228 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1841-1898. — Joseph O’Dwyer, of Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Surgeon to the Foundling Hospital of New 
 York. He perfected and brought into practical 
 use the method of intubating the larynx as a 
 substitute for tracheotomy. The first suc- 
 cessful case was in 1884. 
 
 1842. — Long first used ether as an anaesthetic when 
 operating. 
 
 1843-1910.— Robert Koch, M.D., of Gottingen. Bacterio- 
 logist. The originator of modern bacteriology 
 by plate cultures about 1880. He discovered 
 the tubercle bacillus in 1882 and the vibrio 
 of cholera in 1883. He was afterwards professor 
 of hygiene and bacteriology at the University 
 of Berlin. 
 
 1844. — The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons received 
 its Charter. 
 
 1814-1922. — Sir Patrick Manson. “Father of Tropical 
 Medicine in Great Britain.” He 
 studied at Aberdeen and Edin- 
 burgh Universities and shortly 
 after coming of age accepted an 
 appointment in the Island of 
 Formosa. While in the East, 
 from 1871 he began to study the 
 diseases of the tropics and investi- 
 gated the Filaria bancrofti and 
 proved by experiments on his 
 Chinese servant that the organism 
 was carried to man by mosquitoes. 
 
 229 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 These investigations led to the study of the 
 cause of malarial fever, of which he was 
 eventually instrumental in discovering that 
 mosquitoes were the carriers of the parasite 
 of disease to man. During his career he 
 contributed largely to the knowledge of many 
 other tropical diseases and animal parasites. 
 He founded the London School of Tropical 
 Medicine. 
 
 1845-1915. — Sir William Richard Gowers. One of the 
 
 founders of neurology. He worked on the 
 minute anatomy of the nervous system as well 
 as on the clinical aspects of disease. 
 
 1845-1916. — Ilia (Elie) Metchnikoff. Russian biologist 
 and comparative embryologist. 
 After teaching at Kieff and 
 Odessa in Russia he settled in 
 1888 at the Institut Pasteur in 
 Paris. With a lively imagination, 
 he was also endowed with 
 experimental ability and a most 
 picturesque style of writing. He 
 is best known for his theory of 
 phagocytosis which led to the con- 
 ception of immunity and serum- 
 therapy. 
 
 1845-1922. — Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran. Parasit- 
 ologist. Director of French Military Medical 
 School at Val-de-Grace, Paris, afterwards a pro- 
 
 230 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 fessor at the Institut Pasteur where he devoted 
 himself to the study of parasitology. He was 
 the first to observe the haematozoon in the blood 
 of a patient suffering from malaria, on 
 November 6, 1880. He studied the parasitic 
 sporozoa of animals. Published the first edition 
 of his treatise on malaria in 1898, and on trypano- 
 somes in 1904. For 42 years he devoted all his 
 energies to the study of pathogenic protozoa and 
 their relation to disease in man and animals. 
 
 1845- 1923. — Wilhelm Conrad von Rontgen, born in 
 
 Rhenish Prussia. Educated in Holland and 
 Switzerland. D.Sc. Zurich. Professor of 
 physics at Wurzburg. Discovered X-rays 
 November 8, 1895, and communicated his 
 discovery to the Physical Society at Wurzburg, 
 January, 1896. 
 
 1846. — Morton employed ether as an anaesthetic when 
 extracting a tooth. 
 
 1846. — Liston employed ether for the first time in England 
 as an anaesthetic in an operation for amputation 
 of the thigh at University College Hospital. 
 
 1846- 1901.— Alexander Kowalevsky. Russian morpho- 
 
 logist. Professor at Petrograd. His work was 
 a continuation of Rathke’s. He made the 
 development of amphioxus the key to verte- 
 brate embryology, described the development 
 of ascidians, and made many valuable dis- 
 coveries. The neurenteric canal is sometimes 
 called by his name. 
 
 231 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1847. — Chloroform first used as an anaesthetic in obstetrics 
 by Sir James Y. Simpson. 
 
 1847-1922. — Alexander Graham Bell. Physiologist and 
 Inventor, Graduated at Edin- 
 burgh University, and University 
 College, London. Emigrated to 
 Canada, 1870, and subsequently 
 became professor of physiology 
 at Boston. He was the inventor 
 of the telephone, gramophone 
 and photophone and also devoted 
 attention to the problem of flight, 
 to the location of bullets and to 
 the education of those born deaf. 
 
 1847-1922. — Sir Norman Moore, Bt. M.D.Camb. 
 
 1876. Physician to St. Bartho- 
 lomew’s Hospital, 1902-1911. 
 Harveian Librarian from 1910- 
 1922 ; President of the Royal 
 College of Physicians from 1918- 
 1922. 
 
 He devoted much of his life 
 to the study of the history of 
 medicine and by his teaching and 
 scholarly works became one of 
 the leaders who revived the 
 interest in this subject in Great 
 Britain. Through his influence the FitzPatrick 
 
 232 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 lectures on the history of medicine were 
 established at the Royal College of Physicians 
 and he delivered the first course in 1906. 
 
 He published “ The History of Medicine in 
 Ireland” 1910; “History of St. Bartholomew’s 
 Hospital ” 1919, and was the author of many 
 papers and lectures on historical medical 
 subjects. 
 
 1849-1879. — Franz Christian Boll. Physiologist. Born 
 at Neubrandenberg, he became assistant in 
 du Bois-Reymond’s institute at Berlin and was 
 afterwards professor of physiology at Rome. 
 He discovered the visual purple of the retina. 
 
 1 849-ilhM}. — Sir William Osier, Bt., M.D., F.R.S. Born 
 in Canada, of English parents. He graduated at 
 McGill University, Montreal, 1872. Afterwards 
 studied in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Berlin and 
 Vienna. Became professor of clinical medicine 
 at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 
 and afterwards at Johns Hopkins University, 
 Baltimore. Appointed Regius Professor of 
 Medicine at Oxford, 1905. He was an inspiring 
 teacher, a man of great personal charm, and 
 was keenly interested in the study of the 
 history of medicine. His “ Principles and Prac- 
 tice of Medicine,” 1892, became the standard 
 textbook on the subject of which it treats. 
 
 1851-1912. — Julius Leopold Pagel. Medical historian. 
 
 Studied and practised at Berlin. Translated 
 
 2 33 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 Sydenham’s treatise on Gout into German. 
 Edited (1901) a medical biographical lexicon. 
 Was privat-docent of the history of medicine in 
 the University of Berlin. 
 
 1851- 1920.— Sir Peter J. Freyer. Surgeon in the Indian 
 
 Medical Service, afterwards practised in 
 London. He introduced the suprapubic 
 operation for the removal of the prostate. 
 
 1852- 1916. — Sir William Ramsay. Chemist and scientist. 
 
 Professor of chemistry at University College, 
 London, 1887. Discovered argon in 1894, 
 helium 1895, also neon, krypton and xenon. 
 
 1852-1922. — William Stewart Halsted. Professor of 
 surgery at Johns Hopkins University. 
 Educated at Yale, Vienna, Leipzig and 
 Wurzburg. Chief exponent of the radical 
 operation for amputation of the breast. 
 Introduced the use of rubber gloves into 
 surgery. 
 
 1854-1907. — James Carroll. Surgeon-major, U.S.A. 
 
 Born at Woolwich, England. Entered the 
 United States Army as a private and rose to 
 the rank of hospital steward. He studied 
 medicine and graduated M.D. at the University 
 of Maryland, Baltimore, in 1891, and bacter- 
 iology at the Johns Hopkins University. 
 Re-entered the U.S. Army as a commissioned 
 officer and rose to the rank of major. Shares 
 with Major Walter Reed, Dr. Jesse W. Lazear 
 
 2 34 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 and Dr. Agramonte the discovery of the 
 transmission of yellow fever by the bite of 
 the mosquito Stegotnyia fasciata. Carroll 
 demonstrated the cause by allowing himself to 
 be inoculated experimentally on August 27, 
 1900. Dr. Lazear, who was also inoculated a 
 week or two later, died of the disease. 
 
 1854-1915. — Paul Ehrlich. Haematologist, therapeutist 
 and chemist. Director of the institute for 
 experimental therapy at Frankfurt-on-Main. 
 He was the founder of modern haematology 
 and introduced the organic compounds of 
 arsenic in the treatment of syphilis. 
 
 1854-1920. — William C. Gorgas. S urgeon-General in 
 
 the United States Medical Service. Applied 
 his knowledge to tropical disease successfully 
 and freed Havana and Panama from yellow 
 fever. 
 
 1855. — Manuel Garcia introduced the laryngoscope. 
 
 1856. — Sir William Perkin (1838-1907) first obtained 
 
 aniline dyes from coal tar. 
 
 1860-1904. — Niels Finsen. Danish physician. Professor 
 of anatomy at Copenhagen. He was always 
 interested in research on the reaction of light 
 on the tissues and in 1893 published his first 
 essay on the value of red light in the treatment 
 of smallpox. In 1895 he opened the Light 
 Institute at Copenhagen and was awarded the 
 Nobel prize for his contributions to light 
 therapy. 
 
 235 
 
The Nineteenth Century 
 
 1871- 1906.— Fritz Schaudinn. Protozoologist. Studied 
 
 at Berlin, and whilst working with Erich 
 Hoffman discovered the Spivochaeta pallida, 
 the causal organism ot syphilis. 
 
 1872- 1922, — Iwan Bloch. Syphilographer. Educated at 
 
 Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. M.D. Wurzburg. 
 He published two valuable works on the origin 
 of Syphilis in 1901 and 1910 to show that the 
 disease was of recent origin in Europe and that 
 there is no mention of it in the classical writers 
 of antiquity. 
 
 1880.— L averan discovers the parasite of malarial fever. 
 
 1882. — Koch discovers the tubercle bacillus. 
 
 1882. — -Loffler discovers the bacillus of glanders. 
 
 1883. — Pasteur vaccinates against anthrax. 
 
 1883. — Koch discovers cholera bacillus. 
 
 1884. — Nicolaier discovers tetanus bacillus. 
 
 1885. — Pasteur inoculates for rabies. 
 
 1887. — Bruce discovers the bacillus of Malta fever. 
 
 1888. — Roux and Yersin investigate the toxins of diph- 
 
 theria. 
 
 1888. — Institut Pasteur founded. 
 
 1890. — Behring treats diphtheria with antitoxin. 
 
 1894. — Kitasato and Yersin discover the plague bacillus. 
 1897. — Shiga discovers the dysentery bacillus. 
 
 1903. — Bruce demonstrates that sleeping sickness is 
 transmitted by the tsetse-fly. 
 
 1905. — Schaudinn discovers the parasite of syphilis. 
 
 236 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DISCOVERY AND INTRODUCTION OF SOME 
 DRUGS AND REMEDIAL AGENTS 
 EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 
 
 ANTIQUITY. 
 
 SULPHUR. Used from an unknown period of antiquity. 
 
 SODIUM CHLORIDE ) Were used at a period of great 
 TURPENTINE j antiquity. 
 
 ALUM and OLIBANUM. Used by the ancient Egyptians 
 and the early Hebrews. 
 
 POMEGRANATE. Used by Egyptians and Assyrians, 
 ca. 2500 b.c. 
 
 SOAP. Known to the Babylonians 2500 b.c. Mentioned 
 by Pliny. 
 
 OPIUM. Used by the Egyptians, ca. 2500 b.c. 
 HEMLOCK. Mentioned in Egyptian papyrus, ca. 2300 b.c. 
 MYRRH. Used by the Egyptians, 2000 b.c. 
 
 ALOES 
 
 MANDRAGORA 
 LEAD SULPHATE 
 PEPPERMINT 
 
 237 
 
 Used by ancient Egyptians, men- 
 tioned in Papyrus Ebers, ca. 
 1500 B.C. 
 
Chronology of Dr Tigs 
 
 NATRON (sodium 
 
 CARBONATE) 
 
 CASTOR OIL 
 RED LEAD 
 
 I mentioned in Papyrus Ebers 
 about 1500 b.c. 
 
 Used by ancient Egyptians, 
 
 COPPER OXYACETATE 
 
 CALAMINE 
 
 CORIANDER 
 
 / 
 
 OX GALL. Used ca. 1500 b.c. 
 
 ANTIMONY SULPHIDE. Known ca. 1500 b.c. 
 
 AMMONIUM CHLORIDE. Mentioned by Herodotus. 
 
 MERCURY. Mentioned by Aristotle, 400 b.c. Termed 
 by Theophrastus ca. 300 b.c. ‘ Liquid Silver.’ 
 
 SCAMMONY. Described by Theophrastus, 300 b.c. 
 Known to Hippocrates, 5th century b.c. 
 
 VINEGAR. Mentioned by Hippocrates. 
 
 ALUM. Known to Hippocrates, 5th century b.c. 
 
 ORPIMENT (yellow sulphuret of arsenic). Known to 
 Hippocrates, 5th century b.c. 
 
 ACONITE. Known to the ancient Greeks as a poison 
 b.c. 300-400. 
 
 LIQUORICE ROOT. Mentioned by Theophrastus, ca. 
 300 B.C. 
 
 CLOVES. Known to the Chinese ca. 266 b.c. 
 
 ZINC OXIDE. Known to the ancient Greeks by the 
 names of “ cadmia ” or “ pompholix,” but called by 
 the alchemists “ lana philosophica.” 
 
 COPPER SULPHATE. Known to the ancient Greeks as 
 “ Chalcanthum ” and by the Romans as “ Atramentum 
 sutorium.” Its nature is described by Basil Valentine, 
 and the method of preparation by Van Helmont in 
 1644, and by Glauber in 1684. 
 
 238 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 Described by Dioscorides ca. a.d. 40. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR (crude) was known to the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans as “ faex vini.” 
 
 DIACHYLON PLASTER. First mentioned by Pliny, 
 ca. a.d. 50. 
 
 AMMONIACUM) 
 
 MALE FERN 
 
 COLCHICUM 
 
 VALERIAN 
 
 POTASSIUM CARBONATE., Mentioned by Dioscorides, 
 ca. a.d. 40. 
 
 REALGAR (red sulpburet of arsenic). Used by the Greeks 
 in the time of Dioscorides, ca. a.d. 40. 
 
 CAMPHOR. Introduced into Europe in the sixth century. 
 
 ARAB PERIOD 
 
 SALTPETRE. Described by Geber in the eighth century. 
 
 ARSENIOUS ACID ‘Known to Geber m the e.ghth century. 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID. First mentioned by Geber in the 
 eighth century. 
 
 MERCURIC CHLORIDE. Known to Rhazes and Avicenna. 
 
 POTASSIUM NITRATE \ Described by Geber, ca. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE! a.d. 750. 
 
 SILVER NITRATE. Known to Geber, but not used in 
 medicine until the seventeenth century, when it was 
 introduced by Angele Sala as “ Magisterium argenti ” 
 or “ Crystal Diana." 
 
 SENNA LEAVES. Known to Serapion the Elder, ninth 
 to tenth century. 
 
 NUX VOMICA. Known to the Arabs in the eleventh 
 century. Introduced into England in 1540. 
 
 239 
 
Chronology oj Drugs 
 
 MEDIAEVAL PERIOD XIII-XYII CENTURY. 
 
 ALCOHOL. Prepared by Raymond Lully in the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 AMMONIUM CARBONATE. Prepared by Raymond Lully 
 from urine in the thirteenth century. 
 
 AMMONIATED MERCURY. Known to Raymond Lully. 
 
 CALOMEL. Known in the thirteenth century. Probably 
 took its name from a famous Italian chemist of 
 Ferrara. Is also said to have been named by Torquet 
 de Mayerne in honour of his young negro assistant. It 
 was formerly known as mercurius dulcis, and the 
 name calomel was originally given to the black 
 sulphuret of mercury. 
 
 POTASSIUM SULPHATE. Known to Isaac of Holland 
 in the fourteenth century and is described by Croll 
 in 1608 as “ Specificum purgans Paracelsi.” 
 
 ZINC SULPHATE | Known to Basil 
 
 FERRIC CHLORIDE - Valentine in the 
 
 SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER] fifteenth century. 
 
 BELLADONNA. First mentioned about 1504. 
 
 CATECHU. Described by Barbosa in 1514. 
 
 iETHER was discovered by Valerius Cordus about 1540 
 and known as “ Oleum vitrioli dulce.” It was re- 
 discovered by Frobenius, a London apothecary, about 
 1730. 
 
 JALAP. Introduced into Europe from Mexico ca. 1550. 
 
 BALSAM OF PERU ) Introduced into Europe by Monardes 
 
 BALSAM OF TOLU 1 in 1565 and 1574. 
 
 IPECACUANHA 
 COPAIBA BALSAM 
 
 Brought to Europe by the Portuguese 
 from Brazil, 1570. Ipecacuanha 
 is mentioned by Purchas in “ His 
 Pilgrims,” 1625. 
 
 240 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID. First known as “ royal water.” 
 Glauber prepared it by distillation of sodium chloride 
 and sulphuric acid (ca. 1650), it being known then as 
 “ Spiritus fumans Glauberi.” 
 
 LEAD ACETATE. Known to Geber in eighth century, 
 but it was not employed in medicine until 1760, when 
 Goulard recommended it in the form of “ Aqua 
 Vegeto mineralis Goulardi.” 
 
 GUAIACUM. Introduced into Europe from St. Domingo 
 in 1509. It was known as “ The Wood.” 
 
 BENZOIC ACID. Known in 1608. 
 
 TARTARATED ANTIMONY was prepared by Mynsicht 
 in 1631. 
 
 ZINC CHLORIDE was described by Glauber in 1648, 
 and known as “ Oleum lapidis calaminaris.” 
 
 SODIUM SULPHATE. First prepared by Glauber in 
 1658 and still known as “ Glauber’s Salt.” 
 
 POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE was discovered by 
 Glauber, but its composition was not known until 
 described by Mitscherlich in 1630. Scheele renamed 
 it “ Chamaeleon minerale.” 
 
 AMMONIUM ACETATE was introduced by Minderer, 
 and still bears his name. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS was discovered in the urine by Brandt 
 about 1650, and Gahn and Scheele demonstrated it in 
 bones in 1768 and 1771. 
 
 BORAX was introduced into commerce by the Venetians 
 in the seventeenth century. 
 
 SODIUM POTASSIUM TARTRATE. Introduced into 
 medicine by Seignette, an apothecary of Rochelle in 
 1672. It is still known as “ Rochelle Salts.” 
 
 MAGNESIUM SULPHATE. Described in 1694 by 
 Nehemiah Grew in a mineral spring at Epsom, 
 whence the name “ Epsom Salts.” 
 
 Q 
 
 241 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 MAGNESIA CARBONATE. First introduced as a 
 secret remedy under the name of “ Magnesia alba ” 
 in the early part of the seventeenth century. Tim 
 method of preparation was published by Valentine in 
 1707 - 
 
 CINCHONA or PERUYIAN BARK. Introduced into 
 Europe from South America by the Countess Cinchon 
 in 1640. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 BORIC ACID was made and introduced by Homberg in 
 1702, and known as “ Sal sedativum Hombergi.” 
 
 THYMOL. First prepared by Neumann in 1719. 
 
 CHLORINE. Discovered by Scheele in 1744 and known 
 as “ dephlogisticated muriatic acid.” 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID was introduced by Marggraf in 1746. 
 
 CALCINED MAGNESIA. Introduced by Black in 
 1755 - 
 
 ACETIC A2THER. First prepared by Lauragois in 1759. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID. First prepared by Scheele in 1768. 
 
 GLYCERIN. Discovered by Scheele when preparing 
 diachylon plaster in 1779 and called “the sweet 
 principle of oils.” 
 
 LACTIC ACID. First prepared by Scheele in 1780. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID. Discovered by Scheele in 1782. 
 
 CITRIC ACID. First prepared by Scheele in 1784. 
 
 BISMUTH SUBNITRATE. First employed by Odier in 
 1786. 
 
 GALLIC ACID. First prepared by Scheele in 1785. 
 
 POTASSIUM CHLORATE. First prepared by Berthollet 
 in 1787 and known as “ sel de Berthollet." 
 
 CHROMIC ACID. Introduced by Vauquelin, 1797. 
 
 242 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 NARCOTINE. Discovered by Derosne, 1803. 
 
 MORPHINE. Discovered by Serturner in 1804. 
 CANTHARIDIN. Discovered^by Robiquet, 1810. 
 
 TANNIC ACID. First prepared by Berzelius ca. 1810. 
 CERIUM. Discovered by Klaproth ca. 1810. 
 
 IODINE. First extracted from seaweed by Courtois in 
 1811. 
 
 NAPHTHALINE. Discovered by Garden, 1816. 
 EMETINE. Discovered by Pelletier, 1816. 
 
 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE. Discovered by Thenard, 1818. 
 
 STRYCHNINE. Discovered by ! Pelletier and Caventou, 
 1818. 
 
 YERATRINE. Discovered by Meissner, 1818. 
 
 BRUCIN. Discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, 1819. 
 PICROTOXINE. Discovered by Van Boullay, 1820. 
 
 QUININE ) 
 
 CINCHONINE I discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, 
 1820. 
 
 COLCHICINE ) 
 
 CAFFEINE. Discovered by Runge, 1820. 
 
 POTASSIUM IODIDE. Introduced into medicine in 1821 
 by Coindet. 
 
 THEBAINE. Discovered by Pelletier, 1822 (?). 
 
 IODOFORM. First prepared by Serullas in 1822. The 
 first synthetic remedy used in medicine in 1837. 
 
 BROMINE ) 
 
 POTASSIUM BROMIDE t D,scovered b y Bakrd 
 MECONIN. Discovered by Dublanc, 1826. 
 
 NICOTINE. Discovered by Posselt and Reimann, 1828. 
 
 QUINIDINE. Discovered by Serturner, 1828, and Van 
 Hejningen, 1849. 
 
 243 
 
Chronology of Drugs 
 
 SANTONIN. Discovered by Kahlet and Alms in 1830. 
 
 ATROPINE. First isolated by Mein in 1831. 
 
 CHLOROFORM. First prepared by Guthrie, of America, 
 in 1831 and known as “chloric ether.” Named 
 chloroform by Dumas in 1834, who first worked out 
 the real formula. First used as an anaesthetic in 
 midwifery by Simpson in 1847. 
 
 CHLORAL HYDRATE Discovered by Liebig in 1832 
 and introduced into medical practice by Liebreich 
 in 1869. 
 
 CODEINE. First isolated by Robiquet in 1832. 
 
 NARCEINE. Discovered by Pelletier, 1832. 
 
 CREOSOTE. Discovered by Reichenbach in 1833. 
 
 HYOSCYAMINE. Discovered by Geiger and Hesse, 
 1833 - 
 
 PHENOL and ANILINE. Discovered in coal tar by 
 Runge in 1834. 
 
 PEPSINE. First prepared by Schwann in 1836. 
 
 SALICYLIC ACID. Discovered by Kolbe in 1839 and 
 introduced as an antiseptic in 1874. 
 
 SODIUM BICARBONATE. Introduced by Bullrich, 184c. 
 
 THEOBROMINE. Discovered by Woskresensky, 1841. 
 
 CINCHONIDINE SULPHATE. Discovered by Winckler, 
 1847; Pasteur, 1853. 
 
 PAPAVERINE. Discovered by Merck, 1850. 
 
 ALOIN. Discovered by T. and H. Smith, 1850. 
 
 ACETANILIDE. Discovered by Gerhardt in 1853, intro- 
 duced into medicine in 1886. 
 
 COCAINE. Isolated by Gaedecke in 1855 an d first called 
 ethroxylene. Introduced into medicine by Roller, 
 1884. 
 
 PHYSOSTIGMINE. Discovered by Jobst and Hesse in 
 1864. 
 
 2 4 + 
 
Chronology oj Drugs 
 
 RESORCIN. First prepared by Barth and Hiaswetz in 
 1864. 
 
 CRYPTOPINE. Discovered by T. and H. Smith, 1864. 
 
 FORMALDEHYDE. Discovered by Hofmann in 1867. 
 
 APOMORPHINE. Discovered by Mathieson and Wright, 
 1869. 
 
 GELSEMINIA. Discovered by Wormley, 1870 ; Gerrard, 
 1883. 
 
 SODIUM SALICYLATE. First prepared syntheticly by 
 Kolbe in 1875. 
 
 PILOCARPINE. Isolated by Gerrard in 1875. 
 
 GNOSCOPINE. Discovered by T. and H. Smith, 1878. 
 
 SACCHARINE. Discovered by Falberg in 1878. 
 
 PIPERINE. Discovered by Oersted. 
 
 NARCISSINE. Discovered by Gerrard, 1878 ; Ewins, 
 1910. 
 
 NAPHTHOL. Discovered by Gerrard, 1878; Ewins, 
 1881. 
 
 HOMATROPINE. Discovered by Ladenburg, 1879. 
 
 XANTHALINE. Discovered by T. and H. Smith, 1881. 
 
 ANTIPYRINE. Discovered by Knorr in 1884. 
 
 PHENACETIN. Discovered 1887. 
 
 SULPHONAL. Discovered by Baumann 1888. 
 
 d’HYOSCY AMINE D CAMPHORSULPHONATE. Dis- 
 covered by Ladenburg and Hundt, 1889 ; Barrowcliff 
 and Tutin, 1909. 
 
 CEPHAELINE HYDROCHLORIDE. Discovered by Paul 
 and Cownley, 1894. 
 
 PSYCHOTRINE. Discovered by Paul and Cownley, 1894. 
 
 d’HYOSCINE HYDROBROMIDE. Discovered by Tutin, 
 1900 ; King, 1919. 
 
 245 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS 
 OF MEDICINE WITH THE APPROXIMATE 
 DATES OF THEIR FOUNDATION. 
 
 b.c. 522. — Athens, Medical School. 
 
 a.d. 529. — Monte Cassino, monastery founded. 
 
 738. -Montpellier, School of. 
 
 858. — -Salerno, School of, first mentioned. 
 
 980. — Cordova, Spain. 
 
 1025. — Paima, University of. 
 
 1110-13. — Paris and Bologna, Universities founded. 
 
 1155. — Rheims. 
 
 1167. — Migration of students from Paris to Oxford to 
 form a “ Studium generale.” 
 
 1205. — Vicenza, University founded by migration of 
 students from Bologna. 
 
 1205- Paris, Faculty of Medicine. 
 
 1209. -Cambridge inhabited by migration of students 
 from Oxford. 
 
 1209. — Valencia, Spain. 
 
 1213. — Salerno, University founded by Frederick II. 
 
 1215. — Palencia, University of, founded by Alfonso VIII. 
 1215. — Arezzo. 
 
 1222. — Padua, University founded by migration from 
 Bologna. 
 
 1225. — Messina, University founded by Frederick II. 
 
 246 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1225.— Naples, University founded by Frederick II. 
 
 1230. — Salamanca. 
 
 1231. — Orleans. 
 
 1233. — Toulouse, France. 
 
 1241. — Siena, University of. 
 
 1243. — Salamanca, University of, founded by Ferdinand III 
 of Castille. 
 
 1248. — Piacenza, University of, founded by Papal Charter. 
 1250. — Valladolid, Spain. 
 
 1254.— Seville, University of, founded by Alfonso the 
 Wise. 
 
 1257. — Sorbonne, founded at Paris. 
 
 1266. — Perugia, University of, founded. 
 
 1290. — Lisbon, Portugal. 
 
 1300. — Lerida, University founded by James II of Spain. 
 1303. — Avignon, University of, chartered by Boniface VIII. 
 1303. — Rome, University of, chartered by Boniface VIII. 
 
 1305. — Orleans and Angers, Universities of, chartered by 
 
 Clement V. 
 
 1306. — Perugia. 
 
 1309.— Coimbra, Portugal, University of, chartered by 
 King Diniz of Portugal. 
 
 1312. — Palermo, University of, founded. 
 
 1318.— Treviso, University of, chartered by Frederick the 
 Fair. 
 
 1320.— Florence, University of, founded. 
 
 1332. — Cahors, University of, chartered by John XXII. 
 
 1338. — Pisa, University of, founded by emigration of 
 
 students. 
 
 1339. — Grenoble, University of, chartered by Benedict XII. 
 1343.— Cracow, Poland. 
 
 247 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1347. — Prague, University of, chartered by Clement VI. 
 1349. —Perpignan, founded by Clement VI. 
 
 1354 — Huesca, University of, founded by Pedro IV. 
 
 1361. — Pavia, University of, chartered by Charles IV. 
 
 1354. — Vienna, University of, founded by Duke Rudolph 
 IV. 
 
 1364. — Angers, France. 
 
 1365. — Orange, University of, founded by Charles IV. 
 
 1367.— Funfkirchen, University of, founded by Louis of 
 Hungary 
 
 1379. — Erfurt, University of, re-chartered by Urban VI. 
 1336. — Heidelberg, Germany. 
 
 1388. — Cologne, University of, chartered by Urban VI. 
 
 1389. — Budapest. 
 
 1391. —Ferrara, University of, chartered by Boniface IX. 
 
 1402. — Wurtzburg, University of, chartered by Boniface 
 
 IX. 
 
 1409. — Leipzig, University of, chartered by Alexander V. 
 1409. — Aix, France, Studium generale at. 
 
 1411. — -St. Andrews, University of, founded by Bishop 
 
 Henry Wardlaw. 
 
 1412. — Turin, University of, founded. 
 
 1419. — -Rostock, University of, chartered by Martin V. 
 1422. — Parma, University of, founded. 
 
 1426. — Louvain, University of, founded. 
 
 1431. — Poitiers, University of, founded by Charles VII. 
 1433. — Florence, Italy. 
 
 1437. — Caen, University of, chartered by Eugenius IV. 
 1441. — -Bordeaux, University of, founded. 
 
 1445. — Catania, Sicily, University of, chartered by 
 Alfonso of Aragon. 
 
 248 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1450. — -Treves, University of, founded. 
 
 1450. — Barcelona, University of, founded by Nicholas V. 
 
 1452. — Valence, University of, founded. 
 
 1453. — Glasgow, University of, founded. 
 
 1455. — Freiburg, University of, founded by Albrecht VI. 
 
 1456. — Greifswald, University of, founded by Calixtus III. 
 
 1459. — Ingolstadt, University of, founded by Pius II. 
 
 1460. — Basel, University of, founded. 
 
 1463. — Nantes chartered by Pius II. 
 
 1465. — Bourges. 
 
 1485. — Budapest, University of, founded by Paul III. 
 
 1474. — Saragossa, University of, founded. 
 
 1475. — Copenhagen, Denmark, chartered by Sixtus IV. 
 
 1476. — Upsala, Sweden. 
 
 1477. — Tubingen and Upsala, Universities of, founded. 
 1477. — Mayence. 
 
 1494. — Aberdeen, Scotland. 
 
 1499. — Toledo, Spain. 
 
 1499. — Alcala, University of, founded. 
 
 1502. — Wittenberg. 
 
 1504 — Santiago, Spain, University of, founded. 
 
 1506. — Frankfort on the Oder, University of, founded by 
 Julius II. 
 
 1508. — Madrid, University of, founded. 
 
 1526. — Nuremberg. 
 
 1527. — Marburg, University of, founded by Philip, 
 
 Landgrave of Hesse. 
 
 1531. — Granada, University of, founded by Clement VII. 
 1531. — Debreczen. 
 
 1544. — Konigsberg. 
 
 1548. — -Messina, Sicily. 
 
 249 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1551. — Mexico. 
 
 1553. — Lima, University of, founded. 
 
 1558. — -Jena, University of, chartered and opened by 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 1560. — Douai (Lille), University of, founded. 
 
 1565. -Milan. 
 
 1574. — Oviedo. 
 
 1575. — Leyden and Helmstadt, Universities of, founded. 
 1575. — -Nuremberg moved to Altdorf. 
 
 1578.— Wilna. 
 
 1581. — Olmiitz. 
 
 1582. — Edinburgh, University of, chartered by James VI. 
 
 1585. — Francker. 
 
 1586. — Graz, University of, founded. 
 
 1591. — Dublin, University, founded. 
 
 1596. — Barcelona, Spain. 
 
 1596. — Cagliari (Sardinia). 
 
 1600. — Harderwijk, Holland. 
 
 1614. — Groningen, University of, founded. 
 
 1616. — Paderborn, University of, founded. 
 
 1621.— Strassburg and Rinteln, University of, founded by 
 Emperor Ferdinand II. 
 
 1623. — Salzburg, Austria, University of, founded. 
 
 1634. — Utrecht and Sassari, Universities of, founded. 
 
 1635. — Budapesth. 
 
 1636. — Harvard, University of, founded. 
 
 1640. — Abo, Finland. 
 
 1648. — Bamberg, University of, founded. 
 
 1654. — Herborn, University of, founded. 
 
 1655. — Duisburg and Kiel, Universities of, founded. 
 
 250 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1666. — Lund, University of, founded. 
 
 4671. — Urbino, University of, opened as “ Studium 
 generate. ” 
 
 1672. — Innsbruck, University of, founded by Emperor 
 Leopold I. 
 
 4683. — Modena chartered. 
 
 1693. — Halle, University of, founded. 
 
 1701. — Yale College founded. 
 
 1702. — Breslau, University of, founded by Leopold I. 
 
 1721. — Caracas (Venezuela), University of, founded. 
 
 1722. — Dijon, University of, founded. 
 
 1727. — Camerino. 
 
 1734. — Gottingen, University of, founded by George II. 
 
 1740.— Pennsylvania, University of, founded as “ College 
 of Philadelphia.” 
 
 1743.— Erlangen, University of, chartered and opened by 
 Karl VII. 
 
 1743.— S antiago, Chile, University of, founded. 
 
 1746. — Princeton College founded. 
 
 1754. — Columbia, New York, King’s College, founded. 
 
 1755. — Moscow, University of, founded by the Czarina 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 1768- — New York Medical School founded. 
 
 1771- — Munster, University of, inaugurated. 
 
 1779. — Palermo, Sicily, University of, founded. 
 
 1781. — Georgetown, D.C., University of, founded. 
 
 1782. — Harvard University, Medical Department of, 
 
 founded. 
 
 1784. — Lemberg. 
 
 1785. — Georgia, U.S.A., University of, founded. 
 
 1794. — Pesth, Hungary, founded by Paul II. 
 
 251 
 
Chronology of Universities 
 
 1802. — Ingoldstadt moved to Landshut. 
 
 1804. — Charkovv. 
 
 1806. — Lausanne. 
 
 1808. — -Lyons, University of, founded. 
 
 1808. — Clermont-Ferrand, University of, founded. 
 
 1809. — Berlin, University of, founded by Friedrich 
 
 Wilhelm III of Prussia. 
 
 1811. — Christiania founded. 
 
 1811. — Salerno abolished. 
 
 1812. — Genoa, University of, founded 
 
 1816. — Ghent, University of, founded. 
 
 1817. — Liege, University of, founded. 
 
 1818. — Bonn, University of, re-established by Friedrich 
 
 Wilhelm III of Prussia. 
 
 1819. - — St. Petersburg, University of, founded by 
 
 Alexander I. 
 
 1821. — McGill College and University founded at 
 Montreal. 
 
 1825. — Virginia, University of, founded. 
 
 1826. — Munich, University of, founded by removal of 
 
 Ingolstadt from Landshut. 
 
 O 
 
 1826 — Abo moved to Helsingfors. 
 
 1832. — Zurich and Kieff, Universities of, founded. 
 
 1834. — Berne, University of, founded. 
 
 1834. — Brussels, University of, founded. 
 
 1836. — London, University of, founded. 
 
 1838. — Messina, University of, founded. 
 
 1849. — Wisconsin, University of, founded. 
 
 1854. — Marseilles, University of, founded. 
 
 1857. — Chicago, University of, founded. 
 
 1860. — Jassy, Turkey. 
 
 252 
 
Bibliography 
 
 1860 . — California, University of, founded. 
 
 1865 . — Odessa, University of, founded. 
 
 1868 . — Tokyo, University of 
 
 1868 . — Cornell, New York, University of, founded. 
 
 1875 . — Czernowitz. 
 
 1876 - — Geneva, University of, founded. 
 
 1877 . — Amsterdam, University of, founded. 
 
 1888 . — Tomsk, University of, founded. 
 
 1889 . — Friburg, University of, founded. 
 
 1897 . — Kioto, University of, founded. 
 
 A SELECTION OF THE CHIEF WORKS ON 
 THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE. 
 
 BAAS, JOH. HERMANN. “ Geschichte der Medicin,” 
 1876. Translated into English by Handerson, 1889. 
 
 BOUCHUT. “ Histoire de la Medecine,” 1873. 
 
 CHOULANT, LUDWIG. “ Geschichte und Bibliographie 
 der anatomischen Abbildung,” 1852. Translated by 
 Mortimer Frank. University of Chicago Press, 1920. 
 
 DAREMBERG, CHARLES. “ Histoire des Sciences 
 Medicales,” 1870, “ La Medecine, Histoire et Doc- 
 
 trine,” 1865. 
 
 ELOY. “ D ictionnaire Historique de la Medecine,” 1778. 
 
 FREIND, JOHN. “ History of Physick,” 1725. 
 
 GARRISON, H. FIELDING. “ Introduction to the His- 
 tory of Medicine.” Saunders. 
 
 GURLT. “ Geschichte der Chirurgie.” Berlin, 1898. 
 
 HAESER. “ Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin,” 
 iS53- 
 
 LE CLERC. “ Histoire de Medecine,” 1702. Translated 
 by Drake, 1799. 
 
 253 
 
Bibliography 
 
 MEUNIER. “ Histoire de la Medecine, 1911. 
 
 MOORE, SIR NORMAN. “ History of the Study of 
 Medicine in the British Isles.” London, 1908. 
 
 NEUBURGER. “ Geschichte der Medicin,” vol. i. Trans- 
 lated by Playfair. Oxford University Press. 
 
 NICAISE. Editions of Guy de Chauliac, 1890, and Henri 
 de Mondeville, 1893, and Pierre Franco, 1893. 
 
 PAGEL. “ Geschichte der Medicin,” 1898. 
 
 PARK, ROSWELL. “ An Epitome of the History of 
 Medicine.” Philadelphia, 1906. 
 
 PAYNE. “ English Medicine in Anglo-Saxon Times,” 
 1904. 
 
 PUSCHMANN. “ Handbuch der Geschichte der Medicin,” 
 3 vols., 1902. “ History of Medical Education.” 
 
 Translated by Hare, 1891. 
 
 SPRENGEL. “ Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte 
 der Arzeikunde.” 1792. 
 
 SUDHOFF. “Geschichte der Anatomie in Mittelalter.” 
 Leipzig, 1909. “ Archiv fur Geschichte der Medicin,” 
 “ Beitrage zur Geschichte der Chirurgie in Mittel- 
 alter.” Leipzig, 1914. “ Studien zur Geschichte der 
 
 Medicin.” 
 
 WITHINGTON. “ Medical History from the Earliest 
 Times,” 1894. 
 
 2 54 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ABARIS, 696 12 
 
 Abernethy, John, 1764-1831 ... ... ... ... ... ... 179 
 
 Abti ’All Husayn Ibn ’Abdu’llah Ibn Sina, 980-1037 ... ... 51 
 
 Abu Bakt Muhammed ibn Zakariya ar Ray, 850-923 (Rhazes) ... 49 
 
 Abu Jafar Ahmed Ben Ibrahim Al-Jezzar (Algizar) ... ... ... 47 
 
 Abumeron, 1113-1162 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52 
 
 Achillini, Alexander, 1463-1525 ... ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 Actuarius, Johannes, 1280 ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 Adams, Francis, 1796-1861 ... ... ... ... ... ... 199 
 
 Adapa, 3500 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Addison, Thomas, 1793-1860 196 
 
 Aegimios of Elis, 470 B.c. ... .. ... ... ... ... 16 
 
 Aesculapius, 291 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 Aetius of Amida, 502-575 ... ... ... ... ... 42 
 
 Agathinos, Claudius, of Sparta, 90 ... ... ... ... ... 35 
 
 Agnivesha... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 
 
 Agricola, Georg, 1490-1555 ... ... ... ... ... ... 77 
 
 Ahrun, 610-641 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 44 
 
 Ai Nyama, 500 b.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8 
 
 Akenside, Mark, 1721-1770 158 
 
 Akron of Agrigentum, 400 B.C ... ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Alberti, Salomon, 1540-1600 ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 1 193-1280 ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 Albinus, Bernhard Siegfried, 1697-1770 ... ... ... ... 149 
 
 Albucasis, 936-1013 ... ... ... .. ... ... . . 50 
 
 Alcock, Nathan, 1707-1779 .. 152 
 
 Alcmaeon of Crotona, 500 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 Aldrovandi, Ulysses, 1522-1605 ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Alexander Aphrodisiensis, 200... ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Alexander Philalethes, A. D. 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 
 
 255 
 
Index 
 
 Alexander of Tralles, 525-605 ... 
 
 Algizar 
 A 1 Hazen ... 
 
 Ali, ben Isa (Je.'us Haly) 1050 ... 
 
 Ali Ibn Abbas Almajusi, 994 ... 
 
 Ali, Ibn Rabban, 850 
 
 Alkindus, 813-873 
 
 Alpino, Prosper, 1553-1617 
 
 Ammonius, Liihotomus, 283-247 B.C. 
 
 Ampbiaraos 
 
 Amynos 
 
 Anagnostakis, Andreas, 1826-1898 
 Anaxagoras of Clazomene, 500-428 B.c. 
 Anaximander of Miletus, 61 1 B.c. 
 
 Andreas of Carystos 
 Andr 5 machos, 60 
 Antyllus, 250 
 Apollo 
 
 Apollodorus, 300 B.C. 
 
 Apollonios 
 
 Apollonios Biblas, 180-160 B.c. 
 
 Apollonios Ciiiensis, 60 B.c. 
 
 Apollonios the Empiric, 200 B.c. 
 Apollonios Mus, 30 B.C.... 
 
 Apollonios of Memphis, 250 B.c. 
 Apollonios the Pneumatist 
 Apollophanes of Seleucia 
 Appuleius Barbarus, Lucius, 400 
 Arantius, Julius Caesar, 1530-1589 
 Arcaeus, 1493-1571 
 Archagathos, 219 B.C. ... 
 
 Archelaos of Athens, 480 B.c. ... 
 
 Archigenes, 48-1 17 
 
 Arculanus of Verona, d. 1484 ... 
 
 Arderne, John, 1307.1380 
 Arduino of Venice, 1430 
 Aretaios 30-QO ... 
 
 Argelata, Petrus ab. 1400 
 
 Argenterio, Giovanni, of Castelnuovo 151 
 
 256 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aristogenes of Cnidos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Aristoxenos, 50 ... ... ... ... ... ... ._. ... 26 
 
 Aristotle, 384-322 B.C 22 
 
 Armstrong, George, d. 1781 ... ... ... ... .. ... 1 57 
 
 Arnold of Villanova, 1245-1310 ... ... ... .. ... 59 
 
 Artemis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Asclepiades of Bithynia, 100 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Asclepiodotus, 490 ... 3 ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 
 
 Aselli, Gasparo, 1581-1626 ... ... ... ... ... ... no 
 
 Asklepios, 1300 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Astruc, Jean, 1684-1766... ... ... ... ... ... ... 147 
 
 Athenaius, 69 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33 
 
 Atreya ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 
 
 Attalos II, 200-138 B.C 29 
 
 Augustine, 1520 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Avenzoar, 1113-1162 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52 
 
 Averroes, 1126-1198 53 
 
 Avicenna, 980-1037 ... ... ... ... ... ... .... 51 
 
 Avogadro, Amedeo, 1776-1856... ... ... ... ... .. 187 
 
 Baal Zebal 8 
 
 Babington, Benjamin Guy, 1794-1866 ... ... ... ... 197 
 
 Bachtischua, Dschordschis, 765 ... ... ... ... ... 45 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 1214-1292 ... ... ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 Baer, Karl Ernest, von, 1793-1876 ... ... ... ... ... 196 
 
 Baglivi, Giorgio, 1668-1707 ... ... ... ... ... ... 141 
 
 Baillie, Matthew, 1761-1823 ... ... ... ... ... ... 178 
 
 Baillif, Roch le, de la Riviere, 1533-1610 ... ... ... ... 96 
 
 Baillou Guillaume, 1536-1614 ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 
 
 Bakcheios of Tanagra ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 
 
 Banister, John, 1533-1610 ... ... ... ... ... ... 96 
 
 Barth, Joseph, 1745-1818 ... ... ... ... 171 
 
 Bartholinus, Caspar, b. 1654 ... ... ... ... ... ... 117 
 
 Bartholinus, Thomas, 1616-1680 ... ... ... ... ... 117 
 
 Bartisch, Georg, 1535-1606 ... ... ... ... ... ... 97 
 
 Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina, 171 1-1778 ... ... ... ... 155 
 
 Baudelocque, Jean Louis, 1746-1810 ... ... ... ... ... 171 
 
 Bauhine, Gaspar, 1560-1624 ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 
 
 Baumann, Jacob, 1521-1580 ... ... ... ... ... ... 92 
 
 Bayrlandt, Ortolff von, 1450 ... ... ... ... ... ... 68 
 
 R 
 
 257 
 
Index 
 
 Bazin, Antoine Pierre Ernest, 1807-1878 
 
 Beaumont, William, 1785-1853 
 
 Bell, Alexander Graham, 1847-1922 
 Bell, Charles, 1774-1842 
 Bell, Jacob, 1810-1859 ... 
 
 Bell, John, 1763-1820 
 
 Bellini, Laurence, 1643-1703 ... 
 
 Belon, Pierre, 1518-1564 
 Ben Bachtischua 
 Benedetti, Alexander, 1460-1525 
 Bennett, John Hughes, 1812-1875 
 Berengarius of Carpi Giacomo, 1480-1550 
 
 Bertin, Exupere Joseph, 1712-1781 
 
 Bernard, Charles, 1650-1711 
 
 Bernard, Claude, 1814-1878 
 
 Berzelius, Jons Jacob, 1779-1848 
 
 Bichat, Marie Franpois Xavier, 1771-1802 
 
 Bidloo, Gottfried, 1649-1713 
 
 Bigelow, Henry Jacob, 1818-1892 
 
 Biheron, 1730-1785 
 
 Billings, John Shaw, 1838-1913 
 Biondo, Michael Angelo, 1497-1565 
 
 Black, Joseph, 1728-1799... 
 
 Blackmore, Sir Richard, 1653-1729 
 Bloch, Iwan, 1872-1922... 
 
 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 1752-1840 
 Bock, Hieronymus, 1498-1560 ... 
 
 Boe, Francois de la, 1614-1672 .. 
 
 Boerhaave, Hermann, 1668-1738 
 Boghurst, William, 1631-1685 ... 
 
 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain, 1773-1841 
 Boll, Franz Christian, 1849-1879 
 Bolognini, Angelo, 1500 .. 
 
 Bona Dea ... 
 
 Bonetus, Theophilus, 1620-1689 
 Bonnet, Charles, 1720-1793 
 Bontius, Jacobus, 1592-1631 ... ... 
 
 Boorde, Andrew, 1490-1549 
 Bordeu, Theophile de, 1722-1776 
 Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 1608-1679 
 
 258 
 
 PAGE 
 
 208 
 
 • 191 
 232 
 
 . 186 
 
 210 
 . 179 
 
 • 131 
 
 • 90 
 45 
 
 70 
 21 I 
 
 74 
 
 ■ I5S 
 
 • 135 
 
 ■ 213 
 
 • 189 , 
 
 . 182 
 
 • 134 
 
 . 218 
 
 . 162 
 
 227 
 80 
 . 161 
 
 ■ 137 
 . 236 
 
 • 174 
 
 . 80 
 
 . 116 
 
 . 142 
 
 • 124 
 . 185 
 
 • 233 
 
 • 7S 
 12 
 
 . 1 18 
 
 . 15S 
 
 1 12 
 76 
 
 • 159 
 
 ■ i'5 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Borri, Giuseppe Francisco, 1625-1695 ... ... ... ... 121 
 
 Botallo, Leonardo, ca. 1530 ... ... ... ... ... ... 81 
 
 Bottoni, Albertino, 1596... ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 
 
 Bouillaud, Jean Baptiste, 1797-1891 ... ... ... ... ... 201 
 
 Bourgeoise, Louise, 1563-1636 ... ... ... ... . 105 
 
 Boursier du Coudray, A. le, 1712-1789 ... ... ... ... 156 
 
 Bowditch, Henry Pickering, 1840-191 1 ... ... 22S 
 
 Bowman, Sir William, 1816-1892 ... ... ... ... ... 216 
 
 Boyle, Robert, 1627-1691 ... ... ... ... ... ... 122 
 
 Braid, James, 1795-1860. ... 198 
 
 Branca of Catania, 1450... ... ... ... ... ... .. 66 
 
 Brassavola, Antonio Musa, 1500-1555... ... ... 81 
 
 Breschet, Gilbert, 1784-1845 ... ... ... ... ... ... 191 
 
 Brewster, Sir David, 1781-1868 ... ... ... ... 189 
 
 Briggs, William, 1641-1704 ... ... ... ... ... 131 
 
 Bright, Richard, 1789-1858 ... ... ... 193 
 
 Bright, Timothy, 1550-1616 101 
 
 Brisseau, Pierre, 1631-1717 ... ... ... ... ... 125 
 
 Brissot, Pierre, 1478-1522 ... ... ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 Broca, Peter Paul, 1824-1881 ... ... 222 
 
 Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, 1783-1862 ... ... ... ... 191 
 
 Broussais, Francois Joseph Victor, 1772-1838 ... ... ... 184 
 
 Brown, John, 1735-1788 165 
 
 Browne, John, 1642-1700 ... ... ... ... ... ... 131 
 
 Browne, Sir Thomas, 1605-1682 ... ... ... ... ... 1 1 5 
 
 Brown-Sequard, Edouard, 1817-1894 ... ... ... ... ... 217 
 
 Brunfels, Otto, 1464-1534 ... ... ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 Bruno of Longoburgo, 1252 ... ... ... ... ... ... 59 
 
 Brunner, Johann Conrad, 1653-1727 ... ... ... ... ... 137 
 
 Buffon, Louis Le Clerc, 1707-1788 ... ... 152 
 
 Bullein, William, d. 1576 ... ... ... ... ... ... 90 
 
 Burdach, Charles Frederick, 1776-1847 ... ... ... ... 187 
 
 Butler, Wiiliam, 1534-1617 97 
 
 Butts, Sir William, d. 1545 ... ... ... 75 
 
 Cadwalader, Thomas, 1708-1779 153 
 
 Caelius Aurelianus, 400 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 
 
 Caesalpinus, Andreas, 1524-1603 ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Caius, John, 1510-1573 86 
 
 Caldwell, Richard, 1505-1584 ... ... ... ... ... ... 83 
 
 259 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Caldani, Leopold Marco Antonio, 1725-1813 ... ... ... 160 
 
 Callisthenes of Olynthos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Camper, Peter, 1722-1789 ... ... ... ... ... ... 159 
 
 Canano, Gianbattista, 1515-1579 ... ... ... ... ... 88 
 
 Cardanus, Hieronymus, of Pavia, 1501-1576... ... ... ... 83 
 
 Carroll, James, 1854-1907 ... ... ... ... ... ... 234 
 
 Casserius, Julius (Placenterius), 1561-1616 ... ... ... ... 104 
 
 Cassius, Felix, 130 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38 
 
 Cavendish, Henry, 1731-1810 163 
 
 Celsus, Aurelianus Cornelius, 25 B.C.-50 A. D. ... ... ... 31 
 
 Chadwick, Sir Edwin, 1800-1890 ... ... ... ... ... 203 
 
 Chamberlen Family, 1569-1728 ... ... ... ... ... 106 
 
 Chambre, John, 1472-1549 ... ... ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 Chanca, Diego Alvarez, of Seville, 1494 ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 Charaka, 600 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8 
 
 Charcot, Jean-Martin, 1825-1893 ... ... ... ... ... 222 
 
 Chauliac, Guy de, 1298-1368 ... ... ... ... ... ... 61 
 
 Cheiron ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 
 
 Cheselden, William, 1688-1752... ... ... ... ... ... 148 
 
 Chesne, Joseph du, 1546-1609 ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 
 
 Cheyne, George, 1671-1743 ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 2 
 
 Cheyne, John, 1777-1836 ... ... ... ... ... ... 188 
 
 Chopart, Francis, 1750-1795 ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 73 
 
 Christison, Sir Robert, 1797-1882 ... ... ... ... .. 201 
 
 Chrysippos, 300 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 
 
 Clarke, Jacob Augustus Lockhart, 1816-1880... ... ... ... 216 
 
 Clearchos of Soloi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Clerc, Louis le (Buffon), 1707-1788 ... ... ... ... ... 15 2 
 
 Clift, William, 1775-1849 187 
 
 Cloquet, Jules German, 1790-1883 ... ... ... ... ... 194 
 
 Clowes, William, 1540-1604 ... ... ... ... ... ••• 97 
 
 Clusius, Carolus, 1526-1609 ... ... ... ... ... 94 
 
 Cockburn, William, 1696 ... ... ... ... ... ... 119 
 
 Cohnheim, Julius Friedrich, 1839-1884 ... ... ... ... 228 
 
 Colbatch, John, 1695 ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 135 
 
 Cole, William, 1635-1716 ... ... ... ... ... ••• 127 
 
 Cole, William, of Bristol, 1675... ... ... ... ... ••• 144 
 
 Colles, Abraham, 1775-1843 ... ... ... ... 1S6 
 
 Collins, Samuel, 1618-1710 ... ... ... ... ... ••• 118 
 
 Columbus, Realdus, 1516-1559 ... ... ... ... ... S9 
 
 260 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Constantine the African, 1010-1087 52 
 
 Cooper, Sir Astley Paston, 1766-1841 ... ... ... ... 1S1 
 
 Cordus, Valerius, 1515-1544 ... ... ... ... ... ... 88 
 
 Corrigan, Sir Dominic, 1802-1880 ... ... ... ... ... 204 
 
 Cortesi, Giovanni Baptista, 1554-1636... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 Cosmas, St., 303 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 
 
 Cowper, William, 1666-1709 ... ... ... ... ... ... 141 
 
 Coyter, Volcher, 1534-1600 ... ... ... ... ... . 96 
 
 Crollius, Oswald, 1560-1609 ... ... ... ... ... ... no 
 
 Crookes, Sir William, 1832-1919 ... 226 
 
 Croone, William, 1633-1684 ... 127 
 
 Cruikshank, William Cumberland, 1745-1800 ... ... ... 17° 
 
 Ctesias of Cnidos, 400 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 
 
 Cullen, William, 1710-1790 ... ... ... ... ... ... 153 
 
 Culpepper, Nicholas, 1616-1654 ... ... ... ... ... 117 
 
 Currie, James, 1756-1805 176 
 
 Cuvier, Georges Christian Leopold Dagobert, 1789-1832 ... ... 193 
 
 Cyprianus, Abraham, 1656-1724 ... ... ... 138 
 
 D’Agoty, Jacques Gautier, 1771-1786 153 
 
 Dalton, John, 1766-1844... ... ... ... . ... ... 180 
 
 Damianus, St., 303 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 
 
 Damocrates, 26 ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 31 
 
 Daremberg, Charles Victor, 1816-1872 ... ... ... ... 215 
 
 Darwin, Charles, 1809-1882 ... ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus, 1731-1802 ... ... ... ... ... ... 163 
 
 Daviel, Jacques, 1693-1762 ... ... ... ... ... ... 148 
 
 D’ Avila, Luis Lobera, 1551 ... ... ... ... ... ... 73 
 
 Davy, Sir Humphry, 1778-1829 ... ... ... ... 188 
 
 Dea Febris ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 DeaSalus... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12 
 
 Deane, Edmund, 1572-1640 ... ... ... ... ... . . 107 
 
 Deiters, Otto Frederick Karl, 1834-1863 ... ... ... ... 227 
 
 Demetrius of Apameia, 250 B.c. ... ... .. ... ... 25 
 
 Democedes, 500 B.c. ... ... ... ... .. ... 15 
 
 Democritus of Abdera, 494-404 B.C. ... ... ... ... 16 
 
 Demosthenes the Oculist ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 
 
 Demosthenes of Massilia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 
 
 Denis, Jean Baptiste, 1620-1704 ... 118 
 
 Denman, Thomas, 1733-1816 ... ... ... ... ... ... 164 
 
 261 
 
Index 
 
 Descemet, Jean, 1732-1810 
 
 PAGE 
 
 164 
 
 Deventer, Hendrik van, 1651-1724 
 
 136 
 
 Dexippus, 370 B.C. 
 
 20 
 
 Dhanwantari 
 
 6 
 
 Diancecht, B.c. 480 
 
 12 
 
 Dieuches ... 
 
 21 
 
 Dioclesian, 350 b.c. 
 
 20 
 
 Diogenes of Apollonia, 430 b.c. 
 
 l6 
 
 Diokles of Carystos, 350 B.C. ... 
 
 20 
 
 Diokles of Euboea, 350 B.c. 
 
 20 
 
 Dionis, Pierre, d. 1718 ... 
 
 138 
 
 Dioscorides, Pedanius of Anzaba, 40-90 
 
 33 
 
 Dioxippos of Cos, 370 B.c. 
 
 20 
 
 Dodart, Denys, 1634-1707 
 
 127 
 
 Dodoens, Rembert, 1517-1585 
 
 90 
 
 Donders, Frans Cornells, 1818-1889 ... 
 
 ... 218 
 
 Douglas, James, 1675-1742 
 
 145 
 
 Douglas, John, d. 1759 ... 
 
 148 
 
 Dover, Thomas, 1664-1742 
 
 140 
 
 Dracon, 380 B.c. 
 
 20 
 
 Drake, Daniel, 1785-1852 
 
 191 
 
 Dubois, Jacques, 1478-1555 ... 
 
 73 
 
 DuChesne, Joseph, 1546-1609 ... 
 
 IOl 
 
 Duchenne, Guillaume Benjamin Amand, 1806-1875... 
 
 208 
 
 DuCoudray, Angelique Marguerite, 1712-1789 
 
 156 
 
 Duges, Antoine Louis, 1797-1838 
 
 200 
 
 Dumas, Jean Baptiste Andre, 1800-1884 
 
 202 
 
 Dupuytren, Guillaume, 1777-1835 
 
 187 
 
 Duverney, Joseph G., 1648-1730 
 
 134 
 
 Ea, 5000 B.C 
 
 1 
 
 Earle, Sir James, 1755-1817 
 
 175 
 
 Ehrlich, Paul, 1854-1915 
 
 235 
 
 Eir 
 
 9 
 
 El Harits ben Kalada, 600 
 
 43 
 
 Ellil, 3500 b.c 
 
 3 
 
 Elliotson, John, 1791-1868 
 
 195 
 
 Empedocles, 504-443 B.C. 
 
 15 
 
 Ent, Sir George, 1604-1689 
 
 1 14 
 
 Erasistratus of Julis, 300-245 B.c. 
 
 24 
 
 262 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Esmun ... .. ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 8 
 
 Estienne, Charles, 1503-1564 ... ... ... 83 
 
 Eudemos, 290 b.c. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 22 
 
 Eudoxus of Cnidos, 408-355 B.C. ... ... ... .. ... 17 
 
 Euenor of Argos, 388 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 
 
 Eupator, 132-63 B.C 29 
 
 Eustachius, Bartolommeus, 1520-1574... ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Euryphon of Cnidos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 
 
 Fabricujs ab Aquapendente, Hieronymus, 1537-1619 ... ... 98 
 
 Fabricius Flildanus, 1560-1624 ... ... ... ... 104 
 
 Fassuis, 1528-1591 ... ... 94 
 
 Falloppius, Gabrielle, 1523-1562 ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, 1686-1736 ... ... ... ... 147 
 
 Faraday, Michael, 1791-18 67 ... ... ... ... ... ... 195 
 
 Fergusson, Sir William, 1808-1877 ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 Fernandez, Gonzalo, 1510 ... ... ... ... .. ... 79 
 
 Fernelius, Jean Francois, 1497-1558 ... ... ... ... ... 80 
 
 Finch, Sir John, 1626-1682 ... ... ... ... ... ... 121 
 
 Finsen, Niels, 1860-1904 ... ... ... ... ... ... 235 
 
 Fiorravanti, Leonardo, 1564 ... ... ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Fletcher, Robert, 1823-1912 ... ... ... ... ... ... 228 
 
 Floyer, Sir John, 1649-1734 ... ... ... ... ... ... 134 
 
 Fludd, Robert (Fluctibus), 1574-1637... ... ... ... ... 108 
 
 Foes, Fsesius, 1528-1591... ... ... ... ... ... ... 94 
 
 Fontana, Abbe Felix, 1730-1805 ... ... ... ... ... 162 
 
 Forestus, Petrus, 1522-1597 ... ... ... ... ... ... 92 
 
 Foster, Sir Michael, 1836-1907 ... ... ... ... ... 227 
 
 Fothergill, John, 1712-1780 ... 155 
 
 Fowler, Thomas, 1736-1801 ... .. ... ... ... ... 166 
 
 Fracastorius, Gitolamo, 1484-1553 ... ... ... ... ... 75 
 
 Francisco Arceo, 1493-1571 ... ... ... ... ... ... 79 
 
 Franco, Pierre, 1505-1551 .. ... ... ... 84 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-1790... ... ... ... ... ... 151 
 
 Freind, John, 1675-1728 ... ... ... ... ... ... 144 
 
 Freyer, Sir Peter J., 1851-1920 ... ... ... ... ... 234 
 
 Fuchs, Leonhard, 1501-1566 ... ... ... ... ... ... 82 
 
 Gaddesden, John, 1280-1361 64 
 
 Gaius of Neapolis.. . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 
 
 263 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gale, Thomas, 1507-1587 ... ... 84 
 
 Galen, Claudius, 130-200 ... ... ... ... ... ... 38 
 
 Galvani, Aloysius, 1737-1798 166 
 
 Gariopontus, d. 1050 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52 
 
 Garth, Sir Samuel, 1661-1719 ... ... ... ... ... ... 140 
 
 Gartner, Gustav, 1790-1834 ... ... ... ... ... ... 194 
 
 Gasser, John Laurence, d. 1765 ... ... ... ... ... 157 
 
 Gaub, Hieronymus David, 1705-1780 ... ... ... ... ... 151 
 
 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 1778-1850 188 
 
 Geber, 702-765 48 
 
 Geminus, Thomas, 1540-1560 87 
 
 Genga, Bernardine, 1655-1734 ... 138 
 
 Geoffroy, Etienne St. Hilaire, 1771-1844 ... ... ... ... 183 
 
 Gerard of Cremona, 1114-1187... ... ... ... ... ... 53 
 
 Gerhard, William Wood, 1809-1872 ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 Gersdorfif, Hans von, fl. 1500 ... ... ... ... ... ... 69 
 
 Gesner, Conrad, 1516-1565 89 
 
 Giacomini, Carlo, 1821-1898 ... ... ... ... ... ... 221 
 
 Gibson, Thomas, ca. 1562 ... ... ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Gibson, Thomas, 1647-1722 ... ... ... ... ... ... 133 
 
 Giflfard, William, 1734 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165 
 
 Gigliani, Alessandra, 1307-1326 ... ... ... ... ... 63 
 
 Gilbert, William, 1540-1603 ... ... ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 Gilbertus Anglicus, 1180-1250 ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 Gimbernat, Antonio de, 1762 ... ... ... ... ... ... 162 
 
 Girald^s, Joachim Albin Cardozo Cazado, 1808-1875 ... ... 208 
 
 Glaser, Jean Henri, 1629-1675.-. ... ... ... ... ... 124 
 
 Glaucias of Taros, 180 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 
 
 Glisson, Francis, 1597-1677 ... ... ... ... ... ... 113 
 
 Godman, John D., 1794-1830 ... ... ... ... ... ... 197 
 
 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 1749-1832 ... ... ... ... 172 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, 1728-1774 ... ... ... ... ... ... 160 
 
 Goodsir, Sir John, 1814-1867 ... ... ... ... ... ... 213 
 
 Gordon, Bernard, 1300 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63 
 
 Gorgas, William C., 1854-1920... ... ... ... ... ... 235 
 
 Goulard, Thomas, d. 1784 ... ... ... ... ... ... 151 
 
 Goulston, Theodore, 1572-1632 ... ... ... ... ... 107 
 
 Gourmelin, Etienne, 1593 ... ... ... .. ... ... 102 
 
 Gowers, Sir William Richard, 1845-1915 .. ... ... ... 230 
 
 Graaf, Regner de, 1641-1673 ... ... ... ... ... ... 130 
 
 264 
 
Index 
 
 Graefe, Albrecht von, 1828-1870 
 
 PAGE 
 ... 224 
 
 Grainger, Edward, 1797-1824 ... 
 
 199 
 
 Grassi, Benevenuto, 1474 
 
 67 
 
 Graves, Robert James, 1797-1853 
 
 . . 300 
 
 Greenfield, John, 1670 ... 
 
 119 
 
 Greenhill, William Alexander, 1814-1894 
 
 214 
 
 Gregory, James, 1758-1822 
 
 177 
 
 Grew, Nehemiah, 1628-1711 
 
 123 
 
 Gross, Samuel David, 1805-1884 
 
 207 
 
 Guainierio, Antonio, fl. 1447 
 
 65 
 
 Guido Guidi, 1500-1569 
 
 82 
 
 Guillemeau, Jacques, 1550-1613 
 
 101 
 
 Guillotine, Joseph Ignace, 1738-1814 
 
 166 
 
 Guinterius, Johannes, 1487-1574 
 
 76 
 
 Gula, 3,000 b.c 
 
 3 
 
 Gull, Sir William, 1816-1890 
 
 ... 216 
 
 Guthrie, George James, 1785-1856 
 
 191 
 
 Guy de Chauliac, 1298-1368 
 
 61 
 
 Guy, Thomas, 1643-1724 
 
 13 2 
 
 Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, 1834-1919 
 
 226 
 
 Haen, Anton de, 1704-1776 
 
 iSi 
 
 Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich, 1755-1843... 
 
 176 
 
 Halford, Sir Henry, 1766-1844 ... 
 
 ... 180 
 
 Hall, John, 1575-1635 
 
 108 
 
 Hall, Marshall, 1790-1857 
 
 194 
 
 Halle, John, 1529-1568 .. 
 
 94 
 
 Haller, Albrecht von, 1708-1777 
 
 IS2 
 
 Halsted, William Stewart, 1852-1922 ... 
 
 234 
 
 Haly Abbas, 994 ... 
 
 50 
 
 Harney, Baldwin, 1568-1640 
 
 106 
 
 Hamey, Baldwin, 1600-1676 
 
 114 
 
 Harita 
 
 7 
 
 Harris, Walter, 1647-1732 
 
 133 
 
 Harvey, William, 1578-1657 
 
 ... 109 
 
 Harvey, Gideon, 1640-1700 
 
 130 
 
 Hasner, Josef Ritter von Artha, 1819-1892 
 
 ... 220 
 
 Hastings, Sir Charles, 1794-1866 
 
 198 
 
 Havers, Clopton, 1660-1702 
 
 138 
 
 Heberden, William, 1710-1801 ... 
 
 154 
 
 265 
 
Index 
 
 Hebra, Feidinand von, 1816-1880 
 Heister, Laurence, 1683-1758 ... 
 
 Heliodorus, 75 
 
 Helmholtz, Herman von, 1821-1894 ... 
 
 Helmont, Johanne Baptist van, 1577-1644 
 Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob, 1809-1896 .. 
 
 Henri de Mondeville, 1260-1320 
 
 Henschel, August Wilhelm Edward Theodore, 1790 
 
 Herennius Philo of Tarsus, 20 
 
 Heracleides of Erythrea, 30 B.C. 
 
 Heracleides of Tarentum 
 
 Hermes Trismegistos 
 Herodicos ... 
 
 Herodotus, 100 
 
 Herophilos of Chalcedon, 300 B.c. 
 
 Hesselbach, Franz Caspar, 1759-1816 
 
 Hesychios of Damascus, 430 
 Heurne, Jan van, 1543-1601 
 Hewson, William, 1739-1774 '... 
 
 Hey, William, 1736-1819 
 Hickman, Henry Hill, 1800-1829 
 Hieronymus of Brunschweig, 1450-1533 
 Highmore, Nathaniel, 1613-1685 
 Hikesios of Smyrna 60 ... 
 
 Hilton, John, 1804-1878... 
 
 Hippocrates, 460-377 B.C. 
 
 Hippon 
 
 Hirsch, August, 1817-1894 
 Hodges, Nathaniel, 1629-1688 
 Hodgkin, Thomas, 1797-1866 
 Hoffman, Friedrich, 1660-1742 
 Hohenheim, Theophrastus Bombast von (Paracelsus 
 Holboken, Nicolaus, 1632-1678 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 1809-1894 ... 
 
 Holmgren, Alarik Frithiof, 1831-1897 
 Home, Sir Everard, 1763-1832... 
 
 Honein ben Ishak, 809-873 
 
 Hoppe-Seyler, Ernest Felix Immanuel, 1825-1895 
 Horner, William Edmund, 1793-1853... 
 
 Houston, Robert, 1734 ... 
 
 856 
 
 H93 
 
 541 
 
 PAGE 
 
 215 
 
 146 
 
 37 
 
 221 
 
 108 
 
 209 
 
 62 
 
 194 
 
 36 
 
 26 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 178 
 42 
 
 100 
 
 167 
 
 166 
 
 201 
 
 68 
 
 ii5 
 
 27 
 206 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 217 
 
 123 
 
 201 
 
 139 
 
 • 78 
 
 126 
 . 209 
 
 226 
 
 179 
 46 
 
 ■ 223 
 
 . 196 
 
 • 143 
 
 266 
 
Index 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Houston, John, 1802-1845 
 
 
 204 
 
 Hua T’O, 200 
 
 
 6 
 
 Huguier, Peter Charles, 1804-1873 
 
 
 205 
 
 Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander Freiherr von, 
 
 1769-1859 
 
 181 
 
 Hundt, Magnus, 1449-1519 
 
 
 81 
 
 Hunter, William, 1718-1783 
 
 
 158 
 
 Hunter, John, 1728-1793 
 
 
 161 
 
 Huschke, Emile, 1797-1858 
 
 
 200 
 
 Huxham, John, 1694-1768 
 
 
 148 
 
 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 1825-1895 
 
 
 222 
 
 Hygieia 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 Ibn a’l Baytar of Malaga ... .. 
 
 
 49 
 
 I-em-Hetep, 3500 b.c. ... 
 
 
 4 
 
 Ikkos of Tarentum 
 
 
 13 
 
 Ingrassias, Giovanni Filippo, 1510-1580 
 
 
 86 
 
 Isaac Judaeus, 830-940 ... 
 
 
 47 
 
 Ishak ben Soleiman, 830-940 ... 
 
 
 47 
 
 Ixtlilton 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber), 702-765.. 
 
 
 48 
 
 Jackson, John Hughlings, 1834-1911 ... 
 
 
 227 
 
 Jacobsen, Louis Levin, 1783-1843 
 
 
 190 
 
 Jacobus Psycochristus, 460 
 
 
 42 
 
 Jamatus, 1230 
 
 
 57 
 
 Jamerius, Johannes, 1230 
 
 
 57 
 
 James, Robert, 1703-1776 
 
 
 250 
 
 Jenner, Edward, 1749-1823 
 
 
 173 
 
 Jerome of Brunswick, 1450-1533 
 
 
 68 
 
 Jesus Haly, 1050 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 52 
 
 Joannes Hispanus (John of Toledo), 1100 
 
 
 53 
 
 Joannitius, 809-873 
 
 
 46 
 
 John of Arderne, 1307-1380 
 
 
 64 
 
 Johnson, Thomas, 1600-1644 
 
 
 113 
 
 Joubert, Laurentius, 1529-1583... 
 
 
 94 
 
 Joyliffe, George, 1631-1658 
 
 
 125 
 
 Jung-Stilling, J. H., 1740-1817 
 
 
 167 
 
 Junius, Hadrian, 1511-1575 
 
 
 87 
 
 267 
 
 Kalada, El Haritz Ben, 600 
 
 43 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Keill, James, 1673-1719 
 
 
 143 
 
 Kempf, Johann, 1726-1787 
 
 
 ... 160 
 
 Kenyia, Salvatore de, 1800-1872 
 
 
 ... 202 
 
 Kerckring, Thomas Theodore, 1640-1693 
 
 
 ... 129 
 
 Ketham, Johannes de, 1480 ... ... . . 
 
 
 ... 74 
 
 Keys, John (Caius), 1510-1573 ... 
 
 
 ... 86 
 
 Kircher, Athanasius, 1602-1680 
 
 
 ... 114 
 
 Koch, Robert, 1843-1910 ... 
 
 
 ... 229 
 
 Koraes, Adamantios, 1748-1833 
 
 
 ... 172 
 
 Kowalevsky, Alexander, 1846-1901 
 
 
 ... 231 
 
 Kraftheim, Johann Crato von, 1519-1586 
 
 
 ... 90 
 
 Kratzenstein, Christopher Gottlob, 1723-1795 
 
 
 - 159 
 
 Kiichenmeister, Gottlieb Friedrich Heinrich, 1821 
 
 -1890 
 
 ... 220 
 
 Kymer, Gilbert, d. 1463... 
 
 
 ... 67 
 
 Laennec, Rene Theodore Hyacynths, 1781- 
 
 826 
 
 ... 189 
 
 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de, 1744-1829 
 
 
 ... 170 
 
 Lancisi, John Maria, 1654-1720 
 
 
 ... 137 
 
 Lanfranc of Milan, d. 1315 
 
 
 61 
 
 Lapeyronie, Franpois de, 1678-1747 
 
 
 ... 145 
 
 Larrey, Dominique Jean, 1766-1842 ... 
 
 
 ... 180 
 
 Laurens, Andreas du, 1558-1609 
 
 
 ... 103 
 
 Laurent Joubert 1529-1583 
 
 
 ... 94 
 
 Laveran, Charles Louis Alphonse, 1845-1922... 
 
 
 • 230 
 
 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 1743-1794 
 
 
 ... 169 
 
 Leeuwenhoeck, Anton van, 1632-1723 
 
 
 ... 126 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519 ... 
 
 
 ... 69 
 
 Leonicenus, Nicholas, 1428-1524 
 
 
 ... 67 
 
 Leon, Pedro Ponce de, 1520-1584 
 
 
 ... 92 
 
 Leonidas of Alexandria, 200 
 
 
 ... 36 
 
 Lettsom, John Coakley, 1744-1815 
 
 
 169 
 
 Levret, Andre, 1703-1780 
 
 
 ... 151 
 
 Lieberkiihn, Johann Nathaniel, 1711-1746 ... 
 
 
 ... 154 
 
 Liebig, Justus von, 1803-1873 ... 
 
 
 ... 205 
 
 Linacre, Thomas, 1460-1524 
 
 
 ... 70 
 
 Linnaeus, Charles, I7I7 _I 783 • •• 
 
 
 ... 157 
 
 Lisfranc, Thomas, 1790-1847 
 
 
 ... 194 
 
 Lister, Lord (Joseph), 1827-1912 
 
 
 ... 224 
 
 Liston, Robert, 1794-1847 
 
 
 ... 197 
 
 Littre, Alexis, 1698-1726 
 
 
 ... 204 
 
 268 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Littre, Maximilien Paul Emile, 1801-1881 ... ... ... ... 204 
 
 Livingstone, David, 1813-1873 212 
 
 Lizars, John, 1783-1860... ... ... ... ... ... ... 190 
 
 Lobelius, Matthaeus, 1538-1616 ... ... 99 
 
 Locke, John, 1632-1704 ... ... 125 
 
 Lom, Joost van, 1560 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 Long, Crawford Williamson, fl. 1840 ... ... ... ... ... 214 
 
 Longmore, Sir Thomas, 1816 ... ... ... ... ... ... 216 
 
 Lonicerus, Adam, 1528-1586 ... ... ... ... ... .. 94 
 
 Lopez de Villalobos, Francisco, 1473-1560 ... ... ... ... 72 
 
 Louis, Pierre Charles Alexandre, 1787-1872 ... ... ... ... 192 
 
 Lowdham. R., 1679 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 135 
 
 Lowe, Peter, 1550-1610 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 
 
 Lower, Richard, 1631-1691 ... ... ... ... ... ... 125 
 
 Lucius Appuleius, 400 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 
 
 Ludwig, Karl Wilhelm, 1816-1895 ... ... ... ... ... 216 
 
 Lully, Raymond, 1235-1312 ... ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 Luschka, Hubert von, 1820-1875 ... ... ... ... ... 220 
 
 Lusitanus, Amatus, 1511-1568 ... ... ... ... ... ... 87 
 
 Macartney, James, 1770-1843 ... 182 
 
 Machaon. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Magati, Cesare, 1579-1647 ... no 
 
 Magendie, Frangois, 1782-1855 ... ... ... ... ... ... 190 
 
 Maggi, Bartolommeo, 1516-1552 ... ... ... .. ... 89 
 
 Magnus, 75 34 
 
 Maimonides, 1135-1204... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54 
 
 Malgaigne, Joseph Frangois, 1806-1865 ... ... ... ... 207 
 
 Malpighi, Marcello, 1628-1694... ... ... ... ... ... 123 
 
 Manardus, Johannes, 1462-1536 ... ... ... ... ... 71 
 
 Manfredi, 1430-1493 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 68 
 
 Manson, Sir Patrick, 1844-1922 ... ... ... ... ... 229 
 
 Manzolini, Anna, nee Morandi, 1716-1774 ... ... ... ... 157 
 
 Marat, Jean Paul, 1743-1793 ... ... ... ... ... ... 169 
 
 Marduk, 4,500 B.C. ... 2 
 
 Mauriceau, Frangois, 1637-1709 ... ... ... ... ... 128 
 
 Marinus, 100 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 37 
 
 Martialis, 165 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27 
 
 Marcianus, 165 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27 
 
 Mascagni, Paolo, 1752-1815 174 
 
 269 
 
Index 
 
 Massa, Nicolo, 1499-1569 
 
 Matthis, Florian, 1602 ... 
 
 Mattioli, Pietro Andrea, 1501-1577 
 Mayow, John, 1643-1679 
 McDowell, Ephraim, 1771-1830 
 
 Mead, Richard, 1673-1754 
 
 Meckel, Johann Friedrich, 1788-1833 ... 
 Meges, B.C. 20 
 
 Meibom, Heinrich, 1638-1700 
 
 Meissner, George, 1829-1905 
 
 Melampous 
 
 Mendeleeff, Dmitri Ivanovitsch, 1834-1907 
 Menecrates of Zeophleta, 30 
 Menodorus, 7° 
 
 Menon 
 
 Mercado, Luis, 1520-1606 (Mercatus) ... 
 Merchettis, Domenico de, 1626-1688 ... 
 Mercurialis, Hieronymus, 1530-1606 ... 
 Mercurius, Scipio, 1538-1616 ... 
 
 Merodach, 4500 B.c. 
 
 Mery, Jean, 1645-1772 
 
 Mesmer, Friedrich Anton, 1734-1815 ... 
 Mesnard, Jacques, 1740... 
 
 Mesue, the Elder, 777-857 
 
 Metchnikoff, Elie, 1845-1916 ... 
 
 Metrodorus of Athens 
 Milne-Edwards, Henri, 1800-1885 
 Minerva Memor ... 
 
 Mirfeld, John, 1360 
 Mitchell, Silas Weir, 1830-1914 
 
 Mithridates VI., 132-63 B.C 
 
 Mnesitheos of Athens, 340 B.C. 
 
 Modesy or Morrison, Robert, 1620-1683 
 Moore, Sir Norman, 1847-1922... 
 
 Mondeville, Henri de, 1260-1320 
 Mondino de Luzzi, 1276-1326 .. 
 
 Monro, Alex., 1697-1767 
 
 Monro, Alex., Secundus, 1733-1817 ... 
 
 Montagnana, Bartolommeo, d. 1460 ... 
 
 Montgomery, William Fetherstone, 1797-1859 
 
 PAGE 
 
 80 
 
 103 
 
 83 
 
 132 
 
 183 
 
 143 
 
 192 
 
 26 
 129 
 
 225 
 
 11 
 
 226 
 32 
 
 27 
 23 
 9 i 
 
 122 
 
 95 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 132 
 
 165 
 
 149 
 
 46 
 
 230 
 
 22 
 
 203 
 
 12 
 
 65 
 225 
 
 29 
 21 
 1 18 
 232 
 62 
 62 
 
 149 
 
 165 
 
 66 
 201 
 
 270 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Morandi-Manzolini, Anna, 1716-1774... ... ... ... ... 157 
 
 Morestede, Thomas, 1385-1450 ... ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 Morgagni, Giovanni Baptista, 1682-177.2 ... ... ... ... 146 
 
 Morrison, Robert, 1620-1683 ... ... ... ... ... ... 118 
 
 Morton, Richard, 16351698 ... ... ... ... ... ... 128 
 
 Morton, William Thomas Green, 1819-1868 .. ... ... ... 219 
 
 Moschion, 580 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 
 
 Moses ben Maimon, 1 135-1204 ... ... ... ... ... ... 54 
 
 Muffet, Thomas, d. 1600 ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 
 
 Muller, Johannes, 1801-1858 ... ... ... ... ... ... 203 
 
 Mundinus, 1276-1326 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 62 
 
 Musa, Antonius, 10 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 
 
 Naboth, Martin, 1675-1721 144 
 
 Neale, Richard, 1827-1900 ... 223 
 
 Nelaton, Auguste, 1807-1873 ... ... ... ... ... ... 208 
 
 Nenekhsekhmel Sikhit en Ankh, 2700 B.c. ... ... ... ... 5 
 
 Nettesheim, Henrich Cornelius Agrippa von, 1486-1535 ... ... 74 
 
 Nicaise, Edward, 1838-1896 ... ... ... ... ... ... 227 
 
 Nicander of Colophon, 185-135 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... 29 
 
 Nicholaos Myrepsos of Nicaea, 1250 ... .. ... ... ... 59 
 
 Nicolaus the Salernitan, 1140 ... ... ... ... ... .. 55 
 
 Nina, 4500 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 
 
 Ninib, 3000 B.c. ... ... . . ... ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 North, Elisha, 1771-1843 ... 183 
 
 Nuck, Anton, 1650-1692 ... ... ... ... ... ... 134 
 
 Numenios of Heraklea ... . . ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 Oannes, 5000 B.c. 1 
 
 O’Dwyer, Joseph, 1841-1898 ... ... ... ... ... ... 229 
 
 Oken, Laurenz, 1779-1851 ... ... ... ... ... ... 189 
 
 Oribasius, 326-403 .... ... ... ... .. ... ... 40 
 
 Osier, Sir William, 1849-^920 ... ... ... ... ... ... 233 
 
 Otto, John Conrad, 1774-1844 ... ... ... ... ... ... 186 
 
 Owen, Sir Richard, 1804-1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... 207 
 
 Pacchioni, Antonio, 1664-1726 140 
 
 Pacini, Philip, 1812-1883 212 
 
 Pagel, Julius Leopold, 1851-1912 ... ... ... ... ... 233 
 
 Paget, Sir James, 1814-1899 ... ... ... ... ... ... 214 
 
 27 I 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Palfyn, Johnann, 1649-1730 ... 
 
 Palladius of Alexandria, 543 ... ... ... 4 g 
 
 Panaceia ... ... ... ... ... Ir 
 
 Paracelsus, 1493-1541 ... ... ... ... . .,g 
 
 Pare, Ambroise, 1509-1590 ... ... ... ... g. 
 
 Parkes, Edmund A., 1819-1876 220 
 
 Pasteur, Louis, 1822-1895 ... ... ... 221 
 
 Paulus TEgineta, 625-690 
 
 Pausanias ... ... ... ... ... ... x g 
 
 Payne, Joseph Frank, 1840-1910 .. 22 g 
 
 Pecquet, Jean, 1624-1674 ... ... ... ... I2I 
 
 Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazaba, 40-90 ... ... gg 
 
 Percival, Thomas, 1740-1804 ... x g^ 
 
 Perkunnos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... g 
 
 Peter of Abano, 1250-1320 g 2 
 
 Petit, Jean Louis, 1674-1750 ... ... ... ... ... I44 
 
 Petrus ab Argelata, 1400 ... ... ... ... gg 
 
 Petty, Sir William, 1623-1687 ... ... ... ... I20 
 
 Peyer, Johann Conrad, 1653-1712 ... ... ... ;gg 
 
 Pfolspeundt, Heinrich von, 1450-1533 ... ... ... gg 
 
 Philaiethes, Demosthenes, 1 ... ... ... ... ... 2 6 
 
 Philaretos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 
 
 Philinus of Cos, 250 b.c. ... ... ... ... ... 2 8 
 
 Philistion of Locris, c. 370 b.c. ... ... ... ... ... x g 
 
 Philolaos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jg 
 
 Philotimus... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 2 i 
 
 Philoxenos, 50 a.d. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... gg 
 
 Philumenos, 250 ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... gg 
 
 Philumenos, the Methodic, 250... ... ... ... ... ... gg 
 
 Phryesen, Laurentius, ca 1480 ... ... ... ... ... ... § x 
 
 Physick, Philip Syng, 1768-1837 ... ... ... ... ... j Sx 
 
 Pinel, Philippe, 1755-1826 ... ... ... ... ... ... 175 
 
 Placenterius, Julius Casserius, 1561-1616 104 
 
 Placitus, Sextus, of Papyra, 370 ... ... .. ... ... 4I 
 
 Platearius, 1130-1150 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... g 4 
 
 Plato, 43°-347 B.C 21 
 
 Plater, Felix, 1536-1614 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... gs 
 
 Pleistonikos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 
 
 Podalirios ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 
 
 Polybos ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 272 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Polycreitos of Mende, 400 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 
 
 Ponce, Pedro of Leon, 1520-1584 ... ... ... ... ... 92 
 
 Poseidonios, 60 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Post, Wright, 1766-1822 ... ... ... ... ... 180 
 
 Pott, Percivall, 1713-1788 ... ... ... ... ... 156 
 
 Poupart, Francois, 1661-1708 ... ... ... ... 139 
 
 Praxagoras, of Cos, fl. 340-320 B.C. ... ... ... 21 
 
 Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 164 
 
 Prodicus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 
 
 Proust, Joseph Louis, 1755-1826 ... ... ... ... ... 175 
 
 Psellus, Michael ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53 
 
 Psycochristus Jacobus, 460 ... . , ... ... ... ... 42 
 
 Ptah ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 Ptolemaios of Alexandria, 150 ... ... ... ... ... 27 
 
 Purkinje, Jan Evangel, 1787-1869 ... ... ... ... 192 
 
 Purmann, Matthias Gottfried, 1648-1721 ... ... ... . 133 
 
 Pythagoras, 580-489 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... 14 
 
 Quain, Richard 1800-1887 20 3 
 
 Quatrefrages, Jean Louis Armar.d, de Breau, 1810-1892 ... 210 
 
 Quercetanus, 1546-1609 ... ... . . .. ... ... ... 101 
 
 Quintus Serenus Sammonicus, 212 ... ... ... ... ... 39 
 
 Rabelais, Franqois, 1494-1553 79 
 
 Radcliffe, John, 1650-1729 135 
 
 Ramazzini, Bernardino, 1633-1714 ... ... ... ... ... 12b 
 
 Ramsay, Sir William, 1852-1916 ... ... ... ... 234 
 
 Ranvier, Louis, 1835-1922 227 
 
 Rashidu’d din Fadlu’ llah, 1247 ... ... . . ... ... 57 
 
 Rathke, Martin Heinrich, 1793-1860 ... ... ... ... 196 
 
 Read, Alexander, 1586-1641 ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill 
 
 Recorde, Robert, 1510-1558 86 
 
 Reil, Johann Christian, 1759-1813 ... ... ... ... 177 
 
 Retzius, Anders Olof, 1796-1860 ... ... ... ... ... 199 
 
 Rhazes, 850-923 ... ... ... ... . .. ... ... ... 49 
 
 Ricardus Anglicus, 1190-1252 ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 
 
 Richardson, Benj. Ward, 1828-1896 ... ... ... ... ... 225 
 
 Riolan, Johann, 1577-1657 ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 
 
 Rivinus, Augustus Quirinus, 1652-1723 ... ... ... ... 136 
 
 Roch le Baillif de la Riviere, 1533-1610 ... 96 
 
 s 273 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Roger of Palermo, 1180... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 Roland of Parma, 1250... ... ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 Rolando, Luigi, 1773-1831 ... ... ... ... . ... 184 
 
 Romberg, Moritz Heinrich, 1795-1873 ... ... ... ... 199 
 
 Rondelet, Guillaume, 1507-1566 ... ... ... .. ... 84 
 
 Ronsil, Georg Arnaud de, d. 1774 ... ... ... ... ... 136 
 
 Rontgen, Wilhelm Conrad von, 1845-1923 ... ... ... 231 
 
 Rosenmiiller, Johann Christian, 1771-1820 ... ... ... 182 
 
 Rosslin, Eucharius, d. 1526 ... ... ... ... ... ... 69 
 
 Rousset, Francois, 1580... ... ... ... ... ... 77 
 
 Rudbeck, Olof, 1630-1702 124 
 
 Rueff, Jacob, 1500-1558 82 
 
 Rufus of Ephesus, 100 ... ... ... ... ... .. .. 34 
 
 Rush, Benjamin, 1745-1813 ... ... ... . ... ... 170 
 
 Rutley, John, 1762-1838 178 
 
 Ruysch, Fridrik, 1638-1731 129 
 
 Ryff, Walter Hermann, 1560 ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 Sabuco, Louise Oliva, 1562 105 
 
 Salicet, William of, 1201-1277 ... ... ... ... ... 57 
 
 Sanctorius, Santorio, 1561-1636 ... ... ... 105 
 
 Santorini, Giovanni Domenico, 1681-1737 ... ... ... ... 145 
 
 Sappey, Marie Philibert Constant, 1810-1896 ... ... 210 
 
 Savonarola, Michael, 1462 ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 
 
 Saxtorph, Mathias, 1740-1800 167 
 
 Scarpa, Antonio, 1747-1832 ... ... ... ... .. .. 171 
 
 Schaudinn, Fritz, 1871-1906 ... ... ... ... ... ... 236 
 
 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 1742-1786 ... ... ... 168 
 
 Schenk, Johann, 1530-1598 ... ... ... ... ... .. 95 
 
 Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, 1804-1881... ... ... ... 207 
 
 Schlemm, Friedrich, 1795-1858 ... ... ... ... 198 
 
 Schneider, Conrad Victor, 1614-1680 ... ... ... ... 117 
 
 Schwann, Theodore, 1810-1882 ... ... ... 210 
 
 Scribonius Largus, 47 ... ... ... ... ... ••• ■■ 3 2 
 
 Scultetus, Johann, 1595-1645 112 
 
 Semmelweiss, Ignaz Philipp, 1818-1865 ••• ••• ••• 2I ^ 
 
 Serapion ol Alexandria, 220 B.C. ... ... ... ... 2 S 
 
 Serapion the Elder, 802-849 ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 46 
 
 Servetus, Michael, 1509-1553 s 5 
 
 Severin, Peter, of Ribe, 1542-1602 99 
 
 274 
 
Index 
 
 Severino, Marco Aurelio, 1580-1656 ... 
 Sextus Placitus of Papyra, 370 ... 
 
 Sharp, Samuel, 1700-1778 
 
 Sharpey, William, 1802-1880 ... 
 
 Sheldon, John, 1752-1808 
 Sheng Nung, 2838-2698 B.C. 
 
 Sibson, Francis, 1814-1876 
 Simon, Sir John, 1816-1904 
 Simon de Corco of Genoa, 1330 
 Simpson, Sir James Young, 1811-1870 
 Sims, James Marion, 1813-1833 
 
 Sloane, Sir Hans, 1660-1753 
 
 Smellie, William, 1680-1763 
 
 Soemmering, Samuel Thomas von, 1755-1830 
 Soerensen, Peder ... 
 
 Solingen, Cornelius van, 1641-1687 
 Soranus of Ephesus, 98-1 17 
 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 1729-1799 
 Spigelius, Adrianus, 1578-1625 
 Spon, Charles, 1609-1684 
 Stahl, Georg Ernest, 1660-1734 
 Stark, John Christopher, 1753-1811 
 Stark, William, .1741-1770 
 Steno, Nicolaus (Stensen), 1638-1686 .. 
 Sternberg, George Miller, 1838-1915 ... 
 Sterne (or Stearne), John, 1624-1669 .. 
 Stephanus of Athens, 640 
 Stilling, Johann Heinrich Jung, 1740-1817 
 Stokes, Sir William, 1804-1878... 
 
 Stoll, Maximilian, 1742-4787 ... 
 
 Straton of Lampsacus, 280 B.C. 
 
 Stromeyer, Georg Friedrich Louis, 1804-1876 
 Susruta, 600 B.C. ... 
 
 Swammerdam, Jan, 1637-1686 ... 
 
 Swieten, Gerhard van, 1700-1772 
 Sydenham, Thomas, 1624-1689... 
 
 Syennsis the Cypriote, 360 b.c. 
 
 Sylvius, Jacobus, 1478-1555 
 Sylvius, Franriscus, 1614-1672 ... 
 
 PAGE 
 I IO 
 
 41 
 
 150 
 
 205 
 
 174 
 6 
 
 213 
 
 217 
 
 64 
 
 211 
 
 212 
 139 
 •45 
 
 175 
 
 99 
 
 •30 
 
 37 
 
 162 
 
 no 
 
 115 
 
 139 
 
 174 
 
 168 
 128 
 22S 
 121 
 
 45 
 
 167 
 
 206 
 
 169 
 
 23 
 
 206 
 
 127 
 
 149 
 
 120 
 
 17 
 
 73 
 
 116 
 
 275 
 
Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tabernaemontanus, Jac. Theod., d. 159a 92 
 
 Tagliacozzi, Caspar, 1546-1599 101 
 
 Tagaultius, Jean, d. 1545 ... ... ... ... ... ... 77 
 
 Tarin, Pierre, 1725-1761 160 
 
 Tarnier, Etienne, 1828-1897 225 
 
 Telesphorus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 
 
 Tenon, Jacques Rene, 1724-1816 159 
 
 Thales of Miletus, 639-544 B.c. 13 
 
 Thebesius, Adrian Christian, 1686-1732 ... ... ... .. 147 
 
 Themison, 123-43 B.C. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 
 
 Theodorus, 80 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 
 
 Theodorius of Cervia, 1205-1298 57 
 
 Theophanes Nonnus, 920 ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 
 
 Theophilos, 610-641 ... 44 
 
 Theophrastos, 370-285 B.c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 
 
 Theophrastus Bombast von Plohenheim [Paracelsus], 1493-1541 .. 78 
 
 Thessalos, 380 B.c. 20 
 
 Thessalus of Tralles, 60 ... ... 33 
 
 Thompson, Sir Henry, 1820-1904 220 
 
 Thoth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 Thrita, 500 B.c 8 
 
 Thurneysser, Leonard, of Thurn, 1530-1595 ... ... ... 95 
 
 Timoni, Emanuel, 1714... ... ... .. ... .. ... 156 
 
 Tissot, Simon Andr6, 1728-1797 ... ... ... ... ... 161 
 
 Torre, Marc Antonio della, 1473-1506... ... ... ... ... 69 
 
 Torti, Francisco, 1658-1741 ... ... ... ... ... 138 
 
 Tragus, Hieronymus, 1498-1560 ... ... ... ... ... 80 
 
 Travers, Benjamin, 1783-1858 ... ... ... ... .. 190 
 
 Treitz, Wenzel, 1819-1872 ... ... ... .. ... ... 219 
 
 Trotula de Ruggieri, 1260 ... ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 Trousseau, Armand, 1801-1867.. ... ... ... ... ... 204 
 
 Tulpius, Nicholas, 1593-1672 ... ... ... ... .. ... 112 
 
 Turner, William, 1568 ... ... ... ... •• ... ... 9 2 
 
 Turner, Thomas, 1793-1873 ... ... ... ... ... ... 195 
 
 Tyson, Edward, 1650-1708 ... ... ... ... ... ... 135 
 
 Tzapotleman .„ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 
 
 Uranius, 560 43 
 
 276 
 
 Vagbhatai, 625 B.C. 
 
 8 
 
Index 
 
 Valentine, Basil, fifteenth century 
 
 
 PAGE 
 ... 66 
 
 Valescus de Taranta, 1470-1490 
 
 
 67 
 
 Valleriola, Francois, 1504-1583.. 
 
 
 ... 83 
 
 Valsalva, Antonio Maria, of Imolj, 1666-1725 
 
 
 ... 141 
 
 Valverde, Juan di Hamusco, 1560 
 
 
 9 i 
 
 Varignana, Guilelmo, 1330 
 
 
 64 
 
 Varolio, Constantine, 1543-1575 
 
 
 100 
 
 Vater, Abraham, 1684-1751 
 
 
 146 
 
 Vega, Christobal de, 1501-15S0... 
 
 
 ■ ■ 83 
 
 Vegetius ... 
 
 
 41 
 
 Verga, Andrew, 181 1-1895 
 
 
 ... 211 
 
 Vesalius, Andreas, 1514-1564 ... 
 
 
 .. 88 
 
 Vicary, Thomas, d. 1562 
 
 
 ... 78 
 
 Vicq d’Azyr, Felix, 1748-1794 ... 
 
 
 172 
 
 Vidius, Vidus, 15001569 
 
 
 82 
 
 Vieussens, Raymond, 1631-1715 
 
 
 131 
 
 Vigo, John of, 1460-1519 
 
 
 ... 70 
 
 Villalobos, Francisco Lopez de, 1473-1560 ... 
 
 
 ... 72 
 
 Vincent de Beauvais, 1264 
 
 
 60 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 1452-1519 .. 
 
 t * * 
 
 69 
 
 Virchow, Rudolf, 1821-1902 
 
 
 ... 221 
 
 Volta, Alessandro, 1745-1827 ... 
 
 
 ... 171 
 
 Wagler, Karl Gottlieb, 1732-1778 
 
 
 ... 163 
 
 VVakley, Thomas, 1795-1862 
 
 
 ... 198 
 
 Warren, John Collins, 1778-1856 
 
 
 ... 188 
 
 Waterhouse, Benjamin, 1754-1846. 
 
 
 175 
 
 Wa T’o, 221-264... 
 
 
 6 
 
 Watt, Robert, 1774.1819 
 
 
 ... 185 
 
 Wells, Horace, 1815-1848 
 
 
 ... 215 
 
 Wells, William Charles, 1757-1817 
 
 
 ... 176 
 
 Wells, Sir Thomas Spencer, 1818-1897 
 
 
 ... 219 
 
 Welsch, Georg Hieronymus, 1624-1677 
 
 
 120 
 
 Weyer, Johann, 1515-1588 
 
 
 ... 89 
 
 Wharton, Thomas, 1614-1656 ... 
 
 
 ... 116 
 
 White, Charles, 1728-1813 
 
 
 ... 161 
 
 Wieland, Melchior, 1589 
 
 
 hi 
 
 Wierus, Johannes, 1515-1588 
 
 
 ... 89 
 
 Wilde, Sir William Robert Wills, 1815-1876... 
 
 
 ... 215 
 
 Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 
 
 
 ... 119 
 
 277 
 
Index 
 
 Wilson, Sir W. J. Erasmus, 1809-1884 
 
 page 
 ... 209 
 
 Winslow, Jacques-Benigne, 1669-1760 
 
 142 
 
 Winston, Thomas, 1575-1655 
 
 108 
 
 Winter, John, 1487-1574 
 
 76 
 
 Wirsung, Johann Georg, d. 1643 
 
 111 
 
 Wiseman, Richard, 1625-1680 ... 
 
 121 
 
 Wistar, Caspar, 1760-1818 
 
 178 
 
 Withering, William, 1741-1799... 
 
 168 
 
 Woodall, John, 1556-1643 
 
 '03 
 
 Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, 1 735-1 794 
 
 166 
 
 Wong Tal, 2697 b.c. 
 
 6 
 
 Worm, Olaus, 1588-1654 
 
 hi 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 1632-1723 
 
 126 
 
 Wrisberg, Heinrich Auguste, 1739-1808 
 
 ... 167 
 
 Wiirtz, Felix, 1518-1575... 
 
 90 
 
 Wiinderlich, Carl Reinhold August, 1815-1877 
 
 215 
 
 Wyer, Johann, 1515-1588 
 
 89 
 
 Xenophon of Cos 
 
 21 
 
 * 
 
 Young, James, 1646-1721 ... 
 
 133 
 
 Young, Thomas, 1773-1829 
 
 184 
 
 Yperman, Jan, 1275-1330 
 
 62 
 
 Zaynu’d, din Isma’il of Jurjan 
 
 49 
 
 Zenon, the Stoic, 340-260 B.C. ... 
 
 23 
 
 Zerbi, Gabriel, 1468-1505 
 
 7 i 
 
 Zeuxis of Tarentum, 50 B.c. 
 
 25 
 
 Zeuxis, the Elder, 250 b.c. 
 
 28 
 
 Zinn, Johann Gottfried, 1727-1759 
 
 160 
 
 Zopyros, 100-80 b.c. 
 
 30 
 
 Zoroaster, 2000 b.c. 
 
 S 
 
 278 
 
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