ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library S 499.S88 The family, ta™ and gardens and Jfe 3 1924 000 304 158 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http ://www. arch i ve . o rg/detai Is/cu31 9240003041 58 ii I ir x>oAf £:s-x xtTjziA.Xj a.ffa.xxis. THE FAMILY FARM AND GARDENS, DOMESTIC ANIMALS. IS THEEE PAKTS. ILLTJSTEATED. Part I.-TIiE B^A-MTZj Y : HOW TO KEEP HOTJSE, TO PEOTIDE, TO COOK, TO 'WASH, TO BAKE, TO DYE, XO PAINT, TO PBESEE.VE HEALTH, TO OITEE DISEASE, ETC. : A MAMirAL OF HOrSEHOLD MANAGEMENT. Part rr.-TH:E! B'A.RM: .AJSrX) G!-AI1DBH"S : 1. The Farm.— ITS MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTS. Z. The Kitchen-a-arden.— WHAT TO GROW, AND HOW TO GBOW IT. 3. The Fmit-Garden.— HOW TO HAVE CHOICE PETJIT. 4. The Flower-G-arden.— HOW TO GROW ALL OUT-DOOR ELOWEES. Part III.-r>OM:ESTIC AH^IJMCAXiS : 1. The Horse.— TO BREED, BREAK, PEED, AND CURE. 5. Catae.— THE BEST BREEDS, AND HOW TO MANAGE THEM. 3. Sheep.— THEIR BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, DISEASES, ETC. 4. The Pie.- TO BREED, FEED, CUT UP, AND, CURE. 6. Poultry.— THE DIFFERENT KINDS, AND THEIB TREATMENT. 6. Bees.— THEIR HABITS, MANAGEMENT, ETC. FROM THE LATEST AND BEST AUTHORITIES. KDITEp BY B3. Q-. STOEKK. AUBURN, N. Y. THE AUBURN PUBLISHING COMPANY, B. G. 8T0RKE, PUBLISHING AGENT. Entered according to tbe Act of Congress, in the year 1859, BY WILLIS 17. SITT8EE, in the Clerk's Office of the District Cuort for the Northern District of New Toik. GEJ^ERAL PEEFAGE. A GLAUCE at the title-page and index of tMs work will sho'W the many important subjects embraced in it. Separate and complete treatises are igiven upon each. The -departmeni relating to ,The Famtlt will be fonnd to coHtain much new and valuable inlbrmation, important to every -housekeeper. The Fabm, from its great importance, has received specia] attention, i and contains, it is believed, much valuable instruc- tion. The KrrdHEN, Feuit, and Flowee Gardens have each received careful attention, and may be relied upon as con- taining instructions which are the results of long and thorough practical experience. Each of The DdMEstic AimiiLS is separately considered, and all the necessary instructions 'given for their successful breeding, rearing, and management, in health and disease. It has been the aim of the editor to be useful rather than original. No one man, however large his experience or thor- OTigh his observation, can be as safe" a counselor or as wise a guide, upon the many subjects embraced m this work, as the collected wisdom of scores of minds, each long and thoroughly conversant with particular subjects. The editor, therefore, tl'ongh not imfamiliar with the topics embraced in this work. iv GENEEAI. PKEFACE. has nevertlieless chosen to use his experience and judgment in collecting the most useful and important information, from the most recent and reliable sources, and in arranging it in such foiTQ as should render it at once easy of comprel^nsion and practice, and therefore useful to the masses. He has long felt that a work embracing the features of this was much needed in most American families ; and this view of its necessity and utility, he has the pleasure to say, haa been concurred in by all to whom its plan has been submitted. The aim has been to make the work plain and practical — to avoid mere speculation, and iminteresting and unprofitable details — to condense the most useful and important informa- tion possible within prescribed limits, and to adapt it to the wants of practical men. It was intended .to be a reliable and convenient reference book for the various duties appertaining to The Family, The Faem, and The Gardens, and to the rearing and management of The Domestic Aotmalb — to aid the memories of the experi- enced and to instruct the young. With ample materials, and careful and persevering effort to accomplish his purpose, the editor can only say, that he hopes the reader will find the execution of the work as perfect as its plan. CONTENTS. PAET 1— THE T TAMTTT . Index 3 latroduction 7 The Family Guide 9 Modes of Cooking 11 CJooking Meats 22 Hints on Setting out a Table, Deportment while at Table, eta 28 Details of Practical Cookery 36 The Cook's Table of Weights and Measures is Miscellaneous Practical B'eceipts in Household Economy IS The Means of Preserving Health 106 Furniture and Rural Structures of Iron 198 Common Things, where obtained, how prepared, uses, etc. 202 Miscellaneous , 221 PAET n.— THE FAEM AND GARDEUa Preface 3 Index i 5 Soils 9 Manures 17 BotatiOD of Crops , 24 n CONTENTS. pAea Draining 25 Fences 29 Farm Implements 36 Farm Crops 41 Depredating Animals, Birds, and Insects 94 Dogs, tbe Best Breeds. , lOr The Kitchen-Garden , , 113 The Fruit-Garden U6 The Flower-Garden ITS Different Varietieaof "Wood, Properties and Composition ofWood, Preservation of Timber, etc. 207 Useful Reference Tables 239 Business Forms and the Legal Principles applicable theretcr. 256 PAKT HL— DOMESTIC AJSTIMALS. Index, , > 8 Preface , 1 The Horse: how to Breed, Break, Feed, and Manage, and how to Treat his Diseases ; together with The Art of Taming as practiced by 'William and John S. Barey 11 Cattle : the Dairy and Fat-producing Breeds, and their Managftnent in Health and Disease 96 The Domestic Sheep : their Breeds, Management, and Diseases 169 The Domestic Hog ; to Breed, Feed, Cut up, and Cure 201 Domestic Poultry: their Breeds dhd Treatment in Health and Disease 243 Bees: their Habits and Management 219 AUTHORinES CONSULTED. The following, among other authorities, have been consulted in the preparation of this work, and to which we are more or less indebted for the valuable facts and instructions which it contains, viz. : Southem Bural Almanac, American Agriculturist^ Fruit Culturist, Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America, Fruit Garden, Horticulturist, Boussiugault's Bund Economy, Gardeners' Chromde, Breck's Book of Flowers, Gardeners' Assistant, Patent-Office Eeports, American Gardener, Annual Begister, Eose Manual, Book of the Farm, Kitchen GJardener, Flower-Garden Director, American Fruit Book, Landscape Gardening, Albany Cultivator, Southem Cultivator, Mack Manual, Fruit Grower's Guide, Genesee Fanner, Bural New-Torker, Valley Farmer, Johnson's Agricultural Chemistry, Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry, Loudon's Gardening, Loudon's, Mrs., Companion to the Flower-Garden, Working Farmer, Progressive Farmer, Farmers' Every-Day Book, Norton's Scientific Agriculture, Gardening for The South, Cotton-Planters' Manual, Florists' Guide, Gardeners' Instructor, Dana's Prize Essay on Manures, Bichardson, Youatt, Dodd, Ban- daU, Linsley, and Miles, on the Horse, Touatt, Martin, Stevens, Guenon, Dodd, and Baynbird on Cattle, Bichardson, Touatt, Martin Doyle, and Sidney, on the Hog, Touatt, Bandall, Skinner, Martin ■ &c., on Sheep, Bichardson, Delamar, Dison, Kerr, and Miner, on Poultry, Phelps, Miner, Weeks, Quimby, &c., on Bees, Transactions N. T. State Agricul- tural Society, &C., &C., &a THE FAMILY HOTJSEIEEPER'S GUIDE. INDEX TO THE EMILY GUIDE. A« PAS! A.bst!T.ence, effects of , , . 126 Accidents, to treat , , IM Acids, to nentraUze, in fruit pies asd pud- dings 58 Agate 226 Air, its necessity to healtli lOT Air, night, hnitful 109 All of maralies 109 Alt of the sea 110 Albumen ...., 182 Alcohol, as a beyerage , 166 Almonds ,. 207 Aloes , 218 Alum, ns«o4 in washing 88 Amethyst 225 Antimony , 28T Ants, to destroy , 100 Appetite, arttflcial,.,.'.. , 125 Appetite, different kinds of ...... , 125 Appetite, natural , 125 Appetite of habit 125 Apple-wine, to make 76 Ardent spli'Lts, the several kinds of. 167 Arrow-root, as food , , , . 189 Arsenic ..288 Asbestos „,.,.. 226 Asparagus, to cook....-.....',... 68 A^parAgus, to pickle ,,.,. 65 B. Bacon, asfood ,.., 186 Bacon,.to choose 14 Baking meats 24 Bart 218 Barley, as food , 141 Bathing, its advantages 174 Beans asfogd ,.... 143 Beans, string, to cook 68 Beans, to pickle, , 66 Beans, to preserve, in winter 68 Beds , , , .... 185 3ed-chamber. , 186 SeeHas food.; 184 Beef, to choose 13 ' Baef-tea . , , , .185 Beer, root, to make , 91 Beer, theological ...,. 92 Bees, to cure the stings of. 93 Beets, as food 147 Beets, to cook 68 Bell-metal 284 Betel-nut 216 Bird-lime 96 Biscuit, OS food...... 144 B^cuit, to make 41 Bismuth 287 Blacking, boat, for bpots and shoes 9S Black-load. ; 231 Bleeding, its impropriety 196 Blisters 280 Boiling, how it should be done , . 17 1 Boiling, time required., 18* Bowels, care of. 191 Brass, the composition of ,,....,.... 283 Braril-nuts 207 PASB Biiead-making should be better nnderstood 85 Bread, its value as food 35, 142 Bread, various kinds, to make , . . 83 Breakfast 157 Britannia-metal 283 Broccoli, asfood 146 Broccoli, to cook 68 Broiling : 24 Broth '. 188 Bronze 234 Brushes, hair, to clean 97 Burns, to cure , 93 Buckwheat, as food 142 Itiuckwheat-cakeB 46 Butter, as food 134 C. Cabbage, as food 146 Catibage, to cook ,..,,, 69 Cabbage, to pickle 66 Cakes, frosting for...^,, 46 Cakes, icing for 45 Cakes, information for making and baking, 42 Cakes, various kinds of, to make 4S GaUsthonics 125 Candles, improved 89 Caps......; /. 116 Carrots, asfood ; 147 Castor-oil 220 Cauliflower, as food 14^ Cauliflower, to cook 69 Cayenne-pepper ,.,. ^209 Celery, to cook ,,, 69 Cellars , HI Cement, fire and water-proof 91 Cement for seams .■ 90 Cheese, asfood , , 133 Cherry-wine 76 Chocolate, as a drink , , 162 Chocolate, to make , 75 Choice of food , 12 Cinnamon , 208 Cleanliness ,... 173 Clothes, to fold , 80 Clothes, to iron .*..., .., 80 Clothes, to make water-proof 94 Clothes, to save expense In..... 89 Clothes, to sprinkle 80 Clothing, beneficial effects of flannel 115 Clothing, cotton, preferable to linen 115 Clothing, how to adapt it to indjyldua. conditions 113 Cloves 209 Cobalt...^ 288 Cochineal '.,.','. Mi Ceckroaobes, to drive away 88 Cocoa, as a drink 74 Cocoa-nuts, what they are 207 Cocoa, where grown 204 Cod, to choose ,,..,.. 18 Coffee, as a drink , 162 Coffee, cream for , ,.,, 76 Coffee, to make 74 Coffee, to roast 76 Coffee, where and howgrown, etc.. !!!.!!! 204 INDEX TO THE FAMILY GUIDE. FAQ1! Cold 112 Cold-slaw 09 Colli, to resist : 112 Cologno-wiitor 180 Coloruil ilmn-ings, to mako them resemble oil ]mirili»ps.... 89 Commuii things 202-238 Contngion, U> nrcvcnt the spread of 97 Condiments, thctr olfects 154 Gookitry, ilctnils uf practical 85 Cookery, modes of .' 17 Cookery, utcusils of 26 Cookies 44 Cook's tiible of weights and measures 78 Copper 231 Corn, grocn, to cook 72 Corn, Indian, as food 142 Cornf, to euro 92 Corn, to dry for winter use 97 Corspts 117 Cosmetics 1 79 Criihs, as food 187 Crabs, to cliooso IS Crackers, to make 49 Cravats , 117 Cream, as food 138 Croup, cure for 97 CruUurs 4S Cucumber, as food 149 Cucumber, to pickle .• C6 Culinary economy 11 Currant-wiiie 77 Custards, vai-ious kinds of 59 Dancing 121 Dates 207 Dentifrices 180 Diamond 224 Dinner 158 Disinfecting liquid 97 Domestic riiles 9 Dougli-nuts 47 Dreaming 187 Drinks 159 Drunkenness 171 DuntplinM 5l> Dyeing black 83 " black on silks , 85 " bonnets 85 " briglit madder 84 ** briiwn 85 " colIVe-color 85 " drab-oolor 85 " general ilirections for 83 " grcon 84 ** kid-gloves 85 ** leinon-es, to cook 72 Passions, iho 18T Pastry, as food 144 Peaches, lo preserve 68 Pearls 226 Pears, as food 150 Peas, green 70 Peas stewed in cream 70 Pears, to preserve 63 Pepper 156 Pewter, composition of 234 Pickles, directions for making 65 Pickles sold in shops 67 Pie-crust, CO make 50 Pies, minced, best meat for 60 Pics, to moke various kintls of. 50 I^iles, cure for 98 Pine-apple 20i Platinum 237 Poisons and their antidotes 103 Purcdain, how made 210 Pork, as food 185 Pork, to cook 23 Potato-balls, to make 72 Potatoes, as food ■ 145 Potatoes, sweet, to cook 73 Potatoes, to i)reservo 15 Potatoes, vf.rious ways to cook Tl Poultry, as food 136 Precious aietals 234 Pi-oserves, as food : 156 Preserves, directions for making 61 Puddings, as food 145 PutWings, to make 63 Pumice-stone 227 a. Quinces, for the table 64 Quinces, to preserve 63 R. Eadisbes 72 Kadishes, as food 149 Kospberry-wine 77 Eats, easy mode of destroying 93 Rhubarb 218 Eice, as food 141 Kice, Southern mode of boiling 74 Eiding, OS an exercise 132 Eingworm, to cure 88 Eoasting, time required for 19 Eolls 41 Eusks, various kinds of 41 Eye, as food Ul S. SagOfOsfood .., .143 INDEX TO THE FAMILY GUIDE. PAGE Bulllnc, M u» exerciio 123 alod T8 olad, OS food 1« almou, Lo choose 1| ■ iilsiiy, or vegetable oyster 78 alt, as food 166 ' arsaparilla >. j 219 'aucepan, its uses. . , 2T 'Sausages, as food 186 Sausages, to make 88 Senna 219 Sick, various preparationa for the lUO Siglit, to preserve 191 Silver...! 286 'Sleep, promotive of healtti 181 Sleoi), to nrocure 98 Slugs, to (lesti'oy 88 Soap, for personal use 178 Soap, bard 81 Soap, to disuse 88 Soap, to make 81 Bodn^ as a substitute for sugar 68 Soda-water, family 92 Soups, as food. : 186 Spit, uses of the 26 Sponge 228 SquAslies 72 Stains, to make various 89 Starch, as food 139 Starching, etc 80 Starch, to prepare for laces 81 Stet'l 229 Strawberries, to preserve 62 Sugar, 08 food 189 Sugar, to clarify 62 Supper , 159 Surfeit 127 Swimming, as an exercise , 122 Table, engi-aving of the 29 Table, deportment at 28 Table, hints on setting out 28 Tamarinds 208 Tarts, to make 56 Tea, as a drink 161 Tea, how grown, etc. 202 Tea, to make 76 Tea^ to detect adulterations in 76 Teeth, to clean 100 Tin 230 Toast 144 Tobacco, use of •. 193 Tomatoes, various ways to coot* 78 Tool-chest, family 95 Topaz 225 Training, Its uses 1^6 Turnips 148 Turtle, OS food WT V. Yamish, to color baskets 89 Veal, as food 135 Yeal, to choose 18 Vegetable oysters 78 Vegetables, as food 189-149 Vegetables, medium size the best 14 Vegetables, to boll 28 Vegetables, to choose t * 14 Vegetables, to presei-ve, in winter 67 Velvet, to raise the pile of 82 Venison, as food 186 Venison, to cboose a 14 Ventilation 110 Vessels, to cleanse 97 "Walking the best exercise 121 Washing calicoes ■. . . , 81 "Washing In one hour j . . 79 Washing made easy 78 Washing, review of 88 Washing woolens 81 Water, hard, to make soft 82 Weights and measures for cooks 78 Wells in quick-sand, to dig 99 Wheat, as food 140 Whitewash, brilliant 86 Whitewash, excellent, to make 86 Whitewash that will not rub off 86 Whitewash, to make, of any color 86 Wine, apple .' 76 ■ Wine, as a drink 164 Wine, cherry 76 Wine, currant. 77 Wine, elder., 77 Wine, grape .' ],.*. 76 Wine, home-made, to make 76 Wine, raspbeiTy 77 Wounds, to prevent ftom mortifying '. 100 Y. Tam, as food 146 Teast-cakes, to make 87 Teast, domestic 87 Yeast, prime, to make ." 87 Yeast, to make various klkds of 87 Zinc. I NTRODU CATION. " Mnding we consumed a 'vast deal bf soap, I Sizt down in my t%inMng-dhaii/r ■jmd tooTo the soap question mto eonsideration, and found reason to smpeet we were ttsing'a very expmsime arPiele wJiere a nmeh cheaper one would seme the purpose letter. I ordered half a dozen pounds of toth sorts,, tut tooh the ■preca/ution of cha/nging the papers on which the prices were marJsed tefore gimi/ng them into the hands of Betty. '■Well, Betty, which §oap do yvufbmd Koshes hestV ' Oh, please sir, the dearest, in the Hue pa/per; it malces a lather as well again aa the other. ^ ' Well, Betty, you shall always ha/oe it then;'' and thus the unsuspecting Betty sa^ed me some pounds a year, and washed tTie clothes ietter.'"' — ^Ket. Sidnbt Smith. Economy with us is little undei'stood, arid less practiced. Since we liave so far departed from the' sterUng and better hab- its 6f our ancestors as to leave the execution of our plans mostly to employees, it is certainly important to our own success, com- fort, and happiness that we be able, at least, to lay good plans and to give intelligent and proper directions. The losses and discomforts which arise from our inability to do' this are incal- culable. In the various arts of practical household manage- ment how very deficient are many of the hundreds of thousands who, in this country, are annually assuming the positions of heads of families ! And among those who long have held that position, how many mistakes are constantly committed, simply from ignorance of correct processes, or an unwUliagness to iu- vestigate and understand the improvements which have been made in the arts of life. How much disappointment attends the practice of the simplest, yet most important of household arts. Bread-maTcmg is but imperfectly understood, and suc- cess is rather the exception than the rule ; when, by a proper rNTKODtronON. understanding of the true process, a failure to have light, sweet, and healthy bread would be a wonder. So with the various other departments of practical cookery. "We too blindly follow the traditionary practices of the past, and give too little heed to the discoveries, improvements, and progress of the present. Washing, that most difficult and laborious of household arts, is now, by the assistance aflforded by modern chemistry, per- formed with less than half the labor and in one-fourth of the time that were formerly bestowed upon it, and yet but few are aware of the fact; and the old patience- tiring, clotheg and muscle wearing process is still generally in vogue among us. The saving that may be effected by substituting the use of soda for sugar, in correcting the acids in fruits, pies and pud dings, is equally unknown ; while the relative nutriment and healthfulness' of the various alimentary substances are but imperfectly understood. It is the design of this work to arrange in a form for conve- nient reference the latest and best discoveries and improvements relating to the practical details of household affairs in their va- rious and complicated relations. The aim has been to exclude all unnecessary matter, and to condense the most important information within the shortest compass, so that any desired fact or direction could not only be quickly found, but when found could be easily tmderstood and practiced. The latest and most reliable authorities have been consulted, and the work, it is believed, will be found accurate, and worthy the attention of every American family. THE FAMILY, TH£ TAMUjY guide. DOMESTIC RULES.— 1. Do every tMng in its proper time. 2. Keep every thing to its proper use. 3. Put every thing in its proper place. THE HOUSE claims primary attention. It is too often built more to gratify the public than its owner — to suit it to the wants of company rather than those who are to be its daily occupants ; and the inconve- niences resulting from such false notions are constant aijd severe. This folly, it is hoped, will soon cease. The house should be planned and constructed for a home for the family, and should combine, in the highest attainable degree, the requisites for their comfort and conve- nience. This should be the first object. At the same time, if the owner's means allow, a proper arrangement for the entertainment of friends should not be overlooked; for the cultivation of our social natures, and the exercise of hospitality, are important duties, which no discreet householder wiU overlook, as from them flow our choicest pleasures. It is not the sum invested in a dwelling, but the neatness, taste, and conveniences which it embodies, and its adaptation to the circumstances and wants of its owner that constitute its true harmony and beauty. The first point to be regarded in a house is its position. Carefully regard the healthfulness of the situation. Avoid the neigh- borhood of grave-yards, and of factories giving forth unhealthy vapors ; avoid low and damp districts, the cours.e of canals, and localities of res- ervoirs of water, gas-works, etc. ; make inquiries as to the drainage of the neighborhood, and inspect the drainage and water supply of the premises. A house standing on an incline is likely to be better drained than one standing upon the summit of a hill, or on a level below a hill. Endeavor to obtain a position where the direct sunlight falls upon the house, for this is absolutely necessary to health, and give preference to a house the openings of which are sheltered from the north and east winds. Consider the distance of the house from your place of occupation, and also its relation to provision markets, and the prices that prevail in the neighborhood. Furnishing tlie Honsc. — If you are about to furnish a house, do not spend all your money, be it much or little. Do not let the beauty of this thing, and the cheapness of that, tempt you to buy unnecessary articles. Doctor Franklin's maxim was a wise one — " Nothing is cheap that we do not want." Buy merely enough to get along with at first 1* 2 10 THE FAMILY. It is only by experience that you - can tell what will be the wants of your family. If. you spend all your money, you will find you have pur- chased many things you do not want, and have no means left to get many things which you do want. If you have enough, and more than enough, to get every thing suitable to your situation, do not think you must spend it all, merely because you happen to have it. Begin hum- bly. As riches increase, it is easy and pleasant to increase in comforts; but it is always painful and inconvenient to decrease. After all, these things are viewed in their proper light by the truly judicious and re- spectable. Neatness, tasteftilness, and good sensemay be shown in the management of a small household, and the arrangement of a little fur- niture, as well as upon a larger scale ; and these qualities are always praised, and always treated with respect and attention. The considera- tion which many, purchase by living beyond their income, and, of course, living upon others, is not worth the trouble it costs. The glare there is about this false and wicked parade is deceptive ; it does not, in fact, procure a man valuable friends or ext*7nsive influence. f TQgalitf. — The great philosopher, Dr. Franklin, inspired the mouth- piece of his own eloquence, " Poor Richard," with " many a gem of purest ray serene," encased in the homely garb of proverbial truisms. On' the subject of frugality, we cannot do better than take the worthy Mentor for our text, and from it address our remarks. . A man may, if he knows not how to save as he gets, "keep his nose all his life to the grindstone, and die not worth a groat at last, A fat kitchen makes a lean will," and " Many estates are spent in getting. Since women for tea forsook spinnmg and knitting, And men for punch forsook hewing and splitting." If you would be wealthy, think of saving as well as of getting. The Indies have not made Spain rich, because her out-goes are greater than her in-comes. Beware of little expenses. " A small leak will sink a'great ship," as Poor Eichard says; and again, "Who dainties love, shall beggars prove ;" and moreover, " Fools make feasts, and wise men eat them." Here you are all got together to this sale of fineries and nick-nacks. You call them goods ; but if you do not take care, they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and perhaps they may for less than they cost ; but if you have no occasion for them, they must be dear to you. Remember what Poor Richard says, "Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries." And again, "At a gfeat pennyworth, pause awhile." He means, per- haps, that the cheapness is apparent only, and not real ; or the bargain, by straitenmg thee m thy business, may4o thee more harm than good; enn° wo°*h^» ^^^'' " ^^"^^ ^^^^ ^''^'^ ^^"'^'^ ^^ buying good Again, "It is foolish to lay out money in the purchase of repentance •" and yet this folly is practised every day at auctions, for want of mind- mg the almanac. FAMDiT GtllDE. 11 4 Many, for the sake of finery on the back, have gonfe with a hungry stomach, and half-starved their families. "Silks and satins, soarlete and velvets, put out the kitchen fire," as Poor Eichard says. These are not the necessaries of life ; they can scarcely be called the conve- niencies ; and yet, only because they look pretty, how many want to have them,? By these and other extravagances, the genteel are reduced to poverty, and forced to borrow of those whom they formerly despised, but who through industry and frugality have maintained their standing ; in which case it appe&rs plainly that " A plowman on his legs is higher than a gentleman on his knees," as Poor Richard says. Perhaps they had a small estate left them, which they knew not the getting of; they think " it is day, and wUl never be night ;" that a httle to be spent out of so much is not worth minding ; but " Always taking out of the meal-tub, and never putting in, soon comes to the bottom," as Poor Eichard says ; and then, " When the well is diy, they fcoow the worth of water." But this they might have known before, if they had taken his advice ; " If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some ; for he that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing," as Poor Richard says ; and, indeed, so does he that lends to such people, when he goes to get it in again. Poor Dick further advises : " Fond pride of dress is sure a very cuise ; Ere fancy you consult, .consult your purse." And again, "Pride is as loud a beggar as want, and a great deal more saucy." When you have bought one fine. thing, you must buy ten more, that your appearance may be all of a piece ; but Poor Dick says, " It is easier to suppress the'first desire than to satisfy all that follow it ;" and it is as truly folly for the poor to ape the rich, as for the fi-og to swell, in order to equal the ox. * " Vessels large may venture more, But little boats should keep near shore." It is, however, a folly soon punished ; for " Pride tha;t dines on vanity,, sups on contempt ; pride breakfasted with plenty, dined with poverty,, and supped with infamy." And, after all, of what use is this pride of appearance, for which so much is risked, so much is suffered ? It cannot promote health, nor ease pain ; it makes no increase of merit in the person ; it creates envy, it hastens misfortune. Generally speaking, we are very deficient in the practice of culinary ' economy. A French family would live well on what is ofl«n wasted in an American kitchen. The bones, drippings, pot-liquor, remains of fish, vegetables, etc., which are too often consigned to the grease-pot or the dnat-heap, might, by a very trifling degree of management on the part of the cook, or mistress of a family, be converted into sources of daily support and comfort, at least to some poor pensioner or other, at an expense that even the miser could scarcely grudge. 12 THE FAMILY. HOW TO TRffVIDE — Marketing.— The best rule for marketing is to pav ready money for every thing, and to deal with the most respecta- ble tradesmen in yonr neighborhood. If you leave it to their integrity to supply you with a good article, at the fair market price, you will be supplied with better provisions, and at as reasonable a rate as those bargain-hunters who trot " around, around, around about" a, market till they are trapped to buy some unchewable old poultry, tough tup-mut- ton, stringy cow-beef, or stale fish, at a very little less than the price of prime and proper food. With savings like these they toddle home in triumph, cackling all the way, like a goose that has got ancle-deep into good luck. All the skill of the most accomplished cook will avail nothing unless she is furnished with prime provisions. The best way to procure these is to deal with shops of established character. You may appear to pay, perhaps, ten per cent, more than you would were you to deal with those who pretend to sell cheap, but you would be much more than in that proportion better served. Every trade has its tricks and deceptions ; those who follow them can deceive you if they please, and they are too apt to do so, if you provoke the exercise of their overreaching talent. Challenge them to a game at " catch who can," by entirely relying on your own judgment, and you will soon find nothing but very long experience can make you equal to the combat of marketing to the utmost advantage. If you think a tradesman has imposed upon you, never use a second word, if the first will not do, nor drop the least hint of an imposition. The only method to induce him to make an abatement is the hdpe of future favors, pay the demand, and deal with the gentleman no more ; but do not let him see that you are displeased, or as soon as you are out of sight your reputation will suffer as much as your pocket has. Before you go to market, look over your larder, and consider well what things ate wanting — especially on a Saturday. No well-regulated family can suffer a disorderly caterer to be jumping in and out to make purchases on a Sunday morning. Yo# will be enabled to manage much better if you will make out a bill of fare for the week on the Saturday before — for example, for a family of half a dozen : ^ Sunday — Roast-beef and pudding. Monday— Fowl, with what was left of pudding, fried, or warmed in the Dutch oven. ■' Tuesday — Calf s head, apple-pie. Wednesday — Leg of mutton. Thursday — Do. broiled or hashed, or cakes. Friday — Fish, pudding. Saturday — Fish, or eggs and bacon. Choice Of Articles of Food.— Nothing is more important in the affairs of housekeepmg than the choice of wholesome food. We have been amused by a conundrum^hich is as follows : "A man went to market and bought too fish. When he reached home he found they were the same as when he had bought them, yet there were three!" How was this? The answer is-«He bought two mackerel, and one smelt!" Those who envy him his bargain need not care about the followinc rules ; but to others they will be valuable : * FAMILT GUIDE. 1^ Mackerel must be perfectly fresh, or it is a very indifferent fish ; it will neither bear carriage nor being kept many hours out of the water. The firmness of the flesh and the clearness of the eyes must be the cri- terion of fresh mackerel, as they are of all other fish. Flounders, and all flat white fish, are rigid and firm when fresh ; tht under side should be of a rich cream color. When out of season, o< too long kept, this becomes a bluish white, and the flesh soft and flaccid A clear, bright eye in fish is also a mark of being fresh and good. Cod is known to be fresh by the rigidity of the muscles (or flesh), the redness of the gills, and clearness of the eyes. Crimping much im- proves this fish., Salmon. The flavor and excellence of this fish depends upon its freshness, and the shortness of time since it was caught ; for no method can completely preserve the delicate flavor it has when just taken out of the water. Serrings can only be eaten when very fresh, and, like mackerel, will not remain good many hours after they are caught. Freshwater fish. The remarks as to firmness and clear, fresh eyes apply to this variety of fish, of which there are pike, perch, etc. Lobsters recently caught have always some remains of muscular ac- tion in the claws, which may be excited by preafeing the eyes with the finger. When this cannot be produced, the lobster must have been too long kept. When boiled, the tail preserves its elasticity if fresh, but loses it as soon as it becomes stale. The heaviest lobsters are the best; when light, they are watery and poor. Hen lobsters may generally be known by the spawn, or by the breadth of the " flap." Grabs must be chosen by observations similar to those given above in the choice of lobsters. Crabs have an agreeable smell when fresh. Prawns and shrimps, when fresh, are firm and crisp. Oysters. If fresh, the shell is firmly closed ; when the shells of oys- ters are opened, they are dead, and unfit for food. The small-shelled oysters are the finest in flavor. Larger kinds, called rock oysters, are generally considered only fit for stewing and sauces, though some per- sons prefer them. Beef. The grain of ox beef, when good, is loose, the meat red, and the fat inclining to yellow. Cow beef, on the contrary, has a closer grain, a whiter fat, but meat scarcely as red as that of ox beef. Inferior beef, which is meat obtained from ill-fed animals, or from those which had become too old for food, may be known by a hard skinny fat, a dark red lean, and, in old animals, a line of horny texture running through the meat of the ribs. When meat pressed by the finger rises up quickly, it may be considered as that of an animal which was in its prime ; when .the dent made by pressure returns slowly, or remainr visible, the animal had probably past its prime, and the meat conse- quently must be of inferior quality. Veal should be delicately white, though it is often juicy and well flavored when rather dark in color. Butchers, it is said, bleed calves purposely before killing them, with a view to make the flesh white, but this also makes it dry and flavorless. On examining the loin, if the fat enveloping the kidney be white and firni-looking, the meat will prob- 14 THE FAMTLT. ably be prime and recently killed. Veal will not keep so long as an older meat, especially in hot or damp weather; when going, the fat be- comes soft and moist, the meat flabby and spotted, and somewhat por- ous, like sponge. Large, overgrown veal is inferior to small, delicate, yet' fat veal. The fillet of a cow-calf is known by the udder attached to it, and by the softness of the skin ; it is preferable to the veal of a bull-calf. Mutton. The meat should be firm and close in grain, and red in color, the fat white and firm. Mutton is in its prime when the sheep is about five years old, though it is often killed much younger. If too young, the flesh feels tender when pinched ; if too old, on being pinched it wrinkles up, and so remains. In young mutton, the fat readily sep- arates ; in 6ld, it is held together by strings of skin. In sheep diseased i»f the rot, the flesh is very pale-colored, the fat inclining to yellow ; the meat appears loose from the bone, and, if squeezed, drops of water ooze out from the 'grains; after cooking, the meat drops clean away from the bones. Wether mutton is preferred to that of the ewe ; it may be known by the lump of fat on the inside of the thigh. Lamb. This meat will not keep long after it is killed. The large vein in the neck is bluish in color when the fore-quarter is fresh, green when becoming stale. * In the hind-quarter, if not recently killed, the fat of the kidney will have a slight smell, and the knuckle will have lost its firmness. Pork. When good, the rind is thin, smooth, and cool to the touch ; when changing, from being too long killed, it becomes flaccid and clammy. Enlarged glands, called kernels, in the fat, are marks of an ill-fed or diseased pig. Bacon should have a thin rind, and the fat should be firm and tinged red by the curing ; the flesh should be of a clear red, without inter mixture of yellow, and it should firmly adhere to the bone. To judge the state of a ham, plunge a knife into it to the bone ; on drawing it back, if particles of meat adhere to it, or if the smell is disagreeable, the curing has not been effectual, and the ham is not good ; it should, in such a state, be immediately cooked. In buying a ham, a short, thick one is to be preferred to one long and thin. Venison. When good, the fat is clear, bright, and of considerable thickness. To know when it is necessary to coot it, a knife must be plunged into the haunch, and from the smell the cook must determine on dressing or keeping it. Choice of Vegetables. — As to the quality of vegetables the middle size are preferred to the largest or the smallest ; they are more tender, juicy, and full of flavor, just before they are quite full grown : freshness is their chief value and excellence, and I should as soon think of roasting an animal alive as of boiling a vegetable after it is dead. The eye easily discovers if they have been kept too long ; they soon lose their beauty in all respects. Roots, greens, salads, etc., and the various productions of the garden, when flrst gathered, are plump and firm, and have a fragrant freshness no art can give them again ; though it will refresh them a little to put them into cold spring water for some time before they are dressed. FAMILY GUIDE. 15 To Preserve Potatoes. — ^The preservation of potatoes by dipping them in boiling water is a valuable and useful discovery. Large quantities may be cured at once, by putting them into a bastet as large las the vessel containing the boilmg water will admit, and then just dipping them a minute or two at the utmost. The germ, which is so near the skin, is thus destroyed without injury to the potato. In this way several tons might be cured in a few hours. They should be then dried in a warm oven, and laid up in sacks, secure from the frost, in a dry place. Choice of Meats — Names arid Situation of the Joints, A BTTLLOOK HACKED AB OUT BY THB BVTOHEB. A Sirloin. B Eump. C Aitchbone. D Buttock. E Mouse Buttock. P Veiny piece. G- Thick Hank. H Thin Plank. I Leg. K Pore Ribs, containing five ribs. L Middle Rib, containing four ribs. M Chuck Eib, containing three ribs. N Shoulder, or Leg of Mutton piece Briiaket. P Clod. Q Neck, or Sticking piece. E Shin. S Cheek. The baron of beef is formed of the pieces marked A, B, united on bote udes. / A The Loin (best end.) P Neck (beet end.) B The Loin (chump end,) G Neck (scrag.) C The Pillet. H Blade-Bone. D The Hind Knuckle. I Breast (best eii4.)P E The Pore Knuckle. K Breast (brisket.) ' The calf is divided into joints by the butcher, upon a system which unites the methods employed for cutting up both beef and mutton. 16 THE FAMILY. A The Fore Loin. . The Belly, or Spring. B The Hind Loin. D The Hand. B The Leg. The sparerib is under the shoulder, which, when removed in a porker, leaves part of the neck without a skin upon it, forming the sparerib. The head is much liked by man^ and appears at table dressed in vari- ous ways. The sheep is thus apportioned by butchers : A The Leg. B Neck (scrag end.) B Loin fthe best end.) ¥ Shoulder. C Loin (Chump end.) G Breast. D Neck (best end.) Relative Economy of the Joints. — The round is, in large families, one of the most profitable parts. It is usually boiled, and, like niost of the boiling parts of beef, is generally sold less than roasting joints. The brisket is also a penny a pound less in price than the roasting parts. It is not so economical a part as the round, having more bone to be weighed with it, and more fat. . Where there are children, very fat joints are not desirable, being often disagreeable to them, and some- times prejudicial, especially if they have a dislike to it. This joint also requires more cooking than many others ; that is to say, it requires a double allowance of time to be given for boiling it ; it will, when served, be hard and scarcely digestible if no more time be allowed to boil it than that which is sufficient for other joints and, meats. When stewed it is exqpllent ; and when cooked fresh (i. e. unsalted), an excellent stock for soup may be extracted from it, and yet thei'meat will serve as well for dinner. The edgebone, or aitchbone, is not considered to be a very economical joint, the bone being large in proportion to the meat ; but the greater MODES OF COOKING. 17 part of it at least is as good as that of any prime part. It sells at a penny a pound less than roasting joints. The rump is the part of which the butcher makes great profit, by selUrig it in the form of steaks. In the country, as there is not an equal demand for steaks, the whole of it may be purchased as a joint, and at the price of other prime parts. It may be turned to good account in producing many excellent dishes. If salted, it is simply boiled ; if used unsalted, it is usually stewed. The veiny piece is sold at a low price per pound ; but if hung for a day or two it is very good and very profitable. Where there are a num- per of servants and children to have an early dinner, this part of beef will be found desirable. From the leg and shin excellent stock for soup may be drawn ; and. if not reduced too much, the meat taken from the bones may be served as a stew with vegetables ; or it may be seasoned pounded with butter, and potted ; or chopped very fine, and seasoned with herbs, and bound together by egg and bread-crumbs ; it may be fried in balls, or in the form of large eggs, and served with a gravy made with a few spoon- fuls of the soup. Of half an ox-cheek excellent soup may be made ■, the meat, when taken from the bones, may be served as a stew. Eoasting parts of beef are the sirloin and the ribs, and these bear in all places the highest price. The most profitable of these two joints at a family table is the ribs. The bones, if removed from the beef before it is roasted, will assist in forming the basis of a soup. When boned, the meat of the ribs is often rolled up, tied with strings, and roasted ; and this is the best way of using it, as it enables the carver to distribute equally the upper part of the meat with the more skinny and fatter parts at the lower end of the bones. * To Preserve Fresh Meats. — Meat may be kept several days in the height of summer, sweet and good, by lightly covering it with bran and hanging it in some high or windy room, or in a passage where there is a current of air^ MODES OF COOKIIVG. The different modes of cooking, as boiling, baking, frying, and broil ing will now be considered. BOILING. — This most simple of all culinary processes is not ofben per formed in perfection. It does not require quite so much care and atten- tion as roasting ; to keep your pot really boiling, and to skim it to know how long is required for cooking .the joint, etc.; and to take it up at the right time, though apparently a simple process, yet to do it in the best manner requires more care than is generally believed. When the pot is coming to a boil there will always, from the cleanest meat and clearest water, rise a scum to the top of it, proceeding partly from the foulness of the meat, and partly from the water ; this must be carefully taken off as soon as it rises. On this depends the good appearance of all 18 THE FAJULT. boiled things, an essential matter. When you have scummed well, put in some cold water, which will throw up the rest of the scum. Th» oftener it is scummed, and the cleaner the top of the water is kept, the cleaner will be the meat. If let alone it soon boils down and sticks to • the meat, which, instead of looking delicateiy white and nice, will have that coarse and filthy appearance we have too often to complain of, and the butcher and poulterer be blamed for the carelessness of the cook in not scummins; her pot with due diligence. Many put in milk, to make what they boil look white, but this does more harm than good ; others wrap it up in a cloth, but these are needless precautions ; if the scum be attentively removed, meat will have a much more delicate color and finer flavor than it has when muffled up. This may give rather more trouble, but those who wish to excel in their art must only consider how the processes of it can be most perfectly performed : a cook who has a proper pride and pleasure in her business will make this her maxim and rule on all occasions. Put your meat into cold water, in the proportion of about a quart of water to a pound of meat ; it should be covered with water during the whole of the process of boiling, but not drowned in it ; the less water, provided the meat be covered with it, the more savory will be the meat, and the better will be the broth in every respect. The water should be heated gradually, according to the thickness, etc., of the article boiled ; for instance, a leg of mutton of ten pounds' weight should be placed over a moderate fire, which will gradually make the water hot, without causing it to boil, for about forty minutes ; if the water boils much sooner, the meat will be hardened and shrink up as if it had been scorched ; by keeping the water a certain time heating without boiling its fibcs are dilated, and it yields a quantity of scum, which must be taken off as soon as it rises, for the reasons already men- tioned. " If a vessel containing water be placed over a steady fire, the water will grow continually hotter till it reaches the limit of boiling, after which, the regular accessions of heat are wholly spent in convert- ing it into steam ; the water remains at the same pitch of temperature however fiercely it boils. The only difi'erence is, that with a strong fire it sooner comeS to boil, and more quickly boils away and is converted into steam." Time for Boiling and Roasting. — Ten pounds of beef require irom two hours to two hours and a half roasting, eighteen inches from -a good clear fire. Six pounds require one hour and a quarter to one hour and a half, fourteen inches from a good clear fire. Three ribs of beef, boned and rolled, tied round with paper, will re- quire two hours and a hal^ eighteen inches from the fire ; ba'ste once only. The first three ribs, of fifteen or twenty pounds, will take three hours or three and a half. Beckon the time for its first coming to boil. The old rule of fifteen minutes to a pound of meat we think rather too little ; the slower it boils the tenderer, the plumper, and whiter it will be. For those who ehoose their food thoroughly cooked (which all will who have any re- gard for their stomachs), twenty minutes to a pound will not Jbe found MODES OF COOKING. 19 too mucli for gentle simmering by the side of tie fire, allowing more or l*s time according to the thickness of the joint and the coldness of the weather, always remembering, the slower it boils the better. Without some practice it is diflScult to teach any art ; and cooks seem to sup- , pose they must be right if they put meat into a pot and set it over the fire for a certain time, making no allowance whether it simmers with'ut a bubble or boils at a gallop. Fresh killed meat will take much longer time boiling than that which has been kept till it is what the butchers call ripe, and longer in cold than in warm weather ; if it be frozen, it must Ije thawed before boiling as before roasting ; if it be fresh killed, it will be tough and hard if you stew it ever so long and ever so gently. In cold weather, the night before you dress it bring it into a place of which the temperature is not less than forty-five degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The size r m^fked with the initials, so that each person may have his^own from meial to ttieal, unless clean napkins are used at every meal^ and. this makes to6 'much wash- ing, except where an establishment is so large that a, laundress is at- tached to it. Soon after being seated at table; and before hatdling any thing else, the napkin is quietly taken fronl the ring, opened, and spread over the lap, iand when there is occasion 16 wipe the mouth, the Napkin should be used. A handkerchief is made for another piitposS. At the close of the repast, if a ring. is furnished, the napkin should be neatly folded and put through the riflg. If thete is no ring, it tnajr be folded and laid by the side of the plate, or thrown loosely by it, accord- ing to the general style in which a family live, the number of domestics, etc." It is easy, by a little observation, to learn what is expected of you. I have been thus particular in regard to the use of the napkin, beCaUse I have seen those who did not seem to have any idea What it Was for, and consequently did not use it when chancing to dine in families who would quite as soon think of leaving off the table-cloth as the napkins. " Do not pull the dishes askew as you help from them, aiid if I hap- pen to dine with yon,. please do not flood my plate with graVy without asking if I like it, for you Would almost certainly spoil my dinner, !atid my taite is like that of many others. " In waiting upon table have the water poured at the right hand of the one helped ; every thing but water shoulji be parsed to the left ; as the glass stands at the right of the plate, it is convenient to fill it there; it should not be lifted to be filled. In hot weather it is well to have a bit of ice put in each glass before filling it With water. In some fatiii- lies the bite of ice are set upon the table in a glass or china dish, to be used in water or milk, as desired ; and this certainly has a refreshing look on a warm summer day. Bread and other things are passed to the left, because it is more convenient to receive them. If passed to the right it is very awkward to take theiin, unless with the left hand, and that no one ever thinks of doing* The lady of the house should ncrt finish her dinner before her guests, but should continue to eat till they lay down their knife atid fork It is exttemely awkward fot a visitor to find he is keeping a whole family waiting for him, and true politeness requires that we shauld make our friends, even in the sihalliest fiiatttii'Sj as comfortable as possible. " When you have eaten all you wish-, put your kiiife and fork side by side upon the plate, in close and loving union, with the hatidles hi the right ; and do not push the flate ttom you, but let it stand ivhere yoto Tisve used it. 32 THE FAMILY. " Never use your own knife or fork to help yourself to salt, butler, vegetables, or any thing else. It is an abomination. " When you rise frpm the table do not put the chair back against the wall, or push it under the table, but leave it where it is. " When jelly or sauce is used at dinner, it does not require a small plate, but should be put on the dinner-plate. Have the salts full, and the top" nicely smoothed by passing a knife over it. Leave no salt scat- tered on the top of the glass. Be careful not to forget salt-spoons. "Do not touch your hair while at table, nor pick your teeth; and, above all, do not suck them— that is enough to drive a person of re- finement away from the table. It, is worse than going around Point Judith to hear such a sound. The very thought of it is nauseating. It is not customary to put butter on the dinner-table. It is not needed with meat and gravy. Bread is to be eaten with meat — not bread and butter. Bread and butter is for dessert. With baked potatoes, how- ever, butter is necessary, and it might be put upon the table where stand the dishes marked A. That, too, is a suitable place for any extra dish — as radishes in their season. Other condiments, as French mustard, Worcestershire sauce, which do not find a place in the castor, can stand there. Vases of flowers are always beautiful upon the table and exert a most refining influence. " The Dessert. — Let the waiter pass around the table with a small tray in hei left hand, in which she collects the silver — the forks and the spoons. When these are removed, she may go around in the same way, a second time, for the knives. The knives and silver are taken separately to pre- vent scratching the latter. Sometimes a tray with two compartments is used, and if so, the silver and the knives can be taken at the same time. It is better, also, to take the knives and forks jn tljis way rather than on the plates, as it prevents the danger of their sliding from the plates, and thus soiling the dresses on which they might fall. Then the plates are removed, together with the meat and vegetables, the castors, mats, and salts, and every thing but the glasses. The pieces of bread left are taken up with a. fork by the waiter and put upon a plate which she carries in her hand. Then, with a crumb-knife, brush, or napkin, she takes off the crumbs into a tray or plate. " When the table is thus prepared, a dessert-plate, with knife and fork, or spoon, as may be needed, is to he plated before each person. If finger-bowls are used they are put on with the dessert-plate. They should be about one-third full of water. A slice of lemon is sometimes put into each bowl. Colored doylies or napkins are suitable to a dessert of fruit, as white napkins stain so easily. " The dessert, if it consists of only one dish, should be placed before the lady ; if of two, or more, the most substantial should be placed before the gentleman. For a stylish dinner, fruit is brought in after pies and puddings are removed. If this is not done, it is desirable to have separate plates for it. When the fruit is brought' on, and the glasses filled, the waiter may be permitted to leave the room. " When dining ceremoniously, do not take upon yourself the duties of the waiters. Let them pass the food; it i#not your business at such a time. If there are no waiters, be attentive ; observe what is needed by DEPOBTMENT AT TABLE. 33 those near yon, and pass it without being asked. Yet, m order to help yourself or others, never pass your hand across another's plate, nor . reach for what another can hand you. " » " If you dine at a table where there are several courses, take them in their proper order, or, if you do not wish them, wait the appropriate time for them. Spup is always served first, and, when dining ceremoni- ously, take it whether you like it or not. If you cannot eat it, t6y with it~so also with fish. Fish should he' eaten with the fork only. It is not Customary to serve vegetables with fish, except potatc^B. They should be whole. Other courses may be declined. You may have heard of the student dining among strangers, who refused every thing upon the table, and when the lady, in polite desp3,ir, asked, ' Is there any thing to which I can help you V replied, ' I will take a piece of pie, if you please.' It is better to eat some things that you do not like than to be guilty of such ill-breeding. "Do not eat in desperate haste, as if you had not time to attend to the wants of the body God gave you — nor eat your food in immense mouthfuls, nor swallow it without proper mastication. Prepare your food on the plate ; put gravy or condiments, or whatever you please on it there, but do not attempt to improve it after you have once raised it • from the plate. Do not ask for meat, but mention the kind you wish. " Do not take salt upon your knife and make a great clattering by striking on it with your fork that you may scatter it all over your food at once, but salt each mouthful as you eat it, either by touching it to the salt, or by touching your fork to the salt, and thus seasoning your food. " Do not lean your arms on the table, nor sit too far back from the table, nor lounge in anyway; carry your food to your mouth instead of your mouth to tJiefood. "Never' use your own knife to help yourself. It is no more proper to do it than to help yourself from your neighbor's plate, and it is ex- ceedingly unpleasant to those who must be helped after you, unless they are equally regardless of the delicEicies of life. " If accidents happen at table, do riot notice them. It is bad enough to tip over a tumbler and deluge the cloth without having every eye turned upon you in consequence of it, and every mouth utter a pro- longed ' oh !' Rather make as little of it as possible, quietly laying a napkin over it. " Do not urge your friends to eat more than they desire, nor apologize for your dinner. If it is good enough for your family it is good enough for your friends. If your cooking has been unsuccessful too many apologies do not improve it. Especially, do not offer apology' for that which does not require it. It looks too much like fishing for compli- ments. It is not in good taste to crowd a table with a great variety of food. Bread for dinner, as it is not to be eaten with butter, should be cut in thick, slices, and then cut in rather small pieces. " The extension table, like the one represented in the engraving, is the most desirable one for the dining-room. Do not, in going to the table, or in leaving it on any occasion, send your guests in advance of you, as you would ' shoo' a flock of turkeys, but yourself precede them. It is 2* 34 THE FAMILT. exceedingly awkward for a stranger to be thus thrust forward in Another person's house. _, " Deportment at Table, — It is not as customary now as formerly to'ask what part of a fowl is preferred. It is taken for granted that every one likes a piece of the breast, and after that is put upon the plate the carver may mquire, ' Shall I send you this, or is there any other part that you prefer ? ' If the question is asked, ' What part do you prefer ?' it is necessary to carve but few pieces before the chosen bit. can be reached, unless thychoice should be a back-bone, and that is tiot generally pre- ferred. After the wing and leg of a fowl are cut any piece is accessible at once. As these are laid upon the dish the crisp skin should be up and not next the dish. If there is stuffing, it should not be scattered .carelessly over the meat. Neatness is just as desirable on a plate as in a «^arlor. When a slice of fowl is put upon a plate the brown side should be up ; if there be only a brown edge, that should be toward the out- side of the plate, that it may not lose its delicate crisp by contact with gravy or vegetables. " If you are asked what part you like, give a definite answer. Do not say 'it is immaterial,' nor 'I have no choice.' Such answers only embarrass a carver, and well might tempt him to pass to another person while you are left in your indecision. It is easy enough to say, ' I will take a piece of the white meat,' or, ' I will take a piece of the dark meat,' or even, as I heard a young lady reply, ' Any piece but the wing.' " Do not remove a part of a fowl from the dish to a plate to complete the carving. To receive such a dish might spoil the dinner of a fastid- ious person. " Vegetables should be put neatly and compactly upon the plate and not scattered over it. Gravy should be put on the plate, not on the meat or vegetables, "The fork, in 'passing the food,' may be held in either hand as is most convenient. If used as a spoon, it should be held in the right, as for pease, tomatoes, squash, etc. If used for a fork, then the left hand may hold it. Only a few mouthfuls of food, if any, should be cut before beginning to eat. " When the fork is held in the right hand, it is often convenient to use a bit of bread to push vegetables, like pease or tomatoes, upon the fork. I of course refer to forks with three or four tines, as they are now usually made, when I speak of eating pease with a fork. " Breakfast — This is not a ceremonious meal, nor a dress occasion. Low necks and short sleeves, laces and jewelry, are entirely out of place at the breakfast table. Linen collars, or those of thick cambric, with sleeves or cuffs to correspond, are designed for morning. Neat muslins, or pnnts, delaines, or very simple silks, plainly made, are proper, but rich silks and flounces, and heavily trimmed dresses are in bad taste at this meal. And I may here add, that it is decidedly vulgar to flounce merino or delaine, or any cheap material. No lady ever wears such a dress. No mornmg-dresses can be prettier than those open in front, worn over a fine white skirt. On a sewing-machine these skirts can be rery neatly tucked in a few minutes. It is (juite as important that the DETAILS OF PEAOTIOAL COOEEET. 36 aair should be neatly arranged at breakfast as at dinner, but tie head- dress should be very simple. " For morning work a dress that can be washed is most desirable, al- though for winter something warmer may be necessary. My fancy was once much pleased, by a gray cloth basque worn by a friend of mine. Such an article can be as easily dusted as a gentleman's coat. " Pies should never be eaten at breakfast, but it is now the style to have fruit on the breakfast-table. " In pouring coffee, the sugar and cream should first be put into the cup, and the coffee poured on. If milk is used for coffee, it should be brought to the table scalding hot. I like the ' Old Dominion Coffeer , pot,' as, with good materials, it is impossible to, make poor coffee in it, if the directions are followed. If I lived in the country, as I do n(^ chance to do just now, I would have cream very rich and thick for coffee, and the coffee made strong and weakened with scalded milk ; but as it is, I am compelled to be content with only the milk. For tea the sugar and cream should be put in the cup aftet it is filled. I do not like brown sugar in coffee, any better than in tea ; it injures its delicate purity. " It is not customary, in good society, to load a tea-table with all that can be placed upon it ; one or two kinds of cake and sweetmeats, with bread and batter or biscuit, are sufficient for most occasions. A little dried bee^ or thinly-sliced tongue, is not out of place after an early dinner, but where a family dines late it is wholly unnecessary.' •?*"- " Bread for tea should be cut in very thin slices. In many families the loaf is placed upon the table, ^nd cut from as it is needed. This preyents the waste of bread or the accumulation of dry pieces. It is convenient to have a bread-board for this purpo^ A bread-knife is much like a carving-knife, but the thinner the blad^^^ better. " Cup-plates are out of date. Coffee and tea are dratiWrom the cup, not from the saucer. The spoon should be placed in the saucer while drinking." DETAIIiS OF PRACTICAIi COOKDRT. In this department of our work we shall not give the thousand and one different methods of doing the same thing; but shall confine our. attention to those valuable and reliable recipes and directions which are needed in every well-regulated household, and on which dependence can be placed. » BREAD AND BREAD-MAKING.— First among the duties of every mis- tress of a family, is to know how to make light, sweet, and healthy bread.* The " staff of life" forms so large a part of the food of every * Bread contains eighty nutritious parts in one hundred; meal thirty-four in one hundred ; French beans ninety-two in one hundred ; common beans eighty-nine in one hundred; pease ninety4hree in one hundred; lentils ninety-four in one hundred- cabbages and turnips, the most watery of all the vegetables we here name, produce only eight pounds of solid matter in one hundred ; carrots and spinach produce 36 THE FAMILY. family, that economy, health, and comfort alike dictate that the best process of making it should be well and generally understood and practiced The first and indispensable requisite of good bread is good 6our ■ and to have this, and avoid the mixtures and adulterations so ^ ^^3>*> \'< common among flour, and all other manufacturers and dealers, is to grow or buy your own wheat, make your own yeast, and bake your own, bread; and for all which we give ample and reliable directions. If you buy flour, the following simple method of testing it may be useful : . _ ' To Test Flonr, people in the trade generally knead a small quantity by way of experiment ; if good, the flour immediately forms an adhesive elastic paste, which will readily assume any form that may be given to it without danger of breaking. Pure and unadulterated flour may like- wise be easily distinguished by other methods ; seize a handful briskly and squeeze it half a minute; it preserves the form of the cavity of the hand in one piece, although it may be rudely placed on the table ; not so that which contains foreign substances, it breaks in pieces more or less ; that mixed with whiting being the most adhesive, but still divid- ing and falling down in a little time. Whiting can be detected, by dropping into the flour lemon-juice or strong vinegar, when, if whiting be mixed with it, a fermentation, like the effect of yeast, is produced, otherwise the flour remains at rest. To Discover whether Flour be adulterated with Chalk, Plaster of Paris, or Mineral Powders. — If containing these admixtures, it will be fourteen in the' same quantity; while one hundred pounds of potatoes contain twenty-five pounds of dry substance. From a general estimate, therefore, it re- Billts, that one pound of good bread is equal to two pounds and a half or three pounds of potatoes ; that seventy-five pounds of bread and thirty of meat are as nutritious as three hundred pounds of potatoes. The other substances bear the fol- lowing proportions : four parts of cabbage to one of potatoes ; three parts of turnips to one of potatoes; two of carrots and spinach tc one of potatoes;, and about three and one half parts of potatoes to one of bread, beans, lentils, and pease. DETAILS OF PRAOTICAI, COOKEBT. 37 found to be heavier, measure for measure, than pure flour. That is to say a pint of pure flour would be overbalanced in the scales by a pint of adul- terated flour. Slice the soft part of a loaf, and put it into a large quantity of water in an earthen vessel. Place it over a slow fire, for three hours. Scoop up the pap, and let the water stand. When per- fectly settled pour off lie water, and a chalky sediment will be found to cover the bottom of the vessel. Heart-burn, after eating impure bread, is. a sign of its impurity. Put some flour upon a table, and blow it gently with the breath. If little heaps remain upon the table, resisting the action of the breath, and differing manifestly from the indications given by other portions when blown upon, the substance thus remaining is impure. Potato flour, and indeed all white flours, are heavier than pure wheat. Bake a small quantity of the suspected flour, until it is of a full brown. Then take it and rub in your hands or on a table, and white particles will be seen, if chalk or plaster of Paris be present. Eun into a loaf that is one day old a knife made very hot; if there be alum present it will adhere in very small particles to the blade of the knife, and will indicate its presence by a peculiar smell. If bread looks un- naturally white, and if it gives off a good deal of water, and becomes very brittle and dry when toasted, alum may be regarded as being present. To Discover whether Bread he adulterated with Pea or Bean Flour. — Pour boiling water upon it, and if the flour is mixed with the farina of pease or beans, the strong smell of those grains will become manifest. YEAST, — ^Having good flour the next requisite is good yeast. Boil two ounces of the best hops in four quarts of water for half an hour, strain it, and let the liquor cool down to new-milk warmth, then put in a small handful of salt, and half a pound of sugar ; beat up one pound of the best flour with some of the liquor, and then mix all well together. The third- day, add three pounds of potatoes, boiled and then mashed, to stand till the next day ; then strain it and put it into bottles, and it is ready for use. Jt must he stirred frequently while it is making, tmd kept near the fire. Before using, shake the bottle up well. It will keep in a cool pjace for two months, and is best at the latter part of the time. The beauty of this yeast is, that it ferments spontaneously, not requiring the aid of other ye^sfr; and if care be taken to let it ferment well in the earthen bowl in which it is made, you may cork it up tight when bottled. The quantity above given will fill four seltzer-water bottles. The writer of the above receipts has used this yeast and never had lighter bread than it affords, and never knew it to fail. Domestic Yeast. — Ladies who are in the habit (and a most laudable and comfortable habit it is), of making domestic bread, cake, etc., are in- formed, that they can easily manufacture their own yeast by attending to the following directions : — boil one pound of good flour, a quarter of a pound of brown sugar, and a little salt, in two gallons oT water, for one hour. When milk-warm, bottle it, and cork it close. It will be fit for use in twenty-four hours. One pint of this yeast will make eighteen pounds of bread. Yeast-Cakes, — Make a thick batter of a pint of good yeast, a teaspoon- fdl of salt, and rye or wheat flour. When risen, stir in Indian meal till 38 THE FAMILT. of the right consistency to roll out. When, risen again, roll them out , very thin, cut them into cakes with a tumbler, and dry them in the ' shade in clear, windy weather. Care must be taken to keep them from the sun, or they will ferment. When perfectly dry, tie them up in a bag, and keop them in a cool, dry place. To raise four or five loaves of bread, take one of these cakes and put to it a little lukewarm milk or water. When dissolved, stir in a couple of tablespoonfuls of flour; set it near the fire. When light, use it fpr your dough. Yeast-cakes will keep good five or six months. They are very convenient to use in sum- mer, as common yeast is so apt to ferment. To Make Prime Yeasts — BoU twelve clean-washed, middle-sized pota- toes ; and at the same time boil, in another vessel, a handful of hops in a quart of water ; peel and mash the potatoes fine ; pour part of the hop-water, while hot, upon the potatoes, and mix them well ; then add the remainder of the hop-water, and a spoonful of sugar; beat all well ; add a small portion of leaven to bring on fermentation, and set it in a cooli place. One cupful of the above potato-yeast will answer for two quarts* ef flour. BREAD— DIFFERENT KINDS— Home-made Bread— To three pounds, and a half of flour add a dessert-spoonful of salt, and mix them well ; mix about two tablespoonfuls of good fresh yeast (see ante) with half a pint of water a little warm, but not hot ; make a hole with your hand in the middle of the flour, but not quite touching the bottom of the pan ; pour the water and yeast into this hole, and stir it with a spoon till you have made a thin batter ; sprinkle this over with flour, cover the pan over with a dry cloth, and let it stand in a warm room for an hour — not near the fire, except in cold weather, and then not too close; then add a pint of water a little warm, and knead the whole well to- gether, till the dough comes clean through the hand ; some flour will require a little more water, but in this experience must be your guide ; let it stand again for about a quarter of an hour, and then ba^ at pleasure. French Bread and Rolls, — Take a pint and a half of milk ; make it quite warm ; half a pint of small-beer yeast ; add suflScient flour to make it as thick as batter ; put it into a pan ;, cover it over, and keep it warm : when it has risen as high as it will, add a quarter of a pint of warm water, and half an ounce of salt — mix them well together ; rub into a little flour two ounces of butter ; then make your dough, not quite so stiff as for your bread ; let it stand for three-quarters of an hour, and it will be ready to make into rolls, etc. — Let them stand till they have risen, and bake them in a quick oven. A Great Increase on Home-Made Bread, even equal to one-fifth, may be produced by using bran-water for kneading the dough. The proportion is three pounds of bran for every twenty-eight pounds of flour, to be boiled for an hour, and then strained through a hair-sieve. • ' Economical and NonrisWng Bread.— Suffer the' miller to remove from the flour only the coarse flake bran. Of this bran boil five or six pounds in four and a half gallons of water; when the goodness is extracted from the bran, during which time the liquor will' waste one-half or three- quarters of a gallon, strain it and let it cool. When it has cooled down to the temperature of new milk, mix it with fifty-six pounds of flour, and DETAILS OF PRACTICAL COOKEKT. 39 as mush salt and yeast a* would be used for other bread; knead it ex- ceedingly well ; let it rise before the fire, and bate it in small loaves : small loaves are preferable to large ones, because they take the heat more equally. There are two advantages in making bread with bran-- water instead of plain water ; the one being, that there is considerable nourishment in bran, which is thus extracted and added to the bread — ^the other, that flour imbibes much more of bran-water than it does of plain water ; so much more, as to give, in the bread produced, al- most a fifth in weight more than the quantity of flour made up with plain water would; have done. These are important considerations to the poor. Fifty-six pounds of flour, made with plain water, would produce sixty-nine and a half pounds of bread ; made with .bran-water, it will produce eighty-three and a half pounds. Boston Brown Biead. — A person once accustomed to this bread will never willingly live without it. To make it, take one quart of rye mealy two quarts of Indian meal — if not fresh, scald it — half a teacupful of molasses, two teaspoonfiils of salt, one teaspoonful of sal^ratus, one teacupful of home-brewed yeast, or half the quantity of distillery yeast ; make it as stiff as can be stirred with a spoon, with warm water, and let it rise from night till morning. Then put it into a large, deep pan, smooth the top with the hand, dipped in cold water, let it stand a few minutesj and then bake it in an oven five or six hours. If put in late in the day, it may remain in the oven over night. Premium Biead. — The Ehode Island Society for the Promotion of In- dqstry gave the first premium on domestic bread to Mrs. Hiram Hill, of Providence. The fpllowing is Mrs. Hill's recipe for making the bread exhibited by her : for two loaves of the ordinary size, take two potatoes, pare them, slice very thin, and boil quick until quite soft ; then mash it to a fine pulp, and add, little by little, two quarts of boiling water, stir- ring until a starch is formed; let this cool, and then add one-third of a, cup of yeast. This forms the " sponge," which should remain in a. moderately warm place for ten or twelve hours, or over night, until it becomes very light and frothy ; even if a little sour, it is of no con- sequence. When the "sponge" is, ready, add flour, and work it in until you have formed a stifi; firm mass. The longer and more- firmly this is kneaded, the better the bread. Let the kneaded mass remain^ say fi-om half to three-quarters of an hour to rise, then divide into pans, where it should remain, say fifteen minutes; care being taken that it does not rise too much and crack ; then put the Ipaves into a quick oven, and bake, say three-quarters of an hour. If -the oven is not hot enough, the bread will rise and crack ; if too hot, the surfapewill harden too rapidly, and confine the loaf. Brown Graham Bread, — One quart superfine flour,- one quart unbolted flour, and one pint Indian meal, sifted and scalded. Add a little molasses, if preferred. Mix as wheatf using yeast, salt, etc. Bake when light. A Rich Corn Bread. — Take one; egg, well beaten ; half a pint of thick cream ; Indian meal sufficient to- form a thick batter ; a small quantity of s^t ;, add half a teaspoonful of saleraAus, dissolved, in a small quan- tity of water ; after mixing thoroughly, put it into the pans or wen,, and bake immediately.- 40 THE FAMn -C. Wheat and Indian Bread.— Add to three pints of boiling water a largo tablespoonful of salt, stir into it sweet white corn meal, until it is a thick batter ; continue to stir it for ten minutes, that it may not burn, then turn it into a dish, stir into it a quart of cold water ; when it is cool enough to bear^ yoUr hand in it, pour it into a bowl, in which is seven pounds of wheat flour, heaped around the sides, so as to leave a hollow in the center ; add to it a gill of baker's yeast, and half a teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a little hot water ; then work the whole into a smooth dough, work it or knead it for nearly an hour, then strew a little flour over it, lay a thickly-folded cloth over, and set it in a warm place for five or six hours in summer, or mix at night in winter ; when light, work it down, set it to rise again for one hour, then heat the oven, work, the bread down, and divide it m loaves, and bake, according to their size, in a quick oven ; when taken from the oven, turn them over in the pans, and set them to become cold ; if the crust is hard, wrap them in a towel as soon as taken from the oven. Having used the following, we can bear testimony to its truth and importance : Use of Lime-Water in Making Bread.— It has lately been found that water saturated with lime produces in bread the same whiteness, soft- ness, and capacity of' retaining moisture, as results from the use of alum ; while the former removes all acidity from the dough, and sup- plies au ingredient needed in the structure of the bones, but which is deficient in the cerealia. The best proportion to use is, five pounds of water, saturated with lime, to every nineteen pounds of flour. No change is required in the process of baking. The lime most efl^ectually coagulates the gluten, and the bread weighs well ; bakers must, there- fore, approve of its introduction, which is not injurious to the system, like alum, etc. Millc-EmptyingS Bread.— To one and a half pint qf water, add one- fourth teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth teaspoonful of saleratus, two table- spoonfuls of new milk ; pour the'water on those articles boiling hot ; let it stand and partially cool ; then stir as pancake batter ; put in a vessel with warm water, and cover the whole carefully. When light, sponge it, and let it stand one hour, mix it, put it in tins, and let it stand in a warm .place another hdur, when it is iteady to bake. Yankee Bread. — One quart of sweet milk, one pint of sour, three pints of meal, one pint of flour, one cup of molasses, one teaspoonful of sale- ratus, a little salt ; bake six hours ; it is best while warm. Potato Bread. — Boil a quantity of potatoes ; drain them well, strew over them a small quantity of salt, and let them remain in the vessel .in which they were boiled, closely covered, for an hour, which makes them mealy ; then peel and pound them as smooth as flour. Add four pounds of potatoes to six of wheat flour, and make it into dough with yeast, in the way that bread is generally made. Let i» stand three hours, to rise. Rye Bread. — Take two quarts of wheat flour, two pounds of rye flour, a little salt, a fourth of a pint of good yeast, and as much warm water, as will make it into stiff dough. Let it stand three hours to risa be- fore you put it into the oven, A large loaf will take three hours to bake. DETAILB OF PKACTIOAL CXWKEEY. 4:1 Excellent Biscnite. — Take of flour two pounds ; carbonate of ammonia, three drachms, in fine powder; white sugar, four ounces; arrowroot, one ounce ; butter, four ounces ; one egg ; mix into a stiff paste with new milk, and beat them well with a rolling-pin for half an hour ; roll out thin, and cut them out with a docker, and bake about fifteen minutes in a quick oven. Soda 'Biscuits. — Take one quart of flour, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, one teaspoonful of salt, one of saleratus or soda, and » small piece of butter for shortening ; mix with water or milk. Another Kind. — One pound of flour, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tar- tar, one teaspoonful of soda. Put the cream of tartar into the flour dry ; dissolve the soda in a little milk ; wet the whole with milk, making it suf- ficiently stifi" to mould into biscuits. . Potato Biscuits, — Boil mealy potatoes very soft, peel and mash them. To four good-sized potatoes, put a piece of butter of the size of a hen's egg, and a teaspoonful of salt ; when the butter has melted, put in half a pint of cold milk. If the milk cools the potatoes, put in a quarter of a pint of yeast, and flour, to make them of the right consistency to mould up. Set tliem in a warm place ; when risen, mould them up with the hand ; let them remain ten or fifteen minutes before baking them. Butter Biscuits. — Half a pound of butter, two poutds of flour sifted, half a pint of milk, or cold water, a teaspoonful of salt ; cut up the butter in the flour, and put the salt to it, wet it to a stiff dough with the milk, or water ; mix it well with a, knife, throw some flour on the paste-board, take the dough out of the pan, aiid knead it very well ; roll it out into a large, thick sheet, and beat it very hard on both sides with the rolling-pin ; beat it a long time, cut it out with a tin, or cup, into small, round, thick cakes. Beat each cake on both sides with a rolling-pin, prick them with a fork, put them in buttered pans, and bake them of a light brown in a slow oven. BUSKS.— Tea-Rusk.— To a pint of warm milk add a half-gill of baker's ^ east, a half-teaspoonful of saleratus, and a little salt ; put to it enough wheat flour to make a soft dough ; mix well and smooth, cover it and set it in a warm place ; when light, add a half tea-cup of sugar, and a cup of melted butter ; work them well into the do^jgh ; flour your hands well, and make into small cakes; lay them close together, in a buttered pan ; dip a little sweetened milk and pass it lightly over the tops of the rusks ; bake in a quick oven for half an hour and serve hot. Another Kind. — ^Five pounds of flour, one and a half pounds of sugar, one pound of butter, five eggs, one pint of yeast, one ounce of spice, on quart of new milk ; mix the flour, milk, and yeast together over night add the rest in the morning, and let it rise again ; put it in the pans, and set it to the fire till the oven is ready ; gloss the tops with whites of eggs and milk. Rolls. — Mix the salt with the flour. Make a deep hole in the middle. Stir the warm water into the yeast, and pour into the hole in the flour. Stir it with a spoon "^just enough to make a thin batter, and sprinkle some flour over the top. Cover the pan, and set it in a warm place for several hours. When it is light, add half a pint more of luke- warm water, and make it, with a little more flour, into a dough. Knead 4 42 THE FAMILT. it very well for ten minutes. Then divide it into small pieces, and knead each separately. Make them into roimd cakes or rolls. Cover them, and set them to rise about an hour and a half. Bake them, asd when done, let them remain in the oven, without the lid; for about ten minutes. light Rolls. — Take a piece of risen dough, the size of a small loa^ from mixed bread, work into it a tea-cup of shortening, and one egg, work it well together, then make it in rolls between your hands, about one inch thick, and the length of the finger ; lay them close in a but- tered basin, and bake fifteen minutes in a quick oven : do not open the oven until that time has expired, then wet the tops of the rolls over with a little milk and close the oven for five minutes longer. French Bolls, for Tea. — Work a quarter of a pound of butter into two pounds of sifted wheat flour, until it is like grated bread, put to it two beaten eggs, two tablespoonfuls of baker's yeast, half a teaspoonful of palt, and as much warm milk as will make a soft dough, strew flour over, cover it with a warm cteth, and set it in a warm place to rise for two hours ; then dip your hands in flour, and make it in small rolls an inch thick and the length of the finger, bake twenty minutes in a quick oven ; five minutes before they are done, wet them lightly over with sweet milk, do it as quickly as possible, and close the oven to finish. CAElSi — ^We shall not imitate those authors who give directions for making hundreds of different kinds of cakes, believing that a few choice kinds, on the directions for making which our readers can fully rely as the best in the whole category, will be more useful and acceptable than the whole mass, as the difficulties of finding, and the confasioh of ^electing what is desired, are thus avoided. Eequisite Information for Making and Bailing Cakes.— Currants are so frequently used in cakes that you should be very particular in having them nicely washed, dried, and all sticks and stones taken from them, and then put before the fire to dry, as, if damp, they will make cakes and puddings heavy ; therefore, before you use them, dust a little flour lightly over them. Raisins, if they are to be used whole, should be well scalded ; if to Jje chopped, throw a few at a time into hot water, then cut each one with scissors, and take out the seeds. Eggs should be fresh and a long time beaten, the whites and yolks separate, taking out the treadle. Sugar should be well pounded and sifted, and kept well dried. None but good sweet butter should be used for cake-making. In making cakes, if you wish them to be pleasing to the eye as well as the palate, use double-refined white sugar, although clean brown sugar makes an equally good cake. Lemon-peel should be either rubbed on sugar or grated fine ; if so, sprinkle some sifted sugar among it to keep it a good color. The lightness of cake depends upon its being well beaten and thor- oughly mixed. If you use yeast to your cakes, they will require less butter and eggs, and will eat almost equally as light and rich ; but if the leaven be only of milk, flour, and water, it becomes more tough than if the butter was DETAILS OF PEAOTIOAl COOKEET. 13 at first put with the ingredients, and the dough set to rise by the fire. Yeast should be used sparingly to avoid bitterness. The heat of your oven is of particular importance for bating cakes or pastry — more particularly large cakes ; as at first, if not pretty brisk, they will not rise ; then, if likely to brown too quick at the top, put a piece of paper upon the top of the cake so as not to touch the batter. It should be lighted some time beforehand, so as to have a good solid body of heat, and should be of a proper heat at the bottom, in order that the cakes may rise. For baking plum or other large cakes, have round tin pans, with sides nearly perpendicular ; line them with white paper buttered, and fill them two or three inches deep of the cake mixture, but not more. Saleratus must be powdered and dissolved in hot water before being used. When the weather is cold, the materials for cake should be moder- ately warmed before mixing them together. All kinds of cake that are made without yeast are better for being stirred, till just before they are baked. The butter and sugar should be stirred together till white, then the eggs, flour, and spice added. Saleratus and cream should not be put in till just before the cake is baked ; add the fruit last. Butter the cake-pans well. The cake will be less liable to bum if the pans are lined with white buttered paper. An oven for bread-baking should be as hot as you can bear your hand •in for twenty seconds, or while counting twenty. To ascertain whether a cake be done, thrust a knife into the center, and should this come out clean, draw it from the oven directly ; but should the paste adhere to it, continue the baking. Several sheets of paper are placed usually under large plum-cakes. To blanch almonds, put them into'a sauce-pan with plenty of cold water, and heat it slowly ; when it is just scalding, turn the almonds into a basin, peel, and throw tlfiem into cold water as they are, done; dry them well in a soft cloth before they are used. If the water be too hot, it will turn them yellow. Bread and tea-cakes made with milk are best when new, as they be- come stale ' ,oner than others. Nev Keep your bread or cake in wooden boxes or drawers, but in tin boxes or earthen pans, with covers. When the quantities given will make more cake than is required, thf half of each ingredient may be used. Allow about fifteen minutes for e^ch half-inch in thickness of thf. cake in a quick oven. More time will, be required- in a slow oven. Crust, Short and Rich, but not Sweet. — ^To eight ounces of fine flour rub in well six ounces of butter ; make it into a stifiish paste with a little water ; beat it well, roll it thin, and bake it in a moderate oven.. Crust, Short. — Take two ounces of white sugar, pound, sift, and dry it, mix it with a pound of well-dried flour, and rub well into it three ounces of butter; put the yolks of two eggs into some cream, • and' liien mix the whole into a sniooth paste •,» roU it out thin and bake it in; a moder ate oven. Apple-Cake. — Take one pound and a half of, white sugar, twa^pjounds 44 THE FAMILT. of apples, pared and cut thin, and the rind of a large lemon ; pula pint of water to the sugar, and boil it to a syrup; put the apples to it^ and boil it quite thick. Put it into a rrfould to cool, and send it cold to table, with a custard or cream poured round it. Jelly Cake. — Three eggs, one and a half cups of cream, two of sugar, one half-teaspoonful of soda, and flour to mate a thin batter ; spread as thinly as possible on buttered tins. Tate off the tins while hot, and place a thin layer of currant jelly between the layers of cake. Grandmother's Cake. — Six eggs, twelve tablespoonfuls of lard, one tea- spoonful of salt, and one cup of sugar; roll thin, cut the dough in small pieces, cut the center in narrow strips, leaving the ends whole ; fry in hot lard ; and if you say they are not good, it will be because you do not make them as grandmother did. Cookies.-:— Take ^^^^ ^ pound of sugar, one-fourth of a pound of but- ter; stir them well together ; dissolve a teaspoonful of saleratus in three- fourths of a tea-cup of sweet milk ; add half a nutmeg, grated, and floui sufficient to roll them out easily. Bake in a moderately heated oven. Johnny Cake. — Put a quart of fresh corn-meal into a basin, add a heap- ing teaspoonful* of salt, stirnnto it boiling water, until it is all moistened; then, with your hands, make it in cakes half an inch thick, and bake them on a hot griddle, rubbed over with a bit of fat pork, or beef suet ; let them do slowjy ; when one side is done, turn the other; they may be bated in an oven for twenty minutes ; or put the cake on a flat board or iron plate, and slant it in front of the fire ; when one side is done, turn the other ; serve ,hot, split them open, and butter freely. They may also be made with a qtiart of milt, three eggs, one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, and one teacupful of wheaten flour; add Indian corn meal sufficient to mate a batter lite that of pancakes, and either bate it in buttered pans, or upon a griddle, and eat them with butter. Tea Cakes. — Tate of flour, one pound ; sugar, one ounce ; butter, one ounce ; muriatic acid, two drachms ; bfcarbonate of soda, two drachms ; milt, six ounces ; water, six ounces ; rub the butter into the flour ; dis- solve the sugar and soda in the milk, and the acid in the water ; first add the milk, etc., to the flour, and partially mix ; then the water and acid, and mix well together; divide into three portions, and bake twenty- five minutes. Flat round tins or earthen pans are the best to bake them in. If the above is made with baking-powder, a teaspoonful may be substituted for the acid and soda in the above receipt, and all the other directions carried out as stated above. If buttermilt is used, the acid, milt, and water must be left out. Another. — Rub a quarter of a pound of butter into a pound of flour; add a quarter of a pound of fine loaf-sugar, a few caraway seeds, and two eggs. With a little warm milt let the whole be rnade into a paste, which, being covered with a cloth, is to stand before the fire nearly an hour. Then roll out the paste, cut it into round cates with the top of a glass, and bake them upon floured tins. Unfermented Cake. — Tate of flour, one pound and a half; bicarbonate of soda, three drachms ; muriatic acid, three .drachms ; sugar, one ounce and a half; butter, one ounce and a half ; milt, twenty ounces; currants, six ounces, more or less. Mix the soda and butter into the DETAILS OF PKAOTICAL COOEEEY. 45 flour by rubbing them together; next dissolve the sugar in the milk, and diffuse the acid through it by 'stirring ; then mix the whole inti- mately, adding fruit at discretion ; and bake in a tin or earthen pan. luncheon Cakes. — Take of flour, one pound ; jnuriatic acid, two drachms; bicarbonate of soda, two drachms ; sugar, three ounces; but- ter, three ounces ; currants, four ounces ; milk, one pint or twenty ounces ; bake one hour in a quick oven. Nice Plum-Cake. — ^Take of flour, one pound ; bicarbonate of soda, a quarter of an ounce ; butter, six ounces ; loaf-sugar, six ounces ; currants, six ounces ; thre^ eggs ; milk, about four ounces ; bake one hour and a half in a tin or pan. Lemon Buns. — Take of flour, one pound ; bicarbonate of soda, three drachms ; muriatic acid, three drachms ; butter, four ounces ; loaf-sugar, four ounces ; one egg ; essence of lemon, six or eight drops ; make into twenty buns, and bake in a quick oven fifteen minutes. Loaf-Cake. — Six pounds of flour, three pounds of butter, three pounds of sugar, one and a half-dozen of eggs, three pounds of raisins, half an ounce each of mace and nutmegs, half a pint of wine, milk to wet the whole, with yeast ; first put the flour, half the butter, half the sugar, and the yeast together ; then raise it : ,then add the rest well mixed ; put into pans for baking, using nutmeg and cinnamon according to taste. Plum-Cake. — Take nine pounds of flour, nine fresh eggs, three pounds of flne sugar, one pint of yeast, one spoonful of rosfe-water; spice ac- cording to your own taste, and milk sufficient to wet it. Knead it thoroughly, and bake it by a moderate but quick fire. ¥cdding-Cake. — Take eighteen pounds of flour, ten pounds of fine sugar, nine pounds of butter, eleven nutmegs, eighteen eggs, five quarts of milk, one quart of yeast, ten pounds of fruit, one ounce of mace, one quart of wine, and one pint of brandy. The butter and sugar are to be rolled together; the other materials are then to be mixed with the butter and sugar, putting the fruit in last, when nearly ready for the oven. Icing or Frosting for Cake. — Take two pounds of double-reflned sugar, beat and sift it through a fine sieve ; put into it a spoonful of starch, a pennyworth of gum-arabic ; beat them all well together ; take the whites of four or five eggs, beat them well, and put in a spoonful of rose-water, a spoonful of lemon-juice ; beat them with the eggs ; then mixing and beating the whole together, till the cakes come from the oven, when the frosting is to be applied. Dough-IVutS or Nut-Cakes. — ^While your lard is melting to boil your cakes, mix two cups of buttermilk and two of cream, with two or three eggs, one teaspoonful of saleratus, and plenty of fine cinnamon, and flour enough to roll ; made in this way, they are more tender, and less liable to harden than when raised with yeast. Buekwheat-Cakes. — To three pints of buckwheat flour, mixed into a batter, add one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda dissolved in water, and one teaspoonful of tartaric acid dissolved in like manner ; first apply the carbonate, stir the' batter well, and then put in the acid ; thus the use of yeast is entirely superseded, and light cakes are insured. One great advantage is, that the batter is ready for baking as soon as made 46 THE FATVnr.Y. Fritters. — Make a batter of eggs, flour, and milk. Apple fritters are made by cutting large pared apples in slices, dipping the slices in batter, and frying them separately. They are done when slightly browned on both sides. Another, and perhaps a more common way, is to cut the apples in small pieces, and mix them with the batter, frying them, a spoonful in each fritter. Fritters may be made with currants in the same manner. All fritters should be sprinkled over with fine sugar. Griddle-Cakes. — Best way to make thenj is to use milk altogether, .'pstead of water ; two eggs being allowed for a pint of corn meal ; the milk being a little warmed, and the whole to be well beaten up with a spoon or ladle. There must be milk enough used to make the whole so liquid as that it will pour out of the sauce-pan on the griddle. A spoonful of wheat flour and lard of the size of a walnut may be added. Eice SpongD-Cake. — Nine eggs, the weight of them in sugar; the weight of six in rice-flour; have the sugar finely sifted ; mix the sugar and rice together; have the whites and the yolks beat separately; pour the eggs at the same time into the rice and sugar ; beat the whole together about a quarter of an hour, and then add of the essence of lemon twenty drops, or rose-water. Washington Cake. — Take two pounds of flour, one quart of milk, with an ounce of melted butter ; put the milk and butter into the flour when about lukewarm ; add a pennyworth of yeast, three eggs, and a tea- spoonful of salt ; place it in pans over the night, and bake it in the morning in an oven for three-quarters of an hour. This is a favorite cake in Virginia, and derives its name from General Washington, *ho was particularly fond of it. Drop-Cakes. — Let a large teaspoonful of saleratus be dissolved in a cup of cream, and this mixed with a quart of milk. Into this stir flour gently, till of the consistence of batter. Then dip ywur spoon in milk, and with it place your batter at short distances, in a buttered pan. Very deli- cate made entirely of cream, either with or without eggs. Sponge-Cakes. — Take nine eggs, and beat them, yolks and whites sep- arately, an hour Ar so. With the eggs then beat one pound of fine loaf-sugar, till the whole is of a foam. Afterward stir in gently twelve ounces of flour, also grating in a nutmeg and a little cinnamon or mace. The mixture is then to be put in buttered tins, filled only half-full, and baked half an hour ; or, a large loaf should be baked an hour. The oven should be heated to bake quick, but not to scorch. Yellow Lady-Cake. — A new way to make it. — Take a pound of fine white sugar, with half a pound of butter beaten to a cream, the yolks of eight eggs beaten smooth and thick, one cup of sweet milk, a small teaspoon- ful ofpowdered volatile salts or saleratus, dissolved in a little hot water ; half a nutmeg grated, a teaspoonful of lemon extract pr orange-flower water, and as much sifted wheat flour as will make it as thick as pound- cake batter : beat it until it is light and creamy, then, having taken the skins from and beaten to paste a quarter of a pound of shelled almonds, stir them into the cake, beat them in it, line buttered tin pans with . 'lite paper, put in the mixture an inch deep, and bake half an hour in luick oven, or forty minutes in a moderate oven DETAILS OF PEACTIOAli COOKEET. it Lady-cake is usually made witli the yolis of eggs, as Savoy-cake (two yolks for one whole egg) with the addition of pounded almonds. Ic it ; when a little dry, mark it with a knife-blade in slices the width gf a finger, and three inches long. Wmte lady-Cake. — ^Beat the whites of eight eggs to a high froth, add gradually a pound of white sugar finely ground, beat quarter of a pound f butter to a cream, add a tea-cup of sweet milk, with a small teaspoon- fol of powdered volatile salts or saleratus dissolved in it ; put the eggs to butter and' milk, add as much sifted wheat flour as will make it as , thick as pound-cake mixture, and a teaspoonful of orange-flower water or lemon extract, then add quarter of a pound of shelled almonds, blanched and beaten to a paste. Buckwheat-Cakes. — To one quart of buckwheat flour add a teaspoonful of salt, and mix it with a large spoonful of yeast, and water sufllcient to make a thick batter. Some put in a teacupful of fine Indian meal. Put it away for rising in a warm place a few hours. If mixed in the even- ing, it may remain in a cold place till morning. When it becomes suffi- ciently light for baking, place it on a griddle well buttered, and of a heat to cook them quick. Country Cream-Cakes. — To a quart of flour add a teaspoon of fine salt and a piece of butter of the size of an egg ; then take half a pint of thick cream, the better if a little sour ; half a teaspoonful of pearlash, dissolved in water poured into the cream, and milk sufficient to wet the flour. If cream is abundant, it may be used without milk or pearlash. In this case, the cream may be s^eet. When well kneaded, it is fit foi baking. Breakfast Indian Cakes. — Take one quart of buttermilk or sour milk ; three eggs ; butter in size equal to half a hen's egg ; a little salt ; one teaspoonful of saleratus ; stirring in fine Indian flour till of a proper consistence ; and then putting it into pans of an inch in depth, for a quick bake. Nice Country Muffins for Tea. — One quart of milk ; three eggs ; half a teacupful of yeast ; two large spoonfuls of sugar ; butter equal in size to half a hen's egg ; half a teaspoonful of saleratus, and a little salt ; the whole well mixed, and fermented, and then in rings quickly baked. The Graham cakes and soda biscuits which follow are used at the Water Cure, Elmira, N. Y. Graham Cake. — One quart of Graham flour; one tablespoon of butter, two teaspoons of cream of tartar ; one teaspoon of soda ; sufficient sweet milk to wet up ; mix soft. If you like them sweetened, add a cup of sugar. Soda Biscuits. — One cup of sugar ; one tablespoon of butter ; two tea- spoons of cream of tartar ; one teaspoon of soda ; two eggs ; one cup of sweet milk ; stir about as stiff' as cup-cakes. Dongh-Nuts with Sugar. — Make a dough of one poimd of flour, a quar- ter of fi pound of butter, three-quarters of a pound of brown sugar, rolled fine, one nutmeg, grated, one teaspoonful of ground cinnamon one tablespoonful of brewer's yeast, and warm milk enough to mix. Set it in a warm place to rise fof one hour, or till light ; then form in twists or squared, fry as before, and drain on a sieve 48 THE F AMTT. Y. Crullers. — Cut up half a pound of butter into two pounds of sifted flour ; add three-quarters of a pound of powdered sugar, a grated nut- meg, and a teaspoonfiil of powdered cinnamon, and mix them well to- gether. Beat six eggs, and pour them into the mixture ; add a table- spoonful of rose-water, and mix the whole into a dough. If the eggs and rose-water are not found sufficient to wet it, add a very little cold water. Mix the dough very well with a knife. Spread some flour on your paste-board ; take the dough out of the pan and knead it verj well ; cut it into small pieces, and knead each separately ; put all the pieces together, and knead the whole in one lump ; roll it out into a large square sheet, about half an inch thick ; take a jagging-iron, or a sharp knife, run it along the sheet, and cut the dough into long, narrow slips ; twist them up in various forms ; have ready an iron pan, with melted lard ; lay the crullers lightly in it, and serve hot. Frosting for Cake, — Powder very finely and sift half a teacupful of double-refined sugar, and two teaspoonfuls of Poland starch ; beat the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, so that you can turn the plate upside down, without the eggs falling from it; then stir in the sugar gradual- ly ; stir it ten or fifteen minutes without any cessation ; then add a tea- spoonful of lemon-juice ; put in sufficient rose-water to flavor it. If you wish to color it pink, stir in a few grains of cochineal powder, or rose- pink; if to have- it of a blue tinge, add a little of what is called the powder-blue. Lay the frosting on the cake with a knife soon after it is taken from the oven; smooth it over, and let it remain in a cool place till ha; i. This will be suflScient to frast one large cake. Ging '-Snaps. — Haifa pint of molasses, a quarter of a pound of brown lugar, caraway-seeds, and ground ginger, each a tablespoonful, and a quarter of a pound of butter ; work the batter into a pound of flour, and then all together, and form it ii; cakes not larger than a dollar piece ; bake in a moderate oven twenty minutes, when they will be dry and crisp. ■ . , Ginger-Nuts. — One cup of molasses, half a cup of sugar, a tablespoon- ,ful of ginger, one cup of butter, half a cup of sour milk, two teaspoon- fuls of saleratus, dissolved in boiling water, and stirred in after the flour. Make it jnst stiff enough to roll very thin; cut in small cakes, and bake in a slow oven. ' Tea-Cakes. — Melt one ounce and a half of butter in a little new milk; add a spoonful of yeast, and a little salt; mix it into a pound of flour* add an egg, and a spoonful of sugar. Knead it well until it leayes the hands ; let it rise two or three hours; roll out, and stand an hour or less before the fire to rise, before baking in a moderate oven. Another.— Unh a quarter of a pound of butter into a pound of flour; 4dd a quarter of a pound of fine loaf-sugar, a few caraway-seeds, and two eggs. With & little warm milk let the whole be made into a paste which, being covered with a cloth, .is to stand before the fire nearly an hour. Then roll out the paste, cut it into round cakes with the top of a glass, and bake them upon floured tins. Gingerbread.— Mix together three and a talf pounds of flour, three- quarters of a pound of sugar, one pint of molasses, a quarter of a pound of gngor, and some ground orange-peel. DETAILS OF PEACTICAL COOKEEY. 41! Another Kind. — Two pounds of flour, half a pound of butter, one pint of milk, one pint of molasses, one tablespoonful of saleratus, and ginger as you please. Bard Gingerbread. — Three pounds of sugar, two pounds of butter, twelve eggs, two teacupfuls of milk, two teaspoonfuls of saleratus, eight tablespoonfuls of ginger, and flour sufficient to roll. Soft Gingerbread. — Three eggs, three cupfuls of molasses, one cupful of butter, two teaspoonfuls of saleratus dissolved in a cupful of warm water, ■>ne tablespoonful of ginger, and six cupfuls of flour. . Another Kind. — Take six teacupfuls of flour, one cup of butter, or lard ; work well together ; add three cups of molasses, one cup of ^our milk, one tablespoonful of saleratus, and two tablespoonfuls of ginger. Nice Gingerbread. — Two pounds of flour, one and a quarter pounds of BUgar, two tablespoonfuls of ginger, eight eggs, and one pound of butter. Rub the butter and sugar together till they are white, then break the «ggs and strain them in ; mix it well ; put in the ginger, and sift in the flour ; spread the cake thinly over tin pans or sheets. It will require a moderate heat ; bake it twenty minutes. Gingerbread with Frnit. — Four (jups of flour, one of butter, one of sugar, one of molasses, one of milk, four eggs, three teaspoonfuls of ginger, a teaspoonful of cloves and nutmegs, half a pound of currants and raisins ; add the fruit last, and bake in pans, in an oven, not very quick. Sngar-Gingerbread. — ^Take two pounds of flour, one pound of butter, one pound of sugar, five eggs well beaten, two ounces of powdered gin: ger, and a teaspoonful of pearlash. Then mix and bake. Gooseberry-Cake. — Press the juice oiit of some gooseberries, and strain it through some muslin : boil it up ; strew in a pound of sugar to each pint of juice; stir well, and simmer till the sugar is melted; pour it into glasses ; dry it in a stove till it will turn out, and then dry the cakes on plates. Honey-Calfe. — Three-quarters of a pound of honey, half a pound of fine oaf-sugar, a quarter of citron, a half-ounce of orange-peel cut small ; of cinnamon and ginger each half an ounce, four well-beaten eggs, and a pound of sifted flour. Melt the sugar with the honey, and mix. Roll out the cakes, and cut in any form. Indian BreaitfastrCaltes. — Take one quart of buttermilk, or sour milk, three eggs, butter in size equal to half a hen's egg ; a little salt, one tea- spoonful of saleratus, stirring in fine Indian flour till of a proper con- sistence ; and then putting it into pans of an inch in depth for a quick bake. » Crackers, — Rub six ounces of butter with two pounds of flour ; dis- solve a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus in a wine-glass of milk, and strain it on the flour ; add a teacupful of salt, and milk enough tp en- able you to roll it out. Beat it with a rolling-pin for half aa hour, pounding it out thin ; cut it into cakes with a tumbler ; bake them about fifteen minutes, and then take them from the oven. When the rest of your things are baked sufficiently take them out ; set in the crackers, and let them remain till baked hard and crisp. Bntter-Craekers. — Rub four ounces of butter into a pound of flour; 3 60 THE FAMILT. I when well mixed, put to it enough cold water to damp it and keep it together, and add a teaspoonful of salt ; heat it with a rolling-pin until smooth ; then roll it thin ; cut it in small cakes, or make it in small crackers between your hands ; bake on tins, in a quick oven, for fifteen minutes, or set them in a moderate oven for twenty minutes ; let each cracker be about the size of a dollar piece, and nearly half an inch thick. PIES. — Family Pie-Crnst. — Work into a pound of sifted flour half a pound of sweet lard, or beef-dripping, with a dessert-spoonftil of salt ; when thoroughly mixed, put to it enough cold water to bind it to- gether ; flour the paste-slab, or table, and rolling-pin : take a part of the paste, and roll it to less than a quarter of an inch thickness; For the upper or outside crust of a pie, roll the paste out thin; spread a bit of butter, half the size of an egg, over it ; fold it up, roll it out again, and cover the pie. Some are of the opinion that no under-crust should be made to apple or other fruit-pie. It is always heavy, and not fit to eat. Place a narrow rim of paste around the edge of the plate, and fill with the fruit, either raw or stewed, and cover it. The juices will be retained much better, and it will save flour and butter, which is no trifling consideration in these days ; and, what is of more consequence, it saves dyspepsia, which costs more. After cutting, they are taken out with a spoon. Mince-Pie. — The best kind of meat for mince-pies is neat's tongue and feet. Boil the meat till perfectly tender; then take it up ; clear it from the bones and gristle ; chop it fine enough to strain through a sieve ; bSx it with an equal weight of tart apples chopped very fine. If the meat is not fat, put in a little suet or melted butter. Moisten the whole with cider ; sweeten it to the taste with sugar and very little molasses ; add mace, cinnamon, cloves, and salt to the taste. If you wish to make your pies rich, put in wine or brandy to the taste, and raisins, citron, and Zante currants. The grated rind and juice of lemons improve the pie. Make the pies on shallow plates, with apertures in the upper-crust, and bake them from half to three-quarters of an hour, according to the heat of the oven. Meat prepared for pies in the following manner will keep good sev- eral months, if kept in a cool, dry place : to a pound of finely-chopped meat, and a quarter of a pound of suet, put half an ounce of mace, one ounce of cinnamon, a quarter of an ounce of cloves, two teaspoonfuls of salt. Add, if you like, the following fruits : half a pound of seeded raisins, half a pound of Zante currants, a quarter of a pound of citron. Put in half a pint of French brandy or wine, three tablespoonfuls of molasses, and sugar sufficient to make it quite sweet. Put the whole in a stone pot, and cover it with a paper wet in brandy. When you wish to use any of it for pies, put to what meat you use an equal weight of apples pared and chopped fine. If not seasoned high enough, add more spice and sugar. If the apples are not tart, put in lemon-juice or sour cider. Mince-Pies Withont Meat.— Take of currants, apples chopped fine, moistp sugar, and suet well-chopped, a pound of each, a quarter of a pound of raisms, stoned and chopped small, the juice of four Seville oranges. DETAILS OF PEAOTIOAIi COOKEET. 61 tlie juice of two lemons, the rind of one shred fine, nutmeg, and mace, to suit the palate, and a glass of brandy. Mix all together ; put it in a pan, and keep it closely tied up. Mince-Pies. — One pound of lean beef, boiled tender and chopped fine, one pound of beef-suet, a half-pound of apples chopped, two poiinds of currants, one pound of raisins, seeded and chopped, a quarter of a pound of citron. Add sugar, salt, nutmeg, mace, cloves, wine, and brandy to vour taste. lemon Mince-Pies. — Take a large lemon; squeeze the juice from it, and boil the outside till it becomes soft enough to beat to a mash ; put to it three large apples, four ounces of suet, the same of sugar, and half a pound of currants ; add the juice of the lemon, and some candied iruit, the same as foj other pies. Make a short crust, and fill the patty- pans in the usual way. Lemon-Pies, — Pare two lemons; take out the seeds; chop the rind and pulps ; add one egg, a small piece of butter, a small tea-cup of flour, three cups of sugar, two of water. Bake in a paste. This quantity will make two pies. Apple Mince-Pies. — One pound of well washed and dried Zante cur- rants, one pound of peeled and chopped apples, one pound of suet, chopped fine, one pound of moist sugar, a quarter of a pound of raisins, stoned and cut in two, the juice of four oranges and two lemons, with the chopped peel of one ; add of ground mace and allspice each a tea- spoonful, and a wine-glass of brandy ; mix them well together, and keep it closely covered in a dry, cool place. .Bake with two crusts, the same as mince-pies. Cracker-Pies. — To three cups of water add two cups of sugar, two tea- spoonfals tartaric acid, five tablespoons of cracker rolled fine, flavor with lemon and season as apple-pie. This makes two pies. This also serves as a substitute for apple in mince-pies. Pnmpkin-Pie. — Stew the pumpkin in a covered vessel until soft enough to mash ; then set a cullender or sieve into a basin, and press it through into the basin ; when rubbed through, add to it milk enough to make a thin batter ; to every quart of this batter put four well beaten eggs, a small tea-cup of sugar, and "a salt-spoonful of salt ; for each quart, grate in a nutmeg, and a teaspoonful of extract of lemon, and some ground ginger, if liked. Many prefer it without ginger. Line flat-bottomed pie-dishes with pie-paste, and nearly fill them with the pumpkin mixture ; lay a strip of paste around the edge ; trim oflF the outside neatly, and bake three-quarters of an hour in a quick oven ; the top of the pie should be delicately brown. Ornament to aste. SpflSh-Pies. — Boil and sift the squash, and make them exactly like pumpkin-pies. Carrot and sweet potato pies are made in the same way with crack ers ; eggs or rice should always be used with them. Ipple-Pie. — Pare, quarter, and slice the apples, If not ripe, stew them in just water enough to prevent burning. When soft, sweeten and season to the taste. When ripe, they are better not to be stewed before baking. Fill the pie-plates ; cover with a thick crust, and bake. 52 THE FAiULT. from half to three-quarters of an hour. When bated sufficiently, cut the upper crust through the center; remove it carefully -with a broad knife ; put a piece of butter, of the size of a walnut, into a pie ; sweeten it to your taste, and if the apples are not tart enough, squeeze in the juice of part of a lemon ; flavor the pie with either nutmeg, rose-water, or grated lemon-peel. Apples cut into quarters, without paring, and stewed soft in new cider and molasses, make good plain pies. The ap'- pies should be strained after stewing, and seasoned with cinnamon or nutmeg. If made quite sweet, it will keep good several months. Dried Apple-Piei — Stew the apples soft ; turn them into a pan, and mash them fine ; add half the peel of a lemon, cut fine, or a little grated nutmeg, a sprinkle of salt, molasses, or sugar, to make them quite sweet. Bake them in a rich paste, a little pver half an hour, This will be quite as good as fresh fruit. Currant and Gooseberry-Pie. — Currants and gooseberries are the best for pies Vhen of full growth, just before they begin to turn ; they are tolerably good when ripe. Currants, mixed with ripe raspberries or mulberries, make very nice pies. Gi-een currants and gooseberries for pies are not sweet enough, without the sugar is scalded in before they are baked, as the juice of the currants is apt to run out while they are baking, and leave the fruit dry. Stew them on a moderate fire, with a tea-cup of water to a couple of quarts of currants ; as soon as they begin to break, add the sugar, and let it scald a few minutes. When baked witho^ stewing, put to each layer of fruit a thick layer of sugar. There shoula be as much as a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pint of Currants, to make them sufficiently sweet. Green-currant pies are good, sweetened with molasses and sugar mixed. v Cranberry-Pie or Tarts.— Pick a quart of cranberries, free from im perfections ; put a pint of water to them, and put them in a stew-paa, over a moderate fire ; put a pound of clean brown sugar to them, and stew them gently until they are all soft ; mash them with a silver spoon, and turn them into a dish, to become cold; then make them into pies or tarts, and bake. Many persons put flour in cranberry pies; it is a great mistake, as it completely spoils the color of the fruit. Rhubarb-Pie. — Cut the large stalks off where the leaves commence; strip off the outside skin; then cut the stalk in pieces half an inch long; line a pie-dish with paste, rolled rather thicker than a dollar piece ; put in a layer of the rhubarb, nearly an inch deep ; to a quart bowl of cut rhubarb, put a large tea-cup of sugar ; strew it over with a saltspoonful of salt, and half a nutmeg, grated; cover with' a rich pie- crust; cut a slit in the center; trim oflF the edge with a sharp knife, and bake in a quick oven until the pie loosens from the dish. Apricot-Pie.— Take eighteen fine apricots; cut them in halves, and take out the stones ; place them in a dish lined with puff-paste ; add four ounces of powdered sugar, and four ounces of butter, lukewarm ; then put on the upper crust ; glaze with the white of egg, and sprinkle sifted sugar all over, and bake in a^moderate oven. Red Sugar-Beet Pie.— Pies made of the red sugar-beet are said to be delicious, somewhat resembling rhubarb-pie in flavor, though more rich and substantial. It is seasoned with vinegar, sugar, and spiocs, to suit DETAILS OF PKACTIOAI, COOKEET, 53 the palate. The root may be used without boiling, being chopped fine. Prepare the crust, and bake as you would a green-apple pie. Cocoanut-Ple. — Grate the white part, and mix with milk ; let it boil slowly eight or ten minutes. To a pint and a half of cocoanut add a quart of milk, four eggs, half a cup of sweet cream, two spoonfuls of melted butter, a cracker, rolled fine, and half a nutmeg. The cocoanut should cool before the eggs and sugar are stewed m. Bake in a deep plate, in a quick oven. Huckleberry or Whortleberry Pie. — Clean a quart of berries in water ; line a buttered pie-dish with a pie-paste ; put in the berries half an inch deep; to a quart of berries put a tea-cup of brown sugarand half a tea- cup of water ; dredge a teaspoonful of flour over ; strew a saltspoonful of salt and half a nutmeg, grated, over ; cover the pie ; cut a slit in the center, or make several small incisions on either side of it; trim it off neatly with a sharp knife, and bake it in a quick oven for three-quarters of an hour. Plain Custard-Pie. — Boil a quart of milk with half a dozen peach- leaves, or the rind of a lemon. When they have flavored the milk, strain it, and set it where it will boil. Mix a tablespoonful of flour, smoothly, with a couple of tablespoonfuls of milk, and stir it into the boiling milk. Let it boil a minute, stirring it constantly ; take it from the fire, and, when cool, put in three beaten eggs ; sweeten it to the taste; turn it into deep pie-plates, and bakd'the pies directly in a quick oven. Clierry-Pie. — Stone your cherries, that you may be sure they are free from worms ; lay your paste in a deep dish, and add a good quantity of fruit ; fill the dish with molasses, with a handful of flour sprinkled over, then a nice paste, and bake more than half an hour. If sugar is used, you will need water and flour. This makes the gravy very rich, and the pie delightful. Lemon-Pie. — Boil six fresh lemons in water until a straw will penetrate the skin ; then take them out, chop them fine, and take out the seeds ; to a pound of light-brown sugar put a tea-cup of water; let it boil, skimming it clear unfil it is a nice syrup ; then put in the lemon, and set it to cool ; cover a shallow plate with pie-paste, put in the lemon, spread out to nearly the edge, cover with ai paste^ cut a slit in the cen- ter, and bake. Veal or Chiclien and Parsley Pie. — Cut some slices fi:om the leg or neck x!:ixxyaz:~„^ °^ ^®^^ ' ^^ ^'^^ ^^Si ^°™ about the knuckle. J/i\^^^>5^ Season them with salt ; scald some picked parsley, and squeeze itdry;'chop it a little, and lay it at the bottom of the dish ; then put the meat, etc., in layers; fill the dish with new milk, but not so high as to touch the crust ; cover it, and, when baked, pour out a little of the milk, and put in half a pint of good scalded cream. Chicken may be cut up, skinned, and made the same way. FDBDINGS. — Directions for Puddings. — Puddings should be boiled in tin forms, rubbed over on the inside with butter; or in muslin bags, 54: THE FAMILT. which should be dipped into boilipg water, and then be rubbed over on the inside with flour. A small pail will answer, with a cloth tied over it. If boiled in a tin form, do not let the water reach the top of it. If in a bag, it must be turned frequently. Baked Apple-Pudding. — Twelve large apples, stewed very dry, a quarter of a pound of butter, stirred in when the apples are nearly cold, sugar to your taste, one wine-glass of wine and rose-water, a little cinnamon and nutmeg, seven eggs, ,two handfuls of bread, crumbed very fine. Bake twenty minutes. Serve with sauce, or sugar and cream. Boiled Apple-Pndding. — Make a batter with two well-beaten eggs and a pint and a half of milk, with a pint of wheat flour ; beat until smooth and light; pare, quarter, and core five or six large, tender, tart apples, and stir them into the batter with a teaspoonful of salt ; tie it in a pudding-bag, and boil for two hours; serve with sugar, butter, and nutmeg sauce. Other fruits, as huckleberries and cranberries may be treated in the same way. Plain Boiled Indian Pndding. — Pour three pints of boiling milk to a quart of Indian meal, stir it well, add a tea-cup of molasses, a little salt, and two tablespoonfuls of flour. Boil four hours. Corn-Meal Pudding. — Let two quarts of water come t6 a boil ; then add a tablespoonful of salt ; take off the light scum fyom the top ; have sweet, fresh yellow or white corn meal; stir it in gradually and thor- oughly until it is as thick as you can stir easily, or until the stick will stand in it ; stir it a while longer ; let the fire be gentle ; when it is done enough, it will bubble or puff up ; turn it into a deep basin ; this is eaten cold or hot, with milk or with butter, and syrup or sugar, or with meat and gravy, the same as potatoes or rice. When cold, it may be cut into slices and fried. Eve's Pudding. — Six eggs, six large apples, pared and chopped, six ounces of bread, crumbed fine, six ounces of currants, six ounces of sugar. Three hours will boil it. Plnm-Pudding. — Half a pound of raisins, half a pound of currants, half a pound of bread grated, half a pound of apples chopped, four eggs, half a nutmeg, a wine-glass of brandy, a quarter of 'a pound of suet. Boil three hours. English Plum-Pudding.— One pound of flour, one pound of suet, one and a half pound of currants, one pound of sugar, ten eggs, two spoon- fuls of milk, two nutmegs, one gill of brandy and wine mixed, citron. Boil six hours. This quantity will make two puddings in quart bowls. Custard-Pudding— Bated.— One pint of milk, eight eggs, two spoonfuls of flour, two <5f rose-water, half a nutmeg, a little salt, and sugar to the taste. Bake half an hour. Plain-Baked Bread-Pudding.— Pound rusked bread fine; to five heap- mg tablespoonfuls of it put a quart of milk, three beaten eggs, three table- spoonfuls of rolled sugar, a teaspoonful of salt, half a nutmeg, and three tablespoonfuls of melted butter. Bake it about an hour. It does not need any sauce. Economical Pudding.— Keep your pieces of bread and dry them nicely ; when enough are collected, soak them in milk overnight ; in the morn- ing drain out all the milk you can through a cullender ; add to the DETAILS OF PRACTICAL COOKERY. 55 oread some sugar, and a little salt, with some scalded raisins ; tie it in a bag, and boil five or six hours. Serve with sweet sauce. Canot-Pudding. — Take a large carrot ; boil it soft ; bruise it in a marble mortar, and mix with it a spoonful of biscuit-powder, four yolks and two whites of eggs, a pint of cream, a large spoonful of rose or orange-flower water, a quarter of a nutmeg, two ounces of sugar ; bake it in a shallow dish ; turn it out, and serve with sugar over. Cnstard-Pudding — Boiled. — Take a pint of cream, six eggs', well beaten, two spoonfuls of flour, half a nutmeg, grated, and salt and sugar to taste ; mix them together ; butter a cloth, and pour in the batter ; tie it up ; put it in a sauce-pan of boiling water, and boil it an hour and a half. Serve with melted butter. Jenny lind Pudding. — One cup of sugar; one egg; one spoonful of butter ; one cup of' sweet milk ; one pint of flour ; two and a half teaspoonfiils of baking-powder;- .Bake three-quarters of an hour; serve with sauce. PotatO-Pndding.^Take two pounds of potatoes, wash, boil, and mash them ; when cold, add a pint of new milk, three eggs, well beaten, two ounces of moist sugar, and a little nutmeg. Bake it. FnddingS in Haste. — To grated bread add suet-shred, a few currants, the yolks of four eggs and the whites of two, some- grated lemon-peel, and ginger ; mix and form it into balls, about the size and shape of an egg, with a little flour. Put them into boiling water, and boil them for twenty minutes. Delicate Rice-Pndding. — ^Boil half a pound of rice in three pints of milk, .until the milk is absorbed by the rice ; turn it out of the sauce-pan, and when cold, add to it three well-beaten eggs, with a little nutmeg and sugar ; put it into a buttered basin, and boil an hour. This, made in smaller proportions, is a light and pleasant pudding for an invalid. A bit of cinnamon may be boiled with the milk and rice. Snet-Pndding. — Chop half a pound of beef-suet extremely fine ; add the same quantity of flour, two eggs, well beaten, a small quantity of pounded and sifted sugar, and a little salt ; mix well together with milk to a. tolerable consistency, 'ajid either bake or boil it. Minnte-Pudding. — Put a pint and a half of milk on the fire. Mix five large tablespoonfuls of either wheat or rye flour, smoothly, with half a pint of milk, a teaspoonfiil of salt, and half of a grated nutmeg. "When the milk boils, stir in the mixed flour and milk. Let the whole boil for one minute, stirring it constantly ; take it from the fire ; let it get luke- warm ; then add three beaten eggs. Set it back on the fire, and stir it constantly until it thickens. Take it from the fire as soon as it boils ; serve with sauce. Corn-Pndding. — Grate sweet green corn ; to three tea-cups of it, when grated, put two quarts of milk, eight eggs, a teaspoonful of salt, half a tea-cup of melted butter, and a grated nutmeg. Bake the pudding an hour ; serve it up with sauce. Cracker-Pndding. — Mix ten ounces of finely-pounded crackers with a wine-glass of wine, a little salt, and half a nutmeg, three or four table- spoonftils of sugar, and two of melted butter. Beat eight eggs to a froth ; mix them with three pints of milk, and turn them on the rest 56 THE FAMILY. of the ingredients. Let it remain till the crackers become soft ; then bake it. Apples in Batter. — Pare and core several small-sized apples ; set them in a deep dish ; make a rich batter, and pour it over them ; bake in a quick oven for one hour ; serve with wine sauce. Baked Indian-Pudding. — Seven tablespoonfuls of meal, one of flour ; wet with a quart of milk ; thicken it over the fire like mush ; take it from the fire, and add a tea-cup of molasses, a little salt, and bake three- quarters of an hour. Bolling-Musll. — It is very common to make mush by boiling only a sink they are done ; fcake them mi, Had quiektyj too. Vegetables are a tnost traefol accessory to oflr daily fejcid, and Bhduld be made the objecl of a greater study than they are usually. Cara ehduld be takea in the prese^ViltiiM xsl Vi^dta^les for Winter tise. 68 THE FAivrrT.Y. Green beans may be preserved by being packed in layers of salt. They should be soaked before being used. Carrots, beans, beet-roots, parsnips, and potatoes keep best in dry sand or earth in a cellar; turnips keep best on a cellar bottom, or they may be kept the same as carrots, etc. Whatever earth remains about them, when taken from the ground, should not be taken oflf. When sprouts come on potatoes or other .stored vegetables, they should be carefully cut off. Celery may be kept in the cellar all winter, by setting it in boxes filled with earth. Cabbage keep some time, by being laid on a stone floor in the cellar. To keep pumpkin, it should be cut up and dried, or stewed and made up into cakes, which should be thoroughly dried in the oven or in the sun. Parsley should be gathered when young and tender, and packed in a little sweet butter. IsparagUS. — Let the stalks be lightly but well scraped, and as they are done, be thrown into cold water ; when all are finished, fasten them into bundles of equal size ; put them into boiling water ; throw in a handful of salt ; boil until the end of the stalk becomes tender ; it will be about half an hour ; cut a round of bread, and toast it to a clear brown ; moisten it with the water in which the asparagus was boiled, and arrange the stalks with the white end outward. A good melted butter must accompany it to table. Asparagus should be dressed as soon after it has been cut as practicable. Asperge a la Pols — French Recipe. — When asparagus is first in season, and too small to make a handsome appearance, this mode of dressing is very good: take the asparagus and cut off only the green heads; none of the white stalk must be retained ; put them into clear, cold water, and when clean, pop them into boiling water, in which salt has . been thrown ; in ten minutes they will be tender ; they may then be taken out and laid upon a white cloth, which must be used to wipe them dry ; lay in a stew-pan a slice of butter ; when it is melted, put in the asparagus; stew them over a quick fire; keep them turning; when ten minutes have elapsed, dredge a little flour, and a small quantity of white sugar, in powder, over them ; beat up the yolks of a couple of eggs ; pour over the asparagus just sufficient water to cover them; boil up rapidly; stir in the yolk of one egg; and, making a pyramid of the asparagus in the dish, serve very hot. Beets. — Break off the leaves, but do not cut beets, as that spoils both flavor and appearance ; wash them and boil them till tender ; then take them out into a basin of cold water, and rub all the outside skin off with the hands; then slice them thin in a dish, and just cover them with cold vinegar, and sprinkle with pepper and salt, or quarter them, and lay them for a day or two in cold vinegar, as they are then fit for use. The tops of young beets are dressed as asparagus. Broccoli. — Peel the thick skin of the stalks, and boil for a quarter of an hour, with salt in the water. The small shoots will only require half the time. They should be tied in bunches. Serve with toast and melted butter. Green or Stringed Beans.— Get young, tender beans ; take off the stem DETAILS OF PRACTICAI, COOKEEY. 69 end and the strings from the sides of the beans, and cut them in lozenges of an inch in length ; then boil them tender in water to cover them. Some boil a bit of salt pork with them, or add to them, when dished, butter, salt, and pepper, to taste. Green corn, cut from the cob, is cooted with them, and called succotash. Celery, — Scrape and wash it well ; let it lie in cold water until just before being used ; dry it with a cloth ; trim it, and split down the stalks almost to the bottom. Send it to table in a celery glass, and eat with salt only ; or chop it fine, and make a salad dressing for it. Cabbage and Cauliflowers. — Trim off the loose leaves of the cabbage ; cut the stalk in quarters, to the heart of the cabbage ; boil it an hour. If not boiled with corned meat, put a little salt in the water in which they are boiled. White cauliflowers are the best. Take off the outside leaves ; cut the stalk close to the leaves ; let them lie in salt and cold water for half an hour, before boiling them. Boil them fifteen or twenty minutes, according to the size. Milk and water is the best to boil them in, but clear water does very well. Put a little salt in the pot in which they are boiled. Cabb|[ge Salad and Cole-Slaw. — Take a hard, close head of cabbage ; cut it in two, and with a sharp knife shave it fine ; lay it in a dish, and garnish and finish as lettuce. For cole-slaw, cut it in the same way ; then add to it a good bit of butter, some vinegar, pepper and salt to taste, and put it in a clean stew-pan ; set it on the fire, and stir it with a silver spoon until the seasoning is mixed, and the butter melted. Serve in a covered dish. Red Cabbage, — This is eaten as salad, prepared as directed for cabbage salad or cole-slaw, or it may be shaved fine and pickled. Carrots. — Carrots may be plain boiled, and served with a, drawn but- ter sauce. They are generally used in soups, sliced- or grated. Stewed Cucumbers, — Take two or three straight cucumbers ; cut off one end ; then take out the seeds ; lay them in vinegar, water, pepper, and salt ; have some good farce, and fill each cucumber with it ; dry your cucumbers well out of the vinegar first ; then dry them in a clean rubber ; then- fry them, if for brown ; if for white, not; take them out of the butter, and put them to stew into some good stock, one large onion, a fagot of herbs, a slice of lean ham, until tender ; thicken the liquor, and strain ; season with vinegar, lemon juice, sugar, salt, and white pepper ; glaze the cucumbers several times. Greens, — White mustard, spinach, water-cresses, dandelions, and the leaves and roots of very small beets, are the best greens. Boil them, with a little salt and saleratus in the water. If not fresh and plump, soak them in salt and water half an hour, before cooking them. 'V^hen they are boiled enough, they will sink to the bottom of the pot. Lettuce. — Strip off the outside leaves ; split it, and lay it iu cold water awhile. Drain and lay in a salad dish. Have ready two hard-boiled eggs ; cut in two, and lay on the leaves. If you choose, it may be dressed with sugar and vinegar, with a little salt, before it goes to the table. Some prefer a dressing of salt, mustard, loaf-sugar, vinegar, sweet oil, and a mashed hard-boiled egg, with the salad cut fine and this over it. 70 TEEB FAMILy. Hominy. — There are three sizes of hominy ; the middle size is best>— wash a tea-cup of it well in two or three waters ; all that is iiot good will rise to the top, drain it carefully off; then put to it a quart of water, and let it stand all night ; in the morning add to it a teaspoonful of salt, and set the vessel which contains it over the Ijre, in a kettle of boil ing water ; one hour will boil it ; the reason for putting it in wijter is, that otherwise it .is very apt to turn ; when it has absorbed all the water, stir it well with a spoon and serve. Coarse hominy requires five or six hours' boiling. Dried beans are cooked with it. Onions. — White onions are best for boiling. Take off the skins and lay them in cold water for an hour or two before boiling. When boiled tender serve them with butter, pepper, and salt over, or a drawn butter; The red ones are good sliced, thin, with viflegaj;, pepper, and salt. Onions may be fried like potatoes., Green Pease.— ^A delicious vegetable, a grateful accessory tq many dishes of a more substantial nature. Green pease should b^ sent to table green ; no dish looks less tempting than pease if they wear an au- tumnal aspect. Pease should also be young, and as tehort a time as pos- sible should be suffered to elapse between the periods of shelling and boiling. If it is a naatter of consequence to send them to table in per' fpction, these rules must bo strictly observed. They should be as near of a size as a discripiinating eye can arrange them ; they should then be put in a cu^llendjeri and some cold water suffered to run through them in qrder to wash them ; then, haying the water in which they are to be boiled slightly salted, and boiling rapidly, pour in the pease ; keep the sauce-pars uncovered, and keep them boiling swiftly until tender'; they will take about twenty minutes,, barely so long, unless older than they should be ; drain completely, pour them into the tureen in which they are to be served, and in the center put a, slj.ce, of butter, and when it. has melted stir round the pease gently, adding pepper and salt ; serve as quickly and as hot as possible. Pease Stewed in Cream.— Put two or three pints of young green, pease into a sauce-pan of boiling watei;; when they are nearly done and tender drain them in a cullender quite dry; melt two ounces of butter in a clean stew-pan, thicken it evenly with a little flour, shake it over the fire, but on no account let it brown, mix smoothly with it the fourth of a pint of cream, add half a teaspooriful of white sugar, bring it tQ a boil, pour in the pease, and keep them moving until they are well heated, which will hardly occupy two minutes. Send them_ to table immediately. How to Cook Potatoes.— To Boil Potatoes— In Ireland potatoes are boilefl in perfection. Potatoes should always be boiled in their "jackets ;" peeling a potato before boiling is offering a, premium for water to run through it and go to table waxy and unpalatable ; tljcy should bo thoroughly washed and put into cold water. In Ireland they always nick a piece of the skin off before they place them in the pot; the water is gradually heated, but never allowed to boil ; cold water should be added as soon as the water commences boiling, and it should thus be checked until the potatoes are done, the skins will, not then bo broken or cracked until the potato is thoroughly done ; DErrAILS OF PEAOTtCAL COOKEET. 71 poor the water oflF coaipletely, and let the skin^ be thoroughly dry before peeling. To Boil New Potatoe(|,-^The sooner the new potatoes are cooked alter being dug the better tbey will eat ; clear off the loose skins with a coarse towel and cold water ; when they are thoroughly clean put them into scalding water, a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes will be *Dund sufiBcient to coot them ; strain off the wa,ter dry, sprinkle a little salt over the potatoes and send them to table. If very young, melted butter should accompany them.. To Boil Irish yOitatoes-^Wash your potatoes, then pare them, and throw them into a pail of cold water; let theni stand several hours, if convenient, fut them into boiling water, with , a little salt, let them boil about twenty minutes, or till you can pass a fork through them, pour off the water, and let them stand a few moments to dry. Ta^e them out one or, if small,, two at a time into a clean crash-towel and wring them. They will be dry and mealy, as twenty years' experience has proved. Boasted Potatoes.-^Clean thorpnghly ; nick a small piece out of the skin, and roast in the oven ; a lit(;Te butter is sometimes rubbed over the skin to make them crisp. Potatoes in Ha^tCi — --A. very nice little dish may be made of potatoes, in about fifteen minutes (or less if the water is boiling) : peel and cut some potatoes in slices, a quarter or half an inch thick ; pour on them boiling water, enough to cover them, and let them boil till tender ; skim tiiena ; thea add butter with flour, worked in it in proportion to t}i,e quantity of potatoes, let it boil up once, add a little chopped, parsley, and serve, with the addition of pepper to taste. Fried or Broiled Potatoes. — Cut, cold boiled potatoes in slices a quar- ter of an inch thick ; have ready a fryiijg-pan with hot lard or dripping, in which put some salt, lay in the pptatoes, and let, them fry a, deli- cate brown, turning them as they require, or lay them on a gridiron over bright ooails, and as they are done take them on. a hot dish, with butter, pepper, and salt to taste. Potatoes Glazed. — Boil well; skim them; choose the rnostflpu.ryj roll them in yolk of egg, a.nd place them before the fire to brown. Potato Rissoles,— Boil the potatoes floury; mash them, seasoning with salt and a little cayenne ; mince parsley very finely,, and work up with the potatoes, addipg an onion also chopped small ; bind with yolk of egg, roll into balls, and fry with fresh butter over a clear fire. Meat, shred finely, bacons or ham, may be added, Potato Eagont.-^Mash fioury potatoes, make them into balls with yplk of egg, flour,'^nd, fry them ;• drain off aU grease, cover theni with, brown sauce, and serve. Porridge, or Sojip of Potatoes. — ^Mashthem; after h3,vingboiIe4 them quite hot, mix them with some fine white veal gravy, thicken with cream; it should, when done, bq of the consistency of apple-sauce. To Masll Potatoes. — Boil the potatoes as above; peel them,, remove all the eyes and lumps ;* beat them up ■vyith, butter and s^lt until they are quite siuooth ; force them into a mould which has been previously floured, turn into a tureen, which the flour will enable you easily to 72 THE FAMILY. do ; brown them before tlie fire, turning gently so as not to injure the shape, and when a nice color send to table. They are sometimes coated with white of egg, but they may be cooked without. Potato-Balls. — Mash some floury potatoes quite smooth, season with pepper and salt, add fresh butter until sufficiently moist, but not too much so; make into balls, roll them in vermicelli crumbled, or bread crumbs ; in the latter case they may be brushed with the yolk of egg fry them a nice brown. Serve them on a napkin, or round a dish of mashed potatoes which has not been moulded. Sweet Potatoes, Baked. — Wash them perfectly clean, wipe them dry, and bake in a quick oven, according to their size — half an hour for quite small size, three-quarters for larger, and a full hour for the largest. Let the oven have a good heat, and do not open it, unless it is necessary to turn them, until they are done. Parsnip Fritters. — Boil four or five parsnips ; when tender, take off the skin and mash them fine, add to them a teaspoonful of wheat flour and a beaten egg ; put a tablespoonful of lard or .beef dripping in a frying-pan over the fire, add to it a saltspoonful of salt ; when boiling hot put in the parsnips, make it in small cakes with a spoon; when one side is a deli- cate brown turn the other ; when both are done, take them on a dish, put a very little of the fat in-which they were fried over, and serve hot. These resemble very nearly the tasto of the salsify or oyster plant, and will generally be preferred. Parsnips. — Wash parsnips and boil them with the skins on ; when done, scrape them and slice them, with butter, pepper, and salt ; or fry them as potatoes in hot lard — or they may be stewed down with meat. Radishes. — Wash them, and let them lie in clean cold water as soon as they are brought in. Before they go to table scrape off the outside skin, trim the sharp end, leave the stalk about an inch long ; if large, split them in four half-way down, and send them to the table in tumblers, to be eaten with salt. Squashes. — Summer squashes, if very young, may be boiled whole — if not, they should be pared, quartered, and the seeds taken out. When boiled very tender, take them up, put them in a strong cloth, and press out all the water — mash them ; salt and butter them to your taste. The neck part of the winter squash is the best. Cut it in narrow strips, take off the rind, and boil the squash in salt and water till tender — then drain off the water, and let the squash steam over a moderate fire for ten or twelve minutes. It is good mashed — if mashed, add a little butter. Green Sweet Corn. — Corn is much sweeter to be boiled in the cob. If made into succotash, cut it from the cobs, and boil it with Lima beans, and a few slices of salt pork. It requires boiling from fifteen to thirty minutes, according to its age. Sea-Kale requires to be very well done— there is little occasion to fear doing it too much ; tie in bundles after washing and trimming, boil it in equal parts of milk and water, and serve it with melted butter. It may be laid on toast or not, according to taste. , After being well boiled it must be thoroughly drained before laying upon the toast; five-and-twenty minutes will be found sufficient to boil it. DETAILS Off PEAOnCAI. COOKEET. 73 Porridge of Turnips. — Pare and cut up several turnips into slices, put them on to boil in milk and water until tender, strain them on the back of a sieve, throw away the liquor, and rub thrpugh the turnips ; when done put them into a stew-pan with apiece of butter, a spoonful of flour, a gill of cream, a little sugar, salt, and cayenne pepper. Broiled Mnslurooms. — Pare some large open mushrooms, leaving- the stalks on, paring them to a point; wash them well, turn them on the back of a sieve to drain. Put into a stew-pan two ounces of butter, some chopped parsley and onions ; fiy them for a minute on the fire ; when melted, place your mushroom-stalks upward on a pan, taen pour the butter and parsley over all the mushrooms ; pepper and salt them well with black pepper, put them in the oven to broil ; whe'u done put a little good stock to them, give them a boil, and dish them ; pour the liquor K)ver them, add more gravy, but let it be put in hot; an hour and a quarter before it is done add four tablespoonfuls of red wine to the liquor ; serve rery hot. Salad. — Take one or two lettuces, split them in two, thoroughly wash them, and drain the water from them, then cut them into small pieces, and mix them with small salad, celery, and beet-root; cut in small pieces some young radishes, and sliced cucumber, and an egg boiled hard cut into pieces and garnished about them. Make a sauce with the yolks of two eggs boiled hard, which rub well together in a ba^in with a wooden spoon ; add a little pepper, salt, and mustard ; when these are mixed to a smooth paste put in a few teaspoonfuls, of sweet oil, mix- ing it well between each spoonful ; then mix in a few teaspoonfuls of vinegar in the same manner ; when the sauce is mixed according to the directions it will never require shaking, and will always look like cream ; pour this over the salad, or serve it in a cruet. Salsify or VegetaMe Oyster. — ^The best way to cook it is to parboil it, (after scraping off the outside), then cut in slices, dip it into a beaten egg and fine bread-crumbs, and fry it in lard. It is very g»od broiled, then stewed a few minutes in milk, with a little butter and salt. An- other way, which is very good, is to make a batter of wheat flour, milk, and eggs ; cut the salsify in thin slices (after having been boiled tender), put them into the batter with a little salt ; drop this mixture into hot fat by the large spoonful. When a light brown they are cooked' suflS- ciently. Tomatoes, if very ripe, will skin easily ; if not, pour scalding water on them, and let them remain in it four or five minutes. Peel and put them in a stew-pan, with a tablespoonfal of water, if not very juicy ; if so, no water will be required. Put in a little salt, and stew them for half an hour ; then turn them into a deep dish with buttered toast. Another way of cooking them, which is considered very nice by epicures, is to put them in a deep dish, with fine bread-crumbs, crackers pounded fine, a layer of each alternately ; put small bits of butter, a little salt and pepper on each layer — some cooks add a little nutmeg and sugar. Have a layer cjf bread-crumbs on the top. Bake it three- quarters of an hour. Tomatoes, Raw. — Tomatoes may be sliced thin, and served with salt, pepper, and vinegar over, for breakfast ; or sliced, and strewn with sugar 4 6 f4 THE FAMILY. and grated nutmeg, for tea ; for dinner they may be stewed, or broiled, or baked. Southern Mode of Boiling Rice.— Have the water boiling. Allow at least two quarts of water to a pint of rice ; throw in a teaspoonful of salt; wash and pick clean and put in ; let it boil twenty minutes, and if not then dry, turn ofi" the water, and let it stand on the coals a few moments with the lid off. The kernels will be white, and preferred by many. Use in the place of pudding, with a sweet sauce, or with meats as a vegetable. Eice is better for being soaked two or three hours. COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, COCOA.— Coffee and tea have now become such universal beverages for the morning or after-dinner meal, that, beyond a few general directions, little remains for prefatory matter. Coffee should be purchased in the berry, and fresh roasted ; it should always, when possible, be ground just previous to being made.« After it is ground, it should not be exposed to the air, as the aroma speedily flies off. If more is ground than is required for the meal, keep it in a glass bottle closely stopped, or a tight tin canister. Coffee, like tea, should be an infusion, not a decoction. The best coffee is the Mocha, the next is the Java, and closely ap- proximating is the Jamaica and Bcrbice. Of tea, little need be said ; almost every one knows the rules for making, it. Boiling water should alone be used. Earthen tea-pots in preference to metal. Silver is better than either. Chocolate can only be obtained pure of a first-rate house; that com- monly sold is most infamously adulterated. Cocoa is the foundation of chocolate ; it may be pounded, and either boiled as milk, or boiling water may be poured upon it. It is very digest- ible, and of a fattening nature. COFFEE 4ND TEA.— ColTce.— The adulterations of tea and coffee point- ed out by Dr. Hassall are not of a serious nature, being confined to flour, starch, poiato-fhrina, sago-meal, wheat-flour, tapioca-starch, Mar- anta, and other arrowroots, tous les mois, and animal fats ; but as the latter are employed in the roasting of all farinaceous grains, to prevent the burning thereof, and also to preserve as far as possible their essen- tial oils from destruction by heat, we see nothing to make our readdrs uncomfortable. Those who prefer the pure cocoa can obtain the " nibs," or more properly " beans," and grind them. But many prefer the soluble cocoa, which is simply cocoa modified by admixture with less stimulating substances. To make good common coffee, allow a tablespoonful of it, when properly roasted and ground, to each pint of water. Turn on the water boiling hot, and boil the coffee in a tin pot from twenty to twenty-five minutes— if boiled longer, it will not taste fi-esh and lively. Let it stand, after being taken from the fire, four or five minutes to settle ; then turn it off carefully from the grounds, into a coffee-pot or urn. When the coffee is put on the fire to boil, a piece offish-skin (prepared and dried for that purpose,) or isinglass of the size of a shilling, should te put in, or the white and shell of half an egg, to a couple of quarts DETAILS as PRACTICAL OOOKEET. 7JJ of coffee, "^len cream cannot be procured for coffee, th«s codec witj be much richer to boil it with a less proportion of watei than the above rule, and weaken it with boiling-hot milk, when served out in cups. Another way for making coffee is, to put the ground coffee mto a wide-mouthed bottle overnight, and pour rather more than half a pint of water upon each ounce and a halti and to cork tne bottle ; in the morning to loosen the cork, put the bottle into a pan of hot water, and bring the water to a boiling heat. The coflue is then to be poured off clear, and the latter portion strained ; that which is not drank imme- diately is kept closely stopped, and is heated as it is wanted. Coffee is adulterated with chiccory, roasted beans, pease, and acorns ; but chiefly by chiccory. Having your own mill, buy the roasted beans ; find out a respectable grocer, ascertain his roasting-days, and always buy from a fresh roast. If you like the flavor of chiccory, purchase it separate, and add to taste. Chiccory, in small quantitifes, is not, as nas been represent- ed, injurious, but healthful; because the "taraxacum" root has been used medicinally, and its name has found a place in Pharmacopoeias, it has been vulgarly set down as " physic," and thrown to the dogs. The tonic hop might be discarded upon the same pretext. Chiccory is a healthful addition to coffee, but you need not pay the coffee price for it. Grind yonr coffee, and mix with chiccory for yourself. CoBee, to Boast. — Coffee should never be roasted but when you are going to use it, and then it should be watched with the greatest care, and made of a gold color ; mind and do not burn it, for a few grains burnt would communicate a bitter taste to the whole ; it is the best way to roast it in a roaster which turns with the hand, over a charcoal fire, as, by that means, it will not be forgotten, which is very often the case when in the oven, or before the fire. A Substitute for Cream for Coffee. — Beat up a fresh egg, then pour boil- ing water on it gradually to prevent its curdling. It is diflBcult to dis- tinguish it from rich cream. •• Coffee Milk, — Boil a dessertspoonful of coffee in nearly a pint of milk a quarter of an hour, then put in a little isinglass and clear it, and let it boil a few minutes, and set it on the fire to grow, finei Coffee Cream. — Mix three cups of good coffee with one pint of cream, and sugar according to taste ; boil them together, and reduce them about one-third ; observe that the coffee must be done as if it was for drinking alone, and settle very clear before you mix it with the cream. Coffee, to give it tlie Flavor of Vanilla. — ^Take a handful of oats, very clean, and let them boil for five or six minutes in soft water ; throw this away, and fill it up with an equal quantity, and lot it boil for half an hour ; then pass this decoction through a silk sieve, and use it to make your coffee, which will acquire, by this means, the flavor of vanilla, and is veiy nice. CHOCOI ITE. — According as you intend to make this, either with milk or jrater, for each cup of one or the other of these liquids put into a chocolate-pot, add one ounce of cake chocolate. Some persons dissolve- the chocolate before they put it into the milk ; let it boil slowly or just simmer for half an hour ; add cream or milk to it, and sugar to taste ; OP the sugar may be omitted until served. 76 THE FAMn-T. Tea. — Scrild the tea-pot, and if the tea is a strong kii*| a teaspoonfnl for a pint of water is sufficient ; if it is a weak kind, more will be re- qnired. Pour on just enough boiling water to -cover the tea, and let it steep. Green tea should not steep more than five or six minutes before drinking ; if steeped longer, it will not be lively. Black tea requires steeping ten or twelve minutes to extract the strength. Tea is adulterated with leaves of the sycamore, horse-chestnut, and plum ; with lie-tea, which is made up of tea-dust, sand and gum, to give it -consistency ; 'also with leaves of the beech, bastard plane, elm, poplar, willow, fancy oak, hawthorn, and sloe. It is colored with black-lead, rose-pink, Dutch-pink, vegetable red and yellow dyes, arsenite of copper, chromate and bichromate of potash. Green teas are more adulterated than black. They are colored with Prussian-blue, turmeric, Chinese yellow, etc., flavored with sulphate of iron, catechu-gum, la veno beno, ,and Chinese botanical powder. Tea-leaves that have been once used, tare collected, " doctored," and again sold as fresh tea. Obtain some genuine leaves of tea, moisten them, and lay them out with gum upon paper. Press them between the leaves of books until dry. When yon ;8uspect a sample of tea, damp and unroll the leaves, and gum and dry them as genuine ones ; you will then be able hy comparison to detect the admixture. HOfflB-MABE WIIES. — Now that fruit and sugar are both so cheap, all housewives may add wines to their household stores as easily as they may preserves. The difficulty and expense of making is trifling, com- pared with what the latter used to be. Next to the fruit, sugar is the most important ingredient. In wine countries, the grape, under the in- fluence of climate, contains within itself the chemical properties to produce fermentation, while with us artificial aid is compelled to be used to accomplish it. The four requisites for fermentation are sugar, vege- table extract, malic acid, and water; and upon the proper regulation of tiiese constituents the success depends. The fermentation requires great attention, and should neither be suf- fered to continue too long, nor be checked too early. Its commence- ment, which will be about a day after the articles have been mixed, will attract attention by the noise it makes. For a sweet wine, the cask should not be closed until the sound of fermentation has almost ceased. If a dry wine, have ready a barrel which has been subjected to the ifumes of sulphur, and draw off your wine into it. Eack off the wine, clearing it with isinglass, and bottle it in about ten weeks after. Apple-Wine. — Add to a 'barrel of cider the herb scurlea, the quint- essence of wine, a little nitre, and a pound of syrup of honey. Let it work in the cask till clear and well settled ; then draw it off, and it will be little inferior to Rhenish, either in clearness, color, or flavor. Grapc-Wlne, — To one gallon of grapes put one gallon of water ; bruise the grapes ; let them stand a week witnout stirring ; then draw it off, and fine. Put to a gallon of wine three pounds of sugar; put it jn a .vessel, but it must not be stopped till it has done hissing. Cherry-Wiue. — To make five pints of this wine, take fifteen pounds of cherries and two of currants ; bruise them together ; mix with them two-thirds of the kernels, and put the whole of the cherries, currants, DETAILS OF PBAOTIGAl COOKEET. 7t and kernels into a barrel, with a quarter of a pound of sugar to every pint of juice. The barrel must be quite full; cover the barrel wili vine-leaves, and sand above them, and let it stand until it has done working, which will be in about three weeks ; then stop it with a bung, and in two months' time it may be bottled. C arrant-Wine. — Take sixteen pounds of currants and three gallons of water; break the currants with your hands in the water; strain it off;, put to it fourteen pounds of sugar ; strain it into a wassel ; add a pint of brandy and a pint of raspberries; stop it down, and let it stand three months. Another. — To every pailful of currants, on the stem, put one pailful of water ; mash and strain. To each gallon of the mixture of juice and water add three and a quarter pounds of sugar. Mix: well, and put in your cask, which should be placed in the cellar, on the tilt,- that, it may be racked off in October,, without stirring up the sediment. Two bushels of currants will make one barrel of wine. Four gallons of the mixture of juice and water will, aflier thirteen pounds of sugar are addedi make five gallons of wine; The barrel should be filled within, three inches of the bung, which must be made air-tight, by placing wet clay over it after it is driven in. Elder- Wine. — Pour a gallon of boiling water over every gallon of ber- ries; let it stand twelve hours; then draw it off,-and^boil it up witb three pounds and a half of sugar ;.. when boiling, beat ujt the whites', of some eggs, and clarify it ; skim it elear ; then add half an ounce of pounded ginger to every gallon of the wine ; boil it a little longer be- fore you put \t in the tub ; when coolj put in a. toast rubbed in yeast ;, let it ferment a day or two, after which put it into a barrel previously rinsed with brandy. AIL wines should be lukewarm when the yeast is" added to it. Easpberry-Wine. — Take three pounds of raisins, W^h>, clean,, and stone- them thorougbly ; boil two gallons of spring-water for half an hour ; as soon as it is taken off the fire pour it into a deep stone jar, and put in the raisins, with six quarts of raspberries and two pounds of loaf- sugar ; stir it well together, and cover them closely, and set it in a cool place ; stir it twice a day, then pass it through a sieve ; put the liquor into a close vessel, adding one pound more loaf-sugar; let it stand' few aF day and night to settle,, after which bottle itj adding a little mare sngar. 78 THE FAMILT. THE COOK'S TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, *By which persons not having scales and weights at hand may readily measure Vie artides wanted to form any recipe, without the trouble o/ weighing. Allowance to be jnade for an ixtraordmary dryness or moistwe of tlie article weiglied or measured. WEiaHT AND MEASUEK Wheat flour one pound is one quart. Indian meal one pound two ounces are one quart. Butter, when soft one pound is one quart Loaf-sugar, broken one pound is ofie quart. While sugar, powdered one pound one ounce are one quart Best brown sugar one pound two ounces are one quart Eggs ten eggs are one pound. Elour eight quarts are one peck. Flour '. four pecl^ are onebusheL UQDIDS, ETC. Sixteen large tablespoonfuls are half a pint. Eight large tablespoonfuls are one gilL Four large tablespoonfuls are ; . . . half a gilL Two gills are half a pint. Two pints are one quart Four quarts are one gallon. A common-sized tumbler holds half a pint A common-sized wine-glass is half a gill. A tea-cup is one giU. A large wine-glass is two ounces. A tablespoonful half ounce. Forty drops are equal to one teaspoonfuL Four teaspoonfuls are equal to one tablespoonful miscELi^ArvEovs practicai, receipts IM HOVSEHOIiD ECOIVOMY. WASHING.— This is the most difficult and laborious of household duties; and he that shall render its performance shorter and easier will be a public benefactor. Improvements have been made in this as in other arts ; and if they were more widely known and generally practiced, this difficult duty would be rendered much more efficient and less tedi- ous than it now is. Washing Made Easy.— Any family that will use the following receipt will find It worth to them every year more than twice the cost of this book. It saves much time and hard labor, and also much injury in the wearing of clothes. It is not to be used for colored clothes. It is used extensively m England and on the continent, and, it is hoped, will be- come as general in this country. We have found it to be all that is M180EIJ.A1IEOTJS PRACTICAL EE0EIPT3. 79 claimed for it. The advantage.iof this over all others, is in the use of lime, which, without in the least injuring the texture of garments, makes them, by its strong bleaching qualities, a beautiful white. First, select from the clothes to be washed all'the coarse and dirtiest pieces from the fine ; then put tlwm in separate tubs of soft water to soak overnight (the-night previous to washing). Then prepare, in a sep- arate vessel, the liquid for a large washing, namely, half a pound of good brown soap, cut in small pieces, half a pound of soda, and three ounces of fresh unslacked lime, mixed in one gallon pi boiling soft water. Stir well up, so as to mix the ingredients, and let it stand until morning. Then strain off the liquid, being careful to leave all sediment behind. Having ready ten gallons or so of boiling soft water in your boiler, pour in the prepared liquid (keeping out all settlings that may yet be re- maining), then throw in your clothes and boil them twenty minutes or half an hour ; previous to which, put an earthen plate at the bottom of the boiler, to prevent the clothes from burning. After boiling the ap- pointed time, take them out ; scald them, blue them, and rinse them in clean soft water, warm or cold, and your clothes will be as clean and white as snow. By this method, the finest linens, laces, cambrics, etc., can be readily and easily cleansed with very little trouble. No rubbing the skin off your hands and» tearing the clothes to pieces ; and the washing for a family of twenty persons completed before breakfast ; have the clothes out to dry, the house in good order, all comfortable, again for the day, and the family saved from washing-day annoyances. Who would not wish to have such comforts ? Should there be only a small washing, and less than ten gallons of water required to boil them in, less of the liquid of lime, soap and soda can be used in proportion. When there is any difficulty in procuring fresh lime, a quantity of the liquor may be made at once from the lime, which will keep for years, corked in bottles and ready for use. Another Method of Washing — occupying exactly One Hour. — Have a preparation made from two tablespoonfuls of alcohol, two ditto spirits of turpentine, half a pound of brown soap, cut fine and mixed in one quart of hot water. Pour the same into a large tub of boiling water, and allow the clothes to soak for twenty minutes ; then take them out and put them in a tub of clean cold water for twenty minutes. Afterward boil them in a like quantity of the above preparation for the other twenty minutes, and rinse in cold water. N. B. In using either of the above methods of washiug, all fine clothes should be gone through with first, as colored, very dirty, or greasy clothes ought not to be boiled with those of a finer fabric, and contain- ing less dirt, as the water in which they are boiled must of course par- take more or less of its contents. The same water that has been used for the finer clothes will likewise do for coarse and colored. Should the wristbands of the shirts be ^ery dirty, a little soap may be previously rubbed on. Tiie above is a very excellent receipt, and may be confided in as par- ticularly effective in lahor saving. Another Receipt. — Take one pint of alcohol, one pint spirits of tur- 80 THE FAMILY. pentine, two quarts of strong soda-water. Manage the clothes as above directed. Spirits turpentine, camphene, or Porter's burning fluid, separately, answer a good purpose. Two or three tablespoonfuls to a washing will greatly facilitate the business. Another Very Oood Receipt. — One pound hard soap (for four dozen clothes), seven teaspoonfuls spirits turpentine, five ditto hartshlsrn, five ditto of vinegar. Directions. — Dissolve the soap in hot water ; mix the ingredients. Then divide the mixture in two parts ; put half in the water with the clothes overnight ; next morning wring them out. Put them to boil in five or six gallons of water, and add the rest of the mixture ; boil thirty minutes, and rinse out thoroughly in cold water; blue them, and hang them out to dry. This receipt has been found to answer a very valuable purpose, and is worthy of trial. STABCHINS, FOLDING, IRONING, ETC.— To Prepare Starch.— Take two tablespoonfuls of starch dissolved in as much water ; add a gill of cold water ; thcL add one pint of boiling water, and boil it half an hour, adding a smail piece of spermaceti, sugar, or salt ; strain, etc. Thin it with water. Flonr-Starcll. — Mix flour gradually with cold water, so that it may be free from lumps. Stir in cold water till it will pour easily ; then stir it into a pot of boiling water, and let it boil five or six minutes, stirring it frequently. A little spermaceti will make it smoother. This starch will answer very well for cotton and linen. Poland starch is made in the same manner. Glue-Starch. — Boil a piece of glue four inches square in three quarts of water. Keep it in a bottle well corked. Use for calicoes. Gnm-Staich. — Dissolve four ounces of gum-arabic in a quart of hot water and set it away in a bottle corked. This is used for silks and fine muslins. It can be mixed with water at discretion. Starching Clothes. — Muslins look well when starched, and clapped dry _while the starch is hot, then folded in a damp cloth till they become quite damp, before ironing them. If muslins are sprinkled they are apt to be spotted. Some ladies clap muslins, then dry them, and afterward sprinkle them. Sprinkling Clothes. — They shpuld be sprinkled with clear water, and laid in separate piles ; one of flannels, one of colored, one of common, and one of fine articles. Folding Clothes.— Fold the fine articles and roll them in a towel, and then fold the rest, turning them all right side outward. Lay the colored articles separate from the rest. They should not remain damp long, as the colors might be injured. Shee^ and table linen should be shaken and folded. Ironing.— In ironing a shirt, first do the back, then the sleeves, then the collar and bosom, and then the front. Iron calicoes generally on the right side, as they thus keep clean for a longer time. In ironing a frock, first do the waist, then the sleeves, then the skirt. Keep the skirt rolled while ironing the. other parts, and set a chair to hold the MISCELLANEOirS PRAOTICAl EECEIPTS. 81 sleeves while ironing the skirt, unless a skirt-board be used? Silk should be ironed on the wrong side when quite damp, with an iron which is not very hot ; light colors are apt to change and fade. In ironing vel- vet, turn up the face of the iron, and, after dampening the wrong side of the velvet, draw it over the face of the iron, holding it straight; al- ways iron lace and needlework on the wrong side, and carry them away as soon as they are dry. Starching.— Clear-starching, etc.— To Make Starch for linen, Cotton, etc. ^-:To one ounce of the best starch add just enough soft cold water to make it (by rubbing and stirring) into a thick paste, carefully breaking all the lumps and particles. When rubbed perfectly smooth, add nearly or quite a pint of boiling water (with bluing to suit the taste), and boil for at least half an hour, taking care to have it well stirred all the time, to prevent its burning. When not stirring, keep it covered, to prevent the accumulation of dust, etc. Also keep it covered when re- moved from the fire, to prevent a scum from rising upon it. To give the linen a fine, smooth, glossy appearance, and prevent the iron from sticking, add a little spevinaceti (a piece as large as a nutmeg) to the starch when boiling, and half a teaspoonful of the finest table-salt. K you have no spermaceti (to be had cheap at any druggist's), take a piece of the purest, whitest hogs' lard, or tallow (mutton is the best), about as large as a nutmeg, or twice this quantity of the best refined loaf-sugar, and boil with the starch. In ironing linen collars, shirt-bosoms, etc, their appearance will be much improved by rubbing them, before iron- ing, with a clean white towel dampened in soft water. The bosom of a shirt should be the last part ironed, as this will prevent its being soiled. All starch should be strained before using. Receipt for Washing Woolen Goods, — The art of washing woolen goods so as to prevent them from shrinking, is one of the desiderata in domes- tic economy worthy of being recorded ; and it is,, therefore, with satis- &ction we explain this simple process to our readers. All descriptions of woolen goods should be washed in very hot water with soap ; and as soon as the article is cleaused immerse it in cold water; then let it be hung up tq be dried. To Make Calicoes Wash Well. — Infuse three gills of salt in four quarts ©r boiling water, and put the calicoes in while hot, and leave them tiU cold ; in this way the colors are rendered permanent, and will not fade by subsequent washing. So says a lady who has frequently made the experiment herself. Nothing can be cheaper or quicker done. How to Make Soap without Boiling. — Take one gallon of lye, strong enoBgh to bear up an egg, to every pound of grease. Put the lye into your barrel, and strain the grease hot through a sieve or cullender. Stir this three or four times a day for several days, or until it thickens. By this process you have soap clearer, and with much less trouble, than in the old way. Hard Soap. — Take eight pounds of soft soap — if you wish it nice, use that made of olive-oil — boil it two hours with six pounds of common salt, and it will make five pounds of hard soap. Add a little rosin when you melt it over,||nd if you wish it nice, scent it with fragrant oil. To Clear-Stareh'ace, etc. — Starch for laces should be thicker and usea 4* 82 THE FAMn.Y. hotter than tor linens. After your laces Lave been well washed and dried, dip them into the thick hot starch in such a way as to have every part properly starched. Then wring all the starch out of them, and spread them out smooth on a piece of linen, and roll them up together, and let them remain for about half an hour, when they will be dry enough to iron. Laces should never be clapped between the hands, as it injures them. Cambrics do not require so thick stjirch as net or lace. Some people prefer cold or raw starch for book-muslin, as some of this kind of muslin has a thick clammy appearance, if starched in boiled starch. Fine laces are sometimes wound round a glass bottle to dry, which prevents them from shrinking. Ironing laces, — Ordinary laces and worked muslin can be ironed by the usual process with a smoothing or sad-iron ; finer laces cannot. When the lace has been starched and dried, ready for ironing, spread It out as smooth as possible on an iron-cloth, and pass over it, back and forth, as quickly as you can, a smooth, round glass bottle containing hot water, giving the bottle such pressure as may be required to smooth the lace. Sometimes you may pass the laces over the bottle, taking care to keep them smooth. Either way is much better than to iron laCes with an iron. In filling the bottle with hot water, care must be taken not to pour it in too fast, or the bottle will break. To Raise the Pile of Velvet when Pressed Down.— Warm a smoothing- .tron moderately, and cover it with a wet cloth, and lay or hold it under the velvet, on the wrong side. The steam from this will penetrate the velvet, and you can raise the pile with a common brush, and make it appear as good as new. When Water is Hard, and will not readily unite with soap, it will always be proper to boil it before use; which Will be found sufficiently efficacious, if the hardness depends solely upon the impregnation of ime, in the form of what modern chemistry designates as a subcarbon- ate. The philosophical reason for this is, that the lime, by some secret process of nature, is united to a portion of carbonic acid, which causes it to be suspended in the water : but, in the process of boiling, the car- bonic acid unites with the acquired caloric, and is carried off with it into the atmosphere. Even exposure to the atmosphere will produce this effect in a great degree upon spring water so impregnated, leaving it much fitter for lavatory purposes. In both cases the water ought to be carefully poured off from the sediment, as the neutralized.lime, when freed from its extra quantity of carbonic acid, falls to the bottom by its own gravity. Boiling, however, has no effect, when the hardness of the water proceeds from lime united with the sulphuric acid, or sulphate of lime of the modern chemistry ; and it must be neutralized, or brought to its proper state, by the application of common Wood-ashes from the kitchen grate, or of barilla, now called soda, or the Dantzio ashes, or pearlash, or by the more scientific process of dropping in a solution of subcarbonate of potash. Each of these unites with the sul- phuric acid, and separates it from the lime, which gravitates, as in the former case, to the bottom. To a pint of fresh-slacked lime, add a gallon- of water, and allow the sediment to settle ; §Dur off the clear water, and bottle tightly for use. Half a pint of this should be added MISCELLAUEOUS PRAOTIOAL EEOEIPTS. 83 to a gallon of hard water, which should be stirred and allowed to settle, . after which the clear water is filtered through Canton flannel, and is then fit for use, being quite soft. Having thus philosophically explained the arcana of the washing-tub, we may oflfer a saving hint in order to economize the use of soap, which is, to put any quantity of peavlash into a large jar, covered from the dust ; in a few days the alkali will become liquid, which must be diluted in double its quantity of soft water with its equal quantity of new-slacked lime. Boil it half an hour, fre- quently stirring it ; adding as much more hot water, and drawing off the liquor, when the residuum may be boiled afresh, and drained, until it ceases to feel acrid to the tongue. Soap and Labor may be Saved by dissolving alum and chalk in bran- water, in which the linen ought to be boiled, then well rinsed out, and exposed to the usu^l process of bleaching. Soap may be disused, or nearly so, in the getting up of muslins and chintzes, which should always be treated agreeably to the oriental man- ner ; that is, to wash them in plain water, and then boil them in congee or rice-water : after which they ought not to be submitted to the oper- ation of the smoothing-iron, but rubbed smooth with a polished stone. The Economy which must result from these processes renders their con- sideration important to every private family ; in addition to i\fcich we must state, that the improvements in philosophy extend to the laundry as well as to the wash-house. ' Review. — After washing, ovei^ok linen, and stitch on buttons, hooks and eyes, etc. ; for this purpose, keep a " hoi&ewife's friend," full of miscellaneous threads, cottons, buttons, hooks, etc. DYEING. — General Directions. — ^The materials should bo perfectly clean ; soap should be rinsed out in soft water ; the article should be entirely wetted, or it will spot; light colors should be steeped in brass, tin, or earthen; and, if set at all, should be set with alum. Dark colors should be boiled in iron, and set with copperas. Too much cop- , peras rots the thread. For Coloring Sky-bine. — Get the blue composition. It may be found at the druggist's or clofliier's for a shilling an ounce. If the articles are not white, the old colors should be all discharged by soap or a strong tartaric acid water ; then rinse. Twelve or sixteen drops of the com- position, stirred into a quart bowl of warm soft water, and strained if settlings are seen, will dye a great many articles. If you want a deeper color, add a few drops more of the composition. If you wish to color cotton goods, put in pounded chalk to destroy the acid, which is very destructive to all cotton. Let it stand until the effervescence subsides, and then it may be safely used for cotton as well as silk. for Lilae Color. — Take a little pinch of archil, and put some boiling- hot water upon it ; add to it a very little lump of pearlash. Shades may be altered by pearla^, common salt, or wine. To Color Black, — Logwood and cider, boiled together in iron— add water for the evaporation — makes a good and durable black. Busty nails, or any bits of, rusty iron, boiled in vinegar,' with a small piece of copperas, will also dye black ; so will ink-powder, if boiled with vinegar. In all cases, black must be set with copperas. 84 THE FAMILT. Lemon-Color. — Peach-leaves, bark scraped from the barberry-bush, safifron, etc., steeped in water, and set with alum, will color a bright lemon ; drop in a little gum-arabic to make the articles stiE lloyal Purple. — Soak logwood chips in soft water until the strength is out ; then add a teaspoonful. of- alum to a quart of the liquor. If this is not bright enough, add more alum. Binse, and dry. When the dye is exhausted, it will color a fine lilac. Slate-Color. — Tea grounds, boiled in iron vessels, set with copperas, makes a good slate-color.. To produce a light slate-color, boil white maple bark in clear water, with a little alum. The bark should be boiled in brass utensils. The goods should be boiled in it, and then hung where they will drain and dry. Scarlet. — Dip the cloth in a solution of alkaline or metallic salt, then in a cochineal dye, and let it remain some time, and it will come out permanently colored. Another method : half a pound of madder, half an ounce of cream tartar, one ounce of marine acid to a pound of cloth — put it all together, and bring the dye to a scalding heat. Put in yeiii materials, and they will be colored in ten minutes^ The dye must be only scalding hot. Einse your goods in cold water as soon as they come from the dye. To Color a Bright Madder.— For one pound of yam or cloth take three ounces of madder, three ounces of alum, one ounce of cream tartar ; prepare a brass kettle with two gallons of water, and bring the liquor to a steady heat; then add your aluni and tartar, and bring it to a bcnl. Put in your cloth, and boil it two lionrs ; take it out, and rinse it in cold water. Empty your kettle, and fill it with as much water as before ;. then add your madder ; rub it in fine in the water before your cloth is in. Wl^en your dye is as warm as you can bear your hand in, then pat in your cloth, and let it lie one hour, and keep a steady heat ; keep it in motion constantly ; then bring it to a boil fifteen minutes ; then air and rinse it. If your goods are new, use four ounces of madder to a ■pound. To Color Green.— If you wish to color green, have your cloth as free as possible from \he old color, clean,, and rinsed ; and, in the first place;, color it deep yellow. Fustic, boiled in soft water, makes the strongest and brightest yellow dye ; but safi'ron, barberry-bush, peach-leaveSj: or onion-skins, will answer pretty well. Next take a bowlful of strong yellow dye, and pour in a great spoonful or more of the blue composi- tion. Stir it up well with a clean stick, and dip the articles, you have already colored yellow into it, and they will take a lively grass-green. This is a good plan for old bombazet-curtains, dessert-cloths, old flannel for desk-coverings, etc. Straw-Color and Yellow.— Saffron, steeped in earthen, and strained, colors a fine straw-color. It makes a delicate or deep shade, according to the strength of the tea. The dry, outside skins of onions,, steeped io scalding water, and strained, color a yellow very much like the " bird of paradise" color. Peach-leaves, or bark scraped from the barberry- bush, color a common bright yellow. In all these cases, a little bit of alum does no harm, and may help to fix the color. Ribbons, gauze handkerchiefs, etc., are colored well in this way, especially if they MISOELLAiraOITS PUAOTICAL EECEIPTS. 85 be stiflfened by a bit of gum-arabic, dropped in while the stuff is steeping. ^ Diab-Golofi — Take plum-tree sproits, and boil them an hour oi more ; add copperas, accordiBg to the shade you wish your articles to be. White ribbons take very pretty in this dye. To Dye Purple with Cochineal.— Boil an ounce of cochineal in a quart of vinegar. To Dye Brown, — ^Use a teaspoon of soda to an ounce of cochineal and quart erf soft water. To Color Pinlc. — Boil one pound of cloth an hour in alum-water; pound three-quarters of an ounce of cochineal and mix with one ounce of cream oi tartar; put in a brass kettle, with water enough to cover the cloth ; when about blood-heat, put in your cloth ; stir constantly, and boil about fifteen minutes. To Dye a Coffee-Color. — Use copperas in a madder-dy& instead of mad- der compound. Nankm-Golor. — The simplest way is to take a pailful of lye, to which put a piece of copperas half as big as a hen's egg. Boil in a copper or tin kettle. To Make Eose-Color. — Balm blossoms, steeped in water, co'or a pretty rose-color. This answers very well for the linings of children s bonnets, for ribbons, etc. To Dye Straw and Chip Bonnets Black.— Boil Uiem in strong logwood liquor three or four hours, occasionally adding green copperas, .and tak- ing the bonnets out to cool in the air, and this must be continued for some hours. Let the bonnets remain in the liquor all night, and the next morning take them out, dry them in the air, and brush them with a soft brush. Lastly, rub them inside and .out with a sponge moistened with oil, and then send them to be blocked. To Dye White Gloves a Beantiful Pnrple.— Boil four ounces of log- wood and two ounces of roche-alum, in three pints of soft water, till half wasted. Let it stand to be cold after straining. Let the gloves be nicely mended ; then do them over with a brushy and when dry repeat it. Twice is sufficient, unless the color is to be very dark. When dry, rub off the loose dye with a coarse cloth. Beat up the white of an egg, and with a sponge rub it over the leather. The dye will stain the hands, but wetting them with vinegar before they are washed will take it off. To Bleach Straw Hats, etc. — Straw hats and honnets are bleached bj putting them, previously washed in pure water, in a box with burning sulphur ; the fumes whieh arise unite with the water on the bonnets, and the sulphurous acid thus formed bleaches them. To Dye Silks Black. — To eight gallons of water add four ounces of ct^peras ; imm6rse for one hour and take out and rinse. Boil two pounds logwood chips, or one half-pound of extract; one half-pound of fustic ; and for white silks, one half-pound of nicwood ; dissolve two pounds of good bar-soap in a gallon of water ; mix all the liquids to- gether, and thei) add the soap, having just enough to cover the silk. Stir briskly until a good lather is formed, then immerse the silk and handle tt lively. The dye should be as warm as the hand will bear. Dry 86 THE FAMILY. quickly and without rinsing. The above is enough for ten yards, or one dress. To Color Yellow on Cotton.— Wet six pounds of goods thoroughly ; and to the same quantity of water add nine ounces of sugar of lead ; and to the same quantity of water in another vessel add six ounces of bichro mate of potash. Dip the goods first into the solution of sugar of lead, and next into that of the potash, and then again into the first. Wring out, dry, and afterward rinse in cold water. For Orange. — Prepare a lime-water as for whitewash ; the stronger it is the deeper will be the color. Pour off the water and boil. While boiling dip the goods which .you have already colored yellow. The above solutions to be cold, except the lime-water. These colors will not fade. WHITEWASHIBfG.— To Make Whitewash that will not rub off.— Mix up half a pailful of lime and water ready to put on the wall ; then take one gill oMour and mix it with the water ; then pour on ^ boiling water sufficient to thicken it; then- pour it, while hot, into the white- wash ; stir it all well together, and it is ready for use. But if you wish for yellow wash, take horseradish leaves half a pailful, boil them as if for greens, filter, and add the juice to the foregoing composition, and it will be a beautiful yellow. Excellent Cheap Whitewash. — Slack the lime as nsual, except that the water used should be hot, and nearly saturated with salt ; then stir in four handfuls of. fine sand,to make it thick like cream. Coloring matter can be added to both,*making a light stone-color, a cream-color, or a light buff. • Brilliant Whitewash, — Many have heard of the brilliant stucco white- wash on the cast end of the President's house at Washington. The following is a receipt for it ; it is gleaned from the National Intelligencer, with some additional improvements learned by experiments. Take half a bushel of nice unslacked lime, slack it with boiling water, cover it during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of salt, previously well dis- solved in warm water; three pounds of ground rice, boiled to a thin paste, and stirred in boiling hot; half a pound of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean glue, which has been previously dissolved by soaking it well, and then hanging it over a slow fire, in a small kettle within a large one filled with water. Add five gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand a few days covered from the dirt. It should be put on right hot ; for this purpose it. can be kept in a Kettle on a portable furnace. It is said that about a pint of this mix- ture will cover a square yard upon the outside of a house if properly applied. Brushes more or less small may be used According to the neatness of the job required. It answers as well as oil-paint for wood, brick, or stone, and is cheaper. It retains its brilliancy for many years. There is nothing of the kind that will compare with it, cither for inside or outside walls. Coloring matter maybe put in and made -of any 'shade you like. Spanish brown stirred in will make red pink, more or less deep accord- MISCELLAUEOTJS PEACnOAl EECETPTS. 87 ing to tbe quantity. A delicate tinge of this is very pretty for inside ■walls. Finely-pulverized common ckiy, well mixed with Spanish brown, make a reddish stone-ooior. Yellow ochre stirred in makes yellow wash, but chrome goes farther, and makes a color generally esteemed prettier. . In all these cases the darkness of the shades is of course determined by the kind and quantity of coloring matter employed. PAINTING. — In this article we shall not give directions for ordinary oil painting ; but for those che£^ and valuable substitutes for it, which every householder Can prepare' and apply, and which will be found equally efficient for the preservation of out-buildingl; fences, farm im- plements, etc. A Cheap and Durable Cement, — A most valuable and durable cement for the outside covering of wood-buildings and fences may be obtained by mixing two parts of sifted wood-ashes, one of fine sand, and three of clay ; these being again mixed with oil, and applied to the surface of the ■«^ood, are said to be capable of resisting the inclemency of the weather even better than marble itself. Black Paint made from Potatoes. — The " American Mechanic" says, on the authority of an old painter, that potatoes, being baked moderately at first in a close vessel from which air is excluded, and exposed to in- creased heat until they are completely charred through, may be ground in oil, and thus produce a beautiful black, superior in many respects to any other black in use. Substitute for White-lead. — Take one bushel of unslacked lime, and slack it with cold water. When slacked, add twenty pounds of Spanish whiting, seventeen pounds of salt, and twelve pounds of sugar. Strain this mixture through a wire-sieve, and it will be fit for use, after reduc- ing it with water. This is intended for the outside of buildings, oi where it is exposed to the weather. Two coats should be laid on wood and three on brick. A whitewash-brush may be used for laying it on, and each coat must be dried before the next is applied. This may be made of any color you please. For straw-color, instead of the whiting use yellow ochre ; for lefnon-color, ochre and chrome yellow ; for .lead, or slate-color, lampblack ; for bine, indigo ; and for green, chrome green. A Snbstitnte for White Oil-Paint. — Four quarts of skim-milk; one pound of fresh-slacked lime ; twelve ounces of linseed oil ; four ounces of white Burgandy pitch ; six pounds of Spanish white ; to be mixed as follows : the lime to be slacked in water, exposed to the air, mixed in about one-fourth of the milk ; the oil, in which the pitch is to have been previously dissolved, to be added a little at a time ; then the rest of the milk, and afterward the Spanish white. This quantity is suflS- cient for more than fifty square yards with two coats. Cheap Paint for a Barn. — An excellent and cheap paint for rough wood-work is miade of six pounds of melted pitch, one pint of linseed- oil, and one pound of brick-dust o» yellow ochre. A Varnish to Prevent the Rayof the Snn from Passing through Window or other Glass. — Pound gum tragacanth into powder, and pnt it to dis- solve for twenty-four hours in whites of eggs, well beaten. Lay a coat of this on your glass with a soft brush, and let it dry. 88 THE FAMILY. Cleansing Feathers of their Animal Oil.— The following receipt gained a premium from the Society of Arts : take for every gallon of clean water one pound of quick-lime ; mix them well together, and when the undissolved lime is precipitated in fine powder, pour off the clean lime-water for use. Put the feathers to be cleaned in another tub, and add to them a quantity of the dean lime-water, sufficient to cover them about three inches, when well immersed and stirred about therein. The feathers, when thoroughly moistened, will sink down, and should re- main in the lime-water three or four days; after which, the foul liquor should be separated from them, by laying them in a sieve. The feathers should be afterwards well washed in clean water, and dried upon nets, the meshes of which may be about the fineness of cabbage-nets. The feathers must be, from time to time, shaken on the nets, and, as they fet dry, will fall through the meshes, and are to be collected for use. 'he admission of air will be serviceable in drying. The process will be completed in three weeks ; and after being thus prepared, the feathers will only require to be beaten to get rid of the dust. BingWOrm, — The head to be washed twice a day with soft soap and warm soft water ; when dried, the places to be rubbed with a piece of linen rag dipped in ammonia from gas-tar ; the patient should take a little sulphur and molasses, or some other gentle aperient, every morn- ing ; brushes and combs should be washed every day, and the ammonia kept tightly corked. Directions for Making Good Sausages,— Take thirty pounds of meat, chopped fine ; eight ounces of fine salt ; two and a half ounces of pep- per ; two tea-cups of sage ; and one and a half cup of sweet marjoram, passed through a fine sieve. For the latter, thyme or summer savory can be substituted, if preferred. To Drive away Cockrpaches, — A respectable professional gentleman says he has discovered that spirits of turpentine is an effectual remedy against the depredations of cockroaches. Thus, put a little of it upon the shelves and sides of your book-cases, bureaux, or other ifurniture, in which they take shelter ; which may be done with a feather, and these troublesome insects will soon quit, not only the furniture, but the room. The remedy is simple, and easily obtained by every person who wishes 't. It is not unpleasant to the smell, soon evaporates, and does no injury to the furniture or clothing. This is a valuable discovery, if it proves in all cases as our informant assures us it did in his house. Moths, (to get rid of them,)— Procure shavings of cedar-wood, and in- close in muslin bags, which should be distributed fi:eely among the clothes. Procure shavings of camphor-wood, and inclose in bags. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes.' Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk-plant. To destroy the eggs when deposited in woolen cloth, etc., use a solution of acetate of potash in spirits of rosemary, fifteen grains to the pint. To Destroy Slugs.— Slugs are very voracious, and their ravages often do considerable damage, not only to the kilchen garden, but to the flower- . beds also. If, now and then, a few slices of turnip be put about the beds, on a summer or autumnal evening, the slugs will congregate thereon, and may be destroyed. MISCBLLANEOTJS PEACTICAI, EEOEIPTS. 89- Preserving Eggs. — The several modes recommended for preserving egga any length of time are not always successful. The egg, to he preserved well, should be kept at a temperature so low that the air and fluids within its shell shall not be brought into a decomposing condition ; and, at the same time, the air outside of its shell should be excluded, in order to prevent its action in any way upon the egg. The following mixture was patented several years ago by a Mr. Jayue. He alleged that by moans of it he could keep eggs two years. A part of his composition is often made use of — perhaps the whole of it would be better : put into a tub or vessel one bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, half a pound of cream of tartar, and mix the same together, with as much water as will reduce the composition or mixture to that consistence that it will cause an egg put into it to swim with its top just above the liquid ; then put and keep the eggs therein. An^Ifflprovemeilt in Making Candles. — Let the wick be steeped in lime- water, in which has also been dissolved a quantity of common nitre or saltpetre. By this means a purer flame and a superior light is obtained. A more perfect combustion is also insured; snuflBng is rendered nearly supei'fluons, as in wax candles ; and the candles with wicks thus prepared will not melt and run down. To Save Expense in Clotlling. — Purchase that which is at once decent, and the most durable ; and wear your garment, despite the frequent changes of fashion, till it becomes too defaced to appear decent ; then turn it, and wear it thenceforth as long as it protects the body. A blue coat is as warm after fashion requires a green one as it ever was. A red shawl, in fashion to-day, is as warm as a black one, which fashion re- quires to-morrow. A few years hence your fame will not depend upon the style, cqlor, or quality of the garments you wore in early life ; the width of the brim to your father's hat ; or the size and color of youi mother's bonnet. Composition to Make Colored Drawings and Prints Resemble Paintings in Oil. — Take of Canada balsam, one ounce ; spirits of turpentine, two ounces ; mix them together. Before this composition is applied, the drawing or print should be sized with a solution of isinglass in water, and when dry, apply the varnish with a camel's-hair brush. A Varnish to Color Baskets, — Take either red, black, or white sealing- wax, whichever color you wish to make; to every two ounces of seal- ing-wax add one ounce of spirits of wine; pound the wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn sieve, till you have made it extremely fine ; put it into a large phial with the spirits of wine ; shake it, let it stand near; the fire forty-eight hours, shaking it often ; then brush the baskets all. over with it ; let them dry, and do them over a second time. To Stain Harps, Violins, or any other Musical Instrument.—^ Crim- son Stain. — Take one pound of ground Brazil and boil it in three- quarts of water for an hour ; stain it, and add half an ounce of cochi. neal ; boil it again for half an hour gently, and it will be fit for use. If you would have it of the scarlet tint, boil half an qunce of saffron in a. quart of water, and pass over the work previous to the red stain. Ob- serve, the work must be very clean,- and of fir-wood or good sycamore,, without blemish. When varnished it will look very rich. 4* 1 90 THE FAMILY. For a. Purple Stain. — Take a pound of chip-logwood, to which put three quarts of water ; boil it well for an hour ; add four ounces of pearlash and two ounces of indigo pounded, and you will have a good puipie. Blue Stain. — Take a pound of oil of vitriol in a glass bottle, in which put four ounces of indigo, and proceed as before directed in dyeing. Crreen Stain. — Take three pints of strong vinegar, to which put four ounces of the best verdigris, ground fine, half an ounce of sap-green, and half an ounce of indigo. To Polish Mahogany Furniture. — Rub it with cold-drawn linseed oil, and polish by rubbing with a clean, dry cloth, after wiping the oil from the furniture. Do this once a week, and your mahogany tables will be so finely polished that hot water will not injure them. The reason is this — linseed oil hardens when exposed to the air, and when it has filled all the pores of the wood, the surface becomes hard and smooth like glass. To Clean Paint that is Not Varnished. — Take a flannel and squeeze nearly dry out of warm water, and dip in a little whiting; apply to the paint, and with a little rubbing it will instantly remove grease, smoke, or other soil. Wash with warm water, and rub dry with & soft cloth. It will not injure the most delicate color, and makes it look as well as new ; besides, it preserves the paint much longer than if cleaned with soap and water. To Take Smell from Fresh Paint.— Let tubs of water be placed in the room newly painted, near the wainscot, and an ounce of vitriolic acid put into the water, and in a few days this water will absorb and retain the effluvia from the paint, but the water should be renewed with a fresh sn'pjjly once or twice; or, to get. rid of the smell of oil-paint, plunge a handful of hay into a pailful of water and let it stand in the room newly painted. Where painted wainscot, or other wood-work, requires cleaning, fuller's-earth will be found cheap and useful ; and, on wood not painted, it forms an excellent substitute for soap. To Extract Paint from Goods.— Saturate the spot with pure spirits of turpentine, and let it remain several hours, then rub it between the hands. It will crumble away without injuring either the color or tex- ture of the article. The Best Season for Painting Houses.— The outside of buildings should be painted during autumn or winter. Hot weather injures the paint by dr)'ing in the oil too quickly ; then the paint will easily rub oflF. But when the paint is laid on during cold weather it hardens in dryimr and is firmly set. " Hard Cement for Seams.— A very excellent cemert for scams in the roofs of houses, or for any other exposed places, is v,:i('? with white-lead, dry white sand, and as much oil as will make it iui , t1,e consistency of putty. This cenwjnt gets as hard as any stone in ths course of a few weeks. The lead forms a kind of flux with the sand ; it is excellent for filling up cracks in exposed parts of brick buildings ; it is also a good cement for pointing up the joints about chimneys, etc. •MISCiajJANEOUS PRACTICAL EE(!EIPTS. 91 Fire and Water Proof Cement.— To half a pint of milk put an equal quantity of vinegar, in order to curdle it ; then separate the curd and the whey, and mix the whey with four or five eggs, beating the whble well together. When it is well mixed, add a. little quick-lime through the sieve until it has acquired the consistence of paste. With this ce- ment, broken vessels and cracks of all kintls may be mend«d. It dries quickly, and resists the action of the water as well as of a considerable degree of fire. To Bemove Marks from a Table. — If a whitish mark is left on a table by carelessly setting on a pitcher of boiling water, or a hot dish, pout some lamp oil on the spot, and rub it hard with a soft cloth.' Then pour on a little spirits of wine or cologne-water, and rub it day trith an- other cloth. The white mark will thus disappear and the ,tabib look aft well as ever. * INKS.— Dr. Ure's M.— For one gallon of ink, take one pound of bruised galls, five ounces of gum-arabic, five ounces green vitriol, and one gallon of rain-water. Boil the galls in the water for three hours, adding fresh water to supply that lost in vapor. Let the decoction settle, and turn off the clear liquor ; add to it the gum, previously dis- solved in a pint of water ; dissolve the green vitriol separately in a pint of water, and mix the whole. The above makes a very superior ink, and it can be made in any family at a very trifling cost. Ink-Powder is formed of the dry ingredients for ink powdered and mixed. Powdered galls, two pounds ; powdered green vitriol, one p«und .; powdered gum, eight ounces. This shodld be put up into two-ounce packets, each of which will make one pint of ink. Bed Writing-ink. — Best ground Brazil-wood, four ounces; diluted acet- ic acid, one pint ; alum, half an ounce. Boil them slowly in an enameled vessel for one hour ; strain, and add an ounce of gum. Marking-Ink WitllOUt Preparation. — There are several receipts for this mk, but the following of Mr. Kedwood is rapidly superseding all the others : dissolve separately one ounce of nitrate of silver, and one and a half ounces of subcarbonate soda (best washing soda) in distilled or rain water. Mix the solutions, and collect and wash the precipitate in a filter; while still moist, mb it up, in a marble or Wedgewood mortar, with three drachms of tartaric acid ; add two ounces of distilled water, mix six drachms of white sugar, and ten drachms of powdered gum arable, half an ounce of archil and water to make up six ounces in measure. Ink for Zinc Garden-Ialiels. — ^Verdigris, one ounce; sal ammoniac, one ounce ; lampblack, half an ounce ; water, half a pint. Mix in an earthenware mortar, without using a metal spatula. Should be put up in small (one-ounce) bottles for sale. Directions. — To be sbaken before use, and used with a cleau quill pen, on bright, freshly-cleaned zinc. . Ifote. — Anotlier kind of ink for zinc is also used, made of chloride of platinum, five grains, dissolved in one ounce of distilled or rain-water; but the first, which is much less expensive, answers perfectly, if used as directed, on clean, bright zinc. Eoot-B.eer. — A handful each of vellow dock, dandelion, and sarsaoarilla 92 THE FAMILY. rooU, sassafras bark, Lops, and a little bonesct; boil'until the strength is extracted. To three gallons of this liquor, after ^training, add one quart of molasses, and when cool enough, three yeastrcakes. Let it stand in a warm place eight or ten hours, strain and bottle. 4 Theological Beer. — To three gallons of water, lukewarm, add a small teaspoonful of each of the oiU of spruce, sassafras, and winter-green, one quart of molasses, and three yeast-cakes. Proceed as with the former. It will fill fifteen bottles. Family Soda Water. — Three pounds of su^ar, and three ounces tar- taric acid ; pour on them one quart of boiling water. Beat together the whites of three eggs; three tablespoonfuls of flour; which stir into the mixture when cool enough; boil for five minutes; do not skim but stir in the sknm when it rises. One bottle extract of lemon. Bottle for future use. To use, take two tablespoonfuls to a tumbler of cold water, and half a teaspoonful of soda. To Prevent the Smoking of a Lamp.— Soak the wick in strong vinegar, and dry it well before you use it ; it will then burn both sweet and pleasant, and give much satisfaction for the trifling trouble taken in preparing it. Remedy for Blistered Feet from Long Walking.— Rub the feet at going to bed with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a lighted candle into the palm of the hand. Phosphorus Paste for Destroying Rats and Mice. — Melt one ponnd of lard, with a very gentle heat, in a bottle or glass flask plunged into warm water ; then add half an onnce of phosphorus, and one pint of proo^spirit; cork the bottle securely, and as it cools shake it frequently, so as to mix the phosphorus uniformly; when cold, pour off the spirit (which may be preserved for the same purpose), and thicken the mix- ture with flour. Small portions of this mixture maybe placed near the rat- holes, and being luminous in the dark, it attracts them, is eaten greedily, and is certainly fatal. N. B. — There is no danger of fire from its use. An Easy Method of Exterminating Rats and Mice. — Mix powdered nux vomica with oat-meal, and lay it in their haunts, observing proper pre- caution to prevent accidents. Another method is, to mix oat-meal with a little powdered phosphorus. Cure for Burns. — Of all applications for a burn we believe that there are none equal to a simple covering of common wheat flour. This is always at hand ; and while it requires no skill in using, it produces most astonishing efi"ects. The moisture produced upon the surface of a slight or deep burn is at once absorbed by the flour and forms a paste which shuts out the air. As long as the fluid matters continue flowing, they are absorbed and prevented from producing irritation, as they would do if kept from passing off' by oily or resinous applications, while the greater the amount of those absorbed by the flour, the thicker the protective covering. Another advantage of the flour covering is, that next to the surface it is kept moist and flexible. It can also be readily washed oflF, without further irritation in removing. It may occasionally be washed off very carefully, when it has become matted and dry, and & new covering be sprinkled on, Corns. — Boil a potato in its skin, and after it is boiled take the skin und put the inside of it to the corn, and leave it on for about twelve MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 93 hours ; at the end of that period the corn will he much hetter. The above useful and simple receipt has been tried and found eifectual. Take two ounces of gam ammoniac, two ounces of yellow wax, and six drachms of verdigris, melt them together, and spread the composition on soft leather. Cut away as much of the corn as you can, then apply the plaster, and renew it every fortnight till the corn is away. Take white pine turpentine, spread a plaster, apply it to the corn, and let it stay on till it comes off of itself. Repeat this three times. It is also good for wounds. * Method of Curing the Stings of Bees and Waspsr-The sting of a bee is generally more virulent than that oPa wasp, afnd with some people attended with very violent effects. The sting of a bee is barbed at the end, and consequently always left in the wound; that of a wasp is pointed only, so that they can sting more than onc6, which a bee can- not do. when any person is stung bj' a bee, let the sting,- in the first ■place, be instantly pulled out, for the longer it remains in the wound the deeper it will pierce, owing to its peculiar form, and emit more of . the poison. The sting is hollow, and the poison flows through it, which is the sole cause of the pain and inflammation. The pulling out of the sting should be done carefully and with a steady hand, for if any part of it breaks in, all remedies then, in a great measure, will be ineffectual. When the sting is extracted, suck the wounded part, if possible, and very little inflammation, if any, will ensue. If hartshorn drops are im- mediately afterward rubbed on the part the cure w,ill be more complete. All notions of the efficacy of sweet oil, bruised parsley, burnet, tobacco, etc., appear, on various trials, to be totally groundless. On some people the sting of bees and wasps has no effect; it is therefore of little con- sequence what remedy they apply to the wound. However, the effect of stings greatly depends on the habit of body a person is of; at one time a sting shall take little or no effect though no remedy is used, which at another time will be very virulent on the same person. We have had occasion to test this remedy several times, and can safely avouch its efficacy. 'The exposure to which persons are subjected dur- ing the hot summer months will no doubt render this advice very useful ; its very simplicity making it more acceptable. How to Get Sleep. — How to get sleep is to many persons a matter of high importance. Nervous persons, who are troubled with wakefulness and excitabiiityj usually have a strong tendency of blood on the brainj with cold extremities. The pressure of the blood on the brain keeps it in a stimulated or wakeful state, and the pulsations in the head are often painful. Let such rise and chafe the body and extremities with a brush or towel, or rub smartly with the hands to promote circulation, and withdraw the excessive amount of blood from the brain, and they will fall asleep in a few moments. A cold bath, or a sponge-bath and rubbing, or a good run, or a rapid walk in the open air, or going up or down stairs a few times just before retiring, will aid in equalizing cir- culation and promoting sleep. These rules are simple and easy of ap- plication in castle or cabin, and may minister to the comfort of thou- sands who would freely expend money for an anodyne to promote " Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep." 94: THE FAMILY. Charcoal. — AH sorts of glass vessels and other utensils may be purified from long-retained smells of every kind, in the easiest and most per- fect manner, by rinsing them out wcU with charcoal-powder, after the grosser impurities have been scoured off with sand and potash. Rub- bing the teeth, and washing out the mouth with fine charcoal-powder, will render the teeth beautifully white, and the breath perfectly sweet, where an offensive breath has been owing to a scorbutic disposition of the gums. Putrid water is immediately deprived of its bad smell by charcoal. Wlj^n meat, fish, etc., from intense heat, or long keeping, are likely to pass into a state of corruption, a simple and pure mode of keep- ing them sound and healthfi# is, by putting a few pieces of charcoal, each the size of an egg, into the pot or sauce-pan wherein the fish or flesh is to be boiled. Among others, an experiment of this kind was tried upon a turbot, which appeared to be too far gone to be eatable ; the cook, as advised, put three or four pieces of charcoal, each the size of an egg, under the strainer, in the fish-kettle ; after boiling the proper time, the turbot came to the table sweet and firm. To Preserve Milk. — Provide bottles, which must be perfectly clean, swe^t, and dry; draw the milk from the cow into the bottles, and as' they are filled, immediately cork them well up, and fasten the corks with pack-thread or wire. Then spread a little straw at the bottom of a boUer, on which place bottles with straw between them, until the boiler contains a sufficient quantity. Fill it up with cold water; heat the water, and as soon as it begins to boil, draw the fire, and let the whole gradually cool. When quite cold, take out the bottles and pack them in saw-dusi, in hampers, and stow them in the coolest part of the house. Milk preserved in this manner, and allowed to remain even eighteen months in the bottles, will be as sweet as when first milked from the cow. For the Cure Ol Felon.— Take a piece of rock-salt, about the size of a butternut or English walnut, and wrap it up closely in a green cab- bage-leaf, but if not to be had, in a piece of brown paper, well moisten- ed with water. Lay it on embers, and cover it up'so as to roast; when it has been in about twenty minutes, take it out and powder it as finely as possible. Then take some hard soap, and mix the powdered salt with it, so as to make it a salve. If the soap should contain but little tur- pentine, none need be added. Apply the salve to the part affected, and in a short time it will totally destroy it, and remove the pain. Another.— As soon as the pain is felt, take the thin white skin of an , egg, which is found inside of the shell"; put it round the end of the' finger or thumb affected, and keep it there until the pain subsides. As soon as the skin becomes dry it will be very painful, and likely to con- tinue for half an hour or more, but be not alarmed. If it grows pain- ful, bear it ; it will be of short duration, compared to what the disease would be. A cure will be certain. To Make Clothes Water-Proof.— Take thirty ounces of alum to thirty quarts of water ; then dissolve in another vessel thirty ounces of acetate of lead in an equal quantity of water; mix the two liquids, turn off the liquid which retains in solution. the acetate of alum, and plunge into it the fabric desired to be made impermeable to water or other fluid. MiSOELLANEOT78 PKAOTIOAL EEOETPTS. &5 rhe cloth should be thoroughly saturated with the fluids when it should be dried. Goods rendered impermeable by this process retain no un- pleasant odor after exposure for a time to the atmosphere. To Clean Glass. — -jClommon newspaper is one of the best articles. The chemical eflFcct of some ingredient in the printing ink gives a beautiful polish. Slightly moisten a piece of paper, roll it up and rub he glass ; take a dry soft piece and repeat the process. No lint will remain, as in the use of cloth. ' Family Tool-Chests. — 'Much inconvenience and considerable expense might be saved, if it was the general custom to keep in every house certain tools for the purpose of performing at home what are called small jobs, instead of being always obliged to send for a mechanic, and pay him for executing little things that, in most cases, could be suffi ciently well done by a man or boy belonging to the family, provided that the proper instruments were at hand.. The cost of these articles is very trifling, and the advantages of hay- ing them always in the house are far beyond the expense. For instance, there should be an axe, a hatchet, a saw (a large) wood- saw, also, with a buck or stand, if wood is burned,) a claw-hammer, a mallet, two gimlets, of different sizes, two screw-drivers, a chisel, a small plane, one or two jack-knives,, a pair of large scissors or shears, and a carpet-fork or stretcher. Also an assortment of nails of various sizes, from large spikes down to small tacks, not forgetting brass-headed nails, some larger and some smaller. Screws, likewise, will be found very convenient, and hooks on which to hang things. The nails and screws should be kept in a wooden l)ox, made with divisions to separate the various sorts, for it is very troublesome to have them mixed. And let care be taken to keep up the supply, lest it should run out unexpectedly, and the deficiency cause delay and inconvenience at a time when their use is wanted. It is well to have somewhere in the lower part of the house % d4ep, Eght closely appropriated entirely to tools and things of equal utility,, for executing promptly such little repairs as convenience may require, without the delay or expense of procuring an artisan. This closet, should have at least one large shelf, and that about three feet from tha ifloor. Beneath this shelf may be a deep drawer, divided into two compart, ments. This drawer may contain cakes of glue, pieces of chalk, and balls of twine of different size and quality. ' There may be shelves at the sides of the closet for glue-pote, pastor pots, and brushes, pots for black, white, green, and red paints,, cans, of painting oil, paint-brushes, etc. Against the wall, above the large shelf, let the tools be suspended, oj laid across nails' or hooks of proper size to support them. This is much better than teeping them in a box, where they may be injured by rubbing, against each other, and the hand may be; hurt in feeling among them to find the thing that is wanted. 96 THE FAMILT. But when hung up against the back wall of the closet, of course eact tool can be seen at a glance. We have been shown an excellent and simple contrivance for desig- natinf the exact places allotted to all these articles in a very completfi tool-closet. On the closet wall, directly under the large nails that support the tools, is drawn, with a small brush dipped in black paint or ink, an out line representation of the tool or instrument belonging to that particula» place. For instance, under each saw is sketched the outline of that saw, un- der each gimlet a sketch of that gimlet ; under the screw-drivers are slight drawings of screw-drivers. So that, when bringing back any tool that has been taken away for use, the exact spot to which it belongs can be found in a moment; and all confusion in putting them up and finding them again is thus pre- vented. To Preserve Hams in Summer. — Before hot weather commences, cut up hams and shoulders, and fully cook them, so that when warmed they are at any time ready for the table ; cover the bottom of a stone jar with the gravy, then put in a layer of ham, covering it with gi'avy, and thus proceed with alternate layers of ham and gravy. To fonn gravy BuflBcient to cover the ham, considerable lard should be used in cook- ing it, that it may thus be seasoned, and not simply melted and poured upon it, as some recommend. Hams thus prepared arc as good the second year as the first. Sausages may be preserved in a similar manner. To Keep Grapes .Fresh,— Away with your saw-dust, cotton, sealing- wax, etc. Pick your grapes carefully without bruising, and put them into quarter or half barrels, the bottoms and sides of which are bored full of holes; place these casks in' a cool, well-ventilated place, but where no currents of air can pass over them, and where they will not freeze. ■ Fully matured and carefully picked grapes thus stored will be fresh in March. Bird-Lime. — Take any quantity of linseed oil, say half a pint ; put it into an old pot, or any vessel that will stand the fire without breaking; the vessel must not be more than one-third full ; put it on a slow fire, and stir it occasionally until it thickens as much as required ; this will be known by cooling the stick in water, and trying it with the fingers. It is best to make it rather harder than for use. Then pour it into cold water. It can be brought back to the consistency required with a little Archangel tar. liquid Gll>e. — Dissolve one ounce of borax in a pint of boiling water; add two ounces of shellac, and boil in a covered vessel until the lac is dissolved. This forms a very useful and cheap cement; it answers well for pasting labels on tin, and withstands damp much better than the common glue. _ The liquid glue made by dissolving shellac in napthais dearer, soon dries up, and has an unpleasant smell. Best Blacking itir Boots and Shoes.— Ivory-black, one and a half ounce ; treacle, one and a half ounce ; sperm oil, three drachms; strong oil of vitriol, three drachms; common vinegar, half a pint. Mix the MISCELLANEOUS PEACTICAL EECEIPTS. 97 ivory-black, treacle, and vinegar together, then mix the sperm oil and oil of vitriol separately, and add them to the other mixture. To Clean Hair-Brushes. — As hot water and soap very soon soften the hairs, and rubbing completes their destruction, use soda, dissolved in cold water, instead ; soda having an affinity for grease, it cleans the brush with little friction. Do not set them near the fire, nor in the sun, to dry, but after shaking them* well, set them on the point of the handle in a shady place. Scurf in tiie Head, — A simple and effectual remedy : into a pint of "water drop a lump of fresh quick-lime, the size of a walnut ; let it stand all night, then pour the water off clear from the sediment or deposit; add a quarter of a pint of the best vinegar, and wash the head with the niixtiu'e. It is perfectly harmless; only wet the roots of the hair. A Very Good Microscope may be made by dropping a little balsam of fir, or Canada balsam, on the under side of a thin piece of glass. It may be used both before and after it is dry. Disinfecting Liquid. — In a wine-bottle of cold water, dissolve two ounces of acetate of lead (sugar of lead) ; and then add two (fluid) ounces of strong nitric acid (aquafortis.) Shake the mixture, and it will be ready for use. A very small quantity of the liquid, in its strongest form, should be used for cleansing all kinds of chamber utensils. For removing offensive odors, clean cloths, thoroughly moist- ened with the liquid, diluted with eight or ten parts of water, should be suspended at various, parts of the room. In this case the offensive and deleterious gases are neutralized by chemical action. Futnigation in the usual way is only the substitution of one odor for another. In using the above, or any other disinfectent, let it never be forgotten that fresh air — and plenty of it — is cheaper and more effective than any other material. To Dry Sweet Corn for Winter Use. — Pick the com when fit for pres- ent use, clean of husks and silk; put it into hot water to scald the milk ; do not let it boil, but remain just long enough to cook the milk, and which very much facilitates the drj'ing. 'Cut the corn from the cob, atid dry it in the sun on papers or cloths. One bright day will place it out of danger, though, before being put up, it should be very thoroughly dried. A Simple Cure for tlie Croup. — Tha Journal of Health says, -when a child is taken with cr&up, instantly apply cold water, ice-water, if pos- sible, suddenly and freely to the neck and chest with a sponge. The breathing will almost instantly be relieved. So soon as possible, let the sufferer drink as much as it can ; then wipe it dry, cover it warm, and soon a quiet slumber will relieve all anxiety. To Prevent the Spreading of Contagion. — It carvnot be too widely known, that nitrous acid possesses the properties of destroying the contagion of typhus fevers, and other malignant diseases. By the following simple process the gas may be procured with but little expense and trouble. Place a little saltpetre on a saucer, and pour on W&% much oil of vitrJol as will just cover it; a copious discharge of acid gas will instantly take place. The quantity may be regulated by the ingredients. This is very important in preservfng health, and preventing the spread of contagion. 5 98 THE FAMILY. Scald Head ia Infants. — This complaint begins in brownish spots on the head, and in a few days forms- a scab and discharges a thick, gluey mat: ter that sticks upon the hair. The sores gradually increase, until the whole head is covered with a scab, discharging this matter, which is very offensive. The hair is to be cut off as close as possible, and the head washed every night and morning with lime-water. This is easily prepared by slacking a piece of quick-lime, of the size of a hen's egg, in a quart of water, and when settled, it is to be put into a bottle and corked for use. Cure for the Piles. — Th& following simple application will certainly cure this most distressing complaint. It has been tried by many and found successful. Take three ounces of pulverized alum and place ia a belt made of cotton drilling, two inches in width, and wear the belt around the body above the loins. It should be worn next the skin. Its operation is slow but certain. Sweet oil is an excellent applicatio;Q for the parts affected. Carrot poultices give great relief. Fio. 1.* Fig. 2.» STRAINIlVe OR FILTERING WATER.— The following simple and efl5- cient method of straining and filtering water, and for which we are indebted to the " American Agriculturist," we earnestly commend to all who are building cisterns, or who would have sweet, pure, aad wholesome water. This can be done almost perfectly by passing it through a few layers of closely-woven flannel, or even cotton cloth. But the operation would be tedious if performed daily with all water used for drinking and cook ing. We present two very convenient and easily-constructed water- filterers, the first of which we have used for years. Fig. 1 is a large barrel or cask. A lower false-head, I, is fitted in, say six or eight inches from the bottom. This is perforated with very small gimlet-holes, over which is placed a layer, s, of coarse, clean sand, previously washed upon a fine sieve, to remove the finer particles which would otherwise wash through the gimlet-holes. Over this sand is a layer, c, of broken charcoal ; above the charcoal is another layer of the prepared sand, upon the top of which is another false-head, «. The space above is fiUed^ith water, w, which gradually filters down into the vacant space, p, entirely free from its impurities. We should add, * " .American Agriculturist," voL xviL, page 89. MISCELLAilEOUS TOAOXIGAL EEOEIPTS. 9£ that ■^hen it is impracticable to wash the sand, a white flannel cloth may be placed upon the false-head, I, under the sand. Upon the right of the filter-barrel, a glazed stone-ware jar, r, holding one or two pail- fals, is set its whole depth into the ground or cement of the cellar- bottom. This keeps cool at all times. When water is desirefl for use, it is dipped out of the jar, and the stop-cock is then turned to fill it up again, that the water may be cooled 'before it is needed. Such an apparatus can be fitted up in a. few hours, and it serves admirably for purifying water, however brackish or bad previously. Dark-colbred swamp-water, on passing through it, comes out clear, Urapid,,and agree- able. Try it, you who are so unfortunate as not to have good well- water. The upper layer of sand will need occasional renewing, and where much bad water is .passed through, it will be well to frequently renew both sand and charcoal. Fig. 2 represents a still better filtering apparatus, though one not quite so easily constructed. B is 'a board fitted lightly from top to bottom, say six inches to the right of the middle, a half-circle, o, is cut out at the bottom of the board, B. Another board, c, say fifteen inches high, is fitted in six inches to the left of the middle. A bottom-piece, pierced \yith very small gimlet-holes, is placed below the two upright boards, say three inches above the bottom of the cask. Upon this are placed layers of sand, s, s, ^nd coal, c, just as described iiLfig. 1, with a punc- tured board over them. Water, m, is then poured in, and it passes through the opening; o, itp through the sand and coal and into n. Such an apparatus will last a long time, since the sediment, separated from the impure water, will fall down, leaving the filter free ; while in fig. 1 this sediment would require frequent removal. A stone-ware side vessel for cooling the water may be provided for fig. 2, the same as in fig. 1. Fig. 2 illustrates an excellent mode of constructing cisterns^ to have the water always pure. The division may be made of brick-work laid in water-lime (hydraulic cement). The filtering layers need occupy but a small space in the center on one side of the division-cell. _ The water from the roof, conducted into m, will filter through into n, grad- ually, and except immediately after a Heavy fall of rain, or after large drafts on the purified portiouj the water will stand upon a level in both compartments. We hardly need dilate upon the advantages of such an arrangement; Rain-water usually washes down considerable quantities of dust lodged upon the roofs of buildings. The filtered water will be found admirable for drinking, cooking, and for washing and rinsing clothes clean. How to Mg WelU in ftnick-Sand,— As soon as the -i^ter is reached, have ready a circle of good plank, sufficiently large on the outside for the extreme diameter of the wall — the. inner circle to be about four feet,, so that a man can work in it. This circle should be made double by pinning sections together. Lay this circle evenly upon the quick-sand, and commence upon it a wall of hard brick laid in hydraulic cement, and so as to be water-tight ; the bricks may be laid with the ends inward, the crevices filled with small stones or broken brick mixed with the cement. This wall should be carried up four or five feet— the weil-hole, as before stated, to be at least four ffeet in diameter. Let this 100 THE FAMILT. wall stand and fix for four or five days if the flow of water will permit; a man then dips out the quick-sand, and the wall settles as the sand is taken out. The outside of the wall should of course be free from con- tact with the earth, so that it can settle freely. In this way, the well can be settled to any desired depth, and the wall raised as the work progresses. One foot of clean gravel should be pounded upon the bot- tom of the well, and the work is effectually done. To Clean Teeth. — Take of good soft water, one quart; juice of lemon, two ounces; bnrnt alum, six grains; common salt, six grains. Mix; boil them a minute in a cup; then strain and bottle for use; ru^ the teeth with a small bit of sponge tied to a stick once a week. To Prevent Wounds from Mortifying.— Sprinkle sugar on them. The Turks wash fresh wounds with wine, and sprinkle sugar on them. Ob- stinate ulcers may be cured with sugar dissolved in a strong decoction of walnut leaves. ^ A Simple Cure for Dysentery. — Take some butter oflT the churn, imme- diately after being churned, just as it is, without being salted or washed ; clarify it over the fire like honey. Skim off all the milky particles when melted over a clear fire. Let the patient (if an adult) take two table- spoonfuls of the clarified remainder, twice or three times within the day. This has never failed to effect a cure, and in. many cases it has been almost instantaneous. Extract of Arnica for Bruises, . Sprains, Burns, etc. — Take one ounce of arnica flowers, dried — that prepared by the Shakers is considered the best — and put them in a wicre-monthed bottle ; pour just enough scald- ing water over thein to moisten them, and afterward about a pint or a pint and a half of spirits of wine. In case of a burn or bruise, etc., wet a cloth in the arnica, and lay it on the part affected. lieuew the application occasionally, and the pain will soon be removed. To Eestroy Ants, — Dissolve a teaspoon of cobalt or common fly-poison in three tablespoons of warm water, and "sweeten to their taste;" place it where ants freqnent ; and, after taking one supper, they will never take another; and, after a short time, if thus fed, none will be left "to tell the tale." A Good Adhesive Plaster. — Three ounces of white rosin ; four ounces of boes'-wax ; four ounces of mutton-tallow ; melt and mix well. Let it cool partially; then add to it one ounce of spirits of turpentine, one ounce of British oil, half a bottle of Harlem oil, and one ounce of balsam of fir; work like shoemakers' wax. PREPARATIONS FOR THE SICK.— Egg-Gruel.— Boil a pint of new milk; , ^beat two new-lad eggs to a light froth, and pour in while the milk boils ; stir them together thoroughly, bnt do not let them boil ; sweeten It with the best of loaf-sugar, and grate in a whole nutmeg ; ad MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL EECEIPTS. 10] Arrow-Root.- -Put two teaspoonfuls of the powder into a basiit; mix them smooth with a few teaspoonfuls of cold water, and let another person pour boiling water over the mixture wjiile you continue to stir it, UBtil it forms a kind of starcliy-looking substance. Tlins prepared, it may be used in the same manner as gruel. It is well adapted for the food of infants, because it is less liable to ferment than cither gruel or barley-water; and, for the same reason, it is thu b'"»t fluid nourish ment for those who are afflicted with indigestion. A little milk or wine may be added, to improve the flavor. A Nourishing Jelly.— rPut into a stone jar or jug a set of calves' -feet, cut in pieces, a quart of milk, five pints of water, a little maccf, half an ounce of isinglass, and a handful of ha|;tshorn shavings. Tie some brown paper over the jug, and put it into the oven with household bread. When done, strain it through a sieve ; and when cold, take off the fat. Some of it may occasionally bo warmed up with wine and sugar. It is good taken as broth, with herbs. Beef-Tea, — Cut a pound of lean beef in thin slices ; pat it into a quart and half a pint of cold watej;; set it over a gentle fire, where it will become gradually warm; when the scum rises, let it continue to simmer gentjy for about an hour; then stri.in it through a sieve or a napkin, let it stand ten minutes to settle, and then pour off the clear tea. This is one of the common restoratives given to persons who are recovering from sickness. Toast and Water. — Toast thin slices of bread on both sides carefully ; then pour cold water over the bread, and cover it tight for one hour ; or use boiling water, and let it cool. Waters for Cooling Drauglits of Preserved or Fresh Fruits— Apple-Water, Lemon-Water, etc. — Pour boiling water on the preserved or fresh fruits, sliced ; or squeeze out th<3 juice, boil it with sugar, and add water. Water-Gruel. — Mix two tablespoonfuls of Indian or oat-meal with three tablespoonfnls of water. Have ready a pint and a half of boiling water in a sauce-pan or skillet, perfectly clean ; pour this by degrees into the mixture in the bowl ; then return it back into the skillet, and place it on the fire to boil. Stir it, and 'let it boil half an hour.' Skira it, and season it with a little salt. If it is admissible, a little sugar and nutmeg lenders it more palatable. Also, if milkis not forbidden, a small tea- cupful added to a pint of gruel, and boiled up once, makes a nice dish for an invalid. Milk-Porridge. — This is made nearly in the same way as gruel, only using half flour and half meal, and half milk instead of water. It should be cooked before the milk is added, and only boiled up once afterward. Wine-Whey. — Take half a pint of new milk; put it on the fire, and the moment it boils, pour in that instant two glasses of wine and a tea- spoonful of powdered sugar, previously mixed. The curd will soon form, and, after it has boiled, set it aside until the curd settles. Poui the whey oft", and add a pint of boiling water, and loaf-sugar to sweeten to the taste. This may be drank in typhus and other fevers, debility, etc. . Chicken, Beef, or Veal Broth. — This is made by cutting up the chicken, or the lean of veal or beef, and putting in two spoonfuls of washed 102 THE TAMJLY. rice, and boiling until tender. It may be nsed, if reeded in baste, after boiling in less water about fifteen minutes, then filling it up and finishino'. It should be put by in a bowl or pitcher, covered, to keep for use. Warm it, and add crumbs of crackers or bread a day or two old, with a little salt, and there is nothing more palatable for the sick. Hot Lemonade. — Cut up the whole of a lemon, rind and all, add one teacupful of white sugar, and pour on boiling water. This is good for colds, and is a pleasant drink for the sick. Rice-Gruel. — Take one spoonful of rice, a pint and a half of water, a stick of cinnamon or lemon-peel ; mix, and boil it soft, and add a pint of new milk ; strain it, and season it with a little salt. If you make it of rice flour, mix one spoonful with a little cold water smoothly, and stir it into a quart of boiling water. Let it boil five or six minutes, stirring it constantly. Season it with salt, nutmeg, and sugar, and, if admissible, a little butter. ■ If the patient bears stimulants, a little wine may bo added. Egg-Cream. — To the yolks of three eggs, and a dessertspoonful of good new milk or cream, add two drops of oil of cinnamon. This is a very nourishing mixture. The oil of cinnamon is cordial and tonic, and the above has been recommended in lung complaints, where respiration has been attended with pain, and a dry cough, especially after eating or exercise. It is also excellent in cases of hectic toward the evening, and of profuse night-sweats. Caudle. — Make a fine, smooth gruel of half grits ; when boiled, strain it ; stir it at times till cold ; when wanted for use, add sugar, wine, and lejnon-peel, with some nutmeg, according to taste ; you may add, if yon please, besides the wine, a spoonful of brandy or lemon-juice. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES,— First ascertain, if possible, what poison the person has taken, and then a resort may be had to the fol lowing remedies, if on hand, while a person goes for the doctor. It should be remembered that the ordinary calcined magnesia, mixed in water, is considered a certain antidote to numerous poisons of metallic origin, such as arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sulphate of zinc, etc. Acids. — Such arc oil of vitriol, aqua fortis, oxalic acid. Those cause great heat, and sensation of burning pain, from the mouth downto the stomach. Remedies — magnesia, soda, pearlash, soap dissolved in water, or flaxsced-tca ; then use a stomach-pump, or emetics. Alcohol. — First cleanse the stomach by an emetic, then dash cold water on the head, and give ammonia (spirits of hartshorn). Alkalies, — Such are caustic potash, caustic soda, and volatile alkali. Take vinegar or lime-juice. Afterward large quantities of sugar and water. Ammonia,— Remedy, lemon-juice or vinegar; afterward milk and water, or flaxseed-tca. • Arsenic— The symptoms arc the same in mercurial poisons. Rem- edies—in the first place, evacuate the stomach ; then give the white of eggs, lime-water, or chalk and water, charcoal, and the preparations of iron, particularly hydrate. • Belladonna, or Night-Henbane.— Give emetics, and then plenty of vin- egai and watei", or lemonade. MISCELLAITEOUS PEACTICAL KECEIFTS. - 103 Charcoal, — In poisons by carbonic gas, remove the patient to open air, dash cold water on the head and body, and stimulate the nostrils and lungs by hartshorn, at the same time rubbing the chest briskly. CorrosiTe Sublimate. — Constriction, with great pain in the throat, stomach, and bowels. , Give white of eggs freshly mixed with water; or give wheat flour and water, or soap and water, freely. Creosote. — White of eggs, and the emetics. Lead. — Sugar of lead, extract of satnrn, white lead, litharge, minium. A sweet, astringent taste in the mouth, constriction of the throat, pain in the stomach, bloody vomiting, etc. Dissolve a handful of Epsom or Glauber salts in a pint of water, and give it at once ; when it has vomited him, use sweetened water. If the symptoms continue, act as directed for acids. Mnshl'OOmSi — Give emetics, and then plenty of vinegar and water, ■with a dose of ether, if handy. Nitrate of Silver (lunar Caustic). — Give a strong solution of common salt, and then emetics. Nitrate of PDtash, or Saltpetre. — Give emetics, then copious draughts of flaxseed-tea, milk and water, and other soothing drinks. Opium, or Laudanuui. — Stupor, inclination to sleep, delirium, convul- sions. First give a strong emetic of mustard and water, then strong coffee and acid drinks ; dash cold water on the head. Oxalic Acid. — Frequently mistaken for Epsom' salts. Eemedies, chalk, magnesia, or soap and water, freely ; then emetics. Frussic Acid. — When there is time, administer chlorine, in the shape of soda or lime ; hol^brandy and water, hartshorn, and turpentine are also useful. Snake-Bites, etc. — Apply immediately strong hartshorn, and take it internally; also, give sweet oil and stimulants freely. Apply a ligature tight above the part bitten, and then apply a cupping-glass. Stings from Bees. — In stings from bees and other insects, bathe with salt and vinegar, or sal-ammoniac and vinegar. Tartar Emetic. — Give large doses of tea made of galls, Peruvian bark, or white oak bark. Tobacco, Ucmlock, Nightshade, Spnrred-Rye, etc.— An emetic, as directed for opium. If the poison .has been swallowed some time, purge with castor-oil. After vomiting and purging, if still drowsy, bleed, and give vinegar and water. White Vitriol. — Give the patient plenty of milk and water. In almost all cases of poisoning emetics are highly useful ; and of these, one of the very best, because most prompt and ready, is the common mustard flour or powder, a spoonful of which, stirred up in warm water, may bo given every five or ten minutes until free vomiting can be obtiiined. Emetics and warm, demulcent drinks, such as milk and water, flaxseed, or slippery-elm tea, chalk-water, ,ctc., should be administered without delay. Tlie subsequent management of the case will of course be left to a physician. When poisoned by dogwood, ivy, or swamp sumac, dissolve a quarter of an ounce of copperas (sulphate of iron) in a pint of water, and bathe the part.afiected. 104 THE FAMILY. ACCIDENTS, — Always send of for a surgeon immediately an accident occurs, but treat as directed until he arrives. Burns. — If the skin is much injured, spread some linen pretty thickly with chalk ointment, and lay over the part, and give the patient some brandy and water if much exhausted ; then send for a medical man. If not much injured and very painful, use the same ointment, or apply carded cotton dipped in lime-water and linseed oil. If you please you may lay cloths dipped in ether over the parts, or cold lotions. Scalds. — Treat the same as burns, or cover witli scraped raw potato; but the chalk ointincnt is the best. In the absence of all these, cover the parts with treacle, and dust on plenty of flour. Body in Flames. — Lay the person down on the floor of the room and throw the table-cloth, rug, of other large cloth over him, and roll him on the floor. Dirt in tlie Eye. — Place your fore-finger upon the cheek-bone, having the patient before you; then draw up the finger and you will probably be able to remove the dirt; but if this will not enable you to get at it, repeat this operation while you have a netting-needle or bodkin placed over the eyelid ; this will turn it inside out, and enable you to remove the sand, or eyelash, etc., with the corner of a fine silk handkerchief. As soon as the substance is removed, bathe the eye with cold water and exclude the light for a day. If the inflammation is severe, take a purgative and use a refiigerant lotion. Lime in Die Eye.— Syringe it well with warm vinegar and water (one ounce to eight ounces of water) ; take a purgative and exclude light. Iron or Steel SpicuiiE in the Eye. — This occurs.while turning iron or steel in a lathe. Drop a solution of sulphate of copper (from one to three grains of the salt to one ounce of water) into the eye, or keep the eye open in a wineglassful of the solution. Take a purgative, bathe with cold lotion, and exclude light to keep down inflammation. Bislocated Thumb.— This is frequently produced by a fall. Make a clove-hitch, by passing two loops of cord over the thumb, placing a piece of rag under the cord to prevent it cutting the thumb; then pull in the same line as the thumb. Afterward applv a cold lotion. Cuts and Wounds.— Cut thin strips of sticking'-plastor, and bring the parts together; or if large and deep, cut two broad ])ieces so as to look like the teeth of a comb, and place one on each side of the wound, which must be cleaned previously. These pieces must bo arranged so that they shall interlace one another; then by laying hold of the"pieces on the right-hand side with one hand, and those on'tlie other side with the other hand, and pulling them from one another, the edges of the wound are brought together, and without any difllculty. Ordinary Cuts are dressed by thin strips applied by pressing down the plaster on one side Of the wound, and keeping it there and pulling in the opposite direction ; then suddenjy depressing the hand when the edges of the wound ai'c brought together. Contusions.— \\'hen they are very severe, lay a cloth over the part, and suspend a basin over it filled with cold lotion. Put a piece of cotton into the basin, so that it shall allow the lotion to drop on the cloth, and thus keep it always wet. MISCELLANEOUS PEAOTIOAL EEOEIFTS. 105 nemorrhage, when caused by an artery being divided or torn, may be known by the blood jumping out of the wound, and being of a bright scarlet color. If a vein is injured, the blood is darker, and flows con tinuously. To stop the latter, apply pressure by means of a compress and bandage. To arrest arterial bleeding, get a piece of wood (part of a mop-handle will do), and tie a piece of tape to one end of it ; then tie a piece of tape loosely over the arm, and pass the other end ot the wood under it ; twist the stick round and round until the tape com- presses the arm sufficiently to arrest the bleeding, and then confine the other end by tying the string roun J the arm. If the bleeding is very obstinate, and it occurs in the arm, place a cork underneath the string, on the 'inside of the fleshy part, where the artery may be felt beating by any one ; if in the leg, place a cork in the direction of a line drawn from the inner part of the knee a little to the outside of the groin. It is an excellent thing to accustom yourself to find out the position of these arteries, or, indeed, any that are superficial, and to explain to every one in your house where they are, and how to stop bleeding. If a stick cannot be got, take a handkerchief, make a cord bandage of it, and tie a knot in the middle ; the knot acts as a compress, and should*be placed over the artery, while the two ends are to be tied around the thumb. Observe always to place the ligature between the wound and the heart. Putting your finger into a bleeding wound, and making pressure until a surgeon arrives, will generally stop violent bleeding. Bleeding from the Nose, from whatever cause, may generally be stop- ped by putting a plug of lint into the nostrils; if this does not do, apply a cold lotion to the forehead, raise the head, and place both arms over the head, so that it will rest on both hands; dip the lint plug, ^slightly moistened, into some powdered gum-arabic, and plug the nostrils again ; or dip the plug into equal, parts of powdered gum-arabic and alum, and ping the nose. If the bowels are confined, take a purgative. Violent Shocks will sometimes stun a person, and he will remain un- conscious. Untie strings, collars, etc. ; loosen any thing that is tight and interferes with the breathing; raise the Jiead ; see if there is bleeding ■from any part; apply smelling-salts to the nose, and hot bottles to the .feet. In Concussion, the surface of the body Is cold and pale, and the pulse weak and small, the breathing slow and gentle, and the pupil of the eye generally contracted or small. You can get an answer by speaking loud, so as to arouse the patient. Give a little brandy and water, keep the place quiet, apply warmth, and do not raise the head too high. If you tickle the feet, the patient feels it. In Compression of the Brain, from any cause, such as apoplexy, or a piece of fractured bone pressing on it, there is loss of sensation. If you tickle the feet, he does not feel it. You cannot arouse him so as to get an answer. The pulse is slow, and labored ; the breathing slow, labored, and snoring ; the pupils enlarged. Raise the head, unloose strings or tight things, and send for a surgeon. If one cannot be got at once, apply mustard-poultices to the feet, and leeches to the temples. Choking. — When a person has a fish-bone in the throat, insert tho- fore-finger, press upon the root of the tongue, so ag to induce vomiting ;. 5* 8 106 THE FAMILY. if this does not do, let him swallow a large jnece of potato or soft bread ; and if these fail, give a mustard emetic. Fainting, Hysterics, etc. — Loosen the garments, bathe the temples with water or eau de Cologne : fresh air ; avoid bustle, and excessive sym- pathy. Drowning. — -Attend to the following essential rules : 1. Lose no time. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry the body with the head gently raised, and never hold it np by the feet. 4. Send for medical assistance immediately, and in the mean time act as follows : First. Strip the body, rub it dry, and then rub it in hot blstnkets, and place it in a warm bed in a warm room. Second. Cleanse away the froth and mucus from the nose and Inouth. Third. Apply warm bricks, bottle's, bags of sand, etc., to the arm-pits, between the thighs and soles of the feet.' Fourth. Rub the surface of the body with the hands inclosed in warm dry worsted socks. Fifth. If possible, put'the body into a warm bath. Sixth, To restore breathing, put the pipe of a common bellows into one nostril, carefully closing the other and the mouth -, at the same time drawing downward, and pushing gently backward, the upper part of the wind- pipe, to allow a more free admission of air ; blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be raised a little ; then set the mouth and nostrils free, and press gently on the chest ; repeat this until signs of life appear. When the patient revives, apply smelling-salts to the nose, and give warm wine or brandy and water. Cautions. — 1. Never rub the body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the body on casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without ceasing. Hangingi — Loose the cord, or whatever suspended the person, and pro- ceed as for drowning, taking the additional precaution to apply eight or ten leeches to the temples. Apparent Deatli from Drunkenness.— Raise the head, unloose the clothes, maintain warmth of surface, and give a mustard emetic as soon as the person can swallow. Apoplexy and Fits generally.— Raise the hqad ; unloose all tight clothes, strings, etc. ; apply cold lotions to the head, which should be shaved ; apply leeches to the temples, and send for a surgeon. Sufl'OCation from Noxious Gases, etc.— Remove to the fresh air; dash cold vinegar and water in the face, neck and breast ; keep up the warmth of the body, if necessary, apply mustard-poultices to the soles of the feet, and try artificial respirations as in drowning. liglltning and Sun-Stroke.— Treat the same as apoplexy. THE MEANS OF PRESERVING HEAI.TH. _ Health is indispensable to happiness and success. The capacity either to act or to enjoy, is dependent upon the measure of health which each individual possesses. A healthy family, other things being equal, has a decided advantage, in the race of life, over one the health TITE MEANS OF PEESpEVmG HEALTH. 107 of whose members is feeble. Hence it is of the first importance to knQw, and to practice, the means for its preservation. Were proper at- tention given to this subject in our families, a vast sum of suffering and misery would be avoided, many valuable lives prolonged, and the anxie- ties, cares, loss of time and expense, resulting from unnecessary sick- nesses, would be saved. The object of the following pages is to place within the reach of American families plain rules, easy of comprehension and practice, for the preservation of their health and vigor to the latest period of life. In a matter so important as human health, which also involves human happiness and life, it is scarcely necessary to apologia for the space we devote to it, or to urge attention to it as of the highest interest. If it be important to know and to practice the rules by which domestic ani- mals can be reared with the greatest vigor and health, it is certainly quite as important that we should be equally well informed as^to the means best calculated to rear properly our own offspring ! This department of our work has been* prepared by a distinguished physician, and will be found entirely reliable and worthy of the fullest confidence of the reader. Health is that state of the human body in which the structure of all the parts is sound, and their functions regularly and actively performed, rendering the -individual fit for all the duties and enjoyments of life. When a person has received a sound constitution from nature, his health is to be preserved by a proper regulation of the various circum- stances, internal and external, on which animal life is dependent. These are principally, air and exercise, clothing, food and drink, the excretions and discharges, sleep and waking, and management of the passions of the mind. Air is that invisible, transparent, compressible, and elastic fluid which everywhere surrounds our globe, generally denominated the atmosphere. It is the medium in which we live and breathe, and without which we could not for a moment exist. Air is not a simple but a compound body consisting at least of four distinct substances, viz., oxygen, azote, carbbnjc acid, and aqueous vapor. The two former substances, however, constitute almost the whole of the atmospheric air near the surface of the earth; the other twoare variable in their proportions ; the first exists only in minute quantities which it is diflScult to appreciate. Vital air, or oxygen, which forms one-fourth of the atmosphere, is necessary to respiration and combustion, and an animal immersed in it will live much longer than in the same quantity of common air. The remaining three-fourths, called azote or mephitic-air, is totally incapable of supporting combustion or respiration ' for an instant. • If a candle be included in a given quantity of atmospheric air it will burn only for a certain time and then be extinguished as the oxygen is all consumed, and that which remains is incapable of supporting flame. If an animal be put in a given quantity of common air, it will live only a certain time, at the end of which the air will be found diminished about one-fourth, and the remainder will neither support flame nor life. 108 THE FAMILT. The oxygen which is rocoived into the lungs of animals from the at- mosphere commnnicates the red color to the blood, and is the principal agent which imparts heat and activity to the system. When animals die for want of vital air their blood is always found black. In4epend- ently of its destruction by the respiration of men and other animals, there is a constant consumption of the oxygenous portion of atmospheric air by the burning of combustible bodies, by the fermentation and putre- faction of vegetable substances, and by the calcination of metals. A diminished proportion, therefore, of the oxygen of our atmosphere, and an increased amount of carbonic acid, and other deleterious gases, is undoubtedly pr^luced from the innumerable processes of combustion, putrefaction, and respiration of men and animals, particularly in pop- ulous cities, the atmosphere of which is almost constantly prejudicial to health. The atmospheric air is never absolutely pure and salubrious in any situation, but is always mixed with heterogeneous particles, and these different states and changes produce very perceptible effects on the constitution. In the open country there are few causes to contaminate the atmos- phere, and the vegetable productions continually tend to make it more pure. The winds whidh agitate the atmosphere, and constantly occa- sion its change of place, waft the pure country air to the inhabitants of the cities, and dissipate that from which the oxygen has been in a great measure extracted. Were it not for this wise provision ol the author of nature, from the- daily combustion of- an immense quantity of fuel, the numerous substances constantly undergoing putrefaction, the respi- ration and exhalations of alarge number of men and animals, the air ■in populous towns would soon become unfit for the purposes of life. The air of any place where a numerous body of people is assembled together, e^ecially if to the breath of the crowd there be added the vapor of a great number of candles or lamps, is rendered extremely prejudicial, as these circumstances occasion a great consumption of oxygen. The practice of burning lamps with long wicks, and thereby filling the room with smoke, is very detrimental to health ; and it is not a little surprising that common sense is so devoid of all philosophy as not to detect and avoid a vapor so pernicious and poisonous when re- ceived into the lungs. The fact is well known, that when air has been long confined and stagnated in mines, wells, and cellars, it becomes so extremely poisonous as to prove immediately fatal to those who imprudently attempt to enter such places. No person should descend into a well or cellar which has been long closed, without first letting down a lighted candle ; if it burns clear there is no danger, but if it ceases to burn, we may be ' sure that no one can enter without the utmost danger of immediate suffocation. It sometimes happens, also, that when air is suffered to stagnate in rooms, hospitals, jails, ships, etc., it partakes of the same un- wholesome or pernicious quality, and is a source of disease. It is obvious, therefore, that, in all confined or crowded places the correcting of vitiated air, by means of cleanliness and frequent ventilation, is of the highest importance to health, and the most effectual preservative from THE MEAKS 01 PRESEBVINQ HEALTH. , 100 disease. No accumulation, therefore, of filth about our houses, clothes, or in the public streets, should on any -pretense be suffered to continue, especially during the heat of summer. ' It is a very injurious custom for a number of persons to occupy or sleep in a small apartment, and if it be very close and a fire be kept in it the danger is increased. The vapor of charcoal, when burnt in a close apartment, produces the most dangerous efiects. Our houses, which are made close and almost air-tight, should be ventilated daily, by ad- mitting a free circulation of air to pass through opposite windows ; and even our beds ought to be frequently exposed to the influence of the open air. Houses situated in low marshy situations, or near lakes or ponds of stagnant water, are constantly exposed to the influence of damp and noxious exhalations. Among the most powerfiil means furnished by nature for correcting air which has become unfit for respiration, is the growth and vegetation of plants. The generality of plants possess the property of correcting the most corrupt air within a few hours, when they are exposed to the light of the sun ; during the night or in the shade, however, they de- stroy the purity of the air, which renders it a dangerous practice to allow plante to vegetate in apartments occupied for sleeping. Marshes. — The neighborhood of marshes is peculiarly unwholesome, especially towards the decline of summer and during autumn, and more particularly after sunset. The air of marshy districts is loaded with an excess of dampness, and with the various gases given out during the putrefaction of the vegetable' matters contained in the waters of the marsh. Persons exposed to this air are liable to various diseases, but especially ague, bilious fevers, diarrhoeas, and dysenteries. They who breathe it habitually exhibit a pallid countenance, a bloated appearance oi the abdomen and limbs, and are affected with loss of appetite and indigestion. Health is best preserved in marshy districts by a regular and temperate life — exercise in the open air during the .middle of the day, and by retiring, as soon as the sun sets, within the house, and closing all the doors and windows. The sleeping apartment should be in the upper story, and rendered perfectly dry by a fire, lit a few hours before going to bed, and tlfen extinguished. Exposure to the open air should, if possible, not take place in the morning before the sun has had time to dispel the fog, which, at its rising, covers the surface of the marsh. Night Air. — Many diseases are brought on by imprudent exposure of the body to the night air ; and this, at all seasons, in every climate, and variety of temperature. The causes of this bad property of the night air, it is not difficult to assign. The heat is almost universally several degi'ees lower than in the day-time; the air deposits dew' and other moistu»e ; the pores of the skin are openj from the exercise and fatigues of the day ; the evening feverishness leaves the body in some degree debilitated and susceptilfle of external impressions ; and froin all these concurrent causes are produced the various effects of cold acting as a check to perspiration ; such as catarrhs, sore throats, coughs, con- sumptions, rheumatisms, asthmas, fevers, and dysenteries. In warm 110 THE FAMILY. climates, the nigbt air and night dews, with their tainted impregnations, act with much malignancy on the unwary European, who too often, after an imprudent debauch, or in a state of fatigue, absurdly lays him- self down in the woods or verandas, to receive the full effects of the morbific powers, then unusually active. In civilized life, and in crowded towns, how many fall victims to their own imprudence, in exposing themselves to the cold, the damp, and the frostiness of the night air ! Issuing from warm apartments with blazing fires, or from crowded churches, .theaters, or ball-rooms, with exhausted strength, profuse per- spiration, thin dresses, and much of the person uhcovered, how many are attacked with a benumbing cold and universal shivering, which prove the forerunners of dangerous inflammations of the brain, of the lungs, or of the bowels, which either cut them off in a few days, or lay the foundation of consumption or other lingering illness. Such being the dangers of exposure to the night air, it ought to be inculcated on all, both young and old, to guard against them, by avoiding all rash and hasty changes of place and temperature, by hardening the frame by due exorcise and walking in the open air in the daytime ; and on oc- casionsi where the night air must be braved, taking care to be sufiBcient- ly clothed; and to- avoid drawing in the cold air too strong or hastily with the mouth open. Sea Air, — The air upon the sea and in its neighborhood is generally distinguished by its greater coldness, purity, and sharpness; and is, therefore, in many cases directed to patients, whose complaints do not affect their respiration, and who have vigor of constitution enough to derive benefit from the stimulus which such air occasions. A residence by the sea-side is beneficial to persons of a scrofulous habit and debili- tated constitution, provided they tatS care not to expose themselves to cold and damp ; and in the fine season, when there is no reason against it, they ought to bathe. In complaints of the chest, the use of sea-bathing, and a residence near the sea, are more questionable ; and by such an inland rural situation, in a mild equable climate, is to be preferred. A sea voyage has long been famous for its good effects at the commencement of consumptive complaints; and these good effects may be ascribed partly to the good air at sea, partly to the affection of the stomach and skin induced by s6a-sickness, and to the excitement of the mind, caused by change of scene and occupation. Ventilation. — The air, as we have already remarked, cannot become stagnant or unchanged for even a short period without its becoming un- fit for respiration, and destructive to the health of those who breathe it. The greater number of persons by whom an apartment or any given place is occupied, the more quickly the air becomes deteriorated, and the greater the necessity of a free ventilation. The streets of a city should, therefore, be so laid out as to insure a constant and free circula- tion of air ; hence the unwholesomeness of a residence in«narrow alleys, courts, and passages. Not less important is the continued renewal of the air of our apartments — the ventilation of which, however, should be so conducted as to prevent a current of air from blowing directly upon the persons within them. Our bed-chambers, in particular, should be freely ventilated during the day; and even at night, when the THE MEANS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. Ill windows are closed, the chimney should be left open, or, if the room is small, and the weather sultry, a door, opening into another room. No consideration of economy should prevent the most constant attention being paid to proper ventilation, so essential is the latter to health and comfort Cellars. — It is iipportant that cellars should be perfectly dry, kept strictly clean and freely ventilated. The damp and foul air so frequent- ly generated in cellars where dryness, cleanliness, and ventilation are not properly attended to, is often the cause of disease, not only m the persons who inhabit the house to which the cellar is attached, but in others residing in the immediate neighborhood. No house can be con- sidered a healthy residence, in the cellar of which water is allowed to stagnate. This may easily be obviated, in most situations, by a sink dug to gravel. The air of cellars can be preserved sufficiently dry and wholesome by free ventilation, the removal of all filth and corruptible materials, and frequently whitewashing the walls. Cellars, especially when entirely underground, are improper places of residence ; appro- priating them as places of residence for the poor,- or as workshops, should be prohibited by law. Heat.^ — The temperature of the human body, that is, of i.ts internal organs, is about 98° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. This degree of heat is maintained independent of that of the surrounding medium, by the evolution of caloric within the body itself. Under ordinary circum- stances, the human body is surrounded by an atmosphere many degrees , colder than itself, and hence transmits constantly heat to the air ; its energies are therefore tasked to evolve a sufficient amount of caloric to supply the loss thus occasioned. Nevertheless, when the temperature of the surrounding air greatly exceeds that of the body, and the latter is continually receiving heat from the former, its temperature is not raised in proportion. This arises in consequence of a diminished evolu- tion of heat within, and of the increased transpiration from the surface, causing the loss of a large amount of the caloric it receives. Hence, at first sight it might be inferred, that the animal system is capable of being little influenced by the temperature of the atmosphere. This, however, is not strictly true ; the changes in the temperature of the air cause in the body the sensation of heat or cold, according as they are to a higher or lower degree, and produce other important effects upon its various- organs. Habitually subjected to an average temperature many degrees below its own, the body, when exposed to a heat of 98°, notwithstanding it can receive no increase of caloric from the air, ex- periences, nevertheless, a decided sensation of heat, and the skin and other organs are unduly stimulated. This arises from the animal heat being accumulated in the system. So, likewise, when suddenly exposed to a temperature many degrees below that to which we have been ac- customed, but one, nevertheless, to which the term temperate may be applied, we experience a very considerable sensation of cold, and all the functions of the system suffer from its sedative effects — the caloric being extracted from the body more '•"piC.y than it is evolved within. Every circumstance, likewise, by which the vital energies of the body are in- creased or diminished, will, occasion the sensation of heat or cold to bu 112 THE FAMILT. experienced to a different extent, from the same degrees of atmospheric temperature. All degrees of heat beyond that of temperate produce a stimulant effect upon the skin, and through it upon the different in- ternal organs. If the elevation of temperature occur gradually, and is confine^ to only a few degrees, its effects are often beneficial ; but if it occur suddenly, or is considerable, either the stimulation of the skin or of some one or more of the internal organs, is carried to the extent of producing disease, and we have inflammation either of the skin, brain, stomach, or bowels, of a more or less violent grade ; or the over-stimu- lated organs fall into a state of indirect debility. In consequence of this, and the excessive perspiration which ensues, the vital powers of the system become exhausted, and are unable to resist the impression of any morbific cause, however slight, to which it may be exposed — as cold and damp, errors in diet, fatigue, or a renewed excitation from subse- quent exposure to heat. It is in this manner that high degrees of at- mospheric temperature become a source of disease. Heat is likewise an indirect cause of disease, by its action upon various putrefiable ma- terials, causing the evolution of certain gaseous substances by which the purity of the air we breathe is destroyed. Cold. — Whenever the air or other medium, in which the body is im- mersed, is of such a temperature as to abstract from the latter its heat more rapidly than by the internal action of the system it is generated, the sensation of cold will be produced ; and the intensity of this sensa- tion .will always be in proportion to the rapidity with which the heat of the body is carried off, and to the feebleness of the heat-generating powers of the system. Cold, or the abstraction of heat from the system, in a degree disproportionate to its powers of generating it, produces a sedative influence upon nearly all the organs. That is, it reduces their activity and diminishes or suspends their functions. It causes a diminu- tion in the action of the blood-vessels and exhalants of the surface ; hence, under its influence, the skin becomes pale, shrunk, and dry. It diminishes the action of the heart and arteries, as is evinced by the smallness, weakness, and diminished frequency of the pulse. The sen- sibility, first of the external parts of the body, and subsequently of the internal organs, is likewise diminished by the action of cold. Hence the numbness of the hands, fingers, and entire surface, as well as the diminished activity of the functions of the brain and nervous system generally, and the feebleness of the muscular action. It is by this sedative impression upon the nervous system of intense cold, that the almost irresistible inclination to deep sleep is produced in those exposed to very low degrees of temperature. The sudden application of cold occasions a hurried and irregular action of the respiratory organs ; and when intense or long-continued, it materially impedes, or prevents en- tirely, the action of these organs, so that the respiration is so imperfectly performed, that the change of the venous into arterial blood no longer takes place, and the lips, tongue, and external surface of the body as- sume a livid or leaden hue. The moderate and transient application of cold to persons in robust health, and of considerable energy of con- stitution, is generally followed by phenomena which have misled many into the belief that cold acts upon the animal system as a stimulant THE MEANS OF PRE8EEVLNG HEALTH. 113 Every one in health has experienced the bracing and invigorating in- fluence of a bright winter's day, and has felt from it a healthful glow in his frame, and a degree of increased vigor throughout every organ. These effects, however, are not, strictly speaking, the inamediate conse- quence of the low temperature to which the body is exposed, but they result from the reaction of the vital energies, after the first temporary reduction of their activity by the cold. The excitement of the .surface and of the internal organs being reduced by the sedative influence of the reduced temperature, their susceptibility to the action of the ordi- nary stimuli is increased ; hence, subsequent exposure to a slight aug- mentation of temperature, exercise, the friction and warmth of the clothing, even the stimulus of the blood, as the heart renews its activity on the withdrawal of the sedative agent, will induce an augmented ex- citement on the internal and external surfaces. Hence the agreeable glow of the skin, the augmented vigor and increased activity of the sys- tem, the improved appetite, and feeling of cheerfulness consequent upon a transient and moderate reduction of the temperature of the body. That these phenomena are solely to be referred to the reaction of the system, after a temporary diminution of excitement, is sufiiciently estab- lished by the fact, that unless the system be endowed with a consider- able degree of energy and activity, no such favorable efiects will follow the action of cold. Upon the weak and exhausted, cold acts as a per- manent debilitant ; or, if reaction takes place, it is only partial, bging confined to some one or a few organs, in which it causes not a healthy activity but disease. , There is not, indeed a more frequent exciter of disease than cold when applied to the body under certain circumstances. Were we to enumerate all the diseases to which cold gives rise, we should give a list of nearly all to whichj in our variable climate, the human body is subject. The numerous inflammations of various parts, as the eyes, thte throat, the chest, the lungs, the bowels; the inflammation of tendinous and membraneous parts, constituting rheumatism ; catarrh, called by way of eminence, acoM ; the rose, fevers of various kinds, consumption ; these and many more, closely follow the application of cold ; and what- ever may be the di'stinction we make between predisposing and exciting causes, the plain, practical inference to be drawn, is the necessity of guarding against cold, and all those circumstances in its application on which depends its power of aflfecting the body with disease. The circumstances which enable the human body to resist, the mor- bific effects of cold, are a certain vigor of constitution, exercise, activity of mind, and the being occupied with some exciting passion. Cordials also, as wine, spirits, or other stimulants, prevent the body from suffer- ing from the immediate effects of cold ; but it is to be noted, that they who are in the habit of dram-drinking, are not those who are best able tor resist the action of cold. The -temporary stimulus of spirituous liquors is always succeeded by great weakness, and susceptibility to ex- ternal impressions ; and the unhappy drunkard, from the combined ef- fects of his debility and exposure, is very frequently destroyed by dis- ease induced by the sedative effects of cold. ClOTEINB. — One of the safest rules in the regnlaticn of dress, is to ad- 114 THE FAMILY. just it to the vicissitudes or fluctuations of the season ; and thi^ rule should be carefully attended to by the valetudinarian, the delicate, the infirm, and the old. The winter clothing should not be left off too early in the spring, noi the summer clothing worn too late in the autumn. Neither should this rule be disregarded by the young, and those in the enjoy- ment of perfect health ; for, though strong and robust persons may, with impunity, endure many changes of temperatare without any change in dress, yet they should not be too slightly clothed; and all diminution in the amount of ttieir dress should be made with extreme caution. Such persons, however, relying too much on the strength of their constitu- tions, often expose themselves imprudently ; and, as the violence of their diseases is generally in proportion to the vigor of their vital powers, so are they frequently rapid in their progress and fatal in their termina tion. The grand rule is, so to regulate the clothing, that, when exposed to the external aif, the difference of temperature experienced shall not be such as to produce any dangerous impression, whatever may be the inclemency of the weather, when we go abroad. Hence, the necessity of a thinner clothing within doors than without, and of a greater warmth of clothing after night, and during cold, damp weather, than during the day, and when the air is perfectly dry. Persons of delicate and irritable constitutions, whose powers of life are feeble, and whose circulation is languid and irregular, are very apt to suffer severely by a very slight diminution of the temperature of their skin. This is also the case with invalids. All such persons^ therefore, ought rather to exceed, than be deficient in, the quantity and warmth of their clothing. But while clothing should not be too light, or too small in amount, neither should it be too heavy, or too much in quantity. The effects are equally mischievous. 'By overclothing, too much perspiration is drawn out of the body, by which the frame is greatly weakened, and coldness and numbness of the extremities are occasioned. Dress is often injurious in consequence of its being made fashionable, in compliance with the modes and customs of the times; frequently oc- casioning innumerable maladies, either by compressing the muscles or viscera, stopping the access and retreat of the blood to and from the head, or from circulating through the veins, or preventing the free ex- pansion of the chest or the unconstrained action of the limbs. Tight clothes are invariably detrimental to the health, comfort, and symmetry of the body. By the pressure they make upon the muscles, and the impediment they offer to their free exercise, they produce in them an emaciation and debility which prevent them from supporting properly the natural and graceful position of the body, or of effecting its active movements with sufficient vigor. They prevent, also, the free circulation of the blood, and cause it to accumulate in the veins of the head, lungs, or abdomen. When the pressure of the clothes, or any part of them, is around the neck, it is apt to produce headache, discoloration of the face, vertigo, and apoplexy, or other diseases of the brain ; when upon the chest and waist, it prevents the full development of the lungs, impedes respiration, and interferes with the proper action of the heart, in consequence of which, the health of the whole system suffers ; when THE MEA2JS OF PBBBEEVmO- HEALTH. 115 around the abdomen, the stomach, liver,-and intestines are affected, and indigestion is produced, or the nutrition of the whole body is rendered imperfect. The clothes, therefore, should be perfectly loose, leaving to every part the fullest liberty, and to all their natural and unconstrained motions. This is all-important at every period of life, but particularly so during infancy and childhood. Another practice, equally pernicious to health, is that of going about all the morning and first part of the day, the men muffled up in great coats, and the women with furs and flannels, while, in the afternoon and evening, they sit at home, or Jbrave the external air in a much thinner dress, which but imperfectly covers, or leaves bare, parts of the body which in the previous portion of the day were closely enveloped in the warmest clothing. Flannel, — Flannel worn next the skin, in addition to the ordinary clothing, is of very great service in preserving the health of the in- habitants of all cold and temperate climates, more especially where the vicissitudes of temperature are frequent and considerable, as well as during the seasons of spring, autumn, and winter, in our own climate. It produces a moderate warmth of the surface, promotes perspiration, readily absorbs the perspired fluids, and easily parts with them again by evaporation, on account of the porous nature of its texture. These im- portant advantages render the use of flannel at all seasons of inesti- mable service to the valetudinary and the aged, and all those subject to disorders of the chest, bowels, etc. Hufeland has justly remarked, that it is the very best dress for those who have begun to decline in year? ; for all who lead a sedentary life; for individuals subject to cough o' frequent colds, gout, diarrhoea, and the like ; for all nervous patients, and convalescents from severe chronic disorders ; to persons who are too susceptible of the impressions of the atmosphere ; and lastly, in such climates and pursuits of life where exposure to sudden changes of temperature, and to wet or moisture, is unavoidable. Flannel is also well adapted for infants and young children, especially in autumn, winter, and spring. Older children do not require it, ex- cepting during the seasons of greatest cold, and all persons under' forty, in good health, should reserve it as a resource for their declining years, during which it becomes every year more and more useful and necessary. Flannel ought not to be habitually worn at night. By far the best practice is, to throw it off in bed, unless, irom great debility or age, sufffcient warmth cannot be insured by a moderate quantity of bed-clothes. The necessity of irequently changing the flannel, in order 1,0 preserve it strictly clean, need scarcely be ^urged, as it must be appar- ent to all. Cotton. — Cotton, as an article of clothing, especially when worn in contact with the skin, is far better adapted for general use than linen. It is much better adapted for preserving the equable warmth of the surfaofe, and guarding it from sudden vicissitudes of temperature ; ,but it is inferior in these respects to flannel. In warm weather, and in hot climates, it is, in every respect, the most comfortable and wholesome article for an inner dress. It is cooler than linen, inasmuch as it conducts more slowly the excess of external heat to our bodies, and when a sud- 116 THE FAMn.Y. den reduction of atmosphericjrl temperature occurs, on the other hand, it abstracts more slowly the heat from the body, and thus preserves the surface of a more steady and uniform temperature. For children and young persons of robust and healthy constitutions, it should constitute the material of the inner garment throughout the year. liUCn. — Whatever may be said in favor of the comforts of linen, and the greater ease with which it is kept clean, it is by no means a sub- stance well adapted for the dress worn next to the skin at any season of the year nor by any class of persons. In the winter it is altogether insuflBcient to preserve the surface (jf a proper temperature or to guard it against sudden changes. For children, and the laboring classes gen- erally, as well as by all delicate persons, muslin should be preferred for summer wear, and soft flannel for winter. The chief objections to linen are, that it is too good a conductor of caloric, and hence causes the body to feel the influence of very high or low degrees of atmospheric temper- ature ; it imbibes readily the matter of perspiration, and when wet, communicates a disagreeable chilliness to the surface with which it is in contact. nead-Dress. — Whatever covering is worn upon the head should be light, sufficiently large, and adapted in its form tp the shape of thehead. Too heavy or warm a covering, or one which compresses unduly the head, is productive of pain and inconvenience. In summer, the color of the hat or bonnet should be white, or at least some shade approach- ing to white, in consequence of the tendency of all dark colors to absorb and transmit the rays of heat. The brim of the hat should also be suffi- ciently broad to protect the face and the eyes from the sun. Although the nature of a head-dress may appear to be a subject of very little im- portance ip regard to health or comfort, yet every one has perhaps experienced more or less of the pain and inconvenience occasioned by wearing a new hat too small in the crown and unfitted in shape to the head, and the almost immediate relief which results from exchanging it for one of more ample dimensions ; while we are assured by phy- sicians, that disgusting, painful, and even dangerous aflfections of the head are caused by the warm, thick coverings constantly worn upon the head by the peasants in the difi'erent parts of the north of Europe. Caps. — The head, excepting perhaps in the first months of infancy, is sufficiently protected from cold and other external agents, by its natural covering of hair ; hence, every kind of artificial covering is, to say the east of it, unnecessary — even during exposure to the open air. Caps are particularly objectionable in children ; by keeping the head too warm, and by the roughness of their texture when richly worked, producing an irritation of the parts with which they are in contact, they cause too much blood to be sent to the vessels of the head, and thus increase the danger of diseases of the brain, eruptions, and sores about the scalp, the forehead, and the ears being produced ; while the broad border of lace with which they are so often ostentatiously decked, interfering with the motions of the eyes, produces often a permanent squint. In adults caps should ne^erbe worn, excepting when the head has beconje prematurely bald, as the cooler the head is kept when possessed of its natural cover- ing, the hair, the less danger there is of affections of the brain or of the THE MKAIIS. OF PEESMBTnsra HEALTH. 117 cars and eyes. Wearing caps at night is" likewise always an objection- able practice, excepting when the individual is accustomed to them during the day. Cravat. — The neck might be left entirely uncovered from the period of birth without injury, probably with advantage to health. But so long as the imperious laws of custom and fashion require the use of a covering to this part of the body in the male sex, it is important that of whatever it is composed it be very light and loosely applied. When the neck is kept too warmly covered it becomes peculiarly liable to the impression of slight' degrees of cold ; the throwing off of the cravat for a few moments, or exchanging it for one of lighter materials, will often give rise to a violent inflammation of the throat. When the cravat girts too tightly the neck, it prevents the free return of the blood from the head, Causing a constant pain and sense of over-fullness. Corsets. — Of all the whims of fashion no one is more absurd or more mischievous in its effects than enjoy. Before he determined on adopting a spare diet, he was much afflicted with lowness of spirits, heaviness, and debility, and severe bowel complaints were the torment of his life ; but his careful and abstemious diet perfectly cured him of these and other evils. There can be no doubt that the majority of persons in this country, in easy> cirfcum- Btances, eat and drink considerably more than is either necessary or beneficial. It is a remarkable fact, that almost all those who have lived to a great age, have uniformly observed a veiy temperate diet; and in numerous instances of longevity it has been scanty and coarse. ' Abstinencei— By abstinence is meant either the refraining entirely from food, or for a certain period, or from some particular species of foo4 habitually. In a more limited sense, however, abstinence implies ex- treme moderation and temperance ; the sustaining life upon the smallest possible amount of food, and that of the simplest kind. Entire absti- nence from food cannot be endured for any great length of time by per- sons in health without its producing the most distressing sensations ; and if food be still withheld, or the individual is enabled to control the desire to partake of it, a diseased condition of the body is induced, ter- minating quickly in death. The effects of prolonged abstinence are, general and excessive emaciation, a diminished size and colorless state of the musoles, extreme debility, the blood becomes deficient in quantity, and altered in its qualities, and the other fluids undergo a similar change. The functions of the brain often become deranged, and death is preceded by delirium. The length of time an individual may survive under en- tire abstinence irom food varies according to his age, constitution, habits, and a variety of other circumstances. Many instances of long-continued abstinence being endured with perfect impunity are ■ recorded ; but in general it will be found that those have occurred in persoiis laboring under disease, who were in a state resembling somewhat that of torpid animals, or that while they abstained from solid food they drank vari- ous fluids, more or less nutritive. Abstinence from food for a limited period is often, during health, of very great importance ; it is one of the most powerful means of obviating the effects of any accidental ex- cess, of warding off an impending attack of disease, and of removing those disorders of the stomach incident upon the introduction into it of aliment of an improper kind. Occassional abstinence from food, by omitting a meal or two, or substituting for an animal diet a bowl of gruol, or a slice of bread and tea, restores the force of the digestive organs, by diminishing their action, and giving them rest and time to resume their healthful energies ; while, at the same time, when the system is rapidly verging into disease, or the vessels are overloaded with blood, it removes fVom the first a stimulus which might increase its deviation from health, and upon the second it acts as an evacuant, by allowing the secretions time to remove from them their excessive amount of THE MEANS OF PEESEKVING HEALTH. 137" fluids. The studious, as well as they who lead sedentary lives, are es- pecially benefited by occasional abstinence, as such persons, from th want of sufficient exercise, are generally the severest sufferers from dis eases of repletion, and from a 'disordered state of the digestive organs. Diseases of the most violent character, may often be prevented by the observance of an abstemious diet during the period of their prevalence ; and they have often been cut short by rigid abstinence from food from the moruent the symptoms are experienced which threaten their attack. Abstinence; sayslDr. Miller, is one of the most convenient means oi curing disease. No confinement is necessary, no interference with the ordinary occupations of life. If the apprehensions which give rise to it prove groundless, no trouble nor injury is sustained, but the system, freed from unnecessary excitement, feels a lucid interval not often ex- perienced by the votaries of luxury, and afterward returns to a more substantial diet with redoubled satisfaction. If the disease about to at- tack be of a moderate kind, abstinence alone will often be sufficient to strangle it in the birth ; if more violent, and our easy precaution should prove insufficient, some advantage, and of no trifling amount, will at least have been gained. The stomach will certainly be in a better con- dition for the reception of other remedies. Surfeit. — By a surfeit is meant an overloading of the ^omach with too great a quantity or mixture of food, or by indulging in food of a very rich or indigestU)le quality. The eflfects of this, if it be not got rid ot at once by the vomiting which sometimes spontaneously occurs, are nausea, acid or acrid eructations, pain of the head, flatulency, disincli- , nation to food, a sense of chilliness, alternating with flushes of heat; pains in the stomach and bowels, and disturbed sleep. These symp- toms often continue for many days, and then produce a looseness of the bowels, or even profuse and obstinate diarrhoea. The prudent will al- ways carefully avoid a surfeit, it being one of the most certain means of destroying the tone and inducing. disease of the stomach. When in- temperance of this kind has been committed, a gentle emetic should be given, followed by a dose of calcined magnesia, and for some time the diet should be of the lightest kind, as thin gruel or panado, toast and water, or crackers with milk. • Foftd. — A sufficient supply of food, of a wholesome and nourishing quality, is essential for the support of the system in health, and to enable it to undergo that amount of labor to which each individual is subjected. Excess of food, even of the lightest and most wholesome kind, interrupts digestion, oppesses and irritates the stomach, produces a feverish heat of | the surface, loads the vessels with an excess of blood, and, when sufficient exercise is not taken, renders the body unwieldy, by the accumulation of fat beneath the skin and around the abdominal and thoracic organs. The action of the heart becomes sluggish, muscular exertion is performed yith difficulty, the mind is rendered dull and torpid, and the body is predisposed to various acute and rapidly fatal diseases, from very slight causes. Equally injurious is a deficiency of food. The energies of the body and of the mind suffer, and disease is as certainly induced by inanition as by repletion. The just medium must be left to the in- stinct and reason of each individual, in whom the quantat^r required 128 THE FAMILY. will vary considerably, according to his age, constitution, occupation, and degree of health. It may be safely inferred, however, that a per son in health has not transgressed the bounds of moderation, if, on rising from his meals, tie feels light and cheerful, with a stomach un- oppressed, and a capability of applying himself at once to study or to labor ; while, on the other hand, if he experience giddiness, heaviness, lassitnde, uneasiness, distension of the stomach, or an inclination to sleep, he has exceeded the bounds of prudence, and should be on his gnard in future. Partaking of a great variety of food at one meal, is injurious; it causes more to be eaten than is proper, impedes the digestive powers of the stomach, and inflicts serious injury on the latter organ, and through it, on the system generally. With respect to the solid or fluid nature of our food, we may remark, that a certain degree of solidity assists its digestibility, and hence, soups, jellies, gravieS, and the like, are more readily digested when bread or other solid substance is added to them than when they are eaten alone. A suflSoient bulk of food in the stomach to give it a gentle stimulus and distension is ab- solutely necessary for healthy digestion : it is on this account that all such articles as contain much nutriment in a very small space are un- wholesome. In regard to the concentration of aliment, very erroneous and injurious opinions generally prevail. It is supposed by most per- sons, that by extracting and insulating what they conceive to be the nutritious principle or principles of any given alimentary substance, they are able, with greater certainty and effect, to nourish the body of the sick and delicate ; thus, we continually hear of strong beef-tea, pure arrow-root jelly, and the like, being prepared with great care for such persons. But many of our readers will be much surprised to hear, that dogs and other carnivorous animals fed on the strongest beef-tea, or pure jelly alone, rapidly emaciate, and die within a short period, and that precisely the same conseqiwnces would ensue were the strongest man confined to the same food. A certain bulk, therefore, of |Dod taken into the stomach is essential to nutrition ; and all attempts to combine too much nutrition in too small a mass, materially impair the wholesomeness of our food. Aliments. — Whatever is capable of being used as food, and of sup- plying the waste of the animal body, is called aliment. The great variety of nutritive substances may be classed and arranged in various ways, as animal or vegetable; fish, fowl, or flesh; solid or liquid, etc.; or they may be classed according to the particular principles, as they are called by chemists, on which the nutritive qualities depend. Some of these principles are fibrin, albumen, gelatine, oil and fat, gluten, fecula or starch, mucilage, sugar, acids, etc. On this plan, Dr. Paris closes aliments in the following way: Class I. Fibrinous aliments. Comprehending the flesh and blood of various animals, especially such as have arrived at puberty— venison, beef,' mutton, hare. II. Albuminous aliments. Eggs; coagulable animal matter. III. Gelatinous aliments. The flesh of young animals, veal, chicken, calves' feet, certain fishes. IV. Fatty and oily aliments. Animal fat, oils, and butter, cocoa, etc, ducks, pork, geese, eels, etc. V, Caseous aliments. The different kinds of milk, cheese, etc. VI. Farinaceous aliments. Wheat, barley, oats, THE TVfBANS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. 120 rice, rye, potato, sago, arrow-root, etc. VII. Mucilaginous aliments. Carrots, turnipg, asparagus, cabbage, etc. VIII. Sweet aliments. The different kinds of sugar, figs, dates, etc., carrots. IX. Acidulous ali- ments. Oranges, apples, and otlier acescent fruits. The numerous substances classed above vary much both in their nu- tritive and digestible properties. When we talk of a substance being nutritive, we mean that it has the power to *pply more or less nourish- ment fo the body, withov.t saying whether the stomach and the other assimilating organs find much or little difficulty in conducting the process ; and when we say that a substance ij digestible, we mean that the stom- ach and its coadjutors separate with ease the nutritive portion from it. Thus a substance may be very nutritive but not very digestible ; and the reverse may also be true. Fat, oily aliment is very nutritive, but of difficult digestion. This is what people mean when they say such an article of diet is heavy, though oil is specifically light, and often floats on the other contents of the stomach. The digestibility of food, considered without reference to the stomach, depends on a variety of circumstances, particularly the state of the food, with regard to texture and consistence ; and this texture in animal food depends on the time that has elapsed since the animal was killed, on its age, feeding, and mode of killing; and above all, on the operations of cookery. In a matter which varies so much in difi"erent individuals, it is not easy to lay down any general maxims with regard to the digestibility of different kinds of food ; but it is found pretty generally to be the case, that tender mutton is the most digestible food. Beef is not quite so eagily digested ; but it is equally nutritious. Soups, oils, and jellies are digested with some diffi- culty, both on account of their tenacity, and because they are not so easily acted upon by the mechanical and solvent powers of the stomach. Tegetabls Food. — That man is capable of sustaining the health, vigor, and strength of his system upon a diet purely vegetable, is established by so many proofs, as to place the fact beyond the possibility of a doubt. The Hindoo lives almost exclusively upon rice and water. A great proportion'of the Irish peasantry subsist on potatoes, with the oc- casional addition of bread and milk; and the laboring classes in many districts of Scotland and the north of England are nourished upon little else than oat-meal and potatoes ; while in various other countries of ' Europe, the poor are restricted almost exclusively to a vegetable diet, even less nourishing than either of these. When the food just referred to is in sufficient quantity and of a good quality, more robust, active, and vigorous frames, and a greater amount of general health than are presented by the individuals who make use of it can scarcely be met with in the inhabitants of any other country, or among any other classes of society, whatever may be the nature of their diet. Although vegetable aliment requires a longer time to digest in the stomach than that from the animal kingdom, and notwithstanding the latter presents a larger amount of nutritive matter in a smaller bulk than the former ; yet it is indisputable that the human system can derive from vegetable food as great a quantity of suitable nourishment as from animal, while the former produces much less excitement and heat, and is far less liable to 130 THE FAMILT. produce overfnllness of the blood-vessels, or to predispose the organs to disease. As a general rule, it will be found that they who make use of^fl diet consisting chiefly of vegetable substances, properly cooked, more especially the farinaceous seeds and roots, have a manifest advan- tage in looks, strength, and spirits over those who partake largely of animal food ; they are remarkable for the firm, healthy plumpness of their muscles, and the transparency of their skins. This statement, chough at variance with popular opinion, is amply supported T)y ex- perience. The diet of children, and young persons generally, should consist almost exclusively of farinaceous aliment and milk. In summer, and in warm climates, a greater proportion of vegetable food is required than in winter and in cold climates. They who, with a suflBciency of daily exercise in the open air to preserve the activity of the digestive organs, nevertheless spend ordinarily a life of ease and comparative in- action, will find their health and comfort better promoted by a diet principally vegetable, than by one in which animal food abounds. Toward the decline of life, also, the amount of animal food should be gradually diminished, and that of wholecime vegetable aliment increased. Anlmill Food. — It is evident, as well from the structure of the digest- ive organs in ftian as from experience, that he is destined to live upon both animal and vegetable food, and that a proper combination of both constitutes the aliment which, generally speaking, is best adapted to his taste, and the one by which the health and vigor of his system is under most circumstances best sustained. It is nevertheless true, that whole tribes of people subsist almost entirely upon the flesh of animals, with- out apparently its producing any striking influence upon their bodily strength, or inducing disease ; while, on the other hand, we know, that by a diet almost exclusively vegetable, the growth and development of the body is in no manner curtailed, and its muscular strength and free- dom from disease are as fully maintained as it can be by any other species of food. The nourishment communicated by both animal and vegetable food is much the same ; but the animal product is the mosf easily separated by the digestive organs, and is afforded in the greatest amount. The blood of the individual who partakes largely of animal food is hence richer, more elaborated and stimulating, and produces a much greater excitement of the different organs of the system than the blood of those fed principally upon a vegetable aliment. The first gives, likewise, a greater tendency to inflammatory affections than the latter. For those who are accustomed to active and laborious employments a greater amount of animal food will be proper than for the sedentary and in- active. Infants require less animal food than children, children than adults, and women than men. In summer, the quantity of animal food should always be diminished, whatever may be the habits or occupations of the individual. In winter, and in the more northern climates, a more permanent and stimulating nourishment is required than under opposite circurnstances ; this is best afforded by animal food ; and hence the propriety of the latter being increased to a certain extent during the cold season and in cold climates. The different kinds of animal food THE MEAN8 OF PEESEBVING HEALTH. 131 differ in the degree of nourishment they afford, as well as in the case with which they are digested. Thus, the flesh of full-grown animals is much more digestible and nutritioiis than that of their young ; and'as it respects the larger animals, this rule is without exception. Beef and mutton, for example, are more easily digested, and more wholesome than veal and lamb. The sex of animals, too, influences the nature of the food ; the flesh of the female being more delicate than that of the male. The mode of killing, too,^ves a tenderness to the flesh. Hunted atiiiL'.als are hence tenderer than those that are killed on the spot. The flesh of animals which are allowed to range freely in the open air is more wholesome and nutritious than of such as are stall-fed. In general, i Ae flesh which is dark-colored, and which contains a large proportion of fibrin, is more digestible and nutritious than the white flesh of ani- mals. Thus, the white flesh of domestic fowls is, not- so readily dissolved Ih the stomach as that of the different kinds of game. By cooking, ani- mal food is changed in its texture, being generally rendered softer and easier of digestion ; but by certain modes of cooking a reverse effect is produced, the food being rendered indigestible, unnutritious, and un- wholesome. VARIETIES OF ANIMAL FOOD.— Gelatine, or animal jelly, is highly nutritious ; but in its separate or concentrated state it is difficult of di- gestion ; hence, the impropriety of the dyspeptic, and persons of weak stomachs generally, being fed upon strong soups, calves'-feet jelly, and similar articles of food. Gelatine of Bones. — Bones have been found, by careful analysis, to contain in every one hundred parts sixty of an earthy matter, and thirty of a nutritive jelly, a portion of the residue being pure fat. By a pro- cess lately invented by Mr. Darcet, of Paris, the whole of the nutritive part of bones can be extracted fi-om the other substances contained in them, and, with the addition of proper seasoning, and such vegetables as ordinarily enter into the composition of good soups, it constitutes a highly palatable and nutritious food,, which, from its cheapness, is well adapted for the use of the poor ; and is now extensively employed in several of the public charitable institutions of Franc^. In preparing the jelly from bones, it is only the spongy extremities, and the soft cellular portions of them, that are made use of. The hard, compact bones are still, therefore, reserved for the various purposes to which they arc now so extensively applied in the arts. Not only does the jelly procured from bones deserve attention by its affording a palatable and economical soup for the supply of the poor; but from the facility with which it can be converted into dry cakes, and in that form kept, without undergoing the least change, for years. The crews of ships, destined for long voyages, can, by this means, be constantly supplied with whole- some fresh food; all that is required to convert the cakes of dry jelly iflto soup, being to dissolve them in boiling water, and to add the proper seasoning, with biscuits, rice, potatoes, or any other vegetable aliment that can be obtained. Biscuits are also' made with the jelly, combined with flour. These biscuits have been introduced as an article of diet ou board the French national vessels, with decided advantage to the health and comfort of their crews. 132 THE FAMILY. Calvcs'-Feet Jelly. — A jelly obtained by boiling calves' feet in water for a length of time. The decoction being properly strained and clari- fied, is allowed to cool, in the form of a pure jelly; or, previously to its cooling, sugar, wine, spices, etc., are added to it. Plain calves'-feet jelly, or that which is sweetQned, is grateful to the palate, very nutri- tious, and not very difficult of digestion ; hence it is, sometimes, a' use- ful article of diet for convalescents; it may be taken cold, or dissolved in warm water, according to circumstfhces. It should, however, only be given occasionally, or in moderation ; for jelly, like all other con- centrated aliment, is not so readily converted into chyle as many other articles which contain a less amount of nutriment. Dyspeptics, espe- cially, will find it to disagree very generally with their stomachs. The . addition of wine and spices to the jelly renders it an improper article of diet under most circumstances. Albumen, — The purest example of albumen is that presented by the white of the egg ; it, nevertheless, enters largely into the composition of many of the animal fluids and solids. As an article of, food, it is at once readily assimilated in the stomach, it being taken up by the ab- sorbent vessels, without its being required to undergo digestion, while at the same time it is highly nutritious. It was once supposed, that when coagulated by heat,''its digestibility was, in a great measure, de- stroyed ; this, however, has been proved by late experiments not to be true ; the white of a boiled egg being converted into chyme without difficulty. The injurious effects resulting from the eating of hard-boiled eggs are occasioned in a great measure by the effects of the heat upon the oily matter of the yolk. Milk, — Milk is confessedly one of the most valuable presents which a bountiful Providence has bestowed upon man. To the healthy, and ac- tive it affords far more strength and support than is generally supposed. In many instances, either alone, or in combination with the farinaceous seeds or roots, it has formed the sole sustenance of , life — maintaining fully the health and robustness of the system, without any of the dis- advantages which result from an excess of animal food on the one hand, ' or the diminished strength and vigor which have been supposed to bo the effect of a purely vegetable diet, on the other. Incalculable would be the benefits which would result to the working and laboring classes of our country were they to substitute this whole- some and nourishing food in their families, for the expensive and unnu- tritious slops which, under the name of tea or coffee, constitute the chief of their morning and evening meals ; or, at least, were they, in order to support their system under labor, and to defend it from the effects of cold, heat, or fatigue, to substitute a tumbler of milk for the pernicious dram of ardent spirits, or the too often deleterious preparations present- ed to them in the form of beer, porter, or ale. _ For children, milk with bread, or a simple preparation of milk with rice, or with eggs and sugar, is perhaps the best and most wholesome food that can be devised : it should, at least, form the principal part of their nourishment for the first twelve or fifteen years of tht^ir life. In place of being weakly or stinted in their growth upon such food, they will be found stronger, stouter, more healthy, and of a more rosy and THE MEAHS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. 133 pleasing complexion than children who are fed upon meat, and pampered with the delicacies of a well-filled table. Milk, to be perfectly wholesome, should be drawn from sound, young animals, supplied with a sufiSciency of their natural food, and allowed free exercise in the open air. The best mode of using it is undoubtedly in its raw state, and when it has stood about two hours after being drawn. It may be eaten wifh bread or mush. Milk enters, also, into the composition of various dishes, which it is not necessary here to enu- merate, they being well known to every skillful housewife. * Largely diluted with water, milk furnishes also a very palatable and wholesome drink during waf m weather. Cream. — That portion of the milk which rises to the surface, when it has stood for some hours, and may be skimmed off and separated frora it. It has many of the properties of oil ; when allowed to stand for some days, it becomes thicker, the flavor of cream is lost, and is suc- ceeded by that of cheese. When cream is agitated by* churning, it separates into butter, and a fluid like skimmed milk. With some stomachs cream disagrees in the same manner as a smalt quantity of oil or butter would do ; with many dyspeptics, pure cream, however, agrees better than milk. When taken in moderate quantity, as an accom- paniment to tea, coffee, fruits, etc., it seldom gives inconvenience to aiiy one. Eggs. — Eggs contain a great deal of nourishment in a small bulk ; and when perfectly fresh, and sofb-boiled, they constitute a species of food of very easy digestion. When hard-boiled, and especially when fried, they are indigestible and stimulating, and produce very considerable disturb- ance to weak stomachs. Cheese. — All kinds of cheese are of difficult digestion; and, as an article of food, are suited only to the healthy, strong, and laborious. Such persons would, in fact, appear to require an aliment which, while sufficiently nourishing, is not rapidly digested. We have now. reference to cheese in its recent state, or which has been preserved in such a man- ner as to undergo but little change. With age, cheese, in general, ac- quires new properties, becoming more stimulating and less nutritious. This arises from a spontaneous decomposition which takes place in it, by which a certain amount of ammonia, and of other salts, is developed. It is this which gives to it its peculiar sharpness, and, in some measure, its taste and smell. In this state, cheese can with safety be made use of, only in very small quantities, as a condiment along with other food. By persons of delicate stomach, it should be eaten with great caution. The idea entertained by many, that a portion of old cheese taken with the dessert aids digestion, is perfectly absurd. When cheese has ad- vanced very near to a state of putrefaction, though eaten by certain epicures, and by some of the nations of the north of Europe, it is' at once disgusting to the senses and injurious to the stomach. Certain changes which cheese occasionally undergoes, impart to it poisonous properi£ies. Roasted, or cooked cheese, is very indigestible, and liable to occasion painful sensations in the stomach, headache, acrid eructa- tions, feverish heat of the skin, and disturbed sleep. A few persons have a decided aversion to cheese, so that it can neither be seen, smelt. 134 THE FAMILT. or tasted by them, without exciting nausea, or vomiting. Cheese is an article of diet not well suited to children' ; it is Very aptj in their excit- able systems, to give rise to unpleasant syaJptoms of longer or shorter duration. When eaten by adalts, it should always be combined with a 'arge portion of bread. Butter. — An unctuous sftbstance obtained from the milk of animals, and most plentifully from that of the cow. It is got by loflg-continued agitation, which operation is called churning. It is universally used as an article of diet ; and, when perfectly fresh and thinly spread upon bread, there are few stomachs with which it disagrees. Butter is used as a sauce to many articles of food, and is frequently added to flour to be baked into cakes, and pastry,, and it is in both these forms injurious, . for, though it does hot produce efifects that are immediately apparent^it lays the foundation of stomach .complaints of the greatest obstinaey. Its use in thia form is also very apt to give rise to diseases of the skm, very diiBcuft to cure* Persons laboring under stomach complaints should not use much butter in any form. 5t is also very unwholesome when heated. It is a bad part of the management of children to pamper their palates by frequently indulging them with butter, as it is apt to give rise to a gross; and unhealthy habit of body, characterized by the frequent appearance of boils and other sores, discharges from be- hind the ears, etc., or eruptions on the head and other parts of the skin. Its immoderate use also' occasions too great fullness of the system. Butter, when rancid^ is peculiarly unwholesome and disagreeaible.. Fat affords a rich nutriment,, requiring, however, strong powers of di- gestion, and hence, adapted only to the healthy and laborious ; it' is more wholesome, however, when eaten with a proper quantity of lean, or with a considerable addiitioil of fal'inaceous aliment in the form of potatoes, bread, rice, etc. To persons with weak stomachs, fat is' too heavy and stimulating, and is apt with them' to turn rancid, and to pro- duce uneasiness aild disease of the digestive organs. When pa»tiy burnedv as in roasting, or frying, fat is decidedly Unwholesome. CMIdwin and invalids,, espeeiially, should' be extremely cautious in the use of fat meats. Beef.— 'Beef affords a strong,, easily-digcstedi and wholesome nourish ment; it should be tender, fat, and well mixed; and taken from 'a bul- lock of middle age. Beef is more generally acceptable to the taste than most other species of animal food; it is good at all seasons, and We continue longer to relish it without disgust than any other kind of meat. The particular flavor and delicacy of beef depend much upon the feed on which the animal is reared. Beef furnishes proper food for the strong and laborious ; when eaten to excess^ however, it predisposes to inflamma- tion, and an over-fullness of habit. Of its different parts, the .fat is less easily digested than the lean ; the tonffue, and also the tripe, bei^ig of a more dense texture than the other parts, are more indigestible, and therefore an unfit aliment for weak stoma,chs. The best mode of pTe- paring beef is by roasting or boiling. Beef-steaks appear to b* the form,, however, in which its nutritious qualities are best retained, The excessive body of fat which is accumulated upon what is called THE MEANS OF EBKSEBVING HEALTH. . 135 prize heef, adds nothing ta its goodness, bat, on the contrary, renders it less wkolesonie and nntritious. Beef-tea is an important restorative for persons recovering frona sick- ness, and in many cases of actual' sickness. The following is the best mode of preparing it : cut a pound of lean beef into ,thin slices, put it into a quart and a half of cold water, set it over a gentle fire, so tbaA the water shall become gradiually warmed. When a scum arises, skim it oflf. Let it simmer gently for about an hour, then strain it through a fine sieve, or napkin. After it has stood abouit< ten minutes to settle, pour off the clear liquor.r Mutton.-^Mutton is a highly nutritious and wholesome meat. It ap- pears to be the most digestilJle of all animal food, and is perhaps raoTe universally used tham any other. The flesh of the male animal, how- e'ver, has in general so strong and disagreeable a tasfce^jand is, besides, so exceedingly coarse, and. diflicult of digestion,, that it is only adapted to persons of strong digestive powers. Mvie-mwtton, if it is more than be- tween three and four years oldy is likewise tough and coarse. Wetlier- muttton, or the flesh of the castrated animal^ is most esteemed, and is by far the sweetest and most digestible. Lamb being less heating, and less dense than mutton, is better suited to persons convalescent from acute diseases ;. but by the majority of patients laboring under indigestion, or any other severe affection of the stomach, it is not foumd so digestible or psoper' a diet as wether-mutton. It is, however, to' persons in health a light and wholesome food, espe- cially when the lamb is not killed too young. A lamb that has been allowed to suck five or six months, is fatter and more muscular,, and in every respect better than one which, has been killed when two months old, and before it has: had time to attain its. proper censistency. House- lamb is a dish esteemed chiefly because it is unseasonable. Like all animals raised in an unnatural manner, its: flesh m depraved and un- wholesome. Venison. — The flesh of the deejr is reckoned a great delicacy ; it is nutritious, savory, and easy of digestion. The^ animal being commonly killed in the chase, its flesh, like most species of game, is more tender than th'at of tame beasts slaughtered in the usual mode; Veal,: — The flesh of the calf,, like that of all young anima'is; abounds in gelatinous matter ; it is fer less easy of digestion, than the flesh of the; ox or beef. For persons in health, the most proper mode of cook- ing veal is by roasting or baking. Veal-broth produces' a laxative effect upon/ the bowels^ and is hence a very suitable food for persons troubled with costiveness. Pork. — Good, pork is unquestionably a very savory food, and affords strong nourishment, well suited, as an occasional diet, to persons who liead an active or laborious life, but it is not easily digested, nor can it be considered so wholesome as beef or mutton. The too frequent" and long-continued use of this- meat favors obesity, and is apt to disorder the stomach and bowels^ and,0)ecasio!is eruptions upon the skin. When (lidted, or dried and smoked,, pork, is still more indigestible, and less nonriehing,. as welli asi less whotesome ; wi& soma delicaia people it im- mediately affects the bowels in rather a violent manner. The flesh of 136 THE FAMILT. the sucking pig is reckoned a great delicacy ; but it is digested with much difficulty. It produces very considerable disorder of the digestive Cleans of such individuals as are weak or sickly. Pork should be avoided by the dyspeptic, by the sedentary generally, and by all those who are liable to affections of the skin and bowels, or who are inclined to excess of fat. Bacon. — Pork salted, dried, and sometimes smoked. Bacon is in general prepared from the flesh of the flanks and sides of the full-grown hog. It is a strong, very indigestible, and stimulating food, adapted only" to persons of a robust frame, and accustomed to laborious occupations. The best mode of cooking bacon is by boiling it with vegetables. When fried with eggs it is. decidedly unwholesome. JTam. — The thigh of the hog salted, dried, and smoked. When properly cured, and w]jen boiled, ham is a very palatable and whole- some food. It is, however, stimulating and difficult of digestion, and hence only suited to such persons as are in full health and exercise much in the open air. Fried ham is still more indigestible than that which is boiled ; it should be carefully avoided by dyspeptics, and weakly and sedentary persons generally. Sausages, — A very common article of food, prepared in this country chiefly from pork, chopped fine, with the addition of pepper and various other spices, and often highly flavored with garlic. They are sometimes eaten fresh, at others they are dried and smoked. The sausages im- ported from the north and south of Europe are prepared from the flesh of various animals boiled. In whatever form they are eaten, sausages are an indigestible and unwholesome food, fitted only for the stomach of the most robust. Sedentary persons and dyspeptics should avoid them entirely. When sausages have been long kept> particularly in a damp place, they are apt to undergo certain ohangesj in consequence of which they become poisonous. Game. — Game, or such birds and beasts, adapted for food, as are al- lowed to enjoy their natural habits and modes of living, and are killed by fowling or hunting, are in general wholesome. When plainly cooked, they are more readily digested than the same species of animals domes- ticated and killed in the oj-dinary manner. Poultry, — Poultry, in the common acceptation of the term, includes all the domesticated birds used as food, as the common fowl, turkey, duck, and goose. In point of digestibility they rank nearly in the order we have enumerated them. The domestic fowl and turkey are also the lightest and most wholesome. The duck and goose are the most diffi cult of digestion, the most stimulating, and hence the most apt to dis- agree with persons of weak stomachs and irritable habits. Chicken soup. — Chicken _ soup, when properly prepared, is a light food, adapted to many invalids, and to persons convalescent from fevers. For their use it should be prepared from the fleshy or lean parts of the chicken well_ boiled in water, with a little salt, the scum and fat being taken off as it rises. The addition of broken crackers, or of rice or bar- ley, may be made, according to circumstances. To many palates the peculiar flavor given to the soup, by plunging in it a slice of toasted THE MEAIirS OF PEESEKVING HEALTH. 1'37 bread, is extremely agreeable. Highly-spiced chicken soup is liable to the same objections as all highTseasoned food. Fish, — ^Fish are less nutritious' than the flesh of warm-blooded animals, while to most stomacha they are more difficult of digestion. That they afford, however, sufficient nourishment to support the general health and vigor of the constitution, is proved by the condition of entire communities that subsist upon little else. Fish, however, especially some particular kinds, and in certain constitutions and states of the stomach, produce very considerable uneasiness, some febrile excitement, and a rash or eruption on the skin. When used habitually, there can be little doubt that they are apt to induce diseases of the skin and disorders of the bowels. The fat of fish is still more indigestible than that of other ani- mals, and readily turns rancid on the stomach. In certain climates fish possesses a poisonous property at particular seasons, and when not in season, all kinds of fish everywhere are very indigestible and unwhole- some. The best mode of cooking fish is by boiling ; stewed or fried fish are very indigestible. Salted and dried fish are a still more un- wholesome food than such as are eaten fresh, and should therefore be avoided by all excepting the healthful and laborious, and even by them should be taken with great moderation. Butter and the acid fruits form improper sauces for fish, causing it almost always to oppress and irritate the stomach ; nor should fish and milk ever be taken at the same meal ; this combination has frequently occasioned severe bowel complaints. Salt-water fish are the best, as their flesh is more solid, more agree- able, less liable to putrescency, and less viscid. They possess these desirable qualities when fi:esh ; when salted, they have all the properties of other salt fish, and consequently its disadvantages. Those fish which have scales are inf^eneral the most easUy digested and the best ; and of all these the fresh herring, shad, trout, perch, whiting, sole, cod, tur- bot, and flounder are perhaps the most wholesome. Salmon, mackerel, skate, and sturgeon, with lobster, and most other kinds of shell-fish, are digested with mfficulty, and are, generally speaking, unwholesome. SalteiLMeat. — Salted meat is more difficult of digestion than that which is eaten fresh, from the increased firmness of its texture ; it is also less nutritious, both from the pickle in which it is immersed washing out, as it were, a considerable amount of its nutritive parts, and from the chemical change which it always undergoes to a greater or less extent. When used as food, salted meat should always be well boiled, and eaten with a large quantity of vegetable aliment. Crabs and Lobsters. — Crabs and lobsters, in whatever manner cooked, are indigestible and decidedly unwholesome. In certain persons they produce effects which might lead a person who is unaware of the fact, to believe that poison, had been administered. Thus they sometimes cause a burning sensation in the throat, pain in the stomach, and erup- tions on the skin. In other instances, violent vomiting and purging have followed the eating of them. When taken in excess, they have caused stupor, insensibility, and all the other phenomena of apoplexy. Turtle, — The flesh of the turtle, when plainly cooked, is a wholesome, palatable, and nourishing food — when, however, it is converted into 10 138 THE FATVm.Y. soup, ■with an excess of spices, force-meat balls, and other pernicious articles, it is productive of not a little injury to the stomach and to health generally! Muss^Si — The masselr—myiilus edulis'—a shell-fish often used as food, is highly indigestible and unwholesome. It is apt, in certain individuals, to occasion violent aflfections of the stomach and bowels, restlessness, and iftgitation, and an insupportable itching, with eruptions on the skin ; at some seasons of the year, and under particular circumstances, these eflFects are produced in all who eat of them. OysterSi"— Oysters, when taken raw or after being slightly cooked by toasting, ate a light, nutritious, and easily-digested food. The hard white partj or eye, as it is sometimes termed, should always be rejected. When thoroughly cooked, however, particularly when stewed or fried, Oysters constitute on the other hand, one of the most indigestible and pernicious articles of food in ordinary use. Eaten to excess m-this form, they give rise frequently to the most violent and dangerous symptoms. When out of season, oysters are always unwholesome. To some stom- achs, oysters invariably prove injurious, causing the same train of symp- toms as were noticed when speaking of mussels. The juice of the oyster, thickened with grated biscuit and warmed, is sometimes an excellent diet for persons laboring under great delicacy of stomach. Salt-water oysters should always be preferred to such as breed in rivers. Sonps. — For the laboring classes generally, there is scarcely a more wholesome and economical article of diet than soup. We allude now to the ordinary domestic soups, prepared from beef, mutton, or veal, with the addition of various vegetables. The more fashionable dishes, served at table under the name of soups, are merely refinements in cookery, adapted to render the articles of which they are composed as indigestible and stimulating as possible. They can be received, there- lore, in no other light than as provocatives to appetite, and inducements to partake of food beyond the powers of the stomach and the wants of the system. In the preparation of soup, the meat and vegetables should be well boiled, and whatever seasoning is added to increase the flavor, care should be taken that it be not thereby rendered too stimu- lating. Potatoes, rice, and barley, as well as. broken crackers or stale bread, form a wholesome addition to soup. The combinations of flour and butter, which are sometimes met with in soups, under the denom- ination of dumplings, are highly indigestible and improper. Soup should always be eaten with bread ; this gives it that degree of con- sistency which, in all our food, appears to cause it to be the most readily acted upon by the stomach. Many suppose that soups generally are calculated only for those whose powers of digestion are weak ; but this is a mistake, the reverse being generally the case. When the digestive power* are weak or deranged, it will almost always be found that solid aliment agrees the best, partic- ularly solid animal food ; this the stomach seems to digest with ease and in a very short time ; whereas; liquid food is apt, in such cases, unduly to distend the stomach, and to require a greater strength of digestive power tbr its perfect assimilation. Brotk^A tetm generally applied to the fluid in which meat lias been THE MEAITB OF PBEgSRVING HEALTH. X39 boiled for a long time, with a slight addition of salt — this, with bread, forms often an excellent diet for persons, to whom we wish to' comnjuni- cate npurishment, without exoitifig to any extent the digestive organs, or increasing the heat pf the system. VARIETIES Of yEGETABliB FOOD.— TegetBble Gluten.— This is one of the proximate principles of vegetables; it is contained iu ail the fari- naceous seeds, and in many of the fruits, leaves, and roots pf various plants. It is the principle which imparts to flpiir the poperty of fer- menting and making bread. Of the nutritive properties pi gluten, dis- tinct from its other vegetable principles, we know but little. The supe- rior nutritious powers of wheat flour, which contains a greater abund- ance of gluten than all the other farinaceous substances, sufficiently prove, however, tJiat in combination with starch it is higjjily nourishing. Starch. — ^Another of the proximate principles of vegeteWesj it is ob- tained from all the ferinaceons seeds and roots. Of iw nutritive prop- erties there can be no doubt, though it is seldom used in a 8e|)arate state as food. It is often administered boiled in water, as an article of diet during sickness and is one of our best demulcents in various dis- eases of the bowels. Cmil.^— The vegetable gum obtained from the Egyptian acacia, the gum-arabic of the shops, and froin the plum, cherry, and other fruit- trees, is highly nutritious. Whole caravans passing throvigh the deserts have subsisted upon it alone, preserving at the same time a sufficient degree of vigor and strength. Gnm is seldom, however, made use of as an aliment. Dissolved in water, it is largely used as a deniulcent drink for patients laboring under irritation and inflammation of the stomach, and in all the febrile afiections and diseases of the bowels it is almost the only drink or diet tjiat should be allowed, Arrow-Root. — T^ks^ root of a tree — M«'''anta arun^inac^a — cultivated in the West Indies. It derives its name from being used by the Indians to produce the poison communicated to arrows, though it is not easy to believe it possessed :pf that power. A starch is ohtained from this plant by lie fpflowing process: the roots, ■vfhen.ayear old, are beaten to a pulp in a large wooden mortar ; this pulp is well stirred in a large tub of elean water, and the fibrous part is wrung put, and thrown away. The milky liquor being passed thrpugh a hair-sieve or coarse cloth, is allowed to settle, and the clear water is drained off'. The white mass is again mixed with clean water, and drained ; it is ngxt dried in the sun, and is then a pure starch, as it is sold in the shops. The arrow- root containis in a small bulk a great proportion of nourishment. Boiled in water, it forms an excellent nutntions jelly, well adapted for invalids and for children. The following is the method ol preparing it : Take a dessertspoonful of the powder, and add as much cold wqter as will make it intP a paste ; tP this add eight ounces of boiling water, stir it briskly, and boif it for a few minutes, when it will become a plear, smooth jelly. To this may be added a little milk and sugar, with a little nutmeg to make it sit light on the stomach ; or &>t children a little pf the sugar pf anise, pr a few drpps pf the essence pf caraway- seeds, pr of cinnamon. Sngar. — Sugar is a pepnliar and well-knpwn vegetable substance, pro- 140 THE FAMILT. cured chiefly from the saccharum officinarum, or sugar-cane, but yielded abundantly by various other vegetables, and contained in the greater part of the fruits in their ripe state* Sugar is highly nutritive, and, when eaten in moderate quantities, is perfectly wholesome. It is apt, however, when eaten by itself in excess, to become quickly sour, or to produce sickness and nausea. Combined with other alimentary sub- stances, it forms a useful and important article of food to all classes — so much so, that it may now be Tanked as one of the chief necessaries of life. The idea entertained by many of its injuring the teeth, is un- founded. Molasses has, as an article of diet, nearly the same properties as sugar. It is merely a syrup, in which the sugar is mixed with a quat- tity of mucilage and other vegetable matter, and more or less water. Sugar-plums. — "We merely notice these articles in order to point out to parents the fact, that in common with most of the sugar toys sold to children, they often ' contain a quantity of plaster of Paris, which, being insoluble, must be dangerous, if it accumulates in the bowels. Many of them are also covered with preparations of arsenic, copper, lead, and other poisonous paints, which, though in very minute quantities, nevertheless produce more or less of an injurious effect upon the stomach, * Honey. — Honey very much resembles sugar in its alimentary proper- ties; it is very nutritious, and when eaten in moderation with bread, is perfectly wholesome. Like sugar, however, it readily ferments, and when the stomach is delicate, it is apt to occasion griping and irrita- tion of that organ and of the bowels, accompanied with considerable looseness. Oil, — That obtained from the olive, by expression, is the only vege- table oil used in this country as food. It is highlyttiutritious, but being diflBcuIt of digestion, is oppressive and irritating to a weak stomach. When used in cooking other articles of food, it becomes extremely un- wholesome. In moderation, provided it be perfectly free from rancidity, pure olive oil, combined with vegetables, may be taken without injury by persons in health and of active habits. Wheat. — ^Wheat, the triticum hyhernum (and other species), of bot- anists, has been cultivated from time immemorial in Europe, in Asia, and in the northern parts of Africa, and the seeds employed as one of the most important and wholesome articles of food. Indeed wheat flour is the only substance known from which good loaf bread can be made. In its nutritive properties and wholesomeness, it stands before almost all other of the vegetable substances used as food. The seeds of the wheat, when ripe, are ground to a fine powder, and by passing this powder through cloth sieves of various degrees of fineness, it is sepa- rated into distinct portions. The fine flour constitutes the greatest portion ; and the bran, which consists of the outer coat of the seed, the next greatest portion. Bran. — The husks or shells of wheat, which remain in the bolting machine. It contains a portion of the mealy matter; and a decoction of it is used as a drink in febrile diseases. This decoction is made by boiling a pint of water with two ounces of bran, till only three-quarters THE MEAlirS O* PKESEEVING HEALTH. 141 of a pint remain, and then straining it. It is thought to have some- thing of a laxative quality. Rice. — The seeds of the oryza sativa, an excellent grain much used in the East, and answering -with them the same purposes as bread with us. When mixed with other food, it furnishes a wholesomp article of diet, as it is not disposed to become sour, or to ferment in the stomach ; but if it be taken in too great a quantity, as it is not very stimulating, it is apt to remain long in the stomach, especially if it has been much boiled. Eice, simply boiled, is an excellent vegetable to be eaten with roasted or backed meats. Baked or boiled with riiilk, eggs, and sugar, it affords also a very light, wholesome, and palatable food. Eice is supposed to be in some degree astringent ; and in looseness of the bowels, the water in which it has been boiled forms an excellent drink. By its mild mucilaginous properties it aids greatly also in allaiying irri- tation in all diseases of the bowels. Oats, — ^The avena sativa of botanists. The meal obtained by grind- ing the grain of oats affords a wholesome and nutritious food, upon which many persons almost entirely subsist in Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England. It is generally used boiled with water, in the form of gruel, or made into thin cakes, which are baked or roasted without their undergoing fermentation. Bread made from oat-meal fermented in the usual way, is neither palatable nor easily digested. . Gruel. — By gruel is generally understood oat-meal boiled in water. It may be made thin or thick, according to the circumstances under which it is resorted to as a diet, by the addition of a smaller or larger quantity of the meal. It is a wholesome and nutritious food for chil- dren and delicate persons, and is better adapted as an article for the supper of such than either tea or coffee. . When desirable, it may be rendered more nutritious by the addition of milk aud sugar ; and its flavor may be heightened by the addition of a little grated nutmeg. Thin plain oat-meal gruel, or a gruel made in the same way from Indian meal, is a useful diet for convalescents from febrile diseases, and for those who have committed an excess in eating, Eye, — The rye (secale) affords a meal, the food prepared from which, though less nutritious than wheat, is nevertheless wholesome and sufiB- ciently nourishing. Eye bread is more difiBcult, however, of digestion, and being apt to turn sour in the stomach and to irritate the bowels, it is not so well adapted as wheat for the use of sedentary and delicate persons. The grains of rye are occasionally subject to a peculiar dis- ease termed ergot. When in this state, eaten in any quantities, or for any length of time, it is peculiarly unwholesome, and apt to occasion diseases of a very serious nature. Bread made of a mixture of rye and wheat is' more palatable, and in other respects better than when made entirely of rye. Barley. — The hordeum distichum of botanists. An annual plant, cul- tivated in almost every country of Europe. Pearl barley is prepared by grinding off the husks of the grain, and forming the latter into little round pellets of a pearly whiteness. Barley forms an excellent article of nourishment when boiled in water or made into cakes. Barley bread is not, however, a very pleasant or wholesome food. 142 THE FAMILT. Barley-water.— 1!he water in which barley is well boiled forms one of our best drinks in various febrile and other diseases. We annex two receipts for its preparation. 1. Take a couple of ounces of shelled barley, wash it clean with cold water, put it into half a pint of boiling water, and let it boil for five minutes; pour off this water, and add to it two quarts of boilitg water; simmer to two pints, and then strain. 2. The above is simple barley-water ; to a quart of this is frequently added two ounces of figs, sliced ; the same quantity of raisins, stoned ; half an ounce of liquorice, sliced and bruised ; and a pint of water. Boil till it is reduced to a quart, and strain. These drinks are_ intended to assuage thirst in fevers and inflammatory disorders, for which plenty of a tnild diluting liquid is one of the chief remedies demanded by honest instinct in terms too plain to be misunderstood. Maize, or Indian Corn.— -The meal made by grinding Indian corn, pre- pared in various ways, but especially when made into mush, or with the addition of wheat flour baked into bread, furnishes a most wholesome, nourishing, and palatable food, and one well adapted for the support of the active and laborious generally. Indian bread, properly prepared, were it not from habit and fashion, would recommend itself to every palate by its agreeable flavor, and the beauty of its appearance ; it is far preferable to the ordinary bread made from wheat alone. To make this bread a mush should be made of the Indian meal in the usual way; into this, when cold, with the addition of a very small quantity of warm water, and a little salt and yeast, is to be kneaded a sufficiency of wheat flour to make it into a paste ; when sufficiently raised, it is to be again kneaded, and baked in the same manner as bread. Bnckwheat. — The flour, or meal, furnished by the seeds of the buck- wheat is incapable of being converted into a wholesome, palatable bread. As an article of food, it is generally used in the form of cakes, made by baking the meal, made into a thin paste with water, and prop- erly fermented. Buckwheat cakes, though extremely palatable, afford little nourishment, and are apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, in consequence of the large amount of melted butter which is eaten with them. They should be avoided, at least by invalids and dyspeptics. Bread. — ^Bread is that most important article of diet, made from the farina of various plants. This farina tionsists of different principles, a mucilaginous saccharine matter, starch, and gluten, which is a pecuUar substance, having many of the properties of animal matter. This latter ingredient is most abundant in wheat flour, and gives it its great supe- riority, as an article of diet and for the manufacture of bread, over that of barley, rye, oats, and other grain. In the making of breadj flour is formed into a paste by mixing it with water, in the average proportion of two parts of water to three of flour ; and the older and better the flour, the greater the quantity of water required. If this paste be al- lowed to remain for some time, a fermentation takes place ; and by the action of the ingredients on one another, important chemical changes take place, and alcohol, carbonic acid, and acetic acid, or vinegar, are formed. This paste is what is called leaven; and if a portion of it be added to new-made paste, the fermentation begins more speedily, car- THE MEAIT8 OF PRESERVING HEALTH. 143 bonic acid is given off, but the gluten hiuders its escape, and, expatoding like a membrane, forms numerous little cavities in a light and spongy mass. If there be too iguch leaven put into the paste, the bread has an unpleasant flavor ; and if there is too little, it is compact and heavy. Yeas'tf or the head that collects on the surface of fermenting beer, being added to the dough, makes a bread superior to what is made with eaven ; and is in this country generally employed for raising bread. After the dough has been properly raised, it is put into the oven, heat- ed to about the temperature oi 448°, and is there baked. Bread is very different from the flour of which it was made ; the ingredients of the flour cannot be discovered in it; it mixes more easily with water, , and is incomparably more digestible-^that is, provided the bread has been properly ferraented, and suflBciently baked. There are three different kinds of bread used in this country,w-th8 fine, the wheaten, and the household bread. Fine bread is made of flour only ; wheaten bread, of flour and a mixture of fine bran ; and house'- hold bread of the whole ^«ain, including both the coarse bran and the fine flour. The finer bread, from its greater quantity of starch, is apt to induce a degree of costiveness, which the coarse bi^ead is enabled to counteract by its admixture of bran. Brown bread, or that made with a mixture of wheat and rye flour, is often nsefully prescribed with a view to its laxative effect As an article of diet, bread is of vety great importance, in consequence of its nutritive qualities, and its utility, when joined with other food, both to correct the bad effects of too much animal diet, and to divide the aliment more completely by being intimately mixed with it. The best observations seem to prove that a, certain degree of distension of the stomach is necessary' to proper digestion ; and, consequently, that we could not conveniently feed on essences and jellies, in which the nourishing parts of the food are con- centrated into the smallest possible bijlk ; and that even very rich and nutritive soups are much more readily acted upon by the stomach, when a proper proportion of bread is taken along with them. New bread is particularly unwholesome and indigestible, and should always be avoid- ed, especially by patients troubled with indigestion. The only ap- parent exception is in the case of new rolls, which healthy stomachs manage to digest pretty well, provided they be well baked, and the crust bears a considerable proportion to the whole. Toasted bread is a very useful article of diet for tender stomachs, and for the diet of in- valids. Bread, in some constitutioiis and disesises, is apt to sour on the stomach, especially in young children, in whom it often produces flatu- lence and costiveness. Where acidity occurs, biscuit, without butter, should be substituted, or the bread should be toasted. In the foregoing remarks on bread, we have had priQci{)alIy in view leavened bread from wheat flour ; though bread may be made of rye, barley, maize, potatoes, rice, and other substances ; and notwithstand- ing, strictly speaking, biscuits, cakes, and other unleavened mixtures, are entitled to the appellation of bread. Most of the articles last men- tioned are sufliciently nutritive, but difficult ef digestion, though they are excellently adapted for the powerful stomachs erf healthy individuals engaged m laborious and rustic occupations. The addition of butter to 144 THE FAMELT. suet articles before they are baked, causes them to disagree with the stomach, and to make them turn sour or rancid. A good deal has been said about bread being frequently adulterated. In large communities, some dishonest persons will probably adulterate bread, as well as other articles of food ; but the evils of such practices have been much exaggerated. Bean-flour, or potato-flour, have occa- sionally been mixed with wheat-flour in the making of bread ; and alum is very frequently added, to increase its whiteness. Toast.— Brea,d slightly toasted, but not burned, is a wholesome diet, especially for persons upon whose stomachs most articles of vegetable food, including bread in its ordinary state, are apt to turn sour. In eat- ing toast, the butter should not be spread upon it until it is cold ; the heat of the toast will otherwise produce a change in the butter, render- ing it indigestible, and very irritating to the stomach. Panado. — The crumb of wheaten bread softened with boiling water. It forms an excellent diet for children ; for those affected with febrile diseases, and for women during the first days after delivery. It should be sweetened with sugar, and for children, an addition of fresh milk will very generally be proper. Biscuit. — Bread which is much or doubly baked, as its name imports. It is not fermented, and is not much disposed to become acid in the stomach. Biscuits are, therefore, useful as an article of diet for chil- dren, and for those who are liable to acidity of the stomach. Biscuits keep a long time without spoiling ; hence, their utility as a part of sea provisions. Those made with butter have all the inconveniences of pastry, and should not he used by such persons as have diseased or weak stomachs. • Gingerbread. — A bread or cake prepared of flour, molasses, and powdered ginger. When well baked, and eaten in moderation, it af- fords, under many circumstances, a useful stimulus to the stomach. It is an excellent article for individuals going to sea ; it being frequently, in cases of sea-sickness, retained on the stomach when every other ar- ticle is immediately rejected. Travelers, also, on setting out early in the morning, will find that eating a small portion of it will afford a grateful stimulus to the stomach, when they have been obliged to commence their journey without breakfasting. Children, and young, healthy in- dividuals generally, should, however, eat it seldom, and very sparingly ; all spices, and other stimulants, save that of a moderate quantity of wholesome food, are to their stomachs unnecessary and. injurious. Pastry. — Pastry, or dough mixed with butter, is used in a great vari- ety of forms, and, though grateful to the taste, is highly indigestible, and injurious to health. Its use is a fertile cause of stomach com- plaints ; it is apt also to occasion an overfullness of blood, convulsions, and diseases of the skin in children ; and a tendency to apoplexy and fever in adults. At dinner, in the shape of pies and tarts, pastry is thrown into the already loaded stomach, and the overtaxed powers of that organ are unable to digest what is difficult to manage when they are the most vigorous. To children, pastry is peculiarly unsuitable. Its taste is pleasant, and injudicious fondness is apt to indulge them in it to excess ; but those children who use it much, are subject to runnings' THE MBAKS OF PEE8EEVING HEALTH. 145 from the ears, disorders of the bowels, eruptions- on the skin, and in- Sammatory complaints of various kinds. Pastry should be entirely excluded from the nursery-table. The same remarks are true of nearly all kinds of cakes containing butter or lard. Puddings. — This is a term applied to various preparations of the farinaceous seeds, or vegatables. "When composed of flour, or crumbs of bread, combined wit£ suet and dried fruit, they are extremely indi- gestible, and constitute one of the mo^t unwholesome dishes served at meals. Such puddings should be avoided entirely by sedentary and delicate persons : to the dyspeptic they will psQve in the highest degree injurious. Puddings made of batter, baked or boiled, are also indiges- tible, and unwholesome. Bread-and-milk pudding, as well as rice- pudding, is readily digested, and may be eaten in moderation, without injury. Pudding is also the name given to a kind of sausage made of the liver, or blood of animals, with the addition of fat and certain vegetables and spices. This article is extremely indigestible, and is a suitable food only for the most robust individuals, whose days are passed in laborious occupations in the open air. Pancakes and fritters. — Cakes made by frying a paste formed of wheat flour and the yolks of eggs, in lard. Although in persons who have active and strong powers of digestion, these cakes may produce little inconvenience, to all others, they will prove indigestible and injurious. By the sedentary ■ and dyspeptic, they should be carefully avoided. Sago. — Sago is, an alimentary substance, prepared from a species of palm. Boiled with water, or milk, sago furnishes an agreeable and nourishing jelly ; it is easy of digestion, and excites but little the system ; and is, hence, an excellent article of diet for convalescents and for children. Salep. — Salep is a nutritious substance, obtained from two species ol the orchis. Boiled in water, jr milk, it forms a food which is light, nourishing, and easy of digestion, and, like the arrowroot and sago, adapted for the diet of children and invalids. Potato. — The root of the solanum tuberosum. This vegetable, which was unknown in Europe as an article of food, until about the commence- ment of the seventeenth century, constitutes an article of diet, which, whether we have reference ta the nourishment it affords, the agreeable- ness of its flavor, its wholesome qualities, and the extent to which it is consumed in this country, as well as in many parts of Europe, is cer- tainly of the greatest importance to man. It is difficult, indeed, to conceive how the poor and laboring classes could have subsisted, or maintained the health of their systems without it. To thousands of them, it at this day supplies' the place of bread and of other vegetables, and to an equal number it affords almost their entire sustenance. Potatoes are the lightest and most nutritious of those vegetables which are served-at table in their natural state ; and, next to bread, the very best accompaniment to every kind of animal food. The dry, mealy kinds are the best, and should always be preferred to those which are hard and waxy. The best manner of cooking the potato, is by boiling, or by roasting. Finely mashed or fried potatoes are indigestible, and 1 146 THE FAMILT. oppressive to the stomach. Combined with flour, potatoes are often made into bread, and in this manner, also, afford a cheap and whole- some food. , Sweet' potato. — The root of the convolvulus batata. The sweet potato, besides a considerable amount of farinaceous matter, contains a portion of a saccharine substance. It is unquestionably highly nutri- tious; and when simply roasted, or properly boiled, forms a very palatable and wholesome article of food. It does not appear, how- ever, to be so ready of digestion as the common potato. It should, therefore, be eaten in very moderate quantities by persons of weak stomachs. Tam. — An esculent root, obtained principally from three species of dioscorea, the alata, bulhifera, and sativa. They grow spontaneously in both Indies, and the roots are eaten as the potato is with us, which they somewhat resemble in taste ; but their flavor is more luscious. When boiled, or roasted, they are nutritious, and easy of digestion; and are preferred by many to wheaten bread. They are sometimes ground into flour, and made into bread and puddings. They might doubtless be raised in perfection in many parts of the United States ; and we are convinced, that on many accounts, they are a preferable food to the potato. Cabbage. — The several varieties of cabbage constitute an article of food, than which few are more generally and extensively made use of in this country. For the healthy, robust, and laboring part of the com- munity, cabbage forms an excellent addition to their, usual meat diet ; and, when eaten in moderation, appears to agree very well with their stomach. But, after all, cabbage affords but little nutriment, is very flatulent, and where the stomach is delicate or irritable, it is very apt to produce uneasy sensations, colic, or even a tolerably severe attack of vomiting and purging. For the invalid, therefore, or persons who lead sedentary and inactive lives, cabbage is a very improper food. The only proper mode of cooking cabbage is by boiling it, until such time as it is perfectly tender. Boiling it in two waters deprives it, ii. a great degree, of that unpleasant taste and smell, which are so disagree-' able to many palates. Sourcrout, or cabbage prepared in a particular manner, and allowed to undergo fermentation to a certain extent, forms an excellent and wholesome vegetable food for tiie crews of ships destined for long voyages ; and for all persons so situated as to be deprived of a suflS- cient supply of fresh vegetables. In regard to its effects upon individ- uals whose powers of digestion are impaired, the same remarks will apply as to cabbage in its recent state. Broeoli. — Brassica italica. — A species of 6abbage which ftirnishes a very agreeable article of food. Though sweeter, and of a more tendei texture than the other varieties of cabbage, it is still apt to disagree with weak stomachs, producing flatulence, and often colicky pains. By the sedentary and dyspeptic, it should therefore be 'careftilly ab- stained from. Cauliflower is perhaps the species of cabbage which is the most readily digested by persons in ordinary health. It is liable, however, to THE MEANS OP PEESEHVING HEAXTH. 147 the same objections, as an article of food for the sedentary and inactive, as cabbage in generaL Artichoke. — Cinara scolymus. — A kind of thistle, cultivated for the table. The only alimentary part of the plant is the receptacle of the flower. The whole of this receptacle, even in its recent state, possesses very little of the acrimony peculiar to the other portions of the plant ; and, when well- boiled, it is perfectly mild, of a tender texture, some- what sweet and mucilaginous, and, therefore, tolerably nourishing. It is sometimes, however, rendered unwhol'esome by being eaten with a large quantity of melted butter. The Jerusalem artichoke, helianthus tuherosus, is a species of 'sun- flower, having fleshy tuberculated roots somewhat resembling small potatoes. These tubercles are sometimes eaten as food; and when roasted or boiled, they acquire a mealy texture, like the potato, but with a sweet taste, resembling yam. As an article of diet, they may be ranked with the potato, though they are very apt to be more watery and flatulent then the latter, when of a good quality. Spinage. — The spinacia oleracia, of botanists. The tender leaves of the spinage well boiled, constitute one of the best and most wholesome of the green vegetables in common use. They act gently upon the bowels, and are particularly useful to persons habitually costive. Asparagus. — The asparagus officinalis of botanists. The asparagus has a creeping root, throwing up numerous scaly erect stems, the tender ends of which, on their first appearance above the ground, are the parts used as food. These shoots are, when sufficiently boiled, readily dis- solved in the stomach, and are not disposed to create flatulence and acidity. Asparagus is wholesome only when in its early state ; when old, it is remarkably acrid. Poke. — The tender shoots ^ven oflF in the spring from the roots of the poke, (the phytolacca decandria") cooked in the same manner as the asparagus, is esteemed by many an equally delicious and wholesome vegetable. It is difficult, indeed, to distinguish it, so far as regards its flavor, from the latter. Beet. — The beta vulgaris. — The root of the plant is of a sweet taste, and a beautiful red color. In some parts of Europe a considerable quantity of sugar is extracted from it ; and hence it must evidently possess considerable nutriment. When well boiled, it aflfbrds an excel- lent vegetable for the table. "When eaten with vinegar, it will not^ however, be found to agree with such stomachs as possess but feeble powers of digestion. Carroti — The daucus carota. — The root of the carrot, like that of the beet, contains a considerable amount of saccharine matter; it contains also a quantity of mucilage. It may be presumed, therefore, to be nutritive in no small degree. When young, and sufficiently boiled, the carrot forms an excellent vegetable for the table. It is liable, how- ever, to cause flatulence in persons of a delicate stomach. When too' old, the fibrous matter it then contains diminishes greatly its digest- ibility. Parsnip. — The pasUnaca sativa. — The root of the parsnip, when Well boiled, ^ords a wholesome and very nourishing food, and one not diffi- 148 THE FAMILT. cult of digestion. Its nutritive properties depend on the large amount of mucilaginous and saccharine matter which it contains. The pecu- liar flavor of the parsnip renders it, however, oflFensive to some stom- achs. Turnip. — The hrassica rapa. — ^The root of the turnip forms a very agreeable article of diet, to be taken along with animal food. It affords an excellent, mild nourishment, when there is nothing in the state of the stomach and bowels to forbid vegetable diet. Turnips should be well boiled, and have the water well pressed out of them. Onion. — The root of the allium cepa; it is used both as a condiment and as an article of food. Eaten raw, onions, in general, are much too stimulating for the generality of stomachs ; they produce, also, a dis- agreeable fetor of the breath, and perspiration ; and when the stomach is weak and irritable, they cause a sense of oppression, and heat, and sometimes griping. They are most wholesome when boiled or roasted. In this state, they contain a large portion of a mucilaginous matter, combined with a decided sweetness, and may be considered a nutritious and wholesome vegetable for persons in health. Zeek. — The allium porrum is eaten as a condiment in its raw state ; and when boiled, as a vegetable aliment. It is a common ingredient in soups'and various sauces. When boiled, it is sufficiently nutritious and wholesome for those in health ; but it is apt to prove flatulent upon delicate stomachs. Garlic. — The allium sativum, — In this country, the root of the gar- lic is used chiefly as a condiment; when taken in moderation with certain kinds of food, it is not unwholesome. It no doubt contains a nutritive principle ; but its taste being offensive to most stomachs, causes it to be used by few as an article of food. LegUfflCn, or Pulse. — Beans and pease, whjch are included under the general name of legumens, or pulse, afford a species of farinaceous aliment, containing a good deal of nourishment; but they are' very difficult of digestion, particularly in their dried state. . They are apt to lie heavy on the stomach, and to occasion flatulence. Hence, as a diet, they are only proper for persons having strong powers of digestion. By the sedentary and dyspeptic, they ought on no account to be used. The symptoms of uneasiness which they cause in such are often very violent. The green pods of certain beans, previously to the full development of the seeds within, when well boiled, afford a pleasant vegetable food, by no means difficult of solution in the stomach. _ Salads.-— Vegetables eaten in their raw state, with the addition of vinegar, spices, and oil, have received the general name of salads. Few of the salads in common use afford much nourishment^ and, like all raw vegetables, are, to a certain extent, indigestible ; their indigestibility is likewise often increased by the manner in which they are prepared at table ; while the large addition of pepper and other spices combined with them, renders them not unfrequently decidedly injurious to the stomach, by over-exciting it. To the very class of persons by whom they are most freely partaken, the luxurious and inactive, they prove always the most prejudicial. The propriety of eating any vegetable, with the exception of some fruits, without cooking, is, as a general rule, THE MEANS 6v PKE8EEVING HEALTH. 149 at least doubtful. To those, however, who from any cause are restricted to a diet of salted and smoked meat, raw vegetables, rendered more palatable by the addition of a moderate quantity of vinegar and spices, are supposed to be beneficial ; but even then, when a suflBcient supply of. wholesome cooked vegetables can be procured, we apprehend that *the latter will be found most conincive to health. Celery. — Apium graveolens. — The long leaf-stalks of the celery, when blanched by being covered, during their growth, in trenches from the sun, are eaten raw as a salad, with the addition of vinegar and pepper, and sometimes olive-oil. In this manned they are not, however, very digestible ; and, like all salads,- will disagree with delicate stomachs. ' Cresses, — Sisymbrium nasturtium. — A plant growing plentifully in brooks and stagnant waters. The leaves have a pungent taste, and a penetrating smell like that of mustard-seed, and are eaten as a salad in their raw state, with oil and spices. Used in moderation, they form an excellent addition to animal food for peraons in health ; when the di- gestive powers of the stomach are weak, they are, however, apt to cause more or less disturbance. < Iiettuce. — Lactu^a sativa. — ^The leaves of the common garden, and other species of lettuce, eaten raw, with oil, or vinegar and spices, is one of the most common salads in ordinary use. It can neither be con- sidered nutritive nor digestible, and as it contains a considerable amount of a narcotic principle, we must consider it as the most exceptionable salad for the general class of persons living in our cities. When used, the leaves should be young, perfectly white, and tender. CncnmbeT. — The fruit of the cucumis sativa. — It is eaten raw, and in its unripe state. Possessing very little or no nutritive properties, and extremely difficult of digestion, few vegetables of which the inhabitants of this country partake so largely, is so pernicious as the cucumber. We would advise the dyspeptic, and those whose powers of digestion are in any degree enfeebled, to avoid it as they would poison. Radishes. — ^Th-J root of the raphanus sativus, is eaten raw, with salt. It contains only a very small amount of nutritious matter, and being very difficult of digestion, is an improper article to be taken by persons of delicate stomachs ; in such, it is apt to occasion considerable uneasi- ness, flatulence and pain. Mnshtoom. — The mushroom is a very indigestible and unwholesome article of food, affording little or no nourishment. It ought never to be eaten by persons of delicate stomachs. The mushroom is frequently poisonous, and occasions, when taken into the stomach, the most violent vomiting and purging, and other unpleasant symptoms. Fmits, — Fruits are much used as an article of luxury ; and from the bad effects they too frequently produce, they would seem to be by no means of a salutary nature. Looseness, vomiting, indigestion, and even inflammation of the bowels, have been known evidently to proceed from their use in certain cases. Yet it is pretty c^ain that the fault has lain not with the fruit, but with the consumer. When fruit is eaten in large quantity, and in an unripe state, when it is forced into the stomach, already loaded with a plentiful dinner of soup, meat, pudding, and all the items of a luxurious table ; it is not at all wonderful that it 160 THE FA1VnT.Y. should produce disorder of the digestive organs. But when fruit is taken in moderation, of a proper quality, and at proper seasons, no l)»d effects are to be dreaded. Fruits are evidently useful, and they are kindly sent at the very season when the system, heated and excited ^j the warmth of summer, stand* in need of something cooling and la?:a- tive to be taken with the food. «. The fraits in most common use may be classed under the heads of stone-fruits, the apple kind, berries, (without affecting botanical accuracy in the use of this term,) and farinaceous fruits. The stone-fruits are those which are of most difficult digestion. Plums and cherries are particularly so. The ripe peach is both delicate in its flavor and easily digestible ; the apricot is also very wholesome ; but the nectarine is liable to disagree with some stomachs. The fruits of the apple kind ^re somewhat firm in their texture, and therefore rather indigestible, and liable to be detained in the stomach. Pears are rather more wholesome, as their texture is softer. The white skin of the orange should be carefully rejected, but the inner pulp is grateful to most stomachs, whether in health or sickness. The fruits of the berry kind are the most wholesome of all. The strawberry and raspherry, are particularly good ; the grwpe is cooling and laxative, but the husks and seeds are to be rejected ; the gooseberry is not so digestible, especiaJly if the skin be swallowed. It is only the pulp of these fruits that ^ia digested ; the' seeds always pass through the body unchanged, unless they be chewed. Other berries are generally baked in pies, but lie pastry should be sparingly used. The melon, a farinaceous fruit, is almost certain to disagree with weak stomachs ; especially when eaten after dinner. Many fruits, otherwise unsafe, are much improved by cooking. Baked apples are an excellent article of food, and may even be of benefit to dyspeptic patients. Dried fruits are generally esteemed very safe, but they are apt to run into fermentation in the stomachs of chil- dren and delicate persons, from the quantity of sugar which they contain. Apples. — Of this fruit there are several varieties. All of them, when perfectly ripe and mellow, may be considered as wholesome. Though not so liable to run into fermentation as some of the other fruits, yet being of a firm texture they are somewhat difficult of diges- tion, and remain long in the stomach. Hence they should be avoided by such persons as have weak digestive powers. Stewed or baked with sugar, they are rendered more soluble and wholesome, and in this form prove gently laxative. Dried apples stewed, form an excellent sauce for various species of animal food. Cherries. — There are several varieties of the cherry. Some contain much water and sugar, others a large proportion of apid ; others again present a soft, mucilaginous pulp. The last, when fully ripe, are the most wholesome^ for eating. In weak stomachs, and when taken in im- moderate quantities, cherries, especially the two first varieties, are apt to occasion flatulence and colic. This fruit is, in general, more whole- some when cooked with sugar. In eating cherries, care should be taken to reject the. stones; when these are incautiously swallowed, they are occasionally retained in the bowels, producing. alamuDg and even fatal symptoms. THE WTiANS OF PEESERVING HEALTH, 151 T Currants, perfectly ripe, are an agreeable fruit, and perfectly whole- some when eaten in moderation ; toy have less of a laxative dBFeot upon the bowels than strawberries or gooseberries. The skin and seeds are in a great measure indigestible, and as they constitute a large por- tion of the dried currants that are imported, these are very apt to cause more or less irritation of the stomach and bowels — this indicates tiie necessity of great caution in their use. The plumpest and sweetest should be preferred. Cranberry.— 'Ihe berries of the oaiycoceug. It is a plant which grows extensively in many parts of the United States, in uncultivated wet or marshy ground. The fruii, or berries, when ripe, are of a bright scar- let color, and an agreeable aoid taste. They are employed in great quantities, stewed With sugar, as a sauce to various species of poultry, and for tarts. In this form tiey possess a rich and delicious flaivor, and are sufficiently wholesome when eaten in moderation. For ducks, geese, and other species of poultry aboundi% in fat, they form a very appropriate sauce. Dates. — The fruit of the phoenix dactyUfera, a species of palm. It is in its dried state that the date is met with in this country. This fruit abounds in sugar, and is highly nutritious. Like most saccharine sub- stances, it is very liable to oppress and disorder persons of weak stomachs, and by them should be eaten with caution. Figs. — The fruit of the ficus earka. The dried fig contains a largo portion of sugar, considerable muoUage, and a small quantity of oil. When eaten in moderation, they are grateful to the stomach, and more .ea§y of digestion than most of the dried fruits. When eaten alone, however, they are apt to occasion flatulency, and to disagree with feeble ^omachs. The fig acts as a gentle laxative, and may be- eaten occa sionally with great advantage by persons habitually costive. 6fo0seberry, — The fruit of the ribes grossularia. When perfectly ripe, they are a delicious and wholesome fruit. In eating them, the skin should alwap be rejected. Grapes. — The ripe grape, especially of the rich saccharine speeiesy is among the most luscious and wholesome of our summer fruits. It is the pulp only, however, divested of the seeds, that should be eaten. The large portion of sugar and mucilage contained in grapes renders them nutritive, while their slight amount of acidity facilitates their easy digestion. Eaisins, or grapes in a dried state, are equally nourishing and whole- some to healthy persons with the fruit in its recent state. The skins, however, which can scasroely be rejected in eating them, being rendered tougher by drying, cause raisins to be more indigestible than fresh . grapes. They are also more apt to disagree with weak stomachs, in consequence of a portion of their acid being lost in the process- of dry- ing, while, at the same time, a larger amount of sugar is developed. The more purple and plump the raisins, the more wholesome they are. They should always be eaten with bread, and never in large quantities, otherwise they are apt to produce flatulence and griping pains. Lemon. — The fruit of the dix-us etcida and the lime, the fruit of the dtrus Umonium, which do not differ the least in their qualities, are 152 THE FAMILT. never eaten as food, from their extreme acidity. The juice of both enters as a condiment in various made dishes. The juice also, dif- fused in boiling water, and sweetened with sugar, constitutes a very pleasant beverage for quenching the thirst, and allaying heat during the summer season. The lemonade thus made may be drank occasionally, without injury; but it is not proper as an habitual beverage, as it is very apt to disorder the digestion, and to produce irritation and pain of the bowels. Preserved limes are indigestible, and one of the least whole- some of the ordinary sweetmeats served at table. Oranges. — The fruit of the citrug aurantium. The juice of the orange is gratefully acid, and, taken in summer, is .well adapted to allay thirst, and take off that sense of dryness in the mouth and throat experienced by persons who perspire much during exercise. For the same reason, it is- often allowed to patients laboring under fever. The pulp, however, in which the juice is contained is indigestible, and should not be eaten; neither should the seeds nor white tough rind. The best mode of using the orange, to prevent injury to the stomach and digestive organs, is to squeeze out the juice, and drink it diluted with water, and with the ad- dition, if necessary, of sugar. The yellow rind of oranges is frequently used to communicate an agreeable flavor to various dishes; in modera- tion it is not injurious. Pear. — The fruit of the pyrus communis. — There are several species of pear, some of which, from the firmness of their texture and the acerbity of their juices, are improper for eating, unless well cooked with sugar. Others, however, when perfectly ripe, present a soft juicy pulp, of an agreeable flavor, and readily digested by a healthy stomach. Peach. — The fruit of the amygdalus persica. — The peach is unques- tionably one of the most wholesome as well as most delicious of the stone-fruits. When -perfectly ripe and mellow, it may be eaten in moderation, without inconvenience. The outer skin should, howevei be rejected. Neither peaches, nor any other kind of fruit, should be eaten after a copious dinner. They will then be very apt to oppress the stomach, and to cause acidity and flatulence. Pine-apple. — The fruit of the hromelia ananas. — A delicious fruit of tropical climates ; but however delicious in flavor, the pine-apple, as we obtain it in this country, is very indigestible, and, when eaten freely, de- cidedly injurious to the stomach and bowels. Plums should never be eaten, unless perfectly ripe and mellow. The skin and stones should always be rejected. In their ripe state, or cook- ed, plums are wholesome and readily digested. But when unripe, oi sour, they cause disorder of the stomach and bowels, with flatulence and griping. Prunes. — Plums, when dried, are denominated prunes. Eaten un- cooked, they are difBcult of digestion, and unwholesome. When stewed, they have a laxative effect, and freely used in this form, are an excellent means for obtaining a free state of the bowels in persons troubled with costiveness. Raspberry. — The berries of the ruhus idceus are a very wholesome and grateful fruit. Next to strawberries, they are perhaps one of our very best summer fruits of the berry kind. THE MEANS OF PEESEEVma HEALTH. 153 Strawbetry. — The fruit of the fragaria vesca. — In point of flavor, in the ease with which they are digested by most stomachs, and their gen- eral wholesomeness, perfectly ripe strawberries rant first upon the list of summer fruits. Eaten in moderation, at a period when the stomach is not actively engaged in the digestion of other food; they are seldoir found to produce the least unpleasant effect on persons in the enjoyment of ordinary health. Tamarinds. — ^The fruit of the tamarindus indica, preserved in sugar Tamarinds contain too large an amount of acid, and act too power fiiUy upon the bowels, to permit their being eaten as food. They form, however, a, very agreeable and effectual laxative ; and a drink made by pouring boiling water upon them is well adapted for quenching thirst, especially in patients laboring under fever. Melons. — The cantaloupe and water-melon are the only ones eaten in this country. They both contain a saccharine juice, which may be presumed to afford some nutriment, but they are both very indigest- ible, and the pulp of the water-melon morff especially is apt to oppress and irritate delicate stomachs. They should be eaten, therefore, with great caution ; and by the dyspeptic, and those subject to affections of the bowels, abstained from entirely. Nuts. — The kernels of oily nuts contain a farinaceous substance, com- bined with a large quantity of bland oil. They are all extremely nu- tritious, but diflBcult of digestion, and irritating to the stomach, upon which they are apt to turn rancid, causing heartburn, acid eructation, feverish heat of the skin, pain in the head, and restlessness or disturbed sleep. They are suited only to such persons as are in health and pos- sess active digestive powers. They should never be eaten ^ the dyspeptic, nor by any one when the stomach is already loaded with other food. They should always be perfectly fresh, and taken with a little salt and with bread, and well chewed before they are swallowed. When taken to excess, or in certain conditions of the stomach, they often occasion difficulty of breathing, and sometimes very violent and dangerous complaints of the bowels. Almonds. — A well known nut, the product of the amygdalus com- munis. — There are two varieties of almonds, the sweet and the bitter. The bitter almonds are now seldom eaten ; they contain an active poison, in consequence of which they are liable to produce injurious effects. Sweet almonds possess little nourishment, and are difficult of digestion, unless thoroughly triturated. In consequence of the oil they contain, they are very apt to produce disagreeable symptoms when eaten by persons the digestive powers of whose stomachs are impaired.* By ge they often become rancid, and are then highly acrid, and should on no account be eaten, , Chestnuts contain a considerable amount of nutritious matter. They indeed form a considerable part of the food eaten by the peasantry. In many parts of the south of Europe. The raw fruit, however, is not readily dissolved in the stomach ; it is also very flatulent, and apt to occasion colicky pains and bowel complaints. When kept for some time, they evolve a greater amount of saccharine matter, becoming sweeter and more digestible. When roasted, the chestnut becomes still more T* 11' 154 THE FAMILT. light and nutritive; they are still, however, as well as when boiled, flatulent, and should be avoided by persons of delicate stomachs, and by dyspeptics generally. From the chestnut may be obtained a farinaceous matter, fit to be made into bread ; this bread, however, is neither pal- atable nor wholesome. Cocoa-nut. — The fruit of a species of palm, cocos nucifera. Withit the hard woody shell of the cocoa-nut is a thick layer of a solid white substance of a sweet and agreeable taste, which no doubt contains a considerable amount of nutritive matter ; it is, however, extremely diffi- cult of digestion, and very apt to disagree with delicate stomachs. The mterior of the nut is filled with a fluid resembling milk, which is made use of in the West Indies as an agreeable beverage to quench thirst. Condiments. — Condiments, or seasonings, are those substances which, though not nutritive themselves, are taken into the stomach along with the food, to promote its digestion, and to correct any injurious properties it may possess. Some such assistance would seem to be necessary to all animals ; and the lower animals instinctively seek after bitters, salt, etc., to take with their food. Condiments are of various kinds, as salt, acids, aromatics, oils. Some of those in most frequent use are sea-salt, vinegar, lemon-juice, pepper, cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, ginger, allspice, garlic, onions, leeks, horse-radish, and mustard. A small proportion of these condiments may be used with propriety. While they give an additional relish to the food, there can be little doubt that they aid its digestion. But the misfortune is, that in the use of condiments man kind are prone to excess. They are used as stimulants to induce the stomach to partake of food, when already loaded to repletion, or ex- hausted by habits of intemperance. Condiments also are injurious to the stomachs of those who indulge in the constant use of animal food. They furnish a temptation to excessive indulgence, and ultimately oc- casion organic disease of the stomach or liver, and permanent injury of the digestive functions. Oils and butter are also to be regarded as con- diments ; their use ought to be sparing. All kinds of seasoning, with the exception of salt, are improper for children and young persons generally. Acids. — Vinegar, and a number of acid fruits and vegetables, or their juices, are often used as condiments to our food, and from experience we should judge, that, during a healthy state of the stomach, and when used in moderation, they are, generally speaking, a very useful addition to an animal diet ; especially such as is rich in fat or gelatine. They appear to render it less liable to disturb the stomach, and to cause it to be more readily digested. The addition of lemon-juice to rich and glutinous soup, and the custom of eating apple-sauce with pork, oi cranberry-sauce with ducks and geese, may be viewed, therefore, in a favorable light. Vinegar. — A vegetable acid, the product of the acetous fermentation. For commerce it is procured either by allowing ttie fermentation of wines, or of cider, to progress until the liquor becomes completely acid. Vinegar is a grateful acid, much used as a condiment with food; In small quantities, it is a grateful and wholesome stimulant; it also checks the fermentation of certain species of aliment in the stomach, and pre* THE MEANS OF PKESEBVING HEALTH. 165 vents raw vegetables from inducing flatulence ; it seems, also, to rendei fatty and gelatinous substances more easy of d^estion, and less liable to offend the stomach. Taken in too large quaintities, it, however, pro- duces serious injury to the stomach. Various fruits preserved in vine- gar are served at table as condiments^ under the name of pickles. | Prepared in general from firm^ unripe fruits, they are extremely indiges- tible, and when taken; in any quantity,, disturb the stomach, intei%re' with the digestion of the food, and often cause griping or colicky pains, and other, disagreeable or even dangerous efiecte. Aneliovj/. — A small fish of the herring kind, imported from the coast of the Mediterranean sea^Jn a pickled state. Anchovies are either eaten as a condiment, or are formed into sauce for other fishi They possess Mtle nutriment, and in consequence of the spices with which they are generally prepared, not only act as provocatives of the appetite, causing too much food to be eaten,, but of themselves act injuriously upon the stomach. They should be ranked- among those luxuries of the table from which it is bettei to abstain^, Ginger is the root of the amomum zingiber. Ite fwoperties' are those of a stimulating aromatic, and in moderation it forms a useful and very wholesom'e condiment. A weak infusion of ginger in boiling water forms an excellent drink for persons the tone taste. Grated or scraped, with the addition of vinegar^ the aorse-radish is much used at table as a condiment for various kinds of ammak food; la moderation it is wholesome ; but with many persons it will be found iit any quan- tity to produce irritation of tte stomach and colic Musitwdv — The flour made by grinding the seeds of the siimpis nigra ; it is used as a condiment. In moderation, genierally speak- ing, it is not unwholesome ; but with many persons ^e smallest quan- titiy of mustard causes great irritation and heat of the stomach and griping. Nutmeg,. — ^The fkiit of the myristica mosckada,, a, native of the Molucca Islands. It is chiefly used to communicate an agreeable flavor to various articles of food ;i when in moderation, it ocn^stitutesa pleasant and harmless condiment. It is too much the custom, however, to add .nutmeg to ,the gruel and panado used as tine diet oi lying-in women and convalescent patients ; here it is injurious by increasing too much the stimulating propeiiHae» of the food. Olives, — Pickled olives are eaten chiefly as a condiment. They are decidedly nauseous to most palates when first eaten, but habit soon sendeis tbeit: taste not only pleasant,, bilt a peculiar relish for them is C]!6ated» Olives, however,, are indigestible and irritating "to the sto- Biach. They who kaire gained from active eacercise a keen healthy 156 THE FAIVm.Y. appetite, need them not ; and they whose appetite is weak, or entirely lost, will receive injury from their use. Pepper. — An aromatic and stimulating production of several plants of warm countries, constituting the most common of the stimulating condiments eaten with our food. When used in very moderate quan- tities, it is not injurious, in some instances decidedly wholesome ; hut when resorted to in excess, or as a stimulant to spur on the jaded appe- tite to new eflForts, it is destructive to health. Cayenne-pepper, capsicum annuum. — The pods of this plant constitute one of the most heating and stimulating of the various condiments employed in cookery. In moderation, it forms a very proper addition to some kinds of food, but when used in excess it produces all the injurious eflfects which arise from the immoderate use of condiments in general. Salt appe£^rs to be a natural and necessary stimulant to the digestive organs of all warm-blooded animals ; hence they are led instinctively to immense distances in pursuit of it. In man, it seems not only necessary, to render his diet sufficiently sapid, but to a certain extent to be absolutely essential to health. When entirely deprived of it, the digestive organs become diseased, and nutrition imperfect. The exces-- sive use of salt is, however, in the highest degree injurious. Preserves are diflFerent kinds of fruits, boiled or stewed in sugar or molasses. When eaten in moderation, with milk or bread, preserves constitute an innocent if not advantageous addition to our meals ; provided always, they are prepared of fruit tolerably ripe and not too sour. With the stomach of the dyspeptic, however, preserves will seldom agree. Many of the foreign preserves being prepared of vege- tables of a very tough consistence, and containing a large amount of woody fiber, are altogether indigestible, and invariably disturb the stomach and bowels of those who partake of them. Preserves should never be kept in glazed earthen-ware vessels. The oxyd of lead con- tained in the glazing being acted upon by the vegetable acids, renders the fruit and its syrup to a certain extent poisonous. MEAIS, — ^The quantity of food taken at regular intervals, is commonly understood by the term meal. Eegulaiity in the number of meals, and the periods at which they are taken, is of the first importance ; on it much of the equable and pleasant enjojrment of health depends. Some medical writers have considered one, others two, three, and even four meals a day necessary. But it may be laid down as an incontestable rule, that the number of meals should be regulated by the degrees of exhaustion, and diurnal habits, of life to which every individual is sub- j^-cted. In general, three frugal meals, in the course of the day, seem the most desirable, and the best adapted to the wants and constitution of the human frame, while, at the same time, this number is best suited to the powers of the digestive organs. In the adoption of this salutary rule of diet, Fashion, all-powerful as she is, has at length, on most occa- sions, jdelded to Reason. The periods at which meals should be taken, and the intervals that should elapse between them, deserve attention. The practice which leaves the great bulk of the daj without a meal, and then crowds two THE MEAHS OF PEESEEVING . HEALTH. 167 or three together, is manifestly bad, as it produces in the body a state of exhaustion and fatigue, which strongly tends to enfeeble .the powers of digestion. To confirm and preserve health, whatever may be the number of meals taken, they should be eaten at regular times and stated periods ; and they should be regulated by the strength or debility of the stomach, and the quantity and quality of the food taken, or to be taken, at the preceding or following meal. fireakfast, — Breakfast is the first meal taken in the morning. This meal is of considerable importance, as many hours have passed since the stomach was supplied with food ; and because the food then taken is that which is to give strength to the system for the most active part of the day. Its time, its materials, and accompaniments, are therefore worthy of being well adjusted ; although, from the endless varieties of habits, constitutions, and employments, no fixed rules on any of these particulars can be given. During sleep, the whole of the food taken the night before has probably been digested ; and, consequently, in healthy persons it is generally found that the appetite is for the most part peculiarly keen in the mornings in consequence, as well of the emptiness of the stomach, as from its digestive powers having been re- ■ freshed by rest, and in this manner prepared to resume with vigor their functions ; but, in general, it isproper to interpose some time between rising and taking breakfast ; though many feel so much inanition and feebleness, that they are unfit for any »f the duties of the day until they have taken some food. In regard to this, every one must decide for himself. The quality of the food to be eaten at breakfast is to be regulated by the exercise and labor to be taken, and by the time that is to elapse before dinner. The physician would be much inclined to interdict luncheons ; and, therefore, to recommend a considerable proportion of solid food at breakfast. Cold mutton or beef, rice or eggs, may be taken at breakfast. Copious breakfasts,- however, are apt to be heavy to many stomachs, and to occasion heartburn, especially when a great deal of liquid has been taken along with them; but this does not militate against a proper quantity of diluting drink being taken at breakfast. The expenditure of fluid by insensible perspiration, which has taken place during the night, with the greater acrimony of all the secretions in the morning, point out the propriety of a considerable quantity of diluting fluid at the breakfast meal; and the choice of, this fluid must be left, in general, to each person's experience of what agrees best with him. Weak tea agrees well with most people ; but with many it occasions heartburn and acidity ; perhaps the fault may not be in the tea, but in the quantity of new bread, or of butter, taken along with it. Trials must be made, by omitting one or more of the articles tak«n, till it be ascertained which of them is in fault. If tea or coffee is found to disagree, milk or gruel may be substituted. luneheon. — By luncheon is generally meant that food taken during the morning between breakfast and dinner. Generally speaking, when the former meal has been sufficiently hearty, and composed partly of solid aliment) the luncheon will be unnecessary; and the habit of -par taking of it should, as much as possible, be avoided. But to a healthy person, whose digestion is good, yiho is accustomed to a great dea} of l58 THE FAMILT active exercise, and who, in the early part of the morning, has taken no very substantial or copious repast, the luncheon will probably be a matter of indispensable necessity. It should, however, consist of a very moderate quantity of light and easily digested food. Many of those, however, who take luncheon, find it to spoil the digestion of their din- ner ; much more will this be experienced by the dyspeptic patient, who needs his stomach to be undisturbed during the digestion of his regular meals, and who should not exhaust its powers by calling them too fre- quently into action. If additional food be taken before the former portions are assimilated, the process of digestion will be disturbed; and however plausible may be the maxim, that the stomach will be best managed, and the strength improved, by taking small quantities of food very frequently, yet this is not found to be true ; in fact, the in- valid thrives much better by regular meals, at proper intervals, than by that constant throwing in of a supply as fast as a morbid craving calls for it, or as a false theory says it should be taken. Sinner. — Dinner, in this country, is the principal meal of the day, and is, in general, taken at the close of the morning, or during the first hours of the afternoon. This period for dining appears to be well chosen for the active classes of society more especially. Several- hours hav- ing elapsed since the morning meal, the stomach may be expected to have disposed of the food then taken, and to demand a new supply, while a suflBcient period will elapse between dinner and the evening re- past to allow of uninterrupted and complete digestion. Dinner is, in general, composed of meat and vegetables, variously cooked, or of soups. Attention is seldom paid to the character of the food taken at this meal, or to the proper rules of diet; and hence it is at dinner that the greatest errors are generally committed in. regard to the quantity and quality of the food taken. Dinner should always consist of one dish of meat, plainly cooked. Variety of food, like too much seasoning, keeps up the appetite after the wants of the system are satisfied ; and hence the stomach is oppressed by too great a quantity of aliment, and digestion is impeded even to a greater extent than were the same amount to be eaten of a single dish. Let it be recollected, also, that dishes compounded of a number of ingredients, the natural qualities of which are completely disguised by the refinements of cookery, are altogether unwholesome : many of them are little better than poisons. It is all-important l^at sufficient time should be allowed for this meal, in order that the food m*y be properly chewed, without which its di- gestion will be greatly retarded. In regard to the necessity of drinking at table, but little need be said. If Mie food be sufiiciently plain and jui&y, thirst will seldom be experienced ; but when a desire to drink is experienced, a moderate draught of water will be proper. But no other liquor should be taken — water is the only natural diluent of our food, every other liquor impedes its digestion. Hence the custom in use among some people of taking drams before dinner, for the purpose, as they allege, of whetting the appetite, is highly pernicious, and has quite a contrary tendency to that designed, as it relaxes the stomach, and consequently enfeebles it for the operations it has to perform. For the same reason, the practice of taking brandy or liquors with goose, pig. THE MEANS 01" PEESEBVING HEiLTH. 159 etc, is objectionable. Nor is tbe fashion of taking wine, or brandy and water, daring dinner, less reprehensible. The use of bottled cider, porter, or beverage, during this meal, is also injurious, as it unneces- sarily distends the stomach, and thus prevents its muscular contractions at the very time when it is necessary they should be brought into action, and preserved in their full vigor. To say tbe least of all these vnlgar errors in diet, they check the process of digestion, and paralyze the powers of the stomach. Coflfee may, however, be safely and ad- vantageously taken after dinner, as it accelerates the operations of the stomach, and assist!) digestion, provided it does not exceed a small cup or two, and is taken without sugar or milk. Supper. — Sapper is the meal taken late in the evening, or just before going to bed. As the powers of the body, and digestion among the rest, are diminished in thedr activity during sleep, it is an unsafe meas- ure to load the stomach at bed-time with a large quantity of various kinds of food. When this is done, there is great distention, both from the lead thrown in, and from flatulence ; hence the person is liable to be disturbed with vestlessnesB, or nightmare, and frightful dreams. If tea has been taken in the early part of the evening, no food will be required until the next morning. When a sensation of hungei is felt, however, before bed-time, a slight and moderate- repast only is allowable, such as an egg, or some preparation of milk, or oat-meaJ gruel, which last, however, k apt to become sour on some stomachs. For dyspeptics, suppers and late hours are peculiarly unsuitable. Under no circumstance should food be taken for two or three hours before retiring to rest. Dlinks. — ^We are warned by the appetite of thirst to take in a certain qiaantity of liquid to dilate our solid food, and to supply the waste of the fluids of the body, which are continually expended during the con- tinuance of life. So urgent is this necessity, that we are able to bear . hunger more quietly than thirst, and to live longer when deprived of food, than when deprived of drink. The quantity of drink requiied, will vary according to the season and climate, the mode of life, the nature of the food, and the peculiarity of each individual. When the body is exposed to a high degree of atmospheidcal temperature, a much greater quantity of drink is demanded, than when the atmosphere is temperate or cold. This arises from the stimulating efifects of heat upon the system ; but chiefly by the waste of the fluid portion of the blood, occasioned by the increased perspiration. For the same reasons, active exercise or labor augments the thirst. Salted, high-seasoned, and all stimulating food increase the demand for drink, by stimulating the lining membrane of the mouth, throat and dig«stive organs, and increasing the viscidity and exciting properties of the blood. The same effects are produced by wine and ardent spirits. Dry food necessarily requires more dilution than that which is moist and juicy; and hence, the greater necessity of drinMng, dozing meals principally coniposed ol the former. In regard to the fluid best adapted for an ordinary drink, there can be no hesitation in stating, that it is water, and water alone — nO'Other can answer so well as a diluent for our food^ and for the ff eservation of that degree ci fluidity in the Uood, by which it is best '' 160 THE FAMH.Y. adapted tor the nourishment and support of the system. No fluid whatever can be used as a drink, excepting in consequence of the water it contains ; and in proportion to its freedom from foreign admixture, or any active ingredient, will it best answer the purpose of a diluent in the animal body. When the taste of man has not been vitiated by the customs of an artificial life, his thirst can be satisfied only by pure water ; and even under ordinary circumstances, when the sensation of thirst is intense, every other fluid is loathed. While pure water consti- tutes the best drink for habitual use — the addition to it occasionally of farinaceous substances, or of some of the vegetable acids, or rendering it slightly aromatic, by infusing into it the leaves of certain herbs, is not injurious, and, under certain circumstances, may be advisable. The efi'ects of simple fluids on the body vary considerably, according to their temperature, their volume, and the time when they are drank. Persons in good health, generally take a great portion of their drinks, especially at dinner, of the temperature of the atmosphere ; but in weaker stomachs, the drinks may be required to be a little warmed, though it is seldom safe to take them habitually very hot; and far less is it proper to chill the energies of the stomach, by cold or iced drinks. The quantity of drink taken, is also of much consequence to good digestion ; a large volume of fluid will prevent the food from being properly acted upon by the stomach ; and if there be too little, the mass will be dry and hard. Different kinds of food require different quantities of liquid ; animal food requires more than vegetable ; roasted, more than boiled ; and baked meat, more still than roasted. The time of drinking may be generally left to the individual. To load the stomach with drink before a meal, is unwise ; but to drink more or less, during a meal, according to the nature of the food, assists digestion. Toast-water, is water impregnated with the soluble part of toasted bread, it is perfectly wholesome, and agrees frequently with persons whose stomachs do not relish pure water. Hard biscuit, reduced by fire to a cofiee-color, has been recommended as the best for making toast-water. It should be drank as soon as it has cooled, as it acquires an unpleasant flavor by keeping. Toast-water has a slightly nutritive quality, and may be allowed in all the feverish and other cases, where diluents are proper. Capillaire. — A" syrup made from a docoction of the leaves of the maiden-hair, adiantum pedatum, with the addition of sugar; when mixed with water, it forms an excellent and very pleasing drink to allay thirst in warm weather. Artificial Mineral Waters.— The artificial mineral waters of the shops, with or without syrup, form a grateful and very wholesome drink in warm weather. They consist merely of water, surcharged with carbonic acid gas. Mineral waters should not be drank immediately before a meal, as the gas they contain, by unduly distending the sto- mach, may prevent the proper digestion of the food about to Ibe taken, neither should they be drank immediately after eating. PP^ey.— -When milk is curdled by the addition of rennet, or spour taneously, it separates into two parts, the 'wri, or solid white portion^ THE MEANS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. 161 and the whey, or the thin watery portion, of a yellowish green color, a pleasant sweetish taste, and retaining the flavor of the milk. Whey affords a bland, easily assimilated nourishment, increasing the secre- tions, and tending to produce a beneficial change in the fluids of the body. It contains a considerable amount of sugar, which renders it suflSoiently nutritious. As a drint, whey, in point of salubrity, is inferior only to water ; and it is, therefore, admirably adapted to allay tte thirst of laborers in hot weather. Buttermilk. — The fluid which remains in the churn after the butter is extracted from the milk contains but little nutritious matter ; but, in warm weather, it forms an excellent cooling drink, and, with bread, may constitute a considerable part of the diet of children. Tea. — Thea. — A plant of various speciels, which grows in China and Japan, of which great quantities of the dried leaves are imported annually from China. In many parts of Europe, and in America, the inflision of these leaves has become one of the necessaries of life ; and from its fragrant and agreeable properties, it is likely forever to remain in universal estimation. The principal kinds of tea used in this coun- try, are the green and bohea ; of which there are three kinds of the first, and five of the second. The green tea is the most remarkable for its sleep-repelling properties. The bohea is that in most general use. The properties of tea seem to be those of an astringent and narcotic ; but like some other narcotics, in small quantity, its first effect is that of a very gentle stimulant, and certain kinds of it, when taken pretty strong, and near the usual time of going to rest, have the eflFect of keeping off sleep ; but when weak, and taken moderately, and tempered with cream and sugar, it acts merely as a gratefdl diluen^ and produces a slight exhilaration. On its first introduction, and for more than fifty years afterward, tea was violently assailed, and many frightfial disorders were attributed to its use ; it was said to produce indigestion, lassitude, melancholy, and a long train of nervous complaints. When drank very strong, or in excess, by the sedentary and inactive, there can be no doubt of its in- jurious effects upon the stomach, and through it upon the system gener- ally. The green and high-flavored teas are those which are the least wholesome. Tea should not be taken too soon after dinner, as it may interfere with digestion from its distending the stomach, and from its astringent and narcotic properties ; but when taken three or four hours after the principal meal, it assists the latter stages of digestion, and promotes the insensible perspiration; more, however, from the warmth of the water in which it is infused, than from any b^eficial effects oi the tea itself. A strong infusion of green tea especially, under such circumstances, would rather impede than promote digestion. There are some peculiarities of constitution which render the use of tea very hurtfiil ; but the same is true of many substances, used both in diet and medicine. They who are fixed down to a sedentary employment, who must work at night, and who take tea to keep themselves awake — who, from the want of exercise, are unable properly to digest animal food, will, no 162 THE FAMILT. doubt, exhibit mafiy symptoms of indigestion, and that feeble tremiu- lousness, known by the epithet nervous, from its nse ; but the tea ought not to bear all the blame of producing those disoirdeTs, which are more justly to be ascribed to the confinement and inactivity of the patient Nevertheless, that under such circumstances, the use of tea is absolutely injurious, and aids in the destruction of health, there can be little doubt We do not object to a cup or tvro of tea of a moderate strength, as an evening repast for the mechanic ; but we mast be allowed to say, that for breakfast his health will be better supported by something more sub- stantial and nourishing than the ordinary meal of bread and tea, or bread and coffee. The following rules, respecting the use of tea, will be found usefiil : 1. Carefully avoid the high-priced and high-flavored teas, more espe- cially if green, which generally owe their flavor to pernicious ingredients, and abound most with those active principles from whence the noxious effects of the article arise. 2. Take with it, at all times, a good propcw- tion of milk, and some sugar, as correctives to any possible noxious qualities present. 3. Let the quantity of tea used at each infusion be very moderate. 4. Make the infusion properly, with water, soft, and otherwise of a good quality, and in a boiling state. 5. Take less tea in the morning than in the evening. Coffee. — The seeds of the cofea arabica. — The seeds, when torrefied, ground, and infused in boiling water, afford the well known beverage, the use of which, at breakfast, has become almost universal among the more opulent classes of society throughout the United States, and in our principal cities, among almost every class. The infusion of coffee acts as a stimulant upon the stomach, the heart, and the nervous sys- tem, increasing the circulation of the blood, augmenting the heat of the skin, and exhilarating the mind ; these, its immediate effects, are follow- ed, however, by an equal degree of depression in the functions of those several organb : the excitement and subsequent depression being in pro- portion always to the strength of the infbsion, and the quantity drank. Hence, coffee bears a strong -analogy, in its effects upon the system, to wine, ardent spirits, and opium ; from the latter, its effects, however, are very different in degre.e. Coffee, therefi)re, when drunk very strong or indulged in to excess, is unquestionably injurious ; it seldom fails to disorder the stomach, impair its digestire powers, and in delicate habits it often occasions watchfulness, tremors, headache, and many of those complaints vaguely denominated nervous. To the dyspeptic and sed- entary especially it forms a very improper article of diet. When taken weak, and with plenty of cream or milk, and sugar, it may, however, be .indulged in to the extent of a few cups a day, by persons in health, and who lead active lives, without much inconvenience 5 and when drunk soon after dinner, in the quantity of about a cupful of the plaia infosion, it is said to assist digestion. Coffee should itever be taken laite in the evening, in consequence of its tendency to prevent sleep. Chocolate. — The nut of the theobroma cocao, divested of its envelop, and well triturated, forms, when boiled in water, or in mili, a rich nu- tritious diet, well adapted for robust and laboring pevsons. With the stomach of the feeble and sedentary, it is apt, however, to disagree, un- IHE MEAirS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. 163 less made very weak. For such, however, the shells of the cocao-nut, boiled in water, with the addition of sugar and milkj will afford a very pleasant and excellent article of diet. During the winter season, choo- olate, of a good quality, would form undoubtedly, for the generality of persons, a far preferable breakfast to either coffee or tea, both in respect to the nourishmeat which it communicates to the system, and the stimulus or temporary strength afforded by it ; thereby enabling the in- dividual to .perform with ease a greater amount of labor. The common kinds of chocolate sold in the stores are too often sophisticated by the addition of flour and suet, and should, therefore, be avoided as un- wholesome. Sprnce-Beer. — A drink made by fermenting molassesi diluted with water, with the addition of yeast or porter, and the essence of spruce. Before the fermentation is completed, it is bottled. Spruce-beer can scarcely be considered as intoxicating ; the fermentation being nevei allowed to go on so far as to produce any great amount of alcohol. It is not, however, a suitable drink for persons with weak digestive powers. The carbonic acid gas with which it is so copiously impregnated, and which gives to it its foaming and brisk appearance, unduly distends the stomach, and impedes digestion ; while the saccharine matter of the beer becomes quickly acid, producing pain and irritation. Gidei. — ^The fermented juice of apples. As an habitual drink, cider is not to be recommended. When new, or imperfectly fermented, it is apt to turn acid upon the stomach, and to occasion flatulency and colic When rendered more stimulating by a more complete fermentation, boiling, and age, it produces the same injurious effects as the weakei wines, while it intoxicates much more rapidly. The weakest kinds of cider contain 5.21 per cent, of alcohol, and the stronger nearly 10 Whether it be from the acids contained in eider, or from some unknown cause, we cannot say ; but it is certain that few drinks used habitually are so apt to disorder the stomach and bowels. Cider is sometimes rendered pernicious by impregnations of lead, and most generally by a considerable amount of ardent spirits being added to it, to increase its strength, and prevent it from spoiling by age. Malt Lipors.-7-Malt liquors, under which title we include all kinds of beer, porter, and ale, produce, when taken in excess, the worst species of drunkenness ; as, in addition to the intoxicating principle, some noxious ingredients are too generally added to them, for the purpose of preserving them and to give to them their bitter flavor. The hop of these fluids is highly narcotic, and "brewers often add other substances, to heighten its effect, suda as hyoscyamus, opium, belladonna, cocculus Indicus, laurbcerasus, etc Malt liquors, therefore, in whatever quantity they are used, act in two ways upon the body, partly by the alcohol they contain, and partly by the narcotic principle. In addition to this, the fermentation which they undergo is much less perfect than that id spiriits or wine. After being swallowed, this process is continued in the stomach, by which fixed air is copiously Mberated, and the digestion of delicate stomachs materially impaired. Cider, spruce, ginger, and table beers also, in consequence of their imperfect fermentation, often pro duco the same bad effects, long after their first briskness has vanished. 164 THE FAJULT. Persons addicted to the use of malt liquors increase enormously In bulk. They become loaded with fat; their chin gets double or triple, tke eye prominent, and the whole face bloated and stupid. Their cir- culation is clogged, while the pulse feels like a cord, and is full and laboring, but not quick. During sleep, the breathing is stertorous, Every thing indicates an excess of blood ; and when a pound or two is taken away, immense relief is obtained. The blood, in such cases, is more dark and sizy than in other persons. In seven cases out of ten, they who indulge to excess in the use of inalt liquors, die of apoplexy or palsy. If they escape this hazard, swelled liver, or dropsy, carries them off. The abdomen seldom loses its prominency, but the lower ex- tremities get ultimately emaciated. Profuse bleedings frequently en- sue fi:om the nose, and save life^ by emptying the blood-vessels of the brain. The effects of malt liquors on the body, if not so immediately rapid as those of ardent spirits, are more stupefying, more lasting, and less easily removed. The latter are particularly prone to produce levity and mirth, but the first have a stunning influence upon the brain, and in a short time render dull and sluggish the gayest disposition. They also produce sickness and vomiting more readily than either spirits or wine. Both wine and malt liquors have a greater tendency to swell the body than ardent spirits. They form blood with greater rapidity, and are altogether more nourishing. The most dreadful effects, upon the whole, are brought on by spirits, but intemperance in the use of malt liquors is the most speedily fatal. The former break down the body by degrees ; the latter destroy life by causing some instantaneous apo- plexy, or rapid inflammation. Wine. — Wine is the produce of the fermentation of the juice of the grape, but the term is frequently applied to the product of the fermenta- tion of any subacid fruit. The grape is remarkable for containing within itself all the substances necessary for the production of wine ; but the juices of other fruits must have the addition of sugar and other ingredients, and in the proportions and management of these additions consists the art of making home wines. Another circumstance in which the juice of the grape differs from other vegetable juices, is its contain- ing a large proportion of tartar ; while the others have more of the malic acid, or that acid which abounds in apples ; and hence, many of the wines of this country partake of the properties of cider, and are apt to become sour. The characteristic ingredient of all wines i^ alco- hol, or spirit of wine ; on this depend their stimulating properties, and the quantity and state of combination in which it exists in wines, are the most interesting points for the consideration of the physician. Under the article alcohol we shall mention its highly stimulating and intoxicating properties ; and when we know, by the experiments of modem chemistry, that many wines in common use contain from a fourth to a fifth of their bulk of alcohol, wB can easily understand the stimu- lating and intoxicating effects produced by such wines. But, besides the alcohol naturally contained in wines, the stronger wines of Spain and Portugal are rendered marketable in this country by the addition of brandy ; and it is to this additional spirit, in a free J THE MEAJTS OF PRESEEVESTG HEALTH. 165 stale, as chemists call it, as well as to the combined alcohol, that the injurious effects of these wines are to be ascribed. Ther6 is a distinction of wines, arising from their color, into white and red. This color is derived not from the juice, but from the husk of the grapes. It is, in general, highly astringent, and abounds most in the red wines. Notwithstanding the quantity of astringent matter in the red wines is very small, yet delicate stomachs are much affected by it. The flavor peculiar to different wines depends on some very delicate principle, which chemists have not beei able to detect ; in some wines it produces a remarkable effect on the nervous system, as in Burgundy ; the excitement produced by this wine being very peculiar, and not at all in proportion to the alcohol contained in it. Some wines have an arti- ficial flavor imparted to them by the introduction of foreign ingredients, ■ as almonds and turpentine. Wines also contain a small portion of acid, but so very small, in general, as to be in all likelihood incapable of causing any bad effects to those who drink them. Acidity of stomach may unquestionably follow the drinking of wine, but from other causes than the mere portion of uncombined acid which they contain. This same acid has also been blanied, with equal injustice, for giving rise to attacks of gout. Claret has been particularly sus- pected of this bad tendency ; but when a person is predisposed to gout, excess of any kind, either in diet, exercise, or wine, wiU produce the paroxysm. The general effect of wine on the healthy body, when taken in mod eration, is to excite for a time the powers of life, to assist digestion, to quicken the circulation, to exhilarate the spirits, and to increase the mental energies. But at the same time, it must be recollected that these exhilarating effects are of the most insidious nature, and in place of remaining permanently, or. allowing the actions of the several organs to sink, when the stimulus is withdrawn, to their healthy stand- ard, they are succeeded by a depression of the vital energies, in direct proportion to the extent of the preceding excitement. When the use of wine, therefore, is habitually indulged in, or when carried beyond moderation, it perverts the faculties, degrades the rational powers, creates a morbid craving for the repetition of the indulgence, and lays the foundation for a long train of sufferings and diseases. The wine-bibber has usually an ominous rotundity of face, and not unfrequently of corporation. His nose is well studded over with car- buncles of the claret complexion ; and the red of his cheeks resembles very closely the hue of "that wine. The drunkard from ardent spirits is apt to be a poor, miserable, emaciated figure, broken in mind and in fortune ; but the votary of the juice of the grape may usually boast the "paunch well-lined with capon," and .calls to recollection the bluff figure of Sir John Falstaff over his potations of sack. Burgundy. — A wine classed among those which are called dry and light. It is possessed of stimulating properties greater than can be explained from the proportion of alcohol which • it. contains, that being only about eleven and a half per cent. Burgundy is, thereforcj thought to hold dissolved some unknown principle of great activity. A few 166 THE FAMILT. • glasses of this wine will induce headache and heat of the system, with flushed face, and hardness of the pulse. In many constitutions this ex- citement may be very unsafe, especially in sanguine constitutions, and where there is any degree of overfallness of the system. Claret. — A wine brought from Bordeaux, of a dehcate flavor, and distinguished by a perceptible combination of the acid with the resinous flavor. It is less heating, and more aperient than other wines. When taken in excess, claret produces acidity and indigestion, often rather from the quantity taken, and the state of the stomach, than from the quality of the liquor. But the clarets of wine-merchants are often very substantial wines, compounded in various ways for the domestic market, They are thus often mixed with hermitage, and with raspberry brandy; and if procured through doubtful channels, as we find them in the hands of the ordinary dealers in wine, they are too frequently acescent, and apparently composed of some claret, mixed with faded port, or some other spoiled wines, or of cider with some coloring and astringent materials ; and they are often compounded of still more pernicious in- gredients. Claret contains from 13 to l^.l! per cent, of alcohol. Champagne. — ^A species of wine containing a large amount of caiv bonic acid gas, which gives to it its sparkling and effervescing appear- ance. It contains between 11 and 13 per cent, of alcohol. Champagne wine produces speedy intoxication. Lisbon wine contains nearly nineteen per cent, of alcohol, hence its unfitness for a common drink. Madeira wine is still stronger than Lisbon, containing nearly twenty- four and a half per cent, of alcohol. Port. — A wine made in Portugal, from grapes cultivated in the vine- yards along the shore of the Douro. It has received its name from being exported principally from Oporto. Port wine possesses consider- able astringency, and a strong odor and flavor of brandy ; a quantity oi the latter being invariably added to the wine, previous to its exporta- tion. Port wine is very stimulating, and intoxicates quickly. It con- tains nearly twenty-six per cent, of alcohol. Its effect* on health are similar to those of the strong wines generally. The port wine in common use in this country, is an artificial compound of other winesj brandy, logwood and alum, and is extremely pernicious in its effects upon the stomach. The fact is, that the amount of wine annually exported from Oporto, is barely sufficient for the supply of England and her dependencies ; but few casks of it, in its original state at least, ever find their way to this country. Sherryi. — A Spanish wine, of that kind which has been termed dry, manufactured at a place called Xeres, in Andalusia ; hence the name of the wine, adopting in our orthography Sh for the Spanish X. This wine has sometimes a peculiar nutty flavor, which is caused" by infasing in it bitter almonds. Sherry contains 19.81 per cent, of alcohol. _ Alcohol, — Alcohol, in strictness, signifies the pure spirit obtained by distillation and subsequent rectifying, from liquids that have undergtme the vinous fermentation. But the term is commonly applied to the spirit, even when imperfectly freed from water, and other foreign matter. Alcohol is obtained in the greatest quantity from the wines of THE MEANS OF PEESEBVING HEALTH. 167 warm countries, some of which yield a third of brandy. The stimulat- ing and intoxicating properties of wines, and all fernjented liquors, depend on the alcohol they contain. A very curious and interesting table has been constructed by Mr. Brande and other chemists of Europe, showing the quantity of pure alcohol contained in a variety of wines and other intoxicating liquors, and by which it is shown, that when an individual drinks a bottle of port, or strong Madeira, hp intro- duces into his stomach about one pint of ardent spirit, of the ordinary strength of the purest" brandy, or gin ; and even if he drink a pint of currant wine, he will swallow half a pint of ardent spirit, of the strength of that generally met with in the stores. Alcohol differs slightly in some of its properties, according to the substance from which it is procured. When obtained from an infiision of malt, without rectification, it constitutes whisky ; when from sugar, rum; when from an infusion of rice, arrack; and when it is distilled 'from wine, it constitutes the hramdy of commerce. Gin is alcohol flavored with the essential oil of juniper. Other intoxicating drinks are obtained by distillation from peaches, apples, Indian corn, potatoes, the fermented milk of animals, etc. ; as ordinarily drunk, ardent spirits con- tain, besides other foreign ingredients, fifty per cent, of water. Ardent Spirits, — Ardent spirits is a genarail name for the spirituous product of distillation, from various vegetable substances, 'i'he prin cipal of these are brandy, rum, gin and whiskey, obtained respectively from wine, the juice of peaches and apples, sugar, barley, rye, Indian corn, juniper berries, etc. Ardent spirits, of every description, are in their nature and ordinary eflfects, extremely unfriendly to the human constitution ; and the art ci distillation is beyond all doubt, the most fatal discovery, in respect to the health of the' community, which the ingenuity of man ever devised. ^ Ardent spirits should never be taken in any quantity by those who are desirous of preserving good healt]^, enjoying the full vigor of their systems, and prolonging their lives. When taken as a drink, they stim- idate the stomach and neighboring viscera, as well as the heart and brain, to an excessive and unnatural action, impair the appetite, impede digestion, and lay the foundation of serious disease in the most im- portant organs. These effects are as certainly produced by the frequent use of spirits diluted with water, as when they are taken pure ; hence, weak brandy and water is a very exceptionable beverage for common use, notwithstanding its being frequently recommended by some medi- cal men, under the erroneous impression that it aflfords a beneficial stim- nlus to the stomach. The habitual use of ardent spirits predisposes the system to the attack of every form'of acute disease ; and: excites diseases in persons predisposed to them from other causes., This has been remarked in all the yellow fevers, and' other epidemics, which have visited the cities of the United States. Hard drinkers seldom escape, and rarely recover from them. The following diseases are the usual consequences of the habitual lue of ardent spirits, viz : slow inflammation of the stomach, indicated 168 THE FAMILY. by a decay of appetite, nausea and sickness, a puking of bile, or a diS' charge in the morning, of a frothy and viscid phlegm by hawking, fetii breath, frequent and disgusting belchings ; enlargement and disorgani- zation of the liver ; jaundice, and dropsy of the belly and limbs, and, finally, of every cavity of the body ; chronic inflammation of the wind- pipe and lungs, marked by hoarseness and a husky cough, which often terminates in consumption, and sometimes in more acute and fatal diseases of the lungs ; diabetes, that is, a frequent and copious discharge of pale, or sweetish urine ; redness and eruptions on different parts of the body; they generally begin on the nose, and, after gradually extending all over the face, sometimes descend to the limbs, in the form of leprosy. In persons who have occasionally survived these effects of ardent spirits on the skin, the face after a while becomes bloated, and its redness is succeeded by a death-like paleness. Epilepsy ; gout, in all its various forms ; colic ; palsy, and apoplexy ; and lastly, delirium or madness, are also frequently inducjed by the habitual use of ardent spirits. Most of the diseases which have been enurnerated, are of a mortal nature. They are more certainly induced, and terminate more speedily in death, when' spirits are taken in such quantities, and at such times, as to produce frequent intoxication ; but it may serve to remove an error, with which some intemperate people console themselves, to remark, that ardent spirits often bring on fatal diseases without ever producing drunkenness. Many persons are every year destroyed by ardent spirits, who were never completely intoxicated during the whole course of their lives. The solitary instances of longevity, which are faow and then met with in hard drinkers, no more disprove the deadly effects of ardent spirits, than the solitary instances of recoveries from apparent death by drowning prove that there is no danger to life when a human body lies an hour or two under water. Not less destructive are the effects of ardent spirits upon the human mind. They impair the memory, debilitate the understanding, and pervert the moral faculties. They produce not only falsehood, but fraud, theft, uncleanness. and murder. Like the demoniac mentioned in the New Testament, their name is " Legion ;" for they convey into the soul a host of vices and of crimes. Certain occasions and circumstances are supposed to render the use of ardent spirits necessary. The arguments in favor of their use in such cases, are, however, founded in error. In each of them, ardent spirits, instead of affording strength to the body, increase the evils they are intended to avert or to relieve. They are said to be necessary in very cold weather. This,is very far from being true ; for the temporary warmth they produce is always suc- ceeded by a greater disposition in the body to be affected by cold ; and by weakening the energies of the system, they render it more suscepti- ble to a trifling decrease of temperature. Persons habitually addicted to the use of ardent spirits,- even such as are not, strictly speaking, drunkards, are known to be much more liable to suffer from the effects of cold, than they who confine themselves to water alone. Ardent spirits are said to be necessary in very warm weather. Ex- THE MEAKS OF PEE6EKVING HEAITH. 169 perience, however, proves that they increase, instead of lessening the effects of heat upon the body, and thereby dispose to diseases of all kinds. Even in the -warm climate of the West Indies, Dr. Bell asserts this to be true. "Eum," says that author, "whether used habitually, moderately, or in excessive quantities, in the West Indies, always dimin- ishes the strength of the body, and renders men more susceptible of disease, and unfit for any service in which vigor or activity is required." And the same statement is made by nearly every subsequent writer who has treated of the diseases of warm climates. Nor do ardent spirits lessen the effects of hard labor upon the body. Look at the horse, with every muscle of his body swelled from morning till night, in the plow, or team ; does he make signs for a draught of toddy, or a glass of spirits, to enable him to cleave the ground, or to climb a hill ? No. He requires nothing but cool water, and substantial tood ; and the same is equally true in regard to man. There is no nourishment in ardent spirits ; they communicate no support to the sys- tem. The fictitious strength they produce in labor, is of a transient nature, and is always followed by an augmented degree of weakness and fatigue. Ardent spirits are taken by many immediately before a meal, to create an appetite, and improve digestion ; but, instead of strengthening the stomach, and promoting the digestion of the food, ardent spirits, whether taken before or during a meal, produce invariably an injurious impres- sion upon the digestive organs, and retard the proper solution and change of the aliment which is eaten. Brandy.-'^K'D. ardent spirit obtained by distillation from wine. Brandy contains nearly fifty-nine and a half per cent, of pure alcohol. Cherry brandy. -^-'A. mixture of brandy, or rum, with the juice of cherries — by some, it is called cherry-bounce, and when sweetened and spiced, it constitutes cherry cordial. Its use, as a drink, is attended with even more pernicious effects than plain brandy, rum, or spirits. It is often made use of by females as a cordial, and besides destroying the health of their digestive organs, too often has lead to habits of confirmed drunkenness. Mum.— ^ An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from fermented juice of the sugar-cane. Eum contains nearly fifty-four per cent, of pure alcohol. CHn. — An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from fermented grain, with the addition of juniper-berries. It contains upwards of fifty-one and a half per cent of pure alcohol. , Whisky. — An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from fermented' grain, and the juice of apples and other fruits. It eontains ordinarily about the same amount of alcohol as gin. Genuine Scotch whisky con- tains, however, fifty-four and one-third per cent., and Irish whisky nearly fifty-four per cent, of alcohol. Punch, — Notwithstanding the general belief that punch is an inno- cent drink, we know of few the use of which is more injurious to the stomach. Independent of its stimulating and into?ieating properties ftpm the ardent spirit which it contains, the acid' and sugar produce effects the more pernicious, in proportion to the extent to wbich (he 8 12 170 THE FAMILY-. stomach has been weakened by previous excesses. After a night spenl in punch drinking, a disordered condition of the digestive organs is more generally experienced, and to a greater extent, than after a debauch with any other intoxicating drinki To the sedentary, and to dyspeptics generally, punch will prove a most dangerous beverage. Cordials, or liqueurs as they are termed by the French, are formed of distilled spirits, with the addition of sugar or syrup, and some vege- table aromatic, as the oil of cloves, cinnamon, roses, anise, and the like, or they are flavored by the addition of bitter almonds, bay leaves, peach kernels, and other articles containing a small quantity of prussic acid. When drank in moderation, they are apt to disorder the stomach, as well by their stimulating effects, as by the rapidity with which they turn sour after being taken ; used habitually, or drank to excess, they pro- duce all the mischief which follows th*" use of ardent spirits. They have ■very properly been styled by a witty writer, " disguised poisons." INTEMPERANCE. — " Living fast" is a metaphorical phrase which, more accurately perhaps than is generally imagiiied, expresses a literal fact Whatever hurries the action of the corporeal functions, must tend to abridge the period of their probable duration. Extraordinary longevity has seldom been known to occur excepting in persons whose existence has been tranquil, and their vital energies seldom excited, either by physical or moral agents, beyond the healthy medium. But if intemperance curtailed merely the number of our days, many would have perhaps comparatively little reason to find fault with its effects. The idea of " a short life and a merry one" is plausible enough, if it could be realized. But, unfortunately, what shortens existence is calculated also to maka it melancholy and miserable. There is no pro- cess by which we can distil life, so as to separate from it all foul or heter- ogeneous matter, and leave nothing behind but drops of refined and perfect enjoyment and happiness. It is seldom that debauchery breaks at once the thread of life. There occurs, for the most part, a wearisome and painful interval between the first loss of a capacity for enjoying life and the period of its ultimate and entire extinction. This circumstance, it is to be presumed, is over looked by those persons who, with a prodigality more extravagant thar that of Cleopatra, dissolve the pearl of health in the goblet of intern perance. The slope toward the grave is found, by these victims of indiscretion, to be no easy descent. The scene is darkened long before the curtain falls. Having exhausted all that is fine and delightful in the cup of life, they are obliged to swallow afterward the bitter dregs. Death is the last, but not the ^^^prst result of intemperance. Punishment, in some instances, treads almost instantly upon, the heels of transgression ; at others, it follows with a more tardy, although with an equally certain step, the commission of moral irregularity. During the period of a long protracted career of excess, the malignant power of intemperate enjoy- ment, slow and insidious in its operation, is gnawing incessantly at the root, and often without spoiling the bloom, or seeming to impair the vigor of the frame, is secretly but surely hastening the period of its im evitable destruction. There is no imprudence with regard to health THE MEANS OF PEESEKVING HEALTH. 171' that does not tell ; and they are not unfrequently found to suffer in the event most essentially, who do not appear to suffer immediately from every individual act of indiscretion. The work of decay is, in such instances, constantly going on, although it never loudly indicates its advance by any forcible impression upon the senses. The distinction, although incalculably important, is not sufficiently recognized betwixt stimulation and nutrition ; repairing the expenditure of the fuel by a supply of substantial matter, and urging unreasonably, or to an inordinate degree, the violence of the heat and the brilliancy of the fiame. The strongest liquors are the most weakening, and in proportion to the power which the draught itself possesses, is the amount of healthful vigor which it deducts from the person into whose stomach it is habitually received. In a state of ordinary health, and in many cases of disease, a generous diet may be safely and even advan- tageously recommended. But, in diet, the generous ought to be care- fully distinguished from the stimulating, which latter is, unfortunately, most frequently used to denominate good living. The indigent wretch, whose scanty food is hardly sufficient to suppfy the materials of exist- ence, and the no less wretched debauchee, whose luxurious indulgence daily accelerates the period of its destruction, may both be said, with equal propriety, to live hard. Hilarity is not health, more especially when it has been roused by artificial means. The fire of intemperance often illuminates at the very time it is consuming its victim, and it is not until after the blaze of the electric coruscation that its depredations' are exposed. Stimuli sometimes produce an artificial genius, as well as vivacity. They lift a man's intellectual faculties, as well as his feelings pf, enjoy- ment for a moment, above their ordinary level ; and if by the same means they could be kept for any length of time in that state of exalta- tion, it might constitute something like a specious apology for having recourse to them. But unfortunately the excitement of the system can in no instance be urged above its accustomed and natural pitch, without this being succeeded by a correspondent degree of depression. Like the fabulous stone of Sisyphus, it invariably begins to fall as soon as it has reached the summit, and the rapidity of its descent is almost invar- iably in proportion to the degree of its previous elevation. Genius, in this manner, forcibly raised, may be compared to those fire-works which, after having made a bri^iant figure in the sky for a verv short ime, fall to the ground, and expose a "miserable fragment, as the only relic of their preceding, splendor. Drunkenness. — ^The baneful effects produced upon the constitution by the habitual and excessive use of intoxicating drinks, are very full- detailed in the articles. Ardent spirits, Malt liquors and Wine. These one should suppose, would be sufficient to deter all from indulging in the use of such drinks, or, at least, that the destruction of the moral, physical and intellectual faculties of man, and the beastly excesses into which he is led by intoxication, would be^a sufficient warning to pre- vent every rational being from fallihg into so degrading a condition. That infatuation which induces so many, for a momentary and insuffi- cient gratification, to risk the destruction of character, credit and 17S THE FAMILT. hsppkiess, and to entail upon themaelves and families the extreme of wretchedness and misery, can be viewed as little else than a species of insanity; to control the effects of which is unquestionably a legitimate subject for legislative interference. Habits of intoxication very often creep on almost imperceptibly, and the individual is lost even before he has passed the limits of moderation. The elevation of spirits and ex- cited state of the heart and other organs, produced by the stimulation of alcohol, indulged in to a certain extent, are followed by a corre- sponding depression and languor, to relieve which a renewal of stimu- lation is demanded, until the very cravings and appetites of the system are enlisted in favor of excess. To avoid drunkenness, therefore,, the only certain means is to abstain entirely from drinks of an intoxicating quality, and to seek the pleasurable stimulation, to induce which they are always, in the first instance, resorted to, in wholesome food, fresh air and exercise, cheerful company, the oflSces of benevolence, and such other physical and moral species of excitement as are friendly to the health of the system, ai^d to the vigor and serenity of the mind, and are never followed by undue depression, nor by regret. Various means have been proposed to wean an individual from habits of drunkenness, particularly by adding to the liquor, drunk by him, certain nauseating or disgusting drugs ; but little good has, however, been in this manner ■effected — moral means, particularly the influence of society, as soon as this can be enlisted in favor of entire abstinence from the use of all intoxicating dribks, are calculated to produce much more decided, ex- tensive and permanent effects in preventing drunkenness, and reclaiming those already addicted to it. A fit of intoxication, closely resembles that of incipient apoplexy, or palsy. The drunkard staggers, his tongue loses its power of speech, he stammers, sees double, or objects appear to him to revolve, or move in a circular direction. His feelings and perceptions are blunted, and at length a state of insensibility and fatuity is produced. All these symp- toms result from an overfuUness of blood in the vessels of the brain. If intoxication is still more complete, there is no perceptible difference between it and genuine apoplexy. We have the same lividity and bloatedness of countenance, the same deep comatose sleep, the same complete insensibility, the same stertor of breathing, the same fixedness of the eyes, and dilatation of the pupils, and the same slowness and fullness of the pulse. A person in this state, should be carried, without delay, into a room of moderate temperature, and placed in bed, with his head raised. Care should be taken to remove all ligatures from about his neck and limbs, and to prevent his neck from becoming twisted, or his breathing suspended, by any ooveriig on the face. Cold water may be applied to his head, and if he is desirous of drinking, the simplest beverages,' as tea or toast-and-water, should be allowed him. It is said that a drachm or two of a solution of the acetate of ammonia will almost immediately remove all the phenomena of intoxi- cation. , CIEANIEVESS. — Among the means "which tend most to the perserva- tion of health, and to the promotion of comfortable feelings, is cleanli- ness. The neglect of it is in fact the immediate cause of some of the THE MEAHS OF PKESBBVING HEALTH. ViS most disgnsting and fatal diseases to which the human body i sorted to, not only as an object of luxury, but as an effectual means of restoring strength and comfortable feelings to the body, when exhau^ ed by labor, or fatigue of any kind. In this country, as well as in England, a very gejieral opinion is entertained, on the other baud, that immersion in warm water,, especially when continued for any length of time, invariably weakens and diminishes the force and action of the muscles and of the other organs. This opinion, however, is totally un'- founded. So far from relaxing the body, diminishing its strength or ex- hausting its energies, a bath of from ninety-two to ninety-eight ^de- grees, when used even by persons of a delicate frame, or whose system has been reduced by disease, will be found to impart a feeling of re- freshment, to improve the strength, and to render their spirits lighter and more cheerful. Although, on immersion in a warm bath, the sen- sation experienced is that of warmth, yet when the temperature of the water is below that of the body, it must necessarily rob it of a portion of its caloric, and thus reduce the heat df the skin. The warm bath also diminishes the frequency of the pulse, renders the breathing freer and more slow, removes all impurities from the skin, softens its texturej and facilitates the circulation of the blood through its vessels, while it produces upon the whole nervous system a soothing or tyanquilizing effect. The internal organs are beneficially affected by the action of the warm bath upon the skin. The healthful actions of the stomach and bowels in particular, and the regular and perfect nutrition of the whole body, are powerfully promoted by its effects in equalizing the circula- tion on the surface of the body, and in causing the functions of the cutaneous exhalants to be performed with greater regularity and free- dom. In promoting the growth and development of the body during infancy and childhood ; in preserving the skin at that age free from disease, and the stomach and bowels in the proper discharge of their functions, the warm bath will be found to be admirably adapted. The uncomfortable sensations of increased heat, thirst, lassitude ; the accel- erated circulation and excited senses experienced after laborious exer- cise or a long journey in warm weather, are all allayed or removed by a warm bath ; while, under such circumstances, the cold bath would be attended with hazard at least, and often with decided injury. After exposure to cold and wet, also, the warm bath, with frictions to the sur- ace, will remove all unpleasant feelings, and prevent any subsequent uffering to the health. The habitually feeble and infirm, the nervous and excitable — they who are readily heated and as readily cooled — or who, in the enjoyment of a tolerable state of bodily healthy have their vital energies, nevertheless, readily depressed by trifling causes of a de» bilitating character, ought all to use the Warm in preference to the cold bath. The aged likewise will experience a great increase of comfort and renewed activity in their various functions by the frequent employ- ment of warm bathing. The time for using the warm bath is when the 8* 178 THE FAMILT. stomach is free from food — or when the body has been fatigued by ex- ercise or labor. The period during which immersion may continue is from halt' an Lour to an hour. Hot Bath. — This variety of bath is only adapted to cases of disease ; its effects will therefore be considered in that part of our work which treats of remedies. Sea-hathing. — Nearly all the remarks which were made when speak ing of the cold bath, will apply to sea-bathing. The effects of sea- bathing are, however, somewhat modified by the circumstances under which it is made use of, and the effects on the skin of the salts with which the water is impregnated. Bathing in the sea is Usually preceded by some degree of exercise, in walking or riding to the beach, and is accompanied with considerable muscular exercise in struggling against the waves or in attempts to swim. The dread which many experience on entering the sea, affects powerfully the nervous system, causing Imrried respiration and acceleration of the heart's action. To these may be added, the effects from exposure often to a cool and keen wind from the ocean, which on our Atlantic coast must of course be east- erly. The slower evaporation of sea than of fresh water, causes the skin to become encrusted with saline particles, which, in consequence of the friction produced by the clothing, excites a gentle stimulation of the whole surface. Hence, persons possessed of much less energy of frame may in general safely venture upon sea-bathing, than can with propriety use the cold bath. Sea-bathing cannot with propriety be resorted to, however, by the delicate and valetudinary, before the mid- dle of June, nor later than the beginning or middle of September. The air of the sea-coast is too damp and cold to be endured with impunity, by them at other seasons.- The proper time for using the sea-bath is before meals ; never should immersion be attempted when the stomach is actively engaged in the process of digestion. The early hours of the morning may be safely appropriated to sea-bathing, provided the indi- vidual rises from his bed and reaches the beach with a warm or hot and dry skjn. Sea-bathing is always injurious when the skin is cool, chilled, or perspiring, or when the body is exhausted by fatigue, late hours, or intemperance in eating and drinking. Soap. — Personal cleanliness cannot be effectually secured without the use of soap. A. few remarks will render this evident to every one. In addition to the perspiration which is thrown out by the skin, a portion of which always remains upon the surface, the latter is constantly lubri- cated by an oily fluid. It is this that occasions, after bathing, the water, with which it does not unite, to collect in minute drops upon the body, and which gives to the skin of those in whom it is furnished in large quantities, an habitually greasy and dirty appearance ; while of those in whom it is deficient, the skin has a harsh, dry, and scaly aspect. This oily exudation greases the linen when it is worn for "too long a time — catches the dust floating in the air, and causes it to adhere to the skin, aud likewise retains in contact with our bodies, a portion of the excrementitious matter, which it is the office of the skin to discharge from the system. The removal of this deposit, which is constantly accumulating, is absolutely necessary, as well for personal comfort as for THE MEANS OF PKESEEVING HEALTH. 179 U-B preservation of health. Now the oily matter referred to, Trith the foreign xubstances accidentally combined with it, is not readily nor completely soluble in simple water ; it cannot, therefore, be effectually removed without the occasional use of soap, with which it combines without difficulty. The frequency with which it is necessary to wash with soap will de- pend, in a great measure, upon the occupation and exposure of individ- uals. If these be such as do not subject them to an atmosphere loaded with dust, ol" to the frequent contact of such substances as have a tendency to soil the skin, washing the face, hands, and arms, once a day, with soap and water, will be sufficient, particularly if the water be warm or tepid, and its application be followed by brisk friction with a somewhat coarse towel. But mechanics, and they who, from any cause, are peculiarly liable to have deposited upon their skin, dust, dirt, or any foreign matters, will find that washing several times a day, especially before each meal, and previously to retiring to bed, in addition to a frequent use of the bath, will be demanded, as well for the preservation of the skin as of their health generally. ■ The ordinary brown and yellow kinds of soap are altogether unfitted for cleansing the skin, as they invariably irritate it, and when frequently used, most "generally cause it to become rough, chapped, or covered with painful and unsightly pimples. These effects arise as well from the strength of these soaps as from the yellow rosin which enters so largely into their composition. Most, if not all, o{ the colored and variegated soaps, prepared expressly for the toilet, are equally objection- able, in consequence of the action on the skin of the coloring matter, which is most commonly somp metallic salt. From the occasional use; however, of pure white soap, particularly that manufactured solely from soda and olive oil, which is entirely without smell, hard, and brit- tle, the fracture presenting a pearly and granulated or crystalline appearance, not • the least injury to the skin need be apprehended ; while it will be found to cleanse it more effectually from all impurities than any of the substitutes for soaps which females, in particular, are too much in the habit of resorting to ; many of which have a decid- edly prejudicial effect. Pure white soap ought, therefore, to be invariably used in ablutions of the face and hands, or of the surface generally. Cosmetics. — Cosmetics are certain washes, sold under different names, which ladies are induced to use, with the hope of boantifying the skin- and adorning the person. No regular practitioner will give any encour- agement to the us.e of these, as they always do harm, and frequently cause the occurrence of very dangerous accidents. The most noted are some of the preparations of mercury, or solutions of sngar of lead or of the nitrate of silver ; and from the use of this last in particular, effects the very reverse of beautiful take place. Ladies have gone into the bath with a fine white skin, and have come out brown or black, from the chemical action of the water or its gases on the cosmetic. Gowlard's Lotion, a noted cosmetic, is a solution of corrosive sublimate in an emulsion of bitter almonds; and whoever is desirous of escaping the disagreeable consequences resulting from the action of a poison on 180 THE FAMILY. the skin, or its introduction into the blood, should cautiously avoid all such dangerous compositions! The only cosmetic wash from which no injury need be appfehended, and the effects of which, when conjoined with temperance, regular exercise, and serenity of mind, will never disappoint those who may be induced to use it, is that composed of pure spring water, of a proper degree of warmth. Cologne-Water. — This fluid is an aromatic tincture,*of great fragrance and pungency, much used at the female toilet. It receives its name from the city where it has been manufactured for more than a century, by the members of a family of the name of' Farina. The Farinas, of course, loudly vaunt their Cologne-water, as superior to all the 'imita- tions of it made in Paris, London, and elsewhere, though the latter are in general so well prepared as to deceive the most suspicious. The following recipe is given to make a tincture which some persons prefer even to the genuine eau de Cologne : — ^ Take of spirits of wine, half a pottnd ; lavender water, one pound; balsam of Peru, fifteen drops ; essence of lemons, six drachms ; cam- phor, fifteen grains ; spirit of rosemary, half a drachm ; bergamot, half a drachtn ; digest for seven days, and strain. Excepting for its agree- able flavor, we know of no useful purpose to which this tincture can be applied. Many females are in the habit of using Cologne-water as a wash folr the face, in order to preserve the skin smooth and free from pimples, and to prevent it'from chapping. These latter efiiects will, however, be much more liable to result from the Stimulation of the skin, caused by the alcohol in the Cologne-water, than when simple soft water is used; It cannot be too often repeated, that the objections to the frequent application of water to the skin are altogether founded in error. Tha brilliancy of the complexion, and the beauty and delicacy of the skin, can in no way be so well preserved as when frequent ablutions with Warm water are resorted to. Dentifrices. — Substances used for cleaning the teeth i "nost commonly those which are in the form of powder are so called. Of these there is a great variety, as almost every dentist has his own favorite tooth- powder. Charcoal is much esteemed by some, as it not only cleans the teeth, but is supposed to improve the breath, and to assist in removing any smell from the mouth. In the East Indies, the betel-nut is burfled to procure a very fine powdered charcoal. It has, however, the disad- vantage of producing a bluish discoloration of the gum, which is in- delible. Charcoal seems to act too severely on the enamel ; for we have seen many cases where, after the continued use of it and of hard brushes, the enamel has been cut into grooves, as "with a file ; and it is well known that, from its triturating ^ower, charcoal is used by black- fimiths in polishing steel, to take out the file marks. Magnesia, pre- pared chalk, powder of cuttle-fish bones, orris-root, and similar sub- stances, are also used, either singly or combined, as dentifrices. As a general rule, all hard and gritty powders, and all acid washes, are injurious to the teeth. When, from childhood, a life of temperanc« atid active exercise has been pursued, every species of dentifrice appears THE MEANS OF PEESEEVING HEALTH. 181 to be useless ; all the care that the teeth then demand, to preserve them white and to prevent their decay, is carefully removing, with a quill or ^linter of wood, any portions of food which may have lodged during meals between them, and then to rinse the mouth fully with tepid water, and to rub the teeth and gums well once a day, in the morning, with a soft brush. Most of the accumulations about the teeth, as well •Js l^eir discoloration and decay, are' produced by a diseased condition f the digestive oi^ans. SlEEPi— "Sound, refreshing sleep is of the utmost consequence to the health of the body and the vigor of the mental and corporeal faculties. Indeed, so great is its value, and so peeiiliarare its effect-s, that no sub- stitute can be found for it ; and if it does not pay its accustomed visit, every individual, without exception, feels his whole frame sensibly ex- hausted. His appetite ceases, his strength fails, his spirits become oppressed and dejected, or irritable and capricious, and, if the depriva- tion is long continued, he^'is soon reduced to a state .of the utmost misery. Bodily and mental disease are the usual effects of too long protracted wakefulness. By regular and sound sleep the exhausted constitution is refreshed, and the vital energies restored; the process of assimilation, or of nourish- ment, goes on more perfectly ; the vigor of the mental faculties is re- newed, and the body attains its proper and regular growth. Sleep also contributes to the prolongation of life, and, in many cases, to the restor- ation of health and the cure of disease. During the day, the irritability or excitability natural to the. human frame in an ordinary state of health is exhausted by light, heat, sound, and, above all, by bodUy exercise and mental exertion ; and sleep is the meljiod which nature has provided for the reaecumulation of this ex- citability, and the consequent restoration of the vital energy which the body had lost in the performance of its daily functions. Among the marks and symptoms of longevity, that of being naturally a regular and sound sleeper is justly considered to be one of the surest indications. This appears to be owing to the physical effects of sleep ; to its retarding all tie vital movements, collecting the vital power, and restoring to every organ its appropriate degree of energy. Indeed, if great watchfulness, by accelerating the consumption of the fluids and solids, abridges life, a proper quantity of repose must tend to its pro- longation. The preceding obseirvations, of course, refer only to a proper quantity of sleep, as few mings are more pernicious than too great an indulgence m it. This excess brings on a sluggishness and dullness of all the animal functions, apd materially tends to weaken the whole body. It blunts and destroys the senses, and renders both the body and mind unfit for action. PVom the slowness of the circulation which it occasions, there necessarily follows great corpulency, a bloated habit of body, and a ten- dency to dropsy, apoplexy, and other disorders. It will be proper, there- fore, to consider — 1. The number of hours necessary to be passed in sleep ; 2. The period- best calculated for repose ; and 3. The means oi promoting it when wanted. Quantity of sfc^p.— 'What number of hours are"necessary to be passed 182 THE FAMTT.Y. in sleep is a question that has occasioned much discussion. The opinion generally entertained by the ablest physicians is, that although the quantity of sleep must necessarily vary somewhat according to the age and strength, and occupation of individuals, yet from seven to eight hours in the four-and-twenty constitute, generally speaking, the proper time, and that this period should scarcely ever be exceeded by adults in the enjoyment of health. It is indisputable, that the delicate require more than the vigorous, women more than men, and very yonng chil- dren more than either ; but it is worthy of particular remark, that the sick and weakly seldom require more than eight hours, or, at the mostj nine hours, and will rarely, if ever, fail to be injured by a longer indul- gence. Every one, therefore, should endeavor to ascertain what quan- tity of sleep he requires ; that is, by what quantity he is rendered most comfortable and vigorous throughout the day; this all may readily ascertain by experiment. Nothing can be more absurd than for any individual, who wishes to enjoy health and to accomplish great things, to deny himself the ad- vantages either of sleep or of exercise. Many studious men fall into a great and pernicious error in abridging their proper time for repose, in order that they may have the longer period for study. This is highly detrimental both to the mind and body ; for the mind that has been much exercised throughout the day not only soeks to recruit its strength in sound and refreshing sleep, but cannot regain its utmost energy without it ; so that, instead of any advantage being gained by passing the greater part of the night in study or other occupations, it must necessarily be detrimental. It has been justly observed, that most per- sons will be able to perform very effectually their ordinary tasks, whether mental or corporeal, by strict and uniform application during eight, or at farthest ten hours out of the twenty-four, which will leave abundance of time for sleep and exercise. It is proper to add, that the opposite extreme of indulging in too much sleep should be carefully avoided. By lying for nine, ten, or eleven hours in a warm bed, the flesh becomes soft and flabby, the stiength of the digestive organs impaired, and the nervous system re- laxed and enervated. Time proper for repose. — Nature certainly intended exercise for the day and rest for tlfe night. This is proved by experience. For they who, in opposition to the dictates of nature, keep up during the night, whether in exercise, riot, or in study, the activity of the various organs of the system, and endeavor to seek repose for them by sleeping during the day, disturb the whole economy of their bodies by which theii health is ultimately more or less impaired. Another point to be con- sidered is, that by the custom of sitting up late at night, the eyes sufier severely, daylight being much more favorable to those delicate organs, than any artificial light whatever. Valangin relates a circumstance that satisfactorily proves the advan- tage of sleeping in the night instead of the day. It is an experiment made hy two colonels of horse in the French army, who had much disputed which period of the day was fittest for marching, and for re- pose. As it was an interesting subject, in a military point of view, to tHE MEA2fS OF PEESEETENG HEALTH. 183 have it ascertained, they obtained leave from the commanding oflBcer to try the experiment. One of them, although it was in the heat of sum- mer, marched in the day, and rested at night, and arrived at the end of a march of six hundred miles, without the loss of either men or horses ; but the other, who thought it would be less fatiguing to march in the cool of the evening, and part of the night, than in the heat of the day, at the end of the same march, had lost most of his horses, and some oJ his men. In hot climates, more especially in the neighborhood of swampy ground, persons canaot too sedulously avoid being out after sunset, on account of the extremely deleterious qualities of the air at that period ; indeed, in many places, to breathe the night air is certain dfiath, and in most it is powerfully influential in the production of dysentery, and some of the worst fevers that prevail in those regions. The plan of going to bed early, and rising betimes, has been called the golden rule for the preservation of health and the attainment of long life, and it is a maxim sanctioned by various proverbial expressions. It is an undoubted fact, that when old- people have been examined re- garding the causes of their long life, they have uniformly agreed in one particular, that they went to bed early and rose early. Indulging in sleep during the daytime, and more especially after dinner, is always productive, of more or less injury to health, while it is never found to produce even that temporary feeling of refreshment which results from the same amount of repose taken after night. It should be remarked, that although many persons, who have enjoyed good health, have been in the habit of sleeping a little in the afternoon, yet, upon the whole, the practice is not to be recommended, as a fer greater number suffer from the habit more or less inconvenience. When individuals in the possession of a good measure of health and strength find an inclination to sleep after dinner, it is very commonly owing to their having eaten too much. They who take no more food than is required for the growth and*nouriSihment of the body, find themselves even lighter and more cheerful after a substantial meal than before it. Best means of promoting sle^. — Sleep is so natural to man, that in almost every instance, where the individual is in tolerable health, it must be his own fault if he does not enjoy it to that extent which is so essential for his comfort and happiness. The principal circumstances to be attended to in order to procure re- freshing sleep are the nature and quantity of our food and exercise, the size ^hd ventilation of the bed-chamber, the quality of the bed and of its coverings, and the state of the mind. It is certain that a full stomach almost invariably occasions restless nights, and it is, therefore, an important rule to make a very light sup- per, and not to take any food whatever later than an hour, or an hour and a half, before bed-time. Toward evening, the digestive organs seek for repose, in conjunction with every other part of the body; they are then fatigued and enervated by the labors of the day, and, consequently, to give them much to do at that period cannot fail to irritate and dis- order them, which irritation, from the stomach being the grand center Df sympathies, is quickly propagated, through the medium of the nerv- 184 THE FAMn.Y. ous system, to every part of the body , hence it is that tney who eat late suppers experience a general restlessness, instead of a disposition to sleep. It is worthy of observation also that the stomach will sometimes be much irritated by a small quantity of indigestible food taken at nigltt, and by this sleep may be prevented as certainly as if the organ were overloaded with food. A sufficient quantity of exercise or muscular exertion powerfully con- tributes to sleep, and a principal reason why sedentary persons, and students generally, are so distressed for want of it is from neglecting to take active exercise in the d?,y. With some persons, the most effectual methods of procuring sleep will fail, unless exercise be resorted to in the open air. Pure air has of itself an exhilarating and soothing effect on the mind, conducive to sound repose. It is an excellent plan, when the exercise of the day has been limited, to walk up and down a large room or passage for half an hour, or more, before going to bed, and the use of the dumb-bells for a part of the time will augment its good effects. fi The size, free ventilation, and coolne^ of the bed-chamber, and the , nature of our bedding, deserve much attention. If notwithstanding an adherence to the preceding rules, sleep is still found to be unsound and unrefreshing, a brisk use of the flesh-brush, before going to bed or rising from the hed^ and freely ventilating it, will often produce a very favorable change. Another excellent practice, in case you have gone to bed and cannot sleep, is to rise, shake the bed well, draw the upper clothes down to the feet, and walk about the room, warmly clad, till both yon and the bed are aired. Exercise, teinperance, early rising, and regular hours of retiring to rest, are, however, the best means for procuring sound re- pose, and if duly persevered in, will never fail of the desired object Opiates and sleeping draughts should never be resorted to, to procure rest — once resorted to, their habitual use will become necessary, as sleep will not occur without their aid; while by their prejudicial influence upon the stomach and other organs, their employment will never fail gradually to undermine the health of the system. The following miscellaneous rules respecting sleep deserve to be recorded in this place : 1. Many real or imaginary invalids lie long in bed in the morning, to make tip for a deficiency of sleep in the night time ; but this ought not to be«permitted, for the body must necessarily be enervated by long continuance in a hot and foul air. A little reso- lution will enable invalids to surmount this destructive habit. By rising early, and going to bed in due time, their sleep will become sound and refreshing, which otherwiSie they cannot expect to be the case. 2. It is an indispensable rule, that fat people should avoid soft beds, and should sleep little and rise early, this being the only chance they have of keeping their bulk within due bounds. 3. It often hap pens that if a person has not slept well, he feels a weariness in the morning : this will be best removed by rising and taking gentle exer- cise. 4. Such persons as are subject to cold feet, ought to have their legs better covered than the rest of the body when they are in bed. 6. We should never suffer ourselves to doze or fall asleep before we go THE MEAUS OF PRESERVING HEALTH. 185 to bed, as it must greatly diminish the probability of sound repose when we wish for sleep. 6. Reading in bed at night is a most perni- cious custom ; it strains the eyes, prevents sleep, and injures the health. 7. At large schools, where great numbers of children sleep together, the utmost attention ought to be paid to ' the natnro of the beds, the bedding, the airiness of the apartment, and every thing that can pre- vent the bad effects of crowding numbers together, and compelling them to breathe a confined and vitiated atmosphere. 8. Remember sleep is sound, sweet, and refreshing, according as the mind is free from uneasiness, and the alimentary organs are easy, quiet, and clear. Beds. — The materials on which we sleep are of much consequence, both as it regards our health, and the soundness of our repose. The use of feather-beds is almost universal in this country, yet there can be no doubt that they are highly injurious to health, and have a tendency to prevent sleep, especially in the summer. To the invalid, and to young persons who are disposed to distortion of the spine and shoulder, they are pp/ticularly, hurtful. Such as consider them a necessary luxury in the winter, slould invariably exchange them for a mattress in the sprinpf and summer. The- injury resulting from feather-beds is occasione/, principally, by their accumulating too much heat about the body, an i in this manner causing a profuse and debilitating perspira- tion, and predisposing the system to the influence of slight changes of temperature. By yielding unequally to the pressure of the body, the latter is thrown into a distorted position, which being resumed regularly almost every night, is liable to cause in the young and weakly a per- manent deformity. Hair mattresses are superior to every other Irind of bed for this country, and it is highly desirable they should be generally adopted. By those whose means "will not permit "the purchase of hair mattresses, those of moss or straw, or what are still better, those made from the leaves which surround the ear of Indian corn, properly pre- pared and thoroughly dried, will be found an excellent substitute. Feather-beds are more injurious to the health of children, than even of adults, and especially if they are weakly. In very cold climates feather-beds are often necessary, and in the United States the aged may. often require them, in order to preserve or increase their heat, which is sometimes inconsiderable, and if lessened would prevent their sleeping. The bed-clothes shoitld also be as light and as cool as possible in the spring and summer ; and in the winter they should be just sufficient to preserve a comfortable degree of warmth. Young people and invalids, in particular, ought to avoid many and heavy bed-clothes. The head should be only lightly, or rather not at all covered. The use of cur- tains to the bed should be avoided ; at least, they ought not to hsmg down low, nor be drawn in any degree around the bedstead. It is im- possible, indeed, to conceive what possible advantage can result from curtains to a bed ; they cannot with propriety be used to exclude light or cold, because the former should be excl'jtded by window-blinds, ot curtains ; and as it respects the latter, it is far better guarded against by a sufficiency of bed-clothing. Curtains are injurious, by preventing tiiB proper circulation of th« air breathed by those who occupy the • TO 186 THE FAMILT. oed, and by accumulating dust, cause it to be inhaled into and irritate the lungs. The bed, as well as the bed-clothes, should be kept strictly clean, and carefully guarded against damp. Beds are apt to become damp for want of proper airing ■when not constai^tly used ; from the dampness of the room, and from the coverings not being perfectly dry when laid on the bed. Colds, rheumatism, and even more fatal complaints, may be caused by occupying a damp bed. It would be, in general, a more judicious practice if beds, instead of being made up soon after the per- sons rise from them, were turned down, or their coverings were thrown separately over the backs .of chairs, and thus exposed to the fresh air from the open windows during the day. Bed-Chambers. — A bed-chamber ought not to be situated on the ground floor ; and an elevated apartment is particularly recommended to liter- ary and sedentary people. It should be airy, large, and lofty, and never a small confined room. Nothing can be more imprudent or absurd than the conduct of those who have splendid houses, preferring to sleep in small apartments. The" more airy a bed-room is, the better; and it will be still better if it be also exposed to the influence of the sun. A bed-room ought to be well ventilated in. the daytime, as it is principally occupied in the night, when all the doors and windows are shut. The windows should be kept open as much as the season will admit of, during the day ; and sleep will probably be more beneficial, in proportion as this rule is practiced. Indeed, nothing is more material, not only for invalids but for persons in health, than the admission of pure air into their bed-rooms by various ways, and in different degrees, according to circumstances. Keeping open the windows of bed-rooms during the night, ought never, however, to be attempted, but with the greatest caution. It is imprudent to sleep in a very warm room, as it makes one faint, and relaxes too much the whole system. Unless there is an apprehension of damp, a bed-room should rarely have a flre in it, as it has a tendency to vitiate the air, often fills the room with dust and ashes, and sometimes may be the means of setting the apartment on fire. If a fire is kept in a bed-chamber, the danger arising from a confined room becomes still greater; numbers have been stifled when asleep, by having a fire in a small close apartment. They who live in hot countries ought to be very particular regarding the place they sleep in. The apartment should be roomy, dark, shaded from the rays of the sun and moon. ; temperate as to heat and cold, and rather inclined to coolness than heat ; while a free admission of air is allowed during the daytime, the windows should be carefully closed as soon as the night sets in. It is a good rule for those who are obliged, on account of business, to spend the day in crowded cities, to sleep, if possible, in the country. Breathing fresh air in the night-time will, in some measure, make up for the want of it through the day. This practice would have a greater eflFect in preserving the health of those who reside in cities, than is commonly imagined. "It is hardly necessary to observe, that in conse- quence of the chilly air of the first, and the noxious exhalations which TB[K MEAisrs OF peeseevhtg health. 187 fill the second, damp and filthy bed-rooms ought to be particularly avoided, as they are in the highest degree injurious to those who occupy them. Sreaiuillg. — Dreaming indicates aii imperfect state of sleep, insuffi- cient to produce that degree of refreshment which is essential to the maintenance _of health. Many dreams, also, are of a peculiarly painful, disagreeable, or disgusting character; on these accounts, th,erefore, dreaming should as much as possible be avoided. Dreams, especially those of a, harassing and disagreeable kind, are most generally expe- rienced by persons laboring under a state of nervous excitement, produced by indolent and luxurious living — by intemperance, or by the undue indulgence of the passions and other mental emotions. As a general rule, dreaming may be prevented by whatever causes perfect and uninterrupted sleep; such as sufficient exercise during the day, temperance in eating and drinking, a cheerful and contented mind, and the avoidance of late or heavy suppers, or of strong tea or cofiee during the evening. It is very generally the individual who retires to bed with his stomach overloaded with food, or laboring under irrjtation from its contents, even when these are moderate in quantity, if they be of a very stimulating or indigestible nature, that suffers from attacks of the nightmare, which, independent of the agony they produce, are by no means unattended with danger. It has been presumed, and not without . strong probability of truth, that many of the sudden deaths which take place during the night, of persons apparently in the full enjoyment of health, are to be attributed to nightmare. The nightmare is a certain uneasy feeling during sleep, as of great anxiety and difficulty of breathing, and a strong but ineffectual effort to shake off some incumbent pressure, or to relieve one's self from great inconvenience. The imagination is generally at work to find some cause for the unpleasant feeling, and pictures some monstrous shape as the author of the mischie£ It commonly arises from an im- perfect and unhealthy digestion, from flatulence, from heavy suppers, and from a constrained uneasy posture of the body. Such persons as are subject to nightmare should take no food whatever in the evening, should pay attention to the state of their bowels, and should sleep upon a mattress with the head and shoulders raised. THE PASSIONS. — The passions ar%a natural and necessary part of the human constitution, and were implanted in it by the great Creator for wise and useful purposes. Without them we could have no motive to action, the mind would become utterly torpid, and, there being no foundation for morality or religion, virtue and vice would be nothing more than indiscriminate and unintelligible terms. The passions are only prejudicial when allowed to exceed their proper bounds,- or are ex- cited by improper objects ; and to preserve them within their just limits, and to give them their proper direction we are furnished, not only with reason and the light of nature, but likewise with that more certain guide, the light of revelation. From the intimate though mysterious connection between the mind and body, they reciprocally affect each other, and hence the passions exert * powerfiil influence over health and in the production and euro t 188 THE FAMILY. of disease. The two great sources of the passions respectively are desire and aversion ; those of the former class tending in general to excite, and of the second to repress, the^ powers of the animal system. The chief passions which arise from desire are joy, hope, and love ; and the most eminent in the train of aversion are fear, grietj and anger. Joy is a passion in which the mind feels a sudden and jextraordinary pleasure ; the eyes sparkle, a flood of animation overspreads the coun- tenanc$, the action of the heart and arteries is increased, and the circu- lation of the blood becomes more vigorous. Instances are not wanting in which this passion, when unexpectedly excited and violent, has pro- duced disease, or even iinmediate death ; but when moderate, and existing only in the form of cheerfulness, it has a beneficial eflfect in preserving health, as well as in the cure of disease. Dope. — Of all the passions hope is the mildest ; and, though it oper- ates without any'visible commotion of the mind or of the body, it has a most powerful influence on the health of the one and the serenity of the other. It contributes, indeed, so much to the Welfare of both, that if it were extinguished, we could neither enjoy any pleasure in this life nor any prospect of happiness in the life to come ; but,, by the benefi- cent will of Providence, it is the last of the passions that forsakes us. lote is one of the strongest and most absorbing passions with which the mind is affected, and has at its commencement, when happy and properly guided by reason, a favorable influence on all the functions of« the body ; but being often in its progress attended with other passions, such as fear and jealousy, it is liable to become the source of infinite disquietude. No passion undermines the constitution so insidiously as violent and unreasonable or misplaced love. While the whole soul is occupied with the thoughts of a pleasing attachment, both the mind and body become languid from the continuance of vehement desire ; and should there arise any prospect, real or imaginary, of being frus- trated in its gratification, the person is agitated with all the horrors and pernicious effects of despair. Love, when violent and unsuccessful, fre- quently produces a wasting of the body, terminating sooner or later in death. Foar has its origin in the apprehension of danger or eVil, and is placed, as it were, a sentinel for the purpose of self-preservation. When intense Dr habitually indulged in, it destrayS the energies of both mind and body, retards the motion of the blood, obstructs digestion, and prevents the proper nutrition of the body. Violent terror has'been known, in an instant, to turn the hair perfectly white, and in other instances to produce fatuity of mind or even instantaneous death. By weakening the energies of the system, this passion disposes greatly to disease during the prevalence of epidemics. Grief, — There is no passion more injurious to health than prief, when it sinks deep into the mind. By enfeebling thfe whole'netvous system, it depresses the motion of the heart and retards the circulation of the blood, with that of all the other fluids ; it disorders the stomach and bowels, and ultimately every other organ of the body, producing in- digestion, consumption, and other chronic diseases ; obstinaie Watch- fulness is a Very common effect of ^iefc It preys upon the taind THE MEANS OF PRESEBVING HEALTH. 189 well as the body, and is nourished by indulgence to the utmost degree of excess. During the violence of itg earlier period it spurns at all the consolations either of philosophy or religion ; but, if life can wbsiat till the passion be alleviated by time, an'd submit to the cheering ipflueppq of company, exercise, and amusements, there is a prospect of recovery, though grief long continued often gives a shock to the constitution that nothing can retrieve, Qrief, like fear, predi^p0$e9 to ^Q attack of epidemical diseases. Anger is a passion suddenly excited, and which often no leas suddenly subsides. Equally furious and ungovernable in its nature, it niiay justly be considered as a, transient fit of madness. The £ice, for the most part, becomes red, the eyes sparkle with fury, a violent commotion is visible in the countenance and pervades the whole body. The nervep are unduly excited ; the pulsation of the heart and arteries, and with them the motion of the blood, are sometimes so much increased as tO occasion the bursting of some of the minute vessels pf the brain or lungs. The stomach, liver, and bowels are often violently affected by intense anger ; digestion is always disordered, a violent colic is somqi* times produced, and very often all the symptoms of jaundice. Thus it is often the immediate agent in the production of fevers, iufiammationAi spitting of blood, apoplexy, and other acute disorders. As ange? i^ liable to be spent by its own violence, it is commonly of short dwa^ tion ; but when existing in a more moderate degree, and combined with sadness or regret, it gives rise to fretting, which is extremely pe?" nicious to the health. All the passions, but more especially anger aad fear, are increased in intensity, and caused to exert a more frequent in- fluence over the mind, by a Uie of lijxury and intemperance. Qene^, an essential means for their subjection is a regular, active mode of life, a mild and moderate diet, and the abwdonment of aU intense excite- ment and stimulating drinks. Anxiety of Mind.^A state of mind altogether adverse to be?Jth ; when constantly indulged in it destroys the digestive powers of the stomach, impairs the functions of the lungs, disturbs the regular circg- lation of the blood, and impedes the nuti-ition of the system. It is a fruitful source, in civil life, of chronic affections of the stomach, live?, heart, lungs, and brain. Even the anxiety induced in a sensitive min4 by the ill-humor, caprice, and unkind treatment of others, js deeply felt, and proves highly injurious to health. CARE UF THE filE-^Under the ordinary circumstanoes of health, in conjunction with temperance and regular exercise, the only safe and effectual means of preserving the hair and of promoting its growth and beauty are the frequent use of the eomb and brush and regular ablution. Whatever has 9, tendency to impede the passage of the fluids by which the hair is nourished, from the root along tbs caTJty which exists in the center of each hair, must necessarily prevent its proper grpwtli, render it thin, and deprive it of its soft and glossy appearance, Th^S can be little doubt that this is the effect, to a certain extent, of the practice of twisting the hair from its natural position, and of plaiting or flrmly braiding il^ pursued in obedience to the dictates of fashion by 190 THE FAMILT. most females. The injurious consequences of such modes of dressing the hair can only be obviated by a daily resort to the comb and a hard brush, which, by disentangling, restores it to its natural direction, and freeing it from every restraint, enables it to receive a due supply of its appropriate fluids. The growth of the hair is not, however, always mipeded by artificial means ; this may result, also, from allowing it from neglect to become entangled and matted together — a condition to which it is extremely liable from its peculiar structure. Hence, under all circumstances, frequently combing and brushing it through its whole length is Absolutely necessary to its proper preservation. ' Independent of the good effects of these operations in rendering the hair pervious to the fluids which rise from its roots, they facilitate its development also by freeing the scalp from accidental impurities, facili- tating the circulation through its vessels, and thus enabling it to per- form freely its functions. Another means of promoting the growth of the hair and insuring its permanency is by frequently cutting it. It must be very obvious that when kept short its fluids are less liable to be obstructed in their pas- sage than when the hair is long, it being difficult in the latter case to preserve it straight, and to permit it to have its natural flow. It is in early life particularly that frequent cutting will be found highly ad- vantageous. Whenever the hair becomes thin and irregular, or its beauty is other- wise impaired, nothing is better calculated to restore its proper growth than cutting it short. Frequently cutting the hair also prevents it from splitting at the ends and growing forked — the occurrence of which, so common in young persons, gives it an extremely inelegant and ungrace- ful appearance. In children, keeping the hair short is a circumstance of no little itn- portance, and should not from any light consideration be neglected. Their health, and in some respect their beauty also, is prejudiced by a contrarj' practice. Nothing is more common than to see a luxuriant head of hair accompanied in children by paleness of complexibn, weak eyes, and frequent complaints of headache. Upon this subject we find the following excellent remarks in a little work entitled "Advice to Young Mothers, by a Grandmother." We recommend their attentive perusal to every parent. " The hair in children should be cut short until they are eight or nine years old, as the cooler the head can be kept the less danger there is of many maladies peculiar to that part of the body, especially water on the brain. Besides, there is good reason for believing that children who have a great quantity of hair are those most liable to eruptions, as scald-head, tfcc. It is, at least, certain that in them eruptions are very difficult to remove. The trouble, also, of keeping long hair sufficiently clean, and the length of time necessary for this purpose, is often a cause of much ill-humor and many cross words between children and their attendants, which it would be better to avoid. I' Mothers whose vanity may be alarmed lest repeated cutting the hair for so many years should make it coarse, may be assured they have no cause for this apprehension, provided the hair be kept constantly THE MEANS OF PEESEETINa HEALTH. 191 brushed. I have never, seen softer, finer hair, than on girls who have had it kept short, like that of school-boys, until they weie in their tentb year." When there is any tendency to sores or eruptions on the head of children, fine combs are very apt to promote'them. There is no doubt that the heads of young persons which are never touched by such combs may be preserved much cleaner, by strict attention otherwise, than such as are scratched and scraped every day; If any dirt appears on a child's head which a brush will not remove, that particular part should be rubbed with a towel and soap and water ; but, in general; the brush will be found quite suflScient to keep it perfectly clean. The seldomer, indeed, a fine comb is applied to the head of an infant the better. When, however, those of ivory, tortoise-shell, or bone are used, the greatest care is necessary lest they wound the skin and product a sore, or by unduly irritating it augment the production of the scurf they are often intended to remove. Preservation of the Sight. — ^The following are the'general rules for preserving the sight unimpaired for the longest possible period : 1. All sudden changes from darkness to light and the contrary should be avoided as much as possible. 2. Avoid looking attentively at minute objects, either at dawn or twilight, and in dark 'places. 3. Avoid sitting near a dazzling or intense light, as of a lamp or can- dle, and facing a hot fire. 4. Avoid reading or sewing much by an imperfect light, as well as by artificial lights of any kind. 5. Avoid all dazzling and glaring sunshine, especially when it is re- jected from snow, white sand, or other light-colored bodies. 6. Avoid dust, smoke, and vapors of every kind, which excite pain or uneasiness of the eyes. 1, Avoid rubbing or fretting the eyes in any manner, and wiping them with cotton handkerchief. 8. Avoid much exposure to cold northwest or easterly winds. 9. Avoid all spirituous and heating liquors, rich and highly-seasoned food^ and every species of intemperance, all of which invariably injure tbe eyes and impair their sight. 10. Some persons living in cities who have weak eyes find permanent relief only by a change of residence to the country. Persons of this description will find an advantage in wearing some defense before their eyes, especially when exposed to heat, sunshine, or glaring lights. This will be best if of a green color. Spoutacles that do not magnify, of the same hue, are well suited for this purpose. Care of the Bowels. — ^Regularity of the bowels in reference to their natural discharges is of very great importance to health and comfort. An evacuation once in the twenty-four hours is the best standard of frequency ; this, in general, takes place whenever the digestive organs are in a state of health. Some persons, it is true, are naturally inclined to costiveness, and without feeling any inconvenience pass several days or even weeks without a stool. In general, however, a costive state of the bowels arises from errors in diet, want of exercise, intemperance, or, 192 THE FAMH.Y. in fact, from whatever reduces the tone of the system generally, and of course that of the digestive organs. Confinement to a diet composed chiefly of dry animal food or of food highly seasoned, the use of fresh bread, and of warm rolls and cakes, very generally induces a costive state of the bowels. Costiveness is very common also in persons who use little exercise or who pass the greater part of the day within doors in occupations of a sedentary character. Hence females are much more subject to it than males. Lying in bed to a late hour in the morning is unfavorable to a regular condition of the bowels. It causes costive- ness, not only by increasing perspiration, but also by creating an inactive condition of the system generally. Early risers, who pass several hours of the morning in walking abroad in the open air, if they be temperate withal, seldom complain of any want of regularity in their stools. The daily use of wine, especially the red or astringent varieties, re- tards very materially the natural discharges from the bowels. The same effect takes place in persons who pass the greater part of their time in company, and who, from a false delicacy, resist the calls of nature. They who ride much on horseback, or in a carriage, and per sons at sea, are said also to have a habitually sluggish state of the bowels. The means of obtaining a regular condition of the bowels will be readily perceived from the foregoing enumeration of the causes by which costiveness is induced. In addition to early rising, daily exercise of the body in the open air, and abstinence from wine and ardent spirits ; the diet should be composed principally of vegetable food. Plain soups, especially of veal and mutton, with the addition of the ordinary culinary vegetables, well boiled and not too highly seasoned, will be found a very excellent diet for those inclined to costiveness. Fresh fruits, perfectly ripe, or fruit cooked, with or without the addi- tion of sugar or molasses, are gently laxative, and hence very proper articles to be eaten by such individuals. Spinach, when in season, and properly boiled, is also a very pleasant and wholesome vegetable for persons of costive habits. The same is true also of well-boiled cabbage and sour-crout, when these agree perfectly with the stomach. Bran-bread, or wheaten bread, with an admi"xture o'f rye or Indian meal, is better suited to the habitually costive than bread composed entirely of fine wheat flour. For drink, those troubled with costive- ness should make use of water, either alone, or with the addition of a small quantity of sugar or molasses, or water slightly acidulated with Fome of the. vegetable acids. A very pleasant drink is made by dissolv- ing currant-jelly in water, or by pouring boiling water upon sliced ap- ples or peaches, and allowing it to stand until cold. This acts gently upon the bowels, and hence tends to obviate costiveness. Buttermilk, or sweet whey, may likewise be occasionally drunk with advantage by those whose fecal discharges are defective; all ardent spirits and wines, especially those of an astringent nature, should- be carefully avoided. The method recommended by the celebrated Locke for procuring a regular discharge from the bowels, is founded on correct principles, and should not be neglected; it ia, "to solicit nature, by going r^olarlj THE MEANS OB" PKESERTING HEALTH. 193 to stool every morning, wLetlier one has a call or not," Such a pracr tice will very often induce a habit -which in time becomes natural. To remove costiveness, individuals should be extremely cautious in resorting to purgatives, or those medicines, under whatever name they may be sold, which have the effect of inducing evacuations from the bowels. The frequent use of these articles, however mild their opera- tion may appear to be, tends to disturb the stomach and bowels ; and consequently to vitiate or retard digestion. As a consequence, the costive habit, to obviate which they are resorted to, is in fact increased, and with it the necessity for repeating the medicine more frequently, or of increasing its activity; and finally, a stool can never be procured witiiout its use. In a very short time, from their use, the habitually costive experience invariably more injury than from the original com- plaint. It is always, therefore, more safe to remove costiveness by a proper diet and regimen than hy medicine ; and unless the costiveness IS dependent upon deep-seated disease of the bowels, stomach, liver, or some other organ, by a proper attention to these measures, and perse« verance in their use, it may very generally be overcome. The Feet. — The" proper care of the feet consists in defending them from cold and wet, by stockings and shoes of a proper texture and thickness, and so adapted in shape and size as to allow perfect freedom to the motions of the feet in walking, while they do not press unneces- sarily on any part. The feet are extremely subject to the impression of cold, and when chilled, in consequence of the close sympathy be- tween them and other parts of the body, disease is apt to be occasioned in some one of the internal organs. Hence, not only should they be protected always from cold and damp, but when accidentally wet, the shoes and stockings should be immediately changed, and The feet bath- ed in warm water, or rubbed perfectly dry with a coarse cloth. Tigkt and misshapen shoes are injurious, as well by preventing the individual from walking securely and with sufficient ease, as by causing a thick- ening of the cuticle over the joints of the toes, forming what are called corns, and which, by pressing upon the parts beneath them, are the cause of very considerable pain whenever walking is attempted. It is essential that the feet, as well as every other part of the body, should be kept perfectly clean by frequent ablutions. Use of Tobacco. — Tobacco, nicotiana tabacum. — A well-known plant, which derives its generic name from Nicot, a French ambassador, and its specific name from the island of Tobago, whence it was introduced into Europe in 1560. When tobacco is fixst taken into the mouth and chewed, it excites nausea and disgust, and, if swallowed, the most vio- lent sickness, faintness, and other distressing effects. In one or other of its forms, it has, nevertheless, become one of the most generally used articles of luxury, exhibiting thus a remarkable illustration of the wonderful power of custom, in reconciling us to those things which are at first the most disagreeable. Tobacco has fascinated all ranks of men, and the natives of every climate. The attractions of tobacco seem to be owing to its narcotic properties, by which irritability is soothed^ and serenity induced, as by opium aild some other substances. In large quantities, and in those who are un- 9 194: THE FAMILT. accustomed to it, stupor, giddiness, nausea, vomiting, and even death, are produced. The effects of tobacco, though they resemble, in many respects, are considerably different from those of any other inebriating agent. In- stead of quickening it lowers the pulse, and when used to excess, pro- duces languor, depression of the system, giddiness, confusion of ideas, violent pain in the stomach, vomiting, convulsions, and death. Jts es- sential oil is so intensely powerful that two or three drops inserted into a raw wound, prove almost instantly fatal. But when used in modera- tion, tobacco has a soothing effect upon the mind, disposing to placid enjoyment, and mellowing every passion into repose. Its effects, therefore, are inebriating ; and they who habitually indulge in it may with propriety be denominated, in a certain sense, drunkards. In whatever- fotm it is used, it produces sickness, stupor, bewilderment, and staggering, in those unaccustomed to it ; and in those who habit- ually indulge in it, the digestive powers and tone of the stomach are always more or less impaired. There is no form in which it can be taken that it is not decidedly injurious and disgusting. In the form of snuff, although a moderate quantity, taken now and then, may do no harm, yet when used daily, particularly in the extent to which habitual snuffers carry it, it is positively pernicious. By the habitual use of snuff, the membrane which lines the nose becomes thickened, the olfactory nerves blunted, and the sense of smell conse- quently impaired, if not destroyed. Nor is this all, for, by the strong inspirations which are made when the powder is drawn into the nostrils, some of it is pretty sure to escape into the stomach. The latter organ is hence dirjgtly subjected to a powerful medicine, which not only acts as a narcotic, but produces heartburn, and every other symptom of in- digestion. If it were attended with no other inconvenience, the black, loathsome discharge from the nose, and swelling and rubicundity of this organ, with other circumstances equally disagreeable and disgust- ing, which it produces, ought to deter every individual from becoming a snuffer. The smoker, while engaged at his occupation, experiences a much greater degree of enjoyment than the snuffer. An air of peculiar satis- faction beams upon his countenance ; and as he puffs forth volumes of fragrance, he seems to dwell in an atmosphere of contented happiness. Smoking, nevertheless, pollutes the breath, blackens the teeth, wastes the saliva which is essential to perfect digestion, and injures the com- plexion. In addition to this, it is apt to produce dyspepsia, and other dis- orders of the stomach ; and, in corpulent subjects, it disposes to apoplexy. The observations made upon the effects of snuffing and smoking, apply, in a still stronger degree, to chewing. This is the worst way for 4he health in which tobacco can be used. The waste of saliva is greater than even in smoking,, and as a portion of -the active principle of the tobacco is invariably introduced into the stomach, serious derangements of the digestive organs are invariably produced. All confirmed ohewers are peculiarly subject to dyspepsia and hypochondriasis ; and many of them are afflicted with liver complaints, brought on ty their imprudent habit. THE MEAHS OF PEE8ERVING HEALTH. 195 TRAINING. — Among the nations of antiquity distinguished by their genius and political sagacity, it was a great object rTith their lawgivers and statesmen, to direct th'e education of youth, so as to produce in them the greatest possible aptitude for war, by increasing the develop- ment, health and vigor of 'their bodies. To this end, most of their celebrated games were directed ; and the youth who participated in these, while they aflForded to the moral philosopher examples of patri- otic and generous emulation, furnished also to the painter and the statuary the finest models of the human form, and to the natural histo- rian some curious results of the efiFect of external agents in promoting the growth and activity of thei animal economy. It may be stated, in general terms, that the efforts of the athletce were directed so to regu- late their diet, exercise and sleep, as to produce the greatest possible strength of action and power of endurance ; and we have the testimony of an inspired vmter, that they who were ambitious of a crown of vic- tory in the Grecian games, " were temperate in all things." In our own time, this art of bringing up the human constitution to its highest pitch of muscular vigor, and capabilily of endoring fatigue, pain and hard- ship, has been brought almost to a science ; and though the ends to which it is commonly directed are far from sublime or virtuous, being principally those of prize-fighting, or walking for a wager, the whole process, and its results, present some curious facts in physiology, and illustrate in a very striking manner the importance of a well-regulate diet and regimen as a means of preserving health and increasing the vigor of the constitution under all circumstances ; and the important service a well-directed system of training would render to the dyspeptic, and others laboring under chronic affections, or under a general reduc- tion of the powers of life, produced by irregular or sedentary lives. In a course of training, the great point is to regulate carefully the diet, and to give such food, as is at once nutritive and easily digested. As we have repeatedly stated in different parts of this work, animal food is the most nourishing, but requires a due proportion of vegetable aliment, to prevent bad effects from it on the constitution. Beef, mut- ton and venison are the most easily digested kinds of meat, and hence are almost the only kinds of animal food allowed to those who are un- der a course of training ; the young of animals, as veal and lamb, and fat or oily food, as pork, are deficient either in their powers of nutrition or digestibility, and consequently are entirely forbidden. The vegeta- bles aliowed are potatoes, brocoli or turnips, and stale bread or crackers Pastry, pies and puddings are to be avoided, and all the varieties of spices and sauces. Vinegar and salt are the only condiments allowed The quantity of food cannot be specified; it must vary with the consti tution of each individval. The drink allowed in training is pure sofb water. If wine is taken, it should be only in very moderate quantity, largely diluted with water, and white is preferred to red. Spirits in any shape, either plain oi diluted, are never allowed, under any circumstances whatever. The most essential particular in the art of training, is to regulate the exercise, and to take plenty of it. Both within and vrithout doors, active exercise of various kinds must be taken. Walking, riding, feno 196 THE FAJULT. ing, quoits, tennis-ball, the dumb-bells, may all be practiced. An long as the perspiration is moderate and not debilitating, exercise may be persevered in from four to six hours a day, with the most decided increase of general health and muscular vigor. A free exposure to pure air is an essential requisite. The novitiate- in training is recommended to go to bed early, and to sleep from seven to eight hours. The above precepts contain the principal means for raising the body to its highest degree of health and perfection; and the diligent practice of them must, as experience testifies, have the best effects on the expansion and motions of the chest, on the development of the mus- cles, on the function of digestion, and on all the secretions of the body. Bleeding. — The artificial abstraction of blood is often resorted to by persons in health, either to prevent the formation of too much blood in the system, or more generally with the pretense of preventing disease. But such a practice is in the highest degree improper ; it can answer neither end ; on the contrary, it is attended, if it be statedly or repeat- edly resorted to, with the most injurious effects. Persons so constituted as to make much blood, should carefully avoid all those causes which tend to augment it, especially an indulgence in animal food, wine and malt liquors : and when they are sensible of a considerable increase in the quantity, they should confine themselves to a light, frugal diet, consisting principally of vegetables, or for a time solely of bread and water — should sleep but very moderately, and take much active exercise. Nothing can be more opposed to reason and ex- perience, than for such individuals to have recourse occasionally to the abstraction of blood by the use of the lancet, or cupping-glasses, in order to prevent too considerable a formation of this fluid ; for habitual blood-letting invariably begets, under such circumstances, an habitual OverfuUness of the vessels, which calls incessantly for a repetition of the same supposed remedy. Some persons are in the habit of being bled every spring or fall, or at both these seasons ; but, however robust the constitution, this is not a practice to be recommended, since, like all other periodical or repeated bleedings, it proves only a palliative remedy, which sooner or later greatly enervates the body, deranges its functions, induces a premature old age, and calls for a more frequent resort to the operation. Habit,— This t6*m, when applied to corporeal subjects, signifies the effect of frequent repetition in facilitating the performance of certain motions or trains of actions. A conspicuous illustration of the ^ ower of habit, is seen in the practice of musicians on various instruments. To play on any of those, required at first the closest attention of the mind, to exert the power of volition in directing the various muscular motions required; but by habit, those motions return in their proper order, without the slightest apparent effort ; and even while the perfor- mer can think and talk on other subjects. When a child begins to learn the art of reading, the form of every letter, and the power of every syllable, demand his attention ; but in maturor years, the eye glances over the page with the rapidity and certainty of instinct, and seizes the words before it, without the consciousness of an effort. The effects of custom or habit on the mind and body, are interesting in » IflE MEAUS flF PEESERTING HEALTH. 197 motaptysical, ettical and physiological point of view. We arc all tlie creatures of habit, and our circles of action, as Dr. Darwin calls them, return with astonishing and noiseless regularity. When the time of meals or of sleep arrives, though the stomach be not empty, nor the limbs fatigued, though the mind be occupied with other things, the usual sensation of hunger or drowsiness comes on, and we feel the want of something to which we have been accustomed. The repetition of certain motions, renders the muscles that perform them quick and strong, or prompt and steady in their action ; hence the dexterity and skill of the watch-maker or philosophical instrument maker ; hence the ease of the mechanical part of their art to the painter or sculptor ; and the steadiness of the limbs and acuteness of vision of the mason and sailor, in the execution of their perilous occupations. Good habits, early begun, contribute much to the preservation of the health. Early rising, temperate meals, and regularity in the alvine discharges, when early practiced and diligently persevered in, will give a degree of comfort and vigor unknown to the irregular and careless liver. Infants can very soon be taught the habit of feeding and of per- forming the usual evacuations at regular times. The action of medi- cines oft the living body is much influenced by habit. A person who is accustomed to take emetics or purgatives requires, after a time, to have their quantity increased, and the opium-taker and dram-drinker require their poison to be either augmented in quantity or activity to produce the usual effects. By habit the most nauseous substances lose their disagreeable effects, and even infectious principles lose, to a certain extent, their power. Thus, the use of tobacco becomes a luxury, and prisoners have been known to occasion fevers in others by bringing an infectious miasm from their cells, where they themselves had been in the habit of inhaling it with impunity. Idiosyncrasy is a peculiarity of constitution, rendering a person liable to be affected by certain agents differently from the generality of man- kind. Thus, some persons are incapable of using butter or cheese; some are purged by honey ; others caunot wear flannel without intoler- able irritation of the skin ; some have a violent fever and eruption, pro- duced by the use of certain kinds of fish, or^ certain fruits, or malt liquors. Some people have idiosyncrasies with respect to medicines. Thus, opium and calomel have such very distressing or violent effects on some patients that they cannot be used by them as by others. Idiosyncrasies are to be discovered only by experience in each individual . case, and where they are matters of indifference, it is needless to waste time in combating them ; but where they may lead to disease, or inter- fere with methods of cure, a prudent physician will endeavor, if possible, to correct them. 198 THE FAMILir. FIJRWITIIRE AND RFRAIi STRUCTURES OF IRON. There are several large manufactories of these articles in various parts of the country, and among the largest of them is that of Hutchinson & "Wictersham, 312 Broadway, New York, who furnish all the articles nere named, and, for the convenience of our readers, we have procured and appended the prices at this establishment, as the knowledge of the cost is an important desideratum to those who wish to procure them.* GBAPE OHAIB. MOBNING-GLOKT OHAIB. * Household FumnTUEB. — Among the various kinds of iron chairs, we may enumerate the "grape chair," $5 to $6, the "moming-glory chair," and the two hall chairs, each $4.50, the precedmg being of east-iron; and the following we chairs, namely; the folding or traveling chair, $4.50 — one figure representing it as closed for caiTying, and the other as open and standing for use. The wire arm-chait Is sold at $8. Among the settees, the grape pattern, $9 to $15, is an especial favorite; the rustic settee, $10, is of lighter form, and the Gothic settee, $11 to $20, is heat adapted to places where Glpthic architecture prevails. A neat umbrella-stand is shown, $1.50 to $6, and iron wash-stand, including crockery, $T, with looking-glass. A new and improved hat-tree is exhibited, $lfi Many other forms of hat and umbrella stands are manufactured. Iron bedsteads possess two most important advantages over those of wood — first, in their almost endless durability, and secondly in their entire freedom from bugs. They should, however, be substantially made, as the desire for a clieop article often induces a weak and flimsy structure, which does not stand firmly, and is liable to become bent by use. The one we present, when made of stout bars, is the simplest and one of the very best in use, although not so ornamental as some others, $4 to $6. Others of more elaborate patterns are made, $1 to $9. A crib is shown, the sides of which are left out, $10. Rural Ornaments and Structuebs. — Oast-iron vases are very durable orna- ments on the more finished parts of grounds, and require only occasionally a small application of paint. We present a neat vase of this character, with its pedestal The prices of these vases vary with their size, from $5 to $20, and the pedestals are about $5 eaah.—Annuai Register. FUENTTUEE AlTD KTTEAL STEUOTTJEES OF lEON. 199 'Wif HALL OHAISS. 200 THE FAMTLT. 0KAF9 BETTSB. FnKNITTJEE AJSTD EUKAl STKITCTUEES OF lEOlT. 20l ntOM WABH-STAin>. 9* 14 202 THE PAMILT. i(>mMe/ii!mwKmmm%.-i OUBBKLLA-BTAIIS. COJMMOW THINGS. • WHERE OBTAINED, HOW PREPAEED, USES, ETC. We caBBot better coHclude this part of our work than by giving the following cha{)ter on Common Things — those common articles and substances which, though in common use in our families, and whose names are household words, are still but imperfectly understood ; and if questioned as to how prepared or whence procured, few comparatively could give intelligeHt answers. Hence the importance of the informa- tion which follows, and which will answer the many questions that arise in respect to the articles illustrated and explained. TEA. — The leaves of a shrub grown chiefly in China and Japan ; of which countries it is a native. It is an evergreen ; grows to the height of from four to six feet,, and bears pretty white flowers, resembling wild roses. Those most cultivated are the thea bohea and thea viridis; it was formerly believed that these two plants produced the black and green COMMON THIKG8. 203 teas, and from this belief they derived their names ; but it is now proved that the difiference arises in the mode of preparation, and either kind of tea can be made from either plant without any difficulty. In China there are great numbers of tea farms, generally of small ex- tent, situated on the upper valleys, and on the slopmg sides of the hills, where the soil is light, and rich, and well drained. The plants are raised from seed, and generally allowed to remain three years before a crop of leaves is taken from them, as this operation of course injures their growth ; even with care they become stunted, and unprofitable in about eight or ten years. When the crop is ready, the leaves are care • fully picked by hand, one by one, and there are usually three or four gatherings in each year, the first crop in the spring being of the most value; a well grown bush, well treated, will produce two or three pounds of tea aDsttally. For green tea the leaves are only allowed to dry for an hour or two, after gathering, before they are thrown into heated roasting-pans, placed over a wood fire ; they are stirred quickly with the hands, and allowed to remain for a few minutes ; they are next rolled by hand on a table covered with mats, and afterward roasted and rolled again ; the color is_by this time set, and the after processes of sorting and refiring, which, for the finer sorts are repeated several times, may be deferred till a leisure time. In the preparation of black tea the leaves are allowed to remain a long time, say a whole day, drying before they are fired; they are tossed about and patted whilst cooling, and are finally dried, over a much slower fire. The Chinese drink it pure ; generally a handful of tea is put into a china basin or cup, and boiling water poured over it, which is renewed three or four times, till all the strength is gone ; sometimes they add salt and ginger, and sometimes sugar, but not often. Tea-shops are very common by the road sides, and the road in front of them is usually thatched over, that those who stop for a cup of tea may be shaded from the sun. Tea is sent from the farms to the coast for exportation, mostly by coolies, who carry the chests over the mountains till they reach some navigable river or canal, by which it can be conveyed to the coast. It is said to be a curious sight to watch, from the top of a wild mountain pass, long trains of coolies laden with chests of tea, which they carry on their shoulders or balanced at each end of a bamboo, winding along in one direction ; and others returning laden with cotton goods and other merchandise received in exchange. Tea has recently been introduced into some parts of North America, atw. also into the high valleys of the Himalaya range, where it appears likely to thrive. Tea was first brought to Europe in 1610, by the Dutch East India Company ; and it must have been in use in England by the year 1660, as appears from an Act of Parliament passed in that year, in which a tax of Is. 6d. was laid on every gallon of tea sold at the cofiee-houses. There is also the following entry in Pepy's Diary, dated September 25th, 1561 : " I did send for a cup of tea (a China drink), of which I had never drunk before." In six years more it had foun(} its way into a04 THE FAMILT. his own house as this entry shows : " Home — found my wife making o) tea, a drink which Mr. Felling the potticary tells her is good for her cold," etc. About this time the East India Company ordered "one hundred pounds weight of goode tey" to be sent home on speculation. The price was about fifty or sixty shillings the pound ; and two pounds three ounces of the best tea was not deemed an unfitting present from the East India Company to the king. Coffee. — CoflFee is the seed of an evergreen shrub, the coffea Arabica, which is said to have been discovered in Abyssinia by the Arabs. It is chiefly cultivated in Arabia, the southern states of North America, Costa Rica,. Brazil and other tropical parts of South America, the East and West Indies, Java, and Ceylon ; but the climate of Arabia, where it was first cultivated, appears most suited to its growth ; frequent rains and the brilliant, unshaded light of its almost cloudless sky, stimulate vegetation, and cause the secretion of those principles on which depends the delicate aroma. Elevated situations are most suitable for the growth of coffee, and the plantations have much the appearance of English pleasure-grounds ; the trees are raised from slips, which are allowed four or five years to grow before they are cropped ; they attain the height of eight or ten feet, and continue in bearing about from thirty to fifty years. Tlie shrub or tree resembles a handsome laurel, and bears a profusion of clusters of fragrant white flowers, -which are succeeded by brilliant red Derries, sweet and pulpy, which ripen to a purple color — each contains two coffee seeds or stones. The only care required is the pruning of the trees and picking of the berries \ after they are gathered they are pulped in a mill formed for the purpose, by which the beans, as they are called, are deprived of the surrounding pulp and outer skin. In a second mill they are peeled of their inner skin and winnowed ; they are then dried in the sun on large open clay floors, picked over by hand, and finally packed in bags or barrels to be exported. The beans are roasted, in a close revolving cylinder, over a clear but moderate fire ; they should afterward be cooled quickly by exposure to the air, and then ground in a covered mill ; the sooner the infusion is made after roasting and grinding the finer will be the flavor of the coffee. Coffee was first used in England in the early part of the seventeenth century, probably a little before tea was introduced, as that beverage is first spoken of as being sold at the coffee-houses ; it is said that the first coffee-house keeper in London was a Greek servant, named Pasqua, brought to England by a Turkey merchant to make his coffee. It ap- pears to have been first used as a drink at Aden, thence introduced into Egypt, and thence into Turkey, where it is still very much in use. Dr. Livingstone, the African traveler, mentions that the coffee-tree was taken by the Jesuit missionaries to the western coast of Africa, where it has since become naturalized, and covers vast spaces of waste land. Cocoa is the bruised seed of various species of theobroma, a tree which grows wild in the West India Islands, Brazil, and various parts COMMON TBINGS. 206 of Central America, where it is generally found growing at the height of six hundred feet above the level of the sea. The cocoa, or, as it should be written, cacao, tree is an evergreen, and it is said to bear some resemblance to a young cherry-tree ; the leaves are large and simple, the flowers grow in clusters, the pods are not unlike cucumbers in form, and of a yellowish red color ; they con- tain from twenty to thirty nuts, about the size of large almonds, violet or ash-grey colored, and containing each two lobes of a brownish.hue. A wet soil is needful, and the plants also requiring shade, they are generally placed between rows of large trees, which renders the planta- tions very tharming spots in tropical regions; the plants are raised from seed, and are seven or eight years in coming to perfection, but require so little attention that one man can superintend one thousand plants; the usual times of gathering the crop are in June and Decem- ber, and not more than one pound and a half of seeds is the average pro- duce of each plant. The fruit of the wild plants is frequently gathered. The seeds, after being freed from the pod, are dried either in the sun or by artificial heat ; they are then either simply bruised, which makes cocoa-nibs, or crushed between rollers, which makes flake cocoa; oi they are ground and made into a paste, in which state they are very often adulterated. GIlOColElte. — The cacao-beans are gently roasted, shelled, and reduced to a paste, when vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, rice, almonds, or starch, etc^ are frequently added to it ; it is put into moulds, and always improves by keeping. It is called chocolate from ehocolalt, the Mexican name for the cacao- tree. The produce of several of the finest kinds is not exportetl ; the best that reaches us is from Caraccas, Guatemala, and Berbice. The chiccory which is used to mix with coffee is the dried root of the cichoriwn intyhus, a smallish plant which bears a beautiful blue flower of the composite form. The root is in form like a carrot, and from the crown spread a number of large succulent leaves. The seed should be sown in April, in rich, light soil ; the crop is ready in September ; the roots being taken up, washed, and cut into pieces two or three inches long, are dried in a slow oven or kiln ; they are afterward cut into much smaller pieces, and roasted ^nd ground just like coffee. It is much esteemed in France and Germany, « , FOREIGN FRUITS. — The Orange-Tree, citrus aurantmm, grows abund antly in almost all the warm soft climates of Southern Europe, North- ern Africa, and many temperate parts of Asia and America. Those consumed in England are chiefly imported from Spain, Portugal, and the islands of the Atlantic, and of these St. Michael, one of the Azores, is famed for producing the best kind imported. The orange-trees are usually branched almost, if not quite, from the ground ; their leaves are evergreen, and their flowers white and very elegant ; they yield a delicious perfume, sweet and almost luscious, yet one that does not cloy. On many trees, the flowers and ripe fruit hang together ; and, when thus loaded — the fruit, some of light green color, others of a pale yellow, others of a deep orange, and all set off by the deep glossy green foliage — the trees are superb. 206 THE FAMILY. The ftuit is gathered in December, or even earlier, a little while be- fore it is ripe ; and large baskets being filled by boys who take them from the gatherers, they are carried away at once to the packers, who most commonly sit in groups on the grass ; the oranges are poured out in a heap with as little concern as if they were coals; each orange IS wrapped in a husk of Indian corn, these are prepared by children, who hand them to a man, who wraps up the orange and passes it to another, who places it in the chest ; this is all done with amazing rapidity. The box is full to overflowing, thin boards are bent over it by a carpenter, and secured with willow bands, and then it is ready to be carried to the port and shipped. ' , The lemon-Tree, citrus medica, is a native of Assyria and Persia, whence it was brought first to Greece, and afterward to Italy, Portugal, and France ; it is also frequent in our gfeen-houses. It is a small and beautiful evergreen, with numerous branches and bright shining leaves ; the flowers, which are white, and very sweet, are larger than those of the orange, and bloom the greater part of summer ; they are succeeded by the pale golden fruit. Lemons are brought from Spain and Portugal, and also from the West Indies ; but the latter chiefly supply limes, which are the produce of the citrus aeris. They are smaller than the lemon, of an oval shape, thinner in the rind, and, though as acid, rather milder in flavor. Citrons are the fruit of another tree nearly allied to these ; they are less acid, but the rind has a hot and bitter taste, and when candied, it is much used for flavoring cakes and puddings. Citrons are imported, both preserved and candied, chiefly from Madeira. Another species of sitrus "fields the scent known as bergamot, which is an essential oil distilled from the rind of its pear-shaped fruit. Figs.— The fruit of the fieus-carica, which is a native of Asia, but was early imported into Europe ; it flourishes in France, Spain, and Italy. The figs, when ripe, are dried in ovens, and packed in boxes and small baskets for exportation. The fig-tree seldom grows more than twelve feet high, but is very spreading, and bears large lobed leaves, which are- annual in Europe, and perennial between the tropics. Olives are the fruit of the olea Ewiropea, which grows abundantly in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. The olive-tree grows upon the most Tookf calcareous soils, seldom exceeds twenty feet in height, but is much branched and spreading ; it lives to a great age, and increases very much in bulk, so that one tree may easily at a little distance be mistaken for a group. There is an olive-tree at Pescio seven hundred years old, and twenty-five feet in circumference. The leaves are evergreen, stifiSsh, and pointed; the flowers white, growing in clusters, succeeded by an oval drupe or plum, which is violet- colored when ripe, bitter and nauseous. The preserved olives, common as a table luxury^ are the unripe fruit pickled in a strong solution of salt. Salad-oil is made from olives. The ripe fruit is gathered in Novem- ber, and bruised in a mill, the stones of which are set so wide apart as not to crush the nut or kernel ; the pulp is then gently pressed in bags made of rushes ; the first oil that flows is of the most value, a second COMMON THINGS. 207 Jnality is obtaiaed bj breaking the refuse, mixing it with warm -water,, mi returning it to the press ; and after this a third very inferior kind IS obtained. The Pomegranate-Tree, punka granatum, is amative of the south of Europe, Aaa, and Barbaory ; but in the West Indies,, where it has. been introduced from Europe,^ its fruit is larger and better flavored than in its native climates. Where the tree thrives, it rises twenty feet high, throwing out branches even from the bottom ; the leaves are^ointed,, and of light Iffilliant green, both the calyx and corolla are of a bright red color, the latter is the most brilliant. The pomegranate is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, of the size of an orange, gjobular, covered with, a thick coriaceous rind,, and crowned with the«alyx, which is sharply thoroed. The red succulent pulp is pleasantly -acid, and was made into wine by the ancients. Coeoa'-NDte are the fruit of th« cocos Ti/ucifira,, or cocoa-nut palm, a lofty and elegant palm-tree^ which grows abundantly in most tropical countries j it is frona fifty to sixty feet in height, its simple column-like stem being crowned with a beautiful plume of feathery leaves from twelve to fourteen feet long. The nuts grow ia several long clusters depending from the baae of the leaves ; they are about the size of a man's head, the thin outer 'rind covering a large mass of fibers which are used in many countries for making mats, cord^e, and coarse sail- cloth. Within this fibrous coating is the shell of the nut ; which is oval, and very hard, and often serves fox a drinking-cwp. The kernel is firm, white, and pleasant ", the interior hollow, and fiilled with sweet milky juice ; when UBripe, it is eatirely filled with this juice. The Sate is the fruit of a tall and graceful palm, phoenix dactylifera, abundant in Barbary, Arabia, Persia, and the adjacent countries, par- ticularly on the confines of ik^ deserts and in the oases. The fruit somewhat resembles a plum, but ia rather longer in proportion ; it con- tains a long oblong kernel, grooved on one side. The pulp is soft,, sweet and slightly a stringent. In many places they form the staple food, and the crop of dates ia aa anxiously expected as our wheat harvest, or the vintage of southern Europe. The fruit when gathered quite ripe is often pressed into l^rge baskets,- and thus forms a hard, solid cake called "adjoue," which ia afterward cut up and sold by the pound. Date-stones are soaked in water and given to the cattle. Almonds are imported from Spain and Italy, but they grow spontane- aisly in many other warm countries. The almond-tree^ amyffdalus iommitnis, greatly resembles the peach, in growth, leaves, and blossoms ; it flowers in' the early spring, and produces fruit in August. The fruit is covered with a tough skin and is inclosed in a rough shell. There are two kinds of almonds, the sweet and the bitter ; only differing from each other in the flavor of the nut, Valentia almonds are sweet and lai^e ; Italian not either so large or sweet ; Jordan almonds come from Malaga, they are long and not very pointed, and are the best kind imported; the bitter almonds come chiefly from Mogadore on the nurthem coast of Africa. Brazil-NntS are the produce of ike '^wnOfjberthoUera enxeUa,, a lOTtyand 208 THE FAMILY. magnificent tree, abounding on the banks of the Orinoco and the northern parts of Brazil. The nuts, which are triangular, and covered with a hard, rough shell, are contained to the number sometimes of fifty in a Woody outer shell, which is often as large as a child's head ; it is divided into six compartments. They are highly prized by the natives, and largely exported to Europe. Raisins are dried grapes ; prepared either by cutting the stalk of the bunches half through when they are nearly ripe, and leaving them on the vine till the sun dries and candies them ; or else they are gathered when fully ripe, dipped in a ley made of vinewood ashes, and dried in the sun. Inferior kinds are dried in ovens. Raisins are chiefly imported from Spain, Turkey and Italy. Of these, the ones from Smyrna are the least esteemed, and those from Malaga the most. The finest of the Malaga raisins are those made from the Muscatel grape. Fresh grapes are also imported from Spain and Portugal, packed in jars with saw-dust. Prunes and French Plnms are dried plums imported from France; in the southern parts of which country all kinds of plums grow abundantly. Tke common sorts are paoked in baskets ; but the finer sorts, intended for table fruit, are carefully gathered and dried, and packed in small elegant boxes, which are ornamented in various ways with the charac- teristic good taste of the French. The preparation of these boxes gives employment to a gijeat number of persons. The Pine-Apple, bromelia ananas, is a" tropical fruit of fine flavor and very luscious. The plant consists of a few leaves round a stalk, then the soft, pulpy, juicy pine, covered over with conical excrescences, and sur- mounted by a crest of stiff prickly leaves. It is often cultivated in our English hot-houses, as well as imported from the West Indies and other tropical countries. Tamarinds are the preserved fruit of the tamarindus Indica, which is a native both of the East and West Indies, and probably of most parts of Arabia and Africa. It is a large forest tree, and aJBfords ex- cellent timber — hard, heavy, and durable ; the leaves are pinnate, like those of the mountain ash, and of brilliant green. The pods grow in bunches of five or six, they contain from three to six glossy seeds, and are filled with a stringy pulp. In the West Indies the ripe pods are gathered and packed into a cask, which is then filled up with hot syrup; in the East Indies they are preserved without sugar. The pod of the variety which is found in the East are about double the size of those which grow in the new world. THE SPICES. — Cinnamon is the bark of a small tree, the cinnamonum Zeylanicum, which, as its name imports, is a native of Ceylon, and chiefly cultivated there, though it is raised also in Java. The' tree is very graceful, the leaves, which are red in spring, become thick, leathery and glossy green as the summer advances; they are netted with raised veins on the under side, and are placed opposite each other on the stem. The flowers are greenish white, and grow in small loose clusters at the termination of the branches. The trees require a rich, light soil, and also shade; they are, there- fore, planted in open glades of the forest, where a few large timber tree? remain to shelter them ; this greatly contributes to the beauty of th«- COMMON THINGS. 209 cinnamon harvest, -when the natives assemble to 'strip the bart : their graceful figures and bright-colored clothing forming picturesque groups ji the forest glades, and the whole air being loaded with the scent of the spice. Cinnamon peeling begins in May, at the end of the, rains, and lasts till November. The peeling simply consists in slitting the bar!k, and cutting it across, so as to turn it back ; it is then soaked, to remove the outer rind, and rolled up into quills about three feet long, and is then fit for exportation. Cinnamon has a warm, pleasant aro- matic taste, and is slightly astringent. Cloves are the flower-buds of a tree, gathered before they open, and dried in the sun ; the round ball is the corolla surrounding the stamens, &c., and the shaft is the calyx tube. The odor of cloves is strong but agreeable — ^the taste very aromatic and warm ; the name is said to be derived from the French " clou," a carpenter's nail, which they are thought to resemble. The tree which produces Cloves is the caryophillus aromaticus, a smaU evergreen, with long shining leaves, and short terminal bunches of sweet-scented flowers. It is a native of the Moluccas, whence it has been taken to almost every tropical country. A tree twelve years old, will yield firoin five to twenty pounds of cloves annually ; when older, perhaps sixty pounds, and as a single stem may live one hundred and fifty years, the produce is almost incredible. NntmegS and Mace are the produce of a tree, the myristica moschata, which is a native of the Moluccas, and is cultivated both in those islands and in Java, Sumatra, and the West Indies. The fruit of this tree resembles a peach in size and shape ; when ripe, it readily splits into two parts, showing the kernel or nutmeg surrounded by the mace in the form of a sheath. There are generally three gatherings in a summer, the first in July or August, the last, which yields the best crop, in April. The mace is red when gathered, Tsut in drying becomes yellow ; on removing the mace » shell is found, inside which is the nutmeg. The nutmegs when gathered are sorted, and dipped into lime-water to preserve them from insects. Pepper is the fi-uit of a climbing or creeping plant called piper ni- grum, which has alternate leaves, jointed stems, and spikes of naked flowers ; the berry is small, round and fleshy. This plant grows abun- dantly in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula. The pepper vines, as they are called, are trained to trees and shrubs, and are al- lowed to grow four years without gathering the crop ; this takes placa while the berries are still green, before they are ripe, and they are dried quickly on mats in the sun, which turns them black, therefore it is called black pepper. White pepper is produced by soaking the dried, berries till the outer skin peels off readily; Loftig Pepper is the fruit of the piper lonffum, also a native of the East Indies ; in long pepper the spike and half ripe berries are all dried together, which makes it resemble the catkins of the birch; the flavor is like black pepper. . Cayenne Pepper is the dried and ground fi?nit of the capsicum, a genus of plants related to the woody nightshade. These fruits are 210 THE FAMTT.Y. fleshy, and bright scarlet or orange, very pungent, and mnch osed in flavoring, both in their unprepared state and ground. There are two principal species, capskum annuum, a ^jlant which grows wild in South America and the West Indies ; and the far hotter capsicum fruiticosum of the East Indies, a shrub which bears much smaller fruit. Capsicums are very useful to the inhabitants of hot cli- mates, tousing the digestive organs when impaired by the great heat; even birds and animals have recourse to them, and have been known to die, when deprived of them, for want of the stimnlus to which they have been accustomed. Chili Vinegar is vinegar in which Capsicams have been steeped till it is thoroughly impregnated with their flavor. Ginger is the root stock of the zinpiber officinalis, the narrow-leaved or common ginger ; a plant with grass-like leaves, and spikes of irregu- larly formed flowers ; it is a native of the East Indies, but grows in most tropical countries. When cuttings are planted out in spring, in three or four months they have acquired a mild airomatio flavor, and are fit to make preserved ginger, but for the ginger of commerce they must be at least one year old. It is prepared either by scalding, peeling, and drying in an oven, in which case it is called black ginger, or by simply peeling and drjring in the sun, which is called white ginger. CardamomK are the aromatic capsules of various species of amomum, a plant related to the zingiber, sdl the species of which are splendid plants, remarkable for the beauty and richness of their flowers. Cardar moms come chiefly from Mala,bar, Madagascar and Sumatra ; they are warm aromatics, and are much used in the East to flavor rice and other insipid food ; in England they are also used in medicine. Pimento or Jamaica Pepper, otherwise called allspice, is a warm s|)ice grown in the West Indies. Like black pepper, it is a small berry, gathered unripe and dried in the sun ; but it grows 8n a largish tree, the eugenia pimenta. As an aromatic stimulant, pimento stands between pepper and cloves, for the last of which it may often be substituted, being so very much cheaper. Capers are the flower-buds of the capparis spinosa, a native of the south of Europe, where it grows all over the rocks and ruins, decorat- ing them with its showy blossoms, which are large and white, with a long tassel of lilac stamens springing from the center of each. The flower-buds have a sharp acrid taste ; their quality depends on their age, the youngest being of the most value; each bush yields about a pound of capers annually. CHINA, PORCELAIN, ete.— China, like all other kinds of earthenware, was originally a lump of clay ; it was moulded into various forms, and then baked and glazed afterward. Porcelain. — All kinds of pottery, from the finest to the coarsest, are composed of two ingredients, clay and flint baked together; .but in porcelain these are of such kinds, and in such proportions, that the pro^ duct is a semi-vitrified compound, in which one portion remains un- altered by the mtensest heat, while the other vitrifies or becomes glass,, and enveloping the particles of the infusible ingredient, produces the COMMON THtNGS. 211 smooth, compact, shming, semi-transpareat substance we call porce- lain. The first part is the preparation of the clay. That from which Eng- lish porcelain is composed is mostly found in Cornwall, Devonshire and Dorsetshire. The clay from the first named, which is considered the finest, consists of decomposed felspar of granite, which is the rock most abounding in that county. The elay merchante prepare it by the fol- lowing method, and send it to the potters under the name of china clay. The stone is broken up and laid in running water, the clayey, or, as they are called, argillaceous parts being the lightest, are carried off in suspension, while the quartz and mica, which were united with them in the granite, fall soon to the bottom. At some distance these rivu- lets end in catch-pools, where the water is arrested, and after time has been allowed for the pure clay with which it was charged to settle and form a deposit, it is drawn off, and the clay dug out in square blocks, which are placed on shelves to dry in the air. It is now a hard, white mass, which can, by crushing, be reduced to an impalpable powder. The lumps of clay are first pounded and mixed with water to the consistence of cream, by means of various beating and cutting imple- ments ; the pulp is then strained through several sieves, each one finer than the last. The next process is preparing the flints, which are first burnt in a kiln and thrown red-hot into cold water, and afterward ground in water to an impalpable powder ; the two dilutions of clay and flint are then brought together, stirred very thoroughly and again strained ; and so great is the affinity between them, that, even when wet, they unite and form a mortar which no action of the atmosphere can decompose. This fluid mixture is called " slip," and is gradually evaporated in what are called " slip-kilns " to a consistence like dough. It leaves the slip-kiln fuU of air bubbles, which must be worked out by elaborate treading and kneading, generally with the naked feet, and after this is done it should be left a long while before it is used, that the two elements may the more intimately unite. If placed in a damp cellar the blocks of slip undergo a kind of fermentation, by which all traces of animal or vegetable matter which they may have contained are decomposed and got rid of; and this greatly improves its quality. So sensible are the Chinese of this, that they extend the interval over fifteen or twenty years, and a parent will often provide a sufficient stock for his son'a life. In shaping vessels there are three niodes in use, throwing^ pressing, and casting; throvring is performed on a kind of lathe, which consists in a contrivance by which a small circular board revolves very rapidly, and on this the clay is measured and its intended shape given to it, by the pressure of the fingers and palms of the potter's hands. This in-, strument is the potter's wheel, which is of the highest antiquity, being apparently as old as the art itself, nor does its form and mode of use seem to have undergone much change during these long ages. In the catacombs of Thebes in Egypt, which have been proved to have existed nineteen hundred years before Christ, there have been discovered paint- ings representing various processes of the potter's art, and among these is a deUneation of a potter's wheel indentical in principle with those 212 THE FAMILT. now in use. The clay vessel thus moulded is then partially dried before transferring it to the turning lathe, where it is reduced by sharp tools to the required thickness, and its form carefully finished diff ; it next passes to a man who applies handles, spouts, and all other small appen- dages, these are fastened on with slip ; all these small irregular-shaped pieces are made by pressing in moulds formed of plaster of Paris ; and plates, saucers, and other shallow vessels are formed in a mould which is made to revolve on the block of the lathe, and into which the work man presses the clay with his hand. They are put into a furnace inclosed in deep clay boxes called ieggaro, capable of sustaining the most intense heat ; these protect the ware from the flame and smoke ; the process of baking lasts from forty-eight to fifty hours, the heat gradually increasing ; trial pieces are placed where they can easily be abstracted, to see how the process goes on, and when it is finished the fires are put out, and all is left undisturbed twenty or thirty hours to cool. Bisque or biscuit is the name given to the ware after its first baking. It is BO called from its resemblance to ship-bread ; many small vases, figures, and other articles of ornament are sold in this stage. The ware is afterward glazed by being dipped in a compound of litharge of lead and ground flints, glass, or some similar ingredients mixed with water to the consistency of thin cream. The workman employed stands by a large tub or other reservoir, and, taking up the pieces of ware so that the smallest possible portion shall be covered by the fingers, he dexterously plunges it in, taking care that the glaze is equal- ly distributed all over the article — it then passes to a woman who scrapes off any superfluous glaze adhering to it. A skillful workman will dip about seven hundred dozen plates in a day. It is worthy of remark that the glaze when applied is perfectly opaque, so that any painting or printing with which the article may have been ornamented IB not visible until it has been fired. This second baking is done in a gloss oven, the heat converts the flint, etc., into a thin coating of glass. The next operation is painting, which requires to be done with pecu- liar metallic colors, united to a flux ; these colors are moistened with gum-water or a peculiar oil, which causes them to adhere to the sur- face of the china until it is subjected to a slight firing sufficient to fuse the glass or flint with which the colors are united ; the paintings are thus burnt in, and acquire a gloss equal to the rest of the surface. Professed artists are employed for ornamenting china in this manner, and the most exquisite designs are frequently produced. For the com- mon ware a much simpler process suffices, and this is done hefore the glazing instead of after it, as is the case with the painting. The pat- tern is printed from a copper-plate, on a thin paper, and this is trans- ferred to the ware in the state of biscuit, when the color remains and the paper is removed ; the glazing then proceeds as already mentioned. ■ Gold is applied to the finer wares in a metallic state, and after burning .on, requires burnishing with agate or bloodstone, China derives its name from the country whence specimens of the manufacture were first brought to Europe, and porcelain from porcellana. COMMON THnfGS. 213 the Portuguese for a little cup ; the first traders in the article having been of that nation. In China the earths which they use, hao-lin, a soft substance full of glittering particles, and pe-tun-Ue, which is brilliantly white, fine, and soft, bear the same relation to each other that our clay and flint do ; indeed the china clay of Cornwall, the most valuable to the potter, is proved to be identical with the kao-lin of the Chinese. They form their vessels as we do, but fire them only once, subjecting them, however, to far more intense heat, as many of their glazes would not vitrify at a lower heat than would suflBce to fuse Cornish granite. The»manufacture is chiefly carried on in the town of King-te-ching, where immense multitudes are employed in it. Father Entrecolles, a French missionary, who resided in China in the early part of the last centurv. has given many interesting particulars of this manufacture, which appears to have been quite as large and active then as now ; three thousand ovens were then to be seen at work at once, giving to the town the appearance of one great furnace. Some idea of the an- tiquity of the art in China may be obtained from the fact that small china flasks, with inscriptions in Chinese characters, differing little if at all irom those in use in the present day, have been found in some of the tombs of Thebes ; thus appearing to prove not only that the Chinese possessed at that early date the art they have been so long celebrated for, but also that they knew and traded with the Egyptians. It has been shown that the Egyptians were potters themselves; and many little figures, covered with a fine deep blue glaze, are found deposited with their mummies, which may either have been made by themselves or obtained in trade from the Chinese or Phffinicianspnor were these the only nations of antiquity who practiced this art. It seems to have been more widely spread than most others, and there are few nations removed one step from barbarism who have not made for themselves drinking and cooking utensils of rude pottery. Chinese porcelain is ornamented in a very queer style, and the di- vision of labor being great among them, and carried even into their de- signs, different workmen, without any concert or plan, paint successive parts of the same, group or picture, which contributes to the grotesque effect of their work ; the effect is also heightened by their ignorance -of perspective. They make, beside common china, several others : a black kind, much esteemed in the East; a kind which appears as though it were cracked all over ; one in which the colors show only when the vessel is filled with liquid ; and still another variety, in which various figures appear raised upon pure white porcelain, and yet the surface is perfectly smooth. The great durability of Chinese ware is shown by the porcelain tower at Nanking, which is nearly three hundred feet high, and entirely covered with porcelain tiles ; and which, though it has now stood four hundred years, appears not to have suffered in the least from the action of the air and weath,er. The first attempt to make china in Europe is supposed to have been made by the Moors in Spain ; then a large manufactory was established in the Balearic Isles, which ware was callea Majolica, fiom Majorca, tha largest of- those isles. This manufacture was' afterward removed to Italy "where many improvements took place ; but these articles were all 214 THE FAMILY. made of coarse, brownish paste, the imperfections of which were hid by an opaque glaze, instead of the material being perfectly white and the glaze transparent, as is the case with good foreign and modern Euro- pean ware. This Majolica ware was the most esteemed from the middle of the 14th to the middle of the 16th centuries, when came the epoch of Bernard Palissy in France. His long enduring patience under triak and disappointments of every description, till he almost ruined himsel, in his attempts to discover a new and more perfect enamel glaze, in which he was finally successful, have almost passed into a proverb. Palissy was a Protestant, and died in the Bastile, where he aas im- prisoned for publicly advocating his opinions. During all this time only a rough and common earthenware was made in England; but about the latter part of the lYth century began that improvement which has led to the production of our common household china. First it was discovered that salt thrown on the ar- ticles heated in the furnace covered them with a rough glaze ; then two Getman brothers of the name of EUers settled in Staffordshire and dis- covered there a bed of very superior clay ; and after this a gentleman named Astbury, who was engaged in the manufacture, having occasion to employ some calcined flints as a poultice for his horse's eyes, noticed their fine white opaque substance, and added them to the paste of which he made his china, thus supplying the last needed ingredient for the perfection of the art. The next and greatest improver was Josiah Wedgewood, who was born a poor potter's son, but who raised himself to wealth and eminence by his genius and industry ; he devoted him- self quite as much to improving the style and ornamentation of his works as to their material, and entirely altered the character of the manufacture. Meanwhile on the continent a similar progress was being made; after many unsuccessful efibrts, about the commencement of the 18th centurj', a German alchymist, named Botticher, made some crucibles which the fire converted into true porcelain ; and afterward discovering a fine white clay, of which some had been sold and used as hair powder, he established a manufactory at Dresden ; this was followed by several in France, among the rest by the far-famed works of Sfevres, the earlier wares of which factory were actually made entirely of artificial compost, without any of the real ingredients of china represented by the Chinese kao-lin and pe-tun-tse. NARCOTICS. — Tobacco is the leaf of various species of nicotiana, a plant which is a native of tropical America, but which grows readily in many climates. It has been introduced into almost every part of the globe ; and it is thought by many to have been indigenous in China and central Asia as wdl as in the new world. Columbus found the Indian chiefs in the habit of smoking cigars when he first discovered the^^West India Isles ; tobacco was brought to France in 1660.; and to England in 1686, by Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. At first the use of it was very much discouraged, and James the First published a " Counterblast to Tobacco ;" but op- position only increased' the desire to try the novelty, and caused it to spread more rapidly. It is related of Sir Walter Kaleie;h that when he COMMQir THDfGB. ^ 215 returned to England, and indulged himself in fimoking, which he had learned to like while in America, his servant came in one day, and see- ing smoke issuing from his master's mouth, thought he was on fire, ran to give the alarm, and to seek water with which to extinguish the flames, which he momentarily expected to see follow the smoke. The fashionable pipes tn his days were of silver, while those who could ot afford so expensive an article used a walnut-shell with a reed in- S3Tted. Tobacco is a soothing narcotic, producing poisonous effects when in- dulged in to excess, but otherwise only a dreamy unconsciousness to care and trouble. All nations, whether barbarous or civilized, appear to possess the craving for narcotics; and the plants which have been found to yield them are singularly various. The other narcotics much in use are opium, hemp, and the betel-nut, among the Eastern Asiatics ; the coca-leaf and thorn-apple in South America ; and the amantia, or narcotic fiingus, in Siberia : besides these, the common hop possesses narcotic properties. OpiniH is the juice of the seed-vessels of the white poppy, papaver somrdferum, obtained by making incisions in the seed-vessel before it is quite ripe, when the juice exudes, and is daily collected. The prac- tice and afterward bung tip and expdS6d to the greatest heat of the sun. Senna is produced from various species' of cassia { they are- anttnal plants, natives of Upper Egypt, Central Africa^ and India. The best kind of senna is the- dSied leaf of the eassia cauUfoUa^ some of which is called Tripoli senna. This species grows' about two feCt highland B)ears a yellow flower ; the seed is tfsntaified ia a Jegiinle. Ipecatnatibs is the^ root of a creeping perennial plant, the i^hcte'Ui ipeeaeucmhUi whiohi grows in nioist, shady places in the forests of !6razil and various other parts of the South American- Continent; It is- a very valuable medicine, and has probably been uSed is Such rk its native country from time immemorial, but it was fi*st broughi/ to> Eu-ropd about the time of Louis XIV., by a French merchant. Itsi name is said tO' be derived from epi,' the Indian word for i^oot, and cacuonha, the olace where it grew most abundantjy, Sarsaparilla>— This also is" the root of a plaftiJ,' stnilax satseipntrilhi;- and there are several other species which possess the medioinat (jMality — officinalis, medica, etc. It grows in America Sfid' the West Indies : it' is exported in bales, and looks' like bundles- of long;- slettde* 1i*i1gs, covered with a brown or reddish wrinkled bark ; it is iu this' bark th'&i the Medicinal (Quality Fesid«si It is usually taken' in the forni' of a- de- coction. The prepared sarsaparilla ■Which- you have seen in botttesL looking almost like tr^acle^ is »vory strong dbcoction of ilhe drug, boiled down with various other thingss GampilOT is a white: crystalline substance, not' exactly brittle; though it> crumbles easily ; it has a strong refreshing Smell, and Warm,- a^rid* taste ; it is so light as to swim on water ; it burns *eadily ^ith A- brigW .vhite flame ; so extremely volatile- is itj thaS it- entirely ©*aporat if left exposed to the air, and no traCe' remains of its hswing" beeni there. This property' gave rise- to an amusing incident in a chemist's' shop,- where a little boy came in and said' his mother sent him ibr' " tiVO-- pen'ortb of nothing ;" he could- give no Clearer account of what was' wanted, and, after thinking,. Ilhe chemist's assisfianl) sent camphor; vs^hichf answered the description more neariy than any thing efee, as^ it- would be nothing in due time if left alone, and it proved to be the article iil- tendted ! Camphor is the result- of evaporating an essential oil found in two' difiierent trees, the eiiinamiw/ium' eamphormf which grows' in China and' Japan,! and the dipteroeai^s eimtphora,- of &taatrai and Borneo ; frdffl' these two trees itis obtained in very different manners.- In the «mn,a- momum it exists in root and branch,, stems and leavfesj and oonseduent-'. ly these are chopped small and pnt into earthen vessels,. which, are' heated ; the* vessel's are cov'Cred- with hoods, and' rice' straw is placed' in them; the camphor is- volatlilized, and rises; it condenses) on the^ straw, from which it is afterwardi cleared. It exists in- the trunk of the other tree, the: dip feroearpug^ in a solid form,, and. is obtained by cutting the tree- down and splitting.it ope'u'^it is found in piefces from one to two feet long, and about as thick as a man's arm ; and a moder 220 Tmi FAMILY. ate-sized tree will yield about„ten pounds of camphor; a large one perbaps twice that quantity. This kind is much more highly esteemed than the other, so that in Japan two hundred pounds of native camphor are valued at one pound of the Bornean. Iodine. — This useful medicine, which is a deadly poison, is a peculiar mineral substance, existing in sea-water, sea-weeds, sponges, and many marine productions, as also in many mineral waters. It is obtained by dig^ting sponge or sea-weed in water, and crystallizing the liquid, then mixing it with sulphuric acid and black oxide of manganese, and distil- ling the compound ; the iodine rises in beautiful violet-colored vapor, which condenses into brilliant blackish scales. Its name is derived from the Greek, and signifies a violet color. Castor-Oil is the produce of the seed of the ricinus communis, oi palma-christi, a tree which sometimes attains the height of thirty feet, and in cold climates becomes an annual plant ; it grows in Greece, the East and West Indies, South America, and Africa ; also on the rock of Gibraltar. The seed is inclosed in a rough spiny nut ; this bursts when ripe, and expels its three seeds. I'he oil was formerly procured by boiling them in water, but is now obtained by pressure : they yield by this operation one-fourth of their weight in oil. Croton Oil, which is an extremely powerful oil,, expressed from the seeds of the croton tiglium, a native of the Molucca Isles and the Indian peninsula, is also used as a medicine. It has a woody stem, and a soft, blackish bark ; the seeds are oblong, and about the- size of a coflFee bean. The oil, when rubbed on the skin, is extremely irritating, and has a somewhat similar effect to a blister. Blisters owe their irritating qualities to a kind of fly. This insect, the cantharis vesicatoria, is common on various kinds of trees in Spain, Italy, and the South of France, and, indeed, to some extent all over Europe. Those used in this country are chiefly brought from Astra- chan, and possess the irritating quality in a high degree. The insect is about two-thirds of an inch in length, and of a green and gold shining color, with long flexible wing-sheaths. covering brown transparent wings. Cantharides are procured by smoking brimstone under the trees on which they are found, and then catching them on a cloth underneath ; or they are simply shaken off, killed by the steam of boiling vinegar, and afterward dried. Gum, or Gum-Arabic, as it is called, is a clear sticky substance, which exudes from one or two species of acacia growing in Arabia, also in Senegal, and some other parts of North Africa. The trees have a hard, withered aspect, with crooked stems and branches ; the seerction of gum appears to be the effect of disease, as the greatest quantity is obtained from the sickliest trees, and during the hottest summers. It is quite liquid when it first exudes, but hardens by exposure to the air, and this without losing its transparency. It is gathered in July or August, when the weather is hot and parching. When stowed away, it has a faint smell ; it is also heard to crack spontaneously for many weeks after it is gathered. Gum is useful in medicine, as well as the arts, and its ad- hesive quality and ready use have made it almost one of the necessaries MISCELLAITEOTTS. 221 miscEiiiiAivEors. llng-Wax is a compound of shell-lac and resin, and is'colored with Vermillion, lampblack, or verditer, according to the hue desired ; these ingredients .ire melted together, and the sealing-wax is afterward formed into sticks by rolling. Lac is a resinous substance produced by a little insect, the chermes lacca, on the leaves and branches of certain trees growing in Bengal, Assam, Pegu, and Siara. This little creature lays its eggs on the bark, and then covers them with a quantity of lac, which is evidently intend- ed to protect them in their early stages, and to feed the young larvae when they come out. It is beautifully formed into cells, with much care and regularity. Lac yields a fine red dye, inferior in dfilor to cochineal, but said to be even more permanent. There are several different kinds of lac, or, at least, diflferent states in which it is broughf to market : first, there is a stick-lac, which may be called its natural state, nothing more being done to it than breaking oflF the incrusted twigs and bringing them to market; seed-lac is the pounded stick-lac after it has been separated from the sticks, and all the coloring matter extracted from it, which makes lac-dye or lake. Shell- lac is produced from seed-lac, by melting it and straining through a bag; it thus forms thin, transparent, amber-colored plates, and is used for making sealing-wax, and for varnish also, in making hats. Cochineal is a brilliant red dye, obtained from certain small insects which abound in the tropical parts of America ; being found wild in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and some of the West India Islands, feeding on the common Indian fig, or prickly pear, cactus opuntia ; in Mexico, and some of the adjoining Spanish settlements ; the insect is reared with great care on the cactus cochinilifer, on which it grows much larger than in its wild state, though seldom exceeding a barley- corn in size. The female insect alone is gathered, as it alone yields the dye ; it is wingless, and very stationary, seldom moving from the part of the plant where it has fixed itself. its use in making watei;proo( 224 THE FAMn.Y. fabrics and air-pillows ; these are generally made by spreading a thin coating of caoutchouc, dissolved in spirit, between two surfaces of the cloth, which by this means are firmly glued together, and made per- fectly waterproof. The uses to which Indian rubber and its congener, gutta percha, a more recently discovered and more solid article are ap- plied, arc {oo numerous to mention ; tubes, pipes, straps for machinery, trays, picture-frames, ink-bottles, whips, sticks, combs, boxes, chairs, tables, sofas, and all sorts of furniture arc fornred of it. Gutta Percha is another substance similar to Indian rubber, being the dried sap of the isonandra gutta, a tree growing in Malacca, Singapore, and some other eastern places. Gutta percha was first brought to Eng- land in 1845 ; it is now imported in immense quantities. The Diamond is a gem or precious stone ; pure, clear, and white, so brilliantly reflecting: the light, that it shines and sparkles in an almost dark room. It is the hardest substance known, and can only be cut, shaped, and polished by means of its own dust, which is also the best material for polishing all hard, impracticable stones. They were formerly brought from the celebrated mine or mines of Golconda, in India, but these are said to be nearly exhausted. Some of the larger islands of the Indian Archipelago have yielded valuable diamonds, but the greater number now brought to Europe come from the Brazils, in South America. These gems are frequently found in beds of torrents, by which they have been dislodged and conveyed away. Diamonds are generally small, and are hence considered of value in proportion to their size, as well as their clearness ; some very large ones being reputed to be worth incredible sums of money. The largest and most valuable diamond now known is the Koh-i-noor, or Mountain of Light, belonging to the Queen of England ; it came from India, having formerly belonged to Runjeet Singh. It was exhibited at the great exhibition in 1851. Diamonds are not found all bright and glittering, but they are covered over with a thin crust, which, however, is readily removed; they are then found to be octahedral crystals. • The white diamonds are the most valuable ; but there are others which are much admired, these are rose-colored, blue, or even black; light-colored ones, and those which are even in the least degree defi- cient in transparency, are of less value. This gives rise to the terms used in speaking of the quality of these stones, the finest are called diamonds "of the first water," while inferior ones are said to be of the second water or the third water. Rose diamonds refer to the shape into which they are cut. A rose diamond has one side flat, and the ether raised..and cut into a number of flat faces, called facets ; a brilliant is much thicker in proportion, and has both sides raised. The diamond is most nearly allied to coal — black, dull, opaque coal, which is the nearest relation the diamond has in the mineral kingdom. The learned have discovered that the diamond consists of pure carbon, and charcoal is pure carbon also ; the only known difference being that one is crystallized and the other not. The names of some other gems are the emerald, ruby, turquoise, amethyst, topaz, garnet, onyx, sapphire, opal ; and agate, jasper and MiscELLAinEotrs. 225 corneliaD, though they do not rank among gems, are often used for ornament. The finest Emeralds come from Peru, and other parts of S -uth America, though they are sometimes hrought from the. East. They are of a beautiful clear green color, some very dark, others paler, and are much valued and used for ornamental jewelry ; the queen of Spain's emeralds were among the most beautiful jewels shown at the Great Exhibition. Rubies are very striking gems, being, when of the finest sort, of a beau- tiful dark-red Color, and very clear ; they are not, however, often of large size, and are not so hard as many other gems, the emerald for instance. There is an inferior kind, of a pale rose-color, which are broujght from Balachan in Tartary. The Sapphire is generally called a blue gem, and that is the color in- tended when people talk of a "sapphire hue," but it varies so very much in color that there are sapphires which resemble and, as it were, counterfeit other gems ; these are called oriental emeralds, topazes, or whatever other stone they resemble. The red sapphire, or oriental ruby, is one of the most valuable gems, coming next after the diamond. Some sapphires present when polished a beautiful eflFect from a six-rayed star of light gleaming in their center. This is the effect of the six- sided form of the crystal. The Opal is only partially clear, and its great beauty consists in the play of colors from its interior ; yellow, red and green, the most exquisite tints, flash and gleam from it as it is moved about. The finest opals are as valuable as diamonds', they are brought from Turkey, and sometimes from Hungary, but it is seldom that any are found of largo size. , The Amethyst is a clear, hard stone, of a beautiful violet color by day- light, but looking brown by caudle-light ; it is nearly related to the quartz rock-crystal, which is used for making spectacle glasses, and sometimes for false diamonds. We get the finest amethysts from Ceylon, the Brazils, and the southern part of Spain. The turquoise is an opaque stone of a blue color ; it is very soft in comparison with most gems, and is therefore often used for engraving upon ; it is very easily imitated, and consequently a large proportion of cheap jewelry pretends to be adorned with turquoises. The Topaz is of a bright golden yellow, the garnet of a good deep red ; the latter is not very valuable, though very pretty. In some places small garnets are crushed, to use instead of emery ; and in Germany, where garnets are very abundant, they are sometimes used as a flux for iron ore. The topaz is found in several parts of the East Indies, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Peru, and Bohemia; the oriental are the most esteemed. They can easily be imitated. The Onp, the Agate, the Cornelian, the Sard, and Sardonyx, are only differently marked and colored varieties of one stone, which is called chalcedony. This stone in its pure state is colorless, or only tinted bluish gray, but other matters are sometimes present in it, and then it varies in color ; the sard is deep red brown ; the sardonyx, layers of brown and white chalcedony ; cornelian is usually either red or white, and always clear ; the agate is found in various colors, ^nd has manv 10* 226 TBE VAMILT. markings, sometimes •sngnlar or zigeag, in which case it is called a forti- fication agate; sometimes straight lines of color give it a banded ap- pearance, it is then called ribbon agate ; another kind has markings quite different, and is .called a moss agate. The onyx has layer* otf different colors, and advantage has been taken of this for cutting it mto beautiful ornaments. A head or group of' figures is carved by the artist from the white layer of stone, leaving the background dark, or else the figures stand up dark and clear, nelicved by the snowy back- ground. Gems cut in this manner are called cameos. The Greeks and Eomans possessed the art, and many specimens remain of their work, ■which will never be surpassed in beauty, and which are now valued at enormous sums. Glass imitations of these antiques are now not iinfrequent, and are often such beautifully exact copies, both in outline and color, that no one can distinguish the differ- ence between them. Cameos are aiso made from the lip of the helmet shell, a large thick shell which is formed of layers varying in color like the onyx. Pearls are generally considered jewels; iJiey belong to the animal, and not to the mineral kingdom. . These are round bodies, white and shining, with a peculiar and beautiful laster, for which we have no other adjective than pearly. They are supposed to be the effect of disease in the fish inside whose shells they are found, as they are not by any means found in all the shells. Various shell-fish yield pearls, but the finest, and by far the most frequent, are those produced by a peculiar kind of oyster, called from this circumstance, the pearl oyster. The most abundant fisheries are near Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, and on the coasts of Ceylon, though they are obtained in many other parts of the East, and indeed of the world. Expert divers go out in pairs or threes in boats or rafts to the fishing ground, and then they cast anchor, and one of the party having fastened to his body a heavy stone to serve as ballast, a not to contain his oysters, and a rope by which to be hauled op again, goes overboard, and sometimes dives to the depth of sixty feet. He immediately commences gathering the oysters, which often adhere Brmly to the rocks ; when his net is full, or he can no longer hold his breath, he pulls the rope, and his comrades above haul him up again ; sometimes, alas, this is not done in sufficient time.to save him from the sharks and other voracious creatures which haunt these pearl beds, and he loses life or limb in his perilous undertaking ! When the oysters are taken on shore they are heaped into shallow pits, and covered with sand ; they soon open and die, the fish rots away, and the oearls fall out They are then cleansed and sifted, and are valued according to their size ; large round or perfectly pear-shaped pearls are THE FAMILT. The finest qiiality of this mineral which has ever been discovered is obtained from a mine at Borrowdale, in Cumberland ; but it is found in various parts of the world ; and an inferior quality has been of late years imported from Mexico and Ceylon in considerable quantities, which is used principally for making crucibles or melting-pots, for diminishing the friction of machinery, and for protecting iron from rusting. The finer qualities suited for pencils being too valuable for these uses. It is sometimes found crystallized, but more generally in detached masses or nodules, some of which weigh four or five pounds each. At Borrowdale, " nests" of these are formed in a greenstone rock, which constitutes a bed in the clay slate. This peculiarity is the cause of its being often " lost," when the miners have to seek at random for a new supply. The age of the Cumberland mines cannot be exactly ascertained, but they have been occasionally worked ever since the reign of Queen Eliza- beth. They are private property. There are traditions of the time when the value of this curious mineral was so little understood, that the shepherds used it in large quantities for marking their sheep. After this time came one in which the proprietors made enormous profits, and the quality of the mineral was so good, that a workman could in half an hour obtain as much as would sell for £1,000. It was the practice, at this period, to open the mines only occasionally, thus reducing the supply and raising the price. The modern importations from abroad have very much lessened the monopoly which enabled the proprietors to do this. Formerly, so great was the fear lest any of the precious mate- rial should be stolen, that houses were built at the entrances to the mine, in which the workmen were' obliged to change their clothes, and were all searched before leaving their work to see that they had none secreted about them. The finest plumbago was also taken from the mine to Kendal, under a strong guard, and from thence conveyed tp London by persons who were held responsible for its safe delivery. Zinc is a metal which has been comparatively lately discovered in its pure form, though one of its ores, calamine stone, has long been known and used. It abounds in China, and the Chinese were the first to use it ; they also exported it in large quantities to India, whence much was exported to England, until a full supply was found to exist there. The largest proportion of zinc or spelter, as it is frequently called in its metallic form, is obtained from the German states, which not merely supply the home markets, but have superseded the Chinese in the trade with India. Zinc is a hard bluish-white metal, not malleable when cold, breaking readily under the hammer, and showing particularly brilliant crystalline fracture ; but at a moderately high temperature it possesses great malleability and ductility, can easily be drawn into wire and rolled into plates, and worked in other ways. Zinc is well suited for casting figures ; it melts readily, liquifies completely, and therefore copies every line of the mould more accurately than harder metals. A cast can be made in zinc for one-sixth or one-eighth of the cost of bronze, and can afterward be bronzed to look almost as well as that metal. Zinc plates are used for many purposes, and in roofing they are valuable for their lightness, being about one-sixth part the weight of lead ones; they are MIBOEIiAlTEOlTS. 233 not liable to rust or corrode from exposure to the air. Many vessels are now made of zinc, and for galvanic apparatus this metal is used. Brass is not found in any mine as the metals we have been speaking of are — it is a compound metal, or, as it is properly called, an alloy of copper and zinc ; it was well known in the earlier stages of the aris, long before pure zinc was discovered, being made of copper and cala- mine-stone, which is an ore of zinc. The manufacture of brass is said to have been introduced into England in 1649, by a German, who set- tled at Esher, in Surrey. Good brass is of a fine yellow color, ductile, and very malleable when cold ; when heated, it is brittle ; being in this respect a curious contrast to the zinc of which it is partially composed. Brass is the most convenient metal for making large, fine screws, as- tronomical instruments, microscopes, and many other things requiring great exactness; as, notwithstanding its compactness of texture, it is easily wrought at the lathe. Brass is made thus : the copper intended to be' used is poured hot into water, which makes it into little grains, or what is called shot-cop- per; this is done to increase its surface. The calamine-stone (carbonate of zinc) is heated red-hot, ground to powder, and washed ; the ingre- dients are then fused togeSier in the proportions of about forty-five pounds of copper to sixty pounds of calamine-stone ; an equal bulk of charcoal, and some scrap brass, are usually added. The melted brass is cast into plates or bars ; the plates are rolled into sheets, called latten, or beaten into thin leaves, called Dutch-gold, and used for inferior gild- ing. The bars are used b^hose who make small brass wares, or who melt it again with diflferent proportions of copper, to make tombac, pinchbeck, and other imitations of gold. These imitationsi are used to make a great mapy small articles, such as brooches and all sorts of jewelry, which are very cheap. In former times, watch-cases were frequently made of these metals, but it is not quite so common now. Pins are made of brass wire, and are tinned afterward ; the wire is cut into pieces the length of six pins, and the points of a handful are ground at once; a pin's length is then cut off, and the points ground again, and so on, until the wire is all used, and six pins have been made of each j)iece ; the heads used to be a little ball, made with fine wire spun with a wheel, and then fastened on to the pin with a smart blow ; but now they are made solid, the top of the wire being pressed in a dje to form the head, which prevents its coming off; pins are polished by nibbing them in dry bran. Britannia-Metal is composed of block-tin, a small portion of antimony and less than one-third as much copper or brass. This compound, which is bright and silvery looking, is now extensively used instead of pewter, and for many purposes to which pewter was never applied. It is very easy to work both by rolling, casting, turning, and planing, as well as by stamping in dies ; consequently the articles made of it are almost un- limited in variety and very cheaply produced : teapots, candlesticks, and spoons, are among some of the most frequent applications of this metal. Pewter is a dull-looking alloy, used for making plates and dishes, beer- measures, wine-measures, and larger vessels. For the first purpose it i» 16 234 THE FAMILT. very much gone out o1f use, being superseded by earthenware ; but in former times all houses were supplied with pewter articles, and no small .portion of the " plate" belonging 'to the nobles was of this mate- rial. Good hard pewter is made df tin, copper, and antimony ; but a veiy inferior kind, and that most frequently met with, is made chiefly of lead, with. a very small proportion of tin and copper in ad- dition. Bell-Metttl, Gnn-Metal, and Bronze, are all formed chiefly of copper, with the addition of tin, and in some cases small quantities of other metals. AH the metals are solid bodies, except mercury, and this becomes bo when cooled to forty degrees below zero. It is "the one used in "barom- eters and thermometers to show the changes in the atmosphere ; it is also called quicksilver. ' It is white,'rather bluer than silver, and 'as it is from its'great'fusibility'haibitually fluid,' it readily unites with many other metals, and imparts to them a degree of its characteristic qujility ; When these metallic mixtures coiltain sufEcient mercury to render them semi- fluid at a mean temperature, they are Called amalgams. It is likewise employed for silvering looking-glasses, and for gildiDg, in which latter process the gold and rnercury are laid on together in the form of an amalgam, and the mercury afterward dissipated *by the action of the heat. It is also employed in the preparation of several powerful medicines, and in the manufacture of vermillion. But by fai the largest quantity of mercury is used for amalgamation with native gold andsilver, to facilitate the extraction of the pure metal. The chief mines of mercury, or quidlsilver, are in Spain, in the provinces of Asturias and Andalusia; there are mines too at Idria, in Carniola, which are 'very productive, and others in Tuscany and Cali- fornia. Mereury'is'found both-native and mixedwith sulphur, in which state it forms the red ore callted cinnabar. The Precions Metals Gold and SilVCr^he metallic substances first known to mankind, and from the first held in great estimation ; the earliest mention on record of gold is in Genesis, whCTe'itSays of the land of Havilah, " There is ^'o^ and the gold of that land is good." In the time of Abraham it already passed as' money by weight; andi; was used for making ornaments ; nor are there lacking proofs that it was' manu- fadtured into many household articles. The abundance of gold m ancient times is veryiremarka,ble; for example, the treasures of Solo- mon, when he made so many things of pure gold ; " none of them were of silver, for that was nothing accounte4 of in the days of S61omon," for " the king made silver to be as stones in Jerusalem." 'Nor does this appear to have been 'by any means a solitary instance ; profane authors ' speak of the large accumulations Of treasure both by sovereigns and private individuals. Gold is found not in ores, like other metals, but in a pure or native state; it exhibits many diversities of appearance, being found massive, in scattered particles, in fibers or strings, reticulated or net-like, ^arbor escent, tree-like, and also crystallized. Gold found in rocks is mingled with many different earthy fossils, and often with ores of other metals, and large quantities have always been found in the beds 6f Tivers, which latter circumstance, joined with its beauty, comparative puritv, HIBOBLLAJilEQUS. 235 and consequent easy ,redvic1;ioii, iqfiy .^ccount for its ftlways having been the, first metal to attract barbaroug itrib.es. It has been found in some parts of e^e^j quarter of the globe, as be- fore Stated ; it was first found in the lEasfe ^.nd there ftre.still mines in India, Japan, the Philippines, SumatT^. and ^qrneP;; ito which may be added Siberia. Gold has .been found ?iso in ,4friles, list o^ adopted by thri OUtf Pomo- . logical Society ^.. -.'....-.. 150 Apples, varieties oil for the "West 166 Apples, varieties o^ for the South 1ST Apples, paclcine, for m'atket 1T2 Ajnlcot, varieties of the 170 Apricot, culture of the .-. 171 Apricot, to bud the 171 Apricot, insects, etc., affecting the 171 Arbutus 179 Army and navy of the United States ...... 247 Aromatic herbs '.v.- 183 Artichoke, culture and use of tlie .... ^ ... . 122 Asparagus, its ciilture 122 Auiioula . . : ,. . 179 Azalia 179 B. Badger ,..i. •,,..... 95 Balsam , j.v... ■..<..., 179 Barley, its culture and use .... .<..i...i.,. 51 Barley, diseases of 52 Barley, its produce and value .... ^ .>«.. ^ ... . 52 Barley, two-rowed, mostcultiTated.i,.ij. 51 Barley, various kinds of. ..* ....j..^^. ...v. 51 Barley, time of sowing ii-i^i,,i,.t,.. 51 Basella t^t.i.:i.,.., 180 Bell-flower, or hare-bell ISO Beans, culture and use of / 79 ^ special manures for 81 " relative value as food 80 " grown with IndliU com 80 " gardensorts u 124 " garden, culture of. ...,....., 134 Beit, culture of the garden sorts of........ 124 B«et, garden sorts.... ., , .....124 Btennuls ...........; 177 FASB Biennials, hardy, Hst of. i. 194 Btrds, depredating 99' BJaokborry 18S Bones, to prepare with' sulphuric fl'Ci^ .... '22£ B'oronia '.. 18B Broccoli, varieties 183 Gardening, its profit 143 Garden irrigation 148 Garden, what to grow in the 116 Geranium 188 Geum 188 Gold and silver coin, value in federal money 241 Gooseberry 184 'A6K Grafting, different modes of. 146 GTaJting-wax,tb make 147 Grafting, when to be done 147 Grafts, how to set 146 Grafts, time to cut 147 Grape, propagation, training, etc 185 Grape, Bebecca 186 Grasses, special manures for. 98 " quantity per acw 92 " the culture of the 91 " the kinds to sow 93 " when to sow 92 Guano, how to use 22 Guano, the composition of 202 Guelder-rose 184 Gunpowder 251 H. Harrows, iMrlous kinds of 36 Hazel 184 HeartVease 184 Hedges, plants for 88 Hedges, or live fences, how to plant 38 Hedges, to trim 88 Herbaceous plants 176 Herbs, aromatic, etc 182 Hoeing should be deep 121 Hollyhock 184 Hollyhock, Chinese 184 Honesty 184 Honeysuckle. 184 Hops, their culture, use, and profit 84 Hop-tree 87 Hyacinth 184 1. Implements, f^rm 86 Insects, depredating 101 Interest, rate of| in various states 240 Interest tables 242 J. Jasmin , 185 Jonquil 186 K. Kalmia 185 Kill-calf..... 185 Eltchen-garden 118 I.. Labor, wages of 25C Laburnum 186 Larkspur 185 Layenng, how done 146 Lettuce, its culture 128 Life, expectation of 249 Lilac 185 Lily of tfie valley..' 186 Lime as a manure 17 Lime and salt mixture 17 Lime, how to apply 17 Loams, to improve 16 Loosestrife 186 Lupin 186 nt. Magnolia 186 Manure, barn-yard 18 " different kinds of IT ** green, its special value to the South 19 " of fowls, its great value 19 DSDBaC TO THE FABM ASD GABDENS. Uiiniiie9,conBtltnent8 of the different kinds 21 Usnures, liqaid, value of 23 Mimgel-wuTzel, adapted to oar climate .... 79 " culture and use of 7T ** ' comparative value of, ... . 78 " preservation of 79 " special manures for. 79 Medicinal plants 1S2 Melons, culture and uses of. 128 Mice 98 Michigan plow 85 Midge in wheat 48 Mignonette ; 186 Mildew in wheat 47 Mole 99 Moneys, foreign, value of in federal money 239 Morning star 186 Monntamash 186 Mnck, its value t 18 Myrtle 186 N. Narcissus 186 Nectarine, varieties of 171 Night-soil 22 Oats, culture and use of „ 58 *^ exhaust the soil 53 " special manures ibr 54 " varieties of 68 " where most profltahlo 58 Okra 129 Onions, culture and use of 129 Onions, varieties of ;. 129 Osage orange for hedges 88 Parsnip, culture and use of the 91 Parsnip, varieties of the. 91 Parsnip, relative value o^ as food 91 Parsley 180 Passion-flower 187 Peach, its diseases and their remedies 164 Peacli, to prune the 165 Peach, varieties of the 168 Pea, culture and uses of the 76 " garden sorts of the 76 " saving seed of the. 76 " soilforthe.l 76 ** special 'manures fertile .' 77 " sweet 187 ** varieties of the 76 Pears, autumn 169 " dwar^ their mode of cnlture 161 " summer ; 157 " winter 160 " fortheSouth 161 " listof 161 " their diseases and the remedies 168 Peat, its value 18 " its use in stables 18 " tocompost. 18 Perennial plants „ ', 177 Perennials, hardy, list of 195 Petunia 188 Pigeons 100 Pink 187 Planting, time of 114 Plants, medicinal 182 Plaster, quantity per acre 18 " touseonseeds 18 " its value for com, etc 44 " when to sow 16 Plow, the double Michigan 86 PAO> Plow, the ridging or double mould-board. . 86 Plow, the side-hUl 88 Plow, the subsoil 89 Plum, varieties of the 166 Plum, diseases of the, and their remedies. 168 PoBony 187 Polecat 95 Polyanthus 187 Population of the world '. 248 Potatoes, culture and use of 56 " culture o£ in the South 66 " sweet, culture in the South).... 59 " sweet, culture in the North 60 " their renovation 58 " valuedf 67 " to guard from disease 67 " t' Humus 16 Carbonate of lime -8 Soluble matter 1-2 100 This soil, like our bog earth, would bo very unfit for the growth of corn ; but, from the quantity of humus and vegetable matter, is highly useful in composts and artificial soils ; mixed with lime, it would make an ex- cellent top-dressing for moist clay soils. Mr. Thaer has given a classification of soils of known qualities, which we think worthy of notice. It is as follows : — No. Clayv per cent Sand, per cent. Carb.of Lime, per cent Ilnmns, per cent Valne, 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 6. 1. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 15. 16. (First class of strong wheat [ soils. Rich light sand in natural grass Rich barley land Good wheat land Wheat land Ditto Ditto Ditto Goojl barley land Ditto, second quality Ditto Oat land Ditto U 81 19 40 14 20 53 56 60 48 C8 .38 33 28 23i 18J- 10 6 10 22 49 67 36 30 38 50 30 60 65 70 75 80 4 4 36 10 3 2 12 ilD'Xa f2 m 8 2-5 Gi 4 27 10 4 '2 2 2 2. 2 2 2 U U 100 98 96 90 ? 78 77 75 70 65 60 00 50 40 30 20 Below this are very poor ryelands. In all these soils the depth is supposed the same, and the quality nniforni to tlio depth of at least six- inches; the subsoil sound, and neither too wet nor too dry. 14 THSl TASM. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are alluvial soils, and, from the division and the inti mate union of the humus, are not so heavy and stiff as the quantity of clay would indicate. No. 4 is a rich clay loam, such as is found in many parts of England, neither toortieavy nor too loose — a soil easily kept in heart by judicious cultivation. No. 5 is very light and rich, and best adapted for gardens and orchards, but not for wheat ; hence its comparative value can scarcely be given. Nos. 6, 1 and 8 are good soils. The quantity of carbonate of lime in No. 8 compensates for the smaller portion of humus. This land requires manure, as well as the others below. In those from No. 9 downward, lime or marl would be the greatest improvement. Nos. 15 and 16 are poor light soils, requiring clay and much manure; but even these lands will repay the cost of judicious cultivation, and rise in value. The last column, of comparative value, is the result of several years' careful valuation of the returns, after labor and seed had been de- ducted. How to Improve Soils, — Soils are improved first by draining, trench- ing, and subsoil plowing ; and second by the application to them of ap- propriate manures. The most common and appropriate division of soils, in their native state, is into the clayey, sandy, peaty, and loamy; and the means fdr the improvement of each will be separately considered. Clay is an essential component part of all fertile soils. A clay soil consists of a large proportion of alumina united to silica of various degrees of fineness, and frequently also a portion of carbonate of lime. When the silica is very fine, and intimately mixed with the alumina, the clay, although stiff in appearance, is fertile in proportion to the humus which it contains, or which is artificially added to it. It then forms that class of rich wheat soils which produce many successive abundant crops without change or manure. It has a strong affinity for water, which prevents the plants that grow in it being injured by drought ; and it has a sufficient degree of porousness to allow super- fluous moisture to percolate without making it too soft. All that is required for such a, soil is a porous substratum of rock or gravel; and where this is not the case, sufficient under-drains must be made to pro- duce the same effect. To Improve Clay Soils, — ^The best after-treatment of clay soils is to plow them, wherever the ground freezes, in winter or late in the fall, thus subjecting them to the action of frost, which is by far the easiest and most efficient mode of rendering them fine and of easy subsequent cultivation. Once freezing and thawing subdivides and mellows a clay soil more than fifty spring plowings. It should never be moved in the spring or summer when wet, for then the sun will convert it into a sub- stance allied to brick ; but late in autumn, when the ground is soon to freeze, it is no objection, as the action of the frost will divide its parti- cles. Subsoil plowing is the next mode of improving clay lands. The advantages of subsoiling are akin to draining., It carries the water BOILS. 10 further from the surface, and forms a deeper soil for the permeation of the atmosphere and the roots of plants. Where the subsoil is compact and impervious to water, but not wet for want of outlet or draining, it is useful to stir the soil to a great depth, but without bringing it to the surface, which may be done by a plow without a mould-board follow- ing a common plow in the same furrow. This is an excellent mode of draining, and at the same time keeping a reservoir of moisture, which in dry weather ascends in vapors through the soil, and refreshes the roots. " To break the too great tenacity of clayey soils, sand seems to be the ingredient indicated ; but so large a quantity is required to produce the desired effect, that its application on a large scale is generally con- sidered impracticable. Lime is exceedingly useful as an ameliorator of clayey soils, inducing chemical combinations the mechanical effect of which is to break up the too great tenacity of the clay, while it adds, at the same time, an element of fertility which may perhaps be want- ing. Gypsum or plaster of Paris has the same effect in a still more powerful degree. Ashes, coarse vegetable manures, straw, leaves, chips, etc., are also very useful, adding new materials to the soil, and tending to separate its particles and destroy their strong cohesion. In cold cli- mates, plowing clayey lands in the fall, and thus exposing them to the action of the frosts and snows, has a beneficial effect. At the South, where there is little frost and frequent and heavy rains occur during the winter, the effect of fall plowing is very injurious. Clayey lands must never be plowed when wet."* To Improve Sandy Soils, — Clay, marls, plaster, lime, and ashes, are the principal substances used for the improvement of sandy soils. Clay is spread thinly in autumn upon freshly-flowed grass lands, and thus sub- jected to the pulverizing influences of frost ; and any desired crop may be grown the Ibllowing spring. Carbonate of lime has a powerful effect on the fertility of a soil, and no soil is very productive without it. It is consequently used extensively as an improver of the soil. Plaster is sown either late in the fall or very early in the spring, at the rate of from one to two bushels per acre. Sown upon the la.st snows of spring, its effects are certain, or at any time when immediately followed by copious rain. This fact, however, should be understood by all who use this valuable fertilizer — and all should who cultivate even a garden — that to dry plaster destroys its value. Hence it should never be sown upon a dry soil, or exposed to drying suns or winds, before it has been thoroughly saturated with water. Sandy soils are benefited by plow- ing when wet, as they are thus rendered more compact. Improvement of Peaty Soils. — Where a great extent of peat soil ren- ders the improvement of it desirable, there are various ways in which it may be reclaimed. In some places the peat has been removed, and the loam which lay below it was found of a very fertile nature. This could only be done on the banks of rivers, into which the peat was floated by means of small canals dug through it, and communicating with the river. In all other cases the mode adopted has been that oi * The E^rm. 16 THE FAEM. ^ainbg and consolidating. In draining a peat-moss, tlic, ■water must not be l< "11 too rapidly, for in that case the surface may become so loose and dry, tliat no vegetation can take place in it. If the water is drained oflF so as to leave two feet of peat dry above its level, this is all that is required for a beginning. The best improvement, and the most rapid, is produced by bringing sand or gravel in sufficient quantity to cover the surface with two or three inches of it. This will make a be- ginninjr of a soil in which potatoes may be planted. At first the sur- face will not bear the wheels of a cart or the tread of a horse ; but in a short time a solid crust will be formed, which will increase in strength and thickness as cultivation advances. Manuring and liming are the most effective operations in bringing about this great improvement. Potatoes and oats are usually the first crops on reclaimed peat-mosses. It is long before they become capable of bearing wheat ; nor is this crop to be recommended at any time, unless there be a good depth of soil formed over the peat. Laying-down to grass as soon as a certain degree of improvement has been made, and depasturing with sheep at first and cattle afterward, tend more than any other means to consoli- date the surface and deepen the mould, which gradually increases by the decomposition of the tannin in the peat. Improvenient of Loams. — All attempts to improve the nature of a soil (hould have for their object the bringing it to a state of loam, by the iddition of those substances which are deficient. If there is too much clay, chalk and sand may be added, or a portion of the clay may be ealcined by burning, in order to destroy its attraction for water, and lihus act the part of sand in forming the loam. Limestone or calcareous sand and gravel are still more efficacious for this- purpose : they not only correct too great porosity, or too great tenacity, but also act chem- (cally on the organic matter in the soil, rendering the humus soluble and fit to be taken up by the roots of plants. If there is too much sand, marl composed of clay and chalk is the remedy. Good loams require much less tillage than stifTer soils, and will bear more stirring to clean uhem than sands. Hence they are cultivated more economically, and more easily kept free from useless weeds ; while the produce is more certain and abundant. They can be impregnated to a higher d(^ree , J (vith enriching manures, without danger of root-fallen crops, or of too greaii an abundance of straw at the expense of the grain. For artificial oieaaows they are eminently proper : all the grasses grow well in good loams, when they are on a dry or well-drained subsoil, which is an in- dispensable condition in all good land. Sheep and cattle can be de- pastured on them during the whole year, except when there is snow on the ground. If there should be means of irrigation, no soil is better suited to it than a light loam on a bed of gravel ; or even if the subsoil is clay, provided sufficient underdraining prevent the water from stag- nating between the soil and subsoil, which, as practical men very prop- erly express it, would poison any land. A loamy soil requires less dung to keep it in heart than either clay or sand ; for while it is favorable to the process by which organic mat- ter buried deep in the soil is converted ;nto insoluble humus, it also permits that part of it which is nearer to the surface to attract oxygen MAmjEES. 17 from the air, and thus it is converted into a soluble extract, wliicL li U, the roots of plants what the milk of animals is to their young — a ) <:«itly prepared food easily converted into vegetable juices. II. IHARrVRES. " MtrnTircs oro tho riches of tbo fleld."— Chaptei. • We shall here confine our observations to that class of m;iiiaicii which stimulate or enrich the soil. lime, as a manure, acts most powerfully in its caustic am'k, that ts, when deprived of the carbonic acid which is generally uuAeJ with it. The use of quick-lime in rendering inert vegetable flbeis soluble, and hastening the decomposition of animal substances, is of lue greatest im- portance in agriculture. Substances may be rendered highly enriching in a short time, which, without it, would have, lain long dormant in the soil or the dung-heap. Quick-lime spread on a soil abounding in vegetable matter will make it active by dissolving the half-decomposed fibers iind converting them into a soluble mucilage; being extremely minutelj' divided by its prop- erty of attracting moisture rapidly, a very small ijnantity produces an immediate effect. Hence it is generally spread over fallows or clover- leys which are preparing for wheat-sowing. If it were ^ut on the land long before the seed were sown, it would have lost its chief power by at- tracting carbonic acid and retnrning to the state of carbonate or chalk, and all the expense of burning wood would be thrown away. But the most valuable agent in decomposing organic substances is the salt and lime mixture, made as follows : — Take three bushels of unslacked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt in as little water as possible, and slake the lime therewith — if the lime will not take up all the brine at once, which it will if good and fresh burned, turn it over and let it lie a day and add a little more of the brine, daily turning and adding until all is taken up. This salt and lime mixture is exceedingly valuable. It destroys the odor of putrefying animal matters, while it retains the ammonia. Of itself it supplies plants with chlorine, lime, and soda, all of which are requisite. Any vegetable refuse whatever, leaf mould, turf, straw, chips, and even tan-bark, if kept moist and sprinkled throughout with this mixture, become thoroughly decomposed in a very short time, and if u.sed for the bottom of pig-pens, stables, and yards, where they can ab- sorb the urine, they become the very best of manure. Pulverized Gliarcoal is a valuable fertilizer, and whenever it can. be obtained it should be used by all progressive farmers. A given quantity of it by measure is of more value than the same quantity of plaster. This, to those familiar with the latter, will be a sufficient com- mendation. ' Plaster. — So universal has become its use, and so general the appre- ciation of its utility, that nothing furtheqjk need be said of it, except to 18 THE FAEM. add, that all grass and corn lands should receive an annual dressing of from one to two bushels per acre.* If sown at the right time it would pay a fine return even at triple the cost of the article. A. B. Dickinson's Method of using Plaster on Seeds.— "I will tell you how you can put a coat of tar over all kinds of seed as evenly as a painter could put a coat of paint over a board with his brush. An iron kettle is the best to mix the tar and water. Have sufficient boiling water to cut the tar ; mix it with the hot water ; then pour in sufficient cold to make it near blood heat. Have sufficient water to stir whatever grain you put in, that the water and tar may come into contact with every part and particle ; it will then be coated evenly and is ready to be taken out. Shovel it into a basket — for economy the basket may b? placed over a tight barrel to catch the water ; as soon as it is done draining throw into a tight box, where you can mix and put on what- ever your soil lacks. If wheat or barley, you need not fear to apply lime and salt. If oats, corn, or buckwheat, plaster and salt. And on the soils of Yates county it would be beneficial to all of the above- named grains, to steep in strong brine overnight. Every species of grass-seed I sow with a heavy coat, and fasten as much plaster as pos- sible, which draws moisture in a dry season, and prevents rotting in an excessively wet one, and I never fail to have my grass seed take well." Barn-Yard Manure is, however, the great reliance of the farmer ; and the best means of increasing the supply of that should be his constaEt study. " There is one thing settled in farming, stable-manure never feils. It always tells. There are no two ways about it. There is here neither theory, nor speculation, nor doubt, nor misgiving. ' Muck it well, mas- ter, and it will come right,' is an old proverb. It is considered a fact so well established, that nobody thinks of disputing it. There is ad- vantage in asking why barn-yard manure never fails. The answer is easy. It cojitains all that plants need for their growth."f The vast Deposits of Peat of Swamp Muck found so generally throughout the country, furnish an excellent means of adding vastly to the quantity of manure. The peat should be thrown up in summer into cones, that it may lose a portion of its moisture and be lighter to carry. It may then be carted to such places as will render its use most convenient in the stables, cattle-yards, etc. In the stables, a layer from six to ten inches thick should be spread once a week to receive the fluid deposits of the animals, which it will absoib and hold, the solid being regularly removed. Once each week it should be removed and a new supply take its place. If cattle are fed in yards, and under sheds, it should be thickly strown over and beneath them. In the spring the following course should be pursued — a bottom of peat is to be laid in some dry and convenient place, six inches deep and fifteen feet wide ; on this are to be put the manure from the stables and all the unfermented accumula- * Professor Johnson has ascertained, by analysis, that an ordinary crop of clover or sainfoin wUl j-ield per acre from one and a half to two hundred weight of sul- phate of lime. This is precisely the quantity usually applied per acre in those parts ■ of the country where plaster is in most general use. f Dana. ^ MAOTJItEB. 19 lions of the •winter, to the depth of ten inches, then six inches of peat, and over this four inches of dung, and so on, alternately, to the height of four or five feet. The whole should then be surrounded and covered with peat about one foot in thickness. The proportion of fresh dung is about seven cart-loads to twenty-one of peat, if the weather is mild ; but more dung is required if the weather is cold : over this heap ashes or lime may now be spread, in the proportion of a cart-load to twenty- eight of the compost. The dung should not have fermented much before it is used, and if it is watered with urine or the drainings of a dunghill, the effect will be more rapid. Animal matter, such as fish, refuse of slaughter-houses, and every substance which will readily under- go the putrefactive fermentation, will accelerate the process, and save dung in the compost. Where pigeons' dung can be procured, a much smaller quantity will produce the desired effect. The heap should not be pressed down, but bef left to settle by its own weight. If the heat pro- duced by the fermentation is very great, the whole heap may be turned over and more peat added to it. This will keep up the heat till the whole is reduced to a uniform mass of black mould. It may then be put on the land in the same quantity that farm-yard dung would have been, and consequently, by a little labor, four times the quantity of manure is produced by the mixture of the peat with the dung. It is found that lime is not essential to the formation of this compost. The fermenta- tion excited is suflBcient to decompose the tannin and convert it into a soluble extract. The fibers, partially decomposed, are reduced into vegetable mould, and the whole assumes a uniform and rich appearance. A complete chemical change has taken place, and the peat, from being very inflammable, is now scarcely capable of combustion, and that only in a very great heat. There is no better or more economical mode of con- verting peat into a rich manure. In summer the whole process may be completed insight or ten weeks ; in winter it takes a longer time ; and it may be useful to give the heap an occasional lining of fresh dung, as is done with hot-beds in gardens to renew the heat. Hog Manure is of the most valuable kind. By freely supplying the sty with muck, as just intimated for stables, or with loam, refuse, litter, etc., a surprising -quantity may be thus manufactured. A single swine in a year will saturate with his urine and convert into the best manure, ten loads of swamp muck or loam. Manure of Fowls, — It has been said by a careful agricultural chemist, that one pound of the manure of fowls that has not been exposed to' the sun and rains is equivalent in value to fifty pounds of stable-manure. Though the expression may seem difficult of belief, its value, neverthe- less, is clearly so great as should lead to its careful preservation and use, instead of permitting its worse than useless expenditure upon the branches of fruit-trees, the utensils stored in open shed^ or upon the backs of animals which have sought shelter there. Green Manures are best suited to comparatively heavy soils ; yet their free use in all varieties of soil has the general sanction of intelligent farmers. Red clover, sainfoin, buckwheat^ Indian corn, cow-pea, etc., are the crops generally employed for this purpose. Tixej should be plowed in when in blossom. 20 THE FAEM. The advantages of green manures consist mainly in the addition of organic matter which they make to the soil. The presence of this aids in the liberation of those mineral ingredients which are there locked up, and which, on being set free, act with so much advantage to tha crop. The roots also exert a power in eft'ccting this decomposition, beyond any other known agents, either of nature or art. Their minute fibers are brought into contact with the elements of the soil, and they act upon them with a force peculiar to themselves alone. Their agency is far more efficacious for this purpose than the intensest heat or strongest acids, persuading the elements to give up for their own use what is essential to their maturity and perfection. By substituting a crop for a naked fallow, we have all the fibers of the roots throughout the field, aiding the decomposition which is slowly going forward in every soil. Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their suste- nance from the air, especially when aided by the application of gyp- Fum. By its long tap roots, clover also draws much from the subsoil; as all plants appropriate such saline substances as arc necessary to their maturity, and which are brought to their roots in a state of solution by the up-welling moisture from' beneath. This last is frequently a great source of improvement to the soil. The amount of carbon drawn from " the air in the state of carbonic acid,, and of ammonia and nitric acid, under favorable circumstances of soil and crop, is very great ; and when buried beneath the surface, all are saved and yield their fertility to the land ; while such vegetation as decays on the surface loses much of its value by evaporation and drainage. In the green state, fermentation is rapid, and by resolving the matter of plants into their elements, it fits the ground at once for a succeeding crop. The following from the Hon. Daniel Lee, editor of the Southern Cul- tivator, is commended to the attention of Southern farmers : " The first thing I did when I came to Georgia, a year and a half ago, and saw the extreme nakedness of tbe land, was to recommend the seeding with rye, at the last plowing in corn-fields, or soon after the crop ceases to grow, with a view to have this winter plant gather up from August till March whatever available atoms might be within reach of its roots and leaves. As the earth does not freeze, and heavy, wash- ing rains fall in winter, 'the fat of the land' is largely consumed, and is either lost, like a burned candle, in the atmosphere, or carried like water from a- dung-heap, into ditches and ' branches.' Barley, oats, and wheat all do well here, sown in November or December. It is now the 6th of February, 1849, and I have this day seen a field of oata which has been cut in part for soiling, for some weeks.' Another, in barley, is so stout as to fall down or lodge. Winter pastures of rye are very valuable for stock of all kinds, although there are some clayey soils that the treading of cattle and sheep injures. "Acting on my theory of keeping the earth always covered with some growing vegetation, Mr. M. B. Moore, of this city (Augusta), raised last season thirty-four and a half .bushels of wheat from one of seed, which was harvested about the 20th May; then a crop of hay, equal to a ton and a half to the acre, which was mown in August; and then a crop MAUTJEEB. 21 of pcasp. whicli was Larvested in November — all from the same land. , The land is now in -wheat, to be harvested in May next, as before. There is no difficulty in growing three crops of small grain in a year at the South, ii^oiie is cut green for hay, as oats, pease, barley, and rye are often cut. To enrich the soil, I assume that the manure derived from both the grain and straw, or of the green crops, is all carefully saved and duly applied to the land. As about sixty per cent, of the hay and other food eaten by a cow, sheqp, or horse is lost in vapor and carbonic acid, thrown out of the lungs in the process of breathing, and through the pores of the skin in insensible perspiration, one will increase organic matter in a poor soil much faster to plow-in clover, peas, timothy, and rye, than to feed these to domestic animals, and apply all their excre- tions to the land." The following table from Boussingault gives a comprehensive view of the proportion of azote or nitrogen contained in the most common manures, and of their quality and equivalents, as compared with farm- yard dung. Thus ten pounds of fresh cotton-seed oil-cake are equal in value to one hundred fresh or wet farm-yard dung, as far as the nitro- gen, in each is concerned. To form a perfect table of equivalents, the phosphates, potash, etc., must be also taken into consideration. Farm-yard dung Dung from an iun-yard Dung water Withered leaves of carrots . . Do. do. of oak Oyster-sliells Oak saw-dust Oilcake of cotton-seed Solid cow-dung Urine of cows Mixed cow-dung Solid horse-dung Horse-urine Mixed liorae-dung Pig-dung Sheep-dung Poudrette of Belloni Pigeons' dung Guano from Jingland Idem Cruano imported from France Dried muscular flesh Liquid blood Fresh bones Feathers Cow-hair flock ■Woolen rags Horn-shavings Wood-soot , . . . . Vegetable mould Quality Equirnlent fls Azote in 100. aocofding to according r^, state. to state. Dry. Wet Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. 79.3 1.95 0.41 100 100 100 100 60.6 2.08 0.79 107 107 04 51 99.6 1.54 0.06 78 2 127 68 70.9 2.94 0.85 150 212.5 66 47 25.0 1.57 1.18 80 ■293 125 34 17.9 0.40 0.32 20 80 488 125 26.0 0.72 0.54 36 135 256 74 11.0 4.52 4.02 231 1000 32 10 85.9 2.30 0.32 117 80 84 125 88.3 3.80 0.44 194 110 51 91 84.3 2.59 0.41 132 102.5 75 98 75 3 2.21 0.55 113 137.5 88 73 79.1 12.50 2.61 641 652.5 15^ 14^ 75.4 3.02 2.74 154 185 66 54 81.4 3.37 0.63 172 157.5 68 63 63.0 2.99 1.11 153 277.5 65 36 12.5 4.40 3.85 225 962 44 10^- 9.6 9.02 8.30 462 2075 2H 5 19.6 6.20 5.00 323 1247 sn 80 23.4 7.05 5.40 361 1349 28 74 11.3 15.73 13.95 807 3487 13* 2Hk 8.5 14.25 13.04 730 32G0 m 3 81.0 2.95 795 3045 m 3f 30.0 5.31 1326 VJ^ 12.9 17.61 15.34 903 3835 n ^ 8.9 15.12 13.78 775 3445 13 3 11.3 20.26 17 98 1039 4495 n !!f 9.0 15.78 14.36 809 3590 m 3 5.6 1.31 1.15 67 287-5 149 35 1.03 53 189 33 22 THE FAEM. Night Soil is a very valuable fertilizer. It should be composted witb powdered charcoal, peat, or plaster. When charcoal is freely used, this substance becomes entirely inodorous, and an offensive nuisance is thus converted into a valuable application to any crop. • Guano is the substance of the manure of birds with the water evapor- ated. The Peruvian and Bolivian are the best varieties, and when these can be bought pure, delivered at not oyer three dollars to three dollars and a half per hundred weight, it is generally the cheapest manure to be obtained, as it is so easily applied — the labor of applying other manures often approaching the price of guano. It is well to apply about two hundred weight per acre, with one-half the usual quan- tity of other manure. Guano should never in a fresh state come in contact with seeds or the roots of plants, as it is sure to destroy their vitality. In' setting out fruit-trees and shrubs of all kinds, guano is the cheapest and most convenient manure to apply. After the holes are dug, sprinkle the bottom thinly with a handful of guano. Cover this at least three inches deep. On this you may plant your trees with safety, and after the roots are covered, a little more may be sprinkled, and the whole covered with soil. But the great value of guano js in forming liquid manure ; one pound of guano to five gallons of water, applied once a week, will add wonderfully to the growth of any plants watered with this mixture. For very delicate plants, twice the above quantity of water should be given. If guano is not to be had, the ma- nure of fowls is a good substitute. This liquid is especially valuable in the flower-garden. It must be poured upon the roots, and not upon the leaves or collars of the plants. On lawns, a pound sprinkled upon each square rod will restore their verdure. A great advantage of ap- plying guano is that no seeds of weeds are scattered in the soil.* Bones are an especially useful application to almost any crop. Bones contain sixty-six parts of earthy matter, mostly phosphate of lime, and thirty-four parts of gelatine. Phosphate of lime, next to ammonia, is the most necessary application to a soil, because it is the first element exhausted. Gelatine is rich in nitrogen, so that in bones are united the most valuable organic and inorganic manures. Applied whole, bones decompose too slowly to be of much value, and would be greatly in the way of tillage. They may be broken small, the fine dust sifted out, and the remainder moistened and thrown into heaps to ferment a few months. Bones can be dissolved by boiling in strong lye, and when dried by mixing with plaster, ashes, etc., may be applied broadcast or in drills. The best way to treat bones is to dissolve them in sulphilric acid, forming superphosphate of lime. A carboy of sulphuric acid, cost- ing about four dollars, at wholesale, in the cities, and containing one hundred and sixty pounds, will dissolve about three hundred pounds of bones. The bones should be put in a tub. A portion of'the acid, equal to one-third, should be diluted by pouring it into three times its bulk of water, and then should be poured upon the bones. After standing a day or two, pour on another portion of diluted acid, and if not already dissolved, in a day or two after the remainder should be added. The * "Gardening for the South." MAMTTEES. 23 mass must be often stirred. The bones will dissolve into a kind of paste, -which may be mixed with thirty times its bulk of water, and used as a liquid manure, but it ia more convenient in practice to mix it with ashes, saw-dust, or fine charcoal. Three bushels of these dissolved bones are sufficient for an acre. The acid has converted the bones into a superphosphate of lime, which is very soluble, and is readily taken up by the plant. 'This is the most valuable of all manures for the turnip, and the quantity needed for the acre is so little that the expense is less than almost any other application.* We close this article by the following pertinent extract from "The Farm :" " All the urine, as well as all the solid excrements of animals, should be carefully preserved.. It is very rich in nitrogen and the phosphates, and some writers on agriculture contend that its value, if properly pre- served and applied, is greater than that of the dung. From an experi- ment made in Scotland it appears, that in five months each cow dis- charges urine, which, when absorbed by loam, furnishes manure enough, of the richest quality and most durable effects, for half an acre of ground. Think of this, ye American farmers, who are accustomed to allow so much of this richness to run to waste. The urine of three cows for one year is worth more than a ton of guaru), which would cost from, fifty to sixty dollars. Will you continue to waste urine and buy guano ? Various methods of preserving and applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer. Stables may be so constructed that the liquid discharges of the cattle, together with the wash of the barn-yard, may be conducted tcj a tank or cistern, to be pumped out and applied directly to the land, or absorbed by saw-dust, turif, etc., and used in that form. If allowed to stand long in the tank, in a liquid form, fermentation is liable to take place, and the ammonia to pass off ; but a ,few pounds of plaster of Paris occasionally thrown in will cause the formation of the sulphate of ammonia, which will not evaporate. "But the waste of manures is not confined to those of the liquid form. The solid excrements of the animals are often left to drain, bleach, or ferment, till the greater portion of their most valuable elements have disappeared. Stable manures should be sheltered from the sun and rain, and fermenting heaps so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the es- cape of the fertilizing gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine, will aid in retaining the ammonia. Boussingault, one of the most accurate of ex- perimenters in agricultural chemistry, states, that while the nitogen in fresh horse-dung is two and seven-tenths per cent., that in the fermented and dried horse-dung is only one per cent. Horse-dung should be mixed at once with other manures, or with turf or loam, to retain its fiiU value. The manure of sheep is strong and very active, and, next to that of the horse, is most liable to heat and decompose." * " Gardening for the South.'' 24: THE FAEM. III. ROTATION OF CROPS. As different plants appropriate different substances, the rotation of crops lias considerable influence in retaining and economizing the fer- tility of the soil. If the same kind of plants are continued upon the same soil, onl)'a portion of the properties of the manure applied is used, while, by a judicious rotation, every thing in the soil, or in the manure, suitable for vegetable food, is taken up and appropriated by the ci'ops. Some vegetables, as onions and carrots, are very exhausting to the soil, ■while lettuce is very slightly so. Hence, however plentiful manure may be, a succession of exhausting crops should not be grown in the same place, because abundance is no excuse for want of economy, and because manure freshly applied is not so immediately beijeficial as those remains of organized :natter, which, by long continuance in the soil, have be- come impalpably divided and diffused through its texture, of which each succeeding crop consumes a portion. Those plants generally are least exhausting which have the largest surface of leaves, not only because they are made up of a gi-eater proportion of aqueous matter, but also because they arc enabled to obtain more in proportion of their food from the atmosphere. A rotation was formerly thought necessary, from an idea that each plant throws off from its roots, into the soil, certain matters which are injurious to others of the same species afterward grown upon the soil, but this view can hardly bo sustained. , Another reason for rotation of crops is, that some crops are so favorable to weeds, that if continued long upon the same bed, the labor of cultivating them is much increased, while, if raised but once in a place and followed by a cleaning crop, the weeds arc easily kept under. Besides, many crops planted continually in the same soil are more liable to bo attacked by the insects which arc the peculiar enemies of those plants. Again, different plants derive their principal nourishment from diffeiont depths of soil. Hence, deep-rooted plants should be suc- ceeded by those whose roots extend but little below the surface — per- ennial plants. by annuals, crops left for seed, or that arc of a dry, solid texture, by those which arc succulent and juicy.* The following view of the principles and the practice of rotation is from the pen of Mr. J. J. Thomas, one of the most practical and reliable agricultural writers of the age : " In the arrangement of a rotation, no additional expenditure or labor is necessary; it costs no more to cultivate crops which arc made to suc- ceed each other judiciously, than to cultivate those arranged in the worst manner possible. The former may bring triple the successful re- sults of the latter — not by the expenditure of five hundred extra days in drawing manure, or five hundred dollars' worth of ditching, but simply by making a proper use of one's brains. ' ' "It seems surprising, under the circumstances, that so small a num- ber seize the golden prize thus completely placed within their reach — that there are so few, even of those reckoned good farmers, who pursue any thing like a systematic succession, to say nothing of such a rotation * " Gardoning for the South." ROTATION OF OEOPS. 25 as shall accomplish its peculiarly beneficial results, namely, preserva- tion of the riches of the soil, destruction of weeds, destruction of insects, and the most advantageous consumption by each successive crop of all the means for its growth within reach. As a consequence of this neg- lect, we sec land overcropped with wheat, the soil worn out for this par- ticular grain, and those troublesome weeds, chess and red-root, taking its place. AVc see pastures, left unplowed for a long series of years, be- come filled with 'buttercups' and ox-eye daisy. A disproportion of spring crops facilitates the spread of wild mustard, and among insects, grubs and wire-worms increase according to the cultivation that favo'rs their labors. It appears to be" but little understood how great is the assistance to clean cultivation afforded by a good rotation. In the best example of this sort wc ever witnessed, every field of a symmetrically laid'out. farm, except a wet meadow, was brought under a regular, un- varying system, scarcely a weed was ever to be seen, and wc ascertained that the whole was accomplished with not one-third of the labor usually expended for the hand-dressing of hard crops." He gives the following as a GOOD METHOD OF EOTATION I L Isl year — Com and roots, well manured. 2d year — AVlieat, sown with clover-seed; 15 lbs. an acre. 3d year — Clover, one or more yeare, according to fertility and amount ot man ure at hand. n. 1st year — Corn and roots, with, all the manure. 2d year — Barley and pease. 3d year — Wheat, sown with clover. 4th year — Clover, one or more years. TTT 1st year — Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year — Barley. 3d year — Wheat, sown with clover. 4th year — Pasture. 5th year — Meadow. 6lh year — Fallow. 7lh year — Wheat. 8th year — Oats, sown with clover. 9 th year — Pasture or meadow. "The number of the fields must correspond with the number of changes in each course ; the first needing three fields to carry it ont, the second four, the third nine. As each field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole number of fields collectively compi-ise the entire scries of crops every year. .Thus, in the list above given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn and roots, one of barley, one of oatsi, and one of summer fallow." I\. DRAI]¥IIV«. Wateu may render land unproductive by covering it entirely or par- tially, forming lakes or bogs ; or there may be an excess of moisture diffused through the soil aud stagnating in it, by which the fibers 5Jb THE FAEM. of the roots of all plants which are not aquatic are injured, if not destroyed. Braining is required generally under the following circumstances : 1. Where springs rise to the surface, and where there are no natural channels for the water to run off. 2. To drain land which is wet from its impervious nature, and where the evaporation is not suflBcient to carry off all the water supplied by snow and rain. TEN REASONS FOR ITNDERDRAINING. 1. It prevents water which falls from resting on or near the surface, and renders the soil dry enough to be worked or plowed at all times. 2. By rendering the soil porous or spongy, it takes in water withont flooding in time of rain, and gives it off a^ain gradually in time of drouth. 3. By preventing adhesion and assisting pulverization, it allows the roots to pass freely through all parts of the soil. 4. By facilitating the mixture of manure through the pulverized por- tions, it greatly increases its value and effect. 5. It allows water falling on the surface to pass downward, carrying with it any fertilizing substances (as carbonic acid and ammonia) until they are arrested by the absorption of the soU. 6. It abstracts, in a similar manner, the heat contained in falling rains, thus warming the soil, the water discharged by drain-moutts being many degrees colder than ordinary rains. 7. The increased porosity of the soil renders it a more perfect non- conductor of heat, and the roots of plants are less injured by freezing in winter. 8. The same cause admits the entrance of air, facilitating the decom- position of enriching portions of the soil. 9. By admitting early plowing, crops may be sown early, and an in- creased amount reaped in consequence. . 10. It economizes labor, by allowing the work to go on at all times without interruption from surplus water in spring, or from hard-baked soil in summer.* Where and how hi make Drains. — The old method of cutting drains at right angles, or obliquely with the descent of the ground, has been superseded by that of cutting them on a line with its descent, or up and down it. Mr. Smith in his pamphlet thus refutes the idea that any drains should be cut across a declivity : " Drains drawn across a steep, cut the strata or layers of subsoil transversely ; and as the stratification gener- ally lies in sheets at an angle to the surface, it is plain that the water passing in or between the strata, immediately below the bottom of one drain, nearly comes to the surface before reaching the next lower drain. But as water seeks the lowest level in all directions, if the strata be cut longitudinally, by a drain directed down the steep, the water will fall into the drain at the intersecting point of each sheet or layer, on a * " Annual Eegiater." DRAINING 2Y level with the bottom of the drain, leaving oi e uniform depth of dry soil." Nor will these drains bnrst or flow as some assert, for if properly made, they will carry off the water so fast as to prevent any stoppage by mud or sand. It is the cross drains that are apt to be stopped. Mf . Parkes's arguments are somewhat similar to those of Mr. Smith, on directly draining the water through the soil. Besides fertilizing the soil with the ammonia from the atmosphere, he considers it raises the temperature ; and as the deeper we can get our land into this state the better, so therefore the deeper we get our drains, the more beneficially they will act ; and although the cost of cutting each drain deep would be more, yet, as a more rapid flow is obtained, and a draught from a greater distance, it will be less expensive, as requiring fewer drains Even in stiff soils a thorough net-wort of cracks and fissures speedily takes place from springage? caused by joint action of the drains and superfi-^ cial evaporation. • Dig your drains four feet deep, or as deep as| the fall will let you, says Mr. Parkes ; lay a small^ pipe at bottom, an inch one will often suffice, and^ fill up with the most tenacious soil you can get,j for we do not want the water to run over the sur-;OirBLE UOTTLD-BOABD PLOV. The ridging or double mould-board plow is a very useful imple- ment. It is used for opening drills to plant potatoes, corn, etc. ; in plowing between narrow rows, in digging potatoes, etc. ' No farmer should be without it. It is a light one-horse plow. The sideyhill, or swijrel plow, is so constructed, that the mould-board is easily and instantly changed from one side to the other, which enables the plow- man to perform the wort horizontally upon hill sides, going back and forth on the same side, and turning all the ftirrow slices downward. This prevents the washing of the soil by heavy rains, to which all hill sides are more or less liable wheil plowed up and down the slope. Such a plow should be considered indispensable on all hill-side farms. The Geddes harrow and the Hanford harrow, triangular in shape, are also excellent implements; and for light grounds, free from stones and other obstructions, the Scotch or square harrow serves its purpose admirably. BOTAST HABBOW. The accompanying engraving represents a harrow recently patented by Samuel J. Orange, of Graysville, 111. It involves the rotary principle, the rotation being produced by the pressure of the rollers g g upon the wheels A A. It has th'e important advantage, that while it secures the rotation of the wheels, it at the same time avoids side draught. * J.J.Thomas. FAEM IMPLEMENTS. 37 EOESE-EOB FOB COTTOIT. The above is a representation of Knox's Horse-Hoe, adapted to the cultivation of cotton. The Field-Roller. — Those who have become well acquainted with the use of the roller, would be unwilling to dispense with it ; and some would say that a complete system of tillage, let the nature of the soil be what it may, cannot be carried on without it. It is now proposed to consider the several uses to which -this instrument may be applied. On some soils, no doubt it may be more beneficial than onj)thers ; and of course some may be able to get along without its aid better than those differently situated. The first object usually aimed at in the employment of this instru- ment, is to break those clods or indurated masses of earth which have resisted the action of the harrow ; or, at all events, to bury them in the ground, so that at the next harrowing — which, when thus buried, they ' cannot well escape — they must, of necessity, be somewhat dhninished in size. It is for this reason that in countries where the soil is very tena- cious, and tillage very carefully conducted, it is the custom,, even after the preparatory plow- ings, first to harrow, then to pass the roller over the ground, and then to harrow again. In such places, land not treated in this manner woald be looked upon as being very badly prepared. The second object of rolling, is to give a some- what greater degree of compactness to a soil which is too light and fri- able, and to. unite its component parts. The roller is not employed for this purpose to so great an extent as it might be with advantage. Its action in this'aase being highly beneficial, particularly in counteracting the bad effects produced on extremely light soils by the too frequent WOODEK FIELD-BOILEB. 38 THE FAEM. use of the plow, and likewise in preventing the too rapid evaporation of the moisture contained in the soil. This application of the roller is particularly resorted to on the spongy soils of valleys. In such situa- tions it cannot, indeed, be well dispensed with. The third use to which the roller is applied, is to press down and make firm the ground about newly-sown seeds, and to cause the latter to adhere better to the soil. Sometimes, when v6ry small seed is to be sown, it is found advantageous to pass the roller over the ground before the seed is sown, so as to level it thoroughly, and to facilitate more equal distribution of the seed than could otherwise take place. Where the ground has been- thus leveled, those seeds which happen to fall to- gether, separate from each other ; and it is seldom that two are lying in one spot. The harrow is then passed over the ground ; and this operation is followed by repeated rollings, which obliterate the lines drawn by the harrow. The roller may also be employed with advan- tage on soils which are neither particularly moist nor tenacious, after the harrow has been used to cover the seed. This operation serves to press the earth more closely into contact with the seed, which then germinates and springs up with much greater rapidity. The truth of this will be plainly seen by observing those parts which have escaped the -action of the roller ; for there the seed does not spring up so quickly as it does where the ground has been well pressed by this instrument. Probably, too, the pressure may, by the greater compactness which it gives to the soil, prevent any rays of light from penetrating, and thus .interfering with the process of germination. Another advantage de- rived from* this leveling of the soil by the roller is, that the harvest is greatly facilitated ; for it enables the laborers to reap or mow closer to the ground — a point of great importance, especially as regards the pea and bean crops. The fourth great use of the roller is to cover with mould, or press against or into the ground, the roots of those plants sown in the pre- ceding autumn which have been detached by the frost. Soils rich in humus, such as those found in valleys, sometimes swell up in the spring to such a degree, that the roots of the plants contained in them are forced up. In such cases, if a fall of rain does not speedily occur, the roller is the only means of restoring them to their proper position. Ac- cordingly, says a sensible writer, in no branch of husbandry is the roller more an implement of utility than in the cultivation of grass. It ren- ders the soil compact and solid ; it encourages the growth of the plants, by bringing the earth close to every part of the root ; it assists in filling up and leveling any inequalities in the surface of the field, thereby pre- venting surface water from remaining ^stagnant, and eradicating the grass from particular spots ; and it tends to hinder the drought from penetrating, which is an effect of the greatest importance. In fact, a grass field cannot too often be rolled ; and it is not going too far to assert that the application of the roller in autumn to prepare the roots for resisting the winter frosts, and in spring to render them firm after the frosts, every year while the field remains in grass, will amply repay die expense. • The best plan for a roller is, that it be in two parts, each about three FAKM IMPLEMENTS. 39 feet in leBgth, and thirty inches in diameter; by this means, in turning, one will roll back while the other moves forward. The frame in which they are suspended may be made of good oak joist, four by six inches,- holes being bored in the side-pieces to receive the gudgeons. If there are two cross-bars forward, perhaps twelve inches apart, good accom- modations are furnished for the driver to ride ; and if there are two behind the roller in the same manner, stones may be laid on to increase its weight. This, too, makes the frame strong, and not easily racked. For convenience in being sheltered, it may be put together by dovetail tenons and keys, so as to be easily taken apart. Then the rollers only require much space for protec- tion against the weather dur- ing the season of winter. The author's is 9onstructed in this manner. His roller consists of two-inch chestnut plank, three inches in width, the end pieces or heads being three- inch oak plank, and put to- gether like a barrel, first nailed A 8MAIX HASB-DEiii. ou, aud thcu sccured by hoops made of old wheel-tire. Complete, it cost about twenty dollars. They can, however, be made at a less expense. Instead of such framework cylinders, they can be made of smooth, round oak logs, the ends being sawed perpendicularly so as to revolve without obstruction. Iron gudgeons put into their centers make good axles. They ought to be not less than twenty or twenty-four inches in diameter. The cost of them might be less than half the cost of the others. Rollers are also made of solid stone, but for most purposes these would be too heavy. Others are made of cast-iron, hollow or solid, so as to give suitable weight. It is necessary that a favorable period and weather, when the ground is sufficiently dry, should be chosen for rolling, as for harrowing. It is absolutely necessary that the humidity of the soil should not be ^o great as to cause it to stick to the instrument ; for when that is the case, the operation is likely to prove more injurious than beneficial, not only to tenacious and clayey soils, but also to those which are lighter, inasmuch as it hardens the ground, and forms a crust, which is impervious to air and atmospheric action. On the other hand, however, it is not right to wait until the clods of tenacious land have, by the evaporation of all their moisture, become so hard as to render the action of the roller on them totally inefficacious.* Subsoil-Plow. — Subsoil plowing has, when properly done, been at- tended with the most gratifying and sometimes astonishing results. Few persons have any idea of the depth to which roots descend in favorable situations. The fibrils of a wheat kernel have been found more than, thirty inches below the surface ; those of red clover, Indian com, and Swedish turnip, five feet ; and of sanfoin and lucern, fi'om * " Parraera' Every-Dav Book." 40 THE FAEM. twenty to thirty feet ! And, long after they have become invisible tc the naked eye, they can be detected by the microscope pushing them- selves away from light. No one need be told the object of these sub- terranean journeys. It is the constant effort of the good cultivator to facilitate this wonderful operation of nature; he digs and trenches the soil to the depth of two or three feet, and finds himself repaid by a most luxuriant vegetation. We have said that another benefit of subsoOing is that of admitting the sterile substratum to the meliorating influences of the atmosphere. This is one of the most important principles of husbandry. Experiment has shown that air- contains a very large percentage of the constituents of vegetable growth. By subsoiling, these, or a large portion of them, will be absorbed by the loose earth, and carefully treasured up for the growing plant. And moreover, it is found that the free circulation of the air renders available, by certain chemical changes which we have not time to explain, many fertilizing gases that might otherwise lie dor- mant for centuries. Admitting that this circulation is m proportion to the lightness of the soil, it then follows that the benefit derived by the crop from this cause will be proportionably increased. A thorough drainage is sometimes secured by subsoiling. We shall not state in this connection the respective advantages of draining wet and marshy land ; we have only to inquire how far it may be effected by the use of the subsoil-plow. Where the share can break through a thin stratum of retentive clay, underlaid by one of a more porous char- acter, so that the surface water may escape, the most beneficial results will probably follow. A barren and unpromising spot has thereby frequently become fertile and easy of cultivation. Sometimes, however, subsoiling has been of decided injury, in rousing the thirsty sand or gravel to ab- sorb all the moisture and soluble manures of the surface soil. Land of this description ought to be kept in wood or permanent pasture, as under the most carefiit management it is ever ungrateful. And where the substratum of clay reaches far below the share, underdraining ought to be first employed. After this is done, the subsoil-plow may be used with profit. Subsoiling secures a supply of heat and moisture for the plant. It is a well-known fact, that in time of drought the vegetation of a garden will be much more vigorous than that in the adjacent field. This is mainly owing to the greater looseness of the soil. A single instance in illustration will suffice. Mr. C. N. Bement, the distinguished agricul- turist, some years since subsoiled several strips of a sandy knoll which he planted with Indian corn. In the dry summer that followed, the corn of those strips was green and flourishing, while that on the other por- tions of the lot was almost burned up with the heat; and at harvest, the difference in the yield was not less remarkable. These are the immediate benefits that the farmer will derive from sub- . soiling, which has in many instances caused a gain in the crop of thirty or forty, to even more than fifty per cent. One thing more remains to be noticed in the present chapter — we mean the constant improvement of the subsoil. The minute particles of the surface and subsoils are gradually mixed together; the natural resources of the ground are FAEM OEOPS. 41 waiened into life by the influence of the atmosphere ; the thread-like web of roots with whidh it is filled decay when the plant dies or is re- moved ; and in time, the sterile, unprofitable substratum becomes a valuable loam of great depth and fertility.* The following list of the farm implements necessary for the proper cultivation of one hundred acres of arable land, has been prepared by Mr. J. J. Thomas : 2 Plows fitted for work $20 00 1 SmaJl plow do 6 00 1 Cultivator, best kind •? 00 1 Drill-barrow. 6 00 1. Roller 5 00 1 Harrow 10 00 1 Fanning-mill • 20 00 1 Straw-cutter 15 00 1 Eoot-sUcer 8 00 1 Pann-wagon,with hay-raok, etc. 10 00 1 Ox-cart. 50 00 1 Double farm hameaa 30 00 1 Horse-cart 45 00 1 Horse-cart harness 18 00 1 Eoot-steamer, or boiler. 20 00 1 Shovel and one spade 2 50 3 Steel-plate hoes 1 50 8 Dung-forks 2 00 ,3 Hay-forks 2 25 2 Hand-rakes 25 1 Kevolviug horse-rake 8 00 1 Grain-cradle 4 00 2 Scythes 4 00 1 Wheelbarrow. 4 00 1 Pointed shovel. 1 26 1 Grain-shoveL or scoop-shovel. $1 25 IPick 150 1 Mall and wedger- ; . . 2 60 2.^es .• 4 00 1 Hammer 50 1 Wood-saw V. 100 1 Tumip-hook. 15 1 Hay-knife 100 2 Apple-ladders (tor gatiiering). . 1 50 2 Large baskets 125 2 Hand-baskets 60 1 Tape-line (for laying off land) . 2 00 2 Sheep-shears 2 00 1-Grindstone 3 00 1 Steel-yard, large, and one small 2 00 1 Stable lantern 50 1 Curry-comb, and one brush. . . 15 1 Half-bushel measure 1 00 20 Grain-bags 6 00 1 Ox-chain 3 00 1 Crow-bar 2 00 1 Sled and fixtures 30 00 Total. .$426 1'' Til. FARM CROPS. In this chapter we shall confine our attention to the crops appropriate to field culture only, as we shall treat of garden products in a separate division of this work. Indian Corn, — The com crop of the United States is over five hundred millions of bushels annually, and its growth is largely on the increase. Its value is so great as to justify all judicious efforts to augment its cul- ture. Its annual value is some three hundred millions of dollars. Indian corn is now raised very extensively not only in America, but throughout a great part of Asia and Africa, and also in several coun- tries of the South of Europe, as in Spain and Italy. In many of the provinces of France it forms almost exclusively the sustenance of the inhabitants. In some parts of America, two crops are obtained in a season ; but as it is found to exhaust the soil very soon, it is usual'y * " Fanners' Every-Day Book." 42 THE FAEM. planted upon the same piece of ground only after an interval of five or eix years. It succeeds best in soils which are light, dry, and rich. The usual mode of planting is in little hillocks raised at intervals throughout the field, to each of which is allotted four or five grains. These last, after being dipped in water, will sprout in .five or six days. Planting must be deferred till after the season of frost, as that will cut down the leaves, if not destroy the germ. In many countries, after flowering, the tops are cut oif just above the ears, and considered excel- lent fodder for cattle. In other places,. the entire stalk is allowed to remain till the grain is nearly ripe, when the whole is cut near the ground and put into stacks, each one designed to contain about a bushel of the ears. The juices in the lower parts of the stalk pass into the grain till it is fully ripened. The succeeding operation is to free the ears from the husks, which, with the stalks, are preserved for the feed of cattle in the succeeding season ; and the grain upon the cobs is de- posited in the granary. It is a controverted point among .agriculturists whether it is best to cut ofi' the tops of the stalks in the manner first described, or to adopt the latter mode. The former gives the best feed for cattle ; but there is much additional labor. Those who practice it say also that there is more grain, and of a better quality. The advo- cates of the latter process affirm that the contrary is true, so far as the quantity of grain is at issue. We have, in different years, pursued both courses, but without making nice comparisons that would enable us to add our authority either way. The green stems and leaves abound in nutritious matter for cattle, and in some countries it is cultivated solely for this purpose, especially after the early erops of other vegetables. When designed for this pur- pose, the seed should be sown broadcast, or very thickly in drills. The soil should be made rich ; and the quantity of fodder frequently ob- tained is almost incredibly large. It may be cut in small parcels, and dealt out daily as needed. If given to cows, it will make their milk abundant. Perhaps it is the best and most economical feed for that purpose. Or it may be cured for winter use. In the latter case it should be thoroughly dried, and then well protected against moisture. The grain, when well dried, will keep for several years, and preserve its power of germination. ' It is cooked in Various ways, and forms a wholesome and substantial aliment. Domestic animals of every kind are also extremely fond of it. According to Count Rumford, it is, next to wheat, the most nutritious grain. It is considered as too stimulating for the common food of cattle, and is found to be more stimulating than any other kind of bread used by us. Mixed with rye-meal, it makes a bread extensively used in New England, and by those accus- tomed to it, much admired. Mixed with water only, it makes what is called hasty-pudding, a palatable article of food, and deemed worthy of being made the subject of a well-known poem by Joel Barlow. Ground coarse and boiled, it forms hominy, which is so great a favorite at the South. In the form of hulled corn, or samp, the whole grains itfrnish a dish not without friends. The crop of 1848 was estimated at four hundred and seventy-one millions of bushels ; that is, over one hundred and fifty bushels for each FAKM OEOPS. 43 family. This, at the low price of sixty-five cents to the bushel, amounts to more than three hundred millions of dollars ; from a single branch of agricjiltural investment and industry in a single year. However, its culture is so well understood, that it is superfluous to enter into a dis- cussion. If a farmer desires to raise a large crop instead of a small one, let him learn the secret of doing it from neighbors who are already set- ting him the example. Give the land good tillage and ample supplies of manure, and the object will be reached. We append a list of several large crops of com : Mr. Wadsworth, of Durham, Connecticut, in the year 1844, raised a crop on one quarter of an acre of ground at the rate of one hundred and fifty-one bushels and eighteen quarts of shelled corn per acre. Mr. Paschall Morris, near Westchester, Pennsylvania, in 184S, pro- duced ten acres which averaged one hundred and one bushels and three pecks per acre. Mr. George W. Williams, of Bourbon county, Kentucky, in 1840, raised one hundred and fifty-nine and two-ninths bushels per acre. Mr. Young, of Kentucky, in 1840, raised over one hundred and ninety bushels per acre. Mr. J. P. Jones, of Sullivan county, New York, in 1849,' raised over one hundred and ninety-five bushels of ears per acre, at a net profit of forty dollars twelve cents. » Mr. William H. Crawford, of the same county, and in the same year, raised one hundred and a quarter bushels of shelled corn per acre. Mr. Rufus Beckwith, of Henrietta, New York, in 1844, raised one hundred and twenty-six bushels of shelled corn per acre. Mr. Jabez Burroughs, of Chatauque county. New York, in 1846, ch- ained a premium for a crop of one hundred and. fourteen bushels and ijiirty-two pounds of shelled com per acre. Mr. Stevens, of Hoboken, near New York city, raised over one hun- dred and eighteen bushels .per acre. Mr. B. Butldt, of Chenango county, New York, in 1831, raised one hundred and forty bushels irom one acre. Mr. Leonard.Hill, in 1823, received the premium fi'om the Plymouth (Mass.) Agricultural Society, for a crop of one hundred and thirty-nine bushels of shelled corn per acre. The Messrs. Pratt, of Eaton, New York, obtained, in 1822, from three acres, a crop of five hundred and seventeen and a half bushels, or one hundred and seventy-two bushels per acre; and in 1823, from four acres, six hundred and eighty bushels, or one hundred and seventy bushels per acre. The Ohio Cultivator states that John Loughry, of Adams county, raised one thousand five hundred bushels of shelled corn on eleven acres, or one hundred and thirty-six and a third bushels per acre for the whole field. A number of years ago, Messrs. Amasa Turner and Seth Jefierson, of Mantua, Ohio, published a certificate that they had measured the shelled com raised on one acre belonging to Mr. Seth Harmon, and found it to be one hundred and eight bushels and twenty-one quarts. In 1835, Mr. Asahel Renwick, Pickaifray county, Ohio, raised five 19 44 M' H Hi FAKM. thousand six hundred bushels on forty acres; that is, one hundred and forty bushels to the acre. In 1837, a planter in Clarke county, Kentucky, on forty acres, raised three thousand eight hundred bushels. In 1 840, W. Ingalls, Oswego county, New York, raised one hundred and fifty-four bushels on an acre. In 1841, B. Bradley, Bloonifield, New York, raised two hundred and thirty-two bushels on two acres. In 1842, Samuel Phelps, Cayuga, New York, raised one hundred and twenty-two bushels on an acre. In the same year, W. Wilcox, Saratoga, New York, raised one hun- dred and thirty-two bushels on an acre. In 1840, J. Myers, Canton, Ohio, raised one thousand three hundred and fifty-two bushels on seven acres. In 1823, Joseph Evans, Washington county, Pennsylvania, raised five hundred and eighty bushels on five acres. In 1823, B. Bartlett, Eaton, New York, raised one hundred and seventy-four bushels on an acre. In 1825, Mr. Wilmarth, Taunton, Massachusetts, raised one hundred and forty-two bushels on an acre. In 1839, E. Lamprey, Moultonborough, New Hampshire, raised one hundred and thirty-one bushels on an acre. In the same year, P. P. Pillsbury, Tuftonborough, New Hampshire, raised one hundred and thirty bushels on an acre. The corn-house fill'd, the harvest home, The invited neiglibors to the husking come ; A frolic scene, where work, and mirth, and play. Unite their charms, to chase the hours away. Special Manures are plaster and ashes ; and one of the best composts to-promote its growth is made of equal parts of hen-manure, wood-ashes, and plaster, and about a gill to each hill, with the seed put into it, when planting. Culture and Use of Wheat. — Wheat, whether we regard the important uses which it serves as the abundant source of food for the increasing population of this country, or the value of the produce to the farmer, of all the plants which are cultivated, there is none of more importance than wheat. It grows readily in almost every climate from the torrid to the frigid zones. A temperate climate, such as is best suited to the nature of man, seems to be its natural home. It has been so long cul- tivated, that where, it appears to grow spontaneously, as in some uncul- tivated spots in the East, it is doubtful whether it be not the remains of wheat anciently cultivated there. It is an extremely hardy plant, and its vitality is such that it is not easily destroyed. Wheat has been known to be covered with the water of floods so long, that every other remnant of vegetation was destroyed ; and yet, on the waters retiring, it has sprung up from the root and come to perfection. It has also been found in Egyptian tombs, and, if the statements are true which have appeared in the Doncaster Gazette and other publications, it has grown when planted. FABM CEOPS. 45 The distinction between the ■winter and summer wheats is one which arises entirely from the season in which they have been usually sown ; for they can readily be converged into each other by sowing earlier or later, and gradually accelerating or retarding their growths. The dif- ference in color between red and white wheats is owing chiefly to the soil. White wheats gradually become darker and ultimately red in some stiff wet soils, and the red wheats lose their color and beQome first yellow and then white on rich, light, and mellow soils. It is;'remark- able that the grain sooner changes color than the chaff and straw — hence we have red wheats with white chaff, and white wheats with red chaff, which, on the foregoing principle, is readily accounted for. The chaff retains the original color when the skin of the grain has already changed to another. We state this on our own experience. The soil best adapted to the growth of wheat is a deep loam inclined to clay, with a dry subsoil. If this is not so naturally, it must be drained arti- ficially, to insure good crops of wheat. In such a soil, wheat may be sown every third year, with proper intermediate crops. Formerly the preparation for a wheat crop was generally by a clean naked fallow, . with'a certain addition of manure, the remains of which were thought sufficient for a crop of barley or oats ; after which the fallow recurred. It was soon found out that, by this means, a crop of wheat could never be forced beyond a certain average ; for if more than the usual portion of manure was carried on the land, the wheat failed, by being laid before it arrived at maturity. Thus a limit appeared to have been set to its increase. New modes of cultivation have shown that this was not without its remedy, and that it was recent manuring which caused the wheat to lodge ; but that an increased fertility, produced by judi- cious preparation, enabled the land to bear crops of wheat far superior to what it ever could before. Wheat requires a soil in which the or- ganic matter is intimately mixed with the earthy ingredients ; where it can have a firmer hold by its roots, and can at the same time strike the fibers of them downward as well as around, in search of food. When it meets with such a soil, and is deposited at a proper depth, it vege- tates slowly, pushing to the surface one cylindrical filament, while numerous fibers strike into the soil from the seed. These supply the plant with regular nourishment, and in due time a knot is formed at the surface of the soil, fi'om which several roots and stems branch out. This is called the tillering of the wheat. The new roots near the sur- face soon become the chief source of nourishment, and in a rich, com- pact soil, where there is room, numerous stems arise, forming a tuft, and each of these in time bears a large ear well filled with seeds ; so that from a very moderate quantity of seed a great return is produced. The strong stems supporting each other are well able to resist the effect of storms and rains, which would lay weaker plants level with the ground. The effect of abundant manuring immediately before the seed is to produce too rapid a growth, weakening the straw, and increasing its quantity at the expense of the ear, which does not attain its proper development. This is called running to sj;raw. All strong manures which contain many saline particles have this effect, which is corrobo- rated by late experiments with saltpetre,' nitrate of soda, and other salino 46 THE FAEM. compounds. They produce more straw and less corn, and hence are not found of the same use, when applied to crops which are cultivated for their seed, as they are on grasses. A certain portion of nitrogen is esseiitial to the production of good wheat, as that element enters into the composition of the gluten, which will be found to abound in proportion as nitrogen exists in the soil, or can be supplied from the atmosphere. The experiments of Liebig seem to show that the nitrogen of the atmosphere will not enter into the substance of plants, except in the form of ammonia, and hence the efficacy of manures has, of late, been estimated by the quantity of am- monia which they can produce. This theory, however, requires to be confirmed by experience before it is at once adopted without limitation. Decayed vegetable matter, or humus, seems essential in a good wheat soil, and it may, in the slow progress of its entire decomposition, when it is continually absorbing the oxygen of the air, have some chemical effect on the nitrogen also, so as to make it of use in the vegetation, whether by first forming ammonia or in any other way. Further ex periments may perhaps throw a light on this subject.- It is well known, however, that, provided a soil be compact, its fertility is very tiearly proportioned to the quantity of humus which it contains, especially if there be calcareous earth or carbonate of lime in its composition. Lime has been often considered as the most efiicacious manure for wheat, even more than dung. As long as there is organic matter in the soil, lime acts beneficially, and the richer the land which does not contain carbonate of lime already, the more powerful the effect of liming. But experience has proved that lime has little effect on poor soils, until they are first manured with animal and vegetable substances. To produce good wheat, then, the land should be gradually brought to the proper degree of fertility, by abundant manuring for preparatory crops, which will not suffer from an over-dose of dung, and will leave in the soil a sufficient quantity of humus, intimately blended with it, for a crop of wheat. Clover is a plant which wiU bear a considerable forcing, and so are beans, and both are an excellent preparation for wheat. The roots left in the ground from a good crop of either decay slowly, and thus furnish a regular supply of food for the wheat. Choosing Seedi — The choosing of wheat for seed is a matter of great importance. Some farmers like to change their seed- often ; others sow the produce of their own land continually, and both seem persuaded that their method is the best. The fact js, that it is not always the finest wheat which makes the best seed ; but it depends on the nature of the land on which it grew. Some soils are renowned far and wide for producing good seed, and it is well known that this seed degenerates in other soils, so that the original soil is resorted to for fresh seed. Time of Sowing Winter Wlieat. — It has been proven by careful experi- ments, that winter wheat may advantageously be sown much earlier than it usually is. It has been planted in central New York and in Indiana as early as the fourth of July, and withstood the winter well, producing a superior yield. It matured earlier and escaped the wheat midge. We invite experiments to lest the effect of early sowing more fully, as, though occasional failures may result from smothering under deep snows, FABM OEOPS. 47 we are still inclined to tlie opinion that it will upon the whole be found to be advantageous. Planting Wheat in Hills, — Experiments of cultivating wheat in hills have shown a remarkable increase of production, amounting to quad- ruple the ordinary amount, and the grain of superior quality. The sub- ject is worthy of further attention, which it will doubtless receive at the hands of our enterprising farmers. Diseases of Wheat. — While the wheat is growing it is exposed to vari- ous accidents, which it is often difficult to foresee, and more difficult to guard against. The smut and burnt-ear are diseases which' may be generally prevented by a proper preparation of the seed before it is sown. Many corrosive substances have been recommended to steep the steed in, such as blue vitriol and arsenic, and those who have used these steeps place great confidence in them. It seems, however, that washing the seed well with plain water, or with salt and water, and afterward dry- ing it with quick-lime, sufficiently destroys the germ of the smut to pre- vent its propagation. The most common steep is water in which so much salt has been dissolved as will enable it to float an egg. In this the seed may be left for twelve hours or moje, and then spread on a floor and mixed with as much quick-lime as will absorb the moisture and allow it to be sown or drilled without the grains adhering to one another. The ergot in wheat is an excrescence from the ear, like a small horn, into which the seed is transformed. It has a poisonous quality and a medicinal one. The cause of this moifetrosity in the seed is not fully known. It is supposed to be caused by the puncture of some insect, introducing a virus which has entirely altered the functions of the germ, and made it produce this ergot instead of a healthy seed. Mildew is often destructive to our staple grain crops. It originates in a very minute fungus, whose light seeds float in the air until, under peculiar circumstances favorable to their development, they multiply and expand with such rapidity as to damage or ruin the plants on which they fasten. The leaves of a wheat-plant are covered with numerous small pores covering their whole surface, and also that of the stem. These pores, in damp weather, imbibe a great quantity of fluid matter, and as it is exactly this state of the atmosphere which is most conducive to the spread of fungi, we are led to infer it is then the mildew makes its first .lodgment, and entering by the pores of the foliage or stems, soon spreads its blighting influence through the entire system of the plant. As the first step towards the knowledge of a remedy is to be ob- tained by study of the disease, we must determine, as far as the power of reasoning and analogy will permit, in what way an attack of rust or mildew begins, and then from the nature of the predisposing causes and their effects, endeavor to deduce a remedy. In support of the opinion that the blight commences as described above, the fact of its first ap- pearance being observable in small cavities directly under the pores, and not at the roots, as in the case of " smut," may be advanced with much force, for all recorded observations prove it ; and further, that mildew is always most prevalent in continued damp weather, on nndrained land, and on thick standing crops. It is true that, when the pores perform 48 THK FAKM. their natural offices, they pass off the superfluous moisture taken up by the roots; but when a dense atmosphere impedes their proper functions, this process of exhalation is stopped ; and as the nature of all fluids is to soak in, it follows that the moisture of the atmosphere being heavier than that which should be given out from the plant, forces the latter back into the channels of the leaves by its greater weight, and, passing inward, enters the germs of the fungus, and produces the disease known by the term mildew. We find, then, three causes at work, all conducive to the infection of the crop and spread of the disease, the state of the atmosphere, the condition of the soil, and last, though probably the most powerful, the crowded or over-luxuriant state of the crop. With the first we cannot contend ; but the two latter causes are entirely under control. We can drain thoroughly and guard against rankness of vegetation. It has been confidently asserted that an application of salt to the ground, immediately after seed-sowing, at the rate of six bushels to the acre, will generally prevent the ravages of fungi, from the soil to the blade, and its effect also in other respects, is highly promotive of the health, vigor, and consequent productiveness of the grain. The Wheat-Midge is another enemy of the wheat crop. It deposits its eggs in the germ of the ear, the maggot living on the nutritive juices which otherwise would have formed the perfect grain. Its ravages have been, and still continue to be immense. Over whole states it threatens the entire destruction of the whAt crop, and the only means yet found of avoiding or mitigating its ravages have been in various ways to -hasten the maturity of the'crop. This can be done by a careful prep- aration of the ground, and by selecting those varieties which are the earliest to ripen. Some of the red varieties, particularly the Mediter ' ranean, are now, for this cause, almost the only varieties sown. The Hessian Fly is another destructive enemy of the wheat crop. It is not, however, so constant or extensive in its depredations as the midge, but, like the former, hfis so far evaded all efforts directed to its destruc- tion. Wheat is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown too early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September. When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the maggots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of much avail. Occasionally other flies, and sometimes wheat worms, commit great depredation. There is no effectual remedy known against any of these marauders, beyond rolling, brushing, and harrowing. The best preparatory crops for wheat are barley, oats, pease, and Indiar corn. Naked fallows, once so common, have generally been superseded by preparatory crops, as saving a great amount of labor, and producing for that expended a better and quicker return. It has been recommended that wheat be sown more deeply than it usually is, partly fo^ its protection against its winter exposure. Featherstonhaugh, in his essay on the "Principles and Practice of Rural Economy" has given some curious facts favorable to this recom- mendation. He says a grain of wheat, when put into the ground at the depth of three inches, undergoes the following transformations. FARM OEOPS. ty " As sooB as the farinaceous matter which envelops the frame of the young plant is softened into a milky state, a germ is pushed out, and at the bottom of that germ small roots soon follow. The roots arc gather ing strength, whilst the germ, by the aid of the milky fluid, is shooting upward ; and when the milk is exhausted, the roots are in activity, and are collecting nourishment for the plant from the soil itself. This is analogous to the weaning of young animals, which are not aban- doned by the mother till they can provide for themselves. "But," says he, "the care of nature does not end here; when the germ has fairly got above the surface, and become a plant, a set of upper roots are thrown out, close to the surface of the»ground, which search all the superficial parts of the soil with the same activity as the under roots search the lower parts ; and that part of the germ which separates the two sets of roots is now become the channel through which the lower roots supply the plant with the nourishment they have collected. What an admirable contrivance to secure the prosperity of the plant ! Two distinct sets of roots serve, in the first place, to fix the plant firmly in the ground, and to collect nourishment from every quarter. The upper roots are appositely situated to receive all the nourishment that comes naturally from the atmosphere, or artificially as manure, to the surface ; and serve the further purpose of being the base of new stems, which are tillered up, and so greatly increase the productiveness of the plant. A bushel of wheat, weighing sixty-two pounds, contains five hundred and fifty thousand kernels." Special manures — lime, bone-dust, ashes, and salt. The following table exhibits the composition of most of our cultivated crops, and a reference to it will show the relative quantities which each takes from the soil, and is a good guide in determining what to supply in the greatest abundance for the respective crops. Indian Corn. Wheat meat Straw. Eye. Oats. Po- tatoes. Tnr- nips. Hay. Carbonic acid Sulpliuric acid Phosphoric acid . . a trace .5 49.2 0.3 0.1 17.5 23.2 3.8 0.9 0.1 4.5 1.0 47.0 a trace 2.9 15.9 29.5 a trace 1.3 a trace 2.4 1.0 3.1 0.6 8.5 6.0 7.2 0.3 67.6 1.0 5.7 1.5 47.3 2.9 10.1 32.8 4.4 0.2 0.8 10.5 43.8 0.3 4.9 9.9 27.2 27.2 2.7 0.4 0.3 10-4 7.1 11.3 27 1.8 6.4 61.6 a trace 8.6 0.6 0.7 13.6 7.6 3.5 13.6 5.3 42.0 5.2 7.9 1.3 2.7 6.0 2.6 22.9 6.7 18.2 2.3 37.9 1.7 Magnesia Potash Loss 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Eye : its Cnltnre and Use. — Rye is extensively cultivated in Europe, especially in the Netherlands, where it is the chief grain from which thespirit called Hollands is distilled, which is flavored with juniper — in Dutch, Genever whence the name Geneva, and its contraction, Gin 3 50 THE FAEM. Tlie preparation of the land for rye is the same as for wheat, except that in very light soils no more plowings are required than will clear the ground of weeds. If rye is sown after harvest, one plowing only is usually given. It will thrive upon rich wheat soils as well as upon lighter, and, as it throws out numerous stems in rich land, it is the more profitable as fodder, although the crop of grain might not he so abundant when the plants are too much crowded. All soils containing an excessive proportion of sand, and which are not . too much exposed to humidity, will be found to bear better crops of rye than any other kind of grain. It exhausts land much less than wheat ; and as it yields a larger quantity of straw than any other, it will, if the straw is reduced to manure, restore a larger portion of the nutriment which it has absorbed than any other. Rye rises to a greater height than wheat, and produces a thinnei stem, but a greater weight of straw. The straw is hard, wiry, and little valued for fodder, unless cut fine and mixed with ground grain. But it is used for manufacturing straw hats, and for collars for horses. It is also used in the making of brick, and is an excellent material for thatch- ing cottages, barns, and sheds. When it is designed for hats, it should be sown very thick, cut green, and bleached by exposure to the air. Rainy, damp, or very windy weather occurring about the flowering season has a pernicious influence on rye. Occasional showers do it no harm, even when they are tolerably frequent, provided that there are a few hours of warm, sunny weather between each; for during rain the rye closes up its valves, and when the sun afterward comes out, the anthers spring up so vigorously, that the pollen from the stamens covers the field like a thick cloud. But during continuous rains, the anthers undergo an alteration in the valves, and rot ; or, at any rate, impregna- tion does not take place ; or if it does, the embryo of the grain is putre- fied and lost. It is thus that the disease termed the spur or ergot of rye is engendered, and that curious, blackish, violet-colored excrescence formed which is so well known, and of itself appears to be of no impor tance, but when swallowed in large quantities, and especially yhile fresh, has occasioned dangerous and mortal diseases in both men and animals, Rye 1 »s been much used in the north of Europe and in this country for the distillation of intoxicating drinks. A more wicked perversion of an article designed for animal sustenance to the destruction of human life, cannot be adduced. The extraordinary effects of the ergot of rye have made it the subject of experiments in medicine, and it has been found extremely useful in certain cases of protracted labor. It has consequently become an arti- cle of commerce as a- drug, and imported from the continent. By an attentive observation of the circumstances which favor this disease in the rye, it might be profitable to cultivate the plant expressly for the ergot it produces. The seed which grows on the same ear with the ergot might be selected for seed, and a cold" wet soil, with an ungenial aspect, might be chosen as most likely to perpetuate the disease. The ergot is sold by druggists at from two dollars and a half to five dollars per ounce, so that, if only a pound of ergot could be collected, it would FAISM CEOPS. 51 be worth more than the produce in sound grain of an acre of the best land. At all events, it will well repay the trouble of picking out the ergot from the rye where it is infected, and it is easily discovered, before reaping, frona its prominence and black color. Special manures — ashes and bone-dust. Culture and Use of Barley. — Barley is a grain too generally known to require a minute description. It is readily distinguished from other grain by its pointed exteemities, and by the roug^ appearance of its outer skin, which is the corolla of the flower closely enveloping the seed, and, in most varieties, adhering strongly to it. Of all the cultivated grains, it is perhaps that which comes to perfec- tion in the greatest variety of climates, and is consequently found over the greatest extent of the habitable world. It bears the heat and drought of tropical regions, and ripens in the short summers of those which verge on the frigid zone. Kinds of Barley. — The barley most commonly cultivated is that which contains two rows. It is almost universally sown in spring. The varie- ties produced by difference of soil and cultivation, as well as by seed occasionally brought from other countries, are innumerable. They have been divided by most agricultural writers into the early or rath ripe sorts, as they were called, and the late ripe, from the period of their being fit to reap. But this is a distinction which is not very ac- curate. It is well known that hot, gravelly soils bring any grain to perfection in less time than the stronger and colder soils, and that the produce acquires from the soil in which it grew a disposition to ripen earlier or later. This property it retains for a few seasons by some modification of its vegetating power, to which, for want of a better name, that of habit may Be given, being analogous to the alterations produced on living animals by habit. Thus seed sown repeatedly in a light, dry soil becomes rath ripe, and that sown on the heavy, moist land late ripe, although originally the same. The rath ripe grain is always less heavy than the late ripe ; and from these circumstances the experienced cultivator of barley chooses his seed fi:om such land as may modify the habit produced by his own, giving him a crop with as heavy a grain as his soil can produce, and within a convenient period. Time of Sowing. — The proper time for sowing barley is as early in the spring as the soil is in condition. The ground intended for barley should be plowed in autumn. In spring the cultivator only should be used in preparing it for the seed, and it should in all practicable cases be sown with the grain-drill. As a general rule, a depth of from one and a half to three inches, according to the nature of the soil, is most likely to enable the seed to sprout well, and give a sufScient hold of the land by the roots to avoid the danger of lodging. It is of conse- quence that all the seeds be deposited at a uniform depth, to insure their shoots rising at the same time ; for where some rise earlier and some later, it is impossible to reap the whole in good order. Some of the ears will be too green, while others are shedding the seed fi-om being too ripe. This is one reason why the drilled crops are, in gen- eral, so much more regular in their growth than the broadcast. After bowing barley, it is useinl to pass a light roller over the land, across the 52 THE FAEM. stitches, if there are any, to press the earth on the seed, and prevent too great evaporation of the moisture. This also is the best time to sow clover and grass seeds, if not done with the first rolling. The practice of sowing clover, rye-grass, or other seeds, with the barley is almost universal, and is considered as one of the great modern improvements in agriculture. There is no doubt a great advantage in having a profitable and improving crop to succeed the barley, without further tillage ; and clover prepares the land admir- ably for wheat. Still, there are some doubts whether this is profitable in all cases. There are seasons when the clover materially injures the barley by its luxuriance; and in wet seasons the clover interferes with the drying of the crop. So far as the barley is concerned, the clover may be considered as a weed, which, like all other weeds, must take a part of the nourishment from the crop, and clieck its tillering. Diseases. — The diseases to which barley is subject while growing are those which attack all other grain — the smut, the burnt-ear, blight, and mildew; but it is less liable to these than wheat. The greatest enemy is a wet harvest. It is so apt to germinate in wet weather after being cut, or the crop laid by the wind, that numbers of the ears appear in full vegetation, every grain having sprouted. It is then of little value, and even when this, is checked by dry weather or in the kiln, the grain is so impaired as to be fit only to feed fowls and pigs. A strong plant of clover, by keeping the wet longer about the barley, often contributes to increase this evil, as has been hinted before. The principal use of barley in this country, and wherever the climate does not permit the vine to thrive, and no wine is made, is to convert it into malt for brewing and distilling. The best and heaviest grain is chosen for this purpose, and, as it must have its germinating power unimpaired, the least discoloration, from rain or heating in the stack, renders it suspected, and consequently not so salable. It is, however, still fit for being ground into meal for feeding cattle and pigs. Produce and Value. — The produce per acre on land well prepared is from thirty to fifty bushels, weighing from forty-five to fifty-five pounds per bushel, according to the quality. It is said to contain sixty-five per cent, of nutritive matter ; wheat contains seventy-eight per cent. A bushel of barley, weighing fifty pounds, therefore contains about thirty- two pounds of nutriment ; while a bushel of wheat, weighing sixty pounds, contains forty-seven. Oats, weighing thirty-two pounds, contain about nineteen pounds of nutritive substanTje, so that the comparative value of wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding farm stock may be represented thus : wheat, forty-seven ; barley, thirty-two ; oats, nineteen ; Indian corn and barley contain, by weight, about an equal amount of nutriment; and one pound of oats, in nutritive value, is only equal to two pounds of good hay. These facts are important to all who would carefully estimate the relative economy of the different articles named in feeding or fattening animals. Although the principal use of barley in this country and England is for beer, it may be applied to other purposes. It is said to be one of the best kinds of food for fattening hogs ; giving the meat an impioved flavor and consistency ; causing it also to swell in the process of cook- FAEM CEOPS. 53 ing. For the fettenitig of poultry it is highly recommended ; also for food of horses, especially in the spring of the . year, mixed with oats and soaied in water till it begins to vegetate. And when ground and mixed with other grain, it is advantageously used in fattenmg horned cattle. In Germany, barley is ground and formed into cakes for the feed of horses. In traveling in that country, it is no unusual thing to see the driver himself tate a slice of the loaf. It is also used for cheap bread by the poorer classes. It is not deficient in nutriment, but is dark-colored and of strong taste. It is, moreover, of value for medicinal purposes. It is recommended, when made into gruel, being pleasant, emollient, and cooling ; and the water in which it has been soaked to be mixed with nitre in fevers. Culture and Use of Oats. — The great use of oats, and the ease with which they are raised on almost every kind of soil, from the heaviest loam to the lightest sand, have made them occupy a place in almost every rotation of crops. ISefore agriculture had been subjected to reg- ular rules, the result of long experience, the land was often sown as long as any return could be obtained, before any means of recruiting it with manure were thought of; and the last crop which would return any increase of the seed was generally oats. After this, the land, no longer repaying the labor of the plowing and sowing, was abandoned till, by length of time and the decorhposition of roots and weeds, some renewed fertility was produced. Of all the plants commonly cultivated in the field, oats seem to have the greatest power of drawing nourishment from the soil, and hence are justly considered as greatly exhausting the land. Some farmers on this account prefer buying all their oats in the market to raising them on their own land. Where the soil is well adapted to the growth of wheat and barley, which bear a better price, this maybe a judicious plan ; but, as a general rule, it is always more profitable to raise oats for home consumption than to trust to a fluctuating market. With proper management, a crop of oats may give as great a profit on the best land as any other crop, when it is considered that it requires less manure and produces an abundance of straw, which is very fit for the winter food "^f horses and cattle, especially when aided by roots or other succulent food. 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