(^mmll Wimmii^ | liixm^ BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME , FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg HI. Sage 1891 ..A' iHo^Jf ZSfS/tjOD DATE DUE OCT Z 4 1946 AftS-Mi 1970 iHJ£: Cornell University Library Z 250.D49 The practice of typography :a treatise o 3 1924 016 925 863 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924016925863 THE PRACTICE OF TYPOGRAPHY THE PRACTICE OF TYPOGRAPHY A TREATISE ON THE PROCESSES OF TYPE-MAKING THE POINT SYSTEM, THE NAMES, SIZES STYLES AND PRICES OF PLAIN PRINTING TYPES BY THEODORE LOW DE VINNE NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1900 A \^o s 11 Copyright, 1899, by Theodore Low DeVinne. The DeVinne Press. PREFACE THIS treatise is a summary of detached notes collected by the writer since 1860. A desire to make it complete and exact has prevented its earlier publication. As an aid to this result each chapter has been revised recently by experts in different branches of printing. In its present cor- rected form it is believed that it will be found of use to aU who seek for information about types which cannot be compressed within the ordinary manual of printing, or be gleaned quickly from the specimen books of many type-founders. The scope of the book has to be limited to plain types. Re- marks concerning newspaper types, typographic decorations, and recent fashions in book-work, have to be postponed. The composition of title- pages may be the subject of another treatise. In making the numerous corrections demanded by changes of fashion and new methods of manu- facture, I have not considered it judicious to change the earlier and best -known name of any type- 6 Preface foundry which has introduced a new face of type. Many of them are now branches of the American Type Founders Company. To accredit each face of type to a great company which has branches in many widely separated cities would not properly specify the maker or the place of manufacture. Acknowledgments for valuable information in the preparation of this matter are due, and are here gratefully made, to the late David Bruce, Jr., the late James Lindsay, and their successor Mr. V. B. Munson, of the New York Type Foundry ; to Mr. J. W. Phinney of Boston, Mr. L. S. Benton of New York, and Mr. Henry Barth of Cincinnati, of the American Type Founders Company; to Mr. Charles T. Jacobi of the Chiswick Press, and Mr. T. W. Smith of H. W. Caslon & Company, London ; to the late William Morris of London, and Messrs. Claude Motteroz of Paris, Theodor Goebel of Stuttgart, Venancio Deslandes of the Imprensa Nacional of Lisbon, and William E. Loy of San Francisco. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I The Processes of Type-making 9 II The Names of the Leading Sizes of Types 53 III The Point System 123 IV A Font of Type 165 V Faces or Styles of Type. Old-style Roman 182 VI Modem Faces of Roman Letter 209 vn Condensed Roman Types 255 vm Italic Types 269 IX Fat-face or Title-types 281 X Black-letter 291 XI Gothic 315 XII Antique Types, Runic, Celtic, and Italian . 323 xm The Classes and Prices of Printing-types . . 336 xrv Large Types. Wood Types. The Panto- graph. Benton's Punch-cutting Machine 345 XV Recent Quaint Styles of Plain Type . . . 359 PLAIN PRINTING-TYPES The Processes of Type-maMng PRINTING-TYPES are made from an alloy of melted lead, tin, antimony, and sometimes copper, that fills the mould exactly and shrinks but little in cooling. The utility of typogra- phy depends upon the accuracy of each Types must type, and the consequent squareness of a be founded thousand or a hundred thousand types in "^ """^ ^ any combination. This accuracy is most certainly secured by founding each type singly in a mould. Experiments in cutting or swaging them from cold metal have hitherto been unsuccessful. Nor is there any practical substitute for type-metal : brass and copper melt at a great heat that soon wears out the mould ; lead and tin are too soft for the service required ; glass is too brittle, and will 10 Departments of Type-making not entirely fill the matrix ; gutta-percha and eel- Moid cost more and have disadvantages that out- weigh theii- merits. Large types for posting-bills Large types ^^^ made from close-grained wood like made from that of the box, maple, or pear tree : for hardwoods ^^^^ branch of printing, types of wood are preferred, as lighter and cheaper than those made from metal. Types of wood are seldom smaller as to height of face than one inch. They can be made smaller, but small pieces of wood warp after heat or swell after moisture and are unfit for practical work. As now practised, type-making has six distinct departments : (1) Punch-cutting, or the art of de- six depart signing and engraving the model char- ments In acters from which types are made ; (2) type-making pitting-up, or the art of adjusting the matrices to the moulds ; (3) Blectrotyping, or the art of making matrices by electrolysis ; (4) Mould- making, or the art of constructing the moulds in which types are cast, and the exact tools by which their accuracy is tested ; (5) Type-casting, or the art of founding types in moulds ; (6) Type-dress- ing, or the art of finishing the incomplete work of the type-caster. The breaking-off of surplus metal from the cast types, the rubbing-down of the feather edge made in casting, the kerning or adjusting of overhanging letters, and the final in- spection of each finished type are additional oper- ations. Every large foundry has a few workmen Punch-cutting the First Process 11 who are expert in two or three of these depart- ments, but the ordinary workman has knowledge and practice in one department only. Punch-cutting is the first process, which must be preceded by a careful drawing of the characters. No operation in typography requires p„^eii-out- more skill than this, and in none is ting is tie error more disastrous.^ The modern *rst process punch-cutter is not fettered by arbitrary rules : he does not conform to the models devised by Albert Diirer, nor those subsequently made by French theorists in type-founding. He is at liberty to design characters that may be taller or broader, thicker or thinner, than any heretofore made, but he is required to make all the characters of a full font uniform as to style, so as to show perfect correlation. The characters must seem Types must uniform as to height, line, stroke, serif, be drawn curve, and angle; they should be in accurately proper relative proportion as to size, and as to nearness and distance in all combinations. The beauty of text-types is in their precision. That free- dom of drawing which is permitted, and some- ' Type-founding is not like If the punch-cutter has not the other arts, in which imperfect requisite ability for the work, workmanship may find a use the founder, who gives metal, proportionate to its relative and the printer, who gives value. Printing should toler- paper, cannot retrieve his cr- ate nothing that is bad, nor rors. They are obliged to per- even that which is mediocre, petuate these evidences of his since it costs as much to f otmd mean ability, and to dishonor ty- and print bad types as it does pography. Foumier, "Manuel to found and print perfect ones. Typographique," vol. i, p. 3. 12 Methods in Designing of Letters times approved, in the letters of a good penman, or in engraving, or in the types of job printers, is not tolerated in the text-types of books, which must be precise. ^ The assortment of characters known to printers as a font of roman book-type requires the en- graving of 150 punches : 29 large capitals, including &, M, and CE ; 29 small capitals, including &, m, and CE ; 33 lower-ease characters, including fl, fl, ft, fS, fB, ae, and ce ; 19 figures and fractions ; 22 points, refer- ences, and signs ; 18 other characters. Accents and the special signs required for some books are not furnished in the regular assortment. These characters are divided into six classes of irregular heights of face : (1) Full-bodied letters, like Q and j — that occupy the entire body of the 1 Dilrer's rules and diagrams planations of it are given in his for the formation of letters, in "BeguleB Trium Ordinum Lit- his " Unterweysung der Mes- erarum Typographicarum " of sung " of 1524, are reprinted 1676. The extreme of scientiHe in "Die Initialen der Benais- precision was attempted by a sanoe," by Camillo Sitte and commission of the "Acad^mie Josef Salb (folio, Vienna, 1882). des Sciences " of Paris, appoint- Geoffrey Tory of Paris, in his ed in 1694, of which M. Jaugeon " Champfleury " of 1529; Tcair was the chief. He recommended of Saragossa, in his "Ortho- the projection of every roman graphia Practica " of 1548 ; and capital on a framework of 2304 Paccioli of Venice, in his "De little squares, and on a congeries Divina Proportione" of 1509, of squares and rhomboids and have also devised geometrical curves for lower-case and italic formulas for letters. Moxon's letters. These rules and dia- scheme for the plotting out of grams no doubt are of some use each letter in little squares 42 to designers of letters, but they wide and 42 high is illustrated in have never been fully adopted the text (p. 13), and detailed ex- by any punch-cutter. Types Must he Made hy Rule 13 type; (2) Ascending letters, like A, b, h, d, that occupy the upper three-fourths of the body; (3) Descending letters, like p, y, g, q, that irregular occupy the lower three-fourths of the heigiitsof body; (4) Short letters like a, o, that '"^*™'=*«™ occupy about one-half of the body in the middle part; (5) Small capitals, that are sometimes in height more than one-half of the body, but not as high as the ascending letters; (6) Irregular characters, like the *, that have no arbitrary height, but do have a definite position. I A Scale of /z :Paris Vi^. the Boly: ilr"''"jj '"Jy'"Jff "s'e'if^ Moxon's method of designing letters. The punch-cutter begins his work of practical design by drawing a geometrical framework, on which he determines the proper position Letters are of every Hne and the height of each first drawn character. A smaU margin is left at ^p'^p"'' top and bottom of the face to prevent the touch- ing of a descending letter against an ascending letter in the next Une, as well as to prevent the wear of exposed lines cut flush to the edge of the body. 14 Rules Not to be Used Servilely The relative heights of the short and long letters vary greatly : in some styles the short letters are but one-third of the body ; in other styles, nearly two-thirds, and the ascending and descending let- ters are correspondingly taller or shorter. Measuring instruments of precision are needed, but they cannot be used sei-vilely or thoughtlessly. o ticai de- ^^ S'^^ *^® ^^P® *^® needed appearance lusions are of uniformity, some of the lines must be humored ^^^^ dowu in directions that transgress the rules. Some types have to be drawn longer than their fellows. Optical delusions must be humored, as will be more clearly shown in the curved letters of the following illustration. AGES If a straight-edge be laid against the foot of this line, one can see that the letters which curve at the foot fall below the line. If they did not project they would seem too short. The angles of capital letters like A Y M N Z have to be varied for each letter. These are conspicuous examples, but there are many more ; a large proportion of the characters for every font of roman or italic contain lines that are departures from the rules /Departures from Rules often Made 15 wMcli must be observed in their mated charac- ters. Deviations have to be made occasionally, not only to deceive the eye, but to make each letter pleasing and generally acceptable in any combi- nation with other letters. The effect of letters in combination must be studied. These irregularities cannot be formulated in a system ; they vary with every new style of face, and to some extent with every new size of body. The knowledge of what is needed in the forms of types can be acquired only by long practice, and by a careful study of the combinations of different letters. American type-founders say that there are not a dozen men in the United States who can make acceptable drawings for a symmetrical font of roman and italic tj^es. When the proportions of the letters have been determined, the punch-cutter begins his work by making a counter-punch of steel. The ^ counter- illustration adjoining shows the form punch the of a counter-punch for the letter H of *™* "^"^ ^ the size of double english. It is an engraving B in high relief of the counter or hollow part ^ of the type, that is, of that part which ap- pears white in the printed letter. These counter- punches have little resemblance to the letters for which they are intended. When approved, the counter-punch is impressed, to a proper depth, into the end of a short bar of soft steel. The depth is necessarily shallow for small types and 16 Cutting the Pwnch deeper for large types.^ Properly impressed or struck, this counter-punch finishes, at one stroke, the interior part of the model letter, and does it more quickly and neatly than it could be done with cutting tools. This bar of soft steel is known as the punch. When it has received the impress of Cutting t^^ counter-punch, the engraver of the cuts away the outer edges until I"™'"' the letter is adjudged perfect. The punch is the model type — the pat- tern from which it is intended that thousands of printing-types shall be made. To make this model letter on the punch faultlessly, all the measure- ments of the drawing on paper are repeated on the steel, gauges are fre- quently used, and trial proofs are taken while the work is in progress. To get these trial proofs the cutter puts the punch into the flame of a flaring gas- burner until its face is covered with soot. Then, after breathing repeatedly on a bit of paper until its surface is softened by moisture, he firmly presses the punch on the paper. In this Way he shallow, and sufficiently justi- fies the objection of Fertel, Puueh of letter H. 1 Foumier, in his " Manuel Typographique " (vol. i, p. 12), recommends one-fourth of a an early French printer, who geometric Une, or about the said that the counters of small forty-eighth of an inch, as the proper depth for small type. This makes the counter too French types filled up with ink too quickly, and thus prevented good presswork. Making the Matrix 17 gets a sharper proof of Ms work than can be had from any impression made from black mixed with oil or upon paper sodden with water. When the engraver has finished the cutting of the punch, its soft steel is hardened until it has strength to penetrate copper. This done, striMng it is then punched in a flat, narrow bar of of the cold-rolled copper, which makes a reversed ™**"^ duplicate of the letter on the punch. In this state the copper bar is known as a drive, a strike, or an unjustified matrix. It is only when the drive has been made per- fect that it is known as the matrix. This matrix is really the moidd for the face of the letter. The drive is a shapeless bit of copper, which must be accurately fitted to the mould. During the op- eration of casting, it must anting move freely to and from the of tie mould, and yet be snugly "''*'''^ fitted thereto. " Its outer surface must be in exact parallel with the face of the sunken letter below. Not only this matrix, but all matri- ces of the same font, must be of the same depth from the surface to the sunken face; each must be accu- rately square on the sides, and aU must have the sunken letters relatively in the same position. If Matrix of letter H. The letters °i= are private marke of the founder "which cannot ap- pear on the type. 18 Eledrotyping of Matrices this is badly done, the founded types will not stand true in line or have true spaces on the sides. The process of converting a drive into an available matrix, known among type-founders as fitting-up, or justifying, is one of the nicest of operations. When perfected the matrix is stamped at the foot with letters or figures which enable the caster to identify it. Matrices are also made by processes of electro- typing,! for which the punch of steel and the Eieotrotyp- Operation of striking are not required, ing of the The model letters are cut on type-metal, matrices ^^^^ after preparation, are suspended in a battery containing a solution of sulphate of copper. The action of the electric current on the submerged zinc and copper plates liberates atoms 1 Joseph A. Adams of New sor Jacobi of St. Petersburg, York was the first American Thomas Spencer of Liverpool, to experiment in electrotypes and J. C. Jordan of London, for printing cnts. In 1839 he who seem to have been making was engraving the woodcuts experiments without any know- for Harper's "Pictorial Bible," ledge of one another's attempts, at that date the most elabo- succeeded in making electro- rately illustrated book that had type plates. The first electro- been planned in this country, type matrix for types was made In overseeing the printing of by Edwin Starr of Philadelphia this work he had practical evi- in 1845, and used in the foundry deuce both of the weakness of of James Conner of New York, the woodcut and the imperfec- This innovation was not then tion of stereotype, which sug- received with favor, for the new gested to him the value of a matrices were inferior. The ob- better process. In 1841 he fur- jections made against the first nished to "Mapes's Magazine" eleotrotyped matrices do not ap- an electrotype of one of his en- ply to all that are made now, gravings, which was success- because they are used for large fully printed. In 1840 Profes- types in all type-foundries. Fitting of Matrices to Moulds 19 of copper which are attracted and adhere to all the suspended model letters. "When these letters have received a thick deposit of copper they are taken out of the battery and their thick coats or shells of copper are removed. The shells are then backed up or strengthened, and converted by the fltter-up into movable matrices. Matrices can be made by the electrotype process fi:om engraved type-metal as readily as from punches. Every character in the ordinary font of roman and italic has its own matrix, but aU. these mat- rices are adjusted to one mould. This ah matrices mould must not only be true for its are fitted to own work, so that every type cast from "^^ mould, it will readily combine with its mates, but must be true in all points to the standard mould, and all other moulds for that body. A printer requires of the founder that types east to-day shall be of exactly the same body as types cast twenty years ago, regardless of the wear of the mould duriag this long interval. If types were as uniform in width as they are in height, the task would not be so dif&cult ; but letters vary irregularly in width from the i to the W, and the spaces vary regularly from the hair-space | to the three-em II^B quad- rat. It follows that the mould must be made ad- justable, and that nearly every change of matrix will compel a readjustment of the mould. The type-mould is of two pieces, apparently a right and a left counterpart. The matrix pro- 20 Construction of the Mould vided for the face is regarded as an attachment. Each piece consists of a number of firmly screwed The construe- ^its of polished steel. When the two tion of the Counterparts are properly brought to- type-mouid gether their interior sides are in exact parallel at a fixed and unalterable distance. The upper end of the mould is provided with a seat for the matrix; the lower end is open for the inflow of melted type-metal. Between these ends is the hollow to be filled with the melted metal that makes the type. Although the mould when joined is immovable in the direction that deter- mines the body of the type, it has great liberty of motion and ease of adjustment in the direction that determines the thickness or the width of the type. The counterparts, when properly adjusted, slide to and fro on broad and solid bearings that prevent their getting out of square.^ Moulds are now made to be attached to type- casting machines, for casting by hand exclusively Construction ^as uot been done in any American of the type-cast- foundry since 1845. At the base of ins machine ^j^^ machine is a small furnace, the heat of which keeps fluid the metal in the pot above. Suspended over this pot is a flat-faced 1 The type-mould now in use does not write of it as a recent does not materially differ from invention. Its more important that shown by Fournier, in his features are as old as the inven- " Manuel Typographique " of tion of typography. Moxon's 1764, or by Moxon in his "Me- moulds were of iron ; those of chanick Exercises " of 1683, who the early founders were of brass. Construction of the Mould Type-mould without matrix, and witli a type of the letter H in the mould. 21 One half of the mould. The other half of the mould. 22 Operation of Casting Machine piston, or plunger. Every revolution of the crank gives to this plunger a sudden thrust which in- jects through an unseen aperture enough of the melted metal to instantly fill the mould and the matrix, the matrix being held in place by a lever. As soon as the mould receives the metal it opens at an obtuse angle, as a door upon hinges. At the same instant the pressure on the lever that binds the matrix close to the mould is released, and then the matrix springs backward. The type is held in the upper half of the mould by a blunt pin, and when it raises, by the assistance of a rod which is connected with the apron, the stool hits the face end at the back and releases the type. As soon as the tj^e is dislodged the mould closes automatically, and the plunger injects a new sup- ply of metal, which is thrown out as before in the shape of a type. Although types are cast singly they can be made rapidly; the rate of one hundred in a minute rpypgg is not an uncommon production of the rapidly smaller sizes. The large types, which cool ™* " slowly, are cast slowly. The degree of heat required varies with the size of the body and the hardness of the metal. As a rule the smaller sizes are cast of harder metal and require greater heat. Efforts have frequently been made to cast many types at one operation from a multiple mould. The most successful effort in this direction was made by Henri Didot of Paris, who in 1819 in- The Bruce Type-casting Machine 23 The Bruce type-casting maclime. 24 Impressions of Cast Type vented a " polymatype " mould for casting a font of extremely small type ; ^ but this mould, although occasionally used by his successors for very small bodies, has not been adopted by other founders. The types thrown out of the mould are for the greater part perfect as to face, but unfinished as Imperfect to body, for an unformed strip of metal as thrown called the jet, which cools outside of rom mo ^^ mould, is attached to the lower end of each type. The bodies of the types have on their comers burs,^ or sharp edges of metal. These and other imperfections have to be removed, by the rubber and dresser, or finisher. ^ The jets are broken off, and the burs rubbed off on a grindstone, or dressing machine. Types with projections, like the f or j, are known as kerned letters, and are smoothed on the sides with a file, or by a machine in which a rapidly revolving wheel cuts away the superfluous metal without touching the projecting face. The types are then set up in a long row, and firmly fastened, face down, in a grooved channel 1 British Patent No. 4826 to from the comers, the types cast Louis John Pouchfo. See the therefrom would be porous with "Abridgement of Specifications air bubbles. Provision must be relating to Printing," printed made for escape of air when the by order of the Commission- mould is suddenly filled with a ers of Patents, London, 1859, spurt of hot metal. p. 165. 3 In 1838 and 1868 two patents 2 The bur is produced by a were granted to David Bruce, slight and unavoidable leakage Jr., for mechanisms which auto- of metal at the angles of the matically broke the jet and re- mould. K the mould were set moved the bur, but they were so tight that air could not escape not adopted by type-founders. Dressing and Hand-casting 25 called tlie dressing rod, so that a plane, working in carefully adjusted side bearings, can cut away the irregular fracture made by the broken jet. This operation leaves the types with a shallow groove between the feet, which allows each body Dressme or to rest on its feet, thereby securing uni- flmBimig f ormity as to height. The dresser then °* *^®® reverses the position of the row, bringing the faces upward, and scrapes or files the front and back of the types, deftly changing them from one rod to another, so that front and back may be exposed in succession. This operation ends the smoothing of the types ; their sides having been rubbed before they were set in the dressing rod. The line or rod of types is then critically examined under a mag- nifying glass, and every type that shows an im- perfection is thrown out and destroyed. This in- spection completes the work. The perfect types are then packed in paper convenient for handling. This method of making types has been the method of all type-founders before the year 1850. Since 1890 new machines have been invented The earliest which do some of the work automati- method of cally. It is mainly in the department ^" '"^^ "^ of casting the type that the greatest improvement has been developed. All types were formerly cast by hand. The caster took in his left hand the mould, which was imbedded in wood and shielded to protect him from being burned with hot metal. Then, taking a 4 26 Process of Hand -casting spoon in his right hand, he poured the fluid metal into the mouthpiece of the mould.^ At the same instant, with a sadden and violent jerk, he threw up his left hand to aid the melted metal in mak- ing a forcible splash against the matrix. If the mould was not thrown upward quickly, the metal would not penetrate the matrix. Hand-casting was hard and slow work: Fournier says that the production of a French hand-caster was from two to three thousand types a day; Moxon says the English caster cast four thousand. Type-founding in some of its processes is but one of the many forms of printing. The counter- punch impresses the punch ; the punch impresses the matrix ; the matrix impresses the fluid metal. 1 In 1811, Archibald Binny of for the purpose of obtaining a Philadelphia devised the first more perfect face to omamen- improvement in hand-casting, tal type than was possible with He attached a spring lever to the regular mould. This attach- the mould' giving it a quick ment was known as the squirt return movement, which en- machine. Large ornamental abled the type-caster to double types owe their popularity to the old production. In 1828, this simple contrivance. In 18.S8, Wmiam Johnson of Long Isl- the same founder invented a and invented a type-casting type-casting machine, which machine which received the ac- was successfully used for many tive support of Elihu White years in New York, Boston, and of New York ; but the types Philadelphia. In 1843 he added made by it were too porous, other improvements of recog- and the mechanism, after fair nized value. Most of the type- trial, was abandoned. About casting machines in Europe and 1834, David Bruce, Jr., of New America are modifications and York invented a hand force- adaptations of Mr. Bruce's in- pump attachment to the mould, vention. The Barth Type-casting Machine 27 For more than forty years the Bruce type-cast- ing machine or some modification of it maintained its popularity, and furnished nearly all the type made during this period. Improvements of real value were gradually added to it in different found- ries, but the changes did not materially increase its productiveness. Yet it has never been regarded as a perfect machine. Its great defect is its in- ability to make the types perfect. To break the jet off, to rub down the feather-edges, and to plough out the feet, manual labor has to be em- ployed, as in the days of hand-easting. At differ- ent times Johnson & Atkinson of England, Foucher Frferes of France, Hepburn of England, and Kiis- termann of G-ermany, invented new forms of type- casting machines that were intended to produce perfect types, but these machines have not been found entirely satisfactory by the type-founders of the United States. They have been most ef&eient in making spaces and quadrats. The nearest approach to success has been made by Henry Barth, who was granted a patent Jan- uary 24, 1888, for a complete type- ^he complete casting machine. He claims th^t this macMne of machine produces one half more than ^'^^^ ^^^^ the older machines; that it does its work with more accuracy, and that it permits the use of a harder quality of metal. Its construction and its processes differ radically from those of the Bruce machine. One half of the mould and the matrix 28 The Barth Type-casting Machine The Barth complete type-casting machine. are fixed upright and made immovable ; the other half of the mould rapidly slides to and fro on broad bearings, releasing the type that has been founded and closing again before the hot metal is injected for a new type. It breaks off the jet, ploughs a groove between the feet, rubs down the feather-edges at the angles, and delivers the types on the channel in lines ready for inspection. Features of a Type 29 H' View of body inclined Letter H, from a type Face of the letter to show the face. of canon body. on the body. 1 counter. 2 hair-line. 3 serif. 4 stem, or body-mark. 5 neck, or beard. 6 shoulder. 7 pin-mark. 8 nick. 9 groove. 10 feet. Spaces of Pica i I I I Hair. Five Four Three En Em Two-em to to to quad- quad- quadrat, em. em. em. rat. rat. Three-em quadrat. Dimensions of Bodies Nou- Min- Bre- Bour- Long- Small- Dareil. ion. vier. geois. primer. pica. Pica. 30 Features of a Type The face is the letter or character on the upper end of the type which receives impression. As Features its most notable feature, the word face is of a type also used to distinguish one style of type from another, as broad-face or bold-face. The beard, or neck, is the slope between the outer edge of the face and the shoulder. The shoulder is the flat top of the small rec- tangle at the upper extremity of the body, which upholds the neck and face of the type. The counter is the depression between the lines of the face. When the lines are in high relief, the counter is said to be deep ; when low, the counter is shallow. The body-mark, or stem, is the thick line of the face which most clearly indicates the character and the height of the letter. It is better known among printers as the thick-stroke. The serif is the short cross-line put as a finish at the ends of unconnected lines. Its form varies with the style of face : in old-style lower-case let- ters it is a blunt spur or a stubby triangle ; in the French styles it is a weak and delicate hair-line ; in modern Scotch-faces it is curved or bracketed on the inner side, where it meets the main line. The hair-line is the thin line of the face — as is shown noticeably in the C, H, and M — that con- nects or prolongs body-marks. The kern is that part of the face which, on a few letters, projects beyond the body. The end, Features of a Type 31 or beak of the lower-case f and j and many italic letters liave kerns, and are known as kerned letters. Kerns are also made on the descending letters of some forms of bastard faces. Tlie pin-mark is the small indentation on the upper part of the body made by the pin which is of service in dislodging the type from the mould. The body is that part of the type which is be- tween the shoiilder and the feet. Early founders and printers called it the shank. The word body is also used to define sizes or thicknesses of types, rules, leads, or f lu-niture : Pica body means a thick- ness of about one-sixth of an inch. The sizes or bodies of type are now more accurately defined by numerical points. The feet of the type are the two slight projec- tions upon which the body rests. It is between these feet that the jet of the type-caster is made. The groove is the hollow left between the feet by the planing tool that removes every trace of the broken jet. The nicks are the shallow grooves across the lower part of the body. In American, English, and G-erman types the nicks are on the front of the body; in French types on the back. Nicks are needed as plain guides to the position in which the types should be composed, and to prevent the mix- ing of different faces of the same body. Roman types of the same foundry and of the same body, but of different faces, usually have different nicks. 32 Constituents of Type-metal A font of type is a complete assortment of all the characters that will be required in the compo- sition of an ordinary text. Sorts is the name given to a partial collection of one or more of the characters of a font. It is most frequently applied to the types that are deficient. Type-metal is an aUoy of lead, antimony, and tin, and sometimes of copper and of other metals. Constituents Every type-founder has his own for- of type-metal mvAa, which he keeps secret. Ordi- nary type-metal consists of one hundred pounds of lead, forty pounds of antimony, and twenty pounds of tin.i The metal for small type is harder than that used for large type ; leads, spaces, and stereo- type plates are always softer ; the backing of elec- trotype plates is nearly all lead. Soft metal is also used to prevent the breaking of kerned letters. Ornamental tj-pes, which face or fill the matrices with difficulty, are also cast of a soft metal. Lead is always the chief constituent of type- metal. Its specific gravity is 11.352 ; it melts at 617° Fahrenheit. Its density, ductility, and low fusibility make it easy- working, but types of pure lead are too soft for service. 1 Fournier says Ms hard type- In Germany the formula for metalcontainedone-flfthof antl- cheap metal is seventy pounds mony to four-fifths of lead; his of lead, twenty-eight pounds of soft type-metal had one-eighth antimony, and two pounds of of antimony to seven-eighths tin ; the formula for good metal of lead. He does not name tin. is fifty pounds of lead, forty " Manuel Typographique," vol. pounds of antimony, and ten i- p. in. pounds of tin. Additions to Type-metal 33 Antimony, a brittle and fibrous metal tbat can be crushed to fine powder, is used to supply the hardness. Its specific gravity is 6.715; it melts at 806° Fahrenheit. Type-founders use the form of the metal known in commerce as the regulus of antimony, or standard antimony. Tin is a crystalline but malleable metal, which has a specific gravity of 7.293, and melts at 442° Fahrenheit. It is used to give toughness to type- metal. It serves as a solder between metals fus- ing at varying temperatures. It oxidizes slowly, and prevents oxidization in its alloys. Copper is used in small quantity to give still greater tenacity. Its specific gravity varies from 8.8 to 8.95 ; its melting point is estimated at 1996° Fahrenheit. A very small amount of copper in type-metal will give it a yellowish pink tint. Moxon says that iron was an ingredient of the type-metal made in his time. Although melted with lead and antimony, its most efficient service was its extraction of the sulphur found in crude antimony ; as then melted, it did not in any appre- ciable quantity mix with the other metals.^ 1 The Mettal Founders make the sooner. To make the Iron Printing Letters of, is Lead Bun, they mingle an equal hardend with Iron : Thus they weight of Antimony beaten in chuse stub-Nails for the best an Iron-Morter into small pieces Iron to Melt, as well because and stub-Nails together . . . they are assured stub-Nails are . . . they put for every three made of good soft and tough Pound of Iron about five and Iron, as because (they being in twenty pounds of Lead. " Me- small pieces of Iron) will Melt ehanick Exercises," pp. 164, 167. 5 34 Peculiarities of Type-metal Zinc and some of the newly discovered metals have been tried as ingredients of type-metal, but Zinc cannot ^ ^^ °^^® "*^*^ succcss. Zinc is espec- te added to ially objectionable to type-founders. It the auoy ^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^^^ ^.j^g^^. ^^ addition of one per cent, will make the alloy so refractory and so stringy that the metal canaot be founded.^ The most remarkable peculiarity of type-metal is that it shrinks so little after being cast, a prop- Type-metai ^'^J ^^^ found to SO great a degree in shrinks very any Other usef ul alloy. Harder metals, slightly which must be melted at more intense heat, must necessarily shrink in a corresponding ratio, and this shrinking is injurious to accuracy. Nor do the harder metals so truly fill the mould, or make perfect casts. The density of type-metal is a real advantage. Although melted at a comparatively low heat, it fills the mould and matrix with remarkable solid- ity, and reproduces the finer lines of the matrix with great exactness. Another great merit in type-metal is its ability to resist oxidization. It takes much usage to dim its brightness ; it does not rust like iron or steel, nor show corrosion like copper and brass. Types are necessarily exposed to the action of air, water, heat, lye, oils, inks, and alkaline solutions, but none of these agents works any serious injury. 'A European type-founder ad- old metal that contain any ad- vertises that he will not only mixture of zinc, but will prose- refuse type.s brought to him as cute the seller for damages. Dwrahility of Types 35 These useful properties are gained only at tlie expense of durability. The hardest types soon wear out. "When morning newspapers Types lack of large circulation were printed direct duraDiiity from the type, it was often found necessary to renew the fonts after a few months of service. To jobbing type the damage by wear is even greater : the beauty of script and hair-hne types is some- times destroyed by one month of service. Ever since types were invented, founders have studied to make them harder and more durable. Great improvement has been effected, „.„ ,^. but a pomt seems to have been reached preventing beyond which additional hardness is t^euseoi no longer an advantage. Every good founder could make his type harder, but only at vastly increased expense. A harder alloy would require greater heat to melt it; the metals used would be more expensive; the moulds and ma- chines would wear out rapidly; the speed would be slower, and the type not so accurate.^ 1 French type-metal as made penetrate the plates of lead ■ at the beginning of this century which were then made to serve had 50 kilogramines of lead and for the stereotype moulds. For 18 kilogrammes of regulus of printing-types this mixture was antimony. materially "modified." Firmin-Didot experimentally In 1840, M. Colson of Paris made nse of a mixture for added iron and tin as ingre- stereotyping purposes of 20 dients of type-metal. ("L'lm- Idlogrammes of copper, 30 kilo- primerie, etc. Rapport du grammes of tin, and 50 kUo- XVIJe jury," by M. Ambroise grammes of regulus of antl- Pirmin-Didot,Paris,1854.) None mony. Types made from this of these mixtures is now in use mixture were hard enough to in France or elsewhere. 36 The Wear of Types The durability of types is materially affected by size and cut of face. With kind usage a font of pica may receive a million impres- Durability . ^ , „ -^ . .,, , , i -ii depends sions before it Will be Condemned; with on the size ^he Same treatment a font of pearl may be worn out with less than a hundred thousand impressions. Yet the pearl is always of a harder metal. The difference in durability is caused by the difference in face. In the size of pica, the counters are broad and deep ; the hair- line and body-mark will wear down and flatten out to a great degree before the face will show muddiness or illegibility: in the smaller size of pearl, the counters are necessarily shallow; the hair-lines and body-marks are thinner and closer together. It requires more impression to print the pearl properly; this impression, meeting with less resistance, soon wears down the thinner lines. The amount of wear that types may receive can- not be stated in figures. One printer will eon- Thewear sider them worn out when another will of types think them capable of further service. Brevier and minion have sometimes received two millions of readable impressions upon newspaper work, but the thick press-work from types worn by more than one minion of impressions would bo accepted only by a newspaper publisher. Many book publishers would reject small types that had received but three hundred thousand impressions. For the finest letter-press work, the limit would be Wear made by Machines 37 put very low. Typography with characters en- tirely faultless can be had only from new type. For type-founder's specimens and for sumptuous books new types are always provided. They are never reset, but are condemned to the melting- kettle after their first use. The repeated handling of types is as injurious as the impression of the machine. One million of acceptable impressions may be obtained Repeated from small types skilfully made-ready if handling these impressions are taken from one """^^""^ form ; but if the types are repeatedly distributed and reset for many different forms they will not furnish one-fifth of that number. The wear of types in the composing-room is much greater than is commonly supposed. They are bruised and battered in distribution and in composition, in making-up, and especially by planing-down and correction. The moulding process of stereo- typing is remarkably injurious. Proving with a brush, or moulding by the papier-mache method, is more destructive, in most cases, than any kind of printing machine. Nor can a more destructive agent be found than the stiff scrubbing-brush which is used, often by unskilful hands, to clean the forms from ink after they have left the press. Cylinder presses and type-revolving machines have been adjudged as very injurious to types. The noticeable wear of types on these presses is due more to the omission of making-ready — which 38 Causes of Wear in the case of a morning newspaper is unavoid- able — than to any inherent defect in the machine. Wear caused Cylindrical pressure need not, yet with by neglect In careless hands it often does, grind off presswork ggj,j£ ^^^ hair-line much quicker than pressure of platens. But types well worn can be used under cylinders longer than under platens. Letters that have been rounded on the edges to such an extent that vertical pressure cannot give a readable impression are made fairly legible when they are printed on a rotary or a tjrpe-revolving Rapid wear machine. This wear on types is often avoidable avoidable. A careful compositor and a skilful pressman can make types do twice the service they give under the hands of careless work- men. The modern style of making-ready, which dispenses with the thick woolen blankets that scrape and grind off the edges of the types, is of as great advantage to them as it is to the appear- ance of the printed work. On fine work a press- man is now required to make, by overlays and underlays, the types practically parallel with the impression surface, so that the printed sheet shall show on the back only faint marks of impression. Yet careful making-ready is but a feeble safeguard if paper has not been weU selected and prepared. Rough-faced hand-made linen papers, half-beaten straw or wood papers, and all papers that are laid, uncalendered, or of rough or ribbed surface, are, when printed dry, especially destructive to types. Advantages of Stereotyping 39 The durability of types is also affected by their uncleanliness and the want of care they may re- ceive. If they are not thoroughly Durability cleansed immediately after taking promoted by proof or on leaving press, if dust and «i«a=ii"««« paper fibers are allowed to settle in the counters and harden with the drying ink, and if the sedi- ment of the lye and turpentine used for cleansing is allowed to collect — a thick, tenacious deposit will soon be formed ' which cannot be removed without nearly destroying the type. The count- ers of a font of type so neglectfully treated will soon become filled up, and this may happen be- fore the stems or the serifs have been appreciably thickened by the impression of the press. The art of stereotyping is used as much to save needless wear of types as to save the expense of repeated composition. It adds nothing to the du- rability of the types, but it withdraws them from use, and furnishes a cheaper and more stereotyping serviceable substitute. A mould in saves wear plaster or prepared paper is taken from a page of composed type, and this mould, when dry and hard, serves as the matrix for making the stereotype. The mould is then filled with melted type-metal, which, when hard, is a proper duplicate of the face of the composed type. The plate is thinner than the types, and costs much less, both for metal and for labor. It answers every purpose as well, and thus saves the types from needless wear. 40 Benefits of Stereotyping A large octavo page of long-primer type weighs about ten pounds and its types are worth about three dollars. The stereotype or electrotype plate taken from it weighs about twenty ounces, and costs about forty cents, but the metal therein has some permanent value. As stereotyping not only saves the type from needless wear, but also saves the expense of recomposition, it is freely made use of by all publishers in America. Its advan- tages Eire not confined to book printers ; it is of decided economy in the printing of morning news- papers, when duplicated forms have to be put on two or more presses. Large editions of those pub- lications could not be printed at all without the aid of stereotyping. Blectrotyping, another pro- cess for securing the same result, has practically supplanted the stereotyping of book work. If the type used in printing a book is distrib- uted before stereotyping, of course the composi- Beneflts of tion is not available for even one more BtereotypiDg edition; but if the forms have been stereotyped, the labor of composition is saved for any number of editions, because the plates used on the first edition may be used on twenty successive editions without repeating the expense of the orig- inal composition. After stereotj-ping, the types may be distributed and rearranged in many other combinations. The plates are unalterable. The advantages of stereotyping or electrotyping are equally beneficial to both printer and publisher, Process of Copper-facing 41 saving the type of one and lessening the expenses of the other. In the United States all books that may be reprinted are electrotyped. The process invented in 1851 by Dr. Newton of New York, which is known as' copper-facing, is of value in making types more process of durable. The faces of the types to eopper-facing be treated are immersed in a solution of copper. Under the influence of a galvanic current atoms of copper are deposited on them, covering every part with a thin film. This deposition continues from three to twelve hours, according to the strength of the battery and the nature of the work. When taken from the bath the types so exposed are ready for use. Types that have been copper -faced are made more durable, not by the superior hardness of the copper, for the coating is too thin to offer any great resistance to im- pression, but by its superior tenacity. The stems and dehcate serifs may be flattened under pres- sure almost as readily as before the operation of copper-facing, but they cannot be broken or gapped as easily. The process of copper-facing differs from that of electrotyping in a very important point. In the electrotype, the atoms of copper copper-faciBg attach themselves to, and duplicate, diftersfrom the smooth face of the mould, and this eie^t^^typ^g smooth-faced duplicate becomes the printing sur- face. But in eopper-facing these atoms attach 42 Hardness of Type-metal themselves to the smooth surface of the types, and adhere to it, leaving the rough, crystallized upper side of the deposit as the printing surface. This rough surface is often objectionable. The earliest impressions from copper-faced type are never as perfect as those from the uncoppered type. There is always more or less thickness and unevenness of face, which can be removed only by continued use. For newspapers copper-facing is of great value ; for the finest work it is not to be so highly commended. The expense of copper- facing a font of roman types is about one-siKth of the type-founder's charge for the type. Hardness of metal is usually considered as of great importance in types. The quality of the The test of i^ietal is roughly, but not always accu- hardness m rately, tested by breaking a type. If this type-metal ^jg^^g ygj.y jxiMch before breaking, show- ing a ragged fracture, or if it, when whittled, curls up in unbroken rings, the metal is soft. If it breaks off short, after much resistance, showing a close, crystalline fracture, the metal is hard ; but if it, when whittled, crumbles at a slight touch the metal may be hard but is deficient in tenacity. Great hardness, without tenacity, is as serious a fault as too much softness. Types that easily break when dropped upon the floor, or that have their serifs and hair-lines gapped by planing-down or by rubbing with a brush, betray an excess of antimony and a deficiency of tin or copper. Even Lining of Types 43 Solidity is equally important. It is a material fault if the broken types reveal minute bubbles or porousness, either in the face or the soUdity body. This defect was common to aU types °* *5-pe made by the early casting machines which were imperfect, but it is now exceptional. As all the characters of a font of type are usually cast in but one mould, which is tested daily and oftener, there is not much liability to inaccuracy in the body of a font so cast.^ But when a large font of types is cast in haste from two or more matched moulds there is an increased liability to error. Sorts, or additions to a font, made at any time after the first casting, may be slightly inac- curate. Types may be cast thinner at the foot than at the shoulder, and this fault may be in- creased in rubbing down, or finishing; but bottled types, as these are called, are now unusual. Every letter in a font should present the appear- ance of standing even in line with all its fellows. The maintaining of this evenness of Bveniimngof line, apparently so simple, is one of importance the nice parts of a type-founder's work. One rea- son, but not the only one, why the Latin text, Quousque tandem abutere, Gatilina, was used so 'At the International ExM- in a chase in horizontal position, bition of 1851, a prominent type- upheld by supports one at each founder of London exhibited a corner of the chase, so that each form of pearl types containing type was exposed to the air on 220,000 characters. For twenty- both.face and feet. The casting one weeks this form was kept was so true that no type fell out. 44 Uneven Lining of Types frequently by type-founders in their specimens, was that Latin, as compared with English, had an excess of small and a deficiency of ascending and descending letters. Types composed in Latin had a more symmetrical look and an evener line than could be produced from an English text. Modern founders, confident of their superior abil- ity, do not hesitate to show their types in English. These types show an uneven lining in the letters n and e; the n too high, the e too low. The deviation in lining here shown is enough to destroy the appearance of the font. Uneven lining will be most frequently noticed in sorts, or the new letters that are cast to supple- ment a deficient old font. The new letters may be made out of line by the founders, but this rarely happens when lining letters are AAA sent. The uneven line is more frequently v" « • caused by accretions to the body of the old a AA type, which have been made through want aAA of cleansing from dust and ink. Before AAA new types are mixed with old, they should AAA be tested by setting them in vertical lines, ^ kT between rows of old type, as shown in this a AA illustration. Bad Fitting of Matrices 45 The fltting-up of type, which is the founder's term for adjusting the face upon the body, is of highest importance. The set of the mould is al- tered with almost every change of the matrix, and In these lines the e has too much space at the left, the a too much at the right; the t is too close at the right, the h too close at the left. if this alteration is not intelligently done, some types will be too wide, and others too narrow. A font of type so fltted-up will exhibit ungainly gaps between some letters, and a confusing proximity between others, as is shown in illustration above. Bad fitting is sometimes shown in letters the stems or thick-strokes of which lean slightly from a vertical line, either to the right or to the left. In these lines the letter t leans to the right, and the letter e leans to the left. This fault is exceptional in roman, but is not at all infrequent in some of the older fonts of italic. 46 Unequal Height of Types A bad fltting-up of matrices to the mould is occasionally shown in the unequal heights in line of the different characters of the same font. This irregularity is seldom noticeable in the types of an entirely new font, but it may and often does occur in the sorts or additions cast subsequently. In these lines the letter o is too high ; the letter t is too low; the letter h is tilted out of perpendicular on one side. Unequal height is a more frequent fault since a recent change in the height to paper of type-bodies Differences ^^°^ -^^^^ *° -^^^ i^°^- ^^® difference In height of but One flve-hundredth of an inch may of types ijg almost imperceptible when types of these heights are printed together on damp paper against an elastic impression surface, but it is a fatal fault when these types are printed on dry paper against a hard surface. To bring up the low types the over-high types will be crushed. A new font which contains characters of unequal heights to paper will show from the beginning many of the blemishes of a worn-out font. Unequal heights to paper should be watched for in all types cast from old electrotyped matrices that have been un- equally worn. The process of copper- facing tends Good Mechanical Finish 47 to make types of unequal heights by an occa- sional uneven deposit of copper. An improper fitting of the face on the body is a very serious fault. For its legibility each character needs a fair relief of white space outside its stems. The distance between the stems of all the types in a word should be reasonably uniform. As a rule this distance is most satisfactory when the space between the stems of meeting letters is about the same as that between the stems of the letter m. This is not always practicable, for letters are irregu- lar as to shape, and a nice discretion must be ex- ercised by the fltter-up, who has to consider the combinations of these irregular shapes. As a rule condensed type and small type need close fitting ; fat and expanded type a wider fitting. The types of this column are The types of this column close-fitted, but they are as read- are wide-fitted. Each letter able in solid as in leaded com- is separated from its fellows, position. Noris the appearance but the composition has an of the composition damaged by uninviting appearance. ' It is close or thin spacing. Bach let- not easier to read. It cannot ter is distinct, although some let- be thin spaced nor set solid to ters nearly touch their fellows at advantage, nor is it improved extreme points. in any way by wide leading. The mechanical finish should be of the highest order. Grood types should be so carefully rubbed and dressed that there will be no burs Good finish is or roughness on the edges to cut the important fingers of the compositor. The shoulders should be low enough on the body to prevent their being blackened by the inking roller, and to allow the 48 Choice of Face kerned letters to lap over without interference. The kerns should be well supported so that they will not break under proper treatment. The nicks shoidd be clearly defined, and different either in number or in position from those of other faces or styles of the same body. The hair-lines and serifs should have a sloping base, to give them a proper support. The counters should be deep enough to prevent their quick filling-up with ink and paper dust. Italic type needs special examination : blemishes in fltting-up are more frequent in italic than in Italic must the roman of which it is the mate. A mate with font of italic should not only be in line the roman ^j^]^ ^j^g roman, but should show all its features as far as the change of face will permit. In the early practice of type-making, one face of italic was often made to serve for two or more faces of roman. This practice has not been en- tirely discontinued. A light-faced italic is some- times mated with a heavy-faced roman, a condensed italic with a round-faced roman, making a plain change of shade or of shape on the printed page where they are used together. The choice of the face is usually decided by its appearance on the specimen sheet, but some re- The choice gard should be paid to its mechanical of the face adaptation to the work for which it is designed. The appearance of a face will vary with methods of presswork. That which is just Types that Withstand Wear 49 bold enough in the carefully printed specimen of the type-founder will be too bold in the news- paper when printed with soft ink and upon coarse and moist paper; and one that seems light enough on damp paper is altogether too light and weak when printed on dry paper. Whatever face may be selected, it should be mechanically well cut : the angles should be true ; the serifs of uniform length ; the body- ^^^^^ ^^^^ marks of uniform width; and a visible i^e pleasing harmony should pervade the font. A ™*™^^^ perfect font of types should produce a pleasing general effect in any combination of characters. This face wears This endures It is not enough that each character seems pleas- ing when examined apart from its mates ; it must also be pleasing in composition. This cannot be if all the difficulties of combination and fitting have not been foreseen and provided for. Rudely cut or badly fitted type will mar the effect of the best composition and presswork. The durability of type is affected by the press on which it is printed. Types with long ascenders 7 50 Bold-faced and Light-faced Types and descenders, and with very long and sharp hair-lines and serifs, are not well suited for cylin- ders or for type-revolving machines, because aU the force of the impression is at regular intervals spent A face with long and feeble serifs on the serifs and edges of these projecting letters. To secure the highest durability on cylinder ma- chines, types with short ascenders and descenders, broad faces, and stubby serifs should be selected. Bold, black-faced types are not, for general use, as durable or even as readable as those that have A bold-face with hair-lines and serifs too weak lighter stems, firmer serifs, and a more open ap- pearance. The common opinion that aU light-faced types are necessarily fragile is derived from an experience obtained when letter-cutting was not as Why Light-faces wear Well 51 skilfully done as it is now. The light-faced types of thirty years ago were made with hair-lines and serifs that were long, sharp, and feebly Boid-facea supported, that gapped with slight abra- and ugut- sion, and that broke off altogether under ^^ ^^^^ an uneven impression. Approved modern light- faced types are radically different: the hair-lines are supported by broad bases, and the serifs are strengthened with bracket-like curves where they join the stems or body-marks. These hair-lines will thicken very little with continual wear, and are not liable to gap or to break down. A light-face that has both firm hair-lines and bracketed serifs In deciding upon the comparative durability of a light-faced and a heavy-faced type, two points must be considered: the force neces- Ligi,t-iaced sary to secure a perfect impression, and types may the resistance opposed by the type to ^^ "luraWe that force. They necessarily increase and decrease in inverse ratio. A solid tint-block presents a greater resistance and requires more impression than the same surface of type ; a page of antique type cannot be faced with the same impression 52 Why Light-faces wear Well that will fairly print a page of script. The denser or broader the face, the greater is the resistance, and the stronger must be the impression. Upon a page of bold roman type this impression must be felt equally on the hair-lines and body-marks. When an elastic blanket is forced by impression into the counters and around the edges of each face, the hair-lines will be gapped, the serifs will be gradually broken down, and the surface of the body-marks will be rounded off. The resistance of light-faced type is less ; so less force is required in A bold-face with short serifs that soon show wear impression, and it is more equally divided between hair-lines and body-marks. Alight-faced type prop- erly cut will lose its sharpness sooner, but it wiD wear down with more evenness, and will present a clear outline when the hair-Une of a bold-faced letter has been worn out, and the character can be identified only by its stem or body-mark. £a .^. QO. II The Names of the Leading Sizes of Types JHEN the faces of text-types were Mmited to roman, italic, and black- letter, one or two words described tbe size, or body, and another word defined the face. The multiplica- tion of faces now compels founders to make names longer and more descriptive. The features are usually given in this order: (1) The body or size of the type, as "Pica." (2) The style or face of the type, as "Pica gothic." (3) The ornament or fashion of the type, as " Pica gothic ornamented." ^ (4) The shape of the type, as " Pica gothic orna- mented condensed." The names of the more important bodies or sizes of types are given in the following tables : 1 See a following chapter for remarks on different styles. 63 54 American, and English Names New Name 60-pomt . 48-poiiit . 44-point . 40-point . 36-point 32-pomt 30-point . 28-pomt . 24-point . 22-pomt . 20-point . 18-point . 16-point . 14-poiiit . 12-poiiit . 11-point . 10-point . 9-pomt . 8-point . 7-point . 6}^-poiiit . 6-point . 5i-point . 5-point . 4i-pomt . 4-poiiit . S^point . S-point . - American - Old Name . Five-line pica . Canon, or four-line. . . Meridian . Double paragon . Double great-primer . Four-line brevier . Five-line nonpareU . Double english .... . Double pica . Double smaU-pica . . . Paragon . Great-primer . Columbian . English . Pica . Small-pica . Long-primer . Bourgeois . Brevier . Minion . Miniouette . Nonpareil . Agate . Pearl . Diamond . Brilliant English Five-line pica Canon, or four-line Two-line double pica Two-Une great-primer Two-line english Two-Une pica Double pica Paragon Great-primer Two-Une brevier English Pica Small-pica Long-primer Bourgeois Brevier Minion Emerald Nonpareil Euby Pearl Diamond Brilliant . Excelsior Minikin French, and German Names 55 New Name Corps 72 . Corps 60 . Corps 56 . Corps 52 . Corps 48 . Corps 44 . Corps 42 Corps 36 . Corps 32 . Corps 28 . Corps 24 . Corps 22 . Corps 20 . Corps 18 . Corps 16 . Corps 14 . Corps 12 . Corps 11 . Corps 10 . Corps 9 Corps 8 . Corps 7 . Corps 6i . Corps 6 . Corps 5^ . Corps 5 Corps 4i . Corps 4 . Corps 3 - French- Old Name Triple-canon Oerman Old Name Kleine Sabon Grotoe Missal Double-canon Missal Kleine Missal Gros-canon Grobe Canon Trism6giste Canon Kleine Canon Petit-canon Doppel Mittel Palestine Doppel-Cicero Gros-parangon Petit-parangon . . . Text Gros-romain Gros-texte Tertia Saint augustin . . . Mittel ■ Cicero Cicero Philosophie Brevier Petit-romain Corpus, or Garmond Gaillarde Borgis, or Bourgeois Petit-texte Petit Mignone Colonel Nompareille Nonpareille, or Nonpareil Parisienne Perl Diamant Diamant Semi-nompareille Id France the old names have been out of use for many years, but it seems necessary to repeat them here, for they are to be found in all the early books of typography, and even in some comparatively modernspecimen books of French type-founders. In Germany the use of numeri- cal names is limited. 56 Italian, Spanish, and Dutch Names Italian Spanish Dutch Imperiale Reale Cineo Leotura Ducale Cuatro Lectura Corale Cd,non Parys KanoQ Canone Doble Parangona . Groote Kanon Sopracanoncino Doble Texto Kanon Canoncino Doble Atanasia . . Dubbelde Augustijn Palestina Doble Lectura . . . Dubbelde Mediaan Asoendonioa .... Doble Leeturita . . Assendonica Parangone Parangona Paragon Teste Texto Tekst SoprasUvio San Agustin Silvio Atanasia Augustijn Lettura Lectura Mediaan Filosofia Leetm'ita Dessendiaan Garamone Entredos Garmond Garamoncino ... Medio Texto Burgeois, or Qaljar Testino Breviario Brevier Mignone Mifiona, or Glosilla Collonel Nompariglia .... Nomparell Nonpareil Parmigianina . . . Perla Parel, or Joly Diamante Diamante Diamant, or Robijn OccMo di mosca . BriUante In Italy, Spain, and Holland collected from the "Manuals the numerical names of types on Tipograflco " of Bodoni ( Parma, the point system have been par- 1818) ; the Spanish and Dutch tially adopted, hut they are not names have been gathered from yet so fully established as to specimen hooksj and from in- put all old names out of use. formation given to the author These Italian names have been by Spanish compositors. Bastard Types 57 In the preceding tables an attempt has been made to arrange the names given to types by each nation in line with those given to similar variationa sizes by other nations ; but a similarity of *° noaies name, or position on the same line, does not mean that types so named or placed are of exactly the same body. Large allowances must be made for variations. In making a comparison of types or sizes from various countries, the difference in bodies below pica is too slight to be noticed by an in- expert, but in those larger than pica the differ- ence may be marked, and the similarity of names may be seriously misleading. Types have been made and named everywhere without system. The exceptions are few. Paragon and nonpareil have virtually the same name in the foundries of all nations cited ; canon, pearl, and diamond are almost as widely known. The list given comprises all the bodies known by simple names. All sizes above canon are called by their multiples of pica, as five-line, nine-line, etc., names which indicate that the bodies so defined are five or nine times the height of a pica body. Bastard types are those with faces too large or too small for the body : a minion face upon a non- pareil body, or a brevier face upon a hour- Bastard geois body, is a bastard size. A small face ^Jres is sometimes cast on a large body to give the open appearance of leaded type, and a large face is some- times cast on a small body to make the print more 58 Begular and Irregular Bodies compact. The bastard types are not highly es- teemed, and are now made only to order. These Nonpareil on Agate. Agate on Nonpareil. The types of this paragraph are The types of this paragraph are of upou agate body, but the face is a the ordinary agate size, bnt the space very large noupareil. The tails of between the lines is less than the tlie descending letters, g, J, p, q,y, thickness of any practicable lead, narrowne^s'of°ufe°whitf8°mc''ebe^ andshowsthebodyofnonpareil. The ?ween an ?he1ine.?. "tMs l^o'was »l*i<"=* »™i!ht in putting agate npon made for a directory with an intent nonpared is to give it the effect of to get the largest possible face of leaded typo without the use of leads, type within the smallest space. and to make the print more readable. methods of putting a large face on a small body, or a small face on a large body, make it difficult even for an expert to identify the body of any type so treated. There is no accepted standard of height for the short or round letters of any face, but it may be assumed, as a general rule, that long ascenders and descenders belong to a face which is small for the body, and that short ascenders and descenders belong to a face which is large for the body. A distinction is made by type-founders between regular and irregular bodies. The regular bodies Regular and ^"^^ P^arl, nonpareil, brevier, long- irreguiarbod- primer, pica, great-primer, and all lesoftype multiples of pica. They are caUed regular because they are the bodies that have been preferred and have been most in use. The irregu- lar bodies are diamond, agate, minion, bourgeois, small-pica, english, and all their multiples. They are called irregular because most of them were unknown to Moxon and the early English printers. Two-line Types cmd Double Types 59 The distinction is more fanciful than real ; in some printing offices the irregular sizes are in greater use. Display and ornamental types are usually cast only on the regular bodies, and for this rea- son it is of advantage to give them a preference. American type-founders give separate names to two-line types and double-bodied types. A two- line pica and a double pica have the Two-Une same body. The face of the two-line types and type occupies nearly the whole of the ^o-^^e types body ; the capital of a double-bodied type is much shorter, and'terminates on a broad shoulder. The ERE is a Two-line Hardy H Double great-primer Two-line great-primer capital capital and lower-case. with two .lines of great-primer. double-bodied letter is usually accompanied with lower-case, for the descending letters of which this broad shoulder is provided. The two-line letter is usually of capitals ouly, and is or should be so put on its body that as an initial letter it will line with the second line of the small text- type of which it is the duplicate. In England this distinction is not so well observed. The double pica of English type-founders appears to be the equivalent of our double smaU-pica; and what they call two-Hue pica is our double english. 60 The Practice of Typography. Brilliant. AB0DBFaflUKLBU10Pl><)defghlJkliDiiopqntuTwx7> ■ Diamond. alKdefghljUmnopqrBtaTwxyz B i^earl. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Agate. abcdefghyklmnopqrstuvwiyz Nonpareil. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Minion. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Brevier. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Bourgeois, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Long-primer, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Small-pica, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Pica. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz English, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx Great.primer. abcdcfghij kliiinopqrstuv I abcdefghijklmnopqr abcdefghijklmnop abcdefghijklm abcdefghij I Double small-pica. Double pica. Double english. Double great-primer. Double paragon. Canon. The black squares show the em, or square of the body. 62 Canon to Double Pica The alphabets on pages 60 and 61 show the sizes of standard types and their relative proportions. Canon, or 48-point, is four times the height and sixteen times the area of the standard size of pica. It was so called from its early employment in the leading lines or paragraphs of the printed canons of the Church, as is also indicated by its German name of missal. The canon of the English type-founders is usually a face of about three lines of pica cast on a four-line pica body. The face of full height on four-Hne pica body is called four-line. Meridian (four heights of small-pica), or 44-point, is a body rarely selected for letters, and has but a limited use for combination borders. Double paragon (four heights of long-primer), or 40-point, was a favorite for ecclesiastical printing. The larger types of the famous " Psalter of 1457" are on this body. Double great-primer (four heights of bourgeois), or 36-point, is a body largely used for ornamental types. Four-line brevier, or 32-point, is never used for text-types ; only for borders or ornamental faces. Double english, or 28-point, is a body, seldom selected for text-types, but largely used for script and ornamental letters. Double pica, or 24-point, is a favored body for all faces. English type-founders describe it as two-Hue pica. Double Small-pica to Great-Primer 63 Double small-pica, or 22-point, is a body in fre- quent request, but most preferred for ornamental faces. It is known in England as double pica. Paragon (double long-primer), or 20-point, is a body seldom selected by any American or English founder, yet it has distinction as a size favored by WiUiam Caxton as well as by the printer of the " Bible of 42 lines." The name of paragon is now out of use in Germany, but 20- point type is there known and much used under the name of text. Great-primer (double bourgeois), or 18-point, is a favorite body for the text-types of large quartos and folios, as well as for ornamental faces. Great- Its size, one-haK more than that of pica, primer or 12-point, permits it to be freely used with pica and nonpareil in combination borders. The name is of doubtful origin, but it is probably derived from use of the type on a large leaf. Rowe Mores says that great-primer was a favorite size with early English printers, and the size preferred for some large primer of the English Church.^ 1 It was also known as Bible- mation were printed at Paris text from its frequent use in as early as 1490, and in Bng- Bibles. Henry Yiii allowed his land in 1537. (Eeed, "English subjects to use an English Form Founders," p. 37, note.) Eeed of Public Prayer, and ordered suggests that Primer may be one to be printed for their use, from the Jjatinpreniere, to print, entitled the "Primer," which and naturalized in England un- contained, besides the prayers, der the name of "imprimery." several psalms, lessons, and an- Great-primer may be the great thems. " Primers " of the Eng- print letter. In Holland, Italy, lish Church before the Befor- and Spain it was called text. 64 Columbian to Pica Columbian (double brevier), or 16 -point, is a neglected body, first made in text-type by George Bruce of New York to supply a size that seemed to be needed between english and great-primer. It is not a regular body for book-type. English (double minion), or 14-point, is one of the oldest of bodies, the one selected for the " Let- ters of Indulgence of 1453," by some un- known prmter at Mentz, and also by an early printer in the Netherlands. It has the name english because it was so extensively used by early English printers for their law books, acts of Par- liament, and exclusively English work. Germans call it mifctel because it is the middle or inter- mediate of the seven sizes of type in greatest use. It has been a body of marked irregularity; before the adoption of the system of points in France and Germany it varied from 15 to 13 points. Pica (double nonpareil), or 12-point, is a favorite body for important works in octavo. The pica body has been, and still is, the standard unit for determining sizes. All the larger sizes of type above four-line, and all the more impor- tant widths of furniture, are made to bodies that are regular multiples of pica; all thicknesses of leads, and sometimes of brass rules, are graduated to divisions of pica, and are called by the divi- sors, as four, six, eight, or ten to pica. Like great- primer, it takes its name from its early use as a text-letter. " The Pie " (of which the word Pica Small-pica and Long-primer 65 is the Latin name ^ ), writes Mores, " was a table showing the course of the services of the Church in the times of darkness. It was called the Pie because it was written in letters of black and red, as the Friars de Pica were so named from their parti-coloured raiment black and white, the plu- mage of a magpie." Small -pica (double agate), or 11 -point, is one of the so-caUed irregular bodies which an early writer on printing thought unworthy of 1 • • i.- jY! 1 L i. SmaU-pica a place in any printing oflce ; but type- founders now find that it is in greater request in book-printing oflces than the regular body of pica. Long-primer (double pearl), or 10-point, is an- other body which takes its name from its early use in ecclesiastical books.^ The name was prob- ably given first to the size of the leaf, the long duodecimo, on which the services of the Church were printed without abbreviation, and secondly, 1 Mores gives this quotation clems, as a book frequently re- from a Breviary of Sarum, as printed by the English printers, printed in 1555: Caxton advertised the "Pyes of f[ Ineipit ordo breviarij feu SaHsbury use." Reed suggests portiforij feoundum morem & that Pica may refer to the black- confuetudinem eoclefle Sarum and-white appearance of a print- Anglicane : vna cum ordinalifuo ed page. quod vifitato voeabolo dicitur 2 Rowe Mores quotes the title Pica Ave directorium facerdo- "A Prymer of Salisbury u.se set turn in tempore paf ehali. — Pars out a long by Robert Valentine Hyemalis. (Rowe Mores, "Bng- at Rouen, in the year 1555," as Ush Pounders," p. 23.) He also explaining its origin. But the gives on p. 24 the title of the type of this book is pica, and not Directorium sacerdotum qwem long-primer. ("English Poun- \Warmn\PicaSarumvulgovoeitat ders and Pounderies," p. 26.) 9 66 Bourgeois to Minionette to the smaller type, wliicli was more serviceable for a leaf of this shape. It continues to be the body preferred for duodecimos. Bourgeois (double diamond), or 9-point, possibly gets its name, as Reed suggests, from the French city of Bourges. Bourgeois was not first Bourgeois ^^^^ there, for it is the body of the text- letter of the " Compilatio Decretalium " of Pope Gregory IX, printed by Torresani, at Venice, in the year 1498. The name may be derived from the frequent selection of this body for the small and cheap books made for the bourgeoisie. Brevier (double brilliant), or 8-point, carries a name that suggests its early employment in the „ . printing of breviaries.^ The notes of the Decretals referred to in the previous para- graph are in types of brevier body. Minion, or 7-point, is one of the irregular sizes, and is now in small request, except for newspaper work. Its name indicates the esteem in which it was once held, not only by English, but by French and Italian typographers, as a small and valued darling of a type. Minionette, or 6J point, is a body largely used in France for combination borders. The adoption of the borders in the United States compelled the 1 Reed says that most of the Many of the cheap and more breviaries are in types of larger popular editions must have been size, but this remark can apply worn out by long usage ; some only to the finely printed ones of these editions must tie un- which have been preserved, known to bibliographers. Nonpareil to Diamond , 67 adoption of the same body, but it is now passing out of use. It seems to be the equivalent of the English emerald, which is used as a text-type. Nonpareil, or 6-point (the half of pica), is the most used of the small bodies. It seems to have been made for the first time in 1490 by John Froben of Basle, for a black-letter octavo edition of the Bible. It first appeared with a fine roman face in a beautiful manual of services of the Eoman Catholic Church printed at Venice in 1501. It was probably adjudged a mar- vel of skill in letter-cutting, for it has preserved its name in all countries. Agate, or 5J-point (the half of small-pica), is a favorite size for newspaper advertisements, and for all kinds of printing in which great compact- ness is desired. It is known in England as ruby. Pearl, or 5-point (the half of long-primer), finds employment in pocket editions of the Bible, prayer- books, and small manuals, as weU as for side and cut-in notes and references. The celebrated printer Jannon made it famous by selecting it iu 1627 as the text-type of his so-called " Diamond " editions, printed by him at Sedan. Diamond, or 4J point (the half of bourgeois), seems to have been made for the first time by Vos- kens of Amsterdam, who cut a full font of ^,^^^^^^,^,3 it about the year 1700. Van Dijk, the type- founder for Daniel Elzevir, had shown in 1681 a size smaller than pearl, but it was not so small as 68 Brilliant to Non-plus-ultra Voskens's diamond. Pickering of London selected this body for his miniature editions of the classics. Brilliant, or 4-point (the half of brevier), is a size of this century. One square inch of ordinary composition in brilliant contains about 1200 pieces of metal: of the lower-case i, 3456 are needed to make one pound in weight ; of the thinnest space, nearly twice as many. Excelsior, or 3-point (the half of nonpareil), is a body used in America for music, piece-fractions, and borders only. It seems to be the same body as the English " minikin.'' Yet there is a text-type still smaller. In 1827 Henri Didot of Paris, then sixty-six years old, cut with his own hands a font of type on the body of 2 J points by the Didot system, which he called " microscopique." Twenty-five lines of this type apparently fill the space of one American inch. The founder Gronau of Berlin shows three text- types (roman, italic, fractur) cut for a 3-point body but cast for convenience on that of a 4-point. The Ensched6 Foundry of Haarlem has cut a still smaller face, a "non-plus-ultra," on a 2-point body, but it is cast on a 4-point body. These types are wonderful as evidences of skill ; but they are of slight value in the practice of printing. The general effect of the sizes most used in ordi- nary composition is shown in the following illus- trations. Six-line pica, or 72-point 69 Oldest verified print is H (The woodcut of St. Christoplier) of date 1423 70 Five-line pica, or 60-point The old- est type Printing ( Letters of Indulgence ) ^ has writ- ten date of 1454s Four-line pica, or ^S-point 71 The earliest types are of English and Double pica bodies: they were found- ed in moulds 72 Double paragon, or 4:0-point ^The earliest book bearing a printed date is the famous Psalter (1457) published by John Fust and his son-in-law P. SchoefFer ^ Double great-primer, or 36-pomt 73 The types of the PSALTER made in 1457 were cast on the bodies of double paragon and double great Drimer, and the 30ok was decor- ated with red ink and large initials. 10 74 Double english, or 2S-point ^ A Bible in types of paragon body, 42 lines to a page, has a certificate that its il- lumination was done at Mentz, A.D. 1456. Another Bible, of 36 lines, from types of double pica body, is believed to have been printed between the years 1450 and 1459, at the same old city. Double jaica, or 24r^oint 75 ^ Certain books known to have been printed' at or near Mentz and before the year 1460, and in different sizes of type from double paragon down to english, show that the methods of type-making and printing were in regular use. The imprint of the Psalter of 1457 says that book was made by the "masterly invention of printing and also of type-making." ^b^ 76 Double small-pica, or 22-point, solid What was this invention of type-making ? Ulric Zell, writing in 1499, says that this masterly and subtile in- vention was "the art as it ig now used." Trithemius, in 1 5 14, declared that this invention was "the method of founding the forms of all the letters which they called matrices, from which they cast the metal types." Peter SchoefFer, in the "Gram- matica" printed by him at Mentz, says metaphorically of the book, "I [this book] am cast at Mentz."@«:^§5^e^?^ Double small-pica, or 22-point, leaded 77 Bernard Cennini of Florence, writing in 1 47 1 , declares that the characters of his books were first cut and then cast. Nicholas Jenson of Venice, in a book dated 1485, says that the types of his book were cut and cast by a di- vine art. An account book of the Ripoli Press at Flor- ence, 1474—1483, specifies the metals and the materials now used in type-foundries. The art then practised was "the art as it is now used." 78 Great-primer, or 18-point, solid Ulric Zell says that John Guten- berg, a citizen of Mentz, was the inventor of printing. Trithemi- us says "the admirable and till then unheard-of art of printing books by types was planned and invented by John Guten- berg." John Schoeffer, the son of Peter, in i 505 declared that the admirable art of typography was invented in the year 1450 by the ingenious John Guten- berg. A tablet near his tomb, put up soon after his death, is inscribed to John Genszfleisch [Gutenberg], inventor of the art of printing. A second tablet, I 508, is to John Gutenberg of Mentz, who, first of all, invent- ed printing letters in metal. «.-®gs» Great-primer, or 18-point, leaded 79 Many writings of the fifteenth century testify that John Guten- berg was then regarded as the inventor of typography. In the CathoHcon of 1460, a book at- tributed to Gutenberg, is the statement that the merit of the new art is shown in the "admi- rable proportion, harmony and connection of the punches and matrices." The key to the in- vention of typography was the discovery of the only proper art of making the types, "the art as it is now used," for there is no other. The legends of a Dutch invention by Koster in 1440 did not appear in print before 1546. 80 Columbian, or 16-point, solid Punches and matrices were fre- quently sold at the close of the fifteenth century. In the year 1476 John Peter from Mentz was selling matrices to some j)rint- ers of Florence. The goldsmiths of Florence and Venice were cut- ting punches for printers. Aldus Manutius of Venice complained that Francis of Bologna, who cut the punches for his new italic, had also cut duplicates for the Griunta. When he began to print at Alost in 1474 John of West- phalia announced that he had the genuine Venetian characters. The types of Jenson of Venice were copied in books printed in France. Oaxton of London and Mansion of Bruges used a similar face of type. So did Leeu and Bellaert, and Machlinia and Vel- dener, of the I^etherlands. ^^^ Columbian, or 16-point, leaded 81 C All early type-founding was without system. The printer who directed his punch-cutter to copy the letters in a manuscript had no perception of the beauty of a series of uniform faces and grad- uated bodies. Gutenberg used pointed gothic and round gothic faces. Jenson made roman and round gothic. Other printers had cut for them mongrel faces which are now entirely disused. Type- casting was always done by the printers, who had a simple form of mould in which they cast sev- eral bodies of types, as is shown in the two bodies of english made by Gutenberg and the four bodies of english made by the unknown printer of the ISTetherlands. (§?>©<«, 11 82 English, or 14:-point, solid All the early printed books were cop- ies, more or less faithful, of the manu- script model. They were fair copies of its form of letter, of its size of page and width of margin, and its arrange- ment of text and notes. Large blanks were left for initial letters that should grace the beginning of every chap- ter or other important division, and for the decorative border that should enclose the text. After the printing of the text-type had been entirely done, the initials and borders were added by a professional illuminator who some- times closed the work of which he was justly proud with a written state- ment to which he added his name as the decorator. The most direct proof that the Bible of 42 lines was printed before 1456 is the certificate, in one copy, of Albech, the illuminator. Tke Psalter of 1 4'y'] contains great initials which had been engraved on nested blocks for printing in two colors. The blocks were separated, inked, and then joined and printed by one impression. English, or 1^-point, leaded 83 Other printers of that age found it less troublesome to leave these spaces for borders and initials blank, to be filled in by the buyer of the book. But few of these book-buyers had the time or the ability to do this work. Only the wealthy could pay the prices asked by illuminators. Consequently not one book in a hundred had its unsightly blanks filled with the decorations in- tended. Then book-buyers began to question the utility of the white gaps and the broad margins; they began to ask for more print and less paper, for books that were perfect when sold by the printers. To meet this demand, the printers of Augsburg at an early date undertook to furnish small orna- mental initials, but Ratdolt of Venice seems to have been the first, in 1477, to make the true decorative initials, or the Uteres Jlorentes, as he called them. 84 Pica, or 12-point, solid Ratdolt's initials were probably cut in high relief on metal, for it was not then econom- ical, perhaps not even practicable, to found large ornamental letters in a mould. Much of the so-called engraving on wood of this period, especially of engravings noticeable for their fine or delicate lines, was really engraving on brass, copper, or type-metal. Jean Dupre of Paris says, in a devotional book (entirely typographic) printed by him in 1488, that his engravings of Bible stories and pictures were "printed upon copper." The largest text-types, on a body of about 4.^ picas, were founded for John Sensen- schmidt, and printed by him in the Bam- berg Missal of 1481. Stock of Nuremberg, and some unknown printer in Spain, made types nearly as large, but most buyers of books preferred smaller types and volumes. The printers tried to adapt the old fashions of decorating the books to the new art by engraving full-page borders, and initials de- signed to show white letters upon a gray groundwork. It was then expected that the book-buyer would illuminate the page by painting red the letters in white. This fashion of making white letters has been continued to this time, although the sup- posed necessity for them does not now exist. Pica, or 12-point, leaded 85 Typography received its most valuable improvements from the printers of Italy, in which country the three text-letters of great- est usefulness were first made : (i) Roman, first founded by Sweinheym and Pannartz in 1465, and afterward perfected by Jenson at Venice in 147 1 ; (2) Italic and (3) Small Capitals, introduced together by Aldus Ma- nutius at Venice in 1501. The first volume entirely in Greek was printed at Milan in 1476 ; the first book entirely in Hebrew, at Soncino in 1488. The forms then adopted have not been seriously changed ; modern taste is now drifting back to a closer adher- ence to the models first made by the more skilful of the early Italian founders. Title- pages, copperplate maps and illustrations, engraved initials and borders, smoother and thinner papers, smaller types and simpler ar- rangements of types on the page, narrower margins, handier sizes of books, and inexpen- sive forms of binding — all these, and most of the minor improvements which make books more attractive, were first introduced or were most skilfully executed in Italy. 86 Small-pica, or 11-point, solid In the art of making books attractive, France soon became the superior of Italy. For books of devotion and for the literature of romance, early French printers preferred the black-letter char- acter, which they had cast for them in many ad- mirable forms. Not content with beauty in types, Verard, Pigouchet, Kerver, Vostre, and other emi- nent publishers and printers, secured the coopera- tion of many able designers, who provided initials and borders of marked merit which are still re- garded as masterpieces of typographical decora- tion. Geoffrey Tory, one of the ablest of early French designers, in his book of " Champfleury " tried to bring into more general use the roman form of letter, which was even then preferred by French scholars, and which ultimately became the accepted text-letter of the nation. Claude Garamond, one of his pupils, seems to have de- voted himself entirely to designing and casting types for the printing trade. He carried out in a practical manner many of the reforms in typog- raphy which had been proposed by his master. His roman characters, based upon the models of Jenson, and his italics, which he improved by inclining the capital letters, were much admired and eagerly bought by printers in foreign coun- tries. They earned for him the distinction he has had ever since as the " father of letter-founders." Type-founding was made a distinct art in France before it was in any other country. At Paris, Lyons, and Rouen were founders who supplied printers of all countries with punches, matrices, Small-pica, or 11-point, leaded 87 or fonts of type. Guillaume Le Be (1525-1598) succeeded Garamond as the leading type-founder at Paris, cutting many forms of orientals for the Royal Printing House, for printers of Venice, and Christopher Plantin of Antwerp. During three generations his descendants maintained the high reputation of French type-founding. After the death of the last Le Be in 1707, the foundry was bought and ably sustained by Fournier the elder. The house of Sanlecque, almost as famous, was founded by Jacques de Sanlecque, a pupil of Le Be. He was celebrated for his music types and for the oriental types he made for Le Jay's Poly- glot Bible. Pierre Moreau, who began his work in 1640, Jean Cot, who began in 1670, and Pierre Esclassant, who began in 1666, were other notable founders of Paris, but they were dwarfed by the reputation and fast growth of the Royal Printing House, which was then making fashions for types. In 1704, M. Jaugeon of the Royal Academy of Sciences, working under a commission from the king (Louis XIV.) to make a truly "royal" type, introduced the fashion of extended and almost conjoined hair-line serifs. This feminine fashion added nothing to the beauty of types, but it did largely diminish their legibility and durability. Nine sizes of characters were made in this style. 88 Long-primer^ or 10-poinf, solid Louis Luce,the punch-cutter of the Royal Printing House between the years 1740 and 1771, further disfigured the roman character by putting flat, extended serifs upon the tops of some lower-case letters, and by adding a needless side-spur to the lower-case d as is here shown. During all the changes of government and of name (for it has been called Royal, Imperial, and National), this printing house of the French government has steadily maintained a high reputation for the wealth of its material and the general beauty of its produc- tions. It has been made richer in many ways. Napo- leon, exercising the arrogated right of a conqueror, in 1799 robbed the printing office of the Propaganda at Rome, and in 1808 that of the Medicis at Florence, of their valuable collections of punches and matrices. In 181 5 the new government of France ordered them to be restored, which was partially done. It afterward enlisted the services of the ablest punch- cutters of all nations in cutting characters for all languages that have a written literature. The official history of this office, published in 1861, states that it then owned 361,000 punches and matrices. ' Among them are the Greek characters of Garamond made under the direction of Robert Stephens, and the romans modeled after the designs of Jenson. The punches of Grandjean, Alex- andre of 1693, and Luce ; the borders of Fagnon, the ornaments of Papillon, and some of the work of Four- luer the elder ; the collection of orientals cut in Con- stantinople under the direction of Savary de Breves — these and others are all to be found in the punch closets of this National Printing House. Firmin-Didot added new styles of roman in 181 1; Jacquemin in 1818, and Marcellin Legrand between 1825 and 1847, designed new and peculiar faces. The work of other punch-cutters of high reputation — among them Leger- Didot, Delafond, Dresler and Rost-Fingerlin of Frank- Long-primer^ or 10-point, leaded 89 fort, Bodoni of Parma, and Vibert and Bopp of Berlin — is exhibited at length in the large specimen book of 1 86 1. In 1848 it had distinct characters for fifty-two different languages, many of them on different bodies. Although the National Printing House at Paris has a deservedly high reputation, many important improve- ments in French types and typography were made by founders and printers who were never in its service. At Lyons the type-foundry of Lacolonge, which passed from father to son for many generations, had an envi- able reputation for three hundred years. Its earliest and ablest punch-cutter, Robert Granjon, showed more boldness and originality than any other designer of his time. Some connoisseurs in typography hold that an early form of light-faced roman capitals, first shown at Lyons in the xvith century, presumably by Granjon, is really superior in design to the roman of Jenson, or of Garamond, or any of their successors. The type-foun- dry of Pierre Simon Fournier (or, as he is better known, Foumier the younger) began its work at Paris in 1736. In his " Manuel Typographique " he shows one hun- dred alphabets, ancient and modem, of great merit, a large part of which was made by his own hands. His greatest service to typography was his invention of the point system of type-bodies, which is more fully de- scribed in another chapter. Jacques Charles Derriey (1808-1877), whose specimen album of 1868 is one of the masterpieces of typography, is deservedly honored as one of the most skilful of modern type-founders. He gave his best attention to borders and ornaments. 12 90 Bourgeois, or 9^oint, solid Italian typography began to show signs of its decadence early in the xvith century. After the death of the earlier printers and designers the types of Venice did not sustain their reputation. But one Venetian type-foundry of the xvilth century, that of the Deucheni, had any celebrity for its productions. The most notable Italian foundry was the one established in 1578 by the order of Pope Gregory XIII., which, with its printing house, has been called the "Apostolic Printing Establishment," the " Printing House of the Vatican," and the "Press of the Propaganda de Fide." Its first punch-cutter was the Frenchman Robert Granjon, invited there from Lyons, who began the series of orientals which, continued by other hands, has made the house famous. Its specimen book of 1628 showed the largest collection of foreign characters. The press of the Propaganda still does a limited quantity of valuable work, but it is much surpassed by the national printing houses at Paris and Vienna. Type-foundries did not flourish in Italy ; in 1742 there was but one in Turin, under the man- agement of the Royal Printing House, and but one in 17 19 at Milan, under the direction of the printer Bella- gata. All the large Italian cities now have type-foundries, yet they have done but little for the improvement of the national printing. Giambattista Bodoni (1740-1813) is the only Italian founder and printer of modern times who has fairly earned the highest honors. As the superintendent of the Press of the Propaganda he showed the ability which caused him to be invited to reconstruct and manage the Ducal Printing House at Parma. Assuming this position in 1766 he soon made the Ducal Printing House the first in Europe. His " Manuale Tipografico," in two quarto volumes, begun by him but completed by his widow in 1818, contains 279 pages of specimens which are good evidences of his skill and industry. These specimens in- clude the alphabets of about thirty foreign languages, some of them in two or more sizes. He is most celebrated for his peculiar styles of roman and italic, which were cut on a new system and with great clearness and delicacy. His styles are now out of fashion, but the stimulus he gave to the founders of all other countries still endures. Bourgeois, or 9-point, leaded 91 Type-founding did not improve in Germany as it did in France and in the Netherlands. The able printers of classic texts at Strasburg, and in other cities, supported as they were by the authority of Albert Diirer, could not induce German readers to accept the roman character. They preferred pointed letters, but were not agreed, even at the beginning of the xvith century, as to the superior merit of any one of the manystyles made by the type- founders. The bible- text of Gutenberg, which is the basis of modern black-letter ; the profusely ornamented and flourished letters of the "Theuerdanck," which is the model of modern " germ an- text"; the round-gothic, or the semi-gothic, of Schoeffer, a hybrid of roman and black- letter; the schwabacher and the fractur — all these had admirers. The fractur was at last accepted as the stand- ard form of text-type, but it has never found favor with the Latin races or with English-speaking peoples. This adherence of Germans to pointed letters has prevented interchanges of matrices, which has damaged German type-founding by limiting the sale of its types and books. Before 1700 little was known abroad of German type- foundries, though they were more numerous than those of any other part of Europe. That of John Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf of Leipsic, which was established in 1719, and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1869, was the first to obtain a wide reputation. The brothers Walbaum of Weimar demand notice as reformers of the German char- acter. The Imperial Printing House of Vienna is cele- brated for its large collection of foreign types. Woellmer at Berlin, Schelten and Giesecke at Leipsic, Meyer and Schleicher, nnd Poppelbaum at Vienna, are eminent as founders. The house of W. Drugulin (Jobs. Baensch) of Leipsic is noted for its admirable printing. 92 Brevier, or 8-point, solid Type-founding in the Netherlands during the latter half of the xvth century exhibits the best and the worst of workmanship. Blades believes that there were two schools or two methods : one casting its types in moulds of sand, and the other in moulds of metal; one, the method of an experimenter, or a badly taught pupil; the other, our method, or the "art as it is now used." The type-founding of the alleged Koster and of his school is bad ; that of the printer of the " Book of the Golden Thrones " (Haar- lem, 1484) is excellent. The types of Thierry Martens of Alost, and of some of his rivals and followers, are equal to any from France or Italy. Some of the punches and matrices must have been bought in France or Italy, but more must have been made at home by able engravers who are now entirely unknown. Christopher Plantin of Antwerp had many of his newer styles made by Francois Guyot and his son (educated at Paris, but residents of Antwerp). Laurent Van Everbroeck, Jacques Sor- bon, Aime Tavernier, and Gerard d'Embden were type-founders at Antwerp who worked for the Plantin establishment. Plantin was also supplied with punches and matrices by Le Be, Gara- mond, Haultin of Paris, Bomberghe of Cologne, and Robert Gran- jon of Lyons. Of all these designers he seems to have preferred Granjon. Plantin's Flemish characters were made by Henry van den Keere of Gand, who, with his successor Thomas de Vechter, did mucTi work for his house beween 1567 and 1589. The most notable of the earlier Dutch founders was Christoffel Van Dijk of Amsterdam, of whom little is known except that he cut punches for the Elzevirs. His types, of which his succes- sor Athias of the " Jewish Foundry" issued a specimen of about twenty faces (including Greek, Hebrew, Italic, Roman, Black, and Music), have been warmly praised by Moxon and Willems. Athias (1683) was succeeded by Schipper, Clyberg (1705), and Roman (1767). Dirck Voskens of Amsterdam was equally prom- inent in 1677 as a type-founder. He and his descendants largely supplied English printers with types that were highly commended by Luckombe in his book on printing. In 1780 the name of the house was Voskens & Clerk, afterward A. G. Mappa of Rotterdam. The Wetsteins (R. & H. F.) were German founders who began in Amsterdam before 1740, and who for many years maintained a good reputation for their small types. The firm of Ensched^, formed by Isaac Enschede in 1703, bought out the Wetsteins and made the beginning of the celebrated Haarlem type-foundry, which from time to time ab- sorbed the foundries of Dirck Voskens, J. Blaew, Hendrick de Bruyn, Van den Putte, Van der Velde, and Ploos von Amstel. It is still the largest type-foundry in Holland, and is celebrated for the merit of its oriental characters. Brevier, or S-point, leaded 93 Caxton, the first English printer, began his work with types that show Flemish mannerisms. They were probably made at Bruges, for they closely resemble the curious characters of Colard Mansion and those of John Brito of that city. Garrulous enough in other matters, Caxton is very reticent concerning the opera- tions of typography. In none of his many books does he say anything about the origin of the eight different fonts he used. It is probable that he, like the other printers of his time, bought the punches and matrices where he could, and cast the types in his own printing office. The lower-case letters of one of his later types are exact copies of those made by Fust and Schoeffer, and are equally well executed ; but the capitals for this lower-case retain the peculiarities of the Flemish grosse bdtarde, or secretary. Wynkyn de Worde, pupil and successor of Caxton, used many of his master's types, but the styles he adopted later, and those of his fellow-pupil and business rival, Richard Pynson, were cut by French artists who modified or suppressed all of the Flemish mannerisms. The form of black-letter preferred by these early English printers is still accepted as the best. It has suffered no transforming change which conceals its derivation. The old english black-letter of our day adheres more closely to the models of the first printers than does the Flemish black or the German fractur. The introduction of the Roman form of letter by Richard Pynson in 15 18 did not suppress the black- letter, which remained the favorite letter of the people for more than a century afterward. Reed says : "The Black being employed in England to a late date, not only for Bibles, but for law books, and royal proclamations, and acts of parliament, has never wholly fallen in disuse among us. The most beautiful typography of which we as a nation can boast during the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries, is to be found in the black- letter impressions of our printers." For many years after the introduction of printing England seems to have been dependent on France. Caxton and his successors had books printed at Paris and Rouen. De Worde, Pynson, Faques, Berthelet, and Copeland got many of their punches and types from Rouen. 94 Miniofij or 7-point, solid John Day of London (born 1522, died 1584) was the first English type-founder of niarked ability. He was not a founder to the trade : he made types only for the needs of his own printing office, which was patronized by Archbishop Parker. For that dignitary he made the first distinctively English type, a full font of Saxon, which was intended for iElfric s Saxon Homily and the Saxon Gospels. Reed says that "the accuracy and regularity with which this fount was cut was highly creditable to Day s excellence as a founder." About 1572 he cut a font of double pica italic and roman, which was fully equal to any then in use on the Continent. Archbishop Parker, in a letter to Lord Burleigh, dated December 13, 1572, writes: "To the better accomplishment of this worke and other that shall foUowe, I have spoken to Dale the printer to cast a new Italian letter, which he is domge, and it will cost him xl marks ; and loth he and other printers be to printe any Lattin booke, because they will not heare be uttered, and for that Bookes printed in Englande be in suspition abroad." Another writer adds that "our Black English letter was not proper for the printing of a Latin book." These fonts of roman and italic were made to Hne with each other, a nicety too often dis- regarded by other printers. Day's services to typography were many : he improved the shapes of the Greek letter of his day ; he made types for music, " lozenge -shaped and hollow " ; he cut types on wood for Hebrew when they were needed in his texts ; he made signs, mathematical and other, not before cast in type ; while his works abound with handsome woodcut initials, vignettes and por- traits, besides a considerable variety of metal " flowers " or border ornaments. Some of the woodcuts he had made for his books, of exceptional merit, have never received the consideration they de- serve. His most noticeable work was Fox's " Book of Martjrs," or as itwas then called," Acts and Monuments," of which hepnnted many editions. His device was a pun on his name — a sleeping man aroused by his fiiend and by the rising sun — with the words, "Arise, for it is Day." Day seems to have been one of the few prosperous early printers. Strype, in his life of Archbishop Parker, has this notice: "And with the Archbishop's engravers we may join his printer Day, who printed ' British Antiquities ' and divers other books by his order . . . for whom the Archbishop had a par- ticular kindness. . . . Day was more ingenious and industrious in his art, and probably richer too, than the rest, and so became envied by the rest of his fraternity, who hindered what they could the sale of his books ; and he had, in the year 1572, upon his hands, to the value of two or three thousand pounds worth, a great sum in those days. His friends procured [for] him from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a lease of a little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard." The tablet to his memory has a long inscription from which these lines are selected : \ Two wyves he had, pertakers of his payne, | Each wyfe twelve babes, and each of them one more. | Day published about 250 works. Dibdin says, " (if we except Grafton) Day seems indeed the Plantin of old English typographers, while his character and reputation scarcely suffer dimmution from a comparison with those of his illustrious contemporary." Minion, or 7-point, leaded 95 English typography entered upon a period of distinct decadence after the death of John Day. Christopher Barker, who was queen's printer in 1582, made this report upon the condition of the trade. "In King Edward the Sixt his Dayes, Printers and printing began greatly to increase ; but the provision of letter, and of many other thinges belonging to printing was so exceeding chargeable that most of those printers were Dryven throughe necessitie, to com- pounde before with the booksellers at so low value, as the printers themselves were most tymes small gayners and often loosers. The Booksellers now keep no printing house, neither beare any charge of letter, or other furniture, but onlie pay for the workmanship ... so that the artificer printer, growing every Daye more and more unable to provide letter and other furniture . . . will in time be an occasion of great discredit to the professours of the arte." Barker says there were in 1582 " twenty-two printing howses in London, where eight or ten at the most would suffice for all England, yea, and Scotland too." The first English type-founder to the trade seems to have been Benjamin Sympson of London, who in 1597 was enjoined by the Stationers' Company " not to cast any types or to deliver them without advertising the master and wardens in writing, with the names of the parties for whom they were intended." This is the only record concerning Sympson. In the decree of Star Chamber made July 11, 1637, these four type-founders are named, John Gris- mand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, Alexander Fifield, who have recently been known as the Star Chamber founders. Of Wright and Fifieid nothing more is known. In 1649 John Grismand entered into a bond of ;^300 with two sureties not to print seditious work. In the same year Arthur Nichols, writing to the Archbishop of Can- terbury, complained that " of so small benefitt hath his Art bine, that for four years worke and practice he hath not taken above forty- eight pounds, and had it not bine for other imploymente he might have perisht." It is supposed, but not certainly known, that these four founders contributed the types for the London Polyglot of 1657, the fourth great Bible of the world, and the best specimen of English typography in the seventeenth century. They are consequently now known as the Polyglot founders. Nicholas Nichols, son of (he Arthur Nichols previously mentioned, in 1665 petitioned to be ap- pointed " Letter Founder to your Majesties Presses." The petition was granted, but there is no evidence that he was a skilled founder. 96 Nonpareil^ or Q-point^ solid Joseph Moxon, a type-founder of Ixindon from 1659, to 1683, has distinction as the first English writer on the practice of typography. He had been a maker of mathematical instruments, and by reason of his skill and scientific attainments was appointed hydrographer to the king. In 1676 he published his first book: " Regulse Trium Ordinum Literarum Typographicarum, or the Rules of the Three Orders of Print Letters, viz: the Roman, Italick, English, — Capitals and Small ; showing how they are compounded of Geometrick Figures and mostly made by Rule and Compass." In 1683 he published ' ' Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy- Works, appHed to the Art of Printing." These volumes are thoroughly illustrated expositions of every branch of typography from punch-cutting to presswork. Moxon says that letter-cutting had been " kept so concealed among the Artificers of it, that I cannot learne anyone hath taught it any other, but every one that has used it Learnt it of his own Genuine Inclination." This leads his reader to infer that he was entirely self-taught. His early rude types, and his models tor types as laid down in his first book, strengthen this mference ; but the careful en- gravings of the tools of the punch-cutter and his explanations of all the pro- cesses of type-founding, contained in his second book, show that he was then thoroughly mstructed in every branch of typography and had right to speak with authority. He was deeply impressed witih the great beauty of the Van Dijk types, and makes use of them as models to enforce his theories of the value of geometrical rules in designing letters. No type-founder of his time, or afterward, accepted his geometrical formulas, which all founders say are impracticable, but the information he gives about the practice of other branches can be read now with pleasure and profit. It does not appear that he made any reformation in English typography. The printers of London continued to prefer the types of Dutch founders. Robert Andrews succeeded Moxon, after 1683, and continued the business of type-founding to 1733. His foundry was probably the richest in matrices of all in England, but he was not regarded a good workman. A font of Saxon cut by him for the University Press at Ox- ford was found unsatisfactory and put away. Most of the types of learned languages for which the University foundry was famous were cast in matrices made abroad. Their romans and italics were largely of Dutch manufacture, and they depended on French founders for Greek, Hebrew, and Oriental types. In 1700, when the University of Cambridge wished to buy in Paris a font of the Greek types known as the King's Greek, the French Academy made it a condition of purchase that all books printed therefrom should bear an imprint setting forth that the types were from the French king's royal printing house — a condition which was refused by the University. The Oxford University had a press of its own as early as 1478, but this press did little work of value before 1585. Dr. John Fell, the vice-chancellor, presented it with a complete type- foundry in 1667. Ten years after Mr. Francis Junius enriched the University Press with a valuable collection of punches and matrices. Most of them are now obsoietej but Reed says that under able management the foundry is in active operation, and that the University Press possesses the largest collection of polyglot matrices of any foundry in the kingdom. The only notable founder at Oxford during the seventeenth century was Peter Walpergen, a Hollander. He was succeeded by Sylvester Andrews (before 1714), who was the son of Robert Andrews, the London founder. James Grover, who began business about 1675, and Thomas Grover, his son, were successors to one of the old polyglot founders. They were the first English founders who made the size diamond. They introduced " Scriptorials," " Cursives," " Court-Hand," and several forms of ornamental letters. In 1728 Thomas Grover's daughters, who were his heirs, tried unsuccessfully to sell the foundry in bulk. William Caslon's offer for it was refused as too small. For thirty years the foundry was neglected, and locked up in the house of Nutt the printer, who seems to have made use of it for his own benefit. After the death of the last of Grover's daughters, the foundry was sold to John James. Nonpareil^ or 6-point, leaded 97 Thomas James, one of the apprentices of Robert Andrews, began business in London as a type-founder about the year 1710. There is no evidence that he had any skill as a punch-cutter. It was, probably, a conviction of his own inability, and of corresponding inability on the part of the few punch-cutters then in London, that induced him to go to Holland to buy the punches and matrices he needed to equip his foundry. Rowe Mores, in his "Dissertation on Enghsh Founders," has reprinted some of the curious letters then written from Holland by Thomas to his brother John who was to be his associate in the busi- ness. From these letters it appears that the Dutch founders, willing to sell types, were not so ready to sell matrices, and proposed to part only with those they esteemed the least. Voskens, with whom James tried to deal, saw in him a future competitor and gave him scant civility. Cupi and Rolij, two punch- cutters for Dutch founders, were the men from whom he bought most of his materials. The price paid for those he got are not stated, but James seems to have been well satisfied with his purchases, which were effected only after a deal of suspicion and higgling on both sides. With these matrices the brothers commenced and for many years maintained a successful business in London. Thomas James earned an unenviable prominence as the first antagonist to stereotyping. In 1729 William Ged of Eldinburgh, who had invented a use- ful process of stereotyping, was induced to associate with him Thomas James as a partner. James played false from the beginning, and supplied him with worn types to bring the invention into discredit. By his connivance the com- positors made errors, and the pressmen bruised the plates. After three years of hopeless struggle with these covert enemies Ged abandoned his work in London and returned to Edinburgh, where he printed from stereotype plates an edition of Sallust before his death in 1749. In 1781 Dr. Tilloch of Edin- burgh, with Foulis, then printer to the University at Glasgow, reinvented a new process of stereotype with which they printed several books. Van der May in 1705, and Firmin-Didot, in 1795, also made practicable plates, but the art of stereotype was not really successful until it was perfected by Stanhope in 1800. The business of James declined before his death in 1736. His son John continued the policy of his father in buying matrices from other small foundries, but with a steadily diminishing hold on English printers. Nearly all of the types of this foundry were out of fashion. At his death in 1772 all the material passed by purchase into the hands of the antiquary, Rowe Mores, who did not choose to continue the business and who found it difficult to sell the matrices. Mores says that the "waste and pye" of this foundry contained upwards of six thousand matrices, the assorting of which gave him great trouble, but that he was gratified to find in the rubbish of punches some orig- inals of Wynkyn de Worde. "They are truly -veiusiaie fomtague etsgualore venerabiles." At the auction sale in 1782 the contents of the foundry were dispersed, Dr. Fry buying the matrices of the curious characters. "With this sale," says Reed, "disappeared the last of the old English foundries." 13 98 Agate^ or 5i~point, solid William Caslon of London (bom 1692, died 1766), the ablest type-founder of the eighteenth century, was one of many eminent punch-cutters who never served a regular apprenticeship to the trade. In his boyhood he had been taught the art of a general engi-aver on metal, and was employed , for most of his time at engraving gun locks and baiTels, and letters and ornaments for bookbinders' stamps. About the year 1719, when he was twenty-seven years of age, his marked ability in making letters attracted the attention of the printera John Watts and William Bowyer, who advised him to devote himself to making punches for types. His first commission was the cutting of punches for a font of Arabic, wnieh was so well done that Bowyer, Watts, and Bettenham, another printer, lent him £500 to establish him in business as a tvpe-founder. His next task was the cutting of a font of Coptic, which he did with equal ability. A full font of pica with its mated italic perfected by him, and issued to the trade about the year 1721, was so much better than any then in use, either English or Dutch, that his superior abilities as a founder were admitted without question by all printei-s and publishers. How he organized his foundry, how he secured proper workmen, and obtained a full knowledge of the technicalities of this jealously guarded trade, has never been fully told, but the work was well done. In 1734 he issued a sheet of specimens showing twelve faces of roman and italic, seven faces of two-lines, seven faces of flowers, and seventeen faces of foreign letters — all of which, with three exceptions, were cut by his own hands in fourteen years. Many of the roman and italic faces are now in use under the name of Old-style. Nichols wisely says : " For clearness and uniformity, for the use of the reader and the student, it is doubtful whether it [the Cnslon fashion of letter] has been excelled by any modem production." In 1741! Caslon's eldest son Will- iam (kno'wn in the trade as Caslon ii) was admitted to partnership, and continued the business until his death in 1778. The son was a good founder and fully maintained the reputation of the house, but he showed an ungen- erous depreciation of the work of his father's old apprentice, Joseph Jack- son. The quality of its productions is fairly shown in the "Specimen of PrintingTypes, by W. Caslon & Sons, letter-founders in London," which is in- serted in Luckombe's " Concise History of the Origin and Progress of Print- ing," of 1770. No other foundry of tliat period, nor for a long time after, showed a series of faces so symmetrical. William Caslon iii succeeded to the management of the business, but in 1792 he sold his share in it to his mother and his brother Henry's widow, and bought the foundry of the deceased Joseph Jackson. Under his management the Jackson foundry was much enlarged and improved. About the year 1803 the fourth William Caslon wasadmitted to pai-tnership, and the name of the firm became W. Caslon & Son. In 1807 the seuior partner retired, dying in 1833. His son William Cas- lon IV added to the stock and extended the business of the foundry, but to some extent damaged his reputation as an intelligent founder by an unsuc- cessful attempt at making short, wedge-shaped types, intended to be fitted and fastened on the peiipneiy of a cylindrical printing machine. In 1^19 he sold his foundry to Blake, tramett & Co., who removed the material to Shef- field, where its work was afterward done under the name of Stephenson, Blake & Co. The older Caslon foundry continued to be managed by Mrs. William Caslon, mother to Caslon iii. ' She was an active member of the Association of "rype-founders, and of marked business sagacity. Her great error was her unwillingness to conform to the fashions of the day in type. She died in 1795. The business was carried on with ability by Mra. Henry Caslon until her death in 1809. Her son Henry, in partnei-ship with John Catherwood until 1821, and after\vai'd with Martin W. Livermore, continued as the nominal head of the house until his death in 1874. This fifth genera- tion wan the last of the Caslons, but the house is still flourishing, as success- ful and as highly esteemed as ever, under the management of T. W. Smith. After a neglect of nearly fifty years-the Caslon cut of letter was restored to favor. In 1843 Wliittingham of the Chiswlck Press was requested by the publisher Pickering to reprint "The Diary of Lady Willoughby," a Action of the seventeenth century, in an appropriate old-style dress of letter for which he had no suitable face of type. At his request the Caslon Foundry took out of its vaults the matrices fur great-primer cut by the first Caslon, and cast a small font for this book. This old-style fare met with such ap- priival that all the other matrices of the Caslon old-style were revived. Agate, or bi-point, leaded 99 John Baskerville of Birmingham (horn 1706, died 1775) was Caslon's ablest rival. Like him he served no apprenticeship to type-making. His first serious business was that of a wi-iting master, and a designer and cuttei: of letters on tablets and tombstones. Afterward he began the manufacture of japanned wares, in the sale of which he was remarkably successful. In 1750 he began to cut punches, and to create typographic material for printing a book which he intended should more clearly show his notions about types and printing. He says he spent six years and six hundred pounds before he made a satisfactory type. His first book, "Virgil," in great-primer letter, es- tablished his reputation as an able designer of types, yet it met with much hostile criticism as unnecessarily slender and delicate. His second attempt, a " Greek Testament " in great-primer, was generally condemned. The types of this book were too stiff and too condensed to please tastes formed on earlier models. His editions of the "Paradise Lost," the Bible, and the "Common Prayer," fully regained for him the reputation he had damaged by his Greek. In 1758 he had cut eight fonts of the more used sizes of roman, and was then ready to receive orders from the printing trade. Although his types and his printing were much admired by critics, his types were not bought by printers, who objected to them as weak and unfit for wear. They preferred the stronger ones of Gaslon. In 1760 he tried ineffectually to sell his types, and to retire from the business of printing, because he was heartily tired of it, and repented that he had ever attempted it. Four years after Baskerville's death, his widow sold all his types and type-making material to the Soci6t6 Litt^raire-Typographique, who removed them to Kehl, near Strasburg, where, under the management of Beaumarchais, they made use of some of the types for a complete edition in seventy volumes of the works of Voltaire. So ended the labors of one of the great British type- founders. Alexander Wilson of Glasgow was another competitor of the Cas- lons. His education had been that of a "surgeon's assistant or apothecary," but a chance visit to a type-foundry in London led him to consider, and finally to attempt, the making of types by a new method. In this plan he associated with him John Baine. What the new method was has never been told, but it must have been impracticable, fortheir first types, sold at St. An- drew's in 1742, were made by the old approved method. The partners seem to have been very successful, selling types not only in Scotland but in Ireland and North America. In 1749 Baine withdrew and established a separate foundry at Dublin. Wilson's best production was a font of double pica Greek, specially cut for an edition of Homer, in four folio volumes, admirably printed by Robert and Andrew Poulis, and intended for Plaxman's celebrated illus- trations. In 1760 WUson was appointed a professor of practical astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The type-foundry was removed to that city, and its management devolved upon Wilson's elder sons. This Glasgow foundry soon became a formidable rival to the London founders, for it under- sold them in England. In 1825 the proprietors of the foundry were Andrew and Alexander Wilson, son and grandson of the originator. In 1830 Andrew Wilson died. His sons Alexander and Patrick decided in 1832 to establish a branch in Edinburgh. In 1834 the Glasgow foundry was transferred to Lon- don, where, aftermany vicissitudes, it was finally merged in that of the Cas- lons. The Edinburgh branch, known as Marr, Gallic, & Co., was also trans- ferred to London, and did business as the Marr Type-Founding Company. 100 Pearl, or 5-point, solid Thomas Cottrell, one of the apprentices printin^f trade, and Fry was compelled, of the Caslon house, began a type business much a^^ainst his will, to cut an entirely on his own account in 1757, in partnership new series of faces. The Caslon style was with a fellow-apprentice, Josepn Jackson ; selected as the most salable, but before the but Jackson left him in 1759 to go to sea. cutting of the series had been completed, Cottrell's first specimen book was proba- a fickle public taste had put the Caslon bly published in 1766. It shows roman and style aside, and showed its preference for italic in sizes from five-line to brevier, with newer forms. In 1782 Fry bought the a new form of engrossing, Domesday, and larger part of the old James foundry, which five pages of " flowers or border orna- was ricn in foreign and learned characters, meiits. His styles were of the approved He died in 1787, and was succeeded by Caslon model, but not equal to those of his his son Edmund Fry, who afterward ad- master. Mores savs he made "types of mitted as partners Isaac Steele and George great bulk, as high as twelve-line pica." Knowles. In 1799 this foundry published Cottrell died in 1785, In 1794 his foundry " Pantographia: containingaccuratecopies became the property of Robert Thorne, of all the known Alphabets in the World," one of his apprentices, who, in his speci- in which were shown the characters of men book of 17^, appears to have dis- nearly two hundred languages. Although carded all of his master's fonts, and to this foundry attained a high rank for its have created an entirely new series, re- oriental and "learned" types, it never markable for their lightness, grace, and achieved a commercial success. In 1828 it uniformity. But great changes had been was sold to William Thorowgood, through going on in public taste. Light faces were whom it ultimately became a part of the disapproved; bold and black faces were present Fann street letter-foundry of Sir demanded. To meet this demand, Thorne Charles Reed's Sons, showed in 180^ a full series of " improved Joseph Jackson began the work of type- types " of the bold-face which so seriously founding as an apprentice of Caslon I. vulgarized the book printing of the first He was taught everv branch of the busi- half of this century. Subsequent speci- ness but that of punch-cutting. Thisjeal- mens from his foundry showed still blacker ousljr guarded mystery was practised only and more unsightly faces of large romans, by Caslon and his son in a private room : but they were much admired and freely but Jackson bored a hole in Che wainscot bought by job printers in quest of novelty, of an adjoining room at different times, and Thorne died in 1820. His business was carefully watched every process. When bought and carried on by William Tho- Jackson thought he was able to do the rowgood, who materially enlarged the work, he cut a punch, which he showed foundry with new fonts of foreign charac- with great pride to his master, expecting ters — some cut under his own direction, to get his approval. But Caslon was much some bought abroad, but most of them displeased ; instead of commendation he were from the very full collection of the gave hiin a blow and abuse, and threat- modern Polyglot Epundry of Dr. Fry. In ened to send him to jail if he repeated 1838 Thorowgood admitted Robert Besley his offense, Jackson's mother soothed his to partnership. On Thorowgood's retire- wounded feelings, bought him new tools, ment in 1849, Benjamin Fox, a punch-cut- and encouraged him to continue his punch- ier of ability, was admitted, and the firm cutting studies. Here it may be said that was known as Robert Besley & Co. Mr. nearly every one of the eminent English {afterward Sir) Charles Reed, a printer, punch-cutters attained his proficiency in succeeded in i86r, and the foundry was this art, not by the smooth road of appren- then known as that of Reed & Fox. Sir ticeship and special instruction, but by Charles Reed died in 1881, and the busi- breaking through the obstructions made ness was continued by his sons, one of by masters and fellow-workmen. Jackson whom was Talbot Baines Reed, the author served his time as an apprentice, but again of ■' A History of the Old English Letter offended his master by a request for more Foundries," to whom the writer is indebted wages, for which offense he was discharged for much of the information given in these from the foundry. Then he and his fellow- pages concerning English founders. apprentice Cottrell formed a copartnership Joseph Fry began business in 1764 as a and began business for themselves in 1757. type-founder in Bristol. He had been edu- They did not find enough profit in their cated as a physician, and had distinction venture for two, and Jackson soon aban- as a ripe scholar, but he was impelled to doned the work and went to sea as an the mechanical trade of type-founding as armorer. On his return he made a new M0X011 had been — by "genuine inclina- attempt at establishing a type-foundry, not tion," and a strong desire to emulate the with Cottrell. but through the aid of two achievements of Baskerville. whose styles fellow-workmen, who allowed him ^£62 8s. of letter he made the models of his earlier per annum for his living expenses. On types. His first partners were William this narrow money basis he laid the foun- Pine, aprinter.and Isaac Moore, a white- dation of whatafterward became one of the smith. Bristol was found too small a field largest of British type-foundries. His first for the new enterprise, and they moved work, in 1765, met the approval of Bowyer, the foundry to London. Here they met a the great printer of Lonaon, who told him serious disappointment. The Baskerville that he had been the means of old Caslon style of face was decidedly rejected by the riding in his coach, and that perhaps he Pearl, or 5^oint, leaded 101 might be the means of doing the same for his successor by Caslon's purchase of the Jackson. Even the elder Caslon unbent foundry. John Nichols, the printer, lent his austerity, and told his disparaging son young Figginsthe money needed to estab- that Jackson's art and skill would yet com- lish him in business. He began, in 1792, raand respect. In 1773 he had organized with a great undertaking— the cutting of a small but valuable foundry, and had the double english (commenced by Joseph earned reputation as a skilful mechanic Jackson) intended for the Macklin "Bl- and punch-cutter. The types he made ble." Reed says: "Of the excellence of for a facsimile edition of the "Domesday the performance both as a facsimile and Book," admirably printed by Nichols in as a work of art, a reference to the splen- two folio volumes, extorted praise from did Bible itself, and the no less splendid every type-founder and every man of let- edition of Thomson's • Seasons,' in which ters. He was equally successful in his the same type was used in 1797, is the most facsimiles of the Greek types of the " Co- eloquent testimony. Mr. Figgins received dex Bezae." His most important work was the honour of being named on the title- the double english roman made for the pageof the latterwork, which still remains " Macklin Bible," in seven volumes royal one of the finest achievements of English folio. Jackson did not live to see the typography." He was as remarkable for conclusion of this work, which had to be his industry as for his skill. No foundry supplemented by the labor of a former ap- of the time equaled his in the number or prentice ; but the design of the letter was general merit of its productions. He cut his, and Nichols says it was a pattern of a new face of Greek for the Oxford Press, the most perfect symmetry to which the new forms of Persian, Telugu, Domesday, art had arrived. He died in 1792, and his Hebrew with points, a facsimile of Cax- foundrj'wasbought by William Caslon III. ton's first letter, and a series of intricate Baskerville's ablest successor, not to his German-texts. After a general commenda- foundry or business, but to his skill and tion of his work, Hansard adds : " I feel it style, was his apprentice Robert Martin, particularly incumbent on me to add . . . whose brother William, in 1790, became that he has strayed less into the folly of the head of a small but famous foundry, fat-faced preposterous disproportions than Boydell and Nicol had matured plans for either Thorne, Fry, or Caslon," Mr. Fig- their great edition of " Shakespeare," to gins relinquished business in 1836, and died be printed by Bulmer, and William Mar- in 1844. His two sons, Vincent Figgins II. tin was engaged by them to make " imita- and James Figgins, succeeded in 1836. tions of the sharp and fine letter used by Vincent Figgins II. died in i860, leaving the French and Italian printers." The the business to be carried on by James appearance of this book, soon followed by Figgins I. and his son James Figgins II., an equally admirable edition of Milton, the latter being the present proprietor, was an unexpected revelation of the pos- William Miller, once the foreman of the sibilities of typography. Under the able Wilson Foundry at Glasgow, began busi- management of Bulmer, the Shakespeare ness on his own account at Edinburgh in Press printed many admirable books, of 1809, From the beginning his foundry which these are the most esteemed: Dib- had a remarkable success; it was a rival din's "Typographical Antiquities," the not only of the Glasgow, but of the London "Decameron," M'Creery's "The Press," founders. In 1832 William Richard was and the " Poems " of Goldsmith and Par- admitted as partner ; in 1838 the name of nell, for most of which Martin provided the firm was changed to Miller & Richard, the types. All were based on the Bas- Reed says that this foundry was the first kerville models. But these types were to introduce successfully type-casting ma- admir^ble only when carefully printed, chinery in Great Britain. William Miller Martin was not able to change the incom- died in 1843, and the business was carried ing fashion for fat and bold faces. He on by Richard and his son until 1868. Since died in 1815, and his foundry came to an the retirement of Richard, senior, the end, the Caslons taking the more valuable foundry has been managed by his sons portions of his collections. J. M. Richard and W. M. Richard. Vincent Figgins was the favored appren- Anthony Bessemer, the inventor, was tice of and expected successor to Joseph a founder of marked ability, in Lon- Jackson, but he was prevented from being don, between the years 1821 and 1832. 102 Diamond, or 4:i-point, solid In hu twentletti year, Baseoier bad dutiDenialied himself by the erection at Haarlem in Hoiland of pumping enginea. Before he wbj twenty-five years of ago he was elected a member of the Academie at Paris for liis improTcmenta ]n the microscope. He cut the diamond type used by Piclcering for bis diamond edi- tions. The fonndry was disponed in 1832. His son Henry was a maator of the mechanics of the trade, and patented impniTements in type-founding before he was twenty- Gve yean old. Richard Austin, a noted punch-cutter, bad a fonndry in London before 1819. George Austin, his son, suc- ceeded him in 1824. After his death the foundry was ownod hv R. M. Wood, who in partnerabip with 8. and T. Sharwood continued the business. After their death the busineis caased, and their collection wm dispened. Lonia John Pouchde was a type-founder by Didoi's polymatype method at London in 1819, but was nn- successful. In 1830 he abandoned the bnainess, and sold at auction twenty thousand matricea, puucbes, etc., and thirty-fiTO tons of type Abel Bnell of Klllingworth, Connecticut, is accred- ited, on imperfect eTidence, as one of the early type- founden in the United Slates. His regular busineis was that of a whitesmith. It does not appear that be was ever in a type-foundrr, or that he ever received any instruction in the art, but in 1789 he petitioned the General Assembly of his State for money to eitablish a type-foundry. To prove his ability to make types, he appended to his petition impressions from types that he saU he had made. The petition was granted, but bis fonndry did not prosper, and was aooo extinct. In 1768 David Mitchelson, a die-sinker from London, attempted to eatafaliab a type-foundry at Boiton, but did not succeed. It is possible that Buell got hia slender knowledge of type-founding from Mitcheuon. In 177*^ Christopher Bauer (or Sower, as he spelled it in English), second of the name, established a type- TouDdry at Germantown, near Philadelphia. Tnis foundry waa managed by Justus Fox, who seems to have been expert in many mechaDica] arts. In 1784 Fox purchased the fooudrj, and with hia son con- tinued the business until his death in I8D6. In 180S Fox's SOD sold the foundry to Samuel Sower, ton of Christopher Saner, who had previously tried to estab- lish a type-foundry at Baltimore, which attempt was successfully renewed by him in ISIfi. Jacob Bey, a German, began a second fooodry at Germantown about 1774. Benjamin Franklin when in Paris bought from P. S. Foamier, the inventor of the point system of trpe- bodies,a complete equipment for a type-foundry which he intended should be established at Philadelphia, lb this end he had his grandson H. F. Bache receive in- struction from Fonrnter, that bo might be qualified to manage the foundry. Franklin and bis grandson ar- rived in Phlladelnhia in 1776, and began the business ortype-fonnding, nnt they were not tncceasful. Thomas iayi that they did not or could not make good typea. The foundry was neglected, and Bache turned hia atten- tion to printing. John Baine (once partner with Alexander Wilson of Glasgow) and hi) grandson began a type-foundry in Pbiladdphia in the year 178fi. Thev wore the fint skilled founders in the city, and soon had fntl employ- ment, one of their most important orden being a laree font of types for an enoyclnpedia to be printed by Don- son. In 1790 the elder Baine died. Soon after the grandson abandoned the business and removed to Au- gusta, Georgia, where he died in 1799. About the vear 177S Benjamin Meoom, a printer and nephew or Benjamin Franklin, attempted to make itereo^pe plates. He cast plates for a number of pages of the New Testament, hut never completed the work, and finally abandoned the undertaking. The first book •tereotyped in the United State* was " The Larger Catecnlim," of 142 pages. It l>ean the Imprint of J. Watt* & Co., New York, 1813. H & J. CoUlns and Collini & Haunay were the Watts, who returned to England In 181G The Grit type-founder in New York was Adam O. Mappa,whonad snccesarDlly practised type-making in Holland. He was obliged to leave his country for imtitical causes. His name appean in the New York Directory for 1792. His foundry waa fairly equipped with Dutch faces, but his stock of romans waa poor. He was not successful, la 17^ he entered the service of Binnr &Sonaldson, andwas with them three yean. Some of his faces appear in their book of specimens. He then went into the service of the Holland Company. He died in 1828. The firat founder In the United States of marked aliility waa Archibald Binny of Scotland, who bad made types in a small way at Edinburgh. In 1796, in connection with Jamea Ronaldson, he established a type-foundry at Philadelphia, which soon took the lead of the other foundries in that city. In 1811 he patented a valuable improvement to the mould — a spring lever which eave a quick return motion to the matrix, and enablea the type-caster to make more types with less exertion. He made a machine for the automatic rub- bing of type, but it was not successful. He retired in 1819. Jame* Ronaldson and Bichard Ronaldson con- tinued the bnsineaa. In J820 Lawrence Johnson, a printer and native of England, eatablished a stereotype foundry in Philadel- fbia. In 1833 be formed a partnenhip with George '. Smith for the purpose of buying the type-foundry of Richard Ronaldson, Under the new management the operations of the foundry were larcely extended. In 1843 George F. Smith withdrew. In 1845 John- son admitted to partnenhip Thomas MacKeQar, John F. Smith, and Bichard Smith, who had been trusted employees of thia boose. Peter A. Jordan was added afterward. Before his death in 1860 Johnson sold the foundry to hi* jnnior partners, who continued the busi- ness under the name of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, and afterward of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Com- fany, but the house has not lost its old name of the obnson Foundry. John P. Smith was born January 20, 181G, and died November 1, 1889. Peter A. Jordan was bom in Philadelphia, 30th of May, 1822, and died there 26th of March, 1884. Richard Smith died September 8, 1894. In 1892 the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Company became the Philadelphia branch of the American Type Founders Company. In 1804 Elihu White and William Wing of Hart- ford, Connecticut, undertook to make types without any experience in type-founding, and even without any knowledge whatever of the construcbon of the ap- proved form of type-mould. After repeated failures they were obliged to send one of their workmen to the foundry of Binny & Ronaldson of Philadelphia, but he failed to get the knowledge needed. After doing a limited business in Hartford, White separated from Wing, moved his foundry to New York in 1810, and made type In an old building on Beach street Fore- seeing the rapid growth of cities in what was then the Far West, he established branch foundries in Bnffhb and Ciuoinnati. Dying in 1836. the business waa con- tinued by bis son John T. White. He was succeeded by Norman White, and when his son was admitted to partnenhip the Grm-name waa changed to Charles T. White ft Co. Charles T. White retired in 1864, after Belling the type-foundry to hit employeea, A .D. Farmer, Andrew Little, and John BenUey, whu carried on bnsineBB under the name of Farmer, Little & Co. Andrew Little and John Bentlev retired in 1892. A. D. Farmer died in 1896. The business is now carried on by William Farmer, under the name of A. D. Farmer's Son Type Founding Co. In 1806 Robert Lotbian of Scotland tried and failed to establish a type-foundry in New York. His son George B. Lothian, who had been taught the trade of stereotyping in the stereotype foundries of John Watts of New York and B. & J. Collins of Philadelphia, and bad also received instruction from his father and from Eliha White In type-founding, undertook to establish a type-foundry in Pittaburgfa, Pennsylvania. It waa an unsuccessful enterprise, and Lothian ratnmed to New York. In 1822 ie undertook to make type for Diamond, or 4:i-point, leaded 103 the firm of Harper & Brotben. The faces of Greek which he cat for the Anthon Claaaical Series were very much admired. After his death in 1851 the Lothian foundry was sold to Peter C, Cortelyou and W, H. GifGng. When Cortelyou died in 1876, the bnsineas of this foundry ceased, and its contents were dispersed. £dwin and Richard Starr, who had been inducted in the trade by filihn White, made an ansnccBBsful at- tempt to establish a type-foandry in Pittsburgh, Peun- sylvania. Equally unfortunate in other attempts in Albany and New York, they were afterward employees in the foundries of New York and Boston. James Conner, a printer of New York, be^n busi- ness as a stereotyper in that city in the year 1827. He made the firststereotypeedition of the New Testament. He also earned a good reputation as the publisher in the United States of the Bible in folio rorm To the business of stereotyping he soon after added that of type-founding, in which he was remarkably BOcceisful, By the Bid of Edwin Starr, then in his employ, he made the electrotype matrices which enabled him largely to increase the faces of his foundry. The Conner Foundry WHS the first in this country to introduce light faces. After the death of James Conner in 1861 the foundry was managed by his sons under the name of lames Conner's Sons. William Crawford Conner, the eldest son, was bom in New York, 4th of December, 1821, and died there on the 26th of April, 1881. James Madison Conner was bom in Boston the 2d of Novem- ber, 1826, and died in New York on the 14th of July, 1887. The grandsons of the founder, Benjamin F. and Charles 8., managed aSkirs for the five years preceding 1892, when they merged the hosineas in that of the American Type Founders Company. William flagar, who had been an employee and after- ward a partner in the firmof Charles T. White &. Co., began hasiness as a type-fonnder in New York about 1S4D. At one time he owned the patent right of the Bruce type-casting machine, and devoted much of his time to its introduction in the United States and in foreign countries. He died in 1863, leaving the foandry to be mana);ed by his sons, who afterward abandoned the business. The foundry is now extinct. David Brace [bom in Scotland, 1770 ; died in New York, 1857) was the head of a type-founding family which has done much for the improvement of the arts of stereotyping and type-making. After serring an apprenticeship to printing in Edinburgh, he emigrated to New York in 1793, where he followed his trade as a pressman. In partnership with his younger brother George Bruce, he began business in New York as a master printer in 1806. Rumors having reached them of the advantages of the new art of stereotyping, David went to London in 1812, and ineCTectnally tried to get the information he desired from the inventor, Earl Stanhope. From other persons be gut, as he thought, enough of hints or suggestions to warrant bim begin- ning the work. On his return to New York he added stereotyping to his business, inwhichbemade a marked success. Three of the most valuable aids to stereo- typing are his unquestioned inventions : tho shaving machine, which enables the stereotyper tn make all plates of even thickness; the "patent-block" of mahog- any, which firmly holds the sterwtypo plate, and yet allows its ready release or change to any newposition j the dove-tailod packing box with sliding cover, which secures plates fVom injury and permits rough handling in transportation. Tn 1822 he withdrew from business, but continued to experiment in type-founding with use- ful results, David Bruce, Jr., son of David, at an early age gave great attention to the mechanics of type-casting. The machines of Wing & White, of Starr & Sturdevant of Boston, and William M. Johnson of Hempslead, had been tried and rejected by the trade. The first ma- chines of Bruce wore equally unsatisfactory, hut in 1833 he made a machine which was generally adopted and had no worthy rival for more then fifty years. He also invented a type-rubbing and dressing machine of merit, and was fairly successful as a punch-cutter. Many meritorious forms of script and ornamental letter now put aside as old-fashioned were designed and engraved by his hand. Qeorge Bruce {bom in Edinburgh, in 17fil ; died in New York, 1866) emigrated to this conntry in 1796. After serving apprenticeship as a printer in Philadel- phia and working as a compositor in New York, he be- came the business partner of bis brother Darid. Their new enterprise of stereotyping was seriously hindered by the shapes of the types they had to use. Types as then made had no shoulder. The beard or neck sloped at a very long angle from face to shank. The plaster used in stereotyping filled these sharp angles, from which it was removed with difficulty. Breakages which defaced the mould and spoiled the cast were frequent. After many unsuccessful eSbrts to induce type-founders to make types with square shoulders, the brothers undertook to make types for themselves. They begun with the materials unsuccessfully used by the brothers Starr. Their first specimen book is dated 1816. George Bruce was an enthusiastic and inde- fatigable punch-cutter, who found his greatest pleasure, even at advanced age, in cutting letters, many of which are still admired as models of good form. His services to type-foundingby bis system of geometrical bodies are relatedin this hook in the chapter on the Point System. David Wolfe Brace (bora in New York, in 1823), the youngest son of George, succeeded to the business of George Bruce, which be continued, in partnership with James Lindsay, under the name of George Brace's Son & Co. Between the years 1868 and 1876 he produced an unusually complete series of " penman " scripts, the most difficult aod the most expensive feat of type- founding ever undertaken in this country, David Wolfe Bruce retired from hasiness in 1890, transfer- ring the entire foundry to bis employees Henry M. Hall, Vilinder B. Munson, and Robert Lindsay. The younger Lindsay died in the same year , Hall retired in 1896. The business is now conducted by Munson, under the name of V. B. Mnnson. James Lindsay was bom in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1825, and was taught the trade in the foundry of Alexander Wilson of Edinburgh. He died in Brook- lyn on the Sath of September, 1879. He was a thor- oughly educated type-founder and a punch-cntter of admitted ability. 104 Brilliant, or 4:-point, solid PsUr C. CartelyDii, > trpe-foundar of Vrw York, vu Foundi?. Whta Hkvlu lotirsd the biuineu wu bora Id Naur Jerjioj In Iwui KDd dliid la Stateii Iiljind gujUaod mm an inoarponUd eompuiy. on thB Xlh of BtptrmbcT, ISTS, HU flnt kaowladgo ot aUrdei, Lnu & Co. ■■tabllahiHl ft t; tTp^foaudlncouniwlTsd InfltUbuiYbin the;»TlH^ FnndHo In 1878, of which K. C. fl — llatumlug to ITsiT York, hebfloama anemplojaeaiid kftcr- urinar uid niAiugar. In 1S!{4 the fooiulr; •raa wftrd k pkiliier of Ororge BruBs At his duth ha wu fklmar & Baj. >.. _. ^.. _. ^ ^ ..... . John Ryui btgan & ^p»Joimdry at Hkllldaj •treat, B»l(lin«ra, In r- ' * ' * ' nndar the title i ... __ __ _ ^ _ . , fonnder of the , . wknl worked as • compomltor in Iha Baton Typa and panj, died U>7 8. 18tJS. It U now a biaueh of the A Htareotjrpe Foundry. In 182S ha began bniluau ai a can Tjyt Foondan Compuny master prinlor. Unable to get from but trpc-foaadrj of Holmes h Ciirtii iMgan a tyTw-foiindrT in Devonihire his eity "^ ' '^'- ' ' ' " ' ' -" ' ' ~ . - .- ,^^ x._i .u_j ._ icmi >^ . hare the lie types liJi taste drnundad, he undertook to itraet, Boston, In iOfJ. Holmes retind In 1B52. E. A. 1 made. The atyle known a* the Seoleh-faea Cnrtle eontlnued the business for ten or twtlra yean, when wu madalled by him in IbJ7, but eat and ust to hli E Z. Hitehall wu admittod u putncr. Uitehell died in order by Aiezander VTllson & Son, of Edinburgh. The 1880 , CurtU died in 188U. The foundry was eontlnned matrlcEslmiiortodby him weretha&raltypes of theDickln- by Carolliia Curtis esecatriz, undrr the name of Curtis BDD Foundry in IfiSB, and wen rrceired with marked (arar & Hitehell, fant it aftrcward eontwaed under the name of The Artt speolinen-book of the Dieklnson Foundiy, pub- Palmer tc Fruden. llshed in 1842, showe a reflned taste and marked abillt,r, ^mual C. Collins and Alexander WLetaUa began the and su-red as a stimulus to other founders. At his d^atb business of type-fonnding a( Philadelphia Id ApnI. 1S93. the foundry passed to other hand t. andforsomeyean did ColUna died Jnly 13, 1883. Hla Interest wu bonght by business under the name of Phalpa. Dalton k Co. It Is Thomu A. Wiley. In Uareh, 1887, STLurter bonght now managed by J, W. Phinney. of the old firm, and is Wiley's interest The boslDess was earriad on under an important branch of the American Typi Foundar* the management ot Eugene H. Monday until It wu Company. merged In Uie American Type Foonden Compan)'. Ulahul Dalton, of the old firm ot Phelpi It Dalton. and Bamhart firxK. i Bpindler (A. M. Bamhart, Wuren ton, wu Barnhart, and Oharles E Snindler) h " ■ theyearlHSL Lnters' Supply Dearly sixty years. P*ny : l^e dreat Western Type Foundry, Omaha : The Nathan Lyman, bora In Corentry, Conn., In 1790, be- Qraal Wealarn Type Foundry, f--— City ; The Uinne- eamc an omployaB of Elihu White, ol Hartford, in 1810. aoU Type Foundry Company. BL Paul. In 1891 the In IS£> ba was connaoted with the Albany typ«.fo ..... iijQ ^1 proportionate remaining partneia. In July, 18B3a the bnilnass wai reor- rates. In 1830-31 the boslnen ot this toundn wu carried gmnlied u a stock eompany, of which John Uardi on under the name of Starr, Little i Co. In ltQ3 Siarr pmldrnt, A. P. Luie, rlee-presldont, and Jah_ and Little had aepuated, each eonducting a separata busl- Marder, »ecretB£T. Collins died in 1673, Mueller li under the name of Starr, Little k Co. In ltQ3 Siarr pmldrnt, A. P. Luie, rlee-presldont, and John W. ' 'Itlla had aepuated, each eonducting a separata busl- Marder, eecretary. Collins died in 1673, iT Starr'a name dUappur* trvm the Direotoiy In 1810, 188S ; Luse in ISSL It is now a branch of the auu i^ittle's In 18i8. IVpe Founders Company. O. R. Tan Benlhaysen (bora ITSO, died 18U). who had The Central Tj^ Fonndn was eatahllshed at St. Lonis, Iieen apprenltced to a bookbinder, aasorlaled with Robert Ulsaouri, In the year 187& by C Hehmnbatadter and Paekard in IBlSt and they tKgan bosinaisaa printers Abont J, A. SI. John, tonneily i^ the Boston Type Fonndry. 1832 ihey added the new branch of atereotyping, and soon In 1B92 St, John retired, and the bu^neB was sold to the type-founding. They put in type-oeetlng machines, American Type Founders Ooinpany. -uiuh were driven by stasjn-power from a small upright The type-foundry of John F Raton a wm. ai r-i •team -<■□([ DC ot Onrman sUrer of domestic manufarture City, Mlasonri, was there established in the year ItfiS hy < laae Van Benthuysen It Fsfkard werv Joint John Reton His son John B. Raton wai admitted s proprieton of th.^ " A11>any Argus *' and State printers, partner in 1882. It Is no"« a branch of the American Tyw-founding (of text-types onlyl wu continued, but Type Founder* Company. only for the needs of that bouse, by the succtsaor. Charles The type-foundry of Lewie Felonsa k Co.. Philadelphia. Van Bsnthuyian. wae there eetabliehed In the year 1841 by Edward Pelouta : Jamai Fnsdiek Starr, 'a stereolyper In New York, Boston, In the same year the foundry wu sold to Lewis Pelonse . and Pfailadalphls, between IRM and 1S3& died in lUlnoi* In 18^ the flrm-name wu ohanged to Lewis Pelonse k in 1B33 Richard (bom lTt& died 1B4S) wu a type-founder Co . by sale ot Intamt to H. L. Hartshorn. Lewis for nearly fifty yean. Banry R., twin brother of Richard. P..lo(ua died In 167G, and H L. Hartshorn baoMna sole wu a pnnch-outter. The dale of his daatb le unknown, owner In 1876 William M. Hartahorn became a pu^ner. Edwin, a younger brother, a punch-eutter and inventor In 1878 John K. Tatlow waa admitted u partner. In ot ability, died in 18,13. In partnership with hU son 1B80 W M Hartshora retired . in 1833 J K. Tetlow re. Tbomat W. he oarrlad on the bnsiueu of type-foundlikg In tlnd, leaving H L. Hartahorn sole proprietor Between Baltimore and Philadelphia under thr name ot B Starr & the yean 186S and 18^ H L. Harishom manued thebusU Son. This tonadry wu afterwaj^l sold to Coilins k M'Lca- ness of Lewis Pelouie k Co., at RlcbmandTTIrglnla. It star of Ptiiladelphta. li now a branch of the American Type Foonden Coinpany. Andnw Foreman, pnvlously of the BrBce Foundry The Keystone Type Foumlry waa estabUshad at Fhlla- of New York, wu engaged by WlUlam Faulkner to o«- delpMa In 1888 by the Hatbar Uanufaeturing Company, tablUh a type-foundry In San Franelsoo, wltloh be did In who rontinue u proprieton. The manager Is Walter J. ISae, bullJfng the flnt machines and eaating the flnt MeKee. typeemadetaOaliforala. This foundry, aided t^ Conner's The Cleveland Type Foundry wu established at Cleve- Sans of New York, did business under the name of Fanlh- laud, Ohio, in the year ISTSl by the H. H. Thon Uanu- nor k Sou until 1880, when It wu sold to Painter k Co. facturlng Compauv (H H. Thorp, president ; F B. Bory, and Incorporated with thalr foundry Then Foreman es- secrataiy ; L. O, Hlolonan, treasutar ; and'" ^ »_■-. tablishad a new foundry, which now does buslneu under eupuintandent). I ' the name of Ponman k Son. Type Foundan Com Painter k Son eatabllahed a type-toundrr at Hau Fran- The Dnlon Type I eleeo in loss, with maoblDBs and moulds from the John- tlialdty In the year ton Foundry of Philadelphia. J B Palnl«T died In IBtn. Type Foundry, by formeremployeee of Harder,Laia & Co.. The businees cloaed In 1S98, the plant going to the Ameri- and cnntniUed 1^ dlflbrent managua until 1884. when It can Type Foil n'lsn Company. wu inDorpuraled under Its preunt name. In 1688 it Hawks & Hliettuok began tn make type in Han Fran- bought out the Manhattan Type Fonndry of New York, dsBo In 1893, under the name of the Paelfie Slates Type taking all their material It is now managed under Brilliant, or 4r-point, leaded 105 the (general direction of the Ajusrioui Type Foundon Compuiy Ihg Claciunati Tjps Fonndiy wh eBtubliihiiil in thAt clt7 la the jear IBll b7 Oliver Walls, Honcn VftU*. and John Wliito, After sovoral obiui^oB in pnTtnvnMpi in 1630 it vaa nuLde a fltoalc cQmpuiT'. It< mAna^ en linoo 1861 hiiTo baen Charlee WoUs, Henry Bortb, and W, F. Hunt. Cbu-lea WoIIb died in 1885. It te now » hranah of tho Azacriean Typo Foanden Company. John Q. Mangel ic Co. began a typs-foiindtng boiiacu at Bnltimuro in 1881. John O. Uoagol, Jr., had boan a pavbnar of John Ryan. John Q. Mongol^ Si.f became a partner In February, 1883 This foundry IB non a branch of tho Amoricau Typo Fouudoni Company. The St Louia Type Foimdiy vaa eitabliahed at 3t. Louk in I&IO by Geoige Choiloa of tho Joluuon Foundxy of Philadelphia. In 18U ha sold it to A. P. Ididew o( Albany, ». Y. In 1617 Lodew lold one-half to T. F Furooll of LoulaviUo. In 18SS FurceU u>ld his Intorait to V. J. Feani of St. Louie. In 1^59 Xjidsw became ante owner, but In 1B61 he lold out to the Cinoinnatl Typo Foundry. In 1881 the buiineai wo« incorporated ae the St. Louii llyjie Foundry. It is now a branch of the American Tj^e Fonnden Com- pany. In 1B56 Lawrence Johnson of PbllodclphiA eRtabliihcd a branch foundry in Cineinnati, and put it under the man- agement of iLobeTt AUiHon, an employee, who afterward became ita owner. It waa then known ai tho Franklin lyjtB Foundry. In 1B68 SI. Smith became a partner. In 1B92 it woe merged in the American Type Foundon Com- pany, and is now known oa Brnnah 10 of that concern. The Boston Type Foundry began in 1817. It undertook to caat typee, Mt typei, and make ateiootype plate*. It> flrot specimen book of 1S20 announces Timothy Bcdlington and Charles Ewer aa proprietorfl, who offer to sell nonpareil at one dollar and forty cents and pearl at one dollar and sevanty-flTe cents per pound Between 1B30 and 1S3B the Boston Type Foundry gave mush encouragement to David Bruce, Jr., who was then experimenting with his typo- casling machine. Before it was organised as a corporation in 1840, James Conner had been tho mnnager of tho sbcreo- typing and Michael Dolton of the typo-founding departs menta. ltd first president was 0. C. Little, and its first agent John Gorham Bogera. Sowall Phelpa was tlxon at the head of tbe stereotype foundry. James Shuts suc- coedcd J. O. Bogors. About 1849 tho stereotype branch of the business was sold. Soon alter the type-foundry was sold to John K. Rogers, David Watson, and Edward Folouie, who did business under the name of John K. Bogera &: Co. After Felouie retired in 1871 the buatneia was carried on under the name of the Boston Typo Foundry. Soon after a branch at St. Louis was ostab- lishcd under the charge of two employaoa of the bouse, James A. St. John and Carl Schmubatodter. John K. Bogcni' Interest was bought by 8L John and Sehraub- stadter, who afterward aold the busiuois \o the American Type Founders Company. John Kimball Rogers, onee a prominent member of the Boston Type Foundry, was bom at Gloucester, Mass., on the 3lBt of -TonDaiy, 1B2L He died at Longwood, Mass,, on the Z7tll of January, 1888 The type-foundry of O. J. Cary & Co. of Baltimore was here established in 1801 by Robert Sower. Ita subse- quent proprietors were : K. B. Spaulding. 1816 ; F. Lucas, Jr. 1832 ; Lucaa Brothon, 1851 , Henry Lucas, 1860 ; P B. Lucas, 18^ : Henry L. Pclouse k Son, 1379 ; C. J. Caiy & Co., 18S3. The Woshin^n Type Foundry was established In 1869 as a branch of tho Riehmond Typo Foundry, then uniler tho nunogoment at H. L. Pelouic. It was afterward munaged by different memlMrs of the Felouie famUy. It ia now managed by J, H. Mills & Co Philip Holnrich, a type-founder of Frankfort, Germany, came Ui ibit country in 1319. For ton years after lie was In the employ of type-tounden of New York and Phlla- dolpbia. In IBGO ho began business aa a master type- founder. He died in 1893. In 1872 the Now York Printing Co. wo* making text- typas for its own use, but this branch of its business is not done now by ita successors. George Munro is the only printer of New York iTbo undertakes to make types for hia own noeda. In 1850 3. B. Walker and H. L. Pelouio of New York added type-founding to their previous business of lead- oastlng. In 1856 they establiahod a amall type-foundry in Bidmiond, Virginia. In 1860 the partnership was dissolved, Pelouze taking tho Richmond foundry. After Walker's death in 1808, tho business was continued by his son Samuel B. Walker, and R. F. Colo. Theodore TuthiU and P. H. Bresnan wore aubseq^Uont partners. Since 1B83 the ftrm-noma has been Walker Ic Bresnan. Robert and John Lindsay (brothers to James) began type-founding in New York in IgS2. Another brother, Alexander W., became a third partner in ItiSG, in the now firm of R. & J. & A. W. Lindsay. Alexander W. subsequently oatablished a separate business which was continued for many years. In 1692 be niergod it in tho American Type Founders Company. The older Lindsay Typo Foundry afterward eontinuedthe business under the name of Rolwrt Lindsay Ic Co. In the antnnm of 1893 the American Type Foundon Company was established, with a capital stock ot nine million dollars, which was afterward reduced. The oompany was formed to ae^nire and carry on the business of the following firms and corporations : MacKellar, Smitha & Jordan Oom Philadelphia. Collins Ic ItTLeestcr, Pliiladelphia, Pelouie k Co., FbUadelphia. James Conner's Sons, New York. P. H. Hoinrloh, New York. A, W. Lindsay. New York. Charles J. Cory Sc Co., Baltimore, The John Ryan Co., Baltlmoro . J. Q, Mengel Sc Co., Baltimore. Hooper, Wilson & Co., Baltimore. Boston Typo Foundry, Boston. Phulps, Jlalton & Co,, Boston. Lyman & Son, Buffalo. Allison Ic Smith, Cincinnati. Cinolnnati Type Foundry, Cincinnati. Cleveland Type Foundiy, Clevoland- Marder, Luse 4 Co., Chicago. Union Type Foundiy, Chicago. Benton, Waldo & Co , Milwaukee. Central Typo Foundry, St. Louis. St. Louis Type Foundry, St. Louis. Kansas City Typo Foundry, Kansas City. Palmer Ic Rey, Son Francisco, In the prospectus of the company it was claimed that the aiHive-nomed twenty-three companies and Bixna man- ufaeture end saU about eighty-flvo per cent, of the en- tire output of type in the United Slates. The principal foundries tliat declined to bo merged in the conipany were : Farmer, Little & Co., New York. George Bruce'a Son Ic Co., Now York. Bamhart Bros. 4 Spindler, Chicogo. The typos most used on daily newspapers are noiv (1899) made by many of the offices on tho linotype machine. Tho diversion of this branch of type-founding io the now pro- cess hos notapporentlyaffooted tho output of the American Type Founders Company, who stUl continue to make book and job types by the older mothodf or a steadily increasing 106 Leaded and Solid Matter In the preceding illustrations, twenty-two dis- tinct sizes are shown, ranging from the large Eeaineed ^^^^ ^^ six-line pica, which is nearly one formally inch in height of body, and the small size ^^^ of brilliant, which is about one-twentieth of an inch in height of body. Between the sizes of nonpareil and pica, the difference of each body from its proximate body is about one seventy- second part of an inch; between all proximate sizes below nonpareil, about one one-hundred-and- forty-fourth of an inch. The inexpert may say that there are too many bodies, but there is need for all of them. The early printers, who printed books with half the number, worked to great dis- advantage. The so-called irregular sizes, which are almost as common as the regular, enable modern publishers to make books and newspapers to suit every taste. A book in small-pica costs less than one in pica, yet it is equally readable. The adver- tisements in nonpareil that overcrowd a news- paper are quite as acceptable when set in agate, even if they occupy a smaller space. In the illustrations of sizes shown on pages 76 to 105, the types of the facing pages are pre- Leaded cisely the same. The difference in their aad solid appearance is produced by leading. The Unes of the even page are " solid," or as close together as they can be brought ; the lines of the odd page have been separated by the insertion of thin pieces of soft type-metal known as leads. Leads of Different Forms 107 These leads, like the quadrats and spaces which separate words, are not quite type-high ; they do not appear in print, not being touched by the ink- ing rollers. Leading between lines of composed matter makes print more readable, by giving more white space in a place where relief is of advantage. The selection of the thickness of the lead is usually a matter of taste, but to some extent it should be determined by the face of type with which the lead is used. Large types need thick leads ; small types, thin leads. Thickness of a . three-to-pica lead. Thickness of a four-to-pica lead. Thickness of a six-to-pica lead. Thickness of an eight-to-pica lead. Thickness of a ten-to-pica lead. Thickness of a twelve-to-pica lead. Two forms of leads are made : high leads, about seven-eighths of an inch high, which reach to the shoulder of the type, and are employed Leads made only in fine stereotype or electrotype of different work ; low leads, about three-fourths of *°™^ au inch high, or of the same height as ordinary quadrats, which are used only in letter-press work. They are usually cast in a mould, in strips about eleven inches long, which are afterward cut to 108 Book-types not of Uniform Face prescribed lengths. Some leads are made by roll- ing machines. In many daily newspaper offices the strips, which are there subject to harder usage than in book offices, are made of rolled brass. These are called brass-leads or brasses ; the latter is better. The size most used is that known as six- to-pica, but founders furnish them of any thickness from three- to fourteen-to-pica. The thickness of two-to-pica is known as a nonpareil slug, and all other thicknesses that correspond with the regular bodies of type are known by the names of their bodies, as pica slugs or brevier slugs. Slugs are often used by book printers as the foot-lines to pages, and also to separate the columns of pages. Old-style faces had to be selected as the illus- trations of sizes, for it was not possible to show Modem book- ^ harmonious series of faces in roman types seldom of modem cut. Many American foun- cut In series ^^^.g ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ gothic, antique, or other forms of display letter, a harmonious series from pearl to six-line pica, but they cannot show this harmony in any complete series of roman book-letter. The smaller sizes made by the type- founders are extra wide, or narrow, or bold, or light, to suit the needs of their largest customers, the publishers of newspapers. The larger sizes, above great-primer, are usually made extra bold and black, to suit the needs of job printers. Sizes larger than great-primer are so rarely used for book-work, and yet so largely used for posting- Book-faces not Regularly Graded 109 bills, tliat founders are led to make only those faces tliat are most serviceable for job printing. The illustrations of the sizes of type set forth on pages 76 to 105 are also intended to exhibit the number of words and the number proportions of ems that fill the fixed space of one of different full page of this size, or of 15 square ''^^' "' ^^^^ inches. They show the loss in lines and words that follows the insertion of leads, and the gain in words made by the change from a larger to a smaller type. Yet they show but imperfectly the relative proportions of type-bodies, and the exact relations of the bodies to their faces. The sizes meridian and paragon were omitted, because suit- able faces of book-types are not made xipon these bodies. The sizes from double small -pica to five- line pica, inclusive, are from the old foundry of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co., and are mainly true old-styles of Caslon design. The sizes english to nonpareil, inclusive, are from the old foundry of George Bruce's Son & Co., and are all old-styles of modern design. The illustrations of Columbian, agate, diamond, and brilliant, from several foun- dries, are also of modern design, but are destitute of all old-style features. Coming from different foundries, cut by different punch-cutters at widely distant periods, and cast upon bodies graded by different systems, these illustrations of sizes do not show relative proportions with a becoming precision. The Columbian seems larger than the 110 Difficult to Identify Bodies by Faces great-primer; the agate seems to be larger than the nonpareil ; the bourgeois does not appear, as it Irregular!- should, the true intermediate of brevier ties in faces and long-primer. These irregularities of of type f g^gg g^j,g ^jjg results of attempts to make for printers special faces suiting special purposes, for one size only, and not for a full series of sizes. Pounders have been persuaded to cut mongrels of new forms : as large a face as can be got upon the body, or nearly as large as the next larger size, or but very little larger than the next smaller size, or faces that are wider or thinner than the standard forms. Types so made, and there are too many of them, break the regularity of a graded series of sizes. The agate with shortened ascend- ers and descenders is really of a larger face than the nonpareil, but is called agate because it is on an agate body. The bourgeois may be nearly as large as a long-primer, but it is called bourgeois The body because it is on a bourgeois body. The determines body determines the name. As the ex- thename ^^^ g^^^ ^j ^j^^ body is not Seen in the print, it is often diflcult, even for the expert, to accurately name the body of a type from a hasty inspection of its face. The body of the text-type used in any piece of print that has been "set solid" or without leads, can be approximately ascertained by measuring it with a rule. One inch should cover 6 lines of pica, 7 of small-pica, 8 of long-primer, 9 of bourgeois, Changes Made by Use of Leads 111 10 of brevier, 11 of minion, 12 of nonpareil, 14 of agate, 16 of pearl, and 18 of diamond.^ For longer measurements than one inch, a type-raea- ^^ ^^^ surer should be used. The body of solid the size type can also be determined by finding a "* ^'"^*' quadrat which will completely span the distance between the foot of the first line and the foot of the second one. "When the lines of type are leaded, the identification of an unknown body is more difficult. The width of the lead and of the space between lines cannot be measured or safely con- jectured. The only test is to put an em quadrat of the supposed body over a f uU-bodied letter like Q or j. If this quadrat touches or nearly touches the letter at its extreme points, it should be, and probably is, of the same body. gyp gyp d 1 b d 1 b Solid. Leaded. Types are sometimes leaded with very thin leads, like twelve- fourteen- or sixteen-to-pica, for which all these methods of measurement wiU be found unsatisfactory. With the ordinary thickness of six-to-pica, the detection of leading is not so uncertain. If there is a decided space of white be- tween the approaching points of ascending and descending letters, the type is probably leaded.^ ' These figures can be safely ^ Reservation has to be made used only in a measurement of for the bastard bodies, to which one inch. Consult tables in the these observations do not apply; chapter on the Point System, but bastard bodies are rare. 112 Relations of Types to Each Other. The relations which each body of the book-types shown in the preceding pages bears to other bodies in solid composition are arithmetically shown by the figures in the following table : Sizes of Type. Ems to the alpha- bet.! Ems to the line. Lines in the page, solid. Ems in the page. 250 Words in a page, solid. 105 Great-primer 12 12i 20 Columbian . 13i 14 23 322 122 English . . . 12f 16 26 416 170 Pica m 18 29 582 209 Small-pica . 12i 20 32 640 249 Long-primer 12 22 ^ 36 810 319 Bourgeois . . 12^ 25 40 1000 383 Brevier. . . . 13 28 46 1288 490 Minion . . . . 13f 3H 51 1607 588 Nonpareil . . 14 36 57 2052 734 Agate . . . . 16 40 65 2400 852 Pearl 15} 45 72 3240 1015 Diamond. . 13 J 50 81 4050 1391 Brilliant . . . 15 56 92 5152 1763 1 The figures in this column em-qnadrats of its own body show the relative fatness or that equal the length of the leanness of each face of type twenty- six lower-case letters of by specifying the number of the alphabet. See page 115. The Measurement of Composition 113 An em of any type is the square body of that type. As it is impracticable to count all the bits of metal in a page, the em is made a unit r^^g ^^ ^^^ of superficial measure. The space that rat ia the unit can be covered by one thousand em- o'^ieaaure quadrats is reckoned as one thousand ems. This method of measuring is never changed for open or leaded composition. One thousand ems may contain three thousand bits of metal if the matter be solid, or only one thousand bits if the matter be leaded and full of quadrats ; but in either case the composition is computed as one thousand ems. In the measurement of the width of a line of composition no account is taken of any smaller fraction than the en quadrat. If the Rujesasto width of the line exceeds even ems by fractions of one third of an em, this excess of one **" ®™ third is not counted ; if it is an en, or but little less, it is counted as an en ; if it exceeds an en, the excess is counted as a full em. The em quadrat is also made the unit for mea- suring the fatness or leanness of any face of type, which fatness or leanness is determined by the number of em^ that equal in length the alphabet of twenty-six lower-case letters. The widths of different faces are defined by the number of ems to the lower-case alphabets and by the words standard, lean, condensed, and extra condensed, to specify their progressive decrease in width ; and by the words fat, broad-faced, ex- 15 114 The Measurements of Faces panded, and extended, to specify their progressive increase in width. The standard of width is variable. The Inter- national Typographical Union has determined the proper width or standard of pica, small-pica, long- primer, and bourgeois at 13 ems ; of brevier and minion at 14 ems; nonpareil 15 ems; agate 16 ems ; pearl 17 ems ; diamond 18 ems. Faces that fall below these standards are unfairly measured by the em quadrat of the next smaller body. M M M M standard. Lean. Condensed. Extra condensed. M M M m: standard. Fat. Broad-faced. Expanded. A lean letter has an alphabet of lower-case let- ters that is below the standards here given. The bourgeois of 13 ems is up to the standard; the brevier of 13 ems is below the standard. Condensed letters are now rarely used for the text-types of books or newspapers. There is no rule that limits the use of the word condensed to any specified width, but it may be fairly applied to any face of which the lower-case alphabet measures 10 or 11 ems of its bodv. Illustrations of the Widths of Faces 115 „ ., I I Ems. Nonpareil . labodefgMjklmnopqrstuvwxyd . 16^^ kbcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy?! . . .... 14 Lean abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ■ . . 13^ Fat . |abcdefgliijklniiiop(irstiivwxyz| 19£ Expanded. |abo MiGNONE . Petit -TEXTE Gailiarde^ •• • .•••■• P^TiT-ROMAiN. — ft Parifiennes, Philosophie. = i Parif^ i Nom- pareiHe. CicfiRO, - ft Nomp, = I Pari- Ceime , i Migaone. Saint-Augustin.- ftMignones. =i X Nompareille , i Petit-texte. ' Manuel TypograpMque," facsimile of p. 125, vol. i. 140 The Prototype ofFowrnier " made provision " (by conjecture ?) for a possible alteration in the scale from the shrinkage of wet paper. It is still more astonishing to learn that this rude scale and the prototype (a larger mea- sure of 240 points) are the only standards offered The height-gauge and its type-support. The measuring rod of 240 points. The prototype of 240 points, in reduced facsimile. for the determination of the bodies. In another part' of his book Fournier illustrates his proto- type and its measuring rod, his height-gauge and its type-support. He does not minutely describe the use of these tools. We have to infer that accuracy was proved, or inaccuracy detected, by 1 " Manuel Typographique," vol. i, p. 303 ; vol. ii, plate viii. Advantages of the Points 141 feeling with the fingers the types in the prototype, or the height-gauge. In no part of his book does he allude to a micrometer, or to any similar in- strument of precision. It is certain that these 240 points were not an even fraction of the standard French foot. They approach more nearly to Eng- lish measures, but Fournier does not refer to any standard measure for the verification of the accu- racy of his scale or prototype. The only standard of appeal is a diagram printed from brass rules, purposely made over large to compensate for the shrinkage of wet paper.i Imperfect as it was, Fournier's system promised advantages of real value to printers and founders. The subdivisions made by him permit- Tjjgpoj^tg ted the readjustment of the sizes then promised in use without any serious departure '^™»tases from established bodies. It required but little contraction or expansion of any body to bring it within the bounds of his typographic points. So the system of points was welcomed by printers as a valuable improvement in typography; and in due time it was adopted by all the French type-founders. Fournier states that his object was to separate the bodies of types at equal and fixed distances, 1 It is probable that Fournier so that it would not seriously found some insuperable obstacle alter the dimensions of existing in trying to make his point a sizes, hoping that for this reason regular fraction of the French it would be accepted by printers foot ; and that he fixed the point and founders. 142 DidoPs System of Points but it should be noticed that the types themselves, although at equal degrees of distance, are in un- equal degrees of proportion as to body. Body 5 is one-fourth larger than body 4 ; body 6 is one-fifth larger than body 5 ; and this decrease continues with advancing sizes: body 11 is but one-tenth larger than body 10. Not long after the death of Foumier, FranQois- Ambroise Didot, the celebrated type-founder of The point P8.ris, undertook to improve the system system of of typographic points. His first step to F.A.Didot ^j^g gjj^ ^g^g |.Q -jjg^gg ^.jjg points upon an authorized lineal measure. For this purpose he selected the royal foot of France (pied-du-roi), which is equal to 12.7892 American inches. He preserved intact the subdivisions used by Four- nier: the foot contained 12 inches; the inch, 12 lines ; the line, 6 typographic points ; making, as before, 72 points to the inch. In the readjustment of bodies made necessary by this alteration the smaller faces of t3^e presented Compeued ^^* little difficulty. The parisienne and important nompareiUc of Fournier could be respec- changea tively adjusted on bodies of five and six points of slightly increased dimensions without impropriety. As to the middle sizes, like gaillarde, petit-texte, and mignone, the expansion of the new points was too much. The faces previously made for these sizes were found too large for one body and too small for another. In some instances they Two Systems Used Together 143 were crowded on smaller bodies; in others they were put on larger bodies ; and in still other cases in which the faces could not be transferred, new fractional sizes, like 6J, 7J, and 8J, had to be made. One alteration was especially unfortunate. The cic^ro, which in Fournier's system was on a body of 12 points, in Didot's system was put on a body of 11 points. The difference was more in name than in fact, nine-sixtieths of a point — an inap- preciable difference on a single body ; but it was quite enough to destroy the value of the old body of cicero, or pica, as the established standard for determining the thickness of leads and furniture. That each body might be identified with pre- cision, Didot rejected the old names, and gave to each size a numerical name : parisienne was called corps 5; nompareille, corps 6; mignone, corps 7; cicero, corps 11, etc. The name defined the body and showed its relations to other bodies. The simplicity of this numerical classification, the real need of a better standard for bodies than Fournier's prototype, and, more than concurrent all, the authority of such an eminent use of the typographer as Didot, were sufiftcient t^o^y^^^^ to constrain many French type-founders to adopt the new system. It was not, however, sufficiently meritorious to overcome every objection. Many printers, some in Paris, but more in the provinces, adhered to the system of Fournier. To the great injury of master printers the two systems were for 144 Their Relation to Each Other a long time in concurrent use. A recent French writer on typography states that they were so confounded in 1867 that it was almost impossi- ble in a Parisian office to make an exact measure from a calculation by points.^ Fournier's system is also known in France as the System Eleven, or the Bastard System, or the Indivisible System. The allotment by Didot of eleven points to the old standard size of cicero or pica has been wrongly attributed to Fournier, and is supposed to have some mysterious value, for eleven is practically an indivisible number.^ Fouruier. Didot. Foarnier. Parisienne . . 5 Nompareille . 6 Mignone 7 Petit-texte . S Gaillarde .... 9 5 Petit-romain . . 10 6 Philosopliie .... 11 7 Cie^ro 12 l\i Saint-auguBtin . 14 8 Gros-texte 16 Didot. 9 10 11 12 14 This table, published by a type-founder^ at Brus- sels, for the purpose of illustrating his ability to furnish bodies of types made by both systems, will 1 •• Sous rinfliience de la con- fusion deplorable qui, en per- mettant aux deux syst^mes de s'introdulre ooncurremment & I'insu des maitres iniprimeurs, a jet6 line veritable perturba- tion dans le materiel de presque toutes leg imprimeries, en sorte qu' il y est devenu h peu prfes im- possible de rien 6tablir de juste en calculant par points." Le- chap, " L'lmprinierie," No. 44. 2 The rival claims made for Fournier and Didot as inven- tors of the point system have been carefully examined by M. Cusset of Paris, and published by him in the " Procfes-verbaux de la Society fratemelle des Protes des Imprimeries de Paris." Reprinted in " L'lm- primerie," No. 108, 1873. 3 " Specimen Book of M. T. Vanderborght," Brussels, 1861. Defect in the Didot System 145 serve also to show the relations that the bodies of the two systems bear to each other. It is a misfortune that these scientific systems should have been perfected before the introduction of the French metrical system. Four- ^j^^ gygtema nier's is imperfect in its want of basis prematurely on an established measure. Didot's is '"^t^od-^o^* imperfect in its selection of a disused measure for a basis. Neither of them has any direct relation to the metrical system. That of Didot is at com- plete variance with the metre in every part.^ The accident that 100 points of Fournier accord with 35 millimetres has led to no practical result in France : a standard of 35 millimetres has not been used by the French foimders as a scale or mea- sure for subdivision. Before Fournier and Didot had introduced their systems, cic^ro (or pica) served for a unitary stan- dard, as it continues to serve in England ^ defect in and America. Its dimensions were var the Didot riable, yet it was a convenient unit for ^y^*^™ calculation. Leads, reglets, furniture, brass rules, cuts, large wood and metal types, were made on 1 This defect in the Didot sys- much smaller than the one now tern has been the occasion of in use — smaller even than that many attempts to hring Didot's of Fournier or of the American points in accord with the met- system. This is a practical con- rloal system of Prance. One f ession that the Didot point is of these attempts was that of too large, and that the distance Charles Vemeuil, who proposed between the bodies is too great, that the unitary point should be It is not probable that this new made equal to two millimetres, plan wUl be accepted. "L'lm- This would make the point primerie," No. 161. 19 146 Bruce's System of Progression bodies that were the multiples or divisors of pica. By Fournier's method, pica or cicero was made of twelve points, which was a divisible number. When Didot accommodated this pica to an even division of the royal foot, and put it on body 11 of his system of points, he made it virtually an in- divisible unit. It is not practicable to make leads or brass to the fractions of eleven. Intelligent Parisian typographers admit that this is a real fault, and do not hesitate to avow their preference for the system of Pournieri as the more natural and more advantageous of the two, inasmuch as it graduates the bodies of type in infinitesimal proportions more available than those of Didot. The first practical attempt in America at the establishment of correct proportions between the 1 On the contrary, M. Labou- type bodies f What is the point laye. in his " Dictionary of Arts Didot in millimetres ? ' L'An- and Manufactures," objects to nuaire ' of the Bureau of Longi- any change in the Didot point, tudes makes the line of the pied- He makes these observations in du-roi 0°™ 2,256, of which one- the article on Fonderie en Car- sixth is 0°™ 376. Shoiild this great tict^res, $ 8 : " Attempts have revolution in sizes be made be- been recently made to return to cause the point should be 0"™ 35 the Fournier point by making instead of 0»» 376 ? The first it in accord with the new mea- decimal division is not better sures. The base declared is that than the second. An exact milU- 100 points Fournier make ex- metric division should be estab- actly 35 millimetres, or that the Mshed on another basis, on one point be equal to about 0»" 35. which would not upset all the Now would it be wise or advan- materials now in use, and do it tageous, when the greater part for so little benefit." These ob- of printing houses have been servations are given at lengtb fully equipped, often at great to show that the point system cost, with types on the Didot of Didot is not, even in Paris, point, to reduce the size of the accepted as a perfect system. Bruce's System of Progression 147 proximate bodies of types was made by the late George Bruce of New York in 1822. It does not appear that he meant to establish a new ^j,g 3^,^^^ series of sizes. His object was to make system of all types properly correlated with as P^os^'ession little disturbance as possible to the bodies then in regular use. As the most used bodies of brevier, long-primer, and pica were, in most foundries, very nearly cor- rect in their relations to each other, these bodies were taken as the ones which should be least dis- turbed, and to which the others should be made to conform; but the intermediate and so-called irreg- ular sizes were adjusted to the regular sizes with- out regard to old usage. Bruce began his change by determining the exact size of the six standard bodies from pica to minion. This done, the dimen- sions of larger or smaller bodies were determined by the multiplication or division of the six standard bodies. Conformity was obtained by making the bodies increase by the rule of geometrical progres- sion. SmaU-pica was made as much larger than long-primer as bourgeois was made larger than brevier. Each body was made a certain percent- age larger than its proximate smaller body. This percentage expressed in figures is the decimal .122462, which, when increased six times in a series of expanding bodies, doubles on the seventh pro- gression the size of the body first selected. The Bruce system provides for uniformity of increase 148 Bruce^s System of Progression The Belation of Different Bodies of Type to eacTi oth^er and to standard linear measv/res by the Bruce System of Geometrical Progression. Size Body larger than that Ems and Smsand in deci- decimals decimals Bodies. mals of a linear inch. preceding it, in deci- mals ol a linear inch. otanem in a linear loot. of an em in a square foot. Diamond .0595+ 201.587+ 40,637.46+ Pearl .0668+ .0072+ 179.593+ 32,253.97+ 25,600. Agate .075 .0081+ 160. Nonpareil .0841+ .0091+ 142.543+ 20,318.73+ Minion .0994+ .0103+ 126.992+ 16,126.98+ Brevier .1060+ .0115+ 113.137+ 12,800. Bourgeois .1190+ .0129+ 100.798+ 10,159.36+ Long-primer . . . .1336+ .0145+ 89.796+ 8,063.49+ Small-plea .15 .0163+ 80. 6,400. Pica .1683+ .0183+ 71.271+ 5,079.68+ 4,031.74+ English .1889+ .0206+ 63.496+ Columbian .2121+ .0231+ 56.568+ 3,200. Great-primer . . . .2381+ .0259+ 50.396+ 2,539.84+ Paragon .2672+ .0291+ 44.898+ 2,015.87+ Double sm.-pica .3 .0327+ 40. 1,600. Double pica .... .3367+ .0367+ 35.635+ 1,269.92+ Double english . .3779+ .0412+ 31.748+ 1,007.93+ Double columb. .4242+ .0462+ 28.284+ 800. Doub. gt.-primer .4762+ .0519+ 25.198+ 634.96+ Double paragon .5345+ .0583+ 22.449+ 503.96+ Meridian .6 .0654+ 20. 400. Canon .6734+ .0734+ 17.817+ 317.48+ From the Bruce Specimen Book of 1882. The Atnerican Point System 149 of bodies ; it brings under the rule of geometrical progression not only the bodies but the distances between the bodies. It is ingenious and scientific, but has not been adopted by any other American type-foundry. For sizes larger than canon it is not so weU adapted. All American and English founders, as weU as all the manufacturers of wood types, make their larger bodies multiples of pica. Printers prefer this system for large types, not for its superior facility of combination, but for its nicer division of sizes. For the smaller types the rule of geometrical progression brings bodies too near together. After a fire, which destroyed their materials. Harder, Luse & Co., type-founders at Chicago, planned a system of bodies based on The American six picas to the American inch. Be- point system fore they had made types by the new plan, they perceived that its adoption would compel the mak- ing not only of new bodies, but of new faces which would disagree with the t3T)es of all other foun- dries. Abandoning the system of six picas to the inch, they took for their standard the pica of the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. as the one which would be preferred by the greater number of printers and founders. Upon this basis they regraded aU smaller and larger sizes after the methods of Fournier. In 1878 they put on sale types made by this system, which they called the American System of Interchangeable Type Bodies. 150 The Americcm Point System At a meeting of the United States Type Foun- ders' Association, held at Niagara in 1886, a com- mittee was appointed to examine into Adopted by ^ xr, X United States and to report upon the new system. Type Founders' Several founders objected to its basis Association . . . , ^ j. ^ j upon a pica capriciously selected, and not a regular division of the foot or metre, but the result of the examination was the adoption of its leading features by a majority of founders. It was found that the pica which had been selected could be put in accord with the metric system, although in an irregular maimer. Eighty-three picas were equal to thirty-five centimetres. By dividing the pica into twelve equal parts, and ac- cepting one of these parts as the unit, a base was made for the determination of every body. This twelfth part of a pica was called a point. AU bodies of types were placed on multiples of this point and called by numerical names : pica was 12-point ; double-pica, 24-point ; four-line pica, 48- point. The numerical nanies defined the bodies and the relation that each body had to the rest. This American system foUows the methods of Foumier and Didot, differing from them only in its selection of another body of pica as its basis. The following table gives the sizes, as near as they can be expressed in decimals of the American inch and the French metre, of the American point system of type-bodies, as they were adopted by the United States Type Founders' Association. The American Point System 151 Sizeiu Size in eeii< No. of ems No. of ema inches. timetres. per foot. per metre. l-point 0.0138 0.0351 867.4699 2845.7143 Hia-point .0207 .0527 578.3132 1897.1428 2-poiiit .0277 .0703 433.7349 1422.8572 2%-poiiit .0346 .0878 346.9880 1138.2856 3-pomt .0415 .1054 289.1566 948.5714 SVi-point .0484 .1230 247.8486 813.0612 4-point .0553 .1406 216.8675 711.4286 4^4-pomt .0622 .1581 192.7711 632.3810 5-pomt .0692 .1757 173.4940 . 569.1428 SVi-point .0761 .1933 157.7218 517.4026 6-point .083 .2108 144.5783 474.2857 7-poiiit .0968 .2460 123.9243 406.5306 8-point .1107 .2811 108.4337 355.7142 9-point .1245 .3163 96.3855 316.1905 10-point .1383 .3514 86.7470 284.5714 11-point .1522 .3865 78.8609 258.7013 12-pomt .166 .4217 72.2892 237.1429 14-pomt .1937 .4920 61.9621 203.2653 15-pomt .2075 .5271 57.8313 189.7143 16-pomt .2213 .5622 54.2170 177.8571 18-point .249 .6325 48.1928 158.0952 20-pomt .2767 .7028 43.3735 142.2857 22-poiiit .3044 .7730 39.4304 129.3506 24-pomt .332 .8434 36.1446 118.5714 28-poiQt .3874 .9840 30.9810 101.6326 30-poiat .415 1.0542 28.9157 94.8571 32-point .4426 1.1244 27.1085 88.9280 36-pomt .498 1.2651 24.0964 79.0476 40-poiiit .5534 1.4056 21.6867 71.1428 42-point .581 1.4759 20.6540 67.7551 44-pomt .6088 1.5460 19.7152 64.6753 48-poiiit .664 1.6867 18.0723 59.2857 54-poiiit .747 1.8975 16.0642 52.6984 eO-point .83 2.1084 14.4578 47.4285 72-poiiit .996 2.5301 12.0482 39.5238 152 Basis of the American System The methods agreed upon by the United States Type Pounders' Association for the purpose of securing uniformity under the new system seem to be practically satisfactory. A graduated mea- suring rod of steel, 35 centimetres or 83 picas in length, is made a common measure for all bodies of type. It does not appear, however, that every type-founder who has adopted this system has ready access to an oflcial metre, on which the measure of 35 centimetres depends. Some of them seem to trust the testing of their types to the A gauge for type-bodies. Tills gauge or smaller measure pica, 36 bodies of bre^'ier, and 48 consiste of three bars of steel bodies of nonpareiL Of the inter- accurately fitted and firmly con- mediate sizes, it takes 26 bodies neoted as is shown in the iUus- and 2 points of small-pica; 28 tration. The space between the bodies, 8 points of long-primer ; short side bars is exactly 288 32 bodies, 8 points of bourgeois; points, which admits 24 bodies of 42 bodies, 1 point of minion. smaller measure. It has been claimed that there is no reason why an official metre should be used, as the fixed and unalterable length of the metre can be determined by mathematical calculation. ^ > The metre is the ten-mil- ridian between the pole and the lionth part of the arc of a me- equator, or 3.2808992 feet. Proposed Change of Height 153 The measuring rod of 35 centimetres was also suggested as a good standard for determining the height-to-paper of type. By this plan proposed fifteen type-heights were made equal to change of 35 centimetres. This is a serious devi- typ^i'^'siit ation from the old standard of eleven-twelfths, or .9166 of an inch. One-fifteenth of 35 centimetres is .9186 of an inch. The difference of t^o o o^ tIo part of an inch may seem very trivial, but it is enough to prevent the use of the different heights in the same line. Some founders claim to have adhered to the old standard of height ; others have adopted the new. Those who have adopted the new bodies without a special refitting of all their old matrices are giving to printers a greater annoyance than was A gauge for height-to-paper. Types can be tested by printers for heigbt-to-paper by tbls sim- ple Instrument of steel, recently invented by Henry Bartb, of the Cincinnati Type Foundry. The line A C Is very slightly out of parallel with the line B D. A tyiJe of proper height will pass freely in the channel toward the mark E, in which channel it is 20 held straight and sauare by the movable brass H that slides in a slot. The type that stops in the channel before it reaches the slot is too high ; the type that passes the slot or the mark E is too low. Type-founders make use of a more complicated instrument which will show a deviation of less than 3^5 Inch. 154 The French Point too Large ever received from irregular bodies. Soon after the new point system was adopted, complaints Changes ^^re heard from press-rooms that some mheigM types Were high -to-papcr. The fault was iDjunous noticeable in lines in which were sorts of newly cast types. Compositors were blamed for a bad planing-down of forms, and electrotypers for their bad moulding, and the of&ce for permit- ting a mixture of old type with new sorts ; but a testing of the unworn type of the first casting with those that were newly cast plainly showed that the real fault was in the altered standard of height. It would be a great benefit if the types of France, Germany, and America were uniform as to body, Didot point SO that types bought in one country is too large ^q^\^ -bg ^gg^ ^^ another. The United States Type Founders' Association considered this question, but they were obliged to reject theFrench system : the Didot point was too large ; it made the distance between bodies too great. To adopt the Didot point would have compelled the retirement not only of the greater part of the moulds and matrices now in use, but also the re- cutting of new punches for many sizes. It would have been a forsaking of the better for the worse ; a rejection of a system of convenient divisions for one of larger divisions that were not as con- venient. The point adopted by the United States Type Founders' Association is .0351 + centimetre. This deviates but little from the point devised in Origin of the American Point 155 1737 by Fournier, the true inventor of the point system. The point substituted by AmbroiseFirmin- Didot is .0376+ centimetre, eleven points of which are almost as large as twelve American points.* The explanatory diagram which follows this page is from the foundry of the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. It may be accepted as an ofiicial rep- resentation of the bodies of the American system. 1 In the Fournier system 1000 points make 35 centimetres ; in the American system 996 points make 35 centimetres. It is prob- able that the American system, based on the pica of the Mac- Kellar, Smiths & Jordan Co., was unwittingly derived from Fournier. Thomas says, in his "History of Printing in Amer- ica " (vol. i, p. 29, second edi- tion), that Benjamin Franklin purchased of P. S. Fournier "the materials of an old foun- dry," and had his grandson, B. F. Bache, instructed in the art by Fournier, with intent to establish an extensive foundry in Philadelphia. The foundry so established did not thrive ; it was neglected and abandoned by Bache, but after Franklin's death the type-founding tools became the property of his relar tive Duane, who kindly offered to lend them aU to Binny & Bonaldson, then the only foun- ders of importance in that city. Ronaldson was struck with their superiority, and fearing that Duane might change his mind. at once got a wheelbarrow and trundled them to his own foun- dry. Binny acknowledged that he received many valuable sug- gestions from these tools. With this testimony as to the value of the tools, added to our know- ledge of Franklin's interest in scientific instruments of every kind, it may be assumed that Fournier sold not old but new tools, and that he had provided everything needed to establish his point system in America, in the equipment which he fur- nished to Bache. There can be no doubt that Binny & Ronald- son had, and made use of, the Fournier mould for pica, and that the standard they fixed for this body was accepted by their successors, L. Johnson & Co. and the MacKeUar, Smiths & Jordan Co. The slight devia- tion from the Fournier stan- dard of four points In one thou- sand may be accepted as the consequence of unintended and graduallyimperceptible changes which would occur after a long use of moulds in early days. 156 American Point Bodies P4 n Three Scientific Systems Contrasted 157 Number of Ems to Linear Foot. Amerioaii system. Bruce system. Didot system. S-point. . 3 J^ -point 4-point. . 4}^-point 5-poiiit. . 5 J^ -point 6-point. . 7-point . . 8-point. . 9-point. . 10-point. . 11-point. . 12-point. . 1 4-point. . 15-point. . 1 6-point. . 1 8-point. . 20-point. . 22-point. . 2 4-point. . 2 8 -point. . 30-point. . 32-point. . 3 6-point. . 40-point. . 42-point . . 44-point. . 48-point. . .289.15 .247.84 .216.86 .192.77 .173.49 .157.72 .144.57 .123.92 .108.43 . 96.38 . 86.74 . 78.86 . 72.28 . 61.96 . 57.83 . 54.21 . 48.19 . 43.87 . 39.43 . 36.14 . 30.98 . 28.91 . 27.10 . 24.09 . 21.68 , 20.65 . 19.71 . 18.07 Diamond.. . .201.58 Pearl 179.59 Agate 160. Nonpareil. . .142.54 Minion 126.99 Brevier 113.13 Bourgeois... 100.79 Long-primer 89.79 Small-pica . . 80. Pica 71.27 English 63.49 Columbian . . 56.56 Great-primer 50.39 Paragon .... 44.89 Dbl. sm.-pica 40. Double pica . 35.63 Dbl. english . 31.74 Dbl. columb. 28.28 Dbl. gt.-prim. 25.19 Dbl. paragon 22.44 Meridian .... 20. Canon 17.81 Body 3 . . . Body 3^. Body 4 . . . Body 4J^ . Body 5 . . . Body 5)^. Body 6 . . . Body 6 J^. Body 7. . . Body 73^ . Body 8 . . . Body 9 . . Body 10 . Body 11 . Body 12. Body 13. Body 14 . Body 16. Body 18. Body 20 . Body 22 . Body 24. Body 26. Body 32 . Body 40. Body 48. .270.23 .231.62 .202.67 .180.14 .162.13 .147.38 .135^,11 .124.72 .115.81 .108.09 .101.33 . 90.07 . 81.06 . 73.69 . 67.55 . 62.36 . 57.90 . 50.66 . 45.03 . 40.53 , 36.84 . 33.77 . 31.18 . 25.33 . 20.26 . 16.89 158 Proportions of English Types The bodies of English types have been changed since they were reported in Savage's Dictionary, i English Sizes: Ems to the linear foot.^ Sizes. MUler ami Richard. Stephen- son ami Blalte. Figgins. Caslon. Sir Ciiarles Reed's Sons. Pica 83 89 1021^ 111 122 138 143 160 166 178 207 ''>22 237 286 72 83 89 102 1^ 111 123 129 144 161 166 179 72 83 90 102 108 J-2 122 128 144 160 166 183 204 288 72 83-2 89-5 102 111-3 122-4 128-5 144 178-6 203 72 83 91 102 111 122 128 144 160 166 181 204 Small-pica Long-primer .... Bourgeois Brevier Minion Emerald Nonpareil Euby-nonpareil . Buby Pearl Diamond Gem Brilliant Semi-nonpareil . . If the point of the American system had been based on the plan of six picas to the inch, it is possible that English and American bodies could have been brought to agreement, and that a sys- tem of points on this basis would not have met with any determined opposition in England. 1 See p. 128 of this work. 2 01dfleld, "Manual of Typog- raphy, "p. 98. He says that the figures given in this table were verified for its own type by each foundry named therein. The American Point System 159 This American point system has been adopted by many founders, and in time will probably sup- plant all other systems in America. Although it is of great advantage to system does the printing trade to get more uni- "ot insure formity, too much has been expected ^* ^"^ ^^^ from this point system. It reduces but does not en- tirely prevent irregularities. That it will ever be so perfect that types of the same body from different founders can unhesitatingly be mixed and used together is not probable. System alone is not enough. Perfection in theory will not make skill in manufacture a matter of secondary importance. Under the new system good type-founding will ex- act as much watchfulness as ever. The irregular- ities that are caused by overheated metal, sprung or untested moulds, or careless rubbing, are as possible now as they ever were. The founder who has been careless under the old system will probably be equally careless under the new. The advantages that may accrue from uniform bodies will be more than nullified if general uni- formity in height is not secured. If some type- founders continue to adhere to the old standard of height, while others attempt to introduce the new, without a careful refitting of special matrices to the new moulds, the printing trade will be more damaged than benefited by the change. Printers can test their types, chiefly as to body, but also as to height-to-paper, by means of the 160 The Use of the Type-gcmge type-gauge, of whicli an illustration is here given. The two jaws or graduated faces are very slightly out of parallel, at an angle so slender as to be un- pereeived until they are held against the P jlPJl light. The thumb- piece allows the un- der jaw to be ad- justed on the slide to fit any body. When set to the proper gauge, a type too smaU wUl pass in it beyond How types the gauge line; a type are tested too large wiU not reach to the gauge line. Type-founders usu- ally test the distrusted bodies by put- ting four of the type-bodies between the jaws, first at the shoulder and then at the foot of the types. An ex- ceedin gly slight inaccuracy that may escape notice on one body will be de- tected when four bodies are together. One of the advantages claimed for all systems of typographic points is their helpfulness in justifying. But this advantage is much overrated. Quite as much special justification Type-gauge, seems to be done in French as in American offices. Unless the leads, brass rules, and other material of composition are true frac- Points applied to Spaces 161 tions of the point, this facility in justifl.cation is defeated.! Those who have experience in compo- sition, and who know how the bodies of qj^ ^y^^g types, leads, and rules are bent and thick- aifflouat ened by usage, by dust, rust, and imper- *°-''^*^ feet cleaning, and how much allowance must be made, both in the width and length of a column or page, for the "spring" of types or their contrac- tion in the process of locking-up, wUl acknowledge that types do not combine in practice as easUy as in theory. In the composition of algebraic work, the point system is helpful. A twelve-to-pica lead wiU make justification between proximate bodies jjg^ system of ordinary size. It is not enough to isheipfui secure exact justification in the compo- ™ O'^seb^K- sition of good book and job work ; where two sizes have to be used together exact lining is required, but this is rarely accomplished by the use of the twelve-to-pica lead. For the justification of the proximate sizes smaller than nonpareil, a twenty- four-to-pica is required, for which thickness there are no leads. The compositor will have to justify these bodies, as he did before, with strips of paper and cardboard. The point system, or a modification of it, has been applied to the set or width of types. The inventors of various forms of type-writing ma- 1 The " Scale of Prices " of the and 1878 contains many articles Parisian compositors for 1868 that price special justification. 21 162 ^'■Self-spacing''^ Types chines had previously discovered the importance of types that were of one width. The first practi- Points ap- ^^ attempt at systematic uniformity in pUedtothe the Set of printing types was made in set of type jggg^ ^^ Benton, Waldo & Co., type- founders at Milwaukee, who introduced the system as that of "self -spacing" types. Their plan was to put every type, on all the bodies from agate to pica inclusive, on some set which was an even di- vision of the standard pica em. These divisions varied according to size of body, from an eighth to a thirteenth of the pica em. The object sought was the quickening of composition by providing better facilities for spacing. As a composed line of types and spaces made on this system is but a combination of the regular divisions of pica, it was claimed that the types so composed must end evenly on every line, and thereby prevent much of the trouble of spacing. In placing the characters of the font on even divisions of the pica, many difficulties were met. Defecta oi The form of one character might be too the system narrow for one set but the next might be too wide. The alternatives were to give this character a too broad or a too narrow set, or to recut the punch so as to keep the character on the prescribed set. The result of the earlier experi- ments was not satisfactory : the general effect of the composed types was that of neglected fitting. Later efforts at improvement have removed many Spaces on Foint Sets 163 of the earlier infelicities, but the publishers and printers who are critical do not accept the " self- spacing" types as proper models of form. More improvement is needed, but there is every reason to believe that this improvement can be made. The advantages of "self -spacing" types to com- positors are beyond question ; the new method largely reduces the labor of spacing. The Point System applied to Spaces.^ Six- Five- FoTiv- Three- Patent En Em Bodies. to-em to-em to-em to-em space. quad- quad. space. space. space. apace. I'^sofem. rats. rats. 5-poiiit. . 1 *ll2 »2 2I3 5 512-poiiit »1 *ll2 *2 *2l3 *3 5I2 6-point. . 1 II3 2 *2l2 3 6 7-point. . *1 *ll3 *2 »2l2 *3 3I2 7 8-pomt. . *1 ni^ 2 *2l2 *3 4 8 9-poiiit . . 11^ *2 *2l3 3 *3l2 4I3 9 10 -point. . *ll2 2 2I2 *3 *4 5 10 11-point *2 *2l3 *3 *3l3 *4l2 5I3 11 12-poiiit. . 2 *2l2 3 4 *5 6 12 14-poiiit. . *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 7 14 18-point »2 *3 *4 6 9 18 The Central Type Foundry of St. Louis have proposed to apply the point system to spaces only, by putting every space of every body on spaces on the set of one point or on the multiples p"™* s®*^ of the point. As the point is but about -^^ ^^^ *^^ 1 " Price-list of Central Type Foundry," p. 5. 164 Spaces on Point Sets half point about y^^ of an inch, the divisions are sufficiently minute. Rigid adherence to this sys- tem will compel the making of some new widths of spaces, and possibly in some fonts the making of figures on new sets, but spaces on point sets will be a valuable aid to justification, especially in the narrow columns of table-work. The changes from the old sets now in use are marked in the table with a *. The patent space is intended to be the interme- diate between a three-to-em space and an en quad- rat — or about five-twelfths of the em body. It has been in use for years iu some large book offices. The only en quadrat changed is that of the 5J- point, which is made a trifle thicker. This should compel the putting of figures on a set of the same thickness or the retention of the en quadrat of the old form. IV A Pont of Type I FONT of type is a complete collec- tion, with a proper apportionment to eacli character, of the mated types required for an ordinary text. The letters are in unequal request : a and e appear repeatedly in long sentences; Z and q may not be found in a page. The type-founder tries to supply each character in proportion to its frequency of use, so that the printer shall have enough of every and not too much of any character. The written or printed summary of the proper quantity of types for each character is known in the United States as a scheme, and in Asoiieme Great Britain as a bill, of type. For large °^ *^^ metal types, or for wood types that are used only for single lines of display, the scheme is made by a count of the characters, as may be seen in the 166 A Scheme for Wood Type annexed scheme for a 5-A and 5-a font of wood type : Figures are not provided for all fonts of large type. When provided, they are furnished for . a 5-a font in the proportion of two types each of characters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, $ ; three types for figure 1 ; five types for fig- ure 0. Fonts of 3-A are some- times made for very large types, but for ordinary types the 5-A font is the smallest. The font of 5-A, with figures, has two hundred and fifty char- acters, but it seldom happens that more than fifty of them can be used at one time. If these fifty letters contain six of E and five of A, no more lines can be set that call for A or E. But the provision in the scheme for two hundred other characters is necessary; some of them or all of them will be needed on other work or at another time. In fonts of metal type of large sizes, and in all fonts of dis- play letter, the schemes do not include spaces or quadrats. 122 104 Letters. Letters. 5-A 5-a CapiUla. Lower-CMC. A 5 a 5 B 3 b 3 C 4 4 D 4 d 4 E 6 e 6 P 3 f 3 » 3 8 3 H 4 h 4 I 5 i 5 J 3 J 2 K 2 k 2 L 6 1 5 M 4 m 4 N 5 n 5 O 5 5 P 3 P 3 Q 2 q 2 R 5 r 5 S 6 s 5 T 5 t 5 TJ 4 u 4 V 3 V 3 W 3 w 3 X 2 X 2 Y 3 y 3 Z 2 z 2 & 2 ffi 1 . 4 CB 1 , 4 fi 1 9 1 " fl 1 : 2 ff 1 - 1 ffi 1 I 2 ffl 1 ! 3 ^ and CE are seldom provided. Scheme for a Job Font 167 Wood types are sold at a fixed price for every letter ; metal types at a fixed price by the pound. For larger fonts of wood type or jobbing letter, different apportionments are made, as is shown in the annexed scheme for a 36-A and 70-a fonA. In the United States the ap- portionment of each character in fonts intended for book or newspaper work is made by weight. In Great Britain the apportionment is made, nom- inally at least, by a count of characters. The apportionment of char- acters is necessarily varied for cuaracters different languages, are used The English printer unequauy ^-^^ ^^^yg ^ French font of type soon discovers its deficiency of k and "W, and its excess of q and '. The French printer who bought an Eng- lish font would object to the excess of the k and "W, and the deficiency of the C[ and '. Ital- ian calls for a larger supply of 70-a. 36- J.. a 70 A 36 b 28 B 15 c 37 C 24 d 42 D 19 e 92 E 43 f 28 P 17 S 24 G 17 h 47 H 19 i 70 I 36 J 14 J 9 k 14 K 9 1 47 I, 24 m 37 M 19 n 70 N 36 o 70 36 p 28 P 19 q 10 a 6 r 70 R 36 s 70 S 36 t 70 T 36 u 37 TJ 19 V 14 V 9 w 28 W 15 X 10 X 6 y 28 Y 15 z 10 Z 6 SB 5 & 6 OS 5 M 3 fl 8 (E 3 ff 8 1 16 fl 5 2 12 ffi 5 3 12 ffl 5 4 .12 , 37 5 12 ; 5 6 12 : 5 7 12 . 37 8 12 8 9 12 ' 10 16 ! 5 ? 8 $ 10 £ 3 168 Object of the Scheme C and Z; Spanish, for more of d, t, and all the vowels; Latin, for more of C, m, n, U, and q. For any language but English the scheme of the American or English type-founder is unsuitable. The scheme is not, and cannot be, nicely adapted to every kind of literary composition in English. For poetry there must be a large excess of quad- rats; for the personal narrative, an excess of I; for tables or statistics, an excess of figures; for dictionaries and catalogues, an excess of capitals, signs, and points. Even in plain descriptive mat- ter, apparently free from any peculiarity, the com- positor will note that a latinized style will use an excess of one kind of sorts, and a colloquial style an excess of other sorts. For peculiar work the printer must select and order an excess of the characters that are most needed. The object of the scheme is so to apportion each character that all the types in the font may be set Object of out of case, leaving no surplus. This ob- a scheme ject is never attained. When a compositor reports that a new font of text-type has been set out, as a rule about one-third of the weight of the font remains unused in case. The purchase and use of more of the deficient characters may reduce the surplus to one-fourth — perhaps one-fifth — but it is not probable that it can ever be made any less. There will always be a large surplus. It follows that the printer must provide from one-fourth to one- half more type than he can put to use at one time. General Agreement of Schemes 169 Sclienies are not exactly alike in all foundries, but they are in substantial agreement : the propor- tion of capitals to lower-ease, and the supply of figures, italic, and quadrats do not seriously differ. A so-called complete font of roman and italic tjrpe is supposed to have these characters : Eoman a to z and ssoefifEffiflffl 33 Roman points ,;:-'!?([ 10 Eoman figures and money signs, 1234567890$£ 12 Spaces and quadrats 1 1 1 1 1 H ^H H^l ^ References * t i H 1[ ly 7 Braces , — '- > -^^^ ,-^y^.^ 5 Dashes 4 Leaders 4 Fractions HHhHHysHHh 9 Roman capitals A to Z and ^ CE & 29 Roman small capitals . .a to z and x ck & 29 Italic lower-case a to » and w ce fi ff ffi ffl fl. ■ ■ ■ 33 Italic capitals ^ to 2 and ^ (E == ^ .-S S rO 00 ^ ^. g e -o ~ e r; I S.J3 5 ^o . -g^^ ^ ^ o a, e S ? !=5 s s ^ s •*^ & ^ '^t^ i-H O CQ T i o r-i 00 00 .— ( m| 1 i-H O CO T ( o CD t- t^ CD 1-1 o I— 1 •"1 1 o CO t* t- CO Ph i3 s CQ I— 1 •—1 o I> m ■* CQ cq Cl rH 1— 1 iH -'■3 xa 00 CO CI S! o OS 01 ^_, CO CD I-- o t- CD >— ( o CO CD -* in CO rr- o b- QO >— ( CD CI o OS -t CD CQ t- " §, i-H I— 1 OS CO CD in ■* CI Cl CI J— 1 r-t ^1 ^ o CO o CO o CO o 1-H CO CO CD co «D lO CD o CD LC 01 CO CO CO 5 lO (M O o O CI 00 »n Cl t- P- Oi t- CD lO Tt< CO CI I— 1 iH f-l +3 T" lO OO o o o 00 ■rt< in in ■^ ;^ t* o CD CI t- CI) CO cn 'T ^1 fi cs o 1— ( ^ b- '^ CI t- ■* [^ UD ^ -<*< CO CI I— ( r-( t— ( ^H ^4 O ^-5 o o o ~^ ~o~ ^ ■3 CD ^ CO 4; OS J t^ in CT QC ■* a ' lO '* ^ CQ CI '"' .— I »-) c.^ o (-5 CD CO CO o CD cs OS in 00 s 1 CD t- CI OS W Cl "^'U t- CD I— 1 CD CO L'r ■* rti -* CO CI CI ■"• ^H ^1 1 O iH CO o 00 i-i "^ ~co~ ^ ~^ O l^ ira t> CD ''i^ LO o l^- CJ b- CQ CO Cl p^ !B "* CO c^ Cl 1—i I— 1 1-1 ^1 Oi OJ r~\ CO ~cd" o m 00 ^_l Tf b- -* » CO lO o CO 1—1 I— 1 CJ in OD ^ OS CD o t- CD m Th CO Cl I— 1 ft i CS] cq cq I— 1 I— 1 »-• -f3 -1 "~~ o iH CQ CD ~o~ --^ CO CO ^ 1—1 _^ X LT Oi CD CO o CD t- 01 in OS '^ 1 C] CO in C] l~- m Th CO CO CI iH rH ft a CI '"' rH '"' rH -JO y 00 -* >n ~^ o in '^ CQ OS X ^ ^ ^••s r- O) CO OS o -T t^ m C: Lt t- Tt< CI t^ CO -* CO CO Cl p. rl T-i rH iH ~ ,- a a ^ o o O o "o~ CO ~o~ CO ^ CO 1 ^ .— 1 o 1— 1 ^ OS Cl CJi T-H 'O 4 (M o CO -<*1 CO D, tH '~' iH __ 1-1 .g 1 O "o" CO Oi OS in (^ t^ Cl rH tJh OS 1^ CI CO CI o in CD CO t- r-l O Ph i I— 1 i-H 00 CD in Th CI Cl CI 11 .a Q o ^ CO ' CO 10 10 --i^ -* CO CO 180 A Contrast of Systems 181 j The irregular progression of bodies made on the system of points is shown by the diagram on the right side. The straight hair-line by the side of this column of em quadrats does not touch each quadrat on its corner, as it should. It diverges at an increasing angle, which proves an irregular progression of the smaller bodies. The hair-line by the side of the col- umn on the left side of this diagram touches every em quadrat at its cor- ner, and proves that each body has been regularly increased or de- creased by geometrical rules. In an ascending scale Bruce's pica is about 12i- per cent. (.122462) larger than the small-pica. In a descending scale, small-pica is but lOi per cent. (.108723) smaller than the pica. These factors can be applied to all proximate bodies : 12J per cent, for the increase, and lOJ per cent, for decrease. See table on page 148. Em quadrats of Bruee system Em quadrats of American point system ^VVK I I W i The Faces or Styles of Type Old-style Roman of two, three, or four words. ^^J^NDER the American system of points the bodies of type are clearly de- scribed by numerical names. Faces ^^ and styles have to be described by a ruder method, with long names The first word always describes the body. If no other word The methods ^^ added, this single word is always observed in understood as the name of a body naming laces ^j^jj roman f ace : pica is pica roman. The second word more plainly describes the face or style, as pica antique or pica gothic. The third word usually describes its form as to thickness or thinness: pica antique extended is a thick type, and pica antique condensed is a thin type. The fourth word is intended to describe its fash- ion of ornament, as pica antique condensed out- line ; but all ornamental types, and indeed many The Classification of Types 183 plain types, are named and classified in an unsat- isfactory manner. The names given to many of them are fanciful and not at all descriptive. When made by different founders, the same face may be labeled by each founder with a different name. The antique of the United States is the egyptian of Great Britain; the antiqua of Germany is the roman of England and the United States. Arbitrary or fanciful names are seldom given to roman types. Every distinctive face or style is labeled by the founder with a number arbitrarily selected. One type-foundry uses numbers for all faces, roman or ornamental. The type-founders of the United States, in their price-lists, arrange printing-types in three distinct classes. Roman and italic are put in Types grouped the first class; plain faces of display in turee classes type, like antique, gothic, and clarendon, are in the second class ; ornamental types of every kind are in the third class. Greek and orientals, music and some faces of script, are properly put in an- other distinct class ; but types of this fourth class, having but a limited sale, seldom appear in the ordinary price-list. "Within the limits prescribed for this volume it is not practicable to illustrate or even enumerate all the faces that have been made for the first and second classes. All of them are based on the roman model, which is still accepted as the sim- plest and best for a readable text-type. 184 The Boman Face Preferred Script types are imitations of different styles of handwriting, but every one of them, even the most flourished, was modeled on some fashion of roman letter preferred or used by early copyists. Italic is but a simplified style of disconnected script. Its capitals differ from roman mostly in their inclination. Black-letter is a degenerate form of roman, in which angles are substituted for curves. Its capi- tals are probably imitations of the hasty flourishes of an inexpert penman. Gothic, without serifs, the simplest and rudest of all styles, seems an imitation of roman capitals cut in stone. Italian is a roman in which the positions of hair- line and thick stroke have been transposed. Title, or fat-face, is a broad style of roman with over-thick body-marks. Antique is a roman in which the lines of all the characters are nearly uniform as to thickness, with square corners and of greatly increased boldness. Ornamentals of every style, and even the new- est varieties of eccentric types, show some con- formity to the roman model. The roman face is always in most request, for roman is the character preferred as a text-letter Roman faces by all English-speaking peoples and most used ^ ^jjg Latin races. Its only serious rival in general literature is the fractur, or the popular face of German type; but even in Ger- Roman Made in Three Series 185 many roman is largely used as the text-letter for scientific books, and for inscriptions on coins and medals. Not one of the many new faces intro- duced by the type-founders of this century has ever been considered an improvement on or ac- cepted as a substitute for roman. Every complete font of roman type between and including the most-used sizes of pearl and great- primer is provided with three series of ^^^ ^^^^ characters : capitals, small capitals, and series oi lower-case or smaU letters.^ Small cap- ^^^^^^^^ itals are not made for the smallest size of bril- liant, nor for the sizes above great-primer. Italic, although of a distinct face, is always made a part of every large font of roman type, and must be regarded as its inseparable mate, for the italic of every approved roman should have been cut to line with its accompanying roman and to illus- trate its peculiarity of style. With italic capitals and italic lower-ease added, there are five series in every complete font of our selected text-letter. This is a peculiar- yj^^^ i^^^^, ity not. to be found in any other literary there are character. The older forms of orientals ^'^^ ^®"^' have one series only ; the modern forms of Greek, German, and Russian have but two. The capitals of German are too complex to be used alone as 1 The phrase small letters is lor uses instead the word minus- objectionable for its vagueness ; cule, which is exactly desorip- lower-oase is technical and not tive to bibliographers, but not generally understood. Dr. Tay- to the ordinary reader. 186 Derivation of the Boman Face a display letter for titles or headings. Emphasis or display in German is made in the text, either by hair-spacing the emphatic words, or by the use of an entirely different font of thick-faced letter. The poverty of ail other alphabets in single or double series is in marked contrast with the afflu- ence of the five correlated series of the roman alphabet, which enable the writer or printer to make emphasis, display, or distinction without a change of size or the violation of typographical propriety. The judicious alternation of capitals, small capitals, italic, and lower-case makes printed matter readable and rememberable. The greatest merits of the roman letter are its simplicity and perspicuity : it has no useless or unmeaning lines. One has but to compare it with any other charac- ter, modern or ancient, to see how much simpler and more readable it is. Roman capitals, as now made by type-founders, are imitations of the lapidary letters used by the Derivation Romans. Three characters only have oi the roman been added: the J, to distinguish it character ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^-j^ J^ ^^^ ^^^ "[J, tO dis- tinguish it from the V. The W is a gothic ad- dition. The lower-case letters are imitations of the characters made by early French and Italian copyists, which characters are described by Dr. Taylor as the Caroline minuscule, in use in France as early as the ninth century.^ 1 "The Alphabet," vol. 11, pp. 164, 181. Small Cojaitals mid Italic 187 The capital and lower-case letters were first made in type in the year 1465 by Sweinheim and Pannartz at Subiaco, near Rome^ but the form made by Jenson of Venice in 1471 has ever since served as the model for aU type-founders. Small capitals and italic were made in type for Aldus Manutius of Venice, and first shown by him in his octavo edition of Virgil, dated Earuestuseof 1501. The model selected was the smau capitals handwriting of Petrarch. Following ^"i"*"" his fashion the capital letters used for italic were not inclined: they were made but little larger than the round letters of the lower-case, and were separated from the text by a perceptible white space.i The italic of this Virgil had little incli- nation, and seems free from kerned letters; but ligatures and double letters and different forms of the same letter were made. Aldus and his sons used italic as the text-letter for many books. Swash letters. The printers of France seriously altered the italic of Aldus; they gave the lower-case letters more in- clination, and made free use of kerns. Garamond made the capitals of full height, and filled up the gaps made by the inclination with little flourishes. The capitals so altered are known as swash letters. IThls fashion was notpeculiar all Italian copyists of that time, to Petrarch. It was observed by nor is it yet obsolete in Italy. 188 Old-style and Modern-face The roman form of type is subdivided by print- ers and founders into the two classes of old-style Old-style and and modem-face. Many varieties of modem-face each style are made ; in some of them the distinctive peculiarities of the style are dis- cerned with difiBculty. The points of difference may be seen in the contrasted forms of each let- ter as shown on the following page. The faces selected are "Caslon" old-style, from the type- foundry of the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co., and the No. 3 modern-face is from the foundry of George Bruce's Son & Co. In the old-style the so-called hair-line is com- paratively thick and short ; the stem is protracted Differeuces ^^ great length before it tapers to the in line, stem, hair-line. In the modem-face the hair- and effect Yme is sharp and quite long, and the stem is relatively short. Contrast the capital C and the lower-case m in the forms of each style. In the old-style the serif is short, angular, and stubby; in the modem-face the serif is longer, lighter, and more gracefully curved or bracketed. The general effect of the old-style is that of angu- larity; smoothness in curves and gracefully taper- ing lines are not attempted. The general effect of the modern-face is that of roundness, precision, and symmetry. As a bit of drawing each letter of a well-made modern-face is exact, and caref uUy finished in all its details ; but when any letter is seen with its mates in a mass of composed types, Old-style and Modern-face 189 AA a a NN n n B B b b O O o o C C c c P P PP DD dd Q.Q qq H, V\ e e R K r r h F f f S S s s GG gg 1' T t t HH hh UU u u I I • 1 1 vv V V J J • • J J WW WW KK kk XX X X T,L 1 1 Y Y y y MM mm Z Z z z 190 Merits of the Two Styles its higli finish does not seem to be a merit. A letter of modern-cut is really not so distinct as the same letter in the old-style. The old punch- cutter and the modern punch-cutter worked to reach different ends. The old cutter put read- ability first ; he would make his types graceful if he could, but he must first of aU make them dis- tinct and readable in a mass. His object was to aid the reader. The modern punch-cutter thinks it his first duty to make every letter of graceful shape, but his notion of grace is largely mechani- cal: the hair-line must be sharp and tend to its invisibility ; the curving stem must dwindle to its hair-line with a faultless taper; the slender serif must be neatly bracketed to the stem. Every curve and angle is painfully correct and precise, but the general effect of types so made, when put in a mass, is that of the extreme of delicacy, and of the corresponding weakness of an overwrought delicacy. To use a painter's phrase, the work is niggled, or overdone. Without intending to do so, the punch-cutter has been more intent on showing his own really admirable skill than he has been in helping the reader. His letters, undeniably grace- ful when viewed singly, are not so effective when seen in the combinations of a page or a column.^ 1 The superior distinctness of body and thickness of stem, and the old-style can be proved by place them in a favorable light, this simple experiment. Select Then, moving away from them, equallywell-printedpagesof old- note how much sooner types of styleandmodem-cut,ofuniform modem-cut become indistinct. The Caslon Style 191 Roman letter has been an object of experiment witb type-founders for nearly four centuries, but it is impossible to illustrate or even mention one- quarter of these experiments. Many forms once popular have gone out of use, and have been for- gotten. It is not at all important that these old fashions should be described. For the purpose of this work, it is enough to illustrate only the types that are now made and most used. It is a misfortune that the illustrations of the different cuts of modern-faces about to be shown have to be made in types of comparatively small size. Few roman faces of a decided character are made on bodies larger than great-primer ; more of them are on bodies smaller than small-pica. A face on double-pica body would show the peculiarities of its style more clearly than the same face on pica body. In the larger sizes the mannerisms that produce a certain general effect are apparent at a glance ; in the smaller sizes they are discerned only by study. The peculiarities of the Caslon style, as shown on pages 69 to 77, need little explanation. Note the greater breadth of the stems of each pecuuarities letter and their protraction before of casion style they change to a hair-line or connect with another stem, as may be plainly seen in the arch of the m and n, and the curve of the C, e, and O. The hair-lines are firmer, although shorter than in modern-cut ; the serifs at the foot are shorter and 192 The Modern-face stronger, but seldom bracketed; the serifs at tlie top, as in the 1, U, D, n, are angled and strongly bracketed. The defects of this style are : too long a beak to the £and 1 ; unnecessary narrowness in the S and a, and in some capitals ; too great width of the C, O, and V. But these are trifles. In general effect the Caslon is bold, but not black ; clear and open, but not weak or delicate. There are few noteworthy faults of lining or fltting-up. It was made to be read and to withstand wear. Some variations in style may be detected in a compari- son of different sizes of this cut, but it is fairly uniform as to general effect throughout the series. The modern-face is in strong contrast to the Caslon style. The stems are sometimes relatively Peculiarities thicker, but in all curved lines they of modem-face are shorter. The serifs are much longer; in many of the capitals they are strongly, and in aU the lower-case but feebly, connected with the stems. The hair-lines are sharper, but of greater length and greater weakness. Lining and fltting-up are admirable ; drawing and cut- ting, excellent. It is a remarkably graceful and beautiful face of type when entirely new, yet it is not a good type for reading, for the sharp hair- lines are readily seen only by readers of excellent eyesight. Nor is it a good form to withstand wear. The force of impression needed to print the thick stems soon gaps or crushes the unprotected hair- Modernised Old-style 193 lines. "When the serifs have been thickened and the hair-lines gapped by wear, the beauty of the best cuts of modern-face soon disappears. The modernized old-style here shown is an at- tempt to accommodate the old fashion to newer notions of symmetry. The objection- peatureB of able features in the letters a, g, W, S, the modem- O, C have been removed- The body- i^^ioi^-styie marks have been made slightly narrower and the hair-lines a little sharper, but, as some think, not to their improvement. The protracted stem, the short hair-line and serif, have been preserved. The greatest change has been made in shortening The Old-style of this modernized form was first made forMiller& Richard, Edinburgh, about the year i860. Modernized old-style on double small-piea body, solid.i George Bruoe's Son & Co., New- York. ascenders and descenders, and in the consequent enlarging of the small or round letters. The 1 This modenuzed old-style & Richard by Phemister, then was designed and cut for MUler of Edinburgh, later of Boston. 25 194 Modernized Old-style modernized old-style pica seems larger than the pica of Caslon. It is a broader letter, yet it does not have a similar relief of white space between the lines. This feature is most noticeably shown in this specimen of double smaU-pica, which in a large page is much improved by leading. The general effect of the smaller sizes of this style (which is more fully illustrated on pages 82 Is reetiui to to 97 of this work) is that of a pleas- the eye jng and a restful monotony. It does not irritate the eye with sharp contrasts of brist- ling angles and thick and thin lines ; it does not challenge the reader's attention to a study of its individual characters. For this reason it is pre- ferred by many authors for serious books, and by many publishers as the best form of colorless text- letter to put around engravings on wood that show strong contrasts of black and white. Other foundries have made new faces of the old-style character which show their notions of commendable improvements. Pew of these new faces are firm or bold ; in nearly all, the angular features are rounded or softened. Large faces with thin body-marks and hair-lines are preferred. There seems to be a real avoidance of the firm- ness of line which is the best feature of this char- acter. An old-style so treated is often a graceful character ; it has, or may have, the contour of the best old model, but it does not produce the strong effect of the true old-style letter. The Franklin Face 195 One of the' first, if not the first, of the mod- ernized old-styles produced in this country was de- signed and cut in 1863 by A. C. Phemister, to the order of Phelps & Dalton, who called the new let- ter the " Franklin face." It is a trifle wider as to BENJAMIN FRANKLIN was born in Boston, 17th of January, 1706, and died in Philadelphia, 17th of April, 1790. He began his apprentice- ship as printer in 17 18, and worked as a jour- neyman in Philadelphia in 1724, and in London in 1725. He returned to Philadelphia in 1726, and there began as master printer in 1729. As editor and publisher he soon made himself a man of note. He invented the Franklin stove in 1742 ; he proved the identity of lightning and electricity in 1752 ; he was made clerk of the Assembly in 1736; postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737 ; deputy postmaster-general for the colo- nies in 1753 ; representative of Pennsylvania be- fore the council of England in 1757 and again in 1764 ; delegate to Congress in 1775 ; ambas- sador to France in 1776 ; commissioner to Eng- land in 1783 ; president of Pennsylvania from 1785 to 1787 ; delegate to the constitutional convention in 1787."®/©/©/©/®/®/'®/^/©/©/®/®.'®''©/^ Franklin old-style on long-primer body, solid. Phelps, Dalton & Co. form and larger as to face, and consequently more open and perhaps a little more inviting to the eye than his first attempt, as shown by Miller & Rich- ard. Some characters have been much improved ; 196 Large-faced Old-style they show an evident leaning to the forms that are most approved in modern-cut letter. THURLOW WEED was born in Cairo, Greene County, New York, isth November, 1797, and died in New York city 22d No- vember, 1882. He entered a printing office when but twelve years of age. In 1815 he was a journeyman in New York city, work- ing by the side of James Harper in the office of Paul & Thomas. In 18 19 he established a weekly newspaper in Norwich, Chenango County, New York. In 1830 he established the "Albany Evening Journal," which soon became a power in politics. He never held any public office, yet he exerted a wonderful influence in the management of men and in the direction of public affairs. He did good service to the United States in defending na- tional interests abroad during the civil war. Large-faced old-style on long-primer body, solid. Phelps, Dalton & Co. To supply a demand for a still larger face, the same foundry had cut for it by the same punch- cutter a large-faced old-style in a full series of book sizes. The specimen here presented is on long-primer body, but it seems quite as large as the small-pica shown upon page 86 of this work. This enlargement was made by shortening the descenders and ascenders, and pushing them to the verge of the body. It will be noted that long The Original Old-style 197 types in adjacent lines often touch and seem to connect. It is a well-cut and readable letter, but it is neither true old-style nor modern-cut. The Binny face and the Bradford face made by MacKeUar, Smiths & Jordan Co. are other merito- rious forms of modernized old-style. To meet a demand for a " real " old-style, a series of book sizes has been produced, either from re- furbished old punches, or from new punches in faithful imitation of the English or Dutch roman letter in general use during the first half of the WILLIAM JANSEN BLAEW, a diftinguiflied printer of Holland, was born in 1571 and died at Amfterdam in 1638. He had been taught the trade of a joiner, at which work he made himfelf efficient as an affiftant to the aftronomer Tycho Brahe. After receiving inftruftion from Brahe, he went to Amfterdam, and there diftinguifhed himfelf by the publication of maps and the making of geographical globes. His frequent viiits to the printing office taught him fomething about printing, and led him to eftablilh an office for his own work. Diflatiffied with the old form of hand-prefs, he re- construfted it, and made many valuable improve- ments which were gradually accepted by printers everywhere. His " Theatrum Mundi," in fourteen volumes folio, is one of the beft fpecimens of the printing and engraving of the feventeenth century. Original old-style on long-primer body, solid. MaoKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. 198 Basle, or Ea/rly-Italicm, Old-style seventeenth century. It is a lean letter with a small face, and has many characters now regarded as uncouth. The Ct, the long 1 with its train of doublets, and other obsolete forms are conspic- uous. For the reprints of many English books published in the eighteenth century this original old-style is the most appropriate, but its meagre- ness and quaintness have often prejudiced many readers against all forms of old-style. There are authors who are not content with the moderate rudeness of the " original " old-style, but want an earlier and cruder form. For this taste, types have been made in imitation of the roman used by printers in France, Italy, and HoUand dur- ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Chiswick Press has an old-style which is a reproduction of a bold face once used by printers The Basle, or o^ Basle and by some early Italian Eariy-itaUan, printers. It was made about 1887 ex- oid-styie elusively for the books of the Chiswick Press, and has been employed by that house as a choice letter for works of merit. It is a bold and readable letter. Its most noticeable features are an upward slope of the cross-bar in the 6, greater thickness of the stems, avoidance of hair- lines, stubbiness of serifs, obliqueness of the thick strokes in rounded letters like 0, C, p, q, large smaU-capitals, and an increased width of many of the large capitals. It is one of the modern old- styles that retains characteristic peculiarities. At Basle, or Early-Italian, Old-style 199 this date (1891), it has been made only on a small- pica body, and has as yet no appropriate italic.^ C CHARLES WHITTINGHAM, firjt of the name in the annals of printing, was born in 1767, at Calledon, in the county of Warwick, England. About 1790 he began bujinejs at London as a majler printer. IniSiohe removed to Chifwick, and there founded the Chiswick Press, which ever Jince has maintained the highejl reputation for good book printing. He died in 1840. His nephew Charles (born in 1795), fuccecded to the bujinejs and to the friend- Jhip and confidence of the publijher, Pickering, for whom he made many admirable books. After his death in 1876, the bujinejs was con- tinued by his executors. The Basle old-style of the Chiswick Press. The seventeenth-century style, or, as it is often called in this country, the Elzevir ^ style, was re- 1 The peculiarities of this recently published book, " Tipo Basle style are more strikingly ItaHano non Elzeviriano," ap- presented in some books printed punti di B. L. Centenari, Rome. at Venice at the close of the 1879, intimates that the Elzevirs fifteenth century. were provided withltalian types. 2 ThenameElzeviris unwisely The author gives us no satisfac- chosen, for this face is unlike tory evidence in support of this the Van Dijk face, largely used intimation, and Willems ridi- by the Elzevir family. Who then cules it, but it must be admitted did make it? Didot (" Essai sur that this so-called Elzevir letter la Typographie," p. 699) says has features unlike those of any that Garamond and Sanlecque seventeenth-century face made made types for the Elzevirs. A in France or Holland. 200 Elzevir Old-style LOUIS ELZEVIR was a publisher at Leyden from 1 583 to 1 617. His sons Matthew, Louis, Josse, Gilles, and Bonaventure were also pub- lishers : IVlatthew at Leyden, Louis and Gilles at La Haye, Josse at Utrecht, Bonaventure, who also was a printer, at Leyden. . . .Abraham and Isaac, sons of Matthew, were printers and publishers at Leyden . Jacob, another son, was a publisher at La Haye. . . . Daniel, ablest of the family (son of Bonaventure), was printer and publisher, first at Leyden, and afterward at Amsterdam, between the years 1652 and 1680. Seventeenth-eentury old-style on body 10, solid. Gustave Mayeur, Paris.i vived in 1878 by Gustave Mayeur of Paris, who says that he selected for his model the types of a The Elzevir book printed in 1634 by the Elzevirs of old-style Leyden. It is a compressed letter, with a large open face, with very short ascenders and descenders, and thin stems, plainly made to with- stand wear, for the few hair-lines are of unusual thickness and all the serifs are short and stubby. 1 Mayeur founds this style in have drives from the original a complete book series, on all punches, found complete fonts bodies from body 5 to body 14, of this face, with its italic on 6- including a specially cut and 8- 10- and 12-point bodies. Sev- properly mated italic ; and in era! American foundries make the form of two-line capitals some of these larger sizes with only on several bodies between an appropriate lower-case. Three body 10 and body 72. Farmer, lines of a larger size can be seen Little & Co., of New York, who on page 51. Elzevir Old-style 201 Althougli fitted with unusual closeness it is a read- able letter, and popular, not only with publishers and authors, but with job printers. Its fuU series of durable two-line letter makes it especially val- uable for book titles and open display. Phelps, Dalton & Co. of Boston make a varia- tion of this face which has the characteristics of the original in the features of firm hair-lines, close set, stubby serif, and ability to withstand wear, with the added feature of greater compression. SAMUEL NELSON DICKINSON was born in the town of Phelps, Ontario County, New York, 11th December, 1801. After learning the trade of a printer in the Palladium office, Geneva, N. Y., he worked as a compositor in New York city and Boston. In 1829 he began business as a master printer. Inability to get the types he needed led him to type-making, in which he soon acquired distinction, his styles being preferred by the printers of New England. He died in Rox- bury, Mass., on the I6th day of December, 1848. He was succeeded by Sewall Phelps, a proof- reader of education, and Michael Dalton, an ex- pert type-founder. After the death of Phelps in 1863, and of Dalton in 1879, new members were admitted, of whom now remain George J. Pierce, Alexander Phemister, A. C. Converse, and J. W. Phinney, trading under the firm-name of Phelps, Dalton & Co.i^^§^*^g^^^^S^*^^^*^i^ Elzevir old-style on long-primer 'bocly, solid. No. 19 of Phelps, Dalton & Co. 26 202 Bonaldson Old-style The "Ronaldson old-style" was designed and made in 1884 by the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Eonaidson Co. In this face the squared or angled old-style shoulder of the m and n, and aU other peculiarities of old-style, are strongly emphasized. Note the angled serifs of the lower-case, and the added angles given to many of the capitals. It JAMES RONALDSON was bora in 1768, at Gorgie, near Edinburgh. In 1 794 be went to Philadelphia and there followed the business of biscuit-baking. When the bakery was destroyed by fire, in 1796, he sought a new business, which he found in a partnership with Archibald Binny, a pradlical type- founder. Ronaldson contributed the money ; Binny the tools and the prac- tical knowledge. The partnership, which lasted for many years, was of mutual advantage. Ronaldson died in Philadelphia in 1842. 'WWW^^^W^ Ronaldson old-style, on pica body, solid. MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. is a remarkably clean-cut letter ; the counters are deep, and each character has a notable sharpness and clearness. It is a very popular letter with job printers. French Old-style 203 The form of modernized old-style most used in France, Belgium, and Italy is rounder, fatter, and more open than the popular old-styles of England or America. Usually it is of light face, with firm and visible hair-lines. Its most pronounced pecu- liarities are the great width of the rounded capi- tals and an apparently fanciful rearrangement of stems and hair-lines. The smaU capitals are often weak and inconspicuous. Some French founders give their small capitals a wider set, so that they seem hair-spaced, but this treatment more plainly exhibits their meagreness. The quotation marks FRANgOIS DIDOT, the first of a long line of French typographers, was born in Paris in 1689. He served apprenticeship to Andre Pralard, printer and publisher of that city. In 171 3 he was established as a master printer, choosing for his sign and trade-mark the « Golden Bible. » He soon acquired a good reputation for the beauty of his typography, of which (d'His- toire gen^rale des voyages)) in twenty quarto volumes is an excellent example. In middle age he was made syndic of the corporation of booksellers and printers. He died 2d November, 1759. ^^V~ii^Cf>t3eifg) ^fiYLOIi, author, was born in Kennett Square, (Pennsylvania, 11th January, 18S§. He began as a printer in ISJi-S. fifter a service of two years he uient abroad, traveling' always on foot, supporting himself by contri- butions to journals. jSs traveller, lecturer, poet, and translator, he earned a high reputation, fit his death. 19th (2)ecember, 1878, he -was the ambassador of the United States at ^erlin. Engraver'a hair-line italic on long-primer body, solid. George Bruce's Son & Co. The inclined roman shown at foot of this page is one of the many French varieties of italic. It has found ready sale with job printers, but it is an innovation that does not please critical publishers. WILLIAM A. BULLOCK, inventor of the rotary printing-machine then known as the Bullock press, was born at Greenville, Greene County, Xew York, in 1813. He was fully taught the trade of machinist, and qualified himself as a mechanician. He made many presses of merit. He died nt Philadelpliin, 14th April, hSOT, from an accident which befell him when he was put- ting up and adjusting one of his machines in the office of the ''Philadelphia Ledger." Inclined roman on 10-point body, solid. Benton, Waldo & Co., Milwaukee. Law Italic Fanciful Italics 279 The law italic here shown is broader, clearer, and more easily read than any other. These good qualities have been secured by making each char- acter wider, by giving greater prominence to the round letters, and by shortening the lines of the descending letters. In England and America it is used only as a job-letter; in France it is some- times used for the running-titles and the' sub- headings of standard books. PIERRE FRAMQOIS DIDOT, son of FrajiQois, was horn at Paris, 9th July, 1 732, and there he died, 7th Beeemher, 1793. He was a skilful type-founder, a manufacturer of fine bookpaper at Essonne, and the publisher of many books remark- able for their typographical merit. Law italic on long-primer body, double leaded. George Bruce's Son & Co. The line which separates italic from script is not easily drawn. There are many styles of type half italic and half script, but all of them are properly regarded as unsuitable for book-work. This re- mark can also be applied to faces like the "en- graver's," "lithographic," "French," "Harvard," and other styles that are ornamented with flourishes. 280 Italic Figures and Small Capitals The elongated italic is an extremely condensed form of thick-faced italic. It is practically an en- largement of the face shown at foot of page 276. It is cast only of large size, and usually on a rhomboidal body, to prevent the kerning of long characters. Italic figures are comparatively modern. They are made for many of the standard varieties of old-style letter, but rarely for italic of modern cut. The need of italic figures is clearly shown wherever figures have to be used in lines of italic capitals. The upright small capitals of Aldus by the side of his inclined italic are not more incon- gruous than the irregular but upright figures of roman when they are embedded in an italic text. Small capitals of italic are sometimes furnished to some fonts by Scotch type-founders, but they are not made in the United States. IX Fat-face or Title-types fBVBNTY years ago fat-faee types were ia fashion. It was believed that the legibility of a new style could be largely augmented by giv- ing to it greater blackness of face. With this end in view, the designer of the fat-faee made the body of each character from one- pat-taee fourth to one-half wider than that of the made for ordinary text-letter. Then the body-marks ^'^^^^^ were made extremely thick, to the consequent nar- rowing of the spaces between the body-marks and a greater shallowness of counter. The hair-lines were cut as sharp as those of the standard roman text-letter. So treated, the fat-face thoroughly de- served its name, for the face covered the body. The relation of black and white was reversed: there was more stem than counter on the body, 36 281 282 Early Cuts of Fat-face and more black than white in the print, mak- ing it really blacker than the ordinary forms oi! old black-letter. Job printers and newspaper publishers accepted the new face as suitable for display Unes, and for the title lines of newspaper articles. Its frequent employment for these titles made it also known as title-letter. In its day it PLASTER STEREOTYPI]^« Done in 1 8 13 by D. &: G Bruce, X. Y. No. 140. joHjy Vt\MTTS rf* CO. stereotyped in JVew l*orfc, 1813 No. 141. Fat-faoe or title of an early cut on long-primer body. George Bruce's Son & Co. was so much admired that it was occasionally used as a text-letter for books.i The earlier forms of the fat-face are still shown in the specimen books, but they are seldom bought or used by printers of our time, for they are as unprofitable as they are ineffective. The stronger impression required for the stems is too much for the weak hair-lines, 1 In 18.S7, I. Ashmead & Co. pages. The entire text of this of PhUadelpUa published an book is in pica fat-face of the edition of "Heavenly Incense, boldest form. The forbidding or tile Christian's Compan- solemnity of every page is in- ion," a chunky octavo of 612 descrihuble. Modern Cuts of Fat-face 283 whicli soon break down. A more serious defect is the shallowness of the counters, which often become choked with ink. Pat-face types of the old form are therefore practically obsolete. The fat-face italic, which is a mate of the fat- face roman, was received by the book printers of the first quarter of this century with Fat-face marked disapproval. Italic had been the 'ts^'ic synonym of all that was light and graceful in type, but when introduced in a form as thick and bold as that of black-letter, all book printers de- nounced it aS' an uncouth letter. This prejudice still holds; for standard books fat-face italic is regarded as unsuitable. As a job-letter it 4s a favorite, and will not go out of fashion. For catalogue work many persons prefer it over all forms of display letter. Recent cuts of this letter are of lighter face and have inclined figures. STEREOTYPE PLATES Made by Wm. Ged, in Edinbvirgh, 1135 No. 143. JEABL STANHOPE In 1802 made good plates in London No. 144. Title or bold-faee of modern cut on long-primer body. George Bruee's Son & Co. 284 Condensed Titles In the newer forms, better known now as bold- face, many of the objectionable features have been New outs of removed. The stems are thinner, the fat-lace counters are wider and deeper, the let- ters are not so fat and are of more pleasing forms. For the side headings of dictionaries and book- catalogues, for which a moderate degree of prom- inence or display is needed, this new cut of title- type is accepted in books in which no other style of display type would be tolerated. Much to the surprise of many publishers, it has been proved that this lighter-faced style of bold-face is really more readable and more durable than the older styles of over -black fat-faces. The need, or the supposed need, of a condensed form of bold-face or title-type that will present Condensed ^^ greatest boldness in the narrowest forma of compass, has induced all founders to bold-face furnish these faces on condensed and extra condensed bodies. Many of them are made in a full series of so-called regular bodies in capi- tals and lower-case. The over-black styles with flat and feeble ser- ifs, and without any proper relief of con- trasting white space An over-black liiio of an old rashion. in their countcrs, arc seldom bought. The extra condensed forms of lighter face and better cut are more useful. In the narrow measures of tables, and in some other same Condensed Titles 285 forms of printed work, they are of occasional ser- vice, but they are grossly misused when they make print indistinct for no other reason than the sup- posed necessity for crowding many characters in one line. The extra condensed title capitals of the French founders, once much admired bj' all job printers, are now deservedly neglected. The most approved form of condensed title is that usually named Aldine. Its condensation is slight, for the larger sizes have letters Aidine not much thinner than those of the ordi- ^"W-face nary lean text-letter. Having firm hair-lines, with deep and open counters, it is one of the few dis- play types tolerated in fair book-work. The Al- STEREOTTPING B¥ PRESSURE In Semi-fluid Metal, by Carez of Paris, 1786 Aldine. STEREOTYPING BY PAPIERMSCHE PROCESS Done by fienonx of Paris in 1829 for a Frencb Dictionary Extra condensed title. Condensed and extra condensed title on long-primer body. dine series usually shown in the specimen books of type-founders includes twelve bodies, from pearl to eight-line pica. In the smaller sizes of pearl and nonpareil this style loses much of its clearness. 286 Expanded Titles Title-types are also made of expanded shape. The face first made, then known as extended, or Extended fat-face extended, is completely and de- fat-faoe servedly out of use. The specimens here shown are plain examples of the absurdity of con- necting the thickest possible stem with the thinnest Two-line pearl extended, No. 181. Brevier extended, No. 181. Joseph ^^. ^^dams, in 1S30 Long-primer title expanded, No. 182. Extended and expanded titles. George Bruce's Son & Co. possible hair-line. When so made the composed types are deciphered with difficulty. To read a word one has to study carefully the outline of each character. The expanded form of title now in use is not so broad, and is of better cut, but it is at best an uncouth style of letter, and not so popular or so useful as the lighter face of ex- panded roman shown in the chapter on modern faces of roman text-letter. Old-style Titles 287 Old-style peculiarities do not readily lend them- selves to any style of fat-face or title-letter, but they have been made to conform to this oid-styie and other fashions with much ingenuity. *at-tace The clear and readable effect of the old-style roman text-letter is produced not so much by its angular peculiarity, or any other mannerism of form, as SXBREOXYPE SHAVER David Bruce^ inventor^ 1814. Pica old-style title. by its relative monotony of color, its thicker and shortened hair-line, and its comparatively narrow and protracted body-mark. An over-wide fat-face type, that emphasizes the distinction between an over-thick stem and an over-thin hair-line, neces- sarily destroys the most characteristic feature of the old-style letter. It then becomes necessary to exaggerate the angular mannerisms of the style, •but these can be shown with best effect in the capitals only. The stubby serif, the shortened hair-line, and the high-shouldered arch lose much of their distinctive character when afiSxed to the over-thick stems of the lower-case sorts of an expanded letter. Old-style title so made may be more durable and more readable than the ordi- nary title, but it cannot be considered as a more 288 A New Style of Title pleasing form of letter. Critical publishers who readily accept for a display letter any cut of old- style antique refuse to take an old-style title. Old-style title expanded has aU of the demerits and but few of the merits of the ordinary form of title expanded. It is never used as a book-type, but only as a fanciful job-letter. The old-style title condensed, when properly cut, is miich more successful in preserving old-style Condensed peculiarities; largely so because there old-style is more opportunity in the condensed bold-face ^^^^ fjjj. ^jjg lengthening of the stems and the shortening of the hair-lines of the lower- case. The large sizes are most effective, but there are cuts of condensed and extra condensed old- styles in frequent use that are especially objec- tionable for their bad design and bad fitting. ALEXANDER M. TILLOCH Made Stereotypes in Glasgow 1780 Pica De Vinne. The form of title-letter that fairly preserves the distinguishing characteristics of the old-style is De Vinne that made by the Central Type Foundry, boid-fiiie and by that house named " De Vinne." The general form of this new style is mainly based on old-style roman, but it is more expanded, and Recent Styles of Title-type 289 has some eccentricities of design in the capital let- ters. The stems are not over-thick, and the so- called hair-lines have width enough to make each SMCamdy Four-line pica De Vinne. character distinct and in harmony with the thick- ened stems. It has the undeniable merits of sim- plicity of form, readability, and durability. A still bolder form of title-type has been recently introduced under the name of "Atlas" by H. W. Caslon & Co. of London. It is much blacker than any of the early styles of title-type, for its thin lines are fully as firm as those of a doric antique. The faces on the following page, although of smaU size and without lower-case, may be fairly classed with title-types. They were made by Barn- hart Brothers & Spindler of Chicago, and are known as Engraver's Roman. The names are those of some of the punch-cutters of American type-foundries of the nineteenth century, as I find them in a series of articles on "Designers and En- gravers of Type," written by William E. Loy, and published in the " Inland Printer" of Chicago. 37 290 Punch-cutters of the United States AUGUST E. ^VOERNER, Born at Erankfort-aji-Main, December 18, 1844. Resit>icnt OB- New Yukk. Dikd rK New York, July 37, 189G- JAMES \VEST, Born at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1830. ALiEXA>"DER PHEMISTER, Born at Edinburoh, Scotland, in 1829, Died at Chelsea, aiASSACHusETTS, ix 1801. h:erma>^ ihlkntjurg. Born at Berlin, Germany, in 1843. ReSIDEXT of PlIILADELPIIlA. SAMUEL, SAWTfEli KliiBURJ^, Born at Bi'ckland, MAisHACHtJSETTS, Dec, 1799. Resident of Boston. i>ied DEf.. IS64, GUSTAV E. SCIIROEDER. Born near Berlin, Germany, in 1861. HARRISO:^ T. LOUNSBURY, Born near PEEKSKILL, N". Y,, in 1831, Died in 1892. W, F, CAPITAINE, Born at Southgate, near LiONDf>N, January, 1851. DAVID BRUCE, Born at >Jew Vork, Feb. G, 1802. Resident of New York. Died at Brooklyn, Sept. 13, 1802, ED'SVARD RUTHVE>", Born in Scotland, Dec, 31, 1811, jVUEx^v:xi)ER kay. Born AT Edinburgh, June G, 1827. ^^^:Ll^:.IAM -sv. jacksox. Born at Cvjidex, Xew Jersey, July •23, 1847. Died at Atlantic Citv. Ai;g. 14, 180S. AXDREW GIIjBERT, Born at Edinburgh in- 1821, Died at Chelsea. Masma* iiesetts. .Ti-lv 25, 18T3, JOHX F. CUMMTXG. BornatHarrisville.Pennsylv.vni v,]May20, 1852. JULIUS IIERRIET. Sr., Born at BRiTN.'^wicii. Germ.vny, Feb, 9, 1818. Fnur faces on nonpareil l)0(ly, of wliicli tline .are Lere shown. X Black-letter ^LACK-LETTER is a degenerate form of the roman character. Its man- nerisms probably began with copy- ists not expert at curved lines, who had to form each letter with repeated strokes of the reed. If the parchment kinked or buckled, if the paper was rough, if the Beginning ot reed sputtered, repeated strokes were wack-ietter all the more obligatory. Under these conditions the portions of a roman letter that were curved in the model would be straightened and made angu- lar at every junction with connecting lines. . Whatever the cause, the angular character which printers call black, and bibliographers call gothic,i was the form approved by the copyists of Europe 1 BiWiographers call it gothio character preferred by all people because it has always been the of Gothic descent. 291 292 Preferred by Medieval Copyists for some centuries before the invention of printing. Little text-writing was done in any other style. Italian copyists preferred the simple open forms which seem to have served as models for our mod- ern roman and italic, but they were too few in number to change the prevailing fashion. The majority of copyists adhered to black-letter, and readers who knew no other style objected to aU attempts at change. There were many fashions of black-letter, for there was no generally recognized standard of au- oid forms of thority as to the correct form of letters, black-letter and each copyist made them to suit his own notions of propriety or convenience. A con- densed and pointed form was the accepted style for books of devotion ; a rounder and more care- less form for texts or for writing that did not seem to call for precision. In different manu- scripts made before the fourteenth century one finds letters that are condensed, expanded, of light face, of dark face, with plain capitals, with flour- ished capitals, but aU of them are of an angular style. It cannot be said that all of these styles are noticeably black, but most of them, espe- cially the more pointed forms, had lines so thick that more black than white appeared on the writ- ten page. The English name of black-letter was given to this character only after the introduction and general use of roman printing-types. The roman type was then called white-letter as a ready Preferred by Early Printers 293 name of distinction, for roman showed more white than black upon the printed page. To modern readers all the early styles of manu- script black-letter are perplexing. One must study each style to decipher its characters, otpscurityof The world of letters is not conscious ^'^^'^^ ^"""^ of its indebtedness to the art of typography for its enforcement of a simplification of the alpha- bet.^ Out of the many styles then in fashion the early printers selected but two; probably because they were of simple forms, popular with readers, and easy to be made in type. One was the pointed black-letter, now known to French bibliographers as the lettre de forme? This was the standard or formal letter which was preferred for all the care- fully written books. The other style, the round 1 " So mucli beauty or dignity Politioribus characterum typis" was supposed to be inherent in Greswell, "AnnaJs of Parisian this distortion of the alphabet, Typography," p. 14. London, that a treatise of one of the 1818. schoolmen, printed at Venice by 2 The "Bible of Forty-two Giov. di Colonna and J. Man- Lines," supposed to have been then, bears with it this com- printed before 1455 by Guten- mendation, that it is executed berg of Mentz; the "Psalter" suhUmiUterarum effigie; andthe of 1457, printed by Fust and "Conciliator Medicinse " of the Schoeffer of Mentz; the small year 1483 has this subscription, books attributed by some to Cos- charactere jucundissimo M. Jo- ter of Haarlem between 1423 annis Herbort Alemanni, cujus and 1440, and by others to some vig et ingenium facile superemi- unknown printer of the Nether- nent omnes. In 1525 Nicolas lands before 1476; the "Books Prevost at Paris writes of a of Hours "and many other books Gothic impression, O^is pM^c^ro of merit of the early French Uterarum cJMracte-re politissi- printers, are in different sizes mum. Another French printer and fashions of the lettre Se of 1520 commends his book as forme. 294 Pointed Black and Round Black gothic, is known as the lettre de somme,^ and it was the style most approved for ordinary books. abrtefgl) Hbcbefgb Lettre de forme. Lettre de somme. Modern imitations of early styles of black-letter. The form of black-letter most approved by Eng- lish readers is the pointed form, which Blades says is modeled on the lower-case letters of 01 Engis tiie « Bible of Forty-two Lines." = Al- though it has been supplanted as a text-letter by the roman, it is so identified with early English printing that it fairly deserves its generally ac- cepted name of Old English. The specimen on pica body (page 295) was east from matrices sunk in the early part of the sixteenth century, probably in Rouen, France, whose type-founders then sup- plied England with its best types. The larger bodies are old, but of later date. The body -marks of this style are thick, and the characters are so 1 The "Letters of Indiilgence" Even in Italy, Nicholas Jenson, of 1453 and 1454, and the "Ca- after his introduction of roman tholicon " of 1460, attributed to types, found it expedient to print Gutenberg, as well as the Latin books in this round gothic to "Bible of 1462 "printed by Peter suit the tastes of unscholarly Schoeffer, are in the lettre de book-buyers. somnw. The ordinary reader of 2 This form was sparingly used the sixteenth century preferred by Caxton between 1479 and this style to the pointed gothic 1483, but always with capitals and to the roman character, in the Flemish style. Pointed BlacJc-letter 295 closely fitted that it well deserves the name of black. Some of the capitals (not in the Flemish but in the French style) are uncouth, but the gen- eral effect of a printed page is pleasing. It is fre- quently selected for lines or words of prominence by lawyers, and for a formal text by ecclesiastics. The ofleial copy of English statute law continues to be printed in this early style of black-letter. Sfitjplffeangi^an ^pttttuel or Cemporel to bpt onp ^pejef of ttuo or ttjcec comemo^ tmo^ of i&alifbiiti aJfe cnjfjrpntEb after tl)e forme of tljiiS pref et Hettrc, to^iclj 6en tuei anb tnilp correct late l^pm come to i^eftmonefter, in to ttje SWmoncfrpe, at t|)e JHeeti ^ale, an& |)e (l^al Jjaue tljem ooli Cljepe. ^^-^ ^yx^plkux ftet cebula. Real Old English on pica and larger bodies, leaded. Sir Charles Reed's Sons, London. Pickering selected it for his Victorian edition of the " Book of Common Prayer." Moxon com- mends it as a style that should be in the stock of 296 Flemish Black-letter every master printer. It is more in fashion now than it has been at any time during the past cen- tury, for the stringent rule that excludes almost every other style from the standard book tolerates and often commends the occasional employment of a good form of black-letter. For the facsimile reprinting of fifteenth-century books, abbreviations on pica body have been pro- vided, but they are not made for the larger bodies. qraeiouniSficcggggg^pIr strictly German styles of black-letter have never been used for book-texts at any period by English publishers. In the beginning English Old Flemish , ,. , , , , , , . , publishers had to buy their best types from foreign founders, and sometimes to get books made by foreign printers, but they never selected the fractur, schwabacher, German text, or any of (Ifeotionc Iftoob, a .ffierman torn 0' tfte €itr? of Coloenc, (C6at ie tftirf turiou^ 'jfeoofe bib jirint, (Co an Men mahet^) ftnoton. 3tnb fti^ ooob partner (Cftonia* Wuntt, Kn iSnsTiflinian f)e wa^. J^otn aib tficm K^eatitn ! rtat ttc? map ©enctian .^hin surpass. Blaok-letter in the Flemish style on brevier body, solid. Sir Charles Eeed's Sons. Flemish Grosse Bdtarde 297 the German styles. When English printers could not buy from the type-founders of France, they went to those of the Low Countries. The illustra- tion on the previous page shows an early form of English black-letter with some Flemish manner- isms of the sixteenth century. In the modern form of Flemish black-letter these peculiarities are re- tained. It will be noticed that it is an entirely distinct style, and that it seriously differs from the accepted fashion of G-erman text-letter. The book in which the English language was first printed 1 is of another Flemish style, made after the design of some unknown TheFiemisii copyist, who wrote with a free, flour- grosse batarde ishing hand. Although printed in English, it was not printed on English soil. The type first us6d by Caxton in England, and probably made in Bruges, was of the same style, but Blades describes it as " more dashing, picturesque and elaborate." This style was then known in France as the grosse bd- tarde. It does not appear to have been much liked by English readers, for Caxton did not use it exclusively, and it was not renewed by his suc- 1 The " Eecuyell of the His- printed before 1474 by Caxton at toryes of Troye." Translated in the monastery of Weidenbach, 1469-1471, but without place or near Cologne, where Caxton and date. According to Blades'this Mansion were acquiring their book was printed by WUliam knowledge of typography. It is Caxton about 1474, and probably a style of type not at aU English, in the printing-house of Colard "Lettres d'un bibhographe," Mansion at Bruges. Accord- quatriSmesferie, pp. 13-30. 8vo. ing to J. P. A. Madden, it was Paris, 1875. 38 298 Caxton's Favorite Character cessors. After long neglect it was revived in 1855 by Vincent Piggins of London for a facsimile edi- tion of Caxton's "Game and Playe of the Chesse." n^^^e (XB 3 can mg Copge+t»^ic^e t»a6 in ® utc^e, (Xxib 6g mt^i^m Ccixton trdnefateb in to t^ta rube §• egmpfe el mes be Qct\\» bre. ano bel nadmiento be nuef* tro faluabor 3efu Cbrifto be mil i (luinientos 1 1? ve^nte dnco anos. Old black on pica and double small-pica bodies. line pica, but all of them are incompletely provided with abbreviating characters. The round lower- ease letters have unusual height; the ascenders, descenders, and capitals are correspondingly short- ened. It is a useful letter for reprints of early books, and is frequently selected for headings or display lines in the advertisements of publishers. 300 Black of Sixteenth Century For more than three centuries Englist type- founders adhered with great tenacity to the form of pointed black that had been provided for them by the early French and Flemish founders. The model letters drawn by Moxon in 1676 for his "Rules of the Tbree Orders of Print Letters" From Moxon's "Mechaniok Exercises." show no important departure from those used by Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde. Nor was any change made by English founders of the seven- teenth or eighteenth century that would justify aCljc Ijol^ anD blffiigec SDoctour &aT?nt 31erom fi;ai?tl) tljTifi; auttor\?te, SDo altoe^e gommc ^ootj Mit^t to tlirntie rijat tlje SDeu^l fpnoe tlje not ^Dle. 5lnD tlje l)ol\? SDoctour &atnt ^ustvn saptt) in tl)e Boob of tlje llabour of sponkfii tljat no apan &tronge or sp^stitt? to ILaboure ougljt to bt ^t)l0» * i * * » * ' ^ * ' ^ * "» * ' ^ * "» * ' ^ ^ "i * "i * Golden Legend. Old English black of the sixteenth century, leaded. Sir Charles Reed's Sons. Fat-faced Black 301 the naming of any one of their new cuts as that of a distinct style. The first novelty attempted in the form of black- letter was that of the fat-faced black, which ap- peared at or near the beginning of this Fat-faced century when the fat-faced remans were wact-ietter popular. Hansard 1 denounced it as "a fanciful but ridiculous innovation"; Dibdin sneered at it as " gouty and frightful" ; but these censures did '^'^fl^l^fi iroes lie [a famous prfn= otfier ijatais UBS I9fsttngttiis))eir 3|rfntetrs airoiJt tijat iFtifllitfttl, ©^otttff, 3iii9))to)iortiona^te, 3Sfie= Jristractiitfl antr Kmtt^tt'atiltivLi form of UlatfesUttec too frcqucntlg bfstiile on tije jFronttsptecfs of ijts ffioofes? 3Let ti^e ^t)ost of SM^nfttn tre llMatnt i^aunt f)tm tfll i)0 atianiron tt.^ ■ =::: ♦■ < ♦■ ^ * • < ♦• < ♦ Fat-faced black on pica and long-primer bodies. l"As a British classic type, it mixing in the list the modern [Old English] must be regarded fanciful (but ridiculous) inno- with veneration in England, as vations, only called Blacks from the character in which Wynkyn the quantity of ink they are ca- de Worde . . first exercised pable of carrying." Hansard, the art, and therefore I shall "Typographia," p. 404. Include Blacks in the Synopsis ; 2 Dibdin, ' ' Bibliographical De- but studiously abstaining from Cameron," ii, 407. 302 Modern French Blach-letter not prevent its employment. Many of the larger foundries made it in a fuU series of sizes from brevier to six-line pica. For thirty years or more it was preferred by printers to the older form, which was set aside as uncouth and obsolete. The designers of the early forms of black-letter avoided hair-lines; the designer of the fat-faced black studiously tried to introduce them in places where they were not needed. He also attempted to make the stems of some of the capitals conform to the shape of the roman capital. These changes are no improvement on the old models. In France and Germany these fat-faced blacks were never as popular as they were in England. Frencii form of The Continental founders modernized waok-ietter \\^q early forms in another direction. This is the style now preferred in France, which has also been accepted to some extent in England and the United States, as a proper style for lines of display in good work. At its introduction it had the merit of novelty, but a modern reader ®f making mang iSooks tljcvcianovlrnli; anbmucl) Stubt) is a lUcavincs0 of tl)e iflesi). $ $ A French blaek-letter of modem cut. German Styles of Blach-letter 303 fails to see in it any point of superiority wlien put in comparison with the English black-letter of the sixteenth century; yet it has the negative merit of few serifs at the angles. Unfortunately it has not been made in a full series of sizes. Neither the precise pointed gothic nor the more careless round gothic seems to have been entirely acceptable to the uncritical German practurand reader of the fifteenth century. There schwabacher was a desire for types that should be more careless and unconventional, in imitation of the letters of Fraetur. Seliwabaeher. a hasty manuscript. A few of the eccentric styles of black-letter then in fashion were reproduced, of which three still retain their old popularity — the fraetur, the schwabacher, and the German text.^ 1 The broad-faced style of tlie tremely condensed fraetur first schwabacher was first made in appeared in a good forra in the a very rude form by Rewichs of '*Theuerdank" of Hans Schoen- Mentz, in 1486, although some sperger, Nuremberg, 1517. The of its peculiar characters are text was adorned with flourished noticeable in the types of Peter initials whichhave served as the Schoeffer. The slender and ex- models for modern German text. 304 Fractur and Schwabacher The fractur is still the preferred text-letter for the newspapers and ordinary books of Germany. For scientific books the antiqua or roman is usu- ally selected, and it is also more frequently used for the letters of coins, medals, and sign-boards. Snberme^fuug ber 9JieJTung, mit bem 2^xdd onb ri^tfc^cj^t, in Sinien Sbnen m gan^en Sorporen, burc^ Sttbrec^t fitter jufamen ge* jogen, »n burc^ jn felb^ nun alien lunft lieb* labenben in trud geben. 1538. Fractur on pica body, leaded. George Brace's Son & Co. The schwabacher is a rounder, clearer, and sim- pler form, largely used for display, and to some extent as a text-letter. The German-text, once popular as a display letter in book titles, is now little used, and only in ornamental job printing. 3d? bin gefdjicfet mit ber press, So id} aufftrag ben ^irniss ress ; So balb mcin Dicnr oen Bengel 3ucft So ift ein Bogn papers gebrurft. fians Sad?s. Schwabacher on pica body, solid. James Conner's Sons. German-text and Composite 305 German founders have devised other forms of black-letter, which are occasionally seen in Ger- ii pttitixt^dUn vnh m$ uih vmkin ^dhs mh ^it* Modern German-text. George Bruce's Son & Co. man books. Some of them have been reproduced by our American founders, but only after they have been divested of most of their unacceptable German mannerisms. The composite, Teutonic, Composite. 39 306 Borussicm and Borussian are freely accepted by American printers as useful text-letters or display letters for legal formularies. At least a score of distinct styles can be seen in the specimen books of the large German foundries, most of them cut in a full series of sizes. Many are admirably drawn ® ui Scripsit Scripta Sua 3)c3rfra sit iSmcdicta. Borussian of bold-face. and engraved, but they are put aside by American founders as too fantastic for common readers ; yet they are not more fantastic than many black-let- ters of American origin. During the past thirty years, American type- founders have devised many entirely new forms Jleading mafetft a Ml Jftan, fionfctcnce a Jlearlg Man, rititig an ftxad Ulan. Borussian of light-face. American Styles of Black 307 of black-letter or pointed text. Card text, Anglo- saxon, Franklin, medieval text, fancy text, title text, eureka text, scribe text, modern text, Italian text, sloping black, expanded black, are the names ®raffg men ©anfcmn -Sfut>ies ; -Simple vnen '^^bmirc fhcm ; liSSi&e vnen '^t»e ihenx. Teutonic on english body, of but a few of the novelties designed for job printers. Many of these styles are varied by orna- mental outlines, or by ruled cross-lines, or shades, or inlays. All have been made in the lithographic or the copperplate style, with very sharp and long hair-lines, most of them with serifs bristling on every angle. Although of simpler form than the German novelties, their overworked delicacy and refinement of cut, and their excess of flourish and ornament, make them so feeble and ineffective that they are properly excluded from book-work. Exception to this general condemnation may be made in favor of a few new styles. The Au- gustan black, of as light face as the weakness of ordinary roman, is a remarkably grace- ""^ ^^y^®^ ful letter. The same praise must be given to the condensed blacks of light-face and of bold-face. Tested by mechanical standards, they seem fault- less in design, spacing, engraving, and fitting-up. 308 Weakness of Modern Styles The characters, harmonious in every combination, impress the reader with their honest, painstaking workmanship. Yet they are thoroughly feminine in effect — so made by over-refinement in cutting, and by the needless decorations of flourished serifs C^e trisuptitt into tal^kl^ y^tterof t^s rut [J^ai-faw] ^as falltn l^as profaaWg arisen from W^tQliQmct, Inatten- tion anb Mant of Caste. . . . Itisbiffi- £ult to inbestigate anir spwifg t^e jqualities faj^k^ fonstitnte §eau:tg: btrt Jfatness seems to ^afae htm tonsibereir bg t^e ^et- tcr-fonnbers as an adequate Snbstttute for all stttl^ qualities.' *^ii^*»^,i^t»^ii,'»^ii^^^^:s^^:s^ Augustan black on pica and double-pica bodies. George Brace's Son & Co. and hair-lines. One has but to contrast them with the sturdy styles of the old printers to understand why men of letters keep them out of standard books. When these blacks are selected for the headings of a chapter, or for the running-title, their incongruity with the roman text is startling. 1 Hansard, " Typographia," p. 617. Obscurity of New Styles 309 Ifartttttate would it b^, imt m anta gm- §i0i)fei5i, PgatMWji att4 itttetmittgW ^ettets, n» mil ajs itis inuumwaWe ^WuvxUion, Pait ^twfefu iScawjlM viiSiblt, unxUA wittt ®Wcfe ^wfiS, awft to ^wafes awd ©tticvatttWiS, wm etttiwlatci disappeat:, and Wt ottia as *ft« ®spe <* » pe^'W urhen att ^a»«- i«B tuaft ttwrta p««iiS W, toflrthw with 0ii)(d ^m»e awd ^otid ®aiSitf.^-«*-'«*"«*-'«*^«*~€*'«*'«*"«*^*'«*"«*'«*-«* Condensed blaok of bold-face on long-primer body. George Bruee's Son & Co. This mischievous tendency to over-refinement in the designing of types has effectually spoiled and kept out of general use two char- oDscurity of acteristic styles of early black-letter, onurciitext The church text, as one may still see it upon in- scriptions on tombs and tablets in some of the old English and German churches, is an ecclesiastic letter of marked grace. In the tjrpes here shown, the general form is above reproach, for every let- ter has been carefully studied from good models. In these model letters on the stone or in the brass hair-lines were carefully subdued, but in the type the hair-lines and the knobby serifs have been thrust in where they were not needed. The re- sult is disappointing, for the strong character of 1 Silvestre, " Umversal Palseo- erickMadden, voLii, p. 652. 8vo, graphy,"translationof SirFred- London, 1849. 310 Church Text and Chapel Text the letter has been destroyed by the addition of these feminine graces. Churchmen who know and esteem this letter for its appropriateness in eccle- siastic work refuse to use it, condemning it for the faults of delicacy and obscurity. Churcli text on canon and smaller bodies. Sir Charles Eeed's Sons. The chapel text is a modern variation of the old church text. It is not so condensed, and should Weakness of be more easily read. The capitals are chapeitext j^q^ unpleasantly ornamented, for the decorative lines are entirely inside of the letter proper, leaving a sharp and clear outline. This feature should make the capitals useful for the rubrics of liturgical work, but the stems of the capitals, although without hair-lines, are too thin to retain the amount of color that is needed for a Chapel Text and Saxon 311 rubric. In the lower-case the punch-cutter has practically conjoined all the letters with angular knobs or serifs where they are not needed, by try- ing to make the short letters line at the top as well as at the bottom. The entirely unnecessary graces of occasional flourishes, and pendants, and over-sharp hair-lines, have made the weak and obscure lower-case a bad mate for the capitals. Difficult to read in black ink, it becomes almost unreadable, certainly inefEective, when printed in the prescribed scarlet red. Therefore the church- man neglects it, preferring the old form of black- letter, not for the uncouthness of its capitals, but for its legibility, since the broader surface of the character permits it to be easily read, even when printed in the palest of scarlet. (til JfigH^ra^ttbaJ.d^tJlip- far^m nun 5^]ipt^|^ttitsl Chapel text. The Saxon is another example of the danger of emasculating a strong letter. The delicate flnials and interlaced lines of this style, as they „ ^, , •' ' Z Saxon black may be seen in early manuscripts, did not weaken but intensified the strength of the Saxon style, for these finials and interlacings were 312 Saxon and Anglo-black usually in pale color, and were a contrast to the stronger lines or stems of the letter. When cut in outline these ornaments become too prominent, and the strength of the character is destroyed. Ornamented Saxon on meridian body. The designer of the Anglo-black has given a good imitation of an incised letter, in the gothic style, cut in stone by different blows of the chisel. It has no beauty of form to recommend it, but is an appropriate letter for the representation of inscriptions on tombstones. Anglo-black 3ohnni8 iCarnegie lais heer, Descenbit of Abam anb Eue, i5if ony can gang hieher, 3'se luiUing gie him leue. Anglo-black on pica body. Medieval 313 The medieval, although not in the pointed style, is usually classed with black-letter. It is admi- rably adapted for rubrication, but its use Medieval in that field is limited, for it is made in ^^^"^ three sizes only. The capitals seem to be the mod- ification of a mongrel type first made by William Le Rouge of Paris in 1512, as a rival to italic. The l^FfligilPo&JPrFtinin: BibFS JPflUjiFrqnF ^FnitF: ^FnMtnp ^FFF ISrFbi. Medieval on meridian and doulsle small-pica bodies. broad Byzantine capitals were bad mates for the condensed lower-case. Many meritorious novelties in black-letter have been introduced recently by the type-founders of Germany, but the relatively limited use of the German character in this country does not allow here any more than respectful mention. 40 314 The Bradley Series A recent novelty in black-letter is the bold-face designed by Mr. Will H. Bradley, which has been introduced to the printing trade by the American Type Founders Company in eight sizes, ranging from 6-point to 48-point, under the name of the Bradley series. The series first made has remark- ably bold letters, with peculiarities of form never before attempted. Among job printers, and to some extent with advertisers, the Bradley is rated as a valuable type for display. Co m Reader. (Ubo f aulfetb not, Huetb not; wbo mendetb faults i$ commendea: Cbe Printer batb faulted a little : it may be tbe J!u- tbor ov)er$idbted more. Cby paine (Reader) \% tbe leaste; Cben erre not tbou most by misconstruing or by sbarpe censuring ; lest tbou be more uncbaritable tban eitber of tbem batb been beedlessc: 6od amend and guide us all ^^i^ ^ Robartes on Tythes, 4to, Cambridge, 1613. XI Gothic [OTHIC is a misleading name. Or- dinary readers and book -collectors give it to all the older forms of black- letter, but American type-founders apply it to a sturdy type that has neither serif nor hair-line. The gothic of the type- founder was not derived from black-let- The simplest ter, and has no resemblance to it. Its *'"™ °* *^^ capitals are a rude imitation of the classical Greek and Roman lapidary character. Probably it was called gothic because the style first put in type was as bold and black as that of the black-letter gothic manuscript. Some English type-founders call it sans-serif, but others call it grotesque and also gothic. Of all styles this is the plainest. It has no use- less lines; in its regular or ordinary shape, each character is distinct, and not to be mistaken for 315 316 Gothic a Preferred Style any other. For this reason it is the style selected for the raised letters that are made for the blind, to be read by the sense of touch. Many adverti- A LIGHTER FACE OF GOTHIC provided with irregularfigures of old-style No. 1. A GOTHIC OF MEDIUM FACE condensed and with a full lower-case No. 2. BOLD-FACE GOTHIC with a rugged lower-case No. 3. A GOTHIC NOT SO BLACK with bold and distlnct lower-case No. i. AN EXTENDED GOTHIC lower-case and figures Five styles of gothie on pica body. sers prefer it over all other styles for the purpose of bold display. Many printers prefer it for its greater durability : it has no serifs to be bruised, and no hair-lines to be gapped. Defects of the Gothic Style 317 The bold-face gothic, No. 3 of the illustration (on page 316), appears to best advantage in the larger sizes. "When the body is small, the thicker lines occupy too much of the face, and letters like E, A, F, S, a, e, s, and indeed all characters with a central crossing line, have too little relief of interior white space. The medivpn face. No. 4, and the lighter face, No. 2, are much more readable, and are preferred for display. The old-style figures of the lighter face No. 1 are often selected for tables in which the greatest distinctness is desired. The extended gothic, No. 5, also has old-style figures, but its lower-case characters are not so popular. Nor can its capitals be used effectively without a special and irregular spacing between single letters. Where letters with perpendicular lines like those in H I M meet, one has to put spaces between to keep them apart at proper dis- tance. "When letters with angled lines like LAY meet, an awkward gap of white space appears be- tween these irregular letters, which should compel the compositor to give a wider spacing to all other letters in the line.* Gothic calls for more care in spacing than any other style. 1 Although this remark can serifs like those of the Elzevir, be applied to all letters, even to It is probable that the long serif roman and italic, it is especially first made by Jaugeon of Paris -applicable to gothic, and to any was invented to conceal or mod- style that has short and stubby if y this blemish. 318 Gothics of Condensed Shape The absence of projectiug serifs in the gothic style allows its letters to be compressed with but a moderate loss of readability, as may be seen ia A CONDENSED GOTHIC BOLD-FACE lower-case with short descenders No. 6. THIS GOTHIC CONDENSED is of a lighter face and on a wider set No. 7. GOTHIC CONDENSED. NO LOWER-CASE No. 8. A PICA Gomic, urn condensed and of a very flimsy face In which compression has been made at the eipense of leglhlllly No. 9. PICA GOTHIC CONDENSED HAIR-LINE Five styles of gothio condensed on pica body. three of the preceding illustrations. The extra condensed gothics and the hair-line gothics on the smaller bodies are a severe strain on eyesight. The merit of the gothic character is largely in the simplicity and readability of its capitals, but the lower-case sorts furnished with many styles Usefulness of Lining Gothics 319 are often found unsatisfactory, for they are not as symmetrical as the capitals, nor are they always as distinct. There are publishers who forbid the • use of gothic if they cannot have letters in cap- itals only. Yet those who do use capitals only soon find an unpleasing monotony in a succession of lines of gothic capitals all of uniform height. Nor are successive lines of gothic capitals neces- sarily distinct because the face is bold and black. If the lines are not widely leaded, and if meeting letters with parallel lines are not intelligently spaced, the composition will be huddled and ob- scure : it will not be as readable as lines that are composed in plain roman capitals. To enable the compositor to give a proper prominence to special letters or words, type-foun- ders now cast three or more faces of the usefulness smaller bodies of gothic capitals on one of Hning body, and adjust aU the faces on one line, sotiiics This permits the compositor to make a proper distinction of selected words and letters by a judicious use of large and small capitals. The dif- ferent faces assist in justification and in the making of lines of even length. These combined faces are sold in series, and are known as lin- ing gothics. They are made of light-face and of bold-face, and in a backslope form, not only for small but for large bodies. The bodies preferred by job printers are those of the smaller sizes. These lining gothics have been found most use- 320 Illustrations of Lining Gothics ful in the composition of panels and headings. They are used also for the legend line of illustra- tions in places where the smaller sizes of small capitals are rejected as deficient in readability. V^cts kRt TOT OH Hou?^Rt^v Boof, m«o ukot lo uut so iwm IHiRl SHk\.V. 81 HO SPtC^^\. iV)S1\f \CM\OH oi lut oitttRtm T\CtS. Four faces. EST I EN N E| BEST KNOWN TO Enolish reaocrs by thc N.MC OF STEPHENS, IS THE Family Name of many eminentFrench Printers. H EN RY, FIRSTOFTHE name, WAS A PRINTER IN PARIS FROM 1496 TO 1520. FRANCIS I, SON OF HENRV, DIED IN PARIS, 1550. ROBERT I, SON OF HENRV, PRINTED IN PARIS AND GE- NEVA FROM 1526 TO 1529, CHARLES I, SON OF HENRY, PRINTEDIN PARISFROM1536 TO 1650. HENRY II, SON OF Robert I, PRINTED IN Geneva from 1554 to 1698. ROBERT II, SON OF ROBERT I, PRINTED IN Paris, and DIED THERE IN 1588. Five races. OTHER ESTIENNES, .est KNOWN TO ENQLISH READERS BY THE NAME OF STEPHENS: FRANCIS II, 50N OF Robert I, was a PRINTER AND PUBUSHER AT GENEVA FROM 1562 TO 1B82. paul, bon of henry if, printed in Geneva, and died there in igsb. joseph, son of henry ii, printed in Geneva, and died there in ie27. GERVAIS, AND ADRIEN, sons of FRANCIS 11, PRINTED IN Paris : their DATES OF DEATH ARE UNKNOWN. ANTOINE, SON OF paul, printed in Paris: his date of death la unknown. HENRY III, SON of ANTOINE, WAS a PRINTER IN Paris in leu. ROBERT Ml, BON of rosert ii, was a printer in Paris in 164o, and the LAST eminent MASTER-PRINTER OF THE FAMILY. Four faces. Three styles of liuing gothic on nonpareil body. Eccentric Styles of Gothic 321 Gothic types are too simple in form to allow of much ornamentation, but some attempts have been made to give gTace to their simple and severe lines, as may be seen in the following illustrations : ECCEJMTRIC 1^1 C/tPIT/fLS A GOTHIC WITH SMALL CAPITy\LS A GOTHIC CONDENSED AND ORNApNTED with very short serifsj after the lati^ model The eccentric capitals of the bolder style have some value in lines of display, but for ordinary work their added quirks are positive disfigure- ments; yet this face, as well as the gothic of Kghter face with small capitals, is provided with one set of plain and another of eccentric letters. The gothic condensed and ornamented has very short serifs, and should be classed as a variety of the so-called latin face. Its slight degree of deco- ration is most noticeable in the capitals. The lower-case has little irregularity. It is a readable type, and is freely used as a text-letter in job-work. G-othics of inclined form are made by many founders, and are usually named gothic italic. For advertising purposes a bold-face like that 41 322 Inclined Gothics of the first illustration on this page is preferred. The lighter face that follows, equally close as to set, moderately condensed, and with some old-style THIS GOTHIC ITALIC CONDENSED Is of bold-face, is close-set, and very readable Gothic italic condensed on long-primer body. features, is a more popular style. It is one of the most readable of condensed letters, and is fre- quently selected by job printers for a text-letter. HENRI DIDOT, a son of Pierre Frangois, ■was born 15th July, 1765, and died in 1852. At the age of sixty-nine he cut the punches for his " microscopique" type on the body of two and one-half points Didot, or about twenty-five tines to the American inch. Gothic italic condensed on long-primer body, double leaded. XII Antique Types, Runic, Celtic, and Italian ^NTIQUB differs from roman in the boldness of its lines : stem, serif, and so-called hair-line are always of greater thickness. The general effect of a composition in this style is that of blackness and squareness. As first made, antique was provided with lines that were too thick and counters too narrow, and the over- r^j^g earliest hang of its descending letters was a bad form of bow faxdt. It was introduced at a time when ^-^"^ ^'^ all forms of roman text-letter were made feeble with protracted hair-lines and fraU serifs after the pre- vailing French fashion. The intent of the designer was to produce, for purposes of display, a bolder style that should be as distinct and easily read as that of the old lapidary characters. For this reason it was called antique by some founders and egyptian 323 324 Styles of Antique AN EARLV ANTIQUE probably cut before 1820 No. 1. CAST BY GEORGE BRUCE as a substitute for the bold-face No. 2. THE DORIC ANTIQUE has features of roman No. 3. THE IONIC ANTIQUE has large face, open counters No. i. THE LIQHT-FAOE ANTIQUE is not much bolder than roman No. 5. THE EXPANDED ANTIQUE has no overhanging descenders No. 6, Six faces of antique on pica body. Old-style and Doric Antiques 325 by others. Copies or imitations of this over-black stj'le are to be found in the specimen books of many American founders. For some years it was the most popular of display types, but the smaller sizes are now out of fashion, for they have been supplanted by others of neater cut. The over-black style is shown on page 324 as specimen No. 1. BOOKS ARE TEACHERS whose instructions are unaccom- panied by blows or harsh words, and who demand neither food nor w^ages. You visit them, and they are alert ; if you want them, they do not secrete themselves ; nor do they ridicule your ignorance, be it ever so gross. Richard de Bury. Old-style antique on pica body. Specimen No. 2 is of a style that is not yet out of fashion. The smaller sizes have been discarded, but the larger sizes are popular. Specimen No. 3, usually called doric, is really a combination of a thick-faced roman and antique. This face, as well as the runic and celtie of the next page, lacks the square serif which is the characteristic of a strict antique. 326 Celtics and Bunics Specimen No. 4 is often named ionic. It has some of the roundness of the doric style, but is of a lighter face and is not expanded. Old-style peculiarities have been attached to the antique style. The illustration on the previous page is of medium boldness, but lighter and bolder faces are also made. Old-style antique is the pre- ferred letter for the side heads or displayed words of a text in old-style roman. The lightest and most open form of the antique style is usually known by the name of Celtic. The first illustration below is of a face made in cap- itals only. Authors and publishers sometimes A CELTIC OF LIGHT FACE No. 7, on long-primer body. BROAD-FACED CELTIC ^^^ith lo^ver-ease complete No. 8, on pica body. A RUNIC OF CONDENSED FORM No. 9, on pica body. RUNIC OF SQUARE FORM has crescent-shaped serifs No. 10, on pica body. Celtics and Runios. Other Faces of Antique 327 select it for the title-pages of books in preference to the ordinary form of two-line roman. Another style of Celtic is slightly expanded, and is provided with lower-case characters. Runic is the name given to another style of an- tique of light-face, of condensed form, with pointed serifs, and often without lower-case characters. Another style of runic is made with aU lower- case, characters, but of slightly expanded form and with the peculiarity of crescent-shaped serifs. Another style, of bolder face, condensed, and with serifs so short and pointed that it might be classiiied among gothics, is also known as runic. THIS IS RUNIC OF BOLDER FACE condensed, with lower-case sorts The square form of the runic style is usually known by the name of latin. Other styles of antique are provided by founders, but most of them have peculiarities too trivial to require special illustration. The modern antique, which is but slightly condensed, with a pointed and strongly bracketed or club-footed serif, is perhaps the one with most individuality. The latin, on the contrary, is slightly expanded, and has serifs even shorter and feebler than those of roman — so short that it might fairly be called a variety of gothic. 328 Latin Antique Other forms of antique, such as geometric, tus- can, concave,^ etc., and indeed all forms with very strong mannerisms or of eccentric shape, need no BOOKS AND FURNITURE. Books are not made for fur- niture, but nothing else so beautifully furnishes a house. Give us the honne furnished with books rather than with furniture. Both if you can, but books at any rate. Beecher. Latin antique. illustration here, for they cannot be regarded as plain types. They are never selected by printers of good taste for use in standard books, and they are rarely allowed in advertisements. Antiques of small size, of plain form, and of not too bold face, are occasionally selected for texts. Many varieties of antique condensed are made. The earlier and bolder styles, with flat or unbrack- 1 It may be necessary to repeat Sometimes the same face has a here the caution giyen on a pre- different name given to it by vious page, that the same name each of three or more founders, is not always given to the same While the names here given are face or cut of letter. What one not universally accepted, they founder names Celtic, another are believed to be those most calls romanesque ; one calls cale- frequently used for the respec- donian what another calls ionic, tive styles. Gushing Old-style Antique 329 eted serifs, and with kerned descenders, are now used only in the form of capitals and figures: ANTIQUE CONDENSED, OF OLD FORM with square and clean-angled serifs No. 11, on pica body. CONDENSED ANTIQUE OF CAPITALS ONLY No. 12, on pica body. A LIGHT ANTIQUE CONDENSED of a larger and more open face No, 13, on pica body. Antique condensed. The Gushing antique is a moderately condensed form of the old-style antique character. Unlike HORSES FIRST, BOOKS LAST. I say first that we have despised lit- eratixre. What do we, as a nation, care about our books ? How much do you think we spend altogether on our libraries, public or private, as com- pared with what we spend on horses ? JRusJcin. Gushing old-style antique on pica body. 42 330 Antiques for Side Headings other series of display letter, the Gushing style has been cut for all bodies, including the so-called irregular bodies of agate, minion, bourgeois, and small-pica. This nicer graduation of sizes aug- ments its usefulness in books for which many sizes of text and of display letter are needed.^ THE BASKERYILLE, OR THE LATIN CONDESSED, is a mostusefnl letter : bold, black, condensed, readable No. 14, on pica body. A more useful letter for side headings or for bold display in the text is a slightly condensed antique of the old form, with flat, unbracketed serifs, of close set and marked compactness. THIS ANTIQUE OONDEIfSED is a valuable dis- play type, often used FOK THE SIDE HEADINGS of catalogues and for other emphatic words in a text No. 15, on brevier body. 1 Display letter is rarely made title, or gothic, in the text or as for the irregular bodies of agate, side headings. To do this the minion, bourgeois, and small- compositor has to justify the pica. But there are many books smaller regular body in the text in text-types of irregular bodies with thin leads or cardboard, for which it is necessary to use It is always done at extra ex- a display letter, like antique, pense and with bad effect. Clarendon 331 PLATEN PRINTma MACHINE. A press tliat gives instantaneous flat impression on every part of tte sheet \>j one movement of the platen. Many forms are in use. The Adams Printing Machine of large size is designed for book-work. The Gordon, the Universal, and the Kidder are of small size, made for jol) printing. No. 16, on brevier body. Clarendon, a popular variety of condensed an- tique, was first made for the Clarendon Press of Oxford, to serve as a display letter in a mass of text-type, and for side headings in dictionaries or books of reference. Its clearness in the smaller sizes is seriously diminished by the unnecessary boldness of its bracketed serif or turned-in comer. A BOLD-FACED CLARENDON with strong bracketed serifs No. 17, on pica body. THIS IS CONDENSED CLARENDON of lighter face and with square angles No. 18, on pica body. The lighter and more condensed variety has no descending kerns, but is not as popular. 332 Extra Condensed Antiques Extra condensed antiques of thick, medium, and thin faces are made by many founders. Grecian may be regarded as one of the many varieties of the antique style. In 1840 it was a popular face, but it is now almost out of use. Its ANTIQUE EXTRA CONDENSED, VERT LIGHT FACE lade on lireyier, long-priier, nica, and larger todies No. 19, on pica body. THIS LIGHT FACE 01 CAPITALS OIL! No. 20, on great-primer body. MEBEEIMTYFEHMEniES No. 21, on great-primer body. marked peculiarity is the angling of those parts of lines that are usually made with curves. It has a lower-case alphabet only in the larger sizes. Antique italics of the old-fashioned black-face still have a place in some specimen books, but they are out of style. A new form of light-face with lower-case alphabet is a pleasing type. ANTIQUE ITALIC one of the oldest forms No. 22, on pica body. Italian Antiques 333 Antique extended bears expansion without loss of legibility much better than the expanded roman. Italian may be classified as a variety of antique. It is a fat-faced roman with transposed stem and hair-line. " To be hated, it needs but to be seen." > OLD ITALIiLn TACE No- 24, on pica body. MODERIT ITALIAN CONDENSED has nine sizes, nonpareil to canon No. 25, on pica body. 1TJLL.1JLN JLUTIQX7E provided -with. Icwer-case No. 26, on pica body. 1 "Oil! sacred shades of Moxon And those who follow, as many and Van Dijke, of Baskerville years hence as you have pre- andBodoni! whatwouldyehave ceded us, to what age or heings said of the typographic monstros- wUl they ascribe the marks here ities here exhibited, which Fash- exhibited as a specimen ? " Han- ion in our age has produced? sard, " Typographia," p. 618. 334 Antique as a Text for Books Italian condensed is a more readable letter, for the so-called hair-lines have ample thickness. The thickening of the face is given mainly to the top and the bottom lines. Italian antique is of similar design, but it is slightly expanded and of bolder face. The antique style of type is frequently used in place of roman by job printers, who find it more effective for display work, and espe- oftenneeda cially for single lines that are printed in bolder face colored ink. The weakness of our pres- ent fashions of roman is most painfully illustrated when roman types are printed in a scarlet red or an ultramarine blue. The modern method of printing on dry polished paper, too often with weak impression and deficient ink, makes the print hard to read, even when the ink selected is black. DR. JAVAL ON THE EVOLUTION OF TYPOGRAPHY. There are Ave important methods ofincreasing the quantity of matter contained in a page or prescribed size, viz. : t, to take out the Leads ; 2. to give a closer set to each letter; 3, to compress or condense each letter so that more letters will come in one line; 4, to put the letters on a smaller body; 5, to cut down the height of long letters and put all on a smaller body. . . . The form of type shown in this paragraph seems to approach the conditions we have named [readaoility ^vith com- pactness] more closely than any other type in regular use oy the print- mg trade. When types shall be made to conform still more closely to these conditions they will be well fitted for readable impressions. No. 27, on corps 5. French publishers and authors who have satis- factorily made use of Celtics and runics for title- pages in red ink have been gradually led to try the effect of a light-faced antique for the text Antique preferred to Roman 335 of small pages, which are always difficult to read when printed upon dry calendered paper in a ro- man letter of six points or smaller. The illus- tration on the preceding page is one of a series which is commended by Dr. Javal as a most read- able cut of small text-type. It has been used with good results by French publishers for little books of poems in iditions de luxe, for this corps 5 is decidedly more readable than ordinary roman on corps 7. Although an improvement, the new face is not beyond criticism : the wide set given to each character does not make the composition more readable. This style is made by the Turlot Foundry on many larger bodies. The monotone shown on a previous page is not quite as distinct, but its lower-case letters are more pleasing to American readers. XIII The Classes and Prices of Printing-types (LL type-founders agree upon the pro- priety of different prices for the leading classes of roman, display, and ornamental. The line of sepa- ration is not fully indicated by their titles. In the class of roman are included italic and the fraetur of the Germans ; in the class of The three plain display are put antique, gothic, classes of ccltic, title, and every style of plain ^®' face made for display ; in the class of ornamental are put decorated letters, black-letter and ornamented text, and all the simpler styles of script and secretary. There are other varieties of type not included in these classes: Greek, Hebrew, and all Orientals ; music, accents, signs, superior and inferior references ; piece fractions, space rules, and all strange types that require for Low Prices of Printing-types 337 the quantities made, a disproportionate expendi- ture for punches and matrices, are necessarily sold at special and irregular rates. The rates made for the different sizes represent differences in the value of labor more than of metal. To make a pound of type re- , ^ ^ •' ^ Labor costs quires only two or three letters of the more than larger, but sometimes two or three ™®*^' thousand of the smaller sizes. As each type has to be separately cast and finished, the value of the labor put on the smaller type is greater. The metal in small type is harder and costs more than that in large type, but its value in any size is always less than that of labor. Old type, when bartered for new, is sometimes allowed for at a special rate ; when sold for cash, the price allowed never exceeds that of waste lead, and is often less. New type-metal, as sold in pigs by the smelter, varies with the market prices of its constituents, but is always worth more than the metal of old type, which always has much dross. Fluctuations in the cost of metal often make corresponding changes in the prices of types, but prices have been more affected by improvements in machinery, which invariably reduce the rates. When types were made by hand, as in the first quarter of this century, they were of high price ; since they have been made entirely by machine they are furnished at lower rates than were ever known before. 43 338 Prices of American Types Price List of the American Type Founders Go} Roman Omar Bodies. and Plain mental Italic. display. display. Diamond, or 4^-point, per lb. $1.20 Pearl, or 5-pomt .90 Agate, or 5 J -point .... .52 .90 $2.40 Nonpareil, or 6-point . . .45 .76 2.00 Minion, or 7-point .... .40 .66 1.80 Brevier, or 8-point .... .37 .62 1.60 Bourgeois, or 9-point . . . .34 .56 1.44 Long-primer, or 10-point .32 .52 1.30 Small-pica, or 11-point . .31 .48 1.20 Pica, or 12-point .30 .46 1.16 English, or 14-point .... .30 .44 i 1.12 Columbian, or 16-point .30 .42 1.06 Great-primer, or 18-point . .30 .60 1.00 Paragon, or 20-point . . . .30 .60 .94 Double small-pica, or 22-point .30 .56 .90 Double pica, or 24-point . . .30 .56 .90 Double english, or 28-point .30 .56 .86 Double Columbian, 32-point .30 .56 .86 Double great-primer, 36-point .30 .56 .82 Double paragon, or 40-point .30 .54 .78 Meridian, or 44-point . . . .30 .54 .78 Canon, or 48-point .... .30 .54 .72 Five-line pica, or 60-point . .30 .52 .64 1 Adopted March, 1893. Cost of Punches and Matrices 339 These prices are subject to discount, whicli will vary with fluctuations in the price of labor and metals. The discount in April, 1900, is ten per cent, on regular fonts of job type, body tjrpe, quadrats, borders, and ornaments ; for prompt payment, five per cent. more. The table rates for roman and italic are for fonts that weigh not less than fifty pounds. Sorts, or additions to a font, when ordered in reasonable quantities, are usually furnished by American founders at the same rate as the origi- nal font. When ordered in small quantities the rate may be higher. Single lines or letters are always at a higher rate. Although roman and italic are sold at the low- est rates, the cost of their punches and matrices is greater than that of the punches for cost of plain display or ornamental. A full font pimoiies of roman and italic, including accents and signs, requires the cutting of about two hundred and forty punches, and the making of as many mat- rices, at a cost of about $1200. Ornamental types may require more labor for each punch, but the total number of punches in a font of this class is always small, rarely exceeding seventy-five char- acters. The punches for roman type are or should be cut on steel ; those made for the larger types are more cheaply cut on type-metal, from which electrotype matrices are made. Steel punches for roman and italic wiU cost more in the beginning. 340 English Types but this expense, large as it may seem, becomes a small fraction of the entire cost when the punches serve for the casting of many hundreds of thou- sands of pounds. Plain display types are rarely sold in large quantities ; fonts of ten and twenty pounds are Sizes of in greatest request. Some fonts on small fonts bodies do not weigh two pounds. Limited sales, and the relatively greater labor that has to be given to the casting, division, preparation, and packing of small fonts, are the reasons given for their greater cost. Ornamental types, required chiefly for occasional lines of display, and always sold in small fonts, have but a brief popularity. As they cost more to produce, and soon go out of fashion, the rate is necessarily high. The rates for roman and italic in the price-list of EngUsh printing types are for fonts of one English hundred and twenty pounds and more, metiiods Small fonts are at higher rates. Sorts ordered within three mouths from the time of the delivery of the original font are at regular rates; if ordered afterward at a special higher rate. Quadrats are the only exception; when ordered as sorts they are furnished at lower prices than letters. A discount of ten per cent, from these rates is often given for casli payment. The bodies of English types differ from those of American fovindries (see the table on page 158 of tliis work). In height English types differ inap- Prices of English Types 341 Price List of English and Scotch Type-founders.^ Koman 1 Orna- Bodies. and Plain mental Italic. s. d. dis s. play. display. s. d. d. Diamond, per lb. . . . 6 8 8 6 Pearl 3 6 5 8 Ruby . 2 8 4 6 7 6 Nonpareil 2 4 3 3 6 6 Emerald . . 2 3 6 4 Minion . . 1 7 2 4 6 Brevier . . 1 6 2 2 5 9 Bourgeois . 1 5 2 5 6 Long-primer 1 3 10 5 Small-pica . 1 2 8 4 9 Pica . . . 1 1 6 4 English . . . . . . 1 4 3 9 Great-primer 1 2 3 Paragon . . Two-line pica . 1 2 3 Two-line english . 1 1 2 Two -line great-primer 1 1 2 Four-line pica . 11 2 Canon .... 11 2 Five-line pica . . 11 i' 2 Six-line pica . 9 9 2 Seven-line pica 9 9 2 1 From the specimen books of H. W. Gaslon & Co. and Sir Chas. Reed's Sons of London, and Mil- ler & Richard of Edinburgh. 342 Prices of French Types preciably from the American; they can be used together in the same line. The rates for small bodies and ornamental letter are relatively higher in England than in America. The rates of French and German types are by the kilogram, which is about two and one-fifth (2.2055) American pounds. French and German Price List of French Types.^ Bodies. Ordinary romaus. Plain display. Scripts and ornamentals. francs. francs. francs. Corps 6, kilo. 8.00 12.00 Corps 7 6.00 11.00 Corps 8 5.50 10.00 30.00 Corps 9 . . 5.00 9.00 Corps 10 . . 4.50 8.00 18.00 Corps 11 . 4.25 7.50- 16.00 Corps 12 . . 4.00 7.25 14.00 Corps 14 . 3.75 7.00 13.50 Corps 16 . . 3.50 7.00 13.00 Corps 18 . . 3.00 6.75 12.00 Corps 20 . . 3.00 6.50 11.00 Corps 24 2.90 6.00 10.00 Corps 28 . 2.90 6.00 9.50 Corps 36 . . 2.80 5.50 9.00 Corps 40 . . 2.80 5.00 8.00 Corps 48 . 2.70 5.00 8.00 t Compiled from the specimen book of the Tvirlot Foundry, Paris. Prices of German Types 343 types are of variable height, but are always higher than the American or English. Russian types are more than one inch high. These higher types cannot be used in the same form with American types until the bodies have been cut down at their feet, but this cutting down is rarely done with proper accuracy. Impressions from cut-down types of foreign manufacture always show uneven height and usually make unsatisfactory plates. Price List of German Types. 1 Bodies. Koman and fractur. Plain display. Scripts and ornamentals. Tnarlcs. marks. marks. Perl, per kilo. 6.35 Nonpareille . Colonel . . . 4.80 4.08 8.20 Petit .... 3.18 6.20 14.00 Bourgeois . . Corpus . . . Cicero .... 2.88 2.58 2.40 6.00 6.00 6.00 13.00 13.00 Mittel . . . 3.00 5.40 12.00 Tertia .... 2.90 5.20 11.00 Text .... 2.90 4.80 10.00 Doppelmittel Kanon I . . . 2.90 2.90 4.60 4.20 9.00 8.00 Kanon II . . 2.90 4.00 8.00 1 Compiled from the price- lists of Bauer & Co. of Stutt- gart, and Julius Klinkhardt of Leipsic. 344 Objections to Foreign Types The French franc may be rated at 19.3 cents. The German mark may be rated at 23.8 cents. The duty levied by the United States Custom House on all importations of type is twenty-five „ ^ per cent, on the cost as stated in the in- duties voice. When the bill amounts to one in 1899 hundred dollars or more, the exporter is required to make affidavit before a United States consxil as to its correctness. The prices of Euro- pean types do not tempt American buyers to pur- chase. Importations of French and German types are practically prohibited by the duty as well as by the delay and cost of transportation, and the damage inflicted on type by cutting down the bodies to the American height. XIV Large Types Wood Types The Pantograph Benton's Punch-cutting Machine ARGE types were sparingly used in '* old times : they were difficult to cast, and they could not be effectively printed when cast, for the hand-press then in use could not produce the power needed for full impression. The making of large types had to wait for the general adoption of iron hand-presses and cylinder printing-machines. To make the larger types required, type-found- ers revived the disused process of casting in sand- moulds. Types made by this process were casting heavy, expensive, and liable to injury. It ™sand was difficult to keep the metal sufficiently fluid : to prevent unequal cooling the caster often had to put a red-hot iron in the core. The unequal cool- ing of the metal often made the face of the type 346 How Large Types were Made concave. The greatest objection, to them was their cost. A ten-line antique M would weigh a pound, and the cost of the metal and labor in a type of this size, at rates then prevailing, was forty cents. The price was practically prohibitory. To save metal, which increased the cost, a new method of casting large types upon high arches Casting was adopted. This economy was pushed on arches too far ; types with slender arches often broke in locking-up. The art of stereotyping was then applied. The faces were cast in plates, and these plates were mounted, sometimes on metal and sometimes on wood bodies, but stereotyping did not prove as economical as had been expected. The value of the metal used was less ; that of the labor more. After continued failure the manu- facturers of large types abandoned metal for the larger sizes. Not many woods are suitable. "Wood for types should be free from knots or cracks, and should The wood have a compact grain or fiber, yet be preferred easy to cut. Mahogany is preferred for its hardness, but it is too porous and has to be "filled." Maple, pear, apple, and cherry are the woods that combine the most good qualities. For types twelve or more inches tall, pine in the form of boards, with the fiber of the wood parallel with the surface plane of the impression, is selected for its cheapness and its easy-working qualities, but it is soft and liable to warp. Early Methods of Cutting Wood 347 The wood types first made in the United States were drawn by the printers who needed them and afterward cut by carpenters. Darius proceases Wells, a printer of New York city, who tried by had a local reputation for good drawing °"^^^^i^ of letters, abandoned printing in 1827, and gave exclusive attention to the manufacture of wood type. At that time it was the usual practice to draw and cut on the flat board. Wells was the first to follow the practice of engravers on wood, by using blocks that had been cut in sections across the fibers. The work of preparing blocks was done entirely by hand; the tools most used were the ordinary saw and slide-plane. Model letters were drawn for all the characters on card- board, which was then neatly cut to serve for pat- terns. When the outline of the patterns had been traced by pencil on the surface of the block, a graver was used to cut a wide furrow near the penciled line. This done, the counters and shoul- ders were cut away by chisels and gouges. Fin- ishing was done with gravers and fine files. To abridge the tedious labor of cutting away the counters and shoulders Wells made use of a simple tool which he called the " router." It was a flat-faced and half-round steel bit, made to rotate by steam power at high speed. The bit, suspended vertically over the wood to be cut, had attachments for raising or depressing it at will. The block of wood to be made into a type was 348 Leavenwortli's Pantograph firmly fastened under the router; then the opera- tor, after applying the power, moved the cutter spindle until every part of the counter and shoul- der was thoroughly removed. Other machinery was gradually introduced. Sheet-brass patterns were used instead of cards. Then came cast-brass patterns, with elevated edges which, when pressed in the wood, both marked and engraved the outlines of each type. Improved circular saws and accurately adjusted planing- tools soon followed. More care was also given to the selection and seasoning of the wood. Made )jy these tools, wood types were preferred to metal types, not merely because they were cheaper but for their lightness and convenience. In 1834 William Leavenworth of Allentown, New Jersey, adapted the pantograph to the mau- utiiityof ufacture of wood type. This machine pautoffrapii made unnecessary all hand-drawings of the letter on the wood. From one set of models attached to the pantograph an unskilled work- man could cut on untraced wood various sizes from two-line pica upward, and every size would be a faithful reproduction of the model. The pantograph is a strongly jointed and adjusta- ble open framework of wrought iron and steel, rhomboidal as to shape. When put to work, it is suspended about eight inches over a flat metal table. It has five short projections extending toward this table; some of them are the extreme Description of Pantograph 349 angles of the framework. Two of these four pro- jections at opposite extremities reach the table, and serve as rests to steady the action of the ma- chine. One of the four projections is a guiding- rod, or feeler, which follows the outline of the The pantograph for wood type. pattern letter beneath it (which is practically an enlarged type in high relief), and accurately com- municates every deviation of motion in a reduced proportion to the router. The fifth projection is near the center of the framework, and carries the router, which is suspended over the block to be cut, and can be raised or lowered at will. The router, driven by steam, rotates at unusual speed : fourteen thousand revolutions a minute is a com- mon rate. Bach movement of the operator's hand 350 Benton Punch-cutting Machine in guiding the index around the pattern letter is followed by a corresponding exactness of move- ment in the router that cuts the block. The type is often made in as short a time as one could trace the outlines of the pattern by pencil, and it is cut more aceiirately than a type made by hand. When it leaves the pantograph it is nearly finished; an exacter angling of the corners by the graver is nearly all the additional work required. The pan- tograph is also successfully applied to the making of large borders and ornaments. Letters and bor- ders as small as two-line pica can be made on wood, but these smaller bodies can claim no su- periority over corresponding sizes in metal, either in cheapness or convenience. Some features of the pantograph have been successfully incorporated in a machine for the cutting of punches, invented by L. B. used on Benton of Milwaukee. The process of the Benton making the letters that serve for the models on the Benton machine begins wiih a pencil sketch on paper of letters twelve inches high. The drawing is reproduced by the pantograph, but it reappears in the form of a model letter, three inches high, with raised out- lines on a metal plate that has been covered with wax. From this wax reproduction an electrotype is taken, which serves as a model for the opera- tor. By a proper adjustment of the leverage (the mechanism for which is too small to be repre- The Benton punch-cutting machine. Height, 5 feet 4 inches; floor space, 22 x 28 inches. 361 352 Benton Funch-cutting Machine sented in the illustration), the model letter can be made to serve for the cutting of any body from two-point to seventy-two point.^ In this machine the electro typed letter that is accepted as the model of the punch to be cut is Acfiuracy of firmly fixed on the lower platform over the machine which the movable index or guide is vertically suspended. The four rods attached to the head-plate of this index are connected with gimbals that give to the guide the greatest flexi- bility with the greatest accuracy of movement. The punch to be cut (also too small to be shown in the drawing) is placed on the small table near the head of the connecting rods. The cutting tools are exceedingly minute, but they are made with the nicest accuracy, and are rotated at high speed by steam power. The direction given to the index at the will of the operator around the outlines and interior lines of the model letter is faithfully repeated by the cutting tools on the punch. The punches pro- duced by the machine are finished in all points and require no supplemental hand- work. The cut- ting is necessarily more accurate than that done entirely by hand; the counters are deeper, the bevels truer, and always of uniform slope. "When 1 Thi' facsimile of a signature, of a powerful magnifying glass, consisting of two initials and six The total length of the signature lower-case letters, was cut in a did not exceed the thickness of script so small that it could not two sheets of writing paper. — be distinguished withoutthe aid "Inland Printer," vol. xii, p. 238. Its Nice Ac^ustments 353 care has been taken to trim the model letters to correct line and position, the punch will also be cut in corresponding line and position. The machines for shaping and sharpening the cutting tools, also invented by Mr. Benton, will produce tools of any angle. They are Accuracy of so constructed that each tool is sharp- *^^ cutters ened with its point in the center of its rotation without removal from its original position. The inventor claims, and the claim is not dis- puted, that punches completed by this machine produce matrices that are more readily fitted up and justified than those cut by hand. Models for accents, fractions, and borders can be made in sec- tions, and accurately conjoined in proper position before the cutting of the punch. The punches for accents are always truly flat on the face, and all kinds of kerns can be provided with proper sup- ports. The success of the Linotype (type-making and type-composing) machine is largely due to the accuracy of the matrices made from Benton ma- chine punches. As the counters are deeper and the bevels truer, the types do not show distortion when they have been flattened by wear. Some type-setting machines recently invented owe their utility to new processes for making types. In many of them the type-set- Automatic ting apparatus is so closely connected type-casters with that of type-making as to make it impracti- cable to give a clear description of one without 44 354 The Mergenthaler Machine the other. A sketch of the type-making apparatus is all that can be given here. Mechanical type-setting was long delayed and often entirely defeated by difficulties encountered Avoids the ^^ *^® distribution and reuse of the distribution Composed tjrpes. Most inventors found of the types j^ expedient to invent a special machine for distribution as a necessary adjunct to the type- setter. In the Mergenthaler Linotype machine this difficulty was overcome by the construction of an apparatus which cast composed types to- gether in the form of solid lines, and made distri- bution as impossible as it was unnecessary; for the new method promised to make it cheaper to use new types than to distribute and reuse old types. This machine, which assembles, spaces, justifies, and casts the letters needed in compo- sition, is too complex for a detailed description in a treatise on types only, and not on their compo- sition. The following outline of the type-making apparatus is that of the manufacturers. The Mergenthaler Linotype machine has for its fun- damental element about fifteen hundred brass matrices, which respond to the operator's touch upon the key- board, and thus create the type-matter ready for use. These matrices consist of small, flat plates, having in one edge a female letter, and in the upper end a series of teeth, for distributing purposes. There are in the machine a number of matrices for each letter, also for special characters, and for spaces and quads of definite The Mergenthaler Machine 355 thicknesses. Used in connection with the matrices are elongated wedge-shaped spaces, which are inserted be- tween the words. The machine casts metal slugs, type-high, having upon their upper edge type-characters to print a line. These slugs present the appearance of composed lines of type, and for this reason are called "Linotypes.'' The machine is so constructed that on manipulating the keyboard it will select matrices in the order in which they are to appear in print, and assemble them in a line with the wedge-shaped spaces. This line of female type is adapted to produce raised type upon a slug, after which they are returned to the magazine to be again composed in new relations for succeeding hues. The magazine is in an inclined posi- tion, and contains channels in which the matrices for any face may be stored, and through which they pass. Each channel is connected with a finger key, repre- senting the character it contains. When a key is de- pressed, a matrix, or a space, falls upon an inclined travelling belt which carries it into the assembler. This is continued until the assembler contains sufficient characters to represent one line of print. It is then transferred to a mould extending through the mould wheel. The mould is of the exact size of the slug re- quired. The assembled matrix line closes the front of the moidd, and the faces of the matrices are brought in line with it. At this point the wedge-shaped spaces are pushed further through the Une, and exact spacing and justification are secured. In the rear of the mould is a melting-pot, heated by gas or gasohne, containing molten metal. The pot has a mouthpiece arranged to close the rear of the mould, and contains a pump. While 356 The Mergenthaler Machine the matrix line is in position the pump forces the metal into the mould, against and into the female characters of the matrix line. The metal instantly sohdifles, re- gardless of the length or thickness of the slug. The mould wheel then makes a partial revolution, bringing the mould in front of an ejector blade, which pushes the slug out of the mould into a receiving galley, ready for the proof -press. To insure absolute accuracy in the height and thick- ness of the slugs knives are arranged to act upon them during their course to the galley. The line of matrices is then lifted from the mould to the distributor bar at the top of the machine, the wedge-shaped spaces being left behind and shifted into the receptacle from which they were discharged. The ribs of the distributor bar are cut away at dif- ferent points, thus making a special arrangement over the mouth of each channel. The matrices are pushed upon the bar at its end and made to move slowly along until each one arrives at a point where its teeth bear such relation to the ribs that it disengages and falls into its proper channel, there to remain until all the preceding matrices, bearing the same character, have performed the same duty, when it again makes the circuit. This circulation permits the operations of composing one line, casting a second, and distributiug a third to be carried on concurrently, and enables the machine to run at a speed exceeding that at which any operator can finger the keys. It also makes it unnecessary to have more than three or four matrices of any special sort that may be required, such as accents and other arbitrary characters. Other Type-making Machines 357 The Lanston Monotype is a machine that makes and sets single types. To use it, copy must be pre- viously prepared on a distinct machine, The Lanston not unlike a type- writer in size and ap- type-caster pearance, which punches holes, as directed by the operator, in a narrow strip of rolled paper. The punched holes, like those required for the Jacquard loom, serve as guides for the operations of tj^pe- casting and type-setting. As this roll of paper is unwound in the larger machine the punched holes direct the presentation of the proper matrix to the mould. In this mould melted metal is injected, and perfected types are produced at the rapid rate of one hundred and fifty or more a minute. The punching of the holes requires a skilled operator, but the additional operations of casting, setting, and justifying the types are purely automatic. The manufacturers claim that the types so made are fully equal to those made by the older method, and that they can be used again, if required, in subsequent composition by hand, but it is cheaper to make new types than to reuse the old. There are other machines, still in process of de- velopment, but not yet doing practical work, that have been devised for mechanical composition. In one, movable matrices are arranged over a bar of cold metal, and the letters are swaged by pres- sm-e. In another, types are cast in little cubes and then securely fastened on a previously prepared bar or line of metal. In another, the type-casting 358 Old Methods not Disused machine supplies the magazine of the conjoined but distinct type-setter with a regular supply of types. Considering the many unexpected improvements that have been made in this century, it is hazard- Permanence ous to assume that there can be no more oi the old improvement in type-making ; but it is not at all probable that the older methods of type- making will faU into entire disuse. There is and always will be a vast amount of type-setting that must be done from single types and by hand com- position. New faces that are always in limited re- quest, and on bodies smaller than agate or larger than pica, will be made by the older casting ma- chine, which holds a position not unlike that of the hand-press ; for although cylinder-presses now do nearly all the printing of the world, there are more hand-presses made, sold, and used than ever. XV The Quaint Styles of Plain Type if ORE attention has been given to the £ production of quaint styles of text- type during the last decade of this p5 ^ century than the subject ever re- ^t^Sm Tt.^ ceived during any similar period. The old craving for highly ornamented letters seems to be dead; it receives no encour- Neglect of agement from type-founders. Printers ornamentals have been surfeited with ornamented letters that did not ornament and did degrade composition, and that have been found, after many years of use, frail, expensive, and not attractive to buyers. They listen with more respect to the teachings of men who hold that the proper function of types is to convey instruction, and that they are not im- proved by decoration, any more than a trowel is by painting or a saw by gUding. 359 360 Objections made to Changes More changes have been made in the direction of eccentricity than in that of simplicity. Fantas- tic letters were never in greater request, but they rarely appear as types in books. To see the wild- est freaks of fancy one must seek them not in the specimen books of type-founders, but in the photo- engraved lettering made for displayed advertise- ments and tradesmen's pamphlets. In a treatise on printing-types further remark on engraved let- tering is not needed. Although there is a demand for quaiutness in decorative printing, readers object to any serious departure from the accepted standards of form. For the types of serious books roman letter has been made fat or thin, round or angled, weak or bold, by type-founders of all countries, but vague- ness in any character has never been tolerated. The few improvements that have conquered stub- born prejudices met with opposition when they were introduced. Benjamin Franklin, famous as an innovator in many matters, lamented the dis- use of italic and of capital letters for the nouns in a text. He pointedly decried the new fashion of substituting the short final s for the long f at the beginning or in the middle of a word. An Eng- lish bishop compelled the reprinting, to the prin- ter's loss, of his sermon in which the long f had been supplanted by the short s. The writer of this chapter had a similar experience with an aiithor who wanted old-style letter, but refused to accept The Kelmscott Types 361 the pinched s of a Caslon old-style, because it was too narrow to please him. Strong objection was made to truly lined arable figures ; the old form of figure, unequal in height and out of line, was preferred. The present form of & was resisted as inferior to fif. To this day the doubled letters fi, fl, fl, ffi, fla, 89, oe continue to be made by type- founders, when there is no need for these unsightly combinations. It is the belief of most readers that the great merit of typography is in the unvarying uniform- ity of every character. On the contrary, it is held by some artists that roman types as now made are too uniform and too monotonous, too " typy," and altogether inartistic. William Morris is reported as saying in 1890 that no good book printing had been done since the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, and that the degradation of the art is largely due to mean types. To reform typography we need better types; we must be more tolerant of quaintness, and must attempt the revival of medi- eval methods. It was this conviction that impelled him to design the new form which he called the Golden type, shown on page 207 of this book. It was not his favorite, for he confessed his aversion to classic, and his leaning to Teutonic forms of let- ters. Not entirely content with his first experi- ment, he decided that the next should be a new form of black-letter. It was a difficult task, for in- vention seemed to have been exhausted in the 362 Services Rendered by Morris many varieties of black-letter previously shown by type-founders. He saw that it was impracticable to graft his notions of good form on the condensed fractur of the Germans, or on the angular and equally thin Old English or pointed black-letter. The broad-faced round gothic of the early printers of Germany was accepted as more available, but he made his new Troy type much wider, bolder, and blacker. Most of his lower-case characters, quaint as they may seem, are unexceptionable as to simplicity. In his capital letters he was not as successful: his forms of O, C, M> N ^re practically roman ; but his 6, L, 'Y» T, f are not gothic, nor good mates for the lower-case. A line of capitals in Troy type is not pleasing. Morris made a read- able lower-case, but the greater breadth given to all letters for the sake of greater blackness made the spacing of words in a composition of type un- usually difficult. To fill the unsightly gaps that were unavoidable, but inconsistent with his no- tions of thin spacing, he designed the unmeaning and often unpleasing bits of ornamentation that appear in the illustration. The Troy type appears to best advantage in the Kelmscott books, for it is there always in harmony with the subject-mat- ter. Morris went too far in the exposition of his theories, but the reading world is indebted to him for his demonstration of the merit of a really mas- culine style. He has shown as no one ever did before that typography need not imitate photog- raphy, lithography, or copperplate. The Satanick Type 363 erne TROY z\pe of the Kclmscott press was design- ed by William JMoms and cut by Bmery talker on the body of cfreat-primer. It was first used in printing thebook^Xbe Recuyell of tbe f)istoryes of T>Yoyc/* dated i^tb October, iSgi.J^Thc Cbaucer type is a similar face upon a pica body^ This XTroy type was tbe model of tbe type on tbis page^wbicb is made in tbe Gnited States by tbe Hmerican X^ype found- ers Co* on many bodies from 6-point to 72-point,j^It is a composite letter — so made by adding gotbic mannerisms to a fat-faced and angled roman, 18-poiiit body. 364 The Jenson Type The Jenson type is the American adaptation of the Grolden type. Although the specimen here shown is on a similar body of 14-point, the round letters of the lower-case of the Jenson are a little higher, and the body-marks a trifle thicker. This enlargement and thickening, with more closely fitted types, give more blackness to the print and less relief of white between lines of solid composi- tion. The Jenson type has been successfully used in the United States for the composition of large quarto books that are decorated with broad black or colored borders. It is sometimes used with good effect for small books in octavo or duodecimo, but it occupies too much space and is too sombre for the ordinary book. For dainty little books smaller than an 18mo the smaller sizes of this style are well adapted. WTien leaded they give a clear- ness to fine print not to be had from any face of ordinary roman letter. The Jenson capitals are often selected for title-pages that call for bold and large letters; but the close fitting of the capitals makes obligatory an unequal spacing of types too closely fitted. The recent addition of an italic letter having all the peculiarities of the Jenson, lining and mating with it, causes it to be preferred by job printers and advertisers for the display of type. It was planned by J. W. Phinney of the old Dickinson Foundry of Boston. It is founded on many bodies from 6-poiut to 72-point, and is sold by the American Type Founders Company. The Jenson Type 365 NICOLAS JENSON, an engraver of the mint, was sent to Mainz in U58 by Charles VII, King of France, to get a knowledge of the new art of printing. He went back to Paris in J 46 J, but it is not probable that he there did any typographic work. In J 47 J he printed four books at Venice, and there continued to print until his death in 1 48 J. Pope Sixtus IV gave him the title of Count Palatine for his services to typography. At differ- ent times he had as partners in busi- ness John of Cologne and John Her- bort of Selingenstadt. Strikes from the punches of the Jenson roman, of which Jenson had made one size only, were acquired after his death by An- drew Torresani of Asola, and they were afterward used by his son-in- law Aldus Manutius. Jenson was not the first printer to make roman types, but his face of roman was re- garded as better than that of any rival. 14-pomt body. American Type Founders Co. 366 Fifteenth Century Style The Fifteenth Century Style was made to sup- ply a demand for a rude form of reman, which is erroneously supposed to be the form of roman first used by the early printers. The larger sizes are most approved ; the smaller sizes are somewhat obscured by the compression of unequally propor- tioned characters. This series fitly illustrates the impracticability of making types in many sizes by geometrical rules, as was recommended by the old theorists in type-making. Large sizes may be compressed with advantage, but small sizes must be expanded to maintain their legibility. This style seems to be the clever adaptation of an uncouth type used by Windelin of Speyer in his edition of John Duns Scotus, a thick, quarto (8J X 6J inches) of 652 pages, printed at Venice about 14:75. The mean type of this book is en- tirely unlike the beautiful large roman type of the Livy printed by John and Windelin of Speyer in 1'472, and the reader wonders that this degrada- tion in form could have been made in three years. Brown, in his valuable book on the Venetian Print- ing Press, suggests the explanation. A short ex- perience had demonstrated to printers that books in large types and of folio form cost too much and found few buyers. To meet the preference of Ital- ian printers for roman types and smaller books, WindeUn had made for him a new face of roman on pica body and of condensed shape, with intent to put the matter of a folio on a page of quarto. Fifteenth-Centwry Roman 367 THE FIRST ROMAN TYPES about four lines to the inch, were made at Subiaco, near Rome, in the year 1465 by the German printers Sweynheim and Pannartz. It was not a pleasing character, for the let- ters were rudely cut with thick lines, condensed as to shape, and were too closely £tted. In its lower case It resembled the gothic more than the roman style. In 146J the same printers made at Rome a new roman, broader as to shape, and with types not so closely £tted, but it was not acceptable to Italian readers. In 1469 John and Windelin of Speyer made a muchlighter and rounder style of roman, but the types were too widely ftted. The true standard of form and proportion, of fitting and lin- ing, was shown for the frst time by Nicolas Jenson in 1470, and was readily accepted by Ratdolt and Renner of the same city, and the type-founders of all countries. Mongrel romans, or combinations of roman and gothic, were introduced in Germany, but they were not approved and soon went out of fashion. Disproportioned and un- couth shapes of roman, uneven lining andbad type-found- ing, were not long tolerated in the fifteenth century. This XVth-century face was devised by Barnhart Brothers 6 Spindler, of Chicago, in 1896, and is made by them of roman and italic form in many sizes from 8-point to 48-point. To advertisers who intend to give to print an appearance of early rudeness this face is welcome. 12- and 18-point bodies. 368 The Benner Type Unfortunately, the new type was badly cut and cast. The types were closely fitted and out of line, and many letters seem high-to-paper, making faults in press- work. The letters are disproportioned ; every page swarms with contractions and abbre- viations. The new style must have been a failure, for I have never seen it in any other book. The Renner type, which follows, is a fair copy, but not a servile imitation, of the style of type de- vised by Franz Renner of Venice, and first used bj' him in his edition of the " Quadragesimale" of 1472. It was made in 1899 for the service of the De Vinne Press, to exemplify the belief of the writer that the legibility of print does not depend so much upon an increase in the blackness or thickness of its stems as on the entire and instant visibility of every line in every character. It was planned in conformity to the rules observed by aU the old print- ers : the short letters occupy about one-third of the body ; the ascenders and descenders, equal in length, give the full relief of white space between the lines which contributes so much to easy reading. Although the types of WiUiam Morris have been put aside by publishers as unfitted for the texts of ordinary books, they have exerted a marked in- fluence on the tastes of many readers. They have demonstrated most successfully the importance of a type that gives fitting expression to the sub- ject-matter. Unfortunately, there are readers who do not fullj' appreciate the value of this harmony The Benner Type 369 FRANZ RENNER, of Hailbrun, Ger- many, was the sixth printer of Venice, in which city he practised his art with suc- cess between the years 1470 and 1494. In John and Windelin de Speyer and in Nicolas Jenson, who had preceded him, he found rivals of great ability, who were trying to please Italian readers with new faces. Franz Renner was moved to emulation. The model of roman which he selected had marked grace of form, but it was of much lighter face than the types of his predecessors. This preference of the first Italian printers for large roman characters proved a mistake. Not only Jenson, but Renner and other printers of Venice, found it expedient to print the largest number of subsequent books from gothic types of small size, condensed and of very black face. The large roman was wasteful of space, and made books bulky and dear; the gothic was more compact and enabled theprintertoputmorc words on a page. Roman types were not ac- ceptable until they were made small. 14-poiiit body. The De Vinae Press. 45 370 Types need a Relief of Blank between type and text ; and there are printers who do not see how the merit of these peculiar forms of old-style faces is enhanced by Morris's admi- rable selection of paper, press, and processes of printing. Some attribute the merit of the Kelm- scott letters to their quaintness of design, but more to the largeness of their type and the blackness of the print. They jump to the conclusion that a readable print must be an over-black print, and that the thickening of the stems -and the broaden- ing of the form of ordinary roman type, so that it may receive more ink and impression, are aU that is needed for readability. This is a serious mistake, but one that has been repeatedly made. As early as the first half of the sixteenth century thick- stemmed roman types, mainly on pica body, were made and used at Paris and Venice. They were fairly tested, but soon went out of fashion. The fat-faces of Thorue in London and of Didot in Paris, introduced in the first quarter of the nine- teenth century, had a fair trial, and have been put aside as complete failures. Something more than blackness and fatness is required to produce the highest legibility. Types need a generous relief of white space, not only within but without each character, to give proper value to their black lines. Every reader sees that a display line in condensed type is not as readable as in types of standard width, and that leaded is always more attractive than solid Blanks disapproved by Morris 371 type ; yet a title-page set entirely in light-faced roman capitals, even when the displayed lines are condensed and the minor lines are in capitals needlessly small, may be readable and inviting. Its legibility and attractiveness are largely pro- duced by the wide blanks between the lines. Take out these blanks and huddle the lines together, and it will be found that the once pleasing composi- tion has been made as repelling as a squeezed ad- vertisement in a daily newspaper. It may seem unnecessary to repeat this platitude, but there is need for its repetition with emphasis. Publishers of newspapers and books are continually demand- ing types with faces too large for the bodies, and with short ascenders and descenders that seriously contract the narrow lane of white space between lines. Type-founders, trying to meet this demand, sometimes fit types so closely that the white space between two meeting types of m is less than the space between the stems of each individual m. Even William Morris advises that each type be made so that it shall nearly fill its body; that the white space between lines be made small ; that leads be used only when unavoidable ; and that the spaces between words always be made thin. This counsel is what might have been expected from a printer whose types were too large for the matter of his books, and who, to avoid added expense, was compelled to publish many of them in quarto form and in two or three volumes, and to treat poetry 372 The Romische Versalien as prose, -when necessity directed, by running verse together in solid pai*agraplis. It will he admitted that leads and spaces are often used unwisely, to the damage of good printing, but this admission does not invalidate the general experience that print to be most readable must have more of white than of black within the page. Considera- tions of economy often compel the publisher to make use of large-faced type, to space close and reject leads; but the reader always prefers types that are not huddled and that are easily read. THE LARGE CAPITALS IN THIS ILLUSTRATION ARE EXHIBITS OF A NEW STYLE OF ROMAN SUITABLE FOR BOLD TITLE-PAGES AND FOR PLAIN PRINTING IN COLORED INKS Romische Versalien. Genzscli & Heyse, Hamburg. The Bradford Face 373 To meet the demand for a bolder face of roman type than any then made for strict book-work, Genzsch & Heyse of .Hamburg, Germany, have recently produced a full series of the types par- tially exhibited on the preceding page. The series with lower-ease letters is called by these founders Romische Antiqua; the series of capital letters only, Romische Versalien. This face is much bolder than that of the Caslon or of any other form of old-style. It is not so bold as the De Vinne, but it does not have the eccentric letters of the latter style, which prevent its employment as a text-letter in all books intended to be severely sim- ple as to style. For the title-pages of large quarto or folio books it is admirably adapted. Its broad hues, but not too bold face, enable the pressman to give to it a generous supply of ink. In an ofilce provided with this series the compositor has no temptation to select light-faced antiques, eel- tics, or runics for the words of a title that are marked for display in red ink. This style is made by the A. D. Farmer & Son Type Founding Com- pany of New York in complete series of capitals and lower-case, graded from 8-point to 72-point, and is sold by them under the name of the Brad- ford Face. The capitals maintain their merit in all sizes and combinations, but the lower-case of the smaller sizes does not so fully and advanta- geously show the peculiarities of the style. 374 The MacFarland Type THE MACFARLAND FACE of the St. Louis Type Foundry, presented on this page, is cast on many bodies, from 6-point to 72- point. In boldness and simpli- city it is a worthy rival of the R6- mische; but it has some meritori- ous peculiarities of its own. The Romische, MacFarland, and Fif- teenth Century faces appear to be.st advantage on the larger bod- ies. The 8-point seems to be, and probably is, a truly propor- tioned reduction of a very large size, but it does not produce the same effect. It demonstrates the futility of making types by arbi- trary geometrical rules. 18-point body. St. Louis Type Foundry. Uniformity in Effect is Impossible 375 Lines that are not too black in the larger sizes seem too black in the smallest size. The relief of white space that is ample in the solid compo- sition of 24-point is too small for a solid compo- sition on the 8-point body. Nor does leading the lines entirely remove the defect. How the desired uniformity in effect is to be preserved throughout a series of sizes is still a puzzle to all type-founders. A gradual increase in the width of each type, as types decrease in size, is an aid, but it is not enough ; and this ex- periment is always attended with danger, for a slight expansion may seriously alter the peculiar- ity of the style. The lengthening of ascenders and descenders is another aid ; but no one as yet can lay down any rule as to the proper length. The thinning of the stem or body-mark by a small fraction of a millimetre produces improved light- ness ; but it is another experiment of risk that may destroy the character of the style. AH type- founders know that when equal skill and care have been given to the cutting of every size, and proper precautions have been taken to prevent optical illusions, one size will always seem more pleasing than any other. Reductions of type are as disastrous as reductions of drawings. The de- sign that covers one hundred square inches on paper may be entirely pleasing in light and shade and general effect, but it becomes confused and indistinct when reduced to ten square inches. 376 The Century Face THE CENTURY FACE was designed to make for the Century Magazine a blacker and more readable type than the thin and gray-printing old-style letter in which it had been printed for many years. The hair- lines of this Century face were made of a perceptible thickness, the serifs were shortened, and the body- marks protracted a trifle. To secure a proper relief of white space within each character the round let- ters were made a little taller. To proportion the type for a large page in two columns and with narrow mar- gins, and to give the usual amount of text in the Cen- tury page, the characters were compressed a trifle. The lower-case alphabet of the modernized old-style on long-primer body, previously used on this maga- zine, was twelve and a half ems wide; in this face, which is much larger, it is twelve and an eighth ems wide. Leaded with twelve-to-pica leads. The changes from old standards, purposely made by the designer, were not of great importance, but most of them were in directions that had been usually avoided by type-makers. The thickened lines enable the press- man to produce print that is really black and not apparently gray, as was unavoidable in press-work on small sizes of modernized old-style. This face was modelled and cut by Mr. L. B. Benton, and is made on the bodies of 10- 9- and 8-point, by the American Type Founders Company. For long lines of poetry printed in duodecimo or in any smaller size, as well as for all compact composition in a narrow measure, this style of face is properly adapted. These are the small CAPITALS and these the italic characters of this font. Solid. The Gentwry Broad-face 377 THE CENTURY BROAD-FACE was made by the De Vinne Press for service on books to be set in a broad measure, which do not require a compression of letters for the saving of space. It retains the thickened hair-line, the short serif, and all the characteristics of the face described on the previous page. The purpose of the de- signer was to give to each letter a larger face than is usual in text-types of this body, with as much boldness of line as would be consistent with the greatest legibility. This desired large- ness with boldness has been carried to its full- est extreme. It is a readable letter when it is set solid, but it is made more readable when the lines have been separated by a twelve-to-pica lead. Leaded with twelve-to-pie a leads. Tjrpes are not always made more readable by giving them larger and blacker faces. The at- tractiveness of a very black-faced type when used in one line or in a few lines becomes repelling when it is used in a mass. A page of fat-faced type compels a greater strain on the eye than a page of ordinary book-type. What a reader needs for pleasurable reading is the instant visibility of every stroke in every letter; but this visibility is dimmed when the types have too much black. The strength of the black is weakened when its relief of white is diminished. These are the SMALL CAPITALS and these the italic characters of this font. The lower-case alphabet of this face is thirteen and one half ems wide. Solid. 378 The Old Roman Face OLD ROMAN is the name given to this entirely new series of text letter, in which most of the good features of the old-style character have been preserved; the hair- lines and body-marks have been thick- ened, and the serifs have been shortened, but not pointed or bracketed. Increased width has been given to every character, but without producing any appearance of undue expansion or obesity. It is a most readable type, which can be used with perfect propriety in standard books, for which the bold and black faces of many recent styles are not adapted. It is made by H. W. Caslon & Co., of London, on bodies of Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, and Brevier. Unlike a great many new styles, it will bear reduction without loss of legibility. The object the founders had in view when producing this series was to secure greater plain- ness, and, therefore, facility in reading. Hitherto legibility of type faces has been sacrificed to fine lines and hair serifs. Designed by T. W. Smith for H. W. Caslon & Co., London. Types made Ineffective in Print 379 Many of the quaint types recently introduced, and intended to be very black in print, are a disap- pointment to publishers. In most instances the disappointment comes not from fault in the type, but from faulty methods of printing. The Jenson or Satanick types (or even the old-style antiques now often used as fair substitutes for older styles of text-types) are relatively ineffective when they are printed dry against a hard impression surface upon coarse and rough laid paper made from badly prepared wood-pulp. Under these conditions no art of the printer can give to the print the solidity of color noticeable in all well-printed old books. The grayness of type so treated is not produced, as is sometimes asserted, by machine printing, for a well-made cylinder printing-machine has more strength than any hand-press, and it can ink the types with more evenness. To make sure of old- style results, old-style methods must be used : the paper must be of hard stock and properly damp- ened, and the impression must be resisted by an elastic blanket. The press-work must not be hur- ried; ink must be dry upon one side of the sheet before beginning reiteration on the other side. INDEX Accents, not furnished in regular assortment for font, 12, 172, 173 Adams, Isaac, inventor of Adams printing-press, sketch of, 227 Adams, Joseph Alexander, Ameri- can wood-engraver, successful experiments of, in electrotyping ■woodcuts, 18 {note}, 219; develops method of overlaying and mak- ing-ready woodcuts, 219; four- and six-roller Adams presses first made at his suggestion, 239 Agate (54-point), classed as an ir- regular body, 58; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; a favorite size for newspaper ad- vertisements, 67; known m Eng- land as ruby, 67; examples of, solid and leaded, 98, 99; adver- tisements in, lOft; standard width of, 114 Aldiue, an approved form of con- densed title, 285 Alost, announcement of John of Westphalia at, 80; types made at, equal to those of France and Italy, 92 Alphabet, examples of sizes of, in standard types, 60, 61; various widths of, in different types, 114- 116 ; inadequacy of the roman, 235 ; limits of size for a readable, 259 (see also note) ; simplification of, due to early printers, 293 (see also note 1) America, type-casting machines in, 26 (note) ; extensive use of stereo- typing by publishers in. 40; excel- sior, or 3-point, used for music, etc., in, 68; first practical at- tempt to establish correct pro- portions of types in, 146-149; Scotch-face first shown in, 213 American Type Founders Com- pany. See J^pe Founders Com- pany, Ameriean Amsterdam, notable type-founders at, 92 Anderson, Alexander, the father of American wood-engraving, notice of, 216 Andrews, Robert, the successor of Moxon, unsatisfactory work of, 96 Anglo-black, description and illus- tration of, 312 Antimony, a constituent of type- metal, 9, 32 (see also note), 33, 35 (note) Antique, stronger impression ne- cessary for page of, 51, 52; de- scription of, 184 ; the lighter faces of, used for distinction in some texts, 236 ; newer styles of, pre- ferred for condensed letters, 266 ; firm lines of doric, 289; charac- teristics of, 323; the earliest form, of bold display type, 323 ; exam- ples of, 324 ; formerly the most popular of display types, 325 ; ex- ample of old-style, 325; remarks upon different styles of, 325, 326 ; old-style peculiarities attached to, 326 ; lightest and most open form of, 326 ; examples of various faces of, 326, 327 ; other styles of, 327 ; examples of latin and con- densed, 328, 329 ; remarks upon, 382 Index and example of, the Gushing old- style, 329, 330; examples of, and i-emarks upon, other styles, 330- 334; effective for display and colored work, 334; example of, and remarks upon, No. Ii7, corps 5,334,335; smaller sizes of light- faced, used with good results for little books, 334, 335 Antwerp, various type-founders em- ployed by Plantm in, !)^ Ascenders, types with long, 49, 50; types with short, 50; their reln- tiou to the typf l)r)dv, 58 Atlas, a bold form of title-type, 'iKn Augsburg, early printers of, under- take to furnish small ornamental initials, 83 Austin, Richard, a noted English punch-cutter, and his successors, 102 Baine, John, with his grandson, es- tablishes type-foundry at Phila- delphia, 102. Bamberg Missal of 1481, largest text-types used in. 84 Barker, Christopher, queen's print- er in 1582, report of, on printing, 95 Earth, Henry, 'invents a complete type-casting machine, 27, 28 ; il- lustration and description of his height-to-paper gauge, 153 Baskerville, John, an eminent Eng- lish t^'pe-founder, biographical sketch of, 99 Basle old-style, remarks upon, and example of, 198, 199(see also Jio^el) Battery, use of, in electrotyping, 18 Beard, in types. See Xeck Beaumarolinis, Pierre Augustin Caron de, French author, super- intends edition of Voltaire in Baskerville tj-pes. 99 Benton. L. B.," of Milwaukee, in- ventor of punch-cutting machine, ^.'tO; his machines for shaping and shai-pening its cutting tools. 353 ; superiority claimed for punches completed by his ma- chine. 353 Berthold, Heinrieh, Berlin type- founder, adjusts height of Ger- man types to French standard, 131 (see also note) Bessemer, Anthony, an English in- ventor and type-founder, 101. 102 Bewick, Thomas, eminent wood- engraver, sketch of, 20G Bey, Jacob, establishes a second foundry at Germantown, Pa. , 102 Bible, the, pearl a favorite type for pocket editions of, 07 Bible of 3G lines, printed from types of double pica body, 74 Bible of 42 lines, type on paragon body favored by printer of, 63 ; illuminated at Mentz in 1456, 74; supposed to have been printed by Gutenberg before 1455. 293 {iiotc,2) ; old English black-letter modeled on lower-case letters of, 294 (see also note 2) Bible-text, great-primer also known as, 63 (note); that of Gutenberg the basis of modem black-letter, 91 Bill, in typography. See Scheme Binny, Archibald, Scottish type- founder, devises tirst improve- ment in hand-casting, 26 {note) ; forms partnership with Ronald- son and establishes type-fonndr\' at Philadelphia, 102, 202; his in- ventions and successors, 102 , re- ceives valuable suggestions from the type-founding tools formerly owned by Franklin, 155 {note) Black, early English type-founders adhere to the pointed, 300; ex- ample of Old English, 300; in- troduction of the fat-faced, 301 ; denunciation of fat-faced, by Hansard and Dibdin, 301 (see also notes) ; examples of fat-faced, 301 ; fat-faced, in favor formany years, 302 ; fat-faced, not popular in France and Germany, 302 ; Augus- tan, 307 ; remarks upon the light- face and bold-face condensed, 307, 308,309; example of Augustan, 308: example of bold-face condensed, 309; remarks upon Saxon, 311, 312; remarks upon, and example of, Anglo-black. 312: remarks upon, and examples of, medieval, 313, 314 Black-letter, Gutenberg's Bible- text the basis of modem, 91; the form of, prefei-red by early Eng- lish printers still regardedas best, 93 ; a degenerate form of roman, 184, 291 ; beginning of, 291 ; called gothic by biT)liographers, 291 (see also note): form approved by copy- Index 383 ists before invention of print- ing, 291, 292 ; old fusliions of, 292 ; used as type-name after intro- duction of roman, 292 ; obscurity of eany forms of manuscript, 293; one of the two styles selected by early printers, 293 (see also note 2) ; remarks upon pointed, 294 (see also note 2), 295; pointed form of, commended b^ Moxon and selected by Pickering, 295, 296 ; strictly German styles of, not used for book -texts by Eng- lish publishers, 296, 297 ; example of, and remarks upon, Flemish style of, 296 ; designers of early forms of, avoided hair-lines, 302; remarks upon, and example of, French form of, 302, 303 ; other forms of, devised by German type- founders, 305 ; remarks upon new fashions of, introduced by Amer- ican type-founders, 306, 307 ; the Morris Trov type a new form of, 361 ; the Bradley style of, Sl-t Blades, William, on type-founding in the Netherlands, 92 ; his re- view of the types of the En- sched6 Foundry, 253 {note) ; on the business relations of Caxton and Mansion, 297 {note) Blaew, William Jansen, a distin- guished Dutch printer, 197 Blanket, injurious effect of elastic, under heavy impression, 52 Bodoni.Giambattista, Italian typog- rapher, "Manuale Tipografioo of, cited, 56 {note) ; ability of, as superintendent of the Press of the Propaganda, 90; makes Du- cal Printing House at Parma first in Europe, 90; his peculiar styles of roman and italic,^0; styles of, disliked by Morris, 207; brief popularity of styles of, 209 ; char- acteristics of new forms of letter introduced by,^^j.8^. Body, in types, iTTustraUon of va- lious dimensions of, 29 ; descrip- tion of, 31 ; regular and irregular, 58, 59; display and ornamental types usually cast on regular, 59 ; differences of, 106 ; name of type determined by size of, 110; to find the size of, 110, 111 (see also note 1) ; irregularity of. a serious fault, 124; beginning of irregu- larity in, 126; readjustment of, in Prance. 142, 143 ; comparative table of three different systems of, 157; change of, in English types, 158; relations as to ems existing between types of differ- ent, 179 (see also note), 180; reg- ular and irregular progression or, illustrated, 181 Body-mark, or Stem, in t>'pes, il- lustration of, 29 i description of, 30; in pica, 36; in pearl, 36; should seem to be uniform, 49 ; improved .-joining of serif and, 51 Bold-face, limitations of modem. 211 ; example of modern, on pica 211 ; many sizes needed to com- plete series of, 246; superiority of, over earlier fat-face, 284; con- densed forms of, 284, 285; re- marks upon the Aldine, 285 ; ex- amples of condensed and extra condensed, 285 ; condensed old- style, 288 ; De Vinne, examples of, and remarks upon, 288, 289 Book, the earliest bearing printed date, 72; first, entirely in Greek, 85 ; first, entirely in Hebrew, 85 ; first printed, in the English lan- guage, 297 (see also not^ Books, early printed, copies of the manuscript model, 82 ; blanks left for decorations in early, seldom filled, 83 Book-type, roman, requires en- graving of nearly one hundred and fifty punches for font of, 12, 13; modern, seldom cut in series, 108 ; sizes embraced in series of, 240; importance of distinctness in, 254 Book- work, types larger than gieat- primer rarelv used for, 108 Borders, added by professional il- luminator to early printed books, 82 ; space left for, in some early printed books, 83 ; marked merit of those used by early French printers, 86 Borussian, a useful letter for legal formularies, 306 ; examples of bold-face and light-face, 306 Bourgeois (9-point), illustration of body of, 29; classed as an in-egu- lar body, 58 ; capital and lower- ease alphabets of, 60, 61 ; prob- able origin of name, 66 ; exam- ples of, solid and leaded, 90, 91 ; standard width of, 114 384 Index Bradford, William, first printer in New York, sketch of, 211 Bradford face. See Romische Brass, not a practical substitute for type-metal, 9 Brasses, or Brass -leads, in printing, strips of rolled brass used as leads in many newspaper ofllces, 106 Breitkopi, John Gottlob Imman- uel, wide reputation of German type-foundry established by, 91 Brevier (8-point), illustration of body of, 29 ; rem.ark8 upon dura- bility of, 36 ; classed as a regular body, 58; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; probable ori- gin of name, 66 (see also note) ; examples of, solid and leaded, 92, 93; standard width of, 114. See also Four-line brevier Brilliant (4-point), capital and low- er-case al|)habets of, 60, 61; a size belonging to this century, 68 ; examples of, solid and leaded, 104, 105 Brito, John, of Bruges, curious characters of, 93 Broad-face, reasons for introduc- tion of, 116 (note), 225; favored by publishers for juvenile school- books, 116 (note) ; examples of, on 10-point body, 225, 226 ; defects of, 226 Bruce, David, head of the noted tvpe-founding family, emigrates to New York, 103; with his younger brother, begins business as printer. 103; goes to London in search of information about stereotyping, 103 ; returns to New York and adds stereotyping to his business, 103 ; his valuable inventions, 103, 2H7 Bruce, David, Jr., son of David, two patents granted to, 24 (note 3) ; devises force-pump attach- ment to mould, 1^6 (note) ; invents a type-casting machine, 26 (note) ; other improvements of, 26 (note) ; studies mechanics of type-casting at an early age, 103 ; his inven- tions, 103 Bruce, David Wolfe, youngest son of George, succeeds his father, 103; produces an unusually com- plete series of penman scripts, 103 ; retires from business, 103 ; his successors, 103 Bruce, George, brother of David, introduces Columbian as a text- type, 64; becomes his brother's business partner, 103 ; an enthu- siastic and indefatigable j)unch- cutter, 103 ; his services to type- founding, 103 ; first practical attempt at the establishment of correct proportions of types in America made by, 146, 147 ; his system of progression of type bodies, 147, 149 ; regular progres- sion of type-bodies in system of, illustrated, 181 Bruges, Caxton's first types proba- bly made at, 93 Bneil, Abel, earlv American type- founder, 102 Bullock, William, inventor of the Bullock press, sketch of, 278 Bulmer, William, eminent English printer, Shakespeare Press ably managed by, 101 Bur, in type-casting, description of, 24 (see also notes 2 and 3) ; impor- tance of removal of, 47 Cambridge, University of. rejects a condition imposed by the French Academy on purchase of Greek types, 96 Canon (48-point), widely known as a type name, 57 ; capital and lower- case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; descrip- tion and origin of name of, 62 Capitals, number of roman, in font, 12; variation in angles of, 14, 15; imitations of Roman lapidary let- ters, 186; when, where, and by whom first made in tj-pe, 187; in- adequate supply of large sizes of roman, 242 ; need for three widths of roman, 246, 247 ; the frailty of the modem-cut two-line, 248, 249 ; reasons for popularity of old- style, 249; introduction of con- densed, 256; use of condensed, for book titles carried to excess, 257 Capitals. Small, first appearance of, 187; weakness of, 236; ineffective in print, 236; suggestion of an improvement in, 236 Caslon, William, of London, ablest type-founder of the eighteenth centui-y, and his successors, 98 Caslon face or style, made unpopu- lar by an arbitrary standari^ 118 ; Index 385 contrasted with the modem-face, 189; peculiarities of, 191, 192; modem-face in strong contrast to, 192 Catholicon of 1460, attributed to G-utenberg, 79 Caxton, William, the first English printer, type on paragon body favored by, 63 ; used a type face similar to that of Mansion, 80; first types of, show Flemish man- nerisms, 93 ; reticent concerning typography, 93 ; peculiarities of ms later types, 93 ; some of his books printed at Paris and Rouen , 93 ; first book in the English lan- guage printed by, 297 (see also note) ; remarks upon, and ex- ample of, type used by, 297, 298 Celtic, remarks upon, 325, 326, 327 ; examples of, 326 Cennim, Bernard, of Florence, on the characters of his books, 77 Century broad-face, the, made by the De Vinne Press, 377; use and characteristics of, 377 Century face, the, introduction of, 231; example of, 376; designed for "The Century Magazine," 376 ; characteristics of, 376 ; meets with general approval, 376; ad- vantage of, 376 Chapel text, a modem variation of the old church text, 310 ; remarks upon, 310, 311 ; example of, 311 Characters, uniformity of, 11 ; capi- tals, small capitals, and lower- case, number of, in font, 12 ; of other kinds, 12; irregular heights of, 13, 14 i one mould used for a font of, 43; should please when alone and in composition, 49; number of, in different fonts, 166, 167; apportionment of, necessa- rily variedf or different languages, 167, 168 ; table exhibiting num- ber of, in a font of roman and italic, 169; peculiar, not kept in stock, 173 ; weakness of the mi- nor, 240 ; vagueness of, never tol- erated for serious books, 360; unwise preference of first Italian printers for large roman, 369 Charles vii. King of France, sends Jenson to Mainz, 365 Chiswiek Press, the, Basle old-style of, 198, 199 (see also note 1) ; sketch of its founder, 199 Church, Dr. William, of America, British patent for type-casting machine received by, 263 Church text, a graceful ecclesiastic letter, 309; examples of , 310 Clarendon, lighter faces of, pre- ferred' as emjjhasizing letters over small capitals, 236; exam- ples of, 331 Clymer, George, inventor of Co- lumbian printing-press, sketch of, 220 Colson, M., uses iron and tin in type-metal, 35 {note) Columbian (16-point), a neglected body, 64 ; first made in text-type bv George Bruce of New Tom, 64 ; examples of, 80, 81 Composing-room, wear of types in, 37 Composite, example of, 305 ; a use- ful letter for legal formularies, 305, 306 Composition, rudely cut or badly fitted type mars effect of, 49; various methods of measuring, 118, 120, 121; weight of six-to- pica leads in, 177, 178 Composition. See Type-setting Compositor, advantages of news- paper work over book-work to the, 118 Compressed-face, example of, 216; preferred in Prance and Spanish America, 217 Conner, James, a type-foimder of New York, first electrotype ma- trix used in foundry of, 18 {note) ; begins business as stereotyper, 103 ; makes first American stereO' type edition of New Testament, 103 ; complete series of Scotch' face probably first shown in America by, 213 Copley type, example of on double great -primer body, 250 Copper, an occasional constituent of type-metal, 9, 32, 33 ; is not a practical substitute for type- metal, 9 ; sulphate of. needed in electrotyping, 18; a solution of, used in copper -facing, 41 Copper-facing, the invention of, 41 ; description of the process, 41; ad- vantages of, 41 ; differs from elec- trotyping, 41, 42 ; expense of, 42 Cortelyou, Peter C., type-founder, sketch of, 104 386 Index Cottrell, Thomas, an English type- founder, and his successors, 100 Counter, in types, illustration of, 29; description of, 30; shallow, 36; should be sufficiently deep, 48 Counter-punch, description of, 15, 16 i utifity of, 16 Crapelet, G. A., a distinguished French printer and publisher, sketch of, 276 Current, action of electric, in elec- trotyping, 18 ; use of galvanic, in copper-facing, 41 Gushing style, or Monotone, intro- duction of, 231 ; example of, 250 Cylinder machine, certain types not suited for, 49. 50 Dalton, Michael, an American type- founder, 104 Day, John, an eminent English ty- pographer, biographical sketch of, 94, 95 Decree, French, of 1649, 274 Delusions, optical, necessary in the designing of types, 14, 15 Derriey, Jacques Charles, a French type-founder, specimen album of, 89 Descenders, types with long, 49, 50 ; types with short, 50 De Vinne Press, introduction of Century face for, 231; Renner type" made for, 368 ; Century broad-face made for, 376 DeYinne type, the, examples of, and remarks upon, 2«8, 289, 373 Diamond (44-point), popular as a type name, 57 ; is classed as an irregular body, 58; the capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60. 61 ; first made, probably, by Voskens of Amsterdam. 67 ; selected hj Pickering for Ms miniature edi- tions of the classics. 68; examples of. 102, 103; standard width of, 114 Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, English bibliographer, 94, 101 Dickinson, Samuel Nelson, a noted American tj'pe-founder, 104; de- signs the Scotch-face type, 104, 212; first specimen-book of . 104; his successors, 104 ; sketch of his career, 201 Didot. Ambroise Firmin-, a French printer and publisher, 224 Didot, Firmin-, special mixture of type-metal used by, 35 {note) ; produces practicable stereotype plates, 97 ; biographical sketch of, 218 Didot, Francois, first of a long line of French typographers, 203 Didot, Francois- Ambroise, a noted French printer and type-founder, point system of, 142, 143 ; defect in the point system of, 145 (see also note 1), 146 (see also note); size of point devised by, 155 (see also note) ; sketch of his life, 215 Didot, Henri, French type-foun- der, invents a " polymatype " mould, 22, 24 (see also note 1) ; cuts the letters for a font called microscopique, 68, 322 ; sketch of, 322 Didot, Hvaeinthe, brother of Am- broise Firmin-Dldot, 277 Didot, Jules, son of Pierre, sketch of, 276 Didot, Pierre Francois, a French type-founder, paper-manufactu- rer, and publisher, 279 Diphthongs, five series of, 240 Display, former restrictions con- cerning, 255, 256 Distributor, failure of first prac- tical type-setting machine due to lack of, 265 ; use of, in connection with type-setting machine, 354 Doric, example of, 324; remarks upon, 325 Double euglish (28-point), capital and lower-ease alphabets of, 60, 61 ; example of, 74 Double great-primer (36-point), capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; example of. 73 Double paragon (40-point), capital and lower-case alphabets o:^ 60. 61 ; example of, 72 Double pica (24-point), capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; called two-line pica by English type-founders, 62 ; example of, 75 Double small-pica (22-point), capi- tal and lower-ease alphabets of, 60, 61 : known in England as dou- ble pica, 63 ; examples of, 76, 77 Dressing-rod, in type-casting, de- s('i'i])tion of, 24, 25 Drive, description and construc- tion of, 17; conversion of, into matrix, 18 Ducal Pi-inting House. See Print- ing Sottse, Ihical Index 387 Dupre, Jean, early Preueh printer, statement of, eonceming engrav- ing in relief on copper, frl Diirer, Albert, German painter and engraver, models for types de- vised by, 11 ; his diagrams for the formation of letters, 12 {note) ; favors the roman cbaracter, 91 Eleetrotyping, definition of, 10 ; matrices made by, 18, 19 ; experi- ments in, by Americans and oth- ers, 18 {note) ; supplants stereo- typing in book-work, 40, 41 ; dif- fers from copper-facing, 41, 42 Elzevir, Daniel, his types made by Van Dijk, 67, 68 Elzevir, Louis, and his descen- dants, sketch of, 200 Elzevir style, the, remarks upon, 199 (see also note 2), 200 (see also note), 201 ; examples of, 200, 201 ; often preferred by French pub- lishers. 215 Em, or Em quadrat, in printing, the American unit of measure, 113 ; rules as to fractions of, 113 ; its unfairness as a measure, 117, 118 Emeraldi an English text-type, 67 En, or En quadrat, the English unit of measure, 121 ; a change pro- posed in size of, 164 England, distinction between two- Ime and double-bodied types not well observed in, 59 ; the roman form of letter introduced into, by Pynson, 93; black-letter never wholly in disuse in, 93 ; supplied with best types by early type- founders of Rouen, 294 English (14-point), classed as an ir- regular body, 58; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; one of the oldest of bodies, 64; origin of name, 64 ; examples of, 82, 83. See also Double english Engraver's hair-line, example of, 219 ; supplanted bv other forms of light-face, 220 Engraver's roman, examples of, 289, 290 Engraving, of the early printers, sometimes done on brass, copper, or type-metal, 84 Ensched§-. Isaac, establishes the celebrated Haariem type-fomi- dry, 92 Estienne (or, in English, Stephens), Henrjr, eminent French printer, and his descendants, 320 Excelsior (3-point), used in America for music, piece-fractions, and borders only, 68 ; apparently the same as the English minikin, 68 Expanded-face, example of, 227 Face, in types, description of, 30 ; choice or, 48, 49 ; types with broad, 50 ; words used to distinguish va- rieties of, 113, 114; illustration of different widths of, 115; Scotch- face supplants types of wider and rounder, 116 {note) ; thinner in England and France than in America, 116 {note) ; methods ob- served in naming, 182 ; roman, in most request, 184 Fat-face, or Title, a broad and thick style of roman, 184; Thome's form of, lasts for many years. 209 ; example of, on paragon body, 210; characteristics of, 281, 282; accepted for display and title lines, 282 ; examples of early and modern styles of, 282, 283; for- merly sometimes used as a text- letter, 282 (see also note) ; re- marks upon italic, 283 ; newer forms of, better known as bold- face, 284 ; remarks upon extended, 286 ; old-style peculiarities ap- plied to, 287; example of old-style, 287; rejection of Thome and Didot forms of, 370 Feather-edge, in type-casting, 27 Feet, in types, illustration of, 29 ; description of, 31 Fell, John, English scholar and S relate, presents type-foundry to ixford University, 96 Fergusson, James, of Scotland, plan of, for securing the uniformity of type bodies, 132, 133 Fifteenth Century Stvle, remarks upon, 366, 367, 374, 375 Figgins, Vincent, eminent English type-founder, his achievements and successors, 101 Figures, number of, in font, 12; not provided for all fonts of largfe type, 166; superior, furnished only to order, 174; features of old-style and modem-cut, 237; cast on the n-set, 237 ; made on a wider set, 238; difficulty of dis- 388 Index tinguisMng certain, 238, 239 (see also note 1) Firm-face, characteristics and ex- ample of, 229 Fitting-up, in ty^e-making, defini- tion of, 10; a nice operation, 18 Five-line pica (60-pomt), example of, 70 Florence, earlj^ printers of, 80 Font, uniformity of characters in a full, 11; definition of, 32; all characters of, cast in one mould, 43; unequal heights of different characters of same, 46 ; impor- tance of harmony of characters in, 49; dissimilarity in bodies of the same name, 124, 125 ; the un- equal apportionment of charac- ters in, 165; a table exhibiting number of characters in a so- called complete, 169 ; scheme for one - thousand - pound, 169 -171 ; piece fractions not proper part of, 174; directions for using a ne\r, 174; how weight of, is com- puted, 174, 175; economy of large and well-sorted, 175, 176 ; capacity of, largely extended by use of leads, 177; three series of charac- ters in every complete roman, 185; addition of italic to roman, 185 ; number and cost of punches and matrices needed for full, 339; sizes of, for plain display and ornamental types, 340 Foreman, Andrew, casts first types made in California, ] 04 Forme, Lettre de, French bibliogra- phers' name for pointed black- letter. 293 (see also note 'J) Founders. See Type-founders Four-line brevier (32-point), 62 Four-line pica (48-point), example of. 71 Fouruier tlie elder, Le B6 foundry bought and sustained by, 87 Fonmier, Pierre-Simon, the young- er, ' ' Manuel Typographique ' ' of, cited, 11 (note), 16 (note), 20 [note) ; his estimate of the production of French hand-caster, 26; constitu- ents of his hard and soft type- metal, 32 {note), establishment of type-foundry of, 89 ; invention of point system of type bodies by,89 ; explanation of his system of tv- pographic points by, 133 -13^ ; remarks on point system of, 138 ; illustration of fixed scale of, 139 ; description and illustration of implements used by, 140, 141 (see also 7iote) ; advantages promised by system of, 141 ; object of his system, 141, 142; concurrent use of the point systems of Didot and, 143, 144; Didot's eleven- point body wTonglj^ attributed to, 144 ; some Parisian printers prefer system of, 146 (see also note) ; true Inventor of the point system, 155; condensed form of letter introduced to French print- ers by, 215 Fox, John, English author, 94 Fractions, number of, in font, 12; usually furnished with roman fonts from pearl to pica, 173; scheme of, 173 ; n-set too narrow for, 237, 238 ; made on the m-set, 238 Fractur, early admirers of, 91 ; ac- cepted as the standard German text-type, 91 ; is not favored by Latin races or by English-speak- ing peoples, 91; contrasted with blacK-letter, 93 ; the only serious rival of roman in general litera- ture, 184; never selected by Eng- lish publishers, 296, 297 ; example of, 303 ; still retains Its old popu- larity in Germany, 303 (see also note) ; preferred ^or newspapers and ormnary books, 304; example of, 304 France, types of Jenson copied in books printed in, 80; becomes su- perior to Italy in the art of mak- ing books attractive, 86 ; coopera- tion of eminent publishers and printers with designers of, 86 ; improvement of type-founding in, 91 ; early English printers de- pendent on those of, 93; printers of, alter the italic of Aldus. 187 ; condensed faces popular in, 215, 216 ; early English printers favor type-founders of, 297 Francis of Bologna, punches for Aldus's new italic cut by, 80 Franklin, Benjamin, an American philosopher, statesman, and author, purchases in Paris com- plete equipment for a tvpe-f oun- dry, 102, 155 {note); with his grandson, begins type-founding in Philadelphia, 102, 155 (note); Index 389 his birth, and achievements, 195 ; laments innovations in printing, 360 Franklin face, the, example of, 195 French-face, standard of thirteen ems affects use of, 118 ; specimen of condensed, 215 ; example of eighteenth- century, 218 Froben, John, of Basle, devises a nonpareil for black-letter edition of Bible, 67 ; remarks upon a style occasionally used by, 250 Fry, Joseph, English type-founder, and his successors, 100 Furniture, in printing, made to multiples of pica, 64, 145, 146 Fust. John (with Peter Schoeffer), earliest book bearing printed date published by, 72 Garamoud, Claude, "father of let- ter-founders, " 86 ; his characters much admired, 86 ; Greek charac- ters of, 88; supplies Plantln with punches and matrices, 92 ; remod- els italic capitals, 187 Gauge, for type-bodies, illustration of, 152; for height- to -paper, illus- tration of, 153. See also Type- gauge Ged, William, of Edinburgh, the in- ventor of a process of stereotyp- ing, 97, 283 German-text, ornamented letters of " Theuerdank " is the model of modem, 91 ; how emphasis or dis- play is secured in, 186 ; example of, 303 ; retains its old popularity in Germany, 303 (see also note) used in ornamental job-printing, 304 ; example of modem, 305 Germany, type-metal of, 32 {note) use of numerical names of types limited in, 55 {note) ; readers in, slow to accept the roman charac' ter, 91 ; adherence to pointed let' ters in, 91 ; mongrel romans in trodueed in. 367 Golden type, the, made by William Morris after Jenson model, 206; example of, 207; causes which impelled Morris to design, 361; Morris not entirely content with, 361. See also Kelmseott Press and Morris, Williatn Gordon, George P. , American print- er and inventor, birth of, 225 ; makes improvements in small 47 printing-machines, 225; patents machine now known as Gordon press, 225 Gothic, simplest and rudest of all styles, 184; bibliographers' name for black-letter, 291 (see also note); round, one of the two styles se- lected by early printers, 293, 294 (see also no(el); revival of round, 299; is a misleading name, 315; a probable origin for name, 315; its English names, 315; remarks upon, 315, 316; examples of five styles of, 316 ; remarks upon dif- ferent faces of, 317 ; old-style figures of, 317 ; remarks upon ex- tended, 317 (see also note) ; five examples of condensed, 318; ex- tra condensed and hair-line, 318 ; merit of, 318; defects of, 319; usefulness of lining, 319, 320; ex- amples of different styles of, 320 ; examples of eccentric styles of, 321 ; inclined forms of, 321, 322 ; examplesof condenseditalic, 322; used by early Venetian printers, 369 Gran j on, Robert, French punch- cutter, boldness and originality of, 89; first punch-cutter to the Press of the Propaganda, 90 ; famous series of orientals begun by, 90 ; supplies Plantin with punches and matrices, 92; Plan- tin's favorite designer, 92; re- marks upon a style probably drawn by, 250 Great-primer (18-point), classed as a regular body, 58 ; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; probable origin of its name, 63 ; Rowe Mores and Reed on, 63 (see also note) ; called text in Holland, Italy, and Spain, 63 {note) ; exam- ples of, solid and leaded, 78, 79; few roman faces of decided char- acter made on bodies larger than, 191. See also Double great-primer Greek, first volume entirely in, printed at Milan in 1476, 85 Greeley, Horace, American journal- ist, author, and politician, bio- graphical sketch of, 213 Gregory ix. Pope, remarks upon the Decretals of, 66 Gregory xiii, Pope, most notable Italian type-foundry, established by order of, 90 390 Index Groove, in types, illustration of, 29; description of, 31 Grosse batarde, FlemiBh. Caxton's capitals retain peculiarities of, 93 ; first book in the English lan- guage printed in, 297 (see also note); first used by Caxton in England, 297; not favored by English readers, 297, 298 ; revival of, 298; example of, 298. Also onee known as Old Flemish black and Secretary Gutenberg, John, of Mentz, named by Zell, Trithemius, and John Schoeflfer as inventor of printing, 78 ; confirmed by tablets to his memory, and by writings of fif- teenth century, 78, 79; pointed and round gotliic faces used by, Kl; two bodies of english made by, 81; Bible-text of, 91; works attributed to, 294^ (note 1) Gutta-percha, not suitable for types, 10 Haarlem Type-foundry, the foun- dries absorbed by, 92 ; largest in Holland, 92; celebrated for its orientals, 92. See also Enschede, Isaac Hagar, William, an American type- founder, begins business in New York, 103 Hair-line, in t^es, illustration of, 29; description of, 30; in pica, 36; in pearl, 36; should have a sloping base, 48; types with long and sharp, 49, 50 ; supported by broad base in modem hght-faced types, 51 ; frailty of the sharp, 230 ; should have a visible thick- ness, 230; maintenance of the sharp, 252 ; limitations of, 253 : need for thicker, 253 (see also note) ; delicacy of, in large types, 258, 2r)9; Caslon old-style charac- terized by firm, 268 Hand-casters, French and English, production of, per day, 26 Hand-casting, earliest method of, 25, 26 Hand-press, permanence of, 358 Hansard, Thomas Curson, English 1 printer and author, on irregular- ities of type bodies, 12;i; early and later Caslon type bodies compared by. 128 (see also note 2) ; " Typograpnia " of, cited, 133; on the book-printing of his day, 241 (note) ; denounces fat-faced black, 301 (see also note 1) ; ex- tract from "Typographia" of. 333 (note) Harper, James, founder of print- ing and publishing firm now known as Harper & Brothers, 226 Hebrew, first book entirely in, printed at Soncino in 1488, 85 Henry viil, King of England, or- ders prayer-book printed for his subjects! 63 (note) Herbert, John, partner of Jenson, 365 Hoe, Richard ilarch, an American printing-press manufacturer, 223 Holland, numerical names of types on point system partially adopted in, 56 (note) ; English demand for punches made in, 97 Houghton, Henry O., an American printer and publisher, 228 ; un- conventional book titles of, 244 (note) Illuminator, initials and borders added to early printed books by professional, 82 ; certificate of. to Bible of 42 Unes, 82 Iniperial Printing House. See Printing House, Imperial Impression, in printing, variations of, for different types, 51, 52; effect of, upon lignt-faced and bold-faced types, 52 Initials, added oy the professional illuminator to all early printed books, 82; those of the Psalter of 1457 printed in two colors, 82; space left for, in some early Srinted books, 83 ; those of Rat- olt probably cut in high relief on metal, 84; white letters on gray groundwork, devised by early printers, 84 ; marked merit of those used by early French printers, 86 Instruments, measuring, needed in punch -cutting, 14 Ionic, example of, 324; remarks upon, 326 Iron, use of, in type-metal, 33 (see also note) Italian, a form of roman, peculiar- ity of. 184 Italic, variations in font of 14, 15: bad fitting not infi-equent in some Index 391 older fonts of, 45; should mate with roman, 48; that of Gaxa- mond much admired, 86 ; Bodoni's peculiar style of, 90 ; always ac- companies full font of roman, 172 ; a simplified style of discon- nected script, 184; an inseparahle mate of roman, 185; first ex- hibited by Aldus in his octavo edition of Virgil, 187, 270; the text letter in many books of Aldus. 187 ; modem uses of, 269 ; difficult to cut and cast, 269, 270 ; few forms of faultless, 270 (see also note); remarks on original old-style, 270, 271 (see also note 1) ; rude forms of old, 271 (see aJsonoie2); theBaskerville, 271; example and description of mod- ernized old-style, 272 ; example of Elzevir, 273 ; peculiarities and illustration of French old-style, 274; example.of the modern bold- face, 275 ; rarity of light - faced, 275 ; examples of modem French light-face, a condensed French- face, and an eighteenth- century French-face, 276, 277; different attitudes of American, English, and French publishers toward, 277; example of engraver's hair- line, 278 ; inclined roman a French variety of, 278; remarks upon, and example of, law, 279; de- scription of elongated, 280; re- marks upon figures and small capitals of, 280; gothics of in- clined form usually named, 321 ; remarks upon, and examples of, gothic condensed, 321, 322 Italjr, numerical names of types on point system partially adopted m, 56 {note) ; valuable improve- ments made by printers of, 85 ; decadence of typography in, 90 Jackson, Joseph, a noted English type-founder, sketch of, 100, 101 ; wider and rounder faces of, sup- planted by Scotch-face. IIG {note) Jacobi, Professor, of St. Peters- burg, his successful electroty- ping experiments, 18 {note) James, Thomas, an English type- founder, sketch of, 97 Jannon, J., a printer of Sedan, 67 Jaugeon, Nicolas, French archseol- ogist and mechanician, recom- mends rules and diagrams for the designing of letters, 12 {note) ; re- ceives commission from Louis XIV to make a truly "royal" type, 87 ; new types of, inferior in legibility and durability, 87 Javal, Dr., French optician, re- marks of, on use of serifs, 250 ; on the readability of types, 260 ; on the evolution of typo^aphy, 334 Jenson, Nicolas, of Venice, on the cutting and casting of his types, 77, his types copied in books printed in France, 80 ; roman and round gothic made by, 81 ; roman perfected by, in 1471, 85; romans modeled after designs of, 88 ; capital and lower-case letters of, model for type-founders, 187 ; books in round gothic printed by, 294 {note 1) ; biographical sketch of, 365 Jenson type, the, remarks upon, 364; example of, 365 Jet, in type-casting, description of, 24 (see also note 3) John and Windelin of Speyer, re- marks upon types used and books printed by, 366, 367, 368 John of Cologne, associated with Jenson, 365 John of Westphalia, begins print- ing at Alost in 1474, 80 Johnson, Lawrence, a printer, es- tablishes stereotype foundiy at Philadelphia, 102; his successors, 102; Cincinnati branch foundry established by, 105 Johnson, William, invents a type- casting machine, 26 (note) Jordan, J. C, successful electro- typing experiments of, 18 {note) Junius, Francis, punches and mat- rices collected by, 96 Justification, in typography, ad- vantage claimed for point system in, 160; difficulties of, 160, 161: spaces on point sets an aid to, 164 Kelmseott Press, the, establishment of, 207 ; example- of Golden type composed at, 207 Kern, in types, desciiption of, 30, 31 ; should be well supported, 48 ; unavoidable in italic, 269, 270 Koster, Laurens, the legends of a Dutch invention by, 79 ; bad type- founding of, 92 392 Index Lead, a constituent of type-metal, 9, 33 (see also note) Leads, in printing, ^aduated to divisions of pifa, 64, 145, 146; difference in appearance of type produced by use of, lOG, 107 ; il- lustration of various thicknesses of, 107; high and low, 107; usu- fllly cast in a mould, 107, 108; some made by rolling-machines, lOS; made also of rolled brass, 108; capacity of a font extended by use of, 177; space occupied by one pound. 177; how to find re- quired weight of, 177, 178 (see also notes) Leavenworth, AVilliam, adapts the pantograph to the manufacture of wood types, 348 Le B6, GuiUaume, succeeds Gara- mond as leading French type- founder, 87 ; his descendants, 87 Letters, full-bodied, 12 ; ascending, descending, and short, 13 ; varia- tion in face heights of, 14; deter- mination of proportions of, 15; use of model, m eleetrotyping, 18; kerned, 24, 32 ; illuminated ini- tial, added to early printed books, 82; fashion of making white, 84; adherence of Germans to pointed, 91; lean and condensed, 114; va- rious sizes of, defined, 116 (see also note) ; superior, furnished only to order, 174; description of swash, 187; specimeusof six series of two-line. 251 ; examples of con- densed two-line, 256, sriS : decline in demand for highly ornamented. 3ri&; demand for fantastic, 360: Mon*is's aversion to classic, and leaning to Teutonic forms of. 361; merit of the Kelmscott, 370 Lettre de forme, Lettre de somme. See Forme, Sonnnp Light-face, example of, '-2'2 ; char- acteristics and example oif mod- em French, 224; objections to, 228 ; many sizes needed to com- plete series of, 240 Lindsay, James, type-founder. 103; specimen of condensed Scotch- face cut by, 214 Linotype (or Mergenthuler) ma- chine, success of, largely due to accuracy of matrices, 353 ; its con- struction and operation. 354-356 LitersB florentes, Ratdolt'a name for decorative initials, 83 Long-primer (10-point), illustration of body of, 29 ; classed as a regu- lar body, 5S : capital and lower- ease alphabets of, 60, 61 ; origin of name, 65 (see also note 2) : preferred for duodecimos, 66 ; examples of. solid and leaded, 88, 89; standard width of, 114; illus- tration of irregularities of mea- surement in four faces of, 119 Lothian, George B., establishes a type-foundry at Pittsburgh, Pa.. 102; his Greek faces much ad- mired, 103 Lothian, Robert, of Scotland, fa- ther of G. B. Lothian, begins a type-foundry in New York, 102 Louis xrv. King of France, com- missions Jaugeon to make a "royal" type, 87 Lower-ease, roman, as a name for small letters, technical and not generally imderstood, 185 ( see also note) ; an imitation of char- acters of early French and Italian copyists, 186 ; when, where, and by whom first made, 187 Lyman, Nathan, American type- founder, 104 Lyons, early founders of, supply printers of all countries with punches, matrices, and fonts of type, 86, 87 MacFarland face, the. example of, and remarks upon, 374, 375 Machine, Cylinder, Tj-pe-casting, Tyi)e-re vol vine. See Cylinder, Type-casting, Type-revolving MacKellar, Thomas, American printer, sketch of, 229 Mainz. See Mentz Making-ready, omission of, a cause of wear in types, 37, 38 ; the modern style of, 38; developed by Joseph Alexander Adams. 219 Mansion, Colard, printer, uses types similar to those of Jenson, 80; curious characters of, 93 ; Blades and Madden on Caxton's busi- ness relations with, 297 (note) Manutius, Aldus. Italian printer, complainsofpiracyof his designs. 80; small capitals and italic first made for, and shown by. 187 ; italic the text-letter of many of Index 393 his "books, 187 ; first italic exhib- ited in his Virgil of 1501, 187, 270 Mappa, Adam G. , first type-fouuder in New York, 102 Martens, Thierry, t ype s of, 92 Martin, Robert and wiUiam, noted English type-founders, sketch of, 101 Matrix, description and construc- tion of, 17; conversion of drive into, 18; also made by electro- typing, 18 (see also noU), 19; im- presses the fluid metal, 26; bad fitting-up of, 45, 46; frequently sold at close of fifteenth century, 80 ; liable to imperceptible dis- placement, 125 Mayeur, Gustave, revival of the seventeenth- century, or Elzevir, style by, 199 (see also note 2), 200 (see also woie); Bidot style revived by, 219 Mecom, Benjamin, printer, nephew of Franklin, attempts stereotyp- ing, 102 Mentz, or Mainz, Bible of 42 lines illimiinated at, 74 ; the Bible of 36 lines believed to have been print- ed at, 74 ; type-making and print- ing practised at, before 1460, 75 Meridian (44-point), 62 Microscopique (2-point — Didot) , cut by Henri Didot, 68, 322 Milan, first volumein Greek printed at, in 1476, 85 Miller, "William, a Scottish type- founder, and his successors, 101 Minikin. See Excelsior Minion (7 -point), illustration of body of, 29 ; classed as an irregu- lar body, 58, 66 ; eapitalandlower- case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; origin of its name, 66 ; examples of, 94, 95; standard width of, 114 Minionette (6J-point), largely used in France for combination bor- ders, 66; passing out of use in the United States, 66, 67 ; equiva- lent of English emerald, 67 Minuscule, Br. Taylor's name for lower-case letters, 185 (note) ; the Caroline, 186 Missal, the German name of canon type, 62 Mitchel, William Haslett, Ameri- can inventor of a practical type- setting machine, 265 Mitehelson, Bavid, a London die- sinker, begins a type-foundry at Boston, 102 Mittel. See English Modem-face, the prevailing style of roman type, 188; characteris- tics of, 188, ]89, 190, 192, 193 Monotone. See Gushing Monotype, Lanston, description of , and method of operation, 357 Mores, Edward Howe, an English antiquary and writer on typog- raphy, explanation of " the Pie by, 64, 65 ; purchases contents of Jara.es foundry, 97 Morris, William, English poet, ar- tist, and typographer, devises a "Golden" type, based on Jen- son's great-pnmer roman, 206, 361 ; contributes to this work an example of it, text written by himself, 208; favors quaintness and medieval methods, 361 ; his aversion to classic, and leaning to Teutonic forms, 361 ; issues a new form of black-letter, 361; difficulties encountered by, in de- signing the latter, 361, 362; re- marks upon his new Troy type, 362 ; the reading world indebted to, for a really masculine style, 362; types of, rejected by pub- Ushers as unfit forordinary books, 368; marked influence exerted by types of, 368, 370 ; his admirable methods, 370. See also Eelmscott Motteroz, Claude, French printer, sketch of, 232 Motteroz face, the, characteristics of, 231 ; adopted by Municipal Council of Paris for its publica- tions, 232 ; example of, 232, 233 ; contrasted with the Didot style, 233 Mould, use of, in type -making, 9, 10 ; each matrix must be accurate- ly fitted to, 17 ; all matrices of a font adjusted to a single, 19; trueness of, imperative, 19; de- scription and construction of, 19, 20 (see also note), 21 ; efforts to cast many types at one opera- tion from a multiple, 22; Bidot's, not adopted by other founders, 24 J its use in the process of hand- casting, 25, 26; in stereotyping, 39; its set altered with almost every change of matrix, 45 ; sim- 394 Index pie form of, used by early print- ers, 81 ; liability of, to swell and wear, 125 Moulding, papier-mach^ method of. injurious to types, 37 Momd-making, definition of, 10 Moxon, Joseph, first English writer on typography, scheme of, for de- signing letters, VI (note), 13; his "Mechanick Exercises "' cited, 20 (note) ; his moulds made of iron, 20 (note) ; his estimate of pro- duction of English hand-caster, 26; statement of, as to use of iron in type-metal, 33 (see also note) ; bodies now called irregu- lar unknown to, 58 ; his works on typography, 96 ; his geometri- cal formulaa declared impractica- ble, 96; names ten bodies most used in England, 126, 127 ; rude and uncouth old-style italic of, 271 (note 2) Munsell, Joel, publisher and print- er, sketch of, 214 N^oleoni, Emperor of the French, despoils printing-offices of Propa- fanda at Rome and of Medicis at 'lorenoe, 88 National {or Royal or Imperial) Printing House. See Printing House, Xtitional Neck, or Beard, in types, illustra- tion of, 29 ; description of, 30 Netherlands, early printers of, use type face similar to that of Jon- son, 8n, four bodies of english made by unknown early printer of, 81 ; improvement of type- foundinc in, 91 Newton, Dr.. of New York, invents copper-fiiciiit;. 41 Nick, in types, illustration of, 29 ; description of, 31 ; it should be clearly defined and different from other faces of same body, 48 Noiipai-eil {6-point), illustration of body of, 29; widely known as type name, Ttl- classed as a regu- lar body. .")S ; capital and lower- case alphabets of, 60, 01; most used of the small bodies, 67; in- vention and earliest uses of. 67 ; adjudged a marvel of letter-cut- ting, 67 ; examples of, 96, 97 ; ad- vertisements m, 106; standard width of, 114 Non-plus-ultra (2-point), cast on 4-point body, 68 Old black, revival of lettre de somme, or round gothic, under name of, 299; example of, 299; characteristics and uses of, 299 Old english, adheres closely to the models of first printers, 93 ; gen- erally accepted name of pointed black-letter, 294; characteristics and uses of, 294, 295 ; example of, 295; preferred by Pickering, 295 ; commended by Moxon, 295, 296; more in fashion now than formerly, 296; its abbreviations used in facsimile reprints, 29G Old Flemish black. See Grosse bdtarde Old Roman, characteristics of, and remarks upon. 378 Old-style, the Caslon, 98, 100; is a subdivision of the roman form of tvpe, 188; characteristics of, 188, '101: example of, 189; de- fects of, 192; features of mod- ernized, 193, 194, 195; example of large-faced, 196 ; example and characteristics of original, 197; the Basle, or early- Italian, de- scribed and illustrated, 198, 199 (see also noiel); the Elzevir, or seventeenth- century, examples and peculiarities of, 199 (see also note 2). 200 (see also Jiote), 201 ; Ronaldson, example of, 202; French, example of, 203; con- densed, preferred by French firinters for dictionaries and cata- ogues, 204 ; Portuguese, example of, 204, 206; condensed types made on model of, 266, 267, 268 : example of extra condensed, 268; objectionable forms of condensed and extra condensed, 288 Orientals, older forms of, have one series of characters only, 185 Overlaying, present method of, de- veloped in United States, 219. See Adani)i, Joseph Alexander Oxford, early type-founders at, 96 Pantograph, adaptation of, to the manufacture of wood types, 348; description and illustration of, 348-350 Paper, varieties of, destructive to types, 38 Index 395 Paragon (20-point), widely known as a type name, 57; seldom se- lected now by Ameiacan or Eng- lish founders, 63 ; favored by Caxton and the printer of the Bible of 42 lines, 63 ; called text in Germany, 63; suitable book- types not made upon this body, 108. See also Dovhle paragon Paris, the early founders of , supply printers of all countries with punches, matrices, and fonts, 86, 87 : notable founders of, 87 ; books printed at, for Caxton and his successors, 93 ; return of Jenaon to, 365; thick-stemmed roman types early made and used at, 370 Parker, Matthew, an English arch- bishop and early patron of print- ing, 94: Pearl (5-point), widely used as type name, 57; classed as a regular body, 58; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61; is used for pocket editions of Bible, prayer- books, and small manuals, 67; made famous by Jannon in his so-called "Diamond " editions, 67 ; examples of, solid and leaded, 100, 101; standard width of, 114 Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), Italian poet, italic of Aldus mod- eled on handwriting of, 187 (see also note) Phonotype, its needed new charac- ters not in general use, 235 Pica (12-point), spaces of, illustrat- ed, 29; illustration of body of, 29 ; about one sixth of an inch in thickness of body, 31; all sizes above canon called by multiples of, 57 ; classed as a regular body, 58 ; capital and lower-ease alpha- bets of, 60, 61; a favorite body for octavos, 64 ; the standard unit for determining sizes, 64; origin of name, 64; Rowe Mores on, 64, 65 (see also note 1) ; examples of, solid and leaded, 84, 85; a book in, 106; standard width of, 114; example and defects of an early form of condensed, 262, 263; il- lustration and eharacteristios of a later form of, 263 ; early faces of, too condensed, 263, 264; example of, and remarks upon, extra con- densed, 265. See also Double pica, Four-line pica, Five-line pica. Six- line pica Pica, Friars de, origin of name, 65 Pickering, William, English pub- lisher, selects diamond type for his miniature editions of the classics, 68; requests Whittingham to re- print a diary in old-style letter, 98; unconventional book titles of, 244 {note) ; uses pointed black- letter for his Victorian edition of Book of Common Prayer, 295 Pie, old English form of the Latin name Pica, 64, 65 Pin-mark, in types, illustration of, 29; description of, 31 Plane, in tyxje- casting, use of, 25 Plantin, Christopher, of Antwerp, orientals cut by Le B6 for, 87; newer styles of, 92 ; various type- founders work for, 92; Granjon his favorite designer, 92 ; his Flemish characters, 92 Plates, zinc and copper, action of electric cun-ent on, 18, 19 Poetic-face, a condensed old-style preferred in France for poetry, 204; example of, 205; great popu- larity of, 216 Point, in typography, the Ameri- can, 154, 155 (see also note) ; the Foumier, 155 (see also note) ; the Didot, 155; illustration of type bodies based on American, 156 Points of punctuation, number of, in font, 12; objections to italic, 239; a real need for inclined, 239 Point system, new names of types according to, 54, 55; is partially adopted in Italy, Spain, and Hol- land, 56 (note) ; Poumier's expla- nation of his, 133-138; advantages promised by, 141 ; adopted by Fi-ench type-founders, 141; Fran- Qois-Ambroise Didot devises a new, 142, 143 ; concurrent use of Foumier's and of Didot's, 143, 144 (see also note 1); preference of the Parisian typogi-aphers for Foumier's, 146 (see alsono^e) ; the American, 149, 150; adoption of the latter by United States Type Founders' Association, 150 ; basis of the American, 152 (see also note) ; comparison of Fournier's with the American, 155 (note) ; the American, adopted by many founders, 159 ; too much expected 396 Index from, 159; helpful in algebraic work, 161 ; applied to the set, or width, of types, 161, 162 ; difficul- ties of such application, 162, 163; also applied to spaces, 163, 164 ; irregular progression of type bodies in American, illustrated, 181 ; type bodies clearly defined by numerical names in, 182 Polyglot, London, of 1657, fourth great Bible of the world, 95 Polymatype. See Didot, Henri, and Pouchee, Louis John Pouchee, Louis John, type-founder, adopts Didot's polymatype meth- od, 102 Presses, Cylinder, maybe injurious to types, 37. See also Cylinder. Presswork, is marred by rudely cut or badly fitted type, 49; small types produce the effect of weak- ness in, 230 ; abandonment of old methods of, 253 Price lists. See under Tables Print, date of oldest verified, 69 Printers, bodies now called irregu- lar unknown to early English, 58 ; early, engraved full-page bor- ders and wmte initials on gray groundwork, 84 ; early Italian, made valuable improvements in typography, 85 ; early French, preferred the black-letter char- acter, 86 ; improvements in typog- raphy made by French, 89 ; early t5T>e8 of Dutch founders pre- ferred by London, 96 ; early, worked to great disadvantage, 106 ; a rude adjustable moud used for casting types by first, 126 Printing, weak and misty style of, 254; demand for quaintness in decorative, 360; objections to new fashions in, 360; Morris's re- ported statement on the degrada- tion of, 361 Printing House, Ducal, of Parma, Bodoni invited to reconstruct and manage, 90 Printing House, the Imperial, of Vienna, celebrated for its large collection of forei^i types, 91 Printing House, National (or Royal or Imperial), Le 36 cuts orien- tals for, 87 ; notable Paris type- founders dwarfed by growth of, 87; its punch-cutter Luc6 disfig- ures the roman character, 88 ; high reputation of, 88; its typo- ^aphical riches, 88, 89 Printing, type, date of oldest, 70 ; jjractised at Mentz before 1460, 75 Printing-types. See Types Propaganda, Press of the, pimehes of, 90 ; Bodoni manager of, 90 Prototype, measuring instrument used by Foumier, 140, 141, 143 Psalter of 1457, earliest book bear- ing a printed date, 72; its types cast on bodies of double paragon and double great-primer, 73 ; deco- rated with red ink and large ini- tials, 73 ; imprint of, 75 ; contains great initials in two colors, 82 ; printed by Fust and Schoeffer, 293 {note 2) Punch, description and construc- tion of, 16, 17 ; impresses the ma- trix, 26 ; frequently sold at close of fifteenth century, 80; cut on steel for roman and italic, 339, 340 Punch-cutter, the modem, not fet- tered by arbitrary rules, 11, 12 {note) ; now he begins his work, 13-15; difficulties of the early, 100 ; different aims of the old and the modem, 190 (see also note) Punch-cutters, in American type- foundries of the nineteenth cen- tui-y, 289, 290 Punch-cutting, description of, 10- 17; secrets of, jealously guarded, 100 Punch-cutting machine, the Ben- ton, features of the pantograph successfully incorporated in, 350 ; method of working, 350, 352, 353 ; illustration of, 351 ; superiority of punches produced by, 353 Pyuson, Richard, English printer, introduces into England the ro- man form of letter, 93 ; many of his punches and types brought from Rouen, 93 ; Moxon's model letters show no important depart- ure from those used by, 300 Quotation marks, superiority of French over English, 203, 204, 239 (see also note 2) Ratdolt, Erhard, of Venice, proba- bly the first to make true deco- rative initials, 83 ; remarks upon the latter, 84 ; accepts the model introduced by Jenson, 367 Index 397 Readers, needs of, not intelligently- regarded by type-founders, 253, 254 ; ri^Ms of, deserve more con- sideration, 254 Reed, Sir Charles, an English, type- founder, 100 Reed, Talbot Baines, on the early use of great-primer for text of Bi- bles and prayer-books, 63 {note) ; possible origin of name bourgeois suggested by, 66 ; remarks of, on breviaries, 66 {note) ; on the use of black-letter in England, 93; on Day's excellence as a type- founder, 94 ; on the Oxford uni- versity Press, 96 ; on old English foundries, 97 ; the author's in- debtedness to, 100; ontheaehieve- ments of the type-founder Fig- fins, 101 ; on the Miller & Richard oundry, 101 References, number of, in font, 12 Reglet, in printing, 145. 146 Renner, Franz, of Venice, accepts type standard introduced by Jen- son, 367; devises new style for his edition of the " ^uadragesi- male," 368; biogi'aphical sketch of. 369 Renner type, the, designed after style of Franz Renner, 368 ; its characteristics, 368 ; example of, 369 Riverside face, example and char- acteristics of, 228, 229 ; introduc- tion of, a protest against effemi- nacy of modem types, 231 Roman, variations in a font of, 14, 15 ; one face of italic used with two or more faces of, 48; first founded by Sweinheym and Pan- nartz in 1465, 85; made perfect by Jenson in 1471, 85; Tory- endeavors to extend the use of, 86; Garamond's form of much admired, 86; Bodoni's peculiar style of, 90 ; lack of harmonious sei-ies of faces in, 108, 109 ; full font of, always accompanied with italic, 172 ; characters omitted in regular font of, 172; preferred as text-letter by the English- speaking peoples and the Latin races, 184; lai;g6ly used in Ger- many for scientific books, 184, 185 ; every complete font of, be- tween pearland great-primer pro- vided with three series of char- acters, 185 (see also note) ; italic an inseparable mate of, 185 ; ad- dition of italic to font of, 185; five correlated series of the al- phabet in, 186; greatest merit of, 186; capitals of, imitations of Roman lapidary letters, 186; subdivided into two classes, 188; an object of experiment with type-founders for nearly four centuries, 191 ; defects of, most noticeable in the smaller sizes, 230 ; little change in general form of, 234, 235; ranty of large sizes of, 241, 242; example of inclined, 278 ; called white-letter to distin- guish it from black-letter, 292, 293 ; various styles of, for serious books, 360 ; first made at Subiaco, 367; uncouth shapes of, not tol- erated in fifteenth century, 367 ; model of, selected by Renner, 369 Romische Antiqua and Versalien, illustration of capitals of, 372; remarks upon, 373, 374, 375 ; made and sold in New York under the name of Bradford face, 373 Ronaldson, James, partner of Bin- ny, 102; receives loan of type- founding apparatus bought Dy Franklin, 155 {note) ; biographi- cal sketch of, 202 Rouen, early founders of, supply printers of all countries, 86, 87; books printed at, for Caxton and his successors, 93 ; early English printers import their punches and types from, 93, 294 Round-f ace, examples of, onpicaand long-primer bodies, 220, 221 ; pre- vaiEng fancy for, 221; effective in leaded composition with broad margins, 221 Ruby. See Agate Rules, brass, in printing, basis for sizes of, 64, 145, 146 Runic, examples of, 326, 327 Sanlecque, Jacques de, French type- founder, 87 Satanick type, example of, and re- marks upon, 363 Sauer, or Sower, Christopher, es- tablishes ^pe-foundry at Ger- mantown. Pa., 102 Savage, William, author of a " Dic- tionary of Printing," 128, 129; his table of measurements of 398 Index bodies made by founders of Great Britain, 129 Scheme (or Bill in Great Britain), in typography, definition of, 165, 166; for different fonts, 166, 167; object of the, 168; not exactly alilce in all foundries, 169 ; for a so-called complete font of roman and italic, 1G9; for one-thousand- poundfont, 169-171; of fractions, 173 Schceffer, John, son of Peter, claims Gutenberg as inventor of print- ing, 78 Schceffer, Peter, prints theGramma- tica at Mentz, 76; round gothie, or aemi-gothic, of. 91 ; Latin Bible of 1462 printed by, 294 {note 1). See also Fust, John Schwabacher, the early admirers of, 91 ; was never selected by English publishers, 296, 297 ; example of, 303 ; still retains its old popular- ity, 303 (see also note) • rounder. clearer, and simpler than the fractur, 304; example of, 304 Sciences, Academic des, commis- sion of, formulates rules for de- signing letters, 12 {note) Scotch-face, standard of thirteen ems limits use of, 118; example of, on long-primer body, 212; ori- gin and characteristics of, 212; a complete series first shown in America by James Conner, 212, 213 ; its gi'ace acknowledged, 213 ; objections to, 213 ; example of, on 10-point body, 213 ; example of condensed, on english body, 214 ; many sizes needed to complete series of, 246 Script, lack of durability of, 35 ; lighter impression necessary for page of, 51, 52 ; modeled on some rasliion of letter used by early copyists. 184; the line separating italic from, not easily drawn, 279 Secretary, of old form. See Grosse bdtarde Sedan, so-called "Diamond" edi- tions printed by Jannon at, 67 Sensenschmidt. John, prints Bam- berg Missal of 1481 nrom largest text-types, 84 Serif, in types, illustration of, 29; description of, 30 ; should have a sloping base, 48; should be of uniform length, 49 ; types with long and sharp, 49, 50 ; types with stubby, 50 ; strengthened with bracket-like curves in all modem light-faced types, 51 ; Dr. JavaVs remarks upon the use of, 250 ; its place in typography, 253 ; absence of, in gothic, 315, 316, 318 Set, in printing, definition of, 122 Shakespeare Press, admirable books printed by, 101. See Buhner Shells, electrotype, backing up of, 19 Shoulder, in tj^es, ^lustration of, 29; description of, 30; should he sufficiently low on body, 47, 48 Signs, number of, in font, 12; spe- cial, not furnished in regular as- sortment for font, 12 Six-line pica (72-point), example of, 69 Sixtus rv, Pope, confers the title of Count Palatine on Jenson, 365 Slug, in printing, its description and uses, 108 Small capitals. See Capitals, Small Small-pica (11-point), illustration of body of, 29 ; classed as an ir- regular body, 58, 65 ; capital and lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; in greater request than the regu- lar Dody of pica, 65 ; examples of, solid and leaded, 86, 87 ; standard width of, 114. See also Double sinall-pica Soei6t6 Litt^raire-Typographique, Baskerville's types and bis type- making material sold to, 99 Somme, Lettre de. French bibliog- raphers' name for round gothic, 293, 294 (see also note 1) ; revival of, and remarks upon, 299 Soncino, first book entirely in He- brew printed at, in 1488, 85 Sorts, iu printing, definition of, 32 Sower. See Sarter Spaces, in types, illustrated, 29; table exhibiting point system ap- plied to, 163 ; so-called patent, m use in large book offices, 164 Speucer, Thomas, of Liverpool, a successful experimenter in elec- trotyping, 18 {note) Squirt machine, invention of, 26 {note) Standard, for measuring widths of types, remarks upon, 114-122 Stanliope, Charles, third Earl Stan- hope, English scientist, perfecter of stereotyping, 97, 283 Index 399 Star Chamber, Decree of, 95 Starr, type-founders bearing family name of, 18 (note), 103, 104 Stationers' Company, anininnotion of, 95 Stem, in types. See Body-mark Stephens. See JEstienne Stephens, Robert, Garamond makes Greek characters imder direction of, 88 Stereotyping, moulding process of, injurious to types, 37; its advan- tages, 39; description of profiass. •^9)f freely made use of in America, 40; supplanted by electrotyping for book- work,'40; benefits of , 4i2| 41 ; early processes of, 97 ; appliea to the easting of types, 346 Straight-edge, its use in punch-cut- ting, 14 Strasburg, able printers of classic texts at, 91 Subiaco, first roman types made at, 187, 367 Swash letters, example of, and re- marks upon, 187 ; special form of old-style italic, used by Leaden- hall Press, 271 (note 1) Sweiuheym (Sweinheim, Sweyn- heim) and Pannartz, printers from Germany, first roman types made by, 85, 187, 367 Tables — au exhibit of the American and English names of types, 54 ; Pbrench and German, 55; Italian, Spanish, and Dutch, 56 ; relations of all types to each other, 112 (see also note) ; different widths for type faces, 115; irregularities of measuring types, 119; Moxon's ten bodies most used in England, 127; Luckombe's proper dimen- sions of bodies, 127, 128 (see also note 1) ; lines of different sized ty^pe in one foot, 129; a compara- tive scale of ems in linear foot, 130 ; type bodies in point systems of Foumier and Didot, 144 ; Bruce systemof geometrical progression of type bodies, 148; the Ameri- can point system of type bodies, 151 ; comparison of three scien- tific systems of type bodies, 157 ; sizes of English types, 158 ; point system apjilied to spaces, 163 characters in so-called completi font of roman and italic, 169 scheme for thousand-pound font, 170, 171 ; number of solid pages composed with fonts of different weights, 176; number of ems in one pound of type of different bodies, composition solid, 177; the weight of six-to-pica leads in composition, 177, 178 ; square inches occupied by one thousand solid ems of different types, 179 ; relations of one thousand solid ems of one body to other bodies, 180; price lists of : American Type Founders Company, 338 ; English and Scotch type-founders, 341; French types, 342 ; German types, 343 Taylor, Bayard, American author, sketch of, 278 Taylor, Dr. Isaac, English philolo- gist and antiquarian, remarks of, on the alphabet, 185 (note), 186 Teutonic, 305, 306 ; example of, 307 Text. See Great-pHmer and Para- gon Text-letters, ^ee Text-types, Types Text-types, beauty of, consists in their precision, 11, 12; multipli- cation of faces of, 53 ; of large quarios and folios, 63 ; largest in Sensenschmidt's Missal of 1481, 84 ; the three faces of greatest use- fulness made in Italy, 85 ; the roman model accepted as best, 183 ; quaint styles of, 359 et seq. Theorists, French, models for types made by, 11 Theuerdank, or Theuerdanck, or- namented letters of, the model of modem German-text, 91 Thomas, Isaiah, printer and pub- lisher, sketch of, 212 Thome, Robert, an English type- founder, designs a new series of bold-face types, 100 Tin, a constituent of type-metal, 9, 32 (see also note), 33 Title. See Bold-face and Fat-fa^e Title-pages, closely graded series of uniform face needed for, 243, 243, 244 ; reasons for unsatisfactory, 243, 244 (see also note) ; two-line letters of three widths needed for, 246, 247, 248; use of condensed capitals for, carried to excess, 257 Title-type. See Fat-face. Torresani, Andrew, an Italian 400 Index printer, 66 ; procures strikes from punches of Jenson roman, 365 Tory, Geoffrey, a Frencli engraver and,printer,12(note); endeavors to extend the use of roman letter, 86 Treadwell, Daniel, an American in- ventor, sketch of, 275 Trithemius, the Abbot, describes type-m,aking, 76 ; names Guten- berg as inventor of printing, 78 Trow, John F., of New York, first practical type-setting machine used in office of, 265 Troy type, designed by Morris on the broad -faced form of round gothic, 362; remarks upon, 362 Two-line pica. See Double pica Type - casting, explanation of, 10 ; once done by hand, now done by machine, 22 ; always done by early printers, tsl Type - casting machine, its moulds made attachable to, 20 ; descrip- tion and construction of, 20, 22, 24 ; illustration of the Bruce, 23 ; its popularity, 27 ; improvements of value added to it, 27 ; its great defect, 27 ; the new forms of, 27 ; Barth produces a complete, 27 ; foreign inventors of, 27 ; descrip- ' tion and illustration of the Bartn , 27, 28 ; machine for casting intro- duced in Great Britain by Miller & Richard, 101 Type -dressing, definition of, 10 Type-founders, secret formulie of, 32 ; new type always provided for specimen-books of, 37 ; their pref- erence for Latin phrases in old specimen - books explained, 43, 44; modeiTi specimen-books of French, 55 {note) ; distinction be- tween regularand irregularbodies made by, 58; two-line and double- bodied tjT)es separately named by American, 59; modem taste in- clining to models of early Italian, 85; notable French, 87; improve- ments in types made by French, 89; some eminent German, 91; prominent Dutch, 92 ; biograpbi- cal sketches of various. 94-105 , named in Decree of Star Cham- ber, 95; early English, and their successors, 95, 96, 97 ; inaccuracy of the early, 125, 126; bodies made by aUleadmg English, 129; devia- tions from stanoards by Ameri- can, 130; precise height-to-paper gauge used by, 153 ; the needs of readers lightly regarded by, 253, 254; early, of Kouen, supply Eng- land with best types, 294; Ger- man forms reproduced by Amer- ican, 305 ; disused process of cast- ing in sand-moulds revived by, 345, 346 ; highly ornamented let- ters not in favor with, 359 ; ina- bility of, to maintain exact uni- formityin afull series of types, 375 Type Founders' Association, Unit- ed States, adoption of American point system by, 150; methods for securing uniformity of type bodies agreed upon by, 152 ; re- jection of French system by, 154; {)oint adopted by the, deviates ittle from that devised by Four- nier, 154, 155 Type Founders Company, Amer- ican, branches of, 102, 103, 104, 105; price list of, 338; remarks upon the latter, 339 Type-founding, not like other arts, 11 (note) ; one of the many forms of printing, 26 ; lack of system in eany, 81; first made a distinct art m France, 86, 87 ; high repu- tation of French, 87 ; damage to German, 91 ; its status in the Netherlands during latter half of fifteenth century, 92 Type-foundries, notices of, 94-105 Type-gauge, description and illus- tration of, 159, 160. See Gauge Type-making, six distinct depart- ments of, 10 ; practised at Mentz before 1460, 75; Ulric Zell and Trithemius on, 76; recent type- setting machines owe their utility to new processes for, 353; sketch of apparatus for. in Mergenthaler and Lanston machines, 354-357 : other machines in process of de- velopment for, 357, 358 ; not prob- able that older methods of, will fall into disuse, 358 Type-metal, no practical substitute for, 9. 10 ; model letters often cut on, 18; inflow of, into mould, 20; constituents of, 32 (see also note)- 34 ; the useful properties of, 34 ; lack of durabihty of, 35 ; its use in stereotyping. 39 ; test of hard- ness in, 42; price of, varies with market rates of metals, 337 Index 401 Type-mould. See Mould, Type-revolving machine, adjudged injurious to types, 37; certain types not suited for, 49, 50, 116 {note) Types, composition of, 9 ; utility of typograpliy depends upon accu- racy of, 9 ; large sizes, for posting- bills, generally made of wood, 10 ; beauty of text-, consists in their precision, 11, 12; charactersinf ont of roman book,-, 12 ; variations in depth of counters, 15, 16 (see also note); smaller sizes rapidly made, 22 ; imperfect as thrown from mould, 24; dressing or finishing of, 25 ; gi'eat improvement in casting, 25 ; various features of, illustrated and described, 29 - 32 ; soft metal ujsed for ornamental, 32 ; lack of durability of, 35; difQ,cidties in the making of hard, 35 (see also note) ; durability of, depends on size and cut of face, 36 ; differing views of publishers as to wear of, 36, 37 ; repeated handling of, injurious, 37 ; causes of wear in, 37, 38 ; va- rieties of paper destructive to, 38 ; durability of, promoted by cleanliness, 39 ; greater durability of copper -faced, 41 ; importance of solidity and even lining of, 43 (see also note) ; uneven hning of, and its frequent cause, 44; importance of fitting up of, 45 ; unequal height of, 46; legibilityof, improved by close fitting, 47 ; im- portance of good mechanical fin- ish of, 47; should be pleasing alone or in mass, 49 ; effect upon press- work of rudely cut or badly fitted, 49 ; inferior durability and reada- bility of bold black-faced, 50; com- parative durability of light-faced andheavy-faced, 51, 52; method of naming, 53 ; similarity of names of, in various countries mislead- ing, 57 ; made and named every- where without system, 57; bas- tard, 57, 58 ; two-line and double- bodied, 59 ; sizes and relative pro- portions of standard, 60, 61 ; text and ornamental, 62-68; wonder- ful as evidences of skill, 68 ; dif- ferent sizes of, used at Mentz be- fore 1460, 75 ; similar faces of, used by Caxton, Mansion, and other printers, 80 ; improvements in, made by French printers, 89 ; Bodoni's peculiar roman and italic, 90 ; made by linotype ma- chine, 105; steadily increasing demand for book and job, 105; differences between bodies of, 106 ; need for all present bodies of, 106 ; irregular sizes of, as com- mon as regular, lOG ; proportions of different, 109; irregularities in faces of, 109, 110; names of, de- termined by size of body, 110 ; ob- servations on leaded, 111 (see also note 2) ; standard widths of, 114, 116 (no(e) ; various sizes of, 116; stereotyping compels use of wid- er, 116 {note) ; broader face im- perative for small, 117, 118; defect of the old system of naming, 123 ; their accuracy of the first impor- tance, 125 ; affected by changes in heat, 125; variations in height to paper in different countries, 131 (see also note) ; six standard sizes of, 131, 132; basis of sizes of large wood and metal, 145, 146, 149 proposed change of height of, 153 injurious effects of altered stan dardof height, 154; changeof body inEnglish, 158; importance of uni- formity in height of, 159 ; point system applied to the set, or width, of, 161, 162; 163; advantages of "self-spacing, " 163; directions forusinganewfont of, 174; space covered by one pound of, 174 ; how to find weight of one page of, 174 ; square inches occupied by one thousand solid ems of various, 179; relations as to ems existing be- tween different, 179 (see also note), 180; named and classified in an unsatisfactory manner, 183; fanciful names seldom given to roman, 183; arranged in three dis- tinct classes, 183 ; changes in the fashion of, 209; objections to weak, 228; defects in ordinary faces of roman, 2;i0 ; new styles made to conform to new methods, 234 ; sizes composing a full series of, for books and newspapers, 240; former rarity of complete series of, 241 (see also note) ; irregulari- ties of two-line, 242, 243, 244, 245 ; need for larger sizes of two-line, 245, 246; examples of, and remarks upon, two-line, 251, 252; con- 402 Index densed, not popular in American and English, oookliouses, 'I'H; re- action against excessive use <»t' condensed, for title-pages, 257, 258 ; deUcaey of hair-line in large, 258, 259 ; limits to condensation of, 259 (see also no(e), 260; scarcity of moderately condensed, 262 ; condensed, appreciated by job printers, 262 ; capitals and lower- case not mates in some fonts, 263; utility and abuse of extra condensed, 264, 265; over-refine- ,ment in the designing of, 309 ; pro- priety of different prices for lead- ing classes of, 336; other varieties of, sold at special and irregular rates, 336, 337; allowance for old. 337; chaugesincostof metalcause changes in prices of , 337 ; cheaper now than before, 337 ; prices of American, 338 ; remarks upon the latter, 339 ; different rates in Eng- land for large and small fonts of, 340 ; dissimilar bodies of English and American, 340 : prices of English, 341 ; rates for small and ornamental, higher in England than in America, 342 ; prices of French, 342 : variable height of French and German, 342, 343: unsatisfactoriness of types cut- down, 343 ; prices of German, 343 ; duty on importations of, 344; obstacles hindering importation of, 344 ; reasons for f onner spar- ing use of large, ;U.'> ; unsatisfac- toriness of. when cast in sand- moulds, 345 ; abandonment of metal for larger sizes of. 346 ; dif- ferent woods used for making lai-ge. 340; methods of, and tools used in, making wooden, 347, 34S : proper function of, :{o9 ; not im- proved by decoration, 359; present forms of roman, held by some to be inartistic. 361 ; MoitIs on the need of better, 361; the first ro- man, 367; use of gothie, for later books of early Venetian printei-s, 369 ; early nn acceptability of ro- man, 369; unsatisfactoriness of early forms of thick-stemmed roman, 370 ; generous relief of white space needed by, 370, 371, 372 ; impossibility of preserving uniformity in effect throughout series of, 375 Type-setting, mechanical, foi-mer obstacles to, 354; the Mergen- thaler and Lanston machines for, 354^357; other machines in pro- cess of development for, 357, 358 ; will never entirely supplant hand composition, 358 Tj-pe-setting machines, usefulness of recentforms of, due to new pro- cesses for making types, 353 ; ap- paratus for making and setting types closely related, 353, 354 Typographical Union, Internation- al, determination of standard widths of types by, 114 Typography, " utility of, 9 ; impor- tance of skilful punch-cutting in, 11 ; faultless, to be had only from new type, 37 ; Gutenberg claimed as inventor of, 78, 79 ; key to the invention of, 79; most valuable improvements made in, by Italian printers, 85 ; Garamond accom- plishes reforms in, 86; decadence of, in Italy, 90 ; Day's contribu- tions to, 94 ; becomes decadent in England after Day's death, 95 ; best specimen of seventeenth- century English, 95; Moxon on, 96 ; Javal on the evolution of, 334: uniformity of every character a great merit, 361 ; Morris's ^dews on the need of reform in, 361 United ytates, scarcity of letter- signers in, 15 United States Tj'pe Founders' As- sociation. See Type Founders' Association, Vnited States University Pi-ess, of Oxford, early types or, cast in foreign matrices. 96 ; had its own press as early as 1478. 96; contributions to, 96; its typographical riches, 96 Van Benthuysen. O. R., a printer, stereotyper, and t^'pe-founder, 104 Van Di,ik, ChristoflFel, Dutch type- founder, exhibits a size of type between pearl and diamond, 67, 68 ; cuts punches for the Elzevirs, 92; his types warmly praised by Moxon and Willems, 92 Venice, first appearance of nonpa- reil roman in a Catholic manual printed at, 67; the goldsmiths cut punches for early printers at, 80; Index 403 rbman perfected by Jensou at, in 1471, 85; italic and small capi- tals introduced by Aldus Mauu- tius at, in 1501, 85 ; orientals cut by Le B6 for printers of, 87 ; Jen- son'sdeathat, 365; thick-stemmed roman types at, 370 Villiers, AbD6 de, extract from, 273 Virgil, or Vergil (Publius Vergili- us Marc), Roman poet, italic of Aldus first used in octavo edition of, 187, 270 Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet), French writer, Beaumarchais sii- perintends complete edition of, m Baskerville types, 99 Voskens, Dirck, of Amsterdam, dia- mond type probably first made by, 67 ; supplies English printers with types, 92; foundry of, ab- sorbed by Haarlem foundry, 92 Weed, Thurlow, a printer, newspa- per proprietor, and public man, sketch of, 196 Wells, Darius, a New York printer, devotes himself to the manufac- ture of wooden type, 347 Wells, Horace, an American type- founder, sketch of, 221 White, Elihu, favors the Johnson type-casting machine, 26 {note) ; undertakes to make types with- out experience, 102; moves his type-foundry to New York, 102;es- tablishes branches in Buffalo and Cincinnati, 102; his successors, 102; biographical sketch of, 222 Whittingham, Charles, founder of the Chiswick Press, revives Cas- lon old-style,98; sketch of, 199 Wilson, Alexander, a Scottish type- founder, sketch of, 99 Wood, large types made from, 10 Woodcuts, the art of electrotyping first used for, 18 (note), 219 Wood-en^aving, early, 84 Worde, wynkyn de, pupil and suc- cessor of Caxton, 93 ; his later types cut by French artists, 93 ; many of his punches and types brought from Rouen, 93; discov- ery of some original punches of, 97 ; Moxon's model letters show no important departure from those used by, 300; Old English the character first used by, 301 (note 1) Zell, Ulric, on invention of tyi^e- making, 76 ; claims Gutenberg as inventor pf printing, 78 Zinc, unsuitabUity of, as an alloy of type-metal, 34 (see also note)