Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924085361131 CORNELL UNIVERSKY LIBRARY 3 1924 085 361 131 In compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 1999 (l^otneU Itninetattg SItbrarg Strata, S^etn ^pcb BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME O^ THS FISKE ENDOWMENT FUND THE BEQUEST OF \ \ WILLARD FISICE LIBRARIAN OF THE UNIVERSITY 1666-1883 1905 THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA THl RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA EMBRACING A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE ART IN ITALY, GERMANY, FRANCE AND ENGLAND—SHOWING THE CAUSE OF THE FALLING BACK OF THE ENGLISH SCHOOL IN THE MODERN PERIOD AND THE COMPENSATION WHICH THAT FALLING BACK INVOLVED. JOSEPH GODDARD Author of "The Rise of Music," " Tiie Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression in Music, ' etc. NUMEROUS MUSICAL EXAMPLES PORTRAITS AND FACSIMILES London .- Wm. reeves, 83 Charing Cross Road, W.C. MCMXI nil Printed by The New Temple Press, 17 Grant Roadr Croydon. CONTENTS. Introduction SECTION I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. Ch.iptek. I. The Sixteenth and Beginning of the Seventeenth Centuries ... ... ... ... ... 5 Ch-II'teii II. The Oi'era Buffa, its Rise and its Composers ... ... ... ... 13 Chai'ter III. Rossini and Verdi and Their Contem- poraries ... ... . 22 SECTION II. GERMAN OPERA. Chapter IV. Singspiel 35 Chapter V. Wbbek and His Works 43 Ch.\pter VI. Wagner 52. Chapter VII. Wagner and New Ideas Introduced by Him 59 VI Lontents. SECTION I] J. THE CREATION OF FRENCH OPERA. PACK Chapter VIII. Lulli and the E.uily Wkiters ... ... 73 CHArTER IX. The Devbloi'ment of French Oi'kha ... 81 Chapter X. The Rise of Opera Comique 98 Chapter XI. French Opera i'rom Hbkold to Goinod and Bizet . . ... ... ... ■■■ •■■ •■• 113 SECTION IV. ENGLISH OPERA. Chapter XII. English Music down to the Restoi<.\- TION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 131 Ch.\ptbr XIII. After the Restoration to the Death OP Purcell ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 142 Chjvpter XIV From the Death oe Purcell to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century ... ... ... 155 Chapter XV. The Taste of the English for Ideal Drama. The Special Influence of Handelian Oratorio ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 164 Ch.4pter XVI. The Help of a Strong Native School. Our Influence upon Sacred Musical Dr.\ma ... ... 171 Chjvpter XVII. Sir Edw.ird Elgar ... ... ... 17C SECTION V. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY DRAMATIC WORK. WITH SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON DEBUSSY AND MODERN ART FORMS. Chapter XVIII. Some Tendencies of Contemporaneous Dramatic Work ... ... ... ... 184 Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 205 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. FAGK 1. Facsimile I'Iiom MS. of Serenade from "Don Juan" Frontispierc 2. GiusEPi'E Verdi 16 3. GioACCHiNO Antonio Kossini ... ... ... ... 24 4. Carl Maria von AVebeu' ... ... ... ... ... 64 o. Giovanni Battista I.ri.i.i ... ... ... ... ... 91 6. Facsimile from MS. of Glick's " Alceste " ... 112 7. Charles Francois Goinod ... ... ... ... 120 8. Sir Henry Rowiey Bi.'iHor ... ... ... ... 144 9. Henry Purcell .. ... ... ... 152 10. Facsimile from an Aiuiancement by Dr. Arnb of the National Anthem, "God Save the King " ... 160 11. Facsimile Title of Handel's Oreea, "Tamerlane" 168 12. Sir Ed\v.\rd Elgau 176 13. Richard Wagner 192 14. MoDESTE Petrovich Moussorcsky ... .. ... 200 A Comparative View of the Development of Opera in Italy, Germany, France and England. INTRODUCTION. IN commencing this work I have to refer to a few obvious truths. The musical art of a people appeals to the whole musical world virtually as directly as it does to the people of the country in which it arises; or, to put the matter briefly : the language of music is cosmopolitan. Nevertheless each people has its special taste and leaning. Thus, taking Italy, Germany, France and England, it may be said, speaking generally, that the Italian style is distinguished by clear form and open beauty, the German by involved form with a deeper and more mystical expression; that the French — in its lighter aspects inevitably piquant — is in its more serious, characterised by propriety and distinction of phrase, whilst the English has at least the humble virtues of simplicity and sincerity. 1 p 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. It is well known that the rising to powerful mani- festation of the art in one country, influences it more or less in other countries. Thus the difference of potential (to borrow a phrase from electrical science) was once with the Flemish school, which by the middle of the sixteenth century had made its mark in every city in Europe. But while this was so, it may be said that the other schools still held their own — each retain- ing its native style and individuality. As regards this country, from the beginning of the sixteenth to the end of the seventeenth centuries our composers at least stood upright, and appreciative of what was doing abroad but not overshadowed, pursued the even tenor of their way without apparent cause for misgiving as to the future. To glance preliminarily at the state of the art in the above mentioned four countries at this period : First, in Italy, towards the end of the sixteenth and at the beginning of the seventeenth centuries, vocal solo, which had been already essayed tentatively in pas- torals written for the greater part in madrigal style, was adopted for the first time as a leading form by Peri, Cavaliere and Caccini. Secondly, in Germany, the development of the fugal form (derived from the Flemish school) and the assiduous cultivation of the organ, were form ing that style of rich, involved part-writing which is a speciality of the German school; and this together with the vogue of the choral with organ accompaniment INTRODUCTION. 3 (which set in after the Reformation) was preparing the way for Heinrich Shultz, J. S. Bach and Handel. Thirdly, in France, towards the end of the sixteenth century the ballet (which included vocal music for solo and chorus, as well as orchestral accompaniment to numerous dances) was preparing the brilliant saissisant style of opera special to the French, their graver music having been then recently influenced by the settings by Claude Lejeune and Goudimel, of the psalms of Marot and Beza. Fourthly, turning to England, the polyphonic style in sacred music having at the hands of that distinguished group of composers which included Tye, Tallis, Byrd, Redford, Farrant and Orlando Gibbons, reached its highest point of development, and the madrigal become a national institution, the school of the Restoration had arisen (distinguished by that peculiarly beautiful form, the verse-anthem), and the madrigal become succeeded by the glee — also a form special to our school, and which aided in the development of the artistic song. Then towards the end of this, the seventeenth century, came the combined breadth, clearness and originality of Purcell. Thus on the surface during these two centuries (the sixteenth and seventeenth) the state of the art in this country did not compare unfavourably with its state in the other three countries. But beneath the surface there was a vital difference. In the cases of Italy, Germany and France, the conditions held within them- selves a future not only glorious in new creation but in- 4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. volving a state of the art in which the respective native leanings were de&nitely and permanently rooted; but in our case the conditions did not hold within themselves such a future as this. Our church music was destined to be carried on (as it is still being carried on) by no unworthy hands, and the glee was destined to develop to what it became in the enduring achievements of Bishop and de Pearsall; but no born Englishman was destined to take the torch from Purcell and ensue the national style in works of large calibre. Now a comparison of the respective dramatic develop- ments of the above mentioned four schools tends to throw light on the cause of the important difference just referred to. I propose, therefore, in the following pages to give a sudcinct account of those developments with the view of making such a comparison. At the same time I shall suggest that the falling out of the race on our part was not a true decline, in that it in- volved a great and still living compensation. SECTION I. The Development of Opera and Oratorio in Italy. CHAPTER I. IN Italy opera arose out of the Pastoral, and ora- torio (which belongs to the dramatic genus) out of the Mystery with rtiusic; and each attained its ultimate general form between the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. The Pastoral as it appeared in Italy was a develop- ment of the single idyllic scene of the eclogue, into a drama ; and the first known to exist, the " Favolo di Orfeo," which appeared at Milan in 1472, was tragic in subject; but the taste for this form of drama so grew that in the course of the following century it became a favourite form with some of the best poets both for subjects tragical and pastoral proper, and towards the last quarter of the century was the- more particularly adopted in that it supplied pieces that could be acted 5 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. in the little court theatres that were then everywhere springing up. In a short time music was added, and this rapidly became so indispensable that the little forms of tragedy and pastoral became ultimately merged in opera. Of course, Italy being the central ground of Roman civilization, and this having been in touch with ancient Greek and even Egyptian, some form of dramatic performance with music must have ^ existed there from time immemorial — as the saying goes ; but it is between the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries when we come in Italy upon the path of work leading definitely to modern opera and oratorio. Up to this period the music of the pastoral was, as a rule, written in madrigal style, so that the musical utterance of the cha'racters had little freedom either of form or expression; but towards its end, in the princi- pal countries of Europe, the instinct of composers was pressing towards more individualistic expression, and in doing so modifying the prevalent multi-voiced forms in the direction of vocal solo. The outcome of this movement in Italy was the neiu music (" nuovo musiche") as it was called. It was simply music for a single voice with instrumental accompaniment. This development soon branched out into the two lines of expression — recitative, properly so-called, and the aria or artistic song. Though originally devised for the Pastoral, recita- tive was first heard in Oratorio. This form of work, OPEliA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 7 as I have said, sprang from the Mystery. One, Phillip of Neri, in the time of Palestrina founded an order of preachers which was destined to supply the Church with many eminent men. The church in which he preached came thus to be called the church of the Oratorio. Wishing to draw around him the largest number of listeners he conceived the idea of utilising the attraction of music. He accordingly employed the poet Animuccia to write a series of pieces suitable for being set to music, based upon the ancient mystery. The resulting works embraced dances and scenery as well as music (which in conformity with the then general custom to which I have referred, was written in madrigal style), and several were pro- duced in Rome with the greatest success. As the reader will have gathered, it is from having been first given in this particular church that this form of work has ever since been called Oratorio. It was in this church that on February, 1600 (by when recita- tive had begun to be employed by the more advanced musicians) there was performed a mystery written by Laura Guidiccioni, of Lucca, and set by Emilio del Cavaliere, entitled the " Rapresentazione del anima e corpo," in which the new style of music was adopted, and this was the first occasion on which it was sub- mitted to a formal audience. The first occasion on which recitative in opera was given before a general audience was in the following October when the " Orpheus and Euridice," written by 8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Ottavio Rinuccini, the music by Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini, was performed at the Pitti Palace, Florence, in the course of the fetes given to celebrate the marriage of Mary de Medici and Henry IV of France. The last mentioned performance had been antici- pated with the greatest interest by musicians and the artistic world in general, and its success was so decided that the example of Florence spread quickly to Naples, Mantua, Milan, and every important town in Italy. Venice answered in 1607 with the " Orpheus "of Claude Monteverde who set himself to carry still further the style initiated by Peri and Caccini, the leading princi- ple of which was dramatic expression. His recitative, accordingly, was far more realistic than theirs whilst his harmony was bolder. Subsequent composers, however, as we shall see, refused to confine themselves to a musical form con- sisting of broken effect which though it may claim to be more realistic than song is really not so natural. To pass from speech to song is a change that does some- times occur in life, but to pass from speech to recitative or musical declamation is a thing that we cannot con- ceive a person doing when acting in a natural way. Besides, the Italian musical genius was too full and strong to resist soaring into that larger atmosphere of ineffable feeling that only melody can distil into ex- pression. At the same time these succeeding composers never quite forgot the lesson of Peri and Caccini. In OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY, 9 1 63 1 an oratorio was produced in Rome by Domenico Mazzocchi, entitled "Querimonia di S. Maria Madde- lena," in which that style (used largely by Spohr and Mendelssohn) of continuous vocal expression consist- ing of mingled recitative and melody, is anticipated. This mingling may be just observed in the following example from the above mentioned work. Example i. Domenico Mazzocchi {circa 1631). y ' l> -^E3_^ j^ f ^ 3_^ K-tF^^— • -^ a«_ «!/ r ir ir Ben vuol sa ■ nar - la il re • den • to re'i ^ Up to about the time we have now reached it was only in connection with court festivities that musicians could put themselves in evidence in important secular works. But in 1637 a theatre was opened for the first time to the general public for musical performances, this being the theatre of San Cassiano in Venice; and henceforth for good or evil the public taste had its share in the development of opera in Italy. In the new style, now fairly started, the Italian genius found its wings and soared. Then melody rose like a sun shedding beams of ineffable warmth and beauty not only over Italy but every musical land. In Italy itself composers rose in abundance; the 10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. air was filled with inspired strains; opera was created. Among the leading composers of this, the opera's pristine time, were Cavalli, Carissimi and Cesti, of whose respective powers in beauty and expression the following examples may serve to give some indication. Example 2 From the air, "Delizie contente," in the opera, Gimone. Andanlino mosso. Francesca Cavalli, 1610 (i599)-i676. ■^■ ^M ^g^E9-2feE^z^: ifci^-— q^r^zii -W--S \ ^ ^ -i. -.— P ^3 De - li - z'e mie ca - re fer ma - te - vi qui : '— h-fe-7> — ' N~i— >^*- •»-F-' |- ^M ELfeifi 4-*- i-^1 /. _^z|zt=r i .^_^_ -^-^-- Jtiai 1^=5 St s^v5v:^;=^3v==i=:3-^^5. non .<;o p u bra -ma- re, mibas-ta co ■ ^l:^ t>^^-^- :N=rf=^ OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. I I :^y^iE^=-i^^^--|^5E^ 7t^=^z=S^9.zzZE^^^z m Mnzz si, non so piu bra - ma ■ re mi bas - ta co - si. ^=1^?: f^?: :|i=^f lEslESlE? at^] jr.; Example 3. Canto. G. G. Cakissimi {1582-1672) J- Alleg'O con biio. Biography obscure. ra" P- F' ^=332 E? "^j=F*: t?-tt =^-t= S|| Vit - to - ria ! Vit lo - ria 1 Vit • to - ria ! V.t - z3;==:i— g^l^^^^kl^igZJ 'P5 3= i; "^-- -o- -^ — ^ — •— 1 |sii^3^ to - ria, mio cc re ! '=:=!■ ~^ -f^- :^=S: 111 12 THE DEVELOPxMENT OF OPERA. Carissimi stands out from the composers of this period in that he carried on the tradition of oratorio received from Mazzocchi, more than worthily rising in his "Jephtha"to the highest level of expression reached even in this atmosphere, as shown in the final chorus of that work " Plorate &lii Israel." ( Example 4. Marco Anton ro Cesti, 1O20-1669 (?j u Largo atiiorOjO. bin portartdo la voce. — i^ai i-^^^ In tor - no al-l'i-dol f *a ^-- 5q=g- ^- -■=^- P (on delicalezzx e legato. TX \ M' CHAPTER II. USICAL historians bemoan the fact that the almost phenomenal rise of melody in Italy to which I have referred, entailed some very un- desirable results, one of which was the tyranny of the virtuoso, and another the invasion of the atmosphere of the church by music unsuited to it. But the principal evil consequence really was the loss of all serious cnaracter in the literary basis of opera, which had so degenerated as to simply serve the purpose of affording occasions for a long series of songs. Art, however, like organic nature develops by retrogression as well as advance, and it has further to be said that many of the songs and recitatives in these very works combine intense expression with a very elevated beauty — of this the following is a sufficient if short example from Alessandro Scarlatti : 14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPESA. Andante con moto. Example j. ALESSANDRO SCA RLATTl (1659-172S). HS7 ?=fi=i ± :;^-t^^ j^ Agitato r O ces - sa le di pia -gar - mi -J- ~~" * * '9' 1/ Eirfizp: Sempre legato. =:p .:!= o ?^=i^=^^=^ —Pi » — I • — • la - bcia - te ml mo - rir. ±z Nevertheless about this time, that is, towards the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, serious opera in Italy had come to consist mainly of an interminable series of airs and duets re- lieved only by a final chorus. Yet this seeming failing and lifeless form was destined to give rise to a new birth of effect in which the Italian genius awakened from its lethargy would resume its seeming ordained function of shining ever onward with a light which if rivalled can never be eclipsed. In order to relieve the OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 1 5 monotony to which I have just alluded it had become customary to introduce between the acts an interlude in the form, sometimes of a ballet, sometimes of a little comedy- — the characters being borrowed from the tradi- tional Italian Masque. Then what happened ? The absolute freedom of treatment permitted in these little entr'actes released such an exuberance of activity hitherto suppressed — such a world of qualities hitherto dormant — that, as I have said, in the midst of the fore- going stagnation the life of music was renewed. Out of the free style of these slight compositions, fraught as they were with an irrepressible buffoonery — though never divested of amiable feeling — there grew a more versatile originality — more variety in vocal style, a subtler feeling of the scene and richer instrumentation — than had ever existed' before in opera properly so- called. Thus arose Opera bujfa. Then, in time, this form and character of piece took root outside serious opera, and the two forms of opera went on independ- ently. When fully developed opera buffa consisted of two acts— a grand -finale coming in at the end of the first, and this division remained classical up to the last century. The new style began its flight with Pergolesi, and for over a hundred years it pursued its path in the musical heaven of Italy through galaxies of composers that, like stars, only differed from one another in glory. Henry Lavoix, in his history of music, describes this period in Italian opera in some detail. Being when he wrote a keeper in the " Bibliotheque Nationale," Paris, 1 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. and thus having special opportunity of studying deliberately the various scores, his critical comments — which are keenly appreciative — are very valuable. The following notes which I have made of his longer enumeration and examination of composers and their works in this style, may therefore serve to give the reader a somewhat discriminative impression of this important episode in operatic history. Pehgolesi, Giovanni Batista (Jesi, 1710-36). Is found at the two musical poles in the " Serva Padrona" and "The Stabat Mater " (that is one cry of grief, moving and profound). His music is everywhere recognisable by that truthful yet tender and delicate note which characterises him. Whether in the pretty couplets of the "Serva Padrona," in the virgin weeping at the foot of the cross, or in a ditty coming to the ear through the lovely nights of the Gulf of Naples, he is always at the same time a touching poet and an inspired musician. RiNALDO DA Capua (Plaisance, 1719). Died young like Per- golesi, applied to comic and half comic opera a more finished style of instrumentation than his predecessors. A better ex- ample could perhaps not be given than the finale of the "Zingara" (1783). LoGROsciNO, Nicolas (Naples, born about 1700). Increased still further the proportions of the finale. Traetta, Thomas (Bitonto, 1727 ; died Venice, 1779). Was bold in modulation and ingenious in his orchestration. His genius was greater than his modesty. As was then the custom with Italian composers he took the clavichord at the first perform- ance of his works ; and when the performance arrived at cer- tain pieces upon which he particularly reckoned, he would turn round towards the audience and say loudlj' : " Now, ladies and gentlemen, attention ! this is the moment !" GuGLiELMi (Massa, 1727 ; died Rome, 1803). Is classed with Cimarosa and Paesiello as among the greatest masters of the Italian school Wrote the beautiful opera, " Didone." « J } 1 \ -...^^r v^rU->- - ^^^^^^ VERDI. To jace page 16. OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 1 7 PicciNi, Nicolas (Baii, 1728; died Paris, 1800). No composer revealed a greater elegance in melody or more touching grace of expression. His works in the huff a style, or of half charac- ter, outnumber his grand operas, notwithstanding he had the strength to be the rival of Gluck. Was among those Italian composers that exercised a very important influence upon the French school. His lighter works include the "Cecchina, ossia la buona figliuola." 8arti, GiusErPE. Contemporary of Piccini. Celebrated in the archives of opera hiiffa by the " Gelosie villaue " (1770); "I pretendi delusi " (17C8) ; and above all, by the " Noces de Dorine," containing a sextet which is one of the finest things in the repertory of Italian comic opera. Sacchini, Ant. Maeie Gasi'ard (I'ouzzoles, 1734 ; died Paris, 1780). Flouiished almost contemporaneously with Piccini and Sarti. Wrote the " Isola d'amore," performed in Paris, 17G8. Was also among the great Italian masters that influenced French ojiera. Anfossi (born at Naples in 1736). Is celebrated in the hi'.ffa style by the "Incognita persequitata " (1773); the " ]'''inta Giardiniera " (177'^; and "II Curioso indiscreto" (1777). Paesiello, Giovanni (Tarante, 1741 ; died Naples, 1816). AVrote " Frascatani," so rich in melody, his " Barber of Seville," which Rossini's has caused to be forgotten, and the capital piece of buffoonery, " Marchese Tulipano," the semi-serious opera, "II re Teodora," with its magnificent finale (Vienna, 1784), above all, "Nina, o laijazza per amore" (Naples, 1789), and "La Molinara."* Zingarelli, Nicolas Antoine (1752-1837). Wrote "Romeo e Giulieta," also " Secchio rapita." Excelled most in serious musical drama. S.ALiERi, Antoine (Legnano, 1750; died Vienna, 1825). Style ^'igorous; excelled also in serious opera. Wrote for French * From wliicU the melody, " Nel eor piu," on whiuh BcctUoven wrote the »ariationB wLiuli are so well known, is taken. c I! THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. opera some of the most beautiful works to which it has given rise. In Vienna came into rivahy with Mozart. CiMARosA (Aversa, 1749 ; died — perhaps assassinated — Naples, 1801). The greatest master of this period, and one of the greatest of all time. His chef-d'oeuvre in the comic vein is "II Matri- monio segreto," an incomparable specimen of French gaiety without noisiness, combining a charming delicacy of expres- sion with a deep feeling of the spirit of the scene. With the "Orazi et Curiazi " of this composer the Italian genius re- turned definitely to the path of serious ofiera that it had so long left. Rossini had not the mingled boivhomie, tenderness and warmth of feeling, of Cimarosa. Mozart, himself, in fancy, grace and intelligence, failed to surpass the author of the " Matrimonio segreto." If Cimarosa had not been, something would be missing from the world of music. Of the foregoing composers I have selected three from which to give examples. It is interesting to observe that whilst the note of Handel is clear in the first (Pergolesi), those of both Haydn and Mozart are distinct in the last (Cimarosa). Example 6. From the air, "A serpina penserete," in La sere a padrona. G. B. Pergolesi, 1710-1736. f^^s^s^ M-^^^V^^^ pen - se • OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 19 ^-^P. ■^-t=- f^-E^^^^^i 9 , - le - te qual'Che vol ■ ta e qualche di,... e di ■ ij ri^-i^ -^g-^-H -— ^ -i -*-»-T ^-«— -) —I --1— -4— ' -u :^^=^: :?:3 rrT~i gi ^gzfes^rlfe^HgE^ f ^=g; ^"?^ rtt*: e di-re - te: ah! po-ve - ri - na, ^ ...J-_:^ I I^fE?= -?•- Example 7. From ihe air, " Se il ceil mi divide," in Attssandro tulle Indie. N. PicciNNi, 1728-1800. Allegio agitato. iw- :ci: Se il ciel mi di :-lB5 V- bi'-F--— b--* §!.^"^Pill^^ 2f I' J ^-i « m-0 m-»-«-m »-;~a-»-m-»-»-m — m — « ,-* 1 20 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. ^>^_^ =g: =5^=03 vi - de dal ca to mio spo • so. ;^?:3 ^-=5=:: i^il^l =d=3: ( Example 8. Kiom ihe air, " Perdonale, signor mio," in 11 matriinonio segrtto. Allegretto con moto. I). Cimarosa, 1749-1801. Carolina. —Mznui, ^i-$-^ =n^#.^^ Per,- do na te, sig - nor mi • o, se vi i-*-- sf sf sf ./■—• ^14 -o- mi^E ^E^ sf sf I 1 -a zai —SI :=iz:«=gX'^»-?i--^-*-^-"- las-cioe fo par - ten- zi. ^:S.-'-= z^-n ^-^ -a-S-^r^-*-" :^=t:-i / & s -g- gll*^ i i- -k -_,_^_i= : —z * ^-r-pr . ...J 1 -' 1 OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 21 M * — lo per ei ^1 ;e re ec-cel-len- za. il -a-- CHAPTER III. ONE reflection which the foregoing account of opera buffa is calculated to induce in the English reader, is the decided taste in Italy for this species of art at the period, which it reveals. Another is the abundance of genius that rose at the prompting of that taste. In .this latter fact there is perhaps also a moral for the English reader, which is, that where there is a deep and widespread taste for a certain form of native art the genius requisite for supplying that taste is likely to be forthcoming — not that the taste creates the genius, but that it favours its development, and so prevents much being lost. Soon after Cimarosa — perhaps I should say, with Cimarosa, another change in the direction of greater variety in expression began to prepare — and particu- larly a new wave of melody. The tendencies of this change were caught up and set forth organically by Rossini and carried on in new phases of expression by Bellini and Donizetti. The respective styles of these 22 OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 23 three composers are well known : Rossini's, architec- tural in symmetry, decorative, ornamental, yet with occa- sional revelations of an in&nite majesty, an ineffable beauty, which the greatest must acknowledge. Bellini's, peculiarly sincere and touching. Donizetti's, deli- cately sensitive or graphic — tender or tragic — warm with sunshine of feeling or burning with dramatic fire. Here let not the partisan of the greatest of more recent masters boast or for a moment give way to the slightest feeling for belittling — as they wish to be credited with a sensibility that is not shallow and some possession of the historic sense. All music grows old, or at most only a remnant is saved. But in " Lucia di Lammer- moor" Donizetti gave much of the atmosphere as well as of the romance and pathos of Scott's story. And perhaps it may be said that no generation of opera- goers can have had more reason to be devoutly thank- ful for the boon of genius than those who heard the sound of these masters when it was newly in the air. Each of them, moreover, did some things which the greatest of their successors did not do — perhaps could not possibly have done — for in the dispensation of genius as of beauty in nature, each various manifesta- tion has a charm which belongs to it alone. Among the more illustrious of those composers who carried on the Cimarosa tradition was Valentino Fiora- vanti (1770-837). In the following extract from this composer may be observed much of the freedom and gen- eral style of Rossini. It is thus an interesting illustration of the period of transition between Cimarosa and Rossini. 24 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Example 9. From the Cavatina, " Femmine," in Ilritorno di Columella. FlORAVANTi (1770-1837). pP^-II^JEPJ^iglg ^l^iE^ ^^ZS fem-mi-ne, per me vi di - co fem-mi-ne, fem-mi-ne, EE^a^/^E j£=p- ■■«^i V - C0 — — tf Jt. _i — It 1 1 — « — =Ert=-b: "E: £3=: :^=l:— t: i ;-!;«-;^- ,b* -ft-ft-ft. i fem-mi-ne vi di - co femmine, femmine, femmine, femmine, 1-^ .a t^^-^=-E= ■ — iS" S** »- -a -*-*- -*- -*- -(•- -tf- Sg£gE^^S3:E|*|=i:^=9=g3=i ■^MsM^M^M^^h femmi-ne che sie-tenate, u fem-mi-ne, per far -cidis-pe-rar, "':: — — '4 ■ c^czu~ '^ 1^ — tr I — *— pM-^-*-Fj-r — -?-• — -a ■jji :P= ,-~P- ^>^ - « - — c T- ic-ziq _'•"■' -l"%-(«: r-" ip— =«=|z=F=t: ffi ROSSINI. To face jioge "2!,. OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 25 It may give some approach to a definite idea (going by dates) of the musical atmosphere at the opening of Rossini's career if I mention that in the year of "Tan- credi " ( 1 8 1 3), when he was twenty-one, the " Matrimonio segreto " of Cimarosa would have been also twenty-one years old — it having been produced in the same year as that of Rossini's birth (1792) — and Mozart would have been dead thirty-one years. Several composers, however, who figured at this period had become influenced by Mozart. Among these were Ferdinand Paer (Parma, 1771 ; Paris, 1839), and Michel Carafa (Naples, 1787 (5); Paris, 1872). Distinguished predecessors (in style) of Rossini were also Francois Morlacchi (Perugia, 1784; Innsbruck, 1 841), and Simon Mayer (Mendorf, 1763; Berycimo, 1845) — the latter celebrated by his operas of "Saffo" ( 1 794) and " Ladoiska " ( 1 800). It may have been partly from the effect of these composers on the musical atmosphere of his youth that Rossini acquired that German note that was not the less real because it was so perfectly assimilated in the effect of his melody, for all whose musical appreciation is unwarped by partisanship must feel that at certain moments Rossini attains subtle phases of expression in the use of harmony only possible to the consummate melodist. The unceasing fertility of Italy in melody was again to be proved in Guiseppe Verdi (Busetto, 1813), as like to his predecessors in beauty as one flower is to 26 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. another, and as different as a certain flower may be to a markedly different flower. He followed Donizetti in dramatic feeling but with added strenuousness and vehemence of expression — in this respect rising to a force of style which has been sustained amid fresh developments byjiis successors, Mascagni, Leoncavallo and Puccini. In his later style — in " Falstaff " and "Othello" — he marks the beginning of a new wave of German influence on the Italian style. This consists of the supersession of sustained melody in the voice- part by declamatory effect and recitative attended by copious illustrative accompaniment. The gain in this method — where there is gain — is the enlarged scope it affords for orchestral illustration. Speech-like phrases in music, unless falling into some approach to a melodic design or attended by accompanying effect of intrinsic interest, are infinitely less expressive than speech alone. No possible musical interval in itself can compare in delicacy or fulness of expression with the human intonation unadorned. Whereas a musical interval involves a defined and stereotyped pitch-rela- tion the simplest natural modulation of the voice in speech passes through such subtle gradations of pitch as to become expressive not only of the finest nuances of feeling, but of a world of min- gled feelings. I can give a special illustration of this from my own experience. I was present at one of the few performances that have taken place of Byron's " Manfred." As the reader will remember, the scene OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 27 between Manfred and the vision of Astarte terminates with a single word — " Manfred ! " — said in answer to Manfred's final appeal, which ends thus: "One word for mercy! Say thou lovest me!" The part of Astarte was taken by a Miss Leclerc, a young, talented and prepossessing actress of that day. But her utter- ance of that one word, " Manfred," though perfectly simple and natural, was, whilst beautifully musical for speech, so copiously expressive and revealing as to move the whole house. But the touch of nature, wanting in the isolated musical interval, betrays itself when even an approach is made to the more extended form and mysterious beauty of melody, and this may be more than inter- esting. It may point to an explanation of the fact that actual melody on the one hand and human in- tonation, unadorned, on the other, have in common a special and peculiar expressive power. For in each case the fitch passes through several gradations — ob- vious in the melody but in the intonation only felt in the result. Thus both may have a certain broad reach in their influence within^Tis. The melody may stir the same susceptibilities of association to which the intonation is subtly attuned. This power in melody of supplying the expression wanting in mere speech- like musical intervals explains, perhaps, the fact that, notwithstanding the great increase of the dramatic spirit apparent in Mozart and Beethoven, and attain- ing a climax in Weber, these composers still adhered 28 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. to giving a definite melodic form to their declamation and recitative. It was found, however, as time went on that even this limited adherence to the melodic principle tended to give to the voice-part a conventional and stereo- typed expression, and hence the change so fully exem- plified by Wagner in his matured style, of conforming the voice-part with absolute freedom. As we shall see in the next section, he holds himself free when it suits him to transfer all melodic prompting to the accom- paniment. That the Wagnerian style is destined to exercise an important influence, not only upon opera but music generally, cannot be douoted. But that it is not destined to dominate the opera of the future is already evident in the present new vitality of the Italian school. There is one thing connected with the world of music that stands partly out of and above that world, namely, the effect of the human voice, as a human voice, in even the humblest strain. I was particularly struck with this one evening at a church recital in listening to a lady who had a rich contralto voice. The song was certainly beautiful and solemn as well as simple, but a certain sustained note in which the ex- pression inherent in the voice told fully, seemed to ex- ceed its special function in the musical context and in- duce a state of absolute feeling — "the feeling infinite" — moving consciousness to its depths. For the few OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 29 moments during which I listened to that one note I seemed to have a sense of all the wonder of creation — all the glory, pathos and mystery of life. And there may be more in such an experience than a mere stirring of fancy or imagination. For the vast potentiality of association which we have inherited from the use of speech through unknown ages, may be momentarily awakened by some of the searching tremors of a beauti- ful voice.* Yet such an effect as this can only be pro- duced in the ordered course of some kind of sustained melody. Thus it seems inconceivable that the general ear and heart will be satisfied to lose entirely this beauty in opera. The two eternal verities in music are the human voice and melody; from these it arose, and these, whatever forms may wax or wane, will endure concurrently with humanity itself, because their charm lies at the inmost springs of feeling. But this argument takes us still further; if opera is to continue to exhibit all the beauty and expression of the human voice, it must also preserve some kind of concerted effect because in this the peculiar beauty or expression of one voice is brought out with particular vividness by being contrasted with another. This is obvious in the effect of ordinary duets, trios, quartets, etc., but it is specially striking in the combined and * See my work, "The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music," page 71. 30 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. successive utterances involved in concerted pieces in opera. In speaking of Rossini I ventured to state that cer- tain subtle phases of expression in the use of harmony are possible only to the consummate melodist. The following extracts from Puccini's "La Boheme" in- dicate how subtly this composer avails himself of recent harmonic developments : Transition from D Flat to F. [By the fifth degree of the scale of D flat being treated as the sharpened fifth of the common chord on the fifth degree of the scale of F major.] Example io "Che gelida manina.' :re^-a— =!^^=T* -==-_-=:f__ — — -^=|LLg I am, In the following example the familiar sequence which the accompaniment involves tends to modify the impression produced by the mordant discords, by im- parting a certain method to their occurrence. OPERA AND ORATORIO IN ITALY. 31 Example ii. (Rudolph.) (Mimi.) i:zz izi-E—'i Spring ! No, the si - mi - le i£3"B=g" H _ - -.S- M :?,;^^^ -^i: -^=^^^ =-r^SE r-^3=c=:^=-^j2=t3:.: :;^5=zzi| fits not ; you meant to say : I ». n II .__ y. . iil=il /',"/' unfoco. 4 animalo. ,^S I' ' ' -^ > . . V ^oftf >-»/^. £1:3; fair as the flame of sun - set. 13 ; /Ota J a//. 3 a 3=: -I 2 *- i^3^|id:J«-z3 ^=i2=^i- Etp i?#- I O-m 3 J. F' 32 THE DEVELOPMENT OK OPERA. In the following example (at D, second bar), we observe the employment of a secondary seventh ex- tending, as it were, the foothold of the melody. ) Example 12. ;^^Ei^i^i^g3fiE-^^fe^j The flowers I fa-shion, a - las I have no per- fume. EteSi^=3=! — iV— "SZ^: /oco tit. ZC2-. Zl^-flZ :q=^;:n<= -■m-U SECTION II. GERMAN OPERA. CHAPTER IV. THE defined path of German opera, like that of Italian, is traceable to a story illustrated by music, but in Germany the primitive work is called a singspiel. This was a play consisting of dialogue and songs, and appears to have originated in those quaint entertainments (called in some cases mysteries, in others, miracle plays') which were based upon episodes from the Old and New Testaments and given at certain seasons, both outside as well as inside churches and cathedrals, the occasions being generally the eves of the great festivals. Dr. Franz Gehrung, of Vienna, states that it was from those given outside — as being of a freer and (ultimately) of a humorous character — that the singspiel more directly developed, these being the miracle plays, to which the passions (performed within) gave rise; and that it was in the plays given outside that the German language gradu- ally superseded the Latin — at first m the dialogue and afterwards in the songs. He also gives the name of 36 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. a German miracle play in which all the words are sung in German, this being "Spiel voss den zehn jung framen," which was performed at Eispenach in 1322. In 1678 a singspiel was brought out at the theatre, Hamburgh, entitled "Adam and Eve" (a name which betrays obviously its scriptural source) and composed by John Theile (1646-1724). Twenty-five years later opera at this theatre received such an important im- pulse at the hands of Reinhard Keiser (Leipzig, 1673 '< Hamburgh, 1739), who then (in 1703) became its direc- tor, that he is regarded largely as the founder of German opera itself. He remained director until his death, that is, for about thirty-six years, having com- posed the greater portion of the works which were produced, under his directorship, during this long interval. It is an interesting speculation what was the precise style of music that prevailed at the above theatre during Reiser's regime. W. S. Rockstro having ex- amined some of the original MSS. of Keiser which were discovered by Polchou in 18 10 and are now in Berlin, says that his style is pure German. But Matheson, who was not only a contemporary of Keiser, but a composer himself, and for the same theatre, and who must have been thoroughly familiar with Keiser's music, says that his melodies were " smooth and grace- ful and fell upon the ear like charmed accents," which suggests that they were of the Italian type. The fact that in the year following the beginning of Keiser's GERMAN Opera. yj directorate, Handel, at this theatre, entered upon his active career, is suggestive in this connection, it being here that, in 1704, he brought out his first opera, " Almira." It has been thought that, as this was prior to his going to Italy and when he was fresh from his master, Zachau, his style at this time was less melo- dious than it became, but the fact that " Lascia ch'io pianga," afterwards introduced in " Rinaldo," occurs in a saraband in "Almira" does not seem to countenance this surmise. It must be remembered that at this period all music took its tone from Italy. Still, it is far from im- probable that, connected with Reiser's type of melody, whatever that type may have been, there was special advance in his harmony and style of accompaniment — departments of the art^ which at this period were par- ticularly undergoing development in Germany as a consequence of the long exercise in the fugue and the special cultivation of organ playing that had there taken place. The fact that J. S. Bach, in some of his airs, combines an Italian type of melody with his own — that is, a pure German style of accompaniment — - harmonises with this suggestion. After Reiser's death, in 1739, the work of develop- ment in German opera was carried on by Carl Heinrich Graun (Dresden, 1701 ; Berlin, 1759). Graun, who was chapel master to Frederic the Great, composed over thirty operas as well as several impqi;tant sacred works, one of which, " Der tod Jesu," contains some excep- tionally graphic writing. 38 THE Development of opera. In the meantime a circumstance occurred not much out of the ordinary, yet that was destined to have a distinct influence on the development of German dra- matic music. This was the production in Berlin, in 1743, of a work representing a lighter kind of sing- spiel, entitled " Der Teufel ist los " (founded on the English play, " The Devil to Pay ') '.vhich, though itself not successful, was followed by two plays of similar general character (produced respectively in 1747 and 1749) which were highly successful. Thus encouraged, another company took up this lighter kind of opera, playing it in Leipzig, Weimar and Berlin, their first production in this style being, like the " Teufel ist los," also founded on the above mentioned English play. This latter version, entitled " Die ver- wand elte Weiber,'' was a great success. It was written by C. F. Weisse and composed (1767) by John Adam Hiller (near Gorlitz, 1728; Leipzig, 1804). The name of J. A. Hiller marks an important de- velopment in the German dramatic style. According to Ritter, Hiller " possessed all the qualities necessary for the successful cultivation of its lighter form — taste, knowledge, facility of musical inventiveness, mastery of popular form"; whilst, according to A. Macrewski, as well as enlarging both the form and substance of the lied proper by departing from the simple strophe and givmg his songs a specific romantic colouring in accordance with the characters that had to sing them, he introduced morceaux tV ensemble, and foreshadowed the dramatic scena. GERMAN OPERA. 39 This reference of Macrewski to the more extended form and more dramatic character of Killer's songs, touches upon a great change in these directions that was going on in the song atmosphere of Germany gen- erally, at this period. The old volkslied or simple form of native song had become supplanted by the artistic song in a simple popular form, which was called the volksthunliches lied. But beneath this simple change on the surface of the popular song there was a quickening — a creative vitality in the German heart and mind that seized upon the freer forms of poetry and music to pour itself upon expression. What is called the romantic movement was now in strong force in German literature. It may be explained as a special uprising of the spirit of individualism, in which the claims of the individual in the eye of nature and God, were reasserted. It has been suggested that there was a logical connection between the philosophy of Kant (whose theory of the ego as the principle which creates its own world, gave importance to the individual) and the new and special tendencies which literature betrayed at this period — as, for instance, the picturing a happier and more poetic state of man in the far past or in mediaeval times, or the dwelling upon the mystery of life and the wonder and glory of the external world — each in- volving a peculiarly full feeling of the personality. No two mental attitudes, however, can be much further apart than those of metaphysical speculation and art creation, and if they should at a certain time involve some likeness of principle it would by no means 40 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. follow that there would here be cause and effect. It is, therefore, probable that the above artistic tendencies were due simply to a concurrence of the natural literary idiosyncrasies of one or two writers, and the influence of these upon others. It is interesting to Englishmen to know that this movement was largely aided by Schlegel's translations from Shakespeare, and to .some extent by the influence of Sir Walter Scott, who, in early life, had drunk of its fountain. Though not the direct result of the writings of Goethe, it was anti- cipated in his songs, which were fraught with the modern feeling for nature, and it was in his lifetime that it both began and completed its course. But whatever the genesis of this romantic spirit may have been, its expression was greatly both expanded and intensified by the contemporaneous, passionate yearning and resolve of the whole German people to wrest from their kings and princes reasonable government and liberty for the free movement of ideas. Independently of the progress of singspiel in north Germany, as just described, this free form of native opera had also sprung up in Vienna, starting again (as fate seemed determined to have it) with an adapta- tion of "The Devil to Pay,"* only from a French ver- * A short account of this work, the subject of which was thus borrowed both in France and (twice, each time independently) in Germany, may here be of interest. It was written by one, Coffey, a native of Ireland (died 1745), collaborating with J. Mottley, and was produced at Drury Lane Theatre, August 6, 1731. GERMAN OPERA. 4 1 sion, " Le Diable a quatre," by Sedaine. This last German adaptation was entitled " Die doppelte Ver- vvandling." Thenceforth singsfiel became extremely popular in Vienna, and, what is more particularly to the point, Haydn, Mozart and Weber seem to have been much taken with it. Haydn wrote several small operas for the court of Esterhazy which were virtually sings fiels, and Weber considered that in " Die Ent- fiihrung" (1782), written for the opening of the National Opera (founded in Vienna in 1778) Mozart had reached the maturity of his powers. It is sugges- tive, as showing the influence of this form of work The principal characters are Jobson, a village cobbler, who considers that a wife should be ruled and as part of that pro- cess, occasionally straps his own wife, Nell ; Lady Loverule, who rules her husband and is a termagant to her servants ; and the local doctor, who, with the object of setting this out of joint condition of affairs, transports, by an act of necro- mancy, Nell and Lady Loverule, while each is asleep, to the other's bed at a time when Jobson is already up and out, and before Sir J. Loverule has got home after hunting. The puzzle- dom and humour that arise when upon Jobson's return the imperious Lady Loverule finds herself having to put on the dress of a cobbler's wife and to endure the ruling and, at last, strapping of Jobsou ; and when upon Sir J. Loverule's return he finds his supposed wife become amiable and docile (together with the surprise of the servants), may be imagined, as may be also the subduing effect of the lesson upon Lady Loverule, and the general satisfaction of all, when the charm is undone and matters are explained. It may be said generally that in skill of construction, pro- priety of treatment, literary ability and gencial tone (apart from occasional and purely superficial coarseness of language), this work has nothing to lose by comparison with any modern comic opera. 42 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. upon opera, that " Zauberflote," regarded by Beethoven as Mozart's greatest work, was styled a singspiel in the pianoforte score. Another form of free native opera was introduced about this time by one, George Benda, at Gotha, in his "Ariadne auf Naxos and Medea" (1774). In this the spoken text was accompanied throughout by a stream of illustrative effect. Here, allowing for the fact that the text is spoken instead of being musically de- claimed, the Wagnerian application of music to drama is in principle anticipated. Mozart heard some of Benda's productions in this style at Mannheim in 177^' and, according to Dr. Franz Gehrung, was delighted with its effect. In the light of this fragmentary sketch of the rise and progress of singspiel, it seems fairly clear that this departure to humorous opera was as stimulating to the German dramatic style as a similar departure at the beginning of the century had been to the Italian — tending to freedom, naturalness, more varied beauty and fuller life. CHAPTER V WE are now in a position to partly understand the leap in dramatic power made by Weber in "Der Freischiitz." This power was no doubt to some extent anticipated in his " Rubezahl "■ — written in 1806, but which has never been performed in its entirety — for the overture (familiar to concert- goers under the title of " Ruler of the Spirits "), though without the fulness and variety of " Der Freischiitz," shows in its eager stress and vigorous accent distinct signs of Weber's dramatic quality. It was, however, not before the first performance of "Der Freischiitz," June 18, 1 82 1, that Weber's dramatic genius was re- vealed fully to the general public. It was not so much the dramatic power and origin- ality in themselves, great and unsurpassed as these even now are, that constituted the remarkable advance of Weber, but their appearance so completely freed from the Italian style. It is customary to explain this emancipation as due to that individualistic spirit, 43 44 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. termed romantic, to which I have recently referred as filling the atmosphere at this period, when thought and imagination seemed to have acquired a new free- dom. As a general explanation this may serve, but the reflective mind demands more detail. Among the more definite causes, then, of the phe- nomenal dramatic advance made by Weber comes hrst genius. No feeling in the artist or influence outside him can of themselves supply that con- summate mastery of form which is a rudimentary attribute of genius ; but, given this mastery, then when the above factors are present the form assumes special character and the feeling becomes articulate. In this con- nection certain cases of that new feeling to which I have referred in speaking of the romantic spirit may be in point, for Haydn; Mozart and Beethoven were all moved by a desire for freshness of subject in opera — for, as it were, a new world of dramatic environment. The import- ance of the subject treated in bringing out the powers of a composer is so well known that to refer to it is to verge upon the commonplace. But it is not so gen- erally known that type, general character and even particular character and form in the subject may each singly bring about the revelation of powers which might otherwise never have become known. Of this a notorious example occurs in Handel, the higher and larger range of whose genius would probably never have come into evidence if he had continued, as he so strongly wished to do, GERMAN OPERA. 45 writing Italian operas. A case, however, more in point as relating to the period I am speaking of, is that of the statue music in "Don Giovanni." Here the oppor- tunity for which Mozart's soul thirsted at length came — a break in the conventional scenario of Italian opera presented itself — a breath of the romantic spirit en- tered — a moral presence appeared on the stage — with the consequence of a leap in the style of the music, carrying it above all conventionality and making it a ' living utterance for all time. Again, in Haydn's " Creation," which, be it remem- bered, was composed eleven years after "Don Giovanni," the romantic spirit is evident in much of the music. The melody, though clinging to Italian sweetness, has much of the deeper expression of the native folk-song, whilst in the freedom of the accom- paniment the romantic spirit is apparent. But this spirit is peculiarly distinct in the overture, which, un- like any of Mozart or Beethoven, breaks completely from formalism, whether by fugue or thematic treatment, and subordinates everything to graphic picturing. Seven years after the " Creation " " Fidelio " ap- peared — a work composed in great earnestness of spirit, its subject enabling Beethoven to embody and express his cherished ideal of conjugal affection. In this work, as in the " Creation," the romantic spirit is evident in both the vocal and instrumental writing, which latter, however, is characterised by that style of thematic' 46 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. treatment which is unique in the hands of Beethoven, and which, though bearing against romanticism in its accentuation of the principle of form, still favours romanticism as being a powerful implement of dra- matic expression in the combined unity, elaborateness and general importance which it gives to the accom- paniment and the descriptive writing. That Beethoven's strong feeling for thematic treat- ment in no way prevents his graphic picturing of romantic incidents is evident in the music of the dun- geon scene in the above opera. A striking effect due to a romantic incident is also that of the trumpet behind the scene, both in the opera and in the " I^eonora " over- ture. As in the " Creation," the vocal music in " Leonora " draws its more earnest note from the native volkslied ; but where it becomes passionate it takes in a fuller inspiration of primal feeling and anticipates the broad enunciation and dramatic accent of Weber — witness the following passage : ExAMPLF. 13. ■Jife :t=; der tieu - en Gat ^- H 1- =)-=!- -^-•- GERMAN OPERA. 47 In these various cases we have evidence of the romantic spirit prompting effect, anticipative of Weber. But that besides this influence, or perhaps as part of it, there had been for some time going on in the German school — in sings fiel or generally — considerable preparation, both in form and spirit, of Weber's style may be regarded as certain. In the two following examples a certain resem- blance of texture and complexion may be observed : Example 14. Haydn. "Ofi- &c. iS*^ Weber. AIso between the following two examples : 48 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Example 15. From "The Creation." Haydn. -9<3- ■-XLd- :§-.^fE^ des Ab - grunds ?e--- qtj^ ^a^irj^ '^t Tie fen bin I I 1 I I HBMi^ -I 1 1 1 ; 1 , 1 A ^—1—1— .4-1— .—.—!-• i-*-'»o •-•- -■i-^-,WV'^*q*^^-— ■^^■^-.-_— I i -P-— =tiJ«r«:«-»^-;v3:iJ:^i^7g^3^ ^1 :M- ■*=^ •Opiz =1- 3=3^[i^i ab "^--: wi - gen Nacht — ifj-j— I— 1= =^^~'n — -j— ,--i-i 3=^ — b?*-«-*-*-' — J-a-^-^-b-l — I — I — I T — '- gii*= rJrjzjd -J-J--^r q' — i— i-_:_-j- 9r-n-0-rt4-M-a @ ^r Example 16. From "Det Ftieschiitz' .«. - .« ^S- -Q-_ WtBER. — i nichts fann vom tie fen Fall dich li^^iMi^iei^^] -0- Ss^3 Zl^Dl ?& GERMAN OPERA. 49 j5— tiQ — 2^ -■ ■^- -'■• -«•: i ret • ten ! nichts ! nichts fann dich -o -•- 3 — GJ These resemblances suggest strongly that both masters drew from a common tradition. It will be observed that in the second pair of these illustrations the same kinds of supernatural suggesting induce resembling effects. This leads me to remark that Weber's illustrative power, naturally very great, was probably much stimulated in both " Rubezahl " and " Der Freischiitz " by the strong intrusion of the supernatural into their subjects. It is a remarkable fact and testi&ed to by composers generally, that in the expression of the supernatural music seem? to have a special power. In the statue music of " Don Giovanni," as in the examples just given, how suddenly and entirely the composer frees himself from all devices of special charm and proceeds to the direct illustration of his subject ! Some explanation of the remarkable sympathy between music and the supernatural may be: (i). The fundamental fact that sound appeals primarily to feel- 50 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. ing — thus not only has it always an emotional influence but this influence is unlimited, there being no feeling or phase of feeling that it does not sometimes reflect or suggest; (2). That it belongs to a region of effect largely unexplored, and thus, like an unexplored ocean, gives rise to a sense of the strange and mysterious; (3). It doe^ not present to us objects, as light does, and so is favourable for being associated with the intangible, the pervasive, and hence the spiritual. The fact that sound in music does sometimes partially, though only partially, suggest form,* so far from diminishing, tends to accentuate its power of embodying our sense of the supernatural. This is graphically illustrated in the following short extract from " Der Freischiitz," in which the darting coils of the demoniac web are almost seen. Example 17. \ ^^^ -i—tz ?^^ Um — 1^ gebt ihn, ihr Geis tet mit s-P- -^ ^Er$r-^EEz j^-i ' ^ ESf* m ^z -m- * These peculiarities in the effect of sound upon us are set forth more fully in "The DeeiJer Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music." GERMAN OPERA. 51 gfe— 2- ^-^- Dun kel be - schwingt, I ^ -^=^-- "-g' Jh=E=C^^ H^i^zEf r^E = I ^i^=lf ^PTE: 5^ CHAPTER VI, THE following list of Wagner's works may be re- garded as exemplifying his style in its various degrees and stages of development : " Tannhal'ser." First performed Dresden, 1845. " Lohengrin." First performed Weimar, 1850. "Tristan und Isolde." First performed Munich, I860. "Die Meistersinger." First performed Munich, ISfc'S. "J)as Rheingold." First performed Munich, 1869. "Die Walkure." First performed Bayreuth, 1870. "Siegfried." First performed Bayreuth, 1876. "Gotterdammerung." First performed Bayreuth, 1876. "Parsifal." First performed Bayreuth, 1882. Wagner follows in the path of Weber in that he ensues the romantic spirit and a free, strong instru- mentation, but at the same time he reveals new and enlarged scope in both these directions. Preliminarily Wagner is not simply musician but poet-musician. The spirit, character and general form of his music are contained in the conception and composition of its literary basis, in which his peculiar poetic idiosyncrasy S2 GERMAN OPERA. 53 — his leanings in fancy and philosophy — first find careful expression. It is, of course, the poetic side of Wagner's genius which has led him to pursue a special path in the field of romance — taking him back to the time of myth and legend, when imagination absorbed the greater part of man's reserved depths of thought and feeling. And it may perhaps be said that to this side of his genius (in the poetic power with which he has conjured up his scenes and characters in the large and mistily luminous space of history's dawn) the remarkable enthusiasm he has aroused is in no small degree due. As evidence of this power, take the actuality of the opening scene of the " Walkiire " — the cottage interior, with Sieg- mund lying exhausted before the dying fire as the storm without is subsiding, and the subsequent contrast — revealed by the opening of the door at the back — of the view of the forest in the lovely spring night; or take the vivid reality of the Walkyrie's wild ride through clouds and lightning to the rock on which they alight, commanding the elemental space in which, in the far distance, the cloud denoting Wotan's angered approach is descried; or take the titanic vitality of Briinnhilde ! In this connection I draw no illustration from " Par- sifal " (on which I shall make some comment very shortly) because in this work Wagner rises from poetry to the moral absolute — to breathe unmingled reverence. 54 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. I have said that the spirit, character and general form of the music of Wagnerian opera are virtually contained in the conception and expression of the poetic basis. This renders the^latter a quite different kind of work from ordinary libretto. In Wagnerian libretto the drama is unfolded in a series of large scenes in which the leading action and incident take place; whilst the complementary dramatic procedure is conjured up in the mind of the spectator by the utterance of the characters — who thus become narrators as well as actors. Further, this utterance, is often the vehicle of important poetic enlargement, so that, not- withstanding the exceptional terseness of the language — its burden being, as it were, poetically crystallised — the text in general is very extensive and copious. These facts render the libretto in Wagnerian opera as important to the power and character of the whole work as the music itself. , In illustration lof the above remarks I quote a portion of the dialogue between Siegmund and Sieglinde with which the "Walkiire" opens. It is in the alliterative verse of the original as translated by Alfred Forman — the first translation in any language — and made from the only version — that of 1877 — approved by the author. Siegmund. (Having hvrriedhj entered Hiindivc/'s cotiaqe frnvi without, icalked to the hearth, and thrown himself, being exhausted, on a covering of bear skin.) GERMAN OPERA. 55 Whose hearth here may be, Help it must bring me. (He sinks hack and remains for some time stretched ovt without movement. Sieglinde enters from the door of the inner chamber; her look trpresses earnest surprise.) Sieglinde. (Still in the background. j An unknown man ! Me he must answer. (She goes softly a few steps nearer.) Who haunts the house And lies at the' hearth? (She goes still a little nearer and looks at him. J Weary looks he With length of way : Seized him a sickness? Lost is his sense? (She bends closer to him.) He breathes with his bosom ; His lids he but lowered ; Meet and manful he seems, In his sunken might. SlEGMUND. (Suddenly raising his head.) A well ! a well ! Sieglinde. I go for water. (Slic hnrnedly takes a drinking horn, goes oiit of the house, comes back u-ith it filled and hands it to Siegmnnd.) Drink, to ease it, I offer thy dryness Water — what thou hast wished ! (Siegmnnd drinks and hands the horn back to her.) 56 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. SiBGMUND. .Fa.st with its coolness Filled me the cup, A lifted weight liightens my limbs, My mood is a man's, My eye is wide With wonted sweetness of sight ; Who wakes and welcomes me so? SlEGLINDG. The woman and house Are wealth of Hunding ; Let him lend thee his roof ; Halt till he reaches home ! As the whole of the act of which the foregoing is the opening consists of dialogue between Siegmund, Sieglinde and Hunding (with the enlarging that takes place in its course) this act may be regarded as an example of that fulness and length of, text to which I have referred as special to Wagnerian opera. I said that Wagner, whilst following Weber in de- veloping a free, bold instrumentation, reveals new and enlarged scope in carrying on the romantic spirit. An important instance of this is his use of the voice-part. Composers up to Wagner almost invariably give the voice-part a definite if fragmentary melodic form even when attended by a highly characteristic accompani- ment. This is illustrated in the extract which closes our last chapter. In the voice-part also of the fol- lowing graphic phrase melodic form may be observed both as regards measure and pitch-effect : GERMAN OPERA. Example i8. 57 P Caspar. .a. m =^^^^ -in — lz£ Schweig ! Schwei^ I Strings. da - mit dich Niem-and warnt, TyMPANI & CORNI. Now, this practice Wagner quite sets aside — as obli- gatory. He adopts it or not, as it suits him. As a rule he treats the text as a kind of musical speech of which the orchestra voices the expression — in fact, in this method the singer may be imagined as the im- mediate inspirer of the orchestra — prescribing the course of the expression like the leader of the chorus in an ancient Greek drama; thus the accompaniment may give the melody as well as the rhythm and har- mony. Here, of course, there is nothing of itself new in form; it is the extent to which the general musical de- liverance is transferred to the accompaniment that gives importance to this departure. At the same time there can be little doubt that it is a departure which is destined to affect greatly future composition for voice and accompaniment, for whilst it frees the composer from the need of using hackneyed phrases in the voice- part, it enables him to employ any form of treatment 58 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. in the range of the art which the subject may suggest; it, moreover, fits in with that changed general relation of the music to the literary text which characterises this form of opera in that the free hand it gives the composer aids him in covering the so largely increased ground. Another result of this general plan of libretto and method of treatment, is, that cumulative effect and climax, are not prepared in the construction of the music, but are simply, as it were, reflected by the music as they occur in the libretto. The wave of musical feeling thus rises and subsides more or less evenly throughout the acts; and although at the end of each a strong impression as of climax may be felt, such an impression (consistently with what I have just said) is not organic but simply the effect of the at-last-arrived-at full close. The changes in the relation of the literary text to the music, to which I have referred in this chapter, in- volve a general change in the principle of that relation which may be thus stated : the larger unity of the whole work is in the literary text alone. A certain impression as of a large unity in the music may be given by the recurrence of the characteristic motives, but these are evidence of a general organic form in the subject, not in the music. 6o THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. HxAMn.E 19. J . LB^JtE:=^ ,^ — rp 1-1 =^^1= ^|>^B_^^^^EES 3= ;o'->- Amfortas. Example 20 ein Licht-strahlsenktsich auf das hei 1" - ge ;E=''EE=^ -i^^=^^m^mM Jed. * Fed. H ;j — _ - Werk. 5-*- dm. -g-- Example 19 is the phrase associated with Briinn- hilde's fateful mission. GERMAN OPERA. 6l Example 20 is the theme associated with the Holy Grail. It is heard in the last two bars of the accompaniment. The following subject attends the administration of the Grail. Its expression is enhanced by the hushed solemnity of the harmony — placed intentionally at so deep a pitch as to be oAly just within the appreciation of the human ear : KXA.Ml'LE 21. Altos & 1st Tenors I'ety sow. Neh met hin mei-nen L il), neh-met hin mein Blut,.., PPI' una ro'da (sempre trtmX @£b- ^^EE.^ m^. ■f9 red. Fed. q. -ai- -•• g'='o — -* :•- Til- ^ . ^^-•- -•- um uns'rer Lie be Wil len! —'hi—'c^^^i Mi^^»- re ^d. =^: :1: ret Fed. 5i zd- 62 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. The above theme, by a slight change, in its repeti- tion, acquires an added intensity of expression, but this in due course subsides and the expression regains its normal solemn simplicity. The following passage, taken from the outpouring of Amfortas in which he pleads for mercy in his agony of remorse at having failed in his trust of the holy spear, exemplifies a style of construction, occupying a large space of the opera, in which voice-part and ac- companiment are given up to minute emotional ex- pression. In this kind of passage the musical texture generally is extremely complex, rendered so by almost incessant contra-accent, frequent modulation and large use of chromatic effect — all within con&ned limits of pitch; as if it were Wagner's instinct to render this music an image of the pent pressure of varied feelings which it is conceived to express. Example 22. Amfortas. m t=.^. -f«q^ Er • bar - men I a' ! IX ^-« ^« tpz.-_L-l±±*rgHzq--5i.z tefe=^z+S li B-u^^j^AUf^-*--^- -- ;^s:-5?- -•d- GERMAN OPERA. 63 ^E^- EE^Si Er bar ) "-I ^ te^~ f,' =^^] :fei S ^^^^l^iSlii^^illi lil*"^ e^£:e:-E: f2_i ::=ff=^l ^-#* Du -»■ — • ,-- * — f- All mo to cresc. f dim. r&5ilaE^ i^^^^^E£iE?£^Et'3=4ii::^rZ;.EEE^i s*i^ :ci LSZE^ m=^ ba' Ach, ) Er • bar - men! :i-*^=. =t:= - >H- ^£fE^: Fed. * ^ 64 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. I Nimm tnir mein Er - be f ^-—^ fc dim. P,d. red. |.j-.g-g ■-«'-'-*-*-' =t_3;r^p^a I schli esse die Wun de, p-r-7 It would seem that the instinct of composers to employ contra-accent where feeling and circumstances are in some way abnormal, is based upon the fact in life that whilst our utterance and ordinary movements tend, as a rule, to fall into some kind of regularity, if — from whatever cause — we experience a sudden change of feeling, we so act as to carry out to some extent the principle of contra-accent. Thus : suppose we should be walking when the change occurs, we stop or arrest our pace; or if we should be speaking, we cease; or, GERMAN OPERA. 65 suppose we should be silent, we catch our breath. In each case there is a certain suspension of action just when, in ordinary course, the next due action would take place. Hence the use of this kind of effect where feeling is specially perturbed, as in the accompaniment of the passage in " Der Freischiitz " beginning as follows : Example 23. Allegro confuoco. fcVO: ^ Doch mich urn - gar EtE I 53= 1 V I 1 «- -m- -m- -m ^ W^ll, I I J I I Again, Mozart accompanies the statue's entrance at the banquet by a short though massive effect of contra- accent, thus : Example 24. Andante. I ^ ^^^F- _1_ .0- ■i- «5" a) V' U=^ 66 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. It is also suggestive that the rhythm of this effect is reproduced in the first four bars of the overture, which passage thus, as it were, gives the note of the whole work. It is far from improbable that from the foregoing uses of contra-accent is derived that use of it which is made where the feeling to be expressed, though un- perturbed, is of a peculiarly raised character and special fervour, as in the case of the theme of the administra- tion of the Grail which I have given. That contra-accent is prompted in circumstances where the attention is held in some special and excep- tional way, is still further suggested by its general absence when feeling is clear though uplifted, as in the regular phrases beginning at the words "Kraft und Starkhe" of the following example from "Parsifal": Example 25. f i Knights (Tenor). E3= =1==^ i^Ml3=g; Neh - met vom Brod (Bass.) wan delt es kiihn ^^fezTK a:fe 4: X==^ --1^ I GERMAN OPERA. 67 ■^z q^ -ft-^ 'a — -&» — •- :l=- treu bis zum Tod fest je dem Miih'n !L-is: :t=t2: :^^iii sil: iKnpi IS E3~ ;±:ff::i: :?3: wir - ken des Hei - land's Wer - ke. r^^-- ^-C —^ n '-l^• hi 1 ' 7 f-' m lW., rt 1 f" 1 1 I vvk'.. ' ' > — ZJa. J -^ Referring to the minute emotional expression involved in the soliloquy of Amfortas, it is obvious that this style of effect demands on the part of the listener very close attention to both words and music. The ques- tion is thus suggested, whether such a style applied to long sections of the text does not tend somewhat to remove the work from the dramatic atmosphere. A great feature of Wagner's style and one of a totally opposite character from that just referred to is the homely expression of many of its leading phrases. Like some of his great predecessors, in carrying out broad expression he feels too largely to trouble about originality, using whatever phrase, original or not, seems best suited to his plan — the strain, for instance, involved by the notes between the asterisks in^the last extract may be regarded as an in- stance. It is on this principle and in this spirit that 68 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Wagner introduces so frequently into his works melodic lineaments that have long been familiar effects in popular taste, and thus proved their possession of a fundamental power of expression and of a charm that cannot fade.* In this feature of introducing the familiar, as well as in the opposite one of discarding symmetric melody in the voice-part, Wagner asserts a general freedom of action which his predecessors did not venture to claim — both features really resulting from the fact already pointed out, that the large inten- tion of the Wagnerian work is poetic. Another striking feature in Wagner's modus operandi is his working together in a broad polyphony themes conceived quite independently of one another, with remarkably brilliant result. An example of this occurs at the close of "Parsifal," where three subjects of totally different form are thus worked together, pro- ducing an atmosphere of sound reminiscent of the whole work. It will be seen that Wagner is not to be regarded as in the line of regular composers, and that notwithstand- ing that portion of his method which breaks through certain hindering conventions is calculated to strengthen immeasurably the hands of future com- posers, his procedure as a whole is inapplicable to opera generally. Such achievements as the " Ring " and " Parsifal " being, as we have seen, not purely musi- * See "The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music,'- p. 81. GERMAN OPERA. bQ cal works standing on a purely musical foundation — their unity within it — but composite works con- sisting of music and poetry and of which the large unity is in the poem, they are from their very constitu- tion unfitted — in fact, impossible — as models for imitation by musical composers in general. Whilst the musical task that the Wagnerian form of work involves is infinitely easier of imitation superficially than that which opera in general demands (because the former does not necessarily bring into evidence the gift of sustained melody or the power of large organic form) the ablest composition on Wagnerian lines wanting the poetic individuality and moral earnestness of Wagner's work would be simply value- less. The inordinate gain in effect and distinction which the musical part, of that work derives from its association with the poetic, may be illustrated by a reference to Shakespeare — as in "Macbeth," where the dramatic effect, unique as it is in strength, still gains so immeasurably from the attending moralistic utterance. The question here arises, have we reason for assum- ing that this new interpretative and descriptive style of which the nucleus is the leit-motiv, is a true indica- tion of the general form and character of the art that will succeed that of the present period of transition? Thus far the above style has only been recognised as indisputably effective when all the elements — musical, moral and poetic — have proceeded from one particular author. Further he only has betrayed special genius 70 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. for the leit-motiv — has rendered it mystically charged, like the Holy Grail itself. In this connection is there not some analogy between Wagner and Beethoven, who was similarly pre-eminent in subject? and may there not be some appropriateness in remarking here that in Beethoven the principle of thematic treatment attained its apogee ? I referred in the last chapter to Wagner rising from poetry to the moral absolute. It is in this elevation of the moral, perhaps more than in anything else, that he so strongly "calls for our spirits' homage." The very name of the hero of his last work, " Parsifal," which he derives from the Arabic words, Parsi — pure, Fal — fool, speaks volumes as to the elevation of his sympathy and his fitness for treating the Parsifal tradi- tion. In this work, as in " Lohengrin," he has rendered not merely the sans -peiir but (a far more exceptional achievement) the sans reproche spirit the subject of powerful expression in art : standing without the pale of the priest, he yet impresses the spirit of the legend of the "Holy Grail" with an earnestness of feeling that it is difficult to conceive could be exceeded in any distinctly sacred treatment of the theme. But in doing this, how much has he not been helped by the great vocabulary — specially rich in effects of solemn associa- tion — of the German school ? SECTION III. FRENCH OPERA. CHAPTER VIII. The Creation of French Opera. IT would perhaps be more correct to say that French opera arose out of the musical circumstances attending the ballet than that it developed from the ballet. This will appear if I give the leading par- ticulars. Towards the end of the sixteenth century the ballet in France assumed a somewhat dramatic form; it included — as well as dance tunes — choruses, dialogue and rilornelli. In 1581 a ballet of this kind entitled " Le ballet comique de la Royne," music by Beaulieu and Salmon, was performed amid great splendour in the presence of Henry III. During the early years of the seventeenth century the star of the French school, according to H. Lavoix, declined — not only did this school take no part in the great musical efflorescence for which Italy had just given the signal but it had receded from the position previously gained — that is, it had fallen behind the Netherland school, which the French regard as theirs. This period of decline was marked by Jacques Mauduit (i 557-1627); Antoine Boesset (i 586-1643); Pierre 73 74 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Guidron, and several composers of chansons; all of whom were simple musicians who had a certain merit but were not equal to their predecessors — as, for in- stance, to Claude Jannequin and Claude Goudimel. The first attempt to introduce Italian opera in Paris was made by Rinuccini, who visited France in the suite of Maria de Medici in 1600. This attempt does not appear to have met with much success. But in 1645 an Italian operatic troupe appeared in Paris and performed an Italian ballet with music, which seems to have made a greater impression; it was entitled "Fuita Pazza," the subject was mythical, two of the characters being Achilles Deidamia and Ulysses, the poetry was by Jules Strozzi, the decoration by Jacques Turelli, but the author of the music was anonymous. Concerning this production H. Lavoix remarks : " One saw in it many things — a dance of Indians and parrots, and the towers of Notre Dame in a scene on the island of Kios — but one saw also that there existed another style of music than that of the couplets, dance airs and short recitatives of the Court ballets of Mauduit and de Boesset." Two years later an "Orpheus" was performed in Paris by Italians, the authors of which were unknown. But Italians now became the fashion, and the music of the Court ballets strongly Italian in style. In 1646 an opera by Abbe Muilly — which Rockstro states was the first French opera — was performed at Carpentras in the presence of the Papal legate. Four- teen years later — the occasion being the marriage of Louis XIV — there was performed at the Louvre an THE CREATION OF FRENCH OPERA. 75 opera entitled " Sersc," by a Venetian, Francesco Coletto, surnamed Cavalli, but the dance music of which was composed by J. B. Lulli. The following extract from "Scrse" will give an idea of the style of Italian light music introduced to the French at this period. Example 26. Francesca Cavalli 1610 (1599) 1676. Allegretto. J=8o. Canto. &3^=37pEt-' Affe Affe mi fate ri - dere ah -^M- 'p _ S^liS^^l^^g I Ah. . Ah . mi fate ri-de-re ^'^ '^v Sfc3^^=ig^l^^-M^^^ 1 76 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Presto. + ^-^^^ -'—* ^-= — g Am ■ o - - ro - si La - sci - vet - ti -X-rr t:a=F P-- ^-^ - f ^ " Serse '' was followed by a ballet written by Peter Perrin, an Abbe, the music by Cambert — known as the composer of a ballet, "Orpheus," and of a pastoral which had been performed at the Chateau d'Issy with the greatest success. These authors, Perrin and Cam- bert, with the Marquis de Sourdeac, who had given them valuable ' help as regards scenic arrangements, received on June 28, 1669, the permission of the King to establish in Paris a theatre for the performance in public of operas similar to the Italian, but of which the music and verse were French; and two years later THE CREATION OF FRENCH OPERA. 77 the pastoral, "Pomone," by Perrin and Cambert, was produced. This was the first French opera performed publicly in Paris. In the same year, 167 1, another pastoral by the same authors was given, entitled " The Pains and Pleasures of Love." But it was destined that the way the above artists had opened was to be trodden by another. While Perrin, Cambert and de Sourdeac were congratulating themselves, hoping or quarreling, the king, influenced by Mme. de Montespan, withdrew the permission he had given them, and gave the privilege in the new theatre to his favourite, J. B. Lulli, whose rule began in March, 1672, and continued until he died in 1688. Lulli at once took advantage of his opportunity, setting to work upon a pastoral ballet, entitled " Les fetes de I'amour et Bacchus," in which he utilised portions of old compositions, and to which Moliere, Benserade and Quinault contributed. This was the first ballet performed at the "Academic," or new theatre. But in April, 1673, " Cadmus et Hermione," by Lulli and Quinault, appeared, in which work Lulli is said to have created French lyric tragedy. From the day on which this work was produced two kinds of composition, very different from one another, have been given at the French opera : the Ballet, derived from the ancient Court ballet and generally based upon mythological allegory, and the Opera, properly so- called, or lyric tragedy. Lulli was brought to Paris in 1646, when thirteen years of age. His genius as it unfolded would thus 78 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. necessarily have been influenced strongly by the French style, but it seems really to have become absorbed in it. He probably owes to that style his expressive de- clamation and peculiarly brief and natural dialogue. At the same time there can be little doubt that through the Italian element in his genius he imbued the French style permanently with a fuller beauty. In instru- mental music he led the way to important development. In prefixing to the fugued Allegro (in the preludes of his operas) a Largo movement — sometimes following this with a Minuet or other stately dance — he laid the foundation of the Overture and created the departure to the Symphony. The following example* will give an idea of his earnestness in declamation. Example 27. " Monodie dAmadis " (1684). J. B. LULLI (1633 1688) Moderate con moto c> — 44 I Oriane. :=!= m Le cat de tant de =i j} —f — - =--T= jr^r"^.._ ^j — T =^=A—. ^r=#=F=?=^. mm\ 3^i ^a=^: * From "Repertoire classique du Chant-Francais," edited by F. A. Gevaert. THE CREATION OF FRENCH OPERA. 79 :SrJi r ^^i^Pi; — . — 1— f .p_--c=*-^ I gloire a - - vait Jusqai ce Jour Eblou ^>t^ I iyi g» — ^« — "-'-iH- i mon a me ct& - du le. Ah! r — \- !if =:1- laE^'s: "^"3""!,. ^ -^ ^=^,: . . les plus grands hd - ros ne se font pas scru- m ^^ ii 11= hrti -==(- J: it 8o THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. pu - le D une in - fi de - li te d'a mour. m SIs'z --^=4-- r=^- =^/::=^ ^1= BIWz E2:Ef ;^s=F a^j: a: Pl3S3i .p^ -i— ^- H» --tr- e^- LULLY. 'I'o lace p-igc bl. CHAPTER IX. The Development of French Opera. AS Lulli, while he commanded the entrance to the operatic stage, admitted no rival, it is not sur- prising that after his death in 1688, for a time no composer of equal importance came forward to carry on the dramatic school that he had so vitally aided to establish. Opportunity, of course, does not literally create genius, but as its lengthened absence may cause much genius to be lost, it may be said that in a certain sense it does create genius. Nevertheless, in i68g, one, Pascal Colasse, produced an opera, "Thetis and Pelee," and in 1695, a "Ballet des Saisons." Then several composers whom Lulli had systematically kept back came forward — among them, Charpentier (known by the interludes, written for Moliere, of the " Malade imaginaire ") with his " Medee," produced in 1693, which contains some beautiful choruses ^and 81 G $2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. largely conceived scenes; and Marcus, who, in "Alcyone," employed contre-basses for the first time in opera. These composers were succeeded by a long list of others, all fitted to sustain worthily the high position that opera and ballet had now attained, but among them stood out two: Campra (born Aix 1660; died Versailles 1744), who inaugurated a form of work which combined opera and ballet, and whose " L'Europe galante" was one of the great successes of the eighteenth century; and Monteclair (1666-1737), whose "Jephtha," produced a year before the first dramatic work of Rameau, announced that great composer. Example 28. Song (Nocturne) from "Fetes Venidennes." Opera-Ballet (1710). Campra (1660-1744). Largo CantabiU •=40 i ■IT—: P-^- -h—i-^-^/ -P- Les voi - les de la nuit vont ob - scur-cir les i X-zi2 -ii- w -t :Siz THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. i :t& pn; -y — ^ — * — 83 3^ cieux; Mais I'amour ja - loox a des yeux | Qui i - staccato ^^^i?^ J Rinf: legato - i-f^ - -J — ^ : pp 84 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. ^Em^^ m^mm^ Larghttto sostinuto. J = 52. mant qui m'asu - plai -t^ ^J- ^flh '^- ^mi^m ti« -F F ^ — ^-j iAtt^^ds^^ ^s: filEE: J. ±- It > • — IT — •— -— iJ- ( 1 ^i=^^ • mour ! -W-; m Eli ^/ rJzrp^ z»—w—^ = ^^—l- A - - mour ! ^= sans les soup- I — — - — ^-- r EE^ t l^!^Ef:£^i^ '1/ 1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 85 cons qui ven-neoi me sai sir, | I i -m^^ -s-»- I o rj_ ^^^^^^m^m [A remark by Hullah in his "History of Modern Music" lends interest to this example. It is to the effect that had Handel visited Paris (as it seems he had some intention of doing) he would have there heard a style of music existing nowhere else.] Jean Phillipe Rameau (born Dijon, October 25, 1683 ; died 1764), was fifty years old when he essayed opera. Up to that age he had exercised his genius in the com- position of church music and as organist and clave- cinist. In 1722 he produced his celebrated treatise on harmony. He was thus well equipped technically as well as by the general development of his powers for entering the dramatic field. On October i, 1733, his " Hippolyte et Aricee " appeared and was successful. At the same time the public were somewhat taken aback by its new and vigorous style, which was far better fitted for the tragic muse than the softer style of Campra, who nevertheless said of "Hip- polyte" that it contained sufficient music for ten operas. 86 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Rameau drew increased expression from orchestral effect, and greater depth and colour from harmony ; he also extended the overture. It may be said generally that he occupied the highest position between T.ulli and Gluck. r-.XAMPLE 29. Menuet Chante de " Castor et Pollux " (Opera 1737). Rameau (1683-1764). Allegretto. » = 92. I-^-3 ^^f Dans Ccs doux a - sil - les Par Eo;is soy - ez coaron - p [U 2« ioh Yf) \—J^!^=.-±=X znii^^zzl^iz S^ m.~Ezz r r- f THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 8; z»^z- =1=^= -• — i=(- Heux charmaats sont d.s - ti nes . , | mWz r ^^H ,& Rameau's last opera, "Les Paladins" appeared in 1760, and Gluck's first (on the French stage) in 1773. Unlike Lulli, Rameau had not blocked the way for other aspirants to the operatic stage. There was thus during the above short interval no hiatus in the appear- ance of works of considerable merit, as there had been for some time after the death of Lulli. Among the composers who came forward in the course of the interval between Rameau and Gluck may be mentioned Royer, Mondonville, Dauvergne, Laborde, Floquet (whose ballet, " L'Union de I'amour et des arts," appeared in the same year (1773) that Gluck entered upon the scene of French opera), and Philidor. The following example from Philidor betrays rather curiously, notwithstanding he studied under Campra, and does not appear to have visited Italy, a departure from the style of Lulli and Rameau, and the definite 88 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. adoption of the Italian style. At the same time there is, perhaps, observable in it a certain brightness some- what in advance of the Italian style of the period, which may be due to the French strain in the composer. Example 30. R^citatif et Air d' " Ernelinde." Opera (1767). Phiudor (1726-1795). Alio- Moieraio J=120. f . ^/ i ^=& m S^!:^.-^^: -^— ^ ^^^mm EsMmsm^ J— t^'- fe=£=g=r=r— T-i'^ THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 89 $mi^^^i^^^A Tel est d -nc mou di.s - tio ! | II faut qae je I'im- bdx.i \ firzds^is ,. ,.^,. :2^?=i^3=§ g-f r — ^ — p— p ~|F=^ ■•- ■I — ' plo - re, { Ce su - perbe en • ne - mi qui nous don - ne des L I I @fe -z^- -=^: Trisle ei doux. ^^^B^ fers. II faut me se ■ pa \ etc etc. ^1f P go THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Ani""- cvitabile. J = 80. :;t^ g t. Cher - ob - - jet etc. T:^.^ w^m The peculiar ideal to which French grand opera aspires — namely, a strong lyric drama — would seem to demand for its perfect realisation certain qualities not fully included within the natural limits of French musical genius — far reaching as that genius un- doubtedly is; that is to say, it would seem to demand, not a stronger accent but a deeper note of feeling and a richer melody. The influence of Gluck may thus be said to have come at the psychological moment. Yet so unique and quickening is the spirit of the French style that he in his turn was influenced THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 91 by this contact, and so favourably that it called forth his greatest inspirations, to wit : " Iphigenie en Aulide" (1773), "Orphee et Eurydice" (1774), "Alceste" (1776), "Armide" (1777), "Iphigenie en Tauride" (1779). Gluck is to be credited not only with what he added to French opera but with his use of that opera — the ends to which he directed it, and particularly with the pre- servation of that glorious fullness of expression which is obtained in the concerted piece. In further addition he took up from Rameau the development of orchestral effect, particularly that relating to scene and situation, and rendered the Overture an essential portion of the general expression. Example 31. Morceau d " Iphigeaie ea Aulide." (Opera 1774). Gluck (1714 1787) Adagio. J = 88. Espressivo Doux d li (IPHIGENlEj. ^^^^^^^1 -P-»- Adagio A - dieu 1 coDser - vez dans votie ^^r-^ '^- — n z^r- 92 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. (.) -P- 4 - me Le souve - nir de notre ar - deur, — etc. l^giHgi^gili^^ etc. ^^^^ -d^- m\ [ After " Armide " Gluck quitted Paris. At this time one of those strifes of opinion relating to musical style, inevitably futile because the contending parties occupy different standpoints of taste and sensibility, was agitating the atmosphere of French opera. The new life and beauty which had from the beginning of the century been unfolding in Italy, had twice broken into the French atmosphere and divided its denizens into two camps — this being the second of those occa- sions, the first having occurred about the middle of the century when the " Serva Fadrona " of Pergolese was given at the Academie. Thus it was that a year after "Armide" and when Gluck was in Vienna Nicholas Piccini (1728- 1800) was put up in Paris to assert the Italian style as against the style of Gluck, and then began the musical duel between these com- posers which for some time occupied the boards of the French opera. Piccini opened with "Rolande" (1778), the success of which does not appear to have been pro- THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 93 nounced. Gluck replied with "Iphigenie en Tauride" ('779). the success of which was immense. Then in 1 78 1 Piccini essayed a work on the same subject which, however, failed to compare triumphantly with its rival setting, but in 1783 he took a brilliant revenge in " Dido." A speciality of Piccini is his powerful development of the finale. The revolution of 1789 had little immediate effect on French music notwithstanding the vast extent to which art and literature in various countries, arid before as well as after, were concerned in that event. Its spirit was too large to be even in part expressed by one people or one art. But we cannot help re- garding Germany as the country which mainly voiced the revolution in. music, one reason being the breaking into expression shortly after it of the genius of Beethoven. Here, at all events, was succession ; and here were a passion, a fire, an accent, a depth and copiousness of expression never before combined. Further — in France the revolution was a practical thing, and, as Lavoix sagely remarks : " la politique n'est point une Muse et elle sourit mediocrement aux artistes." The brighter epoch of grand opera was, during the last years of the republic, and the first of the empire, and the principal composers that rendered it illus- trious were Mehul, Cherubini, Lesueur and Spontini. It happened also that it was at this period when French art caught the romantic spirit, and curiously the impulse came from England in the poetry of 94 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Ossian, so called. The revolution had turned the thoughts of Frenchmen to antiquity, but a reaction had taken place and taste now set towards the Middle Ages. The composer who appears to have been most successful in catching this spirit was Lesueur (1763- 1837) in his opera, "Ossian ou les Bardes," which Lavoix says is distinguished by a broad elevated style, grand harmony and pure melody. As Lesueur was a great sacred composer it is not surprising that the above qualities should distinguish his operatic work. Of Mehul and Cherubini I shall speak in treating of opera comique. The last great composer (French born) who figures in the history of French grand opera before the modern period was Gaspard Spontini (1774-185 1) from whose chef d'oeuvre, "La Vestale," I give the following extracts : Example 32. Two extracts from •' La Vestale." Opera da Spontini (1807). A ndante espressivo . ,■ = 42 . (Julia) (') ^'^ ^^==^i^^^^S^ O . . . des in - for - ■ tu :3 ::-^==:q: THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH OPERA. 95 l^ 1^^^^^ n€s de es , , se tu - te m -t r -J-- -5: I"- lai - re, La - tine, e - - cou - te ma . . pri - =li ^ Til' ^ f " 7' 7" 6* -y r I .jr_^ — ^ — , — 1-^ — , — ^ — 1-|- — p r 1 I ' I etc. -'-a 3 a etc. ii^^^==ip g^P^ 96 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Larghetto. J=4o. (2] Adieux a la vie (Julia . " cresc. 5 ) ■ :sf., Se^^ z:pip.,_ rinf. ma . . der - Die - re, ma der-nie-re pen- i J 8=:: :j" r^t^'H ffl^S :q^: "H" -s^- =1: Ei^&3S= ^— * p se • e Et mon dernier i ^:^: -n-i-^H- m-, i^S^SrsilifStraj^^?^! -I u PVP iM=^i --^i==i-- i feteiE =i4^ ^=r^ pir s extiale ^^ en - - cor -*&= ^ li!!J^8£mi=liaiE!=0 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRENCM OPERA. 9; , Rinf. , , toi, s exba r^ ^- le en etc. i^^^^ita^ But towards the latter part of the period of Freftch grand opera a concurrent development had been pro- ceeding which probably to some extent influenced it and, necessarily, was influenced by it. This develop- ment, which I shall describe in the following chapter, was destined to revitalise and lead to its highest ex- pression the whole world of French dramatic music. M CHAPTER X. The Rise of Opera Comique. IN our last chapter I referred to that incursion (the second that had taken place) of Italian opera on to the boards of French grand opera, which led to the musical duel between Gluck and Piccini, as an inci- dent in one of those ebulitions of contending tastes which are apt to arise in the musical atmosphere of every country. There can, however, be little doubt that on this occasion the cause of the coming of the Italians to Paris was at bottom a desire on the part of the French public for a change of style. The history of lyric drama reveals conclusively that at no time have any people been satisfied in this drama to go on in the serious style alone; and probably less than any people can the French be satisfied to do this. In the same year in which Piccini's "Rolande" was performed (1778), the director of the French opera — advised by Piccini — introduced several of the more celebrated Italian operas buffa — among them " La Frascatana " THE RISE OF OPERA COMIQUE. 99 of Paisiello; "La Finta giardiniera" of Anfossi; "La Buona Figliola" of Piccini — and in the following year he introduced " L'Amore soldato " of Sacchini. But long before Gluck — in the early years of the eighteenth century — a very humble art by-way had been struck in France by very humble artists, in the custom of performing simple musical scenes on improvised stages at country fairs. The germ of the music of these scenes was the chanson, of which Lavoix remarks with his usual felicity of ex- pression, that, " light and slight^ as it is, it i.s instinct with those qualities which meet in the French idiosyn- crasy, namely, neatness, precision and quickness." In time, these scenes came to be called "Comedie d'ariettes," and under the influence of Rousseau, Mar- montel and Sedaine, their plots became touching and sentimental. Then gradually at the hands of Mon- signy, Philidor and Gretry, the music acquired truth of expression and symmetry, till ultimately the "Comedie d'ariettes" became opera comique. Thus as operatic development in Italy passed from serious opera to operatic comedy and opera bujfa, and in Ger- many to sings piel, it passed in France, as just stated, to opera comique. And it is worthy of remark that in none of these cases was the humour itself so iriu'ch the essential circumstance in the result as that gain of free- dom generally which the humour entailed. For in this freedom every possible kind of thought, feeling and action gained access to , the music, which thus became possessed of a far fuller and keener life. Example 33. Air de " Rose et Colas." Opera comique (1764). MoNsiGNY (1729-1817). Andantiiw Amoroso. n (COLASJ J- _4^ — ^J-, , • — — — + e«- •-'■=" — • — ■ — • -f- ^ C'est i • Si i'e- ci tais que Ro - . ses res • maitre d'un em . m Pi4^^ :i--g-i Ah! Ro-set-te, Ah! Ro - set - - te, | qu'on est heu- THE RISE OF OPERA COMIQUE. lOI 1 =1^ =3==;- I " -•- -W-s- S ]=^-iN- =^=^P=i * r^|=^ ■:=t:T it*=z3 — The following example of Gretry, as the reader will observe, is like that of Philidor, strongly Italian in style— born at Liege, 1741, Gretry, at eighteen, went to Rome where he studied under Casali. It has also much of the expression of Mozart, this, in my opinion, being due less to the influence of Mozart (who wa:-> nineteen in the year of " La Fausse Magie ") than to the pre-Italian spirit which Mozart himself had imbibed so largely. Example 34. Ariette de la " Fausse Magie." Op^ra comique (1775). Gretry (1741-1813). ,?r3:z53r5Z 1^1 S^ Je ne le dis qu a ^^^^MMm. v m^ ¥1 m -UJ. I02 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. vous que Je re -Jr.\ -=-^i.rifV ggE^HgZJ^g^Elgt^^iQg^ 5^- que Je ■ re: etc. ri: -^t=rii- —t — zzX:zz zzrr-ftz M In the general development of light French opera which I have thus far traced the concurrent progress of serious opera was necessarily an important factor, and the result even thus far was that opera comique had attained a distinctly high artistic level. This period is marked by Cherubini, Lesueur and Mehul. In Cherubini (Florence, 1760; Paris, 1842) the various parts of the opera are more developed, the musical lan- guage is richer and the effect generally more sonorous. Cherubini's great works, though, in name, comic operas, are, in character, more closely allied to the German romantic opera. Adolphe Adam, speaking of Cheru- THE RISE OF OPERA COMIQUE. 103 bini's style, says : " It is, in fact, the chaste, ancient style of Italy refreshed and decorated with the har- mony of modern times." The work from which the following extract is taken — "Anacreon ou I'amour fugitif " — is on a subject to which the vogue for anti- quity gave birth. To the general public Cherubini is known by his overtures to "Lodoiska," "Les Deux Journees" and "Medee." Example 35. Two extracts from Ariette de " L'Amour dans Anacreon." Opera (1803). No. I. Cherubini (1760-1842). ^teei^P^=e^^i^ Mod pere est vieux, ja • Iodx, m^-chact, | Ma mere est 1$ X lA: -^-•= -'f^= ^=@^ :?=3=3=^l ^^E i S -M= * -^ ifcrfc: ^.■.■=l=i=z5= douce et bien jo li - e. .4=^ ^^' ^ etc. :3-^H^= -• 'etc. M . a — — I ' V 104 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. I* NO. §m £13^^^^!^ Le soir en ta - pi - nois, -*-* pp sempre L'rt •-5ii?=iiit|-pr3 _=#= -9 =!?^l!^!3 ^^^^^ii^^f Loin de mon pere et bien pres ^ -u^i- -^ -m- -^- ^ ' I fei^pi^^^^r^^ Wz\iz ^M ^^m^^m^ EfeE :x=r H — /:^=R- Ij d'el-le. II se glis - sait, ■p < / il se glis- l^t ■ . - — ■- — J. — ' ' ■ ' 4r-Jn- THE RISE OF OPERA COMIQUE. 105 ^^^^^^M salt, il se glis - salt, etc. :Skrfe^ £#iiE^-t=^-=J: ^rr etc f—rt— <=: — - '^ Lesueur left three works in lighter opera, "La Caverne" (1793), "Paul et Virginie" and "Tele- maque" (1796). I have been unable to obtain an ex- ample of this composer either in light or serious opera, but, according to Lavoix, the two latter of the above three works reveal him as at the same time poetic and endowed with the feeling of the scene. Mehul (1763-18 17) in the profound feeling of his "Joseph" raises opera comique at least to the moral level of serious opera if not to that of the oratorio. The few bars of instrumentation with which the follow- ing extract opens will serve to suggest this. Example 36. Two extracts from R^citatif et Air, de " Joseph en Egypte." (1807.) Mehul (1763-1817). No. I. Andante. J=88. (JOSBrH.) ( 5/ fZ^Z^ V ^f V s/> s/:=- 5/:=. io6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. f ^'=w^^^\$^ms^=t^. I Vai-ne-m;nt Pha-ra on, dans sa re • con - na's - =^Ig^^EE^ ^_ii.^=z:zzJ ( I THE RISE OF OP^RA COMIQUE. Adagio. = 50. 107 t.=t! mt: r«=3. bron, dou ce val - le - - - e ! etc. ^3m^^m^ Frf: The foregoing three composers contributed largely to the creation of the art of instrumentation. Beside these greater stars of the constellation of opera comique there shone at this period some dozen lesser yet still bright lights who sustained the tradi- tions of Monsigny and Gretry. Lavoix refers to them as " les galants soupireurs de romances, les gentils diseurs de couplets." In this group figure J. Paul, S. Martini (1741-1816), the author of the romance, io8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. "Plaisir d'amour ne dure qu' un moment," which has been said to be the most charming ever written; Gaveaux, who has been called the Mozart ai the coup- let; and Henry Montan-Berton, brilliant in colour and tender in expression. Among the musicians of this period, he, in particular, retained the ancient Italian manner and effused the happiness of Mozart; at the same time he was the most violent adversary of Rossini. Example 37. Air de " Montanoet Stephanie. ■ Drame mnsical (1799). H. Montan-3erton {1767-1844). Andante non troppo. J=-6o. --^■ :feif^ i=i:rsr^ rtzti -^^E:t\ Oui cest de - main, V de- Eii^^a^^z T=ii ^^n^ ( tt&-4: » > ^v-t=-- HI - main que I'by-ir.e-ne fcfe=S^^:;^ ^^^ir^- ^?ZF^*7^^Tl3Ti£ =i^^^=*^^ '^-' \ THE RISE OF OPERA COMIQUE. lOQ _fek&_o _.. — - J.--—^ ririt^H =6. -Bi-^- Cher Mon - ta - no, m fcfci Then in the group just referred to were Nicolo Isouard, whom Weber ranked with Boieldieu, and the latter himself, who, though in some respects inferior to Cherubini, Lesueur and Mehul, may yet be placed beside those composers for proportion, delicacy and sincerity of expression. Speaking of " La Dame Blanche" (1825), Lavoix says: "This score was the last work of our ancient school before the invasion of the Italians and Rossini — a musical invasion of which, without gaining the good qualities, we reaped the defects." It was characteristic of Boieldieu that whilst admiring the Italian genius he was not carried away by it; he remained French in the full force of the term. That is v^fhy "La Dame Blanche" is not only an excel- lent opera comique but a work which marks a date in the history of French music. ( Example 38. Air de " Jeannot et Colin." Opera comique (1814). NiCOLO ISOUARD (I775-1818). Adagio. » = 72. (Theeesb.) =t J ^3_*_I t^C ^I Ah ! pour moi quel le pei - ne ex- -4^ - - — I — I -i- — S r re-_ --4-1 m 5=1= li g£?_i33^ ^^^i^ ^i-"- 5^.:^-^=^. ZM". tre • me. J'aiper-du I'a-ini de mon coeur : II fant ai- fe=«=i mer autant qae j'ai-me Pour bien ju-ger de ma dou ■ rM^^zlloi rd^-i 1^1 i ElEi=3£i=^J: ■ leur, Example 39. Air de la Princesse de Navarre dans "Jean de Faris." Op6ra comique (1812). BOIELDIEU (1775-1834). Allegro. J= 108. m^^^^^m - (i-i- It- 1 Quel plai - sir d etre en voy- a - - ge, | Ja-mais i «5 aa? llLi 'lili LlUl'JL] siEBig: n^ — , — k' -q— g- I'oeil n'est en re - pos :- Ton E3=g=;^rr-j-g^;-gEf:S_J-.-^=^-gz:.--=| rjrr r I Jj LlL.1 , m. 112 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. i $ 3=3^= :^-: -o- ?-^=:=I ^= ^-^\ jours sur vo • tre pa ■ sa ge etc. I-Z-ZTt^TZZ :3Z5 The reader is, perhaps, now in a position to divine something of the effect of the foregoing group of works relating to French comic opera — to feel that whilst vivacious they are finished, whilst bright and charming, spiritual, and though slight in substance and concep- tion — being applied to the lightest circumstances — full of artistic conscience. >W'T^' \\\ 1' Mil 'i i jl't I 33: i 2X c7' ^u, Cc^ynM I ryj^^^_^ ^UJ- i AJ- J- \\t Ml! -- 1 ^ ^ M^ ^ fW Zxuroti' ^ FACSIMILE FROM MS. OF GLUCK'S " ALCESTE." To /ac« poyc lif. CHAPTER XL French Opera from Herold to Gounod and Bizet. AFTER Boieldieu — early in the nineteenth century — the deeper harmonic reach revealed by Haydn and its application to drama by Mozart, Beet- hoven and Weber, began to tell in French musical taste. The following few dates in French musical doings at this period are suggestive in this connec- tion. In 1824 the symphonies of Beethoven were played at the Conservatoire under Habeneck. In the same year a version of "Der Freischiitz," arranged by Castel-Blaze, was played; and in 1825, a version of "Preciosa," arranged by Cremont. Then, in 1829, a German operatic troupe performed "Fidelio." But the influence of Rossini was still paramount — at least on the surface — and in the same year "William Tell " was produced at the opera. This close touch of the German and Italian styles in the atmosphere of French opera, brought to a head one of those special stirrings of feeling and opinion 113 T 114 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. that are so frequently taking place somewhere in the world of art and which are perhaps exceptionally violent where music is concerned. After "William Tell," towards 1831, German music again lifted up its head in Paris in the performance by a German company of " Oberon " and " Euryanthe." Some of the effect of this new, strong style from the north was first caught up and reflected in French music by Ferdinand Herold (1791-1833) in whom amid the never absent Italian style the note of Weber is heard. The qualities of Herold are revealed in the operas comique, "Zampa" (1831) and "Le Pre aux Clercs' (1832). After Halevy (1799- 1862), who, in "La Juive," in opera, and "L'Eclair," in opera comique (both pro- duced in 1835), continues successfully the fine and conscientious work of the French school, German in- fluence came into evidence not in the line of its past action but under new and special circumstances, and at the hands of a composer who was not French born. When "Robert le Diable" was given in Paris in 1831, a new note in music was heard; but now that note sounded clearer and stronger. In 1836 "Les Huguenots" was given at the opera. I have intimated that in this case the new influence did not reveal itself in the line of its past action. Nor was it the case of a style rising suddenly to inordinate display; but one in which various circumstances conspired to bring about the development of a great outside genius. Probably — as in most such signal art manifestations HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. II5 — much had to cohere; but in this instance the more immediate causes were : First, the thorough musical equipment of Meyerbeer; secondly, his strong poetic and dramatic leaning, and thirdly, his being supplied with libretti peculiarly calculated to bring out that re- markable effect which was produced by these circum- stances coming into contact with the French style. There has been on the surface of musical criticism in England of late years — particularly since our be- lated acknowledgment of Wagner — much depreciation of Meyerbeer Here — before I proceed further — some few remarks on the subject of criticism will, though they involve a short digression, I think be found in point. The superficial critic — superficial even in his admira- tion — seeking an easy means of magnifying his favourite composer, is too apt to catch at the device of belittling that composer's predecessors. Unintelli- gent in his praise, he is unintelligent in his blame. As Richard G. Moulton so admirably demonstrates in the introduction to his work on Shakespeare, there are two kinds of criticism : that of taste and that of investiga- tion. The one analyses a work for grounds of pre- ference — for justifying like or dislike; the other, with a view to explain as clearly as possible the details of the work as they actually stand. Obviously these two conceptions of criticism involve respectively two different spirits, namely, that of arbitrarily judging and that of interpreting, and — to quote Mr. Moulton's words — " Elementary as this distinction is, the power Il6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. of firmly grasping it is no slight evidence of a trained mind — the powpr, that is, of seeing clearly that two things are different without being at the same time impelled to rank one above the other." That much of the ephemeral criticism of the press and of society should be of the former kind is quite natural, seeing that the majority of the throng of listeners to a new work are mainly interested in the impression it produces upon their friends and the gen- eral public. They, in fact, ask for judgment, not knowledge. Eut for the historian, biographer, or who- ever desires to give his or her remarks a permcinent value, there can be no doubt that the latter criticism — that is, the criticism of investigation — should be that adopted. Now to return to my original subject. In Meyerbeer's contribution to French opera there is much for the interpretative critic to remark upon. In him, as in the case of his great predeces.sor in this field, LuUi, the French style became organic. His genius was probably not so completely absorbed in the French style as was Lulli's, but he assimilated, as well as the more superficial features of that style, much of its more delicate effect and finer spirit. Not only has Meyerbeer the knack of that dry, telling brevity of ordinary phrase peculiar to the French style — as in the subjects of the orgy music and the ball-room scene in "Les Huguenots," and which is noticeable in the first movement of the waltz in "Faust" — but of the rarer delicate charm of the " chanson " — as in the page's bright, engaging salutation (before he sings his song) HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. I17 in "Les Huguenots." This last illustration leads me to pass to a quality characteristic of the greatest com- posers, namely, power of sharp contrast in subject, a marked instance of which occurs at the tenth bar of the andantino in the song just alluded to. The few qualities mentioned thus far of this com- poser's music go a long way towards giving it that taking character which by some has been construed as a defect. Yet it is these slighter and very simple touches that indicate the born composer; they are wholly idea. But as well as the telling brevity and terse charm of the French style Meyerbeer unfolds the gracious beauty of Italian melody with true spontaneity and an ease as to the manner born. And side by side with the pure modern Italian style we meet in him that combination of the old Italian and the German styles, to which the general character of the expression of the Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven school of com- posers is owing. This last trait belongs, of course, to Meyerbeer's inheritance. German by birth, he (like his contemporary Weber) had acquired the deep tech- nique and absorbed the special intellectuality of the German school from his youth. In this connection it is curious to reflect that though a companion of Weber in his studies, the note of Weber is scarcely perceptible in his works. To remark now upon certain leads to the future which Meyerbeer initiates or further opens out : one of these is that poetic expression by the orchestra of Il8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. the spirit of a situation, which is such a beautiful feature in Gounod. In the concluding symphony of the "Benediction of the Poniards" in "Les Hugue- nots," for instance, what a strange anticipation do we not hnd of the closing strains of the scene of the death of Valentine in " Faust " ! A similar, and perhaps more eloquent expression, by the orchestra occurs in the concluding symphony of "Ah mon fils!" in the " Prophet." That regular use of what is called the leit motiv which is such a prominent feature in modern composi- tion — operatic and other — did not obtain with Meyer- beer's foregoers. Nevertheless, like all composers of decided genius from long before Bach and Handel, Meyerbeer seldom fails to mark the note of a char- acter, scene or incident by an interpretative orchestral phrase wherever such special expression seems de- manded. And he does this all the more easily and effectively in virtue of possessing that power of con- trast which I have spoken of, as well as a remarkable faculty of assimilating various styles. The general difference between Wagner and all other composers is somewhat less in the case of Meyerbeer; and great as it still is even in his case there is much in spirit and effect that is common to these two. Both have a strong sympathy for large tone-scenes. Meyer- beer betrays it in his decided partiality for massive antiphonal, or answering, effect — as in his frequent use of two bands. Simple and obvious as this kind of effect is, it is somewhat curious that its use is charac- HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. iig teristic of the greatest composers — witness Bach, Han- del and Beethoven. The reason of its peculiar im- pressiveness probably is that it is fundamentally dra- matic ; it reverts to the basis of music, namely, speech* — with all its vast world of vivid and momentous as- sociations — and perhaps only the larger and more poetic natures among musicians feel this. Then Meyerbeer anticipates Wagner in the constant restless- ness of his orchestra and its frequent vigorous use not only in orchestral figures but special themes. But he approaches him still more closely in his anticipation of the spirit of his (Wagner's) polyphony. Thus, in his use in " Les Huguenots " of the fine subject with which the " Monaci " chorus opens, and of the Lutheran choral in the "Vision," that uplifting power charac- teristic of Wagner's grandest emanations is unmis- takably foreshadowed. At the period in which Herold and Halevy were working, and the brilliant visitation of " Les Hugue- nots" occurred, was also busy Daniel Francois Esprit Auber (i 782-1 871), who began as a disciple of Boieldieu. He attained decided successes in " La Muette de Portici" (1829), "Fra Diavolo" (1830), "Le Dominoir Noir" and "Les Diamants de la Couronne" (1841); and in the overtures to these operas and that to "Le Cheval de Bronze," gave to the world dis- tinctly new examples of this generally pleasing form of composition — varied, compact and of definite aim. * See "The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music," p. 71- 120 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. French praise of Auber is somewhat qualihed, and — as in the case of the depreciation of Meyerbeer to which I have alluded — the sin is his effortless charm. But the Engishman finds in him those qualities of the French school which he particularly admires : the quick French spirit, brilliancy, terse beauty and the gift of accent. Within the first decade of 1800 — about the time when Auber was entering upon his career — were born Hector Berlioz and Felicien David, who between them initiated in France the symphonic ode and dramatic symphony. Two of the more important works of this type, by Berlioz, are "Harold in Italy" (1835) and "Romeo and Juliet" (1839). Probably this style of composition suited the genius of Berlioz better than that specially conformed for the theatre — with which he is thought to have had little sympathy. Yet it did not fail him in the case of the following operas. " Ben- ventito Cellini" (1838) is picturesque and imaginative; "Beatrice et Benedict" (1862) tender and gracious; and " La Prise de Troie " and " Les Troyens a Car- thage" (1863) highly poetic and dramatic. His "Damnation de Faust" (1846) is said to be the most faithful translation into music of Goethe's poem by a Frenchman. But Lavoix thinks that the genius of Ber- lioz on the whole shines in its purest light in "Les Troyens" and his sacred trilogy, "L'Enfance du Christ" — (1854), consisting of the touching tone-pic- tures : " Le Songe d'Herode," " La Fuite en Egypte " and "L'Arrivee a Sais." GOUNOD. From fi pholo hy Nadar, Paris. To face page 120. HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. 121 If artistic conscientiousness, intellectuality and ele- vated aim could determine a man becoming great, then undoubtedly Eerlioz would have been one of the great- est composers; but, to re-state a truism, they cannot so determine. Notwithstanding that since his death the mounting taste for orchestral expression and color- ation, combined, perhaps, with a better understanding of his works, has raised him to a more prominent f csi- tion than he enjoyed in his lifetime, his place am.ong composers is still undecided. But if he should be ultimately classed with those who, though in the highest degree earnest and aspiring, yet lack that in- born faculty which enables the man who possesses it, by the simplest effort, to express far more perfectly than any more elaborate effort could do not only what he feels himself but some of the profoundest feeling in others, he would still fall into that category of great workers who aid materially to make kings in art though they themselves be none. Like Eerlioz — as I have said — Felicien Cesar David (1810-1876), essayed the free symphonic treatment of poem and drama. The impressions derived from a long journey in the East — which included Egypt find the Holy Land — led him to conceive and compo'ie "Le Desert," ode-symphonic (1844) — which was his first success; "Moise au Sinai" (1846); "Cristophe Colomb," symphony (1847), and "Eden," a mystery (1848). Of these oriental pictures, after "Le Desert," "Cristophe Colomb" with its scene of the ocean and its episode of the "Indian mother," is the most thar- 122 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. acteristic and beautiful. Though probably the latter two works will be those upon which his fame will ultimately rest, he was successful at the Opera witii " Herculaneum " (1859) and at the Opera Comique with "Lalla Roukh" (1862), which in France is considered his chef d'ceuvre in opera. With Felicien David may be associated (these two composers having a markedly poetic bent) Charles Louis Ambroise Thomas (181 1), (author of "Le Songe d'une nuit d'ete," " Mignon,'' of a lyrical " Hamlet " and "The Caid"); and M. Masse (1822- 1884), (composer of "Galatee," "Les Noces de Jeanette" and "Paul et Virginie.") Near the above may also be placed, but standing on his own ground — in the strength of the unambitious great — Cesar Franck (1822-1890), who, as Mr. D. C. Parker so expressively says, " is one of the quiet voices in the sense that he said his say, went his way, and was content." He wrote a symphony and other or- chestral pieces ; a violin sonata ; the religious works : " Ruth," " Rebecca '' and " The Beatitudes " ; an opera, "Hulda" — performed after his death at Monte Carlo — and many other works of various kind. Mrs. Rosa Newmarch, in an appreciative introduction to a recent translation from the French* of the "life, music and human work of Cesar Franck," by M. Vincent d'Indy, says — after mentioning that he was born at Liege — " Here in the dusk of the organ-loft at Sainte Clotilde * Published by John Lane. HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. 1 23 . . . Franck spent the best part of his life. Here he came every Sunday and feast-day — and, towards the end of his life, every Friday morning, too — fanning the hre of his genius by pouring out his spirit in won- derful improvisations which were often more lofty in thought than many skilfully elaborated compositions; and here, too, he assuredly foresaw and conceived the sublime melodies which afterwards formed the ground- work of the " Beatitudes." This short quotation is, I think, better calculated to give an idea of the spirit and character of Franck's style than any direct description. Then there have to be mentioned Louis Etienne Ernest Reyer (1823) (author of "Le Statue" and "Sigurd"); Clement Francois Theodore Dubois (1837) (composer of " Aben Hamel ") ; Charles Camille Saint- Saens (1835) and Jules Emile Frederic Massenet (1842) — the two last having only obtained a hearing at the theatre after a long struggle. The dramatic quality of Saint-Saens is represented by his " Henry VIII " — strong and severe; that of Massenet by his graceful and poetic " Roi de Lahore " and " Herodiade." The latter composer contributes a work to opera comique, in his natural and well balanced "Manon." Of those composers who recall the old Opera Comique, may be mentioned Leo Delibes (i 836-1880) (composer of "Lakme" and of the ballet "Sylvia"); Ernest Guiraud (1837) and Jean Alexandre Ferdinand Poise (1828) (composer of several light operas), of 124 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. whom Lavoix says, he delighted in music "toute poudree mais non poudreuse." Two composers standing in the front rank of French dramatic writers, now claim our attention : Charles Francois Gounod (1818-1893) and Alexander Cesar Leopold Bizet (1838- 1875). Bizet — who studied under Halevy — wrote several operas and operettas between 1857 — when "Docteur Miracle " was produced — and his lamented and pathetic death on June 3, 1875 — just three months after "Car- men" appeared — the one work upon which his renown stands. In "Carmen" Bizet had the advantage of a really dramatic libretto. His strong points are : strenuous expression by the orchestra and the use of local tone- colour. Gounod, like Bizet, conquered the public by a single work, " Faust," but his greatness far from rests on that work alone. Though the libretto of "Faust," as in the case of the majority of librettos of opera in general, is not to be criticised from the literary standpoint, it contains a somewhat close succession of good opportunities for musical treatment. One of these (the first) is unique : Faust is discovered in his dingy study — an old man amid his tomes and scientific paraphernalia, burning the midnight oil, pondering vainly the problem of life and the universe, and giving vent to the doubt and despair of the mind that has made no pact with existence; when — -as the dawn stealing in begins HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. 1 25 to lift the gloom and kill the feeble yellow glare — ^he is suddenly interrupted by the heart-fresh accents of youth coming out into the early morning after healthy sleep, and going to its appointed labour. Then there are the two strong situations — the duel scene, ending with the death of Valentine, and the cathedral scene in which we have the perfunctory organ prelude — sug- gestive of the dusty, everyday atmosphere of the mediaeval church — suddenly contrasted with the ex- pression of Margaret's vivid anguish and upward straining for help. Now in his treatment of this general subject Gounod in several places shows marked originality. First, in the "Adagio molto, quasi largo" of the introduction, and in the prelude to the first scene. Then in the opening soliloquy, with the breaking upon it of the rustic strains without, up to the climax at " Sia lode al Ciel." Then in the scene of the death of Valentine, with the broad remonstrance of the chorus — its solemn reasoning and rising utterance, and its hushed, shocked comment after the death — in -.vhich a distinction seems sug- gested between human tragedy in general and the squalid character of that tragedy. (I have already re- ferred to the piercing lamentation by the orchestra, which closes this scene.) Then in the scene at the church-entrance. And, lastly, in the prayer. These various scenes are very fine, and probably contain some touches that could be those of no other hand than Gounod's. But in the free lyric styie, Gounod is far finer in 126 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. several of his other works than he is in "Faust" — as in "Un del plus pur" ("La Nonne Sanglante"), "Sous les pieds d'une femme " (" La Reine de Saba "), " O ma lyre immortelle " (" Sapho ") and " Pressez moi bien entre vos bras" ("Retour de Tobie"), to name only a few examples. In this connection, and as an in- stance of personal taste in a man of genius, I may mention that Rossini, though duly honouring Gounod as the author of "Faust," preferred to regard him as the author of "Mireille." This preference Rossini ex- pressed directly to Gounod in conversation, and in mentioning it to me, Gounod, I thought, seemed to sympathise with Rossini's choice. In referring to "Mireille" its fine overture, destined to take a per- manent place among brilliant overtures, is, of course, not to be passed over. Curiously, in Gounod, as in Meyerbeer, there is little suggestion of Weber, whilst, further like Meyerbeer, Gounod recalls the mingled German and Italian style of the classical composers. " Salve dimora " is dis- tinctly Haydnesque. But Gounod further achieved in the field of oratorio — in which he spoke his last words. Of these I will mention three from the " Redemption " : the solemn Reproaches and the two scenes of the Holy women — one at the Sepulchre and the other " before the Apostles." In the two last mentioned scenes the freshness of early morning, the naive distress of the Holy women in their difficulty of moving away the stone, and their subse- quent elatedness in having seen Him," are all clear HEROLD TO GOUNOD AND BIZET. 12/ in the music. Probably such airily graceful yet chastely beautiful constructions as these only the delicate touch and bright spirit of French genius could produce. I referred to the name, Parsifal, as in itself sugges- tive of the state of thought and feeling in which Wag- ner conceived that work. Curiously, a similar spirit — tending to elevate the moral, is suggested simply by the order in which Gounod places the two words with which he names his last great sacred work, " Mors et Vita." This sketch of the history and development of French opera betrays its composers as earnest, con- scientious and, above all, sure of themselves in the decided character and individuality of their native style; and it reveals their work as just in expression and finished in construction. The free style of opera comique described in the previous chapter, we now see influenced opera in general to the last. As I have shown, nothing could have been more unassuming, artistically, than that style in its begin- ning. But the titles of a few of the works produced in the latter part of its course — "Le Pre aux Clercs," Herold ( 1 832), " Le Chalet," Thomas ( 1 834), " L'Eclair," Halevy (1835), "Les Diamants de la Couronne," Auber (1841), "Le Pardon de Ploermel," Meyerbeer (1859), "Faust," Gounod (1859) — betray conclusively in their varied suggestiveness, that in this style of free dra- matic composition all qualities of the French musical genius — not excluding the highest — found their most perfect expression, as in similar free circumstances the 128 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. geniuses of the Italian and German schools respectively found theirs. In fact, a remark of W. S. Rockstro to the effect that the best French composers of the last century desired nothing better than to succeed in this style, seems to me to form a not inappropriate con- clusion of this section, as it implies that the ideal of French opera held by them was a work embracing more or less all kinds of effect, from pathetic to playful, grave to gay. SECTION IV. ENGLISH OPERA. K CHAPTER XII. English Music Down to the Restoration. rHE beginnings of musical drama in England are found, as in the case of Germany, in the Miracle plays and Mysteries, which, growing under the tutelage of the Church, became gradually secularised until they culminated in the vernacular plays per- formed by the various guilds. It is a remarkable thing and gives rise to interesting reflection, that not- withstanding the subsequent influence of classic upon English drama, the effect upon the latter of the early religious plays has persisted more or less throughout the whole course of its development. This is particu- larly marked in tragedy — in that moral note which distinguishes the English tragedy from the tragedy of fate or the tragedy of revenge — in the fact, that for tragic preparation instead of the arbitrary will of the gods we have the moral shortcomings or defalcations of man; and for tragic climax, instead of the spirit of vindictiveness, that of moral judgment and retribu- 131 132 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. tion. The foregoing reflection is not impertinent to our subject. We shall see as we proceed that it touches upon a tendency of mind and heart which is particu- larly strong in the English nature and thus has had an important influence upon our musical drama. There can be no doubt that theatrical performances in England, if not everywhere, have been from the most remote date accompanied by some kind of in- strumental music, but the mention of music or min- strelsy as an accompaniment of the moral plays is not very frequent. At the end of the prologue to the miracle play called "Childermas Day" (1512) the min- strels are requested to "do their diligence"; and the same expression is again employed at the end of the performance, with the addition that the minstrels are requested cither to dance, or play a dance, for the company. " Also ye minstrels doth your diligens Afore our departyng give us a daunce." At the same time it would seem that vocal music was also a concomitant of early dramatic entertain- ments. This is suggested by two facts: (i) The companies of children trained for dramatic perform- ances at court were subsequently restricted to the choir boys of St. Paul's Cathedral ; (2) ultimately choir boys were permitted to act plays publicly in their own theatres. Children, it would seem, figured largely among performers in plays from the time of the early ]\Iorality Pla)s down to the threshold of tragedy. One of tlie first notices of the introduction of vocal ENGLISH MUSIC TO THE RESTORATION. 1 33 part-music into these performances occurs in a miracle play on the Adoration of the Shepherds* In the course of this play three shepherds are interrupted when about to sing a song, one having agreed to take the "tenory," the second the "tryble so hye," and the third the "meyne." Another curious instance of the introduction of vocal music in performances of this nature occurs in a moral play entitled "Mind, Will and Understand- ing." This also was written in the reign of Henry VI. A song in parts by the three principal characters is thus introduced : Mynde. I rejoys of this: now let us sing. Vnclyrstondynq. Ande yff I spare, evell Joy me wrynge. Wylh H.ive at you I : lo, I have a sprynge. Lust niakyth me wondyr wylde. Mynde. X tenour to you botli I brynge. UndyrsiondynQ. And I a mene for any kyngc. WyU. And but a trebul I out wrynge, The devell hyra spede that myrthe exyled. The stage direction is "Et Cantent," but the words of the song are not given. * It forms one of the Townley collection (supposed to have belonged to Wiakirk Abbey before the suppression of the mon- asteries), the MS. of which appears to have been written about the reign of Henry VI. 134 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. In another part of the same play upon the exit of the three characters the stage direction is : " Here they go out, and in the goyng the soule syhgyth in the most lamentabull wyse with drawte notes, as yt ys songyn in the passyon wyke." The last allusion is probably to the prolonged notes to which the psalms were sung at that season. As the reader will observe, there is in these quota- tions a grotesque mingling of the humorous and the didactic. In some cases, in such examples, though the subject is of a religious character the treatment is ab- solutely farcical. The object of this peculiar treat- ment was probably to relieve a serious and perhaps dull context.' The strong didactic leaning to which I have just referred appears in one of the earliest printed moral plays, the title of which is "A New Interlude and a mery of the Nature of the iiij. Elements," the whole scheme of which is an endeavour by " Nature-naturate " and " Experience," assisted by " Studious Desire," to bring " Humanity " to a conviction of the necessity of studying philosophy and the sciences. It is asserted by Dr. Dibdin to have been printed by John Rastell in 1 5 19, and is particularly deserving of notice, first, as containing the earliest specimen of English dra- matic music in existence — a song in three parts to words beginning : "Time to pas with goodly sport Our spryte to revyve and comfort"; and, secondly, as being the earliest specimen of music ENGLISH MUSIC TO THE RESTORATION. 1 35 printed in score and with bars that has hitherto been discovered. The pageants performed at Coventry in the early part of the sixteenth century had their songs in parts, and three of these, all on scriptural subjects, are still preserved.* In the reign of Henry VIII the name of John Hey- wood stands out as a musical and dramatic writer whose productions are neither miracle nor moral plays, but what may be properly termed Interludes. Only one of his compositions has descended to us — n po-.t^ beginning "What hart can thinke or tongue express, "f An interesting instance of vocal music — which almost seems to anticipate opera — occurs in a play on the subject of Orestes — ^which was probably the Orestes acted at court (1567-8). It is largely a morality play, and the title runs : " A New Interlude of Vice, conteyninge the Historye of Horestes." It contains many songs — Egisthus and Clytemnestra have just finished a love song when the singer announces the avenger's approach. I have referred to the fact that from the time of the early morality play to that of the threshold of tragedy the plays and masques performed at court and before the nobility were acted by the children of the choir of St. Paul's; they were also acted by the choirs of St. George's, Windsor, and * In Sharp's Dissertation on the Coventry Mj-storics. t Preserved in MS. Sloane 4900. 136 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. the Royal Chapel. The explanation would seem to be that the plays here referred to were plays in which singing was an essential feature, that actors, as a rule, were not singers, and that at this period women did not act. But subsequently, when the principal characters in a musical play were impersonated by regular actors, it was still the custom for the singers to be children. The first play performed in this country in which the principal actors were also singers, and which conse- quently may be called the first musical drama, was written by one, Richard Edwards, a master of the children of the Royal Chapel in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign. It was entitled " Damon and Pythias," and first acted in 1565. When Damon is carried to prison Pythias laments his fate in a solilo- quy, after which the stage direction is : "Here Pythius sings and the regalles play. When Pythius is carried to prison the regalles play a mourning song, and when about to suffer death Eubulus enters and sings a song of lamentation, each stanza of which has a burden sung by the Muses in chorus." The fact that notwithstanding this is not a play in which children were the singers, it was written by a "master of the children," suggests how closely the holders of this office (always held by a competent musician) were associated with these early musical plays. In 1570 one, William Hunnis, who was con- cerned in the entertainment of Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth, was master of the Royal Chapel, and at the same period Richard Farrant was master of the ENGLISH MUSIC TO THE RESTORATION. 1 37 children at Windsor. Farrant, so associated with grand composition for the Church, figures frequently as the recipient of payments for '' presentynge a playe before her highness."* Another instance of musical drama occurs towards the end of the sixteenth century, or the beginning of the next, in Thomas Heywood's " Rape of Lucrece," first printed in 1608. Though in this work the principal actors are not singers, it contains that advanced feature of musical drama — a highly dramatic concerted piece. It appears to have been very popular, as it passed through many editions. We now approach the period of Shakespeare's plays, in some of which — notably "As You Like It" and the " Tempest " — the lyrics and songs are such an essential feature. These two plays, in fact, might almost be called musical plays, the "Tempest" more particularly (even in its original form) as it contains a " masque." It is interesting to observe that the com- poser of the original music to Shakespeare's "Tem- pest " also figures in the entertainment given by the Earl of Leicester to Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle. This composer, Robert Johnson, was in 1573 in the household of Sir Thomas Kytson, of Hengrave Hall, in the county of Suffolk; and in the book con- taining the expenses of the household — kept by one, Thomas Fryer — there is under the date January, 1573, the following entry : * In Cunningham's " Account of the Revels," printed by the Shake.speare Society. 138 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. "In reward to Johnson, the musician, for his -charges in avvayting on my L. of Leycester at Kennel- worth, X s." Johnson, like his contemporary, John Dowland, was a celebrated lutenist* Besides the music of the " Tem- pest" he composed that of " Valentinian," by Eeau- mont and Fletcher (1617), and the "Masque of the Gypsies," by Een Johnson. In Shakespeare's time a play had no overture or musical introduction, but when not preceded by an in- troductory scene, a trumpet, which sounded thrice, an- nounced the entry of the speaker of the prologue. Dr. Rimbault makes the interesting suggestion that the use of trumpets in our early theatres was derived from tilts and tournaments. I may mention in passing that also in Shakespeare's time the position of the band was not between the stage and the pit — these were then separated by a kind of paling. What its actual posi- tion was is uncertain, but from the authority of Malone on the one hand, and from certain stage directions of contemporary plays on the other, it seems to have been either in an upper balcony over the stage box, or in one or more of the boxes. It was not till scon after the restoration that it took up its present position. The immediate precursors, however, of operas in * An allusion to Dowland and his skill as a lutenist occurs in Shakespcsare's "Passionate Pilgrim," eighth stanza: "Dowland to tlice is dear whose heavenly tonch Upon the lute doth ravish Ininian sense." ENGLISH MUSIC TO THE RESTORATION. 1 39 England were nut the musical plays which were acted in regular theatres, but the court masques of King James I's reign. In these masques the dialogue was spoken, but they always contained music — both vocal and instrumental — and they were performed on a stage with stage-machinery, dresses and decoration. The principal authors of these works were Een Johnson, Dr. Campion* and John Daniel ; and the principal composers of the music, Alfonso Ferrabosco.t Nicholas Laniere.J Nathaniel Giles (brother to the composer, Thomas Giles) and the poet. Dr. Campion. The next period to which special interest attaches in the preparation of English opera is, curiously, that when under the Cromwellian regime the theatres were closed. During this period several masques with music were performed privately or semi-privately. Among these Shirley's " Cupid and Death " — on the fable of Cupid and Death exchanging weapons — the music by Mathew Lock, was performed on March 26, 1653, before the Portuguese ambassador. One reason why masques and musical plays were permitted during the Cromwellian regime was their being written in verse, and sung. Thus they were * The composer of " AVhat if a Day, or a Montli, or a Year " — one of the most celebrated songs of the first half of the seventeenth century. f Born at Greenwich of Italian parents and an intimate friend of Ben Johnson. ;] .\n Italian who was also an excellent painter and engraver, and whose portrait, painted by himself, still hangs in tlie Music School, Oxford. I40 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. assumed to be an unfavourable vehicle for attack upon the government. About this time we come upon definite evidence of the influence of Italian opera, in the introduction of recitative. In 1656 Sir William Davenant obtained permission to open a theatre in Rutland House, Charterhouse Square, for the exhibition of what he termed an " Entertainment in Declamation and Music after the manner of the ancients." In the pro- logue, this work is designated an opera. In a note at the end of the piece it is men- tioned that the music, both vocal and instrumental, was composed by Dr. Charles Coleman, Captain Henry Cook, Mr. Henry Lawes and Mr. George Hudson. The first and the last of these had been gentlemen of the private music of Charles I. This work was followed closely by another written by Sir W. Davenant, entitled, "The Siege of Rhodes," produced with unprecedented splendour. Subse- quently a second part was added which was seen by Evelyn, January 9, 1662, and which he states distinctly was in recitative musiq. Then in 1658 Davenant produced, also at Rutland House, a piece thus described, " The cruelty of Spani- ards in Peru expressed by instrumental and vocal music and the art of perspective in scenes," This also was seen by Evelyn (May 5, 1659) who refers to it as a new "opera after the Italian way, in recitative music and scenes." The scenes and decorations in this drama were (according to Downes in his " Roscius Angli- ENGLISH MUSIC TO THE RESTORATION. 14I canus"), the first introduced on a public stage in England. A peculiar interest attaches to these interregnum per- formances in that they not only took place when Puri- tanism was in the ascendant, and rigorous ordinances had been issued against stage plays and all entertain- ments consisting of music and dancing; but in the features of scenic decoration and the employment of female performers, they were in positive advance of the custom of the stage up to the time. Before the Restoration the public stages were bare of all scenic contrivance but a front curtain and a balcony or upper platform at the back of the stage.* As regards female performers the first formal licence for their appearance was contained in the patent granted to Sir William Davenant immediately after the Restoration; yet in the first part of the " Siege of Rhodes," to which I have referred, the part of lanthe was (in 1656) represented by Mrs. Coleman — wife of Dr. Charles Coleman.t * See "Life of Shakespeare," pp. 38, 39. Sydney Lee. t Dr. IJimbauit, in a "Skptcli of tlic History of Dramatic Music in England." CHAPTER XIII. After the Restoration to the Death of Purcell. THE first musical piece after the Restoration was entitled "The Stepmother," the words anony- mous, the music by Mathew Lock. It was per- formed at the theatre in Little Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1663 with great success. In 1667 the adaptation of Shakespeare's "Tempest" by Davenant and Dryden, with additions to the lyrical portion, appeared. The vocal music to this was by Pelham Humphreys and John Banister, the leader of Charles II's celebrated band of twenty-four violins; the instrumental, by Mathew Lock. Six years later Lock wrote the vocal, and Giovanni Baptista Draghi* the instrumental, music to Shad- well's " Psyche." In 1674 a masque entitled " Calista," or " The Chaste Nymph," written by command of King James II's queen when Duchess of York, was performed at court; the * An Italian by birth who came to England with the consort of James II (Mary D'Este, the I'rinccss of Modena), and suc- ceeded liOck as organist to tlie Queen. AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 1 43 music was by Dr. Nicholas Staggins, the composer to the king. In the preface to the printed copy the author of the work remarks : " Mr. Staggins has not only delighted us with his excellent composition but with the hopes of seeing in a very short time a master of musick in England, equal to any France or Italy have produced"; by which it would seem that some sense of inequality between English and foreign composers was felt here at this period. In 1676 Dr. Charles Davenant (eldest son of Sir William Davenant) produced his tragedy of " Circe," the music to which was by John Banister, to whom I have alluded. Dr. Rimbault is inclined to give Ban- ister a much higher station among English dramatic composers than has hitherto been assigned to him. We have now arrived at the period in which Purcell's career begins. In 1675 his first opera, "Dido and ^neas," was performed by young gentlewomen at Josias Priest's boarding school, the dialogue being given in recitative. In 1691 Purcell re-set the "Tempest" — revised for the purpose by Dryden — and afterwards, at various intervals, composed music for several dramatic works — Dryden's " King Arthur " and Shakespeare's " Mid- , summer Night's Dream" being among them — in all of which settings the dialogue was spoken. Thenceforth, with a few exceptions, no deviation from this practice of leaving the dialogue to be spoken, took place until considerably later — when Arne (in 1763) produced his " Artaxerxes," set after the Italian manner. But this 144 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. example did not change the custom or remove the idea which English in common with German composers and the composers of French opera comique seem to have then entertained instinctively, namely, that dia- logue, or at least that portion that is purely connective or that does not seem to call for musical expression, is better spoken. Notwithstanding that the Italian custom of treating the dialogue and purely connective portions of an opera throughout by continuous recitative is at present generally accepted, the last word on this subject has perhaps not yet been spoken. Unceasing music is sanctioned emphatically by Wagner and his school, but before we accept that as the best system to be adopted in musical drama, the fact that the greatest German dramatic composers prior to Wagner — Mozart, Beet- hoven and Weber — worked upon an operatic form, which included much spoken dialogue, demands very careful consideration. We have, in fact, to consider here certain differences of national taste, and of, so to speak, dramatic atmosphere. The new departure towards declamatory effect initiated in Italy in 1600 by Peri and Caccini, and developed by Mazzochi, in " Querimonia," and Carissimi, in "Jephtha," really led to the highly dramatic recitative of Handel, in "Jephtha" and "Alexander's Feast," and ultimately to the intensely expressive declamation of Wagner in "Parsifal." Novv^, in support of the use of continuous recitative in such works as these, it may be said that all musical peoples — including the English — have a BISHOP. From a photo 6,7 Walker and BoutaU, 10 Clifford's Inn, of an oil paintinrj by unknown artist in Xational Portrait Gallery. To lace pa(je lltK AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 145 profound feeling for it. But of recitative in pro- longed scenes involving mainly ordinary dialogue, both English and German taste is at heart strongly im- patient. At all events, when Weber in "Euryanthe" substituted fully accompanied recitative for spoken dialogue, German audiences were unprepared for the change; whilst in England, as we have seen, the use of recitative throughout the dialogue did not continue long after the Restoration. But to an Italian audience recitative, with of course accompaniment, seems a quite natural environment for ordinary dialogue, whether playful or expressive. This difference of national taste it would seem turns largely on the element of humour which in far from qualified form has always been a very definite ingredient of English opera. And it is perhaps through the fact that in the course of the development of our strong national drama we have been accustomed to the real article, that we have never been satisfied with the mere surface play of the risible, however irrepressive and amiable, which characterises Italian Opera Buffa. But real humour in the English sense is distinctly handicapped by music, notwith- standing the ease with which music can lend itself to playful effect. Brightness, exuberant play, conceit in sound — the tricky and the comical — all this effer- vescence of the cheerful, music can express in infinite ways; but the effects thus produced, though they may attend circumstances that excite laughter, and thus add to its pleasure, do not of themselves make us laugh or even smile with the smile that attends the subtle sense L 146 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. of humour, for humour is inward — psychic, and so far from lending itself to musical illustration is anti- pathetic to it. This was shown in the case of the famous admission, "Hardly ever," in the "Pinafore," which was quite missed by the audience on the night of first performance, though on the second night it caught on, not by its effect, tied as it was to the music, but because the audience knew it was there — behind the neutralising musical notes. The fact then that humout is destroyed if attempted to be illus- trated, was probably one of the reasons, if not the chief reason, why in Germany, France and England, spoken dialogue was chosen instinctively for lighter opera. " . As English operatic work began in the setting of poetic lyrics which occurred in plays and masques, so, in the main, it continued. Purcell's dramatic work consisted in the contribution of incidental music to tragedies and plays, in the form of definite and some- times elaborate constructions — such as artistic song, duet, chorus, catch or recitative, and, in instrumental pieces, such as overture, minuet, or other dance. Thus the music is not as a rule an essential part of the drama but an extraneous adornment at certain points. Purcell is typical of the English style; he is plain, broad, unchromatic; he shows considerable power of invention and elaboration within the limits of the musical tradition of England at his period, whilst in alertness to catch the passing ideas of his text by facility of phrase, as well as feeling for massiveness AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 1 47 of choral enunciation, he is anticipant of Handel. The tradition in style that Purcell inherited was based upon that combination of the Flemish and early Italian schools which was the common foundation of the art in Europe, and of which the purest develop- ment in this country was our Elizabethan school. By when, however, it had reached Purcell it had been much subjected to French influence. James II had brought with him, at his accession, a keen taste for the French style, which taste had led to the establishment of a more dramatic form of musical service at the Chapel Royal ; and this influence had been revived by Charles II, who appears to have been a strong partisan of French music. So there can be little doubt that the secular as well as the sacred music heard at the court of St. James' at this period was largely a reflection of that of the court of Versailles. The influence of the French style upon Purcell may have been further strengthened by his master, Pelham Humphrey, having been sent by Charles II to study under Lulli in Paris where he, Pelham Humphrey, had remained some two or three years. There is in Purcell's instrumental music, not only the natural openness and perspicuity of the English style but a certain brightness — a sprightliness in fast movements and an ease and absence of ponderousness in slow — ^which may be due to French influence. This is evidenced distinctly in the Maestoso and following fugue in the overture to "Bonduca" (see examples). This influence, however, would have been unconscious 148 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. — due to organic assimilation and thus not involving definite imitation. Nor in Purcell is there definite imi- tation of Italian music. Yet being a contemporary of Alessandro Scarlatti, also being a youth when Caris- simi died, and just entering manhood when Cavalli died, he could not have been unreceptive to the melodic beauty that at this period was unfolding in Italy — in fact, in the dedication of his opera, " The Prophetess " (1691), he says: "In our own country musick is but in its nonage, a forward child, which gives hopes of what it may be hereafter in England when the masters of it shall find more encouragement. 'Tis now learning Italian which is its best master." It is thus a sign of great strength in Purcell that instead of falling into imitation of the new Italian melody he goes on his way in his native style, leaving foreign influence to affect him and (as he in the passage just quoted seemed to anticipate) future composers organically. Purcell's first attempt at dramatic writing was his opera, " Dido and ^neas," performed privately in 1675, when he was in his seventeenth year. It may give some idea of the style of music prevalent at the theatre at this time if I mention that two years before we find Mathew Lock collaborating with Draghi in furnishing the music to Shadwell's tragedy of "Psyche," produced at the Duke's theatre. Lock, whose career was ending as Purcell's was beginning, had been a frequent contributor to the music of the stage, and with him had collaborated Pel ham Humphrey and John Banister. AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 1 49 The following four extracts from Purcell's music to " Eonduca " (a tragedy altered from Beaumont and Fletcher) may be regarded as representative of his matured style. The first is illustrative of that alert- ness to passing expression which I have mentioned as one of his specialities. I ( Example 40. From " Bonduca." Opera (1695). (ist extract). PuRCELL (London, 1658-1695I. BONVICA. Andante. 1 ' — ■ _ ±f: .lit:: r?-f:|.i; -=:-T -•- ^- ^6-_% ■^- O . o . u^^ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 it 3 ^ ! 1 — * — m S-^ '-m— g m — « — •— f lead me, lead me to s ime peace • - . ful - r -P— ^_k V C- n ,, ' 1 V 1> ( gloom, Where none but sigh log. i^^^Ei 150 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. r"*&^ . -- — f— 5 =? — ^ . but sigh ing, sigh ing gzfe -^-&» 4?- il2=:grt?= lo - vers come : Where the shrill, the shrill ^i ■^fe-jj- m fe^^ gi^^j^ trumpets ne - ver sound ^6 — f - T I I oe - • ver sound. But etc. The second is from the opening movement of the overture, and may perhaps be considered a good ex- ample, for the period, of cahn dignity in instrumental AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 15I expression. The instruments employed are first and second violin, viola and bass. Example 41. r rom " Bonduca. " (znd extract). (1695) pl Maestoso. ^^ 1 -t=^-ss^ ii _jj^. r--f i — ^ --S=?- —I ta-'H h-i — r '-i- r ^^^ 3= The third is from the fugue that follow^s. \ Example 42. From " Bonduca." (3rd extract). Allegro Moderate , , , |^,^ ^-rf3 r I — r=i W^^^^^ 5 p Si^^ 152 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. -^ ;iz=t -J-J- #^t-fcs-fc-r — •-'4- -^=^:-*=i T- --f^ F i- T • •^?:==:i ^1 The fourth extract, whilst exemplifying the plain melodiousness of the English style, is peculiarly illus- trative of that freedom from imitation of then recent foreign idioms to which I have referred, and which would have been so seductive to a weaker composer. PURCELL. Jo face parj : I'/t. AFTER THE RESTORATION TO PURCELL'S DEATH. 153 Minuet. Example 43. From " Bonduca." '4th extract). — -4^ - i^ » — »■ l!=r4»t:.^ fe:_1_ -'-Tii I f I -• mw^s^^ T • -, r ' ■" '^ ™ — I — — I"-! — i-i-s' — •-T An example of massive writing for chorus, soli and string quartet, occurs in this work in "Hear us, Great 154 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Rugwith," which in the character of its expression is suggestive of the opening part of Handel's "Hear us, O Lord" in "Judas Maccabaeus." The well known example of choral declamation, "Britons, Strike Home" — straight and clear as an improvisation — occurs also in this work. CHAPTER XIV. From the Death of Purcell to the Beginning of THE Nineteenth Century. PURCELL died on November 21, 1695, and fifteen years afterwards Thomas Augustine Arne (1710- 1778), a most original and fertile composer, was born. His "Rule Britannia" came out in 1740 as a finale for the masque of "Alfred," and in the same year he wrote his settings of the lyrics in "As You Like It," the "Tempest" and other plays of Shakespeare. In openness and clearness of style he follows in the path of Purcell. His "Rule Britannia" and "Where the Bee Sucks" may, in virtue of their settled popularity, be selected as examples of that perfect roundness of effect — that total absence of chromatic fretwork — which is so peculiar to our native handicraft in com- position. His example of (in the main) simply setting the definite lyrics or lyrical passages of the dramas he treated, was followed by Dibdin, Arnold, Shield, Storace, Attwood, Braham, Bishop and Barnett — some his contemporaries and some his successors. That he 155 156 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. and all these composers threw their energies completely into the lyrical portion of the plays they treated — ignoring its dramatic surrounding as not concerning them — is proved by the perfect fitness of their effusions for standing alone. Thus, Mrs. Edmund Wodehouse in a note to her admirable article on " Song " in " Grove's Dictionary," says : " Most indeed of the best songs of a period extend- ing from Purcell's time down to the early part of the nineteenth century were once, as it were, embedded in dramatic pieces, but those pieces have faded into ob- livion while the songs have survived, without their original environment, in the favour of successive gener- ations." The practice of introducing a lyric expressive of the musing of one of the characters, at a certain point in the progress of the piece where something invites reflection or apostrophe, we are of course familiar with in all opera. The title of a song from Burgoyne's " Lord of the Manor," by William Jackson, of Exeter — " When First this Humble Roof I Knew " is a sug- gestive example of one of these lyric musings taken from the period of which I am speaking. But, as I have just implied, this custom was not special to Eng- lish opera; it existed and became traditional in Ger- man Singspiel and French Opera Comique, and is in- stanced in such distinctly dramatic operas as " Der Freischiitz" and "Faust." But what was special to English opera was that its composers, as I have said, de- voted themselves completely to the lyrical suggesting. FROM PURCELL TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 57 or, as Mrs. Wodehouse says, the songs were embedded in the plays so as to be perfectly detachable. Thus English composers did not touch the dialogue at all. This is further brought out by W. S. Rockstro in the following passage : " In the hands of Storace, Dibdin, Hook and Shield, it (the opera) assumed a form quite different from that practised in any Continental school. By them the whole action was carried on by spoken dialogue — in this respect differing from German Sing- spiel and French Opera Comique. Its melodies were essentially English — so much so that we still cherish many of them as the happiest and most expressive ballads we possess. But its one great fault was almost total absence of dramatic power." It is, of course, obvious with regard to two points in the above quotation : the English composer keeping quite clear of the dramatic action, and the total ab- sence from his work of dramatic power — that we have in them the operation of cause and effect. It may have been that the principle of speaking the dialogue was held more tenaciously here than in Germany or France. But assuming our composers had a free hand, it does not necessarily follow that their seeming peculiar irre- sponsiveness to much dramatic incentive which verge! on the field of their lyrical operations and, so to speak, stared them in the face, was entirely due to want of dramatic instinct On the other hand, I shall en- deavour to show as we proceed that it represented really the hollow of the wave of a different and larger order of dramatic feeling. 158 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Now, taking a broad glance, if we compare the record I have given of the development of dramatic music in Italy, Germany or France with that of Eng- land, how striking at once is the difference ! In each of the three foreign countries we see serious opera attaining a unique individuality in which nevertheless the general development of the art throughout all countries at the time, is fairly represented ; and lighter opera absorbing so largely the various qualities in the musical idiosyncrasy of each particular people as ultimately to take over the whole function of serious opera or become complementary to it. Thus Opera Buffa, Singspiel and Opera Comique led respectively in Italy, Germany and France to opera at its fullest vitality whatever it may have been called. But in this country after Purcell we see serious opera continuing but not further developing, and lighter opera failing to form a path of its own. The " Beggar's Opera " was a distinctly new departure and eminently success- ful notwithstanding, or perhaps because, its music was borrowed from popular tunes and ballads, but it opened up no new path; it led to nothing. The unfavourable position of English opera in this comparison is simply a particular view of the wide- spread fact that at the death of Purcell what may be described as relatively a general arrest in the progress of the art occurred in this country. This fact I will now describe. From about the year 1600 — when the monodic de- velopment was dawning upon the whole world of FROM PURCELL TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 59 music — the Italian school had begun to unfold that peculiar flexibility of form and unique beauty in melody which it has never ceased to retain, with the result that music in all countries was more or less in- fluenced by it. But its effect upon the German and French styles was particularly marked. Adam Hiller took his note from Alessandro Scarlatti, whose style Handel also developed in his operas both before he came to this country as well as after he had settled in it. Then, as we know, without the influence of Italy upon Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, those composers would not have been what they were. As regards French music the influence of Italy through Lulli may not have been very great, but ultimately the genius of Italy became an essential factor in the development of the French style, particularly in melody — supplying those qualities of breadth and richness in which French melody is peculiarly wanting. It is a remarkable fact that different as the German and French styles are, both have a certain affinity for Italian melody — each can assimilate it and each is enhanced by it, and still without loss of individuality. And it is equally re- markable that there is something in the nature of the English ballad which prevents it assimilating Italian melody — it seems not to want it — not, in fact, to admit of further development. The result, however, of this peculiar absence of affinity between the English ballad and the new Italian melody was that that fer- tilising and enriching stream of melody which flowed in Italy in the seventeenth century and to which Peri, l6o THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Caccini, Mazzocchi, Cavalli and Carissimi, among others, contributed, failed to enrich English music as it enriched German and French. After Purcell then, as I have said, progressive- organic development here relatively stood still — though no doubt there were many composers, such as Arne and Jackson, of Exeter, who did yeoman service in maintaining worthily the traditional merits of the Eng- lish school, and there may have been some genius, mute and inglorious, or not all mute or all inglorious but that failed to catch general attention. Perhaps the man of proportionate calibre nearest after Purcell was Bishop, and he may have gone a step further. In such songs as " Bid me Discourse " and " Should he Up- braid," he succeeded in consummating the artistic song in purely English style — in a way in which all foreign influence was organically assimilated; he also, whilst retaining the simplicity and openness of the English style, possessed a strong faculty for bold design in choral enunciation. P-ut a foreign influence in musical style other than that of Italian melody, and that had been long form- ing without its tremor having reached us was now upon us. The new revelation of German power in Oratorio, Opera and Symphony had descended on the world of music. Mozart's "Idomeneo," "Seraglio," " Figaro," " Don Giovanni " and " Zauberflote " ap- peared between 1781 and 1791 ; Haydn's "Creation'' was first performed in 1798 (in London in 1800); Beet- hoven's second and third symphonies were completed o o a en > < > M H M > H W W > O "^ O o a > k: M O H M ^2! > ^-^ o > > H W FROM PURCELL TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. l6l in 1804, and Weber's "Riibezahl" was written about 1 804. The other and larger circumstances which conduced to this development may be thus briefly describefl. Owing partly to the assiduous cultivation of organ playing, which in Germany set in soon after the Reformation, German composers became the pioneers in the adoption of equal temperament and thus in the freer use of the completed system of overlapping scales consequent upon that development. Thus they were the first to unfold that new and remarkable en- richment due to the effect of harmonic progressions from the standpoints of widely-removed keys, which opened out to the whole art a new world of effect* These were the principal circumstances which gave Germany that lead in musical drama and in the larger instrumental forms which she had now taken so de- cidedly. For that more extended harmonic reach, more rapid modulation and freer traversing of the system generally, which favoured musical drama favoured also the symphony and sonata — helping in the expression of a deeper and more dramatic spirit even in these instrumental forms. But another circumstance contributed in no small degree to raise and magnify the part played by Ger- many at this eventful moment, so to speak, of the art's history. The period of the technical consummation just mentioned was the period of the French Revolu- * See " Uisc of Music," jiage -I'M. M l62 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. tion, when the human mind underwent, as it were, a new birth and rcconfronted the whole problem of existence, causing new thoughts and feelings to surge in literature and art. It was not surprising, therefore, that some of this spirit should press for outlet in music; nor seeing that this was the time of the con- summation of that extended technique special to the German school, to which I have just referred, that it should fall to Germany to voice it. The result was that her natural genius found itself at this moment so reinforced materially and surcharged morally as to rise to inordinate manifestation and place her art easily in advance of that of all other countries. But in this advance of Germany, Italy and France were left far less behind than was England. We have seen that in the two former countries a dramatic style had already taken strong root — grown in virtue of native vigour, and was still quick and receptive. Not- withstanding then, that in these two countries dramatic music was outstripped by Germany, it was simply out- stripped. But in English opera the set back was more decided ; it stood almost entirely on the English bal- lad; it had — as we have seen — scarcely essayed descriptive effect or any form of dramatic effect proper; less than ever then was it likely to essay seri- ously such effect now when the Italian and French schools that had successfully done so were distinctly surpassed by the German. After "Don Giovanni" English versions of German operas occupied our stage for some ten years. Then FROM PURCELL TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 63 native opera again raised its head. Yet notwithstand- ing the success of John Barnett's " Mountain Sylph," and later, the superb ballads in the operas of Balfe, Loder and Wallace — breathing the English note of sincerity and having the rare, divine gift in music of being undying, English opera as a dramatic form fell out of the race. CHAPTER XV. The Taste of the English for Ideal Drama. The Special Influence of Handelian Oratorio. 1HAVE hinted that the reason our style of melody did not get beyond the English ballad was that this is one of those developments in music which are ultimate — in which certain elements in technique and expression combine so perfectly as to render it improbable that effect can rise higher in that particular direction. Handel's use of the fugal principle in his choruses, and Beethoven's of thematic treatment in his symphonies and sonatas, are instances of this ultimate development. In proceeding with the fortune of the English dra- matic school it is now necessary for me to pass to the field of oratorio. I have referred to description, illus- tration, and the suggestion of the situation generally as belonging to dramatic treatment. Now all these kinds of expression are invited by the larger and more ideal drama of oratorio. It is thus natural that in those schools which have a strong dramatic prompting IGl IDEAL DRAMA AND HANDEL'S ORATORIOS. 165 we should find oratorio unfolding side by side with opera. Accordingly we find the "Querimonia de S. Maria Maddelena" of Domenico Mazzocchi, and the Four Passions" of Heinrich Schiitz in the schools respectively of Italy and Germany, when these schools were young, and about this time we also find in the Italian school the "Jephtha" of Carissimi. Xow it is a curious fact that to the dramatic prompt- ing in oratorio the English school does not altogether fail to respond. I have referred to the beautiful and specially Eng- lish form, the verse anthem, which, initiated at the suggestion of James II for the services at the Chapel Royal, became a distinguishing feature of the school of the Restoration. Written in a style in which measured melody is employed, including solo, duet, chorus and every variety of concerted effect, and sup- ported by instrumental accompaniment, this form represents in some degree every element of dramatic ex- pression; and the, so to speak, instantaneous and deep felt response by the English composer to this dramatic opportunity is peculiar and remarkable. Curiously un- moved, as we have seen him to be, by the drama, actual and present to sense, he is earnestly receptive to it when ideal and presented on the larger stage of the imagination — as in those scenes and arguments from Scripture which form the subjects of our anthems. These — all poetic, and deep in moral conviction — are, some of them, highly graphic and dramatic in the sense of inward drama. The titles or beginnings of a 1 66 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. few are sufficient to suggest this: "By the Waters of Babylon," " Who is He that Cometh from Edom," " The Ways of Sion do Mourn." The following, however, has always struck me as such a remarkable example of even biblical grandeur of expression, that I am tempted to quote it notwithstanding its familiarity. Though in essence simply a religious aphorism with what con- summate art it is stated ! In order to bring this out 1 have accompanied my quotation of it by a short analysis : * O where shall wisdom be found? and where is the place of understanding? The answer is delayed as by a secondary utterance — commentative and reflective. Man knoweth not the place thereof; neither is it found in the land of the living. The depth said, Tt is not in nie ; and the spa sayeth, Tt is not in me. It cannot be gotten for gold, neither shall silver be weighed for the price thereof ; No mention shall be made of coral or of pearl, for the price of wisdom is above rubies. Question repeated in the light of preceding : AVhence then cometh wisdom? and where is the place of Jinderstanding? Seeing it is hid from the eyes of all living. Further secondary utterance of deeper tone and in- volving extended grandeur of allegory : * Also I have so placed the sentences as to bring out that parallelism of r.rpirxxinn which is .special to Hebi-ew poetic- form . IDEAL DRAMA AND HANDEL'S ORATORIOS. 167 God understandeth the way thereof, and He knoweth the place thereof, For He looketh to the ends of the earth, and seeth under the whole heaven. To make a ijlace for the winds, and He weigheth the waters by measure, When He made a decree for the rain, and a way for the lightning of the thunder ; Then did He see it and declare it; He prepared it yoa and searched it out. The answer as it imports man ; .\nd unto man He said: Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to depart from evil is understanding. This is the kind of drama that never fails to appeal to English feeling — a drama of which the action and imagery unfold in the theatre of the mind and all is steeped in a moral atmosphere — and this fact har- monises with my remark — made in speaking of Wag- ner in the German section — that the elevated nature of the subjects of his great works has probably had much to do with the homage they now so undisputably com- mand with us, for though placed upon the actual stage there can be no doubt that such subjects as the " Ring " and "Parsifal" belong to the drama of the ideal; the true place of which is the theatre of the mind. I think many besides myself must have felt a certain surprise that with the conception of these works the idea of their stage performance should have been bound up so closely. Apart from the unfitness of such scenes as the bottom of the Rhine or the Space- abyss seen from the rocky height with the thunder clouds rising up or sweeping past, the placing such characters as the Walkyries and Wotan on the stage, has a most dwarfing influence on the impressions they 1 68 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. are intended to give us. Actual men and women in material costume and armour and with obvious stage- weapons — how titterly stunted is the effect they pro- duce compared with that they have upon us in the theatre of our imagination — in form the same but everything of "empyreal substance" — and where we may see them not merely standing or walking — obvi- ous mortals — but riding through space and alighting on the rock all freed inheritors of the air and clouds! How different is the suggestiveness in the two cases ! and whilst in the latter, exceeding the limits of the material — larger, vaguer, more mysterious — how infin- itely m^ore vivid and impressive ! In this connection I often think of the following remark of Mathew Arnold, written long before Wagner became popular here : " Even in Germans of genius or talent the want of quick, light tact, of incisive perception of the impro- priety or impossibility of certain things is singularly remarkable."* Now it is due to our deep feeling for this higher drama that our composers have been far from insensi- ble to the scope of expression which the subjects of our verse anthems offer. In this form they have at least succeeded in attaining graciousness and dignity — a certain grandeur, and simple beauty. That as time has passed they have not risen to the production of works of the hiehest power in this path is largely owing to that peculiar omission on their part, of acquir- * Mathew Arnold "On the study of Celtic literature." Hie Pavourite Aivs^ in ^jr .yoTi^ Qrrrec^Sf ^f^?^ -lyAMf onm,_%ay?/^^. Engrav'd on Copper Plates . /■■rr.ie, Sc///^ Mff7r^ OfiOTnt^ ^ m& /TT/MtcA u-no^er //i^ , ^^ C ^. ■■ LOA^JDON ' ;^ ^ }f'/i,-f,\ /r/a// ^e /j.i,/ //i^ Opera ^Julius Caefar m.yc47r& ^j/vf z/ :^/ii/c.^ToeA£^^4?m^tmm n- /fir ChnAeiacii A' Ladies /'t!//7^ /I ^//£<^n i^ Opera Songs //i^ngiiik and lAsXi^iSi .i/i B&o,. FACSIMILE TITLE OF HANDEL'S OPERA, "TAMERLANE." To face page US. IDEAL DRAMA AND HANDEL'S ORATORIOS. 169 ing a dramatic technique which I have pointed out. Nevertheless it was still ordered that our peculiar lean- ing to grand sacred drama should not go unexpressed. Somewhat remarkably about the time when the arrest of further growth in the English style was beginning — that is, soon after the death of Purcell — a great genius though not a born Englishman took up its development — fully in spirit and largely in form, for the general character of his style like that of English composers is open, clear, and, in the main, unchromatic. I, of course, allude to George Frederick Handel. Handel settled in this country in 171 2 — seventeen years after Purcell's death. He had been here six years when he became chapel master to the Duke of Chandos, which post he held for three years, and within the latter interval he composed the "Chandos Anthems'' and the first oratorio he wrote in this coun- try, " Esther." That he was influenced profoundly by our style as exemplified by Gibbons, Morley, Boyce, Purcell, Croft and others, is probable, and thus it may perhaps be said that our school was the stock on which the development of his genius for higher drama was grafted — certainly our sympathy for this drama formed the atmosphere in which that genius expanded and arrived at maturity. Now as to melody. In the first place the English artistic style and the Handelian style had a comm^on origin in the Flemish school under Italian influence. Thus in adopting bodily his oratorios as the full ex- pression of our ideal drama, we found no difficulty in I/O THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. taking over his Italian aria as the melody of that drama, so that such songs as "Angels ever Bright and Fair," "Waft her, Angels," "I Know that My Re- deemer Liveth," are pure expressions of English feeling. Handel carried the oratorio to the fullest develop- ment that the style in which he worked permitted, with result permanently glorious, yet it involved finality of the English school of sacred drama for the long period between then and the present time. Thus in the ideal drama, as in the real, we were controlled by the shaping of circumstance. When Handel died, in 1759, Haydn was twenty-seven years of age, Mozart three; and eleven years later Beethoven — that un- happiest man of men — was destined to see the light. CHAPTER XVI. The Help of a Strong Native School. Eintglish Influence upon Sacred Musical Drama. IN the light of these considerations it seems clear that the position of being out of the race of musi- cal development which the English composer has occupied in the modern period, is due to the fact that ballad and unchromatic combinative effect — forms of expression in which the English genius mainly runs — attained a certain finality v^'hen abroad factors of the future were forming. These factors, as I have pointed out, consisted of that chromatic enrichment in both melody and harmony which it was the peculiar destiny of the German genius to develop, of a continuous spring of growth in the Italian and French schools, and of a peculiar capacity which these three schools have to influence one another favourably without loss of indi- viduality. I am now approaching the period of this survey in which the various facts mentioned may in themselves be found more or less interesting, and the comparison in 1/2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. of some of them as attaching respectively to different schools, more or less instructive. But the moral would seem to be that the native style is the dominating factor in the art destiny of its particular people. When a composer essays an important work from the stand- ing ground of his native style that work may be said to be half done; not only has he already at hand the tissue of its substance, but he breathes the atmosphere of its spirit. That much in Haydn's instrumental music was already extant in the German school is shown by the following example from Carl Philip Emanuel Bach. Example 44. From No. 1 o{ Six Sonatas. C P. E. Bach (1714-1718 -9 — ■+-i3»--M — 1— I ■^—^- '--■■-* \'-i — i-H-i- , i — 1 \ ^ • • ' > — • • • 5' ' / p'" f Jf ENGLISH SCHOOL OF SACRED DRAMA. 1 73 Then further in the above may be noted the fore- shadowing of one of those mysterious episodes — as of an unknown drama — which are such a striking feature in Beethoven's symphonies. This effect is observable between A and B in the above extract in the alter- nating loudness of the recurring figure in the bass as related to the answering passages in the treble. The help to a composer of a strong extant style and technique is also illustrated in Examples 14, 15 and 16, given to show that considerable preparation, both in form and spirit, anticipative of Weber had been going on in the German school before Haydn. Again, passing to Wagner, the thought of the celebrated pre- lude to •" Lohengrin " impresses us vividly with the importance of a native school, in the expression it derives from the peculiarly German elements of sus- pension, interweavement of parts and chromatic en- richment. How natural it is where there is a strong natural style for a composer to hold to it, is illustrated in the following two cases. Verdi in "Abbieta zingara" and " Stride la vampa," in " II Trovatore," expresses not only the feeling but the circumstances in specially con- ceived melody, whilst Wagner, in the fire scene in " Siegfried," depicts not only the circumstances by in- strumental effect but in the main the feelings of the characters also. Next to the Germans the French seem to take most to the cultivation of symphonic effect, both in the theatre and generally. 174 THE DEVELOPMENT OK OPERA. Nor man, nor nation, nor a school of art, nor even a complete art, can escape its destiny, and it was the destiny of our school to create the English ballad in its many examples of beautiful and purely English melodies, and partly by practical preparation, partly by sympathy and appreciation, participate in the creation of Handelian sacred drama and in the per- sistence of the oratorio form. The facts that for a considerable period, in Handelian oratorio alone, our most solemn feelings found, and that in oratorio gen- erally, they still find, exhaustive expression, are the compensation that fate has accorded us for the long arrested development in our style. That lacking the achievement of Handel, musical art would not have been to others than Englishmen what it has been to them in the recent past (if not what it is) is perhaps sufficiently testified by the fol- lowing account of an incident known to antiquaries, yet for which I am glad to &nd a place here. In the "Harmonicon" for 1824 is a letter, the writer of which describes a visit he paid to Beethoven on September 28, 1823, when the latter was staying at the village of Baden; and in this description the follow- ing passage occurs concerning Handel : " In the whole course of our table-talk there was nothing so interesting as what he (Beethoven) said about Handel. I sat very close to him and heard him assert very distinctly in German : ' Handel is the greatest composer that ever lived I would un- cover my head and kneel down on his tomb ! ' " ENGLISH SCHOOL OF SACRED DRAMA. 1 75 But our sympathy for the higher drama did not cease to express itself with the foregoing achievement; we have shown our appreciation of that drama since the coming in of the modern technique and whatever the nationality of its composer. All great work in this style, whether of Italian, German or Frenchman, has found with us a home of adoption as warm as any native home could be. For over one hundred and fifty years oratorio and the performance of great sacred works have been with us a definite institution. It is of course well known that it was in consequence of a visit to this country that Haydn conceived the idea of writing the "Creation" and that by the dis- tinct invitation of the Birmingham Festival Mendels- sohn, Gounod and Elgar were encouraged respectively to give to the world "Elijah," the "Redemption" and the "Drean. of Gerontius." CHAPTER XVII. Edward Elgar. IN Elgar the English school at last raises its head. In that higher drama for which it has never ceased to betray its sympathy he stands clearly on the level of great composers. To assert that his strength is his own would be unnecessary if he was not a comparatively new composer, and consequently one not universally known and understood. I may then state that, like all great art-presenters, he assimi- lates as by instinct all extant method that makes for strength; thus he, of course, avails himself of the leii- violiv form and ordinary harmonic license as well as of the polyphonic principle; yet so far from losing himself in technique, he controls it with ease and so marshalls it as to produce effect as clear as it is im- pressive. Curiously, Elgar's music embraces the opposite traits of extreme closeness of texture and the greatest breadth To face pog-? 17G. ELGAR. KHO.M TIU DtST BY I'KltClVAI, U. F. UIUI.KY. ENGLISH OPERA. — EDWARD ELGAR. 1 77 and openness in general design, and further, in both cases it involves, as a rule, a definite harmonic plan which is as clearly thought out (or heard out) in the one as in the other. These and some further remarks I propose to illustrate by a few extracts from the " Dream of Gerontius." The following^ represents method condensed : Example 45. From ihe " Dream of Gerontius."' (Composed J900). Edward Elgar rill Itnto » = 52 -V- This emptying out of each con stit - u - ent JS. m k±- Tsr * Vocal Score, page 9. Here we observe how the peculiar constitution of the vocal phrase — which involves a sequence of four whole tones — smoothes the effect of the rise of the whole harmony by a semitone — the suspended G flat giving a clear raison d'etre to the second chord. Thus a dis- cordant element being added to the abrupt progression proves its saving clause. 178 THE DEVELOPMENT OE OPERA. The following extract shows with what peculiar felicity the practically new and complex may be based upon the theoretically old and simple. The progres- sions may, of course, be analysed differently, but the plan adopted suffices to indicate perfectly their method and simplicity. Example 46. From the " Dream of Gerontius ' God's Pres - - (igoo). Edward Elgar. aad His ve - - ry .^• =4=,^i_-=i.J.,^X^ L-=tr -«a-' ip-. dim . -r irl 2i ENGLISH OPERA. — EDWARD ELGAR. Self And Es - - sence all 179 ) mm^^mmi ^--, -J?: —cr -■ -G' S-' =^-A- dim. Ej;rii^^^^{^ (Running chords) * Vocal Score* page 1 17. Now as to some of the larger features of Elgar's power. One of these is the combining illustration with pure expression ; another is his marked use of anti- phonal or answering effect, which I have spoken of before as so characteristic of very great composers. These features are evident in that great example of large concerted writing, the "Angelicals" (Praise to the Holiest) in which are illustration and a fullness of expression which could scarcely go farther, as well as striking examples of the opposition of sound- masses — as in the alternation of the three mysterious chords (sounding as from the inner Heaven) with the ecstatic utterance by the chorus of the word "praise" — which comes in towards the peroration.* Vocal score, pages 138-40. i8o THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. The following extract I give mainly as showing the composer lifted up, as it were, to express himself in stress, and as an example of the overwhelming power this may give to an inspiration. Observe how just after the word Allar gando he seems impelled by the feeling for this means of expression to sustain a chord generally used as connective for two bars and then come to his climax. Observe also the fine effect of the chord of the mediant at this climax, and the repetition of the effect of stress at the words molto stringendo.^' ("Dream of Gerontius," Ex. 47, vocal score p. 112.) Example 47. 2ND SOPR. AND AlTO. 1ST SOPK- espress. In all His words most In all . Hii Tknor and Bass. words most won - der - ful ; AVarfrando * Compare remarks, jiages 7 and 8, "The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music," from "On the other hand," to "the feelinsr of utterance." ENGLISH OPERA. — EDWARD ELGAR. Ibl inollo ores. a_ Sa=s:t|ii=[5,%^ cres. I Most r s re. , molto <^£is |=-J==' most sure in all r r ^m P - I - • • — S> I molto cres. -£— - •— BH 1-T-*- ff" ^3 moll ' mm 3". : « — f- M^^i 3; H: The question now suggests itself, how does the case of Elgar stand in connection with the theory of this survey ? In certain directions in which English com- posers do not, as a rule, betray special aptitude, he shows marked strength; he modulates as freely as Wagner, when he wishes, whilst chromatic effect in his hands loses crudeness and yields beauty. In short, not only can he use, as to the manner born, all modern devices, but can combine them in large concerted effects so as to produce a fullness of expression that has probably never been exceeded. Now notwithstanding all this, I shall endeavour to show that the case of Elgar does largely harmonise I 82 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. with the general doctrine of this work. In the first place he imitates no one, nor is his style rooted in that of any foreign school. Yet that a new English com- poser of the calibre of the greatest, must necessarily betray qualities not to be found in present English music, is self-evident. Circumstance, however, is a great constructor, and it, with instinct, led Elgar to iind standing ground for his great inspirations in that style which in the past was the common basis of the English, German and Italian schools — that is, the Flemish style, or that of the old school of northern France of which the foundation was the Plain Chant.* Some lineaments of this origin may be observed in the chorus of the "Angelicals" itself — in its plain, broad leading themes and its deliberate imitation. In referring to the English school at the beginning of this work I remarked that our school had "at least the humble virtues of simplicity and sincerity." A listener to " Gerontius," whilst observing that both of these qualities are characteristics of its most inspired portions, must feel that at places it breathes of sin- cerity in a way that is peculiarly convincing — witness the gracious phrases at the beginning — and, in fact, the whole expression — of examples given. It is interesting to observe that Elgar in depicting Gerontius with the imminence of death upon him em- ploys a change of harmony having much the same character and even construction as that Gounod uses * See "Rise of Music," pages 210-13. ENGLISH OPERA. — EDWARD ELGAR. 183 in the introduction to " Faust " — both effects, notwith- standing some difference in their pace, seeming to suggest a sense of depth and mystery. The following are the two effects : Example 4S. Atidantiiio. Elgar 5^ }f> I espiess. 4 * ±:zE. I J i§s- — ^ M — i — tspress Adagio mollo, quasi hiigo Gounod. I have taken the liberty of transposing the extract from " Faust " a tone lower. SECTION V. WAGNER & CONTEMPORARY DRAMATIC WORK, WITH SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON DEBUSSY AND MODERN ART FORMS. CHAPTER XVIII. Some Tendencies ok Contemporaneous Dramatic Work. IN this chapter I propose to make a few comments on some tendencies of contemporaneous dramatic work. At the outset it may be said that in most cases the path followed is that fully opened out by Wagner. I have already specified the main features of Wagner's style, but may here briefly recapitulate them. The subject or plot occupies the first place in the attention of the listener; though the music fills the air it is the literary purport that leads on the attention — in fact, must do so for the music to have meaning. The lyrical style enters very slightly into the vocal expression, which is mainly declamatory. Melody, as a rule, is relegated to the accompaniment and consists largely of the leitmotiv and its treatment. The musical texture is to a great extent chromatic — the feeling of a settled key-note prevails only occa- sionally ; at the same time there is almost invariably a 187 1 88 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. method in the frequent changes of harmony, which renders them technically coherent, whilst complexity is further leavened by the continuous unfolding of attendant phrases. It is curious to observe that much in the modification of musical form resulting from this general departure, and which musical writers are in the habit of speaking of as advanced, really involves reversion to far past orders of effect. One instance is Wagner's polyphony, to which I have several times alluded — that working broadly together themes not only of totally different character but conceived quite independently. Another is that changed musical texture which results from the more closely descriptive style initiated by Wagner. This texture, notwithstanding that its markedly chromatic character distinguishes it so strongly from past effect, still tends to arouse in us a kind of feeling akin to that produced by the old motet style. In fact, the reversion may go back further still. Listeners to Dia- phony and Faux Bourdon probably experienced a sensa- tion somewhat similar in character, that is, the sense of a vast continuity — of an elemental grandeur, and this may throw light upon the long use of those effects, which musical theorists have been so much puzzled to explain.* In this connection I may remark, there are reasons that suggest tljat the salient effects of contemporaneous * See "Rise of Music," pages 231-3. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 1 89 music of the most advanced character involve no strain- ing of our system — are not obtained by going beyond it, or by taking in new elements, but are produced by making fuller use of it. It is a commonplace of some present day critics, in the imagined superiority of as- sumed larger knowledge, to depreciate past theorists as peculiarly purblind in their view of future possi- bilities. That this attitude is not in every case justi- fied the following episode in my own experience will, I think, suffice to show. When young, wishing to study the theory of music, I was led to select for that purpose a work entitled "An Essay on Musical Harmony," by A. F. C. Koll- mann. I was attracted to this work because it as- sumed to be more systematic than the leading works on the subject then in vogue. The author particularly set himself to refute the chords by susperision — system of Rameau, and the system of Gottfried Weber, which consisted of a long compilation of different chords. I studied KoUmann's system for a twelvemonth. His theory can be very briefly stated. It is this : Every note of the scale may bear a common chord and a discord chord of the seventh. Instead of any note proper to a common chord or a discord of the seventh, the degree of the scale above or below such note may be used ; and in place of these degrees as given by the diatonic scale, the chromatic semitone, where there is one, may be employed. The author claims that under these few simple rules, allowing for suspensions, anticipations and passing I go THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. notes, all regular harmony may be systematised. I have found very little in the most recent musical tex- ture, including that of Wagner and Elgar, that cannot be formulated under them. Kollmann further (in accordance with the custom of the theorists of his period) lays down two more short rules concerning the progression of chords. The common chord is free. The discord of the seventh, of whatever degree, can resolve in the usual way or by the root ascending one degree — which, in conformity with the rules given, may be that of a chromatic semi- tone. Notwithstanding the full freedom as to the progres- sion of chords that composers now claim, I have found that even this second rule applies to modern practice in far more instances than it fails to apply. In ex- ample the fundamental discord resolves by its root rising a chromatic semitone and forming a secondary seventh on E flat, then this is resolved regularly but as li in the preceding resolution the root had ascended a diatonic instead of a chromatic semitone, which necessitates the E flat now rising a semitone, to, as it were, complete the ascent of that root by a tone. The next resolution is regular. Now in this writing there is manifested the most subtle feeling for &ne har- monic change. I may add that Kollmann gives important passages from all our great cathedral composers and by adding to them a figured bass claims to demonstrate that they prove his rules. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. IQI My object here is not to advocate this system — it may be right or wrong, or there may be a much better one, but to point out that here was a theorist who so far from circumscribing composers, allowed them a scope which they are only now beginning to make full use of, and this is shown, as I will repeat, in the great prominence now given to secondary sevenths and what I might perhaps term secondary common chords. Take the grand conclusion of the chorus of the "Angelicals" which I have quoted. The chord of the subdominant is absent; the secondary seventh on B figures conspicu- ously; to the fundamental discord is given only the length of a crotchet (in a passage abounding in stress) and the climax of this grand and most protracted chorus comes, as I have already said, on the common chord of the third of the scale. But if this theory applies as I state it does; and if Kollmann's proofs from Tye, Tallis, Byrd, Farrant, etc., are sound; then there is in the very newest glory of modern effect a going back — that is to say — though the effect itself may be new the liberty of procedure it involves is old. Another instance of reversion in contemporaneous music is the prominent use of what have been called whole-tone scales, combined with the opposite process of dealing with fine inflections of pitch, both of which are regarded as characteristic of Debussy. As just implied, these are features which the art has passed from. The first represents our system at an immature 192 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. stage* and the other, effects which as structural ele- ments the art had in its development to throw off.t It seems probable that these two tendencies were largely, if not altogether inspired by Debussy's visit to Russia, a feature of the Russian school being the use of so- called whole-tone scales. In Russia also he would have come in contact with Dargomiishki's music and particularly with his setting of Pushkin's play, "The Stone Guest," a version of the statue episode in Mozart's "Don Giovanni." It is a peculiarity of this setting that the text of the play is treated word for word throughout. A Russian critic of the day com- ments as follows upon this achievement : J " Dar- gomushki has really invented a new and a novel kind of recitative — a monody of expressive emphasis .... He has seized the intonation and accent of speech and has transmuted it into a chant of so fine and delicate a quality that it demands undertones of equally fine and delicate harmonies to fill each interstice of syl- lable and of phrase. Dargomushki's recitative is of a wholly different character from the broad declama- * The primitive scale of the Celts and Chinese though em- bracing the octave, contains no semitones, being composed of three whole tones and two intervals of a tone and a half. t Music containing intervals much less than that of a semi- tone — as in the case of Persian and Arabian music — has always been one-part music, consisting of short melodies unsusceptible of harmonic treatment. + I am indebted for this quotation to Miss A. E. Keeton's highly-informing article on Debussy which appeared in the "Nineteenth Century" for September, 1909. WAGNER. ) face page li/2. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 193 tory arioso-like style evolved by Wagner in his remark- able 'Tristan and Isolde.'" To suggest that this peculiar tendency in a Russian composer to seek expression in fine intonations, is attributable to a lingering feeling towards an Oriental form of melody, would perhaps be to attempt to trace too much by means of the line of ancestry or through antecedent circumstances. Miss Keeton, however, men- tions that Russian archaeologists would trace their musical system to Iranian migrations prior to the civilisation of ancient Greece; and it does happen that there is de&nite evidence that down to the fourteenth century the Persian system embraced intervals from four fifths to one fifth of a semitone.* Pending a decided inclination of the balance of taste concerning Debussy's style there is scope for speculation. In this connection the following para- graph from Miss Keeton's article, written on the whole in advocacy of the changes of which I have been speak- ing, is not unsuggestive. Having referred to Debussy's feeling for the effects just referred to as probably re- sulting from his having heard Dargomushki's music in Russia, and to the supposed Eastern origin of their presence in that music, she continues : "With Debussy, another source seems feasible — namely, the evolutionary instinct of an abnormally * The precepts of Abdul Kadir (fourteenth century) on the division of the monochord — which agree generally with the rules laid down by Farabi (died 950), and by Mahmud Schirasi (died 1315), for the divisions of the lute. O 194 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. sensitive cerebral clarity in his reception and retention of musical sound : an instinct, be it noted, not neces- sarily linked with any very deep intellectual or emo- tional traits. The whole nature of Debussy and his manner of working indicate a very gradual maturing of his faculties. We must remember that he could take no less than nine years to write his music drama ("Pelleas et Melisande"); and the keenness of his later powers of conceiving and of hearing sound in his own way — which has so scandalised his former pro- fessors as well as the host of other critics — appears to have been still dormant in his Conservatoire days." Now, still in this connection, let me refer to Mrs. Newmarch's remarks* on the successor of Debussy's supposed model, that is, on Moussorgsky, the one man who attempted to work out to their logical conclusions the theories embodied by Dargomushki in "The Stone Guest" : "Moussorgsky started with one dominant idea — to bring music into closer relationship with actual life. Musical psychology was the chief problem of his art, to which he devoted all the ardour of his gifted and forceful temperament. But this view, legitimate as it appears in its first expression, led him insensibly into an attitude of absolute negation. Of all the Rus- sians, he is the only one to whom the epithet 'musical Nihilist' can be applied with any show of justice. * From "The Development of National Opera in Russia," a paper read before the Musical Assoeiation, February 11, 1902. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 1 95 Seeing Nature in everything and making the exact copying of Nature the &rst duty of the artist, Mous- sorgsky naturally rejected the formula 'art for art's sake' as meaningless. To attempt in a work of art the union of beauty with the material object seemed to him a puerility belonging to the childhood of art. As his career went on, his contempt for the beautiful deepened into something approaching to dislike : he seemed perversely attracted to dissonance and dis- tortion." Now the point at issue in this controversy is the novel kind of recitative, consisting, according to the Russian critic, of the transmutation of the intonation and accent of speech, and which Mrs. Newmarch, in speaking of " The Stone Guest," refers to as " that 'melos' or ' mezzo-recitativo ' which is neither melody nor speech." One thing seems fairly clear, that the change in th.e voice part, whatever it be, demands a specially reilatec^ rhange in the harmony, as the Russian commentator so distinctly observes, otherwise voice and accompani- ment would be simply out of tune, as it is not merely a change in the expression as ordinarily understood, but involves change, however fine that change may be in the intonatioiL This would be consistent with what has taken place in the artistic growth of vocal melody. Before any instrumental accompaniment was employed vocal writing was confined to intervals comparatively few and simple, but after such accompaniment came into use it was found that additional intervals could ig6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. be introduced, some of which could not have been sung at all and others the effect of which was not good, without it. As W. S. Rockstro says, by the use of accompaniment the diminished fourth became as plastic in the hands of Bach as the minor seventh was in those of Palestrina. Our first example from Elgar may be cited as a modern instance. Here the un- wonted succession of three whole tones demands, in order to be coherent, not only the sharp change of harmony which attends the second in the accompani- ment, but that change being asserted in adequate strenuousness by the instrumentation. In these ex- amples, then, we observe that principle of the accom- paniment taking on a new power as the voice part takes a new departure in the intonation, which the Russian critic lays down in defining the character of Dargomiishki's recitative. It may not be unprofitable at this point to hark back and ask a fundamental question : What is music ? I will so far attempt to reply as to state what I think music is not. Music is not a mere design in sound, however in- genious, an}' more than an abstract design in form and colour is painting. In both cases something more than elements and their arrangement is required in order to bring the work within the world of expressive art ; and that something is the lien of human sympathy which in painting is supplied by Nature, and in music by those effects in musical sound which breathe of feeling. Thus the living principle at the foundation WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 1 97 of music, is that union of beauty and expression which gives to the simplest strain the "touch of Nature." That the art in its search for new effect may have found it in finer nuances of pitch, is possible. But assuming that there is considerable scope in the kind of effect described by the Russian critic for giving a certain pleasure to those who may be able to perceive and appreciate it, it does not follow that such effect is musical art in the true sense, though it may be art of another kind ; neither supposing it subserved dra- matic effect would this necessarily raise it into music. There is scarcely any confusion of sounds that an or- chestra might not be employed to produce that could not be justified as conducing to dramatic effect — irv fact, it is a question whether what is generally called by musical critics dramatic effect and at best is but the noisier and more demonstrative side of that effect (which in some of its higher phases may be soundless — as in the statue of " Galatea " when returned to marble or the figure of "that rigid king" in "Herod") has not of late been unduly forced in opera to the suppression of music's vital spirit and natural outflow. The scope we have in our aural endowment for ap- preciating every degree to the most minute, both in pitch and quality in sound, operates vitally in musical art, as is largely known; and to its coming into fuller play is due the peculiarly uplifting effect of modern harmony, the greatly increased richness of which — as by the addition of intervals to chords and the use of polyphony — produces proportionate increase of ele- 198 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. ments in that atmosphere of partial sounds through which- the harmony moves. But obviously these minute sound tremors rest upon the basal intervals of the construction, and whether such fine elements of effect when produced directly by voice or instrument — as in Dargomiishki's new recitative — and coming straight to the ear, really enter the magic channel of association at all — that is, penetrate to the sensibility involved in the musical emotion proper, in which is felt the touch of nature; only the more enlarged and universal experience which comes with time will decide. In Richard Strauss that continuous comment by the orchestra heard definitely in Meyerbeer and eman- cipated from waiting on vocal forms by Wagner, so dominates as at times for it to be doubtful whether the music interprets the scene or the scene the music. That the principle of this relation of music and subject — that is of the music not being simply set to certain language relating to the subject but interpreting the subject generally, is the same principle as that which operates in the ordinary alliance of music and lan- guage, may seem so obvious as to require no special mention. But if we analyse this principle we shall find that it gives a deeper explanation of the inter- pretative power of the Wagnerian scene or the opera- symphony of Strauss than appears on the surface. This analysis I worked out some considerable time back and I have given the particulars in my work, " The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 1 99 Music."* Briefly stated, it is this : when music is not purely abstract music but is allied to something not music — to words, scene or action, two currents of feel- ing are moving in us, that of ordinary feeling due to the words, scene or action, and that produced directly by the effect of the music; and the result of these two issues of feeling being made to rise in us simultane- ously, is that each increases inordinately the effect of the other — in the case of opera, the scene or circum- stances seem to stand forth in a raised life, and the music to have acquired peculiar depth and meaning. And it is this raised impression of what is going on on the stage which constitutes the interpretative in- fluence of the music : by the synchronous kindling of our musical susceptibility the wider relations or deeper import, the more complex and intangible nature, or the higher spirit of the subject — as the case may be — is vaguely and mysteriously felt. But the point is : in the action of this principle the fundamental condition is not musical genius or anything in the character of the music, but simply that the two influences — the music and the subject — be placed side by side. In the work to which I have alluded I have shown that this principle which I call the principle of arbitrary asso- ciation, because the two influences are distinctly separate things, operates in poetry and pure drama, and is, in fact, a natural though occult principle of human expression. * Pages 89-99. 200 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. If we speculate on the future of opera we ar^ in the first place confronted with certain consequences of the great change in the relative position of music and sub- ject that came about with Wagnerian opera. Before that change — when the principle of independent form in the music held sway, the claim of the work rested in the music, and the literary element was preserved for the sake of the music. Since that change the literary subject — the poetic basis of the work — has claimed a much increased share of attention and may be said to be the preserver of the music. Another con- sequence would seem to be the altered position of the composers of the future as compared with that en- joyed by composers of the past. These latter have certainly shone as creators of the beautiful in music, whole and undivided; but the composers of the future (if the new relation of music and subject is destined to hold) can certainly not be such creators whatever their genius. The work done by the former produced the organic; that possible on the part of the latter can only be a half -factor in producing the organic. It is difficult to conceive under the present system a musical achievement that promises a long immortality, if I may use the expression. The literary basis in order to continue to hold in public esteem must pos- sess true dramatic and poetic value. Yet work of this kind requires itself genius to produce, and if produced and attended by music would, through the nature of the two arts, in all probability survive its setting — as in the case of the old Greek tragedies. This is the -'*■ , ^ K ^ -' r** 1 W ' ' ^ iBfiilMii"' ^y r ' F ■ ( ^ MOUSSORGSKY. (Reproduced by permission of M. P. Belaiefj , St. Petersburg.) To lace parjc 200. WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 201 price the modern composer (if he is not also the poet) hks to pay for his emancipation from the condition of sustained development in the music itself. But if, on the other hand, the subject chosen as the poetic basis should have only a mediocre literary value, the music casting in its whole lot with it, on the modern system, would be bound to share the traditional fate of mediocrity. Then there is the expedient of borrowing a subject from classical or great subsequent writers, but against this there is much to be said. Even in the case of the "Elektra" of Strauss it must be generally felt that, whatever he may have done, the subject had better have remained as Sophocles left it. Such subjects taken down from the pedestals of their independence and made the vehicles of a new and special artistic treatment, must necessarily be desecrated. The life they breathe as they stand — the qualities they contain in their organic balance and adjustment — cannot be improved upon. This holds more particularly when the musical style applied is the prevailing style, which overhauls the drarhatic circumstances in order to repre- sent them in a more strenuous life. The style of the past applied to such works (as by Gluck) does not produce in us such a sense of artistic barbarity because the music does not claim to enter into the inherent structure of the work so as to share its foundation, but in virtue of its own organic completeness, though gaining effect from the work, stands, as it were, beside it. 202 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. Thus we are again driven to the unique achievement of Wagner, who in the "Ring" and "Parsifal," at all events, has himself produced subjects strong enough to hold indefinitely, of which at the same time the music seems an inherent part. But the Wagner phe- nomenon with its unique relation of subject and music cannot be expected to recur. These speculations really touch upon the future of music generally because the dramatic style of a period largely represents the general style; and — so far as a present state of art can foreshadow a future — they suggest a state of art in which music is part, and not the fundamental part, of a composite effect. The tran- sition in musical art now in progress, so far as it has gone, may be thus succinctly stated : illustrative or assumedly illustrative music has taken the place of self-unfolded — for the old vocal music in opera and oratorio, though fitted to words and situation, may be said to have been virtually spontaneous — and thus it would seem that the regime of abstract expression or music resting on its own inherent beauty is at an end. But a present state of art, though anticipating cer- tain features of the future, so far from preparing us for the future in its fullness has rather the reverse effect. It is in the very nature of genius to unfold the unexpected, and thus of a new musical revelation to be largely inconceivable before it comes. We often meet with the word "progress" used in connection with music — as if progress were as inevitable in music as in anything else. There is here a failing to dis- WAGNER AND CONTEMPORARY ART WORK. 203 tinguish between the world of exact knowledge, our conquest of which is bound to increase, whether fast or slowly, and the world of feeling in which new aesthetic experiences may or may not be possible. In this connection a glance backward at certain points in musical development is both explanatory and sugges- tive. Though that development involves a series of connected achievements, these far from represent a generally regular progress. At certain points a., step is taken for an immediate purpose which turns out to have been simply vital to the whole future. Thus descant,* which probably originated in a departure from the plain chant by one voice while the melody was continued by another, led not only to polyphony that was simply coherent, but to those progressions in which the rudiments of harmonic beauty were &rst revealed, f This new departure to descant then was really the first turning point to the formation of modern music. But another and almost equally important instance of finding the way to the future in the path that at the time it seemed simply expedient to follow for the sake of the present, occurred soon after the commence- ment of polyphony. When the early Flemish com- posers fell into the deeply wise, though looked at superficially, unscientific practice of treating certain nearly identical sounds relating respectively to dif- * 8ee "Rise of Music," pages 235-7. + See "Rise of Music," pages 244-6. 204 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. ferent scales, as actually identical, they were working slowly and surely towards the consummation of that system of overlapping scales* which rendered possible the new harmonic development exemplified so strikingly by Haydn, Beethoven and Weber.f Looking then at the past, we find that notwith- standing every play of fancy and invention, may have had its place in the unfolding of the art, as tend- ing to increased variety, only certain departures were destined to lead to a new order of effect. And further, we find that this order of effect is one that still breathes of feeling, large and fundamental — like an explorer attaining successive table-lands might find the view in each case, though new still calculated to arouse feel- ing of a deep and primal character. But before we speculate as to whether the change now in progress is leading to a still higher table-land in music comes the question : Can that unsearchable fitness or harmony between an order of musical effect and a certain region of our susceptibility, which was brought out in those great musical unfoldings of the past to which I have alluded, recur under new condi- tions ? — that is to say : between us and some new con- formation of effect is there scope for another musical revelation ? THE END. * Sec "Rise of Music," page 366 (from "When ultimately mutation," etc., to "undreamed of"); also pages 369-70 (from "The explanation," etc., to "inwardly continuous"). t See "Rise of Music," page 200 (example from Weber). INDEX. A. "Aben Hamel," 123. "Adam and Eve," 36. "Adoration of the Shepherds," 133. "Alceste," 91. "Alexander's Feast," 144. "Almira," 37. " A New Interlude of Vice," 135. Anfossi, 17. "Ariadne auf Naxos," 42. "Armide," 91. Arne, Dr., 155. Arnold, 155. , Matthew, on German genius, 168. " Artaxerxes," 143. Art develops by retrogression, 13. "As You Like It," 137. Attwood, 155. Auber, disciple of Boieldieu, 119. B. Bach, C. P. E., quoted, 172. , J. S., 37. " Ballet comique de la Royne," 73. Banister, John, 142. Barnett, 155. " Beatitudes, The," 122. •'• Beatrice and Benedict," 120. Beaulieu, 73. Beethoven, 45. , Influence of Italy on, 159. on Handel, 174. "Beggar's Opera," 158. Bellini, 22. Benda, 42. Berlioz, 120. initiated dramatic sym- phony, 120. Biblical drama quoted, 167. Bishop, 155. Bizet, 124. Boesset, 73. Boieldieu, 109. quoted, 111. "Bonduca," 147. quoted, 149, 151, 153. 205 Boj'ce, 169. Braham, 155. Byrd, 3. Byron's " Manfred," 26-7. C. Caccini, 144. "Cadmus et Hermione." 77. " Caid, The," 122. "CalLsta," 142. Cambert, 76. Campa quoted, 82. Campion, Dr., 139. Carafa, 25. Carissimi quoted, 11. 'Carmen." 124. 2o6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. "Castor and Pollux" quoted, 86. Cavaliere, 7. Cavalli quoted, 10, 75. Cesti, 10. quoted, 12. Chandos Anthems, 169. Cherubini, 93, 102. "Childermas Day," 132. Cimarosa, 18. prepared variety of expression, 22. quoted, 20. "Circe," 143. Colasse, 81. Coleman, Dr.j 140. Comedie d'ariettes, 99. Contemporaneous dramatic work, 187. Cook, 140. "Creation," 45, 160. "Cristophe Colomb," 121. Criticism, two kinds, taste and investigation, 115. "Cupid and Death," 139. D. "Damnation de Faust," 120. "Damon and Pythias," 136. Dauvergne, 87. Davenant, Sir Wm., 140. David, Felicien, 120. Debussy, 191. , Mi-s. Newmarch on, 194-5. Delibes, 123. '• Der Freischfltz," 43. Freischiitz" quoted, 50, 65. " Der Teufel ist los," 38. Teufel ist los" ana- lysed, 41. "Der Tod Jesu," 37. Descant, 203. Diaphony, 188. Dibdin, 155. "Dido and ^neas," 143. "Die verwand elte Weiber," 38. D'Indy, Vincent, quoted, 122. " Docteur Miracle," 124. "Don Giovanni," 45. Giovanni " quoted, 65. Donizetti, 22, 26. Dowland, John, 138. " Dream of Gerontius," 175. of Gerontius " quoted, 177-8, 180, 183. Dubois, 123. E. "Eden," 121. Edwards, Richard, 136. "Elektra," 201. Elgar, 176, 181. "Elijah," 175. England, polyphonic style in, 3. English influence on sacred drama, 171. music, simplicity and sincerity, 1. opera began in miracle plays, 131. opera, humour an in- gredient, 145. Equal temperament, influence of, 161. "Euryanthe," 114. F. Farrant, 3, 137. "Faust," 124. "Favolo di Orfeo," 5. Ferrabosco, 139. "Fidelio," 45. "Figaro," 160. Fioravanti, 23. quoted, 24. Flemish composers, 203. school, 2. F'loquet, 87. "Four Passions," 165. France, ballet in, 3. Franck, Cesar, 122. French comic operas full of artistic conscience, 112. music, distinction of phrase, 1. INDEX. 207 French opera. All kinds of effects in, 128. ■ opera, Creation of, 73. opera, First, 77. - opera — Herold to Bizet, Revolution, Influence 113. on French music, 93. G. "Galatee," 122. German music, involved form and deep expression, 1. opera, 35. singspiel, 35. Germany, Fugal form in, 2. voiced revolution in music, 93. Gibbons, 3. Giles, 139. Gluck, 91. and Piccini, 93. Gounod, 124. Graun, 37. Greek tragedies, 200. Gretry, 101. quoted, 101. Guglielmi, 16. Guidron, 74. Guiraud, 123. H. Halevy 114. "Hamlet," 122. Handel, 169. , Genius of, 44. , influence of his ora- torios, 165. " Harold in Italy," 120. Haydn and Weber compared, 47. Influence of Italy on, 159 " Henry VIII," 123. " Herculaneum," 122. "Herodiade," 123. Heywood, John, 135. Hiiler, 159. "Hippolyte et Aricee," 85. Holy Grail, 70. Hook, 157. Hudson, G., 140. "Hulda," 122. Human voice and melody the two eternal verities, 29. voice, Power of, 28. Humphreys, Pelham, 142. Hunnis, Wm., 136. "Idomeneo," 160. "II Trovatore," 173. Instrumentation contributed to by Cherubini, Mehul and Lesueur, 105. Interlude, 15. - Intervals less than a semitone, ]93. " Iphigenie en Aulide," 91. en Aulide" quoted, 91. en Tauride," 91. Isouard quoted, 110. Italian Masque, 15. music, clear form and open beauty, 1. Italy, path to opera opened, 6. , rise of vocal solo, 2. , The "new music" in, 6. J. .Jackson, of Exeter, 156. " Jephtha," 144. Johnson, Robert, 137. "Joseph," 105. K. Kant's the9ry of the Ego, 39. Keiser, Reinhard, 36. "King Arthur," 143. Kollmann, 189-90. L. Laborde, 87. "La Buona Figliola," 99. Caverne," 105. Dame Blanche," 109. Finta giardiniera," 99. r- Frascatana," 98. Juive," 114. 208 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. "Lakme," 123. "Lalla Roukh," 122. "L'Amore soldato," 99. "L' Amour dans Anacreon," 103. Language of music cosmopoli- tan, 1. Laniere, 139. "La Nonne Sanglante," 126. Prise de Troy," 120. Reine de Saba," 126. "Lascia ch'io pianga," 37. Lavoix quoted, 15. Lawes, Henry, 140. "Le Chalet," 127. "L'Eclair," 114. "Le Desert," 121. "Le Diable a quatre," 41. Leit-motiv, 69. "L'Enfance du Christ," 120. Leoncavallo, 26. "Leonora" quoted, 46. "Le Pardon de Ploermel," 127. Pre aux Clercs," 114. "Les Diamants de la Cour- onne," 127. fetes d' Amour," 77. Huguenots," 114. Noces de Jeanetto," 122. " Le Songe d'une nuit d'ete," 122. "Les Paladins," 87. "Le Statue," 123. "Les Troyens a Carthage," 120. Lesueur, 93. Lock, Mathew, 139. Logroscino, 16. " Lohengrin," 173. " Lord of the Manor," 150. Lulli, 77. admitted no rival, 81. M. Madrigal an English growth, 3. "Manfred," 27. "Manon," 123. . Marmontel, 99. Martini, 107. Mascagni, 26. "Masque of the Gypsies," 138. Masques at Court of James I, 139. Masse, 122. Massenet, 123. Mauduit, 73. Mayer, 25. Mazzocchi's "Queriraonia" quoted, 9. Mehul, 93. quoted, 105. Melod.y, Power of, 27. Meyerbeer, 115. anticipates Wagner, 119. 118. compared with Gounod, depreciated in Eng- land, 115. initiates leads to the future, 117. made French style or- ganic, 116. -, sharp contrast in sub- jects, 117. -, strong dramatic lean- ing, 115. "Midsummer Night'sDream," 143. "Mignon," 122. "Mind, Will and Under- standing," 133. Miracle, plays, 35. "Mireille," 124. Modern harmonv, Uplifting effect of, 197. "Moise an Sinai," 121. Mondonville, 87. " Monodie d'Amadis," 78. Monsigny quoted, 100. Montan-Berton quoted, 108. Monteverde's "Orpheus," 8. Morlacchi, 25. Morley, 169. Moulton quoted, 115. "Mountain Sylph," 163. Mozart, 45. INDEX. 209 Mozart, Influence of Italy on, 159. Muilly, Opera by, 74. Musical revelation, Is there scope for another?, 204. Music, Future of, 202. , What is it? 196. N. Netherland school. Decline of, 73. O. "Oberon," 114. Opera buffa, 15. Opera comique, Rise of, 98. , First French, 77. , Future of, 200. in Italy from Pastoral and Mystery, 5. Oratorio, Rise of, 7. " Orphee et Eurydice," 91. "Orpheus," authorsunknown, 74. P. Paer, 25. Paesiello, 17. Pageants at Coientry, 135. Paisiello, 99. "Parsifal," 144. quoted, 66. "Paul et Virginie," 105, 122. , J., 107. Pergolesi, 15. , Notes on, 16. quoted, 18. Philidor, 87. quoted, 88. Philip of Neri, 7. Piccini, 17. quoted, 19. Plays and Masques at Court, 135. Poise, 123. "Preciosa," 113. "Psyche," 142, 148. Puccini, 26. Puccini's "La Boheme " quoted, 30-2. Purcell natural and open, 147. typical of English style, K6. Q. '• Querimonia," 144. R. Rameau, 85. " Rape of Lucrece," 137. 'Redemption," 126. Redford, 3. "Retour de Tobie," 126. Reyer, 123. "Rinaldo," 37. da Cajoua, 16. Rinuccini's "Orpheus and Euridice," 7. "Roi de Lahore," 123. "Rolande," 98. " Romeo and Juliet," 120. Rossini, 22, 113. Rous.seau, 99. "Rubezahl," 43. Sacchini, 17, 99. Saint-Saens, 123. Salieri, 17. "Sapho," 126. Sarti, 17. Scarlatti quoted, 14. Schlegel's Shakespeare, 40. Schiitz, 165. Sedaine, 99. "Seraglio," 160. "Serse," 76. "Serva Padrona," 92. Shield, 155. " Siege of Rhodes," 140. "Sigurd," 123. Spontini, 93. quoted, 94. Staggins, Dr., 143. "Stepmother, The," 142. Storace, 155. Strauss, Richard, 198. "Sylvia," 123. P 210 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPERA. T. Tallis, 3. "Tancredi," 25. ■Tempest," 137. "Thetis and Pelee," 81. Thiele, John, 36. Thomas, Ambroise, 122. Traetta, Notes on, 16. "Tristan and Isolde," 193. Tye, 3. V. " Valentinian," 138. Venice, theatre opened 1637, 9. Verdi, 25. t'olkslied supplanted, 39. W. Wagner accompaniments, 57. , development in operas, 52. Wagner follows Weber, 52. found poetic subjects, 59. , influence on music, 28. not in regular line of composers, 68. quoted, 60-2. 's modus operandi, 68. 's polyphony, 188. used homely expres- sion, 67. "Walkyrie," 53-4. AVeber, 43. and Haydn compared. 47-8. 44. Dramatic advance of. "William Tell," 113. Z. " Zauberflote," 160. Zingarelli, 17. Printed by The Mew Temple Press, 17 Grtnt Ho»d, Croydon. 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The Educating Influence of Good Models. 5. Effect. 6. On Judging the Works of Great Maeters. 7. As to a Liberal Judgment. 8. On Ferrersions of Text. 9. Choral Societies. Schumann says : — '* A fine book about music, read it frequently." 4 JiSTEETWS, CRITICISMS. ESSAYS. 5 THE FUTURE OF MUSIC, Coming Changes Outlined in Begard to Composer, Conductor and Orchestra. By Louis Laloy (author of " Aristoxene et la Musique de I'Antiquite," "Claude Debussy," "Bameau," "La Musique Chinoise"). Translated by Mas. Fkanz Lie- BiCH. 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper. Is. net). " This book points to a time when new modes of scales will take the place of the now familiar diatonic forms, and many other changes are likely to ensue. The possible forms these changes may take are sot forth in this most interesting publication, together with a general survey of musical history." — Irish Fresbyterian " This little book is one of the most enlightening things we have read for some time, and all musicians — professional and amateur— will be the wiser after carefully assimilating the author's views. The translation by Mrs. Liebich is excellently iojie."— Cheltenham Examiner. THE SYMPHONY WRITERS SINCE BEETHOVEN, Schu- bert, Schumann, Gbtz, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Bruckner, Berlioz, Liszt, Strauss, Mahler, Mendelssohn, Saint- Saen^, etc. By Fblix Weingartnee. Translated by A. Bles. Many Portraits. Cr. 8vo, cloth, gilt top, 6s. " Host stimulating and snggestiTe, full of acute thinking, of felicitous expression." — New York. " The book is certainly well worth reading." — Daily Chronicle. ** A most fascinating book • • • the works of the varioue composers are critically .discussed in reg'ard to form and orchestration," — Musical Star. GREATER WORKS OF CHOPIN. (Polonaises, Mazurkas, Nocturnes, etc.), How they should be Played. By J. Klecztnski. Translated by Miss N. Janoiha and Edited by Sutherland Edwards. Second Edition. With Portrait, Facsimile, etc. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5s. " A new book on Chopin which will doubtless receive a warm welcome from the lovers of the greatest genius of the pianoforte. * * * What gives this book a unique value of importance as a novelty is that it includes what is left of Chopin's notes for a pianoforte method which, brief as it is, contains some valuable and interesting hints which will benefit all pianists and students." — New Fork Evening Post. MEZZOTINTS IN MODERN MUSIC. Brahms, Tchaikov- sky, Chopin, Strauss, Liszt and Wagner. By Jas. HtJNBKER. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt top, 7s. ed. CosTXNTS.— The Music of the Future (Brahms)— A Modern Music Lord (Tschaikowsky)- Richard Strauss and Nietzsche— The Greater Chopin— A Liszt Etude— The Royal Road to Parnassus —A Note on Biohard Wagner. '* Essays filled with literary charm and individuality, not self willed or over assertive. ' but gracious and winning, sometimes profoundly contempla- tive, and anon frolicsome and more inclined to ohafl than to in&truct— but interesting and suggestive always." — New Fork Tribune. 6 AESTHETICS, CBITICISJilS, ESSAYS. MUSIC AND MUSICIANS. Essays and Criticisms, by Robert Schumann. Translated, Edited and Annotated by F. R. RiTTER. Portrait of Robert Schumann, photo- graphed from a Crayon by Bendemann. First Series, 7th Edition. Thick cr. 8vo, cloth, 419 pages, 8s. Oti. Ditto, Second Series, Third Edition. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 540 pages, 10s. 6d. There are two sides to masical criticism, both equally interesting ; the one, which is scientifio analysis of . musical form and treatment, possible only to experienced musicians, the other, which is the spiritual percep- tion of the sesthetio side and influence of music, possible for any great mind whose perceptions are keenly cultivated in the highest canons of any art. Schumann represented the ideal musical critic, in that both of these essential points in criticism are to be found in hie writings. Scarcely find words sufficiently strong to express our delight • • • a book so rich in thought, so full of humour, so remarkable for its refined sarcasms, so original in its criticisms, so sprightly and elegant in lan- guage. — Eabl Mebz in the Musical World. A diaqnisition apon the value of Schumann's labour as an art critic seems quite ancalled for at the present date. Suffice it to say that it can hardly be over-estimated, and that his writings are as interesting and instructive at the present as they were when they were first penned. — Monthly Musical Record. ahere is no use in trying to quote charactcriatic passages, because the volume is of such uniform merit and such continuous interest that it is impossible to make a selection. Musicians who take up the book will not find it easy to put it down again. — AthencBum. Most fascinating reading, even to those who are not deeply versed in fnnalo. — Westminster Review. HOW TO PLAY CHOPIN. The Works of Chopin and their proper Interpretation. By J, Klecztnski. Translated by A. Whittikgham. Fifth Edition. Woodcut and Music Illustrations, Post 8vo. cloth. 3s. 6d. " Contaiuti the cream of Uhopin's mstruotious to Jiia own pupils. To admirers of Chopin and players of his mnsio we should say this book is indispensable." — Bazaar. "it contains many interesting details and profitable hints. The author has much to tell us about the great pianist, as a teacher as well as a composer. Chopin as a composer remains to us as a heritatj'e, but the tradition of his playing and teaching is naturally becoming every year more and more vague. So oar author deserves praise for his attempt to siiatoh from oblivion any remembrances of the ' manner and touch ' of the master." — Academy. THE DEEPER SOURCES OF THE BEAUTY AND EXPRES- SION OF MUSIC. By Joseph Goddard (author of "The Rise of Music," "The Rise and Development of Opera in Italy, France, Germany and England," etc.). With many Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. JESTRETIGS, CBITICISMS, ESSAYS. 7 BEETHOVEN'S PIANOFORTE SONATAS Explained for the Lovers of the Musical Art. By Ernst von Elterlein. Translated by E. Hill, with Preface by Ernst Paubk. Entirely New and Revised Edition (the Sixth). With Portrait, Facsimile and View of Beethoven's House. . Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. " He writes with the ripe knowledge and thorough understanding of a practical musician. Every musical student or amateur can safely trust him as a competent and agreeable guide. This English translation is most opportune, and will doubtless assist many a lover of Beethoven's music to appreciate more keenly the master's Sonatas." — E. Paueb. BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES in their Ideal Significance, Explained by Ernst von Elterlein. Translated by Francis Weber. With an Account of the Facts Re- lating to Beethoven's Tenth Symphony. By L. Nohl. Second Edition, with Portrait. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. This small volume is intended in tlio first place, and more especially, for the earnest and thoughtful amateur, \o whom it is to be a guide and com- panion in the artistic enjoyment and conscious appreciation of Beethoven's Symphonio Masterpieces. At the same time the work may not be unwel- come also to the practical musician. FROM LYRE TO MUSE. A History of the Aboriginal Union of Music and Poetry. By J. Donovan. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. net (pub. 5s.) Chaptebs : — 1. Musical Impression. 2. History of Aboriginal Music. 3. Music and Individuality. 4, Fusion of Rhythm and Tones. 5. Fusion of Tones and Words. 6. How Harmony was Developed 7. Definition and Diagram of Evolution of Music. SCHUMANN'S RULES AND MAXIMS. For young Musi- cians. Sewed, 2d. " The ' Bales and Maxims ' might have been entitled ' Proverbs,' for the truth of none o^ them can be called into question, and they give students the very best advice." — Figaro. " A valuable store of hints and information, shrewdly written and per- tinently put." — Musical Opinion. BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES Critically Discussed by A. Teetgen. With Preface by John Bboadhouse. Second Edition. Post 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. *' We must say that many of his observations are not only acute but extremely just." — Musical Times. *' Mr. Teetgen gives evidence of deep knowledge of his hero's works, he supplies the reader with food for thought and reflection. We commend this little book to the attention of our readers." — Musical Opinion. '* Mr. Teetgen is a devout, though not a blind, worshipper of Beethoven." —Musical Standard. 8 JiSTHETICS, CRITICISMS, ESSAYS. MOZART'S DON GIOVANNI. A Commentary, from the Third French Edition of Charles Gounod. By W. Cl/irk: and J. T. Hctchikson. Crown 8vo. cloth, 3s. 6d. WOMAN AS A MUSICIAN. An Art Historical Study. By F. R. RiTTER. Svo, sewed. Is. BIOGRAPHICAL. SOME MUSICAL RECOLLECTIONS OF FIFTY YEARS. By Richard Hoffman. With Memoir by Mrs. Hoff- man. Hlustrated with many Plate Portraits. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. 1910 Richard Hoffman, born Manchester, 1831, a distinguished pianist, a successful and popular teacher in the States and a noteworthy composer. Delightful reminiscences of musicians and musical affairs in America and England. The account of Mendelssohn's leading of the " P^lijah " at Manchester ; of Jenny Lind and her appearance at Castle Garden and her tour of America under T. P. Barnuni, throughout which tour Ho&man acco'mpanicd her as the solo pianist ; of Thalbcrg, Von Bulow, Gottschalk, Liszt, and many others, and of the audiences and concei-ts throughout the country fifty yeara ago, makes most interesting reading. Hichard Hoffman studied under Pleyel, Moscheles, Kubinstein, Dohicr, Thalberg and Liszt and, of course, has much to say of all these great masters. Tliere are some twenty-five illustrations, including Patti, Jenny Lind, Lii3zt, Charles Halle, Gottschalk, Von Bulow and Mr. Hoffman him- self. The volume also contains Mr. Hoffman's essay on " How to Stimu- late Thought and Imagination in a Pupil." MOZART: THE STORY OF HIS LIFE AS MAN AND ARTIST. According to Authentic Documents and other Sources. By Victor Wilder. Translated by F. LiEDiCH. To which is now added a Comprehensive Bib- liography of Mozart Literature from every source, English and Foreign and a List of his Compositions Published and Unpublished. With 23 Portraits gathered from Various Sources. With Index. 2 volumes. Crown 8vo, cloth, 10s. Jan. Ev. E^'gel. Imperial LibTarian, writing from the Mosarteum, Salz burg (Mozart's birthplace) od behalf of the Mozart Society, says : — {_Tran8lation.'\ I cocgratulate the publisher on the exemplary correotnees of the edi- tion and the author on having had at his disposal such rich and almost inexhaustible material from ancient down to most modern times, as ~ foundation for his excellent work. This beautiful and Talaable work, which has been translated with great thoroughness, has every right to a place in the foremost ranks of English literature to the honour of the great master whose -life and work the gifted author has had presented to Xhe English people in a most attractive way, besides conveying to them his appreciation of his (Mosart's) immortal compositions in a manner that has not been done previously in English. ** Its merits are its enthusiasm, its judicious selection from an enor- mous mass of material, and its consecutiveness." — Birmingham Gazette. Arthtjk Szuons, in an appreciative notice in The Saturday Review said : — *' The book is living, and to read it is to suffer over again this perfect and punished life." VERDI: MAN AND MUSICIAN. His Biography, with especial Reference to his English Experience. Por- traits by F. J. Crowbst. 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net (pub. 7s. 6d.) 10 BIOGBAPEICAL. MUSICAL MEMORIES. By William Spark, Mus.Boe. (late Organist of the Town Kail, Leeds). Revised Popular Edition. With 16 Portraits. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. '* A pleasantly written book of reminiscences of a large namber of disting^aished persons in the world of mnsic .... Dr. Spark knows how to tell a good story, and has not a few new and old to tell ; while the tone of his book is so invariably cheerful and good natured."— Saturday Review. " The author speaks of things that he understands and of persons that he has known." — St. James' Gazette. *' Just one of those pleasant books which are instructiTC without being tedious, And amusing without being friTolous. The book is very pleasant reading and we counsel our readers to get it without delay." — Muiical Standard. TCHAIKOVSKY. His Life and Works. With Extracts from his Writings and the Diary of his Tour Abroad in 1888. By Rosa Newmarch. Second Edition Enlarged and Edited with Additional Chapters by E. Evans, 1908. With a Complete Classific Account of Works, Copious Analyses of Important Works, Analytical and other Indices ; also Supplement dealing with " The Re- lation of Tchaikovsky to Art-Questions of the Day." Portrait and Index. Thick crown 8vo, clothj gilt top, 7s. 6d. " The chapters written by Hr. Edwin Evans, Senr., are excellent and should be perused with attention, as they denote a keen, critical insight and a broad outlook on matters generally. • • • The popularity of Tchai- kovsky in England is certainly not on the wane, and the present volume will doubtless be welcomed by the many admirers of the Russian master." — Jfomin^ Post. " A well planned and in parts fascinating study of a composer whose rare charm of melodic beauty and fine sense of musical proportion have completely captured the taste of the time * * * It is the fullest and most authoritative monograph of Tchaikovsky available for English readers." — The Scotsman. NOTICE OF ANTHONY STRADIVARI. The celebrated Violin Maker known by the name of Stradivarius, pre- ceded by Historical and Critical Researches on the origin and Transformations of Bow Instruments, and followed by a Theoretical Analysis of the Bow and Re- marks on Francis Tourte. By F. J. Fetis. Trans- lated by J. Bishop. Facsimile of a Letter of Stradi- . varius. 8vo, cloth, 5s. The greater part of the matter in above is the work of M. Vuillaume, who spent the greater part of his life in studying the principles which guided Stradivarius in bis labours. With the aid of F£tis and his additional suggestions and matter the now celebrated work was produced. BIOGBAPHICAL. 11 CHOPIN: THE MAN AND HIS MUSIC. By James HxJNEKER (author of "Mezzotints in Modern Music"). With Musical Examples. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 10s. ** Mr. Hunekcr is a Chopin entlinsiast. He accords admiration lo Brahms, to Wagner, to Tchaikovsky : his worship is reserved for Chopin. Being gifted with clear insight and imagination which grasp many and diverse moods Mr. Huneker is a sane critic and a manly There is no pre- tence at new material in the book. Mr. Huneker has garnered all that has been written about the composer and he has threshed out the grain from the ohaff The result is, therefore, of value. "^ilfufifcal Standard. " The volume will at once take its place in the front rank of bookis on Chopin the masterly chapter of 74 pages on the etudes will soon be found indispensable bv all teachers and students of the pianoforte." — T?ie Nation (U.S.A.) " A work of unique merit, of distinguished style, of proiound insight and sympathy and of the most brilliant literary quality." — The New Tork Tillies. " Of works on Chopin published since Niecks' life, this is by far the most important."— G. C. Ashtok Joirsosr in " A Handbook to Chopin's Works." LIFE OF CHOPIN. By Franz Liszt. New a-nd very much Enlarged Edition. Translated in full now for the first time by John Broadhousb. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. Geoboe Sakd describes.it as " un pen eznberent en style, mais rempll de bonnes ohoses et de tr^s belles pages." G. C. ASETOH JoKSOH says in his " Handbook to Chopin's Works " :— " For the personal reminiscences of one of the greatest composers by one of the greatest eieoutive artists of the world must be invaluable to the Chopin student." " Frani Listt has written a charming sketch of Chopin's life and art."— Eney. Bnt. Liszt's criticisms upon his separate works have all the eloquent mys. tioisms to be expected from him ; and the biography is a book musicians will always prise." — Sunday Time$, '* It will afford the student the greatest help in nnderstanding the underonrrent of emotion ' which characterises the works of Chopin." — Horning Pott " Let us therefore contribute one good word to help it forward, as ws would tend a flower which springs np spontaneously over the grave vf one we love." — Uueieal Timet. BEETHOVEN. By Richard Wagner. With a Supplement from the Philosophical Works of Arthur Schopenhauer. Trans, by Edward Dannreuther. Third Edition. Crown 8ro, cloth, 6s. " This characteristic essay, a written exposition of Wagner's thoughts on the significance of the master's music, may be read with advantage by all students." — W. H. Webbe in The Pianitt't A. B. C. " It is a plain duty to be familiar and even intimate with the opinion of one famous man about another. Gladly therefore we welcome Mr. Dannreuther's translation of the work before us. Mr. Dannreuther has achieved his task with the conscientiousness of his nature and with a success due to much tact and patience." — liutieal Times. 12 BIOGBAPRICAL. FREDERIC CHOPIN: HIS LIFE AND LETTERS. By MoEiTZ Kakasowski. Translated by E. Hill. New Edition Revised and further Letters added written during the composer's Sojourn in England and Scot- land, 1848-9. Second and Revised Edition. With 8 Portraits and a Facsimile. 2 volumes. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 10s. " Chopin is and remains the boldest and proudest poetic spirit of the age." — Robert Schumann. " A book with which all students of Chopin must needs be acquainted. It contains a good deal of first hand information and is our onlj source for many valuable docnmcnts." — The Guardian. , .SHOVE'S Vtcttont^ry oj Musicians says: — The truth about Chopin's "birth, family, health, character, friendships, early training, and the dawn of his career as a player and composer was not tnown until the publication of Moritz Earasowski's recent and trustworthy biography. " The first serious attempt at a Biography of Chopin." — Peof. Niecks. " Gives bits of information found nowhere else and the Letters of Chopin make the book invaluable to those who would really knew the Polish master." — Musical America. MAKERS OF MUSIC. Biographical Sketches of the Great Composers. With Chronological Summaries of their Works and Facsimiles from Musical MSS. of Bach, Handel, Purcell, Dr. Arne, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beet- hoven, Weber, Schubert, Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, Wagner, Verdi, Gounod, Brahms and Greig,. with General Chronological Table. By R. Farquharson Sharp. Portrait of Purcell. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5s. "" 'The" author's endeavour throughout this work has been to convey an im- pression of the personality of each composer, as well as to furnish bio- graphical' detail'. , At the end of each biography is a tabulated list of the composer's works "Und dates' of production, together with a facsimile from one of his original manuscripts. A- useful volume, got up in jgood style and well adapted for a gift or prize. Has speedily run into tliree editions. CHOPIN: AS REVEALED BY EXTRACTS FROM HIS DIARY. By Count Tarnowski. "Translated from the Polish by N. Janotha. With Eight Portraits. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. net (or paper cover. Is. 6d. net). " Throws many curious sidelights on the character of the great com- poser." — Sunday Sun. '* The notes on Chopin were written by special request and under the direction of Princess Marceiihe Czartoryska. From her. Count Tarnowski received many interesting details as well as letters written by Chopin, in which .the master alludes to many of his compositions as well as to the conditions under which they were written. Really an absorbing little tome, etc." — iiusical Standard. BIOGBAPHICAL. 13 DICTIONARY OF 4,000 BRITISH MUSICIANS. From tKe Earliest Times. By F. J. Crowest. Crown 8vo, paper cover, 6d. net. A Dictionary of Brltiah Husiciana — a work dcToted exclusively to the names of native composers, instrumentalists, vocalists, writers, etc., wb4 have contributed to the making of English musical art from the earliest times to the present. Blank spaces are left to each letter for any addi- tional names to be written in. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FIDDLERS. Includ- ing Performers on the Violoncello and Double Bass, Past and Present. Containing a Sketch of their Artistic Career, together with Notes of their Composi- tions. By A. Mason Clarke. 9 Portraits. Post 8to, bevelled cloth, 5s. '" We 'may'here take the opportunity of recommending a osoful book to all lovers of violins and violinists.- Fiddlers, Ancient and Mod'ern, is prac- i^ic^Uy a little Biographical Dictionary, well arranged with some excellent portraits." — Northern Whig. CHERUBINI. Memorials illustrative of his Life. By E. Bellasis. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. The standard biography of Cherubini. FRANZ LISZT. By T. Cari.aw Martin. 12rao, bound, Is. LIFE OF BEETHOVEN. By Louis Nohl. Translated by John J. Lalor. Third Edition. With Portraits and Facsimile. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, gilt edges, 3s. 6d. *' A standard biography." TEMPLETON AND MALIBRAN. Reminiscences of these Renowned Singers, with Original Letters and Anec- dotes. Three Authentic Portraits by Matall.' 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. BALFE: HIS LIFE AND WORKS. By W. A. Barrett. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. net (pub. 7s. 6d.) SKETCHES OF ENGLISH GLEE COMPOSERS. Historical, Biographical and Critical. From about 173-5-1866. By D. Baptib. Post 8vo, bevelled cloth, 5s. THE BACH LETTERS. Letters of Samuel Wesley, relating to the Introduction into England of the Vrorks of Bach. Ed. by E. Wesley. Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, 2s. 6d 14 BIOGRAPHICAL. PURCELL. By William H. Cummings, Mus.Doc. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. The only available life of this great English musician. Dr. Cummings ■pared do time or tiouble in making it as far as possible a complete and exhauBtire treatise. CHERUBINI. By F. J. Crowest. Crown 8vo, cloth, 23. 6d. Contents;— Birth and Parentage — Under Sarti — Earliest Works— Visits London — Lodoiska — Med6e — Le$ "Deux JournSes — Fantska — ^BerlioE and Alt Baba — Cherabini's Overtures — A Sacred Music Composer — Mass in F— Mass in D minor — Mass in C — Requiem in C minor — Requiem in D minor — Cherubini's Prolifioness — At Catel's Grave — Death, Obsequies and Career —His Influence upon Music — Estimate of hrs 'Dramatic Works — Of his Sacred Works — Influence aa a Teacher^Temperament and Disposition— Anecdotes of Cherubini — Catalogue of Compositions — Index. SKETCHES OF GREAT VIOLINISTS AND GREAT PIAN- ISTS. Biographical and Anecdotal, with Account of the Violin and Early VioIinLsts. Viotti, Spohr, Paga- nini, De Beriot, Ole Bull, Clementi, Moscheles, Schu- mann (Robert and Clara), Chopin, Thalberg, Gottschalk, Liszt. By G. T. Fbeeis. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, Ss. 6d. (or cloth, gilt ed^es, 4a. 6d.) A Ter; naefal book for a prize or gift. LIFE AND WORKS OF MOZART. By A. Whittingham Cloth, Is. 6d. (or paper. Is.) LIFE AND WORKS OF HANDEL. By A. Whittingham. Cloth, Is. 6d. (or paper. Is.) PORTRAIT GALLERIES. SIXTY YEARS OF MUSIC. A Record of the Art in England during the Victorian Era. Containing 70 Portraits of the most Eminent Musicians. Oblong quarto, boards, cloth back, 2s. 6d, NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY OF BRITISH MUSI- CIANS. By John Wareinbr, Mus.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Introduction by Joseph Bennett. Over 500 Photo Portraits of well-known and eminent living Musi- cians of Great Britain and Ireland, with short Bio- graphical notice of each. The whole bound in one handsome oblong folio volume, cloth lettered. Offered for 7s. 6d. net (published 14s. net). REEVES' CATALOGUE OF MUSIC AND MUSICAL LITERATURE. Ancient and Modern, Second-Hand and New ; containing the Contents' of Libraries recently purchased, with a large quantity of Curious, Scarce, and Useful Music : Full Scores, Organ Music, Duets, Trios. Quartetts, Quintetts, Sextetts, Septetts, etc. ; Tutors, Historical, Theoretical and Biographical Works in Eng- lish, French, German,^ Italian, Spanish, Dutch, etc., including some Works of the greatest rarix^y and value. On Sale for Cas'i. This Catalogue sent post free on application. HISTORY, THE NATIONAL MUSIC OF THE WORLD. By H. F. Chorlet. Edited by H. G. Hewlett. Contains many Musical Illustrations. New Edition with Index, Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. 1911 The yolnme. treats of the National Tunes, Folk-Songs and Airs of the various races of the world. And the chapters are undoubtedly marked in a high degree with the critic's' acumen attesting the wide range of Chorley's learning as a student of^the art. . THE MUSIC OF THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. Par- ticularly, of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Hebrews ; with special reference to recent discoveries in Western Asia and in Egypt. By Caxl Engel. With numerous Illustrations and Index. Thick 8vo, cloth. Published at 18s., now offered for 8s. 6d. net. Grovels Dictionary 'says of Carl Erigel : '' His attainments as a musioiao^ his clear insight into book^ in manj languages, his indefatigable perseverance in research, and the exercise of a rare power of judicious discrimination, made him one of the first authorities on his subject in Europe, be became a collector when oppor- tunities were more frequent than they are now for acquiring rare instru- ments and books. He thue formed a private museum and library that could hardly be rivalled except by a few public. institutions." CHRONOMETRICAL CHART OF MUSICAL HISTORY. Presenting a Bird's Eye View from the Pre-Christian Era to the XXth Century. By C. A. Harhis, A.R.C.O., etc. On linen, folded in case, 2s. net (on special paper. Is. net). PaoFESsott PaouT : — I have examined your chart with great interest, both plan and execution seem to me to be excellent. You have managed to get a wonderful amount of inforoQation into a very small space. I think tbe Chart should be most useful and cordially wish you success. Dr. T. H. Torke Trotter, Principal, London Academy of Music: "Ex- tremely well got up and will be useful." Dr. F, J. Karn, Principal, London College of Music: "Tour very useful chart .... extremely well drawn up, showing in a compact form a great deal of information, and is a useful comparative form. Several professors have expressed delight with it." Trinity College, London: "The Library Committee desire me to esprcsa their most cordial thants for the donation of a copy of a * Chronometrical Chart of Musical History ' to the CoUegre library." — Shkllet Fisqer. " Like a Bovril tabloid — much nourishment in a little room." — Heau SItstkess, South African School. " Sure to be very useful to etudenta . . excellently arranged and seems to be very accurate and thorough." — Da. Ralph Dunstan. " Excellent chart . , . and is certainly valuable in helping the imagina- tion to grasp synchronous events." — H. Osmond Andebton, Esq., Lihrarian to Birmingham and Midland Institute School of Music. 16 HISTOBY, 17 CATECHISM OF MUSICAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, By F, J, Crowest. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Tenth Thousand. 187 pp. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.) This work gives special attention to English musicians, and is brought down to 1905. Musical Education says: — ** An excellent little book— yet not so little since it contains an immense amount of information — historical, ' biographi- cal and oritioal — in a very small compass. *' THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC -Described in Chapters on the Study of Musical History. By Edward Dickinson. With an Annotated Guide to Music Literature. Oyer 400 pp. Thick 8vo, cloth, 10s. CnAPTERS : — 1. Primitive Music. 2. Music of the Ancient Cultured Nations: Assyrians, Egyptians, Febrews, Greeks and Romans. 3. Song in the Early Christian Church. 4. The Catholic Liturgy. 5. The Catholic Liturgic Chant. 6. Beginnings of Polyphonic Music. Popular Music in the Middle Ages. 7. The Age of the Netherlander a, 1400-1550. 8. Choral Music of the Sixteenth Century. 9. Early German Protestant Music. 10. Pro- testant Church Music in England. 11. The Sladrigal— The Opera — Modern Tonality. 12. Early Orowth of Instrumental Music. 13. The Tiolin and its Music : First Stages of the Suite and Sonata. 14. Keyed Chamber In- Etruments : Progress of the Clavier Suite and Sonata. 15. The Italian Opera in the Seventeenth Century. 16 The Opera Buffa, Seventeenth and Eigh- teenth Centuries. 17. Rise of the Opera in France, Seventeenth Century. 18. Italian Opera Seria in the Eighteenth Century. 19. Introduction of the Italian Dramatic Forms into German Religious Music. 20. Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750. 21. Handel. 1685-1759. 22. Opera-Comique in the Eighteenth Century. 23. Gluck, 1714-1787. 24. Haydn, 1732-1809. 25. Mozart, 17561791. 26. BoethoveU; 17701827. 27. The German Romantic Opera. Weber, 1786-1826. 28. The German Lied. Schubert, 1797-1828. 29. Piano Playing to about 1830. 30. Schumann, 1810 1856. 31. Mendelssohn, 1809- 1847. 32. Chopin, 1809 1849. 33. Programme Music. 34. BerlioB, 1803-1869. 35. Liaat, 1811-1886. 36. The Opera in the Nineteenth Centfcry to about 1860. I. Italian Opera. 37. The Opera in the Nineteenth Century to about 1850. II. French Opera. 38. Wagner, 1813-1883. 39. Recent Music in Ger- many and Austria. 40. Recent Music in France. 41. Recent Music in Italy. 42. Recent Music in Russia, Bohemia and Scandinavia. 43. Recent Music in England and America. Bibliographical List. Index. " Mr. Dickinson has written a book of unquestionable value ..... the author's critical judgment is highly discriminating." — Musical Standard. Mb. Ebnest Newuan in the Manchester Guardian writes : — Mr. Dickinson has had the excellent idea of furnishing the musical student with a guide to the best literature in English upon the Art For Mr. Dickinson's general treatment of his subject one can have nothing but praise. Hie method is to take each stage in the development of music separately, characterise it in a short but highly concentrated chapter and then give references to the complete English literature upon the subject. His sum- maries are models of sound judgment and swift statement, not more than once or twice, perhaps, could one find fault with either their completeness in every essential point or their cool and Catholic impartiality. The bibliograpliical guides are practically aa full as they could be made the totaj omissions are exceedingly trifling, while the extent and the accuracy of the information conveyed make the book indispensable to ttudents and to public lihraries. 18 HISTOBY. MANUAL OF MUSICAL HISTORY. From the Epoch of Ancient Greece to our present time. By Dr. F. L> RiTTER. Second Edition. Cr. Svo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d, THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF MUSIC. History of Music, from the Christian Era to the present time. By Dr. F. L. RiTTER. Third Edition. 478 pages of Letterpress and 72 Plates of Musical Illustrations. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. " To such as are preparing for examination this valuable work must tender great service." — Christian Age. " A reliable guide to those students who as he says ' feel the desire, the want, of a deeper and more general knowledge of and information as to, the growth and progress of their art than is common,'' That this intention hae been sucoeesfully carried out in the present volume we can conscien- tiously aflSrm." — Mueieal Times. A HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC. With Critical Estimates of its Greatest Masters and Sketches of their Lives. By John C. Fillmore. Edited with an Intro- ductory Preface by Ridley Prentice, Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. Stkofsis : — The Pianoforte and its Immediate Precursors (the Harpsi- chord and ClaTichord) — Polyphonic Music (Bach, Handel, D. Scarlatti)— Homophonic Music (E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart) — The Emotional Content of Music (Beethoven) — The Classic and the Romantic in Music (Weber, Schu- bert, Mendelssohn, Chopin and Schumann) — Technique of the First Clas- sical Period — Technique of the Second Classical Period — Technique of the Transition Period — Technique of the Romantic Period — Minor Composers and Virtuosi of the Different Epochs — Index. DiTDLET Buck says of it : — " In my judgment the work should be in the hands of every earnest student." " The only work of its kind in English. It groups the composers and their works into epochs and gives a clear description of the different epochs. It contains an interesting account of the lives nf all the greatest oomposers and their woriB."— Etude. HISTORY OF HUNGARIAN MUSIC. By J. Kaldt (BirectoT of the JRoyal Hunqarian Opera). Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d. net. ** Information not to be had anywhere elae .... should he on every musioal shelf." — Intcrnationalen Musilcgesellsehaft. MEMOIRS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY BAND, Its Origin, History and Progress. An Account of the Rise of Mili- tary Music in England. By H. G. Farmer. With 14 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth, 5s. The Records of the R.A. Band date as far back as 1762, and its history may fairly be stated ta represent the growth of the military band. EISTOBY. 19 THE RISE OF MUSIC. Being a Careful Enquiry into the Development of the Art from its Primitive Puttings forth in Egypt and Assyria to its Triumphant Consum- mation in Modern Effect. Especially bringing out the Influence of the Church upon the Joint Development of Harmony and Notation — the Importance of that Great Central Development the Enweavement of the Scales — the Creative Consequences of the Clavier Type of In- strument and the Explanation of a New and Perfect Order of Beauty resting upon our Tempered System. By Joseph Goddard. With Illustrations of early In- struments and numerous Musical Examples drawn from Ancient and Modern Sources. With Index. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, gilt top, 7s. 6d. It will be seen that this work is not a history of maaia in the ordinary sense, but rather a tracing of the organic nnfolding of the musical art. At the same time it presents a perspeotire' of both the history and con- stitution of music, in which history is seen to elucidate theory and theory history. . Readers will greatly appreciate the numerous musical examples culled from all sources which appear throughout the book. '* Musical enthusiasts, whom the technical language of their art does not appal, will delight in this scholarly book." — The Christian WorUl. THE WORLD'S EARLIEST MUSIC. Traced to its Begin- nings in Ancient lands. By collected Evidences of Relics, Records, History and Musical Instruments, from Greece, Etruria, Egypt, China, through Assyria and Babylonia to the Primitive Home, the Land of Akkad and Sumer. By Hermann Smith. With 65 full page Illustrations and Cuts, nearly 400 pp. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. " 1 return the sheets you entrusted to me of ' The World's Earliest Music' There is nothing I could oritioize in those interesting pages." — A. J. HiFEiNS in a letter to the Author. " It is a pleasantly written volume dealing with the earliest conditions of music in ancient lands. From rock carvings, wall paintings, tablets and vases, sculptures, papyri and so forth, Mr. Smith has drawn the materials for a volume which has involved an immense amount of research and contains a vast quantity of information conveyed in a very lucid and readable manner." — H. A. Scott in The Academy. " No more enthusiastic worker, nor patient student, exists than Mr Hermann Smith. The structure, character and capabilities of every kind of musical instrument have been the objects of his study for many years. To an intense love of his subjects he adds on attractive ttyle. . . . The liking of the ear in music is a liking by inheritance, transmitted as a facial typo is. This view is new, eia."— Birmingham Daily Poet. THE PAST AND THE FUTURE. An Inaugural Lecture at Gresham College. By J. Frederick Bridge, Mus.Doc. Ci-own 8vo, sewed, 6d. ORCHESTRAL. A Work of Original Besearch and Study. THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MODERN ORCHESTRA AND EARLY RECORDS OF THE PRECURSORS OF THE VIOLIN FAMILY. With 500 Illustrations and Plates. By Kathleen Schlesinger. Two handsome volumes, thick 8vo, cloth, gilt tops, 18s. 6d. The Times says : " It is in tlic second volnme that the importance of MisB Schleeiuger's work appears and the results of original research are evident .... a new light is here thrown on the early history of the violin family, and in any future work on this subject account will have to he taken of the research disclosed in this volume .... most note- worthy section is the bibliography. It occupies a hundred pages and is the finest work of its kind since ' De Fidiculis Bibliographia ' and will bo found of great value to all musicians." JoHy Bboadhouse in the Musical Standard writes : " Far surpasses any book on the subject which it has been our good fortune to read. The whole line of the investigation is in every sense of the word original ; not trusting the researches of her predecessors. Miss Schlesinger has, during many years, gone fully and deeply into the matter for herself ; and, having arrived at conclusions quite at variance with those of other writers, sha is not afraid to say so. The tone of the book is moderation itself . , . T' The music critic of the American Musical Courier in an able essay says : " It ia a great work in two volumes with over five hundred illustrations and plates 8he [the author] is a kind of musical Darwin who has given no end of toil and trouble to trace the ancestors of our instruments into their humble and remote sources." " It is no mere echo of other historians but a work of original research. This is made clear by the fact that novel conclusions arc reached and new verdicts given. It would seem thafr we shall be compelled to recon- sider and probably to reconstruct our notions as to the origin of the violin A splendid book which will become a classic. The many years of laborious and persevering study given to its compilation and composition will be appreciated by generations yet to come. — Birming- ham Gazette and Express. E. TAN DEB Stbaeten writcs in the Strad: "This work ranks among the most remarkable modern literature on the subject." MODERN ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS, Their History, Structure and Capabilities. By K. Schlesingek. A Practical Illustrated Handbook for the Musician, Stu- dent and Concert-Goer. Numerous Illustrations and Musical Examples throughout. Svo, cloth, gilt top, 7s. 6d. The Ttmes says : " We do not hesitate to recommend the volume to all lovers of music who would know 'something of the instruments which produce the marvellous tone colour of the modern orchestra, or desire, by aid of the large and clear illustrations, to recognise the various forms which arc now to be found in our large military and municipal bands." The above volume, with " The Precursors of the Violin Family," form the two-volume work by K. Schlesinger, 18s. 6d. For full description see preceding item. 20 OBCHESTBAZ. 21 ON CONDUCTING. By Richard Wagneb. Translated by E. Dannredthbk. Second Edition, cr. 8vo, cloth, 5s. A Treatise on '.Style in the Execation ot Classical Music, written- by a practical master ,of the grand style. WiiNOASimB, speaking of this celebrated work, says: — "Wagner's book laid the foundation for a new understanding of the function of the con- ductor, in whom we now recognise, not only the eternal factor that holds together. an orchestral, choral or operatic performance, but above all the spiritualising internal factor that gives the performance its very soul." Qrove't Dictionary says : " One of the finest of his minor publications, and to a professional musician perhaps the most instructive.' A Treatise on StylCt giving his views as to the true way of rendering classical music, with minute directions how to do it and how not to do it, together with many examples in n'usical type from the instrumental works of Beethoven. Weber. Jlojart. •to." ' ...i- 1 i If EJaD NOTES ON CONDUCTING AND CONDUCTORS. By T. R. Croger, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., also the Organising and Con- ducting of Amateur Orchestras, with three full-page Illustrations of the Various "Beats" and Plan of the Orchestra, Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper. Is.) " a mine of good things." — Musical Opinion. " One of the best guides to conducting." — Music Trades Review. " A capital little book brightly written and full not only of entertaining and racily-told anecdotes, but also of clear and sensibly Vxpressed opinions on musical matters." — Tlie Stage. " The book appeals particularly to conductors of provincial societies, whether instrumental or choral ; it is written in a pleasant style, and is full of practical hints by one who knows his subject well." — Morithly Music(U Record. * " Many practical hints on the organiEing and conducting of amateur orchestras and choral societies." — Mornina Post. HOW TO PLAY FROM SCORE. Treatise on Accompani- ment from Score on the Organ or Pianoforte. By F. Fbtis. Translated by A. Whittingham. With 40 pages of Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. Contents :— Introduction. 1. On the Different Arrongcments of Voices and Instruments in Scores (Partitions). 2. On Vocal Parts; Instrumental Parts, their Fixed Pitch and the Manner in which they are Written. 3. Concerning the Manner in which the Accompanist should Read a Score in order to "rasp its Substance and its Details. 4. The Mechanism ot Ac-, companiment. 5. Concerning the Influence of the Accompanist on the Vocalist. 6. On Difference of Style. 7. On the Accompaniment of Early Music without Orchestra, the Duets and Trios of Clari, Duronte, Handel and the Psalms of Marcello. 8. On the Reproduction of Ancient Orches- tral Accompaniment;. 9. On the Modern Style of Accompaniment. 10. On Mozart, Cherublni, Mehul, Spontini, Rossini and the Modem School. 11. Conclnsion. . „ m. . » , This popular- and useful book might have been entitled The Art of Making Arrangamants for the Organ or Pianoforte from Full Orchestral and other Score v" U contains all that is necessary to know upon this subject. ORGAN. MODERN ORGAN BUILDING. Being a Practical Explan- ation and Description of the Whole Art of Organ Con- struction, with Especial Regard to Pneumatic Action. Together with Chapters on Tunings Voicing, etc.' By Walter and Thomas Lewis (Organ Builders). With 76 Illustrations Drawn to Scale and Reproduced from Actual Working Drawings, together with Diagrams, Tables, etc. 4to, cloth, 7s. 6d. 1911 ADVICE TO YOUNG ORGANISTS. By J. T. Field. 2d. SOME CONTINENTAL ORGANS (Ancient and Modern) and their Makers. With Specifications of many of the fine Examples in Germany and Switzerland. ByiJAMBS I. Wedgewood. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. net. Contains apeoification and a brief critique of some of the famous old Continental organs as they exist at the present day. Describes also several np-to-date Continental organs. Amongst other organs particulars are ^given of those at Haarlem, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Frankfurt, Heidel- burg, Ulm, Stuttgart, Einsiedeln, Strassbnrg and Antwerp. This Wftk forms a valuable supplement to Hopkins* and Bimbault's great treatise. ** Mr. Wedgewood remarks on all details such as workmanship, tone, peculiarities of mechanism, cost, etc. We thoroughly recommend the book to those who are interested in organs." — Bazaar, THE PEDAL ORGAN. Its History, Design and Control. ' By Thomas Casson. With folding Diagram. Second Impression. 8vo, cloth, 2s. net (paper. Is. net). THE ORGAN FIFTY YEARS HENCE. A Study of its Development in the Light of its Past History and Present Tendencies. By Francis Burgess, F.S.A., Scot. 8vo, Is. net. ■• All organists should read Mr. Francis Burgess' lecture on ' The Organ Fifty Tears Hence.' We have every sympathy for the opinions Mr. Burgess expresses, though we have our doubts as to whether the un- popularity of electric action is not fully justified, etc." — The Church Onion Gazette. ** Gives us an excellent summary of what has been and is being done towards improvement in organ ,constructi6n and tone, and his criticisms are always sound and convincing." — Glasgow Herald. THE EARLY ENGLISH ORGAN BUILDERS and their Works, from the 15th Century to the Period of the Great Rebellion. An Unwritten Chapter on the History of the Organ. By Dr. E. F. Rimbault. Well printed. With woodcuts, post Svo, cloth, 3s. 6d. 22 ORGAN. 23 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ORGAN BUILDING. By F. E. Robertson. With Working Drawings and Appen- dices for ready calculation of all parts. Text in one vol. Demy 8vo, and numerous plates in a royal 4to tfol. 2 volumes, 31s. 6d. net. " Many books upon Organ Building have been published in reeen!t years, but for fulness of information not one approaches Mr. Robertson's work, wherein practical details and directions are given in every department of Organ construction. The book is of course based upon old Don Bedos' famous work, and contains the moat valuable portion of Dr. Topfer's Ger- man treatise, together with his learned diagrams and illustrations." — flBEMA.vx S>i ITU's "The Making of Sound In the Organ and In the Or chestra." W. Reeves. MODERN ORGAN TUNING, The How and Why, Clearly Explaining the Nature of the Organ Pip© and the System of Equal Temperament, Together with an His- toric Record of the Evolution of the Diatonic Scale from the Greek Tetrachord. By Hermann Smith. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 64. " The greatest authority on acoustical matters connected with organ pipes who has ever lived," says Mr. G. A. .^udsley of Hermann Smith in his " Art of Organ Building," ** Simple non-technical terms set out with an attractiveness and lucidity I have never seen surpassed the history of the evolution of the diatonic scale from the Greek tetrachord * * * by no means intended for organ students aloiie * * the historical explanations add to the fascination of volume." — Daily Telegraph. " Reoommended to the notice of organists with the fullest confldence that they would derive both pleasure and profit from its poruaaj,"— Scottisft Guardian. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ORGAN, ORGANISTS AND SERVICES OF THE CHAPEL OF ALLEYN'S COL- LEGE, Dulwich. With Extracts from the Diary of the Founder. By W. H Stocks Crown 8vo, sewed, Is. ANALYSIS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORGAN WORKS. A Study of their Structural Features. For the .Use of Students. By Joseph W. G. Hath.\wat, Mus. B. Oxon., 127 Musical Examples. Portrait and Facsimiles. Crown Svo, bevelled cloth, 4s. 6d. ORGANIST'S QUARTERLY JOURNAL of Original Composi- tions. Edited by Dr. W. Spark,. 5s. per part. New Series Volume, 160 large pages, oblong folio, bound in cloth, las. '24 OBGAN. RINK'S PRACTICAL ORGAN SCHOOL: A New Edition. Carefully Revised. The Pedal Part printed on a Separ- ate Staff, and the Preface, Remarkf and Technical Terms translated from the German expressly for this Edition by John Hiles. The Six Books Complete, hand- somely bound in red cloth, gilt edges, ob. folio, 10s. 6d. net (issued at 20s.), or the six parts 7s. 6d. net (issued at 6s. each), parts sold separately. The best edition ever pnblielied of this Grand Claseioal work. No other edition will bear comparison with it for care and skill in editing, nor for beaaty of engraving and excellence of printing. One special merit of this edition is that the bar lines arc bold, and that they are drawn right througli the itcore, instead of through each staff, as was the oustom in days gone by- The student who will take the trouble to test this edition against any other, will at once perceiTe the advantage he gains from this clear and distinct -style of " barring " ; to an advanced performer the matter may be perhaps of less importance, bat even he cannot fail to appreciate the com- fort of increased legibility. As a royal road to thorough and sound Organ Playing in all styles, there is no other School which will bear comparison with this : a Beginner can follow no better course than to go through it slowly. THE ORGAN PARTS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORATORIOS AND O-THER CHORAL WORKS. Analytically Con- sidered. By Orlando A. Mansfield, . Mus. Doc, F.B.C.O. With numerous Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d. HENRY SMART'S ORGAN COMPOSITIONS ANALYSED. By J. Broadhousb. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGAN IN HISTORY. By Dudley Buck. New Edition with Illustrations. Crown 8vo, sewed. Is. net, CATECHISM for the Harmonium and American Organ. By John Hiles. Post Svo, sewed. Is. REFORM IN ORGAN BUILDING. By Thomas Casson. Crown Svo, sewed, 6d- PIANOFORTE. THE ART OF TEACHING PIANOFORTE PLAYING. A Systematised Selection of Practical Suggestions for Young Teachers and Students. By J. Alfbed John- stone (author of "Piano Touch, Phrasing and Inter- pretation," "Modern Tendencies and Old Standards in Musical Art," etc.). Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 5s. Many pianists who add to concert . playing the laboars of a teaoher ; many 'yoang students about to enter upon the duties of the teaching profession as their life's labour ; and indeed, not a few of those who have spent years at the work of giving lessons in pianoforte playing, fail to achieve the success their abilities deserve, simply for the lack of some clear, systematic practical knowledge of ; the art of teaching. In this volume methods are suggested, hints -are offered, principles and rales are formulated, courses of study are sketched out; and all these are suffi. ciently general and varied to furnish a useful guide for the teacher without circumscribing his individual genius or running any risk of stunting his development. " Every teacher of a practical mind will, of course, desire to poesess a work of this kind."— f/te Mueic Student. " The work of one who is both an experienced instructor and a thorough musician." — NottingJiam Guardian. " The most comprehensive handbook for teachers that we know . . - the chapter on finger exercises is excellent." — The Literary World. ** To read this book thoroughly is to a pianist a liberal education . . . the most comprehensive handbook for piano professors we have ever met with." — Cheltenham Examiner. AN ESSAY on the Theory and Practice of Tuning in General, and on Schiebler's Invention of Tuning Pianofortes and Organs by the Metronome in Particular. Trans- lated by A. Wehbhan. Crown 8vo, sewed, Is. PRACTICE REGISTER for Pupil's Daily Practice. A Specimen, Id., or Is. p«r 100. REEVES' VAMPING TUTOR. Art of Extemporaneous Ac- companiment, or Playing by Ear op, the Pianoforte, Rapidly Enabling anyone having an Ear for Music (with or without any knowledge of Musical Notation) to Ac- company with Equal Facility in any Key with Prac- tical Examples. By Francis Taylor. New Edition, to which is added Instructions for Accompaniment with Equal Facility in every Key illustrated by Ex- amples. Folio, 2s. REEVES' THE POPULAR PIANOFORTE TUTOR. Instruc- tions, Scales, Exercises, Tunes. Folio, Is. 25 26 PIANOFOBTE. PIANOFORTE TEACHER'S GUIDE. By L. Plaidt. Trans- lated by Fanny Raymond Ritter. Crown 8vo, boards, Is. '* EvideDtlj written by a pianist who is a thorough master of his instru- ment as well as a good tQa.ohQ.T."-^Educatwnal Times. " Some of the finest ' pianists of the day owe much of their technical facility to Plaidy's excellent method." — Bazaar. THE ART OF TUNING THE PIANOFORTE, A New and Comprehensive Treatise to Enable the Musician to Tune his Pianoforte upon the Sj'stem founded on the Theory of Equal Temperament. By Hermann Smith. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, New Edition, thoroughly Revised, 2s. Readers will welcome this note of approval signed by A. J. Kipkins, a name long associated with the Pianoforte and familiar to most musicians in the musical literature of the present time. No better vouchor could be desired of the fair claims of this little book upon the reader's attention and confidence. " I have had the privilege of reading the proofs of Mr. Her- mann Smith's clear and exhaustive treatise on Pianoforte Tuning, and I am satisfied that for the professional tuner, or the amateur who desires to understand the subject and put the knowledge he acquires into practice, there is no book upon it yet published that may be compared with it. 1 recommend all tuners or wouLd-be tuners to study this unpretending and excellent work, wherein the theory is laid down in clear and correct terms, and the practice, as far as this ia possible, is indicated judiciously." , THE DEPPE FINGER EXERCISES for Rapidly Developing an Artistic Touch in Pianoforte Playing, carefully Ar- ranged, Classified and Explained by Amy Fay (Pupil of Tausig, KuUak, Liszt and Deppe). Folio, English Fingering, Is. 6d. (ContinentalFingering, Is. 6d.) The musical Times says : — We are asked by a well-known pianist to say that Herr Emil Sauer was trained up to his seventeenth year on the Deppc system and that he owes his wonderful technique almost solely to that method * • * Our correspondent adds that Herr Sauer speaks as enthusias tioally of the Deppe method as did Miss Amy Fay. PIANOFORTE SCALES IN THIRDS AND SIXTHS FOR EACH HAND, In All the Major and Minor Keys. Fin- gered and Arranged by M. Rock. Is. 6d. net (pub- lished at 4s.) PIANO TEACHING, Advice to Pupils and Young Teachers. By P. Le Codppey (Prof, in the Conservatory of Music, Paris, etc.) Translated from the Third French Edition by M. A. BiERSTADT. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. •' Well worthy of perusal both by young teachers and pupils. The book contains sound advice, particularly applicable to the study of Pianoforte playing."— W. H. Webbe in The Pianist's A. B. C. PIANOFOBTE. 27 TECHNICAL STUDY IN THE ART, OF PIANOFORTE PLAYING (Deppe's Principles). By C. A. Ehren- FECHTER. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edi- tion, Crown 8vOj bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d. Contents :— Position— Arm— Wrist— Fingers ; Touch (Tone . Production) ; Legato; Equality of Tone; Tension and Contraction; Five Finger Exer- cises ; Skips ; The Scale ; Arpeggio Chords ; Firm Chords ; High Raising of the Arm ; Melody and its Accompaniment ; Connection of Firm Chords ; The Tremolo ; The Shake (Trill) ; The Pedal ; Fingering. A detailed and exhaustive exposition of Deppc's principles of the Piano- forte toohnio in oil its features, notably with regard to touch and pas- sage playing, showing the immense advantage to be gained by their appli- cation, from the elementary to the hiffber stagos of technical development. A piano-student writes: — "Most nsefal. I am always re-rea^ing and studying it. It has helped me a lot.*' A professional musician who studied after this method, writes in an issue of the Musical Standard as follows : ** I am sure many must have felt with me that the old system of teaching was useless for the production of a technique fit to grapple with the appalling diflQoulties of much of the mosio of the modern romantic school of composers. Let all whom are ambitious "to overcome such difficulties attack them on the lines laid down by C. A. Ehrenfechter, and I am convinced they will find, as I have done, their desires realised in a most astonishing manner." WELL-KNOWN PIANO SOLOS. How to Play them with Understanding, Expression and Effect. By Charles W. Wilkinson. Three Series. Each containing 26 Articles dealing with the Works of Sinding, Scarlatti, Paderewski, Handel, Rubinstein, Scharwenka, Schu- mann, Godard, Delibes and other Composers. Crown 8vo, Is. each. Contents of the First Series :— Stnding, Rustle of Spring. Scaelatti, Pastorale o Capriceio. PAnGnEwssT, Minuet in G. Handel, Harmonious Blacksmith. Rubinstein, Melody in F. Scharwpnea, Polish Dance. Schumann, Nachtstucke. Gobahd, Mazurka. Delibes, PisEicati from Sylvia. Grifo. Wedding Day at Troldhangen. Eloah, Salut d'Amour. Padkeewskt, Melodic. Raff, La Fileuse. Tchaikovskt, Troika. Godard, Berger et Berg^res. Chaminade, Pierrette. Moszeowski, EtinocUes. Padrrkwsei, Minuet in A Major. Grieg, Norwegian Bridal Procession. Liszt, Regata Yeneziana. Chamtnade, Automnc. Moszeowsei, Serenata. Lace, Valse Arabesque. Schuuann, Arabeske. Chopin, Etude in G Flat.. DuRAND, First Valsd. The Second and Third Series contain a similar varied selection. . Draws one's attention to the beauties in s piece, explains difficulties liere . and there, draws attention to a pedal effect and any peculiarity of finger- ing, and generally gives all the information a professor is expected to give to his pupils. " Described in detail in a manner to be understood by the youngest student, and with a charm that must ensure the popularity of the book." —Aberdeen Daily Journal. " In plain language free from technicalities proffers valuable help to the budding piano soloist." — Leicester Mail. 28 PIANOFOBTE, DELIVERY IN THE ART OF PIANOFORTE PLAYIN"G, On Rhythm, Measure^ Phrasing, I'empo. By C. A. Ehben- FBCHTER. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. " Deals with rhythm, measare, phrasing and tempo as applied to piano- forte playing • * explains the difference between the subjective and objec- tive in deliTcry and expresses his opinion that a performance of the horn artist maet of necessity be subjective, while the wavering, undecided, and aninsDired amateur will be safest in giving an altogether objective render- ing. The section with reference to accent is particularly good. There are numerous illustrations from the works of the masters." — W. H. Webbe iu The Pianist's A. B. C. PIANO TOUCH, PHRASING AND INTERPRETATION. By J. Alfred Johnstone (author of "The Art of Teaching Piano Playing," etc.) Crown Svo, cloth, 3s. 6d. " We can nnreservedly recommend this book to all musical people who are pianists." — Cheltenham Examiner. • "This is a book of rare educational ezoellence — the work of an expert of acknowledged standing and experience, who possesses not only a very complete knowledge of his subject, but also the faculty of expressing himself in clear and unmistakable terms." — Aberdeen Daily Journal. HANDBOOK TO CHOPIN'S WORKS. Giving a Detailed Account of all the Compositions of Chopin. Short Analyses for the Piano Student and Critical Quota- tions from the Writings of Well-Known Musical Authors. By G. C. Ashton Jonson. The Whole Forming a Complete Guide for Concert-Goers, Pianists and Pianola-Players, also a Short Biography, Critical Bibliography and a Chronological List of Works, etc. Crown Svo, cloth^ gilt top, 6s. Will be found equally useful and^helpful to con cert -goers, for whom it forms a permanent analytical programme, to pianists, and to those ama- teurs of music who can now, owing to the pianola, pursue for the first time a systematic and co-ordinated study of Chopin's works, a delight hitherto denied to them owing to their inability to read or play the more difficult compositions. " Here in one compact volume, is all that it is necessary to know about Chopin and his works except by the leisured enthusiast * * * Each separ- ate opus is placed in its proper sequence, and attached to> them are brief extracts, again from very n^any writings, together' with Mr. Ashton Jensen's own lucid critioisms. The task is well done ; nothing has ap- parently been left oui that ought to have been put in, and never once can our author be accused of being tedious. The book should be greatly studied by all." — Daily Chronicle. TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL. ON THE MODAL ACCOMPANIMENT OF PLAIN CHANT. A Practical Treatise. By Edwin Evans, Senior, F.B.C.O. (author of "Handbook to the Works of Brahms," " How to Compose Within the Lyric Form," etc.) Part I, Theoretical; Part II, Practical School of Plain Chant Accompaniment, consisting of 240 Exer- cises, with an Appendix of Notes. This work is de,di- cated by special permission to Cardinal Vaughan, Car- dinal Archbishop of Westminster. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net. MODERN CHORDS EXPLAINED. (The Tonal Scale in Harmony.) By Arthtje G. Potter. With Musical Ex- amples from the Works of C. Debussy, Richard Strauss and Granville Bantock. 8vo, limp cloth. Is. (paper cover, 6d. net). " Well worth reading .... writes with conviotioH, and his obscryationB on modern harmony, with examples ranging from Farcell to Strauss and Debussy, should interest every musician." — Daily Mail. " Will undoubtedly interest those students of harmony who have been striving to analyse chords for which there seemed to be no solution on the diat-onio scale." — Irish PreabyteTtan, THE HARMONISING OF MELODIES. A Text-Book for Students and Beginners. By H. C. Banistbk. Third Edition, with numerous Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 2s. Chapters: — Introductory, The Resources of Harmony; Harmonising with Common Chords Only, General Principles ; Couplets of Common Chords ; Flan, Rhythmical Structure, Phrases, Cadences; Cadences in Connection with Hodulation, Melodies in the Minor Mode; Continuity, Congruity with Words ; Illustrations of Harmonising the same Melody in Different Ways with Changed Mode ; Florid Melodies, Unessential Notes, Different Forms of Harmonising ; Pianoforte Accompaniment to a Melody ; Arpeggio Ac- companiment; Accidentals and Chromatic Passing Notes, A Caution, Summary. EXERCISES IN VOCAL SCORE READING. Collected from the Works of Orlando di Lasso, Palestrina, Vittoria, Barcroft, Redford, Peter Certon, Byrd, Gibbons, Croft; Rogers, Boyce, etc. For Students preparing for the R.C.O. and other Examinations. By Jaues Lton, Mus.Doc. Oxon. 4to, papeir covers, 3s. Although there are books on vocal score reading in existence, the author has found the exercises contained in this book — taken from the works of writers of the early contrapuntal school — of the greatest possible value in his private teaching, and he ventures to think that students preparing for diplomas where vocal score reading is required, will welcome such a collection as this. 29 30 TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL. EXERCISES IN FIGURED BASS AND MELODY HAR- MONIZATION. By James Lyon, Mus.Doc. 4to, paper covers, 2s. EXAMPLES OF FOUR PART WRITING FROM FIGURED BASSES AND CilVEN MELODIES. By James Lyon, Mus.Doc. 4to, paper covers, 4s. These ezeroiees are printed in open score so as to be of use in score reading tests. This volume forms a key to " Exercises in Figured Bass " by the same author. HOW TO COMPOSE. A Practical Guide to the Composi- tion of all Works within the Lyric Form, and which include the Valse, Gavotte, Mazurka, Polonaise, March, Minuet, and all Ordinary Dance Forms ; as also the Nocturne, Impromptu, Berceuse, Reverie and Similar Characteristic Pieces. By Edwin Evans, Senior, F.B.C.O. (author of "The Relation of Tchai- kovsky to Art-Questions of the Day," "A Handbook to Brahms' Works," "The Modal Accompaniment to Plain Chant," etc.). With 60 Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. (paper. Is. 6d. net). The plan adopted is that of gradually developing a full composition under the reader's ovpn observation ; and of explaining to him every feature as it occurs in such plain terms that the merest average musical knowledge is alone required for its comprehension. *' A daring subject to tackle, and one that in most cases vrould be better left alone. AVe must confess that V7e opened the book feeling very sceptical ; but the author — who is well known as one of the most thought- ful of our musical litterateurs — has handled his subject in a manner that compels our admiration. To the young musician who feels that he has something to say, we strongly , advise the immediate purchase of this thonghtfnl and distinctly practical treatise. It will save him from that loose, meaiidering, formless music so charaoteristio, unfortunately, of many of the early works of our young composers." — Aberdeen Daily Journal. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. By Dr. Dudley Buck. Sixth Edition, with the Pronunciation of each Term accurately given. Edited and Revised by A. Whittingham. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. (paper, 6d.) A most valuable and useful little book to aU musical people. The method adopted for giving the correct pronunciation of each term is most concise and clear. THE STUDENT'S BOOK OF CHORDS. By Pascal Need- ham. Crown 8vOj sewed, 6d. The Author eajs: — A very large number of music students, exeontive and theoretical, have expressed to me from time to time a desire for a cheap book, in which the chords with their inversions and resolutions are briefly and clearU- eiDlaiued. To theeo etudenti I dedicate this work. TECHNICAL AND TEEOBETIGAL. 31 HARMONY, EASILY AND PROGRESSIVELY ARRANGED. Presenting iti a Simple Manner the Elementary Ideas as well as the Introduction to the Study of Harmony. With about 300 Musical Examples and Exercises. By Paul Colberq. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s, (paper, Is.) August Wilhelmj eaye : — " This work is distinguiched by brevity and clearDess 1 most warmly recommend it." THE RUDIMENTS OF GREGORIAN MUSIC, By Fbancis BoRQBSs, F.S.A., Scot. Crown 8vo, 6d. PlaiuBong or Gregorian Music, is the generic name given to that great system of ecclesiastical melody formulated by the primitive Church and retained in later ages as the official chant for use during the most solemn acts of Christian worship. As a system it represents the accumulated knowledge of several centuries usually accounted great by those who respect tradition and whilst its peculiar and characteristic solemnity marks it out as an ideal form of sacred music which the modern composer may study with profit. " An entertaining and instructive brochure."— Barton D(fUi/ Mail. '' A very clear and concise treatise." — Liverpool Daily Post. EXERCISES ON GENERAL ELEMENTARY MUSIC. A Book for Beginners. By K. Paige. Fourth Edition, Part I. Price 9d. Part II., price Is. Crown 8vo, sewed (2 parts complete in cloth, 2s. 4d.) Contents of Pakt I.— 1. Pitch. 2. Length of Sounds. 3. Time. i. Time and Accent. 5. Intervals. 6. Scales. 7. Transposition. 8. Syncopation. 9. Signs and Abbreviations. 10. Notation. 11. Miscellaneous Questions and Exercises. Contents of Pabt II.— 1. Triads. 2. First Inversion of a Triad. 3. Second Inversion of a Triad. 4. Dissonances. 6. Suspensions. 6. Sequences. 7. Cadences. 8. Dominant Sevenths, etc., etc. " We have much praise not only for the general arrangement of the book, but for the lucid manner in which the questions are put. The Chapters on Time and Accent are exceedingly good, and there are some useful exercises to accustom the pupil to transposition. We are especially pleased, too, with the method of writing incomplete bars, and asking the pupil to supply the missing parts with rests ; also of requiring notes to be changed into rests and rests into notes." — Musical Times. A FIRST BOOK OF MUSIC FOR BEGINNERS, Embodying Recent English and Continental Teaching. By Alfred Whittingham. Sixth Thousand. Crown 8vo, sewed, 2d. The two principal objects kept in view in writing this little Tbook were TnorOughness of Definition and Regular Order in the orrangcmcnt of Sub- jects. It differs from all other similar works in that all the technical terms in music are introduced in the Answers not in the Questions. 32 TECHNICAL AND TEEOBETICAL. ELEMENTARY MUSIC. A Book for Beginners. By Db. Westbrook:. AVith Questions and Vocal Exercises. Thirteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. Gd. (paper. Is.) Contents: — 1. The Staff and its Clefe. 2. Notes and their RcBte. 3. Bars and Time. 4. Accidentals. 5. Keys and Scales. €. Intervals. 7. Musical Pitch. 8. Accent. 9. Secondary Signs. 10. Ornaments and Groups of Notes. 11. Yoices and Scores. 12. Church Modes. 13. Italian and other Directions. 14. Foreign Note-Names. 15. Questions. 16. Vocal Ezerolsea " His explanations are extremely clear. The questions at the end will be found very useful." — Musicai Times. " This little primer ia one of the best of its kind, and forma an admir- able course of preparation for the local examinations in music * * * * it ensures, as far as a book can, an intelligent and thorough grasp of the elements of musical knowledge. The questions at the end of the book will be found invaluable to teachers." — Journal of Trinity College, London. HOW TO MEMORIZE MUSIC. By C. F. Kenyon. With numerous Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s, (paper. Is.) " Mr. Eenyon proves himself an excellent guide ; and indeed we know of no other work devoted to the subject with which he has dealt so thor- oughly and so successfully." — Glasgow Rerald. " Points out the paramount importance of being able to play from memory. Many useful hints are given on the course of study to be adopted." — Morning Post. " A most valuable little book of eight chapters, containing"^ valuable information on the art of memorising, with many illustratio.is." — Western Morning News. " May do much good inducing young pianists to exert their brains tb- gether with their fingers."— TortaAtre Post. HARMONY AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDS. With Questions and Exercises. By De. J. H, Lewis. Vol. 1, 8vo, boards, cloth back, 5s. Ditto f Vol. 2. 8ro, boards, cloth, back, 5s. COUNTERPOINT : A Simple and Intelligible Treatise. Con- taining the most Important Rules of all Text Books, in Catechetical Form ; (Forming an Answer to the Question "What is Counterpoint?'') Intended for Beeinners. By A. Livingstone Hirst. (Beeves^ Educational Series, No. 6J, Crown 8vo, sewed, 9d. THE ART OF MODULATION. A Hand-book Showing at a Glance the Modulations from one Key to any Other in the Octave, consisting of 1,003 Modulatious. For the Use of Organists and Musical Directors Edited by Cakli Zoelleu. Third Edition. Roy. 8vo, cloth, 4s. (paper, 2s. 6d.) TECHNICAL AND TEEOBETICAL. 33 HOW TO HARMONIZE MELODIES. With Hints on Writ- ing for Strings and Pianoforte Accompaniments. By J. Henry Bridgbr, Mus.Bac. With Musical Examples throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. The aboTe -work deals with a branch of the subject of HarmoDy which in the past received but scant consideration in ' the' standard treatises ; and though of late years works have appeared dealing more or less -fully with the subject, there are some points which, as the result of man; years' teaching experience, the author considers require to be treated in greater detail to afford the students the necessary guidance; such, for example, as the treatment of the cadences and of accidentals. The present work is an attempt to supply this, and is almost entirely practical. Ohaptess :' Method of Study — Cadences and Analysis of Melodies — Final Cadences — Middle Cadences — ^Harmonization with Primary Chords — Domin- ant Seventh and Secondary Chords — Use of other Diatonic Discords — Florid Melodies — Accidentals, Modulation and Chromatic Chords — Harmonisation in Three and Five Parts— Part-Writing for Strings — Adding Free Aooom- paniments. HOW TO WRITE MUSIC IN SHORTHAND. For Com- posers, Students of Hannony, Counterpoint, etc., can be Written very Bapidly and is more Legible than .printed Music, with Specimens from Bach, Handel, Chopin, Wagner, Mendelssohn, Spohr, Mozart, etc. By Francis Taylor. 14 pages, 12mo, sewed, 6d. TRANSPOSITION AT SIGHT. For Students of the Organ and Pianoforte. By H. Ernst Nichol. Fourth Edition, with numerous Musical Exercises. Crown ' 8vo, cloth, Is. 6d. (paper, Is.) There is no need to dwell npon the usefulness or even the necessity of transposition to the organist or the accompanist of songs. The practice of transposing npon the lines here laid down developes the " mental ear," quickens the musical perception and' gives ease in eight-reading; as it is evident that, if ^he student can trantpvte et sight, he will not have mtioh difficulty in merely playing at sight. The author has made iree nee of the tonic Bol-fa as well ae the old notation in his many musical examnles.' MUSICAL ANALYSIS. A Handbook for. Students. By H. C. Banister. With Musical Illustrations. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 2s. This series of Papers has not been in^nded as a Treatise on its 'bound- less subject; only illustrative of the way in which students may go to. work in the interesting process of Analysis. To work at it is much more interesting and improving than to read Analysis already made for them. The student should look out for beauties, even of the simple]; kind, as well as endeavour to solve recondite problems Try and enjoy the land- soane and not merely map out the country. 3 34 TECHNICAL AND TEEOBETICAL. THE ART OF MODULATING. A Series of Papers on Modu- lating at the Pianoforte. By Henry C. Banisteb. With 62 Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 2s. Moreover in writing a composition there is time to think, devise and contrive ; but that which is the subject of the above work is promptness, readiness, and quick thought under special ciroumstances. THE STUDENT'S HELMHOLTZ. Musical Acoustics or the Phenomena of Sound as Connected with Music. By John Bboadhoitse. With more than 100 Illustrations. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vOj cloth, 7s. 6d. " In his Preface the author says : — ' The object of the present book is to give, in one volume, a good general view of the subject to those who can neither spare time to read, nor money to buy a number of large and expensive works.' A perusal of the book justifies us in asserting that this design is most satisfactorily carried out ; and it is not too much to say that although the plan of the work excludes the possibility of minutely dissecting every subject treated upon, any careful reader may obtain so clear an insight into the principle of acoustics, as to enable him not only to pass an examination but to store up a largo amount of general know- ledge upon the phenomena of sound." — Musical Times. " The Student's Helmholtz will be very useful to many musicians, to whom much in Helmholtz's work must appear obscure. 1 shall recommend the book whenever an opportunity ofFers itself." — Db. Rztteb. This work has been specially designed for musical stadents preparing for examination. THE MUSICAL STANDARD. A Weekly Newspaper for Musicians, Professional and Amateur. Established nearly Half a Century. The Organ of no CKque. In- 'dependent Criticisms. Correspondents in all Parts of the World. Translations of Important Articles from the foreign musical press. Illustrated Supplement every week. "The Violin and String World" given with the number the last 'Saturday of each month. Price Twopence (by post, 2id.). Annual Subscription,. 10s. lOd., 6 months, 5s. 5d., 3 months, 23. 9d. (Abroad,. 12 months, 13s., 6 months, 63. 6d.) Terms for Adver- , tisements on application to the Manager. Cases for binding. Is. 6d. net (by post, Is. 9d.). Portraits of celebrated musicians are given from time to time in ** The Musical. Standard." Price 2d. each. List of Portraits that have already- appeared sent post free on application. VIOLIN. NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN. By W. B. CovENTEY. 12mo, sewed, Is. net. THE VIOLIN AND OLD VIOLIN MAKERS. Being a His- torical and Biographical Account of the Violin. By A. Mason Claeke. With Facsimiles of Labels used by ^ Old Masters and illustrations of a copy of a Gasparo da Salo. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. net (paper, Is. net). Contents: Part I.— Historical. 1. Introduotory and Early English 2. Italy. 3. France. 4. Germany. Part II.— Biographical Tiolin Makers of the Old School. 1. Italian, with T^abels. 2. German and Tyrolese, with Labels. 3. French, with Labels, i. British, with Label. Part III.— On the DeTelopment of Classical Music for the Violin and other Stringed Instruments. THE ART OF HOLDING THE VIOLIN AND BOW AS EX- EMPLIFIED BY OLE BULL. His Pose and Method proved to be based on true Anatomical Principles. By A. B. Ceosbt, M.D., Professor of Anatomy. Por- trait, Diagrams and Illustrations. 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper. Is.) Included in the above are some interesting recollections and anecdotes of Ole Bull. THE HISTORY OF THE VIOLIN and other Instruments Played on with the Bow from the Remotest Times to the Present. Also an Account of the Principal Makers, English and Foreign. With Coloured Frontispiece and numerous Full-page Illustrations and Cuts. By William Sandys, F.S.A., and Simon Anpeew Foestbe. 390 pages, 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. net (published at 14s.) INFORMATION FOR PLAYERS, Owners, Dealers and Makers of Bow Instruments, Also for String Manu- facturers. Taken from Personal Experiences, Studies and Observations. By William Hepwoeth. With Il- lustrations of Stainer and Guarnerius Violins and Guage of Millimetres and Centimetres, etc, Croi^' 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. Contents : — The Pegs — Neck— Fingerboard— Bridge — Tail-Piece— Saddle— Violin Holder — Tail-pin — Bar — Sound Post — On the Stringing of Bow In- struments in General Use — Strings — Rosin — Cleaning of the Instrument and the Bridge — Bow — Violin Case — Repairs — ^PresrTTation — Conclusion. 35 VIOLIN, TECHNICS OF VIOLIN PLAYING, By Karl Courvoisibr. "With Illustrations. Tenth Edition. Cloth, 2s. 6d. (paper. Is.) " It is my opinion that this book will offer material aid to all violin players." — Joachih. ** As far as words, aided by diag-rame, can make clear so practical a subject as the playing of a musical instrument, this little book leaves nothing to be desired. The author, who was a pupil of Joachim, has treated the subject in a most thorough manner, and we can highly recom- mend his little book." — Educational Times. • TREATISE ON THE STRUCTURE AND PRESERVATION OF THE VIOLIN and all other Bow Instruments. To- gether with an Account of the most Celebrated Makers and of the Genuine Characteristics of their Instruments. By J. A. Otto, with Additions by J. Bishop. With Diagrams and Plates. Fourth Edition, further En- larged. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. Contains instructions for the repair, preeervation and bringing out the tone of instruments ; tracing model for violin, mutes and fiddle holders ; list of classical works for stringed instruments. This work is especially valuable for makers of violins. HOW TO PLAY THE FIDDLE. For Beginners on the Violin. By H. W. and G. Gresswell. Eighth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.) Joachim says : — ** Contains many useful hints about violin playing-/' Contents :— -General and Introductory — On Teaching the Violin — On In- struction Books — On Practice— Relating to the Purchase of a Violin — Im- portance of Buying a Good One — How to Set about Securing a good Violin —The Merits of Old Fiddles. A.ge and Use— The Testing or Making Trial of a Fiddle — Preservation and Repair of Violins — General and Historical — Few Short Remarks of a General Character — Short History of Some pele- brated Violin Makers — The Bound Bar and the Sound. Post — The Bridge— A Few Words on the Pegs, Mute, Resin and Fingerboard — The Strings — The Mode of Stringing — The Bow— Bowing — The Method of Tuning the Violin — Some Rules to be Observed in Playing — Double Stopping — ^Har- monics — Remarks on the Shift — The Shake — On Playing with an A.OGom- paniment — Concluding Observations. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FIDDLERS. See "Bio- graphical Section." VIOLIN MANUFACTURE IN ITALY and its German Origin. By De. E. Schebek. Translated by W. E. Lawson. Second Edition. Square 12mo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.) HOW TO REPAIR VIOLINS and other Musical Instruments. By Alfred F. Common. With Diagrams. Crown 8vo, plnth, 2s. (paper, Is.) STRADIVARIUS. By Fetis. See " Biographical Section." VIOLIN. 37 THE VIOLIN, Its History and Construction. Illustrated and Described from all Sources. Together with a List of Tyrolese and Italian Makers. With Twenty-nine Il- lustrations and Folding Example of the First Music Issued for the Lute, Viol .and Voice. From the German. of Abblb and Niederheitman. By John Broadhousb. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2a. " The learned and instructive treatise of Abelc, skilfully rendered by J. Broadhouse and supplemented by a version of Niederheitmann's list of Italian and Tyrolese violin makers, a compilation invaluable to collectors and connoisseurs of rare fiddles ♦ * * a work wlfich forms a notewortby addition tp the small number of English books upon this interesting- subject. "^iScotsmoH. HOW TO MAKE A VIOLIN, Practically Treated. By J. Broadhouse. New and Revised Edition. With 47 Il- lustrations and Folding Plates and many Diagrams, Figures, etc. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3a. 6d. Contents : — Introduction — The Parts of the Violin— On the Selection of Wood— The Toolfl Required— The Models— The Mould— The Side-pieces and Side Linings — The Back — Of the Belly — The Thickness of the Back and Belly— The Bass Bar— The Purfling— The Neck— The FingerBoard— The Nut and String Guard — Varnishing and Polishing — Varnishes and Colour- ing Matter — The Varnish — A Mathematical Method of Constructing the Outline — The Remaining Accessories of the Violin. This new edition has had the . advantage of being revised throughout by a oelebrated violin maker. THE VIOLIN AND STRING WORLD. Monthly (in Continu- ation of "The Violin Times.") With Portrait Supple- ments. Annual Subscription 2a. 6d. (Abroad 3s.) SKETCHES OF GREAT VIOLINISTS AND GREAT PIANISTS. See "Biographical Section." FACTS ABOUT FIDDLES. Violins Old and New. By J. Broadhouse. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, sewed, 6d. YOCAL. THE VOICE: or the Physiologist versus the Singing Master. Being a Series of Extracts from the Published Works of various Medical and Musical Authorities on the various Phases of Vocal Production. With Introduc- tory Remarks by C. E. Rowley. Crown Svo, cloth, limp, 2s. Here we find tabulated under sucli headings as Breathing, The Larynx, Registers, Falsetto, Attack ; or the Shock of the Glottis, the obita dicta of the great voice authorities. The variance shown between eoientific research and theoretical teaching is in many instances remarkable, and all students of vocal production and physiology should possess this volume. VOCAL SCIENCE AND ART. Being Hints on the Produc- tion of Musical Tone. By the Rev. Chas. Gib. The Boy's Voice, Muscular Relaxation, The Art of Deep Breathing, Elocution for Ordination Candidates. With Numerous Illustrations, together with an Introduction, Notes and Diagrams by J. F. Halls Dallt, M.A., M.D., B.C. Cantah., M.B.C.P. Land., etc. Dedicated by Kind Permission to the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of London. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORID SONG. Or Sentiments on the Ancient and Modern Singers. By P. F. Tosi. Translated by Mb. Galliard. With folding Musical Examples. 184 pages. A Reprint of this Celebrated Book, first published in 1743. Crown Svo, boards with vellum-like back, price 5s. (pub. 10s). Recommended to all Students of the Italian Method of Singing by the late Charles Lunn. " The readers of the Etude have frequently been treated to quotations from this remarkable work. To the teacher and student of singing it has a peculiar message. It stands for all that is sound and final in the phil- osophy of singing and shows that the aesthetics and morals of the art are changeless. Those who need a healthful mental stimulus should read this reprint of a work that represents the best thought and pMctiee of the old Italian singers and singing masters." — The Etude. " It is a practical treatise on singing in which the aged teacher em- bodies his own experience and that of his coutempor:iries at a time when the art was probably more thoroughly taught than it h.is ever been since. Many of its remarks would still be highly useful." — Gravels Dictionary of Music and Musicians. RUDIMENTS OF VOCAL MUSIC. With 42 Preparatory Exercises. Rounds and Songs in the Treble Clef. By T Mee Pattison. Second Edition. Post Svo, sewed, 2d. 38 VOCAL. 39 THE THROAT IN ITS RELATION TO SINGING. A Series of Popular Papers. By Whitfield Ward, A.M., M.D. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.). Contents ; Anatomical Structure of the Throat ; What we see with the LaryngoBcope ; How we Sing ; How we Breathe ; How to take Oare of the Toioe ; Hints to Voice Buildera ; How the Voice ie Destroyed ; Common Throat Affections of Singers, together with their Treatment, etc. TWELVE LESSONS ON BREATHING AND BREATH CON- TROL. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By Geo. E. Thobp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth. Is. TWENTY LESSONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VOICE. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By Geo. E. Thokp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, Is. Mr. Thorp's two books have from time to time been recommended by Tarious eminent vocal specialists as giving practical aid and advice for the training, care and development of the voice. They are free from any biased "system" or "discovery.'* TREATISE ON THE TRAINING OF BOY'S VOICES. With Examples and Exercises and Chapters on Choir-Organ- ization. Compiled for the Use of Choirmasters. By George T. Fleming. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. GRADUATED COURSE OF EXERCISES FOR BOY CHORISTERS. ■ With Pianoforte Accompaniment. For Uee in Conjunction with Above. By G. T. Fleming. 4to, album, sewed, Is. Ditto, Boy's Voice Part only, 6d. 50 MUSICAL HINTS TO CLERGYMEN. Management of Breath, Classification of Male Vdices, Management of the Voice, The Service. With twenty specially written Exercises. By Geo. F. Grover. Crown Svo, sewed, Is. SOME FAMOUS SONGS. An Art Historical Sketch. By F. R. RiTTER. Svo, sewed, Is. HOW TO MANAGE A CHORAL SOCIETY. By N. Kilburn, Mus. Bac. Third Edition, Revised. Crown Svo, sewed, 6d. HOW TO SING AN ENGLISH BALLAD. By E. Philp, Seventh Edition. Crown Svo, sewed, 6d. " It would be difficult to find a casket of brighter "gems than those which lie within the cover of this little work."— Illustrated London News. 40 VOCAL. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN RELATION TO PERFECT VOICE PRODUCTION. By H. Tkavehs Adams, B.A. 8vo, sewed, 2s. net. This work is especially intended for students and is divided into sections, sdch as Vibration, Breaks and Registers, The Speaking Voice, Attack, Practical Application, Breathing, Inspiration, Final Exercise in Inspira- tion, Expiration, Active or Forced Inspiration, Completion of Breathing, Practice of Sounds, Placing, Classification of Voices. CATECHISM OF PART SINGING. And the Choral Services. By John Hiles. Third Edition. Thick post 8vo, sewed, price Is. Advice to singers on every point of interest in reference to the vocal organs. VOICE PRODUCTION AND VOWEL ENUNCIATION. By F. F. Mbwburn Levien. Diagrams by Arthur C. Bbh- BBN'a. Post 8vo, sewed, 6d. VOCAL EXERCISES FOR CHOIRS AND SCHOOLS. By Dr. Westbrook. Post 8vo, sewed, 2d. WAGNER. JUDAISM IN MUSIC. Being the Original Essay together with the' Later Supplement. By Kichabd Wagnek. Translated from the German (Das Judenthum in der Musik) and Furnished with Explanatory Notes and In- troduction. By E. Evans, Senior. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. '* It at last becomes possible calmly to seek to draw from this essay those valuable lessons relating to art-culture which are therein contained, not in that aspect of the main subject by which Wagner was most ex- cited or his adversaries most offended, but in those subsidiary references and explanations by means of which he then thought merely to support his case but to which time has given a greater value than to the case itself. The noise and disturbance created by the publication of the above work drew public attention for the first time to Wagner's prose writings and created a demand whioh has continued ever since." " This ' human document ' shows Wagner in a peculiarly personal light, and as such it will be read with interest by those who believe that the composer of the * Ring ' never wrote anything which is not worth reading." — The Scotsman. THREE IMPRESSIONS OF BAYREUTH. The 1908 and Previous Wagner Festivals. By Rose Kobnig. With Two Facsimile Programmes. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. net (paper. Is. net). " Entertaining and agreeable reading, as recording the impressions of >* musical and susceptible hearer." — Yorkshire Post. HOW TO UNDERSTAND WAGNER'S "RING OF THE NIBELUNG." Being the Story and a Descriptive Ana- lysis of the "Rheingold," the "Valkyr," "Siegfried" and the " Dusk of the Gods." With a number of Musi- cal Examples. By Gustave Kobbe. Sixth Edition. Post 8vo, bevelled cloth, gilt top, 3s. 6d. To be appreciated in tho a-nallest way Wagner must be studied in advanG«. WAGNER. "Der Ring des Nifaelungen." Being the story concisely told of "Das Rheingold," "Die Walkure," "Siegfried" and " Gotterdammerung." By N. Kil- BURN. Crown Bvo, sewed, 9d. net. WAGNER. A Sketch of his Life and Works. By N. Kil- BURN. Sewed, 6d. WAGNER'S "PARSIFAL." And the Bayreuth Fest-Spiel- haus. By N. Kilburn. Crown 8vo, sewed, 6d. 42 WAGNEB. BAYREUTH AND MUNICH. A Travelling Record of Ger- man Operatic Art. By Vbknon Blackburn. Crown 8yo, stifi boards, Is. net. 1. The Philosophy of "Parsifal." 2. Back to a busy World. 3. Munich the Moderate, i. " Die Zauberflote." S. Wagner plus Moiart. 6. A Digression. 7. Back to Bayreuth. 8. Finally Munich : from Two Aspects. BEETHOVEN. By Richard Wagner. See " Biographical" Section. ON CONDUCTING. By Richard Wagnbb. See " Orches- tral" Section. WAGNER. See "Makers of Music." (" Biographical" Sect.) „ See " Mezzotints in Modern Music." (^Esthetics, etc., Section.) MISCELLANEOUS. 43 MANUSCRIPT MUSIC PAPER. (aj 12 Staves. Roy. 8vo (10 by 6^). Ruled even, 5 quires (120 sheets), the lot 2s. 6d. This ia pre-eminently the Musical Students' Paper, as it is light, port ■able, smooth and easy to write upon ; each sheet, too, will hold a larfr** ^luantity of matter. There is no paper better suited for Exercises on