ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PUBLISHED BY ORDER Uh' lE^Hc^ i2Bs:sc£^i^i2ai:^5:ss3rci^'^2"fi> \ HENRY W. ALLEN, GOVERNOR OF LOUISIANA. SHREVEPORT, Li: LVTED AT THB O^'FICE OF THE SOUTH- WESTERN. 1866. i THE WILLIAM R. PERKINS LIBRARY OF DUKE UNIVERSITY -v^ \ W' ^"^ » J^ stE i< iH'^^^a. IM i ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF HENRY W. ALLEN, GOVERNOR OF LOUISIANA. SHREVEPORT, La: PRINTED AT THE OFFICE OF THE SOUTH-WESTERN. 1865. / PREFACE. This Grammar is compiled from the "New English Grammar" of Roswell C. Smith, whose elementary school books have become so deservedly popular. The style of instruction herein taught, is called the "Productive System," and is eminently adapted to beginners and children of ten- der years. It is published by order of his Excellency, the Governor of Louisiana. Sheeveport, La., 1865. I. OF THE NOUN. Q. What is your name V Q. What is the name of the town in which you live ? Q. What does the word noun mean ? Ans. The word noun means name. Q. What, then, may your name be called ? 1. A NOUN. Q. What may all names be called? 2. Nouns. Q. Shrevejoort is the name of a place : is Sh'eveport a noun ? and if so, why? 3. Shreveport is a noun, because it is a name. Q. Potoinac is the name of a river : is Potomac a noun, and why ? Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is hooh a noun, and why ? Q. Will you inform me what a noun is ? 4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. Q. Will you mention two nouns, the names of persons? two, the names of things? two, the names of different places? Q. Will you tell me which words are nouns in the following sentences, as I read them to j'ou ? *' Thomas and Joseph are in the house." "The horse and cow are in the lot." "The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." *' Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields." II. NUMBER. Q. What is the meaning of the word number; as, " The number of buttons on your coat?" 5. Number means one or more. Q. What does the word singular mean ? 6. It means one. Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it? 7. Singular number. Q. What, then,, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 8. The singular number denotes but one thing. Q. Of what number is b')ol\ and why ? 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9. Book is of the singular number, because it means but one. Q. Of what number is clt then, mav it be called ? 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35. A proper noun. Q. "WTieu, then, may a noun be called proper? 36. Wlien it. is a particular name. Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ? 37. Susan is a proper noun, be'^ause it is a particular name. Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why ? Q. What kind of a noun is river, and why V 38. Rivc7^ is a common noun, because it is a general name. Q. How nip-ny kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they? Q. What kiui of a notin is yi>&.^ Ma't'y?'town? llichmond? London? hoat? chain ? Q Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following sentences; which are proper, and which are common; also their gender and number? *' Thomas and John." " King and queen." "Susan and Mary." " House and barn." y. PERSON. Q. When a person, ia speaking, says, " I, John, will do it," what person do grammarians call John ? 39. The first person. Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 40 When it is the name of the person speaking. Q, When I say, " James, mind your studies," what do grammarians call James? The second person, being the person spoken to. When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, or addressed. Q. " William, James has come." What person is TFiZ^ia?/i, and why? 43. Of the second person, because William is spoken to. Q. When I say, " William, James has come," I am speaking to WilUam about James : of what person, then, is James, and why ? 44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of; that is, I was talking about James. Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person? 45. When it is spoken of. Q. ** Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas? why? I* Evfus? why? Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 48. Three persons — the first, second, and third. Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which com" men; ala* their gender, number, and person? ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "I, James, of Richmond." "Boy and girl." " Henry, study your book." " William and his sister VI. CASE. Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He is in a good case ;"' and, when he is lean, that " He is in a bad case ;" what, there- f«re, does the word case mean ? 47. Case means condition, stnte, &c. Q. When I say "Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the fomcr example is quite diffeient from his state or condition in the latter: in the one, Charles strikes ; in the other, he is struck ; what, then, )s meant by the difi'erent cases of nouns. 48. The different condition or position they have in rela- tion to other words in the same sentence. Q. What does the word nominaiive mean ? 49. Nominative means naming. Q. When I say, "John strikes," he evidently does something : what, then, may John be called ? 50. An actor or doer. Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun, in what case is John, when I say, " John strikes ?" 51. In the nominative case. Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns ? 52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer. Q. '• The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why ? Q. When I say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here which Thomas is pursuing? 54. Thief. Q. What does the word objective mean ? 55. It means belonging to the object. Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, " Thomas pur- sues the thief?" 56. In the objective case. Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 57. The objective case denotes the object. Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why ? 58. In the objective case, becauj^e John is the object. Q. What does the y^ord. possessive imply ? 59. Possession, ownership, property, &c. 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. Wlien I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that Johu owus the slate: in what case, then, shall we reckon JoliiCs? 60. In the possessive case. Q. What, then, doos the possc^ive case of nouns denote ? 61. The possessive case denotes possession, property, &c. Q. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife? Q. In what case, then, is Ptttr's^ and why '? 62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the knife. Q. In the example " .John's slate," you perceive that JolirCs ends in .«, with a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the ,*, called in grammar? 63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, an apostrophic 5. Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the sin- gular number usually form their possessive case ? 64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s following it. Q. " On eagles' wings." Here ea<^les' is plural, and in the possessive case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addition of 5. Q. But if the plural does not end in s, as, "men's concerns," how is the pos- sessive case formed ? QQ. As the same case in the singular number is formed. Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 67. Three — the nominative, possessive, and objective. Q. Decline sometimes means to vary tJie ending of a word : what, then, do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 68. To tell its different cases or endings. Q. Will you decline f/oA7^? 69. Noininative case, John. Possessive case, John's. Objective case, John. Q. Will you decline ^^oy, in both numbers? Singular. Plural. 70. Nom. Boy. Norn. Boys. Poss. Boy's. Poss. Boys'. Ohj. Boy. Ohj. Boys. Q. When I say, " WiJliam's coat," you perceive that the noun cooi follows William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why? 71. By coat, because it follows William^s. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive case ? ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9 RULE I. The possessive case is governed hy the following noun. Q. " William's hat." Is WiUiam''s a proper or common noun ♦ Why ? (36.)* Q. What is its person? why? (45.)* Its number ? why ? (^.')* Its gender? Why? (17.)* Its case? why? (61.)* What noun follows William's? What word, then, governs WiUiara's ? What is the rule ? Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sen- tences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what i» th« exercise called? 72. Parsing. EXERCISES IN PARSING. *' John's knife:' 73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be- cause it is a particular name — mas^culine gender ; it is the name of a male — third person ; it is spoken o1^ — i»iNGULAR NUMBER ; it means but one — possessive ca.si; ; it implies pos- session — and is governed by the noun knife, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed hy the following noun. Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — netjter gender ; it is neither male nor female — THIRD PEksoN ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one. ^^ Let the learner parse the forgoing ^ till the. mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily, ivithout looking in the book. He may then take the folloicing exercises, xvhich are to he parsed in a similar manner. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's koife." *' John's slate." " Father's house." " Boys' hats." VII. OF ARTICLES. Q. When I say, " Give me a book," I evidently mean no particular book, but when I say, " Give me the book," what do I mean? .74. Some particular book. Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning? 75. A and the. Q. What are these little word.? called? 76. Articles. Q. What, then, are articles? * Rsfor hack to Ihis numbtr 10 EHSF0L18H GRAMMAR. 77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit their meaning. Q, What is the meaning of the word definite ? 78. Definite means particular. Q. " Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to : what kind «f »u article, then, shall we call the / 79. Definite article. Q. Whiit, then, is a definite article? 80. It points out what particular thing or things are meant. Q. The word in, when placed before words, frcquenly signifies ncf : what, then, will inJejinite mean ? 81. Not definite. Q. When I saj', " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant : what kind of an article, then, maj a be called? 82. Indefinite article. Q. Why is it so called ? 83. Because it is not used before the name of any par- ticular person or thing. Q. We say, " an apple," " an inkstand," kc. in preference to " a apple," " a nkstand," &c. : why is this? 84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more pleasant to the ear. Q. What kind of letters do appl" and inJcsiand begin with ? 85. Vowels. Q. In what cases do we use an instead of a? 86. Before Avords beginning with the vowels a, p. i^Oy u. Q. In speaking, we say, " a man," not ** an man :" when, then, do we use «? 87. Before words beginning with consonants. Q. Which letters are consonants ? 88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels, which are a, e, i, o, u ; and also w and y, except at the be- ginning of words, when they are consonants. Q. How, then, do a and an differ ? 89. Only in their use ; a being used before consonants, and an before vowels : both are called by the same name. Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they * 90. Two — a or an, and iiie Q. It is customary to say, " a boy," not " a hoyg f^ also, " an inkstand," not '* an inhiand^y of what number, then, must the noun be, before which the ip- dcOnite artkile is placed? 91. Th<5 singular number. Q. What, thea, is th« rc^e i'or tbe iDdefrKt« ai'ti«4« ENGLISH GRAMMAR. U RULE II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the singular number. Q. \Vo can say, " the bov," and " the boys ;" using a noun either of the sin- gular or plural number after VAe / what then, is the rule for the definite article? RULE III. . The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular •r plural number. EXERCISES IN PARSING. ""The boyr 92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning — definite; it means a particular boy — and belongs to hoy, according to Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or plural number. Boy is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — masculine gender; it is the name of a male — third PERSON ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means but one. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUSK. "A hand." "An eagle." '"The man." "The boys' bati," "A man." "An insect." "The men." "JL man's cap." VIII. OP ADJECTIVES. Q. When I say, " John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I us* certain words to describe hoy : whic)! are they? 93. Industrious, obedient, and good. Q. When I say, " a good man," to what word is the describing word g^ed joined or added V 94. To the noun man. i Q. What does the word adjectivt mean ? 95. Joined or added to, Q. What, then, shall we call such describiuf words as $004, tiUdi^nt, indttt- trious, &'c. ? 96. Adjectives. Q. What, then, are adjectives^ 97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe or qualify them. Q. *' A TTJse wan." Whi^ ward is I4ia a^««*ire b«r«, a«i wkjij V2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. " Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." IIow are Rufus and James spoken of here ? 98. In comparison with each other. Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and bitter : can you tell m^ which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the other? 99. The word better. Q. What degree of (comparison, then, shall we ca.ll hettfr T 100. Comparative degree. Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply? 101. A comparison between two. Q. " William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in achoel." What is meant here by tallest? 102. Exceeding all in height. Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree. Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest? 104. Superlative degree. Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 105. It increases or lessens the positive to the highest or low^est degree. Q. When I say, " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between him and any other ; but simply assert in a positive manner, that James is a good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you call this? 106. A positive sentence. Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good* 107. The positive degree Q. What, then, does the positive degree do? 108. It merely describes, without any comparison. Q. Will you compare great ? 109. " Po5i7iue, great ; Comparative^ greaiter ; Superlative, greatest." Q. Will you compare wise in the same manner? Q. W'i^e and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the comparative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed? 110. By adding r or er, st or est, to the positive. Q, Will you in this manner compare S7nall ? high ? meaii f Q. Will you compare beautiful? 111. " Pas. beautiful ; Comp. more beautiful ; Sup. most beautiful." Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful f 112. Three. Q. How, then, arc words of three, or more syllables than one, usuallj fompared ? 113. By pliicing more and ?7?05i before the positive. English grammar li Q. Will you in this manner cdmpare indv^friovR ? ingeniotis f duHj-ul t Q. Will you coiuparc xclsz, bj usiug the words i?ss and Uastt 114 '' i^o.iBER ; it means but one. EXERCISES IN PARSING. 1. 2. 3. "A dutiful son." "Au ugly child." "The base man" "An idle boy." * An irksome task." "The whiter cloth." '*A foolish 8on." •' A mild repiy." " Tlw iml5;. Her. Sing. We. Ours or eur. Ua. SBCONP PEHSON. ) ) Koni. You. V or >Foss. Your or yours. j ) (9r/;'. You. THIRD PKUSON KASCULINR. Plur. Ye or you. Your or yours. You. TBIUn PBEBOX fBMINIKB. TBinO PERaON H3UTHR, Plur. They. Theirs or their. Them. Plur, They. Theirs or their. Them. Plur. They. Theirs or their. Them. J^x)m. It. Pons. Its. 06;. It. Q. Will you decline /in both numbers? thou or yo« .^ he^ she? it? Q. In what person, uuuiher, and case is Z.*" \oet my ? mine? our or owra.' 7?w/' «<« ;• iAou .? yc ? his ? they ? thein ? 777.7 Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he 7 she ? it ? his ? hsrs 1 }i^f him f How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they ? 128. Two — the singular and plural. Q. How many cases, and what are they. 129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- jective. Q. How many persons? 130. Three — the first, second, and third. Q. How many genders? 131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter. Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person? Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third? Q. The pronouns of Uie uonjinative case, singular, are called leading pro- nouns: how many of these are there? 133. Five — /, thou ov you'Jie^ .she, it. Q. Why are not the posfcesswtfe-iandobiective caseB of the singular and plural numbers, also the nominative pluiuJ, reckoned in the number of the l€a(|ing pronouns? "'• ' ''^' " ' •'-"'■■ 134, Because they are all oonmdered as varfattoTTs of the nominative siwgnltrT. ' •. i 16 EISGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. To which of the pronouns is it customarv to apply geiider? 135 To the rhif-d person singular, he,shf\ U. Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made : hvays lo represent ,» diiferent gender? 136. The first and second persons being always present, their <]:enders are supposed to be known. Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, and person ought they to have? 137 The same as the nouns for which the}^ stand. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule fox" the agreement of the pronouns ? RULE V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for ivhich they stand in gender^ number^ and ■])erson. QUESTIONS ON PARSING. Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what are they? 138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Ajuective and the Pronoun. Q. The wor6^ part you know, means division ; and speech, the pmoer of luing loords, or Language : what, therefore, shall we call these grand divisions of words? 139. Parts of Speech. Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech w^ is, for instance, what do jou understand me to mean? 140. The same as to ask me whether hoy is a noun or not. Q. What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.) 1. *' He went to school " 2. " She went to her task." 3. " William went to his play." 4. " John returned from his school." 5. *' I request you to mind your studies." 6. "The book was mine, but now it is yours.*' Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples? Q. How many are there in all? Q. Wluit is the gender, number, and person of those in the first? second? third? fourthV fifth? sixth? Q. \\ hat is the gender ot his, in the fourth senteuce? why? (137.) Its num- ber? why ? (137.) Its person? why? (137 ) Its case ? why ? (fJl.) Q Will you name the nouns in the nrst sentenced in the- second? third? fourth? filth ? sixth? -inr: : X. OF THE VERB. Q. ' 'l^en I Bay, ** James strikes Willis^," wbicb word tells whet James do*s t 141. Strikes. ^. 7ht> weH ai'sing over, what shall we call such Verbs as walks i 152. Active-intransitive verbs. Q. What, then, is an active- intransitive verb? 153. An active-intrans'iiive verb is one that expresses action, but will not t^ke an object affer it. Q. When I say, " ITe cats it," " He bents him," we immediately determine that heats and eats are active-transitive verbs by the objects after them : how, then,- may transitive and intransitive vcYbs be distinguished? 154. When we can place Uiin or it afrer an}^ active vprby and make sense, it is transitive ; otherwise, it is intransitive. 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. " James i-emains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." "Which words are the verbs hereV 155. Remains, sleeps, and is. Q. These verbs do not imply action, like strikes, heat-?, <&c. : what do they imply? 156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter (signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a passive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose,' that you perceive the reason of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or existence in a certain state. Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct definition of a verb? 158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. Q. When I say, " I strike," in what number and person is strike, and why? 159. Strike, is of the first person singular, because its agent, /, is of this person and number. Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, do not have person and number : why, then, are they said to have these properties at all V 160 On account of the connection which they have with their agents or nominatives. Q. We say, "I write," and " He writes ;" hence you perceive that the end- ing of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, theUj will be the rule for the nominative case? RULE VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person, Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case ? RULE VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Q. When I say, "James beats him," the pronoun 1dm is the object of the action denoted by heat.^, and is, therefore, in the objective case : what, then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs? RULE VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb love, in its different numbers and persons. Will you repeat them? Singular. . Plural. I'll. First pcrnoii., I love. First person, We love. i^econd person., You love iSVcoTiti^e/w/i, You love. Tkird person. He loves. Third person, They love. Q. Will you repeat the variations ot am ? • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. / 19 Singular. Plural. 162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Ptvu. We are. 2 Fers. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pers. He is. S i-ir/6'. They are. Q. Will you repeat, in tlie samemanner, the variations of hate 1 desire ? read ? EXERCISES IN PARSING. " / Study my lesson. ^^ 163. /is a PRONou?r, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first person; it denotes the speaker — singular number ; it means but one — " Nom. I"— made in the nominative case to study, according to Rule VI. The 7io?ninative case governs the verb in numher and person. Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it admits an object after it — '1 Pers. I study" — made in the first PERSON — singular NUMBER, bccausc its nomiuatlve / is, Avith which it agrees, agreeably to Rule VII. A verb must agree toith its nominative case in number and person. My is a PRONOUN, a word used for a noun — personal ; it alwaj'^s represents the same person — first person ; it repre- sents the person speaking- — " Nom. I ; Poss. my, or mine'^ — made in the possessive case — and governed b}^ the noun lesson according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the folloiving noun. Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name- — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female— -third person ; it is spoken of— -singular number ; it means but one-— and in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and gov- erned by it, according to Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. Transitive Verbs. " I lament my fate." ' *' He found a dollar." " You regard your friends." " She attends the school." " We desire your improvement." " It retards the work." " We love our childrtsn." *' They shun vice." " You make a knife." " Ye derive comfort." 2. " I love him." ^ " She forsook you," " I lament her." ' " They annoy me." " You assist then:." " We'took it." " He struck her." " She relieved ug." 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ''Jolin reads his book" His is a pronoum, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it unilormly stands for the same person — masculine GEVDEIs, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, bcCaUSC the nOUH John is, with which it agrees, agreeabl}' to Rile V. Pranouns must as[ree vilh the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person. " Nom. he ; Pass, his" — made in the possessive case — and governed b}^ the noun book, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. IJ^" The remaiuing words, hook, reads, and Jolin, are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. *'■ Mary studies her lesson." " "Virtue rewards its followers." " The girls love their books." "A disobedient son grieves his parefits." " Good children mind their parents." " The intemperate aiau loves his dram." ^^In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for which they stand are expressed. Intransitive Verbs. 4. " I walk." '* You smile." " John swims." " James run?." " They wink." " JJirds fly." " William hops." . "We "dance." "Lions roar." Neuter Verbs. " William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate." " James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." " lie was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden." " He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." XL INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. Q. When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his manner of speaking, to express his intention to learn; but when he says, "I can learn," what does he mean? 165. That he has the ability to learn. Q. What does the word moo-^ mean? 166. Mood means manner. Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ? 167. The different manner of representing actions. (1.) 7s is a VERB; it implies being — xeuteii; it is neither active nor passive, but expresses being, merely — " 1 pei^s. I am ; 2 pei'S. You are; Z pers. He o?' Wil- liam is" — made in the third peuso.v, singular, because \YUliam, its nominative, it, and agrees with William., according to Rcle'VIII. a verb must ar/ree tcith its nominative case in number and/.'^rson. (2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 21 Q. What does the -word indicative mean? 168. Declaring- or showing. Q. Vv'hen I say, " William has studied," I declare some fact : in what mood, then, shall we class has dadied ? 169.. Ill the indicative mood. Q. When I say, "Has William studied?" the only diifei-ence between this phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call has William ttudied } 170. Indicative mood. Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for ? 171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indicating or declaring a thing, or asking a question. Q. In what mood is, " They do sing?" Why ? (171.) (). What does the word tenae mean ? 172. Tei}se means time. Q. What does^/'6!.'6/i!i mean? 173. Present means now. Q. ^yheu I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird siags now : in what tense, then, is sings ? 174. In the present tense. Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 175. The present tense is used to express what is now taking place. Q. In what tense is, " The dog runs ?" Why? (175.) Q. " James wrote." " James has written." These phrases denote what it pa&t : in what tense are they ? 176. In the past tense. Q. What does the word, future mean ; as, "At some future time ?" 177. Future means yet to come. Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come ?" 178. In the future tense. Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what nv ihey ? 179. Three — the present, past, and future. Q. When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and finished? 180. It is. Q. What does imperfect mean ? 181. Unfinished, or incomplete. Q. "John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action unfinished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in Latin the im- perfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English grammarians to denote action past and finished; a term not at all significant of an actit)n finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ? 182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in past time, however distant. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1j. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of writing are past and finished ; but which has more immediate reference to the present time ? ^ 183. Has written. Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called it the perfect tense : v.'hat, then, will the perfect tense express? 184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and also conveys an allusion to the present time. Q. " James had read before I wrote." Here bdth acts are past and finished; which took place first ? 185 The act of reading. Q. What does the word fluiKrfect mean ? / 186. More, than the perfect. Q. What tense, then, shall we call, " James had read ?" 187. The pluperfect tense. Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express? 188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at or before some past time mentioned. Q. " John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense : can you tell me why V 189. Because it implies time to come. Q. What, then, does the future tense express? 190. The future tense expresses what will take place hereafter. Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon," Here, an action is to take place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already have one future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense : what, then, will the second future tense express? 191. The second future expresses what will have taken place at or before some future time mentioned. Q. What does f^yn/jpsis mean ? 192. A concue and general view. Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the difi'erent tenses, illus- trated by the verb iMrn : will you repeat it V SYNOPSIS. 193. Pi'is. tense, I learn, or do learn. I>np. tense, I learned, or did learn. 2^erf. tense, I have learned. Plu^). tense, I had learned. 1st Fut. tense, I shall or will learn. 2d Fut. tense, I shall have learned. 2^" You shall next have the diflFerent variations of the foregoing verb, in each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully, that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 23 194. To learn. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT ', PEXSS. Singular. Plural. 1 Pers. I learn. 1 Pers. We learn. 2 Fern. Yon learn. 2 Pvrs. You learn. 3 Fei's. He, she, or it learns. 3 Ptrs. They learn. OR, When we wish to express energy or positiveuess, thus— Singular. Plural. 1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 2. You do learn. 2 . You do learn. 3. He does learn. 3 . They do learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singidar. Plural. 1. I learned. 1. We learned. 2. You learned. 2. You learned. 3. He learned. OR, 3. They learned. Singular. Plural. 1. I did learn. 1. We did learn. 2. You did learn. 2. You did learn. 8. He did learn. 3. They did learn. PERFECT TENSK. Singular. Plural. 1. I have learned 1. We have learned. 2. You have learned. 2. You have learned. 3. He has learned. 3. They have learned. PLUPERFECT TENSE, Singidar. Plural. 1. I had learned. 1. We had learned. 2. You had learned. You had learned. 3. He had learned. 3.' They had learned. FIRST FUTURE TEKSI !. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will learn. 1. We shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. Z. He shall or will learn. 3.' They shall or will learn. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned. 2. You will have learned. 2. You will have learned. 3". He will have learned. 3." They will have learned. *^* For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singular, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. 195. M Pers. Sing. Pres. 2d Pers. Sing. Imp. U Rrs. Sing. Perf. 2d Pers. Sing. Plup. Id Pers. Sing. 1st Fut. 2d Pers. Sing. 2d. Fut. Thou learnest or dost learn. Thou learnedst, or didst learn. Thou hast learned. Thou hadst learned. Thou shalt or wilt learn. Thou wilt have learned. Q. In what mood is, *' I learn ?" Why ? (171.) In what tense ? Why ? (175.) 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. In what mood and tense is, " He learns ?" " We learn ?" " I did learu ?" " T have learned?" "I had learned V" "1 shall or will learn r" "I shall have Uarned ?" Q, In what person and number is, " I learn ?" ** You learn ?" " We learn ?" " They had learned V" " He shall learn ?" '* We had learned ? Q. ' What does the word auxiliaty mean V 1^5. Auxiliary means helping. Q. In the phrase, " 1 will sing," will, yon perceive, is used to help form the future tense of .vim/ .• Wi/Hs, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the verb sing is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs? 197. Anxiliaiy verbs are those by the help of which are formed the diiTerent tenses, moods, &c., of the principal verbs. Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfre([uently denominated the signs of the tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself: what, then, is the sign of the second future? 198. Shall or will have. Q. Vrhat is the sign .of the first future ? 199. Shall or will. Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect? 200. Had. Q. What is the sign of the perfect? 201. Have. Q. What is the sign of the imperfect ? 202. Did. Q. We can say, "I did strike yesterday," or, " I struck yesterday?" how, then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ? 203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. Q. What is the sign of the present tense ? 204. Do, or the first form of the verb. Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicati . e mood appear to have, and what are they ? 205. Six— -the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. EXERCISES IN PARSING. ** They have arrivcd.^^ 206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun---* personal; it always represents the same person-— tiiird PERSON ; it denotes the person spoken of — plural ; it means more than one — "Norn- he; Pass, his: Ohj. him ; Plural Norn, they" — made in the nominative case to hav^ arrived, according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the wrh. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies actiun or being — active; it implies action — intransitive; it does not admit of antobject — indicative mood; it simpl}^ indicates or declares a thing — perfect tense ; it expresses what has just taken place — '" 1. I have arrived ; 2. You have arrived ; 3. He has arrived. Plural, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made in the third person plural, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it, according to Rule VII. ^4 verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. They had come/' " The sun has risen." We did go." " Dogs will fight." The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 2. James loves William." " Columbus discovered America." Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson. ' She had beaten us." " John did make great progress." You shall assist him." " They do study their lessons." It did disturb me." " Boys love sport." 3. ■ Do I disturb you?" " Shall I expect your assistance. Did they learii their lessons?" "Will a virtuous citizen commit such ' Have they recited ?" (l.)acts?" • Does the instructor teach us?" " Have you found your knife?" XIL POTENTIAL MOOD. Q. What does, *' He may write," imply ? 207. Permission or liberty to write, Q. What does, " He must write," imply ? 208. Necessity of writing. Q. What does, " He can write," imply? 209. Power or ability to write. Q. What does, " He should write," imply? 110. Duty or obligation to write. Q. What does, "He would write," imply ? 211. Will or inclination to write. Q. What does the word potential mean ? 212. Able, or powerful. (1.) Adjective 26 ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. Q. Tq wliat mood, then, do giamniaiiaus reckon can learn, miy ivritt, and, also, nnst write,^ thc.uld write, Ac.*? 213. In the potential mood. Q. Why are fill these diiferent forms of ropresenliutr actions considered to be in the potentiul mood, a narne, as we. have seen, peculiar only to that form •!* the verb which iniplies power'? 214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and almost numberless exieiit. Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply ? 215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, power, v/ill, obligacioD, or necessity. Q. What are the signs of this mood? 216. May^ can, must, might, could, would, and should, Q. What docs the word conjugation mean ? 217. Uniting, combining, or joining together. Q. You recollect that, in raryiug the verb, we joined the pronouns with it'; hence, this exercise is called conjxi^acio^i : Vv'hut, then, do yoa understand by the conjugation of a verb ? 218i The conjugation oF a verb is the regular combina- tion and arrptUgement of its several moods, tenses, numbers, and penrons. 219. CoiyjugcUion of the vci^h Learn. POTENTIAL MOOD. IT.USEKT TEXSK. Singular. Plural. 1. I :uay, can, or must learn. 1. Vv^e may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. \i. He may, can, or must learn. I. They may, can, or must learn. IMPERFECT TtlKSB. /Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should learn. , learn. 2. You might, could, would, or should 2. You might, could, would, or should learn. learn. S. He might, could, would, or should 3. They might, could, would, or should learn. learn. ncnfECT ti:nse. Si-.iga.'ar. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have learned, 1. We may, can, or must have learned. 2.' You may, can, or must have learned. 2. You may, can, or must have learned. 3. He may, can, or must have learned. S. They may, can, or must have learned riA-PEKFECT TEXSL. iL-i:::gnIar. Plural. 1. I might, could, vfould, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should haye Isarncd. have learned. 2. You might, could, would, or should 2. You might, could, would, or should have learned. have learned. S. He mi^ht, could, v/ould,' or should o. They might, could, would, cr should have Jearncd. have learned. ENG LIBII GIIA:vIMA11. 27 S}jno2}sis of the Second Person ^ingiilqr,. wilh Tnou. Fres. Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. Imp. Thou niij^hUt, couldst, wouklst, o?- shouldst learu. Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must have Icarued. Flup. Thou mightst, cculdst, wouldst, or shouldst havo learned. Q. In what mood i3, " I may learn?*' Why? (215.) Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with I? tJiou ! he / ye ? yt 7 yon 7 tl-bcy 1 Q. In what mood, tense, 'number, and person, is, " I can learn ?" '* You may leara ?" " You might assist;'" " They could have learned?" " He must study?" Q. In what mood and tense is, "i* I have learned V" '* lie shall run ?"' " Wil- liam did sing?" ■^ Q. Will^you conjugate Uarii ia the present tense, potential mood ? Will you conjugate /.9i'e in the same mood, and imperfect tense? iiirik«y ia the perfect tense ? Co.ne, in the pluperfect tense ? ^l. Hovr many tense.i has the potential mood? EXERCISES IN PAIISIXG. " He may return.''' 221. Ha is a puono[jr% a v/ord used instead of a iiouti — i'liRsoNAL : ic invariably represents llie same person — MAscir- LiNK GENDER ; it repi'es^.iits a male — Tiiir.D person ; it denotes the person ripoken of — singular numdeh ; it iiPipiies but one — and in tlie nominative case ; it denotes the agent — " ISom. /jc*" — nominative ease to may return, by Rule VI. 'ika nomuialive case governs the verb. May return is a verb; it implies action cr being — active; it implies aclior. — intr.ansitive ; it does not admit an object after it — potential mood; it implies possibility, liberty, &:c. — present tense ; it denotes v/hai; may bo now — *• 1. 1 may 67' can return ; 2. You may or can i-eturn ; 3. He raa,y or can return"- — made in tbe third person, singular, because its nominative he is, v/itH,- which it agrees, according to Rule YII. ^1 cerb r^iast a^ree with Us nominative case in number and person. .EXERCISES IN PARSING COirilNUED. '* He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic." " He might retire." " The windiiiay have shaken the trees." " John can assist nic." . "The lady couid have procured htr " William must obey his instructor." fan," " We mfly have erred." " Jaaies may catch the thief." ** John's father would go." " They might Icara." 2, " I do rejoice." " The coramiitee will visit the school." " We do learn." " An idle boy will liud povtitj." " John will resume his task." " Au induslrioui boy v.'iil be rich." 2S ENGLLSIi GRAMMAR. XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB To be. 'J22.- When I say, ** I am at home," you know that at/i- is a verb, because it implies being or existence ; and since to be means fo exist, the verb am has been called the verb fo be. INDICATIVE MOOD 223. Sinsi/2a} Singular 1. I am. 2. You are. 3. He is. 1. I was. 2. You were. 3. He was. Singulor. 1. I have been. 2. You have been. 3. He had been. Sing7i,lar. 1. I had been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. Singular. 1. I shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. S. He shall or will be. Singular. 1. I shall have been. 2. You will have been. 3. He will have been. Singular. 1. I maj', can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be 3. He may, can, or must be. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, be. 2. You might, could, would, be. y.. He might, could, would, be. PRESEXT TENSE. 1. We are. 2. You are. ;3. They are. IMPERFECT TENSE. 1. We were. •2. You were. 3. They were. PERFECT TENSE. 1. We had been. 2. You had been. 3. They had been, PLUPERFECT TENSE. Phiral. Plvral. Plural. Plural. 1. We had been. 2. You had been. 3. They had beeu. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Plural. 1. We shall or will be. 2. Y:ou shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Plural. 1. We shall have been. 2. You will have been. 3. They will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. We may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural, or should 1. We might, could, would, or should be. or should 2. You might, could, would, or should be. or should 3. They might, could, would, or should be. ENGLISH GRAjNLMAR. 29 PERFECT TENSE. SingvJar. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have been. 1. We may, can, m- must have been. 2. You may, can, or must have been. ii. You may, can, or must have been. 3. He may, can, or must have been. 3. They may, can, or mast have been, PLUPEEFECT TENSE. Singular. , Plural. 1. I might, could, would, «r should have 1. We might, could, would, or should been. have been. 2. You might, could, would, or should 2. You might, could, would, o?- should have been. have been. S. He might, could, v/ould. or should 3. They might, could, would, o/- shouldri have been. have been. 224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singula?^ zcith Thot:. INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. Pn'^. Thou art. Prcs. Thou muyst, canst, or must be. //./■p. Thou wast. Mj). Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, Prrf. Thou hast been. or shouldst be. Pinj). Thou hadst been. Pe^f. Thou mayst, canst, or must have l.^f F'/f. Thou shaU or wilt be. been. '2(1 /-'(/f. Thou wilt have been. J\''qi. Thou niiguti'., couldst, wouldst» or shouldst have been. XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. Q. Why is am a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called? (222.) Why is it so called ? (222.) Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with /through the indicative mood ? Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative ? Imperfect'? Perfect V Pluperfect? 1st Future? 2d Future? Present Potential? Imperfect? Perfect^' Pluperfect ? Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, "lam?" "Ami?" "You were?" " I have been?" " Have you been?" " He may or can be?" " We should be?" " He may have been ?" " They should have been ?" " Thou shouldst have been?" " Thoia mayst be ?" Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with thou ? EXERCISES IN PARSING. " The girls were industrious.'''' 225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter; it is neither active nor passive, simply expressing being — INDICATIVE MOOD ; it simply indicates or declares a thing — IMPERFECT TENSE ; it cxprcsscs past time — " 1. I was ; 2. You were; 3. He was. Blur. 1. We were; 2. You were; 3. They were, or girls were" — made in the third person plu- ral, because its nominative girls is, with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Lidiutrious is an adjecj'j'ive, a word jcined with a noun to de;?cribc it — *•' inuustrious, more industrious, most industrious" — in the positive decker ; it describes, without any compari- son — and belongs to the noun iffr/5, according to IliTLE IV. Adjecficss helon/^' to the nouns ivhich they describe. ^^For the and girls,,vi^-^\j Rules III. and VI. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " William is atteutive." " Am I )-ouug?" " John is studious." " Vfas I wrong?" " We are jealous." " Have we been wicked?" " Thou art datiful." " Were they penitent ?" " Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic." *' The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising." " Their estate was smaii." " My wife's mother is sick." XV. OF THE ADVEm Q. Whevi I say, " The bird diss swiftly," I do not mean by rsiftlu to describe livd: what does siviftly describe? 228. The manner of fiying. Q. To vrhat part of speech \s swifUy joined in the phrase, " The bird flies swiftly?" 227. To the verb jiies. Q. What does the word a(f';cri signify? 223. Joined to a verb. 0. What, then, shall we call all such Avords as wjiftlyl 229. Adverbs. Q. " John runs very swiftly." Which word here (describes or shows how swittly John runs ? S30. Y'^ry. Q. What is the word cfyvy called, and all such words as qualify or describe adverbs? 23,1. Adverbs. Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more and TMst called here, and why ? 232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjectives. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition of adverbs? 233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. Q. "John visits me often,, but Thomas oftemr^ In this example, we see that adverbs may be compared: will you, therefore, compare £00}% ? 234. " Soon, sooner, soonest." ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 Q. Will you Gompare ickdy ? 235. " Wisel}^, more wisely, most ^Yis3]y." Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared? 236. By the adverbs movQ and most. Q. Will you in this mtinner compare ndmirahly 1 foolwily ? Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjeotives oi one syllable, tissoo'/i above; but there is a very considerable number, tue comparison ot uliich is not regula- ted by any general rule. The following list embriiCGs adverbs variously com- pared : will you repeat the compai'ative and s>aperlative of eaeh, as 1 name the positive ? 237. J'oiititie. Comparaiiet. SajjoiaHve. Often, oflener, oftenest. Much, more, most. Well, better, best. Soon, sooner, soonest. Justly, more justly, mogt justly. Wisely, more wisely, most >visely. Justly, less justly, least justly. Badly, or ill, M'orse, worst. 238. Note. — Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few classes. You will now read with attention the following list, and I will then ask you some questions respecting each class. 1. Of number : as '" Once, twice, thrice," &c. 2. Of orderl: as, "First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," &.c. 8. Oi place : as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, no- where, hence, thence, whithersoever/' &c. 4. Of tim(. Of timepraent: as, '' Now, to-day," kc. Oi time past: as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. Oi time to come: as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, hencefor- ward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," &c. Of time indefiiute : as, " Oft, often, oftimes, ofceutimes, sometimes, soon, sel- dom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, ai^ain," &c. 5. Of qi.iAintiiy : as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 6. Oi manner or quality: as, "Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," . Prepositions are words used to connect words, and thereby show the relation between them. 217. List of tilt principal Prepositions. Am-onj; at around ^J amidst below :'.'.hwiirt between j.iter benpath a^out behind nirainst betwixt across beside above beyond according to before througliout touching up upon U'.m'cr underneath concerning near down of except olf excepting on for c/or from out of in i-especting unto into to with instead of towards within notwithstanding through without Q. ATill yoil m'ebtion the prepositions beginning with a ? with Z< .' e? d? tf / ■ i ? n } o / r ? t ? u ? iy :■' Q. Will you now repeat ail the prepositions? (,>. J)o we say, " He worko for I," or, " He works for me"' ? Q. In what case is me ;' (127.) Q. V.'hat case, then, follows prepositions? 248. The objective case. Q. This fact is of sufficient importanc6 to constitute a rule : will you, there- fore, repeat Prepositions govern the ohjcciive case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. " John found his hat in the rcadP 9J:Sk In is a FREPOSiTioJr, a word used to connect wordsj and show the relation between them; it here shows the rela- tion between hat and road. Jload is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — nkuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third PERSON ; it is spoken of —singular number ; it means but one 5 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAll. — OBJECTIVE CASE ; it IS the object of the relation denoted by the preposition in, and governed by it according to Rule X. Pi-epohitions govern the objective case.* EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. *' John ran througli the Louse into the " I will seYiCh the house diligently for garden." him." " We have deceived him to our sor- ** Vv''e mitrht learn the lesson before rov,'." them." " "We came in sea.son." " According to my impres-sion, he is in " You study grammar for your improve- fault." raent in lauguai^e." ** Notwithstanding his poverty, he wa* "From virtue to vice the progress is the delight of his acquaintances." gradual." " On all occasions she behaved with *' They travelled into France through propriety." Italy." " Of his talents we might say much." " He lives within his income." "We may expect a calm after » *' Without the aid of charity, he lived storm." very comfortably by his indiutry ." XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. Q. When I say. " John his book," the sense, yon perceive, is incorapltt©. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense V 250. " John reads his book." Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called? 251. A sentence. Q. What, then, is a sentence? 252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense. Q. " Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell m»' what kind, and why ? 253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense, and has but one nominative and one verb. Q. What does the term comjpound mean ? 254. It means composed of two or more tJiin^s. Q. " Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two simple Bcntences : vrhat, therefore, may it be called ? 255. A compound sentence. Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 256. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences connected together. Q. What does the term conjunction signify ? 257. Union ov joining together, Q. la the compound sentence, " John writes, and William learn««," the sim- ple sentences are joined together by the word arat^; what word, then, may and be called? 258. A Conjunction. * The remaining Avords are pnrscd as before. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 Q, The kin:; and queen are r.ii amiable pair." In this sentence, words and not sentences are conuected by arid : can you point out the words so connected ? 259. Ki7ig and queen. \ Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the con- junction ? 260. A conjunction is used to connect words and sen- tences together. Q. Wlien I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean ? 201. Five added to four make nine. Q. What, then, is nnpliod by and'? 262. Addition. Q. When I ?ay, *' I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the con- junction if imply '? 263. Condition or supposition. Q. What does tlie word copulati-vf mean? 264. Uniting, joining, or Unking together. Q. And, if, tc. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ? 265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con- tinues a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. Q. The following arc the principal conjunctions of this class: will you repeat them * 206. " And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, since, then, that, therefore, wherefore." Q. When I say, "James and John will come," I mean both will come; but when I say, "James or John will come," what do I mean? 2G7. That either James or John, one of them, will come. Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 268. Disjoined. Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining? 269. dr. Q. What part of speech is or ? 270. Conjunction. Q. What does the word disjunctive mean ? 271. Disjoining or separating. Q. Wbat kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call <>r? 272. A disjunctive conjunction. Q. " James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of the sentence arc opposed to each other in meaning, and the word 5«^ separates these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ? 273. Opposition of meaning. Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be Ihc use ef the dipjunctive eea- j unction? 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees. Q. The following are the principal conjuucLions of this class ; will vou repeat them ? 275. "But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding." Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, as well as conjunctions; how, then, can you tell ihe one from tlie other? 270. Prepositions show the relation between words, but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause, or an opposition of meaning. Q, *' He and she write." In what case is lie ? ilic^ 7 Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, and connected by the conjunction a/i-c^ .' when, th.en,, may nouns and pronouns be connected? 277. When they are in the same case. Q. **She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected? 278. "She v/iil sing and dance." Q. Tn v/hat mood and tense is, " She will sing?" Q. To say, " She dance," is incorrect; dance, then, in this example, cauiaot be in the pre;-:ont tense : will you, then, inform me what "She will sing and dance" means, when i'ully expressed ? 279. " She will sing and she will dance." Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, then, may verbs, in genei^l, be connected? 280. When they are in the same mxood and tense. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the use of conjunctions, in connecting words? HUIjSI XL Conjunctions usually conncxt verbs of the Sfune 7nood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. '' John assists his father and mother.''' 281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect words and sentences — copul.'^tive; it connects father and mother. Mother is a noun ; it is a name — co»tmon ; it is a general name — feminine gender ; it is the name of a female — third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and it is one of the objects of ^/6'c<.7'5;;5, and is, therefore, in the osjECTivE CASE, and connected y^'Wh. father by the con- junction «?2<'/, according to Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood a7id tense, and ncuns or pronouns of the same case. ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 37 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. I will reward him aad thein at some " She i-eads well, dances (3.) elegantly, future time." and plays aduiirably ob the piauo- ) *' We in vain (1.) look for a path between forte." ' virtue anti vice." "intemperance destroys the mind and " ReproQf cither hardecs or softens its benumbs the senses'of man." object." " Yon ma}- read this seutcuce first, and '• In the morning of life, wo eagerly pvr- then parse it." sue pleasure,but oftentimes meet (2.) "He has equal knowledge, but inferior with sad disappointments." ludgmeiit." "A ^ood scholar never mutters nor dis- " John ri.^e? early in the morning, and obeys his instructor." pursues his studies." XVIIL OF INTERJECTIONS. Q. When I exclaim, " Oh ! I have ruined my friend," "Alas I I fenrfor life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to express passion or feeling? 282. Ok! Alas! (\. What does interjection, mean ? 283. Thrown hetweeif. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh .' alas .' &.c. ? 284. Interjections. Q. What, then, are interjections? 285. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings oi' the speaker. LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 1. Of envncftnc^? or gri"/ : T'.^,^^0\ oh! alas! ah"' 'J. Of wonder ; as, "Really! strange!" 5. Of calling ; as, "Eallool ho! hem!" 4. Of (.cttcniion; as. Behold! lo ! hark!" h. (ilf d:\yvst ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! awaj !" 6. Of silence; as, "Hush! hist!" 7. Of contempt ; as, "Pish! tush!" 5. Of saluting ; a.^, "Welcome! hail!" Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then nam? an interjection of jrrief? One of wonder? One of calling? One of attention ? One of disgust ? One of silence? One of saluting? Q. Hov/ may an interjection generally be known? 285. By its taking an exclamation point after it. EXERCISES IN PARSING. '• Oh ! I have alienated my friendy (1. ) Jn vain kieans the same as ijainhj. It may, therefore, be called an adver- bial phrase, qualifying looh, by Rule IX. (2.) ile^.t agrees with we understood, and is, therefore, connected y:it\i prcrsvf. by the conjunction bv.t, according to Rule XI. i'i.) Dancer and jjk'?/.'? both agree with she, understood, and are, therefore con- nected, the former with reach, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI. ' 38 ENGLISH GHAMMArt. 287. Oil is an interjection, a word used to express passion or ice ling. 1^^ The remaiuing words are parsed as before. EXERCISES IX PARSING CONTINUED. " Oh! I must o;o and pcc (1.) ruj dear " Strange! I did not know vou." fatlior befvirc (2.) he dies." ' " Hush ! our insti-ucter isatthedoor." " We ea.u'orly pursue pleasure, but, ahis ! ** I y ! how angrj he is I" \vc often mistake the road to its (3.) enjoyment." n.) The sense is, "I must go, and I must see;" tlie verb see, then, agrees with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with im," or, " The seven ./twnew.''." This is obvious from the fact, that a proper name IS, in its nature, descriptive of one object only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns t^paniard, European^ Amf/ricnji; La. are common nouus, as well as their plurals, ^i^ainardtf, Earopeam, jimericans, inc. '^' o05. Common nouns may also be used to si;^nify individuals, by the addition of articles or pronouns ; as, /' The boy is studious ;" " That (jirl is discreet." 300. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a col- lective noun ; as, " The pcople,^^ " The array P .S07. Ai-Mruct signiiies takoi from: hence an abstract noun is the name of a, quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knoivUdr/e, (^oodne.<>s, virlite, &c. 308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. -o- XXY. PERSON. S09. Yv'hen any per.ion, in speaking, introdaces his own '^ Spain, is the proper name of' a country, and Sponiard has, by some gram- marians, been called the proper name of a "people; but the latter is a generic term, characterizing any one of a great number of persons, iu their counexioa with Spain.— i:V'-.'/'''''',;-'i ■':V^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 I iiame, it is the fir&t person; as, "I, James, of the city of Shreveportj do givo," ceo. 310. The iiame of the person spoken to, is the second person ; a.s, " James, come to me." 311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about;' is the third person ; as, ''James has come." XXVI. GENDER. 312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the fem- inine, the common, and the neuter. 314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males; as man, hoy, &zg. 3^5. The feminine gender denotes the names of females; ias, icomaUf girl. 31 G. The common gender denotes the names of such ani- mals as may be eitiier male or female ; as, parent, bird. 317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which are neither males nor fen:iales ; as, chair, table. SIS. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, t j. a ficrurc cf speech, as it is called, become masculine or feminine ; as v.Iicu \vc say of the sun, '■'■ ]Jo is scttiLtr," end of a ship, " Sue sails well," tSsc. S19. The English language has tbrce methods cf distiusuldung sex, viz : ClO-l. Ly diiTerent vrords ;'as, Male. Female. . ILale. • F>.77icae. Bachelor, Maid. ITusbaud, ^ifo. Boar, Sow. King, Queen. J>oy, Girl. Bad, Lass. Brother, Sister. ! Bold, : Lrtdy. ]iuck, Boe. j Man, "VVoiiian. Bull, CoAV. Jtlaster, Z'listress. Bullock or ^ Steer, Ikifcr. Jlilter, Nephe;r, Spav.ncr. Isiecc. Cock, Hen. Kam,- Ewe. Doe, Brake, Bitch. Buck. Singcr, Songstress or Singer. 3Iadain. Earl, Countess. Sir, Father, Mother. Sloven, Slut. Friar, Kun. Son, I)aughter. Gander, Coose. Stao-, Hind. Hart, Boe. Uncle, i\unt. Horse, liiaro. Wizard, Witch; 6 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By a difference of termination ; as, Abbott, Actor, Administrator, Adulterer, Ambassador, Arbiter, Baron, Bridegroom, Benefactor, Caterer, Chanter, (^'onductor, Count, Czar, Deacon, Duke, Elector. Emperor Prince, I'rior, Prophet, Protector, I'roprietor, Shepherd, Songster, Sorcerer, SI 0-3. Female. ' Male. Female. Abbess. Enchanter, Enchantress. Actress. Executor, Executrix. Administratrix. God, Goddess. ■ Adulteress. Governor, Governess. Ambassadress. Heir, Heiress. Arbitress. Hero, Heroine. Baronness. Hunter, Huntress. ]inde. Host, ' Hostess. Benefactress. Instructor, Instructress. Cateress. Jew, Jewess. Chantress. Landgrave, Landgravine. Conductress. Lion, Lioness. Countess. Marquis, Marchioness. Czarina. Mavor, Mayoress. Deaconess. Patron, Patroness. Duchess. Peer, Peeres.s. Elcctrcss. Poet, Poetess. Empress. Priest, Priestess. Princess. Sultan, \ Sultaness. I'rioress. ■( Sultana. Prophetess. Tiger, Tigress., l^rotectress. Traitor, Traitress. Proprietress, Tutor, Tutoresso;-Tutrix Shepherdess. A'iscount, Visconntess. Songstress. Votary, Votaress. Sorceress. Widower, Widow. By prefixing a noun, pronoun, or adjective ; as, A cock-sparrow, A hen-sparrow, K njan-servant, A maid-servant. A he-goat, A she-goat. A he-bear, A she-bear. A male child, A female child. Male descendants. Female descendants. XXVII. NUMBER. 320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or more. 321. Nouns have two numbers,the singular and the plural. 322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, hoy, 323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, hoys. 324. Some nouns are u.sed in the singular number only ; as, wheats gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, hellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular; as, sing. do\e,phir. doves. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 823. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follovrs : when the uoun singulcir ends in x, civ soft, sh, or ss, we add cslo form the plural ; as, ioj:, loxcs ; Jiurch, churches ; la&h, lashes ; kiss, tisies. S29. J!^ouna ending in/ or,/!?, change these terminations into ves to form the plural ; as, loaf, loans ; unfe, loives. SOU. \Yhcr, a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural is formed reguUalv ; as, /cy, ktys ; delay, dciayt< : talhy, i-allajs. But if the y does not have a vowel before' it, the plural is fcimed by chitugiug y into ics : as, jiy, jlUii ,' beavty, leauiies. 331. The following nouns form their plurals not according to anj- general Tules : — Fish, Cupful, Spoonful, Brother-in-law, Court-martial, j> Brother, 332. MothemaUcs, 7neiaj)l'.ys'(es,pnevmat/cs, ethics, politics Sing. Plur. Sing. Flur. Man, 1*1 en. Mouse, Mice. AVoman, "Women. Louse, Lice, Child, Children, Cow, Cows or Kine. Ox, Oxen, Tooth, Teeth. Penny, Pence, (1.) Foot, i^eet. Die, Dice, (2.) Goose, Cleese. Pea, Peas, (3.) Plur. Fishes. (3.) Cupfuls. ►Spoonfuls. ]irothers-iu-law, Courts-martiaL ( Broth.ers or \ Brethren. &c. are reckoned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally tiue of jrnans, alma, amends. Aiiti}-oJ(.)<, crtdcnda, imuyiia^, littrali, &c. are always plural. Pandit is now considered the singular of handiUi. The noun news is always singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the language from which they are dei'ived. The following are of this class : Singula)'. Antithesis, Appendix, Apex, Arcanum, Automaton, Axis, r>eau. Basis, Calx, Cherub, Crisis, Criterion, Datum, Dia?resis, Desideraiiua. Lllluvium, Kliipsis, Emphasis, Encomium, ]'h'ratum, Plvral. Antitheses. ( Appendixes w ( Appendices. Apices. Arcana. Autojnata. Axes. Beaux or Beaus Bases. Calces. ( Cherubim or "( Cherubs. Crises. CriU-ria. i}iua. • i)iioreses. Desiderata. Effluvia. Ellipses. Emphases. i Encomia or ( Encomiums. Errata. Singular. Genius, Genus, Hypothesis, Ignis fa:uus. Index, Lamina, Magnus, Mem.orandum, Metamorphosis, Parenthesis, Phenomenon, Radius, Stamen, Seraph, Stimulus, Stratum, Thesis, Vertex, , Vortex, XXVIII.' CASE. Plural. Genii. (4.) Genera. Hypotheses. Ignes fatui. ( indices or '( Indexes (5.) Lamime. Magi, i Memoranda or \ Memorandums. Metamorphoses. Parentlieses. Phenomena. Badii or Radiuses. ^ Stamina. ' Seraphim or 1 Seraph.s. Stimuli. Strata. Theses. A'ertices. ( Vortices or \ Vortexes. . 333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. (1.) 7Vn?z/(;s when the coin is meant. (2.) i^jV*- for coining. (3.) Picse and •'sA, meaning quantities ; h\xi pea^ andJisTies, when number is meant. (4.) Genii when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits : annivsfs, when denot- ing persons of genius. (5.) /ya/t,T6«, when denoting pointers or tables of con- kents J htdicts, when referring to algebraic quantities. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 831. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and ihp objective. 335. The ncmiiintive case is ii^nall}" the cgcnt or doer, and always ihc subject of the verb. SGG. The subject is the ibinj: chiefly ?poken of; ns, "John assists VriUinm;" here, Jmn is the toubject spoken of, or the uomiiiative case to the veib assists. £37. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, property, &c ; as, ** William's book." This cnse maybe distinguished irum the oihcr cases by tlic apostrophe or the letter 5. 5-33, A noun in the singuhir forms ifs possessive case by taking the apostrophe and the letters alter it; as, "John's liat.'' o39. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case sim- ply by t.-iking tho, apostrophe ; as, *' On eagles' vv-ings." 340. When the phii'al of nouns docs not end in .•?, thcj form their possessive case hy taking both the apostrophe and the letter s ; as ^'' Men's houses." S4V. When the siiiprnlar ends in ff, the apostrophe only is added; as, "For goodness' sake ;" except the noun tciihtas ; as, *' The witness's deposition." 342: .Kouns'endinp: in vce forni the possessive by adding the apostrophe only ; rs, ^* VoY conscience' siike:" because an additional s uoukl occasicn too much of the hissing Soiiiid, or increase the diiiiculty o/ pronunciation. S13. The objective case denotes the object of an action or relation. Zii. lo the sentence, "John strikes him," /iJ/Ti is the object of the action denoted by .^/r^'AV*," and in the ?enten< c, "lie went from Loudon to York," J ct/c is the oljeci of the relation denoted by the preposition to. C15. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. ' oir.rjvlar. Plural. Sinoiilar. Plural. Nominctivf cnsc, Mother, Jlothers. Man, I^Ien. Posaesdte chsey Mother's, ■ brothers'. ^fan's, >fen's. Objective ca&e, Mother, ■ Mothers. Man, Men. TJiQ possessive case is goverjicd hy the follotcing noun. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ^^ Joints luife returned.^^ 310. JGlin'^s is a rr.orER noun, of theiMAscuLiNE crxder, the THir.D rr:R?o.\\ ptngul.mi Nu:.iDEa, possessive case, and governed by luife, by Rule I. . Wife IS a co'iMON noun, of the feminine gender, the third PERSON, SINGULAR NUrJCER, aud NOMINATIVE CASE tO retunicd, ]Dy Rule VI. Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 IMPERFECT TENPE — " 1. I returned; 2. You returned ; 3. He returned, or wile returned" — made in tho third tersox, sin- gular, and agrees wilh zy?/^, Rule VII. MORE EXERCISrS IX SYNTAX. " 'WilHam's son has come." " William's wife's sister rcniaiaed in "John's brother died," town." " Joliii makes (1.) boys' hats. " Ivufiis sf nclicd .Tchnson's Dictionary." " John lost his knilo." '' ifary's bonnet is old." " Tiie boys neglected Iheir lessons." " Virtue's jevrard is sure." (2.) ," Intemperance ruius its votiuies." " lUvIus's hat is new." SEXTEXC:iS TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "Brolhcrs estate.'' S47. If you examine the forcgoiuc: example, you will find it difHcuIt to ascer- tain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more; if of one only, an apostrophe should precede the f, thus; " Drother's estate :" but if it belonj;s to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the *■, tiius; " Brothers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur; hence you perceive the importance in writing, of atteudiuj^ to the subject of graramar. ^' lilans' Jiappinessy ol8. Incorrect, because mans' is in the possessive case, singular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed before the s, according to the observations above, and Art. SS3. SENTENCES TO EE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. " Johns son departed." '• I discovered Marias faults." *' Hasans sister will learn." " vSusan made little Ilariiets bonnet." " Charles task is too diilicult." " Johnson makes mens shoes." " I have read Willi's poem." EXERCISES TO BE VrT.ITTEN.-- S40. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a proper noun, as for example, "William learns grammar"':' One, contaiuii.'g a corninon noun ? One, coutaiiiing a noun of ihe third person singular? One, of the third person plural, and in the nominative case? One, having a noun of the second person singular and of the feminine gender? One, luv. ing a noun the name of some article of food ? Oue, having a noun the name of some quality ? One, having a roun of multitude? Oue, having your own name associated with hoob ; as, " John Ciriscom's book"? XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them out, or to limit their meaning. o51. There are two articles, a or an, and the. )2. A 01" AN is called the indeilnite article. CiO, ) Active-transitive verb. (2.) Aiijectivo, and belongs to rtwcrd, by Rule IV. * Either on a slate or in a small maauscript book kept for the purpose. 4G ENGLISH GRAMMAru 353. The is called the defmite article. oH. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular person or thins;; as " a house," " a man," that is, a/,^ house, a/^i/ man. The article ih€ is called detiuite, because ic means some particular person or thing; as, *'tUe house," *'tue man," meaning some particular house, ssome particular man. 555. A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h; as, " a?t acorn," •'flTi/ hour." But if the 7/ be sounded, the a only is used; as, "a hand," '"a heart :" except when the word before which the article is placed, has its accent on the second syllable ; as, " cm heroic action," " (ui historical account." o5G. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an; as, "a union," " a university," " a useful thing." ;357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing one, wu sound it as if written wun. 358. The article a or an means one; as, " an ounce," " a pound," that is, one ounce, one po'und. RULE 11. 5Vi5 indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the singular number. RULE III. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or j)lural number, S59. Kzception. When the adjectives few, (freat many, dozen, hundred, thov- sand, &c. come between the noun and article, the noun to which the indetinite article belongs, is plural ; as, " a few meu," " a great many men." EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The bird pes swiftly:' 360. The is a dti:finite article, and belongs to bird, according to Rule KI. Bird is a common noun, of the common GE^^DEF, the third PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and in the N03IINATIVE CASE to fiies,. by Rule VI. Flies is an active intransitive verb, indicative mood, PRESENT tense — " 1. I fly; 2. You fly; 3. He ilies, or bird flies" — made in the third person, singular, and agrees with bird, by Rule VII. Swiftly is an adverb, qualifying flies, by Rule IX. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. <* The boys have arrived seasonably," " Children attend the school." " Galileo invented the telescope."' " "William lounded a university." " The boy had an ulcer." " The grass is green." " WiUiam gave an historical account " Farmers carry hay into the barn." (1.) of the transaction." " The good scholar obeys his in- '' Cohimbiis discovered the continent of structor." America." (l.j Apply Rule Ylil. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED A*D CORRECTED: ''He had a ulcer'' 3G1. Incorrect, because we use an before a, vowel, except u long: a should, therelore, be on; thus, "an ulcer." SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. " A enemy approaches." " Three barley-corns makfe a inch." *' James procured a inkstand." " Eight drams make a ounce." " He conferred a honor." " They formed an union." " An unit figure occupies the lowest " He quuted an hard saying.'^ place in whole numbers." " Thomas has lost an horse'." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, and in the other the indefinite article? One, containing a correctly used before w lono-? One, h-iving a definite article correctly used before the consonant h P Will you write two nouns, the names of difieront things in the school-room? Two, the names of ditiereut cities ':• One sentence, having a proper noun used us a common noun "i XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 003. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe or define it ; as, " An obedient son.'' 304. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of comparison — the positive, the comparative, and the super- lative. 365. The positive degree simply describes an object ; as, *' John is good.'" 36G. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in meaning ; as, " William is better than John." It implies a comparison between two. 3G7. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, "Thomas is the best ;" " Walter is the worsty 368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 360. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1.) becomes the com- parative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or ed, to the end of It ; as, ivke, wiser, tvisest ; great, greater, greatest. 370. In words of more than one syllable, th.e comparison is usually made by placing the adverbs more and most before the positive ; as, benevolent, more benevo- lent, 9)60st benevolent. 371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ; as, ^vise, less idse, least wise. 372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y / as, liar^py, lovely, and in le, after a mute ; (3.) as, ahlc, ample, or accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite, easily ad-' (1.) A word of one syllable. (2.) A word of two syllables. (3.) b, i-,2^, t, and c and g hard, are mutes. 43 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. mit of er ?.nd est ; as, happier, lioppiM ; alia)', aV.s^t, ic. Words of more than two syllables hardly c\'cr udmit ot these tcrmin:itious. 373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb moit to the end ot them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, 'Uppermost. 374 Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, da not admit of comi^arison ; as, extreme, perfect, right, ivrowj, i.ijiaUc, ceaseless, sujireme, omnipotent, itcrnal. . 575. By adding i:Ji, to adjectiveis, we have a slight degree of comparisoir bclow the positive ; as, blac'c, htachisli ; mlt, saltish: 576. Vtrji expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good," «*t'c;'y good." 577 Words used in counting and numbering arc called numeral adjectives ; as, o«i, iv:o, thrm ; first, secoud, third. These adjectives are not compraed. 's78 Vn adjective put without a noun, v/itli the definite article before it, be- comes a noun in seuse'and meaning, and may be considered as such m parsing; as, " Providence rewards the (/ood, and punishes the bad. RUIiB IV. Adjectives helong to the nouns which they describe. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ''John is sincere. ^^ 379. John is a rEOPER noun, cf the thisd pebson, singular KUMBEE, MASCULINE GEl.-DIIB, aild ill the NOMINATIVE CASE, tO 16', by Rule VI. Is is a NEUTER VEKT], ill the INETCATIVE MOCI>, PRESENT TENSE «' 1. I am : 2. Ycu arc ; 3. He cr John if^,"' — made in the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, aiid agTces wiUi John, according to Rule Vll. Sincere is an adjective, — " shicere, more sincere, most sincere," — made in the positive degree, and belongs to John, by Rule IV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " You are studious " One man has come." "John is more fatnclious." " Two men have departed." " William is most studious." " Twenty men will sail." "Mary is intelligent." "James v/rote his name on the first "James is active." page." " Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great man." " Charles is happv." " Here comes a greater man." " Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the. greatest man." " No com.position is perfect." " The first Ilect contained five hundred *' Religion makes its votaries happy." meii," XXXI. ^SO. Double coHiparatives and superlatives, since they ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 49 add nothing to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser ?nore'w'iser, &c ; also, lesser, supremest, most infinite^ &;c. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will you write down two sentences, each colitainiug a different adject've in the positive degree? Two, with adjectives iu the coriipuriitiTe degree? Two with adjectives in the superlative degree? Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the followinp: sentences as will make sense? "A' — uoy studies his Icssou." "A boy deserves punish- ment." *' A man helps t!ie man." " ^Merchants own .«hips." " The- instructor loves scholars." " William is.a scholar, Kui'us is a one, but Thomas is the one that I ever saw." XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. *i81. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun. S82. A PERSONAL PRONOUN IS SO Called, because it invari- ably represents the same person. There are live personal pronouns — I, tiiou or you, he, she, it. They have person, number and case, like nouns; and those oi" the third per- ijoii have gender cilso. -.383. / is the ftrst person, ihou the second, he, sJic, or if, the third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- native, the possessive, and the objective; and two numbers — the singular and plural. 885, Mine and t7iir(-drd. Pant Himself, ThemscivfeiS. Oiyj. Aiw? . /b«. Oh;. Xo-jn. Obj. Himself, Herself, Themselves. Themselrca. Herself, Itself, ThemseUes. Themflelves. Itself, Themselves. RULB V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and 'person. . EXEKCISE3 IN SYNTAX. ** John found his hnifey 387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, aild NOMINATIVE CASE XO found, by Rule VI. Found is an active-tranfitive verb, in the indicative mood, IMPERFECT TENSE — "1. I fouiicl ; 2. You founc] ; 3, He or John found" — made in the third person singular, and agrees with John, b}^ Rule YII. His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, masculine gender, and agrees with John, according to Rule V. ; in the possessive case, and governed b}- knife, by Rule I. Knife is a common noun, of the third pehson singular, NEUTEu gender, the Objective case, and governed by founds according to Rule yiil. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. ** James obtained his request." " Ye despise repro&f." " I will assist you." " They mend their pens." " He will receive his reward." *' Mary tore her handkerchief." "She misuj^ed him." "Virtue has its reward." *' Siu ruias its vuiaries."' " She deceived them." ~ 2. *' An indulp;cnt father will reprove his "John is ia distress, and I will assist son wiien (1.) he deserves it." him." ** A diifiiVd son gladdens the hearts of " I fourul Mary and her mother in trou* Lis parents." Lie, and (2.) comforted (-3.) them." EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. Q. Will TOii compose tv/o sentences, each having a different personal pro^ Boun of the larst person? One, having a pronoun of the first person plural? (1.) Adverb. (2.) Conjunction. (3.) Apply Kul? XL Ill ghammar. 51 Q. WiJl yen fill up the followirs; senteuces with suitable prononn*, so as to rnuke sense ? " — lost my hat, but iourid — ag;ain." " Let Harriet hare — book, for — will need — to get'her lesson." " The travelers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." Q. 'Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington — .— of his ." *' Cohunbus America." " Shreveport inhabitants." " The cccan is miles wide." " first man." XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. ?S8. In the sentence, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; iJiat tends to excite ]>ridc, iMt discontent;" you perceive that the word t/tat represents wealth, and the word fhis poverty. T?iis and i/iat do, therefore, resemble pro- nouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. ;jSC>. '\Yhen I say, ''This house is mine, that barn is yours," the words tuit jind t/iat arc joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify them : they may, ou thia account, be called adjectives. SGO. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble l.)Otli pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns r?re some- times called pronominal adjectives, or sped Tying: adjectives. 301. The ADjRCTivK rroxouNs may be divided into three sort.s — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 292. The distribulive are those that relate to persona or things, taken separately and singly. 393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PKONOU^'S. Each, EVERr, eitiiek, and souiclimes neither. ?.94. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separatCi'y; as '• Each of his brothers is doing well." ' ' 395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them, taken separately; as, " Ever]/ man must account for himself." 3^1?. EiTHEii relates to two persons or things only, taken separately nr. signiiies tlie one or tiie other; as, "I have not seeu'ttY/ier." ilence to' sav Either of the three," is incorrect. d to say. 3i.)T. Neither means not either ; that is, not one nor the other; ae, " Neiih^ of my friends was there." • 398. The DEMONSTRATIVE (2.) PRONOUNS are those which pre- cisely poiut out the things to which they relate. S99. DEMONSTRATIVE PR0X0UN3. Sing. ' Plu. Tins, TirssE. That, Those. Former, , Former. Latter, Latter. '1.) So called from distrihuU, to divide amoiiQ ■^i'>:eral. [■2.) So called from demonftraU, to pi'ovt or thoio prcciieiy. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 400. This and these refer to the nearest person or things,— ^/ic/ and ihoa to the most distant; as, " Thnte gloves are superior to those.'' " Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, this discontept." 401. The INDEFINITE are those that refer to things in an indefi- nite or general manner. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Of these pro- nouns, one and other are dccjined like nouns. Another is declined in tlie singular, but it wants the plural. Sinri. Plu. 40-1. Xom. Posh. Other, Other's, Other, Sm'j. Others. Others'. Others. Plu. 40i. Pom. Ohj. One, One's, One, Oue,^. Ones'. Ones. We snr, " This book," but. " These books;' also, "0 ne man," ' men :" hence. Twenty 40.5. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number with the nouns to which they belong. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " These two books belong to meT 406. These is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind, in the plural number, and belono-s to hooks, accordinir to Note I. ■ Two is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books, by Note I. Books, belong, &c. are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " Every man performs his part in crea- " These men might remain with us." tioD." " Those men make many pretences to " Each man arrived at his station." religion." *' Either part}' can repair the injury." " All rational beings desire happiness." " Some persons cannot acquire vv'ealth." "By appljcation almost any boy may "Many people obtain uichcsvvith ap- acquire an honorable rank in his parently little exertion." class." " One boy labors for his improvement." "Good and virtuous men will, sooner " This man neglects his affairs." (1.) or later (1.), attain to happi- ness." " T/ie old bird feeds hei- young ones.^' 407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds; in the common gender, third person plural, in the objective case, and governed by feeds, agreeably to Rule VIII. (1.) Adverb, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5.1 EXERCISES IX SYXTAX CONTINUED. " One boy influences many others." others spend their time in idleness; *' None act their part too well." the former will receive praise, the " Some scholars study diligently ; latter censure.'' We cannot say, '' Thqm run," but, "They run:" hence, Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the verb, it should be in the nominative case. It is very common for persons in conversation to say, "Them books,'' "Them knives," &c. instead of "Those books." " Those knives," . Antecedent signifies goinff h'lfore. 420. The noun or pronpun which goes before the relative, and to which th» relative refers, is therefore called the amecedent of the relative; as, "John, who has gone." Here, John is the antreccucut of who. 421. When you are told that tvho, which, and tJiat are relatives, you should not get the impres.sion that the last two are always relatives ; for tk^^it is a rela- five^only wiicn it is used in the sense of zc/w or {(.'/-■icA/ that is, w.oen ?;ouNS. 427. " 1 took w7^C('. yon gave me." " I took that wJiich you gaA'^e me." " I took the thing which you gave mo." " I took those things which you gave me.", 423. By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word what, in the first example, means the same as the v»ords in itaiics in the succes- sive ones: the word ivhat, then, is clearly a pronoun; and because it stands for more than one word, it is called a coinpour.d pronoun. The word before tho relative tvhich, in the phrase " that which,'" or " ihe thmg which," is the antece- dent of which. Hence, 429. What is a compound relative pronoun, includin,^ both the' antecedent and. the relative, and is generally equivalent to that wiiicn. (1.) Adverb. '^ Thus, " Washington was a true patriot," <&c. Thejwpil may rcviU Ki^e^-d sen. 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 430. Who, whl'.h; and what have isomotimes the words ictr or soectr annexed {\.) to them : and each combination of this sort is called a compound relative > as, whoever, ivJiosoevev, whichet'er, u-hivhsatve/-, &c. They are not often nsed. 4?.l. Who, v:hich, a.nd' ivJtat are called interrogativef?, or relatives of the irv terroijative kind, when they are used in askina: questions; as, "Who is he?" *' Which is the book V" " What are you doinuj V" These relatives, you perceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase contained in the answer^ v^-hich is called a subsequent, because it follows after the relative; as, " Whom did you see "?" Aus. "John." Here Joh/i, is the subsequent to which whom refers. 43-2. Hence it follows, that antecedent and silhsetpient are opposed to each other in meaning; the former signifying going before, the latteT /olLiving aftir. 4;i3. Wheiler was formerly made use of to express interrogation; as, " Whether of these shall I choose V" but it is now seldom used, the interrogative which supplying its place. 4S4, Which, ivluit, and, as we have already seen, that, Avhen joined to nouns, are adjective pronouns; as, " unto which promise our twelve tribes." 435. When tchat and vjhich are joined to nouns in asking questions, they are called interrogative adjective pronouns; as, '• Which horse did he take?" 430.. In some instances, we tind what used in the sense of au interjection j*^ as, " What! take my money, and then my life?" EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "/ will leave what is useless^ 457, Vv^hat, in the example above, means the same as, " that which," or, " the thing which ;" we will, therefore, in parsing i\., bear in mind that it has the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first parse it as standing for thing, and secondly for which. What is a co?;posiiig tue i.ulliur ; Hhih, instead Of snyitig, " William struck John," i can, to avoid allcding to W illiaui, ^ay, *' John was struck." 450. A ntiiiior verb is one tliat is neither active nor pas- sive, expressing simply v.\\\\cy bf.ing or existence in a cer- tain state, as, " IJe az^I-," "^^^ ''< ^'^ home." xxxviii MOOD, Oil modi:. 451. Mood, or ?joue, is the manner .of reprocenti::g action or being. 452. The iNDic xTivc mood is used simply for ir.dieatlng or declai'inir a thing, or asking a qucsuon ; ;is, "I v.'^a!;;" '-Do ] walk r 453. The poten-'tal mood is used for expressing possibiiitv, liberty, power, wilj, or obliga! ion, either \vii,h or wiiheut asking a question ; as, " I may go;" " iUay I goV '• He must: read," &c. 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 454. Of thesuEjL'xcTivE MOOD. The term »uhJuncUve signifies sahjoined or added to. • 455. When I sav, " I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, " if he desire it," is added on to the one before it : hence, we say. " if he desire it," is in the sub- junctive mood. The tern;, Jrjwerer, is limited' to such sentences r.s sire preceded by the conjunctions if, todes^, although, ej:cej:>v, lest, &c., which imply doubt or some uncertainty. 456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt or uncertainty. 457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different forms. It is equally correct to say, " If he is poor, he is respected," and, '* If he be studious, he wiirexcel." The verbs he and is are both in the present tense ; and since each has the conjunction {/"before it, each is in the subjunctive uiood. 458. Th'e phrase, " If he ie studious," means the same as, " If he will le stu- , dious;" it therefore plainly implies future time. 459. On the contrary, in the phrase, " If he «V poor," the sense plainly is, **If he is now, at the present time, poor," without any reference to future time. 4G0. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doult only is implied; and in the other, both douU and future time. 401. The verb ii corresponds with the common form of the verb to be, in the indicative mood, present tense; as, "I am, you are, he is:" — we wil-, there- fore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the cojnr.iort form of the si;bjunctive mood ; and when the verb is not varied in the different persons, we will call it the s^d'jnnctlve form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. You should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present tense, it being customary to vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses, as usual. 462. The foUov/ing general rules will direct yoit in the proper use of tlie sub- junctive mood : 463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a reference to future time, we should use the SUBJUXCTIYE FORM. Present Tense. 464. Singula!-. Plu.rcd. 1. If I love. 1. If v.'c love. 2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love. S. If he love. 3. If they love. 465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no reference to future time, v/e should use the COMMON FOllM. Singular. Plural. 1. If Hove. 1. If we love. 2. If thou lovest, or ] 2. If ye love, o> ) If you lore. )' If you love, f S. If "he loves. . S. If they love. 4'5u. Other conjunctions, besides r/", arc used before the subjimctive mood. 7,^ is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more strongly than most others. 467. By the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in the sub- junctive for?ii, some auxiliary verbis always understood; as, " He will not be pardoned unless he repent," "that is, "unless he will repent;" "If thou ever Return, thou shouldst he thankful," that is, " if thou shouldst ever return." 4.68. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, com- ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 .nic?i form, siiriply bj" placing a coujunctiou, irnplAang dov.bt, before it; as, "I wr.ik," the indicative i3aood,""becomes subjunctive'bv"'prelixiag *// thus, *'If I walk," 469. In like manner, a verb in the potential maybe changed to the subjunc-. tive; as, " I can go," is the potential; " If I can go," tbi\su]jjanctive. 470. Of the iMPgRATivu Aioou. When I say, "John, n^ind .your book," I conjm^ftad John to do something, and because imperative means coramundiiL'j, w« cay that wind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative toood. 471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (i'll-,) embraces the following particulars : 1. Comrrukid ; as, ".John, sit i-.p." 2. Etitreat'j : as, " Do visit rac." 8, Exliorting ; as, " Remember my counsel." 4. Fennittinff / 0.5, "Go in peace." 472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, ■entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person ; as "' John, f.ome to mc;" because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty ed to point out lli'o ithitivc time of a future actiou ; as, " Wlu-n he Jin i\ e.<, he >Vill Iteur the news.." 43.J. This tense is elegantly sipplicd .to qualities and things which arc in their V.atiire unchaniiCi-hle ; as, •• Tiiitii is fternul;" *• Wiliuuu boldly asserted that thcri; was no Uod;" properly, '* is no God." 4=?5. In animated (I.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes used for the" iiiiptriecl; as, "lie e^ittra llie teti itory of t)\e peaceable inhabitants; he fi"-]it5 and conqaei's, takes an irnuiense booty, which ho oivides ainoug his sol- dievh, and returns home to enjoy an cn)pty iiiuuiph." 487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time pr;sr, howevei-, distant; a.s, "John died." 4S8. The -perfect tense cxpres?^es v. Iiat hns taken place, and conve\s i\r\ ali-js.cn lo ihe pre.-:cnt time; as, *'l have finished my icLtrr." ' il)} Yv'hen anv particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we ii-^e the imperfect ten&e; as, "John vlroteyestei day;" but when no particular "asltimc isspcciiicd, wo use the perfect tense; a.><, "I have read Virgil mauy times." - 4'jO. The T)orfect tense and the imperfect tense botli denote a thing that is past- but the V'jrmer denote.; i> in such a manner that there is still actually re- rviin'iii"- soriio >xirt of the'titr.c to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done; wLiereastlic imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a nvinu'^r thai nothing remaius of that time in whicli ifc was done. If we speak of the present centurv, wo sav, "l^hilosopheis /^a*? 7/ia'^'e great discoveries in the r,re«ent ceMtii:"-" Int. if wli r.pe;;k of the last century, we say, " Philosoi)her3 made great' discoveries in the last cer.tuiy."— " .'ie has been much afflicted this year " " I have this week read the king's proclamation." " I have heard great uewfi this morning.' In these in-itances, Jh has b^eii, I have read, and heard, de- note tiiiu"-^ that are past; bat thev occurred in this yea;-, in this week, and to- day ; aiid^stiil thure reuKiius a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 4f)0_l. In general, the perfect tense may-be applied wherever the action is conn-cted with the present time, by the actuid existence, either of the author or of the work, rliou<'h it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if ne'^h^r the artho"nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, •'ri'ceVo/'^w.'v^V/i orations;" but we cannot say, " Ci;:ero has ivritien poems;" b^etuse tho orations are in being, bnt the poems arc lost. Speaking of priests m cc-rM-al we mi.y > a''-, '• They hace, in ail ages, elcimul great ])owers;" because the ''^ijer'al'order of the p:-iesthond stdl exists : hut if we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of |Hiests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot sav, '' The Dr. -id priests hace dainud great powers;" bnt must say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers;" because that order is now totally eitinct. ' 491. The pluperfect tense expressos what had taken place at some past time mentioned, as, "1 had finished my letter before my father returned." 4D-3. The first fuinre tense exprefises what will take place ; as, "John will come." 493. The sccandf^^t^re expresses what will have taken (1.) Lively. (2.) DescrpitioDB, or telling what has been done. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Gl place, at or before somo futmro time mpnriored ; as, ** I shall Lave finished my bui^iiinss before the steam-boat starts." 494. Tense is the distiiictioii of time, and :u!inlis of ^^;x variations, namely — rihe present, the imperfect, the Deifcct, the pluperfect, and the first and r^econd fulurc tenser. XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 495. In the phrase, " I found a mnn laborhij: in the fielcl," the vrord lalcrin^ slows what tl)G man wus doing, and therefore resembles svvcrb. V.'hen I say, ''The laboring man siiouUi not be wronged," labonvg is joined t^ the uoua rna*i, to describe it, nnd therelurc resembled an adjective. 496. The word laborinaf, then, purtakes of the nr.fnre of two difTerent pn.rts cf speed) ; and s.\nc(} pa.'iicijple iijrui&cs paria/:ii}(? ■/, \\c will call such words as labcrhnj, participles. 497. All participles nre derived from verbs ; thus, from ^adcr comes laboring ; from heat, heating ; j'rjoice, ?yjoici7ig, kc. : Lenccj 498. The jjarliciple is a v/ord derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 499. When I saj', "John is v.-riting," the participle icniwrr shovrs \i hat John is now doinoj, but has not liuishcd ; zuniing, then, ma^- be called a present par- ticiple : hence, 500. The presei^t participle expres.^e.s ^vhat is cov/ taking place, but not finished. .500—1. This participle always ends in inrj ; as, einnirg, f.glUir.c;, ict^epinrr, loving, Ac. There are many v.ords of this termination, wiiich'are not p:irtici- pies fas, morning, evening, whi-.'h are nouns; aiiwiercHting, ■unsatl'^Jyiiig, which arc adjectives. The fact that these Ciuinot beiormtd li-oiu verbs uili fuinish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all otlier v. ords ot 'the same termination ; as, lor instance, iniinttrcfting, WiiVuow. is not a participle, because there is no such verb as unintuci, froiii which to ioim it. ,501. " The letter is vrritten." Here the participle wriitcn shoe's that the act of wilting is past and (iuished ; it may then be calltd a perfect participle : hence, 502. The perfect participle cxprerjses what is past and finished. 502 — h Thi'? participle mny always be distinpiiiishcd by its making sense with having ; thus, hating u'ritU.x, kacing sung, Lc. Here ivriiien and sung arc perfect participles. 503. ",Tohn, having written his letter, sealed it." Here yon donbllesr- per- ceive that the act of wi-iting took place before that of seiding: also, that the particle is composed of two words, haxivg and u-rii.te]i ; it may then be called a compound particijyle, and because it denotes also an action pa.st and finished, it may very properly be called a compound pcj-fect participle: hence, 501. The compound perfect p:ir!icip]c expresses what took place before something else mentioned. 604 — 1. This participle i? formed by placing tho present participle Jixwf'K/y b»- fbra the parieet participle of any verb ; as, having fowjhi, Iwoimj c.pker^d. 62 ENGLISH GEAMxMAPt. XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. - ,",0-3. Struc^i is a perfect participle, from tUc verb sinl-e, aud this you know, because it makes sense joined with having ; ns, having drvcJc. r.06. Is, you doubtless recollect, is'a variation of the verb to le ; rs, " I am, vQu are, be is ;" uo\^', by joining is with drud-, we can form the passive verb w ^irrfcrc; " John struck Joseph," is active; but, "Joseph is struck by John," is passive.' . - . .. . 507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the ^a-iie : hence, by means of the passive vei*b, W£ are enabled to express, in a difierent form, the precise meaning of the active, Avhich, you will oftentimes find, contri- butes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language. 50S. By examining the conjiigation of the verb to be, you will discover that it has, in all, ten variations : vik am, art, is, are, was, tvast, were, Icen, be, and bi- ina. Every |>Rssivc verb must bo composed of one of these ten variations, and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. Thus, taking ijcas, and join- ing it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, beaten, we form tUo passive verb ■w;^^ beaten , Xo \\\Aq\x prefixing an object, or nominative case, we have the phrase, " William was beaten." 509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always re- tains the same mood, tense, number^ and person, that the verb to be has, before it IS incorporated with the participle; thus. "lie has been," is the indicative perfect, third person singular; then, "He has been rejected," is likewise the indicative perfect, tISird person singular, passive. It cannot, therefore, be difii- cult to tell tiie mood, tense, number,' and person, of any passive verb, if you are fa;niliar with the conjugation of the verb to be. From the foregoing particulars, vre derive the following general rule : 510. All passive verbs are formed by adding- the perfect "participle of any active-traiisitive verb to the neuter ^ verb io be, , XLIT. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 511. Auiliary verbs are those by the help of which the principal verbs are conjugated. 512. The auxiliary verbs arc may, can, must, might, could, would, i^hoiild, and .skaU. The following are sometimes auxiiiaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have and 7.vilL ;j13. Vriien, in tV.e formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that tens3 is called a compound one ; and the tense formed by the principal verb alone is called a simple tense. XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 514. The indictative mood may be known by the sense, or by its having no si.'^n except in asking a question ; as, f' Who comes here ?" 515. The potei^tia,! ^^opdhas fqr, its sLi^^|3;j[}^^ '^yx-Uiaric^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR; G3 516. The subjunctive mood has usually for' its signs the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, icheih'er, and lest; as, *' Unless he repent," &c. 517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word to; as, to sing. 518. The imperative may be distinguished by its ahvays being in the second person, and by its agreement \viih thou, or ye, or you ; as, " Depart thou," dec. XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE. 519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the verb ; as, iceen, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional use of do ; as, '' I do learn." 520. The imperfect tense has no auxilary for a sL^n, ex- cept did, Vv'hich is sometimes used. If, hovvever, the verb is not in the present tense, and has no auxilary, it follows that it is in the imperfect ; as, '' I fought." 521. The perfect tense has for its sign the Vv^ord have ; as, have lov'ed. 692. The pluperfect has for its sign^i^tZ; as, had loved. 523. The first future has for its sign shall or icill ; as, shall or will love. 524. The second future has for its sign shall have or idll have ; as, shall have loved, gr will havL\loved. 525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 627. The potential mood has four ttDilscs. 528. The infinitive mood* has two tenses. 529. The imperative mood has one tense. XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily: nndersf and ^hatl mean by toice ; but in ejrammar, its application is somewhat peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive nature of verbs. 531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combina- tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. CA ENGLISH GRAMMAPw, 532. The coxjl'gation of nn active verb is styled 4he ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a pas:ight,, could, would, 2. or should love. IMPERFECT TEXSE. ^Singular. ■, I might, could, would, 1. or should be loved. You might, could, 2. would, Kjr should be loved. He might, could,would, 3. or should be loved. S. Thov might, would, or ■' ■- iove. could, S. should Singular. 1. I may or can have lov- 1. ed. 2. You may or cau have 2. loved. S. lie may or can have 3. loved. Plural. 1. We may or can have 1. loveS. 2 You may or can have 2, loved. i. They may or cau have 8. loved. ShignJar. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. should have loved. 2. Toa might, could,would, 2. 0/' should have loved. g. He might, could, would, 3. or should have loved. Plural. 1. Wemight, could, would, 1. or should have loved. 2. You might, could,would, 2. or should have loved. S. They raight,could,would 3, or should have loved. Plural. We might, could, would, 1 . or should be loved. You might, could, 2. would, or should be loved. They might, could, 3. would, or should be loved. PERFECT TENSE. S'iigiilar. I may or can have been 1. loved. You may or can have 2. been loved. He may ov can have 3. been loved. Plural. We may or can have 1. been loved. You may or can have 2. beeij loved. They may or can have S. been loved. rLC PERFECT TEXSE. Singular. I might, could, M'ould, 1, or should have been loved. You might,could, would 2. or should have been loved. He might, eould,would, 3. or should have been lovel. Plural. . We might, could, wotild, 1, or should have been loved. Y^ou might, could,would 2. or should have been loved. , They, might, could, 3. w"ouId,or should have been loved. Singular. I might, could, wculdh* or should be. You might, could ^ would, or should be. He might, couldjwould? or should be. Plu:-aL We might,could,would7 or should be. You might, could, would, or should be. They might, could, would, or should be. Singular. I may or can have been. You may or can have been. He may or can have been. Plural. We may or can havtt been. You may or can have been. They may or can have been. Singvlar. I might, could, would, or should have been. You might, could,woul(I or should have been. He might, could, would, or should have been. Plvral. We might, could, would' or should have been- You might,could,would or should have been. They might, could, would,(?/-should have bceu. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 67 Singii!(ir 1. If I love. 2. If jon lovp. a. If he loves. Plural. 1 . If wo love. 2. If you love. 0. If tliey love. iSiigidar. 1. If I love! t>. If you love. 8. If be love. Plnml. 1. If we love. 12. If vou love. ■i. If thev love. Singular. 1. If I loved. "J. If you loved, a. If he loved. * Plural. 1. If we loved. ii. If you loved. ;j. If they loved. S'ngiilar. 1. If I loved. 'J. If you loved. 3. If he loved. Plural. 1. If we loved. 2. If vou loved. S. If they loved. The rcmai /lingular. 1. If I have ioved. L'. If you have loved. 3. If he has loved. Plural. 1. If we have loved. 'J. If you liave loved, y. If they have loved. Singular. 1. If I had ICVcd. 'J. If you had loved, o. If he had loved. 1. If I am. 2. If vou are. 3. If he is. Plural. 1. If we are. 2. If you are. 3. If they are. Singular. 1. If I be. 2. If vou be. 0. If he be. Plural. 1. If we be. 2. If vou be. 3. If they be. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TEXSE. Common Forin. Singular. 1. If I am loved. •J.' If you are I ved. 3. If he is loved. Plural. \. If we are loved. 2. If y(m are loved. 3. If they are loved. Suljjundice Fonn. Singular. 1. If I be loved. 2. If you bo loved. S. If ho be loved. Plural. 1. If we be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If they be loved. IMPERFECT TEXSB. Commo7i Form. Singular. 1. If I was loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If he was loved. riu,'al. 1. If we were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If they were loved. Suhjiinctive Form. Singular. 1. If I were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If h« ivero loved. Plural. 1. If we were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If they were loved. g tenses arc oil of Die Common Form. I'KRFECT TKXSR. Singular. 1. If I have been loved. 2. If you have been loved. 3. If he has been loved. Plural. 1 . If we have been loved. 2. If you have been loved. I'. Ifthey have been loved. 3. If they have been. Pr.UPKRFEGT TENSE. Singular. 1. If I had been loved. 2. If you had been loved. 3. If he had been loved. Singular. 1. If I was. 2. If you were. If he was. Plural. If we wore. If you were. If thev were. 3. Singular 1. If I were. 2. If you were. 3. If he were. Fhn-al. 1. If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If thev were. Singul'ir. 1. If I liave been. 2. If you have been. 3. If he has been. Plural. 1. If we have been. If you have been. Singular.- 1. If I had been. 2. If you had been. 3. If he had been. t}8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Plural. PInral. Plural, 1. If we had loved. 1. If we had been loved. 1. If we had been. 2. If Tou had loved. 2. If you had been loved. 2. If you had been. 3. If "they hud loved. 3. If ihey had boeu loved. '6. If ihey had been. FIKST FCTCUE TEXSE. - Singular. lingular. Singular. 1. If I shall or will love. 1. If I shall or will be 1. If I shall or will be. loved. 2. If yoa shall or will love. 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shall or will be- loved. 3. If he shall or will love. 3. If he shall or will be 3. If he shall or will be. lo.ved. Plurnl. P!ur(iL _ Plural. 1. If we shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will "be 1. If wo shall or will be. loved. 2. If you shall or will love. 2. If he shall or will be 2. If you shall or will be. loved. 8. If thej shall or will love. 3. If tlioy shall cr will be 3. If they shall or will be. loved. SECOXD FUTURE TEXSE. Singular. Sinjr. Sing^dar. 1. If I shall have loved. 1. If I shall have been 1. If I shall have been. loved. 2. If you shall have loved. 2. If you shall have been 2. If you shall have been. lo^ed. 8. If he shall have loved. 3. If he shall have been 3. If he shall have been, loved. ^ Plura!. Plural, Plural 1. If we shall have loved. 1. If we shall have been ]. If we shall have been. loved. 2. If you shall have loved, 2. If you shall have been 2. If you shall hare beeii. loved. 8. If thej shall have loved. 3. If they shall have been 3. If they shall have been. loved. DIPERATIYE MOOD. PRESENT TKNSS. Singular. Singidar. Singular. 2. Love you> cr do you 2. Be you loved, or do 2. Be you, or do you be. love. .• " you be loved, Plural. Plural . Plural. 9. Love you, or do you 2. Be jou loved, or do 2. Be you, or do you love. you be loved. be. INFINITIVE MOOD. Fres. To love. P'W. To be loved. Fres. To be. Per/. To have loved. Pti''/- '^^ have been loved. Per/. To have been. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Lovinj^. Fres. Beinor loved. Fres. Being. Per/. Loved: Ferf. Loved. Fe?-/. Been. Compovnd Ferf. Componnd Fcrf. Compound Ferf. Having loved. ' Having been loved. Having been. 53?). For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun tli!:u, in the con- jugation of verbs, the following synopsis i.s given. The pupil can take it sepa- rately, or be taught it in counection with the other persons of the verb, by sub- gtituting thov. for ynUy in the foregoing conjugation. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 J^es. Thou lovest. Imp. Thou lovest. Perf. Thou hast loved. ^lup. Thou hadst loved. 1 Fut. Tbou shalt or wilt love. 2 Fut. Thou wilt hare loved. ' 537. Pres. Thou niajst or canst love. /OTp. Thou mi.^htst.oouldst, wouldst, cr shouldst love. Perf. Thou mnyst cr canst lijive loved. P/Uj3. Thou mightst, oouldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. 588. Prcs. If thou lovest. Imp. If thou lovedst, 539. P-es. If thou love. Imp. If thou loved. 540. Perf. If thou hast loved Pli)p " Si/nopein %vlih Tuou. INDICATIVE MOOD. Thou art loved. Thou wast loved. Thou hast been loved. Thou hudst been loved. Thou Shalt or wilt be loved. Thou wilt have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Thou mayst cr canst be loved. Thou mishtst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved. Thou mayst (r canst have been loved. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have been loved. Thou art. Tliou wast. Thou hast been. Thou hadst been. Thou shalt or wilt be. Thou wilt have been. Tbou mavst or canst be. ' Thou mightst, could.st, wouldst, cr shouldst be. Thou mayst cr canst have been. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldsi have been. If thou hadst loved. Fat. It thou shalt or. wilt love, 1 2 Fat. If thou shalt have If thou shalt have been SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Comvxon Form. If thou art loved. If thou wast loved. Subjunctive Form. If thou be loved. If thou wert loved. Ct.mmon Form, If thou hast been loved. If thou hadst been loved. If thou shalt or wilt be If loved. If thou art. If thou wast. If thou bo. If thou wert. If thou hast beer. If ihou hadst been, thou shalt or wilt be. thou shalt have been. loved. loved. Interrogathe Form. INDICATIVE PRESENT. niar. lingular. 1, Am- I? 2. Are you? S. Is he? Plural. 1. Are we? 2. Are you ? 3. Are they ? .'41. Singular. * Si , 1. Do I love? ' 1. Am I loved? 2. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? J. Does be love? S. Is he loved? Plural Plural. 1. Do we love? ]. Are we loved? S. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? 3. Do they love? 3. Are they loved? .542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that tha tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding onea of the indicative,' except the following, namely, the present and in;j)errect of the verb to hf ; the present and imperfect of the passive ; the present and the second future active. The last, however, corresponds in termination, but not in form.; tio:i. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the conjunction -//. Th^re are instances, howfever, of the subjunctive form, when no conjunction "is expressed, but in all such cases it is ])l:iinly understood ; as, " Were I to go, ho would not follow ;" " Had he known me. he would have treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go," and, " If he had known." Examples of this descrip- tion are conjugated ah follows; 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAIl. 54J. SLBJUXCTIVE FORM. IMPEUKECi- TtXSK. Siiigiday. Plural. 1. Were T, '_'.* \Vere you. Z, Were lie. i. rLCrEBFECT TENSE. Were we. V\'ere you. Vv'cre they. Siiipdar. Plural. 1. Had I loved. 2. Had you loved. 3. Had he loved. ' 1. 2. 3. Had we loved. Had you loved. Had they loved The second person singular of all verbs* formerly fl.) ended in st, as, last," " Thoii wast," 44. "Thouhf class of i>crsons denominated (2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (y.) Scriptures. (8.) 545. Eik, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.) very generally till within a recent (-3.) period, especially on grave (6.) and didactic (7.) subjects ; as, " He that Jtath ears to hear, let him hear;" "Simple multiplication teacketli to i-epeat," OMINATIVE CASE to was admired, agreeably to IltfLE YI. JVas admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to admire — ''Prcs. admire ; Imp. admired ; Fcrf. /7«r^ admired. 1. I was admired ; 2. You were admired : 3. He or William was admired" — made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrecs with William, according to IIule VU. For is a preposition. His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gendhr, and agrees with TFiV/m/;?, accord- ing to lluLE Y. — " No?n. he ; Foss liis " — made in the posses- sive case, and governed b}' 'prudence, by Rule I. Prudence is a common NouN|n)r the third person, singular NUMBER, neuter GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, aiui gOVCmed bv for. Rule X. * EXERCISES IN PARSTXG COXTIXUED. "John -was applauded for Lis clo- " The girl was ridiculed bv her conipau- quence." ions." " The king was crowned at "Wostuiinster " Susan was respected for her virtuous Abbey." conduct." " Thomas has been esteemed." " James will be rewarded by his in- " The business will be rej.mlated." structor." ^' Wc may be esteemed." "Justice may have been staved." ^- He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." ' William would have been dethroned." " We should not (1.) be easily O.) dis- heartened iu u good cause." '-'If he he kanicdr 550. If is a COPULATIVE conjunction. Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn — " Prcs. learn ; Imper. learned ; Perf. part. learned. 1. If 1 be learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. Jf he be learned " — made in the subjunctive mood, subjunctive roRjvr, present tense, third PER30N, LINGULAR NUMBER, and agrccs with Ae, according to Rule Yll. EXERCISES IN SrXTAX CONTINUED. " If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappointed." *' If I am noticed." "It the nuiu" had been elected." " Unless he be punished." '• Except he repent." "Altliougji they are respected." "Susan assisted the littl^ir]." " Columbus discovered America." " The little girl was assisted by Susan,'"' " America was discovered by Columbus." " Pain follows pleasure." " John wounded his brother " " Pleasure is followed by pain." '■ John's brother W8S wounded bv him." ENGLISH GRAMMAfe. "An obedient aoiiisdeaervetUj respected by bis friends." " An idle boy will be punished." •' VS'^ithout knowledge, a man is common- ly (1.) despised." 3. " The boy who visited me in September, died in the cicy of Cti:iriestuj." " The man whom I found perished in a Btona of snow." Unless Croat labor had been bcs.lowcit. bitten, bit. Let, let, let. n.^ Adverb, (i.'.) Irregular verb. (3.) For William and inother apply Rule Xl C4-.) Adjective. * Got*.(--n. is nearly obsolete. Its compound, ^/b;7o^3Teed, bled. bled. * Lie, to lie S-.a.. Iain. hlow, blew. blown. dawn, Break, broke, broken. Load, loaded, laden, r. Breed, bred, bred. Lose, lost, lost. JJring, brought. brought. Make, made. made. iJuild, built. built^ Meet, met, met. .iJurst, bxu'rit. burst. Idow, mowed. mown. r. liuy, bought, bought. Pav, paid, paid. reijular. Ring, rang, rang, rung. adhere. ) Rise, rose, risen. Cleave, to split, ^ clove o/- cleft, cleft, cloven. Rive, Run, rived, ran, riven, run. Cling, clung, chmg. Saw, saw, sawn, r. Clottie, clothed, clad. r. Say, tiaid. said. <'onK', cume, corns. See, &aw, seen. Cc)6t, cost, cost. Seek, sou^iht, sought. I'row, crew, r. crowed. Sell, sold", sold. Creep, crept. crept. Send, sent. sent. Cut, cut. cut. Set, set. set. Dare, to \ durst. dared. Shake, sliook, shaken. Dare, to :- regular. Shape, shaped, ( shaped, ( shapen. chalhiwe. Shave, shaved. sha\ en. r. Deal, ' dealt, r. dealt, r. Sheai- sheared. shorn. I>ig, dug, r. dug. r. Shed, shed. shed. Do, did, done. Shine, shone, r. shone, r. Drau', drew. drawii. Show, showed, shown. Drive, drove. driven. Shoe, shod. shod. Driuk, drank. drunk. Shoot, shot, shot. Dwell, dwelt. dwelt, r. Shrink, shrunk, shrunk. 7:at, eat or at^. eaten. Shred, shred. shred. Fall, fell. fallen. Shut, shut. shut. Feed, fed. led. Sing, sung, sau^, sung. lU'Cl, felt. fel'. Sink, sunk, sank, sunk. Vi§lit, fought, fought. Sit, sat, sat. F.ud, found. found. 1 Slav, slew. slain. inec, fled. fled. i ^31eep, slent. slept. .Fling, flung. flung, 1 Slide, slid. slidden- yiy, flew, flown. j Slin^, slung, sluiig. Forgot, forgot. forgotten, } ; forgot. [ Slink, Slit, slunk, slit, r. slink. slit,rrs]itted. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Smite, f^mote, smitten. Freeze, froze, frozen. t Sow, sowed. sown. r. Cet, got. got. - ! Speak, spoke, spoken. Oild, gilt, r. gilt. r. 1 Speed, sped, sped. Oird, girt,, r. girt. r. I S\>end, spent. spent. Give, gave. given. S2)ill, spilt, r. spilt, r. Go, went, gone. Spin, spun, spun. Grave, graved, graven, r. Spit, spit, spat. spit,spitton.J Grind, ground. ground. Grow, grow, grown. Have, had, had. Split, split. spht. r. 1 aVike, took. taken. * 1 1 See notes on page 72, ■ 10 u ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Prtent. Imiurpd. F-ri'. or 7l<>\ ** He is wise enough (3.) to study." know his duty." XLYIII. 557. TTe have before seen, that participles partake of the nature cf two parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance which participles have to adjectives, is in relerriug to some noun in the s»?ntence in which they are used ; as " The sun is setting:" here, the partici})Ie setting is said to refer to the noau sua: hence, ruIjE xin. Participles refer to nouns. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The wind is rising.''^ 558. Rising is a present active participle, from the ir- regular verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. part. risen " — and it refers to vdnd, according to Rule XIII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " The moon is setting." *' i»Iary was playing." " The sun is rising." ** I have been writing." " Ti>e trees are growing." " I found him crving." •' John was dancing." *' I left him rejoicing." PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. " The rising sun cheers us.''' 559. Rising is a participial ADJECTivE,from ihe verb to rise {].) iS'^rv'/-? ij! governed by Rule XII. ( *.; /SV-: is in the imperative, a^^reeing with tJion or you, understood, by Rule VII. (3.) Adverb. '' (^i.) Noun. (/..) Conjunction. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf.j^art. risen" — and belongs to sun, by Kule IV. e::e?-ctses ix syntax coxtixued. " The settiucr sun reminds us of doclij- " Wo x\qx\- with pleasure the twinkling in a; years."' stars," ** The j-oai ino; winds alarm us." " The roaring; cataract strikes us with " The ripp!ing stream pleases us." awe." " The singing-master visited me." " The laboring man should not be de- frauded." 3. " Haying dined, I returned to school." " Having slept, he recovered his " Having fought bravely, they were at strength." last (1.) overcome." " Having retired to rest, he was seized "John, having exercised too violently, with violent p,?in." fainted." ' " The thief, having escaped, was never afterwards seen in that region." 4. " Williani returned mortified at his loss." " A child left to follow his own inclina" " The stream, swollen by the rains, over- tions is most commonly ruined." IJowed its banks." ** The man accustomed to Lis glass scl- " Admired and applauded, he became dom reforms." vain." 5. " We must not neglect any known duty." " A dissipated son grieves hisparents." '' My fiither took the forsaken youth into "Vrilliam befriended the deserted his own house, and rendered to him man," deserved assistance." "The men, being fatigued by labor, admonished to no efTect, was se- sought rest in sleep." veroly and justly punished." " William being dismissed from college, " The tree, having been weighed down retired to the country." for a long time by abundance of " Thomas, after having been repeatedly fruit, at la.st(l.)feIi*totIie ground." RULS XIT. Active participles from active-transitive vcrhs, govern the oh- jective case. '^ James is beating John.^' 500. Jolm is a proper noun, of the third pekjon, singular l^UMUER, MASCULINE GF.NDES, OBJECTIVE CASE, aud gOVemed b}' peating, b}^ Rule XIV. EXERCISES IX SYXTAX COXTIXUED. " John is striking William." "Having obtained my request, I imme- " Sysan is studying her lesson." diately set oft" for Richmond." "jiary has been repeating her lesson " I spied the cat watching a mouse." (1.) At Ia.?t is an adverbial phra.sc. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. -to her moiber." "Rnx^n^ given dircciious to his ser- **The teamster, seeing the stase upset- vants, he left his faiuily aud took .ting, ran aud pteventedit." the stage for Mobile. " He delights in fghti?ig.'^ 501. Fighfins^ is a participial noux, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. EXERCISES IX SYNTAX COXTIXUED. 1. " Job was exhausted by wrestling." " Job practices fencing dailv.'' "Marv acquired a hvelihood by sew- " The instructor teacher readiug,writing, 'ino-.'* 3nd spelliug, in his school." *• Walter excels iu writing." " Y\^hispering is forbidden iu school." " Fisliiug deiiirhts me." > 2. r>G2. *' You will much cUigc me hy sending those boohs.'" Sending is a participial noun, in the oejective cafe, and governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. Boohs is a co^.i.mon noun, of the third person, plural nu:,i- PER, neuter gender, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by the active participle sending, according to Rule XIV. EXERCISES IX SYNTAX COXTIXUED. " James derives pleasure from reading " Mary's reading has been useful in im- use.'ul books." proving her taste in composition." " John is above doing a mean action." " I am discouraged from undertaking '• Parents are pleased'at seeing the pro- this stud}-." gress 01 their children." " A good instructor takes no delight iu punishing." The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article W« before it, and the preposition of afier it ; as, " By the observing of truth, you will command respect." Vrith' equal propriety, however, it may be said, "By observing truth," dc, omitting l)oth tiie article and the preposition. If we use the article v»'ithout the preposition, or the preposition without the article, the ex- pression will appear awkward : hence. Note Vlll. The definite article the should be used before, and the preposition of after, participial noans, or they should both be omitted. EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. *' By the observing these rules, he will "In the regarding his interests, he avoid mistakes." neglected the pubHc affairs." *' lie prepared them for the event by " lie was sent to prepare the w.ay by the sending to them proper iufor- preaching of repentance." matiou." "Keeping of one day in seven (1.) is " In writing of his letter, he made some required of C'hriistians." mistakes. {I.) Seven is a numeral adjective, belonging to daps, understood, by Note I. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ^'William calls George." most shamefully." , *' John's father will reward his indus- "John will be puuishecf for his inso- try." ^^ Icuce." ■" George's father's carnage passed the " V>''e may improve under our in- tavern." structor, it we chr ose." " If William return, he will be disap- " Ke who would excel in learning, • pointed." must be attentive to his books." "'John has beaten his little brother *' She begins to improve." SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. TifiS. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive verb? One, containing- a neuter verb '? One, containing a passive verb V One, eipressiug the same sense as the last in an active loruiV Will 3'ou compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood? One, in the subjunctive mood? One, in the imperative mood V One, in the infinitive mood V One, havmg an adjectivu in the superlative degree? One, having tiie article an correctly used before a vowel? One, having an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a super- lative signification? One, containing the relative ^chose? One, containir;.'!; vkiehf One, with ivliat used as a compound pronoun? One, having wvio Ubcd • as an interrogative pronoun? One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, com- mon form? Will you construct one or more sentences, v/hich will make sense with the ■word twill contained in them? One, with the word vym/c??i contained in it? One; with the word kuowltdijuf One, with the word Uarniufjf One, with the •word scknctf Will you construct a sentence about prudence? One about liistory? One or more on the following subjects, namely, ijeogrophij, gardeniivj, farms, orchards? Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make sense, namely, " Industry health ?" " By — we acquire ?" " In youth characters ?'^ " Arithmetic business?" " Washington live hearts of his ?" XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 5()4. The verbs have, he, tvill and do, when they art unconnected with a prin- cipal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but ])riucipal verbs; as, *' We have enough ;" '' I am grateful ;" " lie nillff it to be so ;" " They do as they please." In this vie'./, they also have their auxiliaries; as, "I ihaU haid enough;" " I ivill be grateful," abroad;" " We sdall diuc at home;" "Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land;" "Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" "They shall account tor their misconduct." The following passage is not translated (3.) according to the dis- tinct and proper meanings of the words ;:iuaU and ivill : ** iSurely goodness and mercv shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of thu Lord'for ever." It ought to be, " 2i'i'/(; follow me," and, " I *Vta/^ dwell."— Th« foreigner who, as it is said, f-'ll into tiia Thames, and cried out, " I u'ill be dro'.'.Micd 1 nobody 6'7<.a^^ help me !" made a sad uiisapplication of these auxiliiwies. 671. These observations res])ecting the import (4.) of the verbs will andshall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence is interroga- tive, just the reverse, (5.; for the most part, takes place: thu.., "I fkall go," •• You 7i'i/({ go," express invent (6.) ouly; but, " WUi you go V" imports inten- tion ; and, '^ , Shall 1 go V" refers to the will of another. But, " He s/uill go," and, " :Sh'all he go V" both imply \vill ; expressing or referring to a command. 572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood the meaning of these aui- iliavics likewise undergoes (7.) some alteration ; as the learn'ers will readily per- ceive by a few examples : " lie shall proceed ;" " If he shall proceed ; " You s/ir will have. '2. Fut. 1 shall have done. I ^hail have had. 575. POTENTIAL ,MOOD. PrcK. T nifiy 0^' c^^ *^^- I "^^7 ^'^ can have. /<«>). I mighl-. could, would, or should I might, could, would, or should have. do. jWf. I may or can havo done. I may or can have had. Jilip. I might, could, would, or should I might, could, would, or should have have done. had. 57G. ' SUBJUXCTIV2 MOOD. Pres. 1. If I cJo. If I have, kc. 57,r-l. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pres. Do you, or Do yoti do. Have you, or Do you have. (1.) To shun the truth. (i.jShows. (S.) Expressed. (4.) Meaning. , ' (5.) Contrary. (»>.) What happens. (7. ") Sailers. (S.) To exchange one for tbeother, " (? In -he first place. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8i m. INFINITIVE MOOD. P.-ri^. To do. To bavo. Brf. To have done. * To have had. 5:8. PARTICirLES. Fres. Doing. Having. Ferf. Done. * Had. <:Q?nj>. per/. Having done. Having had. L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses. 580. The following are the principal ones : F/'^. Tense. hn]). Tense. Ferf. Fariidplt. May, iOght, (Wanting.) Can, Could, Will, Would, Shall, Should, Must, Must, Ought, Ought, Quoth, 551. Of these, ou." The sense of' the verb, in this case, is also materially affected by the preposition. 59S. The prepositions aHei\ before, abave, beneath, and several others, some- times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered ; as, " They had their re- ward soon after f' " He died not long before f " He dwells above :'' but if the noun ^vj/ze or »/ac^(j be added, they lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long before" [that time,] &c. ,599. There is a pecuhar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the difterent prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following sentences • (1.) .l/(Jitt.t?crysa^-." " was dancing." Will vou supply verbs in the following? " A dutiful child his parents." " Grammar ■ us correctly." Will yoa comnosc two or more sentences about boys? One, about wTiales? One about sMfiKsV One, aboMt foxes? One, ahontpm'ents ? One,ahoMibiothers? One about sisters f One, abont uudes F One, about aunts .^ LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to con- nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one. 603 Rela+ive pronoun's, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; •>" "Blessed is the man wlu) feareth the Lord." 604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they ^.^Pj^'^ar to unite only rds; gences. words^- as in the following sentences : " Duty and interest foroid vicio,us indul- ffences'." '" Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expression (1 ) The sense is, " He made the moon." Mxm, then, is in theobjective easo, NOUV. Oi' l\lQ FIRST Pi^KSOX, SINGULAR, OBjECTivi: CASE, and governed by ah, agreeably to ?'^ote X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. '• 0, thou (1.. who hast murdered tb}' "Ah! unhappy (-2.) thon, who art dea friend!" " (3.J to the calls of duty and honor." *' 0, thnu who hcarsst prayer!" " Oh ! happy (4.) us, surrounded with so '• Ah, nie! must I endure all thisV" many"rjlessinj.j.s." SENTENCES TO BE ^VRITTEN. 611. "Will you compose a sentence containing «7as.? One, containing oh? One, about volcanoes? One, about lakes? One, about idamh? One, about Webster, the statesman ? One, about a good scholar ? One, about a poor scholar ? One, about a good uistrucior? LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. Gi2. Apposition, in graminar, signifies the patting of two iioans in the same c;ise P.13. When I say, "John, the mechanic, has come," I am speaking of only one person ; the two nouns John and medtanic, bofh nieuuing or referring to the'sam* person ; consequently they are put, by apposi:ion, in the same case : hence, When two or 7nore -nouns, in ike same sentence, signify the same thivo;. Vhpij are put, hy appositior, in the same case. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 614. " Wiihsler the states?nan has left us." Statesman is a common noun, mascuhne gender, third per- son, SINGITLAR T'UMRER, NOMINATIVE CASE, Jllld put in apposltiOH with Webster, by IIuleXV. E?:ERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. *' John the Baptist was beheaded," "Cicero, the orator, flourished in the " David, the thief, was apprehended." time of Catiline, the conspirator." .♦• Johnson, the bookseller, has failed in "I visit Thompson, the professor, business." often." " I consulted Williams, the lawyer." " John, the miller, died yesterday." 2. " If John will cot go, I will go my- " We will inspect the goods our- self." (5.) ^ selves." " You yourself are in fault." " I, I am the man who committed the ** They themselves were mistaken." deed." (1.) For fho>j; applv Note XI. (2.) Agrees with fhot/, by Rule IV. (3.-^ TJ-^lono-* i.-> '/!•/-.■. bv Rnle TV. (^-.^ Apply Rule IV. (o.) Mi/self is a compound person.il pronoun, first person, singular, nomina- tirc cjise, and put in apposition with /, by Rule XV. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 Eemarh 1. — L'or the same reason that one noun agrees with another in case, it agrees with it in number and person also. " I, Alexander, by the grace of God, '* We, the representatives of the people emperor of all the Russians, pro- of tliese colonies, do make this mulgate this law." declaration." _ Ilemarh 2.— When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one so quali- fying becomes an adjectife iu sense, and may be so considered in parsing. Accordingly, Treinont, in the phrase, " Tremont House," is an adjective belong- ing to IIov.sc, hy Rule IV. 615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. "The Marlborough Hotel is situated " John Dobson was in town vesterdav." in Waohiugtou street." " John Joliuson, the blacksmith, hus " The firm of Messrs. Williams & Sons, broken hi.s leg." has failed." Iiemarh 3. — "When the nouns which refer to the same pcr;ton or ihii;<: v.iq t^cp?.- rated by verbs ; as, " Vr^ebster is a statesman," it is. customary to apply oue or more of the following rules : 1. Anij verb may liave the sajne case ofUr it as bf/ore it, ivhiin bcHi, ivoi-ds ruj'cr to the same thing. 2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as that which next 2)recedes it. 3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, d'c. have the same cane oftur them as before thsiii. 4. Neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them. 616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unneces- sary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him to make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle, la corrob- oration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark : — 617. " By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no government o^ case, but serves iu all its forms us a conductor to the cases ; £o thr.t the two cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible by observing that the words, in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, 'I understood it to be him * the words it and him are iu apposition ; that is, they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 1. " Webster is a statesman." , " She moves a queen." (1.) " John is a good scholar." ' • " JuUus Cec-sar was that Roman general *' William will become a distinguished who conquered the Gauls." and valuable citizen." " Tom struts a soldier." (1.) " She walks a queen." (1.) " Will sneaks a sciivencr." •'He is styled Lord (i.) Mayor (1.) of "Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, a London." senseless fellow, obtained the «' He was named John." (1.) kingdom." 2. " Susan took her to be Mary." (1.) (.2) Adams." (1.) " I took him to be John (2. ) Ogden." " She is not now the person whom they *' We at first took it to be her, but after- represented her (1.) to have wards were convinced that (3.) been." it was not she." a.) Apply Rule XV. (2.) Remark 2. (3.) CoDJunction. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAIL ' "He is not the person who (4.) il seem- "Whom (D.) do you fancy ihem to edhewas." be?" " I uuderstood it to be him (1.) w' professor was appointed tutor to the son of Mr. (2.) John Q. ..le prince." Bemarh 3. — It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omitttid; ag, " They made hin: captai;'. ;" that is, to be captain. 3. "They named him John." " Tlv-y procU.imed him khisr." " The soldiers made him o-eneral." " His countrymen crowned him am- peror." 619. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "It mi^ht have been him, (G.) but there "She is the person who I understood is no proof (7.) of it." it to have been." " Though I vras bhvmed, it could not " Who do you think me to be ?" have been me." "Whom do men say that I ain V" " I saw one who I took to be she." " Whom think ye that I am?" rj20. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition? One, having noung in apposition, but separated by a verb? One, having a noun used as an Ji(ll6CtiVG ? Will you construct a sentence having in it the word wliof One, having ivhose? One, having v:liom,f One, having wMt? One, having that? One, having mem? One, having woman? One, having buy? One, having girUf One, liaving imrmU? LVL OF NOUI\^S USED INDEPENDENTLY. 621. To a^'ir^As signifies to !>,r>mhto ; as, " James, your father has come." The name of the person addressed must always be of the second person ; and a noun ia this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, and is wholly disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent. Hence, RUIiS XVI. When an address is made, the name of the person or thing addressed is in the nominative case independent. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 622, ''John, will you assist me?'' John is a proper noun, of the second person, singui.ar NUMBER, M.'VSCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, according to Rule XVI. (1.) Apply Rule XV. (2.) Remark 2. (4.) Who is put in apposition with he by Rule XY. (».) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV. (6.) IRm should be he to agree with it, according to Rule XV. (7.) Apply Rule YI. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . S9 E?^ERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. "'My lords, (1.) the time lam come " Rafus, you must improve jour time.'* when we must take some deci- " Geutlenicn of the jury." give measures." "James, (1.) study {2.) your book." " iu making tliis appeal to you, my " Willium, do try to a;et your isssoa fellow-citizecs, 1 rely entirely ou lo-duy." fi your cuudor." 2. "Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of bit- " Girls, come into school." terncbs spring up among you." ** Did you speak to me, girls?" LVII. OF NOUNS IN THP^ CASE ABSOLUTE. fi23. Iu the phrase, "The sun being risen, we set sail," the first clause of the sentence, namely, "The sun being risen," has notliing to do with th» remainder: the noun and participle may^ therefore, when taken together, be said to be in the nominative case independent ; but as we have already one case of this nature, we will, for the suke of making a distinction, call this (the noun joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. lieuce, A noun or pronoun before a participle^ and independent of the rest of the sentence^ is in the nominative case absolute. f.2■ come, we shoulil read Jiavecovle, that the verb may be plural, when it has two nominatives connected by and, according to Rule XVII I. .Exceptioji 1. — When and connects two or more ncuus in the singular, which refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular; as, " Pliny, the phi- losopher and naturalist, has grtatly enriched science." 6S3. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " Tiiat superficial scholar and critichave " In that house Hva a great and distin- given new evidence of his mis- guished scholar and staTesir.an." guided judgment." "Mr. Cooper, the sailor and novelist, " There go a benevolent man and schol- visit La Eafayette, the patriot and ar/' philanthropist." Exception 2.— Vv^hen two or more nouus in the singular, connected by and, have *'ac'7i or er<5;'y joined with them, the verb must be in the singular nir.nber; as, *' Every person, every house, and every blade of grass, was destroyed." '634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "Every man, and every woman, and " Each man and each woman, were par- every child, were taken." ticularly alluded to in the report of " Every tree, stick and twig, were con- the afi'air." sunied." B.emarJc.— 'V/et'e,\nih(ifi.v?,i of these examples, should be changed for toa^, because reference is had to each person, individual!}' considered, which, in respect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken of. Note. XV. — Every 's sometimes associated with a plural, noun, in which case the verb must be singular; as, "Every hundred years constitutes a century.*' 635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "Every twenty-four hours afford to us " Every four years add another day to the vicissitudes of day and night.' the ordinary number of days in a year." RemarJc. — AJford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should be ajfords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that " every twenty- four hours," signifies a singleperiod of time, and is, therefore, in reality singular. §2 ENGLISH GRAMMAPw. NoTs XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree Vvith a col- lective noun in the singular, when a part only of the indi- viduals are meant ; as, "The council were divided in their sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, the verb should be singular ; as, " The council was coiii- ])0sed wholly of iarmers." Eemarhs.—ln the foreiroing example, we use the plural v^vowere divided, be- cause we refer to the iudividuals composing the council ; but if no ullutiion of this sort had been made, aud we had spoken o\ \\, as one entire body, we should have used the sin<^ular verb, according to the coLauiou rule; as, " Tlie council is com- posed wholly of fiirmers." We apply to council, in the first example. Note XVI. ; to were divided, the same noie; aud to council, and was compo^^d iu the second exaa^ole Rules VI. aud VXI. C36. EXERCISES IX STKTAX. *' The council were divided in their sen- *' Yij people do not consider." timents." " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure " A part of the men were murdered." as their chief good?' 6G7. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. ** My people doth liot consider." " The committee was divided in their "The people rejoices in that which sentiments, and has referred th« sijould give it sorrow." business to a general meeting." "The multitude rushes to certain dcs- tructiot." 633. J^e^ative means denying / and aff^rmaiive, afssrtiyig or dcdan;irjiiofrdively . A sentence in which somethmg'i.s denied is a negative one, and a sentence in which something is aliirmed or positively assertefd, is an affirmative one. '* Vice degrades us," is an alHrmative sentence, and "Labor does not injure us," is :> negative one. ^Not, not Hng, none at all, by no means y no, in no wise , neither , no, 'p/jU'\ dbc, are negative terms. The phrase, '• I have nothing," has one negative, and means, "I have not anything." The phrase, "I have not nothing," cannot mean the same as "I have nothinpji" but muf t mean, on the contrary, " I liave something." This last, jou perceive, is aa afiirmative sentence, and signifies the same as the foregoing one, " I hay-« not nothing."- Two negatives, therefore, are equal to an aiiirma- tive. Hence, RULE XIZ. Two negatives in the same sentence, are equivalent to an offirmaiive. G.39. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " He spends all the day in idleness, and "Befl.) honest, nor (2.) take (3.) no X cannot prevail on him to do shape nor semblance of disguise." nothing." " . " Ho is so (4.) indolent, that he will not "He cannot get no employment in do nothing." town." <' I did not say nothing." (\.) .Be agrees with tJ'Oic or j/o?^ understood, by Rule VII. (2.) For 710?', read cW. (3. ) Ta^ce is in the imprit^?tive mood, apd agrees with fho2/ or yon undcrstoofl, und is therefore connected to. b'', accoiding to Rule XI. (4.) Adverb. EXGLISH GRAMMAP. 93 " I cannot by no means coaser>t/' "Hccrinnot do nothing acceptfible lo " I shall not take no interfi:it in the affair." John." *■' I nevor studied no grammar." Jiemccrt':.-— For nothin