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PLATE 
 
PLATE 
 
PZAXE 
 
 

 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOHY 
 
 SIMPLIFIED. 
 
 INTENDED FOR THE NON-PROFESSIONAL PUBLIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM LISHER PRESHAW, 
 
 SURGEON, 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 
 CHARLES ZEIGLER, SOUTH BRIDGE STREET. 
 
 MB CCCXL 1 1. 
 
“ A BUNDLE OF CULLED FLOWERS, LITTLE MY OWN BUT THE THREAD 
 THAT BINDS THEM.” 
 
 
 >inERDEEN: 
 
 rniNTF. n by geo. Cornwall, victoria court, 
 liA 
 
 CASTLE STREET. 
 
 54 
 
NOTE. 
 
 For several years the Author of this little^vrork has devoted part of his 
 leisure hours to the delivering of Popular Lectures on Human Physiology. 
 Although convinced from his experience in the matter that Anatomy and 
 Physiology can be so simplified as to be intelligible to ordinary minds, 
 yet he is fully aware that, until the elements of such sciences are taught 
 as branches of common education. Popular Lectures will fail to have their 
 full eSect. On Physical subjects, too, the first principles of which we 
 have not been taught in youth especially, ideas are more easily and more 
 correctly conveyed to the mind by the eye than by the ear. Hence, the 
 Author has often lamented the want of some cheap and popular diagrams 
 of the Human Body, to which the learner might refer either at or after lec- 
 ture. That this desideratum might in some measure be supplied, he thought 
 of publishing a set of figures,with which he has illustrated his lectures, and 
 which seemed easily understood by many hundreds to whom they have 
 been exhibited. Keeping in mind, also, that, even in popular lectures and 
 books on such subjects, there are terms used not generally understood by 
 the non-professional public (for whom this work is intended), he thought 
 it might be well to throw together, by way of glossary, a number of such 
 terms, and, by alphabetical arrangement, render them easily referred to ; 
 and, that the work might be more complete, it suggested itself to add a 
 short outline of the animal economy in a connected form. The plates, 
 &e., may be useful on reading any popular work on the above subjects ; 
 for, although they are not intended to give a strictly correct anatomical 
 drawing, yet they may convey to the mind a general idea of the beautiful 
 mechanism of the human body. The beginner might do well to make 
 himself familiar with the plates by the explanatory references, &c., then 
 read the outline, and this might be filled up by the additional facts as 
 contained under the different heads of the glossary. To Teachers, who 
 use as school books Chambers’ Animal Physiology and M'CuUoch’s Course 
 of Reading, the plates may be of use to assist them in making school-room 
 diagrams of the human body. 
 
 Fettercaihn, m June, ISIS. 
 
Vir'.y-i - 
 
 
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REFERENCES 
 
 TO THE 
 
 PLATES FRONTING TITLE PAGE. 
 
 N.B Fold back the Slip Figures II. and III. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A— The Brain, the upper line pointing to the cerehrum, the lower to the 
 cerebellum. 
 
 B — The Heart. 
 
 C C — The Lungs. 
 
 D — The Liver. 
 
 E — The Stomach. 
 
 F — The Intestines. 
 a — The Spinal Corel. 
 
 Ij — A small Nerve. 
 
 c — The Tongue. 
 
 rl — The Parotid Gland. 
 
 e — The Trachea or windpipe. 
 
 / /—The CEsophagus or guUet. 
 g — The Windpipe dividing into the bronchial tubes. 
 h — The Diaphragm or midriff. 
 i — The Pancreas. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 B — The Heart. 
 
 E — The Stomach. 
 
 F — Part of the Intestines. 
 
 I — The Lacteals. 
 a a a — The Thoracic Duct. 
 b b — The Veins of the left arm. 
 f — The QSsophagus or gullet. 
 
 1 1 1 — The Spine or back bone. 
 
 2 2 — The Ribs of the right side. 
 
 3 — The Scapula or shoulder blade. 
 
 4 — The Clavicule or collar bone. 
 
 .') — The Humerus or arm bone. 
 
 6 7 — The Ulna and Eadius or bones of the fore arm. 
 
VI 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 B — The Heart 
 C — The Left Lunj. 
 
 H H — The Kidneys. 
 
 G — The Urinary' Bladder. 
 a a — The Aorta or main arter3^ 
 b h b b — The Arteries of the arms, 
 c — The Bronchial Tube of right lung. 
 
 d — Pulmonary Vessels which convey blood from the heart to the lungs. 
 e — Do. do. which return it to the heart. 
 
 f /—The Ureters. 
 g — Nerve of the left arm. 
 
 A— The Large Vein from the lower extremities. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 On folding back the slips two and three, there will be seen a representation 
 of the human body, having the cavities of the head, chest, and abdomen, laid 
 open, and their contents exposed in nearly their natural positions. In order 
 to this the skull must be opened on one side, and the breast bone, ribs, and 
 soft parts of the breast and belly removed. In the cavity of the cranium or 
 skull is the brain, the upper and larger portion of which is named the cere- 
 brum, and the under or lesser portion, the cerebellum. From the under side 
 of the brain and passing downwards, is a round cord-like substance, named the 
 spinal-marrow, it is lodged in a hollow canal formed by the bones of the spine 
 or back bone, which in this view is removed to expose it. A small nerve will 
 be seen branching out upon the cheek, and coming directly from the cord 
 which seems to be a continuation of the brain. Immediately below this twig 
 is the parotid gland of the left side, it is a soft sponge-like substance, placed 
 in front of the ear, and communicates with the mouth by a small tube which 
 opens on the inside of the cheek, the use of which is to conduct the saliva or 
 spittle from the gland to the mouth. The fleshy parts of the neck are re- 
 moved to expose the windpipe and gullet, these tubes are situated the one in 
 front of the other, and both before the bones of the neck. The windpipe leads 
 to the lungs, and the gullet to the stomach ; as before noticed, the spinal-cord 
 may be seen descending down the neck, it continues the whole length of the 
 spine, but is represented in the figure as cut across at the upper part of the 
 chest, and, a little above this point, a large nerve may be seen passing onward 
 to the left arm. The space between the neck and lower extremities is called 
 the Trunk, and is divided into the Thorax or chest, the Abdomen or belly, and the 
 Pelvis or bason. About the middle of the trunk there is a fleshy apron named 
 the diaphragm or midriff, it stretches across from side to side, and separates the 
 thorax from the abdomen ; a section of this organ is represented. The chest 
 is bounded by the back bone behind, the ribs and breast bone at the sides and 
 
Vll 
 
 in front This cavity is lined by a smooth and delicate membrane or skin, 
 named the pleura, -which also covers all the viscera or organs in the chest. It 
 also forms a double fold named the mediastinum, -which runs across in a per- 
 pendicular direction from the breast bone to the spine. It thus divides the 
 chest into two parts, the right lung being in one, and the left in the other, and 
 the heart is contained in the doubling of the membrane or mediastinum. This 
 is not represented, as it might tend to confuse the figure. The windpipe, after 
 passing down the neck, divides into two branches, called the bronchia, and these 
 subdivide into innumerable branches terminating in air cells. The lungs, or 
 lights, which occupy the greater part of the chest, are two large spongy bodies, 
 and are in a great measure formed by the intermixing of blood and air vessels. 
 The left lung is represented in its natural appearance, the other so dissected as 
 to show the branchings of the bronchial tube of that side. The organ situated 
 between the lungs, and rather to the left side, is the Heart; it is placed in the 
 fold of the pleura already mentioned, and is also contained in a proper bag of 
 its own, named the pericardium, which, for the sake of perspicuity, is not seen in 
 the diagram. All these organs are separated from those contained in the 
 abdomen by the diaphragm or midriff, in which is an opening for the passage 
 of the gullet, blood vessels, nerves, &c. The abdomen, like the thorax, has the 
 spine behind, but, unlike it, has its front and side walls formed by the muscles 
 and soft parts or integuments. There is an organ named the omentum, or caul, 
 which resembles a small apron, it is interlarded with fat, and hangs loosely 
 in front of the parts contained in the abdomen, that is, between the integuments 
 and bowels. The caul, or omentum, however, is removed to expose the Liver, 
 Stomach, and Intestines. The Liver will be seen in the upper part of the 
 abdomen, lying across, and rather to the right side ; on its lower surface is the 
 gall-bladder, which contains the bUe, or gall, secreted by the liver, and this 
 bag communicates with the upper part of the intestines. The gullet, which is 
 fiirst observed in the neck, descends through the chest, and may be seen ter- 
 minating in the stomach, a little below and behind the liver. The Stomach 
 is situated on the left side of the abdomen, and communicates with the intes- 
 tines, which is a long tube or canal, and may be seen coiled in a variety of 
 folds below the liver and stomach. The pancreas and spleen are situated below 
 and behind the stomach, and are only partly seen in this view. The upper 
 and lower extremities get their shape from a variety of fleshy organs named 
 muscles, which, with their tendons, are placed along the limbs as well as the 
 other parts of the body, many of which are distinctly seen in the figure. 
 
 Fig. 2. may now be folded down upon the principle figure. This slip is part- 
 ly ideal, and is intended to represent the parts more immediately concerned in 
 the digestion of the food, and forms, with Fig. 1, a connected figure. Tracing 
 the gullet from the neck downwards, the stomach will be seen in connexion 
 with this tube, and its terminating in the intestines. The greater part of the in- 
 testinal tube is removed, and the small portion left so spread out as to exhibit 
 a number of little pipes named lacteals, which arise upon the inner surface of 
 the intestines ; they all unite, and the point of union is called the receptacle, 
 and from it may be seen a tube, the thoracic duct, mounting along the back- 
 bone, which it crosses, and, rising up as far as the neck, it descends again, and 
 enters a large blood vessel named the left subclavian vein. On the left arm 
 
of this figurt' the veins are seen, and, on the other side, part of the skeleton is 
 represented. On folding down No. 3, the Heart and blood vessels are seen ; 
 the greater part of the viscera, or contents of tlie thorax and abdomen, are re- 
 moved, that this system of vessels may be the better understood. From the 
 Heart will be seen a tube rising in the form of an arch, this is the Aorta or 
 main artery of the body. It sends off three principle branches, which supply 
 the head and upper extremities with blood. The Aorta passes down the 
 trunk, and divides and subdivides into innumerable branches, to supply the 
 other parts of the body. Alongside of the arteries are another set of 
 vessels, named veins, the former going from the heart, the latter returning 
 to it. In this figure the right lung is laid open, and so dissected that three sets 
 of vessels are exposed ; the air tubes, which are branches of the windpipe, and 
 convey air to the lungs ; an artery, and a vein ; these three vessels are so 
 interwoven as to constitute the lungs. About the middle of the trunk, and 
 right and left of the spine, are the kidneys ; they receive arteries and return 
 veins, and each kidney communicates with the Madder by a tube called the 
 ureter, along -which the urine is conveyed from the kidney to the receiving 
 vessel or bladder. On the left arm of this figure the nerve is partly shown, 
 and may be seen coming from the spinal-cord. 
 
 From this brief description of the figures fronting the title page, the fol- 
 lowing outline of the animal economy may be the better understood. 
 
AN OUTLINE 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 “ We are fearfully and wonderfully made.” 
 
 \HAT of which everything is formed is called matter. 
 Material nature is divided into living matter also, 
 called organic^ such as animals and vegetables ; 
 and into that having no living principle, or inorganic, as 
 stones, metals, &c. Hence the natural division of objects 
 into animate and inanimate, that is, with life and without it. 
 What fife is in itself we cannot tell, “ we only know the 
 mechanism by which it acts, we feel its results.” In animals 
 low in the scale of creation the arrangement of parts is 
 extremely simple, sometimes a small bag. filled with a 
 watery-like fluid ; yet in such there is life, and they move 
 about in every direction. The recent experiments of Pro- 
 fessor Ehrenberg have brought to light the existence of 
 animals which he names monads, and are not larger than the 
 24- 1000th part of an inch in diameter. Hence he has made 
 the computation that each cubic line, which is nearly the bulk 
 of a single drop, contains 500,000,000 of these monads, a 
 number which almost equals that of all the human beings 
 existing on the surface of the earth. A little higher in the 
 scale, animals are found having more distinct organs or parts, 
 such as feet, a mouth, he., and yet the one is no more perfect 
 in its kind than the others, for every creature is fitted for the 
 sphere in which it lives. Step by step as we adv'ance in the 
 scale of existence, we find animals having organs more and 
 more perfect, which become necessary, their wants being 
 
10 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 more varied tlian those of the simpler tribes, and the purposes 
 to be aceomplished by them more numerous and important 
 At last Ave come to Man, the masterpiece of nature’s work- 
 manship, who, while he has a physical form and a principle 
 of life in common with the lower animals, has a nobler nature 
 implanted in him, rendering him at once a moral, intellec- 
 tual, and an accountable being. Man, then, consists of a body 
 and a soul. The soul, or mind, is that subtle something 
 which distinguishes him from the beasts that perish. By 
 its rational powers he becomes sensible of a Creator, and can 
 admire the wonders of Nature and of Grace. The mind, 
 being immaterial, cannot manifest itself to material organs 
 but through the instrumentality of such organs. The body, 
 then, is a wonderful structm-e, at once the seat of this essence 
 or mind — a vehicle for transporting it from place to place, 
 and the admirable machine by which it carries on its external 
 operations. It also contains an apparatus for maintaining a 
 suitable temperature, and, under certain conditions, prevent- 
 ing its OAvn decay. The mind is said to reside in the brain, 
 which organ is situated in the cranium or skull, which it fills, 
 and is protected by it, the integuments, and hair. In order 
 to comprehend the phenomena of life in the human body, it 
 will be necessary to adopt some general plan, and the follow- 
 ing table is a modification of Mr. Dewhurst’s : — 
 
 GENERAL SENSATION. 
 
 Central Organs, The Brain, Spinal Marrow. 
 
 Distributed Organs, The Nerves. 
 
 LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Instruments, Skeleton, Bones, Cartilages, Ligaments. 
 
 Agents, Muscles, Tendons, &c. 
 
 ALI.MENTARY APPARATUS. 
 
 Mastication, — Mouth, Tongue, Teeth. 
 
 Insalivation, Parotid Glands. 
 
 Deglutition, - Pharynx, Oesophagus or Gullet. 
 
 Digestion, &c The Stomach, Intestines, Lacteals, Thoracic 
 
 Duct. 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 11 
 
 THE CIRCULATION. OK THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART, LUNGS, ^-c. 
 
 Nutritive Circulation, ~ Blood, the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. 
 
 Aerating Circulation, or I 
 
 Respiration j Lungs, Diaphragm or Aiidriff. 
 
 Secretary Circulation, or 1 ^ „ 
 
 „ r Glands, Liver, Bde, Pancreas, &c. 
 
 Secretion, ) 
 
 Excretion, Kidneys, Bladder, Urine, Skin, Perspiration, 
 
 See. 
 
 PECULIAR SENSATION. 
 
 Proper Sensation,.™. The Eye, Ear, Nose, and Tongue. 
 
 Common Sensation, — . Touch. 
 
 Arrest op the Bodily Functions, SLEEP. 
 
 Extinction of the Vital and Bodily Functions, — DEATH. 
 
 The Brain. (Plate I., A.) — A large organ divided into 
 two parts, the larger called the cerebrum or proper brain, the 
 other the cerebellum or lesser brain. Together they fill 
 
 the caATty of the skull, forming six-sevenths of the entire 
 head, and in a grown up person weigh between three and 
 four pounds. The brain is invested or covered by three 
 membranes ; the outer is named the dura mater (hard mother), 
 from its being firm in its texture ; the next is the pia mater 
 (soft mother), being softer than the former ; and the third, 
 which is in direct contact with the brain, is called the arach- 
 noid membrane, from its being delicate in its texture, resem- 
 bling a spider’s web. The cerebrum is di\dded by a longitudi- 
 nal fissure or cut lengthway into two parts, named the right 
 and left hemispheres or halves ; each hemisphere is again 
 divided by two transA^erse fissures or cross cuts on its under 
 surface, into three lobes, named the anterior or front, the 
 middle, and the posterior or hinder lobes. The hemis- 
 pheres or halves of the cerebrum are separated from each 
 other by a fold of the dura mater, named the falx, from its 
 resemblance to a scythe, which prevents the one half of the 
 cerebrum from pressing too heavily on the other during sleep, 
 or when the body is lying on one side. The cerebrum or 
 larger brain is separated behind from the cerebellum or lesser 
 brain, and preA'ented from injuring it from its weight by 
 another fold of the dura mater, named the tentorium. 
 
1-2 
 
 AN OUTLINK OF 
 
 The brain as a whole is a soft pulpy mass, its outer 
 surface presents a convoluted or folded appearance, these con- 
 volutions or folds, however, disappear as you cut deeper into it. 
 The external part of the brain is called the cortical substance, 
 from its embracing or surrounding like the bark of a tree; 
 and the internal substance is named the medidlary, from its 
 being softer than the other and like unto marrow. In the 
 interior of the brain there are five cells or ventricles, and 
 the whole organ is duly supplied with blood vessels ; in fact, 
 it receives a greater quantity of blood, in proportion to its 
 size, than any other organ of the body. The brain gives off 
 nine pairs of nerves, and the spinal marrow, from which 
 thirty-one other pairs proceed ; these nerves are the organs 
 by which the various senses are excited, and muscular 
 motions performed. The brain is the organ of the mind, 
 and the seat of sensation and of the will. To every part of 
 this organ a name has been given, and there can be no doubt 
 but each has distinct functions to perform; and, although 
 there may be some difference of opinion as to the specific 
 functions assigned to particular parts, “yet, by nearly universal 
 consent, the brain is held to be the seat of the intellectual 
 functions, the passions, and the moral feelings of our nature.” 
 The cells or ventricles, in common with the other parts of 
 the system, are moistened by a fine fluid ; and in some states 
 of the body this accumulates, giving rise to the disease called 
 hydrocephalus, or water in the head. The bones of the skull, 
 from their hardness, defend the brain against ordinary acci- 
 dents ; and when a fracture or break occurs, it is prevented 
 in many instances from extending over the whole head by 
 the sutures or seams. The integuments or soft parts, and 
 the hair, prevent the effects of an ordinary blow extending to 
 the brain, in the same manner that the ornamental hair on 
 the helmet of the warrior prevents the vibration of the metal, 
 which would otherwise occur, from the blow of the broad- 
 sword. When the brain sustains an injury, the mind becomes 
 more or less unconscious, and when the nerves are destroyed 
 it ceases to act. In Sir Astley Cooper’s Principles of 
 Surgery, there are several very interesting cases given in 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 13 
 
 proof of this. One is of a man who was taken to Guy’s 
 Hospital in a state of insensibility (in consequence of a 
 severe blow on the head), in which condition he remained 
 for some time, but at length recovered; and, when he did 
 so, no person in the hospital could understand his language. 
 A milk woman happening to go into the ward one day, heard 
 him, and discovered that he was speaking Welsh. He told 
 her that he knew English well before the accident, but after 
 it all knowledge of that language was obliterated from his 
 mind. It had been recently acquired; the impression was 
 less strong, and consequently the more easily effaced. An- 
 other case, still more remarkable, is related of a man who 
 was pressed on board one of His Majesty’s ships early in the 
 late revolutionary war. Wliile on board this vessel, in the 
 Mediterranean, he received a fall from the yard-arm, and 
 when picked up he was found to be insensible. Tlie 
 vessel soon after making Gibraltar, he was deposited in an 
 hospital in that place, where he remained for some months, 
 still insensible ; and, some time after, he was brought from 
 Gibraltar, on board the Dolphin frigate, to a depot for sailors 
 at Deptford, While he was at Deptford, the surgeon under 
 whose care he was, was visited by Mr. Davy, who was then 
 an apprentice in a London Hospital. The surgeon said to 
 Mr. Davy, “ I have a case which I think you would like to 
 see. It is a man who has been insensible for many months ; 
 he lies on his back with very few signs of life ; he breathes, 
 indeed, has a pulse, and some motion in his fingers, but in 
 all other respects he is apparently deprived of all powders of 
 mind, volition, or sensation.” Mr. Davy went to see the 
 patient, and, on examining him, found that there was a 
 slight depression on one part of the head. Being informed 
 of the accident which had occasioned this depression, he 
 recommended the man to be sent to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 
 He was placed under the care of Mr. Cline ; and, when he was 
 admitted into that Hospital, and underwent an operation, it w'as 
 thirteen months and a few days after the accident. The de- 
 pressed portion of bone was elevated from the skull. While he 
 was lying on the table, the motion of his fingers went on during 
 
14 
 
 AN f)UTLINE or 
 
 the operation, but no sooner was the portion of bone raised 
 tlian it ceased. The operation was performed at one o’clock 
 in the afternoon, and at four, as I (observes Sir Astley) was 
 walking through the wards, I went up to the man’s bed- 
 side, and was surprised to see him sitting up in his bed. He 
 had raised himself on his pillow. I asked him if he felt any 
 pain, and he immediately put his hand to his head. This 
 showed that volition and sensation were returning. In four 
 days the man was able to get out of bed, and began to con- 
 verse ; and in a few days more he was able to tell us where 
 he came from. He recollected the circumstance of his 
 having been pressed and carried down to Plymouth ; but, 
 from the moment of the accident up to the time when the 
 operation was performed, his mind remained in a state of 
 perfect oblivion. He had drunk, as it were, of the cup of 
 Lethe ; he had suffered a complete death as far as regarded 
 his mental and almost all his bodily powers, but, by remov- 
 ing a small portion of bone from his brain, he was at once 
 restored to all the functions of his mind, and almost all the 
 powers of his body. 
 
 The Spinal-Marrow. (Plate I., a.) — At the base or 
 lower surface of the brain we find a large cord-like substance 
 passing downwards through a large opening in the skull 
 (Fig. S, a) and along the entire length of the spine, being 
 safely lodged in the canal or tube formed by its bones. The 
 spinal-cord, or marrow, is considered as being a continuation 
 of the brain, which it very much resembles in structure. It 
 sends off thirty-one pairs of nerves, which are distributed upon 
 the trunk, extremities, &c. ; they pass out by openings formed 
 between the individual bones of the spine. Injuries of the 
 spine produce effects similar to those arising from injuries of 
 the head, and, at the point where the spinal-cord receives the 
 injury, the parts below it, or receiving nerves from it, be- 
 come more or less palsied. 
 
 The Nerves. (Plate HI., g. Sic.) — Nerves are long white 
 medullary cords, that proceed from the brain and spinal- 
 marrow; nine pairs from the former, and thirty-one pairs 
 from the latter. Although they seem to be single nerves, 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 15 
 
 yet they are of two kinds, nerves of sensation and nerves of 
 motion ; the former receive impressions from external ob- 
 jects, which impressions they convey to the brain and the 
 mind ; the latter, or nerves of motion, transmit the power and 
 will to move, as the muscles have no such power in them- 
 selves, and w'ould remain motionless without it. The nerves 
 are sent to every part of the body, and are minutely distri- 
 buted upon the respective organs. The eye, the ear, and the 
 nose, are instruments provided with special nerves ; certain 
 impressions are made upon these instruments, and, as already 
 observed, conveyed to the brain. Light makes its impression 
 on the optic nerve ; vibrating air on the auditory or nerve of 
 the ear; and the very minute particles of many substances 
 on the olfactory or nerves of the nose. If the nerve of any 
 member be cut, or otherwise destroyed, the limb loses its 
 sensation and motion ; we have a partial illustration of this 
 in the feeling of niunbness we experience from a smart blow 
 on the elbow, or when pressure has been too long continued 
 on the nerve of the leg, the one knee being folded over the 
 other. The nerves may be said to be the bell-ioires by which 
 the mind communicates with the eye, the ear, and other 
 organs of sense, as well as with every part of the system. 
 As already noticed, the nerves are of two kinds, and the re- 
 spective uses of which may be illustrated as follows : — In a 
 dog, the nerve of sensation going to the tongue was divided, 
 and the animal lapped up salt and loater as readily as milk. 
 In another, the nerve of sensation was left entire, and the 
 nerve of motion cut ; in this case the animal could distinguish 
 between the milk and brine, but then it had no power to 
 move the tongue. Nerves are minutely distributed over all 
 the organs of the body, but especially on the more immediate 
 organs offense — for instance, the finger ends — and hence we 
 become more susceptible of the nature of substances, so far 
 as they can be judged of by the organ of touch. They are 
 also very sensitive in the antenncB, or feelers of insects, and 
 similar organs in other animals, and the extreme sensibility 
 of the nerves of a cat’s heard was proved in the following 
 manner : — A gentleman arranged a number of books on the 
 
16 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 floor of Ills library, so as to form a winding passage of con- 
 siderable length, leaving sufficient room for a cat to pass; he 
 then introduced a mouse at one end, and, in a few seconds, a 
 cat, and in an instant they were both out at the other end, 
 and not so much as a single book overturned. He then cut 
 away \\\e feelers, and introduced the animals as before, but in 
 this case the result was quite different, for down came one 
 book, and then another,* and, ere the cat could escape, all the 
 volumes were thrown into confusion. 
 
 These sensitive cords, although they transmit a power to 
 move, are, in themselves incapable of motion, and we are now 
 naturally led to expect organs by which the body can be 
 moved from place to place, or 
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 
 
 This we have in the bones and muscles. 
 
 The Bones (Plate II., 1, 2, 3, &c.) are those hard 
 bodies, about 245 in number, of different shapes and sizes, 
 which give shape to the body, contain and defend the Auseera, 
 as the heart, lungs, &c., and afford an attachment to the mus- 
 cles. The spine, or back bone, consists of twenty-four ver- 
 tehrcE, or small bones, connected together by cartilages, ar- 
 ticulations, and ligaments, of which seven belong to the neck, 
 twelve to the back, and five to the loins. In the centre of 
 each vertebra, there is a hole for the lodgement and continu- 
 ation of the spinal-marrow, which extends from the brain to 
 the rump. From these vertebrae the arched bones called the ribs 
 proceed; and seven of them join the sternum or breast bone, 
 on each side, where they terminate in cartilages or gristles, 
 and form the cavity of the chest. The five lower ribs, with 
 a number of muscles, form the sides of the cavity of the ab- 
 domen. The skull is composed of bones, and about fifty- 
 one are reckoned to belong to the face, the orbits of the eyes, 
 and the jaws in which the teeth are fixed. There are seldom 
 more than 16 teeth in each jaw, 32 in all. As above stated, 
 the number of bones in a human body is generally estimated 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 17 
 
 at about 245 ; of which there are reckoned in the skull, head, 
 and face, 61; in the trunk, 64; in the arms and hands, 60; 
 and in the legs and feet, 60. Bones are composed of animal 
 and earthy matter, about two thirds of the former and one 
 third of the latter. The lime or earthy part gives the neces- 
 sary hardness and solidity, and the gelatine, or animal glue, 
 cements or binds the parts together, rendering the bones less 
 brittle than they would be otherwise. By subjecting a bone 
 to the action of fire, the animal part is destroyed, and the 
 earthy part left ; and by immersing a like piece of bone in a 
 vessel containing an acid, as spirit of salt diluted with water, 
 about the proportion of one part of acid to seven of water, 
 the earthy part is destroyed, and the animal left. In the 
 former, the specimen will be brittle ; in the latter, soft and 
 yielding. In the disease called Rickets, the bones become 
 quite soft, and in other diseases quite the reverse. In a state 
 of health the constituent parts of bones are so blended to- 
 gether as to be neither too hard nor too soft. They are soft 
 and yielding during the tender years of infancy ; firmer in 
 their texture as years creep on, and in “ the sear and yellow 
 leaf” of time, they become hard and brittle by reason of the 
 absorbent vessels removing the marrow and other soft parts, 
 rendering the frame-work of bone a lighter burden for the 
 enfeebled energies of old age. 
 
 The ends of the bones which are used for motion, are 
 tipped with cartilage, or gristle, vTich is very smooth and 
 hard ; and it is constantly wet, in a state of health, by a fluid 
 named the synovia, a fluid which answers the same purpose as 
 oil in machinery. The joints are enclosed in membranous 
 bags, called capsular ligaments, and so bound by other liga- 
 ments, or bands, as to allow freedom of motion, and the parts 
 from being easily displaced. 
 
 The Muscles are the more immediate organs of locomotion, 
 and are bundles of fleshy cords or threads variously arranged, 
 forming a soft cushion protecting the tender parts within, and 
 giving an exquisite symmetry to the corporeal frame. Muscle 
 is what is commonly named lean fiesh, and by examining such, 
 the individual threads of the muscle may be distinctly seen. 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 Muscles are capable of relaxation and contraction, that is, of 
 being lengthened and shortened. They are in general fleshy 
 in the middle, and composed of tough tendinous fibres at the 
 ends, and by these organs the varied motions of the body are 
 effected. When a joint is placed between the two extremities 
 or ends of a muscle, and when at the command of the will the 
 muscle contracts, the part, or limb, bends at the joint, hence, 
 by the alternate action of antagonist muscles (that is of muscles 
 so set against each other, that, when the one is shortened, its 
 antagonist is lengthened), the motions of the body are ef- 
 fected. The number of muscles in the human body is about 
 446, and are divided into voluntary and involuntary, the for- 
 mer of which are under the power of the will, as those of the 
 face, arms, legs, &c. ; the others are not, as the heart, &c. 
 The action of the muscles may be better understood by the 
 figure. 
 
 FIG, 1. 
 
 fore-arm ; c, the elbow-joint; d and e, antagonist muscles ; the 
 letter d is at that part of the muscle named its belly, and f 
 at that called its tendon. 
 
 In this figure the bones of the arm and fore-arm are ex- 
 posed, having the elbow joint between, and only two of the 
 muscles left. It must be obvious that, if the muscle e relaxes 
 (slackens), and the muscle d contracts or shortens, that the 
 joint at c will bend, and the ball in the hand of the figure, 
 brought much nearer the point d ; and again, if the muscle 
 d relaxes, and e contracts, the arm will be extended, and, by 
 the alternate contraction and relaxation of these and the other 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 19 
 
 muscles of the arm, the varied motions of this useful member 
 will be effected. It is a law in mechanics that what is gained 
 in power is lost in motion, and the reverse ; quickness of mo- 
 tion, however, is essential to the hand and arm, hence, we 
 find the muscles c and d inserted or fixed into the bones of 
 the fore-arm, at the most convenient parts, to eflfect this pur- 
 pose. Had the tendon f of the muscle d been inserted far 
 down the arm, the power would have been much greater, but 
 then the motion would have been much slower, and the .sue- 
 eess’of the hand consequently less. The fleshy fibre of the 
 muscle is the only part capable of contracting, and it would 
 be very inconvenient to have much flesh about such joints as 
 the MTist, ankle, &c. ; so we find that the muscles moving the 
 hand and foot, &c., are placed upon the arm and leg, as the 
 case may be, and the power conveyed to the proper spot by 
 strong cords named tendons. And when these tendons pass 
 over joints, they are held down by firm ligaments or bands, 
 below which they play with easy motion, being oiled by a 
 fluid collected in and around the joints. There is a fine 
 specimen of a tendon in the one at the back of the leg, which 
 is inserted into the bone of the heel, it is named the tendon 
 of Achilles, so called, because, as fable reports, Thetis, the 
 mother of Achilles, held him by that part when she dipped 
 him in the river Styx, to make him invulnerable. This ten- 
 don may be easily felt through the skin. It is also by the 
 tendons of the muscles in the hinder quarters of some of the 
 inferior animals that they are suspended in the butcher’s 
 stall. The muscles are supplied through the nerves with an 
 energy or strength to move, and are also, through the same 
 instrumentality, directed in their varied movements. The 
 force with which they contract depends on the size and con- 
 dition of the muscle, and on the energy of the brain, that is, 
 the degree of excitement which exists during the time. If 
 exercised, they become stronger in every respect, and weaker 
 when allowed to remain inactive. Thus, the arm wuth which 
 a blacksmith wields the hammer is by far more powerful than 
 the other ; and the muscles of some men have seemed to pos- 
 sess a supernatural power. Sir David Brewster, in his “ Na- 
 
 B '2 
 
‘20 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 tural Magic,” relates of a young man, the famous Thomas 
 Topham, who took a kitchen poker, a yard long and an inch 
 in diameter, holding the ends of it in his hands, put the middle 
 over his neck, and then brought the two ends together before 
 him, and afterwards undid the mischief, by making it straight 
 again with his hands, as others do a piece of wire. We 
 sometimes find the muscles loosing their power, as in palsy, 
 either partial or complete — partial, as in lory face, when the 
 muscles on one side of the face lose their tone ; or complete, 
 as when the whole muscles of the body are paralysed or 
 powerless. Squinting is also occasioned by one or more of the 
 muscles of the eye-ball acting with a greater or less energy 
 than natural. 
 
 Wonderful as all these parts are, they are subject to the 
 general laws of material nature, and are liable to decay. 
 Provision then must be made to supply this waste of the ani- 
 mal economy. This is not so much the mere waste from friction 
 of joints, tendons, &c., but also includes the growth and re- 
 production of parts ; and not only this, but provision must be 
 made for keeping the body at an equal temperature in all 
 climates, for this is essential, and ’tis a remarkable fact, that 
 the natural heat of the Greenlander is the same as that of the 
 Indian ; from this we infer, that a certain temperature is ne- 
 cessary for the proper discharge of the functions of the human 
 body, and in accordance with this, we find a suitable apparatus 
 in the animal economy. Our ordinary diet constitutes the 
 gross material from which the necessary nourishment is ob- 
 tained. It is conveyed to the stomach and digested there, it 
 then passes on to the bowels, from which the finer and more 
 nutritious part is collected and conveyed to the heart, where 
 it mixes with the existing blood, and by the action of this 
 organ, the vital stream is circulated over every part of the 
 body, it returns again by a set of vessels provided for this 
 purpose ; but, ere it is made to go the round of the system 
 again, it is brought into contact with the air in the lungs, 
 where it parts with some substances no further necessary, 
 receives a vital something in return, and at the same time 
 a quantity of caloric, or the matter of heat, is set free, which 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 21 
 
 is absorbed by the blood and warms the body in course of 
 circulation. Whilst the blood circulates, it leaves materials 
 for the growth of parts where such is necessary, and is at 
 once the common carrier of this living economy, and the com- 
 mon sewer into which the waste matter is thrown. With 
 these preliminary observations it may be proper to give a 
 short account of the individual organs and operations, and 
 then we will be the better able to understand their combined 
 operations ; and, first, we notice the 
 
 ALIMENTARY APPARATUS. 
 
 Is^, Mastication, or Chewing, comprehends the seizing, 
 catching, or taking the food, the chewing and the insalivation, 
 or mixing with the saliva or spittle. The lower jaw is move- 
 able, and the teeth in it being set opposite to those in the 
 upper jaw, cut and divide the food, which is kept between 
 them by the action of the cheeks, lips, &c., and the lower 
 jaw is moved by very powerful muscles, named the mas- 
 seter, &c. 
 
 The Mouth consists of the following parts : — the lips, 
 cheeks, palate, tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. 
 
 The Tongue is a soft fleshy organ, very moveable in 
 every direction, situated in the cavity of the mouth, and con- 
 stituting the organ of taste. It is furnished with muscles 
 which render its motions quick and rapid, and with such an 
 arrangement of nerves as to fit it admirably for its varied 
 operations, removing the food from one part of the mouth to 
 another, so as to bring every portion between the teeth. 
 
 The Teeth are small bones, firmly fixed in the upper and 
 under jaw bones, in a grown person usually 16 in each, 32 
 in all, and are for cutting, tearing, and grinding the food. 
 The teeth are covered on the top by a hard substance, called 
 the enamel, which is very durable. They are divided into 
 three sets. First, The Incisores, or cutting teeth, of which there 
 are four in the front of each jaw. Next, the Canine, or dog 
 teeth, also named the eye teeth, are on each side of the inci- 
 
AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 oo 
 
 sores, consequently, two in each jaw. The fangs, or root 
 ends of these, as well as the former, are single. The other 
 set, named the Molares, or grinders, are ten in each jaw, and 
 this set has two or more fangs. The last grinders on each 
 side not appearing till late in life, get the name of wisdom- 
 teeth. The first set of teeth begin to come when the child is 
 about six months old, and by the time it is two and a half 
 years old it has twenty ; about the seventh year, they all be- 
 come loose and fall out, this is called the shedding of the 
 milk teeth, and their place is soon supplied by another set, or 
 permanent teeth. 
 
 2c?, Insalivation, or the process by which the food is 
 moistened with saliva, and consequently rendered easily swal- 
 lowed. The saliva is secreted by the parotid gland (Plate 
 1. d), which is placed on the cheek before the ear, and same 
 on both sides ; this gland, with the other salivary glands, se- 
 crete the fluid named the saliva, which is poured into the 
 mouth during mastication, the opening of the duct or tube, 
 through which the saliva from the parotid is discharged into 
 the mouth, may be seen by looking into a mirror and turning 
 back the cheek a little ; a swelling of the parotid is called the 
 mumps. 
 
 3d, Deglutition is the act of swallowing. The Pharynx is 
 the membranous hollow bag, see Fig. 3, at the back part of 
 the mouth, leading to the stomach ; and the passage between 
 it and the pharynx is named the oesophagus, or meat pipe, it is 
 about one inch in diameter, is lined by a soft velvet-like 
 membrane, termed mucous membrane, because it is always 
 covered in health with a viscid fluid, called mucus. The pro- 
 cess of deglutition may be better understood by examining 
 the figures 2 and 3. 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 •23 
 
 This figure represents the mouth wide open ; the tongue h and 
 the soft palate a are seen, the point of which, hanging upon 
 the root of the tongue, is called the uvula ; the space between 
 the palate and tongue being cut out, will render the figure on 
 the opposite side of the leaf more easily understood. When a 
 morsel of food is ready to be swallowed, the tongue is pushed 
 backward, the soft palate or fleshy curtain rises, and the pro- 
 gress of the morsel may be traced by examining the figure 
 behind. 
 
•24 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 This figure represents the back part of the head and neck, 
 so dissected as to expose that part of the throat called the 
 ■pharynx-, a, the opening into the skull through which the 
 spinal marrow passes ; h, the holes in the nose from behind ; 
 c, the soft fleshy curtain, named the palate, and which, during 
 the act of swallowing, folds back and shuts up the holes lead- 
 ing to the cavity of the nose; c?,’the tongue as seen from be- 
 hind ; e, the epiglotJ;is, or valve which folds over the glottis, or 
 opening into g, the windpipe ; h is the soft and posterior part 
 of the pharynx, dissected back to expose the parts within ; 
 andj^ the gullet, is the passage leading to the stomach. 
 
 From this short description of the parts concerned, the 
 act of deglutition may be better understood After the morsel 
 is sufficiently masticated, or cut down and insalivated, or 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 25 
 
 softened by the saliva, it is then in a condition to be swal- 
 lowed, that is, conveyed to the stomach along the tube named 
 the oesophagus, or gullet. It must, however, be noticed that 
 in front of the gullet there is another tube, named the trachea^ 
 or windpipe, and which leads to the lungs, the least particle 
 of food falling into this passage causes violent coughing, and 
 sometimes death, by suffocation. One is apt to wonder why 
 the windpipe should be placed in such a dangerous position, 
 every particle of food having to pass over it ere it can be con- 
 veyed to the stomach. But nature has made a wise provision 
 which guards the opening. The tongue is moveable, and 
 immediately behind is a little tongue-shaped body, formed of 
 cartilage or gristle, and this stands directly in front of the 
 glottis, or opening into the windpipe, and when the tongue is 
 in the act of conveying a morsel of food to the gullet, this 
 valve, or moveable lid, folds over the opening into the trachea, 
 or windpipe, and completely shuts it up, and the morsel passes 
 safely on and downwards to the stomach, and the instant that 
 it is swallowed, the tongue moves forward and the safeguard 
 of gristle starts up ready for renewed action. There is also 
 a wise provision for shutting up the openings between the 
 nose and mouth, but this will be better understood, by ex- 
 amining figure 3. The action of the parts more immediately 
 concerned in deglutition may be still more easily compre- 
 hended by the annexed ideal figure. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 a, a morsel of food ; c, the tongue ; 5, the epiglottis, or a 
 valve; e, the trachea, or windpipe; d, the oesophagus, or 
 gullet, the passage leading to the stomach. In the other 
 
26 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF. 
 
 figure the morsel a has left the tongue c, which is represented 
 as forcing down the valve h, protecting the opening into e, 
 and offering a free passage into d. After the morsel is swal- 
 low'ed, the parts again resume their former position. The 
 gullet is composed of three coats ; the inner has been already- 
 noticed, the middle one is muscular, and by the successive 
 contraction of these fibres, the morsel is conveyed to the sto- 
 mach, not by its own weight, as a man can swallow with his 
 head downwards. 
 
 The food is now ready to undergo the process of 
 
 Digestion. This consists in the food being subjected for 
 a sufficient length of time to the action of a peculiar fluid se- 
 creted by the vessels of the stomach, and poured into it when 
 food is taken (this fluid is the gastric juice) ; also to a proper 
 temperature and a continued motion, by which every part is 
 duly affected and converted into a pulpy mass, named chyme. 
 The organ in which this change is effected is the 
 
 Stomach (Plate I, and II., E), an oval shaped bag, which, 
 in an ordinary sized person, is about ten inches long, three or 
 four in diameter, and holds from three to six pounds or English 
 pints. It is situated in the abdomen or belly, under the false ribs 
 and to the left side, and is shaped like an old Scotch bagpipe, 
 the opening into it called the cardia, the opening out of it the 
 pylorus. The stomach consists of three coats — the outer, or 
 peritoneal being formed by the peritoneum, or lining mem- 
 brane of the abdomen ; the second, or middle, called the mus- 
 cular, being composed of muscular fibres, which give motion 
 to the contents of the stomach ; and the third, or villous coat, 
 so named from its being like velvet. The stomach, which is 
 the largest organ of digestion, is duly supplied with blood- 
 vessels and nerves, and the use of it is to excite hunger, and 
 partly thirst, to receive the food from the gullet, and to retain 
 it, till by the motion, the admixture of various fluids, a pro- 
 per degree of temperature, &c., it is rendered fit to pass into 
 the 
 
 Intestines (Plate I., F), which are placed in the abdomen. 
 They are in man about five or six times the length of the 
 body, and extend from the stomach to the anus. This mem- 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 27 
 
 branous tube is wound together in various folds, yet without 
 confusion, and kept together by a membrane called the me- 
 sentery. Although but one tube, it is divided into the small 
 and large intestines, and these into other divisions, from some 
 difference in figure, use, &c. The small intestines are di- 
 vided into the Duodenum, from its being about twelve inches 
 long, and this portion receives the digested mass from the 
 stomach, and into this part of the tube the bile is poured. 
 The second portion is named the Jejunum, from its being 
 generally more empty than the rest. The next portion is 
 called the Ileum, from its folded appearance. The first divi- 
 sion of the large intestines is named the Caecum, or blind gut, 
 from the small intestines being attached to the side of it, 
 leaving as it were a shut end. The next part is called the 
 Colon, and last the Rectum, or straight gut. When these di- 
 visions are inflamed or pained, they give rise to the names, 
 colic, iliac passion, &c. The intestinal canal is composed of 
 three membranes or coats, a common one from the peritoneum 
 or lining membrane of the abdomen, a muscular and a villous 
 (like velvet), this internal coat being formed of the fine ter- 
 minations of arteries, veins, and nerves, &c. The intestines 
 receive the ingested food, retain it for a time, mix with 
 it the bile and pancreatic juice, propel the chyle into lacteals, 
 and the feces or refuse matter onward, and ultimately expel 
 it from the body. The vermicular or worm-like motion of 
 the intestines is effected by the muscular fibres of the coat 
 having that name, and these fibres are the seat of the severe 
 pain in colic, &c. The milk-like fluid or truly nutritious 
 part of the food, is absorbed by the vessels named the 
 
 Lacteals (Plate II., I), which are absorbing vessels, arise 
 from the internal surface of the villous coat of the intestines, 
 perforate the other coats, and form a net-work of vessels upon 
 the folds of the mesentery (or that fold of the lining mem- 
 brane of the abdomen that binds the intestines together) ; as 
 they proceed they constitute the glands through which they 
 pass, these glands, no doubt, rendering the milky fluid purer 
 and purer, at length the lacteals unite at a point named the 
 receptacle, and from it the 
 
28 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 Thoracic duct (Plate IL, a a a), which is the tube formed 
 by the lacteals, is about the diameter of a crow-quill. It lies 
 upon the vertebrae, or bones of the back, which it crosses in 
 its onward course, rises high in the neck, and enters the left 
 subclavian vein near the heart. The thoracic duct in its 
 course receives the absorbent vessels from almost every part 
 of the body. This tube, in common with the lacteals, are 
 possessed of an infinite number of valves, which prevent their 
 contents flowing back, and when these are distended with the 
 lacteal, or milky fluid, give them a knotty appearance. 
 
 As has been already noticed, the thoracic duct conveys its 
 chyle to the left subclavian vein, which is a blood vessel re- 
 turning blood to the heart, it must be obvious that this milky 
 fluid will mix with it, and when examined, both fluids are 
 much alike in composition ; and, following the modification of 
 Mr. Dewhurst’s table, we next notice 
 
 THE CmCULATION, OR THE FUNCTIONS OF THE 
 HEART, LUNGS, &c. 
 
 The Blood contains all the principles of nutrition, and 
 circulates through the body by the heart, arteries, and veins. 
 In man it is of a red colour, of a florid colour in the arteries, 
 and of a darker tint in the veins. The quantity of blood in 
 an adult or grown up person, is estimated from 25 to 30 lbs. ; 
 of this, four parts are contained in the veins, and a fifth in 
 the arteries. The temperature of this fluid is 98°. It is 
 generally admitted to be alive. When removed from the 
 body it separates into two parts, the clot, also named the 
 crassamentum, and the yellowish transparent fluid called the 
 serum. The blood receives its red colour from small red 
 globules, which can be removed by washing the blood in 
 water. The red particles are said to owe their colour to the 
 presence of iron. According to Leuwenhoeck, a thousand 
 millions of these globules are not larger than a grain of sand. 
 The importance of the blood is very considerable ; it distends 
 the cavities of the heart and blood vessels ; it stimulates these 
 organs to contract, by which means the circulation of the 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 29 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 blood is performed ; it generates witbin itself animal heat, 
 which it propagates throughout the body ; it nourishes the 
 whole system ; and, lastly, it is the source from which every 
 secretion of the body is separated. In the disease called 
 cholera, the serum, or watery part of the blood, is very defi- 
 cient in quantity, in consequence of its passing away by the 
 bowels, &c. The principal organ concerned in the circulation 
 of this vital fluid, is 
 
 The Heart (Fig. ^also B, Plate I., II., and III.), which is 
 a hollow vessel of a muscular and fibrous structure, of a conical 
 shape, about the size of the folded hand, and placed in the 
 fore part of the chest, and a little to the left side. A good idea 
 of this organ may be obtained by examining the heart of a 
 pig, &c., and the subjoined figure will illustrate some of its 
 parts. 
 
 Section of the Heart. — a, the right auricle, which re- 
 ceives the blood from the lower parts 
 of the body by the vein g, and from the 
 upper parts by a corresponding vessel, 
 as seen in the figure ; these vessels are 
 ) named the vence cavce; b, the left auricle; 
 \^^Jl I — — c, the right ventricle; d, the left ven- 
 
 tricle ; e, the aorta ; the pulmonary 
 artery; g, the venae cavae; h, 
 the pulmonary veins. The 
 cells or auricles and ventricles 
 of the heart have a communica- 
 tion with each other, and with 
 the arteries and veins, the arteries conveying it from 
 the heart to the body, and the veins returning it from 
 the body to the heart. The action of the heart may 
 be better understood by comparing it with a force 
 pump. 
 
 When the piston a is drawn up, an empty space 
 will be found at b, but if the pipe c be immersed in 
 water, this fluid will rush in from the pressure of the 
 atmosphere to fill up the void. If the piston a be 
 forced down, the water will be forced out affain 
 
 FIG. 6 
 
 O 
 
 
 ir 
 
 throup'h 
 
 o 
 
30 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 the tube c, unless it is prevented by the valve at b, in which 
 case it must remain, unless it can escape by some other open- 
 ing in the vessel, which, in a force pump, is generally placed 
 a little above the opening at the valve b. Or the action of 
 the heart may be still better understood by a bag of India 
 rubber, to which a small pipe is attached ; force out the air 
 by compressing the sides of the bag, when the force is re- 
 moved the elasticity or spring of the India rubber will ex- 
 pand the bag, and if the pipe be immersed in water it will 
 rush in and fill the cavity, and by compressing the bag as 
 before, the fluid will be forced out. The heart, then, is just 
 a series of such elastic bags, having in themselves a power 
 to contract, and the blood is conveyed from one to another and 
 over the body with the greatest regularity. One of the 
 cells of the heart enlarges itself, namely, the right auricle 
 a, the blood rushes in from the veins, g, &c., the auricle con- 
 tracts or closes upon the blood which it has received, and 
 forces it into the second cell or apartment, named the right 
 ventricle c, being prevented from returning to the auricle by 
 a valve or floodgate, placed there for the purpose, and named 
 the tricuspid or three-pointed valve ; from this second cell it 
 might be sent over the body, and this wovdd constitute a 
 single circulation, and a single heart ; but the blood has to be 
 brought into contact with the atmospheric air in the lungs, 
 to and from which it is conveyed by other two cells, or another 
 single heart, and the four apartments, the two auricles and the 
 two ventricles, form the double heart and circulation of the 
 human body. When the right ventricle contracts, it sends 
 the blood to the lungs by the vessels^ which, although con- 
 veying venous blood, are named the pidmonary arteries ; it re- 
 turns to the left auricle b, by the pulmonary veins li, from the 
 left auricle b to the left ventricle d, and is prevented from 
 returning by the mitral or mitre-shaped valves. When the 
 left ventricle contracts, the blood is sent over the body by 
 the aorta, e, and its numerous branches, in other words, by the 
 arteries. At the mouth of the aorta, as well as at the pulmo- 
 nary artery, there are valves called the semilunar, or half-moon 
 shaped vah^s, and these prevent the blood flowing back. In 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 31 
 
 old people, these valves, as well as part of the aorta itself, 
 sometimes become ossified, or converted into bone, and the 
 valves not acting properly, the blood falls back into the heart, 
 and often causes instant death. Each ventricle is reckoned 
 to contain about one ounce, or about two table spoonfuls of 
 blood. The heart contracts about 4000 times every hour, 
 and, consequently, there passes through it, as it were, 250 lbs. 
 of blood in one hour ; and if the mass of blood in a human 
 body be reckoned at 25 lbs., it will follow that the whole 
 passes through the heart, and consequently through its thou- 
 sands of ramifications of the veins and arteries, fourteen times 
 every hour, or about once every four minutes. 
 
 The power of the heart has been variously estimated, but 
 an idea of it may be obtained much better by a simple experi- 
 ment than by figures. If a weight of fifty pounds be attached 
 to the foot, with the knee of that side folded on the knee of 
 the other, the weight will be raised at each pulsation ; the 
 same motion of the foot may be observed without the weight. 
 By taking into account the distance of the foot from the 
 centre of motion, and allowing for this circumstance, the 
 moving power has been estimated at 400 lbs. 
 
 In the child, before birth, there is an opening between 
 the auricles, and by this means the blood is not conveyed to 
 the lungs, as, in the foetal state, it does not come into contact 
 with the air in the lungs. The lungs are in fact useless until 
 birth, and at which period foramen ovale, or oval hole, be- 
 tween the auricles, is obliterated. In some instances, however, 
 the opening is left in some measure open, and the blood not 
 being sufficiently purified in the lungs, that is, with other cir- 
 cumstances, changed from black to red, the body assumes an 
 unnatural colour, hence the hlue disease. 
 
 The Arteries (Plate III., a a and hh h) arise at the 
 heart, and are distributed over the whole body. The first, or 
 main artery, is named the aorta, it rises in the form of an 
 arch, receives the blood from the heart, which it conveys by 
 its innumerable branches to every part of the system. The 
 arteries are composed of three membranes, or coats, the ex- 
 ternal one is very tough. The next is made up of muscular 
 
3-2 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 fibres, and the third, or internal, is smooth and delicate, called 
 the serous coat. The blood is thrown into the aorta and its 
 numerous branches ; by the force of the heart, which contracts 
 and expands alternately, a pulsating motion is given and 
 communicated to every branch or artery, hence the motion at 
 the wrist and elsewhere, called the pulse. Wlien an artery is 
 cut, the blood flows from the wound by a kind of jerk, and, 
 to prevent bleeding from such a wound, the pressure must be 
 made between the wound and the heart. These important 
 vessels are in general deeply seated, consequently not so 
 much exposed to injury, and the blood in them is of a bright 
 crimson colour. The extreme branches of the arteries are 
 so very small that they resemble the finest hair, hence named 
 capillary, or hair-like ; and the vessels on the white of the 
 eye are so very minute, that in health they do not admit of 
 the red matter which gives colour to the blood; these delicate 
 vessels, however, become enlarged in inflammation of the eye, 
 and may then be distinctly seen. When a limb is amputated 
 by a surgeon, he only ties the arteries. The reason is, that 
 as these convey the blood from the heart, the patient would 
 soon bleed to death, unless some means were adopted to pre- 
 vent it ; and we cannot fail to admire the wisdom of God in 
 that the very structure of the arteries aid us in obliterating 
 them, for when a thread is put round an artery and tightly 
 drawn, the external coat or skin being very tough is not cut 
 through, whereas the muscular and inner coats are, they 
 shrink a little, and by the time the ligature falls off, the heal- 
 ing powers of nature have obliterated the vessel. The blood 
 being conveyed to every part of the body by these elastic 
 tubes is returned by the 
 
 Veins (Plate II., b b, and Plate III., h). They are long 
 membranous tubes, arising from the extremities of the arteries, 
 become wider as they proceed to the heart, do not pulsate, 
 and are thinner in their coats than the arteries, and are well 
 furnished with valves, which prevent the blood flowing back. 
 The use of the veins is to return the blood to the heart. The 
 circulation of the blood was unknown till Harvey made the 
 discovery about 200 years ago. Before this time air was 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 33 
 
 supposed to circulate through the arteries, or air tubes, and 
 the majority of the medical men of the day did what they 
 could to prevent the spread of the new opinions, but Harvey 
 clearly demonstrated the fact, and it was soon hailed as the 
 greatest discovery in medicine. The motion of the blood -is 
 chiefly owing to the action of the heart, but it is generally 
 admitted that the blood vessels aid in its distribution. The 
 V'elocity of the blood in the arteries grows slower in propor- 
 tion to its distance from the heart, while in the veins it is 
 accelerated as it approaches it. The velocity of the blood is 
 much increased during inflammation and other diseases, and, 
 taking the average number of pulsations of a man in good 
 health to be 75, the action of his heart during disease may be 
 compared with this average, the number of pulsations or beats 
 per minute being counted at one of the arteries at the wrist. 
 In removing blood from a vein, as, in the ordinary operation 
 of phlebotomy, or blood-letting, the stream may be made to 
 flow more freely by making the patient grasp a stick, for by 
 so doing the muscles contract and assist in propelling the 
 blood along the veins. It is in this way that exercise proves 
 so beneficial to health, by promoting the circulation of the 
 blood through the system, and we account in this way also 
 for the fact that indolent and sedentary habits so often lay 
 the foundation for incurable diseases. Having now seen 
 that the blood is circulated through the body, supplying its 
 varied wants, &c., we have to notice the change which it 
 undergoes in the lungs, viz. : — 
 
 THE AERATING CIRCULATION, OR RESPIRATION. 
 
 The organs concerned in this operation are 
 
 The Lungs (Plate I., C, C), or lights, two organs, soft 
 and spongy in their texture, of a conical shape, and situated 
 in the cavity of the chest, being composed chiefly of blood 
 vessels, and air vessels, with a small portion of cellular tissue 
 binding these together. There are two lungs, one in the 
 right, the other in the left side of the thorax or chest. The 
 air enters the lungs through the trachea, or windpipe, which 
 
AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 r?4 
 
 is a tube made up of little rings, cartilaginous in front, and 
 muscular, or fibrous, behind, and is about eight or ten inches 
 in length. This tube lies in front of the oesophagus, or 
 gullet, and about the top of the chest, and a little behind the 
 breast bone, it divides into two tubes, called the bronchia. The 
 right and left divide and subdivide into innumerable smaller 
 tubes, resembling the branches of a tree, and terminate in 
 air cells, these cells being several millions in number, and 
 about one hundredth of an inch in diameter. The office of 
 respiration is to bring the blood in contact with the air ; and 
 we find that, for this purpose, the blood is distributed upon the 
 delicate membrane forming the air cells, and which is said to 
 be equal to fifteen feet square, the blood coming from the 
 heart to the lungs, and the air from without by the windpipe. 
 In the lungs the blood is not brought into immediate contact 
 with the air, as air and blood might be by shaking them to- 
 gether in a bottle, but the blood circulates in its own proper 
 vessels, and the change is effected upon it through their deli- 
 cate coats. This change may be seen by exposing a little blood 
 taken from a vein to the action of atmospheric air; at first 
 the fluid is quite black, by degrees it changes to a crimson 
 colour, and if a portion of the same dark-coloured venous 
 blood be enclosed in a moistened bladder, or silk bag, and in 
 like manner exposed to the action of the air, it will be found 
 altered in colour, as in the other case. 
 
 The lungs, however wonderful in their structure, are 
 passive instruments in respiration — that is, they have no 
 power to fill themselves with air nor to expel it. The ribs 
 are so jointed at the spine or back-bone that they can be 
 raised a little by the action of the muscles of the chest, and by 
 this means the cavity of the chest is enlarged. An empty 
 space would be formed but for the air rushing in through the 
 trachea or v/indpipe, and filling the air cells. When ihe 
 muscles relax, the ribs fall down, and the air is consequently 
 expelled from the lungs. The chief muscle, however, of res- 
 piration is 
 
 The Diaphragm or Midriff. It is a circular muscular 
 sheet, placed transversely across the trunk, dividing the cavity 
 
 # 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 35 
 
 of the thorax from that of the abdomen. It is attached to the 
 inside of the breast-bone and the cartilages of the lower ribs, 
 and is fleshy all around its border, and at this place, in the 
 lower animals, named the skirts. The surface towards the 
 abdomen is concave or hollow, and that towards the thorax 
 convex. An idea of this important muscle may be obtained 
 by inverting a shallow bason, and keeping in mind that the 
 diaphragm is a muscle very much of that shape, and placed 
 across the chest. This muscular sheet contracts and relaxes, 
 and the cavity of the chest is also by it enlarged or diminished. 
 Wlien the ribs are being raised, the diaphragm is pressing 
 down the contents of the abdomen, and by these means the 
 chest is expanded, and inspiration takes place. When the ribs 
 fall, the diaphragm rises, and, consequently, the process of 
 expiration. Sneezing is a convulsive action of tliis muscle, 
 and occurs when any thing irritating or offensive enters the 
 windpipe. 
 
 We have now seen that the alimentary apparatus prepares 
 the blood from the food ; that the nutritive circulation distri- 
 butes it over the body, and that it is submitted to the action 
 of the atmospheric air during the aerating circulation, or cir- 
 culation through the lungs ; but yet there remains a most 
 important function, namely, secretion, or the circulation of 
 the blood through a set of organs named Glands, by which 
 a number of important substances are secreted or separated 
 from the blood ; and these organs have been well named the 
 architects and chemists of the system. This function is named 
 the Secreteey Circulation, or Secretion. The first gland 
 to be noticed is 
 
 The Liver (Plate I., D). — It is a large coffee-coloured 
 organ, situated in the abdomen, rather to the right side, and 
 immediately under the diaphragm. It consists of tubes called 
 gall ducts, and of fine ramifications or branchings of the large 
 vein returning blood from the intestines, and named the vena 
 jjortcB. The use of this large gland is to secrete from the blood 
 a fluid named 
 
 The Bile, which is a fluid of a greenish-yellow colour, 
 very bitter, and oily in appearance. It is collected in a small 
 
 c 2 
 

 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 pear-shaped bag, named the gaU-hladder, and is conveyed into 
 the intestines by a tube called the hepatic duct. This fluid 
 assists in separating the finer from the coarser part of the 
 food. It also excites the healthy action of the bowels. It is 
 this fluid which, when obstructed in its passage to the intes- 
 tines, gives the yellowish tinge to the skin, as in jaundice. 
 
 riie Pancreas (Plate L, i) is another gland, or assem- 
 blage of vessels situated in the abdomen, of a long figure like 
 a dog’s tongue, and lies under the stomach. It secretes a fluid 
 similar to the saliva, which is conveyed into the intestines. The 
 liver, pancreas, ^c., are organs that secrete fluids which are 
 in themselves useful in the economy ; but we find other or- 
 gans, as the kidneys, &c., which secrete fluids from the blood, 
 and, from their not being of further use, are expelled from 
 the system ; hence the secretery circulation is divided into secre- 
 tion and excretion, or the removal of certain substances by ap- 
 propriate organs, as 
 
 The Kidneys (Plate III., H H), which are two organs 
 shaped like kidney beans, situated in the hinder part of the ab- 
 domen, and behind the bowels, one being on each side of the 
 spine. Blood is conveyed to the kidneys by the renal arte- 
 ries, and returned by the corresponding veins — the kidneys 
 secreting a fluid named the urine, which is conveyed by two 
 small tubes named ureters to 
 
 The Bladder (Plate III., G). — This bag is situated 
 in the lower part of the abdomen, named the pelvis or bason, 
 and is made up of several membranes or skins, one of which 
 is muscular, and assists in contracting the bladder during the 
 expulsion of the urme. In a bladder which has been removed 
 from the body and dried, the ureters are not easily seen, or 
 rather the place where they enter the bladder. This is on 
 account of their entering this organ in a slanting direction, 
 that is, running between the coats or skins composing the 
 bladder, and this contrivance acting as a valve ; but the open- 
 ings of these tubes may be easily discovered by looking into 
 the interior of the organ. It sometimes happens that, from- 
 various causes, sand accumulates in the bladder, and to such 
 an extent as riot to pass by the urethra, or tube through which 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 37 
 
 the urine is expelled. Hence that painful disease stone in 
 the bladder. 
 
 There is another very important fluid, namely, the per- 
 spiration, which is secreted by, and removed from. 
 
 The Skin. — This is the natural covering of the body, 
 and is divided into different layers. The first is named the 
 cuticle ; the inner, or one next the muscles or flesh, the true 
 skin ; and between these is the layer named the rete mucosum, 
 and is that which gives the colour to the different varieties of 
 the human species. The cuticle is of such a nature as to de- 
 fend the other layers, by its being less liable to injury from 
 friction, and its waste being readily repared. The true skin 
 is not only very vascular, or full of blood vessels, but has a 
 great degree of sensibility on account of the minute branches 
 of the nerves distributed upon it. The skin is not only the 
 seat of the sense of touch, but, frotn the minute branches of 
 its arteries, there is a fluid secreted and removed, named 
 
 The Perspiration. — This is a watery fluid of a slightly- 
 saltish taste, and is divided into sensible and insensible perspira- 
 tion. It has been calculated that there are about three hun- 
 dred thousand millions of pores or small openings in the 
 glands of the skin, through which a large proportion of what 
 we eat is discharged. The perspiration, while it carries away 
 spare or waste matter from the body, serves also to regulate its 
 temperature. For, on an average, a man in health discharges 
 from half-an-ounce to four ounces per hour by sensible and 
 insensible perspiration ; and, as this fluid evaporates from the 
 surface of the body, which it can only do by absorbing caloric 
 or the matter of heat, it thus becomes a regulator of the tem- 
 perature of the body. Hence we find a gentle perspiration 
 cooling and refreshing the body during fever, as showers re- 
 fresh the earth in summer. The insensible perspiration may 
 be rendered sensible by placing a cool plate of glass on the 
 skin. In a few seconds it will be dimmed by the vapour cool- 
 ing on its surface. The feet, when warm, if placed on a cold 
 stone, will soon leave an impression from the same cause. 
 When these discharges are obstructed, colds, fevers, &c., are 
 produced, it being essential to health that a quantity of matter 
 
3S 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 be SO removed. When the balance is destroyed, the matter 
 ■which should have passed away by the skin is in some mea- 
 sure discharged by some other organ, causing disorder and 
 disease. The lungs throw oflf a considerable quantity of 
 watery vapour, and when the perspiration is obstructed they 
 endeavour to rid the system of the spare matter. If they are 
 sound, they may assist for a time, but if weak, they become 
 doubly so; and in their attempts to rid themselves of the 
 matter by cough, they become so much inflamed and injured 
 as to end in a suspension of their functions — death. 
 
 The secreted fluids are numerous ; for instance, the saliva, 
 the tears, ^c., but the two already noticed may suffice to give 
 an idea of the functions of secretion. 
 
 Having now very briefly noticed these wonderful systems, 
 it comes next in turn to make a few observations on 
 
 PECULIAR SENSATION. 
 
 And first, Phoper Sensation — the instruments of which 
 are the eye, ear, nose, mouth, and tongue. 
 
 The Eye, or organ of vision, is round like a ball, formed . 
 of several coats, the one placed within the other, ver)^ like 
 the layers of an onion. Within these membranes, as in a cup, 
 are various humours, and the whole so arranged as to form a 
 powerful optical instrument. The outermost coat is named 
 sclerotic from its horny-like texture. The next, and within 
 the former, is the choroid membrane — it is of a black colour ; 
 and the third is named the retina, and is an expansion of the 
 optic nerve which enters the eye-ball behind. The cornea is 
 that transparent part of the eye-ball in front resembling a 
 watch-glass ; a little behind it is a circular curtain named the 
 iris, from its resemblance to a rainbow, and this curtain or 
 screen divides the eye into the anterior and posterior chambers, 
 and the little hole in the centre is named the pupil. The 
 humours of the eye are arranged as follows : — 1 st. The aqueous 
 or watery is in the anterior part directly behind the cornea, 
 and fills the two chambers before and behind the iris. The 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 39 
 
 Q,d is the crystalline lens or humour. It is about twice the size 
 of an ordinary pea, and resembles a little crystal ball. It is 
 situated behind the pupil, and rests on the 3c?, being the vitreous 
 or glassy humour which fills the bulb or greater part of the ball 
 of the eye behind the lens. The eye-ball is safely lodged in the 
 orbit, moved by six muscles, defended by the eye-lids, mois- 
 tened by a fine fluid, which is secreted by a little gland situ- 
 ated in the upper part of the orbit, and the whole duly supplied 
 with arteries, veins, and nerves. The rays of light coming from 
 an object are carried into the eye, and so arranged by its va- 
 rious parts as to paint a delicate and perfect picture upon the 
 nervous expanse or retina, the impression from which is con- 
 veyed by the nerve to the brain, and judged of by the mind. 
 Blindness may be occasioned by specks or marks upon the 
 cornea, by the lens or other parts losing their transparency, 
 hence the disease named cataract or the nerve itself may be 
 impaired, and a consequent dimness of vision, and often total 
 blindness, called amaurosis. Squinting is occasioned by the 
 muscles of one side acting with more power than those of the 
 other. Dr. Paley remarks that, “ were there no example in 
 the world of contrivance except that of the eye, it would be 
 alone sufficient to support the conclusions which we draw 
 from it as to the necessity of an intelligent Creator. When 
 we look at a telescope, and see how it consists of a tube com- 
 posed of various pieces, containing several glasses or lenses 
 placed at different distances, in order to refract the rays of 
 light, and bring them to a focus or point — how, within it 
 there is a partition of metal, through which is a round hole in 
 the centre, for the purpose of lessening the surface of the lens 
 on which the rays of light strike ; and when, in addition to all 
 this, we see the inside painted black to absorb the oblique or 
 scattering rays that w’ould otherwise render objects confused 
 or indistinct — when we see all these things, we immediately 
 say, here are marks of design, here is evidence of wise and 
 skillful contrivance ! And yet the telescope is but an imita- 
 tion of the human e 3 ^e, which had God for its designer. When, 
 also, we look at the camera obscura, and see a tight dark box, 
 with a lens fitted into it through which the light, passing. 
 
40 
 
 AN , OUTLINE OF 
 
 foils upon 11 screen behind, forming an inverted image of the 
 object represented, we say at once, here is design ! But this 
 instrument, also, is copied from the human eye.” 
 
 No less wonderful is 
 
 The Ear, or organ of hearing. The. external ear leads 
 into the passage named the meatus auditorius ; this passage 
 is studded with small hairs, which, with the wax secreted in 
 this canal, tend to prevent any hurtful animal from creeping 
 into the ear. At the bottom of this passage there is a mem- 
 brane stretched across called the tympanum or drum, which, 
 with a number of small bones, various winding canals, &c., 
 and a nerve proceeding from the brain, is called the internal 
 ear, and the sense of hearing results from the vibrations of 
 the air being communicated to this complicated structure. 
 
 The next organ of sense is 
 
 The Nose. — In the openings between the nose and the 
 back part of the mouth, there are, independently of the mere 
 sides of this opening, a number of thin spongy bones, and 
 these are so arranged, with a delicate membrane spread over 
 all, upon which the proper nerve of the nose, named the olfac- 
 tory, is distributed, and upon which impressions are made by 
 the odorous particles of bodies. The cavity of the nose opens 
 behind into the pharynx by two oval holes, and through 
 these air is conveyed into the windpipe and lungs during 
 eating, or when at any time the mouth is shut. There are 
 several cells in the bones of the head, &c., which communi- 
 cate with the nose. These are also lined with a delicate and 
 sensitive membrane, which, with the other parts, become in- 
 flamed, as in what is vulgarly called a common cold. The 
 sense of smell is closely associated with that of taste. It seems, 
 indeed, says Dr. Lee, as a sentinel standing on guard to see 
 that no enemy approaches the citadel ; it tells us whether the 
 aliment placed before us is agreeable or disagreeable ; of 
 course, whether it will agree or disagree with the stomach. 
 The taste and the smell are hardly ever at loggerheads ; it 
 does, however, sometimes happen that a substance that is re- 
 pugnant to the smell Is agreeable to the taste. In such a 
 case they soon come to an understanding, and the smell 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 41 
 
 chooses to make the best of it, and drop its repugnance. 
 At any rate, its aversion, some way or other, is soon neu- 
 tralised. 
 
 We have yet to examine an organ placed in the mouth, viz.. 
 
 The Tongue, the superior surface of which is the organ 
 of taste. This organ is chiefly composed of muscular fibres, 
 running almost in every direction. It is not only the organ 
 of taste, but also of articulation, and also aids in mastication 
 and deglutition. The surface of the tongue is thickly 
 studded with fine papillae or points, and is kept soft and 
 moist by the various fluids in the mouth — the saliva, &c., and 
 the secretion from the almonds of the throat or ears. It is 
 essential to the exercise of this sense that the tongue be 
 kept moist, and we find that in fever and from other causes, 
 when the tongue is dry and parched, the taste is entirely 
 lost, the nervous papiUae being unable in this state to per- 
 ceive the savour of substances presented to them. The eye, 
 ear, nose, and tongue are the organs of proper sensation, and 
 
 Common Sensation has the skin as the organ of Touch, 
 which is the general feeling or sensibility produced by the 
 skin ; and, although the property of touch belongs to every 
 part of the body, yet the hand is considered as its special or- 
 gan, and in the ends of the fingers it resides in the greatest 
 perfection. 
 
 It has been well observed, that Man is so constituted, 
 that the functions of sensibility, voluntary motion, and the 
 intellectnal faculties, cannot be indulged for any length of 
 time without fatigue. The nervous energy which seems es- 
 sential to their exercise becomes exhausted ; the muscles 
 can no longer contract ; the external senses cannot receive 
 impressions ; the brain, and consequently the mind, becomes 
 torpid, and a person sinks into a state of torpor in which there 
 is AN Arrest of the Bodily Functions called Sleep, 
 the end and design of which is, both to renew, during the 
 silence and darkness of the night, the idtal energy which 
 has been exhausted through the day, and to assist nutrition. 
 The ordinary duration of sleep is various ; generally it is 
 from six to eight hours. Fatigue of the muscular system. 
 
42 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 strong- exertions of the mind, lively and multiplied sensations, 
 prolong- it as well as habits of idleness, the unnecessary 
 use of wine and other stimulants, and of too strong ali- 
 ments. Infancy and youth, whose life of relation is very 
 active, have need of longer repose. Riper age, more frugal 
 of time, and tortured with cares, devotes to it but a small 
 portion. Very old people present two opposite modifications ; 
 either they are almost always slumbering, or their sleep is 
 very light ; but the reason of this latter is but too seldom to 
 be found in the foresight they have of their approaching 
 end. Sleep may refresh, and attention to the natural laws 
 may make us wear well, but there is no getting over the fixed 
 decree, “Dust thou art and unto dust thou shalt return;” 
 hence the Extinction of the Vital and Bodily Func- 
 tions by the process of Death, which may be natural or 
 accidental. Wonderful as the human body is in every point of 
 view, and while every function is maintained in a healthy 
 equilibrum, certain changes are in progress, which, at the 
 appointed season, will bring on the decline and ultimate 
 destruction of the system. All the vessels of the body are 
 active, and supply their proper fluids, the parts which they 
 nourish get strength, and all the textures of the body are 
 increasing in solidity, yet, strange to tell, this individual 
 process going on, accelerates the decline of the system. The 
 bones grow harder and harder, and consequently more brittle. 
 The cartilages, the tendons, and coats of the blood vessels 
 acquire a crust of matter which interferes with their uses, and, 
 consequently, hastens on the decay. The parts of the body 
 being tougher, yield less to the power applied to propel the 
 fluids through them, while, at the same time, this force in 
 common with all the others is slowly diminishing. Thus do 
 the vital powers become less and less equal to the demands 
 made upon them, the waste of the body exceeds the supply, 
 and a diminution of energy becomes apparent in every func- 
 tion. Such are the insensible gradations by which, while 
 gliding down the stream of time, we lapse into old age, which 
 steals on us before we are aware of its approach. But the 
 same Provident Being who presided at our birth, who 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 43 
 
 superintended the growth of all the organs, who infused 
 animation into each as they arose, and who conducted the 
 system unimpaired to its maturity, is still exerted in adjust- 
 ^ing the conditions under which it is placed in its season of 
 decline. The period prescribed for its duration being at 
 length completed, and the ends of its existence accomplished, 
 the fabric can no longer be sustained, and preparation must 
 be made for its inevitable fall. In order to form a correct 
 judgment of the real intentions of nature, with regard to this 
 last stage of life, its phenomena must be observed in cases 
 where the system has been wholly intrusted to her laws. 
 When death is the simple consequence of age, we find that 
 the extinction of the powers of life observes an order the re- 
 verse of that which was followed in their evolution. The 
 brain, and other organs of sensation, which were the last per- 
 fected, are the first to decay ; the eye becomes dim, and the 
 ear scarcely vibrates upon the application of its accustomed 
 sound ; the heart beats but slowly for want of its proper 
 nervous energy ; the blood in consequence is not sent to the 
 lungs with its usual force, nor is it sufficiently vitalized there ; 
 the heart soon forgets to throb, and the soul, no longer bound 
 to its earthy tenement, returns from whence it came. In all 
 this, we cannot fail to recognise the wise ordinances of a su- 
 perintending and beneficent Providence, kindly smoothing the 
 path along which we descend the vale of life, spreading a 
 narcotic mantle over the bed of death, and giving to the last 
 moments of departing sensation the tranquillity of approach- 
 ing sleep. 
 
 Keeping in mind that this brief outline of the individual 
 organs of the human body is intended for those who are in a 
 great measure ignorant of the subject, it may be well to 
 take a glance at their combined operations. On this account 
 it need scarcely be necessary to make any apology for the fre- 
 quent repetition of some of the matter of fact as contained in 
 the preceding pages. 
 
 Food being required as indicated by the sensation called 
 
44 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 hunger, the brain by its nerves gives the necessary energy for 
 the purpose of procuring a due supply of aliment. This, 
 during the healthy and unvitiated state of the organs, may be 
 deemed wholesome, if the organs of sense, the sentinels of» 
 this citadel, permit it to pass without giving any indication of 
 danger; and the kind of food may be as often repeated as 
 necessary, if it produces no bad effect upon the body. After 
 entering the mouth, it is cut, torn, or ground by the teeth, and 
 kept between them, and properly subjected to their action by 
 the tongue and cheeks. During this process, a small quan- 
 tity of a watery fluid almost insensibly moistens the morsel. 
 This is the saliva or spittle, and is collected by the parotid and 
 other glands. The parotids are placed, one at the joint of 
 each jaw; and during the motion of the jaw, in the act of 
 chewing, a portion of this fluid is forced from the gland, and 
 along a little pipe, and discharged into the mouth. After 
 the morsel is sufficiently cut down and moistened by the 
 saliva, it is then in a condition to be swallowed, that is, 
 conveyed to the stomach. 
 
 The food being conveyed to the stomach, not so much by 
 its weight as by the action of the muscular fibres of the 
 gullet, is now ready to undergo the process of digestion. 
 This consists in the food being subjected for a sufficient 
 length of time to the action of a peculiar fluid secreted by the 
 vessels of the stomach, and poured into it when food is taken 
 (this fluid is called the gastric juice) ; also to a proper tem- 
 perature and a continued motion, by which every part is duly 
 affected by the gastric juice and converted into a pulpy mass. 
 Although we are not sensible of this turning and overturning, 
 still the stomach itself is sufficiently on the alert, for the 
 opening between it and the intestines remains shut until 
 the contents be sufficiently digested, and till then the food 
 passes and repasses, but cannot escape, and then the open- 
 ing enlarges as if by instinct, and the pulpy mass moves 
 onward. The bile, which is secreted by the liver, and re- 
 tained for a time in the gall bladder, is discharged into the 
 intestines a short way below the point where the stomach 
 and intestines unite. TIic stomach is so situated, tliat, when 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 45 
 
 distended with food, it presses upon the gall bladder, and 
 causes it to discharge its bitter contents. The bile and other 
 fluids, for instance the pancreatic juice, are now poured into 
 the intestines, and mixed with the newly-digested mass, and, 
 whilst they serve other purposes, separate it into two parts — 
 a milky fluid called chyle, which is the nutritious part of the 
 aliment, and a grosser part which is discharged from the body. 
 The absorbing vessels, which open upon the inner surface of 
 the intestines, are too small to be detected by the naked eye, 
 yet they pervade every part of the canal, so that nothing 
 which is useful may be lost ; they are named lacteals, and suck 
 up the milky fluid from which they are named. They en- 
 large in size as they become united, and ultimately join into 
 one tube, which is called the thoracic duct, and is about the 
 size of a goose quill. At the spot at which the lacteals unite, 
 there is an enlargement of the pipe, this is called the receptacle, 
 and contains about a tea-spoonful of chyle. The duct pro- 
 ceeding from it, mounts along the spine, which it crosses, 
 and then rises high in the neck, and turns again and pours 
 its milk-like stream into the left subclavian vein, which is one 
 of the blood-vessels returning the blood to the heart, the 
 centre of the circulating system. It is necessary that even 
 this fluid or newly-made blood, along with the venous blood 
 with which it is mixed, be subjected to the action of the air 
 in the lungs, before either be fit to be distributed by the 
 arteries. The circulation has been already explained — 
 it is unnecessary to advert to it here. It has been noticed 
 that in the process of breathing the air rushes into the lungs 
 or air cells; this air (the atmospheric), although invisible, 
 is a substance composed of two very subtle ingredients, the 
 one named oxygen the other nitrogen ; the former has a great 
 tendency to unite with a substance called carhon, and which 
 exists in the black blood in the veins, for in truth the car- 
 bon is the cause of its blackness. The instant that the air 
 and the black blood are brought together, the following 
 amongst other changes takes place : — the carbon of the blood 
 unites with the oxygen of the air, a new substance is formed 
 named impure air, also named carbonic acid gas, and this 
 
46 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 IDEAL FIGURE 
 
 (respiration.) 
 
 escapes by the windpipe along with the other ingredient of 
 the air, viz., the nitrogen ; this will be better understood by 
 the ideal fio-ure. 
 
 This ideal figure represents the heart and right lung in 
 connexion. In the tube leading to the lungs, the three lines 
 represent the air passing to the lung, and the new products 
 passing from it. The middle line repre- 
 sents the air, which is composed of two 
 gases (invisible substances), already men- 
 tioned — oxygen and nitrogen. These 
 gases in their combined form, or atmos- 
 pheric air, enter the lung by the wind- 
 pipe and its numerous branches. Blood 
 is brought from the heart, charged (filled) 
 with a substance named carbon. This 
 substance, c, is represented as leaving the 
 blood and combining with o, the oxygen 
 of the atmospheric air. These combine 
 and form a new substance, called carbonic 
 acid gas, which, being useless in the eco- 
 nomy, leaves it by passing along the 
 windpipe, as in the left line of the woodcut, and the nitrogen, 
 the other ingredient of the air, is seen as also passing away 
 by the right line, marked n. 
 
 During this process the blood gives off its carbon, and is 
 said to receive a vital something in return ; but there is also 
 another change of a remarkable kind, this is the generation 
 of animal heat, and this caloric (matter of heat) is no sooner 
 set free than it is absorbed by the blood ; and, as this takes 
 place every time we breathe, which is about eighteen times a 
 minute, and as the blood continually passes the place where 
 this change is effected, it is kept at a proper temperature, and 
 the heat of the animal economy consequently kent up. It 
 may be proper to observe, in regard to this curious circum- 
 stance, that it is a law in nature, that whenever bodies alter 
 their form they either take in or give out caloric. In proof 
 of this, mix equal parts of oil of vitriol and water ; the mixed 
 fluids will take up less space than they did when separate. 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 47 
 
 and in consequence of this condensation, whilst mixing, the 
 spare caloric is given off. It has been already noticed, that 
 the blood of the Indian and of the Greenlander are of the same 
 temperature. This, at first sight, might seem strange, yet ’tis 
 true, and the reason why can be explained — the same degree 
 of heat being necessary over all for the due performance of 
 the functions of this wonderful structure. But one naturally 
 thinks that the sun in India might of itself be sufficient to 
 keep the body warm, in fact there would seem to be a dan- 
 ger of its being too hot, whereas on the shores of Greenland 
 the eternal ice is enough to freeze the vital stream ; but these 
 extremes are guarded against by a plan of beautiful simpli- 
 city, which will be better understood as we proceed. 
 
 It will now be proper to notice the relation of this wonderful 
 system to the food which nourishes it, for we have no chance 
 work in nature’s operations ; and we may at once conclude, that 
 food of a proper kind will be a stimulus to the discharge of the 
 healthy functions of the body, that it w'ill contain the neces- 
 sary elements for the growth and repair of parts, and wdll 
 also afford the necessary quantity of carbon, that element 
 which combines wnth the oxygen in the lungs, and is an es- 
 sential agent in the generation of animal heat. Whenever 
 the body stands in need of a supply of nourishment, we ex- 
 perience the well-known sensation called hunger, and if its 
 calls are duly attended to, it will be several hours before its 
 warning voice be heard again. We have already said that 
 proper food is neither offensive to the organs of taste nor 
 smell, that whilst it is the natural stimidus to the respective 
 organs of digestion, &c., yet it does not so stimulate or dis- 
 turb the other parts of the body as to disorder their functions. 
 For example, the heart, when stimulated by the use of im- 
 proper substances, acts with more than usual force, and the 
 balance or harmony of the economy is in some measure des- 
 troyed. To illustrate this, we may compare the effects pro- 
 duced by different articles of diet, &c. A piece of boiled 
 flesh, if fresh, dissolves in the stomach by the action of the 
 gastric juice and other agents ; when properly digested, it 
 passes to the intestines, where the finer or real nutritious 
 
48 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF 
 
 parts are absorbed (as lias been already explained), and 
 carried into the circulation. During this process, there is no 
 unnecessary excitement, no thirst or feeling of fullness, and if 
 the newly-formed blood be examined, no trace of the sub- 
 stance can be detected from which it was formed ; and if the 
 secretions are examined, as the urine or the vapour escaping 
 from the lungs during the process of breathing, no trace of 
 it can be found in them. Introduce next a piece of dried 
 and salted flesh, it is digested, but not nearly so soon as in 
 the former case, and in a very short time the sensation of 
 thirst is experienced, and this is in consequence of the ali- 
 ment having been too concentrated or strong as it is com- 
 monly called, that is, too much material in too little space. 
 Water is indicated to dilute the food, and nothing else will 
 serve the end. If a quantity of milk be next the subject of 
 experiment, it will be found that the gastric fluid curdles the 
 milk, the whey is considered as useless, and absorbed almost 
 unchanged (it is not taken up by the lacteals, but by the 
 absorbents of the stomach), the curd remains in the stomach 
 and is duly acted upon, as described under the head diges- 
 tion. It may be observed that fluids are not digested, that 
 it is solids alone that undergo this process. A tumbler of 
 water is almost instantly absorbed by the vessels of the sto- 
 mach, and carried into the blood vessels. If its use has been 
 indicated by the sensation of thirst, it has, of course, some 
 end to serve; but, if simply introduced without any call, 
 then a series of changes has to be instituted for the purpose 
 of expelling the superfluous matter from the system. One 
 of these may be noticed, viz., the secretion of urine. Blood 
 is conveyed to the kidneys by the arteries ; the kidneys have 
 the power of secreting from the blood any excess of water 
 that may be in it, this is conveyed to the bladder by a tube 
 from each kidney, called the ureter, and the blood again re- 
 turns by the veins. If, however, the fluids introduced into 
 the stomach are not of a simple nature as, water — as fluids are 
 not digested, and, consequently, in a great measure unchanged 
 in their properties, they must, if their use is not indicated, 
 produce deleterious elfects upon the constitution. Turpen- 
 
THE ANniAL ECONOMY. 
 
 49 
 
 tine, if taken into the stomach, can be detected in the urine. 
 Alcohol has been found in the ventricles of the brain ; and if 
 spirits of wine be introduced into the stomach by a tube, 
 without the least drop touching the mouth, so as to alfect the 
 breath, it can be detected in the vapour passing- from the 
 lungs ; a proof, with others, that fluids are imchanged. There 
 are few who are not aware of the great difference in quality 
 of the articles of diet used by the inhabitants of diffe- 
 rent countries, yet few seem to be aware of the great leading 
 principle in this distinction. To make it appear plain, di- 
 vide the globe into three divisions — a cold, as Greenland ; a 
 hot, as India ; and a temperate, as our own land. In India, the 
 heat of the sun is more than sufficient to maintain the tem- 
 perature of the body, consequently little food will be required 
 for this purpose; hence, juicy fruits are in abundance, the 
 saccharine or sweet matter of which affords the necessary 
 nourishment for the growth of parts, &c., and the simple sap 
 or juice serves an important end in the animal economy, to 
 furnish a thin watery fluid which is continually escaping from 
 the pores of the skin, upon the same principle that a wet 
 cloth wrapped round a bottle of warm wine or water will 
 soon cool it, namely, by robbing it of heat on the principle 
 of evaporation, and by this means the temperature is regu- 
 lated. In Greenland, the order of things is quite reversed, a 
 cold climate, almost sufficient to freeze the crimson current. 
 The food there is of a highly-concentrated kind, as oil and 
 other substances, having a great proportion of solid and little 
 fluid matter, hence there is more animal heat generated, and 
 the temperature of the body kept up. On the sunny shores 
 of the East, the pores of the skin are open, but in the colder 
 latitudes of the north the reverse is the case, and the inhabi- 
 tants require to wrap themselves in the warmest clothing. 
 In our land, being between the extremes, our diet requires 
 to be partly animal and partly vegetable ; and, as our climate 
 is variable, we find that our demand for food corresponds 
 — for, in summer, we relish a light vegetable diet — and in 
 the winter months, an animal. In a state of nature, man’s 
 wants are fev/ and simple, and, in exact accordance with these. 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 AN OUTLINE OK 
 
 we find that God has promised bread and water ; and, just as 
 we attend to her simple dictates will we enjoy health of 
 body and peace of mind, and, just as we depart from them, 
 will we^suffer the penalty — disorder and disease. 
 
 ‘‘ We see, even from this imperfect survey, that man is a 
 very complex machine. In it there is a peculiarity which claims 
 particular notice, a power which defies all human ingenuity 
 and imitation, and distinguishes the natural from any artifi- 
 cial machine. 
 
 “As our bodies are composed of flexible materials, whereby 
 they are liable to receive injuries by too rude a shock from 
 harder bodies ; and, as the humours are also subject to re- 
 ceive alterations from changes of weather, irregularities in 
 diet, and other accidents — it was needful that the body, be- 
 sides the power necessary for its performing all the functions 
 requisite in a healthy state, should be provided also with 
 other powers, whereby the hurts and deviations from a healthy 
 condition might be amended and restored. 
 
 “ Were there not such a power in the body, we could scarce 
 arrive at full age in any other than a disfigured condition, 
 and the loss of the due action of many parts. But our Creator 
 has kindly provided that the body, upon any wound being 
 received, should supply a cement, whereby the divided parts 
 are again united, or throw out granulations, and the breach is 
 healed up. Thus, a broken hone is made firm again by callus ; 
 a dead part is separated and thrown off ; noxious juices are driven 
 out by some of the emunctories ; a redundancy is removed by 
 some spontaneous discharge; a bleeding naturally stops of 
 itself ; and a great loss of blood, from any cause, is in some 
 measure compensated by a contracting power in the vascular 
 system, which accommodates the capacity of the vessels to 
 the quantity contained. Thus, the stomach gives information 
 when the supplies have been expended ; represents with great 
 exactness the quantity and tbe quality of what is wanted in the 
 present state of the machine ; and, in proportion as she meets 
 with neglect, rises in her demand, urges her petition with a 
 louder voice, and with more forcible arguments ; and, for its 
 
THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 
 
 .51 
 
 protection, the animal body is made capable of resisting heat 
 and cold in a very wonderful manner, and preserves an equal 
 temperature in a burning and in a freezing atmosphere. 
 
 “ There is still a farther excellence or superiority in the 
 natural machine, yet more astonishing, more beyond all 
 human comprehension, namely, a power to perpetuate, as well 
 as \,o preserve, itself. 
 
 “ A dead statue, a painted shadow on a canvas, or, per- 
 haps, a little brazen clockwork, is the supreme pride of the 
 art of man, his highest excellence and boast. 
 
 “ On the other hand, how' glorious and skilful an artificer 
 would he be called, could he but make two of these pieces of 
 clockwork, and so contrive the hidden springs and motions 
 within them, that they should perpetuate their kind, and thus 
 continue the same sort of clocks in more than a thousand suc- 
 cessions down to the present day ! 
 
 “ 8uch is the workmanship of God ! Such the amazing 
 power of his will ! 8ucli the long reach of his foresight, who 
 has long ago guarded against all possible deficiencies ; who 
 has provided energy in nature sufiicient to replenish the 
 world with plants and animals to the end of time, by the 
 wondrous contrivance of his creation, and the laws he then 
 ordained. 
 
 “ But the most perfect mark of the greatness of man, and 
 of his high exaltation above other animals, is the commerce he 
 holds with his Creator. 
 
 “ Wrapt in the thickest darkness, the rest of the animal 
 creation are ignorant of the hand that formed them. They 
 enjoy an existence, but cannot trace the Author of life. 
 
 “ Man alone soars to God, the principle, and, prostrate at 
 the foot of the throne of the Almighty, he adores, with the 
 profoundest sentiments of veneration, and with the most lively 
 gratitude, the inefiable goodness that created him.” 
 
,;U>: KVir-A; 
 
 |«u 
 
GLOSSARY, &c. 
 
 Abdomen . — The belly. The cavity between the thorax or 
 chest above, and the pelvis or bason below. The fore part of 
 the abdomen is covered with muscles and the common inte- 
 guments, in the middle of which is the navel. The hinder 
 part, which is partly formed by the spine or back bone, is 
 called the loins, and the sides, the flanks. This cavity, as 
 well as the organs which it contains, is invested by a smooth 
 thin membrane or skin called the peritoneum. The abdomen 
 contains the omentum, stomach, large and small intestines, 
 mesentery, lacteal vessels, pancreas, spleen, liver and gall- 
 bladder, kidneys, blood-vessels, nerves, &c. The bladder, 
 however, is situated in that part of the abdomen called the 
 pelvis or bason. 
 
 The abdomen, and part of its contents, may be seen in 
 Plate I. 
 
 Abdominal . — Relating to the abdomen or belly. 
 
 Absorbents. — Small transparent vessels which take up sub- 
 stances from the surface of the body, or from any cavity, and 
 carry them into the blood. They are named lucteals when 
 spread upon the intestines, and where they suck up the fine 
 milk-like fluid from the digested food, and convey it to the 
 heart ; and are named lymphatics when they are found any- 
 where else. In a state of health, nature provides that all the 
 cavities and other parts of the body be pervaded with a pro- 
 per degree of moisture, and the absorbents are ready to suck 
 up any excess ; and, should they cease to perform their func- 
 tions, the fluid would accumulate, and hence the disease called 
 dropsy, in some cases of which the fluid accumulates to the 
 extent of several gallons. 
 
.54 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Acme. — The height or crisis of a fever. 
 
 Acoustic. — Belonging to the ear or sound. An ear trumpet 
 is an acoustic instrument. 
 
 Acumen . — A point. The extremity of a bone. 
 
 Adeps . — Fat. 
 
 Adipose. — Fatty, as adipose membrane. 
 
 Adipocere. — Animal matter, under certain conditions, con- 
 verted into a substance resembling a mixture of wax and fat. 
 Human bodies have been frequently found converted into 
 this substance. 
 
 Adult. — Of mature age. 
 
 Albumen . — One of the chief constituent principles of all 
 the solid parts of animal bodies. It abounds in the white of 
 an egg, and coagulates (becomes solid) by heat. 
 
 Aliment . — The name of aliment is given generally to 
 every substance which, being subjected to the action of the 
 organs of digestion, is capable by itself of affording nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 Alimentary. — Nourishing, or belonging to food. 
 
 Alimentary Canal — (Plate L, F). — A name given to the 
 whole of those passages through which the food proceeds from 
 the mouth to the anus. Substances composing the aliment, 
 after passing down the gullet (throat), are detained for a time 
 by an enlargement of this canal, namely, the stomach, where 
 the aliment undergoes a process called digestion, after which 
 it is conveyed into the next and by far the most extensive 
 part of the tube, the intestines, from the inner surface of which 
 the lacteals suck up the milk-like or truly alimentary part of 
 the food to convey it to the heart, and the grosser part passes 
 along the bowels, and is discharged from the body. 
 
 Anastomosis. — The communication of vessels with one 
 another. By the anastomosing of vessels provision is made 
 that the circulation be maintained by one branch of an artery 
 or vein, although another in the immediate vicinity be cut or 
 otherwise obliterated. The anastomosing of the vessels of 
 plants may be distinctly seen by holding the broad leaf of 
 any plant between the eye and the light. In some diseases, 
 a large artery is tied, and the anastomosing branches enlarge, 
 and the due quantity of blood is sent to the parts as before. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 55 
 
 Anatomy. — The dissection or dividing of organized sub- 
 stances to expose the situation, structure, and uses of parts. 
 
 Animate. — Alive. Possessing animal life, as a worm, &c. 
 
 Anus. — The lower extremity of the alimentary canal, and 
 its office is to form an outlet for the feces or refuse matter of 
 the food. 
 
 Antiseptic. — Whatever possesses a power of preserving ani- 
 mal substances from passing into a state of putrefaction, and 
 obviating this state when already begun ; for instance, salt, 
 alcohol, &c., are antiseptics. 
 
 Aorta — (Plate III., A A). — The great artery proceeding 
 directly from the heart. 
 
 Arteries — (Plate III., A A and B B). — Vessels, branches 
 of the aorta or main artery, which convey blood from the 
 heart to every part of the body. 
 
 Ankle The joint which connects the foot with the leg. 
 
 Articulation . — The skeleton is composed of a great num- 
 ber of bones, which are so admirably constructed and so nicely 
 adapted to one another, that the extremity of every bone is 
 perfectly adjusted to the end of the bone with which it is 
 connected, and this connexion is termed the articulation. The 
 joints are of diflFerent kinds, like a hinge, as at the knee and 
 elbow, and of the ball and socket kind, as at the shoulder 
 and hip joints. The ends of bones, composing joints, are 
 covered with a smooth substance named cartilage or gristles 
 and these parts are not very sensitive in a state of health, but 
 when they become diseased the malady very frequently as- 
 sumes a chronic or lingering form. 
 
 Asphyxia. — The state of the body during life, in which 
 the pulsation of the heart and arteries cannot be perceived. 
 This state may arise from the body being too long under 
 water, being exposed to impure air, &c. 
 
 Assimilation . — The conversion of food into nutriment. 
 
 Atony . — Weakness, or defect of muscular power. 
 
 Auditory. — Belonging to hearing, as the auditory nerve. 
 
 Auricle — (Fig. 5, a and h). — A little ear. A name given 
 to the smaller cavities of the heart. They are two in num- 
 ber ; the one receives the blood from the body in general, 
 the other from the lungs. 
 
.56 
 
 (JLOSSAItV. 
 
 Axilla. — The arm-pit. 
 
 Biceps — Applied to a muscle having two distinct heads 
 or origins. 
 
 Bile, — The gall, a bitter fluid, of a greenish yellow colour, 
 secreted by the liver. 
 
 Bladder. — A membranous bag. The gall bladder is a 
 small pear-shaped bag attached to the under side of the liver, 
 and contains the bile. The urinary bladder (Plate III., G) 
 is contained in the pelvis or lower part of the belly, and con- 
 tains the urine. 
 
 Blood. — The most important fluid in the body, and circu- 
 lates in the cavities of the heart, arteries, and veins. 
 
 Bones — (Plate II). — Those hard bodies, 245 in number, 
 of different shapes and sizes, which give shape to the body, 
 contain and defend the viscera, and afford an attachment to 
 the muscles. 
 
 Brachial. — Belonging to the arm, as the brachial artery. 
 
 Bronchia — (Plate I., G). — The terminations of the wind- 
 pipe. The trachea or windpipe divides into two branches, 
 one of which goes to each lung, and these subdivide into 
 many more, called the hronchial tubes. 
 
 Brain — (Plate I., A). — A large organ situated in the cra- 
 nium or skidl, and, by nearly universal consent, held to be 
 the seat of the mind. 
 
 Buffy Coat. — The buff-coloured matter which appears on 
 the surface of the solid portion of the blood, drawn in certain 
 diseases, especially inflammatory. 
 
 Bursa . — A bag connected with the exterior of joints and 
 parts over which the tendons pass, and contains a fine fluid, 
 rendering the motion of the parts easy. 
 
 Cancelli. — Lattice-work. A term applied to the reticular 
 or net-like substance in bones. 
 
 Ca/>^7/ary.-^Resembling hairs. Those vessels which in- 
 tervene between the minute branches of arteries and veins. 
 
 Caput. — The head, cranium, or skull. 
 
 Capsular . — Surrounding a part like a bag. The ligaments 
 which surround the moveable joints are called capsidar liga- 
 ments. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 Cardia . — A term applied to the heart, also to one of the 
 openings into the stomach ; the one by which the tood enters 
 it is called the cardiac opening. (See Stomach, Plate II., E.) 
 
 Carotid . — An artery of the neck, and one often divided 
 by the suicide. 
 
 Cartilage. — A white elastic glistening substance, growing 
 to the ends of bones, and is commonly called gristle. It faci- 
 litates the motions of bones, as in the joints. 
 
 Caries . — Carious ; rottenness of the bones. 
 
 Cavity . — Any recess or hollowness. 
 
 Cerehrum . — (Plate I., A). — The Brain. 
 
 Cerebellum . — The lesser division of the brain. Its situa- 
 tion is indicated by the lower line proceeding from A, Plate I. 
 
 Cellular . — Having small cells, as the cellular membrane, 
 below the skin. It is by means of these cells communicating 
 with each other that the unprincipled butchers blow up their 
 veal ; and it is the same cellular tissue of the human body 
 that is filled with a watery fluid in general dropsy, or of the 
 limbs, and the -pitting, which is caused by pressing the finger 
 upon- such a swelling, is occasioned by the fluid being forced 
 from one cell to another. 
 
 Cephalic . — Pertaining to the head. 
 
 Cervix . — The neck. 
 
 Chyme . — The digested food that passes from the stomach 
 into the intestines. 
 
 Chyle . — The milk-like liquor observed some hours after 
 eating. It is separated from the chyme by the lacteals, and is 
 that fluid substance from which the blood is formed. 
 
 Chylijication . — The process carried on in the small intes- 
 tines, by which the chyle is separated from the chyme. 
 
 Circulation . — A vital action performed by the heart and 
 blood-vessels. The blood is brought from every part of the 
 body to the heart by the veins, and is again sent over the 
 system by the other set of vessels, called the arteries. To 
 understand this process, it must be kept in mind that the 
 heart is an organ consisting of four cells or compartments, 
 namely two auricles and two ventricles, and these cells have 
 the power of contracting and expanding. The blood then is 
 
58 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 returned by the veins from the upper and lower parts of the 
 body into the right auricle {a. Figure 5, page 29), which, as it 
 were, opens for its reception and sucks it in, and which, when 
 distended, contracts and sends its blood into the right ventricle 
 (c. Figure 5) ; from this ventricle it is propelled through a 
 vessel named the pulmonary artery, to circulate through and 
 undergo a change in the lungs, being prevented from return- 
 ing into the right auricle by the closing of the valves or 
 flood-gates which are placed there for this purpose. Having 
 undergone a cliange in the lungs, it is brought to the left 
 auricle, h, by its expanding, and from thence it is evacuated 
 in-to the left ventricle, d. The left ventricle contracts upon its 
 contents, and throws the blood through the aorta or main 
 artery, e, to every part of the body, again to be returned by 
 the veins, and thus the circulation is continued during life. 
 
 Clavicle — (Plate II., 4). — The collar bone. This bone ex- 
 tends from the tip of the shoulder to the upper edge of the 
 breast bone, and prevents the shoulder from falling forward. 
 This bone is very frequently the seat of fracture. 
 
 Coagulum. — A term applied to blood and other fluids, when 
 they assume a jelly-like consistency. 
 
 Collapse. — A wasting or shrinking of the body or strength. 
 
 Coma. — Drowsiness. 
 
 Comatose. — Having a strong propensity to sleep. 
 
 Congestion. — A collection of blood ; we say a congestion of 
 blood when the blood in any organ accumulates in and dis- 
 tends the veins, or the motion is slow. 
 
 Concretion. — The thickening of any fluid substance, or the 
 growing together of parts which in a natural state are sepa- 
 rate. 
 
 Conglobate. — A term given to a simple gland. 
 
 Conglomerate. — A name given to compound glands. 
 
 Contagion. — This word properly imports the application 
 of any poisonous matter to the body through the medium of 
 touch. 
 
 Contractility. — The power by which muscular fibres are 
 capable of contracting or shortening themselves. 
 
 Cornea . — One of the membranes of the eye, or rather the 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 59 
 
 anterior part of the sclerotic coat (hard coat), goes by the 
 name of cornea. It is upon this part of the eye that white 
 specks or marks are formed. 
 
 Corporeal. — Pertaining to a body, or of a bodily sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Crassamentum. — A clot of blood. 
 
 Cutis . — The skin. 
 
 Cutaneous . — Relating to the skin. 
 
 Cuticle . — The outer or scarf skin, under this is the cutis or 
 true skin. The cuticle is that which is raised in blistering. 
 
 Crystalline . — Crystal-like. One of the humours of the eye is 
 so called. 
 
 Deglutition . — The act of swallowing. 
 
 Dentition . — The breeding or cutting of teeth. 
 
 Diaphragm or Midriff — (Plate I., H). — A muscle that 
 divides the thorax or chest from thfe abdomen or belly, and 
 assists in respiration. 
 
 Diathesis . — Any particular state of the body, whether 
 natural or preternatural. 
 
 Diastole . — The dilatation of the heart and arteries. 
 
 Dietetic . — That branch of medical science which treats of 
 the way of living with relation to food or diet, suitable to 
 any particular case. 
 
 Digestion. — The change which the food undergoes in the 
 stomach, and by which it is converted into chyme. As an ex- 
 ample of the mean length of time of digestion of different 
 articles of diet, the following is taken from a table arranged 
 by Dr. A. Combe from the experiments made on a young 
 American by Dr. Beaumont. 
 
 Articles of Diet. 
 
 Rice, 
 
 Mode of Preparation. 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Time required 
 for Digestion. 
 
 n. M. 
 
 1 0 
 
 Tripe, soused, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 j 
 
 0 
 
 Trout, Salmon, fresh, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 30 
 
 Bariev, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Milk,™ 
 
 Boiled,™™. 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Turkey, domestic,™ 
 
 Boiled,™™ 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 Lamb, fresh, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 Potatoes, Irish, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 Custard, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
60 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 .\rticU‘s of Diot. 
 
 Beef, with salt only,, 
 
 Mode of I’rt'paralion. 
 
 7'ime required 
 for Digeslioii. 
 
 _ 2 ifi 
 
 Oysters, fresh, 
 
 
 ™ 2 
 
 55 
 
 Beefsteak, 
 
 
 ™ 3 
 
 0 
 
 Pork, recently salted, 
 
 j .rj- X f J-J- j t*r*\*rer'tjss-ssi s-ss- rs 
 
 Broiled or Raw, — 
 
 „ 3 
 
 0 
 
 Mutton, fresh, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 ™ 3 
 
 0 
 
 Oysters, fresh, 
 
 
 ™ 3 
 
 15 
 
 Mutton, fresh, 
 
 Roasted,. 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 Beef, with mustard, 
 
 
 „ 3 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 Cheese, old, strong, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 „ 3 
 
 30 
 
 Eggs, fresh, 
 
 Hard boiled , rr^-r .r rrr 
 
 ~ 3 
 
 30 
 
 Salmon, salted, 
 
 Boiled, fj-^rinryv-rrir A.rrfATX.r 
 
 „ 4 
 
 0 
 
 Veal, fresh, 
 
 ..JI BrOiled,.r........ji r r. r Of . 
 
 - 4 
 
 0 
 
 Fowls, domestic, 
 
 -rsrr^rssPsr, Bojl Od , . w .. 
 
 „ 4 
 
 0 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 Bonatpd 
 
 ~ 4 
 
 0 
 
 Soup, Beef, Vegetables, and Bread, Boiled, 
 
 , 4 
 
 0 
 
 Beef, old salted, 
 
 Boiled, .... r. ... 
 
 , 4 
 
 15 
 
 Veal, fresh, 
 
 Jb'rxed, 
 
 , 4 
 
 30 
 
 Cabbage, with vinegar, 
 
 -rr..rr.-Arrr. Boiled,r^r^.r^.-.r^^.rrr rrrr^ r rrr. n^r 
 
 , 4 
 
 30 
 
 Suet, beef, fresh, 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 3 
 
 Pork, fat and lean, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 , 5 
 
 15 
 
 T endon,~™™„....„™™,..,.,™. 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 30 
 
 Doi'sal . — Belonging to the back. 
 
 Dura mater . — The outer or thicker membrane of the brain. 
 
 Duct . — A canal, a tube ; for instance, the lachrymal duct 
 conveys the tears or spare moisture of the eye into the nose. 
 
 Elasticity . — A force in bodies by which they endeavour to 
 restore the position from whence they were displaced by any 
 external force. 
 
 Embryo . — The germ. The foetus before the fifth month. 
 
 Enamel . — A very hard and compact substance of white 
 colour, covering the body of the teeth. When this is des- 
 troyed, the air gets access to the nerve of the tooth, and hence 
 toothache. 
 
 Energy . — The degree of force exercised by any power. 
 
 Endemic . — A disease is so termed that is peculiar to a 
 certain class of persons or country. 
 
 Epidemic . — A contagious disease that attacks many people 
 at the same time, and in the same place. 
 
 Ejpiderrnis . — The scarf skin. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 61 
 
 Epigastric. — That part of the abdomen that lies over the 
 stomach is called the epigastric region. 
 
 Epiglottis — (Fig. 3, e). — The oval cartilage or gristle at 
 the root of the tongue, that folds over the glottis or opening 
 at the top of the windpipe, and prevents food, &c., getting 
 into it when we swallow. 
 
 Eustachian tube. — A canal between the palate and the ear. 
 Through this tube the air passes to that part of the ear called 
 the tympanum or drum. When this tube is shut, which it 
 may be from thickening of its inner coat by cold and other 
 causes, a species of deafness is produced. 
 
 Excrement. — The refuse matter of the food after the sepa- 
 ration of the chyle. 
 
 Expiration. — That part of respiration in which the air is 
 thrust out of the lungs. 
 
 Excretion. — This term is applied to the separation of those 
 fluids from the blood that are considered useless, as the 
 urine, &c. 
 
 Ear. — The organ of hearing. 
 
 Eye. — The organ of vision. 
 
 Faculty. — The power or ability by which any action is 
 performed. 
 
 Farinaceous . — Containing meal or flour. 
 
 Fibrin'. — A peculiar substance found both in the structure 
 of animals and vegetables. 
 
 Fauces . — The cavity behind the tongue. 
 
 Femoral. — Belonging to the thigh. 
 
 Fever, — A disease characterised by an increase of heat, an 
 accelerated pulse, a foul tongue, and an impaired state of 
 several functions of the body. 
 
 Fibre. — A very simple filament or thread. 
 
 Feces. — Excrement, refuse matter. 
 
 Foetus. — The child from the fifth month after pregnancy 
 until the time of its birth. 
 
 Flesh. — A vulgar name for all the soft parts of animals. 
 
 Gall. — The bile, a fluid secreted from the venous blood 
 in and by the liver. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 G-2 
 
 Gall-bladder , — A small bag attached to the under side of 
 the liver for containing the bile. 
 
 Ganglion. — A knot. A natural knot-like enlargement in 
 the course of a nerve. 
 
 Gastric . — Relating to the stomach. 
 
 Gastric Juice. — A fluid separated from the blood, and is 
 an important agent in the process of digestion. This fluid 
 has no distinct bag for its reception like the bile, but is poured 
 out by the vessels of the inner coat of the stomach when food 
 is present. It is this fluid that renders the runnel (prepared 
 by steeping a portion of a calf’s stomach in water) capable of 
 coagulating (curdling) milk. 
 
 Gelatine . — Geliy. Jelly or animal glue, an animal sub- 
 stance soluble in water but not in alcohol. 
 
 Gland — (Plate I., D). — An organ of the body for the 
 secretion or alteration of some peculiar fluid. The parotid gland 
 secretes the saliva or spittle. 
 
 Glottis . — The opening at the top of the windpipe. 
 
 Granulations . — The small grain-like fleshy bodies or points 
 which form on the surface of ulcers when healing. 
 
 Heart — (Plate I., A, and Fig. 5). — A hollow muscle si- 
 tuated in the cavity of the chest, towards the left side, enclosed 
 in a bag called the pericardium, for the circulation of the 
 blood. 
 
 Hepatic. — Belonging to the liver. 
 
 Hunger . — A sensation indicating the want of solid food. 
 Hunger andi^iVsi are sensations designed to teach us the neces- 
 sity of supplying those losses which the system is constantly 
 undergoing by the different secretions and excretions, 
 amounting to several pounds in the course of twenty-four 
 hours. The blood first feels the loss, and then the solids, 
 whose particles are continually taken up by the absorbents, 
 and carried into the blood, and thus ejected (if needs be) from 
 the system ; and, were not these losses supplied by the timely 
 introduction of food, the body would rapidly emaciate, till 
 death closed the scene. Hunger is supposed to be owing to 
 a peculiar affection of the nerves of the stomach ; for, when 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 60 
 
 the nerve which goes from the brain to the stomach (the par 
 vagum ) is divided, the sensation of hunger is lost, or at least 
 the appetite for food is destroyed. 
 
 Humor. — Humour, a general name for any fluid of the 
 body, except the blood. 
 
 Humeral. — Belonging to the arm. 
 
 Hygieia. — The preservation of health. 
 
 Hydatid. — A very singular animal, formed like a bladder, 
 and distended with a watery fluid, and sometimes found in the 
 cavities of the body. 
 
 Idiopathic. — A disease which does not depend on any 
 other disease, in which respect it is opposed to a symptomatic. 
 disease, which is dependent on another. 
 
 Idiosyncracy. — A peculiarity of constitution in which a 
 person is affected by certain agents which, if applied to other 
 persons, would produce no elFect; thus, some people cannot 
 see a person bled without fainting. 
 
 Inanimate. — Without life. 
 
 Liflammation. — A disease marked by heat, pain, redness, 
 and swelling. These symptoms are occasioned by the in- 
 creased flow of blood to the parts affected ; an example of this 
 may be seen in an inflamed eye. 
 
 Ingesta . — A term signifying the food or drink. 
 
 Insalivation. — The mixing of the food with saliva, as in 
 chewing. 
 
 Inosculation . — The running of the arteries and veins into 
 one another. 
 
 Intellectual . — Relating to the understanding. 
 
 Intestines — (Plate I., F). — The convoluted (folded or 
 twisted) membranous tube that fills the greater part of the 
 abdomen or belly. 
 
 Inspiration. — The act of drawing air into the lungs. 
 
 Integuments. — The covering of any part of the body. 
 
 Iris. — The circular curtain in the eye, is of various colours, 
 has a hole in the centre named the pupil, and has the power 
 of enlarging or diminishing this aperture, so as to exclude 
 part of the rays of light, or to give entrance to more as the 
 case may be. 
 
G4 
 
 (xLOSSAIiy. 
 
 Infection . — The communication of disease by some noxious 
 matter in tlie air. 
 
 Kidneys — (Plate III., H H). — Two organs, shaped like 
 kidney beans, situated in the abdomen, behind the intestines. 
 Their use is to secrete the urine, which fluid is conveyed by 
 two small tubes named u?'eters, to the bladder. 
 
 Knec-pa7i . — Also named the patella, a small flat bone in 
 front of the knee joint, which it in some measure defends, 
 and also tends to increase the power of the muscles by acting 
 as a kind of pulley. 
 
 Lachrymal . — Generating tears, as the lachrymal glands of 
 the orbits. These glands secrete the fluid by which the eye- 
 ball is moistened. 
 
 Lactcals — (Plate II., I). — Absorbent vessels which suck 
 up from the food in the intestines that portion which is 
 nutritious. 
 
 Lamina . — A thin plate of bone. The lamina between the 
 upper part of the orbit or eye-hole and the brain is not much 
 thicker than ordinary writing paper. 
 
 Larynx.-— The organ of voice. It is the cartilaginous head 
 of the windpipe. 
 
 Ligament . — An elastic and strong membrane connecting 
 the extremities of the moveable bones. They also bind down 
 the tendons when such pass over joints; and, when such liga- 
 ments are ruptured (torn), constitute a sprain. 
 
 Liver — (Plate I., D). — A large organ, situated in the ab- 
 domen. The fluid named the gall or bile is secreted by it. 
 
 Locomotion . — Power to move from place to place. The 
 agents of locomotion in man are the bones and muscles, but 
 they would be useless for motion were they not supplied with 
 nerves of voluntary motion, and thus brought under the in- 
 fluence of the will. We then have the hones, which act as 
 levers ; the muscles are the moving power, and the brain and 
 nerves are the vital agents which set the machinery in 
 motion. 
 
 Lumbar. — Belonging to the loins. 
 
 Lung — (Plate I., C C). — The lungs (or lights, as they are 
 vulgarly called) are situated in the thorax or chest, and by 
 which we breathe. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 65 
 
 Lymph. — Tlie liquid contained in that set of absorbing 
 vessels named the lymphatics. 
 
 Lymphatics . — Very minute absorbing tubes which pervade 
 all parts of the body, the use of which is to return to the cir- 
 culation the spare nutritive matter or lymph. It is by these 
 vessels, that mercury and other substances when rubbed upon 
 the skin are carried into the circulation. 
 
 Mammalia. — Animals which give suck. 
 
 Mastication. — Chewing. 
 
 Meconium. — The green excrementitious substance found 
 in the large intestines of ^\e foetus. 
 
 Medullary — Like unto marrow. 
 
 Medulla oblongata A part of the inferior surface of the 
 
 brain, connecting it with the spinal marrow. 
 
 Membrane — A thin expanded substance, as the skin, &c. 
 
 Mental. — Intellectual, existing in the mind. 
 
 Mesentery. — A membrane in the' cavity of the abdomen, 
 to which the intestines adhere, it also gives support to, and 
 conducts with safety the blood vessels, lacteals, nerves, &c. 
 
 Mortality . — Death or subjection to it. The term is often 
 employed to denote a great devastation by death without 
 specifying any particular cause. 
 
 Mortification. — The loss of vitality of a part. 
 
 Morbid. — Diseased. 
 
 Mucus A name given to the primary fluids of the body, 
 
 such as the secretion from the nose. 
 
 Muscle . — An agent employed in locomotion. Is a bundle 
 of fleshy cords, capable of contraction and relaxation. The 
 muscles are the moving power acting upon the bones as levers, 
 and the force with which they contract, depends on their 
 physical condition and the energy of the brain. The force 
 of muscular contraction is greatly increased by exercise. 
 The strength of an active man labouring to the greatest pos- 
 sible advantage, is estimated to be sufficient to raise ten 
 pounds, ten feet in a second, for ten hours in a day ; or to 
 raise one hundred pounds, one foot in a second, or thirty-six 
 thousand feet in a day. It is by the constant action of the 
 muscles, that the body is kept in an erect position. If a per- 
 
 E 
 
G6 
 
 GLOSSAl'.Y. 
 
 son gets asleep while sitting- or standing up, the head falls 
 forwards, and, if he did not awake, the body would fall likewise. 
 The same happens when a person is deprived of sense, by a 
 fit of apoplexy or palsy, or by the intemperate use of ardent 
 spirits. Sic. The muscles of the limbs may be seen distinctly 
 in Plate I. 
 
 Navel . — The point in the middle of the belly to which the 
 umbilical cord, or navel string, is attached. It is by the ves- 
 sels of this cord that the system of the mother is connected 
 with that of the foetus. 
 
 Necrosis . — Mortification of the bones. 
 
 Nerve . — (Plate III., ^.) — White cords which proceed from 
 the brain and spinal marrow. They are of two kinds — 
 nerves of sensation, and nerves of motion ; by the former, im- 
 pressions are transmitted to the brain, and, by the latter, the 
 will transmits a power to move. 
 
 Neuralgia . — Pain in a nerve. 
 
 Nose . — The organ of smell. 
 
 Nutrition . — The completion of the functions by which the 
 food is converted into the substance of the body. The blood 
 contains all the materials of nutrition ; and, in course of cir- 
 culation, the vital stream deposits particles to be converted 
 into bone, where such is required ; and, from the same fluid, 
 substances are deposited which give formation to the softer 
 textures of the body, as the brain, &c. Before the body has 
 attained its full growth, the function of nutrition is very ac- 
 tive ; a large amount of food is taken, being not only suffi- 
 cient to supply the place of what is lost by the action of the 
 absorbents, but also to contribute to the growth of the body. 
 In middle age, nutrition and absorption are more equal; but 
 in old age the absorbents are more active than the nutritive 
 vessels ; the size consequently diminishes, the parts grow 
 weaker, the bones more brittle, the body bends forward, 
 and every function exhibits marks of decay and dissolution. 
 When the balance between nutrition and absorption is de- 
 stroyed, the body may be either too lean or too corpulent, as 
 the following cases will show : — A few years ago, a man, by 
 the name of Calvin Edson, of Vermont, commonly called the 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 67 
 
 “ Living Skeleton,” exhibited himself through the countrj^ 
 for money ; from having been a large man, he had wasted 
 away by degrees, so that, instead of his usual weight, he 
 weighed but sixty pounds. He had been gradually losing- 
 flesh for eighteen years ; and he attributed it to having taken 
 cold, from sleeping on the ground. This emaciation was 
 owing to the absorbent vessels being more active than those 
 of nutrition, whatever may have been the cause of the loss of 
 the balance. On the other hand, when the nutritive vessels 
 are the most active, the person grows fleshy and corpulent, 
 as in the case of Daniel Lambert, who weighed seven hun- 
 dred and thirty-nine pounds, at the age of forty ; or in that 
 of a London butcher, who weighed eight hundred pounds. 
 
 Occiput . — The hinder part of the head. 
 
 Oedema . — A watery swelling, as when the cellular tissue 
 of the body is distended by the water in dropsy. 
 
 Omentum . — The caul; a fatty membranous body which 
 floats loosely between the integuments of the abdomen and 
 the intestines. 
 
 Optic . — Relating to the eye. 
 
 Organ . — A part of the body capable of the performance 
 of some perfect act or operation. 
 
 Organic.— Qi, or belonging to, an organ. 
 
 Ossification . — The formation of bone. Bones are not ori- 
 ginally hard, some of them are soft as jelly; and, as months 
 and years roll on, the arteries deposit bony particles, the 
 softer parts being removed by the absorbents. 
 
 Pancreas . — (Plate L, i .) — A glandular organ of the ab- 
 domen, of a long figure, compared to a dog’s tongue, and 
 situated under the stomach. It secretes a fluid similar to the 
 saliva which is conveyed into the intestines. 
 
 Papilla . — The nipple, or any fine point as the nervous 
 papillae, or points of the tongue, &c. 
 
 Paralysis . — The palsy. 
 
 Parotid Gland . — (Plate I., d .) — A large gland, situated 
 under the ear (same on both sides), for the secretion of the 
 saliva. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 6d 
 
 Patella . — The knee-pan, the round moveable bone in 
 front of the knee-joint. 
 
 Pathology . — The doctrine of diseases. 
 
 Pectoral . — Relating to the breast. 
 
 Pelvis. — The cavity below the abdomen, containing the 
 urinary bladder, &c. 
 
 Pericardium . — The membranous bag that surrounds the 
 heart. This bag is the seat of dropsy of the heart, and is 
 generally found to contain more or less water after death. 
 
 Pericranium. — The membrane which invests the external 
 surface of the bones of the head. 
 
 Periosteum. — The membrane which invests the external 
 surface of the bones in general. This membrane seems to 
 nourish the bone, for, where it is abraded or rubbed off, the 
 bone perishes. It contains an abundance of blood vessels, 
 which run from it into the bone. 
 
 Peristaltic . — The vermicular or worm-like motion of the 
 intestines, by which they contract and propel their contents, 
 is called the peristaltic motion. 
 
 Peritoneum. — The membrane that lines the abdomen, and 
 which is inflamed in peritonitis. 
 
 Perspiration. — The vapour or watery fluid, vulgarly called 
 sweat, that is secreted by the arteries on the surface of the 
 body. 
 
 Pharynx (See Fig. 3) The membranous hollow bag, 
 
 at the back part of the mouth, leading to the stomach. 
 
 Phlegm A thick and tough mucus secreted by the lungs. 
 
 Physical . — Relating to nature or to natural philosophy. 
 
 Physiology The branch of physical science which treats 
 
 of the uses or functions of different parts of beings endowed 
 with the principle of life. 
 
 Pleura. — A membrane which lines the internal surface of 
 the thorax, and covers its viscera. From this membrane there 
 is a thin watery fluid constantly poured out in such quantity 
 as to keep the cavity of the chest and its contents moist and 
 slippery. This fluid accumulates in dropsy of the chest. The 
 pleura is the seat of the disease called pleurisy. 
 
 Plexus . — A net work of vessels. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 69 
 
 Polypus . — A creature considered by many to be a link be- 
 tween the animal and vegetable creations. 
 
 Predisposition . — That constitution, or state of the solids or 
 fluids, or both, which disposes the body to the action of dis- 
 ease. 
 
 Primes Vice . — The first passages. The stomach and in- 
 testines are so called. 
 
 Pronation . — The act of turning the palm of the hand 
 downwards. 
 
 Pulse . — The beating of the heart and arteries, occasioned 
 by the alternate contraction and dilatation of the heart. The 
 number of pulsations or beats is various, generally greater in 
 proportion as the person is younger ; the blood having in 
 such cases a shorter round to perform. 
 
 At 
 
 birth, the pulse is from 
 
 ..^130 
 
 to 
 
 140 per minute. 
 
 
 one year, 
 
 — 120 
 
 99 
 
 130 
 
 99 
 
 5 ? 
 
 two years, 
 
 — 100 
 
 99 
 
 110 
 
 99 
 
 
 three years, 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 seven years, — 
 
 ™ 85 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 fourteen years, 
 
 SO 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 adult age, 
 
 — 75 
 
 99 
 
 80 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 first old age, 
 
 — 65 
 
 99 
 
 75 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 confirmed old age, 
 
 — 60 
 
 99 
 
 65 
 
 99 
 
 But these numbers vary according to an infinity of circum- 
 stances, as sex, temperament, individual disposition, &c. At 
 the wrist, and near the root of the thumb in front, there is an 
 artery which lies so near the surface as to be felt, and the 
 number of pulsations can be counted, and is a useful index 
 to the medical practitioner. 
 
 Pus . — The matter of a well-digested sore. 
 
 Putrefaction . — P utrid fermentation. 
 
 Puberty. — Manhood. 
 
 Precocity . — Ripeness before the usual time. We speak of 
 precocious child, or one being wise beyond his years. 
 
 Pylorus . — The inferior or lower opening of the stomach 
 which opens into the intestines, and may be seen in E, the 
 stomach, Plate II. 
 
 Ramus . — A branch. 
 
 Ramification . — Division or separating into branches. 
 
70 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Rectum — The last portion of the large intestines terminat- 
 ing in the anus. 
 
 Regimen . — A term employed in medicine to express the 
 plan or regulation of diet. 
 
 Renal. — Pertaining to the reins or kidneys. 
 
 Respiration. — The function of breathing. Although the 
 lungs are the more immediate organs of respiration, yet there 
 are various other parts connected with this function ; for in- 
 stance, the ribs, the muscles of the chest, and, in particular, 
 the one named the diaphragm. When these enlarge the 
 cavity of the chest, the air rushes in to fill irp the space, and 
 this is named inspiration; and, again, when these diminish 
 the cavity, the air is expelled from the lungs, and this is 
 called expiration. An ordinary-sized individual breathes 
 about eighteen times in a minute, and, during this short space 
 of time, he inhales upwards of 800 cubic inches of atmosphe- 
 ric air, which, in a day, will amount to one million one hun- 
 dred and fifty-two thousand cubic inches, a quantity which 
 would fill seventy-seven wine hogsheads, and would weigh 
 fifty-three pounds troy, and to the action of this air, in the 
 course of a day, is submitted the enormous quantity of be- 
 tween 3000 and 4000 gallons of blood. When the air enters 
 the lungs, it is composed of two gases — oxygen and nitrogen 
 — and when it leaves, it is found to consist of carbonic acid 
 gas and nitrogen. Again, the blood entering the lungs is of 
 a dark purple colour, and, when it leaves, of a bright crimson. 
 It is found to receive its dark colour from a substance named 
 carbon, and this substance combines with the oxygen of the 
 air, and becomes carbonic acid gas, which, with the nitrogen, 
 escapes by the windpipe or is expired. During this change, 
 caloric, or tlie matter of heat, is set free, which is absorbed 
 by the blood, and by this means it is generally believed that 
 the heat of the body is maintained, and the blood is said to 
 be arterialised or so fitted as to be circidated again, diffusing 
 heat, life, and all that is essential to even the most remote 
 parts of the body. 
 
 Resuscitation . — The restoring of persons apparoitly dead 
 to life. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 71 
 
 Reticular. — Interwoven like a net. 
 
 Retina. — The expansion of the optic nerve, or the inner 
 and deeper surface of the eye, and upon which the pictures 
 of objects are painted and perceived by the mind. 
 
 Saline Of a salt nature, as tears. 
 
 Saliva . — The spittle ; a fluid secreted by the salivary 
 glands, and discharged into the mouth. 
 
 Sanguineous. — Bloody. 
 
 Sanguification. — A natural function of the body, by which 
 the chyle is changed into blood. 
 
 Scapula — (Plate II., 3.) — The shoulder blade. 
 
 Sclerotic. — One of the coats of the eye. 
 
 Secretions. — Products separated from the blood by a vital 
 process for the performance of various subordinate actions in 
 the living system, as the gastric juice, bile, pancreatic fluid, &c. 
 
 Sedentary. — Wanting motion, torpid. 
 
 Sensibility. — Quickness of sensation. 
 
 Sentient. — This term is applied to those parts wdiich are 
 more susceptible of feeling than others, as the sentient ex- 
 tremities of the nerves at the finger-ends and elsewhere. 
 
 Serum . — A yellowish fluid, a constituent of the blood. 
 
 Skeleton — (See part of it, Plate II.) When the bones of 
 the body are preserved in their natural situation and deprived 
 of their flesh the assemblage is called the skeleton. A middle- 
 sized adult skeleton, weighed altogether, ranges between 160 
 to 200 ounces, or from ten to thirteen pounds avoirdupois. 
 The stature of the human skeleton is various. Dr. Munro 
 has seen one measuring eight feet two inches; and there are nu- 
 merous instances of dwarfs not exceeding thirty inches. 
 When the bones composing the skeleton are connected to- 
 gether by natural ligaments, they form what is called a na- 
 tural skeleton, when, by wires, it is termed an artificial skele- 
 ton. The human skeleton consists of about 252 bones, in- 
 cluding the sesamoid, the teeth, and the bones of the ear, 
 though they are generally reckoned at 211. 
 
 Skin . — The natural covering of the body. 
 
 Skxdl . — The bony case that contains the brain. The 
 bones of the skull are composed of two tables or plates, and 
 
7-2 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 between is a soft substance named the diploe, which, whilst 
 it serves other purposes, prevents the vibration that might 
 arise from a blow on the head. 
 
 Sleep . — That state of body in which the internal and ex- 
 ternal senses and voluntary motions are not exercised. 
 
 Smell . — The cavity of the nose is covered with a de- 
 licate membrane upon which the olfactory nerves are distri- 
 buted, constituting the organ of smell, and the minute par- 
 ticles arising from odorous bodies, make an impression upon 
 this organ ; hence the sense of smell. 
 
 Spleen . — The spleen or milt is a spongy body of a livid 
 colour, placed in the left side of the abdomen, the use of 
 which is not yet clearly ascertained, but is supposed to be 
 connected with the process of digestion. 
 
 Spine — (Plate II., ll ). — A bony column or pillar extend- 
 ing from the head to the sacrum or rump. It is composed of 
 twenty-four bones, called vertehrce. These form not only a 
 strong tower for supporting the head at top and the ribs at 
 the sides, but also a tube for the safe lodgment of the spinal 
 marrow. This pillar of bone is perfectly moveable, being 
 firmly knit in every part by strong ligaments ; and between 
 the individual bones there are compact cartilages or gristles, 
 the yielding nature of which facilitates the motions of the 
 spine, and breaks the shock from a fall on the feet. In con- 
 sequence of these cartilages relaxing during sleep, a person 
 will be found to be a little taller in the morning than at night. 
 
 Spinal Marrow — (Plate I., A). — A continuation of the 
 brain, which sends off nerves to the body through the openings 
 between the bones of the spine, and is itself safely protected 
 by the spine being lodged in its bony canal. The spinal 
 cord or marrow is of a cylindrical form, and the nerves spring- 
 ing from it arise by two roots, one from the anterior, the 
 other from the posterior part of the column. The fibres of 
 the posterior swell out into a ganglion or knot before they 
 unite with the anterior. Sir Charles Bell discovered that, 
 by opening the spinal canal in a living animal, and dividing 
 the posterior roots of the nerves, the parts to which they are 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 73 
 
 distributed are deprived of feeling, but motion remained, and 
 the reverse when the anterior roots were divided. 
 
 Stomach — (Plate I., E, and Plate II., E). — An oval-shaped 
 bag situated in the left side of the abdomen, and is the largest 
 organ of digestion. 
 
 Stimulus . — That which rouses the action or energy of a 
 part. 
 
 Syncope . — Fainting or swooning. 
 
 Synovia . — A fluid secreted by certain glands in and around 
 joints for the purpose of rendering their motions soft and easy. 
 
 Sympathy . — The quality of being affected by the affection 
 of another, as in y atoning, &c. 
 
 Systole. — The contraction of the heart and arteries. 
 
 Teeth . — Small bones firmly fixed in the upper and under 
 jaw-bones, the use of which is for cutting, tearing, and grind- 
 ing the food. 
 
 Temperature . — A definite degree of sensible heat. The 
 temperature of the human body, which is the same in all cli- 
 mates, is 98'^ F., and may be ascertained by placing the bulb 
 of a thermometer below the tongue, or in the arm-pit. 
 
 Temperament . — Constitution. The temperaments are usual- 
 ly divided into four kinds : — 
 
 Is^, The Lymphatic or phlegmatic, indicated by a pale white 
 skin, fair hair, roundness of the form, flesh soft, and the vital 
 actions languid, the pulse is feeble, and the wFole frame in- 
 dicates slowness and weakness of the functions in general. 
 
 ‘Id, The Sanguine temperament, indicated by a tolerable 
 consistency of flesh, moderate plumpness of parts, light or 
 chesnut hair, blue eyes, a strong full and frequent pulse, and 
 an animated coimtenance ; persons thus constituted are easily 
 affected by external impressions, and possess greater energy 
 than those of the former temperament. 
 
 3d, The Bilious temperament, is characterised by black and 
 dark hair, yellowish or brown skin, black eyes, moderately 
 full but firm muscle, and harshly-expressed forms. Those 
 endowed with this constitution have a strongly-marked and 
 decided expression of countenance, they manifest great gene- 
 ral activity and functional energy. 
 
 F 
 
74 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ath, The Nervous temperament.^ is marked by fine tliin liair 
 often inclined to curl, delicate healtli, smallness of the muscles, 
 rapidity in the muscular actions and vivacity in the sensations. 
 The nervous system of individuals so constituted preponde- 
 rates extremely, and they exhibit great nervous sensibility. 
 
 Tendon — (Fig. 1, f). — The wdiite and glistening extre- 
 mity of a muscle. 
 
 Therapeutics. — That branch of medicine which treats of 
 the operation of the different means employed for curing dis- 
 eases, and of the application of these means. 
 
 Thirst. — The sensation by which we experience a desire 
 for drink. Although at first sight it would appear that this 
 sensation is confined to the back part of the mouth, yet, as a 
 proof that it is indicative of a want experienced by the sys- 
 tem in general, thirst may be allayed by injecting mild watery 
 fluids into the veins. 
 
 Thorax — (See Plate I). — The chest. It contains the 
 heart, lungs, and large blood vessels, nerves, &c., and is 
 lined by the membrane called the pleura. 
 
 Thoracic Duct — (Plate II., a a a). — The lacteals arising 
 from the intestines unite and form this tube, it conveys the 
 nutritious part of the aliirient to the heart. 
 
 Tissue. — A term used to express the textures which com- 
 pose the different organs of animals. 
 
 Tonsils. — Two almond-shaped glands, near the top of the 
 pharynx, that secrete and discharge a fluid which assists in 
 moistening the food. 
 
 Touch. — The true skin has an infinite number of nerves 
 distributed upon it, and constitutes the organ of touch, but at 
 the tips of the fingers the sense is most delicate. The nails 
 not only protect the extremities of the fingers, but, at the 
 same time, offer a gentle resistance to any thing touching the 
 tips of the fingers, rendering the sense more acute. 
 
 Tongue. — The organ of taste, &c. 
 
 Trachea — (Plate I., e, and Fig. 3, g). — The windpipe. 
 I'his tube is formed by a number of rings of cartilage or 
 gristle, the elasticity of which makes it stand out, conse- 
 quently the air has a free passage into the lungs. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 75 
 
 Transfusion . — The transmission of blood from one living 
 animal to another by means of a pipe. After Harvey had 
 discovered that the blood circulated through the body, it was 
 thirty years before he could get his discovery admitted, 
 though the most evident proofs of it were everywhere per- 
 ceptible; but as soon as the circulation was acknowledged, 
 people’s minds were seized with a sort of delirium. It was 
 thought that the means of curing all diseases was found, and 
 even of rendering man immortal. The canse of all our evils 
 was attributed to the blood ; in order to cure them, nothing 
 more was necessary but to remove the bad blood, and to re- 
 place it by pure blood drawn from a sound animal. The first 
 attempts were made upon animals, and they had complete suc- 
 cess. A dog having lost part of its blood, received, by trans- 
 fusion, that of a sheep, and it became well, &c. It was then 
 attempted upon man, and, in several instances, with success. 
 
 Trituration . — The reducing of any substance to powder. 
 
 Tympanum . — The drum or barrel of the ear. 
 
 Ureter — (Plate III.,yy) The membranous canal which 
 
 conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder. There 
 are two ureters, one on each side. 
 
 Urethra . — The tube through which the urine is expelled 
 from the bladder. 
 
 Urine . — The saline liquid secreted by the kidneys, and, 
 dropping down through the ureters, is received by the bladder. 
 
 Uterus . — The womb. 
 
 Umbilicus . — The navel. 
 
 Uvula — (Fig. 2, a ). — The little tongue-like point which 
 hangs over the back part of the tongue, and is part of the 
 soft palate. When a morsel of food is ready to be swallowed, 
 this point touching the tongue is on the alert, and, with the 
 soft palate, stretches back and closes the posterior apertures 
 or holes of the nose {b, Fig. 3). By this means the food 
 is prevented from getting out in that direction, and, at same 
 time, the air shut out during the process of deglutition or 
 swallowing. It must be kept in mind that it is not the uvula 
 that prevents the food from getting into the windpipe, but 
 the epiglottis, e, Fig. 3, or b b. Fig. 4. 
 
76 
 
 GLOSSAKY. 
 
 Valve. — A thin transparent membrane placed within cer- 
 tain vessels, the use of which is to prevent the contents of 
 such vessels from flowing back. At the beginning of the 
 aorta, or main artery of the body, there are three valves. 
 When the blood flows in a right direction, these little skins 
 lie flat to the sides of the artery, but if there is the least ten- 
 dency in the stream to roll back, the flood-gates shut, and 
 prevent the danger that might otherwise occur. 
 
 Vascular. — Consisting of vessels. 
 
 Vein — (Plate II., b b, and Plate III., h). — A vessel for 
 returning blood to the heart. In phlebotomy, or blood-letting 
 from a vein, the fluid flows in a continuous stream, whereas 
 from an artery, as in arteriotomy or blood-letting from an ar- 
 tery, it flows in a broken stream, or with a. jerk. To prevent 
 bleeding from a wounded vein, the pressure must be made on 
 the side of the wound farthest distant from the heart, and the 
 reverse when an artery is cut. 
 
 Ventricle — ( Fig. 5, c and d). — A term given to the larger ca- 
 vities of the heart, two in number ; also to the cells in the brain. 
 
 Vertebrae. — (Plate II., I 1 ). — The twenty-four bones of 
 the spine or backbone are so named. 
 
 Viscus. — An organ or part which has an appropriate use, 
 as the viscera of the chest, &c. 
 
 Vision. — The function which enables us to perceive the 
 magnitude, figure, colour, and distances of bodies. 
 
 Voice. — The sound which is produced in the larynx at the 
 instant that the air passes that organ, either to enter or to go 
 out of the windpipe. 
 
 Volition. — The power of choice exerted. 
 
 Voluntary . — With the will. 
 
 BOOKS QUOTED FROM. 
 
 Lee's Physiology. Hooper s Lexicon, 
 
 Dr. Combe’s Works. Dr. Harvey, ^c. 
 
 GEO. CORNWALL, PRINTER, 54 , CASTLE STREET, ABERDEEN. 
 
CoivTCEENiNG Mait. — W onders at home by 
 familiarity cease to excite astonishment ; and hence it 
 happens that many know but little about the “house 
 we live in ” — the human body. We look upon a house 
 from the outside, just as a whole or unit, never tliinking 
 of the many rooms, the curious passages, and the 
 ingenious internal arrangements of the house, or of the 
 wonderful structure of the man, the harmony and 
 adaptation of aU his parts. In the human skeleton, 
 about the time of maturity, there are 165 bones. 
 The muscles are about 500 in number. The 
 length of the alimentary canal is about 32 feet. 
 The amount of blood in an adult averages 30 pounds, or 
 full one-fifth of the entire wejght. The heart is six 
 inches in length, and four inches in diameter, and beats 
 seventy times per minute, 4,200 times per hour, 100,800 
 per day, 36,772,000 times per year, 2,565,440,000 in 
 three score and ten, and at each beat two-and-a-half 
 ounces of blood are thrown out of it, one hundred and 
 seventy-five ounces per minute, sixTiundred and fifty- 
 six pounds per hour, seven and three-fourth tons per 
 day. All the blood in the body passes through the 
 heart in three minutes. This little organ, by its 
 ceaseless industry, lifts the enormous weight 
 of 370,700,200 tons. The lungs will contain 
 about one gallon of air, at their usual degree 
 of inflation. We breathe on an average 1,200 
 times per hour, inhale 600 gallons of air, or 24,400 
 gallons per day. The aggregate surface of the air cells 
 of the lungs exceeds 20,000 square inches, an area very 
 nearly equal to the floor of a room twelve feet square. 
 The average weight of the brain of an adult male is 
 three pounds and eight ounces, of a female two pounds 
 and four ounces. The nerves are all connected with it, 
 dheetly or by the spinal marrow. These nerves, to- 
 gether with their branches and minute ramifications, 
 probably exceed 10,000,000 in number, forming a “body 
 guard ” outnumbering by far the greatest army ever 
 marshalled ! The skin is composed of three 
 layers, and varies from one-fourth to one-eighth 
 of an inch in thickness. Its average area in 
 an adult is estimated to be 2,000 square inches. The 
 atmospheric pressure being about fourteen pounds to 
 the square inch, a person of medium size is subjected 
 to a pressure of 40,0001b. ! Each square inch of skin 
 contains 3,500 sweating tubes, or perspiratory pores, 
 each of which may be hkened to a Uttle drain-tile one- 
 fourth of an inch long, making an aggregate length of 
 the entire surface of the body of 201,166 feet, or a tile 
 ditch for draining the body almost forty miles long. 
 Man is made marvellously. Who is eager to investigate 
 the curious, to witness the wonderful works of Omni- 
 potent Wisdom, let him not wander the wide world 
 round to seek them, but examine himself. “The 
 proper study of mankind is man.”