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DUKE 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 
 
 DIVINITY SCHOOL 
 LIBRARY 
 

 
THE WORKER AND WORK SERIES 
 
 THE JUNIOR WORKER AND WORK 
 JOSEPHINE L. BALDWIN 
 
 THE ADULT WORKER AND HIS WORK 
 WADE CRAWFORD BARCLAY 
 
 a 
 LYNDON B. PHIFER 
 
 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 FREDERICK CARL EISELEN 
 
 wt. - 
 WADE CRAWFORD BARCLAY 
 
 THE BEGINNERS’ WORKER AND WORK 
 FREDERICA BEARD 
 
 THE SUPERINTENDENT 
 
 FRANK L. BROWN 
 
 LEADERS OF YOUTH 
 HUGH HENRY HARRIS 
 
 THE WORKER AND HIS CHURCH 
 ERIC McCOY NORTH 
 
 LEADERS OF YOUNG PEOPLE 
 FRANK WADE SMITH 
 
 PRIMARY WORKER AND WORK 
 MARION THOMAS 
 
 
 
THe WorKER AND WorkK SERIES 
 HENRY H. MEYER, Epiror 
 
 THE WORKER AND 
 HIS BIBLE 
 
 By 
 F. C. EISELEN and 
 WADE CRAWFORD BARCLAY 
 
 Approved by the Committee on Curriculum 
 of the Board of Sunday Schools of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church 
 
 THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN 
 NEW YORK CINCINNATI 
 
 
 
Copyright, 1909, by 
 THE BOARD OF SUNDAY SCHOOLS 
 OF THE 
 METHODIST EpPIscopAL CHURCH 
 
 Printed in the United States of America 
 
 First Edition Printed October, 1909 
 
 Reprinted March and November, 1911; April and October, 1912; June and 
 October, 1913; February, 1914; February and November, 1915; February, 
 March, September, October, and November, 1916; April, 1917; January, 1918, 
 December, 1919; February, July, and December, 1920; June, 1921; March 
 and November, 1922; October, 1923; January and September, 1924; February 
 and April, 1925; January and October, 1926; February, March and October, 
 1927; January, 1928. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAR 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Tue Brste—A Bopy oF LIteRATURE + - . 7 
 
 Il. THE BisLE—ReEcorDs oF DIVINE REVELATION. - 16 
 
 III. How We Gor Our BIBLe - - = = » 23 
 
 IV. Wuy Stupy THE BIBLE ° - . : 5 35 
 
 V. How Stupy THE BIBLE - . - . ° - 46 
 PART II 
 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 VI. THrE HistoricaAL PoRTIONS OF THE PENTATEUCH AND 
 JosHUA Sy ee ime etaotem «Sesh ieee 59 
 VII. THE LrcAL PorTIONS OF THE PENTATEUCH : 68 
 VIII. THE JupGEs AND THE UNITED MONARCHY - - 76 
 
 IX. THE DivipeD MONARCHY, THE EXILE, AND THE 
 RESTORATION : - - - : - -. 87 
 
 X. THE DevoTIoNAL LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTA- 
 MENT - : < : : . . . 99 
 XI. THE Wispom LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT III 
 
 XII. THE Hesrew PROPHETS TO THE CLOSE OF THE 
 EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. - ° : ° ° 124 
 
 XIII. THe PrRoPpHETS SUBSEQUENT TO THE EIGHTH CEN- 
 SOUR Ys DanC. a) srs gat he 11 =) ees ae) elec IER) 
 
 364624 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART III 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 New TESTAMENT TIMES + - ° = bs 
 THE Lire of Jesus - ~- » pelea mn 
 . THE GOSPELS, - . - ; = a= 
 
 THE ACTS AND THE BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 
 ‘THz Lrre AND LETTERS OF PAUL - - - 
 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL—CONTINUED - 
 THE GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION ~~ 
 
PART I 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
 THE BIBLE 
 
 By F. C. EISELEN 
 
 364024 
 

 
CHAPTER T 
 THE BIBLE—A BODY OF LITERATURB 
 
 1. The Bible a Collection of Books. The word Bible is 
 derived from the Greek. It is the plural form biblia of a 
 noun biblion, which may be translated “Little Book.” From 
 the Greek language the word passed into the Latin, where 
 biblia came to be regarded as a noun in the singular. As 
 such it was early adopted into the language of the western 
 Church, and it is so used in the languages of modern Europe. 
 The use of the noun as a singular is responsible for much 
 misapprehension, because the Bible can never be rightly ap- 
 preciated unless it is borne in mind that it is not so much 
 one book as a library consisting of-many books, written by 
 different authors, in different times and places, and repre- 
 senting different stages of religious and ethical development. 
 There are sixty-six separate writings in the collection as 
 found in the modern English translations. The Bible is di- 
 vided into two great divisions called the Old Testament and 
 the New Testament respectively. The designation Testa- 
 - ment is somewhat misleading. It arose from an accidental 
 mistranslation into Latin of a Greek word meaning covenant, 
 which in turn goes back to a Hebrew word having the same 
 meaning. Hence it would be far more accurate to speak of 
 the Old Covenant and the New Covenant; and, indeed, one 
 of the early Church fathers speaks of “the divine Scriptures, 
 the so-called Old and New Covenants.” We have, then, in 
 the Old and New Testaments various records of thé two 
 
 7 
 
8 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 dispensations, or covenants, centering in Moses and Jesus 
 respectively. 
 
 2. Contents of the Old Testament. Of the sixty-six 
 books in the Bible, thirty-nine belong to the Old Testament, 
 twenty-seven to the New. The thirty-nine books of the Old 
 Testament are ordinarily arranged in four groups: 
 
 I. Law—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deu- 
 TEFONOMY 2 ccc esas oda cic un clclealeneaen 0 Kawamiey > 
 
 II, History—Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 
 I and 2 Kings, I and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Ne- 
 
 hemiah, Esther ......:00%.ssunisaeenen Secon ee 
 III. Poetry—Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
 
 Song of Songs........ 0. Joe cee eee ys 
 IV. Prophecy—(1) Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jere- 
 
 miah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel........... 5 
 
 (2) Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, 
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, 
 Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi....... 12 
 
 3. Contents of the New Testament. The twenty-seven 
 books of the New Testament may be arranged in three 
 groups: 
 
 I. Historical—The Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, 
 John; The Acts. 25.....scenneene <ikenie teste sae ey 
 II. Doctrinal—The Epistles: Romans, 1 and 2 Co- 
 rinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 
 Colossians, I and 2 Thessalonians, I and 2 
 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, James, 
 I and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 3 John, Jude........ 25 
 4II. Apocalyptic—Revelation ..... ooo evn elena 
 
 I 
 Total .:. dig ee! 
 
A BODY OF LITERATURE 9 
 
 The four Gospels portray, from different viewpoints, the 
 life, teaching, and work of Jesus; Acts records the founding 
 of the Christian Church and its earliest history, centering 
 the account chiefly around the experiences of Peter and Paul. 
 The doctrinal books are in the form of letters, written by 
 the leaders of the Christian movement to Churches and in- 
 dividuals for the purpose of instructing them more fully in 
 the faith and aiding them in various crises confronting the 
 Christians during the early years of the Church’s history. 
 Revelation is in the form of a vision portraying the ultimate 
 triumph of the kingdom of God. 
 
 4. Different Kinds of Literature in the Old Testament. 
 The Bible contains sublime specimens of history, law, poetry, 
 oratory, in fact, of almost every kind of literature known 
 outside of the Bible. To the inquiry concerning the reason 
 of these different kinds of literature the writer of the Epistle 
 to the Hebrews suggests an answer in the words (1:1) 
 “God having spoken . . . im divers mamnners;” which 
 means that in His attempt to reach the human heart and 
 conscience God used different methods and means. For ex- 
 ample, God may reveal Himself in the events of history, or 
 He may make His appeal through the object lessons of the 
 ritual and ceremonial; He may use as mediators especially 
 well qualified individuals, to whom He can make Himself 
 known, or He may dispense with the external means and 
 influence more directly the human soul. These are some of 
 the means by which God makes Himself known to-day, and 
 these are some of the means by which God made Himself 
 known during the period covered by the Biblical records. It 
 is self-evident that when attempts are made to record or 
 interpret these various manifestations of God different kinds 
 of literature must be used, in order to portray most vividly 
 the truth or truths expressed by God. The several kinds 
 of literature, therefore, are the natural outgrowth of the 
 manifold modes of divine revelation. In the Old Testa- 
 ment five kinds of literature may be distinguished: the Pro- 
 
to THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 phetic, the Wisdom, the Devotional, the Legal or Priestly. 
 and the Historical. In their production four classes of re- 
 ligious workers were active: the Prophets, the Wise Men, 
 the Priests (compare Jer. 18:18), and the Psalmists. 
 
 a. The Prophetic Literature of the Old Testament. The 
 Prophetic Literature owes its origin to prophetic activity. 
 The prophets towered above their contemporaries through 
 purity of character, strength of intellect, sincerity of purpose, 
 intimacy of communion with God, and special illumination by 
 the Divine Spirit. As a result of these qualifications they 
 were able to see facts and understand truths hidden from 
 the eyes and minds of those who did not live in the same 
 intimate fellowship with Jehovah. Their high conceptions of 
 the character of God enabled them to appreciate the divine 
 ideals of righteousness, and they sought with flaming en- 
 thusiasm to impress the truths burning in their hearts upon 
 their less enlightened contemporaries. In carrying out this 
 purpose they became statesmen, social reformers, and re- 
 ligious and ethical teachers. No records have been preserved 
 of the utterances of the earliest prophets; but when, with the 
 general advance in culture, reading and writing became more 
 common, the prophets, anxious to reach a wider circle and 
 to preserve their messages for more willing ears, put their 
 messages into writing; and to this new departure we owe 
 the sublime specimens of prophetic literature in the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 b. The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament. In his 
 direct appeal to heart and conscience the ancient prophet re- 
 sembles the modern preacher. Like the prophet and the 
 preacher, the Wise Man sought to make the Divine will 
 known to others, but in his method he resembles rather the 
 modern religious teacher. His ultimate aim was to influence - 
 conduct and life, but instead of appealing directly to the con- 
 science, he addressed himself primarily to the mind through 
 counsel anc argument, hoping that his appeal to the com- 
 mon sense of the listener would make an impression, the 
 
A BODY OF LITERATURE 11 
 
 effects of which might be seen in transformed conduct. The 
 prophet would have said to the lazy man, “Thus saith Je- 
 hovah, Go to work, thou indolent man.” Proverbs 24: 30-34 
 may serve as an illustration of the method of the Wise Men: 
 
 “T went by the field of the slothful, 
 And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding; 
 And lo, it was all grown over with thorns, 
 The face thereof was covered with nettles, 
 And the stone wall thereof was broken down. 
 Then I beheld; and considered well: 
 I saw, and received instruction. 
 Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, 
 A little folding of the hands to sleep: 
 So shall thy poverty come as a robber, 
 And thy want as an armed man.” 
 
 Nothing escaped the observation of these men; and from 
 beginning to end they emphasized the important truth that 
 religion and the daily life are inseparable. From giving 
 simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation, 
 - and the Books of Job and Ecclesiastes bear witness that the 
 problems they attempted to solve were no mean problems. 
 
 c. The Devotional Literature of the Old Testament. In 
 a real sense the entire Old Testament is a book of devotion. 
 It is the outgrowth of a spirit of intense devotion to Je- 
 hovah, and it has helped in all ages to nurture the devo- 
 tional spirit of its readers. Here, however, the term devo- 
 tional is used in the narrower sense of those poetic compo- 
 sitions which are primarily the expressions of the religious 
 experience or emotions of the authors, caused and fostered 
 by their intimate fellowship with Jehovah. The chief repre- 
 sentative of this literature is the Book of Psalms, which is 
 aptly described by Johannes Arndt in these words, “What 
 the heart is in man that is the Psalter in the Bible.” The 
 Psalms contain, in the form of sacred lyrics, the outpour-~ 
 ings of devout souls, prophets, priests, kings, wise men, and 
 peasants, who came into the very presence of God, held 
 
12 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 communion with Him, and were privileged to hear the sweet 
 sound of His voice. No other literary compositions lift us 
 into such atmosphere of religious thought and emotion. And 
 because these lyrics express personal experiences, they may 
 be used even to-day to express the various emotions of joy, 
 sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, and others, of persons who 
 live on even a higher plane than did the original authors. 
 
 d. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament. The Le- 
 gal Literature of the Old Testament differs from the other 
 kinds in that it does not form separate books, but is em- 
 bodied in other writings, principally in the books of Exodus, 
 Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. All the representa- 
 tives of Jehovah—prophets, priests, wise men, and even 
 psalmists—were thought competent to make known the Law 
 of Jehovah, but the Old Testament makes it clear that at 
 a comparatively early period the giving of the law came 
 to be looked upon as the special duty of the priests. These 
 priests constituted a very important class of religious workers 
 among the ancient Hebrews. During the greater part of the 
 national life of Israel their chief functions were the care of 
 the sanctuary and the performance of the ceremonial rites, 
 but alongside of that they continued to administer the Law 
 of Jehovah, consisting not only of ceremonial regulations, 
 but also of moral and judicial precepts and directions. For 
 centuries these laws may have been transmitted by word of 
 mouth, or were only partially committed to writing, but when 
 circumstances made it desirable to codify them and put them 
 in writing, the priests would be called upon to take this 
 advance step. Thus, while it is. quite probable that other 
 representatives of Jehovah helped to formulate laws, the legal 
 literature embodied in the Old Testament reached its final 
 form under priestly influence. 
 
 e. The Historical Literature of the Old Testament. The 
 historical literature of the Old Testament furnishes an inter- 
 pretation of the movements of God in the events of history. 
 
A BODY OF LITERATURE 13 
 
 it owes its origin in part to prophetic, in part to priestly, 
 activity. The prophet was an ambassador of Jehovah, ap- 
 pointed to make known the Divine will concerning the past, 
 the present, and the future. Of the present he spoke as a 
 preacher; when his message concerned the future, it tcok 
 the form of prediction. But the case might arise that the 
 people failed to understand the significance of events in their 
 own history, and thus failed to appreciate the lessons which 
 the events were intended to teach. If the lessons were not 
 to be lost, some one must serve as an interpreter; and who 
 would be better qualified than the prophet to furnish the 
 right interpretation? This demand made of him, in a sense, 
 an historian; not for the purpose of merely recording events, 
 but of interpreting them at the same time; and these pro- 
 phetic interpretations are embodied in the historical litera- 
 ture. But not all Old Testament history comes from the 
 prophets. As already indicated, the legal and ceremonial 
 literature is due to priestly activity. Now, in connection 
 with the recording of the laws, customs, institutions, and 
 ceremonial requirements, the origin of these laws and cus- 
 toms became a matter of interest and importance. This 
 interest, and the demand for information arising from it, 
 led the priests also to become historians; and to these 
 priestly writers we are indebted for not a small part of 
 sacred history. 
 
 5. Various Kinds of New Testament Literature. Several 
 distinct kinds of literature may be recognized in the New 
 Testament. All its writings center around Jesus the Christ, 
 and in one way or another seek to interpret the supreme 
 revelation of God in and through Him. Jesus was an 
 historical person; His life and activity were historical events. 
 It is but natural, therefore, that the New Testament should 
 contain historical writings, namely, the Gospels, whose pri- 
 mary purpose is to record and interpret the life and activity 
 of Jesus. The work of establishing the kingdom of God 
 upon earth, begun by Jesus, was continued by His disciples, 
 
14 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 and assumed organized form in the formation of Churches, 
 The progress of these events is recorded in another histor- 
 tcal book, entitled The Acts. 
 
 Every new movement gives rise to problems and per- 
 plexities. Christianity was no exception. Very soon per- 
 plexing questions began to disturb the newly organized 
 Churches. Individuals failed to grasp the true significance 
 of the new teaching; corruption and schisms threatened to 
 disrupt the believers. In these extremities the leaders in the 
 new faith were appealed to for guidance and inspiration. 
 Since they could not visit all the places where Christians 
 sought their counsel, they sometimes sent their advice in the 
 form of letters, which practice has given rise to the ex- 
 tensive epistolary literature in the New Testament. The 
 closing book, Revelation, is the only one of its kind in the 
 New Testament Canon. It has its counterparts in the Old 
 Testament in the Book of Daniel, and portions of the Books 
 of Ezekiel and Zechariah. It belongs to what is commonly 
 called apocalyptic literature, the latest form of prophetic 
 writing. Revelation is the outgrowth of the early Christian 
 persecutions, and its aim is to encourage the distressed Chris- 
 tians by the assurance of the ultimate triumph of the king- 
 dom of God. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The Bible a collection of books. 
 
 Contents of the Old Testament. 
 
 Contents of the New ‘Testament. 
 
 Different kinds of Old Testament literature, 
 Different kinds of New Testament literature, 
 
 Bibliography: 
 
 Kirkpatrick, “The Divine Library of the Old Testament.” 
 Kent, “The Origin and Permanent Valve of the Old Testa- 
 ment,” 
 
A BODY OF LITERATURE 15 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Wisdom literature in the Old Testament in other than dis- 
 tinctively Wisdom Books. 
 2. The earliest psalms, or songs, of the Old Testament. 
 3. The forms of literature in the Old Testament in detail. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 1. What are the groups of Old Testament books? 
 2. Discuss the various functions of the prophet. 
 3. In what various ways has God made Himself known to 
 
 man? 
 4. The kinds of literature in the Old Testament, with ex- 
 amples. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE BIBLE—RECORDS OF DIVINE 
 REVELATION 
 
 1. The New Testament Estimate of the Bible. From the 
 very beginning until now the Christian Church has looked 
 upon the Bible as one of the most useful means to promote 
 intelligent and vital piety, to intensify spiritual life and ex- 
 perience, to instruct in Christian activity and service. This 
 conviction, as far as the Old Testament is concerned, finds 
 expression in unambiguous language in 2 Tim. 3: 15-17: “The 
 sacred writings are able to make wise unto salvation through 
 faith which is in Christ Jesus. Every Scripture inspired 
 of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for cor- 
 rection, for instruction which is in righteousness, that the 
 man of God may be complete, furnished completely unto 
 every good work.” What is said here of the Old Testament 
 is equally true of the Scriptures of the New Testament. In 
 he words of Cyprian, one of the early Church fathers, “The 
 more closely one scrutinizes the sacred Scriptures of both 
 Testaments, the greater increase in faith and inward deyo- 
 tion will he derive therefrom.” Since these words were 
 spoken, thousands of the most eminent men and women in 
 all conditions of life and society have testified to the ines- 
 timable value of the Bible as a means of grace to the in- 
 dividual, and an essential factor in all advancement of true 
 civilization. 
 
 What gives to the Bible this unique power? The answer 
 to this inquiry is implied in the above quoted words of the 
 
 16 
 
RECORDS OF DIVINE REVELATION 17 
 
 apostle, “Every scripture inspired of God.” The presence 
 of divine inspiration is the secret of the Bible’s power. 
 That such a. divine element was present in the Old Tes- 
 tament was recognized by Jesus and all New Testament 
 writers. And surely it is a significant fact that in the first 
 outburst of Christian enthusiasm, and under the living im- 
 pression of the unique personality of the Master, no doubt 
 arose concerning the inspiration and permanent value of the 
 Old Testament. In 2 Peter 1:21 the unqualified assertion is 
 made that “no prophecy ever came by the will of man, but 
 men spake from God as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.” 
 And the first great apologist of Christianity opens the Epistle 
 to the Hebrews with these significant words, “God having 
 of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers 
 portions, and in divers manners hath in the end of these days 
 spoken unto us in a Son.” If such assertion can be made 
 of the Old Testament, how much more of the New, with 
 its superior spiritual and ethical teaching! 
 
 To avoid misunderstanding it may be well to bear in 
 mind in the very beginning what the New Testament says 
 or implies concerning the purpose and aim of Biblical teach- 
 ing. For it is of the greatest importance to remember that 
 we can learn what the Bible is only from what the Bible 
 itself says. Now, everywhere in the New Testament it is 
 stated or clearly implied that the purpose of Scripture is to 
 point to the Christ, to bring man into harmony with God, to 
 make him morally and spiritually perfect, and to furnish 
 him “unto every good work.” Not one passage in the whole 
 Bible warrants the belief that the Biblical writers ever in- 
 tended to teach physical science, or history, or philosophy, 
 or psychology. Therefore we may expect that where the 
 Biblical writers touch upon questions of science or history 
 they develop them only to the extent that they serve the 
 higher religious or ethical purpose. For this, absolute scien- 
 tific or historical accuracy in every detail is by no means 
 necessary. 
 
 2 
 
a THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 2. Truths Suggested in Hebrews 1:1, 2. The words 
 quoted from the Epistle to the Hebrews suggest or imply 
 five great truths which have an important bearing upon the 
 present inquiry: (1) God spoke. (2) God spoke through 
 human agents. (3) God spoke in divers portions. (4) God 
 spoke in divers manners. (5) The speaking during the Old 
 Testament dispensation—to it refers the expression “of old 
 time”—was incomplete; it had to be supplemented and per- 
 fected by a revelation in and through a Son. In order to 
 appreciate properly the nature and purpose of the Scriptures, 
 all these truths must be borne in mind. It is especially im- 
 portant to remember that God used human agents in the 
 attempt to make Himself known to men, and these agents 
 left the marks of their human limitations in the records. 
 But it is equally essential to remember that it is God who 
 spoke; in other words, that there is a divine element in the 
 Bible. 
 
 3. Evidences of the Presence of a Divine Element. Noth- 
 ing can be gained by denying the presence of a human ele- 
 ment in the Bible. At the same time it should not be over- 
 estimated, or blind the eyes to the other truth expressed by 
 the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, that there is also 
 a divine element in the writings of the Bible. As far as 
 the Old Testament is concerned this was recognized by Jesus 
 and all the New Testament writers. Their testimony should 
 carry great weight with Christians. But without appealing 
 to such authority, every unbiased reader may convince him- 
 self of the nature and character of the book. It is ready for 
 examination and invites the closest scrutiny on the part of 
 every student. , 
 
 Former generations based the principal arguments in favor 
 of the belief in a divine element in the Bible upon the pres- 
 ence of miracles in its records, and the fulfillment of 
 prophecy. The present generation, while still using these 
 arguments, places greater stress upon evidences which are 
 simpler and more easily apprehended. Three of the most 
 
RECORDS CF DIVINE REVELATION 19 
 
 important may be considered here: (1) The essential unity 
 of the book; (2) the response of the human heart and con- 
 science to its message, and the effects it produces in the 
 lives of those who yield themselves to its teaching; (3) the 
 uniqueness of the Bible as seen when it is compared with. 
 other sacred literatures of antiquity. 
 
 a. The Essential Unity of the Bible. In the first place, 
 then, attention may be called to the essential unity of the 
 Bible. There are in the Old World great and magnificent 
 cathedrals, some of which have been centuries in building, 
 yet in all of them is complete unity and harmony. How 
 can this be explained? Although generation after genera- 
 tion multitudes of workmen have labored on the enterprise, 
 back of all the efforts was one single plan, evolved in the 
 mind of one man, and this mind controlled all the succeed- 
 ing generations of workmen. The result is unity and har- 
 mony. The Bible has been likened to a magnificent cathe- 
 dral. The phenomenon to which reference has just been 
 made in connection with ancient cathedrals may be seen in 
 it. It contains sixty-six books—by how many authors no 
 one knows—scattered over a period of more than a thou- 
 sand years, written, at least many of them, independent of 
 one another, in places hundreds of miles apart; yet one 
 thought running throughout them all, the gradual unfolding 
 of God’s flan of redemption for the human race. There must 
 be an explanation for this unity; and I believe that it is to 
 be found in the one spirit which dwelt in and somehow in- 
 fluenced the men who made contributions to the Book. 
 
 b. The Response of the Human Heart and Conscience ta 
 the Bible Message. The proof of the presence of a divine 
 element in the Bible which is derived from the essential unity 
 of the Book is confirmed by the response of the human heart 
 and conscience to its message, and the effects which it pro- 
 duces in the lives of those who yield themselves to its teach- 
 ing. Never has there been a book that has been able to “find” 
 
20 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 men as the Bible has done generation after generation, among 
 peoples in all stations of society, in all lands and climes. The 
 bearing of this remarkable fact upon the question of the di- 
 vine inspiration of the Bible is stated very aptly by Coleridge 
 in his Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures: “Need 
 I say that I have found everywhere more or less copious 
 sources of truth, and power, and purifying impulses; that I 
 have found words for my inmost thoughts, songs for my joy, 
 utterances for my hidden griefs, and pleadings for my shame 
 and feebleness? In short, whatever ‘finds’ me bears witness 
 for itself that it has proceeded from a Holy Spirit, even 
 from the same Spirit which, remaining it itself, yet regen- 
 erateth all other powers, and in all ages entering into holy 
 souls maketh them friends of God and prophets.” 
 
 The test “By their fruits ye shall know them” leads to 
 the same result. No other book has produced such far-reach- 
 ing results. Sinful and sorrowing men have come to the 
 Bible and have found the way of forgiveness and peace. 
 They have been transformed from old evil lives of wicked- 
 ness and vice to new and beautiful lives of righteousness. 
 But the fruits are seen not only in the lives of individuals, 
 but of entire nations. The nations enjoying the highest and 
 most advanced civilization are the nations with an open Bible. 
 Froude, the historian, declares, “All that we have in the 
 way of civilization in a sense which deserves the term is 
 but a visible expression of the transforming influence of the 
 gospel.” So also Daniel Webster, “If we abide by the prin- 
 ciples taught in the Bible, our country will go on prospering 
 and to prosper; but if we and our posterity neglect its in- 
 struction and authority, no man can tell how sudden a ca- 
 tastrophe may overwhelm us and bury our glory in profound 
 obscurity.” True, there are dark spots on modern civiliza- 
 tion even in Christian lands, but these could not continue to 
 exist for a day were the Bible teaching applied consistently 
 to all the details of individual, social, and national life. But 
 a book which produces such divine results bears witness to 
 
RECORDS OF DIVINE REVELATION 21 
 
 itself that it embodies truth which, in some real sense, pro- 
 ceeded from God. As long as the Bible awakens this re- 
 sponse and produces these effects, men will believe that it 
 contains a divine element. And it will accomplish these 
 things wherever and whenever men are willing to study it 
 intelligently and devoutly, and to yield themselves to its 
 teaching as it appeals to their own best selves. What the 
 Bible calls for is not a defense, but earnest and devout 
 study. 
 
 c. The Uniqueness of the Bible. The value and signifi- 
 cance of the facts mentioned can not easily be overestimated. 
 But during the past century other proofs have become avail- 
 able, as a result of the careful and painstaking study of the 
 Bible by scholars in many lands and from various points of 
 view. In the pursuit of this study four tests have been ap- 
 - plied to the Bible: the test of criticism, of archeology, of 
 comparative religion, and of science. As a result the origin 
 and literary form of the Biblical books have come to be bet- 
 ter understood, and while certain previously held ideas have 
 had to be modified, the peculiar uniqueness of the Bible, when 
 compared with other sacred literatures of antiquity, has been 
 revealed as never before. This uniqueness consists princi- 
 pally in the pure and lofty atmosphere which permeates the 
 whole from beginning to end. One may read its stories of 
 prehistoric times, its records of history both in the Old and 
 the New Testament, its law, its poetry, its prophecy, or its 
 doctrinal writings, and everywhere he will find an intensity 
 and purity of religious tone and spirit which is absent from 
 similar literatures of other nations and bears witness to the 
 presence of God in a manner in which He can not be recs 
 ognized in other literatures. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 New Testament estimate of the Bible. 
 The presence of a human element in the Bible. 
 Evidences of a Divine element. 
 
Le 
 
 22 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Sanday, ‘The Oracles of God.” 
 Dods, “The Bible, Its Origin and Nature.” 
 Farrar, “The Bible, Its Meaning and Supremacy.” 
 Smyth, “How God Inspired the Bible.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. The kind and degree of inspiration which the Scriptures 
 claim for themselves. 
 2. The New Testament estimate of the Old, in detail. 
 3. The unique qualities of the Bible as compared with other 
 sacred literatures of antiquity. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. The explanation of the unique power of the Bible as a 
 means of grace. 
 
 2. The supreme purpose of inspiration. 
 
 3. Discuss the response of the human heart and conscience 
 to the message of the Bible. 
 
 4. The effect of the Bible upon the life of nations, 
 
 5. Other evidences of divine quality in the Scriptures, 
 
CHAPTER Ill 
 HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 
 
 1. The Canon of Scripture. In referring to the two col- 
 lections of Biblical books it is customary to speak of the Old 
 Testament Canon and the New Testament Canon. The word 
 Canon, which is derived from the Greek, means primarily a 
 straight rod, a measuring rod. From this it derives the sec- 
 ondary meaning, line, rule, and even law. The meaning list 
 or catalogue marks a still later development. The name was 
 applied to the books of the Bible first in the second half 
 of the fourth century A. D., but the idea underlying the 
 adoption of the term was recognized much earlier. It was 
 believed that the books set apart into the Canon were given 
 by inspiration, that in some way God spoke in and through 
 them. The Canon of Scripture, therefore, may be defined 
 as a collection of books given by inspiration of God, through 
 which the Divine Spirit may appeal to the human heart and 
 conscience. 
 
 2. The Origin and Growth of the Old Testament Canon. 
 The Old Testament Canon was formed among the Jews,. 
 from whom it was taken over by the early Christians. The 
 exact steps by which the Jewish Canon grew into its final 
 form it may not be possible to determine; but it is now 
 quite generally admitted that the three-fold division of the 
 Jewish Canon into the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings 
 marks three stages in the growth of the Old Testament 
 Canon. The available evidence, which is none too definite, 
 would seem to indicate that the Law was accepted as canon- 
 
 23 
 
24 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 ical as early as 400 B. C.; the Law, the Prophets, and at 
 least some of the Writings, about 180 B. C.; practically all 
 the Old Testament books were accepted as canonical by 
 the opening of the Christian era. The setting apart of 
 these books was not an arbitrary act. The Spirit who in- 
 spired the writer appealed to the reader through the writing, 
 and if a writing thus appealed as sacred to a sufficient num- 
 ber of people, it retained that position until official action 
 could put its seal upon its sanctity. The final official decision 
 was rendered at the Jewish Council at Jamnia, about go A. D. 
 Questions of canonicity raised at a later time were settled 
 by appeal to the action of this council. 
 
 3. The Origin and Growth of the New Testament Canon, 
 In the case of the Old Testament the action of the Council 
 of Jamnia appears to have been accepted as binding by prac- 
 tically the entire Jewish world. No such general action was 
 taken with reference to the New Testament books until the 
 sixteenth century of the Christian era. Local councils dealt 
 with the question, but their decisions were not universally 
 binding. A canon attributed to the Council of Laodicea 
 (about 360 A. D.), representing the Eastern Church, con- 
 tains all the New Testament books except Revelation. The 
 Third Council of Carthage (397 A. D.), representing the 
 Western Church, ordered that “besides the Canonical Scrip- 
 tures nothing be read in the Church under the title of Divine 
 Scriptures.” The list of canonical books given contained all 
 our New Testament books. Though the action of this coun- 
 cil may not have been immediately accepted as binding by 
 the whole Church, there can be no question that ultimately 
 its decision came to be recognized as authoritative. The prin- 
 ciple underlying the formation of the New Testament Canon 
 is, as in the case of the Old Testament, the fact of inspira- 
 tion. The actual process of formation is described by Adeney 
 in these words: “Primarily the question was as to what 
 books were read in the churches at public worship. Those 
 so used became in course of time the Christian Scriptures, 
 
HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 25 
 
 Then, having the value of Scripture gradually associated 
 with them, they came to be employed as the basis of instruc- 
 tion, and to be appealed to in disputed cases of doctrine or 
 iscipline.” 
 
 4. The Transmission of the Old Testament. The Old 
 Testament books, with the exception of a few small portions 
 (two words in Gen. 31:47; Jer. 10:11; Dan. 2: 4—7:28; 
 Ezra 4:8—6:18; 7:12-26), which are in Aramaic, were 
 written in the Hebrew language. Whether any of the books 
 were ever inscribed on tablets is uncertain, but from very 
 early times to the invention of printing they were handed 
 down in the form of manuscripts written on leather, parch- 
 ment, papyrus, and later also on paper. Until about the 
 fifth century A. D. the manuscripts contained only the con- 
 sonants, but when Hebrew became more and more a dead 
 language the Jewish scribes invented a system of vowels, 
 which were introduced into the later manuscripts intended 
 for popular use; the Synagogue rolls continuing without 
 vowel points. The Hebrew manuscripts now known are 
 few, and they are of comparatively late date. Leaving aside 
 some whose dates are somewhat uncertain, the oldest He- 
 brew manuscript of the prophets comes from 916 A. D.; 
 the oldest Hebrew manuscript of the whole Old Testament 
 from totio A. D. The first portion of the Hebrew Old 
 Testament to be printed was the Psalter; in 1477 A. D.; the 
 whole Old Testament was printed in 1488 A. D. 
 
 5. The Transmission of the New Testament, The New 
 Testament books were written in Greek, though some por- 
 tions of the Gospels may have been translated from Ara- 
 maic or Hebrew sources. Like the Old Testament writ- 
 ings, they were handed down for centuries in the form of 
 manuscripts. The autographs have all perished, and the vast 
 majority of existing manuscripts are of a comparatively mod- 
 ern date. The most important of the ancient manuscripts 
 now known are the Codex Vaticanus, dating from the fourt. 
 century, which is preserved in the Vatican Library in Rome: 
 
26 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the Codex Sinaiticus, which was discovered in the Convent 
 of St. Catherine at the foot of Mount Sinai, also of the 
 fourth century, now in the Imperial Library in St. Peters- 
 burg. A third manuscript is the Codex Alexandrinus, of 
 the fifth century, in the British Museum. These three manu- 
 scripts each include the Old Testament in whole or in part. 
 In addition there are about one hundred other ancient manu- 
 scripts. The first New Testament in Greek was given to the 
 world in printed form in 1516 by the Dutch scholar, Erasmus. 
 Since then numerous other editions of the Greek New Testa- 
 ment have been prepared until we are in possession of a Greek 
 text which in all essentials may be considered an accurate repro- 
 duction of the autographs. 
 
 6. Farly Translations of the Bible. Translations of the 
 Old Testament were made even before the opening of the 
 Christian era. This was due to two facts. In the first 
 place, the Jews were scattered all over the Eastern world, 
 and began to adopt the languages of the people among whom 
 they lived. In the second place, even in Palestine the Ara- 
 maic language displaced the Hebrew. At a later time, when 
 Christianity, with its emphasis on the Old Testament, spread 
 to different nations, the demand for translations became even 
 more urgent. As the Christians multiplied it became neces- 
 sary to translate also the New Testament. 
 
 a. Early Translations. The most important early transla- 
 tions are: (1) The Septuagint, the translation of the Old 
 Testament into Greek, begun about 250 B. C. (2) The Tar- 
 gums; that is, translations of the Old Testament into Ara- 
 maic for the use of the Jews in Palestine. The earliest layers 
 of the Targums antedate the birth of Christ, but in their 
 completed form they are post-Christian. (3) The Peshitto, 
 a translation into Syriac, made for the most part in the sec- 
 ond century A. D. for the use of the Syrian Christians. 
 (4) The Vulgate, a Latin translation made by Jerome in 
 390-405 to take the place of the earlier Latin translation made 
 
HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 27 
 
 from the Septuagint probably in the second century A. D. 
 The last two translations include also the New Testament. 
 
 b. Early Anglo-Saxon and English Translations. When 
 Augustine, the Roman-Catholic monk, went as a missionary 
 to England in 596, the pope sent him a Bible, the Psalter, 
 the Gospels, and several other books of a religious character. 
 The Bible was the Vulgate, and this Latin text was used in 
 the first efforts to produce the Anglo-Saxon translations, 
 which are the ancestors of our modern English Bible. Of 
 these early attempts the following may be mentioned: The 
 translation of Caedmon, a monk of Whitby, in Northumbria 
 (died in 680). His work is less a translation than a metrical 
 paraphrase of the Book of Genesis and of several historical _ 
 portions of the Old and New Testaments. About the close 
 of the seventh century Guthlac of Croyland prepared an in- 
 terlinear translation of the Psalms; a little later Aldhelm, 
 Bishop of Sherborne, translated the Psalms, the first fifty in 
 prose, the rest in poetical form. Bede, the ecclesiastical his- 
 torian (674-735), is credited with a translation of the entire 
 Bible, but nothing is known of such work. More credit may 
 be given to the tradition that he translated the Gospel of 
 John. King Alfred (died in gor) is said to have translated 
 some portions. Passing over several others, mention may 
 be made of the last and, at the same time, the most exten- 
 sive Anglo-Saxon translation, which is ascribed to Aelfric, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, about 990 A. D. All these efforts 
 were crude and fragmentary. The early authors translated 
 only small portions of the Bible; but we find in the later 
 attempts a degree of fidelity to the original and a literary 
 finish, which entitle them to great respect. 
 
 With the advent of William the Conqueror (1071), Eng- 
 land was wholly transformed. The government was con- — 
 centrated in one person, new elements of social life were 
 introduced, commerce was wonderfully developed, and the 
 intellectual life greatly quickened. Not the least of the 
 transformations was that of the language. The change in 
 
28 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Janguage made it necessary to prepare a new translation of 
 the Scriptures. For more than a century there existed great 
 political confusion, which checked literary development; but 
 early in the thirteenth century we find a metrical paraphrase 
 of those parts of the Gospels and Acts which were read in 
 the church services. The next century and a half saw several 
 other attempts at partial translations, but finally the time 
 arrived when the people of England demanded the whole 
 Bible in a more careful translation. In response to this de- 
 mand came the great work of John Wycliffe, which forms 
 one of the most conspicuous landmarks in the history of the 
 English Bible. The New Testament appeared first, about 
 1380; in 1382, or soon afterward, certainly before the death 
 “of Wycliffe in 1384, the entire Bible was completed in its 
 English dress. Like its forerunners, this translation was 
 made from the Latin. Of the precise share of Wycliffe in 
 the production of the translation it is not possible to speak 
 with absolute certainty. That he did much of the work him- 
 self, and was the inspiration of the whole movement, can 
 not be doubted. 
 
 c. The Translations of the Period of the Reformation. 
 The Reformation gave new life to the movement toward 
 popularizing the Bible. The reformers believed that the best 
 method of overthrowing the power of the monasteries and 
 of the Roman Church was to enable the common people to 
 read the Bible for themselves and learn how much of the 
 current teaching of priests and friars was without Scriptural 
 basis. Hence it came to pass that the question of Bible trans- 
 tations into the vernacular of the people occupied a prominent 
 place in the struggles of the Reformation. In Germany the 
 popular translation was made once for all by Luther, but in 
 England, where parties were more divided, the ultimate ac- 
 complishment required many years and the co-operation of 
 many men. 
 
 The true father of the English Bible is Tyndale, a Fran- 
 tiscan priest. While studying at Cambridge he came /n con- 
 

 
 HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 29 
 
 tact with the New Testament of Erasmus. In a quiet way 
 he began to expound the Scriptures, and his experience soon 
 convinced him that nothing could be accomplished in the way 
 of the spiritual elevation of the people unless.the Bible could 
 be laid before them in their mother tongue, After many hard- 
 ships and perils he finally succeeded in publishing, at Worms, 
 in Germany, a translation of the New Testament in 1525. 
 In the following years he translated various portions of the 
 Old Testament, but when he was strangled and burned at 
 the stake in 1536 the larger enterprise was still incomplete. 
 Near the time of Tyndale’s death the obstacles to printing the 
 Bible in England were removed, and now an era of great 
 activity in Bible translations opened. Between 1535 and 
 1606 no less than six different translations were issued, each 
 having its characteristic value and marking an advance over 
 its predecessors. 
 
 Of these the translation of Myles Coverdale, published 
 in 1535, stands first. To him belongs the honor of issuing 
 the first cemplete printed English Bible. The Wycliffe Bible 
 contained a translation of the entire Bible, but it was not 
 printed. Tyndale issued in printed form the New Testament 
 and parts of the Old, but did not live to see the work com- 
 pleted. The work of Coverdale does not profess to be made 
 from the original languages; it is based rather upon the 
 Vulgate, and the translations of Luther and Tyndale. Two 
 years later, in 1537, appeared a new translation, which goes 
 under the name of Thomas Matthew, but the real author was 
 in all probability John Rogers, an intimate friend of Tyndale, 
 to whom the latter had entrusted his papers at the time of 
 _ his arrest. In 1539 Richard Taverner edited a Bible consist- 
 ing largely of a revision of that of Matthew, omitting most 
 of his notes and introducing much new introductory ma- 
 terial. Taverner was one of the great Greek scholars of the 
 age, and made good use of his knowledge in the translation 
 of the New Testament; in the Old Testament he leans 
 strongly on the Vulgate Neither the Church nor the State 
 
30 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 could become reconciled to the existing translations, although 
 vhey had at last sanctioned their publication. A new trans- 
 lation was therefore prepared under their own supervision 
 and published in 1539, Thomas Cromwell being the leading 
 spirit in the movement. Because of the size of its pages it 
 is known as the “Great Bible,” or also “Cranmer’s Bible,” 
 because Archbishop Cranmer prepared an elaborate prologue 
 for the second edition, which appeared in 1540. During the 
 later years of the reign of Henry VIII., and especially under 
 Queen Mary, a strong reaction toward Catholicism set in, 
 the reading of the Bible was forbidden, and the attempt was 
 made to destroy ‘all existing copies. Learned men of Prot- 
 estant tendencies were compelled to flee from England. Of 
 these religious exiles a company of several hundred gathered 
 at Geneva, in Switzerland. Among the most prominent men 
 of the English colony were William Whittingham and Myles 
 Coverdale. They determined to prepare an English Bible of 
 moderatc size and cost, more accurate in its renderings, and 
 accompanied with a brief commentary and such explanatory 
 statements as were needed for a clear understanding of the 
 text. The New Testament appeared in 1557, the entire Bible 
 in 1560. This Bibie, called the Geneva Bible, at once obtained 
 a very wide circulation. From 1560 to 1616 not a year passed 
 without one or more new editions. 
 
 The circulation of the English Bible was now confined 
 to the two editions known as the Great Bible and the 
 Geneva Bible. Neither proved entirely satisfactory; the Ge- 
 neva Bible was too Calvinistic and anti-episcopal; the Great 
 Bible showed many defects in translation. This led to the 
 preparation of a new translation, called the “Bishops’ Bible,” 
 oecause three-fourths of the translators were bishops. The 
 first edition appeared in 1568. Strenuous efforts were made 
 to have it take the place of all earlier translations, but while 
 it became the official Bible of the Church, the Geneva Bible 
 remained the Bible of the home. 
 
 Toward the close of the sixteenth century the zeal of the 
 
HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 3t 
 
 Protestant Churches drove the Roman Church into competi- 
 tion with them in the production of Bible translations. The 
 preparation of an English translation naturally fell to the 
 scholars of the English seminary which had lately been es- 
 tablished in France. The original home of the seminary was 
 at Douay, but in 1578 it was transferred for a time to Rheims, 
 as a result of political disturbances in Flanders. Here the 
 New Testament was published in 1582. The Old Testament 
 did not appear until 1609, when the seminary had returned 
 to Douay. As a result the completed Bible goes by the 
 name of the “Rheims and Douay” Bible. The most impor- 
 tant point to be observed about this Roman-Catholic trans- 
 lation is that it was not made from the original Hebrew 
 and Greek, but from the Latin Vulgate. The circulation of 
 the Rheims and Douay version was not large; the New Tes- 
 tament was reprinted three times between 1582 and 1750, the 
 Old Testament only once. 
 
 d. The Authorized Version. The Bishops’ Bible did not 
 meet with popular favor, and soon the demand for a new 
 translation was heard. When James I became king of Eng- 
 land in 1603 he found the country in great turmoil, the Puri- 
 tans and the Church of England parties being engaged in a 
 bitter contest for supremacy. At a conference held in Jan- 
 uary, 1604, for the purpose of considering the grievances, the 
 subject of a new Bible translation was raised, and all agreed 
 that such a work should be undertaken. The king chose 
 _ fifty-four translators, who devoted seven years to the task, 
 and in 1611 the new translation was published. It can not 
 be shown that the new translation ever had any authority 
 given to it, although on the title-page appears the statement 
 “appointed to be read in churches.” It had to make its way 
 on its Own merits, and for a generation had a formidable 
 rival in the Geneva Bible, which continued to be the popular 
 _ favorite; but in the end its sterling value gave it the su- 
 premacy, which it has retained ever since. According to the 
 instruction given to the translators, they were to follow the 
 
32 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Bishops’ Bible, except where the Hebrew and Greek de- 
 manded a change; in reality they adhered far more closely 
 to the Geneva Bible, which aroused considerable opposition 
 on the part of the Catholics and the High Church party of 
 the Church of England. 
 
 e. The “English” Revised Version. The increase in 
 knowledge of the original Greek and Hebrew texts was 
 chiefly responsible for the demand for a revision of the so- 
 called Authorized Version, after it had held its ground for 
 more than two centuries.. Partial translations were published 
 by individual scholars, and finally in 1870 decisive steps were 
 taken by the convocation of the Province of Canterbury to 
 secure an authoritative revision of the whole English Bible 
 in the light of the fullest modern knowledge and the best 
 Biblical scholarship. In May, 1870, the broad principles of 
 the Revision were laid down, and a committee of sixteen 
 was appointed to execute the work, with power to add to 
 its numbers. The committee divided itself into an Old Tes- 
 tament Company and a New Testament Company; then rep- 
 resentative scholars of all Protestant denominations were in- 
 vited to co-operate, until the membership of each company 
 reached twenty-seven. However, deaths, resignations, and 
 new appointments caused the exact number to vary from 
 time to time. When the work had barely begun, an invita- 
 tion was sent to the Churches in America requesting their 
 co-operation. In response to this request two American com- 
 panies were formed, to whom all the results of the English 
 companies were communicated. The American revisers could 
 make suggestions, but the final decision rested with the Eng- 
 lish companies. The suggestions not adopted were published 
 in an appendix. The Revised Version represents, conse- 
 quently, the deliberate opinions of a majority of the best 
 Biblical scholars of all English-speaking Protestant Churches 
 in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. On the twenty- 
 second of June, 1870, the English New Testament Company 
 held its first meeting; the Old Testament Company began 
 
HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE 33 
 
 its labors eight days later. On the eleventh of November, 
 z880, the New Testament revisers set their signatures to the 
 Preface of their Version, which issued from the press in 
 May, 1881. The Old Testament Preface is dated July 10, 
 1884, and the entire Bible was published in May, 1885. 
 
 f. The American Revised Version. As already stated, 
 the preferences of the American companies not adopted by 
 the English revisers were to be published in an appendix with 
 every copy of the Revised Version. In return for this con- 
 sideration the American companies pledged themselves for a 
 term of fourteen years—that is, until 1899—not to give sanc- 
 tion to the publication of any edition of the Revised Version 
 other than those issued by the University Presses of England. 
 The American Revision companies, after the publication of 
 the Revised Version in 1885, resolved to continue their or- 
 ganization, thinking that eventually an American recension 
 of the Revised Version might be called for. That such would 
 be the case became a growing conviction. In 1898, a short 
 time before the agreement regarding the publication of a Re- 
 vised Version by the American companies came to an end, the 
 University Presses of England issued a so-called “American 
 Revised Version,’ which transferred the American prefer- 
 ences from the Appendix to the text itself. But the American 
 revisers had been at work all these years in an attempt to 
 improve the entire Revised Version, and the English “Ameri- 
 can Revised Version” did not meet their unqualified approval. 
 Hence in 1901 they published the “Standard Edition of the 
 American Revised Version,’ which in point of accuracy is 
 far superior to the Revised Version of 1885. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The Canon of Scripture— 
 Old Testament Canon; 
 New Testament Canon. 
 
 Transmission of the Bible— 
 Of the Old Testament; 
 Cf the New Testament. 
 
 Translations of the Bible. 
 
34 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Ryle, “The Canon of the Old Testament.” 
 Price, “The Ancestry of our English Bible.” 
 Kenyon, “Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts.” 
 Smyth, “How We Got Our Bible.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. The formation of the New Testament canon, 
 2. Existing Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 I. What is the meaning of the term “canon?” 
 
 2. How was the Old Testament canon formed? The New 
 Testament? 
 
 3. The different forms through which the Bible has passed in 
 reaching its present form. 
 
 4. The reasons for the many translations of the Bible. 
 
 5. Discuss the reasons for, and the methods used in, the 
 making of the Revised Version. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 
 
 1. The Testimony of the Ages. This is a practical age. 
 Men look at everything from an intensely practical stands 
 point. Hence, when the study of the Bible is urged upon 
 them, they naturally inquire, Is is worth while? To this 
 inquiry history answers a most emphatic Yes! Surely the 
 words of Dean Farrar are none too strong: “How absurd 
 it must be to scoff at a book which, through all the long 
 centuries, thousands of great men have reverenced in pro- 
 portion to their greatness; a book for which, in age after age, 
 warriors have fought, philosophers labored, and martyrs bled! 
 - . . All that is best and greatest in the literature of two 
 thousand years has been rooted in it. It has inspired the 
 career of all the best of men who ‘raised strong arms tc 
 bring heaven a little nearer to our earth.” St. Vincent de 
 Paul learned from its pages his tenderness for the poor; and 
 John Howard his love for the suffering; and William Wil- 
 berforce his compassion for the slaves; and Lord Shaftesbury 
 the dedication of his life to the amelioration of the lot of 
 his countrymen. Has there been one of our foremost states- 
 men or our best philanthropists who has not confessed the 
 force of its inspiration? . . . It inspired the pictures of 
 Fra. Angelico and Raphael, the music of Handel and Men- 
 delssohn. It kindled the intrepid genius of Luther, the bright 
 imagination of Bunyan, the burning zeal of Whitefield. The 
 hundred best books, the hundred best pictures, the hundred 
 greatest strains of music are all in it and all derived from it.” 
 
 35 
 
30 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Surely a book that has accomplished such things is worthy 
 of the closest study. Or, is there reason to believe that it 
 has lost any of its former power? No close observer will 
 adinit this. Goethe, the poet and thinker, the genius, the man 
 of talents and scientific insight, in many respects a type of 
 modern culture, was very fond of Bible reading; and this 
 is what he said, among other things, concerning it: “Let 
 culture and science go on advancing, and the mind progress 
 as it may, it will never go beyond the elevation and moral 
 culture of Christianity as it glistens and shines forth in the 
 Gospels.” And again, “The greater the intellectual progress 
 of the ages, the more fully possible will it also become to 
 employ the Bible both as the foundation and as the instru- 
 ment of education—of that education by which not pedants 
 but truly wise men are formed.” 
 
 2. Literary Excellence of the Bible. Well has it been 
 said that the Bible “is a literature which no age or nation 
 can equal or supersede, though every library in the world 
 had remained unravaged and every teacher’s truest words 
 had been written down.” A great muititude of literary men 
 have given expression to their high estimate of the literary 
 excellence of the Bible; and the more we know of other 
 literatures of antiquity, the more evident it becomes that even 
 from the literary viewpoint the Bible is far superior to any 
 other literary remains of ancient civilizations. It contains 
 sublime specimens of history, law, poetry, oratory, and, in- 
 deed, of practically every kind of literary composition found 
 outside of the Bible. Aside from all religious considerations, 
 then—if we consider the study of ancient literatures an es- 
 sential part of a liberal education, by what process of reason- 
 ing can we justify the exclusion of this “Book of Books” 
 from our study? 
 
 In a small volume in the Modern Reader’s Bible, entitled 
 “Biblical Masterpieces,” Professor Moulton has collected the 
 best specimens of Biblical literature, but other portions are 
 not without literary beauty and power. Indeed, as the same 
 
WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 37 
 
 author suggests, the Biblical classics are by no means in- 
 ferior to the Hellenic. “If the inimitable freshness of life is 
 preserved in Homer, it is not less preserved in the epic stories 
 of the Old Testament (found especially in the Book of Gen- 
 esis) ; while the still more intangible simplicity of the idyl is 
 found perfect in Ruth and Tobit; the orations of Deuter- 
 Onomy are as noble models as the orations of Cicero. Read 
 by the side of the poetry of the Psalms, the lyrics of Pindar 
 seem almost provincial. The imaginative poetry of the Greeks 
 is perfect in its own sphere; but by the Hebrew prophets as 
 bold an imagination is carried into the mysteries of the spir- 
 itual world. If the philosophy of Plato and his successors 
 has a special interest as the starting point for a progression 
 of thought still going on as modern science, yet the field of 
 Biblical wisdom offers an attraction of a different kind, in 
 a progression of thought which has run its full round and 
 has reached a position of rest. Most interesting is it to fol- 
 low the sagacity of the classic historians as they analyze a 
 dead past; but the historic writings of the New Testament 
 keep us in touch with the coming into being of thoughts and 
 institutions which are with us yet in their full vigor. And 
 in the inner circle of the world’s masterpieces, in which all 
 kinds of literary influences meet, the Bible has placed Job, 
 the Isaiahan Rhapsody (especially chapters 1, 5, 40—53, 60— 
 62), the Apocalypse, unsurpassed and unsurpassable.” 
 
 3. Bible Study and a Knowledge of Literature and His- 
 tory. Charles Dudley Warner points out the importance of 
 a knowledge of the Bible for a proper understanding of the 
 world’s best literature in these striking words: “Whoily 
 apart from its religious or from its ethical value, the Bible 
 is the one book that no intelligent person who wishes to 
 come into contact with the world of thought and to share 
 the ideas of the great minds of the Christian era can af- 
 ford to be ignorant of. All modern literature and all art 
 are permeated with it. ‘There is scarcely a great work in 
 the language that can be fully understood and enjoyed with- 
 
38 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 out this knowledge, so full is it of allusions and illustrations 
 from the Bible. This is true of fiction, of poetry, of economic 
 and philosophic works, and also of the scientific and even 
 agnostic treatises. It is not at all a question of religion, or 
 theology, or of dogma; it is a question of general intelli- 
 gence. A boy or girl at college in the presence of the works 
 set for either to master, without a fair knowledge of the 
 Bible is an‘ignoramus and is disadvantaged accordingly. It 
 is in itself almost a liberal education, as many great masters 
 in literature have testified. It has so entered into law, lit- 
 erature, thought, the whole modern life of the Christian 
 world, that ignorance of it is a most serious disadvantage to 
 the student.” 
 
 Ana who can understand the history of England, Ger- 
 many, the United States, and other civilized nations without 
 a knowledge of the Scriptures? They have been the guide, 
 the inspiration, the ennoblement, the statesman’s manual of 
 the greatest nations in the world. Even some of the dark 
 blots in the history of these nations are to be traced to the 
 Bible, though in these cases the Bible misinterpreted or mis- 
 applied. ' ; 
 
 4. The Unique Religious Value of the Bible. Whatever 
 the importance of Bible study along the lines suggested in 
 the preceding paragraphs, the permanent religious and ethical ~ 
 value of its teaching supplies the chief reason of its study. 
 It would be easy to adduce thousands of testimonials to sup- 
 port the statement of the apostle that “the Scriptures are able 
 to make wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ 
 Jesus. Every Scripture inspired of God is also profitable for 
 teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which 
 is in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, fur- 
 nished completely unto every good work.” These words call 
 attention to three stages in the Christian life: the exercise of 
 a saving faith in Jesus; the development of a strong and noble 
 character; and the performance of good works; in other 
 words, faith, knowledge, service. According to the writer, 
 
WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 39 
 
 the Bible may be of the greatest value in each one of these 
 stages, and the experience of the centuries has confirmed the 
 claim. And what may be said of the Bible as a source of 
 consolation! How many in the hour of sorrow, grief, and 
 bereavement have turned to the Scriptures and there found 
 hope and consolation (Rom. 15:4)! No wonder that Renan 
 calls the Bible “the great book of consolation for humanity!” 
 
 The Bible possesses such unique religious value for several 
 reasons: In the first place, it presents not the only, but surely 
 the most comprehensive, vision of God that may be found 
 anywhere. God, a spirit, personal, with a clearly defined 
 moral character, in His fatherly mercy condescending to en- 
 ter into covenant relations with men, loving man and desir- 
 ing to be loved by him, His anger aroused by sin, but gracious 
 toward the repenting sinner. Again, the Bible is of perma- 
 nent religious value because of its keen insight into human 
 nature. It has been called the “family album of the Holy 
 God;” we might liken it rather to a picture gallery. What 
 a variety! Everywhere we see them flesh and blood! Why 
 is it they impress us so? Is it not because the pictures are 
 so true to human nature that, in spite of the difference in 
 time, place, and circumstances, they may serve even us as 
 mirrors? In studying these character sketches we may learn 
 both how men with a sublime vision of God live and should 
 live, and how those without such a vision live and should not 
 live. Moreover, the Bible teaches, as no other book can, how 
 this vision of God may be ours and its powers be felt in our 
 lives. What an inspiration to trace the workings of God 
 throughout the centuries for the purpose of making Himself 
 known, and to draw all men unto Him in loving obedience! 
 And then to watch the consummation of the plan of redemp- 
 tion in Jesus Christ, through whom all may know God and 
 come into vital relations with Him! And finally, all these 
 truths are presented in a manner that even the simplest can 
 understand. Truly, the Bible is “the one book wherein, for 
 thousands of years, the spirit of man has found light and 
 
40 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 nourishment, and a response to whatever was deepest in his 
 heart.” 
 
 a. The Permanent Religious Significance of the Old Tes- 
 tament Writings. As Christians we find our Joftiest inspira- 
 ticn in the study of the life, character, and teaching of Jesus 
 and of His disciples. But the New Testament has by no 
 means displaced the Old. Jesus and His disciples found soul- 
 food in the pages of the Old Testament and constantly ex- 
 horted their followers to do the same; and the early Chris- 
 tians were right in placing it beside the New Testament, for 
 not only is a knowledge of the Old Testament necessary 
 for a right appreciation of the New, but the Old Testament 
 itself is still of inestimable value. True, the New Testament 
 presents a more complete and perfect conception of the truth, 
 but there are few New Testament truths that have not their 
 roots in the Old; and a vast number of people, who them- 
 selves have not yet reached a state of perfection, will under- 
 stand even New Testament truths more readily as they are 
 presented in the Old Testament, for here they can see the 
 truths in concrete form; they have flesh and blood; they are 
 struggling for victory over darkness and superstition. Nearly 
 all the great and vital doctrines of the Church, though 
 founded principally on the New Testament, become more real 
 and human, more impressive and forceful, as we study their 
 development under the Old Testament dispensation. 
 
 Aside from these general considerations, the student can 
 easily convince himself that every part of the Old Testament 
 is filled with religious teaching that even to-day is of the 
 highest importance to any one who Gesires to develop a pure 
 and noble character and to serve well his day and generation. 
 Take the first eleven chapters of Genesis—while we should 
 not go to these chapters to study geology, astronomy, biology, 
 or any other science, the opening chapters of Genesis do re- 
 veal what connection the world has with God, how everything 
 may be traced to Him as the fountain head of life, that there 
 is a unifying principle and purpose underlying the origin and 
 
WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 41 
 
 history of the globe, and many other religious and ethical 
 truths that afford a truer conception of God, man, and of 
 the divine plan and purpose for the latter. These chapters 
 are followed by the stories of the patriarchs. Missionaries 
 tell us, and experience at home has confirmed the claim, that 
 -the stories of the patriarchs are of inestimable value to im- 
 press lessons of the reality and providence of God and to en- 
 courage the exercise of faith and confidence in Him. There 
 is nothing that can be substituted for them in religious in- 
 struction. “Abraham,” says Professor Driver, “is still the 
 hero of righteousness and faith; Lot and Laban, Sarah and 
 Rebekah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, in their characters and 
 experiences, are still-in different ways types of our own selves, 
 and still in one way or another exemplify the ways in which 
 God deals with the individual sovl, and the manner in which 
 the individual soul ought or ought not to respond to His 
 leadings.” The history of the Hebrews is one continuous 
 illustration of the reality of a divine providence, and the 
 historical books reveal on every page the hand of God in 
 human history. In a more specific way they show the un- 
 folding, in the mind of man, under the influence of the di- 
 vine, of those great religious and ethical ideas which have be~ 
 come the mainspring of humanity’s progress. The Hebrews 
 have been, and their history still is, the religious and ethical 
 teacher of mankind. 
 
 How can we estimate rightly the devotional value of the 
 Psalter? Truly, “what the heart is in man that is the Psalter 
 in the Bible’ Here we have the outpourings of human souls 
 in the closest fellowship with God, giving without restraint 
 expression to the most various emotions, hopes, desires, and 
 aspirations. What other literary compositions lift us into 
 such atmosphere of religious thought and emotion? Surely 
 the sweet singers enjoy a pre-eminence from which they can 
 never be removed. Again, take the Wisdom Literature. 
 Where do we find such compacted, sanctified common sense 
 as in the Book of Proverbs; a more consistent application of 
 
42 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the principles of pure and undefiled religion to the daily life, 
 be it of the individual, or of the family, or of the State? 
 Where can be found more lofty religious speculation than in 
 the Book of Job? or more persistent mental struggles with 
 the perplexing problems of life than in Ecclesiastes, closing 
 with the triumphant assertion, “Fear God and keep His 
 commandments, for this is the whole duty of man?” 
 
 But in this age, when the responsibility of the individual 
 Christian and of the Christian Church toward the practical 
 social, moral, and religious problems and evils is recognized 
 more than at any previous time, the prophetic literature is 
 worthy of the most careful study on the part of all. The 
 prophets of old met in the strength of God and at the divine 
 impulse the problems and evils in their age. They had to 
 face the problems of materialism and commercialism; the 
 evils resulting from the accumulation of wealth, power, and 
 resources in the hands of a few; very serious labor problems, 
 cruelty, oppression, arrogance on the part of the rich propri- 
 etors; corruption in government and the administration of 
 justice; they had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism 
 that threatened to destroy pure spiritual religion. Surely it 
 is a part of our duty as Christians to do our share toward a 
 Christian solution of the social and religious problems of the 
 day; and in our efforts to accomplish this end we may learn 
 much from the prophets of old. (Compare, for example, the 
 permanent lessons of the Book of Amos pointed out in 
 Chapter XII.) 
 
 b. The Permanent Religious Value of the New Testament. 
 All the features that give to the Old Testament such unique 
 value appear in even greater numbers in the New Testament, 
 and here in a purer and more perfect form. Any one ac- 
 quainted with the New Testament writings knows that their 
 one purpose is to promote man’s living union with God and 
 to help him reflect in his own life the purity and holiness 
 of the Divine pattern: “Be ye perfect even as your Father 
 in heaven is perfect.” How numerous are the passages con- 
 
WHY STUDY THE BIBLE 43 
 
 cerning the nature and character of God, the character and 
 work of the Christ; the denunciations of sin and vice opposed 
 to man’s union with God, the exhortations to virtue and 
 purity of heart and life! The Gospels supply most excellent 
 material for Christian nurture in the discourses, miracles, and 
 parables of Jesus. The “Sermon on the Mount” with its sub- 
 lime beatitudes, and other discourses of Jesus, will forever 
 remain a source of light and devotion to the attentive student, 
 The narratives of the miracles are most suggestive of feel- 
 ings of admiration and love and thanksgiving to God. Jn like 
 manner the parables are an inexhaustible source of light and 
 strength to any one who ponders on them. More instructive 
 and inspiring still is our Lord’s biography. Whether we con- 
 template Him in the manger at Bethlehem, in the workshop 
 at Nazareth, in the synagogue in Galilee, in His triumphal 
 entrance into Jerusalem, in the garden of Gethsemane, on the 
 cross, or after His resurrection—wherever we behold Him, 
 He is ever and aiways the perfect pattern “of the new man, 
 which after God is created in righteousness and true holi- 
 ness.” And the more the character and life of Jesus are 
 studied, and dwelt upon, the more they will be seen to ex- 
 hibit, wonderfully combined in one person, “whatsoever things 
 are honorable, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things 
 are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are 
 of good report ;” the more they will appear to be in all points 
 worthy of our contemplation, and the more they will inspire 
 us to earnest imitation. In addition to this Exemplar of all 
 perfection the New Testament furnishes character sketches 
 of a large number of faithful disciples of Jesus. Have Paul, 
 John, Peter, Martha, Mary, Timothy, Luke, Titus, the early 
 Christians in Jerusalem, or Antioch, or Corinth, no message 
 for the twentieth century? Indeed, they have; they supply 
 excellent material for study and meditation; and if properly 
 used they will promote a closer union of hearts, minds, and 
 lives with the Almighty. 
 Let us glance for a moment at the Epistles. They were 
 
44 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 written for the instruction of men like ourselves; to “meet 
 the emergencies that arose in the planting and growth of the 
 Churches; to lay the basis for a rational, spiritual life of 
 faith in the living Jesus.” They deal with all the essential 
 elements, doctrinal and practical, of Christian life and activity. 
 There is not an Epistle but which, if properly studied, will 
 enrich experience and life. The New Testament closes with 
 that mysterious book—Revelation. Many parts of it may ap- 
 pear mysterious and hard to understand; but it contains also 
 much practical instruction. It surely may serve to bring 
 Jesus, the exalted Redeemer, close to man in his life strug- 
 gles, for the book makes it clear that a watchful eye is rest- 
 ing upon the affairs of men in this life. Revelation assures 
 us that these sorrows, temptations, and trials are to end at 
 last in complete victory, in everlasting peace and joy. Is this 
 no message to strengthen, to encourage, to inspire the Chris- 
 tian in the battlefields of life? 
 
 Truly, one may look where he will in the pages of the 
 sacred Book, from first to last, and everywhere he will find 
 words of wisdom, of encouragement, of consolation, of in- 
 spiration, of life. A book of this character deserves the clos- 
 est and most persistent searching and inquiry. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The testimony of the ages. 
 
 The literary excellence of the Bible, 
 
 Importance of Bible study to a knowledge of literature and 
 history. 
 
 Unique religious value. 
 
 Permanent religious value. 
 
 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Briggs, “The Study of Holy Scripture.” 
 Lock, ‘‘The Bible in Christian Life.” 
 Prothero, “The Psalms in Human Life.” 
 Jordan, “Prophetic Ideas and Ideals.” 
 
WHY STUDY DHE, BIBLE 45 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. The literary masterpieces of the Bible. 
 2. The bearing of prophetic teaching on modern social and 
 political problems. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Reasons for studying the Bible. 
 
 2. Why is the Bible of so great religious value? 
 
 3. Ways in which the New Testament aids in the perfecting 
 of character. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 HOW STUDY THE BIBL® 
 
 1, Mere Reading is not Study. The transition from the 
 Why to the How of Bible study is quite natural. The first 
 point to be noted is, that mere reading of the Bible is not 
 study of the Bible. There are undoubtedly those who imagine 
 that there is a certain merit in the reading of a stated por- 
 tion of the Bible every morning and evening, as there are 
 those who seem to feel that “saying their prayers” is an act 
 of merit. Thomas Fuller apparently has in mind this me- 
 chanical reading when he writes: “Lord, I discover an arrant 
 laziness in my soul. For when I am to read a chapter in 
 the Bible, before I begin I look where it endeth. And if it 
 endeth not on the same side I can not keep my hands from 
 turning over the leaf to measure the length thereof on the 
 other side; if it swells to many verses I begin to grudge. 
 Surely’my heart is not rightly affected.’ This kind of Bible 
 reading, no matter how long continued, and no matter how 
 much ground covered, nor how often covered, will never in- 
 troduce the Christian to the riches of the sacred Book. To 
 learn its lessons, to appropriate its truths, to feed with its 
 message the hungry soul, one must give to its pages earnest 
 study, diligent searching, persistent inquiry, tireless zeal. But, 
 some one may ask, Granting that I must study the Scriptures 
 earnestly and diligently, how am I to go about it so as to 
 receive the greatest benefit? In answer to this inquiry this 
 chapter will consider two essential factors in all proper and 
 successful Bible study: (1) Methods of study; (2) The right 
 spirit in Bible study. 
 
 46 
 
HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 47 
 
 2. The Literary Method of Bible Study. The compara- 
 tively recent discovery that the Bible contains sublime speci- 
 mens of various forms of literature has given rise to what 
 may be called the literary method of Bible study. The liter- 
 ary student is wide-awake to the literary form of Scripture; 
 he recognizes the presence of literary masterpieces and studies 
 them from the literary standpoint. Now it is unquestionably 
 true that without proper regard for the literary form of the 
 Scriptures the deeper significance of their teaching can not 
 be understood. Unfortunately the devotional student has 
 often overlooked this fact, and as a result, in many cases, 
 has failed to understand the real significance of a passage. 
 On the other hand, over-emphasis of the literary features 
 may blind the eyes to the real purpose of the Book. After all, 
 the Scriptures were not written and collected primarily as 
 specimens of various forms of literature, but to record and 
 interpret divine revelations; and it is readily seen that in the 
 pursuit of a narrow literary method insufficient weight may 
 be given to this primary purpose. However important it may 
 be to estimate correctly the literary features of the Bible, the 
 Christian can not be content with studying its writings as he 
 would study history, or poetry, or other forms of literature 
 outside of the Bible. 
 
 3. Devotional Bible Study. The primary purpose of 
 the Biblical writers was to record and interpret the mani- 
 fold revelations of God as seen and apprehended by them. 
 This being the case, the primary purpose of the Bible study 
 should be to understand these revelations of God, to know 
 Him, His nature, character, and will, and by becoming ac- 
 quainted with these to bring God nearer to us and us nearer 
 to Him in obedience and love. It follows that the study of 
 the Bible as a book of devotion is the only adequate kind of 
 Bible study. 
 
 a. Dangers of Unsystematic Bible Siudy. The purpose of 
 the devotional student of the Bible is to discover what is the 
 message of the portion studied, be it great or small, to his 
 
48 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 own soul and life. This to some seems exceedingly simple. 
 Many open the Bible and read or study wherever attention is 
 accidentally arrested, sometimes the passage the eye lights 
 upon, sometimes the spot touched by the finger. John. Ruskin 
 aptly describes the manner in which many Christian people 
 seek to acquire a knowledge of the Bible. The way they read 
 their Bibles, he says, is “just like the way the old monks 
 thought that hedgehogs ate grapes. They rolled themselves, 
 it was said, over and over where the grapes lay on the 
 ground. What fruit stuck to their spines they carried off and 
 ate. So,” he continues, “your hedgehoggy readers roll them- 
 selves over and over their Bibles, and whatever texts first 
 stick to their spines they carry off and feed on. But,” he 
 adds, “you can only get the skins of the texts that way; if 
 you want their juice you must press them in cluster.” 
 
 Some good may undoubtedly be derived even in this hap- 
 hazard way. Even the most simple may open the Book al- 
 most anywhere and find encouragement, or inspiration, or 
 consolation, or whatever else he may need; and this fact is 
 a strong evidence of the presence of a divine element in the 
 Book. But surely it ig not wise, yea, it is not right, to feed 
 on crumbs when there is provided a constant, inexhaustible 
 feast. Moreover, this superficial, though devout, study is 
 fraught with grave dangers. It gives to the reader not only 
 a fragmentary conception of the truth; it may give him an 
 entirely false idea of the teaching of a passage. A text 
 wrested from its connection may be made to mean almost 
 anything. 
 
 If the Bible is a book written many centuries ago by 
 men of an entirely different race, of different modes of think- 
 ing and expression, the greater part in a language foreign 
 to any of the languages with which we are ordinarily fa- 
 miliar, dealing with the profoundest subjects with which the 
 human mind can grapple, with subjects that directly or in- 
 directly are related to all kinds of knowledge; if the Bible 
 is such a book, who can expect to understand its teaching 
 after a superficial reading or study? One of the first require- 
 
HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 49 
 
 ments to assure results in devotional Bible study is the adop- 
 tion of a proper method of study. Of various methods sug- 
 gested there are, apart from the method pursued in Sunday- 
 school, with which the reader is familiar, especially three that 
 enjoy more or less popularity: The Topical Method; The 
 Study by Characters; The Study by Books. 
 
 b. The Topical Method of Bible Siudy. In following out 
 the topical method of Bible study the student becomes in- 
 terested in certain great subjects, such as faith, love, salva- 
 tion, heaven, and others. He decides to discover all the Bible 
 has to say on these topics; so he takes the Bible, a con- 
 cordance, or some help especially prepared for the purpose, 
 and, going through the entire Bible, reads and studies every 
 passage containing the term. 
 
 That this method, if properly used, may prove helpful can 
 not be denied; that very often it is a source of serious error 
 is equally true. Most of the false theologies and false ethics 
 of modern times are traceable to this method of Bible study. 
 And this is easily explained, for, in the first place, such stu¢y 
 is only fragmentary. Love, or faith, or any other Bible truth, 
 may be taught or elaborated in a passage which does not 
 contain these terms; yet this mnethod makes it possible to 
 carry on the study with entire disregard of such passages. 
 Moreover, the topical method tends to wrest separate state- 
 ments from their contexts, and thus to obscure or even per- 
 vert their meaning. Not one great doctrine of the Christian 
 Church has escaped perversion on the part of those who 
 failed to exercise the proper caution while pursuing the top- 
 ical study, and thus discredit has been brought upon the Bible 
 and Christianity. Indeed, the topical method is a snare to 
 the unwary. To follow it successfully, one must already 
 have mastered the Bible as a whole, so as not to pervert the 
 meaning of the separate parts. 
 
 c. The Study of the Bible by Characters. A better method 
 than the preceding, and one quite popular, is the study of 
 
 4 
 
g° THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the Bible by characters. The great personalities of the Bible, 
 such as Abraham, Joseph, Samuel, David, Jesus, John, Paul, 
 and others, are selected, and their lives and characters are 
 made the subjects of study. Thus the student becomes ac- 
 quainted with their excellencies, their weaknesses, their vic- 
 tories, their defeats, their temptations and struggles, in fact 
 with everything that touched their lives and helped to mold 
 their characters. These were men like ourselves, with the 
 same natures, the same temptations and struggles, and a study 
 of their lives and experiences may be an inspiration or warn- 
 ing, as the case may be, to the one who pursues the study. 
 
 This is a perfectly legitimate method of Bible study. 
 Moreover, it is a very simple method, which every one, even 
 the least experienced, may pursue to his unspeakable adyan- 
 tage. In addition, it is a method that readily yields results, 
 for every single character teaches one or more practical les- 
 sons, and the farther the student advances the greater and 
 the more precious the truths learned; and in the end, if the 
 study is pursued with patience and perseverance, if the les- 
 sons learned are consistently applied by the student to his 
 own life and character, the result will manifest itself in a 
 godly, Christlike life and character. 
 
 d. The Study of the Bible by Books. A third method, and 
 the one almost universally recognized as the most satisfactory 
 in the end, is the study of the Bible by books. Attention has 
 been called several times to the importance of looking at the 
 context of a passage of Scripture in order to determine its 
 exact meaning. But what is the context? Is it only a sen- 
 tence before or after the particular passage the student is 
 considering? Sometimes that may be all. In other cases 
 it may be a chapter or two; in still others it is the whole 
 book; indeed, one can never be sure that he is getting the 
 precise point of view and real’ meaning of any one sentence 
 of any book unless he takes it as a part of the whole and 
 with reference to the general line of thought and practical 
 design of the author. It is this kind of study, and this kind 
 
HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 5a 
 
 oi study alone, that will save the reader from misunderstand- 
 ing and misinterpretation. Moreover, it is well to bear in 
 mind that, while the Bible is in a real sense one book, one 
 plan, one spirit, one purpose running throughout the whole, 
 in another sense it is a library consisting of many books. 
 These were written and published separately, each with its 
 Own meaning and purpose. Since, then, each of the sacred 
 books has its own aim and value, it goes almost without say- 
 ing that the Bible student should try to get the practical im- 
 pression that each of them is designed to make. For instance, 
 each of the Gospels presents certain aspects of the life, char- 
 acter, and work of Jesus. If, now, the student finds out how 
 each of the Gospels portrays Him, and then blends them all 
 together in loving faith, in reverence, and in humble desire 
 to live like Him, he has made the most beautiful harmony of 
 the Gospels ever attempted. 
 
 And so it is with other parts of the Bible. We need the 
 practical inspiration which each particular book can give. If 
 this method of study is pursued intelligently, it will prevent 
 misunderstanding and misinterpretation, it will furnish a 
 knowledge of the practical significance of each part, and in 
 the end will give the most comprehensive vision of the whole. 
 Only on the basis of such study can the study by characters 
 or by topics be pursued to the best advantage. 
 
 4. The Critical Method of Bible Study. In the method 
 of study described in the preceding paragraph the student 
 has constantly in view the message which the book studied 
 may have to his own soul and life. But from what has been 
 said it must have become clear that much preparatory work 
 must be done before the student can expect to understand 
 adequately the message of the book. Now, there is another 
 method of study, which places much emphasis upoz these 
 preliminary labors. For want of a better name it may be 
 called the critical method. It concerns itself with the text, te 
 determine its form as it left the hand of the author, and seeks 
 to set in a clear light the origin and literary history of the 
 
52 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 book. When was it written? where? by whom? to whom? 
 for what purpose? No sane person can doubt that answers 
 to these and similar questions are essential if the message 
 of the book is to be understood. As long as this method 
 of study retains its proper place as a means to an end it 
 is not only legitimate, but necessary. However, it becomes 
 inadequate and disastrous when, through overemphasis of 
 preliminary questions, the true aim of Bible study is lost 
 sight of. 
 
 5. Suggestions for the Study of the Bible by Books, A 
 few words may be added as to the simplest manner in which 
 
 the ordinary Bible student can study the Bible by books. For 
 the beginner it would be best to select a simple book; for 
 example, in the Old Testament, the Book of Amos; in the 
 Wew Testament, one of the Gospels. Having made the se- 
 lection, the student should acquire, first of all, a fairly well 
 defined general 1iotion of its contents. This he can do by 
 reading the book carefully, if possible at one sitting, and read- 
 ing it thus several times. It is an exceedingly difficult mat- 
 ter to understand any book if it is read always only in frag- 
 ments. After reading the book intelligently, he should at- 
 tempt to write down the general impressions of its theme and 
 substance. This should be followed by another reading or 
 two, on the basis of which the impressions written down 
 should be corrected. This process should be continued until 
 the student has secured a fair knowledge of the book as a 
 whole. But this is only the first step: The student should 
 next get an idea of the logical arrangement of the contents 
 of the book. if he finds it difficult to work this out for him- 
 self, he may consult an analysis of the book as found in some 
 Bible help. With this analysis in mind, he should now pro- 
 ceed to master the book section by section by a careful study 
 of each word and sentence. While it is advisable to use in 
 this study commentaries and other helps, the student must 
 never assign first place to them; the Bible must be the basis 
 of study, other books should be used only as means to a 
 
HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 53 
 
 better understanding of the message of the Biblical writer. 
 To best impress the results upon his own mind, he may do 
 well to write them down. MHaving proceeded thus far, he 
 may cast aside the analysis used and make one of his own, 
 based upon the contents as he interprets them. 
 
 The successive steps will enable the student to view and 
 estimate the book as a whole. Now he is prepared to take 
 up the topical study of that one book. Naturally the topics 
 will vary with different books, but certain topics should be 
 studied in connection with all books. Going through the 
 dook, the student should collect all materials touching upon 
 the author, the time and piace of writing, the purpose, the 
 persons addressed, the conditions of the writer and of the 
 first readers, the several religious truths expressed, and many 
 more. Every student pursuing his studies along the lines 
 suggested will soon be prepared to make his own list of 
 topics. After doing all this the student will become conscious 
 of having mastered the book, that he understands its teach- 
 ing, and that he can apply it to his own life and conduct so - 
 as to receive new impulses and inspiration te live a Christ- 
 like life. Now he is ready to turn to another book, until he 
 has mastered the whole Bible. While going thus from book 
 to book he may very profitably turn from time to time to a 
 book already mastered and read small portions suitable to 
 the needs of a particular time. 
 
 This kind of study requires time, patience, and industry; 
 but it is the only kind that in the end will enable the student 
 to determine for himself what the Bible actually says, and will 
 give to him a comprehensive insight into the mysteries of 
 God as revealed in the Bible. And after all, fifteen minutes 
 or half an hour a day, if set aside regularly, will accomplish 
 great things. In closing this section the admission may be 
 made that there is, perhaps, no clear-cut method of Bible 
 study that will apply to all students and all occasions. Every 
 student has peculiarities of his own, and naturally he will 
 adopt a method and introduce modifications which seem ta 
 
54 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 him best adapted to achieve the results he desires. Neverthe- 
 less, whatever the individual peculiarities, there are certain 
 fundamental principles which underlie all successful Bible 
 study, and to these attention is called in the preceding para- 
 graphs. é 
 
 6. The Attitude of Mind and Heart in Bible Study. A 
 second essential factor in Bible study is the proper attitude 
 of mind and heart, the spirit in which the student approaches 
 the Bible. In the first place, he who seeks to obtain tie best 
 results must approach the Bible in the spirit of a learner; he 
 must be humble and childlike, ready to receive instruction. 
 Again, he must approach the Bible in a spirit of open-minded- 
 ness, willing to receive the truth, though that truth may be 
 contrary to the notions cherished before thorough Bible study 
 was entered upon. Moreover, he must enter upon the study 
 in a spirit of expectancy. The investigation of any subject 
 may be approached in one of three attitudes of mind as to 
 results. There may be a spirit of uncertainty and indifference, 
 or 2 spirit of non-expectancy, or a spirit of expectancy, of 
 assurance that the efforts will not be in vain. Only the stu- 
 dent who approaches the study of the Bible in the last-men- 
 tioned attitude and spirit will see the most helpful results. 
 There must also be a spirit of determination and perseverance. 
 If the student is turned aside by any difficulty, be it great 
 or small, the sweet, full-grown fruit can not be his. The 
 . richest truths of the Bible are not found by one who is 
 easily tired out. Bible study demands unwearied persever- 
 ance. Another essential requisite is a spirit of prayerfulness. 
 There are sayings in the Bible hard to be understood, for the 
 natural man receiveth not the things of God; but the Spirit 
 searcheth all things, even the deep things of God. This is 
 the Spirit that is to lead into all truth. Bible study can never 
 be what it should be unless the student approaches the Sacred 
 Book in a spirit of prayer for the illumination of his heart 
 and mind by the Spirit of truth. Once more, there must be 
 a spirit of responsiveness. By this I mean more than willing- 
 
HOW STUDY THE BIBLE 55 
 
 ness to be taught. Sooner or later the student finds that the 
 truths he discovers impose upon him certain duties that ap- 
 peal to his conscience. Now, scientific truth is most readily 
 mastered by practical application. The same is true of moral 
 and religious truth. He that willeth to do is the one that 
 will learn the most. Whenever a truth is found in the Bible 
 it should be accepted not merely as an abstract truth, but as 
 a part of the inner life to find expression in conduct. 
 
 In this wise the present writer would answer the inquiry, 
 how to study the Bible, and he is convinced that if the 
 student brings to the Bible the right method and the right 
 spirit, God will say to him, in the words of the four and 
 twenty elders before the throne of God, “Thou art worthy 
 to take the Book and open the seals thereof.” 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The meaning of study. 
 The study of the Bible as literature. 
 The devotional study of the Bible. 
 Dangers of unsystematic study. 
 Metliods of Bible Study: Topical; biographical; by books. 
 The critical method. 
 The right spirit in Bible study. 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Moulton, “The Literary Study of the Bible.” 
 Trumbuli, “Hints on Bible Study.” 
 Seli, “Bible Study by Books.” 
 Smyth, “How to Read the Bible.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. ‘The study of some one book according to the suggestions 
 of paregraph five. 
 2. The historical criticism. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 1. What are the dangers of poor methods of Bible study? 
 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of topical study, 
 3. The best general method of Bible study. 
 4. Elements of the right spirit in Bible study. 
 

 
PART II 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 By F. C. E1sELEN 
 

 
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CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS OF THE PENTA« 
 TEUCH AND JOSHUA 
 
 1. The Pentateuch. The first five books of the Old Tes- 
 tament were called by the early Jewish rabbis, “The five-fifths 
 of the Law.” Following this custom, early Christian writers, 
 beginning with Tertullian and Origen, called the collection 
 consisting cf the five books “Pentateuch,” which means “the 
 five-book treatise.” Modern scholars add to the five books 
 in the Pentateuch the Book of Joshua, because “its contents, 
 and still more, its literary structure, show that it is intimately 
 connected with the Pentateuch and describes the final stage 
 
 in the history of the Origines of the Hebrew nation.” Hence 
 
 it has become customary to speak of the first six books of 
 the Bible—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteron- 
 omy, and Joshua—as the “Hexateuch,” that is, “the six-book 
 treatise.” 
 
 The historical portions of the Hexateuch cover the period 
 beginning with the creation of the world and ending with the 
 settlement of Israel in Canaan. This period may be divided 
 into three epochs: (1) The beginning of all things, Gen. 
 I:I—11:9; (2) the Hebrew patriarchs, Gen. 11: 10o—50: 26; 
 (3) the organization of Israel as a nation and its settlement 
 in Canaan, the historical sections of Exodus, Leviticus, Num- 
 bers, Deuteronomy, and the Book of Joshua. 
 
 The Pentateuch contains material taken from different 
 sources which the author had before him in written form. 
 These documents probably did not reach their final form un- 
 til some time subsequent to Moses, but all of them contained 
 
 59 
 
50 THr WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 ancient material, much of it going back to the time of Moses, 
 some of it even to pre-Mosaic days. Hence it is quite proper 
 to associate the name of Moses with the Pentateuch, because, 
 first, he was the anthor and originator of the movement and 
 impulse which culminated in the Pentateuch; and second, 
 the historical, religious, and ethical development reflected in 
 the Pentateuch progressed in the spirit of Moses and along 
 the lines laid.down by him. 
 
 The chronology of the Old Testament offers very perplex- 
 ing problems, especially with reference to the period covered 
 in this chapter. Archbishop Ussher placed creation at 4004 
 B, C., but modern research has compelled us to push this 
 date, back, though it may be uncertain just how far. Not ~ 
 until the age of Abraham does Bible chronology reach any 
 sort of firm foundation. If Abraham was the contemporary 
 of Hammurabi, the great king of Babylon, as is suggested in 
 Gen. 14:1, his date is approximately 2000 B. C.; the descent 
 into Egypt may have taken place in the seventeenth century, 
 and the most probable date of the Exodus is about 1225 B. C. 
 
 a. Contents of the Book of Genesis. The name. Genesis, 
 meaning “origin” or “generation,” is derived from the Septua- 
 gint translation; in the Hebrew Bible the book is designated 
 by its first word, translated in the English Bible, “In the be- 
 ginning.” Two main divisions may be recognized: I. The 
 beginning of all things (1:1—11:9); II. The stories of the 
 Patriarchs (11: 10—50: 26). 
 
 The first division falls naturally into the following sec- 
 tions: : 
 
 1. The creation of all things (1: 1—2:25). 
 2. The beginning of sin (3: 1-24). 
 3. Early growth and corruption (4: 1—6:8). 
 
 (1) The first murder (4: 1-16). 
 
 (2) The earliest civilization (4: 17-24). 
 (3) The line of Seth (4: 25—5: 32). 
 
 (4) The apostate sons of God (6: 1-8). 
 
THE HISTCRICAL PORTIONS 6: 
 
 4. Noah and his times (6:0—9: 29). 
 (1) The flood (6: 9—9:17). 
 (2) Noah’s prophecy (9: 18-29). 
 
 5. The origin of the peoples (10: I—11:9). 
 (1) The gradual dispersion (10: I-32). 
 (2) The confusion of tongues (11: 1-9). 
 
 It is more difficult to arrange the remaining chapters of 
 Genesis according to a similar system, but its contents may 
 be briefly indicated. The Hebrews possess many character- 
 istics which are common to the group of nations known as 
 the Semitic race. The racial relations of the Hebrews are 
 briefly indicated in Gen. 11: 10-26, which traces the genealogy 
 of Shem down to Abraham, whose migration from Sgquthern 
 Babylonia to Canaan marks the first beginnings of the Hebrew 
 people. The remaining portion of the book consists of nar- 
 fatives centering around the three great patriarchs, Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Jacob, and of Joseph, the favorite son of Jacob. 
 The lives of these are narrated with considerable fullness 
 down to the descent into Egypt, with an account of which 
 Genesis closes. The connecting bond in this section is the 
 promise to Abraham and the covenant based upon it (12: 1-3), 
 the unfolding of which is exhibited in the histories of the 
 patriarchs and the rise of the twelve tribes. The various 
 steps in the development are connected, and the interest is 
 concentrated by the use of the formula, “These are the gen- 
 erations of:’ Shem, 11:10; Terah (Abraham), 11:27; Ish- 
 mael, 25:12; Isaac, 25:19; Esau, 36:1, 9; Jacob, 37::. 
 
 6. Significance of Genesis. The permanent value of Gene 
 esis I to 11 lies in the religious teaching of the chapters. It is 
 not in their knowledge of physical facts that the authors were 
 elevated above their contemporaries, but in their knowledge 
 of God’s connection with these facts. What good would 
 have resulted if these ancient writers had proposed new views 
 of the universe which, though true, were foreign to the think- 
 ing of their contemporaries? They would have been looked 
 
62 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 upon as madmen and fanatics; people would have mocked 
 them and rejected all their teaching, both religious and scien- 
 tific. No serious loss would come to men if they were left 
 a while longer in ignorance about matters of science; but 
 serious loss would come to them by continuing in their lower 
 religious and ethical beliefs and practices. The ancient in- 
 spired teachers sought to rectify the latter, and they used 
 current scientific notions as vehicles for the teaching of high 
 and lofty religious and ethical truths. Scientifically, there- 
 fore, these chapters give the best that the age of the writers 
 offered; religiously they give something that the age as a 
 whole did not possess; something that came to the writers 
 as a result of their intimate fellowship with God; and in 
 this divine element lie the significance and permanent value 
 of the narratives. 
 
 The one supreme lesson taught throughout the entire sec- 
 tion is, “In the beginning God.” The more important lessons 
 of the separate narratives are briefly summarized by Driver 
 as follows: “The narrative of creation sets forth, in a series 
 of dignified and impressive pictures, the sovereignty of God; 
 His priority to and separation from all finite, material nature; 
 His purpose to constitute an ordered cosmos, and gradually 
 to adapt the earth to become the habitation of living beings; 
 and His endowment of man with the peculiar, unique pos- 
 session of self-conscious reason, in virtue of which he became 
 capable of intellectual and moral life and is even able to know 
 and hold communion with his Maker. In chapters 2 and 3 
 we read, though again not in a historical, but in a pictorial 
 and symbolic form, how man was once innocent, how he be- 
 came conscious of a moral law; and how temptation fell 
 upon him and he broke it. The fall of man, the great and 
 terrible truth, which history not less than individual expe- 
 rience only too vividly teaches each one of us, is thus im- 
 pressively set before us. Man, however, though punished by 
 God, is not forsaken by Him, nor left in his long conflict 
 with evil without hope of victory. In chapter 4 the increas- 
 
THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 63 
 
 ing power of sin, and the fatal consequences to which, if un- 
 checked, it may lead, is vividly portrayed in the tragic figure 
 of Cain. The spirit of vindictiveness and the brutal triumph 
 in the power of the sword is personified in Lamech. In the 
 narrative of the flood God’s wrath against sin and the divine 
 prerogative of mercy are alike exemplified: Noah is a stand- 
 ing illustration of the truth that ‘righteousness delivereth from 
 death,” and God’s dealings with him after the flood form a 
 striking declaration of the purposes of grace and good-will 
 with which God regards mankind. The narrative of the tower 
 of Babel emphasizes Jehovah’s supremacy in the world, and 
 teaches how the self-exaltation of man is checked by God.” 
 
 The permanent religious significance of the patriarchal 
 narratives is brought out in chapter IV. Here a few words 
 may be added concerning their historical value. The later 
 history of Israel presupposes a nomadic stage in the develop- 
 ment of the people such as is described in Genesis 12—50, and 
 there seems good reason for believing that the narratives fur- 
 
 ‘nish a truthful picture of the general conditions in the patri- 
 
 archal period. ft follows, therefore, that even as historical 
 documents the partiarchal narratives are of inestimable value. 
 
 ¢. The Historical Portions of the Books from Exodus to 
 Deuteronomy. The closing chapters of Genesis record how 
 the Hebrew nomads, after living in Canaan for some genera- 
 tions, were driven by famine into Egypt, where the Pharaoh 
 settled them in Goshen, in the eastern portion of the Nile 
 Delta. There they remained in practical seclusion for many 
 generations, retaining very largely their customs and beliefs. 
 
 ‘This period is passed over very briefly in the Book of Ex- 
 
 odus, “And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased 
 abundantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty; 
 and the land was filled with them.” (Ex. 1:7.) In the 
 course of time a new dynasty arose in Egypt, under which 
 began a period of oppression, from which the Hebrews were 
 delivered under the leadership of Moses (about 1225 B. C.). 
 Exodus 1:1--12:36 portrays the closing years of the stay 
 
64 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 in Egypt: the oppression, the history of Moses, his mission 
 to Pharaoh, and the plagues sent upon Egypt for the purpose 
 of securing the release of the Hebrews. Exodus 12:37— 
 18:27 contains a record of the departure from Egypt, the 
 overthrow of the Egyptians, and the march of the Israelites 
 until they reached Mount Sinai. The rest of the Book of 
 Exodus records some of the events before Mount Sinai, but 
 the greater part is devoted to an account of the giving of the 
 Law. The Book of Leviticus belongs almost exclusively to 
 the legal literature, as also considerable portions of Numbers 
 and Deuteronomy. 
 
 The Book of Numbers carries the account of Israel’s jour- 
 neyings to the settlement in the country east of the Jordan. 
 Chapters I—4 contain chiefly the census taken of the people 
 who came out of Egypt. Chapters 11—r19 record the wan- 
 derings of Israel: the survey of Canaan, the refusal to enter 
 the land, the march back to the wilderness, and various re- 
 bellions. The period covered extends from the second to the 
 beginning of the fortieth vear. Chapters 20—24 relate the 
 events of the first ten months of the fortieth year: the march 
 around Edom, the death of Aaron, the conquest of the land 
 of the Amorites and of Bashan, and the episode of Balaarn. 
 Chapters 25—36 contain much legal material; the historical 
 portions describe the sin of Baal-peor (25), the second census 
 (26), the slaughter of the Midianites (31), the settlement 
 east of the Jordan (32-35). The Book of Deuteronomy con- 
 sists mainly of addresses to the people. The first of these 
 (1: I—4:49) contains a rehearsal of the history from Mount 
 Horeb (Sinai) to the Jordan. Chapters 31—34 deal with 
 the closing days of Moses: his charge to Joshua (31), the 
 Song of Moses (32), the Blessing of Moses (33), the death 
 of Moses (34). 
 
 2. The Book of Joshua. The Book of Joshua takes up 
 the narrative near the point where Numbers drops it, the 
 only intervening event of importance being the death of 
 Moses. Joshua is, therefore, the direct continuation of the 
 
THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 65 
 
 historical portions of the Pentateuch. Its contents may be 
 briefly indicated as follows: I. Chapters 1—12, the conquest 
 of Canaan; II. Chapters 13—22, the division of the land 
 among the tribes; III. Chapters 23 and 24, Joshua’s farewell 
 addresses and an account of the death of Joshua and Eleazar. 
 The principal events recorded in the first division are: the 
 preparations for the conquest (1); the sending of the spies 
 to Jericho, and their reception by Rahab (2); the crossing 
 of the Jordan (3, 4); the encampment at Gilgal (5); the 
 fall of Jericho (6); the trespass of Achan, and the attacks 
 upon Ai (7, 8); the treaty with the Gibeonites (9); the con- 
 quest of southern Canaan (10); the conquest of northern 
 Canaan and other kings (11, 12). The second division (13 
 —22) gives a detailed account of the division of the land 
 among the tribes, and yet their exact location can not be 
 definitely established. On the one hand, the boundaries laid 
 down are ideal, and in many cases the tribes were not able 
 to conquor the whole territory allotted to them; on the other, 
 many of the localities named are not yet identified. Generally 
 speaking, the southern portion of the central range was oc- 
 cupied. by Judah; still farther to the south, extending out 
 into the desert, was Simeon. Ephraim and part of Manasseh 
 were the dominant power in the center; between Ephraim 
 and Judah the small but vigorous tribe of Benjamin, little 
 more than a branch of Ephraim, found a home. The group 
 of northern tribes consisted of Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, 
 and Asher. Issachar occupied the rich plain of Esdraelon, 
 Zebulon the rolling hills north of the plain, Napthali the nar- 
 row strip along the Jordan, from the plain of Esdraelon to 
 the Lebanon. West of the Lebanon, between it and Phe- 
 nicia, Asher settled, in the district known at a later time as 
 Upper Galilee. Dan settled originally on the southwestern 
 slope of Mount Ephraim, but the pressure of the populous 
 tribe of Ephraim, the Amorites, and the Philistines compelled 
 the Danites to seek a new home elsewhere. This was found 
 in a retired spot at the foot of Mount Hermon, at Laish, a 
 
66 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Pheenician colony, whose name was changed to Dan. ‘Two 
 tribes, Gad and Reuben, and a part of a third, Manasseh, 
 settled east of the Jordan. The tribe of Levi received no 
 fixed portion. 
 
 A close study of the Book of Joshua reveals the fact that 
 the story of the conquest is written from two distinct view- 
 points: the one reflected in chapters 1—12, the other in 
 brief notes scattered through the rest of the book. By piec- 
 ing together the two acccunts we can construct a fairly com- 
 plete narrative of the conquest. After the death of Moses, 
 Israel accepted Joshua as his successor, and continued on 
 the path of conquest. The Jordan was crossed, and Jericho. 
 the city of the palm trees, won. Gibeon, panic-stricken, made 
 terms with the invaders. Israel, united under Joshua, won 
 a great victory over a southern confederacy at Beth-horon. 
 Elated by these repeated successes, Judah and Simeon broke 
 loose from the main body and turned southward to take pos- 
 session of the southern portion of the central range. Joshua, 
 at the head of the strong house of Joseph, and followed by 
 the tribes which afterward settled in the north, burst across 
 the Plain of Esdraelon and defeated a northern confederacy 
 at the waters of Merom. The Canaanites, however, after 
 bending before the storm, recovered courage, retained for 
 some time possession of the “ich plain, and compelled the 
 Israelites to keep to the hills. 
 
 When the initial impetus of the conquest lost its force, the 
 Canaanites were still masters of the land. Not all at once, 
 nor by the sword alone, did the Hebrews come into posses- 
 sion of their heritage. Peaceful means, such as intermarriage 
 with natives and covenants or treaties with friendly neighbors, 
 played an important role in the final conquest of Palestine. 
 In some sections Canaanitish, in others Israelitish, influence 
 was the stronger. The question was, Which would conquer 
 in the end? The Canaanites, with their superior civilization, 
 enjoyed a great advantage, and the newcomers learned of 
 them agriculture and the few simple arts practiced in those 
 
THE HISTORICAL PORTIONS 67 
 
 days. But the problem was not only political and social, it 
 was religious as well. Would the Israelites accept the re- 
 ligion of their teachers? If they did, the lessons of the past 
 would have to be repeated, or true religion would be lost to 
 the world. ‘The crisis was serious; the more so because the 
 religious and moral conceptions of the vast mass of the Is- 
 raelites were still low and, therefore, the transition to the 
 Canaanitish ideas was not very difficult. That Canaan did 
 not triumph was due to the providentially raised-up leaders, 
 who emphasized and re-emphasized again and again the ne- 
 cessity of maintaining a strong and living faith in Jehovah, 
 the God of Israel. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The Pentateuch; meaning of the word; the Hexateuch; pe- 
 riod of history covered. 
 Contents and significance of Genesis. 
 The history of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, 
 The Book of Joshua. 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Ottley, “A Short History of the Hebrews.” 
 Kent, “History of the Hebrew People.” 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” 
 Commentaries: ‘‘Genesis,” Bennett; ‘Exodus,’ Bennett; 
 “Leviticus and Numbers,’ Genung; “Deuteronomy and 
 Joshua,” Robinson. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Institutions and religious ideas of patriarchal times. 
 2. The earliest history of Palestine. 
 3. Canaanitish influence upon Israel. 
 
 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. What designation may best be used for the books treated 
 in this chapter? 
 
 2. The contents of Genesis. 
 
 3. The real significance of Genesis. 
 
 4. What are the principal historical events recorded in Ea 
 odus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy? 
 
 5. The historical events of the Book of Joshua. 
 
 6. The location of the tribes. 
 
 g. The progress and methods of the conquest. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE LEGAL PORTIONS OF THE PENTATEUCH 
 
 1. The Origin of the Legal System of the Hebrews. Prac- 
 tically the entire legal system of the Hebrews is embodied 
 in the Books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuter- 
 onomy; outside of the Pentateuch the most important piece 
 of legislation is Ezekiel 40—48. Israel’s system of laws, in 
 all its aspects—ceremonial, moral, civil, and criminal—un- 
 doubtedly had its beginning with Moses. He proclaimed Je- 
 hovah to be the one God of Israel, and Israel to be the pe- 
 culiar people of Jehovah. In order to perpetuate the new 
 order, he must regulate the relation of the Israelites to their 
 God, to one another, and to the nation as a whole. This 
 brought about the creation or adaptation of a ceremonial sys- 
 tem, the giving of certain moral commands, and the formu- 
 lation of judicial precepts, which might govern the life and 
 conduct of the people. The Mosaic origin of the legal system 
 of the Hebrews is almost universally admitted. Says Well- 
 hausen: “The priests derived their té6rah [the Hebrew word 
 meaning law] from Moses: they claimed only to preserve 
 and guard what Moses had left. . . . From the historical 
 tradition it is certain that Moses was the founder of the 
 toérah.” So also Montefiore: “Moses . . . was unques- 
 tionably the founder of that oral teaching, or térah, which 
 preceded and became the basis of the codes of the Penta- 
 
 teuch.” On the other hand, it seems equally clear that the | 
 
 foundation laid by Moses was built upon by later generations, 
 
 in the spirit of Moses, to meet the needs of a more complex 
 
 and complicated state of society. This movement, which con- 
 62 
 
THE LEGAL PORTIONS 6c 
 
 tinued through centuries, resulted finally in the legislative 
 system embodied in the Pentateuch. 
 
 2. The Several Law Codes and their Dates. It is possible 
 to distinguish between six different collections of laws in the 
 Old Testament. Five of these are in the Pentateuch; the 
 other forms the closing chapters of the Book of Ezekiel 
 (chapters 40—48). The approximate dates when the Pen- 
 tateuchal codes are thought to have reached their completed 
 form are commonly given as follows: 
 
 (1) The Decalogue, in some form—the days of Moses. 
 
 (2) The Book of Covenant—the period of the Judges or 
 the early monarchy. : 
 
 (3) The Deuteronomic Code—the seventh century, pre- 
 ceding the reform movement under Josiah. 
 
 (4) The Holiness Code—the early years of the exile. 
 
 (5) The Priestly Code—the closing years of the exile and: 
 the post-exilic period. 
 
 (Between 4 and 5, about 570, would come the Code of 
 Ezekiel.) 
 
 But while these are the periods in which the several codes 
 are thought to have reached their completed literary form, it- 
 is universally admitted that all of them contain laws much 
 earlier than the codes as a whole, some of them as early as 
 the time of Moses; and some of the more extensive codes- 
 are thought to embody entire collections made at an earlier 
 time. 
 
 The entire system in its present form is known among 
 Jews and Christians as the Law of Moses. If this system 
 reached its final form by the steps just indicated, Moses can 
 not be considered the author of all the separate laws con- 
 tained in the various codes; and yet “Law of Moses” is not 
 a@ misnomer; for it was Moses who called the Hebrew na- 
 tion into being; it was he who inspired his contemporaries 
 and later generations with lofty moral and religious ideals; 
 
yo THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 it was he who laid the foundation of the Hebrew legal system 
 in all its various aspects. The work of the later prophets, 
 priests, and lawgivers was carried on in the spirit of Moses 
 and along the lines laid down by him as the first great prophet 
 of Israel, who “talked with God face to face.” 
 
 a. The Decalogue. The code commonly called the Deca- 
 logue appears in two recensions, differing in details; in Ex- 
 odus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. In both cases some of the 
 commandments are expanded by certain hortatory additions. 
 The legal requirements proper are as follows: 
 
 (1) Thou shait have no other gods before Me. 
 
 (2) Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image. 
 (3) Thou shalt not take the name of Jehovah, thy God, 
 
 in vain. 
 
 (4) Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 
 
 (5) Honor thy father and thy mother. 
 
 (6) Thou shalt do no murder, 
 
 (7) Thou shalt not commit adultery. 
 
 (8) Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 (9) Thou shalt not bear false witness. 
 (10) Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife. 
 
 These ten commandments may be divided into two tables 
 of five precepts each, the first five regulating the attitude of 
 the people toward Jehovah and towards parents, who to chil- 
 dren stand in the place of God. The other five, the attitude 
 toward their fellow Israelites. 
 
 Concerning the character and permanent significance of 
 this code, it has been well said: “The marvelous perfection 
 of this summary of moral law, its intrinsic excellency, the uni- 
 versal applicability of its several precepts, and their abiding 
 and unchanging nature, place these commandments in ad- 
 vance of anything to be found elsewhere in the annals of 
 human legislation. They are a summary of divine revela- 
 tion so absolutely fundamental and comprehensive that on 
 them hang all the law and the prophets. They are grounded 
 
 oo or 
 
THE LEGAL PORTIONS 71 
 
 in the very nature of man as a moral being, and take due 
 cognizance of his essential relations to God on the one hand, 
 and to his fellows on the other.” 
 
 b. The Book of the Covenant. It is unthinkable that 
 Moses settled all disputes brought before him simply by ap- 
 pealing to the Decalogue. He must have made his decisions 
 more specific. That at least some of these decisions were 
 written down for the guidance of future generations seems 
 quite probable. The Book of the Covenant appears to be a 
 collection of such decisions somewhat expanded and modified 
 to meet the needs of the people after the settlement in Canaan. 
 
 The Book of Covenant extends from Exodus 20: 22— 
 23:19. Its laws deal with a variety of subjects, and it re- 
 quires considerable adjustment to make a systematic arrange- 
 ment possible. Originally the whole book may have been ar- 
 ranged on the principle of the Decalogue, in the sense that it 
 contained ten separate decalogues, each containing two groups 
 of five laws. Corresponding to the two tables, the Book of 
 the Covenant may be divided into two groups of laws, each 
 consisting of five decalogues: (1) Judgments dealing with 
 civil and criminal cases; (2) Religious and humane laws. 
 The five decalogues of the first group are not difficult to re- 
 construct; of the second group only four exi&t, though traces 
 of the fifth appear. The collection of Judgments deals with 
 the following subjects: (1) The rights of slaves (21: 2-11); 
 (2) Assaults (21: 12-27); (3) Laws regarding domestic ani- 
 mals (21: 28-36; 23:1, 4); (4) Responsibility for property 
 (22: 5-15); (5) Social Purity (22: 16-20). The Religious and 
 Humane Laws deal with (1) Kindness (22:2, 3, 6, 7, 21-27; 
 23:4, 5); (2) Justice (23:1-3, 6-8); (3) Duties to God 
 (20: 23-26; 22: 28-31); (4) Sacred Seasons (23: 10-19). 
 
 c. The Deuteronomic Code. ‘The laws of Deuteronomy 
 do not represent a break with Israel’s earlier legislation, but 
 rather an extension and development in the spirit of the 
 eighth-century prophets. Three-fourths of the laws in the 
 earlier codes are reproduced, in some form, in Deuteronomy, 
 
72 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 The omission of the others is easily accounted for by the 
 
 purpose of the new code. It was intended for popular use, 
 while the omitted laws were primarily for the guidance of 
 the judges. The reasons for the alterations of more ancient 
 laws, and the addition of new ones, are to be traced to the 
 change in political, social and religious conditions, and to the 
 teaching of the eighth-century prophets. The spirit of Deu- 
 teronomy is prophetic. Service is ever placed above sacrifice. 
 To love and to serve Jehovah and one’s fellows with all the 
 heart and soul is its supreme demand. The detailed laws are 
 presented simply as means by which this love may find ex- 
 pression. 
 
 In its present form the Book of Deuteronomy consists. 
 aside from the introductory historical section (1—4) and 
 the farewell speeches, exhortations, and blessings (27—34), 
 of several rather loosely defined groups of laws: 1. The pro- 
 phetic decalogue, followed by a series of exhortations based 
 chiefly on the first command (5—11). . 2. Ceremonial and 
 religious Jaws (12:1—17:7). 3. Appointment and duties of 
 the officials in the divinely ruled commonwealth—judges, 
 kings, priests, and prophets (17:8—18:22). 4. Criminal 
 laws (19: 1-2I—2I1:1-9). 5. Military laws to be observed 
 in case of war (20:1-20; 21:10-14). 6. A miscellaneous 
 collection of civil, criminal, humane, and religious laws, many 
 of which are closely related to those in the other groups 
 (21: 15—25:19). 7. Presentation of the firstborn and the 
 triennial tithe (26: 1-19). 
 
 d. The Law of Holiness. The so-called Law of Holiness 
 is contained in Leviticus 17 to 26. The code derives its mod- 
 ern name from the fact that its central idea is holiness, both 
 moral and ceremonial. “Ye shall obey My commands and 
 do them: I am Jehovah. And ye shall not profane My holy 
 name; but f wil! be treated as holy among the Israelites. I 
 am Jehovah, who maketh you holy, who brought you out 
 of the land of Egypt to be your God: I am Jehovah.” (Lev. 
 22: 31-33.) 
 
THE LEGAL PORTIONS 73 
 
 The Law of Holiness deals with a variety of topics. It 
 is noteworthy, however, that it lays much less stress upon 
 civil and criminal legislation than upon moral and ceremonial 
 requirements. Some of the more important subjects are: The 
 slaughter of animals and sacrifice (17); unchastity and Mo- 
 loch worship (18); the religious and moral behavior of the 
 Israelites (19); penalties enjoined for Moloch worship, un- 
 lawful marriage, and other offenses (20); regulations touch- 
 ing priests and offerings (21, 22); the sacred seasons (23); 
 the lights of the sanctuary, the showbread, the blasphemer 
 and his punishment (24); the Sabbatic year and the year of 
 jubilee (25). The code closes with a hortatory address, em- 
 phasizing the fundamental duty of loyalty to Jehovah and 
 His commands (26). In Leviticus 19:18, “Thou shalt love 
 thy neighbor as thyself,’ the Old Testament legislation 
 reaches ‘its noblest expression. 
 
 e. The Priestly Code. The so-called Priestly Code is 
 found chiefly in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. The un- 
 derlying thought of the code is that Israel is called to be a 
 holy people, sanctified by the presence of Jehovah in its midst. 
 The nation is treated as a Church living only for the service 
 of God, and the whole legislation is intended to maintain the 
 proper relation between Jehovah and Israel, or, if it should 
 be broken in any way, to restore it. This is also the aim of 
 the other codes, but the priestly code differs from them in its 
 marked emphasis upon the external forms and ceremonial 
 practices of religion. The following brief outline will sug- 
 gest the characteristic requirements of the code. 
 
 The law of circumcision (Gen. 17). 
 
 _ The law of the Passover (Ex. 12). 
 
 _ The tabernacle and its furniture; the dress and consecra- 
 tion of the priests; the law of the daily burnt offering, 
 etc. (Ex. 25—313; 35—40. 
 
 The ritual of various sacrifices (Lev. 1: I—6:7). 
 
 Regulations relating to the priests, their dress, perquisites, 
 etc. (Lev. 6: 8—10: 20). 
 
. 
 
 74 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Laws of purification and atonement (Ley. 11—16; Num, 
 521-43 10. 
 
 The commendation of tithes and vows (Lev. 27; Num. 30). 
 
 Law of Nazarites (Num. 6). 
 
 Duties, revenues, distribution of the tithes appointed for 
 priests and Levites (Num. 18); concerning Leyvitical 
 cities (Num. 35: 1-8). 
 
 Miscellaneous laws, some supplementaty, some intended to 
 harmonize various passages in the completed code, some 
 dealing with civil matters; for example, the law of in- 
 heritance for daughters (Num, 27:1-11); the distribu- 
 tion of spoil taken in war (Num. 31: 21-30); the law 
 relating to homicide, and the appointment of the cities 
 of refuge (Num. 35:9-34). 
 
 As long as the religious leaders retained the prophetic 
 spirit and moral fervor, this legal system, with all its empha- 
 sis on form, might serve as a means of religious education, 
 It might help to “develop and deepen the sense of sin and to 
 awaken in devoue souls religious affections: trust, devotion, 
 selfssurrender, thankful love, the longing for divine grace.” 
 On the other hand, it would stand as a constant danger to 
 spiritual religion. How easy it would be to be satisfied with 
 a merely external standard of religion, to drift into a spirit 
 of formalism, to confuse ceremonial holiness with moral 
 purity! Unfortunately, later generations yielded to these dan- 
 gers, and Judaism became a mere form, without power and 
 life. It should be remembered, however, that in the Canon 
 of Sacred Scripture the priestly code never had an independ- 
 ent existence. In the other collections of laws the broader 
 duties of humanity, justice, and morality were insisted upon, 
 and they were adapted to train a righteous and God-fearing 
 nation. Hence, had the later Jews so desired, they might 
 have known the things acceptable in the sight of God. Their 
 failure was due not to neglectfulness on the part of the Divine 
 Providence, but rather on the part of the Jewish community. 
 
THE LEGAL PORTIONS 75 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The origin of the Hebrew legal system. 
 The several law codes; approximate dates, origin, and expo= 
 sition of each. 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Kent, “Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents.” 
 Terry, ‘“Moses and the Prophets.” 
 Hastings, “Bible Dictionary,” Article Law. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. ‘The character and influence of the Decalogue, 
 2. The significance of the Deuteronomic Code. 
 3. The origin and development of the Ceremonial Law, 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 1. The significance of the term, “the Laws of Moses,” 
 2. What is the Decalogue? 
 3. Explain the origin of the Book of the Covenant. 
 4. The spirit and content of the Deuteronomic Code, 
 5. The chief subjects of the Law of Holiness. 
 6. The distinctive features of the Priestly Code. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 THE JUDGES AND THE UNITED MONARCHY 
 
 4. The Books of Judges and Ruth. The principal sources 
 of information for the period of the Judges are the Books 
 of Judges and Ruth and 1 San1zel t—12, The Book of 
 Judges consists of three well-defined portions: I. An Intro- 
 duction, I: I—3:6, presenting a view of conditions in Pal- 
 estine at the time the period of the Judges begins; II. The 
 History of the Judges, 3:7—16:31; II]. An Appendix, 
 17—21, describing in detail two incidents belonging to this 
 period: (1) The migration of the tribe of Dan (17, 18); . 
 (2) The outrage at Gibeah, and its consequences (19—2I). 
 The main part of the book consists of a series of older nar- 
 ratives, fitted into a framework by a later editor, and pro- 
 vided by him, where necessary, with introductory and con- 
 cluding comments. The work of the editor appears most 
 prominently in the ever-recurring formula, “The children of 
 Israel did evil . . . He gave them into the hands of 
 . . . They cried unto Jehovah . .. He raised up a 
 deliverer.” The older sources furnished him a knowledge 
 of the events of history. The question arose in his mind, 
 What is the explanation of the several ups and downs? Upon 
 the basis of a powerful faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel, 
 he supplies the answer in the formula quoted. The Book of 
 Judges, therefore, is not simply a record of historical events, 
 but a record plus an interpretation. 
 
 The Book of Ruth, which follows Judges in the English 
 Bible, takes us to a period about a century before the time 
 of David. It narrates how Elimelech of Bethlehem, his wife, — 
 
 76 
 
THE JUDGES—THE UNITED MONARCHY 77 
 
 Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, went to live 
 in the land of Moab. The father dies, and the two sons 
 marry Moabitish wives, Orpah and Ruth. After a while 
 Mahlon and Chilion die, which leaves Naomi alone with her 
 two daughters-in-law. She decides te return to Bethlehem, 
 and Ruth insists on accompanying her (1). The remaining 
 three chapters narrate how in Bethlehem Ruth makes the 
 acquaintance of her kinsman Boaz, who in the end marries 
 her. A son is born to them, Obed, the father of Jesse, who 
 became the father of David. The narrative affords an idyllic 
 glance of home life in Israel during the period of the Judges. 
 The genealogy at the close suggests the probable purpose of 
 the book. The Books of Samuel simply give the names of 
 David’s father and brothers; Ruth is intended to throw addi- 
 tional light on his ancestry. 
 
 2. The Judges and their Work. The Judges whose ex- 
 ploits the book records are thirteen in number, or, if Abime- 
 lech, who is not termed a Judge, be omitted, twelve: Othniel 
 (3:7-11), Ehud (3:12-30), Shamgar (3:31), Barak and 
 Deborah (4, 5), Gideon (6:1—8:32), Abimelech (8: 33— 
 9:57), Tola (10:1, 2), Jair (10:3-5), Jephthah (10:6— 
 12:7), Ibzan (12: 8-10), Elon (12: 11, 12), Addon (12: 13-15), 
 Samson (13—16). Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and 
 Abdon, to whose exploits but little space is devoted, are some- 
 times called Minor Judges. 
 
 The term Judges as applied to the leaders of this period is 
 in a sense a misnomer. Deliverer, or savior, the designation 
 found in the most ancient narratives, describes their charac- 
 ter and function more accurately. The men were brought 
 to the front by the necessities of the age. A common danger, 
 most frequently an invasion, threatened a town or tribe. In 
 such a crisis some man of superior courage, energy, or wis- 
 dom arose and, rallying his tribesmen, led them to victory. 
 Having demonstrated his ability to command and to act, he 
 came to be regarded as the natural leader in crises of a sim- 
 iar character; but his authority was not derived from any 
 
78 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 constitutional provision; it was for the time being delegated 
 voluntarily by the people under the pressure of a common 
 need. But in that turbulent and chaotic age differences fre- 
 quently arose between individuals and even whole clans, and 
 these, under the dominion of blood revenge, led at times to 
 serious and disastrous consequences. This condition of af- 
 fairs would make the need of an arbiter, whose wisdom and 
 authority both parties would respect, strongly felt. In the 
 nature of the case difficulties of this sort were frequently re- 
 ferred for settlement to these victorious champions. It is this 
 fact which led later writers to call the local chieftains and 
 deliverers by the name Judges. 
 
 a. Conditions in Palestine at the Beginning of the Period 
 of the Judges. When the Israelites crossed the Jordan they 
 found a thickly populated land. Agriculture was the princi- 
 pal occupation, and the inhabitants had attained a fairly high ~ 
 degree of civilization. Scattered throughout the land were — 
 strong cities, which only a short time before had been garri- © 
 soned by Egyptian soldiers, but Egypt had lost its hold, and . 
 the land was in political confusion. This state of things made — 
 it comparatively easy for the Hebrews to secure a foothold; it — 
 was a much more difficult task to take possession of the whole 
 land. True, peaceful assimilation played an important role 
 in the final conquest, but for the most part the Canaanites did — 
 not surrender without the most desperate struggles. Again ~ 
 and again they threatened the invaders; at other times Israel : 
 was attacked by outside nations that sought to take for them- — 
 selves the more desirable districts of Palestine. The Book ~ 
 of Judges and the first twelve chapters of First Samuel de- 
 scribe the struggles leading to the final conquest. 
 
 b. The Several Crises during the Period of the Judges. 
 The period of the Judges extends from the death of Joshua : 
 to the anointing of Saul as king over Israel. Its exact length 
 can not be determined; from the available evidence it would 
 seem that it was somewhat less than two centuries. During 
 
THE JUDGES—THE UNITED MONARCHY 79 
 
 these years six more or less serious crises arose, each of 
 which called forth a deliverer. 1. The first of the Judges, 
 Othniel, delivered Israel from a Mesopotamian king, whose 
 name is not given, but who is called Cushan-rishathaim, 
 which means, the Cushite of double wickedness. 2. Ehud, of 
 the tribe of Benjamin, did his work in the south. Eglon, the 
 king of Moab, had seized the city of Jericho, and imposed 
 tribute upon the adjacent territory. Ehud treacherously slew 
 the king and, summoning the Ephraimites, succeeded in driv- 
 ing the Moabites across the Jordan. 3. Meanwhile, the en- 
 ergy of the Israelites in the north was expended in seeking 
 to conquer the land, but they were not altogether successful. 
 In the course of time the natives prevailed against the new- 
 comers, and the Israelites were threatened with complete sub- 
 jugation. In this crisis Deborah, the prophetess, and Barak, 
 of Kadesh Napthali, summoned the Israelitish forces to “come 
 to the help of Jehovah against the mighty.” The battle with 
 the Canaanites was fought in the Plain of Esdraelon, and 
 ended in a decisive victory for Israel. The power of the 
 Canaanites was forever broken, and. Central Palestine was 
 thrown open to the immigrants. 4. Soon a new danger threat- 
 ened, this time from the east. Midianites began to cross the 
 Jordan, and in a short time the Israelites, especially the tribes 
 of Ephraim and Manasseh, were reduced to galling serfdom. 
 From Manasseh arose the deliverer in the person of a brave, 
 patriotic, God-fearing farmer, by the name of Gideon. So 
 great was the gratitude of the Israelites that they offered to 
 make Gideon king, but Gideon declined the honor. However, 
 after his death, Abimelech, the son of Gideon and a Canaan- 
 itish woman, secured the kingship, after slaying all the other 
 sons of Gideon but one. The rule of Abimelech proved dis- 
 astrous and soon came to an ignominious end. 5. The next 
 ¢risis was caused by the Ammonites, another East Jordan peo- 
 ple. They took advantage of the unsettled conditions in Is- 
 rael, and seized the Israelite territory east of the Jordan. In 
 _ time they began to cross the Jordan, and the Israelites, with- 
 
80 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 out a competent leader, were worsted. Finally they called to 
 their aid Jephthah, of the tribe of Gad, who defeated the 
 Ammonites and dislodged them from all the Israelite terri- 
 tory. 6. The sixth and severest crisis was caused by the 
 Philistines in the southwest. The Book of Judges describes 
 the exploits of Shamgar and Samson against the Philistines, 
 but their deeds of personal daring were without permanent 
 results. The struggles continued for several centuries, and 
 ended in the complete triumph of Israel. 
 
 3. The Books of Samuel and Kings. The events leading 
 to the establishment of the monarchy and the history of the 
 United Kingdom are recorded in the Books of Samuel and 
 1 Kings 1—11. In both Samuel and Kings earlier and later 
 strata may be distinguished. Evidently older material was 
 taken by a later compiler and embodied by him into the pres- 
 ent books, he supplying at the same time such connecting 
 links as were needed in order to make a continuous nar- 
 rative. 5 
 
 The narratives center around the great personalities of 
 the age. In t Samuel 1—7 Eli and Samuel are the chief 
 characters; in chapters 8—14, Samuel and Saul; in chapters 
 15—31, Saul and David. From the time David appears 
 upon the scene the sympathies of the writer are largely with 
 him. The central figure of Second Samuel is David. Chap- 
 ters I—7 record the successive steps by which David came 
 to the throne of all Israel, his capture of Jerusalem, and the 
 transference thither of the ark. Chapter 8 epitomizes his 
 public acts, bringing his history to a close. It anticipates 
 events which are described more fully in the succeeding sec- 
 tion. Chapters 9—20 report in greater detail events in~ 
 David’s private and court life. The remaining chapters, 21 
 —24, constitute an appendix, consisting in part of extracts © 
 from old records of the reign of David, in part of lists of | 
 David’s heroes and their deeds, and in part of poetical ma- 
 terial assigned to David. The history of David is concluded 
 and that of Solomon introduced in 1-Kings»1, 2, Subsequent - 
 
THE JUDGES—THE UNITED MONARCHY 81 
 
 events in Solomon’s reign are recorded in chapters 3—1I, 
 special stress being laid upon the building and dedication of 
 the temple. 
 
 4. Events Leading to the Establishment of the Monarchy, 
 The struggles with the Philistines brought Israel to the verge 
 of destruction. The case seemed absolutely hopeless after 
 the decisive victory of the Philistines at Aphek (1 Sam. 4), 
 when Jehovah Himself seemed unable to stem the tide against 
 his chosen people. The defeat of Israel involved a twofold 
 danger: (1) political, (2) religious. The Hebrew armies 
 were demoralized, and there was nothing to prevent the Phil- 
 istines from overrunning and annexing the entire Israelite 
 territory, which would mean to Israel the loss of political in- 
 dependence. More serious even was the religious danger. At 
 Aphek Israel had put its trust in Jehovah. The people had 
 sent for the ark, the external symbol of the divine presence, 
 believing that with Jehovah in their midst defeat wouid be 
 impossible. The battle went against them; apparently Je- 
 hovah had failed-them, or else the gods of the Philistines 
 were stronger than He. In either case the question would 
 arise, Is it worth while to serve Him if He is unable or un- 
 willing to help? 
 
 One man, Samuel, saw the need of the hour. He realized 
 that if the religion of Jehovah and the national life were to 
 be preserved, two things were needed: (1) a more com- 
 plete union of the different clans and tribes, (2) a leader who 
 could command and inspire men. Experience taught that the 
 former could be secured only through emphasizing the re- 
 ligious bond, which bound the heterogeneous elements to- 
 gether in the beginning; hence Samuel, assisted by the sons 
 of the prophets, sought to recall the people to Jehovah. It 
 catne also to be seen that to cement and maintain the union 
 a more permanent form of government needed to be estab- 
 lished; and as the kingship was the form adopted by Israel’s 
 neighbors, the attention naturally turned in that direction. 
 Moreover, Samuei found a man who, he thought, possessed 
 
 6 
 
82 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 qualities of leadership and promised to be the proper person 
 to inaugurate the new form of government. Him Samuel 
 anointed king; and when Saul had given evidence of his 
 bravery at Jabesh-Gilead he was made king (1037 B. C.). 
 
 5. The United Monarchy. 
 
 a. King Saul and His Reign. After his election Saul was 
 compelled, first of all, to win his country from the Philistines. 
 In part he was successful in this attempt; however, the strug- 
 gles continued during his entire reign and finally cost him 
 his life. Of other wars the expedition against Amalek re- 
 ceives special mention, because of its important bearing upon 
 the subsequent career of the king. 
 
 The narratives centering around Satl deal more exten- 
 sively with events touching his personal life than with his 
 wars, and on the whole Saul appears in an unfavorable light. 
 At first he had the hearty support of Samuel, but soon dif- 
 ferences arose which in the end led to a complete break. 
 Samuel was the representative of the religious-national class, 
 Saul cf the military-political party. The constant military ac- 
 tivities of Saul were not conducive to the development of the 
 finer qualities of the king, and soon it became evident that, 
 whatever the good points in his character and person, he failed 
 to appreciate the spiritual and ethical conceptions of Samuel. 
 ‘As a result the latter became convinced that Saul was not 
 the man to lead Israel so that it could fulfill its God-given 
 mission to mankind; he broke permanently with the king and 
 selected as his successor one who was more in accord with 
 the ideals represented by the religion of Jehovah. 
 
 The breach with Samuel caused Saul to lose the support 
 of the best elements in the nation. This made the king 
 morose and melancholy. To cheer him the lad David, skilled 
 in music, was brought to the court. He soon won the hearts 
 of all, including the king’s daughter. He also distinguished 
 himself in war. These successes made Saul insanely jealous, 
 and he determined to slay David. The latter was finally com- 
 pelled to flee from the court; on several occasions his life 
 
 . 
 : 
 
iim) ee es, ye ae 
 
 THE JUDGES—THE UNITED MONARCHY 83 
 
 was threatened, but when Saul fell into his power he mag- 
 nanimously spared him. Weary of his wanderings, he at last 
 fled to the Philistines, where he would be safe from the king’s 
 attack. Soon the Philistines, encouraged by the presence with 
 them of the brave Israelite hero, made a new attack upon 
 Israel. The battle took place at Mourit Gilboa, and in the 
 engagement, which proved disastrous to Israel, Saul commite 
 ted suicide. 
 
 Though on the whole Saul] proved a failure, it is not fair — 
 _to overlook the good points in his character. The record pic- 
 
 tures him as a simple-minded, impulsive, courageous warrior, 
 and loyal patriot; but he was deficient in the maturer quali- 
 ties demanded by his position, executive ability, tact, the 
 power of organization, and, above all, patience and persist- 
 ency. In addition, and this was the most serious defect in 
 a king of Israel, he was unable to understand and appreciate 
 the higher religious experiences and ideais which enlightened 
 souls like Samuel were beginning to possess and without 
 which he could never be an ideal representative of Jehovah 
 upon the throne of Israel. 
 
 b. King David and His Reign. As soon as the news of 
 Saul’s death spread, the elders and principal men of Judah 
 made David their king. For about seven years he was king 
 of Judah only, while Ishbaal, a son of Saul, was king over 
 a small kingdom in the north. When at last Abner, the com- 
 mander-in-chief of the north, and Ishbaal himself were as- 
 sassinated, all the people turned to David. By the selection of 
 a new political center, Jebus—Jerusalem—in the conquest of 
 which north and south co-operated, he strengthened the union, 
 The establishment of a royal sanctuary in the same place 
 also would cause people from both sections to come there. 
 The surrounding nations were either conquered or friendly 
 relations were established with them, until his sway extended 
 from the Lebanon in the north to the Red Sea in the south, 
 and from the Mediterranean in the west to the Euphrates 
 and the Syrian Desert in the cast. Naturally the extension 
 
04 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 of power and territory led to a more complete organization 
 of the army and the court. 
 
 The domestic and court life of David was not as satis- 
 factory and glorious as was his public life. The rebellion 
 of his son Absalom and the events leading up to it must 
 have cast a broad shadow over his household; the murder 
 of. Uriah, his marriage with Bathsheba, and the intrigues re- 
 sulting from it, dim somewhat the glory of his reign. David 
 was, indeed, not without his gross faults; nevertheless his 
 intentions seem to have been in the right direction; and it. 
 is this fact, illustrated more or less consistently in all his life, 
 which caused him to be called a man after God’s own heart. 
 During the closing years of his reign David seems to have 
 withdrawn more and more from public activities, and yet at 
 his death he left to his successor a strong and mighty empire. 
 
 c. King Solomon and His Reign. The monarchy was a 
 recent experiment in Israel, and the laws of succession had 
 not been definitely fixed. However, in accord with the cus- 
 tom prevalent among other peoples, the oldest son of the king 
 seems to have been considered the natural successor, though 
 apparently the people retained the right to reject him if they 
 saw fit. The oldest living son of David was Adonijah, who 
 considered himself entitled to the throne; but he had a power- 
 ful rival in Solomon, the son of the favorite Bathsheba, and 
 after much intrigue the latter was anointed king. On the 
 whole, the reign of Solomon was disastrous. He adopted the 
 methods of an Oriental despot, with lofty political ambitions, 
 and lacking in appreciation of the spiritual religion of Je- 
 hovah. True, he erected the magnificent temple; and this act 
 is the chief glory of his reign, and has caused later genera- 
 tions to overlook many of his faults and follies; but he was 
 equally ready to build sanctuaries for other deities when his 
 wife requested him to do so. 
 
 Solomon is renowned for his wisdom, and the author of 
 Kings has preserved several illustrations of his sagacity. But 
 wisdom with the author of Kings is not what it is in the 
 
THE JUDGES—THE UNITED MONARCHY 85 
 
 Wisdom Literature or what is suggested by the term to-day. 
 The absence of moral and spiritual perception was not in- 
 compatible with it, for the writer is thinking only of the sec- 
 ular type of wisdom, illustrations of which may be found 
 among other Oriental peoples; and Solomon’s mistakes as a 
 ruler did not impair his reputation as the most famous wise 
 man of his age and race. As a result of his policy he left 
 Israel far weaker than it was when he ascended the throne, 
 and it was during his reign that the seeds of decadence were 
 sown which led to the dissolution of the kingdom. In addi- 
 tion to the building of the temple, which proved of the most 
 far-reaching significance, three things stand out prominently 
 in the reign of Solomon, all of which had disastrous effects 
 upon the nation’s life: 1. The revolts in Edom and Damascus, 
 which showed that Israel was losing its hold on the nations 
 conquered by David. 2. The oppression of the people, which 
 caused dissatisfaction with the dynasty of David. 3. Com- 
 mercial and marriage ailiances, which opened the way for the 
 introduction of foreign customs and religious ideas. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The Books of Judges and Ruth. 
 
 The Judges and their work. 
 
 Conditions in Palestine at the beginning of the period of 
 Judges. 
 
 Principal events during the period. 
 
 Contents of the Books of Samuel and Kings. 
 
 Events leading to the establishment of the monarchy, 
 
 King Saui and his reign. 
 
 King David and his reign. 
 
 King Solomon and his reign. 
 
 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Ottley, “A Short History of the Hebrews.” 
 Kent, “Founders and Rulers of United Israel.” 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” Articles on various 
 subjects. 
 Commentaries: “Judges and Ruth,’ Thatcher; “Samuel,” 
 Kennedy. 
 
86 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Religious conditions in Israel in the period of the Judges, 
 
 2. The military successes of David. 
 Topics for Class Discussion: , 
 
 1. What was the real work of the Judges? 
 
 2. Name the principal events of the period of the Judges? 
 
 3. Give the principal causes leading to the establishment of 
 the monarchy. : 
 
 4. Discuss the reign of Saul. 
 
 5. Describe the elements of strength in David. 
 
 4. Characterize the reign of Solomon. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE DIVIDED MONARCHY, THE EXILE, AND 
 THE RESTORATION 
 
 t. Sources of Information. . 
 
 a. The Two Books of Kings. The Books of Kings are 
 the principal historical sources for the period of the divided 
 monarchy. The author of the books gathered his material 
 from earlier sources; his own work is most apparent in the 
 recurring formulas which constitute the frame work into 
 which the citations from the older sources are fitted. The 
 opening formula is a little more complete in the case of the | 
 kings of Judah than in that*of the kings of Israel. In the 
 case of the former it gives (1) the synchronisms with the 
 kingdom of Israel; (2) the age of the monarch at the time 
 of his accession; (3) the length of his reign; (4) the name 
 of the king’s mother; (5) a brief judgment on his character 
 and reign. In the case of Israel it gives (1) the synchronisms 
 with Judah; (2) the length of the king’s reign; (3) a brief 
 judgment, always unfavorable. The closing formula assumes 
 the following form: (1) The compiler’s reference to. his prin- 
 cipal source of information; (2) mention of the king’s death 
 and burial;’ (3) name of the successor. One marked feature 
 of these formulas is the stereotyped judgment upon each 
 king, especially with reference to their attitude toward the 
 high places. From this and other facts it is evident that the 
 interests of the compiler were religious, rather than political; 
 which, in turn, explains why so many events of importance 
 to the modern historian were either ignored or received only 
 passing notice. 
 
 Within this framework the compiler inserted, practically 
 
 8&9 ; 
 
83 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 without alteration—as may be seen from the change in style 
 when there is a change in source—the older material, con- 
 sisting in part of brief summaries of political events, in part 
 of longer narratives not directly concerned with the public 
 doings of the kings. The latter, most prominent among 
 them the biographies of Elijah and Elisha, may have origi- 
 nated partly from prophetic circles and partly from priestly 
 centers. The work reached its final form soon ‘after the de- 
 struction of Jerusalem in 586 B. C. 
 
 b. Sources of Information for the Later Period. The clos- 
 ing verses of the Second Book of Kings relate two inci- 
 dents: (1) the brief rule of Gedaliah and his assassination; 
 (2) the release from prison of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, 
 who was carried into exile in 597. No Biblical historical 
 book gives a description of the life of the Jews in exile. As 
 far as the Old Testament writings are concerned, the prin- 
 cipal source of information on this point is the Book of 
 Ezekiel. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah deal with the 
 restoration. They furnish glimpses of the first return in 537 
 and the early experiences of the restored exiles; concerning 
 the activities of Ezra and Nehemiah their information is 
 much fuller. The two books appear in the Jewish canon as 
 one, and. together with Chronicles are probably the work of 
 an author who lived in the latter part of the fourth century 
 B. C. This author used, in addition to other material, per- 
 sonal memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah, who are the heroes 
 of the two books. Notwithstanding the late date of the books 
 in their present form, there seems no reason for doubting 
 _ that they present even in the portions originating with the 
 ,; compiler, a substantially correct picture of the experiences 
 and struggles of the post-exilic community. The Book of 
 Ezra falls naturally into two sections: I. The return of the 
 exiles under Sheshbazzar, chapters 1—6; II. The return 
 under Ezra, and the reforms attempted by him, chapters 7 
 —10. The Book of Nehemiah may be divided into three 
 parts: I. First visit of Nehemiah to Jerusalem, and the build- 
 
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 89 
 
 ing of the city walls, chapters 1—7; II. Solemn promulga- 
 tion of the Law, chapters 8—10; III. Various lists, dedica- 
 tion of the walls, Nehemiah’s second visit and subsequent re- 
 forms, chapters II—13. 
 
 c. The Books of Chronicles. The two Books of Chron- 
 icles, which appear as one in the Jewish canon, were written 
 by an unknown author some time before 300 B. C. The 
 books are not a continuation of Kings, but cover practically 
 the same ground as the historical writings from Genesis to 
 Kings; in other words, they embrace the period from Adam 
 to the edict of Cyrus, in 538 or 537, permitting the exiled 
 Jews to return to Jerusalem; the genealogies are continued 
 to even a later date. The viewpoint of the chronicler is not 
 that of the earlier historical writers, for while in the other 
 books prophetic elements predominate, the Books of Chron- 
 icles are permeated by the priestly spirit, and might be called 
 an Ecclesiastical History. The contents of Chronicles may be 
 outlined as follows: I. History of events from Adam to Saul, 
 1 Chron. 1—9; this is almost entirely in the form of gene- 
 alogies; II. History of David, 1 Chron. 1o—29; III. The 
 Reign of Solomon, 2 Chron. 1—9; IV. History of Judah, 
 from the division of the kingdom to the restoration, 2 Chron. 
 Io—36. 
 
 The chronicler seems to be dependent, directly or indi- 
 rectly, upon the Pentateuch, Joshua, and Ruth, and much 
 more extensively upon Samuel and Kings. In addition he 
 used numerous other sources, to which frequent references 
 are made. But the material thus received by the compiler 
 is not slavishly copied by him; he alters it by making addi- 
 tions or subtractions to suit his own peculiar purpose. It is 
 quite evident that he means to give a histery of Judah only, 
 with special reference to the temple and the religious institu 
 tions and practices centered in it; whatever had no bearing 
 upon these subjects was either rapidly passed over or entirely 
 ‘omitted. Moreover, in the selection and arrangement of the 
 material he seems to have been prompted by a didactive mo- 
 
90 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 tive rather than by a strictly historical aim. His aim appears 
 to be to teach that virtue and vice, in private life or in na- 
 tional affairs, invariably receive their dues; past history is 
 drawn upon to illustrate and enforce this teaching. 
 
 d. The Book of Esther. Of the books reckoned among 
 the histcrical books in the English Old Testament one re- 
 mains to be considered, namely, Esther. The tone of the 
 Book of Esther compares unfavorably with the spirit of al-— 
 most every other Old Testament book. Like the Book of 
 Ruth, it deals with a special incident; but while Ruth be- 
 longs to the period of the Judges, Esther takes us to the 
 post-exilic period, the days of Xerxes (485-465 B. C.) The 
 story relates how Esther, a Jewish resident in the Persian 
 capital Susa, rose to be queen of Xerxes, and how she suc- 
 ceeded in rescuing her countrymen from the destruction — 
 which Haman, the king’s favorite, had prepared for them. 
 “The story is well told. The queen of Xerxes is deposed for 
 contumacy, and her crown is set upon the head of Esther, a 
 lovely Jewish maiden. Presently the whole Jewish race is 
 imperiled by an act of Mordecai, the foster-father of Esther, — 
 who refuses to do obeisance to Haman, a powerful and fa- 
 vorite courtier. Haman’s plans for the destruction of the 
 Jews are frustrated by Esther, acting on a suggestion of 
 Mordecai. The courtier himself falls from power, and is 
 finally hanged on the gallows he had prepared for Mordecai, — 
 while Mordecai, the Jew, is exalted to the place next to the 
 king, and the Jews, whom the initial decree had doomed to 
 extermination, turn the tables by slaying over 75,000 of their 
 enemies throughout the empire, including the ten sons of 
 Yaman. In memory of the deliverance the Purim festival is 
 celebrated on the 14th and 15th of the month Adar.” 
 
 The object of the book is apparently twofold: (1) to 
 explain the origin of the Purim festival, (2) to glorify the 
 Jewish people. Its date can not be definitely fixed; but it 
 is not impossible that it represents a phase of the fierce 
 Palestinian Judaism+of the second century B. C. 
 
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 91 
 
 2. The Division of the Kingdom. The events leading 
 to the division of the kingdom are described in detail. The 
 people, dissatisfied with the policy of oppression introduced 
 by Solomon, demanded of his son a reduction of the burden, 
 but he stubbornly refused; whereupon the northern tribes 
 cut themselves loose from the house of David, and elected as 
 their king Jeroboam, of the tribe of Ephraim. It must not 
 be thought, however, that the stubbornness of Rehoboam was 
 the only cause of the division. The narratives suggest at 
 least one other important factor, namely, the attitude of the 
 prophets. The latter realized that a continuation of Solo- 
 mon’s policy would mean ruin to the religion of Jehovah; on 
 the other hand, they thought that with the resources divided, 
 the carrying out of his policy would be rendered impossible; 
 hence, to save religion they were ready to sacrifice the union. 
 But to understand the full cause it is necessary to turn back 
 a few chapters in Hebrew history. The earliest records in 
 the Books of Joshua and Judges present to our view two 
 groups of tribes: on the one hand, the tribes in the north 
 and center; on the other, Judah and Simeon. Each group 
 fought its own battles and wrestled with its own problems. 
 The Song of Deborah (Judges 5), which describes the war 
 of independence in the north, does not even mention Judah 
 and Simeon. Never during the period of the Judges was the 
 gulf bridged over, and it is a significant fact that the dividing 
 line of the earlier period became practically the dividing line 
 between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. There were es- 
 pecially two facts that caused and helped to maintain the 
 division: 1. A line of strong Canaanitish cities, of which 
 Jebus was one, extended almost entirely across the Jand from 
 east to west, thus cutting off the north from the south; 
 2. The southern tribes seem to have absorbed an unusually 
 large native element, which tended to neutralize the mutual 
 attraction of blood and religion. 
 
 Under the stress of a common danger the tribes united 
 for a while under the standard of Saul. But the support of 
 
92 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the south was soon withdrawn, when David, who belonged 
 to the South, was driven from the court. The readiness 
 with which the elders of Judah proceeded after the death 
 of Saul to make David their king, shows conclusively that 
 the union of north and south was not very strong. When 
 the sword cut down Abner and Ishbaal and left the north 
 without a leader, necessity compelled the northern tribes to 
 submit to David, but the weakness of the union showed itself 
 when, after the rebellion of Absalom, the north revolted and 
 had to be subdued by force of arms. Solomon took care, in 
 the beginning of his reign, to remove by the sword the per- 
 sons who might prove troublesome. Perhaps he felt too se- 
 cure after this, for his conduct was by no means such as 
 would reconcile the people to himself. Although for a time 
 they may have been dazzled by the splendor of his reign, 
 they soon discovered that the glitter was not all gold. There 
 could be but one outcome to his policy. To reduce to serfdom a 
 people which a generation before was iree and independent, 
 meant inevitable. rebellion as soon as opportunity would offer. 
 
 3. The Divided Kingdom. 
 
 a. Important Events in the History of the Northera 
 Kingdom. If the year of the division is placed at about 937, 
 as is commonly done, the history of the Kingdom of Israel, 
 from the division to the fall of Samaria, which marked its 
 downfall, in 722, covers approximately 215 years. Of the 
 more important events during this period the following may 
 be mentioned: 1. The establishment of the royal sanctuaries 
 at Dan and Bethel, for the purpose of counteracting the at- 
 tractiveness of the temple worship in Jerusalem. 2, The 
 frequent changes in dynasties and numerous assassinations. 
 An idea of the unsettled conditions in Israel may be gathered 
 from the fact that during the 215 years of its existence Israel 
 had altogether nineteen kings, belonging to nine distinct 
 dynasties. During the same period Judah had only twelve 
 kings, with no change of dynasties. 3. The rise of the dy- 
 masty of Omri, about 885, and the splendid reign of its 
 
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 93 
 
 founder marks a new epoch. The genius of Omri manifested 
 itself in the selection of the hill of Samaria as the site of 
 his capital. Though he suffered some reverses, on the whole 
 his reign was exceedingly successful, and he raised the 
 northern kingdom to a position of power such as it had not 
 enjoyed before. 4. The reign of Ahab is made prominent 
 by the introduction of Baal worship and the activity of the 
 great prophets Elijah and Elisha. 1 Kings 17—2 Kings 13 
 is devoted to the lives and activities of these two men of 
 God. Ahab adopted the policy of Solomon, and thus aroused 
 much resentment among the people. 5. The revolution of 
 Jehu. With the death of Ahab, about 853, began a series of 
 disasters for Israel. At last the religious storm, which had 
 been brewing for some time, broke in the revolution of Jehu, 
 apparently instigated by the prophets, which swept the Baal 
 cult from the land and the hated dynasty of Omri from the 
 throne. 6. Jeroboam II, who reigned from about 782 to 741, 
 was the most successful king of the Jehu dynasty. Through 
 the extension of territory, the revival of commerce, and the 
 development of the natural resources of the land, Israel rose, 
 during his reign, to a pitch of power and prosperity unheard 
 of since the days of Solomon. The evils which resulted from 
 this material prosperity called forth the prophets Amos and 
 Hosea. 7. From the summit of glory and spiendor under 
 Jeroboam, Israel fell within one generation to the lowest 
 depths of disaster. Four of the six kings who succeeded him 
 were struck down by assassins, and one was slain by foreign 
 invaders; only one died a natural death. This condition of 
 anarchy and the foolish foreign policy of the rulers culmi- 
 nated in the destruction of Samaria and the kingdom in 
 722/721 B. C. 8. From the days of Omri on, the fortunes 
 of Israel were closely bound up with the fortunes of Assyria. 
 ‘The first mention of an Israelite king in an Assyrian in- 
 ‘scription is in an account of the battle of Karkar, in 854, 
 where Ahab is said to have been one of the allies to resist 
 the Assyrian armies. After that Assyria interfered again 
 
94 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 and again in Israel’s history, and the kingdom’s downfall 
 was caused by its armies. 
 
 b. Important Events in the History of the Southern 
 Kingdom. The territory of the south was only about one- 
 half that of the north, while the arable land was less than 
 one-fourth. But though in size the northern kingdom was 
 superior to the southern, Judah enjoyed several advantages, 
 which proved of considerable importance in its later history. 
 Among these were (1) its seclusion, which helped to keep 
 away foreign invaders; (2) the condition of its soil, which 
 yielded only a meager subsistence in return for the most 
 wearisome labor, was calculated to develop hardy, earnest, 
 courageous men, fond of their rocky hills and tenacious of 
 their peculiar customs and religion; (3) the unity of popu- 
 lation and interests made of Judah a perfect social unit 
 bound together by the closest natural bonds; (4) the cen- 
 tralization of government in Jerusalem under a hereditary 
 dynasty, which enjoyed the prestige of the name of David 
 and all the cumulative power which comes from an uninter- 
 rupted succession, tended to give stability to the southern 
 kingdom; (5) another element of strength was furnished by 
 the centralization of worship in the temple. Religion had 
 proved a bond of union in the past. Now the temple in Je- 
 rusalem, with its splendid equipment, commanded the rev- 
 erence and homage of all the people of Judah, and was, 
 therefore, a potent factor for union. 
 
 Partly at least as a result of these advantages the south- 
 ern. kingdom continued to exist about 135 years longer than 
 Israel. It came to an end with the fall and destruction of 
 Jerusalem, in 586 B. C. During the period of its existence, 
 lasting about 350 years, Judah had nineteen kings and one 
 queen, all the kings belonging to the dynasty of David; but 
 few of them were capable and efficient rulers, and by no 
 means ali were as loyal adherents of the religion of Jehovah 
 as was their ancestor David. Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, 
 and Josiah receive special commendation for their piety, and 
 
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 95 
 
 a few of the others increased the welfare of their country. 
 Of the more important events the following may be briefly 
 noted: 1. The long struggles with the north, which began 
 under Rehoboam and continued, with few intermissions, to 
 the close of Israel’s history. 2. The invasion of Judah by 
 Shishak of Egypt five years after the death of Sclomon, 
 which proved a serious blow to the southern kingdom and 
 weakened its military resources. 3. The reign of Jehosha- 
 phat, who introduced a new stage in the nation’s life with 
 respect to popular instruction and the administration of jus- 
 tice. 4. The six years’ reign of Athaliah, the daughter of 
 Ahab .and Jezebel of Israel. She advocated Baal worship, 
 but her rule came to an ignominious end through a rebellion 
 headed by the chief priest Jehoiada. 5. The prosperous reign 
 of Uzziah, who was a contemporary of Jeroboam II, of 
 Israel. As in Israel, the material prosperity was followed by 
 serious religious and social evils. 6. The activity of Isaiah 
 and Micah, who during the latter part of the eighth century 
 tried to recall Judah to a purer worship and more righteous 
 life. 7. The partial reforms instituted by King Hezekiah 
 and aided by the two prophets named. During his reign 
 occurred also the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib of As- 
 syria, which culminated in the remarkabie deliverance of 
 Jerusalem. 8. The reactionary reign of Manasseh, who 
 sought to root out entirely the worship of Jehovah. 9. The 
 reform movement under Josiah in 621, which marked the 
 beginning of a new epoch in the religious development of 
 Judah, though its immediate results were somewhat disap- 
 pointing. 10. The conflicts with the Assyrians and their suc- 
 ‘cessors, the Chaldeans, which began during the eighth cen- 
 tury and resulted in the downfall of the State in 586 B. C. 
 
 4. The Exile and the Restoration. Many of the Jews 
 were carried into exile to Babylonia after the capture of 
 Jerusalem. The number of captives it is difficult to estimate; 
 ‘the total was probably somewhat less than fifty thousand. 
 ‘The exiled Jews were in no sense slaves; they seem to have 
 
96 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 been free in every respect except in the choice of residence. 
 Many grew wealthy, and many turned away from the re- 
 ligion of Jehovah. But there were others, in whom the 
 teaching of Jeremiah, emphasizing the individual and spir- 
 itual aspect of religion, had taken root; these continued their 
 allegiance to Jehovah, under the guidance of Ezekiel a purer 
 type of religion was developed, and the hopes of a restora- 
 tion to the Promised Land were kept alive. There are espe- 
 cially three aspects of the religious development during the 
 period of exile that stand out prominently: 1. A vital sense 
 of repentance was generated; 2. Religion came to be con- 
 sidered a more spiritual and personal matter; 3. Monotheism 
 was placed upon a firmer basis. 
 
 After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the conqueror of 
 Judah, the power of Babylon rapidly declined, until, in 538, 
 Cyrus, the king of Anshan, became master of the city and 
 empire. He showed great leniency toward the nations de- 
 ported by the Babylonians and gave them permission to 
 return to their homes. In 537 a company of Jews, con- 
 sisting of from forty to fifty thousand persons, took advan. 
 tage of this permission and returned to Palestine. Imme- 
 diately on reaching Jerusalem an altar was erected and the 
 foundations of a new temple were laid. But the religious 
 interest soon died out, and when opposition arose from with- 
 out, the people dropped the building enterprise. In 520 the 
 two prophets Haggai and Zechariah arose, urging the people 
 to resume building operations, as only in this wise they could 
 secure the favor of Jehovah. Their efforts were crowned 
 with success, the operations were resumed, and in 516 the 
 temple was dedicated. 
 
 The information concerning the period between the com- 
 pletion of the temple in 516 and the arrival of Ezra in 458 
 is rather scanty, but the following features stand out promi- 
 nently: (1) The rise of skepticism due to the non-fulfillment 
 of prophecy and the observation of the inequalities of life; 
 (2) neglect of offerings and tithes; (3) oppression of the 
 
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY 97 
 
 poor; (4) marriage alliances with heathen women; (5) di- 
 vorce; (6) Sabbath desecraticn. In 458 came Ezra, the 
 scribe, and in 445 Nehemiah, the governor. Both were in- 
 tensely interested in the best welfare of their countrymen, 
 and both came with privileges and authority bestowed upon 
 them by the Persian king. Ezra immediately attacked the 
 abuses, though apparently without much result; but when 
 Nehemiah came and the two joined forces, things began to 
 come to pass. The city wall was built, and then attempts 
 were made to bring about far-reaching reforms covering all 
 the points enumerated. This was done chiefly by establish- 
 ing the law as final authority over every detail of public 
 and private life. These reforms were not carried out with- 
 out arousing strenuous opposition. Especially the provisions 
 for the putting away of foreign wives aroused resentment, 
 but Nehemiah was immovable. One of the results of this 
 meastire was the secession of Manasseh, the grandson of the 
 high priest Eliashib, who refused to give up his wife._ 
 Whereupon his father-in-law, Sanballat, is said to have es- 
 tablished for him a rival temple at Gerizim, the religious 
 center of the Samaritan community. 
 
 5. From Nehemiah to the Opening of the Christian Era. 
 The Old Testament historical books do not take us beyond 
 the reforms of Nehemiah in 432. Of later events, reflected 
 in part in the latest Old Testament writings, in part in the 
 apocryphal books, the following may be mentioned as the 
 most important: I.. The growth of legalism and, accompany- 
 ing it, the development of a spirit of narrow exclusiveness 
 on the part of the Jews. 2. Alexander the Great became 
 master of Palestine in 332. 3. After the division of his king- 
 dom Palestine became, in 301, a province of Egypt, and re- 
 mained such until 198. This period was, on the whole, one 
 of marked prosperity. 4. The privileges offered to Jewish 
 ‘colonists by the kings of Egypt and Syria caused the scatter- 
 ing of the Jews in many directions. 5. Greek influence be- 
 ‘came very strong in some parts of Palestine after the con- 
 2 
 
98 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 quest of Alexander. 6. The translation of the Hebrew Bible 
 into Greek was begun in Alexandria 2bout the middle of 
 the third century B. C. 7. Palestine became a province of 
 the Seleucidan kingdom of Syria in 198. 8. The attempts of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes to stamp out Judaism caused the Mac- 
 cabean revolt in 168 B.C. 9. During the second century B.C. 
 arose the Jewish sects of the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and 
 the Essenes. 10. The Roman rule in Palestine began in 
 63°82 G 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The two Books of Kings. 
 Sources of information on the period of the Exile and the 
 
 Restoration. 
 
 The Books of Chronicles. 
 The Book of Esther. 
 The causes of the division of the kingdom. 
 Important events in the history of the northern kingdom. 
 Important events in the history of the southern kingdom, 
 The Babylonian captivity and restoration. 
 Historical events after the time of Nehemiah, 432 B. C. 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Kent, “History of the Jewish People.” 
 Kent, “The Kings and Prophets of Israel and Judah.” 
 Riggs, “History of the Jewish People.” 
 Commentaries: ‘“Kings,’’ Skinner; “Chronicles,” Harvey- 
 Jellie; “Ezra and Nehemiah,” Ryle; “Esther,” Streane. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. The purpose of the Chronicler. 
 2. The effect of the Babylonian captivity upon the religion - 
 of the Jews. | 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: : 
 1. Point of view of the Books of Kings. 
 2. Point of view of the Books of Chronicles, 
 3. The causes of the division of the kingdom. 
 4. Chief events of the history of Israel. 
 5. Advantages of the southern kingdom, 
 6. Chief events of the history of Judah. 
 7. Describe the Babylonian captivity. 
 8. Tell of the work of Ezra and Nehemiah, 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 , THD DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE OF THB 
 : OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 1. Poetry in the Old Testament. Since the devotional 
 literature of the Old Testament is in the form of poetry, it 
 seems advisable to consider briefly the generai subject of 
 Hebrew poetry before taking up the study of the devotional 
 books. The Old Testament has preserved a large amount 
 of this poetry, but there are references and allusions which 
 show that much of it has been lost. For example, reference 
 is made to the Book of the Wars of Jehovah (Num. 21: 14) 
 and the Book of Jashar (Josh. 10:13), evidently collections 
 of poems earlier than those now found in the Hebrew Scrip- 
 tures. Old Testament poetry has to do with all experiences 
 and conditions of life that yield themselves to poetic treat- 
 ment. Much of this poetry is preserved in the historical 
 books, and the translators of the Revised Version are to be 
 commended for indicating the poetic form in the text. Some 
 of these poetic compositions are secular in the sense that they 
 center around secular themes, but even these are pervaded 
 by a deep religious spirit. The best specimens of secular 
 poetry are the Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49: 2-27); the Tri- 
 umph Song over the destruction of the Egyptians (Ex. 15: 
 I-18) ; the Blessing of Moses (Deut. 33: 2-29); the Song of 
 Deborah (Judges 5:2-31); the Fable of Jotham (Judges 
 9:8-15); the Lament of David over Saul and Jonathan (2 
 Sam. 1:19-27). The prophetic books also contain many 
 fine specimens of poetry; and frequently the prophets rise 
 to an elevated poetic style which can not easily be d**tin- 
 
 99 
 
100 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 guished from poetry proper. In addition to these scattered 
 poems the Old Testament contains five books that consist 
 entirely, or almost so, of poetic compositions, namely, the 
 Books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Lam- 
 entations. The author of Ecclesiastes is also at times led 
 to express his thoughts in poetic form. These six books 
 represent two of the five kinds of Old Testament literature 
 distinguished in the first chapter, namely, the devotional ead 
 the wisdom literature. 
 
 a. Essential Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry. Poetry 
 is defined by Leigh Hunt in these words: “Poetry is the ut- 
 terance of a passion for truth, beauty, and power, embodying 
 and illustrating its conceptions by imagination and fancy, 
 and modulating its language on the principle of variety and 
 uniformity.” In this definition three essential characteristics 
 of all true poetry are recognized: 1. The substance is emo- 
 tional. It is the utterance of a passion for truth, beauty, and 
 power. Poetry springs from the emotions, and therefore 
 touches the emotions. 2. Its presentation is imaginative. 
 Literalism is discarded, and imagination is given full sway 
 in the presentation of the substance. 3. The inevitable result 
 is the use of an emotional, sublime style, a style marked by 
 the lively swing which is called rhythm. The formal element 
 of rhythm, which may be defined as the harmonious repeti- 
 tion of certain fixed sound relations, is marked in classical 
 poetry by the regulated succession of long and short syl- 
 lables. This method has practically disappeared from mod- 
 ern western poetry, where the regulated succession of ac- 
 cented and unaccented syllables has taken its place. In addi- 
 tion, the rhythm may be emphasized by the use of rhyme, that 
 is, the correspondence in sound of the final syllables in the 
 lines. Rhyme is illustrated by the stanza: 
 
 Just as I am, without one piea, 
 
 But that Thy blcod was shed for me, 
 
 And that Thou bidst me come to Thee; 
 O Lamb of God, I come! 
 
THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE Io1 
 
 The regulated succession of accented and unaccented syl- 
 lables without rhyme, called “Blank Verse,” is shown in 
 these lines from the Drama of the Exile, by Mrs. Browning: 
 
 If thou hadst gazed upon the face of God 
 
 This morning for a moment, thou hadst known 
 
 That only pity fitly can chastize, 
 
 Hate but avenges. 
 
 ‘The ancient Hebrews were an intensely religious people, 
 and the emphasis upon religion supplied them with the emo- 
 tional material which yields itself readily to poetic treatment. 
 As Orientals they possessed the imagination needed in all 
 poetic description. But where these two characteristics are 
 found, rhythmic expression follows almost inevitably, pro- 
 vided the author possesses a poetic genius. However, for 
 centuries no one knew the method of indicating rhythm in 
 Hebrew poetry. The merit of discovering the secret belongs 
 to Bishop Robert Lowth, at the time Professor of Poetry at 
 Oxford, who, in 1753, published a work on “Sacred Poetry 
 of the Hebrews,” in which he pointed out that the external 
 form of Hebrew poetry was not marked by rhyme, or the 
 regulated succession of accented and unaccented, or long and 
 short syllables, but by the arrangement of two clauses of ap- 
 proximately the same length, so that the second clause an- 
 swers or otherwise completes the thought of the first. To this 
 phenomenon he gave the name “Parallelism of Members.” 
 
 Lowth distinguished three kinds of paralielism: 1. Synomny- 
 mous Parallelism; that is, parallel arrangement in which the 
 second line contains a thought identical with or similar to the 
 thought of the first line. Compare, for example, Psalm 1:2: 
 
 But his delight is in the law of Jehovah, 
 
 And in His law doth he meditate day and night. 
 2. Antithetic Parallelism. Were the thought of the first line 
 is confirmed or emphasized by contrast, the second line ex- 
 pressing the opposite thought; for example, Prov. 10:1: 
 
 A wise son maketh a glad father, 
 But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 
 
£02 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 3. Synthetic or Constructive Parallelism. Were the second 
 line contains neither a repetition of the thought of the first 
 line, nor a contrast to it, but in different ways advances it. 
 There may be a simple completion of the thought, as in 
 Psalm 2:6: 
 Yet I have set my King 
 Upon Zion, my holy hill; 
 or, the second line may supply a comparison or motive; for 
 example, Proverbs 15:17: 
 Better is a dinner of herbs where love is 
 Than a stailed ox and hatred therewith. 
 These are the three varieties distinguished by Lowth, and 
 for practical purposes this classification may be sufficient; 
 however, one other may be mentioned: 4. Climactic Parallel- 
 ism. Here the first line is incomplete; the second line takes 
 up words from it and then completes the thought; for ex- 
 ample, Psalm 29:1: 
 Ascribe unto Jehovah, O ye sons of the mighty, 
 Ascribe unto Jehovah, glory and strength, 
 
 b. Species of Poetic Composition. The three principal 
 kinds of poetic composition are Epic, Dramatic, Lyric. 
 1. Epic Poetry is descriptive, and is intended to be recited. 
 It deals with external cbjects, of which it gives a narrative 
 in poetic form; the events portrayed may be partly real and 
 partly fictitious, or all fictitious. 2. Dramatic Poetry is con- 
 cerned with the presentation of acts and events, and is in- 
 tended to be acted. It makes its appeal to the eye as well 
 as to the ear. There are two subdivisions of dramatic po- 
 etry: tragedy and comedy. 3. Lyric Poetry, which is sub- 
 jective. It sets forth the inward occurrences of the writer’s 
 own mind, his feelings and reflections, his joys and sorrows, 
 cares and complaints, aspirations and despairs, ete. 
 
 The Hebrews never created a verse-epic nor a drama in 
 the sense of a poetic composition intended to be acted. As 
 far as we know now, the Babylonians alone among the 
 
THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 103 
 
 Semites have developed epic poetry. While there is no 
 drama in the strict sense of the word in the Old Testament, 
 the dramatic element is not altogether absent. The Book of 
 Psalms, for example, offers many specimens of dramatic ar- 
 rangement, as does also the Prophetic literature. In structure 
 the Book of Job is of the nature of a drama, and may be 
 termed a dramatic poem; the Song of Songs also is inter- 
 preted by many as a dramatic poem. The Hebrew poets seem 
 to have been content with cultivating lyric poetry in all its 
 varieties. In lyric poetry proper the poet gives expression to 
 his emotions and subjective experiences, or reproduces in 
 words the impressions which nature and history have made 
 upon him. By the side of this lyric poetry proper the Old 
 Testament contains a species of poetry that may be called 
 thought lyric, also called gnomic poetry. In this kind of 
 poetry the author does not express so much his emotions and 
 experiences as his thoughts and observations on human life 
 and society, or generalizations concerning conduct and char- 
 acter. Only very few specimens of secular gnomic poetry are 
 preserved; the finest of these is the fable of Jotham, in 
 Judges 9:8-15. Its religious and ethical forms are found in 
 the so-called wisdom literature, especially in the Book of 
 Proverbs, which contains fables, parables, proverbs, riddles, 
 moral and political maxims, satires, philosophic and specu- 
 lative sentences. 
 
 2. The Devotional Books of the Old Testament. In this 
 chapter the term “devotional” is used of those poetic compo- 
 sitions which are intended to portray the inner religious ex- 
 periences and emotions of the authors, created and fostered 
 by their close and intimate fellowship with Jehovah. These 
 expressions are cast in the form of lyric poetry. This form 
 of poetry is scattered through the various historical and pro- 
 phetic books. A small percentage of it is secular in the sense 
 that it centers around secular themes, but in view of the fact 
 that the entire Old Testament is pre-eminently a book of re- 
 ligion, it is only natural that practically all the poetry in it 
 
104 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 should be of a religious nature. In addition to the widely 
 scattered poems, the Old Testament contains two books con- 
 sisting entirely of religious lyrics, which may be called in a 
 narrower sense books of devotion, namely, the Books of Lam- 
 entations and Psalms. 
 
 a. The Book of Lamentations. In the English Old Testa- 
 ment, Lamentations is placed after Jeremiah, because tradi- 
 tion considers him the author of the book. In the Hebrew 
 Bible it belongs to the third division, the writings; and it is 
 one of the five Megilloth, or Rolls, which were read publicly 
 in the synagogues at certain sacred seasons, Lamentations on 
 the ninth day of the month Ab, the day on which the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem was commemorated. The contents make it 
 evident that the book originated soon after the destruction 
 of the Holy City, while the sufferings were still fresh in the 
 minds of the people. : 
 
 The book consists of five independent poems, all dealing 
 with a common theme, namely, the calamities that befell the 
 people of Judah and Jerusalem during the siege and subse- 
 quent capture of the city in 586 B.C. The description of the 
 woes of the people is interspersed with confessions of guilt, 
 exhortations to repentance, and supplication for the return 
 of the divine favor. Four of the poems are arranged as 
 
 alphabetic acrostics. “Exquisite,” says Driver, “as is the 
 
 pathos which breathes in the poetry of these dirges, they are 
 thus, it appears, constructed with conscious art: they are not 
 the unstudied effusions of natural emotion, they are care- 
 
 fully elaborated poems, in which no aspect of the common — 
 
 grief is unremembered, and in which every trait which might 
 stir a chord of sorrow or regret is brought together for the 
 purpose of completing the picture of woe.” 
 
 b. The Book of Psalms. (1) Its Place in the Life of De- 
 votion. The Book of Psalms consists of one hundred and 
 fifty sacred lyrics, which are arranged in five books: I, 1— 
 41; II, 42—72; 1iI!, 73—80; IV, 90—106; V, 107—150. 
 This fivefold division was introduced to make the Psalter, 
 
THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 105 
 
 which was the temple hymnal, correspond to the Pentateuch, 
 the sacred Law-book. Manifold were the moods and expe- 
 riences of the authors of the Psalms, but there is one bond 
 which unites them all into one living unity, namely, a sublime 
 faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel. This variety on the one 
 hand, and unity on the other, are the qualities which have 
 given to the book such unique place in the religious life of 
 the individual and of the Church. With full justice says 
 Perowne: “No single book of Scripture, not even the New 
 Testament, has perhaps, ever taken such hold on the heart 
 of Christendom. None, if we dare judge, unless it be the 
 Gospels, has had so large an influence in molding the affec- 
 tions, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of believers. 
 With its words, rather than their own, they have come before 
 God. In these they have uttered their desires, their fears, 
 their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys, 
 their thanksgivings. By these their devotion has been kindled 
 and their hearts comforted. The Psalter has been in the 
 truest sense the prayer-book of both Jews and Christians.” 
 
 (2) The Book of Psalms and the Rest of the Old Testa- 
 ‘ment. The Book of Psalms has very fittingly been called the 
 heart of the Old Testament, or even of the entire Bible. In- 
 deed, the Psalms sustain a very intimate relation to the en- 
 tire Old Testament. All the divine manifestations which re- 
 ceive a more objective treatment in other parts of the Old 
 Testament are here viewed subjectively in their bearing and 
 effect upon the personal experience of the author or of those 
 in whose name he speaks. The moral law and the ritual as 
 a means of approaching God are glorified, the lessons of his- 
 tory are appropriated, and the passion for truth and right- 
 eousness as preached by the prophets finds vivid expression 
 in the words of the psalmists. There are also some psalms 
 which reflect the influence of the wisdom movement, both in 
 its practical and speculative aspects. 
 
 (3) Classification of the Psalms According to Subject Mat- 
 ter. A classification of the Psalms according to their con- 
 
106 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 tents is almost impossible, because individual psalms very 
 frequently present a mixed character. “We find rapture 
 blend with pleading, or the night of sorrow lose itself in the 
 morning of joy, mood succeeding mood, and experience pass- 
 ing into experience more rapidly than the sunshine and rain 
 that blend and pass in the sweet confusion of an April morn- 
 ing. The rehearsal of God’s mighty acts, which one genera- 
 tion tells to another, suddenly breaks away into penitence 
 for national sin, or an outburst of thanksgiving which abun- 
 dantly utters the memory of His great goodness.” But 
 though recognizing the difficulty of the task and the fact that 
 any classification will be more or less open to criticism, a 
 classification along broad lines may be suggestive. Where 
 the classification is uncertain, a psalm may be mentioned in 
 more than one group. 
 
 I. Psatms Wuicu Do Nor Reriect A Speciric HisTorIcaL 
 SITUATION. 
 
 (1) .Hymns in praise of God, as Creator, Governor, and 
 Protector of the world and His people, suggested by the con- 
 templation of His manifestations in nature, history, and per- 
 sonal experience. For example: Psalm 8, God’s glory mani- 
 fested in the creation of man; 19: 1-6, in the heavens; 29, in 
 the thunderstorm; 33, in His moral attributes, in creation, 
 in His government, in His choice of Israel. To the same 
 group belong 36, 65, 66, 76, 92, 103, 104, 107, 145—147. 
 Similar in tone are Psalm 24: 7-10; 47, 67, 93, 96—I00, III, 
 113, II5, 117, 118, 134—136, 148—150; but these differ from 
 the preceding in that they contain invocations of a liturgical 
 character. 
 
 (2) Experiences; that is, Psalms embodying the religious 
 emotions arising from the’ poet’s intimate fellowship with 
 Jehovah, expressing confidence, resignation, spiritual yearn- 
 ings, joy in God’s presence, etc.: 16, 23, 26, 27, 42, 43, 62, 
 63, 84, 91, 121, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 138, 130. Here may 
 
THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 107 
 
 be mentioned also the eulogies of the law of Jehovah, 
 19:7-14; 119. In some psalms promises of confidence in 
 the future are added to the expressions descriptive of present 
 emotions; in others, petitions that Jehovah will judge the 
 wicked who are trying to injure the psalmist: 9, I0, II, 12, 
 14, 52, 53, 58, 64, 75, 82, 94. 
 
 (3) Reflections: (1) On God’s moral government of the 
 world—He blesses the righteous and punishes the wicked: 
 I, 34, 37, 90, 112. (2) The same with a marked didactic 
 purpose; the author seeks to harmonize his belief in God’s 
 moral government of the world with the apparent inequalities 
 of life: 49, 73. (3) On the character of the service and 
 conduct acceptable to God: 15, 24: 1-6; 32, 50. 
 
 II. Psatms ReEFLecTING A SpeciFic HistoricaL SITUATION. 
 
 (1) Personal Psalms ; that is, psalms reflecting the personal 
 condition of the psalmist, either as an individual or as a rep- 
 resentative of the pious community. (1) Petitions for help 
 in sickness, persecution, or other trouble, or for forgiveness 
 of sin, often accompanied by expressions of assurance that 
 the prayer will be answered: 3—7, 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 28, 
 BewIG5>) G03; 402 IT=175 41, 51, 54—57, 50, O1, 60;- 70, 71, 
 77, 86, 88, 109, 120, 140—i42, (2) Thanksgiving for deliver- 
 ance wrought: 18, 30, 40: 1-10; 116, 144. 
 
 (2) National Psalms; that is, psalms reflecting conditions 
 in the Holy City, or the religious community, or the nation. 
 (1) Complaints of national oppression or disaster: 44, 60, 
 74, 79, 80, 83, 85, 94, 102, 123, 137. (2) Thanksgivings 
 for mercies already received or promised: 46—48, 60, 66, 
 68, 76, 107, 108, 114, 124—126, 129. With special refer- 
 ence to Zion: 87, 122. (3) Retrospect of the national his- 
 tory, with special reference to the lessons deducible from 
 it: 78, 81, 95, 105, 106. 
 
 (3) Royal Psalms; that is, psalms centering around an 
 
108 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 historical or ideal ruler. (1) Thanksgiving, good wishes, and 
 promises: 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 110, 132. (2) Prayers for 
 his preservation, etc.: 89, Ior. 
 
 3. Date and Authorship of the Psalms. The question of 
 date and authorship is not as important in the case of the 
 Psalms as it is in the case of the prophetic books and other 
 Old Testament writings. A psalm remains a psalm, and may 
 take the reader into the presence of God, no matter by whom 
 and under what circumstances it was written. In the words 
 of Davison: “The universality and, if we may say so, the 
 timelessness of the Psalter are amongst its prominent char- 
 acteristics. The personal elements which the Psalms contain 
 are soon lost in the impersonal, the finite in the infinite. The 
 singer seldom lingers long amidst the streets of the city, 
 within the limits of a single nation or country, among the 
 fields and the homesteads; he soon wings his flight into the 
 upper air, from whence the whole familiar Iandscape dwin- 
 dles to a mere speck. The psalmist, of all men, is alone 
 with God and his own soul.” Nevertheless the questions of 
 date and authorship are of interest, and their determination 
 is of value. In the first place, some of the Psalms are the 
 outgrowth of definite historical situations. If so, they must 
 remain more or less unintelligible unless the historical back- 
 ground can be determined. Moreover, though all the Psalms 
 breathe the spirit of a living faith in God, they do show 
 differences in religious and ethical conception. The proper 
 use of the Psalms is dependent upon a right understanding 
 of the different stages of religious conceptions reflected in 
 the several psalms; but this in turn depends upon fixing, 
 approximately at least, the dates of the psalms. Unfortu- 
 nately all attempts to fix the dates of the psalms have failed 
 to lead to certain results; and it is hardly wise to say more 
 than that the Psalms originated during the period beginning 
 with David and ending with the Maccabean struggles about 
 150 B. C. The following are named as authors in the psalm 
 titles, which, however, are not integral parts of the Psalms: 
 
THE DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE 109 
 
 1. Moses (90) . Secs eine ne Cc sieeee on I 
 2. David (3-9, Tr- -32, 34-41, 51-65, 68-70, 86, 
 Bee 103, 108-110, 122, 124, ¥31, 133, 138- 
 
 
 
 AE VT lc erarebaca crak, PGR re Ose che State wont Cal de 73 
 
 =e ein on GB a DVIS AO POOR EE gh PR 2 
 
 MOASADH "C50. 73-83) (Sac ane ale stem ee te eee aie 12 
 
 5. Sons of Korah (42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88).... 12 
 
 @pethanthe Hzrahite (89): j..e casio << csdele reece b 
 7. Heman, the Ezrahite (88, also ascribed to the 
 HOGS Of MOLAH): oc 2 ot cnsebcce eee te se. 
 
 PDOLAM PE 2 che liz. aie slclatote wurette seviemesee) 500 
 
 4. The Compilation of the Psalter, The Psalter has 
 rightly been called the hymn-book of the second temple. 
 Whatever differences may exist between it and a modern 
 hymnal—and there are many, since the Psalter contains many 
 compositions which can in no sense be called hymns—the 
 history of the Psalter is similar to that of a modern hymnal. 
 “A true hymn-book,” says Davison, “is not made, it grows.” 
 In a similar manner the Psalter has reached its present form 
 as the result of a process of growth. It would seem that 
 individual psalms were brought together into small collec- 
 tions; these small collections came to be combined into three 
 larger collections, which were united into one book. Then, 
 at a later time, this book was divided, after the analogy of 
 the Pentateuch, into five books, in which form the Psalter 
 has come down to the present. 
 
 . Lesson Outline: 
 
 Poetry of the Old Testament. 
 
 Essential characteristics of Hebrew poetry. 
 
 Kinds of poetic composition. 
 
 Devotional books of the Old Testament: the Book of Lame 
 entations ; the Book of Psalms. 
 
 Classification of the Psalms according to subject matter. 
 
 Date and authorship of the Psalms. 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Davison, ‘‘The Praises of Israel.” 
 Prothero, “The Psalms in Human Life.” 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” 
 Commentaries: “Psalms,” Kirkpatrick. 
 
IIo THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. Titles and superscriptions of the Psalms. 
 2. Principal religious teachings of the Psalms, 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Give examples of secular poems in the Old Testament. 
 
 2. What are the essential characteristics of Hebrew poetry? 
 
 3. Distinguish between the various forms of parallelism in 
 Hebrew poetry. 
 
 4. What is the chief form of poetic composition found in the 
 Bible? 
 
 5. Discuss the origin and contents of the Book of Lamenta- 
 tions. 
 
 6. What is the importance of Psalms to the religious life? 
 
 7. What is the relation of the Psalms to the rest of the Old 
 Testament? 
 
 8. Discuss the classification of the Psalms. 
 
 9. What is to be said concerning the date and authorship of 
 the Psalms? 
 
CHAPTER Xi 
 
 THE WISDOM LITERATURE OF THE OLD 
 TESTAMENT 
 
 1. Philosophy Among the Hebrews. The Wisdom Lit- 
 erature of the Old Testament corresponds to the philosophic 
 literature of other peoples. Philosophy, in the narrow sense, 
 however, had no existence among the Hebrews, for a process 
 of thinking free from presuppositions was unknown to them. 
 Two fixed points were universally accepted by the Hebrew 
 thinkers: (1) The existence of a personal God; (2) the 
 reality of a divine revelation. Accordingly the primary aim 
 of Hebrew philosophic thought was simply to penetrate 
 deeper into the contents of these truths, to define them more 
 clearly, and to apply them to the daily life. 
 
 While, therefore, in a strict sense, we can not speak of 
 philosophic literature in the Old Testament, the latter con- 
 tains a kind of literature which presents at least attempts at 
 philosophizing, and which is clearly distinguished from other 
 kinds of literature. This literature includes three of the 
 canonical books: Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and, according 
 to one interpretation, the Song of Songs. To it belong also 
 a number of psalms and parts of cther Old Testament books. 
 
 2. The Aim and Function of the Wise Men. The origin 
 of the wisdom literature may be traced in the last analysis 
 to human need and the condescension of God to accommo- 
 date Himself to the peculiarities of men in His attempt to 
 reach their hearts and consciences. Some men may be 
 reached by an authoritative command in the name of one 
 in whom they have confidence. Others are reached by way 
 
 III 
 
112 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 of their zsthetic sensibilities through the ritual. Personal ex- 
 perience may rouse the dormant emotions of still others. But 
 there always have been and still are those whose intellect 
 must be carried, in part at least, before appeals to the heart 
 and conscience can prove effective. Under the providence of 
 God these different ways of approach were tried under the 
 Old Testament dispensation. The prophet came with the 
 authoritative “Thus saith Jehovah;” it was the priest’s duty 
 to make ritual’s appeal effective; the psalmist gave expres- 
 sion to personal experience; and the wise man made his 
 appeal to the intellect. Certainly, at times a prophet might 
 assume the role of a priest, or vice versa, or the psalmist 
 might fall into the strain of the wise man, or other inter- 
 changes of similar character might take place; nevertheless 
 certain Old Testament references (for example, Jer. 18:18) 
 make it clear that the wise men formed a distinct class of 
 religious workers in Israel during a long period. 
 
 By the side of the wise men whose sayings and writings 
 have been considered worthy of a place in the canon, there 
 was a class of “false” wise men, corresponding to the false 
 prophets and faithless priests against whom the prophets 
 hurl such severe denunciations. While information concern- 
 ing this class of men is not very extensive, we may assume 
 that there were two kinds of false wise men as there were 
 two kinds of false prophets: (1) The mercenary wise men, 
 who called evil good and good evil from selfish motives. If 
 it was to their interest to twist and pervert the moral pre- 
 cepts commonly recognized as true, they did not hesitate te 
 do it. (2) The political wise men. These may have been 
 patriotic, conscientious, and able men, but they lacked spir- 
 itual vision, and their advice was wholly determined by 
 narrow, worldly, and political considerations. 
 
 3. Growth of the Wisdom Movement. The wisdom 
 movement proper, as illustrated in the Old Testament, found 
 expression at first in very simple form. The wise men ac- 
 cepted the great religious truths proclaimed by the prophets; 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE 113 
 
 it was their business to apply them to the details of every- 
 day life and instruct their contemporaries in that application. 
 They did an important and necessary work; they pointed out 
 constantly and persistently that religion can not be separated 
 from the daily life. But the wise men were dealing with 
 persons who, as far as the great mass of them was concerned, 
 had hardly gone beyond the childhood stage in things re- 
 ligious and ethical; hence they must put the most profound 
 truths in the simplest possible form. They must abstain, as 
 far as possible, from all speculation, and confine themselves 
 to simple, practical precepts which would appeai to the ordi- 
 mary practical common sense of the hearer. Certainly, in 
 time they would be compelled to rise above simple precepts 
 and try to solve some of the more perplexing problems of 
 life; on the other hand, there would always be a demand for 
 the more simple sayings of these moral guides. The Old 
 Testament contains specimens of these different productions 
 of wisdom activity. The Book of Proverbs is a collection 
 of the more simple, practical precepts, while the Books of 
 Job and Ecclesiastes illustrate speculative wisdom. 
 
 a. Contents of the Book of Proverbs. The Book of Prov- 
 erbs consists of eight parts, of unequal length, with a gen- 
 eral heading; seven of these make up the-collection of prov- 
 erbs; the other, the first, appears to be prefixed as a suitable 
 introduction. The heading is 1:1-6: The nature and object 
 of proverbial wisdom. I. Chapter 1:7—9:18. Introduc- 
 tion: The Praise of Wisdom. The writer, speaking like a 
 father, warns his son or disciple against the temptations and 
 dangers to which he will be exposed, invites him affection- 
 ately to listen to his precepts, and commends to him the 
 claims of wisdom to be his guide and friend. II. Chapter 
 10: I—22:16. Proverbs of Solomon. A collection of mis- 
 cellaneous aphorisms.on life and conduct. It contains 
 some fine religious proverbs, but the generalizations are 
 mostly drawn from secular life, and describe the fortune 
 
 which may be expected to attend particular lines of conduct 
 8 
 
k14 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 or types of character. III. Chapter 22:17—24:22. The 
 Words of the Wise. In contents this collection is similar to 
 the preceding; it differs, however, in form; for it is “less 
 a collection of individual proverbs than a body of maxims, 
 in which proverbs are interwoven, addressed with a practical 
 aim to an individual and worked up usually into a more or 
 less consecutive argument.” Its tone, also, is more hortatory 
 than that of the preceding section. JV. Chapter 24: 23-34, 
 which has the title, “These are also sayings of the wise.” 
 An appendix to the preceding, displaying similar variety of 
 form. V. Chapter 25:1—29:27. Has the title, “These are 
 also proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king 
 of Judah, copied out.” Meant as an appendix to Section II, 
 but shows some differences. On the whole, the proverbs 
 appear to spring from a changed state of society. Religious 
 proverbs are rare. WI. Chapter 30:1-33. “The words of 
 Agur, son of Jakeh, the oracle.” A series of epigrams, from 
 two to ten lines each. In verses 1 to 9 the divine transcend- 
 ence is the subject. Verses 10 to 33 consist of nine groups 
 of proverbs, each of which describes some quality or charac- 
 ter in terms of either warning or commendation. VII. Chap- 
 ter 31: 1-9. “The words of Lemuel, a king; the oracle which 
 his mother taught him.” A series of maxims addressed to 
 Lemuel by his mother, warning him against sensuality and 
 immoderate indulgence in wine, and exhorting him to relieve 
 the necessities and defend the cause of the poor. VIII. Chap- 
 ter 31: 10-31. An alphabetic acrostic, without any title. The 
 description of a capable and virtuous housewife. 
 
 The date of the separate proverbs, and the compilation of 
 these into collections, and finally into the present Book of 
 Proverbs, is not easily determined. The process may have 
 been similar to that in which the Psalter was formed. In 
 general it may be said that the Proverbs originated during 
 the period beginning with Solomon and ending with the 
 Maccabean uprising. The period of compilation lies prob- 
 ably between about 350 and 150 B. C. 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE It5 
 
 b. Permanent Value of the Book of Proverbs. There are 
 two phases of religion: the one internal, the religious expe- 
 Tience; the other external, the religious life. The two go 
 together, though at times the one, at times the other, may 
 receive special emphasis. The authors of the Proverbs em- 
 phasize chiefly the latter. They teach the most difficult of 
 all lessons: how to practice religion, how to fulfill the duties 
 and overcome the temptations of every-day life. But these 
 wise men rested their practical teaching-upon a religious 
 basis. Underneath all their teaching there is a firm belief 
 in the existence of a righteous God and the reality of His 
 rule over the world, as also in the other great religious 
 verities taught by the prophets. Far from disregarding re- 
 ligion, the writers of the Proverbs sought to make it the 
 controlling motive of life and conduct. A profound religious 
 spirit pervades the whole book; but in addition there are 
 many passages (for example, 3: 5-7; 16:3, 6, 9; or 23:17) 
 which give definite expression to the lofty religious concep- 
 tions of the wise men. Nevertheless, as is natural in view 
 of the purpose of the wise men, greater stress is laid upon 
 ethics, the practice of religion. Nothing and no relation of 
 life seems to have escaped the attention of the writers. Pre- 
 cepts are given concerning ordinary every-day conduct (for 
 example, 10:4; 11:28; I2:10; 14:3), the relations of men 
 to their fellows (11:13; 14:21; 17:5), domestic relations and 
 happiness (6: 20-22; 18:22; 31: 10-31), national life and the 
 proper attitude toward the government (14:34, 35; 16: 
 12-15), and other relations and interests of life. The per- 
 manent value of the book is suggested in these words of 
 Davison: “For the writers of Proverbs religion means good 
 sense, religicn means mastery of affairs, religion means 
 strength and manliness and success, religion means a well- 
 furnished intellect employing the best means to accomplish 
 the highest ends. There is a healthy, vigorous tone about 
 this kind of teaching which is never out of date, but which, 
 human nature being what it is, is only teo apt to disappear, 
 
116 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 in the actual presentation of religion in the Church on 
 earth.” 
 
 4. Speculative Wisdom in the Old Testament. From 
 simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation. 
 Their speculative philosophy is theistic, for it starts from the 
 presupposition that there is a personal Ged. Some traces 
 of speculation are found in the Book of Proverbs, especially 
 in the first nine chapters. It is seen also in some of the 
 historical books, for example, in the Book of Judges, which 
 furnishes a philosophy of the history of the period of the 
 
 Judges in the light of a firm belief in Jehovah. Speculative | 
 
 philosophy appears also in the prophetic literature; for ex- 
 ample, Amos 3:6, “Shall calamity befall a city, and Jehovah 
 hath not done it?” The same prophet indulges in specula- 
 tion when he explains the natural phenomena of famine, 
 drought, blasting and mildew, and others, as punishments 
 for Israel’s disobedience (4:6-11). Of similar character is 
 Isaiah g:8-21. Other specimens of well-sustained specula- 
 tion are offered by Habakkuk 1:1—2:5 and Malachi 2:17 
 -—4:3, and other prophetic books show traces of it. The 
 wisdom movement, both in its practical and speculative as- 
 pects, is reflected also in some of the psalms. The most im- 
 portant of these are 1, 8, 15, 19, 20, 37, 49, 50, 73, 90, 92, 
 103, 104, 107, 130, 147, 148. Of the wisdom books proper, 
 two are entirely given up to speculation: Job and Ecclesi- 
 astes. The former deals with the perplexing problem of 
 evil and suffering, the latter with the perplexities of life in 
 general. 
 
 5. The Book of Job. a. Origin. The Book of Job 
 recounts how job, a man of exemplary piety, was overtaken 
 by an unprecedented series of calamities, and it reports the 
 debate between Job and other speakers to which the occa- 
 sion is supposed to have given rise. The experiences of the 
 perfect Job raised the perplexing question, How can the suf- 
 fering of a righteous man be harmonized with the belief in 
 a holy and just God? The popular view, reflected in the 
 
 : 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE DB, 
 
 greater portion of the Old Testament, was that suffering 
 was always a punishment for sin, prosperity a reward for 
 piety. Such belief seemed in accord with the righteousness 
 of Jehovah. Undoubtedly exceptions to the rule might be 
 noted, but as long as the individual was looked upon simply 
 as an atom in the national unit, the apparent inequalities in 
 the fortunes of individuals would not constitute a pressing 
 problem. When, however, especially through the teaching of 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the individual received proper recog- 
 nition, an experience like that of Job was bound to create 
 difficulties, for the suffering of a righteous man would seem 
 to point to unfairness on the part of God. That this per- 
 plexity was felt is seen from allusions in the prophetic books. 
 At last the time came when a wise man in Israel sought to 
 solve the problem in the light of the religious knowledge he 
 possessed. He took as the basis of his discussion the ex- 
 perience of Job, the tradition of which he may have found 
 a popular possession. This material he arranged in the form 
 of a drama, in which different speakers are introduced, each 
 suggesting his own solution of the problem. The author of 
 the book is not known, and its date is a matter of dispute; 
 however, a date in the post-exilic period seems to be the 
 most probable. 
 
 b. Contents of the Book of Job. The Book of Job falls 
 naturally into five parts of unequal length: I. Chapters 1, 2. 
 The Prologue (written in prose). The adversary is per- 
 ‘mitted by God to test Job’s righteousness by depriving him 
 ‘of his wealth and children, and afflicting him with a loath- 
 some disease. Job remains faithful. His three friends come 
 to comfort him. II. Chapters 3—31. Debate between Job 
 and his friends. Moved by the unspoken sympathy of his 
 Hriends, Job breaks forth in a passionate cry, cursing the day 
 of his birth and praying for death (3). This outburst of 
 feeling gives occasion to his friends to speak, and so opens 
 the debate. There are three cycles of speeches (4—14; 
 I5—21; 22—31): in the first two the three friends of 
 
 
 
118 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Job speak, and Job replies to each; in the third Zophar is 
 absent, but Job speaks three times. III. Chapters 32—37. 
 The speeches of Elihu. Elihu, a young man who is repre- 
 sented as a bystander, has listened to the debate and, vexed 
 with both Job and his friends, steps forward to set both 
 right. IV. Chapters 38: 1—42:6. The speeches of Jehovah, 
 and Job’s submission. When Elihu refrains from speaking, 
 Jehovah intervenes and answers Job out of the whirlwind. 
 The answer consists of two parts, each followed by a few 
 words from Job. The aim of Jehovah’s speeches is to bring 
 Job, who has shown himself impatient, back into a right 
 attitude of mind toward God. This is accomplished, for he 
 admits the folly of his doubts and solemnly retracts his hasty 
 and ill-considered words. V. Chapter 42:7-17. The epi- 
 logue. When Job is restored to a right attitude of mind he 
 receives the divine commendation, while the friends are con- 
 demned for their foolish utterances. Then Job is blessed 
 with prosperity twice as great as he enjoyed before. 
 
 c. The Problem of the Book of Job and Its Solution. The 
 problem discussed by the author of the Book of Job is: How 
 can the sufferings of a righteous man be harmonized with a 
 belief in a holy and righteous God? Various solutions of 
 this problem are suggested in different parts of the book: 
 1. The solution of the prologue—Suffering is a test of char- 
 acter. 2. The solution of the friends—Suffering is always 
 punishment for sin. 3. The solution of Job—Job struggles 
 long and persistently with the problem; a few times he seems 
 to have a glimpse of a possible straightening-out of the pres- 
 ent inequalities in an after life, but it is only a glimpse; he 
 always sinks back to a feeling of uncertainty and perplexity. 
 His general attitude is that there must be something out of 
 gear in the world, for the righteousness of God can not be 
 discerned as things are going now. 4. The solution of 
 Elihu—Elihu agrees with the friends that suffering is closely 
 connected with sin; but he emphasizes more than they the dis- 
 ciplinary purpose of suffering, which, he points out, is the 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE 11g 
 
 voice of God warning men to return to God. 5. The solution 
 of Jehovah—The whole universe is an unfathomable mystery, 
 in which the evil is no more perplexing than the good. In 
 the presence of all mysteries the proper attitude is one of 
 humble submission. 6. The solution of the epilogue—Returns 
 to the opinion of the friends, for it teaches that righteousness 
 will sooner or later be rewarded with prosperity even in this 
 world. 
 
 The author nowhere states which of these conclusions he 
 accepts as true; indeed, the book leaves the impression that 
 the author is conscious of his inability to present an entirely 
 satisfactory solution. One thing alone seems certain, that 
 he means to reject most emphatically the traditional view 
 . defended by the friends, that suffering must always be ex- 
 plained as punishment for sin. The Book of Job presents 
 the best that the human mind can do with a preblem which 
 has perplexed men throughout the ages; and it shows at 
 the same time that the only solution possible is a solution 
 of faith, with a lofty conception of God and a vision of life 
 broad enough to include eternity, when the apparent inequali- 
 ties of this life may be adjusted by a loving and righteous 
 God. 
 
 6. The Book of Ecclesiastes. a. Contents. The Book of 
 Ecclesiastes consists of a prologue, an epilogue, and the body 
 of the book in four parts. I. Chapter 1: 1-11. The Prologue. 
 Statement of the problem: On the assumption that there is 
 no hereafter and that man’s deepest longings must be satis- 
 fied here, the author declares all human efforts in that di- 
 tection in vain. II. Chapter 1:12—12:8. Proof of this 
 contention. (1) Chapter 1:12—2:26. Wisdom, pleasure, 
 and riches are vanity. (2) Chapters 3:1—5:19. Every- 
 thing is foreordained; death is preferable to a life that is 
 spent in vain struggle with the foreordained nature of things. 
 Nothing is left but to make the best of the few fleeting years 
 and enjoy them. (3) Chapters 6:1—8:15. Wealth can 
 not overrule providence. Common sense is staggered when 
 
120 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 it beholds the inequalities of life. There is no solution; eat, 
 drink, and be merry. (4) Chapters 8:16—12:8. Summing 
 up of the author’s findings: “Vanity of vanities, saith the 
 preacher; all is vanity.” Therefore let the young man re- 
 joice in his youth, yet not so as to forget his responsibility 
 to his Maker. III. Chapter 12:9-14. The Epilogue—the 
 author’s conclusion: (1) Verses 9, 10. The aim of the wise 
 man in committing his meditations to writing has been to 
 communicate his wisdom to others. (2) Verses 11, 12. The 
 reader is urged to heed the sayings of the wise man and be 
 content with the teaching of the book. (3) Verses 13, 14. 
 The one supreme care of man: Fear God and keep His com- 
 mandments. 
 
 The Book of Ecclesiastes is one of the latest books in the 
 Gld Testament canon. The ascription to Solomon is, there- 
 fore, a literary device, which the author is not careful to 
 maintain. 
 
 b. Significance of Ecclesiastes. The author of the Book 
 of Ecclesiastes has passed through many disappointments, 
 and his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical and pessimistic. 
 Everything has proved vanity: riches, pleasure, honor, even 
 the search for wisdom; and he is not sure concerning his 
 destiny after death. But over against his experiences in life 
 there is a faith in God who governs the world. The book, 
 which portrays the struggle between experience and faith, 
 has aptly been called “a cry for light.” The author does not 
 see the light clearly, though here and there he may have a 
 glimpse of it. The real perplexity is due to the fact that 
 the author’s horizon is bounded by the grave. In this life 
 he sees no hope, therefore he looks with longing for a pos- 
 sible reckoning in an after life; but it remains a hope and 
 try, it never grows into a conviction. The more significant is 
 the retention of his faith in God. He is conscious of a moral 
 order in the world, though its operation is often frustrated; 
 he is aware of cases in which the God-fearing man had an 
 advantage over others. Hence, with all his uncertainty and 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE [2% 
 
 doubt, he holds that it is his duty and the duty of every 
 one else, to fear God and keep His commandments; God 
 somehow will care for the mysteries and perplexities of 
 life. ; 
 
 yg. The Song of Songs. a. Different Interpretations. The 
 Song of Songs, also called Song of Solomon, owes its place 
 in the canon of Sacred Scripture to the allegorical interpre- 
 tation given to it from the earliest times. The Jews inter- 
 preted it as picturing. the close relation existing between 
 Jehovah and Israel; the Christians, as picturing the intimate 
 fellowship between Christ and His bride, the Church. At 
 present it is quite generally held that this interpretation 
 does not do justice to the primary purpose of the book; but 
 as to its original purpose two different views are held. Ac- 
 cording to both interpretations the subject of the book is 
 love, human love; the differences of opinion are with refer- 
 ence to the manner in which the subject is treated. Some 
 think that the book is simply a collection of love or wedding 
 songs, all independent of one another. Others feel that there 
 are too many evidences of real unity in the book to permit 
 this interpretation; they see in the book a didactic drama or 
 melodrama, the aim of the author being the glorification of 
 true human love. 
 
 The drama centers around three principal characters: 
 Solomon, the Shunammite maiden, and her shepherd lover. 
 The book relates how the maiden, surprised by the king and 
 his train, was brought to the palace in Jerusalem, where the 
 king hoped to win her affections and to induce her to ex- 
 change her rustic home for the enjoyment and honor the 
 court life affords. She has, however, already pledged her 
 heart to a young shepherd; and the admiration and blandish- 
 . ments which the king lavishes upon her are powerless to 
 make her forget him. In the end she is permitted to return 
 to her mountain home, where at the close of the poem the 
 - lovers appear hand in hand and express, in warm, glowing 
 words, the superiority of genuine spontaneous affection. 
 
122 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 b. The Aim of the Song of Songs. To indicate the aim 
 of the author I can do no better than quote at some length 
 from Professor Rothstein: “The real aim of the Song of 
 Songs,” says he, “is to glorify true love, and, more spe- 
 cifically, true betrothed love, which remains steadfast even 
 in the most dangerous and most seductive situations. The 
 author, as we may perhaps assume with certainty, found the 
 material for his work in the story of Abishag of Shunem 
 (1 Kings 1, 2). She remained true to the beloved of her 
 heart, she steadily repelled all the advances of Solomon, into 
 whose harem she had been brought, and finally she tri- 
 umphed, was conducted home, and restored to her lover per- 
 fectly pure. The poem makes two presuppositions—one be- 
 ing that the Shunammite’s heart belonged to a youth in her 
 own home, and the otner that, meanwhile, against her will, 
 she had been brought into the royal apartments. The dra- 
 matical exposition commences at the time when the first 
 meeting of the king with the maiden is close at hand, and 
 actually takes place. The dialogue between the Shunam- 
 mite and the daughters of Jerusalem (the wives and maidens 
 belonging to the royal harem) in 1:2-8 serves to pave the 
 way, in true dramatic fashion, for that meeting, and at the 
 same time to explain the true inward disposition of the 
 Shunammite toward the approaching royal suitor, which the 
 poet henceforward makes her retain without wavering. If, 
 now, we would understand aright the further structure oi 
 the poem, it must be observed that the scheme chosen by.the 
 author for the poetical disposition of his material is based 
 upon the different stages in the courtship and the marriage 
 festivities, down to the moment when alone the real victory 
 of loyal love, the preservation of bridely honor in the face 
 of all temptations and assaults, was evidenced, and could be 
 evidenced, namely, the morning after the bridal night passed 
 with the real lover.” (Compare Deut. 22: 13ff.) 
 
THE WISDOM LITERATURE 123 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 Philosophy among the Hebrews. 
 
 The aim and function of the Wise Men. 
 
 ‘The growth of the Wisdom movement. 
 
 Contents of the Book of Proverbs. 
 
 Permanent value of the book. 
 
 Speculative wisdom in the Old Testament. 
 
 The origin of the Book of Job. 
 
 Outline, subject, and teaching of the Book of Job. 
 Contents and significance of Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Different interpretations and aim of the Song of Songs, 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Davison, “The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament.” 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” 
 Commentaries: “Job,” Davidson; “Proverbs,” Toy; “Eccles 
 siastes,’? Plumptre; ‘‘Song of Songs,’’ Harper. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. Scope and definition of the term “Wisdom.” 
 2. The sage and the prophet. 
 3. The teachings of Wisdom and the teaching of Jesus, 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Characterize Hebrew Wisdom. 
 
 2. Discuss the purpose and method of the Wise. 
 
 3. Outline the contents of the Book of Proverbs. 
 
 4. What do the Proverbs principally deal with? 
 
 5. What was the next stage in the development of Wisdom 
 ’ beyona the simple proverb? 
 
 6. What gave rise to the problem which forms the subject of 
 
 the Book of Job? 
 
 7. ‘The solutions of the problem proposed in the Book of Job. 
 
 8. Discuss the view-point of the author of Ecclesiastes. 
 
 9. Give the different interpretations of the Song of Songs 
 
 to. What is the aim of the book? 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE HEBREW PROPHETS TO THE CLOSE OF 
 THE EIGHTH CENTURY B. C. 
 
 1. The Nature and Function of Hebrew Prophecy. The 
 Hebrew prophet was a divinely sent messenger, whose duty 
 it was to make known the will and purpose of Jehovah to 
 the chosen people (Amos 3:7, 8. Compare Ex. 4:16; 7:1). 
 While the name prophet does not necessarily imply the idea 
 of prediction, the latter is not excluded, for God might de- 
 sire to make known His will concerning the past, the present, 
 or the future; in the last case the utterance of the prophet 
 must take the form of prediction. It should be noted, how- 
 ’ ever, that the predictive element is not the most important 
 in prophecy, and the prophet was far more a forth-teller 
 than a foreteller. 
 
 2. Moses the First Great Prophet of Israel. The first 
 great Hebrew prophet was Moses. We are accustomed to 
 think of him as a law-giver and author; but his chief glory is 
 rather that he was the first and greatest prophet of the 
 Old Testament dispensation. Moses did two things: (1) -He 
 organized the heterogeneous elements that came forth from 
 Egypt into a national unity. (2) He gave to this unity a 
 practical monotheism. In this we see the twofold activity 
 common to all the prophets, national and religious, with the 
 emphasis upon the latter, for the basis of the national union 
 was the recognition of Jehovah as the one God of Israel. 
 Certainly, in the beginning Moses had to do some things 
 which at a later time were assigned to separate officials. In 
 
 124 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 5 
 
 reality Moses filled a fourfold office: (1) He was a prophet; 
 (2) a priest; (3) a law-giver; (4) a political leader. As 
 such he laid the foundation for the political, social, and re- 
 ligious life of the Hebrews. 
 
 3. From Moses to Elijah and Elisha. The records of the 
 period of the Judges mention only two persons as occupying 
 the prophetic office: Deborah, the prophetess (Judges 4:4), 
 and .an unnamed prophet (6:8); but toward the close of 
 the period, during the Philistine crisis, the sons of the 
 prophets appeared in great numbers, and under the leadership 
 of Samuel they played an important part in the events cul- 
 minating in the election of Saul as king over Israel. For a 
 time the prophetic influence continutd to make itself felt, 
 but in time Saul, whose lot was cast with the political and 
 military party rather than with the representatives of Je- 
 hovah, gave evidence that he was unwilling to abide by the 
 policy of the religious party. Samuel considered this a se- 
 rious religious danger, and David, a man after God’s own 
 heart, who might be expected to follow the prophetic lead- 
 ing, was anointed king. During the next few generations the 
 prophets appear upon the scene but rarely, but Nathan 
 (2 Sam. 12: 1ff; 1 Kings 1:11) and Gad (2 Sam. 24: 11ff) 
 are worthy successors of Samuel. The next political event 
 of importance was the division of the kingdom, and again 
 the prophets took an active interest. In accord with their 
 general policy, they favored the division (1 Kings 11: 20ff; 
 12: 22ff), because they were convinced that a continuation 
 of the policy of Solomon would result in the loss of true 
 religion, and they were willing to sacrifice the State, if only 
 the religion of Jehovah could be saved. 
 
 The hopes of the prophets were not fully realized, for 
 the kings of the northern kingdom were by no means all 
 ardent worshipers of Jehovah. In name He continued to be 
 the God of Israel, but the conduct of the kings, who found 
 ready imitators among the people, was not such as to allay 
 the fears of the zealous Jehovah prophets. As a result, con- 
 
126 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 flicts between the political and religious parties broke out 
 afresh, which reached their culmination in the days of Ahab 
 (about 875-853). Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of the 
 king of Tyre, an ardent worshiper of the Baal of Tyre. 
 Since the king took little interest in Jehovah worship, she soon 
 gained many concessions from him which gave a prominent 
 place to her god Baal. The great mass of the people, seeing 
 the indifference of the king, followed the example of her 
 who represented to them. by her enthusiasm and zeal the 
 policy of the court, and so did the false prophets, who 
 thought that their personal interests demanded loyalty to the 
 ruling power. To permit the worship of another deity by 
 the side of Jehovah was considered treason by the true 
 prophets. The crisis called forth two great representatives 
 of the God of Israel—Elijah and Elisha—who, each in his 
 own way, boldly and fearlessly carried on the struggle, until 
 they finally succeeded in driving the hated worship from Is- 
 rael and the faithless dynasty from the throne. Once more 
 the nation came to acnkowledge Jehovah as its one and only 
 God. Succeeding prophets still found it necessary to coun- 
 teract the tendency to apostatize from Jehovah, but their 
 chief duty was to set in a clearer light the nature and char- 
 acter of Jehovah and His purpose for Israel and mankind. 
 
 4. The Literary Prophets and Their Approximate Dates. 
 J. The eighth-century prophets, or the prophets of the As- 
 syrian period: 
 1. In Israel—Amos, about 755; Hosea, about 750-735. 
 The kings of Israel during this period were Jero- 
 boam II, Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, 
 Pekah. 
 2. In Judah—Isaiah, about 740-700; Micah, about 735. 
 to 700. 
 The kings of Judah during thig period were Ue 
 ziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah. 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 127 
 
 1I. The seventh-century prophets, or the prophets of the 
 Chaldean period (all in Judah; the northern kingdom 
 fell in 722/721): Jeremiah, about 626-586; Zephaniah, 
 about 626; Nahum, about 608; Habakkuk, about 600. 
 
 The kings of Judah were Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoi- 
 akim, Jehoiachin, Zedekiah. 
 
 TII. The prophets of the Exile: Ezekiel, 593-570; Obadiah, 
 after 586; Isaiah, 4off. reflect the historical background 
 of about 545 B. C. 
 
 IV. The prophets after the Exile: Haggai, 520; Zechariah 
 (the author of chapters 1—8), 520-518; Malachi, about 
 450; Joel, about 400; the author or authors of Zechariah 
 Q—14, after 350; Jonah, about 400-250; Daniel, about 
 168 B. C. 
 
 5. The Task of the Eighth-Century Prophets, The early 
 part of the eighth century was a period of extraordinary pros- | 
 perity for both Israel and Judah; but, as is frequently the 
 case, the material prosperity brought great evils in its train. 
 The prophetic writings of the period make it plain that Jeho- 
 vah religion was threatened by two serious perils: (1) moral 
 and religious corruption, due to a wrong conception of the 
 character of Jehovah; (2) the successes of the Assyrians, 
 which were to the great mass of people an evidence of the su- 
 perior strength of the Assyrian deities, and might lead to a 
 transfer of affection and homage from Jehovah tothem. Either 
 danger threatened the very life of Jehovah religion. All four 
 eighth-century prophets were convinced that the only remedy 
 was a right conception of the nature and character of their 
 God; and this they proceeded to supply; (1) All emphasized 
 the universality of the Divine sway, and declared that the suc- 
 cesses of the Assyrians were not due to Jehovah’s weakness, 
 but to the people’s sins, which compelled Jehovah to send 
 ‘Judgment upon them, and this judgment was to be executed 
 by the Assyrians. (2) They all sought to impress upon the 
 people a more adequate conception of the character of Je- 
 
128 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 hovah, each emphasizing that phase of the divine character 
 which he considered best adapted to his day and generation. 
 Amos laid special stress upon the righteousness of Jehovah, 
 Hosea upon His love, Isaiah upon His holiness and majesty, 
 Micah upon the Divine judgments. 
 
 a. The Prophet Amos and His Message. Amos was the 
 first of the eighth-century prophets, in chronological order. 
 He was not a prophet by education or profession (7:14), but 
 a herdsman and a “dresser of sycomore trees” (1:13 7:14). 
 It was while following his daily occupation that the Divine 
 call came to him to leave his home, Tekoa, in Judah, and 
 preach to the northern kingdom, Israel. He left his flocks 
 and sycomore groves and journeyed to Bethel, the religious 
 center in the north. How long he remained there we do not 
 know; 7: 10-17 narrates how the chief priest sought to silence 
 him, but in vain; he repeated his message and, when his task 
 was finished, returned to his home, where he may have writ- 
 ten down his message or, at least, directed the writing. 
 
 One need but read the Books of Amos and Hosea to un- 
 derstand the desperate conditions confronting the prophet. 
 The prosperity, luxury, and extravagance of the rich met the 
 simple herdsman on every hand. The sanctuaries shared in 
 the general prosperity; offerings and tithes were brought reg- 
 ularly and in abundance; people crowded the holy places, and 
 celebrated the sacred feasts with all possible pomp. A nation 
 sO prosperous and so zealous in the performance of its re- 
 ligious obligations might well be called blessed. But the 
 prophet was not deceived by the superficial prosperity; he saw 
 the dark side of the nation’s life as well. Violence and rob- 
 bery, oppression of the poor, dishonest trading, graft and 
 bribery, were widespread; the.corruption of the courts of 
 justice was notorious; immoralities were practiced without 
 shame; all humane feelings, even in women, seemed to be 
 smothered. With this disregard of all human and divine law 
 there went, strangely enough, a feeling of absolute security 
 and self-righteousness. The great mass of people believed 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 129 
 
 that, in view of their painstaking observance of the external 
 ceremonial, they had a claim upon the Divine favor and that 
 Jehovah was bound to be with them and protect them from 
 all harm. 
 
 The message of Amos was to recall Israel from its apos- 
 tasy to a life of righteousness and obedience to Jehovah. 
 The Book of Amos falls naturally into three divisions: 
 I. Chapters 1 and 2. The approaching judgment upon six 
 non-Israelitish nations, upon Judah, and upon Israel. 
 II. Chapters 3—6. A series of five discourses of warning 
 and exhortation: (1) Condemnation of the ruling classes 
 (3:1—4:3)3; (2) Israel’s failure to understand the Divine 
 judgments (4: 4-13); (3) Address containing lamentations, 
 exhortations, reproofs, and threats of ruin (5:1-17); (4) 
 Darkness and despair of the day of Jehovah (5: 18-27); 
 (5) Woe upon the luxurious, the self-confident, and the proud 
 (6:1-14). III. Chapters 7—9. Visions picturing the exe- 
 cution of the judgment, with interludes: (1) Five visions, 
 with explanatory remarks (7: 1-9; 8: 1-14; 9: 1-10); (2) The 
 experiences of Amos at Bethel (7: 10-17); (3) Promises of 
 a brighter future (9: 11-15). 
 
 b. Teaching and Significance of the Message of Amos. In 
 the course of his addresses Amos emphasizes the following 
 aspects of the nature and character of Jehovah: (1) Jehovah 
 is the only true God; (2) He is a person; (3) He is all- 
 powerful; (4) He is everywhere present; (5) He knows all 
 things; (6) He is merciful; (7) above all else he insists that 
 Jehovah is a righteous God, whose favor can be secured only 
 by a life of righteousness. These truths Amos does not dis- 
 cuss in an abstract manner, but in their practical bearing upon 
 the past, present, and future history of Israel; but while he 
 deals primarily with the historical Israel of his age, he gives 
 expression to several religious and moral truths that are of 
 permanent significance. Of these the more important are: 
 (1) Justice between man and man is one of the divine foun- 
 dations of society; (2) Privilege implies responsibility; (3) 
 
 9 
 
130 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Failure to recognize responsibility will surcly bring punish- 
 ment; (4) Nations and, by analogy, individuals are bound to 
 live up to the measure of light and knowledge granted to 
 them; (5) The most elaborate worship is but an insult to 
 God when offered by those who have no mind to conform 
 to His demands. 
 
 c. The Prophet Hosea and His Message. A few years 
 after the withdrawal of Amos from Israel a new prophet 
 arose to continue his work, namely, Hosea. Meanwhile the 
 religious, moral, and social evils had become more aggra- 
 vated; and during the latter part of his ministry the political 
 situation became worse and worse. After the death of Jero- 
 boam II, about 741, a period of anarchy and lawlessness en- 
 sued, which culminated in the fall of the northern kingdom 
 in 722/721. Hosea had one important advantage over his 
 predecessor. Amos was a native of Judah, sent to the north- 
 ern kingdom on a temporary mission; Hosea was a citizen of 
 the north, bound by a sympathetic patriotism to the kingdom 
 whose destruction he was commissioned to predict. 
 
 The Book of Hosea contains the substance of the prophet’s 
 earnest and persistent appeals by which he sought to bring 
 the faithless netion back to its divine Master. It falls nat- 
 urally into two well-marked divisions: chapters I—3 and 
 4—14. I. Chapters 1—3. The prophet’s marriage, and the 
 application of the story: Jehovah’s love and Israel’s faithless- 
 ness. II. Chapters 4—14. Hosea’s prophetic discourses; 
 (1) Awful condition of the people, due to the lack of knowl- 
 edge of Jehovah, for which lack the priests are responsible 
 (4: 1-19); (2) The utter corruption of Israel—the inevitable 
 doom (5:1—8:14); (3) The present rejoicing contrasted 
 with the despair of the Exile (9: 1-9); (4) A series of retro- 
 spects, showing the utter corruption of Israel (9: 10— 
 11:11); (5) A new series of indictments (11: 12—12:14); 
 (6) Israel’s glory turned to shame (13: 1-16); (7) Israel’s 
 repentance—God’s pardon (14: 1-8); followed by an exhorta- 
 tion to study the Book of Hosea (9). 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 13? 
 
 d. The Teaching of Hosea. The message of Hosea was 
 very comprehensive, touching upon the social and political 
 as well as upon the moral and religious situation, and yet the 
 principles underlying his discourses are few and easily dis- 
 cerned. Fundamental is his conception of the nature and char- 
 acter of Jehovah, in which he agrees essentially with Amos; 
 only he lays much greater stress than the latter upon the 
 love of Jehovah; indeed, the conviction that God is love colors 
 all his teaching. Israel, the wife of Jehovah, has proved 
 faithless, but through His love He will win her back to a more 
 intimate fellowship than ever before. The supreme goal of 
 Hosea’s aspirations for Israel is not external prosperity, but 
 the re-establishment of a fellowship of life and love with 
 Jehovah; the necessary condition of the enjoyment of this fel- 
 lowship is sincere, heart-felt repentance, which to Hosea im- 
 plied all that is essential in the New Testament conception of 
 repentance: recognition that sin is committed against God, 
 a deep sorrow for wrongdoing; and an earnest determination 
 to live henceforth in a manner acceptable to God. Hosea is 
 the first prophet to mention the Messianic King, in whom 
 center the hopes and anticipations of-subsequent generations 
 CrsFErE 325): 
 
 e. The Prophet Isaiah and His Message. During the 
 later years of Hosea’s activity in Israel, Isaiah, next to Moses 
 the greatest prophet of the Hebrews, began his ministry in 
 Judah. He began to prophesy about 740 and continued until 
 about 700. Without going into details, it may be stated that 
 political, social, mcral, and religious conditions in Judah were 
 
 tactically the same as in Israel during the same period, and 
 the age demanded a man of faith, courage, and spiritual 
 insight. The personality of Isaiah was such as to fit him for 
 the mighty tasks before him. He was not a “pale-faced 
 ascetic or a shrinking sentimentalist:” he was a full-blooded 
 man, a man of high mettle, who found it quite consistent with 
 lowliness to pour contempt upon a weak, vacillating king, 
 to fling burning scorn against mocking skeptics, to denounce 
 
£32 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 falsehood and deceit with words that scorched and Dlistered. 
 His one outstanding characteristic was strength—strength of 
 character, strength born of intense convictions and of strong 
 and lofty motives. Isaiah is in truth a king among prophets. 
 Isaiah was not, like Amos, Hosea, and his younger contem- 
 porary Micah, a man of the country; his home was in Je- 
 rusalem, and he appears to have been of high social rank, 
 perhaps a member of the royal family. 
 
 Limitation of space will not permit to do more than give 
 a very general outline of Isaiah’s message. The book bearing 
 his name may be divided into seven portions of unequal 
 length: I. Chapters 1—12, Prophecies centering around 
 Judah and Israel, coming from different periods of Isaiah’s 
 activity and dealing with a variety of subjects. II. Chapters 
 13—23, Prophecies concerning various foreign nations that 
 came into hostile contact with Israel and Judah. III. Chap- 
 ters 24—27, Portrayal, in vivid colors, of a great world judg- 
 ment, and the escape of God’s faithful people from its terrors. 
 IV. Chapters 28—33, Group of discourses having for their 
 subject chiefly the relations of Judah with Egypt and Assyria. 
 V. Chapters 34, 35, Contrast between the destiny of Edom and 
 that of Israel. VI. Chapters 36—39, An historical section, 
 dealing chiefly with the activity of Isaiah during the reign 
 of Hezekiah. VII. Chapters 40—66, The restoration of 
 Judah from exile. 
 
 f. The Work and Teaching of Isaiah. The key to 
 Isaiah’s activity may be found in his inaugural vision, an 
 account of which is contained in the sixth chapter. During 
 that spiritual crisis the following truths were impressed upon 
 the prophet: (1) The holiness of Jehovah; (2) the majesty 
 of Jehovah; (3) the corruption and stubbornness of His con- 
 temporaries; (4) the ethical basis of the relation of Jehovah 
 to Israel and the world; (5) the certainty of an awful judg- 
 ment; (6) the preservation of a remnant; (7) this remnant 
 is to be the seed of a new Israel. With these truths burning 
 in his soul, it is not strange that his standard of living for 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 133 
 
 himself and his fellows was raised; nor is it surprising that 
 he strove for forty years, in the face of untold obstacles, to 
 lift the nation to the pure heights of his new ideals. With 
 this sublime vision of God he knew no sphere of life where 
 the presence of Jehovah might not be felt or the battle of 
 righteousness might not be fought; and it was his sole ambi- 
 tion to fight this battle until the entire national life should be 
 regenerated, until worship should be so pure, commerce so 
 clean, and politics so honest and unselfish, that all might be 
 offered as a holy and acceptable service to Jehovah. 
 
 The broad outlook of Isaiah resulted in a variety of inter- 
 ests and activities. He was a patient and painstaking teacher 
 of religious truth, a Lold and fearless preacher of right living, 
 a sane and courageous social reformer, a keen and far-seeing 
 statesman, and a divinely enlightened seer penetrating the veil 
 hiding the future and anticipating the glorious era when the 
 kingdom of God would be established upon earth. As a 
 religious teacher Isaiah sought first of all to impress upon 
 the hearts and minds of his contemporaries a more adequate 
 conception of the nature and character of Jehovah, for he 
 was convinced that the cause of Israel’s apostasy was the lack 
 of a true knowledge of Jehovah. While he agrees with the 
 religicus conceptions of his predecessors, he gives special 
 emphasis to the two phases of the divine character that were 
 burned into his innermost soul during his inaugural vision, 
 namely, the Divine holiness and majesty. The lofty concep- 
 tion of the character of Jehovah brought with it lofty concep- 
 tions of the Divine ideals of righteousness; and as a preacher 
 of right living and a social reformer he endeavored to assist 
 his contemporaries toward realizing these ideals; the nation 
 being morally and socially corrupt, he labored for a trans- 
 formation of the conditions which meant the certain doom 
 of his people. Moreover, Isaiah was a statesman. A funda- 
 mental factcr in his attitude as a statesman was his concep- 
 tion of the mission of the nation. He was convinced that 
 back of the nation was God; it was he who formed it, nour- 
 
134 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 ished it, and brought it up, who cared for it, who had for it 
 a lofty purpose and mission, and did his utmost to prepare 
 the nation for the carrying out of its divinely appointed task. 
 Since the nation seemed unwilling to carry out the divine 
 purpose, Jehovah must vindicate His holiness and majesty by 
 executing judgment upon the guilty. Again and again Isaiah 
 announces the impending doom of the nation; but he, like 
 ‘ the other prophets, looked for the preservation of a righteous 
 remnant which might serve as the nucleus of a new kingdom 
 of God. Over this kingdom the Messianic King, described m 
 glowing colors in 9: 1-7 and 11:1-5, will reign as the repre- 
 sentative of Jehovah. 
 
 g. The Prophet Micah and His Message. A few years 
 after Isaiah entered upon his prophetic career there appeared 
 another prophet in Judah, by the name of Micah. Both 
 cherished lofty conceptions of the character of Jehovah and 
 of the obligations resting upon His people, and both had 
 firmly established convictions concerning the nature and ulti- 
 mate triumph of the kingdom of God. A comparison of the 
 utterances of the two men also brings out resemblances in 
 style, thought, topic, and even phrases; but the contrast be- 
 tween the two in origin, training, and sphere of activity are 
 equally marked. The one was a city prophet, of high social 
 standing, and the counselor of kings; the other, a simple 
 contryman, born of obscure parentage and in close touch and 
 sympathy with the peasant class. 
 
 The Book of Micah falls naturally into three parts, each 
 containing a description of the present corruption, an an- 
 nouncement of imminent judgment, and one or more pictures 
 of a bright and glorious future. The three divisions, each 
 one beginning with “Hear ye,’ do not represent three con- 
 nected discourses, but collections of the essential contents of 
 the oral utterances of the prophet during his entire ministry: 
 I, Chapters 1, 2. Judgment upon Samaria and Judah on ac- 
 count of the moral and social corruption of both; the salva- 
 
THE EIGHTH CENTURY PROPHETS 135 
 
 tion ef a remnant. II. Chapters 3—5. Contrast between the 
 present degradation and the future exaltation; the glories of 
 the Messianic age, and the advent of the Messianic King. 
 III. Chapters 6, 7. Jehovah and Israel in controversy; the 
 ultimate settlement. 
 
 That the ministry of Micah was not without results is seen 
 from Jeremiah 26:18, 19, where it is stated that Micah was - 
 at least partly responsible for the reformation under Heze- 
 kiah. He adds nothing essentially new to the teaching of his 
 predecessors, but in a simple and forceful manner seeks to 
 impress upon his contemporaries the fundamental truths of 
 the religion of Jehovah. In the book bearing his name is 
 found the best definition of prophetic religion: “What doth 
 Jehovah require of thee but to do justly, and to love kind- 
 ness, and to walk humbly with thy God?” 
 
 Never again in the history of the Hebrew people, and one 
 might almost say, never again in the history of the human 
 race, arose within one brief lifetime (755-735 B. C.) four 
 men who left a greater and more permanent impression upon 
 the religious development of the human race than did the 
 four divinely inspired leaders Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and 
 Micah. They, more than any other set of men during the 
 Old Testament period, were responsible for the preservation 
 and growth of the religion out of which sprang, at a later 
 time, Christianity. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The nature and function of Hebrew prophecy. 
 Moses as a prophet. 
 
 Early prophetic activity. 
 
 History of the prophets from the eighth century on, 
 The task of the eighth-century prophets. 
 
 The Prophet Amos and his message. 
 
 Hosea and his message. 
 
 Isaiah and his message. 
 
 Micah and his message. 
 
136 THE WORKER AND HiS BIBLE 
 
 Bibliography: 
 
 Batten, “The Hebrew Prophets.” 
 Kirkpatrick, “The Doctrine of the Prophets.” 
 Eiselen, ““Prophecy and the Prophets.” 
 
 Commentaries: “Isaiah,” Skinner; “Amos, Hosea, Micah, 
 
 Eiselen, in “Commentary on the Minor Prophets.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. The origin and early development of prophecy. 
 2. The message of Amos. 
 3. The message of Isaiah. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Describe the work of the Hebrew prophet. 
 
 2. Give names and tell of the work of the early prophets, 
 3. Describe the task of the eighth-century prophets. 
 
 4. Tell of Amos and his message. 
 
 5. What can you say of the life and teaching of Hosea? 
 6. Discuss the personality, work, and teaching of Isaiah, 
 7. Give outline of the Book of Micah. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE PROPHETS SUBSEQUENT TO THE EIGHTH 
 i CENTURY B. C. 
 
 1. The Seventh-Century Prophets. 
 
 a. The Message of Jeremiah. During the closing years 
 of the seventh century four prophets arose in Judah: Jere- 
 miah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. Of these Jeremiah 
 was the greatest and enjoyed the longest period of activity. 
 He received his call to the prophetic office in 626, and he con- 
 tinued to prophesy until after the fall of Jerusalem, in 586. 
 The task set before him was not an easy one; for his ministry 
 was to include the nations; nor was it very inspiring, for 
 he was to be pre-eminently a prophet of doom. From 1: 10, 
 which contains the commission of the prophet, to the end of 
 the book, the somber note of judgment predominates. In the 
 prophecies belonging to the earlier period a note of hope is 
 still discernible. Judah may yet repent; if so, the severest 
 blow may be averted. But when the years passed without 
 any improvement in the people, and especially after the ac- 
 cession of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah came to abandon the expec- 
 tation of any kind of general response on the part of the ob- 
 durate nation. He became convinced that Jehovah’s patience 
 was exhausted and the time of mercy was past. Justice must 
 have her way, and the result will be terrible judgments upon 
 the people. From the vices of the present and the judgments 
 he expects to fall in the near future, Jeremiah frequently 
 turns to the more remote future, for beyond the night of 
 calamity and distress he sees the dawn of a brighter day. 
 The eternal purpose of the Divine grace must yet be realized. 
 ‘The nation Israel.may perish, but the kingdom of God must: 
 
 137 
 | 
 
138 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 endure. Promises of restoration are scattered throughout the 
 entire book, but they are especially numerous in chapters 30 
 to 33, which have been called a “Book of Consolation.” The 
 most important features of the future glory emphasized by 
 Jeremiah are: (1) The salvation of a righteous remnant from 
 the judgment (4:27; 5:10, 18; 20:11; 30:11; 40:28); 
 (2) The restoration of this remnant from exile (3: 12, 21, 22; 
 16:14, 15; chapters 30, 31); (3) The rise of a new Jeru- 
 salem, to serve as a dwelling-place of Jehovah and a re- 
 ligious center for the restored exiles (33:16); (4) The ad- 
 vent of the Messianic King, to reign over the redeemed rem- 
 nant (23: 4-6; 30:9, 21); (5) The establishment of a cove- 
 nant of pardon and grace between the redeemed remnant and 
 Jehovah (31: 33, 34; 32:40; 33:8); (6) The presence of Je- 
 hovah in the midst of the redeemed people; as a result all 
 external symbols of Jehovah’s presence may be removed 
 (3:16); (7) The nations of the earth will turn to Jehovah 
 (3: 175, 4223. 162,395 330). 
 
 The prophecies of Jeremiah may be arranged as follows: 
 I. The call of Jeremiah and the first visions of doom (tr). 
 II. Judgment upon Judah for its rebellion against Jehovah 
 (2—6). III. Condemnation of the hypocrisy of Judah (7— 
 10). IV. Disregard of Jehovah’s will the cause of Judah’s 
 overthrow (II, 12).: V. The decree of the destruction of 
 Judah is irrevocable (13—20). Vi. Condemnation of the 
 faithless rulers (21—25). VII. Conflict of Jeremiah with 
 false prophets (26—29). VIII. Prophecies of the restora- 
 tion (30—33). IX. The doom of Jerusalem due to the peo- 
 ple’s faithlessness (34—36). X. The life and times of Jere- 
 miah—chiefly historical (37—45). XI. Prophecies against 
 foreign nations (46—51). XII. An historical appendix (52). 
 
 Jeremiah is in perfect accord with his predecessors in all 
 essential points of teaching. Special attention may be called 
 here only to two elements in his teaching, which constitute 
 his most: valuable contributions to the body of divine truth: 
 (1) The spirituality of religion. In former days the national 
 
THE LATER PROPHETS 139 
 
 aspect of religion was emphasized, and this naturally gave a 
 large place to forms and institutions which might be national 
 in their use and benefits. Jeremiah saw that the national life 
 of Judah was rapidly nearing its close, and with it would dis- 
 appear the Holy City, the temple, and other institutions that 
 were closely bound up with the religious life of the past. 
 Religion, to prepare for this crisis, must ‘be denationalized: 
 it must be individualized and spiritualized. This need Jere- 
 miah proceeded to supply; and again and again he insists 
 that religion is an immediate, personal relationship between 
 Jehovah and the individual soul, and heart obedience and de- 
 votion of the individual to his God (31: 33, 34; 32:40; 33:3). 
 (2) Personal responsibility. The individualization of religion 
 implies the doctrine of personal responsibility. With the sense 
 of individuality lost, persons might think that they were pun- 
 ished for the sins of others, sins committed by some of theit 
 contemporaries or ancestors (31:29). Conscious personal 
 fellowship with God involves a deeper sense of individual re- 
 sponsibility. Men will begin to realize that every one is re- 
 sponsible for his own conduct (31: 30). 
 
 b. The Message of Zephaniah. The earliest of Jeremiah’s 
 contemporaries was Zephaniah. The occasion of his prophe- 
 sying seems to have been the threatening advance of the Scy- 
 thians, a horde of barbarians, who overran Western Asia dur- 
 ing the latter half of the seventh century B. C. The prophet 
 considered the Scythians the executioners of a Divine judg- 
 ment upon his sinful countrymen and the surrounding na- 
 tions. Repentance offers the only way of escape; those who 
 do not repent will be destroyed, those who return to Jehovah 
 _ will be exalted and glorified. The greater part of the book 
 (1:2—3:7) is given up to threats and denunciations, with 
 few indications of hope; the closing section, 3: 8-20, contains 
 a promise of salvation and exaltation to those who repent. 
 
 Zephaniah adds little that is new to the teaching of his 
 predecessors, but he attempts with much moral and spiritual 
 fervor to impress upon his contemporaries the fundamental 
 
aad THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 truths of the religion of Jehovah. Especially notable is his 
 emphasis upon the “Day of Jehovah,” the great day of battle 
 when Jehovah was expected to manifest himself in the de- 
 struction of all his foes and the exaltation of the faithful. 
 The vision of Zephaniah is world-wide; the judgment will 
 fall upon all nations, and from all parts of the world con- 
 verts will be won to Jehovah; and these may worship Him, 
 “every one from his place.” 
 
 c. The Message of Nahum. Nahum differs from his pred- 
 ecessors in his silence concerning the sin and guilt of Judah. 
 The other prophets point to present or impending distress or 
 affliction as punishment for sin, and they insist that salvation 
 can come only if the people repent and turn to Jehovah. The 
 theme of Nahum is the fall and destruction of Nineveh, the 
 capital of Assyria, the long-time oppressor of the Hebrews. 
 Judah had suffered much from the proud Assyrian, and it is 
 not difficult to understand how, with the doom of the cruel 
 oppressor imminent a prophet-patriot might burst into shouts 
 of exultation and triumph over the distress of the cruel foe, 
 for the downfall of the enemy will make possible the exalta- 
 tion of the people of Jehovah. Chapter 1 contains the decree 
 of Nineveh’s doom because the city has devised evil against 
 Jehovah. Chapters 2 and 3 describe, in forceful and pictur- 
 esque language, the siege, capture, and destruction of the city. 
 
 The utterances of Nahum contain little direct religious 
 teaching; and what there is of it is confined very largely to 
 the opening verses of Chapter 1, where the twofold mani- 
 festation of the Divine holiness—the Divine vengeance and 
 the Divine mercy—is emphasized (1:2, 3). The manifesta- 
 tion of the one results in the destruction of the wicked (1:2), 
 the other in the salvation of the oppressed (§:15; 2:2). 
 Faith in Jehovah will secure the Divine favor and protection. 
 Indirectly the message of Nahum, by its emphasis of the sway 
 of Jehovah over the whole universe and the duty of all to 
 own this sway, is of profound eternal signficance. “Assyria 
 in Nahum’s hands becomes an object lesson to the empires 
 vf the modern world, teaching, as an eternal principle of the 
 
? 
 i 
 THE LATER PROPHETS yA 
 
 divine government of the world, the absolute necessity, for 
 @ nation’s continued vitality, of that righteousness, personal, 
 civic, and national, which alone exalteth a nation.” 
 
 d. The Message of Habakkuk. In the Book of Habakkuk 
 a new type of prophecy appears. The prophets were primarily 
 preachers and teachers of religion and ethics. They addressed 
 themselves to their fellow countrymen in an attempt to win 
 them back to Jehovah and a righteous life. Not so Habakkuk. 
 He addresses himself to Jehovah, questioning the justice and 
 even the reality of the Divine providence. The prophet is 
 perplexed, for he can not harmonize the seeming indifference 
 of Jehovah in the presence of wide-spread corruption with 
 his conception of the Divine character (1: 2-4). In reply Je- 
 hovah declares that judgment is about to be executed by the 
 Chaldeans (1:5-11). The answer raises another problem: 
 How can a holy God use the godless Chaldeans as instru- 
 ments? To which Jehovah replies: The Chaldeans, though 
 temporarily exalted, will meet certain doom; the righteous, 
 though temporarily afflicted, will live forever (1: 12—2:5). 
 There follows a taunt-song over the downfall of the Baby- 
 lonians (2: 6-20), and the “prayer” of Habakkuk (chapter 3). 
 
 The message of Habakkuk suggests several valuable les- 
 sons: (1) The proper attitude amid perplexing problems; 
 (2) the universal supremacy of Jehovah; (3) faith, or faith- 
 fulness, is a guarantee of permanency and life. 
 
 2. The Prophets of the Exile. 
 
 a. The Message of Obadiah. The historical references 
 and allusions in Obadiah 11—14 suggest that the message 
 originated soon after the fall of Jerusalem, in 586 B.C. The 
 message is called forth by the hostility of the Edomites to- 
 ward the jews on that occasion. The prophet announces the 
 destruction of Edom (1—9), because of its hostility and 
 cruelty toward Judah (10—16), and the subsequent exalta- 
 tion of the Jews (17—21). Among the fundamental beliefs 
 underlying the message are the following: (1) Jehovah has 
 a speciaJ interest in Israel. (2) He will establish a new 
 
142 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 kingdom of God, with Judah and Jerusalem as the center, 
 (3) Holiness will be the chief characteristic of this kingdom. 
 
 b. The Message of Ezekiel. In 597 King Jehoiachin and 
 about ten thousand of the better class of Jews were carried 
 into captivity to Babylonia. Among these exiles was Ezekiel. 
 In the fifth year of his exile he entered upon his prophetic 
 work. From 593 to 586 Ezekiel devoted himself almost ex- 
 clusively to combating the false hopes of a speedy restoration 
 entertained by many, both in Jerusalem and in exile. During 
 this period denunciations and threats predominate. When 
 his predictions of the fall of Jerusalem were fulfilled, a great 
 change came over the popular attitude; henceforth Ezekiel 
 enjoyed the veneration of all the Jews in Babylon. His mes- 
 sage also assumed a different aspect, for he now dwelt more 
 and more upon the coming restoration. His glowing words 
 kept alive the hope of the people, based upon earlier prophe- 
 cies, and at the same time tended to bring the whole people 
 into a more vital relation with their God. 
 
 The Book of Ezekiel consists of three main divisions: 
 I. Chapters 1—24, The sin and punishment of Judah: 1. The 
 prophet’s call and initiation (1: 1—3:21); 2. Utterances and 
 symbolical actions announcing the impending fall of Judah 
 and Jerusalem (3:22—7:27); 3. Visions of the corruption 
 and doom of Jerusalem; Jehovah’s departure from the Holy 
 City (8—11); 4. Discourses and symbolical acts portraying 
 the people’s sin and doom (12—19); 5. The doom of Judah 
 and Jerusalem (20—24). II. Chapters 25—32, Judgments 
 upon foreign nations. These judgments will fall (1) to pre- 
 vent the nations from troubling the restored Israel, (2) to 
 remove the evil influences which had sprung from the people’s 
 contact with their heathen neighbors in the past. III. Chap- 
 ters 33—48, Prophecies of the restoration: 1. The manner 
 in which Jehovah will restore His people to the promised 
 land (33—39). 2. The constitution upon which the life of 
 the restored community is to be organized (40—48). 
 
 The preservation of Israel’s religion in exile was almost — 
 
THE LATER PROPHETS 143 
 
 entirely due to the service rendered by Ezekiel. The more 
 important aspects of his work are: 1. Denunciation of Judah’s 
 sins and announcement of doom (1—24). 2. Repentance the 
 condition of salvation (18: 30-32); 3. Promises of restoration 
 (11: 16ff; 16: 60ff ; 27: 22-24; 20: 4off; 33—48). Concerning 
 the future restoration and exaltation he says: (1) It will be 
 preceded by judgments upon the nations (25—32; 38; 390); 
 (2) The land will be endowed with extraordinary fertility 
 (36: 8, 9, 20, 30, 34, 35); (3) The exiles will be prepared for 
 the return by a moral and spiritual regeneration (36: 25-27) ; 
 (4) The regenerated exiles will be brought back (37: 1-14); 
 (5) Over the restored exiles the Messianic King will reign 
 (34: 11-24; 37:22ff); (6) Jehovah will return to the re- 
 deemed people, to abide with them forever (37:26, 27; 
 43:1-12); (7) The restored people will be organized as a 
 theocracy (40—48). In his conception of Jehovah’s nature 
 and character Ezekiel agrees fully with his predecessors, call- 
 ing special attention to the Divine majesty (1, 10, 43) and 
 holizess, and Jehovah’s desire that all nations should know 
 Him in His fullness (20: 41; 28:22, 25; 36:23; 38:16, 23). 
 He also emphasizes and expands the doctrine of the freedom 
 and responsibility of the individual soul before God, which 
 was first taught by Jeremiah (18: 20-32). In one respect 
 Ezekiel differs from his predecessors, namely, in the high 
 estimate he places upon the externals of religion (40—48), 
 but he is by no means a formalist, as may be seen from the 
 profound and noble utterances touching the necessity of a 
 new heart (18:31; 36:26) and a new spirit (11:19). 
 
 c. The Message of Isaiah, Chapters 40 to 66. Whoever 
 may have been the author of these chapters, it is universally 
 admitted that they are written from the standpoint of the 
 Babyionian exile, and that, therefore, they must be interpreted 
 from that standpoint. The all-pervading note is consolation, 
 
 for the author means to revive the drooping spirit of the 
 exiles and prepare them for the restoration which he con- 
 siders imminent. The chapters may be arranged in three 
 
1 ; 
 ; } 
 144 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 , groups: I. Chapters 40—48, the deliverance and restoration 
 of the exiles through the instrumentality of Cyrus. To give 
 emphasis to his promises, the prophet calls attention again 
 and again to the mighty power of Jehovah, which enables him 
 to carry out his purpose in the face of all obstacles. II. Chap- 
 ters 49—55, the mission of the servant of Jehovah and the 
 glorification of Zion. The prophet is concerned in these chap- 
 ters largely with the moral and spiritual transformation of the 
 exiles and their exaltation after the restoration. III. Chapters 
 56—66, the future blessedness of the true Israel and the 
 doom of the apostates. 
 
 In many respects these chapters constitute ‘the most bril- 
 liant jewel of prophetic literature.” In the first place, the 
 prophet never wearies of emphasizing the fact that Jehovah 
 alone is God (40: 18-20; 41:29; 43:0ff; 44:8-20). This 
 one God is all-powerful and supreme over all (40:12, 22, 
 23, 28; 41:2, 25; 43:12; 44:28; 45: 1-3); He is also a right- 
 eous and holy God (41:10, 14; 42:63 43:14}; 45:13, 10, 23; 
 46:13; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7; 51:5, 6, 8; S#e5g gpenp beens 
 60:9, 14); a God of majesty and power, whose eternal pur- 
 pose is to make Himself known to men (40:5; 43: 7-25; 
 48:9-11; etc.). Israel has been chosen to aid God in the 
 carrying out of this purpose of.grace and good-will (40— 
 53); and when the servant of Jehovah has performed his 
 task he will be highly exalted; the glories of this exaltation 
 are vividly portrayed in chapters 56—66. 
 
 _3. The Prophets after the Exile. 
 
 a. The Message of Haggai and Zechariah. Babylon fell 
 into the hands of Cyrus in 538; and soon after he gave per- 
 mission to the Jews to return to their old home. In the 
 spring of 537 a large company took advantage of this permis- 
 sion, and immediately on their arrival in Jerusalem they set 
 up the altar of burnt offerings and laid the foundation of the 
 temple (Ezra 3:2ff). However, the first enthusiasm soon 
 grew cold, and when in 520 the two prophets Haggai and 
 Zechariah appeared, they found building operations at a 
 
‘ 
 \ 
 * 
 THE LATER PROPHETS has 
 
 standstill, They recognized the importance of the temple as 
 a religious center; hence, from beginning to end their mes- 
 sage centers around the rebuilding of the house of God. 
 Their preaching produced results, and in 516 the temple was 
 completed and dedicated. 
 
 The Book of Haggai contains four separate utterances: 
 TI. Rebuke of religious indifference, exhortation to resume 
 building operations (1: 1-11); II. Message of encouragement 
 to the builders (2: 1-9); III. The completion of the temple 
 a sure guarantee of the return of the divine favor (2: 10-19) ; 
 TV. Exaltation of Zerubbabel, the servant of Jehovah (2: 
 20-23). Chapter 1: 12-15 is an historical section, describing 
 the effects of the first discourse. The Book of Zechariah 
 opens with a call to repentance (1:1-6). Then follow eight 
 night-visions (1:7—6:8), all serving a common purpose, 
 “the encouragement of the Jews to continue the work of re- 
 storing the temple and rebuilding the city, and the re-estab- 
 lishing of the theocratic government:” 1. The angelic horse- 
 men (1:7-17); 2. The four horns and the four smiths 
 (1: 18-21); 3. The man with the measuring line (2: 1-13); 
 4. The trial of the high priest (3); 5. The golden candlestick 
 and the two olive trees (4); 6. The flying roll (5: 1-4); 
 7. The woman in the’ephah (5: 5-11); 8. The four chariots 
 with horses of different colors (6:1-8). In 6:9-15 is an 
 account of a symbolical act, the crowning of the high priest 
 Joshua. In chapters 7 and 8 the prophet points out the es- 
 sential elements of Jehovah religion and promises the speedy 
 exaltation of the Jews. Chapters 9—14 contain a series of 
 utterances, loosely connected, dealing for the most part with 
 _ the events leading up to the final triumph of the kingdom of 
 God. The two prophets do not contribute any new elements 
 of truth; they simply desire to enforce the truths taught by 
 the earlier prophets and adapt them to changed conditions. 
 _ However, Zechariah differs from his predecessors in three 
 points: (1) in the emphasis he places upon visions as a 
 _ means of divine communication; (2) in the apocalyptic syin- 
 
 _bolism that enters into the visions; (3) in the large place 
 10 
 
 | 
 
146 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 occupied by angelic mediation in his intercourse with Je- 
 hovah. 
 
 b. The Message of Malachi. The ministry of Malachi 
 is connected with the reform movement under Ezra and 
 Nehemiah. The fundamental evil of the day was religious 
 indifference and skepticism, due, on the one hand, to dis- 
 appointment over the non-fulfillment of earlier prophecies, 
 The exilic and pre-exilic prophets had painted the glories 
 of the restoration in the brighest colors, but the reality was 
 far inferior to the ideal. On the other hand, the apparent 
 inequalities of life caused many to ask, Where is the God 
 of justice? (2:17.) This skepticism soon showed itself in 
 the life and conduct of the people; the outstanding wrongs 
 being the faithlessness of the priests and the neglect of the 
 temple service by the people, divorces, the marrying of for- 
 eign women, the non-payment of the tithes, and various 
 forms of oppression. Like Ezra and Nehemiah, Malachi 
 sought with all his might to counteract these evils. 
 
 Five divisions may be recognized in the Book of Malachi: 
 I. The love of Jehovah for Israel (1:2-5). This forms the 
 basis of all subsequent appeals. The love of Jehovah for 
 
 Israel, the prophet thinks, should be the motive and model — 
 
 for Israel’s attitude toward Him. II. The faithlessness of 
 priests and people, and their punishment if they fail to re- 
 pent (1:6—2:9). III. Condemnation of mixed marriages 
 and divorces (2: 10-16). IV. Condemnation of the spirit of 
 indifference and skepticism, which was the root of all the 
 religious and moral corruption denounced in the rest of the 
 book (4:17 to 4:3). V. Exhortation to obey the law of 
 Moses (4: 4-6). 
 
 c. The Message of Joel. Joel prophesied a little later 
 than Malachi. The occasion of his utterance appears to have 
 been a threefold calamity: locusts (1:4), drought (1: 16-18), 
 and conflagrations (1:19, 20). These calamities were to 
 him indications that the day of reckoning was at hand; 
 and he pleads most earnestly and persistently for repentance 
 
THE LATER PROPHETS 149 
 
 that his contemporaries may escape the terrors of that day. 
 The Book of Joel falls naturally into two parts, each one 
 capable of subdivisions. In the first (1:1—2:17) judg- 
 ment receives special emphasis; in the second (2: 18—3: 21) 
 the thought of restoration and blessing predominates: I. De- 
 scription of the plague which occasions the prophecy (1: 
 1-20; II. The plague the harbinger of the day of Jehovah 
 (2:1-17); III. Restoration of the divine favor (2: 18-32) 3 
 TV. Destruction of the nations and exaltation of the Jews 
 (3: 1-21). The most significant feature in Joel’s teaching is 
 his promise of the outpouring of the divine spirit (2: 28, 29), 
 which began to be fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, and since 
 then has been and is being fulfilled with ever-increasing full- 
 ness and in a manner far superior to the expectation of our 
 prophet. 
 
 d. The Message of Jonah. The Book of Jonah differs 
 from the other books called prophetic by the Jews. All the 
 others record chiefly prophetic utterances, though sometimes 
 embodying brief narratives of events; the Book of Jonah, on 
 the other hand, records a prophet’s work and experiences, 
 giving little space to his utterances. And yet it is classed 
 among the prophetic books because, whatever historical ma- 
 terial it may embody, its purpose is primarily not historical, 
 but prophetic. In other words, it was not written to give 
 information concerning the prophet Jonah, but, as the prod- 
 uct of a prophetic mind, for the purpose of teaching, by 
 means of the narrative, a great prophetic truth. 
 
 The book narrates certain incidents connected with 
 Jonah’s commission to preach in Nineveh: I. Jonah’s com- 
 mission, disobedience, and punishment (1: 1-16); II. Jonah’s 
 prayer and deliverance (1:17—2:10); III. Jonah’s preach- 
 ing in Nineveh and its effects (3); IV. Jonah’s complaint and 
 rebuke by Jehovah. The central truth taught in the narra- 
 tive is the universality of the Divine plan of redemption. No- 
 where else in the Old Testament is such continued stress 
 laid upon the Fatherhood of God, embracing in its infinite 
 
148 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 love the whole human race; indeed, the Book of Jonah is 
 the most “Christian” of all Old Testament books. 
 
 e. The Message of Daniel. The Book of Daniel belongs © 
 to the apocalyptic literature. Like the prophet, the apoca-— 
 lyptic writer seeks to set forth the character, will, and pur- | 
 pose of God, as also the laws of His kingdom. But “proph- | 
 ecy still believes that this world is God’s world, and that in| 
 this world His goodness and truth will yet be justified. 
 Hence the prophet addressed himself chiefly to the present 
 and its concerns, and when he addresses himself to the fu- 
 ture, his prophecy springs naturally from the present, and 
 the future which he depicts is regarded as in organic con- 
 nection with it. The apocalyptic writer, on the other hand, 
 almost wholly despairs of the present; his main interests are 
 supramundane.” 
 
 The Book of Daniel falls naturally into two parts: 
 I. Chapters 1—6, The History of Daniel: 1. Daniel’s youth 
 and education (1); 2. The dream of the image, and its sig- 
 nificance (2); 3. Faithfulness of Daniel’s companions, and 
 their deliverance from the fiery furnace (3); 4. Nebuchad- 
 nezzar’s tree-dream, and its fulfillment (4); 5. The feast of 
 Belshazzar, and the handwriting on the wall (5); 6. Daniel’s 
 fidelity, and his deliverance from the lions’ den (6) ; II. Chap- 
 ters 7—12, The Visions of Daniel: 1. The vision of the four 
 beasts, and its interpretation (7); 2. The ram and the he- 
 goat (8); 3. Daniel’s prayer, and the Divine answer (9); 
 4. The ultimate triumph of the kingdom of God (10 to 12). 
 
 The principal idea of the Book of Daniel is the ultimate 
 triumph of the kingdom of God. “It tells in plainer language 
 than had been used before, of the subjection of the world to 
 God, and indicates clearly the evidence of the Divine rule, 
 and assures us that the progress of God’s kingdom is abso- 
 lutely irresistible, and that all things will be ultimately brought 
 into submission to God.” As compared with other prophetic 
 books, Daniel marks an advance in its teaching (1) con- 
 cerning angels, (2) concerning a resurrection from the dead. 
 
 
 
THE LATER PROPHETS 149 
 
 4, Jesus and the Prophets. The voice of Hebrew proph- 
 ecy was finally silenced, but the truth proclaimed throughout 
 the centuries continued to live; and when Jesus, the great 
 Prophet of Nazareth, appeared, He gathered up from His 
 predecessors all that was permanent and divine, and, quicken- 
 ing it by His own mighty personality, He sent it down the 
 ages until by its life-giving power it should quicken all men 
 and make them friends of God and prophets. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The message of Jeremiah. 
 
 The message of Zephaniah. 
 
 The message of Nahum. 
 
 The message of Habakkuk. 
 
 The message of Obadiah. 
 
 The message of Ezekiel. 
 
 The message of Isaiah, Chapters 40—66. 
 The message of Haggai and Zachariah. 
 The message of Malachi. 
 
 The message of Joel. 
 
 The message of Jonah. 
 
 The message of Daniel. 
 
 
 
 Bibliography: 
 Jordan, “Prophetic Ideas and Ideals.” 
 Commentaries: “Jéremiah,” Brown; “Ezekiel,” Davidson; 
 “Daniel,” Driver; ‘“‘The Minor Prophets,’’ Eiselen. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. The distinctive message of Jeremiah. 
 2. The term “servant of Jehovah.” 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 . State the occasion and contents of the message of Jere- 
 miah. 
 
 2. The distinctive contributions of Jeremiah to divine truth. 
 
 3. Tell of the occasion and character of the work of Zepha- 
 niah. 
 
 4. The distinctive message of Nahum. 
 
 5. The new type of prophetic message of Habakkuk. 
 
 6. What were the fundamental beliefs of Obadiah? 
 
 7. State the occasion, contents, and teaching of the message 
 of Ezekiel. 
 
 8. Characterize Isaiah 4o—66. 
 
 Ll 
 

 
PART III 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 By W. C. Barcitay 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER XIV . 
 NEW ‘TESTAMENT TIMES 
 
 To pass from the Old Testarnent to the New is like pass- 
 ing from one country to another. One realizes that he is 
 in the same world, yet all about him wears a changed aspect. 
 Between the latest utterance of the Old Testament and the 
 earliest of the New a period of at least two centuries inter- 
 vened. These were not idle years. During every decade 
 significant history was being made. Before taking up our 
 study of the New Testament it is necessary, therefore, to 
 take note of these changes as they affected the Jewish people, 
 and also to glance in its broad outlines at the national, social, 
 and religious situation, of which Jesus was the most signifi- 
 cant factor and out of which our New Testament came as 
 a priceless gift to succeeding ages. 
 
 I. Government Preceding the Christian Era. 
 
 I. The Maccabean Period (168 B. C. to 63 B. €.). The 
 period receives its name from Judas Maccabeus, the most 
 illustrious of a remarkable family of Jewish patriots which 
 
 | furnished a series of leaders in a prolonged struggle for re- 
 ligious and political freedom. 
 
 The Land of Israel became a part of the empire of Alex- 
 ander in 332 B. C. For a hundred years after his death 
 it was a bone of contention between Egypt and Syria until 
 Antiochus III, of Syria, more successful than his predeces- 
 ‘sors, after protracted war incorporated it in the Syrian King- 
 -dom of the Seleucide. A long-continued attempt to Hel- 
 lenize the people “culminated in the effort of Antiochus 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
154 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Epiphanes (175-164 B. C.) to absolutely destroy Judaism. 
 The law was abolished, Sabbath worship and the rite of 
 circumcision were prohibited, the temple was partially de- 
 stroyed, pagan ceremonies were performed in it, and on the 
 sacred altar of burnt offering a heathen altar to Jupiter was 
 erected. Under merciless persecution many of the inhabi- 
 tants fled, but finally Judas Maccabeus became the leader 
 of a loyal Jewish band which defended Israel’s sacred in- 
 stitutions with the sword. The struggle began in 168 B. C.; 
 by 165 B. C. victory had so far been gained that the temple 
 was rededicated, and in 142 B. C. Judea achieved political 
 independence. There followed a period of uncertain political 
 independence, characterized by internal intrigue, discord, and 
 strife, which continued until 63 B. C. Our principal sources 
 of information concerning these troubled times are I. and II. 
 Maccabees (apocryphal books of Scripture) and Josephus, 
 the Jewish historian. 
 
 2. The Roman Period (beginning 63 B. C.) may be said 
 to have extended to 70 A. D., the destruction of Jerusalem. 
 In 63 B. C. the Roman general, Pompey, appealed to by both 
 sides in a civil war, made an expedition into Judea, turned 
 the rdle of peacemaker into that of conqueror, besieged and 
 entered the temple, and made the whole country tributary 
 to Rome. By this conquest Jewish independence was for- 
 ever lost. The Jewish territory was parceled out to depend- 
 ents of Rome, and Judea was constituted an insignificant 
 province of the empire. In 37 B. C., Herod the Gieat was 
 appointed king by the emperor, and by successful warfare 
 extended his borders to include much more than Judea. He 
 was an unscrupulous and arbitrary ruler, in whose acts mur- 
 derous cruelty and systematic charity were strangely com- 
 bined. His claim to greatness was based upon unusual phys- 
 ical vigor, wide learning, and fondness for Grecian and 
 Roman art and architecture. Among the victims of the in- 
 sane jealousy and wrath of his later years were his own 
 wife and three of his sons. By the terror of his rule he was 
 
 a 
 
NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 155 
 
 able to preserve such internal peave as the land had not 
 known for many years. He was a great builder and sought 
 to make peace with his subjects by rebuilding the temple at 
 Jerusalem on a scale of unequaled size and splendor. Herod 
 died in 4 B. C. 
 
 II. Physical and Political Geography of Palestine. 
 
 By our study of the Old Testament we are already fa- 
 miliar with the Land of Israel. Because it was His country, 
 Christians speak of it as the Holy Land. A common modern 
 name is Palestine. 
 
 In the time of our Lord the following were recognized 
 as the divisions of the country: 1. Judea; 2. Samaria; 3. Gali- 
 lee; 4. Decapolis; 5. Perea. 
 
 1. Judea lay farthest south. It extended from the Medi- 
 terranean Sea east to the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. 
 On the south it was bordered by the desert. To the south- 
 east was Idumea or Edom. Judea was a small territory, 
 ‘crossed from north to south by a mountainous plateau, inter- 
 Ttupted by peaks, rocky hills, dry water-courses, and occa- 
 sional valleys—a land of rocks, dwarfed trees, little water, 
 and scanty soil. On the east this plateau declined sharply 
 to the Jordan, which, at its mouth, lay far below the level 
 of the ocean. To the west there was a series of valleys, and 
 then a range of low hills which bordered the narrow mari- 
 time plain. The central plateau sloped gradually to oe south- 
 ern desert. 
 
 2. Directly north of Judea was Samaria, extending from 
 the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. Samaria was 
 more open than Judea, with less pronounced contrasts of 
 soil and climate, and with a larger area of tillable soil. These 
 natural advantages rendered the iand more accessible to in- 
 vaders, and its people more hospitable to foreign influences. 
 To the northwest the great plain of Esdraelon stretched out 
 to the sea, a plain of wonderful fertility, with deep, rich soil 
 which yielded abundant harvests. It opened a natural road- 
 
156 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 way from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. On it some of | 
 the greatest battles of the world’s history were fought. 
 
 3. Immediately to the north was Galilee. It was bounded 
 on the west by the territory of Tyre, a Gentile region; on 
 the north by the river Leontes, and on the east by the Jordan 
 and the Sea of Galilee. Its length north and south was sixty 
 miles, its breadth about thirty miles; yet in this small area 
 it had all the variety of mountain, plain, and valley. It was 
 more generously watered than Judea, hence more fertile and 
 with more abundant growth of vegetation and trees. 
 
 4. To the east and north of the Sea of Galilee was a 
 vegion difficult to name. The population was more Gentile 
 than Jewish. There were a number of small States, as Iturea, 
 Gaulanitis, Batanea, Trachonitis, and others, which played 
 an inconspicuous part in the history of the time. The region 
 was sometimes spoken of as Decapolis, the word meaning ten 
 cities, and referring to ten Greek cities which were leagued 
 together in a more or less close commercial and political 
 unity. 
 
 5. The district to the south of Decapolis, bordering the 
 Jordan and the Dead Sea, was Perea, a narrow strip wedged 
 between the river on the west and the desert of Arabia on 
 the east. The New Testament never uses the name Perea, 
 but uniformly designates the region, “beyond the Jordan.” 
 
 Ill. The Government During the Lifetime of Jesus. 
 
 From 63 B. C., as we have seen, Palestine was under the 
 dominion of Rome. When Jesus was born Herod the Great 
 was ruler over all the territory named above, with the title 
 of king. Herod died in B. C. 4, and his territory was divided ~ 
 between three of his sons: Herod Antipas was made tetrarch 
 of Galilee and Perea; Herod Philip was given rule over a 
 number of small States in the region of the Decapolis, and 
 had the same title; Judea, Samaria, and Idumea were allotted 
 to Archelaus, but in A. D. 6 he was removed by the emperor — 
 for misrule, and these three districts were constituted the 
 
 | 
 4 
 
 ri 
 
NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 157 
 
 imperial province of Judea, a province of the second rank, 
 under a procurator who had the command of the army, was 
 the final resort in legal procedure, and supervised the col- 
 lection of customs and taxes. Of the earlier procurators the 
 names are scarcely known. In A. D. 26 Pontius Pilate was 
 appointed and held office until he was deposed in A. D. 36. 
 
 The Roman government exacted taxes of two sorts from 
 the Jews. The direct taxes, consisting of a land tax and a 
 poll tax, were collected by salaried officials. The customs, or 
 indirect taxes, were assessed on exports, and were collected 
 by men who had bought the right, and their representatives. 
 Both the: chief collectors and their hirelings are called pub- 
 licans in the New Testament. Because of their relation to 
 Rome they were much despised by loyal Jews. The system 
 readily lent itself to abuse, and most of the publicans were 
 extortioners and thoroughly unscrupulous. 
 
 The highest Jewish court of justice was the Sanhedrin. 
 It had jurisdiction only within Judea, but its influence ex- 
 tended to Galilee and among Jews everywhere. It took cog- 
 nizance of all that affected Jewish interests, and in cases of 
 justice its judgment was final except in capital cases; the 
 power to sentence to death was in the hands of the proc- 
 urator alone. The Sanhedrin had seventy-one members, 
 “elders,” from the ranks of the priestly aristocracy, and from 
 the scribes. The high priest was president. 
 
 IV. Political and Religious Parties. 
 
 The Pharisees. There were certain influential parties 
 among the Jews in the time of Jesus. First in number and 
 importance were the Pharisees, who were highly regarded 
 by the common people. In their origin they were a religious 
 fraternity, the successors of “the Pious,” or Hasideans, who, 
 
 after the return from the exile, insisted on absolute separa- 
 tion from all that was heathen, cherished an unbounded zeal 
 for the law, fostered the development of that mass of scribal 
 BP fariations of and decisions upon the law known as the oral 
 
law, or traditions, and with intense zeal opposed all foreign 
 influences. The Pharisees first came into notice during the 
 time of the Maccabees; they were early characterized by re- 
 ligious zeal and a punctilious endeavor to perfectly obey the - 
 law, both written and oral, in all its details. In the time 
 of Jesus their earnest spirit had degenerated into spiritual 
 pride and empty formalism. Their religion was of the letter, 
 and the living God had no place in their lives or their thought. — 
 So far as they held a hope of a Messiah it was that God 
 would send a deliverer unexpectedly and in mysterious and — 
 apocalyptic fashion. 
 
 The Sadducees. The Sadducees were more a political 
 than a religious party. Representing long-latent tendencies 
 existent among the Jewish people, they first became an or- 
 ganized party in the time of the Maccabees. Their chief 
 interest concerned the building-up of the Jewish State. © 
 Through prominence in political affairs they had come into 
 contact with foreign ideas, many of which they welcomed. 
 These generated a worldly spirit. They amassed wealth and 7 
 were recognized as of the aristocratic class. They honored : 
 
 : 
 
 158 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE "7 
 | 
 
 the law of Moses, but denied the binding force of the oral 
 Jaw. They denied the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
 body and the existence of angels and spirits. Their oppo- 
 sition to Jesus was not so pronounced as that of the Phari- 
 sees until near the close of His ministry, when He came into 
 sharp conflict with them. Strange to say, the Sadducees, © 
 though utterly secular in spirit, were closely allied to the j 
 priestly party. Many of the priests were Sadducees. Thus © 
 it may be realized how entirely vain many of the rites and | 
 ceremonies of the temple service must have been. 
 
 The Zealots. The Zealots embodied the passionate hatred © 
 of and resistance to the foreign rule. They were ready to 
 take advantage of the least opportunity to use the sword, and 
 hoped by means of revolution to set up the kingdom of God. 
 Their hope of a Messiah was political; He would be the 
 zyasen instrument of God to overthrow all of Israel’s enemies 
 
_ NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 159 
 
 and usher in the golden era of God’s chosen people. They 
 were impetuous, hot-headed enthusiasts, intensely religious. 
 Simon, the Canaanite, came from the Zealot ranks into the 
 apostolic company. 
 
 The Pious. There were doubtless among the people of 
 Jesus’ day many devout, earnest souls, who, living humble, 
 patient, loving, faithful lives, awaited in calm, confident ex- 
 pectation the “Consolation of Israel.” We have acquaintance 
 with some such, as Simeon, Anna, Zachariah, Elizabeth, Jo- 
 seph, and Mary; these and others like them were the holy 
 remnant, the representatives in her day of visitation, of Is- 
 rael’s most precious heritage, a spiritual, pure, and undefiled 
 religion. From this company came most of those who re- 
 sponded to Jesus’ call and became charter members of the 
 Christian Church. 
 
 The Samaritans. This people, inhabitants of San aria, 
 though occupying Jewish territory, must be sharply distin- 
 guished from the Jews. They were a mixed race, descend- 
 ents of colonists brought into the country by the Assyrians 
 at the time of the captivity of the ten tribes and later. These 
 had intermarried with Jews left in the land. When the Jews 
 of the captivity returned, from reasons of religious exclusive- 
 ness they refused to intermingle or have any dealings with 
 the Samaritans, and a mutual enmity sprang up which per- 
 sisted to New Testament times. Their worship, similar to 
 that of the Jews, had its center on Mt. Gerizim, where a 
 temple was built in the time of Nehemiah. Little is accu- 
 tately known concerning their religion beyond their claim 
 that Mt. Gerizim was the chosen place of God for His 
 temple, the similarity of their rites and sacrifices to those 
 of the Jews, and their belief that a Messiah was to come. 
 
 V. Religious and Social Conditions of the Epoch. 
 _ In the time of Jesus the temple was still ideally the center 
 of the Jewish religion. Herod’s Temple, replacing that of 
  Zerubbabel, although begun about 20 B, C., was not com- 
 
160 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 pletely finished until 62 A. D., only eight years before its 
 final destruction. The temple was the scene of daily sacri- 
 fices, in the celebration of which thousands of priests en- 
 gaged in the course of a year, and of prayer and worship. 
 On the great feast days, when multitudes of Jews came up 
 to Jerusalem from all parts of the world, it was the center 
 of special services. Thus the tempie had a prominent place 
 in the religious life of every loyal Jew. 
 
 Synagogues were numerous. Every community of any 
 considerable size had its synagogue. This institution of later 
 Judaism was cailed into existence during the exile, when the 
 Jews were far separated from the temple. On the return 
 it was continued and became, to a large extent, the real cen- 
 ter of the religious life of the people. In every place it gave 
 the opportunity for religious services and for instruction. 
 The local synagogue was under the control of the elders; 
 its chief officer was the ruler, who was in direct charge; 
 the minister had the care of the building and its furnishings, 
 administered discipline, and instructed the children; two 
 other officers were receivers of alms. Services were held regu- 
 larly on Sabbath and on feast days; and in some synagogues, 
 where a congregation was assured, daily. No service could 
 be held without the presence of at least ten men. Women 
 were privileged to attend, but were not counted as members 
 of the congregation. The service consisted of public prayer 
 offered by a designated leader; the reading, first, from the 
 Pentateuch, then from the Prophets; the translation of the 
 lessons from Hebrew into Aramaic, the common speech of 
 the people; and finally by a sermon, generally an exposition 
 of the lesson. The synagogue also served as an elementary 
 school; in it children were regularly instructed in the Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 The home life of the Jewish people was the nearest ap- 
 proach to ideal that the ancient world presented. It was 
 strongly pervaded by religion. The sacred law was revered; 
 little boxes containing pieces of parchment, on which were 
 
NEW TESTAMENT TIMES 161 
 
 written the words of Deuteronomy 6: 4-9, and I1: 13-21, were 
 fastened to the door-post. The Sabbath was severely 
 guarded. Ceremonial purity was insisted upon, including the 
 distinctions between clean and unclean food, and the details 
 concerning the times and ways of fasting and the wearing of 
 fringes and phylacteries were minutely observed. Without 
 doubt these ceremonies were with many only a lifeless form. 
 Back of these petty and wearisome details were ideals and 
 customs of great significance and worth. Life was regarded 
 with seriousness, the name of Jehovah was reverenced, and 
 a sincere desire and purpose existed to fear, honor, and 
 serve Him. 
 
 Children were held in high regard; destruction of infants, 
 so common among most Gentile peoples, was unknown; to 
 be childless was regarded a reproach. Children were care- 
 fully instructed in religion, compelled to memorize long sec- 
 tions of the law, and made familiar with the nation’s history. 
 Woman held an honorable position. Manual labor was never 
 despised ; every son was caused to learn a trade. The masses 
 of the people were poor, and their income very small. The 
 houses were mostly small—usually with one or two square 
 Tooms, opening frequently on a square court—and roofed 
 over with thatch. The furniture was simple: a couch or 
 mat for sleeping, and a few cooking utensils; this was about 
 all, except in the houses of the rich. Pictures and statuary 
 were not used, because forbidden by the law (Ex. 20:4). 
 The houses were grouped together in villages and towns, 
 from which the shepherds and those who tilled the soil went 
 out to their daily work in the fields. 
 
 | 
 | Lesson Outline: 
 
 Government preceding the Christian era: The Maccabean 
 period; the Roman period. 
 
 Physical and political geography of Palestine. 
 
 The government during the lifetime of Jesus. 
 
 Political and religious parties. 
 
 Religious and social conditions, 
 
 II 
 
 
 
£62 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 
 Waddy-Moss, “From Malachi to Matthew.” ; 
 
 Riggs, “History of the Jewish People During the Maccabean 
 and Roman Periods.” 
 
 Hastings, “One Volume Bible Dictionary.” 
 
 Mathews, “The Messianic Hope.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. The development of the ideas of the Messiah, 
 2. The history and tenets of the Pharisees. 
 
 3. The life of Herod the Great. 
 
 4. The history and the people of Galilee. 
 
 5. Judaism as a religion. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. What is the explanation of the numerous political changes 
 in Palestine? 
 
 2. Why did Jesus so severely condemn the Pharisees? 
 
 3. What was the-distinguishing difference between the Phari- 
 
 4. What were the chief religious institutions in the time of 
 
 5. Why were the publicans so despised a class among the 
 
 sees and the Sadducees? 
 Jesus? 
 
 Jews? 
 
 —— 
 
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CHAPTER XV 
 THE LIFE OF JESUS 
 
 Tue NEw TESTAMENT HAS TWENTY-SEVEN Books. Four 
 of these books are grouped about a Person, Jesus Christ. 
 Their purpose is to present Him, His acts, and His words. 
 One book has for its theme the ministry of His apostles, and 
 their work in relation to the founding of His Church. Of the 
 remaining books the most are written to His followers, either 
 individuals or Churches, for instruction in the truth of the 
 Christian religion, for practical counsel, for warning and ex- 
 hortation. Thus it is seen that in the entire New Testament 
 library a personality is supreme. To know the New Testa- 
 ment, to be prepared to teach it, one must be acquainted with 
 Jesus Christ. It is all-important that He be pre-eminent in 
 our thought as He was in the thought of the people of the 
 New Testament. We must learn habitually to read and study 
 the entire New Testament with Jesus Christ standing con- 
 stantly in the foreground. 
 
 Jesus lived almost two thousand years ago. Through all 
 these centuries men have been thinking and speaking of Him 
 in terms of their own times, and He has been the subject 
 of art, of poetry, and of doctrine-making. Most of us had 
 our ideas of Him before we came to any thoughtful study 
 of the Gospels. But to be exact teachers, it is necessary for 
 us to go to the Gospels and find for ourselves the Jesus 
 which they portray, and thereby come to a first-hand knowl- 
 edge of Him. 
 
 1. Sources for the Life of Jesus. We can not become ac- 
 qQuainted with Jesus anywhere else than in the New Testa- 
 163 
 
A 
 = ] 
 164 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE : 
 
 ment. It is our only source of detailed information concern- 
 ing Him dating from anywhere near His own time. Of sec- 
 ular writers only Tacitus, Pliny, Suetonius, and Josephus 
 make any mention of Him, and none speak of Him at length. 
 Of New Testament books the earlier epistles of Paul are 
 nearest in point of time to His life. They give us, inciden- 
 tally, considerable information concerning Him, such as the 
 record of His appearances after His resurrection, His Davidic © 
 descent, His poverty, and the meekness and gentleness of 
 His nature. They contain also much of His teaching, but | 
 in a distinct Pauline form and phraseology. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the four Gospels must be the great principal — 
 source of our intimate knowledge of Jesus. It must be borne 
 in mind that the Gospels are not biographies in the sense 
 in which the word is commonly used. The biographical pur- 
 pose is combined with the pedagogical. The aim of the 
 writers was to teach about Jesus—who He was, His mission — 
 and work—not merely to give the facts concerning His life. 
 
 2. Birth and Early Life. Jesus was born in Bethlehem — 
 of Judea. The date can not be fixed with certainty, but was r 
 probably between the years 4 and 6 B. C. Joseph, accom- — 
 partied by Mary, had come to Bethlehem from Nazareth, of ; 
 Galilee, to be enrolled at his ancestral home, a census hay- — 
 ing been commanded by the Emperor Augustus. After the — 
 fulfillment of the religious rites required by the law at the © 
 birth of a male child, from fear of Herod the little company 
 fled to Egypt, where they remained until Herod’s death, and — 
 then returned to Nazareth. One only of the Gospels has any 
 reference to these intervening years of childhood and youth, 
 but Luke’s brief mention is rich in suggestion. From it a 
 beautiful picture may be truthfully drawn of an ideal child- 
 hood in which a strong and vigorous body, an alert mind, 
 a submissive will, and an obedient heart all were important 
 elements. We may well believe that in the ensuing years of 
 silence and obscurity, through daily discipline, earnest and — 
 prolonged searching to know and to do the Father’s will, and — 
 
 ; 
 
 — 
 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 165 
 
 unvarying obedience to the Spirit’s leading, the youth Jesus. 
 was coming gradually into possession of that marvelous per- 
 fection of character which, revealed in the brief period of 
 His active ministry, has received the reverent admiration of 
 all succeeding centuries. 
 
 The ministry of John the Baptist immediately preceded 
 that of Jesus. John was a unique figure, reminding us im 
 many respects of the prophet Elijah. Apparently without any 
 previous consultation with Jestis, conscious within himself 
 that a day of great spiritual opportunity and privilege was. 
 at hand, he went forth into the region of Judea and the 
 Jordan Valley to preach a stern message of denunciation, of 
 warning, and of invitation to repentance. He offered baptism: 
 in the Jordan as a confession of sin, as a profession oi re- 
 pentance, and as a pledge of remission. He made no attempt 
 to attach disciples to himself, but rather spoke of a Coming: 
 One, whose baptism would be spiritual, and who would ex- 
 ercise a ministry of judgment. 
 
 Jesus set His seal of approval on John’s work by pre- 
 senting Himself for baptism. John at first demurred, then 
 consented to baptize Him. As Jesus came from the water, 
 He was conscious of the Holy Spirit coming upon Him and’ 
 of the Father’s attestation of His Divine Sonship. Luke in- 
 serts in his account the parenthetical statement that Jesus at 
 this time was about thirty years of age. 
 
 The baptism was immediately followed by a period of 
 special temptation. There had come to Jesus a new sense of 
 His power. Power always brings temptation. How should 
 this power be used? The evil suggestion was for ministry 
 to self, for vain display, for selfish aggrandizement. But 
 Jestis had hidden the Word of God in His heart, and on 
 every occasion of temptation the Word aided Him in suc 
 cessful defense. 
 
 _ The fourth Gospel, as the second, has no account of the 
 birth and early life of Jesus. But the Gospel of John alone: 
 thas a vivid account of certain opening events of Jesus. 
 
166 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 ministry. (See John 1: 19—4:42.) John the Baptist intro- 
 duced Jesus, first to priests and Levites from Jerusalem, and 
 then to some of his own disciples, in such a way as to enlis 
 them as followers of Jesus. There followed what was prob- 
 ably a brief period of preaching and teaching in Judea, th 
 in Galilee, and then again in Judea. 
 
 3. The Public Ministry. With the imprisonment of John 
 the Baptist by Herod, the public ministry of Jesus began. 
 He withdrew from Judea into Galilee, removed His residence 
 from Nazareth to Capernaum, and from that city as a center 
 began to preach to the people that the kingdom of God had 
 come, and to teach in the synagogues. He extended to four 
 men—Simon, Andrew, James, and John—already His disci- 
 ples—an invitation to turn from their occupation of fishing and 
 to become “fishers of men.” He commanded the attention and 
 interest of the multitude by exercising a ministry of healing 
 in the vicinity of Capernaum, and then, when they thronged 
 about Him with excess of curiosity, He departed on a tour 
 of preaching and healing through Galilee. As He went from 
 place to place He drew after Him certain disciples. We have 
 reason to believe that there were more of these followers 
 than are named in the Gospel narratives. We know that 
 among them was Levi, the publican, who became Matthew, 
 the author of the first Gospel. Erelong from the company 
 of disciples He chose twelve apostles to be His authorized 
 representatives, to go forth in His name and impart His 
 teaching to the world. To them and the whole company of 
 disciples He gave that most remarkable summary of His 
 teaching, the Sermon on the Mount. Accompanied by the 
 apostolic band, and at times by a larger number, He itiner- 
 ated from place to place, ministering in body, mind, and soul 
 to all who were in need, and using His acts of mercy and 
 kindness as means of enforcing His spoken message. 
 
 The teaching of Jesus centered in His proclamation of the 
 Father’s love and care for men, and His declaration of the 
 duty of men to love God and their fellow-men with theif 
 
 
 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 167 
 
 whole hearts, and to live lives of inward purity and self- 
 sacrificing service. He began His teaching by proclaiming 
 that the kingdom of God was at hand, and exhorting men 
 to repent and believe the Good News. Only those could be 
 members of the kingdom who possessed the true righteous- 
 ness, not that of the letter, but of the spirit, consisting in 
 being like God: merciful, forgiving, long-suffering, gentle, 
 peaceable, and kind. No good work was to be performed 
 for honor, glory, or the praise of men. Life was to be lived 
 trustfully, without anxious care or worry. The Father ever 
 regarded His own and would supply every need. Whatever 
 was asked of Him in faith would be granted. Little children 
 were of the kingdom, and men were commanded to be like 
 ‘them. To realize the life and character of the child of God 
 constituted the true riches, the wealth which could not be 
 lost or destroyed, and to attain to this must be the constant 
 ideal; to be a disciple one must be willing to sacrifice all 
 lower pleasures and aims, even to lose one’s life. His dis- 
 ciples were to be a light to the world. Even as His words 
 contained the life-giving principle, so His followers must be 
 a leavening influence in the world. -His kingdom would not 
 prevail suddenly, nor come by observation, but gradually and 
 silently. No power of earth or hell would be able to triumph 
 against it. Into it would be gathered peoples of all lands 
 and races. Its members possessing eternal life, would live 
 forever with God and share His glory and His joy. This 
 was the Gospel which, reinforced by constant works of kindly 
 ministry and by many illustrations from nature and the com- 
 mon life about Him, Jesus preached through Judea, Galilee, 
 and Samaria. He put forth no public assertions of Messiah- 
 ship, and when John the Baptist, becoming doubtless some- 
 what impatient, sent from his lonely prison cell to ask Him 
 whether He was the Messiah who should come, He replied 
 only in terms of the merciful ministry which He was bearing 
 to men. 
 
 | 
 : 
 _ But there was not lacking those who found reason for 
 
168 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 offense even in such a gracious and beautiful life as this. 
 The Pharisees, the dominant religious party of the time 
 among the Jews, were stirred, first to jealousy, and then to 
 hatred. The common people heard Him .gladly, and many 
 turned from their proud and haughty self-appointed teachers 
 to Him, the meek and lowly One, who by His spirit and His 
 words revealed the Heavenly Father anew to them. This 
 stirred the Pharisees to jealousy. Jesus did not patronize 
 them, but boldly exposed their hypocrisy, their spiritual pride, 
 their lack of Godlike qualities of character, and condemned 
 them in severest terms. This aroused their enmity and hos- 
 tility. So long as He was comparatively unknown they made 
 no pronounced manifestation against Him. As the knowl- 
 edge of Him spread they began to plan open and pronounced 
 opposition. The multitudes also, who at first followed Him 
 from place to place, began to desert Him. They, too, were 
 disappointed in Him. They wanted a popular hero, a spec- 
 tacular Messiah, a political leader who would organize revolt 
 against Rome. He repeatedly refused to accede to their Mes- 
 sianic ideas and demands, and presented His mission in its 
 exclusively spiritual character. It was not His work, He de- 
 clared, to feed the multitudes with bread, such as Moses gaye, 
 ‘but to impart to them His spirit and His truth. At this 
 epoch many superficial disciples forsook him, but the twelve 
 remained true. He had given Himself largely to instructing 
 and training them, giving them practical training by taking 
 them upon tours of evangelization and healing, and then in- 
 -creasing their self-reliance and enlarging their experience by 
 sending them out two and two through Galilee. He told 
 them little of Himself. Gradually, however, they were com- 
 ing to their own appreciation and valuation of Him, and 
 when, on a journey for retirement and rest in the region of 
 ‘Cesarea Philippi, He asked them for their estimate of Him, 
 Peter as spokesman declared their conviction that He was 
 the Christ, the Son of God. Jesus accepted this confession 
 from their lips, and declared to them that it was heaven-born. 
 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 16g 
 
 But he further indicated that the time had not yet come 
 for this to be spread abroad, and asked them to tell no 
 man. 
 
 From this very hour a new element entered into the teach- 
 ing of Jesus; He began to declare to them that He must 
 suffer rejection and condemnation from the hands of the 
 leaders of the nation, and be killed by them. At first the 
 disciples revolted from this, but afterward appear to have 
 placed it in the background of their thought. Jesus declared 
 to them that this test of rejection and condemnation which 
 He had already met in anticipation was also the test of true 
 discipleship; that His disciples could only gain the true life 
 by a readiness to lose their present life for His sake. This 
 first pronounced teaching of Jesus concerning His rejection 
 was followed very shortly by His transfiguration. We can 
 not but feel that the two have a very intimate connection. 
 
 It is dificult—indeed, quite impossible—to fix chronolog- 
 ical periods in the life of our Lord. Some scholars have 
 maintained that the active ministry extended over a period of 
 between three and four years. Eminent authorities have con- 
 tended for a period of one and a half years. None of the 
 evangelists were sufficiently interested in the time element to 
 furnish us with conclusive data. Upon this all are agreed, 
 from the occasion of Peter’s confession events rapidly crowd 
 on to the tragic end. A brief period was occupied in the 
 further intimate instruction of the company of apostles and 
 _ disciples; Capernaum was revisited; an autumn journey was 
 taken to Jerusalem to the Feast of Tabernacles (see John 
 7:I—8:50); a brief period of ministry was spent in Perea, 
 during which, by the aid of the seventy, an effort was made 
 to carry the Gospel to that section of Jewish territory to 
 which Jesus had previously given little attention (see Luke 
 9: 51—19: 28, especially 10: 1-24); then came the triumphal 
 entry and martyrdom. 
 
 4, The Passion Week and the Forty Days, The triumphal 
 entry was Jesus’ public proclamation of Messiahship. Be- 
 
170 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 fore this He had carefully refrained from such an announce- 
 ment and had given Himself to a ministry of mercy and to 
 acquainting His followers with His spirit and His teaching. 
 Now the time had come when He desired it to be understood 
 that He was the Christ, and to this end He carefully planned 
 the fulfillment of a distinctly understood Messianic prophecy, 
 and accepted from the people Messianic titles. The triumphal 
 entry probably took place on Sunday, the first day of the 
 week. On the next day Jesus again asserted His -oyal 
 authority by the cleansing of the temple. Tuesday was a 
 day of conflict with the Jewish leaders. Boldly He declared 
 that they fought against the Lord, but warning and condem- 
 nation of their evil course only intensified their enmity and 
 deepened their determination to take His life (see Mark 
 II: 27—12:12). Probably on the evening of this very day 
 the conspiracy was entered into between the chief priests and 
 Judas Iscariot for His arrest. Wednesday was spent, it is 
 thought, at Bethany in quiet retreat with His friends. On 
 the evening of Thursday the Last Supper was celebrated, and 
 the Master, clearly foreseeing what was about to take place, 
 spoke His farewell messages of instruction and consultation 
 to His own. During that same night He was .. ken by the 
 treachery of one of the twelve, and led bound for trial, first 
 to the Jewish Sanhedrin, then to Pilate, the Roman proc- 
 urator of Judea. The charge brought against Him was that 
 He blasphemed by calling Himself the Son of God, and that 
 He was a traitor to Rome because He claimed to be a king, 
 Pilate was disposed to release Him on the ground of no ade- 
 quate evidence in support of the charge; but under the in- 
 fluence of the insistent and angry demand of the mob, led 
 by the chief priests, cowardly delivered Him to their will, 
 consenting to His crucifixion. The turbulence of the mob 
 and the cupidity of the favor-seeking official are clearly indi- 
 cated by Luke’s statement: “They were urgent with loud 
 voices, asking that He might be crucified. And their voices 
 prevailed. And Pilate gave sentence that what they asked 
 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 171 
 
 for should be done. . . . Jesus he delivered up to their 
 will.” (Luke 23: 23-25.) 
 
 The sentence of Pilate was carried out with iaeeeal 
 haste. Before the setting of Friday’s sun the greatest tragedy 
 of the world’s history had been enacted and the dead body 
 of the Man of Galilee lay in the rock-hewn tomb of Joseph 
 of Arimathea. It remained for the guilty conspirators them- 
 selves to give largest credence to the declaration of Jesus 
 that He would rise again. While His disciples in sorrow and 
 despair dispersed to their former homes, the chief priests 
 and the Pharisees were using every means to make sure His 
 tomb. But His spirit could not be bound, and when, at the 
 dawn of Sunday, woman’s devotion led two on love’s errand 
 of ministry to a dead body, they found an empty tomb. Jesus 
 had risen from the dead. 
 
 Aiter His resurrection, Jesus appeared to His disciples 
 on several occasions at intervals during a period of forty 
 days. At such times He reassured their faith in Him as the 
 Christ, declared to them that it was inevitable that He should 
 be rejected, should suffer, and should rise again; gave to 
 them the Great Commission of world evangelization, and 
 promised them His presence and His Spirit’s power in its 
 fulfillment. Finally at Bethany He departed from them in 
 bodily presence, having given to them His benediction and 
 having received from them their worship as Master and Lord, 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The central theme of the New Testament. 
 Sources for the life of Jesus. 
 Birth and early life. 
 The public ministry. 
 The Passion Week and the forty days. 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 Farrar, “The Life of Christ.” 
 Gilbert, “The Student’s Life of Jesus.” 
 Edersheim, “The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah.” 
 Stevens, “The Teaching of Jesus.” 
 
172 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 I. Jesus’ teaching on sin. 
 2. The attitude of Jesus towards the Old Testament. 
 3. The Sermon on the Mount; the theme, the main divisions, 
 the central teachings. 
 4. Light on the life of Jesus from the Epistles. 
 5. The historical evidence for the Resurrection. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. What are the principal sources of our knowledge of Jesus? 
 
 2. In what did discipleship consist for the first followers of 
 Jesus? 
 
 3. Can the teachings of Jesus be practically applied now in 
 every-day life? 
 
 4. Why was Jesus crucified? 
 
 5. What was the attitude of Jesus toward the Messianic 
 ideals of His time? 
 
 ——- 
 
THE LIFE OF JESUS 173 
 
 Chronological Outline of the Life of Jesus. 
 
 (The chronology of the life of our Lord can not be defi- 
 nitely determined. The following scheme presents the general 
 outline of Jesus’ life according to consensus of scholarly 
 opinion. The subdivisions with dates are presented only as 
 a possible arrangement.) 
 
 1. The Thirty Years of Silence. From the birth of Jesus, 
 5 B. C., to the beginning of the ministry of John the Baptist, 
 summer of 26 A. D. 
 
 2. The Opening Events of Jesus’ Ministry. From the be- 
 ginning of John’s ministry, summer of 26 A. D., to the public 
 appearance of Jesus in Jerusalem, Passover, April, 27 A. D. 
 
 3. The Early Judean Ministry. From the public appear- 
 ance of Jesus in Jerusalem, Passover, April, 27 A. D., until 
 the return to Galilee, December, 27 A. D. 
 
 4. The Galilean Ministry. From the return to Galilee in 
 December, 27 A. D., until the final departure from Galilee in 
 November, 29 A. D. 
 
 5. The Perean Ministry. From the final departure from 
 Galilee in November, 29 A. D., to the final arrival at Jeru- 
 salem, before the Passover, April, 30 A. D. 
 
 6. The Passion Week. From the final arrival at Jeru- 
 salem, April, 30 A. D., to the resurrection. 
 
 7. The Forty Days. From the resurrection, April, 30 
 A. D., to the ascension, May, 30 A. D. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 THE GOSPELS 
 
 How the New Testament Came to Be. The earliest doc- 
 uments of Christianity which have come down to our own 
 age are certain letters of the Apostle Paul. Jesus Himself — 
 wrote nothing. After His ascension His followers were at 
 first content to repeat His teachings from memory, and in- 
 asmuch as it was generally believed among them that He 
 would return within their lifetime, probably no need was 
 realized for written records of His life and deeds. As soon 
 as Churches were established the relation of dependence 
 between the Church and its founder called for communica- 
 tions between them. Certain of these communications, by — 
 no means all of them, escaped destruction and remain to 
 us as the first written records of the Christian religion. As 
 the generation of those who had seen and known Christ in 
 the flesh began to pass away, and as Christianity spread far 
 beyond the territorial bounds of Jesus’ own work, the need 
 was felt for accurate accounts of His words and acts. Thus 
 the Gospels were called into existence. 
 
 The Gospels no doubt took form gradually. There is no 
 reason to suppose that they sprang at once into their present 
 full-grown and finished state. Back of them lie collections 
 of the sayings of Jesus, reports of sermons and conversa- 
 tions, fragmentary records of sections of His ministry. Just 
 as a biographer first accumulates his material in the way 
 of records, printed utterances, traditions of sayings, recollec- 
 tions of friends and acquaintances, so doubtless the Gospel. 
 writers utilized already existing records. 
 
 174 
 
 
 
THE GOSPELS 175 
 
 Time Represented in Writing and Literary) Form. The 
 New Testament differs from the Old both in respect to 
 length of time covered in writing and in variety of literary 
 form represented. It is the expression of the inspiration 
 of the earliest Christian consciousness. One hundred twenty- 
 five years at most represents the period within which the 
 books were written. The literary forms are fewer; the 
 books themselves may all be classified as historical, episto- 
 lary, or apocalyptic. Occasional examples of some other lit- 
 erary forms—as poetry, parable, and oratory—are to be found 
 within the various books. 
 
 On the following page will be found an arrangement of 
 
 _the books of the New Testament in the probable order of 
 
 their writing. It would immensely aid the student in his 
 understanding of Christianity to take up the study of the 
 books in the order of their writing, but this for our present 
 purpose seems impracticable. The student should, however, 
 study this table until it becomes familiar to him, and until 
 he fully realizes that the common order in which the books 
 are presented in our New Testament is quite an arbitrary one. 
 
 The Language of the New Testament. Although all the 
 apostles were Hebrews, the books of the New Testament 
 were written in the Greek language. As one effect of the 
 conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek language had 
 become widely diffused and was the common medium of 
 literary expression throughout the ancient world. The 
 Greek of the New Testament is a peculiar idiom, differing 
 in vocabulary, structure, and style from the classical form 
 of the language, and is commonly called Hellenistic Greek. 
 Aramaic was the common spoken language of Palestine in 
 the time of Christ, and traces of this language are found 
 on the pages of the New Testament. 
 
«76 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 MEN 
 
 OATES ASSIGNED TO THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTA 
 BY REPRESENTATIVE MODERN SCHOLARS, 
 Q 
 g g os z 
 ad} 8 Bs 
 yo z 5 een 
 Op e, S Bo 
 ic 3 5 SE 
 sg 3 
 ames, ......-|. - |About50 45-62 Mayer, 40-50 
 1 Thessalonians,.| 52]...-.- End of 52 Milligan, Prob. 50-51 
 2 Thessalonians,.| 53|-----+- 53 Milligan, Prob. 50 
 Galatians, ... .| 57 shoes Probably 54 Lightfoot, 57-58 
 1 Cortnthiang, 521/57 ls ens oe @ 57 Lias, 57 
 2.Corinthians, <) 5) 57 |< one os 7-58 Plummer, About 58 
 Romans,.... -| 58 Sens About 58 Sanday, 58 
 Philippians, . . .| 62 “oe 5 62 Lightfoot, About 58 
 Phitemon sis eos =|hO2in whence. o 63 Lightfoot, 62-63 
 Colossians,... .| 62 Suretat 63 Lightfoot, 62-63 
 Ephesians, >. 2 -| 62]. 50. 5. 63 Lightfoot, 62-6, 
 1 Timothy,. . « -| 67}. - eee Between 63-65 Hamphreyal 66-6y 
 GUS ls, of woe! os 17, mee Between 63-65 Humphreys, 66-67 
 2 Timothy, . Cie OP oo A Between 63-6 Humphreys, 6-67 
 Jude,.......|. . |About 60-62} Probably ae Bigg, About 65 
 EPeter <= . |About 50 Probably 65-68 |Bigg, 
 Mark,.......|. - |About 68-70 66-70 Swete, Before 70 
 Matthew,... .- - |About 70 pe i Allen, 65-75 
 MKC vals a usioms se 70-80 Probably 70-80 /|Plummer, 7: 
 Acts we momeieite . . |After 80 Probably 70-80 _|Lumby, Prob. about 
 2 Peter. 6) es ie - +] 175-200 |Uncertain, say 66-68|/Bigg, Prob. about 6 
 Hebrews,.. . . «|... .. | Probably about 66 |Goodspeed, Prob. go 
 Revelation,.... 7o Probably 68-70 |Swete, 
 John,...-..-. «+... .| Probably 90-100 |Westcott, About 100 
 aJohn,...... + +. + ++] Probably go-100 | Westcott, 90-100 
 ajJohn, ....../]..|..+. +++] Probablygo-100 |Westcott, 90-100 
 ajJohn,......|+-+|.+-+-+-e +} Probablygo-1oo |Westcott, 90-100 
 
THE GOSPELS 177 
 
 I. The Four Gospels. 
 
 Gospel. The word is from the Anglo-Saxon Godspell, 
 meaning “God story,” and is used as a translation of the 
 Greek term meaning “good tidings.” As Jesus used it the 
 word meant the good news of the kingdom of God, or the 
 good tidings of the favor and love of God. After the res- 
 urrection it was used to mean the good tidings about Christ, 
 and so later it came to be applied to the written record of 
 the life and words of Jesus. The New Testament has four 
 distinct records of His life, which are spoken of as the Four 
 Gospels. 
 
 Resemblances and Differences. The student of the Gos- 
 pels soon discovers that they fall naturally into two un- 
 equal groups—one of three books, the other of one. Mat- 
 thew, Mark, and Luke have many characteristics in com- 
 mon, while John stands by itself. The resemblances of the 
 first three Gospels extend to a similarity in general content, 
 in quotations from the Old Testament, in sequence of events, 
 in purpose, and in general atmosphere, and are such that the 
 three, as distinguished from the fourth, are spoken of as 
 the Synoptic Gospels, from two Greek words meaning “to- 
 gether” and “view;” that is, a common view. 
 
 The Gospel of John is distinguished from the Synoptic 
 Gospels in various particulars, of which we note these: 
 (1) John is chiefly interested in the Judean ministry of 
 Jesus, while the interest of the synoptists centers in Galilee. 
 Much the larger part of the common synoptic narrative deals 
 with the Galilean ministry, and almost none of this is par- 
 alleled in John. On the other hand, the synoptists narrate 
 in detail only one visit of Jesus to Jerusalem, while John 
 tells us of five such occasions. (2) John is more concerned 
 with the teaching of Jesus and its interpretation than with 
 an historical record of the events of Jesus’ life and ministry. 
 He pays little attention to sequence of happenings. He re- 
 cords only those events which serve his purpose of inter- 
 pretation. He alone records significant conversations of 
 
 I2 
 
178 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Jesus, such as that with Nicodemus and that with the woman 
 of Samaria. While the synoptists tell of many miracles, 
 john records comparatively few, and those almost inciden- 
 tally. Curiously enough, however, John gives no account 
 of the Sermon on the Mount, the teaching of which is ac- 
 corded large space by Matthew and Luke. . John also re- 
 cords fewer of Jesus’ parables than the other evangelists. 
 (3) From the time of the Church Fathers the Gospel of John 
 has been known as the most “spiritual” of the Gospels. The 
 synoptists are content to record many incidents without com- 
 ment; John is interested in discerning the spiritual meaning 
 
 of these events. John treats the ministry in a more sub-_ 
 
 jective manner than do the synoptists. 
 
 The Synoptic Problem. The resemblances between the 
 first three Gospels, noticed above, has given rise in modern 
 times to inquiry into the relationship between these Gospels 
 and its explanation. This question, an exceedingly interest- 
 ing and intricate one, is commonly called the Synoptic Prob- 
 lem. We can note only a few of the facts with which schol- 
 ars must deal in the investigation of the question: (1) Simi- 
 larities. The synoptists have the same general outline of the 
 life and ministry. Beyond this they record very largely the 
 same events in these periods. This fact becomes the more 
 striking when we remember that the entire record is of small 
 compass, containing a mere fractional part of the Master’s 
 words and deeds. These common events are given in the 
 same order. For the various accounts of single events the 
 same form of expression is used. Not only so, but the 
 similarity frequently extends to the use in common of cer- 
 tain rare and unusual words. (2) Differences. Each Gospel 
 is distinct in purpose, as our later study will show. Identical 
 events are interpreted by the different writers in accord with 
 their respective purposes. In some instances there are 
 wholly independent accounts of the same event. The sum 
 total of events are not identical; each Gospel is peculiar 
 in having some incidents not elsewhere given, and in omit- 
 ting certain incidents given by the others. Luke, for ex- 
 
THE GOSPELS 179 
 
 ample, has a long section on the ministry in Perea (Luke 10: 
 25—18:14), which has no parallel in either of the other 
 Gospels, while Matthew and Mark record a journey of Jesus 
 toward Tyre and Sidon and return through Decapolis to the 
 Sea of Galilee (Matt. 15:21-39; Mark 7:31—8:21), to 
 which Luke does not allude. 
 
 There are certain ascertained facts which must be used 
 in the working-out of any theory explanatory of these re- 
 semblances and differences: (1) The Gospe! of Mark is a 
 common source used by both Matthew and Luke. This is 
 shown by the fact that in material common to all three Gos- 
 pels there is a much closer resemblance between Mark and 
 Matthew and between Mark and Luke than between Mat- 
 thew and Luke. ‘(2) Before the Gospels were written oral 
 tradition concerning the life and sayings of Jesus had attained 
 to more or less fixed form, and this was familiar to all the 
 evangelists. (3) Papias (A.D. 130) speaks of the “sayings” 
 (logia) of Matthew. It is evident that Matthew, who has 
 certain discourses of Jesus not given by the other evangelists, 
 used this “logia” material. (4) Luke made use of a docu- 
 ment dealing with the Perean ministry of Jesus, which was 
 not possessed by the other evangelists. 
 
 Beyond these outstanding facts there are many minor de- 
 tails which must be taken into account in the consideration 
 of the problem. Much prolonged, minute, and earnest study 
 has been given to the Synoptic Problem by eminent scholars, 
 but owing to its complicated nature no generally accepted 
 theory has yet been proposed. 
 
 II. The Gospel ‘According to Matthew. 
 
 Authorship. The book does not name its author. The 
 title “According to Matthew” is not conclusive, since it might 
 mean no more than that the book records the Gospeis as 
 preached or taught by Matthew. There is decisive internal 
 evidence that the author is a Jew. Of the four Gospels, this 
 has a distinctively Jewish tone. Note the genealogies of the 
 
180 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 first chapter, by which the ancestry of Jesus is traced through 
 David to Abraham, the father of the faithful. The genealog- 
 ical list is divided into three groups, of twice seven generations 
 each, revealing the Jewish fondness for the numbers three 
 and seven. There are other marked illustrations in the book 
 of this same favoritism for these numbers. The phrase, “that 
 it might be fulfilled which was spoken through the prophet,” 
 Occurs again and again. The writer shows an intimate fa- 
 miliarity with Jewish customs, laws, history, and with the 
 Old Testament Scriptures. This testimony to Jewish author- 
 ship is so abundant as to lead to common assent on this 
 point. Tradition declares that this Jewish author was Mat- 
 thew the apostle. This is concurred in by practically all 
 students of the New Testament. Interesting corroboration 
 is found in the detail with which this Gospel deals with what- 
 ever relates to the former office of Matthew. Here alone is 
 found (17: 24-27) the incident concerning the payment of 
 the temple tax. Again, the Roman taxes were paid in denarii; 
 when the question is raised concerning the lawfulness of 
 paying tribute to Cesar, Mark and Luke report Jesus as ask- 
 ing for a penny, but Matthew has, “Show me the tribute 
 money” (22:19). Matthew alone reports the warnings of 
 Jesus against false swearing, and His teaching concerning 
 the vain distinctions between forms of oaths (5: 33-37; 23: 
 16-22). 
 
 The Author. Very little is known concerning the early 
 or later iife of Matthew. Mark speaks of him as “Levi, the 
 son of Alpheus.” From the fact that Mark also names 
 James the Less as “the son of Alphzus,” it has been asserted 
 by some that Matthew and James the Less were brothers, 
 but this is only conjectural. Mark and Luke record his call 
 from the tax collector’s booth to discipleship, and also that 
 he made a great feast in Jesus’ honor, at which many pub- 
 licans and sinners were guests (Mark 2:13-17; Luke 5: 
 27-29). His name is included in the various enumerations 
 of the Twelve Apostles, but not a word or act ascribed to 
 him is recorded after the account of the farewell feast. He 
 
 a EeE———oooreeerrleeereeee 
 
THE GOSPELS 181 
 
 shows his own modesty of disposition by omitting all ref- 
 erences to this feast in his own house, and by inserting the 
 words “the publican” after his name (10:13), and reveals 
 a fine courtesy by naming Thomas before himself in the list 
 of apostles, whereas the other Gospels give the names in 
 reverse order. That a man with gifts such as to fit him for 
 the authorship of the first Gospel had other than an incon- 
 spicuous part in the councils and activities of the apostolic 
 band can not be doubted. Our lack of information concern- 
 ing him but emphasizes the paucity of the records of the 
 Apostolic Age. 
 
 Purpose. The book consists almost wholly of reports of 
 the deeds and discourses of Jesus. The writer has inserted 
 no argument in words of his own, and has almost no com- 
 ment or connecting narrative. Clearly the purpose is other 
 than to present a biography of Jesus, although this might 
 be inferred as the aim at first glance. Careful study shows 
 that the author is using his biographical and historical ma: 
 terial in support of an unexpressed thesis. This was a com- 
 mon literary procedure of the time which finds illustration 
 elsewhere in the New Testament. This argumentative pur- 
 pose is clearly, briefly, and comprehensively stated by Pro- 
 fessor Burton: “To prove that Jesus is the true Messiah of 
 the Jews; that He announced and founded the kingdom of 
 God, expounding its true nature and setting forth its rela- 
 tion to the Old Testament religion; that He came, first of 
 all, to the Jewish nation; that, when they showed signs of 
 a disposition not to receive His message, He warned them 
 that the consequence of such rejection would be that the 
 kingdom would be taken from them; that, in fact, they did 
 in the face of all this warning and instruction reject Jesus 
 and put Him to death; and that, consequently, the kingdom 
 ceased to be in any distinctive sense Jewish, and in place 
 of the old national dispensation there was created by Jesus 
 Himself. the true Jewish Messiah, a kingdom of all nations; 
 thus universal Christianity, freed from all national restric- 
 tions or peculiarly Jewish institutions. becomes the true suc- 
 
182 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 cessor of the Old Testament religion; the true Jew must 
 be a follower of Jesus, and, in consequence, leave Judaism 
 behind.” (A Short Introduction to the Gospels, p. 16.) 
 
 Contents and Characteristics. Matthew begins his Gospel 
 with a genealogy of Jesus, gives an account of the birth and 
 infancy, of the ministry of John, and of the baptism and 
 temptation of Jesus; narrates at length the events of the 
 Galilean ministry, devotes a brief section to the Perean min- 
 istry, and in conclusion gives with considerable fullness the 
 narrative of Passion Week and the Resurrection. Certain 
 sections of the narrative are peculiar to the first Gospel. 
 Ten of the parables, also, are found only in Matthew, as four 
 events of the infancy, numerous incidents .of the Passion 
 Week and of the Resurrection, and various miscellaneous 
 passages. A notable phrase, which occurs no less than thirty- 
 two times, found nowhere else in the New Testament, is, 
 “the Kingdom of the Heavens.” Matthew is also the only 
 one of the evangelists to speak of “the Church.” 
 
 In accord with his argumentative purpose, Matthew pays 
 little attention to chronology in arranging his narrative of 
 events. He is interested in subjects rather than in order 
 of events. : 
 
 Matthew presents Jesus in His kingly aspects. He is the 
 Messiah, the promised King, who founds the Kingdom of 
 the Heavens, and in the future age shall reign triumphant. 
 
 In this Gospel we see, as nowhere else, the severity and 
 sternness of Jesus. For example, the seven woes pronounced 
 against the scribes and Pharisees (23: 13-36) are recorded 
 by Matthew alone. 
 
 There is a universal aspect to the Gospel which has 
 been often overlooked. In the genealogy the names of four 
 women, Gentiles, are introduced. Magi, Gentiles, come to 
 do homage to the infant King. “Many shall come from 
 the east and the west, and shall sit down with Abraham, 
 and Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of heaven” (8:11). 
 Tyre and Sidon, heathen cities, shall be visited with lighter 
 
THE GOSPELS 183 
 
 punishment in the day of judgment than Chorazin, Beth- 
 saida, and Capernaum (11: 20-24). Finally, it is only Mat- 
 thew who records the Great Commission to the disciples to 
 “Go . . . and make disciples of all the nations” (28: 19). 
 
 III. The Gospel According to Mark. 
 
 Authorship. The second Gospel nowhere names its 
 author, nor so much as gives a hint by which he may be 
 identified. In this instance, therefore, it only remains for 
 us to rest back upon the tradition of the.early Church. Two 
 names are associated by tradition with the Gospel—Mark 
 and Peter. It is commonly held that, while Mark was the 
 author, he was dependent to a considerable extent upon the 
 apostle for the materials of his narrative, and that this 
 Gospel in a peculiar sense shows the influence of Peter. 
 Various explanations have been offered of the fact that the 
 Gospel makes no mention of Peter’s walking on the water 
 (Matt. 14:29), nor of the incident concerning the tribute 
 money, in which Peter figures most conspicuously (Matt. 
 17:24-27), and omits both Jesus’ statement that He had 
 prayed especially for him (Luke 22:32) and that other 
 striking statement addressed to Peter as the rock (Matt. 
 16: 18). 
 
 Author. Mark is frequently named in the narratives of 
 Acts and in the Epistles of Paul. He is sometimes called 
 Mark (Acts 15:29; Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11), sometimes 
 John Mark (Acts 12:12, 25), and at other times John (Acts 
 13:5, 13). He does not appear in the pages of the Gospel 
 which bears his name, unless, as has sometimes been con- 
 jectured, he is the unknown young man who followed Jesus 
 on the night of the betrayal (14:51, 52), or “the man bear- 
 ing a pitcher of water” (14:13). He was a Jew by birth, a 
 cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10), and son of a certain Mary, 
 whose house was a meeting-place of the disciples (Acts 
 52:32). 
 
 Purpose. That the author of this Gospel has Gentiles 
 
184 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 principally in mind as readers appears from the fact that 
 
 when he speaks of Jewish customs he carefully explains 
 
 them, and that when he uses an Aramaic term he interprets — 
 
 it. Moreover, he makes very slight use of quotations from 
 the Old Testament, scarcely alludes to the Jewish law, and 
 does not dwell at all on the relation of Jesus to the Old 
 Testament religion and the prophecies. 
 
 The author’s conception of Jesus is expressed in the 
 opening sentence of the Gospel, “The beginning of the Gos- 
 pel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God.” The first incident 
 introduced is that of the baptism, in which a Voice from 
 the heavens declares, “Thou art My beloved, Son.” These 
 sentences may be understood to present the writer’s thesis. 
 He does not proceed to establish it by arguments of his 
 own, but presents a concise, lifelike picture of the person, 
 the character, and the ministry of Jesus, trusting that as 
 by His life and works Jesus produced the conviction in His 
 disciples that He was the Christ, the Son of God, so his 
 portrayal of the life and deeds of the Master will produce 
 
 a like faith in his readers. “The prevailing aspect in which 
 
 the second Gospel sets forth its subject is that of ‘the Son 
 of God with power’ moving among men with His gift of 
 miracle, and making the things of nature the servants of 
 His grace.”—Salmond. 
 
 Contents and Character. The chief interest of Mark is 
 with the public ministry of Jesus. He has no mention what- 
 ever of the ancestry, the birth, and the childhood. Touching 
 in a brief paragraph upon the ministry of John the Baptist, 
 the baptism of Jesus and His temptation, he plunges at once 
 into a narrative of the Galilean ministry, the account of 
 which forms the major portion of his book. He omits all 
 but one of the greater discourses of Jesus, and gives small 
 attention to the parables. He concludes his Gospel with an— 
 account of the events of Passion Week and the Resurrection. 
 
 The second Gospel has the charm of simplicity. It is” 
 singularly free from rhetorical embellishment. It is a direct, 
 
THE GOSPELS 185 
 
 simple, straight-forward narrative of events. There is no 
 waste of words. Yet it is peculiarly vivid. It has many re- 
 alistic touches, expressions as to time, place, number, man- 
 ner, which enable the reader to reproduce the scene or in- 
 cident clearly in his thought. 
 
 The narrative is terse and rapid. Its key-word is 
 “straightway,’ which occurs not less than forty-two times. 
 There is no impression of haste, but rather of continual 
 action, intensity, a ceaseless energy. 
 
 The impression made is of an orderly sequence. There 
 is no arrangement of material according to subject, but 
 rather a flowing narrative of events, apparently much in the 
 order in which they occurred. 
 
 Mark presents Jesus not as the Teacher, but as the Doer. 
 Concern is not so much with what He says as with what 
 He does. He is not here King of the Jews, but the Master 
 of all men and the Lord of nature. He makes no assertion 
 of right or of power, but men and demons bow before Him, 
 and all nature obeys His will. He is Master and Lord not 
 because of supernatural origin or claim, but because of what 
 He is and what He does. The Christ of Mark moves among 
 men on the common plane of every-day life, a man of his 
 own times; but men hear from Him words such as man 
 never spoke before, see in Him a love and benevolence, a 
 purity and virtue never known before, and behold exhibited 
 by Him a power that compels the verdict, “Surely this man 
 was the Son of God.” 
 
 IV. The Gospel According to Luke. 
 
 Authorship. If the testimony of the early Church be given 
 credence, there can be little question concerning the author- 
 ship of the third Gospel. Until the end of the ninth cen- 
 tury there was no questioning of the unanimous opinion that 
 Luke, the companion of Paul, who is mentioned in Colossians 
 4:14; 2 Timothy 4:11, and Philemon 24, is tne author. Har- 
 nack calls attention to the fact that the book, being addressed 
 
536 ~~ THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE - 
 
 to a certain individual, must have had a title, and asserts 
 that if this title had ever been changed there would have 
 been allusions made to the change by early writers. Aside 
 from the title there is little evidence to be found in the book 
 itself as to authorship. The third Gospel and Acts have a 
 common dedication to one Theophilus. Aside from this, the 
 two works have so much in common that there is general 
 agreement among scholars that both are by the same author. 
 The reasons for holding that Luke wrote the Acts (see 
 p. 195), therefore become reasons for believing him to be 
 the author also of the third Gospel. 
 
 Author. Luke is mentioned by name in the New Testa- 
 ment only in the three instances named above. He was a 
 Gentile, born probably in Antioch. He was a physician, and 
 this indicates that he belonged to the middle class, and that 
 he was a man of learning and culture, a fact substantiated 
 by his literary style. Renan declared that this Gospel was 
 the most beautiful book ever written. Luke became a com- 
 panion of Paul on the apostle’s missionary journeyings, and 
 was with him in both his first and second imprisonment in 
 Rome. 
 
 Purpose. In his preface Luke distinctly indicates his pri- 
 mary purpose in writing his Gospel. It is that Theophilus, 
 to whom the book is addressed, may have an accurate and 
 orderly account of that which he has previously received 
 orally. Theophilus was probably a Gentile convert who de- 
 sired to know more than was customarily taught the cate- 
 chumens. Luke undoubtedly had also in view in writing a 
 class of readers of whom Theophilus was fairly representa- 
 tive. 
 
 Contents and Characteristics. We have in Luke an ac- 
 count of the birth and infancy of Jesus peculiar to the third 
 Gospel; an account of the Galilean ministry, in which the 
 author has evidently used Mark, nearly three-fourths of 
 Mark’s material being reproduced; an account of the Perean 
 1ninistry found only in this Gospel, and a narrative of the 
 
THE GOSPELS 187 
 
 events of Passion Week and of the Resurrection, which has 
 some particulars not recorded by Mark or Matthew. 
 
 Luke’s is the longest of the four Gospels; in addition to 
 the long section on the Perean ministry he has eleven par- 
 ables and the account of six miracles, not given elsewhere in 
 the New Testament. 
 
 The language of Luke is colored by his medical training. 
 Hobart, in an exhaustive study of the Gospel, prepared a 
 long list of Greek medical terms which in the New Testa- 
 ment are found solely or chiefly in Luke. It is also true 
 that he possesses a wider general vocabulary than any other 
 New Testament writer, and uses a great many words pe- 
 culiar to himself. He portrays Jesus as the great physician, 
 healer of the bodies, as well as the souls, of men. At Naza- 
 reth, at the beginning of His ministry, Jesus declares that 
 it is a part of His mission “to preach . . . recovering 
 of sight to the blind, and to set at liberty them that are 
 bruised’(4:18). In his discourse on this occasion he quotes 
 the proverb, “Physician, heal thyself’ (4:23). His miracles 
 are largely miracles of healing; of the six mentioned above 
 as peculiar to the third Gospel, five are miracles of physical 
 healing. 
 
 In the literature of the early Church the symbol of the 
 ox is frequently applied to the Gospel of Luke. This sym- 
 bolism is fit as bringing out the emphasis of Luke upon 
 the patience, the gentleness, and the long-suffering of Jesus. 
 Luke also dwells upon the sympathy and compassion of 
 Jesus for the outcast; he only has given to us the parable 
 of the prodigal (15: 11-32), the story of the good Samaritan 
 (10: 25-37), the incident cf the visit to Zaccheus, the pub- 
 lican (19: 1-10), the anointing of Jesus by the sinful woman 
 in the house of Simon the leper (7: 36-50), the assurance 
 of pardon to the believing thief (23: 39-43), and other in- 
 cidents which have brought comfort to many weak and err- 
 ing yet penitent hearts through the Christian centuries. 
 
 Women are singularly prominent in the narratives of 
 
188 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Luke. How prophetic of the place to be occupied by woman 
 in the future activities of the Christian Church! And what 
 a contrast to the regard in which woman was held in the 
 civilization of the day! Only in the Gospel of Luke do we 
 meet certain women who early became believers and faithful 
 disciples of Jesus and remained loyal to him through the 
 darkest hours. 
 
 The third Gospel is rich in social teachings. No other 
 Gospel has so much to say about money; no other points 
 out so clearly the danger and the abuses of riches; no other 
 gives so fully the warnings of Jesus to the rich, and His 
 condemnation of injustice, oppression, and the misuse of 
 power. Nowhere else is His sympathy for the poor and 
 the oppressed so fully shown. 
 
 Luke, as Mark, makes us acquainted with the man Jesus. 
 The secrets of His inner life are made known. For ex- 
 ample, His habit of prayer is revealed to us. In many in- 
 stances, not elsewhere recorded, we find Jesus engaging in 
 prayer to His Father, and we come to realize His great 
 dependence upon prayer, and find in it one secret of His 
 power. For Him the way of access to God is always open; 
 at any time it is possible for Him freely to talk with God, 
 and in such communion to find the answer to His deepest 
 needs. 
 
 The Christ of Luke is a fellowman living a man’s life, 
 subject to man’s physical infirmities, tempted like as other 
 men are, filled with compassion for the ills, the weaknesses, 
 and the sorrows of all mankind, ever busy healing the 
 bodies of men, and speaking to them the good tidings of 
 the kingdom of God; a man, yet so filled with the Holy 
 Spirit, of such power, of such nobility, of such glory, that 
 those who entered into most intimate fellowship with Him 
 felt that He was more than they, and from calling Him 
 Master and Teacher came from inward compulsion to hail 
 Him as Lord, as Christ the Chosen, the Son of God. 
 
 Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Gospel of Luke 
 
 ne 
 
THE GOSPELS 189 
 
 remains to be noted; that is, the universal human note 
 which it has. The ancestry of Jesus is traced back not to 
 David or to Abraham, but to Adam, “the son of God,” and 
 thus Jesus is identified with the universal human family, 
 which is itself the offspring of God. Luke only records that 
 the preaching of John the Baptist re-echoed the faith of the 
 prophet that “all flesh shall see the salvation of God” (3: 
 3-6) ; in his record of the first teaching of Jesus he shows 
 that Jesus dwelt upon the ministry of Elijah and Elisha to 
 Gentiles (4:25-27), and he closes his Gospel by quoting ag 
 among the last words of the Savior the statement that “re- 
 pentance and remission of sins should be preached in His 
 name unto all the nations” (24:47). Luke and Paul, the 
 apostolic herald of a world-wide Gospel, were truly of kin- 
 dred spirit. 
 
 V. The Gospel According to John. 
 
 Authorship. The fourth Gospel was uniformly attributed 
 to the Apostle John by the early Church, and this was 
 practically undisputed until the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. During the last one hundred and twenty-five years, 
 however, this Gospel has been the center of intense contro- 
 versy. The marked differences between the synoptics and 
 the fourth Gospel in the report of Jesus’ sayings and in His 
 discourses, the entirely different point of view represented 
 by the Gospel, have been made the basis of contentions that 
 this Gospel can not have proceeded from an eyewitness of 
 ‘the ministry, and from a co-worker with the other three 
 evangelists who must have béen acquainted with their ac- 
 counts. These objections have prompted the most scholarly, 
 intense, and prolonged study of the Gospel, and research 
 into the whole subject, which in its turn has served to em- 
 phasize with new force the facts that the Gospel gives un- 
 mistakable evidence of having been written by a Jew of 
 Jesus’ own time, and of being the work of an eye-witness 
 of the events which are narrated. It is generally conceded 
 that it was written later than the Synoptic Gospels, that 
 
190 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the narrative was shaped somewhat to accord with an apolo- 
 getic purpose, that more of the writer’s personality entered 
 into his writing than in the case of the other evangelists, 
 and that the Gospel bears evidences of some additions (note 
 especially 21: 1-25) by a later hand. These conclusions do 
 not interfere at all with the life-long faith of the Church 
 that in the fourth Gospel we have an account of the per- 
 sonality, the life events, and the teaching of Jesus by that 
 disciple, who by his intimacy with and understanding of 
 the Master was best fitted to prepare such a record for 
 future years. 
 
 Author. John never mentions himself by name in the 
 course of his whole narrative—nor does he name his par- 
 ents or his brother. From the Synoptic Gospels, however, 
 we learn that John was a Galilean; that with his brother 
 James he was a son of Zebedee, that the mother’s name was 
 Salome, that the family lived at Bethsaida near Capernaum, 
 that the sons and the father were fishermen on the Sea 
 of Galilee, and that they had boats, nets, hired servants, and 
 a house of their own. There is exceedingly little infor- 
 mation concerning the later life of John. In connection 
 with the Council of Jerusalem, Paul speaks of him as one 
 of the pillars of the Jerusalem Church. There is a wide- 
 spread tradition that he lived in his old age at Ephesus, 
 revered and beloved by all. 
 
 John was one of the innermost circle of Jesus’ disciples 
 (Mark 10:2; 3:7; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13). He was in the 
 death-chamber of the child of Jairus (Luke 8:51), he was 
 one of the company who witnéssed the transfiguration (Matt. 
 17:1), with Peter he was sent by Jesus to prepare the 
 Passover (Luke 22:8), with Peter and James he witnessed 
 the agony in Gethsemane (Mark 14:33), and to him 
 Jesus on the cross committed the care of His mother (John 
 19:25-27). This intimacy, together with his alert and 
 eager spirit, his profound and contemplative mind, his tender 
 and delicate sensibility, his capacity for friendship, for 
 
THE GOSPELS 191 
 
 rove, and for intense devotion enabled him to understand 
 Jesus better-than any of his fellows. Says Augustine: “For 
 not without reason is it mentioned in his own Gospel that 
 at the feast he reclined upon the bosom of his Lord. From 
 that bosom he had in secrecy drunk in the stream, but what 
 he drank in secret he poured forth openly.” 
 
 John has rightfully been known throughout the history 
 of the Church as the apostle of love, but this has sqmetimes 
 been misinterpreted. He was farthest possible removed from 
 the soft and effeminate character pictured under his name in 
 the Middle Ages. The Gospels show us a man of courage, of 
 moral strength, with capacity for heroic deeds. John and 
 James were called by Jesus, Boanerges, sons of thunder, be- 
 cause of their inner fire and the prophetic energy of their 
 natures. John was ready of word, quick in action, sometimes 
 vehement in speech. He speaks forth as no other evangelist 
 the wrath of God against sin and evildoing (3:18, 36; 
 5:29), and on more than one occasion showed his capacity 
 for fiery indignation (Luke 9:49; 9:51-55). Altogether 
 he was a rare and unusual figure, of brilliant gifts and at- 
 tractive personality, a man of intense zeal and intellectual 
 power, who magnified the gospel by his character as by 
 his deeds, without whom the apostolic company would have 
 been sadly incomplete, and well-deserving of that highest 
 title—“‘John the beloved.” 
 
 Purpose. John states the purpose of his writing in 20: 31. 
 It is in order that men may be strengthened in their belief 
 that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that, thus 
 believing, they may continue to have life through Him. 
 
 Centents and Characteristics. The omissions of John’s 
 Gospel are many and striking. He has no account of the 
 miraculous birth or the infancy of Jesus, or of His family, 
 His genealogy, or of His youth. He only touches on the 
 ministry of John the Baptist, and omits all mention of the 
 baptism of Jesus, the temptation, the transfiguration, the in- 
 stitution of the Lord’s Supper, the agony in the garden, and 
 
192 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the ascension. His Gospel has nothing about demons, lepers, 
 or publicans. Properly speaking, it has no parables and 
 no eschatology. The historical narrative is begun with an 
 account of the call of the first disciples; early events in 
 Judea are described; the Galilean ministry is just touched 
 upon, visits to Jerusalem being given chief attention; a few 
 events of the Perean ministry are narrated; some events 
 of Passion Week are described fully, the occurrences of the 
 day of crucifixion being given with especial fuilness, and 
 the Gospel is brought to a close by an account of the res- 
 urrection and certain of the resurrection appearances. Much 
 of the Gospel is taken up by conversations and discourses 
 of Jesus; of those not found elsewhere there are: the con- 
 versation of Nicodemus (3:1-21), the conversation with 
 the woman of Samaria (4: 4-26), the discourse at the heal-~ 
 ing of the infirm man at the Pool of Bethesda (5: 19-47), 
 discourse on the bread of life (6:22-71), discourse on the 
 light of the world (8: 12-30), discourse on spiritual freedom 
 (8: 31-51), discourse on the good shepherd (10: 1-21), and 
 the farewell discourse to His disciples (14: 1—16:33). The 
 intercessory prayer of Jesus is also found only in John 
 (17: 1-26). The Gospel records only eight miracles, of which 
 six are not elsewhere given. 
 
 A distinguishing characteristic of the fourth Gospel is 
 the writer’s comment or interpretation of Jesus’ words. This 
 is often so interwoven with his narrative that it is difficult 
 to discern where direct quotation ends and his own state- 
 ment begins. Due appreciation of this characteristic and 
 attention to it is important to the study and understanding 
 of the Gospel. Some examples of this are: 2:21; 2: 23-25; 
 6:6, 64; 7: 30. 
 
 John’s Gospel emphasizes the Fatherhood of God. Jesus 
 here speaks of God and addresses God as Father. Instances 
 are: 4:23; 5:6, 19, 26; 10:17; 17:24, 26. In accord with 
 this the Gospel dwells upon the love of God (3:17; 14:21, 
 23; 16:27). 
 
 The symbol of the Fourth Gospel in the literature of 
 
 te 
 
 SC EE 
 
THE GOSPELS 193 
 the early Church was the flying eagle. John rises to loftier 
 heights than any other Gospel writer. His Gospel has a 
 sublimity, a reach, a spirituality that none other has. Said 
 Augustine, “While the three evangelists remained below with 
 the man Christ Jesus, and speak but little about His God- 
 head, John, as though impatient of treading the earth, rises 
 from the very first word of his Gospel not only above the 
 birds, the air, and the sky, but above angels and celestial 
 powers, into the very presence of Him by whom all things 
 were made.” In this Gospel we are constantly in the pres- 
 ence of the Christ of God. Jesus walks among men as a 
 man, speaks with a man’s voice, feels weariness and pain, 
 is truly a human being; but John will not for a moment 
 allow us to forget that we are in the presence of the Son 
 of God. 
 
 The Gospel of John speaks to the deep reaches of the 
 human heart. It has a charm and a power of attraction © 
 that is all its own. It is the Gospel of mystics. It has 
 cheered the lonely, comforted the sorrowing, encouraged the 
 despairing, strengthened the dying, through all the Christian 
 centuries.. It speaks a language “to which no parallel what- 
 ever is to be found in the whole compass of literature.” It 
 makes men sure of God. Error and sin and unbelief can 
 not stand in its light. It sings the Orphean song of heavenly 
 life and love, in comparison with which all siren music of 
 evil is but dismal discord. 
 
 The importance of John’s Gospel can hardly be overesti- 
 mated. In it we have a view of Jesus which we get no- 
 where else. Many hold that it presents the highest and 
 truest revelation of Jesus ever given to His followers. To 
 those who bring to it an unprejudiced mind and a receptive 
 heart it bears a wonderful message of things divine; a mes- 
 sage which can not be ignored. “If the Son of God did 
 say and do things recorded in this document, then everything 
 in the universe, every fact in the history of the world, the 
 
 ’ conclusions of all philosophy, the meaning of all scientific 
 
 13 
 
discovery, the future of the world, and the goal of humanity 
 
 194 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 must be affected by its disclosures.”—Reynolds. : 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 How the New Testament came to be. 
 The language of the New Testament. 
 The Four Gospels; the word “Gospel;” resemblances and 
 differences; the synoptic problem, 
 The Gospel according to Matthew. 
 The Gospel according to Mark. 
 The Gospel according to Luke. 
 The Gospel according to John. 
 
 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 
 Burten, “A Short Introduction to the Gospels.” 
 
 Dods, “Introduction to the New Testament.” 
 
 Farrar, “Messages of the Books.” 
 
 Hazzard-Fowler, “The Books of the Bible.” 
 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary of the Bible.” See ar- 
 ticles on the various subjects. 
 
 Commentaries: Matthew, Allen, “International Critical Com- 
 mentary on Matthew;” Mark, Swete, “The Gospel Ac- 
 cording to St. Mark;” Luke, Plummer, “International 
 Critical Commentary on Luke;” John, Westcott, “St. 
 John’s Gospel,” in the Bible Commentary Series. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 
 1. The literary forms of the New Testament as compared 
 with the Old Testament. 
 
 2. The language of the New Testament. 
 
 3. The resemblances and differences of the Synoptic Gospels 
 in detail. 
 
 4. The teaching of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels. 
 
 5. The parables of Jesus. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. How do we come to have a New Testament? 
 
 2. How accourt for the similarities between the first three 
 Gospels? 
 
 3. Which Gospel gives the most complete account of the life 
 of Jesus? 
 
 4. What evidences are to be found in John of the report of 
 an eye-witness? 
 
 5. Compare Jesus’ teachings concerning Himseif in the 
 Synoptic Gospels and in John. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE ACTS:AND THE BEGINNINGS OF 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 I. The Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 The Book of Acts stands alone in the New Testament 
 as a history of the Early Christian Church. Moreover, it 
 is the one book of the New Testament purely historical in 
 character. 
 
 Authorship. Certain parts of the book, called technically 
 the “we sections,” are in the first person and are ¢learly the 
 language of an eye-witness. These sections must, therefore, 
 have been written by a companion of Paul. There is strong 
 reason to hold on the basis of similarity of language and 
 style that the entire book is from one hand. The only com- 
 panion of Paul of whom we know, not excluded by the evi- 
 dence of the apostle’s letters, is Luke. The tradition of the 
 Church from an early period agrees in assigning the author- 
 ship to Luke, “the beloved physician.” 
 
 Purpose. The book is addressed to an individual, The- 
 ophilus, as a continuation of a former treatise (the third 
 Gospel), and has for its aim to chronicle the growth and 
 development of the movement inavgurated by Jesus in sub- 
 stantiation of His promise of power to His discipies and in 
 obedience to His direction to them that they should be His 
 witnesses in Jerusalem, in Judea, in Samaria, and to the ut- 
 termost parts of the earth. 
 
 Content and Character. Acts is divided into two parts. 
 The first part, chapters I to 12, is a narrative of the growth 
 ‘of the Church in Jerusalem and from Jerusalem as a center. 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
196 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Peter is the central figure, and the general theme is the tri- 
 umphant progress of the gospel in spite of all opposition and 
 persecution. The second part, chapters 12 to 28, relates the 
 history of the extension of the Church throughout the em- 
 pire. Antioch is the center, and the narrative deals almost 
 altogether with the labors of Paul. We will become ac- 
 quainted with the content of this second part in our later 
 study of the Life of Paul (Chapters XVIII and XIX). An 
 outline of the first half of the book is as follows: 
 
 ConTENTS oF Part I. 
 
 Introduction ...... Sisto lofeicle cele aaa olelateoien I:I—2:13 
 Prefatory statement ....<. J-seeeeeeaeeee I: 1-5 
 The Ascension of the Lord) soo. I: 5-11 
 Enumeration of the Apostles ............. I: 12-14 
 Choice of Matthias as Apostle ............ I: 15-26 
 The Gift of the Spirit... > oper 2:1-12 
 
 1, The Growth of the Church in Jerusalem...2: 14—6:7 
 Sermon of Peter on the Day of Pentecost; 
 
 three thousand added to the Church...2: 14-41 
 Summary statement concerning progress and 
 
 state cf the Church . 2. aeseeeeeeieeee 2:42-47 
 The lame man healed ..... 0 Jee 3: 1-10 
 Sermon of Peter in Solomon’s porch..... 3: 11-26 
 First’ persecution ..... 0... ce ceeneeeneenanne 421-31 
 
 Summary statement concerning progress and 
 
 state of the Church; hypocrites punished 
 
 by death ...5: . &. 0. See ceo ges—se oo 
 Second stage of persecution ...........+-: 5: 17-42 
 Summary statement concerning progress and 
 
 state of the Church; deacons appointed. ..6:1-7 
 Third stage of persecution; Stephen stoned, 
 
 6:8—8:3 
 2. Extension of the gospel from Jerusalem..8: 4—12: 24 
 Philip’s ministry in Samaxia eee 8: 4-13 
 Ministry of Peter and John in Samaria..... 8: 14-25 
 Philip extends his work; the Ethiopian con- 
 VELtEM. fore, Fcialareunjanare ceed sfeflevelineieaicOnaO 
 The conversion of Saul ..... «6 ere (oralesatoneiaiets 9: 1-30 
 Summary statement concerning progress and 
 state of the Church <... Juseuieeenere 9:31 
 Peter extends his ministry to Lydda and 
 JOOPS os selene» oS leseterclepcle eee 9: 32—10: 48 
 Peter’s defense of his ministry to the Gen- 
 tHES. iaicc aie cate tice so sls Se 11: 1-18 
 
 Beginning of the Gospel in Antioch....... II :19-30 
 
BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 197 
 
 Fourth stage of persecution ; Herod, the king, 
 kills James and sp peisens Peter ; Peter 
 delivered by the Lord, and Herod smit- 
 
 ial 355 Go oaacl pogo aodons SU bem oGMaobos 12: 1-23) 
 Summary statement concerning the triumph- 
 ant progress of the Word............... 12:24 
 
 The book is not at all intended to be a complete account 
 of the labors of the apostles or of the history of the Early 
 Church. The author limits himself by his specific purpose 
 and is satisfied to establish his contention by a narrative of 
 parts of the personal history and a part of the activity of 
 some of the apostles. It is an invaluable part of the New 
 Testament; it alone gives us an account of the gift of the 
 Spirit on the day of Pentecost, of the early progress and 
 vicissitudes of the gospel in Jerusalem and among the Jewish 
 people, of the earliest persecutions of the Christians, of the 
 first martyrs of the faith, of the first Gentile convert, and 
 of the beginnings of ecclesiastical organization. Considered 
 as a history of the period, it is as remarkable for what it 
 omits as for what it narrates. It omits all account of the 
 ministry of a number of the apostles, of the later ministry 
 of Peter, and of the death of Paul. We know from state- 
 ments in Paul’s letters that there are many important events 
 of his missionary labors that are unmentioned in the Acts. 
 
 Investigations of recent years have confirmed the historical 
 accuracy of Acts in a remarkable way. It has been provem 
 that in minute details of geographical description, by the ex- 
 pert testing of his statements, that Luke was careful and 
 exact, and that he possessed and used an accurate knowledge 
 of political conditions. These investigations and resulting 
 conclusions have strengthened confidence in the account which 
 he gives of religious events and the early progress of the 
 Church. : 
 
 Il. The Apostolic Church. 
 The Founding of the Church. Jesus did not Himself form 
 
 an organization. He drew disciples about Him, centered their 
 faith in Him as a religious teacher, as the promised Messiah 
 
198 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 and the Son of God, committed to them His gospel, and gave 
 them their commission of world evangelization; but He 
 formed no separate or distinct organization. He set apart 
 by His own appointment twelve of their number as apostles 
 to be in a special sense His representatives and the leaders 
 of the new movement; but neither the apostles nor the larger 
 body of disciples fully realized either their call or their mis- 
 ‘ sion. The crucifixion of the Master came as a bitter disap- 
 pointment to their hopes and resulted in their complete dis- 
 couragement and confusion. It was the resurrection more 
 than anything else which clarified their conceptions of Jesus 
 and the kingdom, begat in them 2 realization of their mission, 
 unined them as a company of believers, and gave them their 
 word of testimony to the world. Christianity as an historical 
 movement had its beginning when the disciples of Jesus be- 
 came convinced of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The 
 Christian Church was born at the empty tomb of Jesus of 
 Nazareth. The picture which meets us in the first chapters 
 of Acts is that of a Church, and it is new; we do not find it 
 anywhere in the Gospels. We have no account of any formal 
 organization. There was no stated meeting with the passage 
 of resolutions, the adoption of a constitution, and the election 
 of officers. The organization was effected in the councils of 
 heaven, nct of earth; the resurrection was the means by which 
 it became known and understood by the disciples. At first 
 it was a waiting Church; along with the new consciousness 
 of being there went a sense of unreadiness. The fitting for 
 its world work came in the gift of the Spirit on the day of 
 Pentecost. 
 
 Early History of the Church in Jerusalem. The first meet- 
 ings of the infant Church were for prayer (1:14). At one 
 of these meetings Peter proposed the selection of one to take 
 the place of Judas in the apostolate. After prayer Matthias 
 was selected by lot (1: 15-26). The gift of the Spirit appears 
 to have taken place in the early morning of the day of Pente- 
 cost. Immediately thereafter Peter preached to the multitude, 
 
BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 199 
 
 and on that day three thousand received baptism and joined 
 themselves to the disciples. From that time on the growth 
 of the Church was continuous (2: 1-47). Peter and John are 
 associated as the leaders of the work, with Peter as chief 
 spokesman. Peter heals the lame man at the door of the 
 temple, preaches to the multitude who gather about, and on 
 the following day defends the deed before the Jewish rulers 
 (3: 1-26; 4:5-12). In the first stages 01 persecution the Sad- 
 ducees appear as the active agents; they were offended at the 
 proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus and made a pre- 
 tended zeal for public order a cloak for this prejudice. The 
 apostles were, in a first instance, given a public hearing, com- 
 manded to cease preaching in the name of Jesus, threatened, 
 and dismissed; on a second occasion they were only saved 
 from severe punishment by the plea of Gamaliel (4: 1-21; 
 5:17-42). But persecution only deepened their sense of obli- 
 gation to declare their message (4: 18-31; 5:27-32, 41, 42). 
 
 Luke records only occasional incidents of special signifi- 
 cance in relation to his theme and passes over long intervals 
 of intervening time by brief summary statements, sometimes, 
 however, incorporating in these accounts of noteworthy 
 events; stich, for example, as the stern rebuke of hypocrisy 
 by the death of Ananias and Sapphira (5:1-16), and the 
 appointment of the Seven (6: 1-6). 
 
 Stephen appears to have possessed and preached a con- 
 ception of the universal aspect of Christianity; as soon as 
 this was declared, the Pharisees, zealous as they were for the 
 Law, were aroused and joined with the Sadducees in oppo- 
 sition to the Christians; this new stage of persecution result- 
 ing in the killing of Stephen and scattering the disciples 
 throughout Judea and Samaria (6:8—8: 3). 
 
 Growth of the Church under Persecution. Thus early in 
 the history of the Church was it demonstrated that “the blood 
 of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” The spirit of the 
 persecuted Christians could not be daunted, and everywhere 
 they went they preached the Good News of the kingdom, with 
 
200 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 the result that groups of believers came to exist in many 
 different places throughout Judea, Samaria, Pheenicia, even 
 to Cyprus and Antioch. Luke’s narrative describes only a few 
 signal demonstrations of the gospel’s power in the ministry 
 of two of the leaders, Peter and Philip. The success of Philip 
 in Samaria appears to have been immediate and far-reaching 
 (8: 4-25). The narrative of the meeting of Philip with the 
 Ethiopian is of especial significance as showing how the gos- 
 pel was carried into foreign parts by the Jewish proselytes 
 who came to Jerusalem to worship (8: 26-40). 
 
 Extension of the Gospel to Gentiles. The ministry of 
 Peter at Cxesarea precipitated the question, on the one hand, 
 of the relation of the gospel to the Gentiles, and, on the other, 
 the relation of the new faith to Judaism. Here were ques- 
 tions of the largest importance, questions which involved the 
 whole future of the Church, which had not before apparently 
 been suggested to the leaders of the new movement. It is 
 evident that Peter’s experience as a follower of Jesus Christ 
 had with him tended to minify the Levitical distinctions of 
 which loyal Jews made so much, for at Joppa he lodged with 
 a Jew who was a tanner, and therefore, according to Levitical 
 teaching, unclean. Perhaps his intercourse with Simon 
 brought the whole subject to his consideration; at any rate 
 there came to him a vision, the meaning of which he under- 
 stood to be that God wished him to disregard these distinc- 
 tions which previously he had held as a part of sacred law. 
 This vision prepared him to receive hospitably the urgent 
 call of Cornelius, a devout Gentile. In the house of Cor- 
 nelius he justified his presence by the announcement of what 
 was from the standpoint of Judaism a revolutionary doctrine: 
 “Unto me hath God showed that I should not call any man 
 common or unclean.” The approval of God upon his course 
 was demonstrated by what was almost a complete repetition 
 of the occurrences of Pentecost: “The Holy Spirit fell on 
 all them that heard the Word,” and the Gentiles spake “with 
 tongues” and magnified God, This was a cause of amazement 
 
 — 
 
BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 201 
 
 to the Jewish companions of Peter. No doubt some had in- 
 ward misgivings; but under the circumstances, who could 
 have dared to accept the challenge of Peter, “Can any man 
 forbid the water, that these should not be baptized, who have 
 received the Holy Spirit as well as we?” It was inevitable 
 that the report of Peter’s course should provoke controversy 
 in Jerusalem. Doubtless many did not at first understand 
 the reason for Peter’s disregard of Jewish law and custom. 
 When he had fully related the circumstances, the objectors 
 were—for the time being, at least—silenced. Some rejoiced, 
 being convinced that “to the Gentiles alsc hath God granted 
 repentance unto life” (11:1-18). But Jewish prejudice was 
 exceedingly strong and deep, and this question of the call 
 of the Gentiles and the conditions under which they should 
 be admitted to the Church was one upon which there was 
 to be prolonged and serious controversy. 
 
 Antioch early became a prominent center of gospel activity. 
 A iarge number of Gentiles accepted the faith. When word 
 of the ingathering reached Jerusalem, Barnabas was sent forth 
 to minister to the new converts. He in turn sought out Saul, 
 and together these two gave themselves for a year to the 
 instruction and nurture of the young Gentile Church. This 
 Church has especial interest for us, not only because it was 
 the first well-known Gentile Church, but also because here 
 followers of the Christ first came to be called Christians 
 (at: 19-26). 
 
 Organization and Development of the Church. The Apos- 
 tolic Church, as we have seen, began as a society within the 
 Jewish Church. The first Christians remained loyal to Juda- 
 ism and its institutions, but they held that, the Messiah hav- 
 ing come, obedience to the law was no longer sufficient to 
 salvation. He who would be saved must now possess faith 
 in Christ, repent of his sins, and accept baptism. At first the 
 disciples continued their attendance upon the temple services 
 and ritual, but they also had their own meetings. They came 
 together in an upper room in Jerusalem, and later, as their 
 
numbers increased, met in small congregations at the homes 
 
 of certain of the members. For a considerable period of 
 
 time they had no other meeting-places. Gradually their in- 
 
 terest in the Jewish ordinances declined, and their observance 
 of them ceased. The destruction of the temple in A. D. 70 . 
 undoubtedly operated to develop Christianity among the Jews : 
 as a distinct form of worship. But it was among Gentiles, 
 not Jews, that Christianity was to spread most rapidly, and 
 even by the close of the apostolic period the Church was 
 predominantly Gentile. 
 
 At the beginning the believers met daily for worship. As 
 their numbers multiplied and the ordinary affairs of life de- 
 manded more attention, the meetings for prayer, praise, and 
 preaching became less frequent. Soon the first day of the 
 week came into prominence a_ entitled to special reverence 
 and was set apart for rest and worship as the Lord’s day, be- 
 cause on this day their Lord had risen from the dead (see 
 1 Cor. 16:2; Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10). Preaching was mag- 
 nified as a means of edification in the meetings and as a 
 missionary agency, but ‘t is probable that teaching was placed 
 first in importance. Jewish converts required careful instruc- 
 tion, and the need was much greater in the case of Gentiles 
 who embraced the faith, as many of them knew nothing of © 
 the Scriptures and came over to Christianity from idolatry. — 
 
 The form of organization in the Church was a gradual : 
 development. First in authority in the Church were the 
 apostles, who had seen the Lord and had received their com- 
 mission direct from Him. The entire supervision of the 
 Church was at first in their hands. The earliest departure 
 from this was in the appointment of “the Seven,” to whom 
 "were committed definite duties of administration (5:3). We 
 hear also of prophets (Acts 11:27; 13:1; 1 Cor. 12:28; 
 Eph. 4:11), teachers (Acts 13:1; 1 Cor. 12:28), elders or 
 presbyters (Acts 11: 30; 15:6; 21:18), bishops (Acts 20: 28; 
 Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:1), and deacons (Rom. 16:1; Phil. 1: 1). 
 Paul’s letters seem to reflect various stages of organization, 
 
 202 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE : 
 
 : 
 
 
 
BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY 203 
 
 and it is doubtful if from the data given we can determine 
 either the exact status of the various officers or the standard 
 of organization aimed at by the apostles. 
 
 The first persecution of the Church was by the Jewish 
 authorities. The attitude of the Roman State was in general 
 that of indifference and non-interference. In some instances 
 the government protected the Church leaders and openly be- 
 friended them (Acts 17:9; 19: 33-41; 23:17-24). Christians 
 were, therefore, friendly to the Roman power and regarded 
 it as their protector. Toward the close of the apostolic pe- 
 riod the spread of Christianity brought it more prominently 
 to the notice of the emperor. The Roman persecutions were 
 begun in the reign of Nero, the infamous. In the latest writ- 
 ing of the New Testament this is reflected in the changed 
 attitude of the writers. The emperor comes to be regarded 
 as the representative of the powers of evil, and is referred 
 to in such terms as anti-Christ. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 The Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 The Apostolic Church: Founding of the Church; early his- 
 tory in Jerusalem; growth under persecution; extension 
 of the gospel.to the Gentiles; organization and develop- 
 ment of the Church. 
 
 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 Farrar, ‘“Messages of the Books.” 
 Bartlet, ““The Apostolic Age.” 
 Dods, “Introduction to the New Testament.” 
 Hastings, ‘“One Volume Dictionary of the Bible.” 
 Commentary: Lumby, “The Acts of the Apostles,” in the 
 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Content of the apostolic message. 
 2. The Jewish and Gentile conceptions of Christianity con- 
 trasted. 
 | 3. The Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts. 
 ' 4. The form of organization of the Apostolic Church. 
 5. The history of Judaistic Christianity. 
 
204 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. In what ways did Christianity, in the beginning, differ 
 from Judaism as a religion? 
 
 2. The importance of the Resurrection to the Apostolic 
 Church. 
 
 3. The leadership of Peter among the apostles. 
 
 4. The place of persecution in the growth of Christianity. 
 
 5. Why did Christianity spread more rapidly among the Gen- 
 tiles than among the Jews? 
 

 
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CHAPTER XVIII 
 THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 
 
 Next to the Lord Jesus, Christianity owes more to the 
 Apostle Paul than to any other one person. He it was who 
 fashioned the Christian religion into the principal doctrinal 
 forms in which it was held by the Church for centuries, who 
 secured for it its first wide hearing before the Gentiles, who 
 planted its churches in a score of the strategic centers of the 
 great Roman Empire, and who presented to the world an 
 example of such boundless energy, devotion, courage, and 
 self-sacrifice as to inspire admiration in all and to beget those 
 same qualities in thousands of Christian believers. 
 
 I. Birth and Childhood. 
 
 Paul, whose early name was Saul, was born in the Iatter 
 pari of the first decade of the Christian era in Tarsus, a large 
 and commercially important city of Cilicia, in Asia Minor. 
 By birth he was a Hebrew of the tribe of Benjamin, a Phari- 
 see, and a Roman citizen. Beyond this very little is known 
 of his parents. Paul himself never directly refers to them 
 in his writings. From the educational advantages given the 
 son it is inferred that they were well-to-do people. Of other 
 children there were at least one; Paul’s sister is referred to 
 in Acts 23: 16. 
 
 Tarsus, in addition to its commercial interests, was the 
 seat of a university of renown, and students came from all 
 countries. This may have had some influence in awakening 
 the mind of the Jewish lad and implanting within him the 
 desire for an education. His own statement, that he was 
 
 205 
 
206 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 “brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel” (Acts 22:5), 
 implies that in his later childhood, at least, his parents either 
 removed to Jerusalem or sent the boy thither, that he might 
 be under the teaching of the greatest Jewish rabbi of the day, 
 Gamaliel, grandson of the still greater Hillel. We may be 
 sure that in his childhood Paul had the advantage of the best 
 Jewish home-training, which meant careful and painstaking 
 religious instruction. In Tarsus, as a boy, he learned his 
 trade, that of weaving Cilician goat’s hair into a coarse 
 fabric, which was used in the making of mats, shoes, and 
 tents. Every Jewish son must needs be taught a trade, and 
 this, crude and rough as it was, proved very useful to the 
 persecuted apostle of later days. 
 
 II. Education, 
 
 Gamaliel, the leader of the more tolerant branch of the 
 Pharisees, was so liberal as to introduce the Greek learning 
 into his school at Jerusalem. It was undoubtedly a fortunate 
 circumstance that it was in this school that the intolerant 
 young Saul was placed. He made rapid progress in his 
 studies, advanced beyond many of his fellow students in his 
 knowledge of Judaism, and showed himself to be more ex- 
 ceedingly zealous for the traditions of the fathers than they. 
 (See Gal. 1:14.) The mastery of the Scriptures to which he 
 attained is shown in his later writings. He is able freely to 
 quote at will from any part of the Old Testament, and the 
 familiar phraseology leaves its imprint frequently on his 
 pages. His accurate knowledge of the law and his skill in 
 the Rabbinical learning, the result of his study in the schools, 
 ‘were valuable elements in his equipment for his later contro- 
 versies with the Jewish leaders. 
 
 His Tarsian birth and Roman citizenship made contribu- 
 tions to his education in the wider sense. His early associ- 
 ation with the cosmopolitan life of Tarsus gave him an un- 
 derstanding of Gentile thought and an insight into human 
 nature in its universal aspects. A Roman was a citizen of 
 
 ie i 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 207 
 
 the world, and it must needs be difficult for one who inherited 
 Roman citizenship to be dominated by a narrow religious ex- 
 clusiveness or by intolerant prejudices. Paul’s world-vision 
 was the gift of his birthplace and his birthright.. His genius 
 
 for organization was also a Roman talent. : 
 
 III, Early Career as a Pharisee and Persecutor. 
 
 Paul first comes prominently into view in connection with 
 the death of the first Christian martyr, the beloved Stephen. 
 The charge made against him reminds us strongly of that 
 made against Jesus. The same spirit is manifest, and in this 
 case also it is allowed to work out to its conclusion, the brutal 
 murder of an innocent and holy man. The ringleaders in the 
 assault “laid down their garments at the feet of a young man 
 named Saul,” the statement giving us the impression that he 
 was the master whose directions they obeyed and whose 
 favor they coveted. From this time his madness became in- 
 tensified until he himself went to the extreme length of en- 
 tering into the houses of Christians, dragging out men and 
 women, and delivering them into prison. He came into such © 
 prominence in this work that his name inspired terror in the 
 hearts of the Christians everywhere; he was recognized as 
 so effective a persecutor by his fellow-religionists that the 
 Sanhedrin appointed him as a special agent to stamp out the 
 Christian heresy in the city of Damascus. 
 
 IV. His Conversion and Early Christian Life. 
 
 But God had other work than this for Saul. While on 
 the way to Damascus he met with an experience that sud- 
 denly and completely changed the course of his life. His 
 conversion is the most striking, and the record of it given 
 most fully, of any in the New Testament. The story is thrice 
 told in Acts, once by the author in the course of his own 
 Marrative (9: 1-16), and thrice as a report of speeches made 
 by Paul (22: 4-16; 26:9-18). In addition Paul refers many 
 
208 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 times, directly and indirectly, to the experience in his letters, 
 We can consider brietly only certain important elements of 
 the conversion. 
 
 Preparation. The occurrence seems at first glance to be 
 “ wholly sudden. From various statements of Paul and from 
 our knowledge of his early life, however, we can see how it 
 was being prepared for, although doubtless unconsciously to 
 Paul himself. His native bigotry and intolerance, and the 
 influence of early Roman associations and of the liberal Greek 
 spirit of his school life were at strife within him. Added to 
 this was a deep consciousness of the inadequacy of the law 
 unto salvation. Possessed of a deep moral earnestness, he 
 was inwardly dissatisfied with the principle of outward con- 
 formity to the law as a basis for salvation. This early con- 
 sciousness of the powerlessness of the law is reflected in such 
 later statements as that of Romans, chapter 7. 
 
 Physical Accompaniments. The accounts given in the Acts 
 name certain accompaniments of the conversion of Paul which 
 place it in a class almost by itself. These are: “a light from 
 heaven,” “a voice,” a falling to the earth, blindness, return- 
 ing sight at the laying-on of hands by Ananias. Paul lays 
 no stress upon these in his own writings. We can not doubt, 
 however, that it was this “light” which gave him the figure 
 which he so often uses, as, for example, in 1 Tim. 6: 16; 
 Rom. 8:18; 2 Thess. 1:9-11; 2:8. 
 
 Appearance of Jesus to Paul. The apostle is ever sure 
 that in his conversion experience he saw Jesus. He did not 
 account this a subjective vision, but rather speaks of it con- 
 fidently as an objective appearance to him of the Risen Lord. 
 In his summary account of the appearance of Christ to His 
 disciples after his resurrection, he includes that to himself 
 (1 Cor. 15: 4-8) ; and again, he makes the fact of his having 
 “seen Jesus” a mark of his apostleship (1 Cor. 9:1). 
 
 Inner Revelation. Paul lays emphasis upon the fact of 
 soul experience. Most important of all statements concern- 
 
 ————— XK Kw LULL LU 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 209 
 
 ing his conversion is that of Galatians 1: 11-17. In this he 
 speaks of a Providence which has been working even from 
 his birth in preparing him for his ministry to the Gentiles, 
 and which culminated in an inner revelation. Those words, 
 “Tt was the good pleasure of Ged «~. . . to reveal His Son 
 in me,” sound the greatest depths of Paul’s conversion. 
 
 The Importance of the Conversion. To Paul himself his 
 conversion was the greatest event of his life. It was to him 
 the real beginning of life. It revealed to him his former 
 blindness, ignorance, and sin, and a present power unto sal- 
 vation; gave him an ever-present Lord, his commission of 
 world-evargelization, his authority for proclaiming His mes- 
 sage, a personal assurance that was never dimmed, and a 
 confidence that enabled him to stand unashamed and un- 
 abashed before councils and kings. 
 
 Events Following His Conversion. The ministry of Ana- 
 nias to Paul was a means of introducing him to the Chris- 
 tian community at Damascus (Acts 9: 10-19). His religious 
 zeal would not allow him to remain silent; immediately he 
 began to proclaim in the synagogues to those whom a few 
 days before he had intended to incite against the Christians 
 that Jesus was the Son of God. His preaching at first pro- 
 duced amazement, then consternation, conviction in some, 
 and in others wrath. He who had been persecutor, now was 
 persecuted and fled for his life (Acts 9: 20-25). 
 
 We might conclude from the statement of Acts (1:26) 
 that Paul immediately returned to Jerusalem, but this impres- 
 sion is corrected by his own special statement (Gal. 1:17) 
 that he did not go to Jerusalem, but instead “into Arabia,” 
 and later returned to Damascus. Arabia is an indefinite term; 
 “exactly where he went, and with what purpose in view, can 
 only be conjectured. The common thought is that this was 
 a period of retirement, affording opportunity of mental ad- 
 jastment, during which the new apostle was preparing him- 
 self for his changed career. The length of his stay was some- 
 what less than three years (Gal. 1:18). After his return 
 
 14 
 
210 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 to the scene of his conversion, Paul went up to Jerusalem, 
 where his experience of persecution at Damascus was repeated 
 {Acts 9: 26-30). This Jerusalem visit gave Paul an oppor- 
 tunity to become acquainted with Peter and, doubtless, to 
 hear from his lips much of the story of the earthly life of 
 Jesus. His stay in Jerusalem was brief; his fellow Christians 
 prevailed upon him not to endanger his life by remaining, and, 
 being escorted by them to Cesarea, he went into “the regions 
 of Syria and Cilicia” (Gal. 1: 18-21). There follows an ob- 
 scure period of perhaps ten years; his own statement in Gala- 
 tians indicates that he was occupied in successfully preaching 
 the Christian faith; the statement of Acts 15:41, that on a 
 later occasion Paul “went through Syria and Cilicia, confirm- 
 ing the Churches,” leads to the inference that these were 
 Churches which he himself had founded in this early period 
 of his ministry. We can not doubt that a part of this time 
 was spent in labors in Tarsus, his birthplace. In Tarsus, at 
 any rate, he was found by Barnabas, and summoned to An- 
 tioch, in Northern Syria, to assist in the teaching and build- 
 ing up in the faith of a large Church made up of Gentile 
 believers. For a year Barnabas and Paul remained in An- 
 tioch as co-laborers (Acts 11:25, 26). From Antioch they 
 carried a contribution for famine relief to Jerusalem, and then 
 finally took their leave of this mother Church of the Chris- 
 tian name to embark on their wider mission (Acts II: 27-30; 
 12)2-35)k 
 
 V. The Career of Paul as Apostle to the Gentiles. 
 
 It is here to be recalled that with 13:1 begins the second 
 part of the Book of Acts. This second half is devoted to a 
 rapid sketch of the journeys and labors of Paul, and supplies 
 us with our outline of his missionary career. 
 
 1. First Missionary Journey. Certain prophets of the 
 Church in Antioch became impressed that the time had come 
 for Barnabas and Paul to proceed on their divinely appointed 
 mission to the Gentile world. With prayer, fasting, and lay- 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL BEE 
 
 ing-on of hands they started them forth (Acts 13:1-3). From 
 Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, accompanied by John Mark, 
 they sailed to Cyprus, landed at Salamis, its eastern port, and 
 - journeyed through the whole island to Paphos, preaching as 
 opportunity was had in Jewish synogogues. At Paphos they 
 were summoned to attend upon Sergius Paulus, a Roman pro- 
 consul, In his presence they were withstood by one Bar- 
 Jesus, a representative of an Oriental cult, whom Paul con- 
 troverted so successfully that the Roman official was won to 
 discipleship (Acts 13: 4-12). It is at this stage in the nar- 
 rative that Luke substitutes, without explanation, the name 
 Paul for Saul. From Paphos the party went by ship to Perga, 
 on the coast of Pamphylia; where, for some reason not clear 
 to us, John Mark turned back; while Paul and Barnabas 
 proceeded overland to Pisidian Antioch, an important civic 
 and commercial center of Asia Minor. “At Antioch and on- 
 wards, Paul takes the lead in speech and action. ‘Barnabas 
 and Saul’ set out on the expedition; ‘Saul and Barnabas’ will 
 return.” (Findlay.) The work was addressed first to the 
 Jews, as was Paul’s custom, but when they sharply opposed, 
 the missionaries turned to the Gentiles, and labored with such 
 marked success that the Jews were aroused to urgent meas- 
 ures, secured the aid of the Roman officials, and drove them 
 from the city (Acts 13:13-52). The missionaries stopped 
 next at Iconium, from which place, after a stay of some 
 length,- during which a number of Gentile converts were 
 made, they were again beset by persecution and compelled 
 to flee: first to Lystra, and later to Derbe, near-by cities. 
 At the former city Paul performed the first cure attributed 
 to him in the Acts, and there also he underwent stoning 
 (2 Cor, 11:25). At Derbe many converts were made. From 
 here the missionaries were suffered to depart in peace. Turn- 
 ing homeward, they visited the scenes of their recent labors, 
 preached in Perga, and then took ship at Attalia for Antioch 
 (Acts 14: 1-28). The entire journey of about fourteen hun- 
 dred miles by ship-and on foot had occupied between two 
 
212 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 and three years. In this time the gospel had been preached 
 over a wide extent of territory, and at least four Gentile 
 Churches had been founded. 
 
 The period of stay at Antioch was marked by an important 
 conference, the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:1-35; Gal. 
 2:1-I0), at which Paui’s contention that Gentile converts to 
 Christianity were not bound by the provisions of the Jewish 
 law, was granted. The apparent exceptions were made as a 
 concession to Jewish social customs. This decision was a 
 
 —_— 
 
 vital matter, not only to the success of Christian missionary — 
 
 endeavor among the Gentiles, but to the gospel itself, since 
 involved in it was the whole question of whether Christianity 
 was to be merely a new branch grafted on to Judaism or 
 whether it was to be a new religion superseding Judaism. 
 
 2. Second Missionary Journey. The immediate purpose — 
 of Paul at the beginning of the second journey was to “visit — 
 
 the brethren in every city’ wherein he had proclaimed the 
 gospel (Acts 15: 36-41). Owing to a disagreement between 
 Paul and Barnabas as to whether John. Mark, who had pre- 
 viously turned back at Pamphylia, should accompany them, 
 Paul chose a new companion, Silas, and proceeded overland 
 through Syria and Cilicia, the scene of his first missionary 
 labors, to Derbe and Lystra. 
 
 At Lystra they found a new companion in travel, Timothy, 
 a half-Jew, who was to prove himself Paul’s steadfast and 
 loyal friend and helper. The desire of the missionaries was 
 to extend the work of. evangelization into other parts of Asia 
 Minor, but God had yet larger plans, and at Troas, Paul 
 heard in the night the “Macedonian call” (Acts 16: 1-10). 
 He was not one to hesitate when the question was that of 
 carrying the gospel into new fields. At once the decision was 
 made to enter Europe. 
 
 The place of his first labor was Philippi, the chief city of 
 Macedonia (Acts 16:11-40). Here immediate results at- 
 tended his preaching, and in a stay of considerable duration 
 Paul laid the foundation of the Church which in later years 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 213 
 
 he rejoiced to speak of as his “joy and crown” (Phil. 4:1). 
 To one of his burning zeal it was merely incidental that at 
 Philippi he suffered one of “many perils from the heathen,” 
 ene of many imprisonments, and one of three beatings with 
 Roman rods. : 
 
 Leaving Philippi, Paul and Silas labored in Thessalonica, 
 the modern Salonica, to-day a prosperous city of Turkey in 
 Europe, then as now possessed of important commercial in- 
 terests, a center from which the gospel might spread by land 
 and by sea. Again a Church was established, and many 
 Gentiles, worshipers of idols, were received into membership. 
 Luke’s narrative suggests a brief stay of three weeks’ dura- 
 tion, but we know from Paul’s own words that twice while 
 he remained in Thessalonica the Church at Philippi sent him 
 aid (Phil. 4:16), and also that he there worked at his trade 
 of tent-making (Thess. 2:9). These statements indicate a 
 longer period of time. 
 
 At Bercea the gospel was received with pleasing readiness. 
 Disturbances followed, but before an open outbreak occurred 
 Paui went to some near-by seaport, and thence by snip to 
 Athens, leaving Silas and Timothy to continue the work for 
 a time, and then to follow him (Acts 17: 10-15). At his 
 departure from Macedonia he had implanted the gospel in 
 three important centers, from whence it was carried rapidly 
 throughout all the province. Paul’s stay in Athens was short, 
 and so far as we have record no definite results were accom- 
 plished (Acts 17: 16-34). Timothy seems to have rejoined 
 him and to have been sent as Paul’s messenger to Thessa- 
 lonica (1 Thess. 3:1), while Paul himself later pushed on 
 to Corinth, the capital city of Achaia, probably his objective 
 point when he left Bercea. His ministry in Corinth is of 
 especial interest for a number of reasons. On his arrival 
 he met Aquila and Priscilla, who were thereafter closely 
 associated with him in fellowship and labors. Jewish influ 
 ence was slight in Corinth, and the Jews’ attempt at perse- 
 cution here signally failed. A Church was founded, to which 
 
214 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 was addressed two of the apostle’s principal letters. Paul re- 
 mained in Corinth for eighteen months (read Acts 18: 1-18; 
 compare I Cor, 2: 1-5; 2 Cor. 11:7-9). Probably within the 
 first six months he wrote the First Letter to the Thessalo- 
 nians; this was followed just a little later by the Second Let- 
 ter to the Thessalonians. 
 
 First LETTER TO THE THESSALONIANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. ‘Timothy had come from Thessa- 
 lonica bearing favorable tidings concerning the Church (1 Thess, 
 3:6, 7) and Paul writes: (a) To return greetings and to send 
 a message of affection; (b) to comfort them concerning their 
 afflictions (3:4, 6-8); (c) to exhort them as a father to even 
 greater love, faith, and virtue (3: 11-13), (compare 2: 11; 5:22); 
 (d) to correct the misapprehension of some who thought that 
 those of their friends who had died before the second coming 
 of the Lord could not share in the triumph of His kingdom 
 (4: 13-18) ; and (e) to warn against a tendency, which some had 
 manifested, toward immorality (4: 2-7). 
 
 2. Character of the Letter. It is not a doctrinal letter, has 
 no note of controversy, and is one of the most gentle and af- 
 fectionate of Paul’s Epistles (2:8, 17-20; 3:9, to). It bears 
 testimony to the expectation, which prevailed generally in the 
 early Church, of the immediate return of Christ (4:16, 17). 
 Special interest attaches to it by virtue of its being the first 
 of the Epistles of Paul and therefore perhaps the earliest writ- 
 ten document of the Christian religion. 
 
 3. The Thessalonian Christians. The letter bears strong tes- 
 timony to the Christian character of these recent converts from 
 heathenism. They are ar example to others (1:7), their faith 
 has sounded abroad (1:8), they have manifested strong brotherly 
 love (4:9, 10) and a spirit of patience (1:3), joy (1:6), and 
 long-suffering (2:14). 
 
 SEeconp LETTER TO THE THESSALONIANS, 
 
 Occasion and Content. Doubtless the apostle had again re- 
 ceived direct information as to the situation in the Church at 
 Thessalonica. It appears from the letter that the disciples’ faith 
 in God had continued to increase (1:3), that brotherly love 
 abounded (1:3), and that the Christians showed much patience 
 in the presence of continued affliction and persecutions (1: 4). 
 The Church was, however, increasingly troubled concerning the 
 coming of Christ (2: 1-3, 15), the moral disorder among some 
 had increasec (3:6), and there was a marked tendency a 
 the disciples toward idleness (3: 7-11). The coming of the Lor 
 may almost be stated to be the theme of the letter? Paul 
 attributes the prevalent restlessness to the belief that the dav 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 215 
 
 of the Lord is already at hand and declares that certain things 
 must first occur. The statements concerning the “man of sin” 
 and the “mystery of lawiessness,” and, in fact, the whole pass- 
 age, 2: 3-12, is exceedingly difficult, if not quite impossible of 
 interpretation. Rather than choose among the multitude of dif- 
 ferent interpretations, we probabiy can not do better than to say 
 with Augustine, “Forsooth, I confess myself to be ignorant of 
 what Paul might mean.” Directions are given concerning Church 
 discipline (3:6, 14, 15), and concerning idleness (3:12). The 
 teaching of this Epistle on the Christian duty of courage, calm- 
 ness, and industry are clear, strong, and of permanent value. 
 This is the shortest letter of Paul addressed to a Church. 
 
 From Cenchrea, a harbor of Corinth, Paul set sail for An- 
 tioch; on the way he made a hurried visit to Ephesus, where 
 he left his new companions Aquila and Priscilla, then touched 
 at Czsarea, and possibly went up to Jerusalem (Acts 18: 
 19-22). 
 
 His second journey occupied approximately three years, 
 extended over a large part of the eastern Roman Em- 
 pire, and effectually planted the gospel on the continent of 
 Europe. The apostle had traveled in the slow and laborious 
 fashion of ancient days scarcely less than three thousand 
 miles, had labored in some of the most important centers of 
 influence and civilization in the Roman world, and had dem- 
 onstrated the power of the gospel to gain a foothold among 
 the Gentiles under most unfavorable conditions. During this 
 journey more than ever before Paul showed his splendid 
 imperial spirit and made his greatest conquests for the cross. 
 
 Tue. LETTER TO THE GALATIANS. 
 
 To Whom Written. The term_Galatia as used in the 
 Epistle is ambiguous; it may refer to Galatia proper, a country 
 in the interior of Asia Minor inhabited by Gallic tribes which 
 had migrated thither from the West, or it may refer to the 
 Roman province of Galatia, to the southwest of the fermer region, 
 If the first mentioned view, called the North Galatian theory, is 
 Maintained, the letter was written to certain unknown churches 
 in a region which Paul is not definitely known to have visited; 
 if the second or South Galatian view is held, the letter was 
 written to the churches in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and 
 Derbe, established on the first missionary journey. The greater 
 probability may be said to be with the South Galatian theory. 
 
216 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 2. Occasion and Purpose of the Letter. Originally the Gala- 
 tians had received the gospel which Pau! had preached with much 
 enthusiasm (4: 12-15), and for a time they had run well (5:7). 
 Recently, however, Judaizing influences had come in, probably 
 under the leadership of some one individual of authority (1:8; 
 3:1), and they were being led into a subserviency to the Jewish 
 law (4:9, 10; 5:3). To Paul this is not merely a retrograde 
 
 movement, it is a subversion of the gospel, an actual renuncia- — 
 
 tion of Christ (1:6; 5:2, 4). Paul writes to re-establish the 
 authority of his teaching among them, and to win them back 
 again to the pure gospel of salvation by faith in Jesus Christ, 
 apart from works of the law. 
 
 3. Characterization of the Letter. This is pre-eminentiy the 
 Epistle of Freedom. By this letter Paul settled forever the vex- 
 atious question of the relation of Christians to the Jewish law. 
 He perceived clearly what no other apostle seems to have realized, 
 that to concede anything else than the cross of Christ as es- 
 sential to salvation was to minimize and eventually to nullify the 
 work of Christ. Hence he threw himself with all his power 
 into the controversy. He writes with enthusiasm, with warmth, 
 with vehemence, almost, as Weiss says, “with passionate irrita- 
 tion.” He maintains throughout a spirit of severe remonstrance; 
 unlike his other letters, there is here no word of congratulation, 
 praise, or thanksgiving ; he writes with one thought, one purpose, 
 from the first sentence to the last. 
 
 3. Third Missionary Journey and Imprisonment in Ces- 
 area and in Rome. When Paul again left Antioch it was 
 at first to visit certain Churches located, according to the 
 phrase of Luke, in “the country of Galatia and Phrygia” 
 (Acts 18:23). Later, in fulfillment of his promise, he came 
 to Ephesus, where he made what was for him a stay of great 
 length—three years; a period marked by notable successes, 
 heroic labors, great privations, and strange perils. (Read 
 Acts 19:1 to 20:1; 20: 18-35; 1 Cor. 4: 11-13; 1 Cor. 15: 32; 
 2 Cor. 1:8-11.) From Ephesus the First Letter to the Co- 
 rinthians was written. 
 
 Tue First LETTER TO THE CORINTHIANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. Tidings came from Corinth to 
 Paul bearing unfavorable news concerning the Corinthian church. 
 He wrote them a letter (5:9), now lost, in which he rebuked 
 evil and commanded them to separate themselves from immoral 
 persons, promised to visit them, and gave directions concerning 
 an offering. Meanwhile, members of the household of Chloe 
 came to him with additional information concerning the situ- 
 ation in the Church (1:11); other friends also came to him 
 
 ae 
 

 
 LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 217 
 
 from Corinth (16:17), and finally he eee ed a letter from the 
 Church. From these various sources he learned: (a) that there 
 were four distinct factions in the Church; (b) that there was 
 immorality in the Church, cne case being ‘particularly heinous ; 
 and (c) that members of the Church had disagreements and 
 carried these quarrels into the civil courts. Their letter asked 
 certain practical questions concerning important matters. Paul 
 wrote the Epistle in order to rebuke the evils existent in the 
 Church and to answer their questions. 
 
 2. The Church of Corinth. It must be remembered that 
 Corinth was one of the most wicked cities of the ancient world, 
 and that this Church was surrounded by heathen customs and 
 practices; many of its members had been but recently con- 
 verted from heathenism to Christianity. It was far from being 
 an ideal Church, but there were those among its members who 
 were true Christians lacking in nothing (1: 4-8). For the most 
 part aed were poor people, without pride of birth or learning 
 
 is 20)))- 
 
 3. Character of the Letter. It is noteworthy for its practical 
 character; it concerns itself with the everyday life of the mem- 
 bers of the Church. It treats of but one doctrine, that of the 
 resurrection. Paul is here revealed as the bishop of souls, con- 
 cerned for the welfare of each. The letter has some of the 
 greatest passages of the New Testament; every Christian should 
 be familiar with the chapter on “The Greatest Thing in the 
 World” (Ch. 13); the Resurrection Chapter (Ch. 15); the con- 
 trast between earthly wisdom and heavenly foolishness (1: 18- 
 25); the description of the apostolic labors (4: 9-13), and the 
 description of ie Christian ae (9: 24-27). 
 
 4. Outline. Salutation, 1: 1-3. 2. Thanksgiving, 1: 4-9. 
 3. Practical and meetin eeaehon I:9—15:58. (1) Re- 
 buke of divisions and the factional spirit, 1: 10-42; (2) The 
 case of the chief sinner, 5: 1-13; (3) Lawsuits between Church 
 members, 6:1-11; (4) Fornication, 6:12-20; (5) Concerning 
 marriage, 7: 1-40; (6) Concerning meats sacrificed to idols, 
 8:1—11:1; (7) Concerning head dress, 11: 2-16; (8) Concern- 
 ing the Lord’s Supper, 11: 17-34; (9) Concerning spiritual gifts, 
 I2:1—14:40; (10) The resurrection, 15: 1-58. 4. Special mes- 
 sages and the benediction, 16: 1-24. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 Birth and childhood. 
 
 Education. 
 
 Early career as a Pharisee and persectitor. 
 
 Conversion and early Christian life. 
 
 The career of Paul as apostle to the Gentiles: First mission- 
 ary journey; second missionary journey, with letters 
 written during the period; third missionary journey be 
 
 gun. 
 
218 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 
 Gilbert, “The Student’s Life of Paul.” 
 
 Stalker, “The Life of Paul.” 
 
 Conybeare & Howson, “Life and Epistles of Paul.” 
 
 Findley, “The Epistles of Paul the Apostle.” 
 
 Stevens, “The Pauline Theology.” 
 
 Sanday, “Commentary on Romans.” 
 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” 
 
 Commentaries on the various Epistles in the “International 
 Critical Commentary” series, and in the Cambridge Bible 
 for Schools and Colleges. 
 
 Topics for Special. Study: 
 1. The early education of Paul as a Jewish youth. 
 2. The dissatisfaction of Paul with Judaism. 
 3. Paul as a missionary. 
 4. Paul’s Christian view of the law. 
 5. The inner life of an early Christian Church as seen in 
 the Epistles to the Corinthians. 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Influence of his Tarsian birth upon the life of Paul. 
 
 2. To what extent is the conversion of Paul to be taken as 
 a normal type of conversion? 
 
 3. Compare the labors of Paul to those of a modern mis- 
 sionary. 
 
 . The relation of Paul to the Churches which he founded, 
 PS The chief teachings of the Epistle to the Galatians, 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL—CONTINUED 
 
 Third Missionary Journey—Continued. When Paul wrote 
 First Corinthians he was expecting before long to leave 
 Ephesus. This he probably did. There is a total absence 
 of details as to his movements after leaving that city. We 
 do know this, that some time later he went into Macedonia 
 ‘(Acts 20:1), having been disappointed in his expectation of 
 meeting Titus in Troas with tidings from the Corinthian 
 Church (2 Cor. 2:12, 13). After he came into Macedonia 
 his expectation was fulfilled—he met Titus, and in response. 
 doubtless, to the message which he brought, wrote the Second 
 Epistle to the Corinthians. 
 
 Tur SEconp LETTER TO THE CORINTHIANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. There is evidence that much 
 more by way of communication passed between Paul and the 
 Church at Corinth than has come down to us. Both our first 
 and second letters are members of a series, of which others of 
 the series have been lost. The apostle is intensely interested in 
 this Church; it has caused him much care, perplexity, and grief, 
 but he yearns over it as one of his own children. Titus has 
 come with information and messages, and he writes out of 
 affection and solicitude for them, in self-defense against the 
 ace charges of enemies, and to warn, exhort, and instruct 
 them. 
 
 2. Situation in the Church. In general the condition of 
 the Church has improved. The guilty have shown grief and 
 repentance (7:9), the factional spirit has to a large extent 
 disappeared, but in one respect the situation is intensified— 
 defiant and slanderous opposition to Paul is manifested by some 
 in the Church (Chapters 10 and 11). 
 
 3. Character and Content of the Letter. This letter is very 
 different from the calm, clear, and definite 1 Corinthians. It 
 is exceedingly emotional, showing mingled joy, grief, and indig- 
 nation, is:involved in style, almost impossible of analysis, and 
 full of digressions in subject. It is intensely personal; the 
 
 219 
 
220 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 apostle bares his heart and speaks forth his inmost thought 
 and feeling. Here only he speaks of two secret matters of 
 his inner life—his rapture of the “third heaven” (12: 1-4), 
 and his “thorn in the flesh” (12: 7-9). As no other letter, it 
 shows the intense personal opposition Paul encountered in his — 
 work; it was charged against him that his bodily presence was 
 weak (10:10), that he was rude in speech (11:6), his words 
 of no account (10:10), that he corrupted the Word of God 
 (2:17), that his gospel was veiled (4:3), that he boasted un- 
 duly (10:8), that he was beside himself (5:3). These and 
 many other slanderous and unjust charges may be read in the 
 statements which Paul makes in self-defense. 
 
 Two especially noteworthy passages of the letter are—on 
 giving, Chapters 8 and 9, and on his own labors and sufferings, 
 II : 21-33. 
 
 Paul made a tour through Macedonia, visiting the 
 Churches, and then proceeded into Achaia, where he spent 
 three months (Acts 20:2, 3). During this time he probably 
 fulfilled his long-delayed promise of visiting the Church at 
 Corinth (1 Cor. 16:5-7; 2 Cor. 1:15) 10, 2gpece- Heo 
 While staying with Gaius (Rom. 16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14) in 
 Corinth, he wrote the Epistle to the Romans. 
 
 Tue LETTER TO THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. Unlike the other letters of Paul — 
 to Churches, this was written to a Church which Paul had never 
 visited. In pursuance of his plan to preach the gospel in the — 
 great centers of the empire, Paul had long desired to undertake 
 work in Rome (1:13). At the time of writing, his purpose 
 was hindered by the urgency of his journey to Jerusalem; that — 
 accomplished, he will come to them (15: 22-29). Prevented, for — 
 the time being, from preaching to them, he will present to them — 
 his gospel in writing. Possibly he feared that his enemies, who — 
 had perverted the true gospel in other places, would reach Rome 
 in advance of him, and desired to establish them beforehand 
 by the spiritual gifts of his instruction and exhortation (1:11). 
 
 2. Content of the Letter. The central theme is stated in 
 I: 16-17—the gospel the power of God unto salvation to every 
 one that believes, both Jew and Greek. In elaboration of the © 
 theme, the apostle declares that sin and guilt are universal — 
 and justification by works of the law is impossible, 1: 18—3: 20; 
 in Christ Jesus a new righteousness, achieved through faith — 
 apart from the law, has been manifested, 3: 21-26; this salva- — 
 tion carries with it rich spiritual blessings, 5:1-11; whereas 
 through Adam sin and death entered into the world, now — 
 through jesus Christ has come this free gift of justification, 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 221 
 
 5:12-21; the justified man is dead to sin, Ch. 6; dead to law, 
 Ch. 7. A triumphant assertion of the glory and blessedness 
 of the Christian salvation follows, 8: 18-39. Chapters 9, I0, 
 and 11 treat of the rejection of Israel.and the acceptance of 
 the Gentiles. In 12:1—15:13, Paul exhorts his brethren to 
 offer themselves to God, to live worthily as a member of the 
 body of Christ, as a subject of the civil government, and as a 
 member of society. ‘The letter closes with personal messages, 
 concluding exhortations, and doxology, 15: 14—16: 27. 
 
 From Corinth, Paul turns his face towards Jerusalem with 
 the purpose of conveying to the poor among the saints an 
 offering which he had been gathering gradually for over two 
 years. (See 1 Cor. 16:1; 2 Cor. 9: 6-22; 2 Cor. 9:2.) Seven 
 men, representatives of the Churches, besides Luke, accompa- 
 nied him (Acts 20: 4-6). Traveling by a circuitous route, the 
 company finally reached Jertisalem, eager to present to their 
 Jewish brethren the gifts of the Gentile Christians, to hear 
 testimony to the fruits of the gospel in new fields, and to 
 defend the labors and the preaching of the missionary apostle 
 against the charges of his enemies (Acts 20:4 to 21:16). 
 But this mission, conceived in love and sacrifice, was to meet 
 with tragic failure. Luke barely mentions the reception of 
 the party by the Jerusalem brethren, and hurries on into the 
 shameful account of the attack of the Jewish multitude upon 
 Paul, his rescue by the chief captain, his speech to the people 
 in Hebrew, his escape from scourging by a declaration of his 
 Roman citizenship, his address before the Sanhedrin, the plot 
 of the Jews to kill him, his conveyance escorted by soldiers 
 to Cesarea, his hearing, first before Felix, the procurator, and 
 then before Felix and Drusilla; his detention for two years 
 im prison without trial, his preliminary examination before 
 Porcius Festus, successor to Felix; his appeal to the emperor, 
 and his hearing before Agrippa II, the tetrarch, and Bernice. 
 (Read Acts 21:17 to 26: 32.) 
 
 Paul’s appeal to the emperor necessitated a voyage to 
 Rome, the capital of the empire, for trial. Luke gives account 
 of the voyage as a fellow traveler, records a conference of 
 Paul with the Jews in Rome, and abruptly ends the Book of 
 
222 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Acts with the statement that for two years Paul was accorded 
 the privilege of living in his own rented quarters and of 
 teaching the gospel to all who came to him (Acts 27:1 to 
 28:31). Additional light is shed on the imprisonment by 
 statements in the epistles. (See Phil. 1: 12-14; 4:18, 22; 
 Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 6:21, 22; Philemon 1, 8-14, 22-24.) During 
 
 this imprisonment Paul wrote the letters to the Philippians, 
 
 Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians. 
 
 Tue LETTER TO THE PHILIPPIANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. A remarkable bord of love, 
 sympathy, and fellowship existed between this Church and its 
 founder. Twice out of their poverty they sent him voluntary 
 pecuniary aid. They were his solace in affliction, his joy and 
 his crown. In them he found constant reasons for rejoicing, 
 The letter is an expression of this relationship. It bears a 
 message of love. This is the real occasion for writing. An 
 opportunity for sending the message to them is afforded by the 
 - departure of Epaphroditus from Rome for Philippi. He has 
 
 had no earlier opportunity of thanking them for their gift | 
 
 sent to him through this same messenger (Phil. 4: 18). 
 
 2. Characterization of the Letter. ‘This is a real letter, 
 informal, familiar—a spontaneous utterance of love and grati- 
 tude. It has no logical plan, no doctrinal arguments. In the 
 simple terms of intimate friendly intercourse, the essential sub~ 
 stance of the gospel is presented. Paul is here, not the soldier 
 engaged in battle, not the keen, abstruse advocate advancing 
 arguments, but the tender, warm-hearted, loving friend, pastor, 
 and brother. Read this letter often—the whole letter at one 
 sitting, for its high spirit. It is splendid spiritual tonic. 
 
 Tue LETTER To PHILEMON. 
 
 The occasion of this letter is clearly shown in it. Onesimus, 
 a runaway slave of Philemon of Colossae, in Rome came under 
 the influence of Paul and became a Christian. Paul sends him 
 back to his owner in the care of Tychicus, and with him this 
 letter. It is, therefore, a letter to an individual on a private 
 matter, but it is of inestimable worth for the revelation it 
 bears of the power of the gospel to win and transform a poor 
 slave, to soften harsh heathen customs, and to mediate between 
 the classes of ancient society. “This letter became the Magna 
 Charta of freedom throughout the world” (Farrar). 
 
 Tue LETTER To THE COLOSSIANS. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. This letter, as Romans, wags 
 written to a Church not founded by Paul. Word had come to 
 the apostle through Epaphras of the love and faith of the 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 223 
 
 Colossian Christians (1:7; 8), but also of false teaching dis- 
 seminated among them. This teaching apparently had dis- 
 piaced Jesus Christ as the cbject of their reverence, love, faith, 
 and wership, and had involved them in philosophical specula- 
 tion (2:8), in the observance of circumcision, of feast days, 
 mew moons, and Sabbath days (2:11, 16), in the worship of 
 angels (2:18), and had led them to profess a hidden wisdom 
 (2:3), to show spiritual pride and exclusiveness, and to a neg- 
 lect of the fundamental moral principles of Christianity. Paul 
 writes to correct these errors and to restore Jesus Christ to His 
 rightiul place among them. 
 
 2. Characterization of the Letter. Colossians presents more 
 fully than any other Epistle Paul’s doctrine of the person of 
 Christ. Over against the false teaching which had proven so 
 attractive to them, Paul sets the thought of the supremely ex- 
 alted nature and perfect spiritual work of Jesus Christ. Col. 
 1:15-20 should be remembered by every Christian as a most 
 remarkable statement of the pre-eminence of the Savior. 
 
 Tue Lerrer To THE EPHESIANS. 
 
 1. To Whom Written. The words “at Ephesus,” of 1:1, . 
 are not found in three of the most important ancient manu- 
 script copies. Paul was intimately acquainted with the Chris- 
 tians at Ephesus from his prolonged stay there, yet this letter 
 has no personal greetings. Many hold that the letter was written, 
 not to any one Church, but as an encyclical letter to he sent 
 in turn to various Churches, the Church at Ephesus among 
 others. (Note Col. 4:16, last clause.) 
 
 2. Characterization of the Letter. This letter is character- 
 ized by: (1) Its presentation of the exalted nature and office 
 of Christ (1: 20-23; 2:13-22); (2) its setting forth of the 
 eternal purpose of God (2:3-5; 2:4-7; 3:9-12); (3) a broad 
 catholic spirit; there is here no tone of controversy; the thought 
 transcends focal transitional issues and presents a picture of the 
 triumphant universal Church of Christ of the future (2: 11-22; 
 3: 1-12; 4:4); (4) an exalted ideal of the Christian character 
 MBM tie (t 245 595-23> 2:10: 3214-28; 421-3; 521; 6: 10-18). 
 “In the depth of its theology, in the loftiness of its morals, in 
 the way in which the simplest moral truths are based upon the 
 profoundest religious doctrine, this Epistle is unparalleled. It 
 is the most sublime, the most profound, the most advanced, the 
 final utterance of Paul’s gospel to the Gentiles.” (Farrar.) 
 
 4. The Closing Years. The concluding statement of Acts 
 leads to the inference that Paul was released from imprison- 
 ment, since no word is said concerning his death in that con- 
 nection. There is no place in the preceding history where 
 
them to persons and places, together with statements of hi 
 hopes and plans for the future in the earlier letters, it 
 possible to form some idea of the ministry and travel of the 
 last years of the apostle’s life. We may be sure that a first 
 thought was to visit once again as many as possible of thes 
 Churches he had founded from Corinth through Achaia, 
 Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. He had long desired to ; 
 preach the gospel in Spain; tradition tells us that this desire 
 was gratified. Places definitely mentioned are: Macedonia 
 (1 Tim. 1:33), Crete (Titus 1:5), Nicopolis (Titus 3:12), 
 Troas (2 Tim. 4:13), Corinth @aimmeaeeos — 
 
 224 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE ; 
 
 the Pauline pastoral epistles seem to fit. By references 
 1s 
 is 
 
 (2 Tim. 4:20). During these journeyings First Timothy and 
 Titus were written. 
 
 Tue First LetrerR to TIMOTHY. 
 
 1. Authenticity of the Pastoral Epistles. From the pas- 
 toral character of the two letters addressed to Timothy and the - 
 letter to Titus, the three have been commonly known as the 
 Pastoral Epistles. There is not the same unanimity of judg- 
 ment among scholars concerning the genuineness of the Pas- — 
 toral Epistles as concerning the earlier letters. Some profess 
 not to be able to find a place or time for them in Paul’s life; 
 others object to them on the ground of their differences in 
 vocabulary and style from the earlier letters, and yet others 
 on the ground that they reflect a different condition in the 
 Church. Many scholars hold that while these letters may have 
 been somewhat amended by later hands, yet the substance of © 
 them is from the apostle. In the thought cf the great majority 
 of the Church, they always have been and doubtless will ever 
 continue to be indissolubly connected with the name of the 
 apostle Paul. 
 
 2. Purpose and Content. This is a letter of general instruc- 
 tion and exhortation to Paul’s “true child in the faith.” It 
 reflects a condition in the Church at Ephesus, to which Timothy 
 held an intimate relationship, which Paul desired to correct; 
 he warns against false speculation and against legalistic teach- 
 ing (1: 3-11; 4:1-5; 6:20, 21), emphasizes the importance of 
 Timothy himself living above all reproach (5:21, 22; 4:12; 
 6: 11-16), sets a high standard in the type of men to be selected 
 as office bearers in the Church (3: 1-13), and shows concern 
 about the order and conduct of Church government and services 
 of worship (2:1, 2, 8; 3:14, 15). 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 225 
 
 Tue Lerrer to Titus. 
 
 Purpose and Content. The letter is one of counsel and 
 instruction to Titus, whom Paul had left in Crete to “set in 
 order the things that were wanting and appoint elders in every 
 city” (1:5). The apostle urges that certain qualifications be 
 observed in the selection of these office-bearers (1: 5-10), and 
 at the same time presents a lofty moral ideal for all Christians, 
 the aged, the younger people, and slaves (2:1-15)}, exhorting 
 Titus to himself present an example of good works (2:7, 8). 
 With 1 Timothy this letter lays special stress on “sound doc- 
 trine” and “good works.” ‘The aggressive, original work of the 
 great apostle has been done, his chief interest now is in guard- 
 ing the integrity of the teaching he has committed to his dis- 
 ciples and protecting the fold from the old foes against whom 
 he had often striven in the past and from the new enemies new 
 for the first time appearing. The instructions concerning Church 
 organization and administration are a part of this interest. 
 ee letters set his final seal to the work and teachings of his 
 ife. 
 
 On some unknown charge the aged apostle was again ar- 
 rested, taken for the second time to Rome as a prisoner, and 
 placed on trial. At*his first hearing he was not condemned, 
 but was remanded for further trial. From his dungeon he 
 writes his last letter, Second Timothy. 
 
 Tue Seconp Letter to TIMOTHY. 
 
 1. Occasion and Purpose. ‘This is the last will and testa- 
 ment of the great apostle. Addressed to his beloved son Timothy, 
 it is even more persona: in tone than the first letter. He longs 
 to see Timothy yet once more; “Do your utmost to come to me 
 soon,” he says (3:8). But he may not reach him in time, 
 therefore he exhorts him to renewed zeal, courage, and activity 
 (1:6, 7; 2: 4-6), to keep faithfully the trust he has bequeathed 
 to him (1:13, 14; 2:2, 15), and warns him of perilous times 
 which will come (3: 1-17). 
 
 2. Paui’s Situation Preceding His Death. This letter brings 
 us very near to the persecuted and sufiering apostle. His 
 situation in these last days is in some respects most pitiable. 
 One and another of his friends has deserted him until, save for 
 his faithful companion in travels, Luke, he is entirely alone. 
 The government is now his fierce foe (4:7). His imprisonment 
 is very severe; it was difficult even to find him (1:17). He 
 had felt many times before the pangs of hunger and thirst 
 without a word of complaint; now, in his damp, cold dungeon 
 he sighs for his cloak (4:13). The only prospect before him 
 is that of immediate death (3:6). His lonely heart cries out 
 for sympathy and companionship (4:9, 21). But in spite of ail, 
 
 T5 
 
226 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 there runs through the entire letter an undertone of calm cour- 
 
 age and triumphant faith. 
 
 Some time about 67 A. D., Paul’s expectation of martyr- 
 dom was fulfilled. We can not follow him to the unknown 
 place of execution, but our last view of him is that of a grand 
 old soldier, bent with age, broken by sufferings, but still un- 
 broken in courage and faith, rejoicing in the companionship 
 of an ever-present Lord, enduring tribulation with patience 
 and persecution with joy; assured of the past, rejoicing in 
 the present, confident of the future. He faces death and is 
 more than content. We can not doubt that with this spirit 
 he met the ax of the Roman executioner. 
 
 VI. The Man and His Work. 
 
 The debt of the’ Christian world to Paul could hardly be 
 overstated. He found Christianity a provincial religion, un- 
 organized, unpopular among the people of its own origin, 
 unknown to the world at large, without a literature, almost 
 without doctrinal formulation, and with exceedingly few in- 
 fluential adherents. At his death, after not more than thirty- 
 four years, largely through his influence and activity and 
 that of his personal adherents, Christianity was world-wide 
 in extent, had obtained a secure foothold in most of the im- 
 portant centers of the Roman Empire, was the religion of 
 many thousands of Gentiles as well as Jews, some of its ad- 
 herents belonging to the highest circles, had an ecclesiastical 
 organization, had been formulated into doctrines that are 
 still held by large portions of its constituency, and had called 
 into existence the larger part of its sacred literature. 
 
 Paul was peculiarly fitted by nature and by grace for 
 his great task. He possessed to a remarkable degree the 
 imperial spirit. He could not possibly have been the leader 
 of a sect or party. He was the first of the followers of Jesus 
 to fully perceive the universal aspects of the Christian faith. 
 Like Alexander, he ever sighed for new worlds to conquer, 
 
LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 227 
 
 He had a genius for organization. He transformed the 
 Christians from a disorganized band fleeing before persecu- 
 tion into a compact army advancing to world conquest. He 
 lacked the poetical mind, was not interested in art, and seems 
 to have been entirely blind to the beauty and charms of- 
 nature. He admits also that he lacked the polisk and art of 
 the classical orator, that he was “rude in speech;” yet by his 
 incisive utterance, logical force, ready wit and sarcasm, his 
 adroitness and tact, his power of analysis, his emotional fire, 
 he proved to be a most powerful advocate. He invariably 
 compelled assent or aroused opposition. He had a finely 
 strung nervous organization, was subject to visions and rev- 
 elations, and to sudden revulsions of feeling, passing in a 
 moment from calmness to vehemence, from affection to in- 
 dignation. He was ever a man of intense moral conviction 
 and deep religious interest. After his conversion he was 
 wholly given up to his Lord—with all the wealth of his 
 emotional nature, with all the energies of his physical being, 
 with all the powers of his mind, absolutely devoted to Jesus 
 Christ. He was a slave who gloried in his captivity. Truly, 
 for him to live was Christ. It was this that gave him his 
 power. Miracles are ascribed to him, but he himself attached 
 little importance to them; he “spake with tongues,” but did 
 not regard the fact as of great importance. 
 
 The Churches loved him. Men were bound to him by 
 bonds of intense brotherly affection. It could not well be 
 otherwise when we recall the deep love which he heid toward 
 his converts; they were his “children,” and he yearned after 
 them with a mother’s love. 
 
 His letters were doubtless all written under stress, mes- 
 sages of the hour, and the immediate occasion. They are the 
 letters of Paul, the missionary, the evangelist, the advocate; 
 not at all of Paul the scholar or the theologian. He never 
 
 paused to polish a paragraph, to round out a period, or to 
 fully and systematically state a doctrine. “His thoughts hurry - 
 each other” through sentences that bear the impress of ur- 
 
228 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 gency and haste. Yet from this very fact they have the ad- 
 vantage of close contact with practical life; they touch our 
 lives and move and help us because they were never far re- 
 moved from every-day life. They have a perennial freshness 
 and charm; to study them closely at any time is to find in 
 them new meaning and new power. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 
 Third missionary journey and imprisonment in Czsarea and 
 Rome (continued), with letters written during the pe- 
 riod. 
 
 The closing years, with letters of the period, 
 
 The man and his work. 
 
 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 
 Gilbert, “The Student’s Life of Paul.” 
 
 Stalker, ‘“The Life of Paul.” 
 
 Conybeare & Howson, “Life and Epistles of Paul.” 
 
 Findley, “The Epistles of Paul the Apostle.” 
 
 Stevens, ‘“‘The Pauline Theology.” 
 
 Sanday, “Commentary on Romans.” 
 
 Hastings, “One Volume Dictionary.” 
 
 Commentaries on the various Epistles in the “International 
 Critical Commentary” series, and in the Cambridge Bible 
 for Schools and Colleges. 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Paul as a writer. 
 2. Paul as a theologian. 
 3. Paul’s doctrine of the future life. 
 4. The friends of Paul. 
 5. Greek influence in the teaching of Paul, 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. The value of Roman citizenship to Paul. 
 
 2. The effect of Paul’s imprisonment upon him. 
 
 3. How is the fact to be accounted for that one man had 
 so large a part in the founding of the Christian Church 
 among the Gentiles? 
 
 4. What was Paul’s claim to apostleship ? 
 
 5. Discuss the religious life of Timothy, 
 

 
 
 
 onversion,. .....+- 
 First Visit to Jerusalem, . - 
 First Missionary Journey, . 
 
 Conference at Jerusalem, . 
 Second Missionary Journey, 
 
 Third Missionary Journey, 
 
 rest at Jerusalem,. .. . 
 First Roman Captivity, . . 
 
 Pleat gets celia eileen te. 1a a 
 
 
 
 
 
 “uosMOFT pue 
 aavaqAuod 
 
 300514317] 
 
 36 (34) 
 38 (37) 
 48 (?) 
 
 51 
 51-54 
 
 54-58 
 58 
 61-63 
 68 (2) 
 
 
 
 “QpuaM 
 
 “ssUlg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF PAUL, 
 
 According to Various Scholars. 
 
 S 
 ° 
 2 
 3 
 o 
 = 
 36 31-32 
 39 34735 
 46-49 | Before 
 45 
 5oors51}| 450r46 
 51-54 | 46-40 
 54-58 | 49-52 
 58 53 
 61-63 | 56-58 
 65 58 
 
 229 
 
 
 
 *AeSUIe YL 
 
 33 
 35 (?) 
 47-49 
 
 49 
 50-53 
 
 53-57 
 57, 
 60-62 
 67 
 
 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 
 
 I. The Catholic Epistles, 
 
 From the time of the Church Fathers this term has been 
 employed to designate the group of seven New Testament 
 books bearing the names of James, Peter, John, and Jude. 
 The crigin and meaning of the term in this connection is un- 
 .certain, but it is reasonable to suppose that it was applied to 
 these letters as addressed, not to individuals or particular 
 Churches, but to the Church universal, or to groups of 
 Churches. For our purpose we also include under this head 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 1. Tue Epistte oF JAMES. 
 
 Authorship. The author styles himself “James, a servant 
 of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (1:1). As the name 
 was very common among the Jews, this is indecisive. Tra- 
 dition identifies the writer as James the Lord’s brother, and 
 this is generally held to be correct. 
 
 To Whom Written. “To the twelve tribes which are of 
 the dispersion,” says the superscription (1:1); # e., Jewish 
 Christians outside of Palestine. 
 
 Purpose. To fortify Christians in their trials (1:2; 2: 
 6-7; 5: 1-6), and to correct errors in their personal conduct 
 and their Church life (1: 19-21; 2: 14-26; 4:1 to 5:11; 2° 
 1-9). 
 
 General Character. The epistle is characterized by (a) a 
 lack of plan; one subject follows another without any appar- 
 
 230 
 
GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 231 
 
 ent order or connection of thought; (b) an absence of de- 
 veloped doctrine; we miss the doctrinal emphasis of Paul’s 
 writings; the Christian faith is stated in terms of moral ex- 
 cellence; he that doeth righteousness is accepted of God (c) 
 a pronounced Jewish tone; reference is frequently made to 
 the law, and hardly at all to the gospel, and there is a marked 
 dependence on the wisdom books of the Old Testament; 
 (d) its reflection of the sharp social contrasts prevailing it 
 the civilization of the time; (e) its nearness to nature, and 
 the number of allusions to nature and to natural objects. 
 
 2. THe First EpistLe oF PETER. 
 
 Authorship. ‘The letter names Peter as the author, and 
 this has seldom been disputed. The argument for its gene 
 uineness is very strong. 
 
 To Whom Written. It is addressed to Christians in the 
 provinces of Asia Minor. The words “the elect who are so- 
 journers of the dispersion” (1:1) points to Jews, but other 
 statements, as 2:9, 10; 4:3, clearly indicate that the author 
 also had Gentile Christians in mind. 
 
 Purpose. Those to whom the apostle writes are suffering 
 severe persecution (1:7; 3:17; 4:12), and he writes to com- 
 fort and sustain them. The letter is especially rich in con- 
 solation and has been a source of strength to those in trial 
 through all ages. They were also subjected to manifold 
 temptations from their immoral heathen environment (1: 
 13-16; 2:11, 12; 4:1-6), and the apostle exhorts them to 
 purity and holiness. The letter has many words and phrases 
 which remind us of Peter’s personality and of incidents in 
 his life. 
 
 3. THE Sreconp EpistLe oF PETER. 
 
 Authorship. This letter was late in obtaining recognition 
 by the Church, and that Peter is its author has been strenu- 
 ously denied by many authorities, both ancient and modern. 
 Its authorship must be regarded as uncertain. 
 
232 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 To Whom Written. The letter does not state; Spitta and 
 Zahn, two scholars who have elaborately defended the Petrine 
 authorship of the Epistle, hold that it was written to Jewish 
 Christians. 
 
 Purpose. Three prominent passages of the letter speak of 
 false teachers (2: 1-22; 3:3-7, 16). These statements show 
 the main purpose to be to guard the readers against heret- 
 ical teachings. 
 
 4. THE First Eptstie oF JoHN. 
 
 Authorship. This Epistle, ir common with Hebrews, is 
 peculiar in not naming an author ia the superscription. From 
 a very early period in the history of the Church it has been 
 almost universally attributed to the Apostle John. 
 
 To Whom Written. Probably as an encyclical letter to 
 Churches in Asia Minor. 
 
 Character and Purpose. It has not at all the form of a 
 letter, lacking not only an address, but the customary per- 
 sonal messages and greetings. It is more nearly a sermon or 
 pastoral address. The purpose is stated in 1:3, 4, to be that 
 the readers may have fellowship with the writer, himself an 
 eye-witness of the Word of Life, and share his fellowship 
 with the Father and with Jesus Christ, and thereby make his 
 joy full. To this end he proceeds to announce the message 
 which he has received, laying special stress upon certain con- 
 ceptions and truths, as follows: God is light (1:5); they 
 who truly have fellowship with him “walk in the light,” @. e., 
 do deeds of practical righteousness (1:6, 7; 2:9-II; 3: 
 17-23); the love of God for His children (3:1, 2; 4:8-11, 
 16, 19); the obligation of Christians to love one another 
 (2:10; 3: 10-243 4:7-21; 5:1, 2); the propitiatory work of 
 Jesus Christ (1:7; 2:1, 2; 4:10). Other prominent ideas 
 of the Fourth Gospel are emphasized, as “abiding in Christ” 
 (2:24, 28, and elsewhere). 
 
GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION 233 
 
 5, 6. THE SEconD AND THIRD EPISTLES OF JOHN. 
 
 Authorship. Undoubtedly by the same author as the First 
 Epistle. ’ 
 
 To Whom Written. The Second Epistle to a particular 
 individual, or to a Church; the third to a certain Gaius. 
 
 Character and Purpose. Both letters are personal; the 
 first to warn against false teachers, whom he has reason to 
 believe those addressed are in danger of; the second to com- 
 mend the hospitality and Christian character of Gaius and 
 to assure him of the writer’s expectation of a visit shortly. 
 
 7. THE EPIsTLe oF JUDE. 
 
 Authorship. The superscription names as the author 
 “Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ, a brother of James;” by 
 which is probably meant that Jude who was a brother of 
 James, the author of the Epistle and brother of our Lord, 
 
 To Whom Written. The intended readers are unnamed, 
 and there are no means of determining who they may have 
 been. 
 
 Purpose. The situation closely resembles that of Second 
 Peter. False teachers, who are also immoral in conduct, 
 have come in and boldly propagate their errors in the meet- 
 ings of the congregation. The author writes to expose and 
 condemn these ungodly men, and to exhort his readers to 
 adhere to and contend for the true faith, and to exemplify 
 purity of life. The letter contributes to an appreciation of 
 the extent and seriousness of the difficulties with which the 
 early Church had to contend. 
 
 = 8. HeEsREws. 
 
 Authorship. Many different names have been proposed, 
 but scholars have never been able to come to agreement. 
 The one almost unanimous opinion is that it was not writ: 
 ten by the Apostle Paul. 
 
234 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 To Whom Written. Probably’ to Jewish Christians of 
 some definite locality. 
 
 Purpose. To prevent apostasy from Christianity to Juda- 
 ism, or, as suggested by some writers, to prevent apostasy 
 from Christianity altogether. (Note, e. g., 3:12-I5; 10: 
 23-39.) 
 
 Contents. The author endeavors to achieve his purpose 
 by elaborately setting forth in a series- of comparisons the 
 superiority of the religion of Jesus Christ to that which pre- 
 ceded it! The keyword of the book is “better.” The central 
 thought of Christ is that of His priestly function, by which 
 Christians are enabled to have free access to God, and are 
 brought into filial relation with Him. The apologetic pres- 
 entation (I: 1—10:18) is followed by a series of urgent ex- 
  hortations to steadfastness (10:19—13:25). The following 
 outline of the argumentative section will enable the student 
 to trace the course of the argument: (1) The revelation 
 through the Son superior to that through the prophets (1: 
 1-3); (2) to that through angels (1: 4—2:.18); (3) the 
 Son higher than Moses the faithful servant (3:1-6); the 
 statement followed by warnings and exhortations (3:7— 
 4:13); (4) the Son a High Priest superior to Aaron and 
 his successors (5:1—10:18), not of the Levitical line, but of 
 the order of Melchisedek, the ideal type. 
 
 Il. The Book of Revelation. 
 
 Authorship. The writer speaks of himself as John, serv- 
 ant of God. He has been generally identified with John, 
 author of the Fourth Gospel, but this is disputed on various 
 grounds by many modern scholars. Some assign it to an- 
 other john, the presbyter; others to an unknown author. 
 
 Character and Purpose. Revelation stands almost alone 
 in the Scripture. With Daniel it belongs to that class of 
 Jewish writing which succeeded prophecy, the Apocalypses. 
 Many examples are found in the Jewish literature of the pe- 
 riod, This literature was the outgrowth of persecution and 
 
GENERAL EPISTLES AND REVELATION) 235 
 
 spiritual and temporal distress, and was written “to solve the 
 difficulties connected with a belief in God’s righteousness and 
 the suffering condition of His servants on earth.” (Charles.) 
 The writer would beget patience, resignation, steadfastness, 
 and endurance in his readers by the assurance that in spite 
 of present distress God intends a mighty and sure deliver- 
 ance for His people. The message is couched in obscure 
 symbols, images, and in visions. 
 
 interpretation and Present Value. The key to the mean- 
 ing of much of the book is not now in the possession of the 
 Church. Innumerable schemes of interpretation have been 
 applied to the visions as prophecies of the present and of the 
 future, with the result of confusion and grave error. The 
 value of the book lies not in a disclosure of unseen mysteries, 
 but in its testimony to the faith and hope of the persecuted 
 Church of Christ and its power to comfort, sustain, and in- 
 spire burdened, sorrowing, and oppressed souls of every age. 
 
 Lesson Outline: 
 The Catholic Epistles: James, First Peter, Second Peter, 
 First John, Second John, Third John, Jude, Hebrews, 
 The Book of Revelation. 
 
 
 
 Books for Reference: 
 
 Bennett, “The General Epistles.” 
 
 Plummer, “The Epistles of St. John.” 
 
 Lumby, “The Epistles of St. Peter.” 
 
 Farrar, “The Messages of the Books.” 
 
 Commentaries on separate Epistles: James, Mayor, “The 
 Epistle of James ;” Hebrews, Goodspeed, “Epistle to the 
 Hebrews ;” Revelation, Swete, “The Apocalypse of St 
 John.” 
 
 Topics for Special Study: 
 1. Comparison of the Book of James with the Sermon on 
 the Mount. 
 2. The teaching of First John as related to the Fourth 
 Gospel. 
 3. The purpose of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 4. Non-biblical apocalyptic literature of the Jews 
 
236 THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE 
 
 Topics for Class Discussion: 
 
 1. Reasons for holding that Hebrews was not written by 
 Paul. 
 
 2. Principal teachings of First Peter. 
 
 3. The state of the Church as reflected in the letters to 
 Timothy and to Titus. 
 
 4. As reflected in the first three chapters of Revelation. 
 
 s. The counsels of Paul to teachers in the epistles to Tim- 
 othy and to Titus. 
 
INDEX 
 
 
 
 Acts of the Apostles, The, 195ff; 
 authorship, 195; purpose, 195; 
 content and character, 195. 
 
 Ages to the Bible, The testimony 
 of, 35. 
 
 Amos, 128ff; teaching and signifi- 
 cance of his message, 129. 
 
 Apostolic Church, The, 197ff. 
 
 Attitude of mind and heart in 
 Bible study, The, 54. 
 
 Bible, The, a body of literature, 7; 
 a collection of books, 7; records 
 of divine revelation, 16; essen- 
 tial unity of, 19; uniqueness of, 
 21: how we got our, 23;- trans- 
 lations of, 26; why study, 35; 
 literary excellence of, 36; unique 
 teligious value of, 38; how 
 study, 46. 
 
 Bible message, The response of 
 the human heart and conscience 
 to the, 19. 
 
 Bible study and a knowledge of 
 literature and history, 37. 
 
 Bible study by books, suggestions 
 for, 52. 
 
 Bible study, the literary method 
 of, 47; devotional, 47; dangers 
 of unsystematic, 47; topical 
 method of, 49; by characters, 
 49; by books, 50; critical method 
 of, 51; attitude of mind and 
 heart in, 54. 
 
 Canon of Scripture, The, 23. 
 
 Canon, The Origin and Growth of 
 the New Testament, 24. 
 
 Canon, The Origin and Growth of 
 the Old Testament, 23. 
 
 Catholic Epistles, The, 23o0ff. 
 
 Children among the Jews, 161. 
 
 
 
 Chronicles, The Books of, 89. 
 
 Church, The Apostolic, ‘97ff; 
 founding of, 197f; early history 
 in Jerusalem, 198; growth under 
 persecution, 199; organization 
 and development of, 2o1. 
 
 Code, The Deuteronomic, 71. 
 
 Code, The Priestly, 73. 
 
 Colossians, The letter to the, 222, 
 
 Corinth, The church of, 217. 
 
 Copnthian:, First letter to the, 
 216. 
 
 Corinthians, Second letter to the, 
 219. 
 
 Covenant, The Book of the, 71. 
 
 Daniel, The message of, 148. 
 
 David and his reign, 83. 
 
 Decalogue, The, 70. 
 
 Devotion, The place of Psalms in 
 the life of, 104. 
 
 Devotional Books of the Old Tes- 
 tament, 103. 
 
 Devotional Literature of the Old 
 Testament, I1, 90ff. 
 
 Deuteronomic Code, The, 71. 
 
 Divine Element in the Bible, Evi- 
 dences of the, 18. 
 
 Ecclesiastes, The Book of, r19ff; 
 contents of, 119; the significance 
 of, 120. 
 
 Elijah and Elisha, From Moses 
 to, 125. 
 
 Ephesians, The letter to the, 223. 
 
 Epistles and Revelation, The Gen- 
 eral, 230. 
 
 Esther, The Book of, go. 
 
 Exile, The, 87f; and the Restora- 
 tion, 95. 
 
 Exodus, 63f; 
 
 Ezekiel, The Message of, 142. 
 
 237 
 
438 INDEX 
 
 Galatians, The letter to the, 215. 
 
 Genesis, Contents of the book of, 
 60 ; significance of, 61. 
 
 Gentiles, Extension of the Gospel 
 to, 200. 
 
 Gospel of John, 189; authorship, 
 189; author, 190; purpose, 191; 
 contents and characteristics, 
 rgrf. 
 
 Gospel of Luke, 185f; authorship, 
 18°; author, 186; purpose, 186; 
 ccutents and characteristics, 186. 
 
 - Gospel of Mark, The, 183; author- 
 ship, 183; author, 183; purpose, 
 183 ; contents and character, 184. 
 
 Gospel of Matthew, 179ff; author- 
 ship, 179; the author, 180; pur- 
 pose, 181; contents and charac- 
 teristics, 182. 
 
 Gospels, The, 174ff; time repre- 
 sented in writing, and literary 
 form, 175; resemblances and 
 differences of, 177. 
 
 Government of Palestine preced- 
 ing the Christian era, 153; dur- 
 ing the lifetime of Jesus, 156. 
 
 Habakkuk, The message of, 141. 
 
 Haggai, The message of, 144. 
 
 Hebrews, The Book of, 233. 
 
 Historical Literature of the Old 
 Testament, 12. 
 
 Holiness, The law of, 72. 
 
 Home life of the Jewish people, 
 60. 
 
 160. 
 Hosea, 130f; the teaching of, 131. 
 
 Isaiah, 131f; his message, I31, 
 143; the work and teaching of, 
 132. 
 
 ames, The Epistle of, 230. 
 eremiah, The message of, 137. 
 esus and the prophets, 149. 
 
 esus, The life of, 163ff; sources 
 for, 163f; birth and early life, 
 164f; the public ministry, 166; 
 the Passion week and the forty 
 days, 169; chronological outline 
 of, 173. 
 
 Job, The Book of, 116; contents 
 of, 117; the problem of, 118. 
 
 Joel, The message of, 146. 
 John, The Gospel of, 180ff. 
 John, The First Epistle of, am. | 
 
 John, The Second und Third 
 Epistles of, 233. 
 
 Jonah, The message of, 147. 
 
 Joshua, The Book of, 64f. 
 
 Jude, The Epistle of, 233. 
 
 Judea, The Location of, 155. 
 
 Judges and the United Monarchy, 
 The, 76. 
 
 Judges and their work, The, 77. 
 
 Judges, The Book of, 76. 
 
 Judges, The period of the, 78; — 
 conditions in Palestine at the 
 beginning of, a: the several 
 crises during, 73. 
 
 Kingdom, The Division of the, 
 
 If. 
 Kingda Important events in 
 the history of the Northern, 92, 
 Kingdom, Important events in 
 the history of the Southern, 94. 
 Kings, The Books of, 80, 88. 
 
 Lamentations, The Book of, 104. 
 
 Law Codes, 69; Dates, 69 
 
 Legal Literature, 12. 
 
 Legal System of the Hebrews, 
 The Origin of, 68. 
 
 Li excellence of the Bible, 
 
 36. 
 Literature and history, Bible 
 study and a knowledge of, 37. 
 Luke, The Gospel of, 185f. 
 
 Maccabean period, The, 153. 
 
 Malachi, The message of, 146. 
 
 Mark, The Gospel of, 183f; author, 
 ship, 183 author, 183; purpose, 
 183; contents and character, 184. 
 
 Matthew, The Gospel of, 179f; 
 authorship, 179; the author 
 180; purpose, 181}; contents and 
 characteristics, 182. 
 
 Micah and his message, The 
 prophet, 134. 
 
 Monarchy, Events leading to the 
 establishment of, 81. 
 
 Monarchy, The divided, 87. 
 
 Monarchy, The united, 82.” 
 
INDEX 
 
 Moses, r24ff; from Moses to Elijah 
 and Elisha, 125. 
 
 Nahum, The Message of, 140. 
 
 Nehemiah to the opening of the 
 Christian era, From, 97 
 
 New Testament, Contents of the, 
 8; transmission of the, 25; per- 
 manent religious value of the, 
 42; the books of the, 8, 163; 
 time. of writing the, 175; lan- 
 guage of the, 175; dates assigned 
 to the books of the, 176. 
 
 New Testament came to be, How 
 the, 175. 
 
 New Testament Canon, Origin aud 
 growth of, 24. 
 
 New Testament estimate of the 
 Bible, 16. 
 
 New Testament literature, Various 
 kinds of, 13. 
 
 New Testament times, 153. 
 
 Numbers, The Book of, 64. 
 
 Obadiah, The message of, 141. 
 
 Olid Testament, Contents of the, 
 8; books of the, 8; different 
 kinds of literature in, 9; pro- 
 phetic literature of, 10; wisdom 
 literature of, 10, 111; devotional 
 literature of, 11, 99, 103; legal 
 literature of, 12; historical litera- 
 ture of, 12; transmission of, 25; 
 permanent religious significance 
 of, 40; poetry in, 99; specuiative 
 wisdom in, 116. 
 
 Old Testament canon, Origin and 
 growth of the, 23. 
 
 Palestine, physical and political 
 geography of, 155; political and 
 religious parties in, 157. 
 
 Parallelism, Antithetic, Iol. 
 
 Parallelism, Synthetic, or Con- 
 structive, 102. 
 
 Parallelism, Synonymous, ror. 
 
 Paul, The birth and childhood of, 
 205 ; education, 206; early career, 
 207 ; conversion and early Chris- 
 tian life, 207f; career as apostle 
 to the Gentiles, 210; first mis- | 
 
 239 
 
 sionary journey, 210; second 
 missionary journey, 212; third 
 missionary journey, 219 ; the 
 closing years, 223; his situation 
 preceding his death, 225; the 
 man and his work, 226; chro- 
 nology of the life of, 229. 
 
 Paul, The life and letters of, 205. 
 
 Pentateuch, The, 59; historical 
 portions of, 59; legal portions 
 of, 68f. 
 
 Peter, The First Epistle of, 231. 
 
 Peter, The Second Epistle of, 231. 
 
 Pharisees, The, 157. 
 
 Philemon, The letter to, 222. 
 
 Philippians, The letter to the, 222. 
 
 Philosophy among the Hebrews, 
 rire 
 
 Pious, The, 159. 
 
 Poetic composition, Species of, 
 102, 
 
 Poetry in the Old Testament, 99. 
 
 Poetry, essential characteristics 
 of, 100. 
 
 Prophecy, The nature and func- 
 tion of Hebrew, 124. 
 
 Prophet of Israel, Moses the first 
 great, 124; the literary prophets 
 and their dates, 126; the task 
 of the eighth century prophets, 
 127; the seventh century proph- 
 
 ets, 137; the prophets of the 
 exile, 141; prophets after the 
 exile, 144. 
 
 Prophetic Literature, Io. 
 
 Proverbs, The Book of, 113; con- 
 tents of, 113; value of, 115. 
 
 Psalms and the rest of the Old 
 Testament, 105. 
 
 Psalms in the life of devotion, 
 The place of, 104. 
 
 Psalms, The book of, 104. 
 
 Psalms, The classification of, 105ff. 
 
 Psalms, The date and authorship 
 of the, 108, 
 
 Psalter, The compilation of the, 
 109. 
 
 Reformation, Bible Translations 
 of the period of the, 28. 
 
 Religious value of the Bible, The 
 unique, 38. 
 
240 
 
 Religious and Social conditions 
 in the lifetime of Jesus, 159. 
 
 Response of the human heart and 
 conscience to the Bible message, 
 
 19. 
 Revelation, The Book of, 234. 
 Roman period, The, 154. 
 Romans, The letter to the, 220. 
 Ruth, The Book of, 76. 
 
 Sadducees, The, 158. 
 
 Samaria, The location of, 155. 
 
 Samaritans, The, 159. 
 
 Samuel, The Books of, 80. 
 
 Saul and his reign, 82. 
 
 Solomon and his reign, 84. 
 
 Song of Songs, The Book of, ra1ff; 
 different interpretations of, 121 ; 
 the aim of, 122. 
 
 Speculative Wisdom iv the Old 
 Testament, 116. 
 
 Study the Bible, How to, 46; 
 reading is not study, 46; literary 
 method of, 47; devotional, 47; 
 dangers of unsystematic study, 
 47; by characters, 49; topical, 
 49; by books, 50, 52; critical 
 method, 51; attitude of mind 
 and heart in, 54. 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Testimony of the ages to the 
 Bible, 35. i 
 Thessalonians, First letter to the, 
 
 214. 
 
 Thessalonians, Second letter to 
 the, 214. 
 
 Timothy, The first letter to, 224. 
 
 Timothy, The second letter to, 
 225. 
 
 Translations of the Bible, 26; 
 early translations, 26; .early 
 Anglo-Saxon and early English, 
 27; of the period of the Refor- 
 mation, 28. 
 
 Version, The Authorized, 31. 
 Version, The American Revised, 
 
 33- 
 
 Version, The “‘ English” Revised, 
 32. 
 
 Wisdom Literature, 10, 111ff. 
 
 Wisdom movement, The growth 
 of the, 112. 
 
 Wise Men, The aim and function 
 of the, III. 
 
 Zealots, The, 158. 
 Zechariah, The-message of, 144. 
 Zephaniah, The message of, 135. — 
 

 

 
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