Of ornell Iniuerattg Hibrarg 
 
 3tl}ara, Krm fork 
 
arV18199 
 Artistic anatomy. 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 
 3 1924 031 240 793 
 
 -jsff.e:';x 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031240793 
 
THE FINE-ART LIBRARY. 
 
 EDITED BY JOHN C. L. SPARKES, 
 
 Principal of the National Art Training School, South Kensington 
 Museum. 
 
Artistic Anatomy. 
 
 MATHIAS DUVAL, 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, ANATOMICAL PROFESSOR AT THE SCHOOL 
 
 OF FINE ART, FELLOW OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE, DIRECTOR 
 
 OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT THE 
 
 SCHOOL FOR HIGHER STUDIES, PARIS. 
 
 TRANSLATED BY 
 
 FREDERICK E. FENTON, M.R.C.P. Edin., 
 
 FELLOW OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND MEMBER OF THE WEST LONDON 
 MEDICO-CHIRURG1CAL SOCIETY. 
 
 jFourti) eaitt'on. 
 
 CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited: 
 
 LONDON, PARIS 6= MELBOURNE.' 
 1890. 
 
 [ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.) 
 
qORHB-L 
 
 UN! 
 
 X. 
 
 LJT-. = 
 'fj »— 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THIS little work is an epitome of a course of lectures 
 which for about ten years I had the honour of de- 
 livering at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. If during that 
 time I have arrived at a right understanding of the 
 teachings of anatomy, I owe it to the great interest 
 taken in the subject by my listeners of all ages ; and 
 my first duty is to thank them for their free inter- 
 change of ideas with me, thus enabling me to under- 
 stand their requirements and the mode of answering 
 them. But if the mode of exposition I have adopted 
 is to be rendered clear to a constantly renewed 
 audience, I must, in publishing this work, first explain 
 to the reader how the lectures are to be used, and 
 the principles which guided me in their production. 
 
 This summary of anatomy is intended for those 
 artists who, having commenced their special studies, 
 have drawn the human form either from the antique 
 or from the living model — who, in a word, have 
 already what may be termed a general idea of 
 forms, attitudes, and movements. It is intended to 
 furnish them with a scientific notion of those forms, 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 attitudes, and movements. Thus it is far less a de- 
 scription of the forms of a particular region than the 
 anatomical explanation of those forms, and of their 
 modifications in a state of repose or movement, that 
 we have in view. That is why, instead of proceeding 
 from the superficial parts to the deeper organs of 
 the skeleton, we take the latter as the starting-point 
 of our studies. In this way alone can we determine 
 the laws which govern the movements of the adjacent 
 segments of the members upon each other, and the 
 movements of the members with regard to the trunk, 
 as also the reciprocal action of these segments towards 
 each other and in relation to the whole body. 
 
 When to these fundamental notions is added the 
 knowledge of the muscular masses which move these 
 bones, the artist will at once be enabled to analyse 
 through the skin as through a transparent veil the 
 action of the parts which produce the forms with 
 their infinite variety of character and movement. 
 
 This method of teaching, which may -be said to 
 proceed by synthesis, differs from that followed by 
 the generality of works on this subject — books which 
 treat by analysis. We make special allusion to the 
 treatise of Gerdy,* which is about the most careful 
 
 * P. N. Gerdy : " Anatomy of the Forms of the Human Body for 
 Painting, Sculpture, and Surgery." Paris, 1829. 
 
PREFACE. Vli 
 
 work on plastic anatomy yet published, but which 
 errs in a somewhat too lengthy description of the 
 exterior form, whilst sufficient space is not devoted 
 to explaining the anatomical reasons of those forms. 
 On the other hand, the remaining anatomical works in 
 the hands of the students in our art schools generally 
 comprise a volume of text and an illustrated atlas.* 
 Under these conditions, may I be allowed to remark, 
 somewhat severely, it may be, that our young artists 
 study the atlas by copying and re-copying the plates, 
 but do not read the text. Thus it will be under- 
 stood why, in this work, a different method has been 
 pursued ; and the fact of the plates being intermixed 
 with the text, and in such a way that they cannot 
 well be understood without the aid of the accompany- 
 ing pages, will in all probability result in the student 
 thoroughly and carefully perusing the text. 
 
 Passing on to the manner of using the present 
 work, we. must acknowledge that reading anatomical 
 details is at first dry ; it will always be so, unless 
 proceeded with in a simple and systematic manner. 
 In the oral courses, the lecturer, handling the objects, 
 and aided by his improvised drawings on the black- 
 
 * It is not always thus abroad, Thus in Germany there is the 
 work of E. Harless ("Lehrbuch der Plastischen Anatomie fur Akade- 
 mische Anstalten." Stuttgart, 1876; 2nd edit.) 
 
VH1 PREFACE. 
 
 board, can make the most complex parts interesting ; 
 and by adroit repetitions and varied illustrations, 
 fix the attention and render the subject compre- 
 hensible, whereas it is quite different in a written 
 description. In this case it is the reader who must 
 animate the text for himself, by examining and 
 manipulating the parts needful for the elucidation of 
 the descriptions. For this purpose a skeleton and a 
 "good plaster cast will suffice. On the cast, with the 
 aid of the plates which accompany the text, it will be 
 easy .to follow the course of the muscles ; and in this 
 way alone will the study of them become profitable, 
 the student being enabled to examine the model on 
 different sides. By handling the bones, by placing the 
 articulating surfaces in contact, the dry descriptions 
 of articulated mechanism will take a tangible form, 
 and will henceforth remain impressed on the memory. 
 Notwithstanding our diagrams of the movements of 
 pronation and supination for example, it is only by 
 handling the bones of the fore-arm that the student 
 will be enabled to fully appreciate the marvellous 
 mechanism by which the rotation of the radius round 
 the ulna is effected, allowing the hand to present 
 alternately its palmar and dorsal surface ; and the 
 same is the case as regards the skeleton of the foot 
 and head, and the movements of the lower jaw, &c. 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 The artist will find in this book some pages devoted 
 to the facial angle, to the forms of the head, brachy- 
 eephalic and dolichocephalic heads, and to some other 
 questions of anthropology, and will doubtless thank 
 us for having considered here ideas which are daily 
 becoming familiar to the general public. 
 
 Our only regret concerning these anthropological 
 studies is that the limits of this volume did not permit 
 us to go deeper into the teachings of the anthropo- 
 logical laboratory, the direction of which was confided 
 to me after the loss of our illustrious master, Broca. 
 
 I take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude 
 to my excellent master, Professor Sappey, who allowed 
 me to borrow from his magnificent treatise on anatomy 
 the figures on osteology and myology which consti- 
 tute the chief merit of this work ; and to my friend 
 and colleague, E. Cuyer, whose skilful pencil repro- 
 duced the figures from the photographic atlas of 
 Duchenne, as well as the two illustrations of the 
 Gladiator, and the sundry diagramatic drawings which 
 complete the theoretical explanations of the text. 
 
 M. DUVAL. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHATTER PACK 
 
 I. Introduction. — Plastic Anatomy : Its History, 
 Importance, and Objects — Order of these 
 Studies — Division of Subject i 
 
 JFtet \@Hrt.— OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 II. Osteology and the Science of Joints in General 
 
 — Nomenclature — Vertebral Column . . 13 
 
 III. Skeleton of the Trunk (Thorax) — Sternum — 
 
 Ribs — Thorax as a Whole 30 
 
 IV. Skeleton of Shoulder — Clavicle— Scapula — Head 
 
 of Humerus — Shoulder Joint .... 43 
 
 V. Humerus and Elbow Joint 55 
 
 VI. Skeleton of Fore-Arm — Radius and Ulna — Move- 
 ments of Pronation and Supination . . 64 
 VII. Skeleton of the Hand— Wrist (Carpus)— Hand 
 and Fingers (Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges) 
 — Proportions of the Upper Limb — Brachial 
 
 Index — Egyptian Canon 74 
 
 VIII. Skeleton of the Hips — Pelvis (Iliac Bones and 
 
 Sacrum) — The Pelvis according to Sex . . 91 
 IX. The Femur and the Articulation of the Hips — 
 
 Proportions of the Hips and Shoulders . 104 
 X. The Femur and the Articulation of the Knee 
 Joint ; the Shape of the Region of the 
 
 Knee 122 
 
 XI. Skeleton of the Leg : Tibia and Fibula, the 
 Malleoli or Ankles— General View of the 
 Skeleton of the Foot ; Tibio Tarsal Articu- 
 lation 137 
 
 XII. Skeleton of the Foot ; Tarsus (Calcaneum) ; 
 Metatarsus ; Toes and Fingers — Proportions 
 of the Inferior Members— The Foot as a 
 Common Measure 146 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XIII. Skeleton of the Head : Skull (Occipital, Pari- 
 
 etal, Frontal, Temporal) ; Shapes of the Skull 
 (Dolichocephalic and Brachycephalic Heads) 155 
 
 XIV. Skeleton of the Face : the Orbital Cavities ; 
 
 Lower Jaw ; Teeth — Facial Angle of Camper 165 
 
 SeconK part.— MYOLOGY. 
 XV. Of the Muscles in General — Muscles of the 
 Trunk : Anterior Region (Pectoralis Major ; 
 the Oblique and Recti Muscles of the Abdo- 
 men) 181 
 
 XVI. Muscles of the Back.: Trapezius, Latissimus 
 
 Dorsi, and Teres Major Muscles . . . 195 
 XVII. Muscles of the Shoulder : Deltoid : Serratus 
 Magnus — The Hollow and Shape of the Arm- 
 pit 205 
 
 XVIII. Muscles of the Arm : Biceps ; Coraco-Brachi- 
 alis ; Brachialis Anticus ; Triceps — Shape of 
 
 the Arm 214 
 
 XIX. Muscles of the Fore-Arm : Muscles Anterior, 
 
 External and Posterior Superficial . . 222 
 XX. The Deep Posterior Muscles of the Fore-Arm 
 (Anatomical Snuff-Box) — Muscles of the 
 
 Hand 
 
 XXI; Muscles of the Pelvis, the Gluteal Muscles ; 
 
 Fascia Lata. — Muscles of the Thigh : Sar- 
 
 torius, Triceps, Adductors, &c. . . . 240 
 
 XXII. Muscles of the Leg — Tendon Achilles — Muscles 
 
 of the Foot 
 
 XXIII. Muscles of the Neck : Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid, 
 
 Infra-Hyoid, and Supra-Hyoid Muscles . . 268 
 
 XXIV. Muscles of the Head— Muscles of Mastication 
 \ —Muscles of Expression : History (Leonardo 
 \ da Vinci ; Humbert de Superville ; Duchenne 
 
 \ of Boulogne, and Darwin) .... 277 
 
 •XXV. Muscles of Expression — Possible and Impos- 
 sible Combinations of Certain Contractions 
 of the Muscles of the Face .... 204 
 
 233 
 
 255 
 
Artistic Anatomy. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Anatomy in general ; the anatomy of the external forms of man : 
 physiology of the same. Origin of the knowledge of the Greek 
 artists of the anatomy of the external forms ; the influence of 
 gymnastics upon Greek art. The Renaissance and anatomical 
 study: Mundini de Luzi (1316J. — The anatomical studies of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael. Titian and 
 Andre 1 Vesale. The anatomical course of the School of Painting 
 (1648). What the artist requires in the study of anatomy : pro- 
 portions, forms (or contours), attitudes, movements. The order 
 of these studies ; divisions of the subject. 
 
 ANATOMY, as the derivation of the word indicates - 
 (from avci, across, and rofifj, section), is the study 
 of the parts composing the body — muscles, bones, 
 tendons, ligaments, various viscera, &c. — parts which 
 we separate one from the other by dissection, in order 
 to examine their shapes and their relations and con- 
 nections. 
 
 This study may be accomplished in various ways : 
 (1) from a philosophical and comparative point of 
 view, by seeking the analogies and differences that 
 the organs present in animals of different species — 
 which is called Comparative Anatomy ; (2) from a 
 B 
 
2 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 practical point of view, by seeking out the arrange- 
 ment of organs, the knowledge of which is indispens- 
 able to the physician and surgeon — this is called 
 Surgical or Topographical Anatomy ; (3) by examin- 
 ing the nature and arrangement of the organs which 
 determine the external forms of the body — this is 
 Plastic Anatomy, called also the Anatomy of External 
 Forms, the Anatomy of Artists. It is the anatomy of 
 external forms that we shall study here ; but as the 
 artist ought to know not only the form of the body in 
 repose, or in the dead subject, but also the principal 
 changes of form in the body when in a state of 
 activity, of movement, and of function, and should 
 understand the causes which determine these changes, 
 plastic anatomy ought to be complemented by a cer- 
 tain amount of knowledge of the functions of the 
 organs, e.g., muscles and articulations ; so that under 
 the title of anatomy of the external forms of man 
 we shall study at the same time the anatomy and 
 the physiology of the organs which determine these 
 forms. We should be contending for what has been 
 long since conceded, were we to endeavour to show to 
 what an extent the studies of anatomy and physiology 
 are indispensable to the artist, who seeks to represent 
 the human form under many and various types of 
 action. Nevertheless, it may be useful to explain how 
 the chefs-d'oeuvre of ancient art have been produced 
 with admirable anatomical exactness, by men who 
 certainly had not gone through any anatomical studies, 
 and to show what special conditions aided them to 
 acquire, by constant practice, the knowledge that we 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 are obliged to seek day by day in the stud) of 
 anatomy. 
 
 The Greek sculptors have reproduced the human 
 form with marvellous anatomical exactness ; in fact, 
 the works of Phidias (the Theseus and the Ilissus), 
 those of Myron (the Discobolus), those of Lysippus 
 and of Praxiteles (the Sleeping Fawn), those of Agasia? 
 (the Fighting Gladiator), and other masterpieces given 
 as models in all the schools of art, are such that it is 
 impossible to find fault with them, or to discover in 
 them the least inexactitude, either from an anatomical 
 or a physiological point of view ; * in fact, not only 
 are the muscles, for example, prominent exactly in 
 their places, but more than that, these prominences 
 are differently accentuated in corresponding muscles 
 on the different sides, according to the nature of the 
 movement ; one side will present the muscles swelled 
 up in a state of contraction, or the muscles may be in 
 repose, that is, relaxed and relatively flattened. At the 
 time when these works of art were produced, the study 
 of anatomy, or even the dissection of the human body, 
 had not yet been attempted ; the respect in which the 
 dead body was held was such, that the physicians 
 themselves, who should have been able to justify their 
 motives for this study, had never as yet dissected a 
 human body ; in order to supply this want of direct 
 knowledge Hippocrates had dissected animals, and 
 
 * We must look for other reasons than ignorance or indifference to 
 explain the fixed scapulae in pre-Phidian sculpture or the exaggerated 
 forms given to the extensor brevis of the foot and other muscles. This 
 qualification is necessary to this general statement. — Ed. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 had arrived at certain conclusions by the analogy 
 that exists between the organs of quadrupeds and 
 those in man. Galen himself dissected monkeys 
 only, seeking to confine his examination to animals, 
 whose anatomical construction might be considered 
 as most closely resembling that of man. Galen 
 never possessed a human skeleton, for in a passage 
 in his anatomical works, he states the pleasure that 
 he found in studying at last some human bones that 
 had been deposited in a marshy place by a river which 
 had overflowed its banks. We seem then to have 
 a singular contradiction between these two facts, as 
 we know on the one hand, that the Greek artists have 
 shown in their works a most rigorous anatomical 
 exactitude, whilst on the other hand, neither they 
 nor their contemporary physicians and surgeons had 
 made a study of the anatomy of man by the practice 
 of dissection. 
 
 But this contradiction disappears altogether when 
 we examine the conditions which permitted those 
 artists to have constantly before their eyes the nude 
 human body, living and in motion, and so set them 
 to work to analyse the forms, and thus to acquire 
 by the observation, of the mechanism of active mus- 
 cular changes, an empirical knowledge, as precise 
 as that which is now obtained by the accurate 
 study of anatomy and physiology. It is sufficient, 
 in fact,' to recall to mind the extreme care the 
 ancients gave to the development of strength and 
 of physical beauty by gymnastic exercises. In 
 Homer we see the heroes exercising themselves in 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 racing, in quoit throwing, and in wrestling; later 
 we come to the exercise of the athletes who trained 
 themselves to carry off the palm in the Olympic 
 games ; and it is evident, in spite of the ideas that 
 we hold now respecting wrestlers . and acrobats, that 
 the profession of an athlete was considered a glorious 
 one, as being one which not only produced a con- 
 dition of physical beauty and high character, but 
 constituted in itself a true nobility. Thus the 
 life of the gymnast came to exercise a decisive in- 
 fluence on Greek art. The prize of the conqueror 
 in the Olympic games was a palm, a crown of leaves, 
 an artistic vase; but the chief glory of all was that 
 the statue of the victor was sculptured by the most 
 celebrated artist of the time. Thus Phidias produced 
 the handsome form of Pantarces, and these athletic 
 statues form almost the only archives of the Olym- 
 piads, upon which Emeric David was able to recon- 
 struct his Greek chronology. From these works, which 
 became ideals of strength and beauty, the artist had 
 long been able to study his model, which he saw naked 
 every day, not only before his exercises, whilst rubbing 
 himself over with oil, but during the race, or the leap- 
 ing match, which showed the muscles of the inferior 
 extremities, or during the throwing of the quoit, 
 which made the contractions of the muscular masses 
 of the arm and the shoulder prominent ; and during 
 the wrestling matches, which from the infinite varieties 
 of effort, successively brought all the muscular powers 
 into play. Was it then surprising, that the images 
 of the gods destitute of movement and of life, which 
 
6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 had so long satisfied the religious sentiment of the 
 people, were succeeded by artistic representations of 
 man in action in statues such as could embody the idea 
 of strength and beauty, studies of the living statues of 
 the gymnasium ? Further we shall see the decline of 
 art proceed side by side with the abandonment of the 
 exercises of the gymnasium. Much later, in the Middle 
 Ages, art awoke and embodied ideas in figures with- 
 out strength and life indeed, but which nevertheless 
 express in a marvellous manner the mysterious aspira- 
 tions of the period ; but these have not anything in 
 common with the realistic representation of the human 
 form well developed and active, as seen in Greek art. 
 At the time of the Renaissance, artists not having any 
 longer a living source of study in athletic sports, recog- 
 nised the necessity of seeking for more precise know- 
 ledge in the anatomical study of the human body, in 
 addition to the inspiration drawn from the study of 
 the antique, and thus we see that the revival of the 
 plastic arts came about at the time of the introduc- 
 tion more or less regular of the practice of dissection. 
 This was not brought about without some difficulty. 
 
 In the year 1230, Frederic II., Emperor of 
 Germany and King of the Two Sicilies, passed 
 a law prohibiting the practice of medicine without 
 the practitioners having first studied the anatomy 
 of the human body. In spite of two papal ex- 
 communications hurled against the author of this 
 edict, dissections were henceforth regularly pursued 
 in Italy ; and one century later — in the year 
 13 16 — Mundini de Luze was able to write the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 first treatise on human anatomy, containing des- 
 criptions made from studies of the dead body. 
 This treatise was printed 
 in 1478. Artists rivalled 
 physicians in the ardour with 
 which they pursued their 
 anatomical studies; and it 
 may be said that all the 
 painters and sculptors in the 
 fifteenth century. gave most 
 careful attention to dissec- 
 tion, or at least studied 
 demonstrations made upon 
 the dead body, for all have 
 left amongst their drawings 
 studies that leaver no doubt 
 On this head. Among 
 the great masters it may 
 be noted that Leonardo da 
 Vinci (1452 — 1519), has left 
 thirteen portfolios of various 
 drawings and studies, among 
 which are numerous anato- 
 mical studies of remarkable 
 fidelity. The greater num- Reproduct!on of . draw!ng of an 
 
 ber Of these Were taken anatomical study by Leonardo de 
 
 r htm i_ ii_ f t. Vinci " < Cnoulant ' s work > P a g e 8 ') 
 
 trom Milan by the frenCtl This design represents the minute 
 
 in 1796, and afterwards they ^*^^ h *» 1 
 were in part restored to 
 
 Italy, some of them, however, went to enrich the 
 British Museum in London, and were published by. 
 
8 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Chamberlain* In Fig. I is reproduced one of these 
 anatomical drawings. It shows with what care — per- 
 haps with over-scrupulous care — the illustrious master 
 endeavoured to separate by dissection the various 
 fasciculi of pectoral muscle, deltoid, and sterno-cleido 
 mastoid. It may be noted also that in the Treatise 
 on Painting Leonardo da Vinci devotes numerous 
 chapters to the description of the muscles of the 
 body, the joints of the limbs and of the " cords and 
 small tendons which meet together when the muscles 
 contract to produce its action," &c. ; and finally, in 
 this same Treatise on Painting, he makes allusion at 
 different times to a Treatise on Anatomy, which he 
 intended to publish, and for which he had gathered 
 together numerous notes. These are fortunately 
 preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor. 
 
 Michael Angelo also (1475 — 1564) made at 
 Florence many laborious studies of dissections, and 
 has left among his drawings beautiful illustrations 
 of anatomy, of which several have been published 
 in Choulant's work, and by Seroux d'Agincourtf 
 Finally, we 'have numerous drawings by Raphael 
 himself, as proof of his anatomical researches, among 
 which we ought to mention as particularly remark- 
 able, a study of the skeleton intended to give him 
 the exact indication of the direction of the limbs 
 
 * See Ludwig Choulant. Gesichte und Bibliographic des Anatom- 
 eschen Abbildungen. .Leipzig : 1852. (A very curious work wherein 
 is found much information respecting the connection of anatomy with 
 the plastic arts.) 
 
 t Seroux D' A gincourt. History of Art I y its Monuments. Paris: 
 181 1, Vol. i., p. 177. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 and the position of the joints for a figure of the 
 swooning Virgin in his painting of the Entombment 
 (Choulant, p. 15). We cannot end this short 
 enumeration without quoting further the names of 
 Titian and Andr£ Vesale, in order to show into 
 what intimate relations artists and anatomists were 
 brought by their common studies. Titian, in fact, 
 is considered the real author of the admirable figures 
 which illustrate the work — "De Humani Corporis 
 Fabrica" — of the immortal anatomist, Andre Vesale, 
 justly styled the restorer of anatomy. It is 
 necessary, however, to add that though some of 
 the drawings are by Titian, the greater number were 
 executed by his pupil, Jean Calcar, as is pointed 
 out in the preface to the edition of the work pub- 
 lished at Bale in 1543. 
 
 The renaissance of the plastic arts and that of 
 anatomy were therefore simultaneous, and closely 
 bound up one with the other ; ever since that time it 
 has been generally recognised that it is necessary to 
 get by anatomical study that knowledge of form 
 which the Greeks found themselves able to embody 
 ' in consequence of the opportunities they had of study- 
 ing the human figure in the incessant exercises of 
 the gymnasium. Again, in 1648, when Louis XIV. 
 founded at Paris the Academie de Peinture et de 
 Sculpture, which later on took the title of the 
 £cole des beaux-arts, two sections of study were in- 
 stituted side by side with the studios properly so 
 called, for imparting to the. pupils instruction con- 
 sidered as fundamental, and indispensable to the 
 
IO ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 practice of art. These were the sections of per- 
 spective and anatomy. 
 
 It is not our place to plead, otherwise than by the 
 preceding historical considerations, the cause of an- 
 atomy in its relation to painting and sculpture ; but 
 we ought at least to examine what method is likely 
 to prove the most useful for its study. If each ana- 
 tomical detail does not correspond to an artistic 
 need we are liable in following any treatise written 
 with other than an artistic aim, to be entangled in 
 superfluous names and into useless descriptions ; while 
 at the same time we might neglect details which are 
 to the artist of great importance, although considered • 
 of secondary value by authors who have written espe- 
 cially for students in medicine. 
 
 We ought, then, to ask ourselves, in the first 
 place, what are the ideas that the artist should 
 seek for in his study of anatomy ? To this question 
 all will reply that the ideas of proportion, of form, 
 of attitudes and movements, are those in which 
 anatomy. is relied upon to furnish precise rules; and 
 as the expression of the passions, either in painting 
 or sculpture, cannot be reproduced except by various 
 changes in the general attitude of the body, and in 
 the special mechanism of the physiognomy moved 
 by the muscles, we must conclude -that our study 
 should deal not only with proportions, form, atti- 
 tudes and movements, but also with the expression 
 of the emotions and passions. This, then, is the 
 object to be attained. Suppose we try to accomplish 
 it by examining in a first series of studies . all that 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 belongs to proportions ; afterwards, in a second series, 
 all that has relation to form ; in a third, attitudes, 
 &c. Such an order of proceeding, logical though it 
 be, will have the disadvantage of causing numerous 
 repetitions, and the more serious inconvenience of 
 artificially separating parts which in the structure 
 of the body are intimately connected. Thus, form 
 is determined sometimes by osseous prominences, 
 sometimes by the soft parts, which may be muscular 
 or tendinous. Attitudes are determined by the mus- 
 cles ; but these are subject to laws which result from 
 the position and action of the joints; so with move- 
 ments,- in the expression of which it is necessary to 
 consider, at the same time, what the conformation of 
 the osseous levers (the direction of the bones and their 
 articulation) allows,- as well as that which the mus- 
 cles accomplish, also the direction of the muscles 
 and the differences of shape produced by their swell- 
 ing and tension in action, as well as when the antago- 
 nist muscles are' relaxed. Proportions themselves 
 cannot be denned without an exact knowledge of the 
 skeleton, for it is the bones alone which should fur- 
 nish us with the marks from which to take measure- 
 ments. A knowledge of the bones and of their 
 articular mechanism is indispensable to us, that we 
 may guard ourselves against being deceived in cer- 
 tain apparent changes of length in the limbs when 
 certain movements take place. 
 
 We see, then, that all the ideas previously enu- 
 merated as proportion, form, attitude, movement, de- 
 pend on the study of the skeleton and of the muscles. 
 
12 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 It will thus be easiest and most advantageous to 
 proceed in the following manner : — We will first of 
 all study the skeleton, which will teach us the 
 direction of the axis of each part of the limbs, the 
 relative lengths and proportions of these portions, 
 and the osseous parts which remain uncovered by the 
 muscles, and show beneath the skin the shape and 
 the mechanism of the articulations in their relation to 
 movements and attitudes. We shall then study the 
 muscles, and endeavour to know their shapes, at the 
 same time that we complete the knowledge we 
 shall have acquired of attitudes and movements. 
 In the third place, we will attempt the analysis 
 of the expression of the passions and emotions ; 
 and the study of the muscles of the face,- of 
 which the mechanism in the movements of the 
 physiognomy is so special, that it would be incon- 
 venient to attempt to treat it with that of the muscles 
 of the trunk and limbs. 
 
dfinst part 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 
 
 Osteology and Arthrology. — The method of anatomical nomenclature : 
 Parts on the median line, single and symmetrical ; the lateral 
 parts in pairs ; the meaning of the terms internal and external. — 
 Of the bones in general : the long bones (shafts and extremities) ; 
 the flat bones (surfaces, borders); the short bones. — Prominences 
 of bone (processes, spines) cavities and depressions of bone (fossae, 
 grooves). — Bone and cartilage. — The axis of the skeleton: the 
 vertebral column. — The vertebrae (bodies, transverse processes, 
 spinous processes, &c.) — Cervical region (seven vertebrae), Dorsal 
 (twelve vertebrae), Lumbar (five vertebrae). — Articulations of the 
 vertebrae. — Movements of the head (atlas and axis). — The curves 
 of the vertebral column. — Outline of the posterior aspect of the 
 column. Proportions. 
 
 In view of what we have already said it will be 
 evident that, in studying the skeleton, we shall be 
 examining a great number of forms and considering 
 the mechanism of movements and attitudes, while at 
 the same time we are acquiring a knowledge of the 
 .proportions of the body. This suffices to show the 
 importance of Osteology, or the study bf bones 
 (oareov, bone ; \6yos, description), and of Arthrology, 
 or the study of joints (apdpov, a joint) : we may say, in 
 
14 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 fact, to use a formula which well expresses the physio- 
 logical functions of those parts, that the bones are the 
 levers of movement, and that the articulations repre- 
 sent the fixed points or fulcrums of these levers; 
 while the powers which produce motion are repre- 
 sented by the muscles. 
 
 Before attempting the details of the differentparts 
 of the skeleton, it is necessary to consider the method 
 of nomenclature, so that by the employment of proper 
 terms, we may make the descriptions which follow 
 more easy. 
 
 In the first place, in anatomy, in the description of 
 the bones, as in those of other organs, we have to 
 consider the relation of the portion under considera- 
 tion with - the rest of the body : and thus each bone, 
 as well as the other organs or their parts, will be 
 found under one or other of two different conditions : 
 either it belongs to the median portion of the body, 
 which is when the antero-posterior vertical plane, 
 passing through the axis of the body, divides it into 
 two similar segments ; or else it is situated outside 
 this median plane. As a type of the first class, we 
 will take the sternum (see fig. 7, p. 31); this is a 
 central single bone; it has no fellow, and is com- 
 posed of two symmetrical portions, one part on the 
 right and one part on the left ; as a type of the 
 second class, we will take the humerus (fig. 12, p. 49), 
 which is a bone situated at the side and one of a. 
 pair, inasmuch as there are two, one on the right and 
 one on the left of the median plane. From these 
 two examples it is easy to understand that for the 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 1 5 
 
 description of each single and symmetrical bone, it will 
 be necessary to speak of anterior parts or surfaces 
 (looking at the anterior portion of the body), of the 
 posterior parts (looking from behind), of the lateral 
 portions (right and left), finally, of parts superior and 
 inferior, (in the case of the sternum a superior and 
 inferior extremity) : on the other hand,. in the descrip- 
 tion of a double and non-symmetrical bone, we shall 
 also have to speak as heretofore of parts superior and 
 inferior, anterior and posterior ; but instead of two 
 similar symmetrical portions, one on each side of an 
 imaginary line, it has two dissimilar halves, of which 
 one looking towards the median plane, towards the 
 axis of the body, is called the internal part, and the 
 other looking to the outer side (as away from the axis) 
 is called the external part. It is necessary, for brevity 
 and accuracy, to clearly comprehend the meaning of 
 these terms in descriptive anatomy (anterior and pos- 
 terior, internal and external, superior and inferior) 
 which serve to show the relation of the parts to the 
 skeleton aS a whole. 
 
 After this first division of bones into single and 
 median, and into double and lateral, if we glance at 
 the skeleton (Fig. 2), it seems at first sight that the 
 various bones present an infinite variety of shape, and 
 defy classification or nomenclature ; careful attention 
 however, will show us that they may be all in- 
 cluded- in one of the following three classes — viz., 
 the long bones, the flat, or broad bones, and the 
 short bones. 
 
 The long, bones, which usually act as the axes 
 
1 6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of the limbs (eg., the humerus, femur, tibia, &c.) are 
 composed of a central portion, cylindrical or pris- 
 matic in shape, called the body, shaft, or diaphysis 
 (Stcufyvas, to be between), and of two extremities, 
 or epiphyses (enifyvw, to be at the end), usually 
 marked by protuberances and articular surfaces. 
 The flat bones (eg.,, the shoulder-blade and the iliac 
 bone) are formed of osseous plates, on which we 
 discover surfaces, borders, and angles, all easy to 
 understand with special explanations. Finally, the 
 small bones, which are found all together in the 
 median portion and centre of the skeleton in the 
 vertebral column and in the extremities of the limbs, 
 the hand and foot, present a form more or less 
 wedge-shaped, of which we describe surfaces and 
 borders. 
 
 Whether the bone be long, flat, or short, it pre- 
 sents prominences and depressions. The projecting 
 portions of bone are called by various names — 
 tuberosities, protuberances, processes, apophyses, crests, 
 spines. To some of these names is added an 
 adjective, which shows, more or less exactly, the 
 form of the process or projection. Thus we speak of 
 a spinous process, mastoid process (/iatn-09, a nipple ; 
 el8<K, form), styloid process, &c. The cavities are called 
 by various names — -fossa, depression, groove, foramen, 
 sinus, canal, &c. To these also are added names which 
 indicate their shape, as the digital fossa, from its re- 
 semblance to the imprint of the tip of the finger on a 
 soft body, the glenoid cavity (yX-^vrj, cavity), the coty- 
 loid cavity {^orvKr}, a basin) ; , but more frequently 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 1 7 
 
 still, the added adjective bears allusion to a connec- 
 tion of the cavity with certain organs, as the bicipital 
 groove, that which contains the tendon of the biceps, 
 the canine fossa, as corresponding to the root of the 
 canine tooth. 
 
 In certain portions, bone, strictly so called, charac- 
 terised by hardness, solidity, and whiteness of colour, 
 is found in continuation with a substance which differs 
 from bone in its elasticity, its want of solidity (it is 
 soft enough to be divided by the scalpel), by its yellow 
 colour, and by a certain degree of transparence. This 
 substance is known by the name of cartilage. Thus 
 the curved bones termed ribs are prolonged at their 
 anterior extremity by a portion called the costal carti- 
 lage, which presents the same form as the ribs properly 
 so called. 
 
 When comparing the skeleton of various animals, 
 as man, the dog, the horse, the sheep, &c, we are 
 struck by the fact that a portion— the shoulder- 
 blade, for example — may be in one composed solely 
 of osseous structure, as in man, while in another 
 these parts will be formed of cartilage, as in the 
 posterior portion of the shoulder-blade of the sheep. 
 This is easily explained by the fact that in all 
 animals the bones, at the commencement of their 
 formation, are constructed solely of cartilage, which 
 is gradually transformed into bone by the deposition 
 of calcareous salts within its structure as the animal 
 grows ; and this transformation of primitive car- 
 tilage by lime-salts, which may spread, more or 
 less, into any part of the primitive cartilaginous 
 C' 
 
1 8 ARTISTI.C ANATOMY. 
 
 skeleton, leaves some portions in the cartilaginous 
 state, according to the species of animal. It will 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 The Complete Skeleton (in the attitude of the Gladiator of Agasias). 
 
 not do, then, to attach too much importance to 
 the fact that some parts will be found bony in one 
 animal and cartilaginous in another. With the pro- 
 gress of advancing age the bones tend to become 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 
 
 uniform in structure. It is thus 
 we find that in the skeletons of 
 old people the costal cartilages 
 .are more or less ossified. 
 
 The skeleton, as a whole, 
 has an axis, which is a column 
 formed by pieces of bone 
 placed one on the other, with 
 intervening discs, the verte- 
 bral column formed by the 
 vertebra. At the top the 
 column supports the head ; 
 to the sides are attached those 
 osseous parts which surround 
 the cavities of the trunk, thorax 
 above, and pelvis below ; and 
 to the trunk are attached the 
 structures of the limbs ; those 
 above, the superior or thoracic, 
 those below, the inferior or 
 pelvic. It is therefore with the 
 vertebral column that we com- 
 mence the study of the skele- 
 ton ; afterwards we will take 
 the upper portion of the trunk, 
 or thorax,- and the members 
 which belong to it, the shoulder, 
 
 
 li 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 The Vertebral Column (anterolateral aspect).— r, the first cervical vertebra 
 (atlas) ; — 9, 9, its occipital articulating surfaces ;— 2, the second cervical vertebra or 
 axis • — X3f its body; — 4, seventh cervical; — 5, 5, transverse processes of the ten first 
 dorsal vertebra ;— 8, 8, transyerse processes of the lumbar vertebra ;— io, u, is, 
 articular processes ; — 19, 19, bodies of the lumbar vertebra ;— 20, the sacrum ; — ?i, 
 the coccyx. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 arm,fore-arm, and hand ; later, we will take the lower 
 portion of the trunk with its members the thigh, leg, and 
 foot, and finish with the study of the bones of the head. 
 The vertebral column is intended not only to form 
 an axis for the rest of the skeleton, but also to serve 
 as an attachment more or less 
 direct for all the other bony struc' 
 tures ; it also protects the cen- 
 tral nervous cord or spinal nerve. 
 It forms for this purpose a species 
 of bony canal, within the central 
 cavity of which the spinal marrow 
 is contained. It is for this reason 
 that each of the pieces which 
 compose it, called a vertebra, is 
 a sort of bony ring (Fig. 4). The 
 anterior portion of the ring is very 
 thick, representing the segment of 
 a cylinder, and is called the body 
 of the vertebra (2, Fig. 4), and it 
 is the placing ot these vertebral 
 bodies one upon the other which 
 constitutes essentially the ver- 
 tebral column, considered as the median column 
 of support. The lateral portion of the ring is com- 
 paratively slender, but it gives origin to certain pro- 
 jections or processes, three in number, on each side, 
 of which one directed transversely outwards is called 
 the transverse process (3, Fig. 4), the other two, di- 
 rected more or less vertically — one. above, the other 
 below, being called the articulating processes, superior 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Outline of a Verte- 
 bra (upper surface).— o, 
 vertebral foramen; i, spin- 
 ous process ;— 2, body of 
 vertebra; — 3, 3, transverse 
 process with articulating 
 facets (4, 4) for the tuber- 
 osity of the rib (see p. 38) ; 
 — 5t 5j superior articular 
 processes ;— 6, 6, the parts 
 which connect the body 
 with the base of the trans- 
 verse and articular pro- 
 cesses; — 7, 7, vertebral 
 laminar. 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 21 
 
 and inferior. These serve 
 for uniting together the 
 adjoining vertebrae (5, 5, 
 Fig. 4). Finally, the pos- 
 terior portion of the verte- 
 bral ring is prolonged back- 
 wards in a protuberance, 
 more or less pointed, called 
 the spinous process (1, 
 
 Fig- 4)- 
 
 Such are the most im- 
 portant parts which we find 
 in each vertebra, but they 
 present particular charac- 
 ters according to the region 
 to which each vertebra be- 
 longs. In fact, we distin- 
 , guish in the vertebral 
 column three regions (Fig. 
 5): the region of the neck 
 or cervical (cervix, the neck), 
 the region of the back or 
 dorsal, and that of the loins 
 or the lumbar region ; there 
 are seven cervical vertebras, 
 twelve dorsal, and five 
 lumbar, making a total 
 of twenty-four ; we do not 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Vertebral Column (lateral view). — 1 to 7, bodies of cervical vertebrae ;— 
 8 to 19, bodies of dorsal vertebrae ; — 20 to 24, bodies of lumbar vertebrae ; — A A. 
 spinous processes; — 8, B, articular surfaces of transverse processes for the tuber- 
 osities of the ribs (see p. 38) ; — C, auricular surface of sacrum. 
 
22 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 include the sacrum and the coccyx, which are formed 
 of vertebras welded together, forming a body articula- 
 tive with the iliac bones, the description of which will 
 be given with that of the pelvis. 
 
 The more important characters of the vertebrae in 
 each of those regions are as follows — to dwell merely 
 upon those which contribute to give to the whole 
 column its general form : — i. The bodies of the ver- 
 tebra are largest in the lumbar region, this part 
 forms the base of the column, it is here that it is 
 largest and of greatest solidity : as we ascend to 
 the superior dorsal vertebrae we " perceive that the 
 bodies of the vertebrae diminish in size : in the cer- 
 vical region they are slightly broader, but their 
 antero-posterior diameter is less ; the superior por- 
 tion of the column is characterised by its mobility 
 much more than" by its solidity. 2. The spinous 
 processes, the free extremities of which project more 
 or less beneath the skin according to the regions, 
 are remarkable in the dorsal region for their distinct 
 " spine " shape ; being very obliquely sloped from top 
 to base, and from front to rear ; on the other hand, 
 in the lumbar region these processes are formed of 
 quadrilateral planes directed horizontally, and in the 
 superior cervical region they are short and bifid at 
 their extremities (Fig. 6, p. 28). 
 
 Besides these general characters in each region 
 there are certain vertebrae which demand special men- 
 tion owing to the peculiarities of their shape. These 
 are the two first and the" last cervical. 
 
 The first cervical, called the Atlas, because as 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 23 
 
 directly supporting the head, it has been compared to 
 the giant Atlas, who carries the globe of the heavens, 
 is reduced to a simple bony ring, without a body or 
 spinous process ; it is remarkable for the presence, 
 upon each of its lateral portions, of an oval articulate 
 ing surface which receives the condyles of the occipital 
 at the base of the skull, and it is this occipito-atloid 
 articulation which allows the movements of the head, 
 of flexion in the front, and of extension behind. The 
 second cervical vertebra is called the axis, because 
 its body is surmounted by a process directed ver- 
 tically upwards called the odontoid process (oSovs, a 
 tooth ; etSo?, form), being similar in shape to a tooth ; 
 this is received into a sort of ring, partly fibrous, 
 partly bony, on the anterior portion of the atlas 
 (Fig. 6, i 2 ), and becomes a veritable pivot or axis, 
 round which the movements of lateral rotation of 
 the head are effected, the action of turning the face 
 to the right hand or to the left ; it is not therefore by 
 the occipito-atloid articulation, but principally by the 
 atlo-axoid that the movements of rotation of the 
 head are accomplished, the atlas forming in that case 
 one body with the head, and moving with it around 
 the odontoid process whilst in the movements of flexion 
 and extension the first vertebra forms one with the 
 axis. These functions, of little importance as re- 
 gards the external forms, for thes * bones are deeply 
 situated at the base of the skull, are nevertheless too 
 interesting with respect to the articulating mechanism, 
 not to find a notice here. The peculiarity which dis- 
 tinguishes the last cervical vertebra is that it is im- 
 
24 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 portant as regards the external form. For this reason 
 the seventh cervical vertebra receives the name of 
 prominens, as its spinous process presents more the 
 characters of the spinous processes of the dorsal region, 
 it is long, spine-shaped, terminating in a tubercle which 
 always shows as a projection easily visible beneath 
 the skin; and this projection is also more conspicuous 
 as it corresponds to that part of the neck where the 
 trapezius muscle represented only by a fibrous plane, 
 not fleshy, forms a flat surface in the centre of which 
 the projection in question appears placed on the level 
 of a transverse line passing through the superior 
 border of the shoulder (see Fig. 52, page 197). It 
 may be observed that when the model bends the head 
 forward the spinous process of the seventh cervical 
 becomes very prominent. 
 
 We have been disconnecting the vertebrae in order 
 to account for the construction of the vertebral column ; 
 we must next see how the different vertebrae are 
 placed one upon the other, how they articulate in such 
 a manner as to form a column not rigid but elastic 
 and curved. The vertebras are placed on each other 
 so that the inferior articulating processes of one fit 
 exactly on to the superior articulating processes of the 
 next beneath, and thus throughout the series we see 
 (Fig. s) that the bodies of the vertebras are not in 
 contact one with the other, the space which separates 
 them being filled in the living subject by elastic fibrous 
 discs, which in the mounted skeleton we imitate by 
 the interposition of plates of leather, cork, or paste- 
 board. These intervertebral discs are very thick in the 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 2$ 
 
 lumbar region, and become much thinner in propor- 
 tion as we ascend to the superior dorsal and cervical 
 regions ; being compressible and elastic, these fibrous 
 discs give to the column, formed by the placing one on 
 another of the bodies of the vertebrae, a certain degree 
 of flexibility, whereas a column formed of bone alone 
 would have been quite rigid. — The ligaments placed at 
 the posterior portion of the vertebras are very interest- 
 ing as regards these movements ; they are the yellow 
 ligaments joining together the vertebral laminae. By 
 the vertebral laminae we mean the posterior portion 
 of the vertebral ring (7, 7, Fig. 4), which portion, con- 
 tinuous behind with the spinous process (1, Fig. 4), 
 might be described as resulting from the bifurcation of 
 the root of this spine ; the yellow ligaments them- 
 selves consist of two short bands of peculiar tissue 
 placed on each side of the root of each spinous pro- 
 cess, and uniting the inferior border of the laminae of 
 one vertebra, with the superior border of the vertebra 
 situated next below it. 
 
 The yellow or elastic tissue which composes these 
 ligaments is similar to a piece of india-rubber ; it is 
 elastic, that is to say it is able to stretch, and 
 to return again by its own reaction to its original 
 size when the cause which distended it has ceased 
 to act : so that each movement of flexion of the 
 column in front results in moving the vertebral plates 
 one upon the other, by means of stretching the 
 yellow ligaments. When the anterior muscles of 
 the trunk which accomplish this flexion cease to 
 contract, it is not necessary, in order to straighten the 
 
26 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 column, that the posterior muscles of the back should 
 come into play ; the elasticity of the yellow liga- 
 ments suffices for this, as they return to their original 
 dimensions and draw together the vertebral laminae. 
 We may say then that there is at the posterior por- 
 tion of the column within each vertebra a pair of 
 small springs which keeps the column erect, so that 
 the erect attitude of the trunk is maintained in a 
 state of repose simply by the presence of the elastic 
 ligaments ; more is required when a man supports 
 upon his back any extra weight or burden. 
 
 In the great carnivorous animals, as the lion, and 
 in the greater number of quadrupeds, a long elastic 
 band is superadded to the posterior surface of the 
 column. This posterior cervical ligament, which sup- 
 ports the head, starts from the occipital, and is at- 
 tached to all the cervical vertebrae ; it is represented 
 in man by a fibrous median partition placed between 
 the muscles of the right and left side of the neck. 
 The vertebral column is not straight, as the vertebral 
 bodies and intervertebral discs are, in fact, slightly 
 wedge-shaped (thicker behind than in front, or con- 
 versely), and the situation of these wedges differing 
 according to their regions, produces throughout the 
 column the curves peculiar to each region. These 
 curves are three in number (Fig. 5), proceeding from 
 above downwards. The first, or cervical curve, is 
 convex anteriorly, its most prominent portion corres- 
 ponding to the fourth or fifth cervical vertebra. The 
 second, or dorsal curve, is concave anteriorly, its most 
 concave portion corresponding to the seventh dorsal 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 2; 
 
 vertebra. Finally, the third, or lumbar curvature is, 
 like the first, convex anteriorly, its most prominent 
 portion corresponding to the third lumbar vertebra. 
 
 In animals the vertebral column has but two 
 curves, one the cervical convex inferiorly, the other, 
 the dorso-lumbar concave inferiorly. 
 
 We have now to examine the influence that the 
 vertebral column has in moulding the external form, 
 and to see if the length of the column can be made 
 use of for a system of proportion. 
 
 It is evident, in the first place, that the posterior 
 portions of the vertebrae only can affect the outline 
 of the body, the anterior portions of the bodies of the 
 vertebrae being deeply hidden in the cavity of the 
 thorax. Therefore, in the skeleton, the posterior 
 surface of the vertebral column (Fig. 6) presents itself 
 under the aspect of a median crest, formed by a series 
 of spinous processes, the spinal crest, on each side 
 of which is a groove bounded without by a series of 
 transverse processes (the grooves of the transverse 
 processes). In the living subject these grooves are 
 filled up by powerful and thick muscles, which 
 project in such a manner that the back presents a 
 furrow in the median line bounded on each side by 
 these muscles, at the bottom of which the bony, 
 structure of the vertebral column is shown only by a 
 series of projections placed one beneath the other, like 
 the beads of a necklace, each one being formed by 
 the summit or free extremity of a spinous process. 
 These projections are well seen in the dorsal region 
 on examination of the curvature of the posterior 
 
28 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 n B B 
 
 convexity of this portion ot 
 the column, and they show 
 themselves still more clearly 
 when the subject bends for- 
 ward, and thereby increases 
 this curvature. They are not 
 visible in the cervical region, 
 where a bed of powerful mus- 
 cles covers them ; but we have 
 seen that the seventh cervical, 
 or vertebra prominens, is re- 
 markable for the projection 
 which its spinous process 
 makes. Finally, in the lumbar 
 region, these projections are 
 but little marked, the spinous 
 processes here being short and 
 terminated, not by a point, 
 but by a vertical border. 
 
 The measurements of the 
 vertebral column are useful 
 on the one hand, as absolute 
 dimensions, length and height, 
 of the column, and on the 
 other hand, as regards the 
 relation of its length with the 
 stature of the subject. The 
 height of the column in the 
 
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN (posterior ° 
 
 view). — i, i, cervical transverse 
 
 processes; — 2, 2, dorsal transverse processes; — 3, 3, lumbar transverse processes; 
 — 7, 8, g, 10, spinous processes ; — n, 11, articular surfaces for occipital bone of skull ; 
 — 12, odontoid process of the axis ; — 13, 14, sacrum and coccyx. 
 
THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS. 29 
 
 average adult man is from twenty-three to twenty- 
 four inches, being five for the cervical region, eleven 
 for the dorsal, v and seven for the lumbar. But as 
 the length of the vertebral column does not serve 
 as a common measure for the total height of the 
 body or for its different parts, it cannot be used as 
 the basis of a system of proportions. A German 
 zoologist, Carus, has advanced the idea that the 
 length of the column forms the third of the height ; 
 but this proposition is not exact. On the other hand, 
 it is not easy to measure the column from the atlas as 
 far as the last lumbar, without taking account of the 
 sacrum and coccyx. We find more frequently that 
 the length of the trunk, from the superior limit of 
 the thorax to the inferior limit of the pelvis, gives 
 a measurement more easy to take, and more useful 
 for the general proportions of the body. 
 
 It is enough to say here that the proportion of 
 the vertebral column to the height varies according 
 to age and sex, and according as the stature is very 
 great or very little ; the vertebral column is, in fact, 
 in comparison with the height, longer in the infant 
 and in the female than in the adult male ; it is also 
 much longer in proportion to the height, in subjects 
 of short stature. The cause of difference of stature 
 between men and women, infants and adults, long 
 people and short, is principally due to the length of 
 the lower extremities — a question which will be dealt 
 with later on. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 
 
 Tbe Sternum : its three portions — manubrium, gladiolus, xiphoid 
 appendage ; its situation, its direction, the levels to which the 
 extremities correspond ; its dimensions, absolute and relative. — Of 
 the ribs ; the true ribs, the false and floating ribs ; the obliquity, 
 curvature, and bending on themselves of the ribs ; the head, neck, 
 tuberosity, angle and body of the ribs. — Of the thorax in general ; 
 its posterior aspect, the anterior aspect (the chondro-sternal and 
 chondro-costal nodules ; the base, the pit of the stomach. 
 
 That portion of the vertebral column which is formed 
 by the seven cervical vertebrae, is free, and forms 
 of itself the bony structure of the neck. It is the 
 same in the lumbar region, where the five vertebrae 
 alone form the bony structure of the abdomen ; but 
 the twelve dorsal vertebrae corresponding to the 
 superior two-thirds of the trunk, are in connection 
 with numerous osseous ribs, which constitute with 
 them the frame-work of the thorax. 
 
 In the front part of the thorax is the sternum, 
 a bone in the middle line, single and symmetrical. 
 This bone is, in the early stage of existence, 
 formed of pieces placed one upon the other in a 
 vertical series, and may be compared to a species 
 of small anterior vertebral column, these distinct 
 portions alone representing a species of vertebral 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 
 
 31 
 
 bodies ; it is found composed in this manner in a 
 certain number of animals. In the adult subject 
 these pieces are more or less joined together. There 
 remain only three distinct portions, one superior, 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Thorax (anterior view). — x, handle or manubrium of sternum ; — 2, its body ; — 
 '3, its xiphoid appendage ; — 4, body of .first dorsal vertebra ; — 5, twelfth dorsal 
 vertebra ; — 6 and 7, first and second ribs ; — 8, 8, the true or sternal ribs ;— 9, 10, 
 the floating ribs ; — xi, costal cartilages. 
 
 one in the middle, and one inferior ; and as some 
 have compared the sternum to a sword, they have 
 given to the superior portion the name of the hilt 
 (1, Fig. 7) ; to the central portion that of the body, 
 or blade (2, Fig. 7), and to the inferior (3, Fig. 7), 
 
32 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 that of the point or xiphoid appendage (£k/>o?, a 
 sword). Thus constituted, the sternum presents for 
 our consideration an anterior surface, a posterior sur- 
 face, two lateral borders, a superior and an inferior 
 extremity. 
 
 The anterior surface is smooth ; but the union of 
 the hilt with the blade is marked by a prominent 
 transverse line, owing to the junction of the two parts 
 forming a projecting angle in front, by not being con- 
 tinuous in a direct line the one with the other; in 
 fact the hilt is a little curved backwards ; this project- 
 ing angle is very remarkable in some subjects, and 
 gives a clearly marked convex shape to the superior 
 portion of the anterior surface of the thorax. The 
 posterior surface, which is not necessary for artists 
 to study, is generally flat and presents a returning 
 angle corresponding to the projecting angle of the 
 anterior surface. 
 
 The superior extremity of the sternum forming 
 the broader portion of the bone is marked by three 
 depressions, the two lateral, one on each side, articu- 
 lated with the internal extremity of the corresponding 
 clavicle, and the one in the middle called the fourchette 
 of tJte sternum, rendered deeper still by the presence 
 of the heads of the clavicles, which is easily discerned 
 on the living model : this forms the inferior border 
 of the deep depression situated at the lower part of 
 the front of the neck, arid is limited on either side 
 by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles. 
 
 The inferior extremity of the sternum is formed 
 by the piece called the xiphoid appendage, which 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 33 
 
 remains very frequently in the cartilaginous state, in 
 the form of a plate thin and tapering ; in shape and 
 direction it is very variable ; it varies in different per- 
 sons, being sometimes pointed, or square, or bifurcated, 
 and it may be situated in a plane corresponding to the 
 body of the sternum or be turned towards one side, 
 either before or behind : in a case where it projects in 
 front it may cause a slight elevation of the skin of 
 the region of the pit of the stomach or epigastrium ; 
 but it is a detail of form so irregular that it is not 
 worth reproducing. 
 
 The lateral borders of the sternum are not vertical 
 but form a concave line at the level of the junction 
 of the body and the hilt, the hilt increasing in size 
 towards its superior part, and the blade or body of 
 the bone enlarging towards its inferior part. Each 
 of the borders is marked by seven small depressions 
 made to receive the anterior extremity of each of 
 the cartilages of the seven first ribs. -The first, from 
 above downwards, of these depressions is situated on 
 the border of the hilt, below the articular surface where 
 the clavicle comes ; the second depression is situated 
 in the line of the junction of the hilt with the blade, 
 those following are situated on the edge of the blade, 
 and the spaces between the depressions become 
 smaller as they approach the lower part of the blade, 
 so that the last depressions for the sixth and seventh 
 costal cartilages are almost fused into one. 
 
 It is not sufficient to know the sternum as a solitary 
 bone, we should also be able to determine its exact 
 direction when taken in relation with the other parts 
 D 
 
34 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of the thorax, in the complete skeleton. This direc- 
 tion is not vertical but very oblique, 
 so that the superior part of the 
 sternum is less removed from the 
 vertebral column than the inferior 
 part ; we may define this direction 
 by saying that the sternum forms an 
 angle of fifteen to twenty degrees 
 with the vertical passing through the 
 inferior extremity (angle x, Fig. 8), 
 and afterwards an angle of seventy 
 to seventy-five degrees with a hori- 
 zontal passing through this same 
 extremity (angle y, Fig. 8). Such 
 is the direction of the sternum in the 
 male ; in the female it is less oblique, 
 and approaches the vertical — a dis- 
 position which artists are prone to 
 exaggerate by giving a more rounded 
 form to the superior portion of the 
 thorax in the female. To compare 
 the relations of the sternum with the 
 rest of the thorax it is necessary 
 further to determine the level of 
 the parts corresponding to the two 
 extremities by comparison with the 
 vertebral column. The superior extremity of the ster- 
 num does not correspond to the first dorsal vertebra, 
 but rather to the second, or the disc which separates 
 the second and third, so that the horizontal plane 
 passing through the superior extremity of the sternum 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 The relative Posi- 
 tions of the Ster- 
 num (S T) AND THE 
 
 Vertebral Column. 
 — i, the first cervical 
 vertebra ; — 7, seventh 
 cervical vertebra ; — 2, 
 second dorsal vertebra, 
 on a line with the upper 
 extremity of the ster- 
 num; — 10, tenth dorsal 
 vertebra (on a line with 
 the inferior extremity 
 of the sternum). — .rand 
 y, the angles which the 
 oblique plane of the 
 sternum (in the male) 
 makes with the vertical 
 and horizontal planes 
 passing through the in- 
 ferior extremity, a t of 
 the sternum. 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 35 
 
 strikes the second dorsal vertebra at its middle or 
 lower part (Fig. 8) ; and below the horizontal plane 
 passing through the inferior extremity strikes the 
 tenth dorsal vertebra ; viewing the thorax in profile, 
 we see the sternum project between the second and 
 eleventh vertebra. 
 
 The length of the sternum is on the average, in the 
 adult man eight inches, of which there are two inches 
 for the hilt, four and a half inches for the blade, and 
 the remainder for the xiphoid appendage. 
 
 But what is more important to know is, that this 
 measure of length of the sternum without the xiphoid 
 appendage which, when present, is scarcely visible, 
 and, so to speak, is no part of the complete subject, 
 is found in various parts of the skeleton, which for 
 the most part are adjacent to the sternum, and this 
 may be taken as a common measure for constructing 
 a correctly proportioned thorax. 
 
 As a fact, this measure of the length of the 
 hilt and blade of the sternum is equal to the 
 clavicle, also to the spinous border of the shoulder- 
 blade, and to the distance which separates the two 
 shoulder-blades in the figure when the arms are hang- 
 ing by the side ; finally, again the length of the 
 sternum is equal to the length of the hand without 
 the third phalanx of the middle finger. 
 
 The dorsal column and the sternum, being known, 
 it is easy to understand the arrangement of the 
 parts which complete . the thorax : these parts are 
 arranged somewhat like the hoops of a cask, proceed- 
 ing from the vertebral column to the sides of the 
 P ? 
 
36 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 sternum ; their posterior and central portions are 
 bony, and take the name of ribs ; and their anterior 
 portion, where it joins the sternum, is cartilagi- 
 nous, and takes the name of costal cartilage. The 
 ribs are twelve in number on each side. They are 
 known as first, second, and third ribs, &c, counting 
 from above downwards ; the first seven are classed 
 as true ribs, or sternal ribs, which have the cartilages 
 directly joined to the sternum, the five last as false 
 ribs when the cartilages are not joined immediately 
 to the sternum. Of the five false ribs, the three 
 first, the eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs, are provided 
 with cartilages which connect them obliquely to that 
 of the seventh rib. The two last, the eleventh and 
 twelfth, are remarkable for their shortness ; they are 
 provided at their extremities with rudimentary carti- 
 lage only, which is not attached to any other portion 
 of the skeleton ; so that these last ribs are called 
 floating ribs, their extremities being frefe in the thick- 
 ness of the walls of the abdomen. 
 
 In a general sense the ribs are long bones, 
 which may be compared to the hoops of a cask, 
 presenting an external surface and an internal surface, 
 a superior border and an inferior border. These 
 circular bands are not horizontal, but oblique, from 
 above downwards and from behind forwards : so that 
 the anterior extremity of a rib is always placed on a 
 lower level than its posterior extremity. 
 
 More than that, the ribs present a double curve : 
 they a,re bent like the circular hoops of a cask in 
 order to surround the thorax, and present, therefore, a 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 37 
 
 curve similar to that of a scroll, of which the convexity 
 is turned outwards and the concavity inwards ; but, 
 again, they are twisted, upon themselves as if the an- 
 terior extremity had been forcibly carried inwards by 
 a movement of rotation upon its own axis. This cur- 
 vature of torsion makes the external surface, which is 
 really external to the central portion of the rib, become 
 superior at its anterior portion. In order to have a 
 good idea of the torsion of the ribs it is necessary to 
 take a single rib and place it on a horizontal surface, 
 such as a table ; it will be then seen that, instead of 
 its being in contact through its entire extent with the 
 flat surface, it touches it only at two points, as if it 
 formed a half-hoop of a cask to which a slight spiral 
 twist had been given. 
 
 The ribs vary much in length, in order to corre- 
 spond to the shape, of the thorax which is ovoid, and 
 not cylindrical ; the length of them increases from 
 the first to the eighth, which is the longest, and corre- 
 sponds to the largest part of the thorax; and it 
 gradually diminishes from the eighth to the twelfth. 
 
 In examining a rib, beginning at its posterior ex- 
 tremity, will be found, taking them in order, the follow- 
 ing portions, the indication of which is useful for the 
 study of the shape of the thorax : — First, an extremity 
 slightly raised, called the head of the rib, which head, 
 shaped like a wedge, articulates with the body oi 
 the vertebra into which it is received, precisely like 
 a wedge, into the space which separates the bodies 
 of two vertebrae ; so that it is in contact by the 
 summit of the wedge with the intervertebral disc, 
 
38 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 and by the surfaces of the wedge with the vertebra 
 which is situated above and that which is situated 
 below the disc. Beyond the head, the rib presents a 
 portion narrow and lengthened, called the neck of the 
 
 Fig. g. 
 
 Thorax (posterior view). — i, i, spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae j — 2/a. " 
 vertebral laminae ; — 3, 3, series of transverse processes ; — 4, 4, the parts of the ribs 
 included between the tuberosities and the angles of the ribs ;— 5, 5, angles of the ribs, 
 becoming more distant from the vertebral column as the rib becomes more inferior. 
 
 rib, which neck is placed in front of the transverse 
 process of the vertebra corresponding and parallel 
 to it. 
 
 At the external extremity of the neck is a slight 
 enlargement called the tuberosity, which corresponds 
 to the level of the external extremity of the transverse 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 39 
 
 process of the vertebrae, corresponding and articulating 
 with the process (Fig. 4) ; the ribs then are fixed 
 behind to the bodies of the vertebrae and the trans- 
 verse processes (Fig. 9), and these articulations are 
 such that the ribs move slightly, their anterior ex- 
 tremity rising upwards and their convexity gently 
 projecting forwards in the action of elevation, this 
 movement constitutes essentially the respiratory act.* 
 
 Going on from the tuberosity, the body of the rib 
 is formed of osseous' plate, which at first is directed 
 directly outwards (4, 4, . Fig. 9) ; then, after travelling 
 some distance, it bends abruptly, so as to be directed 
 forward, describing the characteristic curve of the 
 rib. We give to this bend the name of the angle 
 of the rib (5, Fig. 9). The series of the angles 
 of the ribs shows, upon the posterior aspect of the 
 thorax, a line plainly visible, curved, with its con- 
 vexity outwards, the summit of this convexity corre- 
 sponding to the eighth rib, which is the longest, and 
 upon which a relatively greater distance separates the 
 angle from the tuberosity (Fig. 9). 
 
 Such are the characters of ribs in general. For the 
 peculiar characters of the several ribs, after we have 
 spoken of the two last ribs, it will suffice to note the 
 shortness of the superior ribs, and principally of the 
 first, which is flattened downward from above — that 
 is to say, curved along the borders, and not along 
 the surfaces — and does not present any twist. 
 
 The ribs are continued in front by the costal 
 cartilages; these cartilages, in proceeding to join 
 
 * So far as the bony structure partakes of this act. — Ed. 
 
40 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the sternum, follow a course more or less oblique, so 
 that the cartilage of the first rib is oblique from 
 above downwards, and from without inwards ; that of 
 the second is horizontal ; that of the third is oblique 
 from below upwards, and from without inwards ; and 
 those following present the same obliquity (Fig. 7), 
 which becomes more accentuated in the cartilages 
 lower down. The spaces which separate these carti- 
 lages are wide above, especially between the cartilages 
 of the three first ribs, and become narrowed towards 
 the lower part. 
 
 The whole of the thorax, which we have just 
 examined in its constituent parts, forms a species of. 
 truncated cone, with its base below and its apex 
 above ; but, from an artist's point of view as to form, 
 it is not necessary to take this form into account, as 
 the shape of the summit of the thorax is completely 
 changed by the addition of the osseous girdle consti- 
 tuted by the clavicle and shoulder-blade. 
 
 We limit ourselves, then, to a rapid view of the 
 posterior surface, the anterior surface, and the base 
 of the thorax. 
 
 The posterior surface (Fig. 9) presents upon the 
 skeleton, in the median line, the series of spinous 
 processes, and on each side a double row, first of 
 transverse processes, and then the angles of the ribs. 
 As already explained (page 27), respecting these 
 several details, the summits of the spinous processes, 
 although just under the skin, are scarcely visible, 
 especially in a very muscular subject. 
 
 On the anterior surface of the thorax (Fig. 7), in 
 
THE TRUNK AND THORAX. 41 
 
 a very muscular subject, the osseous details do not 
 show on the external figure, except the sternal 
 fourchette (page 32) and the heads of the clavicles, 
 which are more or less visible. The great pectoral 
 muscles form on each side a large fleshy plane, and 
 the median line of separation of these muscles is 
 marked by a narrow depression corresponding to the 
 central portion of the sternum, the only region where 
 this bone becomes subcutaneous ; but in less muscular 
 subjects, in the aged and in thin children, all the 
 details of the thoracic frame-work show beneath 
 the skin, and reveal clearly the forms of the 
 costal cartilages with their obliquities, the thin in- 
 tervals of separation becoming narrower as we get 
 lower down. Moreover, especially in infants, the 
 articulation of the cartilages with the sternum, and 
 the articulation of the cartilages with the anterior 
 extremities of the ribs, are shown by a double row 
 of nodules, as the points of junction of the osseous 
 and cartilaginous portions are slightly elevated. We 
 find again a series of chondro-sternal nodules (^oi'Sjooy, 
 cartilage) marking the borders of the sternum, and, 
 on the outer side, a series of chondro-costal nodules, 
 marking the line of junction of the ribs with the 
 cartilages. This chondro-costal line descends ob- 
 liquely from within outwards ; so that above, it is 
 very near the sternum, owing to the shortness of 
 the cartilage of the first rib, and below it is with- 
 drawn from the sternum owing to the greater length 
 of the cartilages of the ninth and tenth ribs. The 
 base, or inferior circumference of the thorax is con- 
 
42 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 tinuous, without distinct limits upon the living 
 subject, with the abdominal wall behind and upon 
 the sides ; but in front this circumference presents a 
 depression in the form of an inverted V, with the 
 mouth looking downwards (Fig. 7) ; this depression, 
 limited on both sides by the cartilages of the false 
 ribs, and corresponding at its apex to the junction 
 of the body of the sternum with its costo-xiphoid 
 appendage, shows in the living subject a depression 
 of the same form, called the pit of the stomach, or 
 epigastrium {hr\, upon ; <yao-Ti?p, stomach). Upon 
 the dead body, or upon a model in a state of re- 
 pose, the outlines of the pit may be compared to 
 a pointed arch ; but when the model makes a violent 
 effort, as in taking a deep inspiration, the elevation 
 of the ribs spreads the cartilages of the false ribs 
 from the median line, and the pointed arch in question 
 shortens and tends to take a rounded form. On the 
 other hand, in very muscular subjects, the great an- 
 terior muscles of the abdomen are sufficiently thick at 
 their superior parts where they cover the cartilages 
 of the false ribs, to add their shape to that of 
 the cartilages, and to give to the epigastric region a 
 more rounded form. It is this form of a rounded 
 arch, that the Greek sculptors have adopted almost 
 exclusively, and this choice we find justified to some 
 extent in the fact that they had for their models very 
 muscular athletes, whom they studied during the 
 wrestling-matches of the gymnasium, when efforts 
 which dilated the thorax most powerfully were to 
 be observed. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SHOULDER. 
 
 The osseous structure of the shoulder. The clavicle :, its body with 
 its double curve : its two extremities, sternal or internal, acromial 
 or external : its proportions. — The shoulder-blade : its situation 
 and relations. — The spine of the scapula : acromion : coracoid 
 process : glenoid cavity. — Proportions of the scapula : the distance 
 which separates the right from the left.— The upper portion of 
 the humerus : the surgical neck, the anatomical neck : the articular 
 head : the tuberosities. — The shoulder-joint, scapulo-humeral : 
 its proper movements : the increase of mobility assured by the 
 acromio-clavicular and sterno-clavicular articulations : the to-and- 
 fro motion of the scapula : the importance of this mechanism with 
 regard to the external form. 
 
 THE whole of the shoulder is formed of two bones, of 
 which one is situated in the front, the clavicle, and the 
 other behind, the shoulder-blade or scapula. 
 
 The clavicle {clavicula, diminutive of clavis, a 
 key), is a long bone, placed transversely at the upper 
 part of the thorax, one on each side of the manubrium 
 or hilt of the sternum, connecting the sternum with 
 the shoulder-blade. Its form is that of an italic 5 
 slightly accentuated, that is to say, it describes in a 
 horizontal plane two curves, the internal portion being 
 convex in front, and the outer part convex behind 
 (Fig. 10). It consists of a body and two extremities: 
 the body, flattened downward, presents a smooth su- 
 perior surface, which in the model shows very clearly 
 
44 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 beneath the skin, and a rough inferior surface inter- 
 nally, where it is in contact with the first rib, and 
 externally, where it is in contact with the acromion 
 process of the scapula (see below) : a posterior and 
 anterior border, both smooth, but concave and convex 
 in an inverse sense : an internal extremity thickened, 
 
 forming a species of 
 head, which articulates 
 
 with the correspond- 
 ing lateral facet on the 
 
 Fig. io. ° . 
 
 manubrium of the ster- 
 
 Right Clavicle: Upper Surface.— i, num : the Outer ex- 
 body of clavicle ;— 2, 3, inner or sternal ex- , . „ 
 
 tremity;— 4, 5, outer or acromial extremity. t remit)/ being flattened 
 
 downward, and articu- 
 lates with the acromion process of the scapula. 
 These articulations increase the mobility of the 
 shoulder-joint as we shall see in the study of that 
 joint ; we find that the clavicle, almost horizontal 
 when the arms are hanging in an attitude of re- 
 pose beside the trunk, becomes oblique in direction 
 when the arms are moved upward and forward, 
 or especially upward and backward, towards "its 
 outer extremity. The length of the clavicle, as we 
 have already said (page 35), should be equal to the 
 sternum hilt and body without the xiphoid ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 The ' shoulder-blade or scapula is a flat bone, and 
 consists of a bony plate very thin at certain points, 
 thickened only on the borders, and triangular : this 
 bone is placed on the lateral and posterior portion of 
 the thorax, and corresponds at its lower extremity 
 
THE SHOULDER. 
 
 45 
 
 to the second rib : below, at its apex to the eighth 
 rib : it is attached by a slight articulation called the 
 acromio-clavicular articulation, to the external ex- 
 tremity of the clavicle; and does not possess any 
 other ligamentous con- 
 nections with the ad- 
 jacent bones; it is on 
 this account capable 
 of great freedom of 
 movement. 
 
 The shoulder-blade 
 is described as possess- 
 ing two surfaces, three 
 borders and three 
 angles. The posterior 
 surface, free and visible 
 throughout its ' entire 
 extent upon the moun- 
 ted skeleton, is divided 
 into two unequal por- 
 tions, the upper one the 
 smaller, and the lower 
 one the larger, by a 
 bony crest, called the 
 spine of the scapula 
 (10, ii, Fig. n), which 
 traverses the bone obliquely from within outwards, and 
 from below upwards. It becomes more and more 
 prominent as it approaches the outer border or 
 shoulder properly so-called), and afterwards is pro- 
 longed into a plane which becomes free, and forms 
 
 Shoulder-blade : Posterior Surface. 
 — i, supraspinous fossa ; — 2, infra-spinous 
 fossa ; — 3," superior border with coracoid 
 notch (4) ;— 5, external or axillary border 
 with depression for attachment (S) of the 
 long head of the triceps brachialis ; — 6, • 
 glenoid cavity ; — 7, inferior angle ; — g, in- 
 ternal or spinal border; — 10 and n, spine of 
 shoulder-blade extending into acromion (12) ; 
 — 14, coracoid process. 
 
46 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the most elevated and external part of the skeleton 
 of the shoulder (12, Fig. 11), under the name of the 
 acromion (a^poi, summit ; co/to?, the shoulder). It is on 
 the internal or anterior border of this acromion that 
 the small oval facet is found, by which the scapula 
 articulates with the outer extremity of the clavicle by 
 the acromio -clavicular articulation ; above the spine of 
 the scapula is the supraspinous fossa (1, Fig. 1 1), 
 below the spine is a larger space called the infra- 
 spinous fossa (2, Fig. 11). The anterior surface of 
 the scapula is placed against the ribs between the 
 above-mentioned .limits, and is but little visible upon 
 the articulated skeleton ; the large surface which 
 it forms has received the name of the subscapular 
 fossa. 
 
 Of the three borders of the scapula, one is superior 
 and horizontal ; it is the shortest of the three. The 
 other is posterior and vertical, parallel to the crest 
 formed by the series of spinous processes of the 
 vertebrae ; to this is given the name of the spinal 
 border. The third, or outer, is oblique, directed 
 downwards and backwards, corresponding to the 
 region of the arm-pit, and has received the name of 
 the axillary border. It is particularly to be noticed 
 that the spinal border is thin ; the axillary border, 
 on the contrary, is thick, and presents towards 
 its superior limit a rough space, for the insertion 
 of the long portion of the triceps brachialis muscle 
 (8, Fig. 11), while the superior border is remark- 
 able for the presence at its outer extremity of a pro- 
 cess which projects vertically upwards, then recurving 
 
THE SHOULDER. 47 
 
 upon itself like a hook. It has been likened to the 
 beak of a crow, and has received the name of the 
 coracoid process (jtbpa%, a crow ; elSo?, form). The 
 coracoid process (14, Fig. 11) is placed in front and 
 on. the inner side of the acromion, and the two 
 together form an arch within the shoulder, called the 
 coraco-acromial arch, the central portion of which is 
 formed by a fibrous band proceeding from one of 
 these osseous points to the other the coraco-acromial 
 ligament. Of the three angles of the scapula, one 
 only — the superior external angle, which is situated 
 beneath the coraco-acromial arch — deserves a par- 
 ticular description ; this angle is very thick, and 
 spreads itself out into an articular surface (6, Fig. 11), 
 which looks almost directly outwards, and articulates 
 with the head of the humerus. This surface is 
 slightly hollowed out, and' bears the name of the 
 glenoid cavity ; in the recent subject, where it is 
 covered with its fibrous parts, a fibrous band, the 
 glenoid ligament, borders the circumference of this 
 surface, and increases its depth. 
 
 As regards the relative proportion of the scapula, 
 it may be noted that the length of the spinal bor- 
 der is equal to the length of the clavicle, and equal 
 also to the distance which separates the scapulas be- 
 hind, when the spinal borders are vertical ; which is 
 the case when the arms are hanging beside the body 
 in a state of repose. 
 
 With respect to the movements of the shoulder- 
 blade, and their results on the external form, they 
 will be studied with the articulation of the scapula 
 
48 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 with the humerus, the scapulo-humeral articulation. 
 We must now pass on to describe the upper portion 
 of the bone of the arm. 
 
 The bone of the arm, or humerus, is one of the 
 long bones, and is composed of a shaft, prismatic 
 in form, or, more correctly speaking, nearly cylin- 
 drical, as the edges of the prism are but slightly 
 marked, and of ' two enlarged extremities, one in- 
 ferior, which takes part in the articulation of the 
 elbow ; the other superior, which takes part in the 
 articulation of the shoulder. We will only concern 
 ourselves for the present with the superior extremity. 
 
 Voluminous and rounded into an irregular sphere, 
 the superior extremity of the humerus is continuous 
 with the body of this bone by" a conical neck, called 
 the surgical neck of the humerus. This extremity 
 is traversed by a circular groove, oblique from above 
 downwards, and from without inwards, called the 
 anatomical neck (3, Fig. 12). This is weli-marked, and 
 divides the sphere into two parts ; the one, situated 
 above, and internal to the anatomical neck, is very 
 regularly rounded, smooth, covered over by a layer 
 of cartilage, and is called the head of the humerus 
 (2, Fig. 12) ; it is normally in contact with the glenoid 
 , cavity of the shoulder-blade, in which it glides accord- 
 ing to the movements of the arm ; the other part 
 of the head, . situated below, and external to the 
 anatomical neck, is rough, and divided into two 
 .tuberosities by a vertical groove, which is prolonged 
 as far as the superior part of the body of the 
 bone, and which, from its serving as a lodgment for 
 
THE SHOULDER. 
 
 the long tendon of the biceps, has re- 
 ceived the name of the bicipital groove 
 (6, Fig. 12). The tuberosity situated 
 on the outer side of the bicipital 
 groove is large, and is called the great 
 tuberosity (4, Fig. 12); it presents three 
 small surfaces which receive the inser- 
 tions of the deep muscles of the shoulder 
 — supra-spinous, infra-spinous, and teres 
 minor muscles. The tuberosity, situated 
 internal to the bicipital groove, is 
 smaller. It is called the smaller tuber- 
 osity of the humerus (5, Fig. 12), and 
 gives attachment to one muscle only, 
 the subscapularis. The articulation 
 of the shoulder, or scapulo- humeral 
 articulation, may serve us as a type for 
 the study of articulations in general. 
 It is necessary, in each articulation, to 
 consider how the shapes of the bony 
 surfaces in contact correspond to each 
 other. From this we should be able to 
 deduce the nature of the movements 
 that the articulation permits of. It is, 
 therefore, necessary to consider the dis- 
 position of the ligaments; that is to say, 
 of the fibrous bands which proceed from 
 one bone to the other, and from this 
 we should deduce what should be the 
 limits imposed upon those movements, 
 of which we have previously stated the existence, 
 E n 
 
 ml 
 
 Fig. ia. 
 
 Left Humerus 
 (anterior surface) : 
 1, body of the bone ; 
 — 2, articular head ; 
 — 3, anatomical 
 neck ; — 4, great tu- 
 berosity ;— 5, lesser 
 tuberosity : — 6, bi- 
 cipital groove; — 7, 
 deltoid impression ; 
 — ir, condyle ; — 12, 
 trochlea ; — 13, ex- 
 ternal Condyle ;— 
 14, internal con- 
 dyle ; — 16, internal 
 condyloid ridge;— 
 17, coronoid de- 
 pression. 
 
50 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 In the scapulo-humeral articulation the articular 
 surfaces are represented on one side by a cavity of 
 very little depth, the glenoid cavity of the shoulder- 
 blade, and on the other side by the head of the 
 humerus, smooth and regularly rounded. 
 
 Such an arrangement of surfaces in contact per- 
 mits the head to glide- in all directions within the 
 cavity, and consequently the upper limb can be moved 
 in all directions, forwards, backwards, inwards, to- 
 wards the axis of the body (adduction), outwards or 
 away from the axis of the body (abduction), and up- 
 wards as in elevation. 
 
 The ligamentous covering of the joint is formed by 
 an articular capsule, or fibrous band which is attached 
 on one side to the margin of the glenoid cavity, 
 and on the other side to the tuberosities of the 
 humerus, or rough surfaces which surround the head 
 properly so-called. 
 
 This ligament is sufficiently loose to allow the 
 head of the humerus great freedom of movement 
 within the glenoid cavity, without any part of the 
 capsule being put on the stretch and thus stopping its 
 movement. Thus the movement of the arm forwards 
 is very extensive, as are those backwards and di- 
 rectly inwards, this last being checked only by the 
 meeting of the arm with the lateral surface of the 
 trunk. But the movement of abduction or of eleva- 
 tion outwards becomes difficult when the arm ap- 
 proaches the horizontal ; here an arrangement comes 
 into action which is of great importance, the study 
 of which shows us that the superior member, besides 
 
THE SHOULDER. 5 1 
 
 the mobility which belongs to the shoulder -joint 
 proper (scapulo - humeral articulation), derives an 
 increase of mobility from the articulations of. the 
 shoulder-blade with the clavicle, and of the clavicle 
 with the sternum. 
 
 When we apply a humerus to a scapula in such a 
 manner as to cause the head of the former to glide in 
 the glenoid cavity from above downwards, which cor- 
 responds to the movement of the arm in the opposite 
 direction, that is to say, to the raising of the arm 
 outwards, we observe that at the moment when the 
 humerus attains the horizontal position, the tuberosi- 
 ties touch the acromio-coracoid arch which surmounts 
 the glenoid cavity, and which is completed by the 
 coraco-acromial ligament (page 47) ; in the com- 
 plete subject, in the living man, ' when the arm is 
 elevated in carrying it outwards, the same effect of 
 meeting and, so to speak, of contact between the 
 tuberosities of the humerus and the acromial arch is 
 produced with this result — that the arm.oncehorizontal, 
 is with difficulty raised higher by the simple play of 
 the scapulo-humeral articulation, that is to say, by the 
 gliding of the head of the humerus in the glenoid 
 cavity. But now a new source of mobility is em- 
 ployed, a new articulation is brought into play, that of 
 the scapuloclavicular joint or acromio-clavicular, in 
 other words, of the acromion with the outer extremity 
 of the clavicle. The entire scapula moves round the 
 extremity of the clavicle ; its inferior angle is carried 
 forward ; its external angle, that is to say, the glenoid 
 cavity with the anterior of the coraco-acromial arch, is 
 E 2 
 
52 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 carried upwards, and the movement of elevation of 
 the arm is then continued by the play of the shoulder- 
 blade, which is moved by the muscles of the.shoulder. 
 
 As the result is an important change of shape 
 in the shoulder, we ought to particularly examine 
 the shoulder in the region of the back, upon a model 
 in which the arm is raised outwards above the 
 horizontal position. The point of the shoulder is 
 raised, and as this elevation is accompanied by a 
 movement of the shoulder-blade, the spinal border of 
 this bone does not remain parallel to the dorsal spine, 
 but it approaches closer to it at its superior extremity, 
 while it is drawn further away at its inferior, that is to 
 say, it is obliquely directed from above downwards, 
 from within outwards. The inferior angle becomes 
 prominent in the lower part of the armpit, as we may 
 observe in a subject with the arms folded, and shows 
 in a striking manner on a dead crucified body. If 
 the elevation of the arm approaches the vertical, the 
 spinal border of the shoulder-blade has a tendency to 
 become horizontal, and we observe this change of 
 movement in the model when the bone is seen along 
 the posterior surface of the shoulder and the back, and 
 we should scarcely at first recognise the appearances 
 presented as what we are accustomed to study in 
 its ordinary situation on the skeleton. 
 
 But when the arm is elevated vertically, so that it 
 comes in contact with the side of the head,. move- 
 ment takes place not only in the scapulo-humeral 
 and in the acromio-clavicular joints, but also in the 
 articulation of the internal extremity of the clavicle 
 
THE SHOULDER. 53 
 
 with the sternum. In that case, in fact, the whole of 
 the shoulder is raised upwards (by the superior fibres 
 of the trapezius muscle), and the clavicle represents 
 the arm of the lever by which this movement is 
 accomplished, whilst the sterno-clavicular articulation 
 is the hinge. Thus we see the clavicle is changed in 
 its direction, from the horizontal, to become oblique 
 upwards and outwards, that is, its external extremity 
 is raised and carried a little backwards. 
 
 The clavicle plays a very important part in the 
 movements of the superior limb. This explains why 
 it is found specially developed in those animals whose 
 anterior members enjoy great freedom of movement — 
 such as man, the monkey, the bat, the cat, and lion, 
 where these members serve not only for walking, 
 but also for seizing and tearing their prey :— while 
 in those which possess the power of opening the 
 arms (projection outwards), of bringing them together 
 and of projecting them forwards — the clavicle indeed 
 exists, but in a very rudimentary state ; but in those 
 animals which, like the horse, use their fore-limbs 
 for walking and v perform with them oscillating 
 movements in a plane parallel to that of the body 
 — there is not a trace of clavicle. The part the 
 clavicle takes in the movement of the arm explains 
 also why the bone presents a variable size ac- 
 cording to the needs of various persons. It is 
 stronger in the male than in the female; stronger 
 in the working man than in the student ; stronger, 
 finally, on the right side than the left, from the habit 
 of using the right arm for the most part in those 
 
54 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 actions which demand strength and skill. In the left- 
 handed, it is the left clavicle that is stronger than the 
 right— in a word, this bone is, like all the other parts 
 of the skeleton, stronger in proportion as it takes part 
 in active and frequently repeated movements. Thus 
 the breadth of the shoulders is one of the character- 
 istics of athletes ; and it is to the strength of the bony 
 structure formed by the clavicle and shoulder-blade, 
 sustained by the first ribs, that this superior portion of 
 the thorax owes its characteristic aspect. 
 
 Owing to the presence of this scapuloclavicular 
 girdle, the thoracic cage does not present much of the 
 form of a cone at the superior summit of the trunk ; 
 it is this region of the summit which becomes broader 
 in a lateral direction as the clavicle is more developed. 
 It -will be enough to compare this region of the 
 thorax in man with that of such animals as the 
 dog or the horse, which owing to the absence of 
 the clavicle, have a thorax transversely flattened in 
 the region of the shoulders, and consequently, the 
 shoulder-blades more closely applied upon the sides 
 of the thoracic cage. 
 
 We should here examine the different questions 
 which belong to the dimensions and proportions of 
 the shoulder ; but, as this study consists entirely of a 
 comparison in the male and female of the transverse 
 diameters from the head of one humerus to the other, 
 and from one acromion to the other, with the diameter 
 of the hips, we will proceed with it after we have des- 
 cribed the pelvis and corresponding part of the region 
 of the thigh. , 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ARM AND ELBOW. 
 
 The bony structure of the arm and elbow. — The body of the humerus. 
 — The axis of the arm and fore-arm. — The twisted groove of the 
 humerus ; the inferior extremity of the humerus ; the trochlea and 
 condyle ; the external and internal condyloid ridges. — The superior 
 extremities of the two bones of the fore-arm ; the ulna (great 
 sigmoid cavity, olecranon, coronoid process) ; radius (neck, head, 
 and cavity). — ■ The articulation of the elbow ; transverse hinge 
 joint. — Movements of flexion and extension ; impossibility of any 
 lateral movements ; the limit of extension.— The external form 
 of the elbow ; angle opening outwards : prominence of the internal 
 condyle and olecranon. 
 
 The body of the humerus is prismatic in its upper 
 and middle parts, and flattened from front to back 
 at its lower extremity. This body, covered over by 
 thick muscles, presents to us but little interest as 
 regards it's outward shape ; it is necessary only to notr 
 its direction to know that, when the arm is hanging 
 down in the state of repose, the humerus is not alto- 
 gether vertical, but a little oblique from above down- 
 wards and from without inwards. We shall see that 
 the axis of the bones of the fore-arm is oblique in the 
 opposite direction ; for this reason the arm and fore- 
 arm form at the line of the elbow a very obtuse angle, 
 looking outwards (Fig. 16, page 6f). 
 
 Among other details to be noted upon the 
 body of the humerus, the "bicipital groove is worthy 
 
56 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of remark. This vertical groove, which separates 
 the great tuberosity from the lesser on the su- 
 perior extremity of the humerus (page 49), is pro- 
 longed upon the body of the bone, and presents an 
 internal or posterior lip slightly prominent, and an 
 external or anterior much more marked, giving in- 
 sertion to the broad tendon of the great pectoral 
 muscle. At the line of junction of the superior with 
 the middle third of the bone, this anterior lip expands 
 abruptly in a rough surface shaped like the letter V 
 (7, Fig. 12), of which the angle looks downwards, and 
 which, giving insertion to the deltoid muscle, has re- 
 ceived the name of the deltoid V, or impression. Im- 
 mediately outside of this groove is a broad, shallow 
 depression, which starting above on the posterior 
 surface of the bone, terminates below, losing itself on 
 the anterior face — that is to say, it describes a spiral 
 round the body of the bone ; and, as it gives to it the 
 appearance of a prism twisted on its axis, it has re- 
 ceived the name of thegroove of torsion of the humerus. 
 The inferior extremity of the humerus deserves to 
 be studied in detail, as its shape gives the key to the 
 movements of the elbow-joint, and explains at the 
 same time several details seen in this region in the 
 living model. This extremity is flattened from front 
 to back, and is enlarged into a broad surface, its in- 
 ferior limit presenting three prominences, smooth and 
 covered with cartilage. Of these three projections 
 the two internal form by themselves a regular pulley- 
 block (12, Fig. 12) having a groove and two lips? This 
 articular portion is called the trochlea(lrochlea — pulley). 
 
THE ARM AND ELBOW. 57 
 
 The internal lip is most prominent, that is to say, it 
 descends lower than the external. The third projection 
 (1 1, Fig. 12) which is situated on the inner side of the 
 trochlea is short and rounded, and receives the name 
 of the condyle (kovSvXo?, a prominence in the shape 
 of a knob or head). 
 
 The lateral portions of the inferior extremity of 
 the humerus are each formed by a rough projection 
 (non-articular) giving insertion to muscles and liga- 
 ments ; the external projection above the condyle 
 takes the name of the external condyle (13, Fig. 12); 
 the internal above the trochlea that of the internal 
 condyle (14, Fig. 12). 
 
 This inferior portion of the humerus articulates 
 with the upper extremities of the bones of the fore- 
 arm ; and we will next proceed to study the forma- 
 tion of these extremities in order to understand the 
 movements of the elbow-joint and the forms of that 
 region. 
 
 The fore-arm is formed of two bones (Fig. 13) 
 which, when the upper limb is hanging in a state of 
 repose beside the body, the palmar surface of the 
 hand being turned forwards, are placed parallel to 
 each other, one on the outer, one on the inner side. 
 The inner bone (1, Fig. 13) is called the ulna or cubitus, 
 and it is that which by its upper extremity {olecranon) 
 forms the bony prominence of the elbow ; the outer 
 bone (10, Fig. 13) is called the radius (from the Latin 
 radius, a spoke of a wheel), because in certain move- 
 ments (see under pronation and supination) it forms 
 the radius of a circle round the ulna. For the present 
 
Fig. 13. 
 
 The Bones of 
 the Fore-arm (an- 
 terior surface) : 1, 
 body of ulna ; — 2, 
 great sigmoid cavity ; 
 — 3, lesser sigmoid 
 cavity with head of 
 radius ; — 4, olecra- 
 non ; — 5, coronoid 
 process ; — 7, interos- 
 seous space; — 8, in- 
 ferior extremity of 
 ulna with styloid pro- 
 cess (9) ; — 10, body of 
 radius ;--n, its head ; 
 — 12, neck ; — 13, 
 tubercle for biceps ; 
 — 14, depression for 
 pronator teres mus- 
 cle ; — 15, inferior ex- 
 tremity of radius with 
 styloid process (16). 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 we will describe only the upper ex- 
 tremities of these two bones (Figs. 13 
 and 14). 
 
 The superior extremity of the ulna 
 is in shape exactly like half a pulley, 
 as if its model had been taken in wax ; 
 in fact, this bone articulates with the 
 pulley or trochlea of the humerus, and 
 closely embraces this trochlea by a 
 broad depression called the great sig- 
 moid cavity of 1;he ulna. This, cavity 
 (2, Fig. 1 3) presents in its centre a ridge 
 prominent from before backwards, which 
 corresponds to the groove in the troch- 
 lea of the humerus. In front, the great 
 sigmoid cavity is formed (5, Fig. 1 3) by 
 a bony prominence called the coronoid 
 process (compared to the beak of a 
 crow ; Kopwvrj, a crow ; e!8o?, form), and 
 as, in flexing the fore-arm upon the 
 arm, this process is lodged in the cavity 
 which, on the anterior surface of the 
 lower extremity of the humerus, is 
 situated above the trochlea, this cavity 
 is likewise called the coronoid (17, 
 Fig. 12). Behind, the great sigmoid 
 cavity is formed by a process, com- 
 paratively speaking very large (4, Fig. 
 13), which constitute the most promi- 
 nent portion of the elbow, and which 
 accentuates in a high degree the forms 
 
THE ARM AND ELBOW. 
 
 59 
 
 behind the fore-arm when it is flexed ; to this pro- 
 cess is given the name of the olecranon (tbXewi, the 
 elbow; Kaprjvov, the head); during the extension of 
 the fore-arm, the olecranon lodges partly in the cavity, 
 which is situated above the trochlea, upon the posterior 
 surface of the humerus, and is called 
 in consequence the depression for 
 the olecranon (4, Fig. 15). 
 
 The superior extremity of the 
 radius forms a small head (11, Fig. 
 13) which a narrowed portion (neck 
 of the radius — 1 2, Fig. 1 3) separates 
 from the body of the bone ; this 
 head is flattened at the top and 
 hollowed out into a cup, into which 
 is received the condyle of the hu- 
 merus (Fig. 14). 
 
 We see, then, that the articular 
 surfaces of the elbow are formed, 
 in the humerus (6, 7, 8, Fig. 14), by 
 a transverse series'of projections (the 
 lips of the trochlea and condyle), 
 and in the fore-arm by a series 
 of depressions moulded on these projections, so that 
 the whole forms a movement similar to that between 
 two cogwheels (Fig. 14), a species of transverse hinge. 
 Thus it is easy to understand, a priori, how this dis- 
 position of the parts does not permit any lateral 
 displacement of the bones, or transverse movement ; 
 the movements forward and backward are, in fact, the 
 only kind possible in the elbow-joint. The forward 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Figure of the Elbow 
 Joint, right side (an- 
 terior view) : — i, inferior 
 portion of shaft of hume- 
 rus ; — 2, ulna ; — 3, radius ; 
 — 4, external condyle ; — 
 5, internal condyle ; — 7 
 and 8, trochlea ; — 9, coro- 
 noid fossa ; — 10, coronoid 
 process ; — it, head of 
 radius. 
 
6o 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 movement — that is to say, that by which the anterior 
 surface of the fore-arm is brought near the anterior 
 surface of the arm constitutes flexion of the fore- 
 arm. The movement in the opposite direction 
 constitutes extension. 
 
 The disposition of the ligaments — that is, of the 
 fibrous bands or articular capsule 
 which fasten the bones together, 
 modifies veryslightlythemechanism 
 we have just deduced from the 
 shape of the articular surfaces ; in 
 fact, this capsule is formed on the 
 inner and outer surfaces by liga- 
 mentous fibres, very dense and 
 short, called the lateral ligaments, 
 which prevent all lateral movement. 
 On the other hand, the anterior and 
 posterior portions of this ligament 
 are loose, so as not to offer any 
 opposition to the movements of 
 flexion and extension. The only 
 limit to these movements is that 
 resulting from the bony projections of the ulna 
 coming in contact with the humerus. Thus, the 
 movement of flexion can be prolonged until the 
 coronoid process arrives at the coronoid fossa and 
 touches the bottom of that cavity ; then the fleshy 
 masses of the fore-arm come into contact with the 
 anterior surface of the arm, especially if the model 
 is muscular, and flexion is no longer possible. 
 The movement of extension, on the contrary, has a 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 anteeo - posterior 
 section of the elbow 
 (through the ulna) : — 1, 
 humerus ; — 2,, uln^; — 3, 
 coronoid fossa; -^4, ole- 
 cranoid depression ; — 5, 
 blecranon ; "■ 6, coronoid 
 process ; — 7, section of 
 trochlea. 
 
THE ARM AND ELBOW. 6 1 
 
 limit which it is important to state precisely, result- 
 ing from the beak of the olecranon touching the 
 bottom of the olecranoid fossa (Fig. 1 5) ; this is pro- 
 duced when the fore-arm has attained, in the move- 
 ment of extension, that situation which brings its 
 own axis in a direct line with that of the arm. The 
 extension of the elbow cannot therefore exceed the 
 degree which brings the humerus and fore-arm into 
 the same plane ; that is to say, the fore-arm can never 
 make with the arm an angle facing backwards. 
 
 By comparing the particulars of the mechanism of 
 the elbow with that which we have previously seen of 
 •the mechanism of the scapulo-humeral articulation, it 
 will be easy to understand how we may, from the 
 study of the articular surfaces and ligaments, learn 
 precisely the laws of. the mechanism of joints, and as, 
 for example, the head of the humerus received into a 
 single cavity may allow to the arm every species of 
 movement, so the arrangement of a hinge-joint, with 
 a series of projections and depressions, fitted one to 
 the other in a transverse line, renders only the move- 
 ments of flexion and extension possible in the elbow. 
 As regards the external form, we learn from the 
 knowledge of the bones which form the elbow-joint : — 
 1st, with respect to the angle which the fore-arm makes 
 with the arm ; if we examine it either upon the ske- 
 leton or upon the living subject, the superior members 
 lying in a state of repose beside the body, the palm 
 of the hand being turned forward so that the humerus 
 (page 55) is slightly oblique from above downwards 
 and from without inwards, the two bones of the fore- 
 
62 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 arm are directed obliquely in the opposite direction — 
 that is, from above downwards and from within 
 outwards — these two parts form at their point of 
 junction — that is, at the level of the elbow — an angle 
 the base of which looks outwards and the apex in- 
 wards ; — 2nd, concerning the bony prominences which 
 are seen beneath the skin at the line of the elbow. 
 
 After the previous study of these osseous struc- 
 tures, we should be able to recognise upon the living 
 model those details of the figure which correspond to 
 the four bony points, namely, the coronoid process in 
 front, the olecranon behind, the external condyle 
 on the outer side, and the internal condyle on the 
 inner side ; but the coronoid process, covered by 
 muscles, is so buried in the surrounding structure 
 that it does not show externally. It is the same also 
 with the external condyle, as this projection, not very 
 prominent in the skeleton, disappears completely 
 in the complete subject, since this external condyle 
 is situated at the bottom of the angle facing out- 
 wards which the fore-arm makes with the arm, and 
 the mouth of this angle is filled up by the external 
 muscles of the fore-arm (especially the supinator 
 longus), which take their origin from the external 
 border of the humerus 
 
 On the other hand, the internal condyle and ole- 
 cranon always show clearly beneath the skin, and the 
 olecranon forms that projection, commonly called the 
 tip of the elbow, which shows, so prominently behind' 
 during the flexion of the fore-arm upon the arm, and 
 which follows the movements of the fore-arm, that is 
 
THE ARM AND ELBOW. 63 
 
 to say, it seems to rise towards the arm during the ex- 
 tension of the fore-arm and to descend during flexion. 
 As regards the internal condyle it is this projec- 
 tion which corresponds to the apex of the angle 
 formed by the axis of the fore-arm with that of the 
 arm (Fig. 16, page 67); this point placed a little 
 above the line of the elbow is a fixed point. There 
 is one matter of detail which we must not forget when 
 we compare the length of the fore-arm with that of 
 the arm, that is, if we should take the olecranon as a 
 measure we should make a serious error, as the level 
 of this projection changes with respect to the humerus 
 according as the fore-arm is fixed or extended ; on 
 the other hand, the internal condyle, forming a fixed 
 point, should rather be chosen. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE. FORE- ARM. 
 
 The bony structure of the fore-arm ; ulna and radius, their difference in 
 length and size. The inferior extremities of these bones; their 
 styloid processes (prominence at the wrist) ; triangular ligament. 
 Position of the hand during supination and pronation, the move- 
 ments of supination and pronation. Changes of form in the 
 fore-arm during pronation and supination ; change in direction. — 
 Prominences of the wrist (styloicTprocesses), their levels ; the angle 
 which the axis of the hand makes withthat of the fore-arm. 
 
 Having now examined the two bones of the fore- 
 arm (ulna and radius) only as to their superior 
 extremities in order to study the articulation of the 
 elbow-joint, we will continue their description, and 
 study their bodies and their inferior extremities, then 
 consider the shafts of the fore-arm, the movements 
 that these two bones accomplish one with the other, 
 and finally the articulation of their inferior extremities 
 with the hand. 
 
 A superficial glance at the bony structure of the 
 fore-arm (Fig. 13, p. 58) suffices to show that the two 
 bones which compose it offer in many respects a 
 striking contrast to each other ; these two bones do 
 not appear on the same level either above or below ; 
 above, the ulna (by the olecranon) extends beyond 
 the radius and ascends higher than it ; below, on the 
 other hand, it is the radius (15 and 16, Fig. 13) which 
 
THE FORE-ARM. 6$ 
 
 extends beyond the ulna and descends below it ; we 
 should also note immediately a fact, which is of great 
 importance, and to which we shall have often again to 
 refer, namely, that the radius, descending below the 
 ulna, is found to be the only bone of the fore-arm 
 which articulates with the hand {radio-carpal articu- 
 lation, not radio-ulnar carpal, see p. J6). As regards 
 size these bones present a contrast as well ; the ulna 
 is thick and bulky at its upper part, but it becomes 
 thinner as it descends, and its inferior extremity is 
 comparatively small (Fig. 1 3) ; the radius, on the 
 other hand, is small and slender at its upper part 
 and increases in size below ; finally, its inferior ex- 
 tremity, articulating with the hand, forms a large 
 bony surface. 
 
 After what we have now said of these two bones, 
 we need not enter into minute details of the shape of 
 the body or central portion of each of them. 
 
 Their bodies are regularly prismatic in form. We 
 perceive on the superior portion of the body of the 
 radius, immediately below the neck, a tuberosity (1 3, 
 Fig. 13) looking forwards and inwards which gives 
 insertion to the tendon of the biceps {bicipital tuber- 
 osity); from this tuberosity an oblique line passes 
 downwards and outwards, and terminates upon the 
 middle part of the external surface of the bone in a 
 rough space (14, Fig. 13) called the impression of the 
 pronator teres, because it gives insertion to the muscle 
 of that name. 
 
 With regard to the ulna, we need only notice 
 that its internal surface is subcutaneous in its lower 
 F 
 
66 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 two-thirds, and that, like the tibia in the leg, it forms 
 directly the outline of the internal border of the fore- 
 arm. 
 
 The inferior extremity of the radius (15, 16, Fig. 
 13) is broad, and presents a facet on its lower sur- 
 face, which receives the two first bones of the wrist 
 (scaphoid and semilunar), its outer side is prolonged 
 into a short pointed process which constitutes the 
 external prominence of the wrist, and ' bears the 
 name of the styloid process of the radius (16, Fig. 
 13). The inferior extremity of the ulna is small, 
 forms a rounded head (8, Fig. 13), and is pro- 
 longed on its inner side into a styloid process which 
 forms the internal prominence of the wrist. We have 
 already said that the inferior extremity of the ulna 
 does not descend as low as the corresponding portion 
 of the radius ; this difference of level between the two 
 bones is partly filled up by a fibro-cartllaginous disc 
 called the radio-ulnar triangular ligament, which pro- 
 ceeds from the external border of the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the radius to the base of the styloid process 
 of the ulna, passing beneath the head of the latter 
 bone (F, Fig. 18, page 75) ; the bones of the hand 
 (carpus) articulate with the radius and with this tri- 
 angular ligament, so that the ulna does not take part 
 directly in the articulation of the fore-arm with the 
 hand (Fig. 18). 
 
 Up to the present we have considered the two 
 bones of the arm as placed parallel side by side, and 
 separated by a comparatively broad interval, called 
 the interosseous space (7, Fig. 13). In fact, they are so 
 
THE FORE-ARM. 
 
 6 7 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Right Fore-arm in Supina- 
 tion (the radius and radial half 
 of the hand are shaded by oblique 
 lines): the radius is parallel to 
 the ulna. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 The Right Fore-arm in Pro- 
 nation : the radius (shaded) 
 crosses the ulna, and the radial 
 half of hand (shaded) is placed on 
 the inner side. 
 
 placed, when the arm is hanging beside the body, in 
 a state of repose, with the palm of the hand looking 
 F Z 
 
68 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 forwards (Fig. 16), or placed on a flat surface, palm 
 upwards ; the hand is then lying on its back, and this 
 we call supination (supinus, lying on the back). But 
 the hand may be changed in position, turned round 
 with its posterior surface looking forward (Fig. 17) or, 
 if the fore-arm be placed on a flat plane this posterior 
 surface is turned upwards. In this new position, the 
 hand lying on its palmar aspect, we speak of it as 
 being in pronation (promts, lying on the belly). 
 
 This change from supination to pronation is ac- 
 complished by a reciprocal change of situation in the 
 the two bones of the fore-arm, which cease to be 
 parallel when the hand is prone, and cross each other ; 
 but the two bones do not move similarly in this 
 action ; one of them, the ulna, remains fixed ; the 
 other, the radius changes its position so as to cross 
 it. On examining the points of contact between 
 the radius and ulna, namely, the superior and inferior 
 articulations of these two bones, we see that the 
 superior radio-ulnar articulation is formed by the cir- 
 cumference of the head of the radius received within a 
 cavity (lesser sigmoid cavity), situated on the external 
 surface of the ulna (below the external border of the 
 great sigmoid cavity, 3, Fig. 13) ; whilst the inferior 
 radio-ulnar articulation is formed by a sigmoid cavity 
 situated on the internal surface of the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the radius, receiving the circumference of 
 the head of the ulna. 
 
 Therefore, in the superior radio-ulnar articulation, 
 the head of the radius turns on its own axis in glid- 
 ing in the sigmoid cavity of the ulna ; the superior 
 
THE FORE-ARM. 6y 
 
 extremity of the radius does not move from its situa- 
 tion beside the ulna ; in the inferior radio-ulnar articu- 
 lation, on the contrary, the radius moves round the 
 axis of the head of the ulna, as a wheel round its 
 axle ; whilst a spoke of the wheel is represented by 
 the triangular ligament (page 66), of which. the summit 
 attached to the styloid process of the ulna is a fixed 
 point, whilst its base attached to the radius moves 
 with that bone. 
 
 These considerations of articular mechanism may 
 be best understood by examining a portion of the 
 skeleton containing the bones of the fore-arm, which, 
 as is usual in articulated preparations, are connected 
 together by metallic bands that permit the normal 
 movements. We see then in moving the radius round 
 the ulna, that in causing the hand to pass from supi- 
 nation to pronation, it is necessary to bring the body 
 of the radius across that of the ulna, in such a manner, 
 that while the superior extremity of the first bone 
 remains still on the outer side, its inferior extremity 
 is entirely changed' in its situation, and leaves the 
 outer side to be carried to the inner (Figs. 16 and 17). 
 In accomplishing this movement, we perceive that 
 the hand, which articulates only with the radius, 
 must follow the movement of this bone, so that the 
 thumb or radial border of the hand must change 
 from the outer to the inner side ; the hand, which 
 in supination turns its palm in front, now presents 
 its back, and it is this which constitutes the passage 
 from supination (Fig. 16) to pronation (Fig. 17). 
 
 The general form of the fore-arm, irrespective of 
 
JO ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the details which we will explain later on regarding 
 the configuration of the muscles, depends directly on 
 the position of its bony structure, and is changed 
 according as these two bones are parallel or crossed. 
 When the hand is supinated (Fig. 16), the radius 
 being then placed parallel to the ulna and separated 
 from it by a large interosseous space, the form of the 
 fore-arm is that of the segment of a limb presenting 
 two borders — an external or radial, and an internal or 
 ulnar — and two surfaces, one anterior, the other pos- 
 terior. The fore-arm, in a word, is slightly flattened 
 from front to back, by reason of these two bones 
 being parallel to each other. But when, from the 
 position of supination, the hand passes to that of 
 pronation, the two bones cross and approach each other, 
 coming in contact, and. the interosseous spacedisappears 
 (Fig. 17). The radius and ulna, taken as a whole, form 
 a single mass, which may be compared to that which 
 two rods assume, placed at first parallel at a certain 
 distance from each other, and which afterwards cross 
 and come into direct contact. Thus in pronation the 
 shape of the fore-arm becomes completely changed, 
 especially in its lower two-thirds. Instead of a seg- 
 ment of a limb with two surfaces and two borders, it 
 represents a segment rounded and almost cylindrical 
 in its middle part ; only the inferior part (wrist) and 
 the superior part (bend of the elbow) preserve the 
 form flattened from front to back. 
 
 Artists are usually not sufficiently imbued with 
 these important facts ; thus they readily believe that 
 if a figure has been represented with the arm in 
 
THE FORE- ARM. 7 1 
 
 supination, and that for some reason this attitude has 
 been changed to that of. pronation, it is enough merely 
 to change the hand and wrist without interfering with 
 any other portion of the model of the fore-arm. The 
 details into which we are now about to enter show 
 clearly that the form of the fore-arm throughout its 
 entire extent, and particularly in the middle part, 
 undergoes a change, and this fact will be still more 
 evident when, in studying the muscles of that region., 
 we see that their direction is completely changed, and 
 contributes to modify the shape of the fore-arm, when 
 the hand passes from supination to pronation, and the 
 reverse. In accomplishing the movements of prona-. 
 tion and supination, the fore-arm changes not only in 
 form, but also in direction. We have previously seen 
 that when the radius and ulna are placed parallel one 
 with the other (supination), the axis of the fore-arm 
 makes with that -of the arm an angle opening out- 
 wards. We may again express this fact by saying 
 that if in this case we prolong the axis of the humerus 
 downwards (see the dotted line in fig. 16), this axis 
 falls within the head (inferior extremity) of the ulna, 
 and consequently lies well to the inner side of the 
 radius and interosseous space. 
 
 But in pronation, when the radius crosses the ulna 
 at its centre, and is placed internal to it at its lower 
 part, the result is that the two crossed bones of the 
 fore-arm, taken as a whole, are found continuous in 
 line with the humerus, the angle of the elbow has 
 disappeared, and the axis of the arm and that of the 
 fore-arm are almost in the same straight line (Fig. if). 
 
72 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 In order to make the best use, with respect to out- 
 ward form, of the various details of the bony structures 
 which we have been studying, we will, before com- 
 mencing the study of the hand, first note once more 
 the prominences which form the inferior extremities 
 ■ of the radius and ulna at the level of the wrist. Of 
 these two projections, which are to the hand what the 
 ankle-bones or malleoli are to the feet, one is ex- 
 ternal, formed by the styloid process of the radius (16, 
 Fig. 1 3),* the other is internal, and is formed by the 
 head of the ulna and the base of its styloid process. 
 
 The first- (external or radial) is situated much 
 lower than the second (internal or ulnar). 
 
 This position of the bones we may easily verify 
 upon ourselves, without a skeleton, by clasping with 
 the thumb and index-finger of one hand the wrist of 
 the other ; we then perceive that the radius descends 
 much lower than the ulna (Fig. 1 3). Hence, the ar- 
 ticular line of the fore-arm with the hand is obliquely 
 directed from above downwards, and from within out- 
 wards (the hand being supposed to be supinated), and 
 accordingly the hand does not articulate with the 
 fore-arm in such a manner that the axes of the two 
 parts are in the same line. These two axes form 
 here a very obtuse angle, similar to that formed by 
 the junction of the arm and fore-arm with the elbow ; 
 but this angle is in the opposite direction, that is to 
 say, with its base looking inwards (towards the axis 
 of the body, the arm hanging in a state of repose), 
 with its highest point outwards, corresponding to the 
 styloid process of the radius. 
 
THE FORE-ARM. 73 
 
 We will now sum up the various folds which the 
 superior member presents at the points of junction 
 of its three principal parts (arm, fore-arm, and hand). 
 The humerus is obliquely directed from above down- 
 wards, and from without inwards ; the two bones of 
 the fore-arm in supination are obliquely pointed in the 
 opposite direction, namely, from above downwards, 
 and from within outwards ; finally, the axis of the 
 hand is again oblique in the same direction as the 
 humerus, namely, from above downwards, and from 
 without inwards. The junction of the arm and the 
 fore-arm forms an angle opening outwards ; that of 
 the fore-arm and hand forms an angle opening 
 inwards. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 The bony structure of the hand: 1st, the wrist or carpus; eight bones 
 in two rows, one superior (scaphoid, semi-lunar, &c), the other 
 inferior (trapezium, trapezoid, &c.)— The radio-carpal articulation, 
 its movements. The medio-carpal articulation, its movements. 
 The movements of the whole ; the forms of the wrist during flexion. 
 — 2nd, Palm of the hand or metacarpus ; metacarpal bones ; then- 
 relative lengths (form of the shut fist). — Carpo-metacarpal articu- 
 lations ; the peculiarities of the articulation of the thumb ; its 
 movements of opposition. — 3rd, The fingers: their phalanges, first, 
 second, and third. Articulations of the phalanges ; their move- 
 ments. — Proportions of the superior member : the arms extended 
 (the square figure of the ancients) ; the hand as acommon measure ; 
 the middle finger and the Egyptian Canon of Charles Blanc. — 
 Brachial index. 
 
 The hand is composed of three parts : the wrist, the 
 palm, and the fingers. The bony structure of the 
 wrist is called the carpus, that of the palm the meta- 
 carpus (jj,eTa, below ; Kapiro*;, the wrist) ; the fingers 
 are formed by small bones called phalanges. 
 
 As the carpus is almost completely hidden by the 
 soft parts, fibrous and tendinous, which cover it, we 
 shall enumerate the bones which compose it and show 
 their articulations, so as to understand the mechanism 
 of this portion of the skeleton. 
 
 Notwithstanding its small compass, the carpus is 
 made up of not less than eight bones, which are placed 
 in two transverse rows, the one superior or brachial 
 
THE HAND. 
 
 75 
 
 (next the fore-arm), the other inferior- or metacarpal 
 (next the metacarpus). 
 
 We enumerate these bones starting from the radial 
 border of the hand (side of the thumb) to the ulnar 
 (side of the little finger). The 
 four bones of the first series 
 are ranged thus : the scaphoid 
 (S, Fig. 1 8), named from the 
 cavity on the inferior surface 
 being compared to a boat 
 (o-Kdcjyr), a boat ; etSos, form) ; 
 the ' semi-lunqr. (L, Fig. 18), 
 and the cuneiform, whose 
 names indicate their shape ; 
 and finally the pisiform (P, 
 Fig. 1 8), which, small and 
 rounded like a pea, is placed 
 not on the internal.but on the 
 anterior surface of the cunei- 
 form (Fig. 19). The four 
 bones of the second row, 
 counting . still from without 
 inwards, are (Fig. 18) : the 
 trapezium, the trapezoid, the os magnum, and the 
 hooked or unciform bone {uncus, a hook). In ex- 
 amining the bony structure of the carpus as a whole, 
 we see that the anterior or palmar surface presents 
 the form of a vertical groove, limited on the inner 
 side by the projection formed by the pisiform bone 
 on the first row, and the process of the unciform bone 
 on the second, and on the outer by a process belonging 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 The Bony Structure of the 
 Wrist (dorsal surface) R, radius ; - 
 u, ulna;— F, triangular ligament ; — s, 
 scaphoid.; — l, semi-lunar ;— c, cune£ 
 form ; — p, pisiform ; — T, trapezium ; 
 — T, trapezoid ; — M, os magnum ; — 
 u, unciform; — Below the carpus : 
 Xi 2, 5> 4i 5> the five metacarpal bones 
 counting from that of thumb (i). 
 
J6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 to the trapezium ; but this groove is formed into a 
 canal by the presence of a broad fibrous ligament (the 
 anterior annular ligament of the wrist), which passes 
 like a bridge from the internal prominences to the 
 external. Beneath this bridge, and consequently in the 
 canal thus formed, the tendons of the flexor muscles 
 of the fingers pass, the fleshy bodies of which are 
 situated in the fore-arm, while the tendinous inser- 
 tions are attached to the phalanges. This explains 
 the fact that these tendons, seen at the lower part of 
 the fore-arm, are not visible externally during their 
 passage through the palm of the hand. 
 
 The first row of the carpus forms, by the superior 
 surfaces of its first three bones, a convex articular 
 surface which articulates with the fore-arm, the sca- 
 phoid and semilunar being in contact with the concave 
 surface of the inferior extremity of the radius, the 
 cuneiform with the inferior surface of the triangular 
 ligament (Fig. 18), This articulation, called the radio- 
 carpal, permits movement forwards (flexion of the 
 hand), backwards (extension of the hand), and laterally 
 (bending of the hand towards either the radial or ulnar 
 side of the fore-arm). On the other side the first row 
 of the carpal bones articulates with the second row, 
 and this articulation, called the medio-carpal, forms 
 a species of interlocked joint, the inferior prominence 
 of the scaphoid projecting into the second row, to a 
 level with the trapezoid, and the head of the os mag- 
 num being received reciprocally into the first row on 
 a level with the semilunar (Fig. 1 8) . The movements 
 of flexion and extension are permitted in the medio- 
 
THE HAND. TJ 
 
 carpal articulation, but the lateral movements are very 
 limited or almost nil. 
 
 It follows from this arrangement: ist. That the 
 flexion and extension of the hand at the level of the 
 wrist are very extensive, and amount almost to a right 
 angle, both before and behind, the mobility of the 
 radio-carpal and medio-carpal articulations aiding 
 each other in these movements ; on the contrary, the 
 lateral motion of the wrist is -very limited, as it is 
 confined to the radio-carpal articulation, and this ar- 
 ticulation, possesses ligaments, very strong and thick, 
 which curtail considerably the extent of these move- 
 ments. 2nd. That in the flexion of the hand, when 
 it forms a right-angle with the fore-arm, the posterior 
 surface of the wrist does not present an abrupt curve, 
 but rather a rounded form ; the right-angle which the 
 hand then makes with the fore-arm is made up of two 
 articulations, that is to say, one part in the radio- 
 carpal, the other in the medio-carpal articulations. 
 
 The metacarpus (Fig. 19), or skeleton of the palm 
 of the hand, is composed of five bones placed parallel, 
 one beside the other (metacarpal bones), and separated 
 by spaces called interosseous (or intermetacarpal). 
 These metacarpal bones are, notwithstanding their 
 small size, classed as long bones, and are therefore 
 composed of a shaft and two extremities. Their body 
 is more or less prismatic and triangular ; their superior 
 or carpal extremity is cuboid, or wedge-shaped ; their 
 inferior or digital is rounded, and takes the name of 
 the head. We distinguish the metacarpal bones by 
 the names of the first, second, third metacarpal, &c, 
 
73 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 counting from the thumb towards the little finger ; or, 
 again, by the name of the finger to which they cor- 
 respond (as the metacarpal bone of the thumb, index 
 
 finger, &c.) '. The first meta- 
 carpal bone, or that of the 
 thumb, is very short, and 
 remarkable for other charac- 
 teristics which we will note 
 afterwards, when referring 
 to its movements ; the 
 second, or metacarpal bone 
 of the index finger, and the 
 third, or that of the middle 
 finger, are the longest. The 
 third is generally longer than 
 the rest, so that a line pass- 
 ing through the heads of the 
 series of metacarpal bones 
 describes a curve with its 
 convexity downwards, of 
 which the most prominent 
 part corresponds to the 
 head of the third metacarpal 
 bone. When the hand is 
 firmly closed, and the fingers 
 bent in the palm, it is the head of the third which 
 forms the most prominent part of the fist. 
 
 The metacarpal bones articulate with the carpus 
 by their superior extremities, or bases. In these 
 articulations of the metacarpal bones we find a very 
 different arrangement for the first (that of the thumb) 
 
 Fig. ig. 
 
 Bonv Structure of Hand (an- 
 terior or palm surface). — i, 2, 3, and 
 4, the four bones of superior row of 
 carpus ; — 5, 7, 8, 0, the four bones of in- 
 ferior row ; — 10, 10, the five metacar- 
 pal bones;— 11, the first phalanges; 
 — 12, is, the second phalanges ; — 13, 
 13, the third phalanges ; — 14 and 15, 
 the two phalanges of the thumb. 
 
THE HAND. 79 
 
 compared with that of the four last metacarpal 
 bones. 
 
 1st. The articulation of the metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb is formed by the trapezium, which presents a 
 facet resembling a saddle, concave from side to side, 
 and convex from before backwards, and the base 
 of the first metacarpal bone, which presents a facet 
 alternately concave and convex, corresponding to the 
 facet on the trapezium on which it is fixed. It 
 results, then, that as the rider can move himself on 
 his saddle forwards and backwards, and to either side, 
 the metacarpal bone of the thumb can equally move 
 itself in all these directions, and accomplish the move- 
 ment of circumduction by which the extremity of the 
 thumb describes a circle. It is this mobility that 
 permits the thumb to extend itself from the index 
 finger, to place itself in front of the other fingers, and 
 come in contact with them. This is called the move- 
 ment of opposition of the thumb, and it is owing to this 
 property that the thumb possesses, namely, of opposing 
 itself to the fingers, that the hand of man forms such 
 a wonderful organ for prehension and for performing 
 all manual labour. The articulation of the trapezium 
 and metacarpal bone, which is the source of these 
 movements, thus deserves particular mention, which we 
 will complete by saying that the two bones are attached 
 to each other by an articular capsule, or fibrous band, 
 sufficiently loose to permit all the movements which 
 the first metacarpal bone can make, by reason of the 
 shape of the trapezo-metacarpal articular surfaces. 
 
 2nd. On the contrary, the articulations of the 
 
80 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 metacarpal bones of the four other fingers do not 
 present anything like such mobility. In fact, whilst 
 the base of the first metacarpal bone is free, without 
 being connected with that of the second, the bases of 
 the other metacarpal bones are in contact with each 
 other by their lateral surfaces, and are united by their 
 dorsal, palmar, and interosseous ligaments. Again, 
 the tranverse line of union between the second row 
 of the carpus and the base of these metacarpal bones 
 (carpo-metacarpal line) is tortuous, the carpus and 
 metacarpus being dovetailed into each other, especially 
 at the level of the second and third metacarpals, where 
 this line describes a figure like the letter M, by reason 
 of a prominence of the third metacarpal bone, pro- 
 jecting into the carpus at the same time that the 
 trapezoid is received into a depression at the base of 
 the second metacarpal bone (Fig. 19). The carpus 
 and the four last metacarpal bones therefore form a 
 whole of which the parts are slightly movable one on 
 the other, and are capable only of slight gliding move- 
 ments giving a certain elasticity to the whole. We 
 see that if the palm of the hand had been formed of 
 one continuous bone, pressure or a sudden shock would 
 produce fracture. These accidents are avoided by the 
 presence of numerous parts united in such a manner 
 as to glide slightly one on the other, at the same time 
 not presenting any real mobility. 
 
 This will explain the advantage which the first 
 row of the carpus possesses in common with the 
 second. Each of them, instead of being formed by 
 one single bone, is made up of a series of small bones 
 
THE HAND. 8 1 
 
 placed side by side, and closely joined together by the 
 dorsal, the palmar, and the interosseous ligaments. 
 
 The fingers are formed of small long bones, placed 
 end to end and termed phalanges ; each finger has 
 three phalanges, except the thumb, which has only two. 
 We distinguish these phalanges by the names of the 
 first, second, or third phalanx, counting from the base 
 to the free extremity of the fingers ; and we give the 
 name of ungual phalanx to the last because it supports 
 the nail. These phalanges, like all the long bones, are 
 made up of a shaft and two extremities. The shaft 
 is flattened from front to back, and presents on its 
 anterior surface a small groove or hollow, to lodge 
 the flexor tendons of the fingers ; while the ex- 
 tremities present characters which we will point out 
 when studying the articulations of the fingers. • 
 
 The articulations for each finger are : ist, the meta- 
 
 . carpo-phalangeal articulation ; 2nd, the articulation 
 
 of the first with the second ; and 3rd, the articulation 
 
 of the second with the third; all these articulations of 
 
 the phalanges being formed upon the same plan. 
 
 ist. The metacarpo-phalangeal articulations are 
 formed by the head of the metacarpal bone being 
 received into a glenoid cavity in the base of the first 
 phalanx. Such an adaptation of articular surfaces 
 will permit every kind of movement, and it is easy 
 to understand that each finger can be flexed on the 
 metacarpus (on the palm of the hand), extended, 
 and also inclined to either side (the^ act of sepa- 
 rating the fingers when they have been in con- 
 tact); but the articular capsule or fibrous band 
 G 
 
82 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 which surrounds each metacarpo-phalangeal joint 
 fixes an exact limit to these movements. Thus 
 extension cannot be prolonged much further than 
 that position in which the axis of the fingers forms a 
 very obtuse angle with that of the metacarpal bones 
 behind, for just then the anterior portion of the cap- 
 sule is put on the stretch, and as this part is fibrous, 
 thick and resisting, it prevents any increase of ex- 
 tension. On the other hand, this capsule is strength- 
 ened on either side by a lateral ligament which, 
 being inserted at the posterior part of the head of the 
 metacarpal bone, is found stretched, according as 
 flexion is produced, and when this act of flexion 
 arrives at a right angle, the. lateral ligaments do not 
 permit it to be carried any farther. It is easy to 
 prove this upon ourselves, as we cannot flex the first 
 phalanx on the metacarpus beyond this point, for we 
 cannot, in any case, bring the anterior surface of the 
 first segment of a finger in contact with the palm of 
 the hand, but only the other segments, as we shall 
 see when we come to study the articulations of the 
 first phalanges with the second, and the second with 
 the third. 
 
 2nd. The articulations of the phalanges, that is, 
 those of the first with the second, and those of the 
 second with the third, are constructed on a different 
 plan from the metacarpo-phalangeal articulations. 
 Instead of a head received into a glenoid cavity, we 
 find here, at the inferior extremity of the phalanx, a 
 surface formed like a pulley, or trochlea of two promi- 
 nences or lips of the pulley separated by a groove or 
 
THE HAND. 83 
 
 hollow (Fig. 19) ; and on the other hand, on the 
 superior extremity of the succeeding phalanx we find 
 two cavities corresponding to the lips of the pulley, 
 and, separated by a projection which corresponds 
 to the groove. Therefore, given a single phalanx, it 
 will be easy to say whether it is" a first, second, or 
 third phalanx, as the first phalanx has at its base a 
 single articular cavity, while the second and third 
 have two placed side by side ; and again, the third, or 
 ungual phalanx may be distinguished at the first 
 glance from the second by the shape of its free ex- 
 tremity, which is expanded like a horse-shoe, in order 
 to support the finger-nail. But we should notice 
 especially in the articular surfaces of the phalanges, 
 that these joints, reproducing on a smaller scale the 
 pulley or trochlea in the elbow, present an analogous 
 mechanism, and like all trochlean joints, permit only 
 the movements of flexion and extension. In fact, 
 as each of us may prove upon his own hand, while 
 the fingers may be flexed, extended, or moved from 
 side to side at their metacarpo-phalangeal articulations, 
 at their phalangeal articulations they can be flexed 
 and extended only ; thus, while the finger enjoys 
 great freedom of movement at its base, it only pos- 
 sesses that of flexion and extension in its component 
 parts. The movement of extension of the phalanges 
 is limited, because the anterior portion of the articular 
 capsule put on the stretch by the movement is short 
 and strong, but we find a great variety in different 
 subjects, and with some, such elasticity that the ter- 
 minal phalanges can be bent backwards. As regards 
 G 2 
 
84 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 flexion, it is limited only by. the soft parts on the 
 anterior surface of a phalanx coming in contact with 
 the corresponding portion of that upon which it is 
 bent. 
 
 Having examined the different portions of the 
 bony structure of the upper limb in relation to move- 
 ment and form, it is necessary to study its pro- 
 portions — namely, to inquire, on the one hand, what 
 comparison the length of the limb, bears to the height, 
 and, on the other, to compare the length of the dif- 
 ferent sections of the body with each other.. 
 
 The comparison between the superior members 
 and the height may be expressed in two ways : first, 
 by examining the two superior members raised trans- 
 versely in the horizontal position — the distance- which 
 then separates the extremity of one hand from that of 
 the other is termed the span of the tipper limbs, and 
 this transverse measure includes not only the length 
 of the arms, but also the breadth of the shoulders ; 
 secondly, by examining the upper limb hanging verti- 
 cally beside the body, and noting to what level on 
 the lower limb the extremity of the hand (nail of the 
 middle finger) reaches. 
 
 The relation of the span of the upper limb$ to the 
 height has been expressed long since by the formula 
 known as the square figure of tlie ancients (Fig. 20) ; 
 if we cause two horizontal lines to pass', one at a 
 tangent to the soles of the feet (c, d), the other at a 
 tangent to the summit of the head (a, b), and two 
 vertical lines at right angles to the extremities of the 
 two arms extended horizontally, these four lines form 
 
THE HAND. 
 
 85 
 
 by their junction a perfect square ; in other words, 
 the man having the arms horizontal is enclosed within 
 a square. This shows that the span of the arms is 
 equal to the height. 
 
 This statement is correct for a man of the 
 Caucasian race of the middle height, but it is not 
 so for the yellow and black races, in whom the span 
 of the arm is greater 
 than the height. If 
 from man we pass on to 
 the superior monkeys, 
 called anthropoid(chim- 
 panzee, gorilla, &c), we 
 find that the span of- 
 the arms in these be- 
 comes more and more 
 extended as compared 
 with the height, until it 
 becomes almost double. 
 Thus, in the gorilla, 
 the height being 5 ft. 7 \ in., the span becomes 8 ft. 9jin.; 
 and in the chimpanzee, to a height of 5 ft. Sjin., the 
 corresponding span is 6 ft. 6 in. 
 
 So, when we examine the upper limbs hanging 
 freely beside the body, we find that in the European 
 of average height the extremity of the middle finger 
 corresponds in general to the middle of the thigh ; in 
 subjects of short stature this extremity of the hand 
 descends a little lower than the middle, and, on the 
 other hand, in very tall men it rests a little higher. 
 In the yellow and black races the extremity. of the 
 
 Figure in a square, ancient method. 
 
86 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 hand descends much lower than the middle of the 
 thigh ; and if we pass on from the human species to 
 the superior (or anthropoid) class of monkeys, we see 
 that in the chimpanzee the extremity of the hand 
 descends below the knee ; in the gorilla it corresponds 
 to the middle of the leg ; and, finally, in the orang- 
 outang, and especially in the gibbon, it reaches almost 
 to the ankle. 
 
 If we seek among the various portions of the 
 upper limb a part which would answer as a common 
 measure between them, we cannot find anything 
 satisfactory in this respect. The length of the hand, 
 which would naturally seem to be indicated as a 
 measure, is not contained an even number of times 
 in the length of the bones of the . ho alder, arm, or 
 fore-arm. If, however, we take from the hand the I 
 length of the third phalanx of the middle finger, we 
 have a measure equal to that of the spinal border of 
 the shoulder-blade, and consequently to that of the 
 clavicle. Under those conditions we may say that 
 the length of the humerus is equal to twice that of 
 the hand, and that of the fore-arm equal to the length 
 of the hand plus its half ; but these proportions are 
 so variable that they cannot be insisted on. We\ 
 should attach more importance to the rule that takes 
 the hand as a common measure of the entire body 
 in regard to height, taking the height as being equal 
 to ten hands. This is a proportion which often 
 answers in reality, but which presents too many 
 exceptions' to be laid down as a law. 
 
 We may here state the fact once for all, that there 
 
THE HAND. 8? 
 
 is not an absolute rule for the anatomist, or system 
 of proportions applicable to every class of subject, to 
 those of small as well as those of large stature. If, on 
 the contrary, an ideal proportion is adopted, in which 
 a human figure has been altered, so as to correspond 
 to the abstract conception of beauty, we say that 
 this question of proportion belongs no longer to the 
 domain of anatomy or observation, but that here we 
 rather touch sesthetic doctrines ; it is for this reason 
 that we have limited ourselves, when putting forward 
 various ideas of proportion, to indicating within such 
 limits as direct observation permits, whether a part of 
 a limb might serve as a common measure for this 
 limb, and moreover for the total length of the body. 
 The Egyptian canon as demonstrated by Charles 
 Blanc, which has a certain historical interest, is that 
 the length of the middle finger, taken as a common 
 measure, should be contained nineteen times in the 
 length of the body. In fact, the " Selection of 
 Funeral Monuments " by Lepsius (Leipzig, 1 85 2) 
 contains the drawing of a very curious Egyptian figure, 
 divided by transverse lines into nineteen parts (not 
 including the head-dress). Now as several passages 
 in different ancient authors seem to indicate that the 
 Egyptian sculptors have taken the finger as the unit 
 of the system, Charles Blanc very ingeniously remarks 
 this fact, that in the figure in question, one of the 
 horizontal lines, the eighth beginning at the soles of 
 the feet, passes exactly at the base of the middle 
 finger in the right hand (closed holding a key), while 
 the seventh touches the extremity of the middle 
 
88 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 finger of the extended left hand. It seems to him, 
 then, very probable that the distribution of these 
 horizontal lines indicates a system of measuring 
 the figure, and that the space between the seventh 
 and the eight line measures the 
 length of the middle finger, which 
 thus becomes the standard of this 
 system of proportion. According to 
 the Egyptian rule, the length of the 
 middle finger will be found nineteen 
 times in that of the height (Fig. 21) ; 
 it may be that this rule was adopted 
 tt— WTT] — by the Greek artists, and Charles 
 31 3 1 L » Blanc does not hesitate to think that 
 Polycletus, who has composed (com- 
 pare Pliny and Cicero) a Treatise on 
 Proportions, with, a model in marble 
 known by the name of Doryphorus, 
 used no other system but the Egyp- 
 tian ; there has been always found in 
 a number of antique figures this same 
 proportion of nineteen times the 
 middle finger to the height of the body, and in 
 the Achilles, for example, the total height does not 
 exceed by more than ^th of an inch the length of 
 the middle finger multiplied by nineteen. 
 
 An interesting proportion to note is that between 
 the arm and fore-arm, especially as it has been with 
 anthropologists the object of important researches, 
 and will familiarise us with the term index, which we 
 must frequently make use of, especially when com- 
 
 FlG. 21. 
 
 The Egyptian Canon. 
 
THE HAND. 89 
 
 paring the transverse and antero-posterior diameters 
 of the cranium. We give, in anthropology, the name 
 index to the number which expresses the proportion 
 of one dimension to some other, this last being repre- 
 sented by 100. Supposing, in fact, that we compare 
 one length, A, equal to one metre, with another length, 
 B, equal to two metres, in this case, the first length 
 being half that of the second, we speak of the index 
 found as 50 "(because 50 is the half of 100, and we 
 suppose the second length to be equal to 100). Now 
 the fore-arm is shorter than the arm ; it represents 
 about three -fourths of it; if, then, we take the 
 number 100 to represent the length of the humerus, 
 the number 75, which is three-fourths of ioo t would 
 represent the length of the fore-arm ; and then in 
 denoting by the brachial index the proportion of the 
 length (always shorter) of the ' fore-arm, with that of 
 the arm (always longer) we simply say that the 
 brachial index is represented by 75. 
 
 This method of notation which reduces any 
 numerical proportion to the centesimal system is very 
 valuable, as it permits us to follow without difficulty 
 the degree in which a proportion varies according to 
 the race or species. 
 
 Thus we come to speak of the brachial index' 
 (proportion of the forearm to the arm) as 75. We 
 have chosen this particular number in order. to make 
 the example easy ; in reality, in adult European sub- 
 jects this index is only 74— that is to say, that the 
 fore-arm is to the arm as 74 is to 100. If we measure 
 the same parts in the adult negro, and reduce to the 
 
go ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 centesimal proportion the numbers obtained, we find 
 the brachial index here is 79— or that the fore-arm is 
 to the arm as 79 to 100. In the negro, then, the 
 fore-arm is longer compared with the arm, as 79 
 is. a greater part of 100 than 74. Finally, if we 
 pass on from the human species to the anthropoid 
 monkeys, we see that the brachial index comes to 
 be 80, and even 100 — that is to say, that the length 
 of the fore-arm becomes equal to that- of the arm ; 
 and we know, therefore, that the great length of the 
 superior members in the anthropoids (page 86} is 
 principally owing to the greater length of the fore- 
 arm. But the most interesting fact is that in the 
 human race the brachial index is not the same at 
 different ages — thus, in the European infant at birth, 
 this index is 80 ; before the end of the first year it is 
 only TJ, and by degrees during childhood it descends 
 until it arrives at 74 in the adult. This clearly shows 
 that the humerus, during the growth of the body, 
 lengthens in proportion more than the bones of the 
 fore-arm ; so that they, which were at first to the 
 humerus as 80 is to 100, come gradually to be as TJ 
 to 100, and finally as 75 or 74 to 100. If we were to 
 glance at the comparative anatomy in the skeleton of 
 a lion or horse, we should see that in those animals 
 the fore-arm becomes longer in proportion to the 
 humerus, so as to equal, and afterwards to surpass, 
 the length of that bone. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE PELVIS. 
 
 The bony structure of the hips. — The pelvis ; sacrum (five vertebrae 
 welded together) ; coccyx (the caudal appendage in man and the 
 monkeys resembling man) ; the iliac bones (ilium, pubes, ischium) ; 
 the cotyloid cavity ; the acetabulum and its notch directed down- 
 wards. — The articulations of the pelvis ; symphyses (sacro-iliac and 
 pubic) ; sacro-iliac ligaments ; ilio-pubic or ' Poupart's ligament 
 (fold of the groin). — The pelvis as a whole ; its median anterior 
 hollow (form of the abdomen). — Comparison of the pelvis in the 
 male and female. 
 
 The pelvis, or osseous girdle of the region of the hips, 
 is to the inferior portion of the trunk what the thorax 
 is to the superior part ; it is the same to the inferior 
 limbs as the scapulo-clavicular girdle is to the superior. 
 But, whereas the girdle of the shoulders and thorax is 
 formed of many movable and isolated pieces of bone 
 (sternum, ribs, clavicle, shoulder-blade), the pelvis is 
 formed only by four bones, large, with thick walls, and 
 not movable one upon the other. Of these four pieces 
 two are posterior and central, single and symmetri- 
 cal, these are the sacrum and coccyx, which are con- 
 tinuous with the vertebral column ; the other two are 
 in pairs, and are placed one on each side of the pelvis 
 — these are the iliac bones, distinguished as the right 
 and left iliac. The sacrum, or sacred bone (Figs. 3, 5, 6, 
 and Figs. 24 and 27), called thus because it was this 
 
92 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 part that the ancients offered in sacrifice to their gods, 
 is formed of five vertebrae (sacral vertebrae) closely 
 united together, but all the portions are easily seen 
 on a careful examination] Taken together it forms 
 a pyramid, the base of which (2, Fig. 24) is turned 
 upwards and forwards, corresponding to the narrow 
 body of the first sacral vertebra. This sacral pyramid, 
 being directed obliquely from above downwards, and 
 from before backwards (Fig. 5), presents a surface 
 called antero-inferior, or rather inferior, on which we 
 recognise five united vertebral bodies (Fig. 3, page 19) ; 
 a posterior surface — better called superior — on which 
 we recognise the rudimentary spinous processes (Fig. 
 6, page 28) and the laminse of these same five ver- 
 tebrae, these portions being all united together ; and, 
 finally, the lateral borders, which are enlarged above 
 into a surface intended to articulate with the cor- 
 responding iliac bone, which surface, shaped in the 
 form of an ear, has received the name of the auricular 
 surface of the sacrum (c, Fig. 5). 
 
 The coccyx (21, Fig. 3), placed below the sacrum, 
 presents a rudimentary caudal appendage, and instead 
 of being, as in the greater number of mammals, free 
 and movable, is found in man curved towards the in- 
 terior of the pelvis, whose inferior outlet it contributes 
 to close. This disposition, which is found in the 
 anthropoid apes, has relation to the vertical position, 
 in which the weight of the abdominal viscera is borne 
 upon the pelvis, and necessitates accordingly such 
 arrangements of the bony structure as may strengthen 
 the inferior outlet of the pelvis. 
 
THE PELVIS. 93 
 
 The coccyx is formed of a series of four veitebrae, 
 welded one with the other, and so diminished in size 
 that each of them is reduced to a small osseous 
 nodule, representing a rudimentary vertebral body — 
 thus the coccyx forms a short chain of four small 
 bony tubercles. 
 
 The iliac bones, called also the bones of the hip, 
 are two in number, one on each side, articulating be- 
 hind with the sacrum, and uniting in front with each 
 other on a level with the pubic region (Figs. 24, 27). 
 In order to understand the order and the names of 
 the parts of which an iliac bone consists, it is neces- 
 sary to notice that this bone is made up originally, in 
 the infant, of three distinct parts, which are after- 
 wards joined together as age advances ; of these 
 parts, the superior is called the ilium ; the two others 
 are inferior, that placed in front is called the pubis, 
 that behind, the ischium. As shown in Fig. 22, the 
 junction of the three parts tends towards the central 
 portion of the bone, at the level of the great articular 
 cavity (acetabulum) of the hip, and forms a radiated 
 figure, representing a species of star with three 
 branches, of which the centre corresponds nearly to 
 that of the cavity already indicated. We shall see 
 that the names of almost all the parts of the iliac 
 bone are derived from those of its three constituent 
 portions, namely, the ilium, pubis, and ischium. 
 
 We notice, 1st, on the external surface of the 
 iliac bone, above, a large space called the external 
 iliac fossa (5, Fig. 23), marked by two curved lines 
 limiting the insertion of the gluteal muscles (4 
 
94 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 and 5, Fig. 23) ; below this space or iliac fossa is 
 placed a circular cavity (13 and 14, Fig. 23), broad 
 and deep, the shape of which has been compared to 
 that of a basin, and which, in consequence, has re- 
 ceived the name of the cotyloid cavity ; * its use is to 
 
 form the hip-joint for the 
 reception of the head of 
 the femur. The margin 
 of this cavity is promi- 
 nentthroughout its entire 
 extent, except below 
 where it is hollowed out 
 into a broad groove (16, 
 Fig. 23) called the great , 
 notch of the acetabulum ; 
 this notch is a valuable 
 starting point to settle 
 the natural position 
 either of the iliac bone or 
 of the entire pelvis (Fig. 
 23). If, in fact, this bone 
 of the pelvis is supposed 
 to belong to a figure in 
 the upright position this large cotyloid notch should 
 be directed downwards, as shown in Fig. 23. Below 
 the cotyloid cavity, the iliac bone is pierced by a large 
 orifice, called the obturator foramen (22, Fig. 23) and 
 the bony parts which surround this foramen are : be- 
 hind, the tuberosity of the ischium (20, Fig. 23) ; in 
 * 
 * Usually, in English anatomical writings, called the acetabulum 
 (a vinegar cup) from its resemblance. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 The Iliac Bone of an Infant : its three 
 primitive pieces :— i, ilium ; — 2, its superior 
 border; — 5, 6, ischium, its acetabular part 
 (in 7) ; — 8, pubis, its acetabular part (n). 
 
THE PELVIS. 95 
 
 front and above, the horizontal ramus of the pubis (18) ; 
 below, a bony plate formed by a prolongation of the 
 pubis (19) proceeding to join the ischium, and therefore 
 called the descending ramus of the pubis and the ascend- 
 ing ramus of the ischium. 2nd. The internal surface 
 of the iliac bone presents above, the internal iliac fossa 
 (10, Fig. 24) ; below this, a flat surface corresponding 
 to the base of the acetabulum, and, lower still, the 
 obturator foramen bounded as we have already 
 described. 3rd; The borders of the iliac bone are 
 distinguished (Fig. 23) as superior, anterior, posterior, 
 and inferior. The superior bord er, called the crest of 
 the ilium (1, Fig. 23~)7Ts~'"thick and curved like an 
 italic S ; it is this which marks on the living model 
 the line of the hips — namely, the limit between the 
 lateral part of the abdomen and the lateral part of 
 the pelvis ; it terminates in front in the anterior 
 superior iljac_sp_ine (2, Fig. 23). The anterior border 
 begins at the anterior superior iliac spine, and 
 presents in succession from above downwards, a 
 notch, then a prominence called the anterior inferior 
 spine of the ilium (7, Fig. 23), below which is a 
 groove giving passage to the psoas muscle (see 
 later) ; finally, this border is continuous with the 
 horizontal ramus of the pubis, of which the internal 
 part forms the spine of the pubis (17, Fig. 23). The 
 posterior border of the iliac bone forms a large notch 
 limited above by the posterior spine of the ilium 
 (3, Fig. 23), and below by the tuberosity of the 
 ischium ; this notch is divided by a spinous eminence 
 the sciatic spine (n, Fig. 23) into two unequal parts, 
 
9 6 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of which the superior, the larger, is called the great 
 sciatic notch (12, Fig. 23), and the inferior, the 
 smaller, the lesser sciatic notch. Finally, the inferior 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Right Iliac Bone (external surface). — i, i, iliac crest. — Anterior superior iliac 
 spine ; — 3, posterior superior iliac spine ; — 4, posterior semi circular line 5—5, anterior 
 or inferior semi-circular line ; — 7, anterior inferior iliac Spine ; — n, sciatic spine ; — 
 12, great sciatic' notch-; — 13, acetabulum ; and 14, its pit (fovea) ; — 16, its great notch, 
 directed downwards ; — 17, spine of pubis ; — 18, horizontal ramus of pubis ;— 19, body 
 and descending ramus of pubis ; — 20, 20, tuberosity of ischium ; — 22, obturator 
 foramen. 
 
 border is formed by the. descending ramus of the pubis 
 and the ascending ramus of the ischium. We will 
 finish the description of this bone by describing its four 
 .angles : the antero-superior (2, Fig. 23) is formed by 
 
THE PELVIS. 97 
 
 the anterior superior iliac spine; the anteroinferior 
 (17, Fig. 23) by the pubis presenting a rough surface 
 which articulates with the pubis of the opposite side ; 
 the infero-posterior (20, Fig. 23) is formed by the tuber- 
 osity of the ischium ; and finally, the supero-posterior, 
 thick and flattened, presents on its inner side a large 
 rough surface, called from its form the auricular surf ace, 
 corresponding to the auricular surface of the sacrum. 
 
 In order to construct the pelvis, the two iliac 
 bones are joined together, and these in their turn join 
 the sacrum by articulations which have nothing in 
 common with those which we have already studied in 
 the limbs — for example, the shoulder or elbow. In 
 those articulations of the limbs the bones were in 
 contact by smooth surfaces, which glided one upon 
 the other without anything interposed between 
 them ; such articulations are characterised by their 
 mobility. On the other hand, the sacrum is united 
 on each side to the iliac bones, and they articulate in 
 front with each other by rough surfaces, between 
 which are placed plates, more or less thick, of fibro- 
 cartilage (similar to the inter-vertebral discs), which, 
 in consequence, do not allow them to glide one on the 
 other, but closely join them together. These articu- 
 lations, which bear the name of symphyses [avv, 
 together, cf>vop,ai, to weld), are remarkable, not for 
 mobility, but for solidity. Behind, the two sacro-iliac 
 symphyses support the sacrum firmly wedged in be- 
 tween the two bones of the hip, and the strong 
 ligaments placed behind the symphysis permit the 
 sacrum to support the weight transmitted to it by the 
 H 
 
98 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 vertebral column : in front, the symphysis pubis 
 (3, Fig. 24), besides having fibro-cartilage placed 
 between the bones and adherent to them, is also 
 strengthened by fibrous bands passing superficially 
 from one bone to the other. 
 
 The symphyses form the whole of the pelvis (the 
 sacrum, with the two iliac bones) into a single part ; 
 but, at the same time, owing to the elasticity which 
 these joints enjoy, the pelvis can resist without 
 injury the shocks which are transmitted to it by 
 the vertebral column and the lower members, and 
 which would be fatal if this osseous belt were 
 composed of a single bone continuous through- 
 out. The sacro-iliac and pubic cartilages, from their 
 inter-articular substance, may be compared to elastic 
 cushions placed between the bones, which break and 
 check the shock which is produced — when, for example, 
 we jump from a height and' alight on the soles of 
 the feet. 
 
 Besides the articulations of the symphyses, the 
 pelvis also possesses ligaments which proceed from 
 one osseous prominence to another more or less 
 distant ; thus, behind, are the two sacro-sciatic liga- 
 ments, which, arising together from the lower border 
 of the sacrum in the form of a broad fibrous band, 
 proceed outwards, and, diverging, are attached, one — 
 the great sacro-sciatic ligament — to the tuberosity of 
 the ischium, the other — the lesser sacro-sciatic ligament 
 — to the spine of the ischium. These ligaments form 
 the sciatic notches into foramina, through which im- 
 portant muscles pass; and, but for this fact, these 
 
THE PELVIS. 99 
 
 ligaments would not be mentioned here, as they do 
 not show externally, being covered by the thick layer 
 of the gluteal muscles. But it is not so with the 
 ligaments (or fibrous bands) which are situated in the 
 anterior portion of the pelvis, and which proceed from 
 the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine 
 of the pubis. This ligament — called the ilio-pubic, 
 ctural arch, or Pouparts ligament — is immediately sub- 
 cutaneous, and corresponds to the fold of the groin ; 
 in fact, at its level, the skin is slightly, if at all, covered 
 with fat. As it is attached to the entire length of 
 the ligament by the subcutaneous . cellular tissue, it 
 follows that it shows a depression extending from the 
 spine of the ilium to the pubis. This depression is 
 nothing else but the fold of the groin, marking the 
 limit between the skin of the abdomen and that of 
 the thigh. 
 
 The pelvis as a whole (Fig. 24) forms a pyramid, 
 with its base upwards, its truncated summit down- 
 wards ; this apex is entirely hidden in the living 
 model. The inferior limbs are attached on each side 
 in such a manner that they approach each other at the 
 lower part of the pelvis, so as to leave between them 
 a narrow interval — the perineum, which corresponds to 
 the inferior extremity of the pelvis. But the outline 
 of the base of the pelvis is marked clearly throughout 
 the whole of its circumference, at least at the sides 
 and front ; on each side the iliac crests, on the superior 
 borders of the iliac bones, form a slightly undulating 
 line, the middle portion of which is most elevated, 
 while its anterior extremity inclines abruptly down- 
 H 2 
 
IOO ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 wards to terminate at the anterior superior spine 
 of the crest of the ilium, clearly seen in the model 
 when the skin is not loaded with fat; in front, the 
 base of the pelvis presents an extensive hollow with 
 its concavity upwards, the central parts correspond to 
 the symphysis pubis, and the lateral parts are formed 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Pelvis of the Male.— i, i, Iliac crests ;— 2, sacrum; — 3, symphysis pubis; — 
 5j 5j cotyloid cavities, (acetabula) ; — 6, 6 t descending rami of pubes and ascending 
 rami of ischia ; — 7, 7, obturator foramina ; — 10, 10, internal iliac fossa. 
 
 by Poupart's ligaments or crural arches, passing on 
 each side from the spine of the pubes to the corres- 
 ponding anterior superior spine of the crest of the 
 ilium. This anterior median hollow of the pelvis forms 
 the inferior limit of the abdomen, and gives to the 
 anterior abdominal region the form of a shield rounded 
 at both ends, a form which the ancients seem to have 
 exaggerated in adopting for the epigastric pit a con- 
 figuration rounded instead of oval, which is the shape 
 
THE PELVIS. IOI 
 
 it presents in the skeleton. We have previously (page 
 42) shown how, in numerous cases, the form adapted 
 by the ancient sculptors is sufficiently justifiable. 
 
 After having studied the pelvis with regard to 
 its mechanism and its influence on the external form, 
 we ought now to examine it with regard to its pro- 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 
 
 Diagrams showing that the pelvis of the male (A) represents a long segment 
 (a, b, c, d)o( a short cone, {a, b, x\ while the pelvis of the female (6) represents a 
 short segment (a, b, c, d) of a long cone (a, b, x). 
 
 portions, namely, its transverse dimensions ; but as 
 the prominence of the hips is formed not only by the 
 superior border of the iliac bones, but also by the great 
 trochanters (femur), we ought not to quit this exami- 
 nation without comparing the bones of the thigh with 
 the pelvis ; for this reason we must confine ourselves 
 for the moment to the study of the proportions of the 
 pelvis taken first alone and then comparatively in the 
 male and in the female skeleton. 
 
 Generally speaking the pelvis of the female is 
 
102 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 broader and shorter than that of the male; in the male 
 (Fig. 24) the superior transverse diameter, which is a 
 line that passes through the most prominent portion 
 of the crest of the ilium of one side to the correspond- 
 ing part of the other, measures from 10 to 12 inches 
 (on the average 1 1 inches) ; whilst in the female this 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 Pelvis of the female. 
 
 line measures from 10J to 1 3f inches (on the average 
 12 inches). On the contrary the height of the pelvis 
 in man is about 8 inches, whilst it is not more than 
 f\ inches in the female. Again, in comparing (Figs. 
 24 and 27) a male and femab pelvis, we see that the 
 first is very narrow, the second comparatively very 
 broad inferiorly. 
 
 If we suppose a line drawn at a ^tangent to the 
 sides of the pelvis we see that these lines must be 
 prolonged downwards for a considerable distance in 
 order to meet in the female pelvis, but in that of the 
 male they join at a short distance from the lower part 
 
THE PELVIS. IO3 
 
 In order to reduce these facts to a simple formula we 
 may say therefore on consideration of the Figs. 25 
 and 26, which show this arrangement by means of a 
 diagram, and by remarking the manner in which the 
 pelves form segments of pyramids or cones, that the 
 pelvis of a male represents a long segment of a short 
 cone, while that of the female represents a short segment 
 of a long- cone. 
 
 The particular details of shape which distinguish 
 the pelvis- in the two sexes are relatively : 1st In the 
 thickness of the walls ; in the male the walls of the 
 pelvis are stronger, the iliac crest thicker, and the dif- 
 ferent prominences for the insertions of muscles better 
 marked. 2nd. The pubic arch and the obturator fora- 
 mina. As we have previously observed that the pelvis in 
 the female is, at its lower part, much broader than in the 
 male, we naturally find the various parts of which it is 
 formed are broader than in the male. Thus the pubic 
 arch, limited above by the symphysis, and on each side 
 by the descending rami of the pubis, is very broad, and 
 at the same time much more flattened in the female, 
 in whom it assumes the form of an elliptical arch, while 
 in the male (compare Fig. 24 and Fig. 27 at 3, 6, 6) 
 this same arch is narrow and raised, and takes the 
 form of a pointed arch. For the same reason the 
 tuberosities of ,the ,ischium are wider apart in the 
 female than in the male. The obturator foramina 
 are wide and triangular in the female, while they are 
 narrow and oval in the pelvis of the male. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE THIGH. 
 
 The femur : its superior extremity : neck, head, and trochanters. — 
 Articulation of the hips, or coxo-femoral articulation ; movements 
 which it allows ; limits of these movements (capsular ligament and 
 the ligament of Bertin) ; the definite limits of extension (ilio-femoral 
 ligament) ; the narrow limits of adduction (ligamentum teres) ; 
 the influence of atmospheric pressure (experiments of the brothers 
 Weber). The transverse dimensions of the hips and shoulder in 
 the male and female ; the various formulae (ovoid of the ancients, 
 ovoid and elliptical of Salvage) ; the correct formula ; the inter- 
 humeral and inter-trochanteric diameters ; the inter-acromial and 
 inter-iliac diameters. — The external form of the region of the hips 
 and great trochanter in particular ; the osseous prominences brought 
 into relief in the external form as flat and depressed surfaces. 
 
 The femur (Figs. 28 and 31), or bone' of the thigh, 
 is one of the long bones — the largest in the skeleton 
 — and composed, like all the long bones, of a shaft 
 and two extremities (Fig. 28). We will first consider 
 its upper extremity, then its articulations with the 
 iliac bone. 
 
 The superior extremity of the femur is composed of 
 a head, supported by a neck, and of tuberosities placed 
 at the junction of the neck with the body of the bone. 
 The head of the femur (5, Fig. 3 1) is regularly rounded, 
 and forms three-fourths of a sphere. Its spherical 
 surface, turned inwards, is smooth and covered with 
 
THE THIGH. 
 
 ids 
 
 cartilage, except at a depression (6, 
 little below its centre, which gives 
 attachment to an intra-articular liga- 
 ment (ligamentum teres : see further 
 on). The neck of the femur (7, 
 Fig- 3 1 )) arising from the base of 
 the head, is directed downwards and 
 outwards in the form of a segment 
 of a cylinder, flattened a little from 
 front to back to become attached 
 to the upper extremity of the shaft 
 of the femur at an obtuse angle, 
 looking downwards and inwards 
 (Fig. 28). This angle, which the 
 axis of the neck makes with that of 
 the body, varies in different indi- 
 viduals, according to circumstances 
 which are well known. In the adult 
 male it is about 135 degrees ; in the 
 female it is less open — that is, it 
 approaches nearer to a right-angle 
 (90 degrees). It is this which con- 
 tributes to increase the transverse 
 diameter of the hips in the female. 
 Finally, in both sexes this angle 
 approaches gradually to a right- 
 angle with the advance of age — a 
 change that contributes to shorten 
 the height in the aged. At the 
 junction of the neck of the femur 
 with the body of the bone we find 
 
 Fig. 31) seen a 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Vertical Section of 
 Femur.— i, i, 2, 2, the 
 body of the bone with 
 the medullary canal 
 hollowed out ; — 3, the 
 great trochanter, whence 
 the neck is given off, 
 terminating in the head ; 
 — 4, inferior extremity of 
 the bone. 
 
 developed two 
 
106 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 tuberosities — one situated, above and to the outer side, 
 called the great trochanter (3, Fig. 28 and 8, Fig. 31) ; 
 the other situated below and to the inner side in the 
 angle between the neck and the shaft, called the lesser 
 trochanter (io, Fig. 31). The great trochanter is of 
 large size, and quadrilateral in shape, extending be- 
 yond the upper border of the neck, and presenting on 
 its external and internal surfaces and borders numerous 
 impressions, where we see inserted the muscles of the 
 gluteal region ; the lesser trochanter, on the contrary, 
 is smaller in size, mammillated or conoid in shape, and 
 gives attachment to the psoas and iliacus muscles 
 only. 
 
 The articulation of the femur with the pelvis 
 called the Mo-femoral or coxo-femoral articulation, is 
 formed by the reception of the head of the femur into 
 the cavity of the acetabulum into which it exactly fits ; 
 the edge of the cavity is surrounded by a ligament (the 
 cotyloid ligament) which maintains its shape in passing 
 from one extremity of the great cotyloid notch to the 
 other (page 95), in such a manner as to bridge over 
 this notch. From the presence of like articular sur- 
 faces, that is to say of a spherical head received within 
 a corresponding spherical cavity, we should expect to 
 find in this articulation every possible description of 
 movement; and this is what actually takes place: 
 the head of the femur can glide in all directions in the 
 cavity in which it is received, and these-gliding move- 
 ments vary according as the limb is moved either by 
 the movement of abduction (the inferior limb being 
 carried outwards, away from the middle line) or by a 
 
THE THIGH. 107 
 
 movement of adduction (towards the middle line), or 
 by a movement of flexion .(forwards, the anterior sur- 
 face of the thigh being brought towards that of the 
 abdomen), or lastly, by a movement of extension the 
 reverse of flexion, that is backwards. But these 
 movements are variously influenced by the disposition 
 of the ligamentous parts, so that while some are 
 limited, others are very extensive. 
 
 The ligamentous apparatus of the coxo-femoral 
 joint is composed of a long capsule or fibrous band, 
 which arises from the margin of the cotyloid cavity 
 and surrounding the neck of the femur terminates by 
 its other extremity in a line at the base of the neck ; 
 but the disposition of this capsule differs very much 
 before and behind. 
 
 ist. Behind — the capsule is not inserted into the 
 neck of the femur ; it presents a free border which 
 forms a half circle on the posterior surface of the 
 neck, therefore, this posterior portion of the capsule 
 attached on the one hand to the iliac bone (border of 
 the acetabulum), and on the other not being inserted 
 into the femur, cannot at any time become tense. It 
 is the movement of flexion which should make tense 
 this posterior portion of the capsule, had it been in- 
 serted into both bones ; but this movement may be 
 continued as far as it is possible without causing ten- 
 sion in the part. It is for this reason we speak of the 
 flexion of the thigh as unlimited, and in fact, it may 
 be continued until the anterior surface of the thigh 
 comes in contact with the abdomen. 
 
 2nd. In front — the capsule is well inserted into a 
 
108 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 rough line at the base of the neck of the femur, which 
 proceeds from the great trochanter to the lesser ; so 
 that it is put on the stretch when the thigh is carried 
 backwards during extension, and checks this move- 
 ment when it arrives at a certain point. This is in 
 fact what takes place"; but before fixing exactly the 
 position to which this check corresponds, we should 
 note again that this anterior portion of the ligament 
 is very thick and strong, composed of ligamentous 
 fibres leading directly from the cotyloid margin to the 
 inter-trochanteric space, and to this we give the name 
 of the ilio-femoral ligament. Owing to the strength 
 of this ligament, the movement of extension can be 
 limited and checked at any given moment. Now if 
 we try the experiment on ourselves, having flexed the 
 thigh on the abdomen and then gradually extend it, 
 we shall perceive that the movement is arrested at the 
 moment when the axis of the thigh is in a continuous 
 line with that of the body (or if the subject is upright, 
 when the thigh is vertical). If we repeat this experi- 
 ment on the dissected subject, with the joint prepared, 
 we shall see that the ilio-femoral ligament is relaxed 
 when the thigh is flexed on the pelvis, and becomes 
 tense in proportion as the bone is extended, and that 
 this tension arrives at its maximum when the femur 
 is found in a line with the trunk, and presents an in- 
 surmountable obstacle to any further extension. 
 
 However, a man in the upright position can move 
 his thigh backward ; but it is necessary to observe, if 
 for example, it is the right thigh which is carried 
 backward, it is not in the right coxo-femoral joint 
 
THE THIGH. 109 
 
 that the movement takes place, but in the left, or 
 rather the trunk is flexed upon the left femur. We 
 may therefore state that when the thigh has come, by 
 extension, to be in the same continuous plane with 
 the trunk, that the thigh and trunk form one and the 
 same piece, and that the two parts are immovable one 
 upon the other as regards extension, which has reached 
 its limit, and cannot be prolonged any further ; and 
 that accordingly when one thigh is carried behind the 
 vertical line, the trunk must be carried to an equal 
 extent in front of the vertical, as is represented, for 
 example, by the right thigh with the trunk moving as 
 a single piece on the left coxo-femoral articulation. 
 
 It is also the ilio-femoral ligament formed by 
 the antero-inferior fibres of the articular capsule 
 which presents the obstacle in abduction, or the 
 movement of the thigh outwards ; in the upright 
 position, . the ligament, being tense, renders abduc- 
 tion difficult and limited, but when the thigh is 
 slightly flexed on the pelvis, the ligament being 
 relaxed, abduction (separation of the thighs) becomes 
 comparatively easy. 
 
 The movement of adduction, or bringing the 
 thighs together, presents this peculiarity, that it is 
 almost impossible in the upright position, but it 
 becomes very easy, if the joint is slightly bent. If 
 we try the experiment on an articulation in which 
 the ilio-femoral ligament is cut, we perceive that in 
 the position of extension, the movement of abduction 
 is just as difficult as if the ligament were intact. It 
 is necessary, therefore, to seek elsewhere than in the 
 
110 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 .anterior portion of the capsule for the arrangement 
 which limits and arrests the adduction of the thigh. 
 We shall find the explanation in the existence of an 
 intra-articular ligament, placed in the interior of the 
 joint. This ligament, called the ligamentum teres, is 
 attached by one extremity to the rough depression 
 which the head of the femur presents a little below 
 its centre (6, Fig. 31), and by the other extremity, 
 bifurcated, to the ischial and pubic margins of the 
 great cotyloid notch. We have already seen that in 
 the pelvis of a man in the upright position, this notch 
 looks directly downwards (page 96), the ligament in 
 this position is also vertical, and is put on the stretch, 
 for by it, as it were, the head of the femur is suspended 
 from the pelvis (hence the name of suspensory liga- 
 ment given to it by some anatomists). Now, in the 
 upright position, the femur being vertical, the move- 
 ment of adduction could be produced only by the 
 gliding of the head of the femur from below upwards in 
 the cotyloid cavity, but this gliding movement cannot 
 take place, the head of the femur being held down 
 in this position by the tense round or suspensory 
 ligament. If, on the contrary, the femur is slightly 
 flexed, the round ligament will be found relaxed ; 
 this permits the gliding of the head in the cavity, 
 a movement which now takes place from before 
 backwards in order to produce adduction, which 
 may now be accomplished with ease. The ex- 
 periment which proves these facts without giving 
 an anatomical explanation (obtainable only from a 
 prepared subject) is very easy to accomplish upon 
 
THE THIGH. Ill 
 
 oneself, and gives a striking result ; in fact, holding 
 oneself perfectly upright, rigid, and • thrown back- 
 wards as far as possible, it will be seen that it is 
 almost impossible to bring the two knees together, 
 and to cause, by adduction of the thighs, the slight 
 interval to disappear which separates their inferior 
 extremities, and that frequently adduction is almost 
 lost, and impossible in this position, so that we should 
 be unable, by bringing the knees together, to crush 
 a fragile body ; for instance, an egg placed between 
 them. 
 
 But if we flex the thighs a little on the pelvis, 
 or easier still, the trunk on the thighs, adduction 
 becomes extremely easy, and now we can knock 
 together the inner surfaces of the knees with great 
 force. 
 
 The coxo-femoral articulation, so remarkable for 
 the various details of animal mechanism that we have 
 shown, is also remarkable for the fact that upon it 
 we can most conveniently demonstrate a law which 
 applies also to all the other articulations, but of which 
 we have reserved the explanation until we should 
 arrive at the articulation of the hip ; we refer to the 
 law relative to the influence of atmospheric pressure in 
 maintaining articular surfaces in contact. Up to the 
 present, in studying the articulations, we have spoken 
 of the form of the articular surfaces, and from their 
 outline we have been able to deduce what should be 
 the nature of the movements permitted in the joint 
 under consideration ; we have afterwards spoken of 
 the ligaments which surround the joint, and from their 
 
112 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 arrangement we have been able to infer the limits, 
 more or less restricted, imposed upon their move- 
 ments. But we have not as yet spoken of the 
 conditions which enable one articular surface to 
 glide upon another without separating, and which 
 maintain the surfaces in intimate and permanent 
 apposition. We may, perhaps, have thought that this 
 part devolves on the ligaments, but this would be an 
 error ; it is the atmospheric pressure which' keeps up 
 this contact ; this demands an explanation other 
 than that supplied by animal mechanism, and a 
 demonstration by an experiment made on the coxo- 
 femoral joint. 
 
 The examples showing how atmospheric pressure 
 can cause two bodies to adhere closely one to the 
 other are, so to speak, innumerable ; the cupping- 
 glass, for instance, when applied to a smooth surface, 
 adheres strongly thereto, because the air contained 
 between is rarified, and consequently the atmospheric 
 pressure presses down the surface, and causes it to 
 become fixed. There is a toy called a " sucker," which 
 we frequently see in the hands of young lads, and 
 which affords us a still simpler example. It consists 
 of a round piece of leather, strong and flexible, having 
 a string fastened in its centre by one of its surfaces. 
 When we apply the other face of the disc to a stone — 
 a paving- stone, for example — in such a manner as to 
 compress the disc and to exclude any air- which exists 
 between it and the surface of the stone, and then pull 
 sharply on the string, we raise the stone from its 
 place, for the atmospheric pressure causes the disc 
 
THE THIGH. 113 
 
 of leather to adhere to the stone, because there is 
 not any air left between their surfaces. 
 
 Now, the head of the femur is received into the 
 acetabulum in a manner identical to that which we 
 have just described. On the one hand, the head of the 
 femur is placed exactly against the base of the cavity ; 
 arid this contact is absolutely perfect, the irregularities 
 which the base of the cavity presents upon the skeleton 
 being filled up by adipose tissue. On the other hand, 
 the cotyloid ligament closely encircles the base of 
 the head of the femur, and may be compared to the 
 edges of the cupping-glass, which we have just men- 
 tioned. Now, as a vacuum exists between the two 
 articular surfaces, and the air cannot penetrate be- 
 tween them, they adhere very closely to each other, 
 still allowing one to glide on the other (the head 
 moving round in the cavity) ; but, if by any means 
 the air obtains access between the articular surfaces, 
 adhesion immediately ceases, the atmospheric pressure 
 being then experienced within as well as without the- 
 articulation. 
 
 The experiments which explain those facts have 
 been demonstrated by the brothers" Weber, and may 
 be reproduced in the following manner : — On a sub- 
 ject suspended by the shoulders, we dissect away the 
 soft parts (skin and muscles) which surround the 
 hip-joint, arid raise those parts so as to expose the 
 articular capsule ; if we then cut around this capsule 
 through its ' entire thickness, we see that the inferior 
 member does not become detached from the trunk,, 
 although there is not any ligament connecting the 
 I 
 
114 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 femur with the pelvis (we do not now speak of the 
 presence of the intra-articular or round ligament by 
 which the femur is suspended from the pelvis, but 
 which lies loosely in the acetabulum) ; it is therefore 
 the atmospheric pressure which maintains the articular 
 surfaces in contact. And if, from . the interior of the 
 pelvis, we perforate the base of the cavity, we at once 
 hear a slight whistling noise, produced by the air 
 entering the cavity and spreading between the arti- 
 cular surfaces, and the corresponding inferior member 
 becomes detached and falls down, the head of the, 
 femur not being supported by any connecting ligament. 
 But this is not all. vWe may, on the same subject, 
 and on the same articulation, renew the experiment 
 so as to render it still more striking. If we take the 
 detached limb, and, having closed with a little wax 
 the opening made at the base of the cotyloid cavity, 
 we replace the head of the femur within the cavity, 
 and cause it to glide about so as to make the contact 
 of the articular surfaces perfect and exclude the air 
 between them, we see that the head of the femur 
 remains attached within the cavity, and that the lower 
 limb is again suspended from the pelvis ; but, when 
 we raise the stopper of wax, and permit the air to 
 enter again between the articular surfaces, the lower 
 limb is immediately detached from the pelvis, and 
 the head of the bone drops from the cavity. This 
 experiment may be repeated any number of times. 
 
 We have felt it important to dwell here, once for 
 all, on the important part which atmospheric pres- 
 sure plays in the mechanism of joints. Analogous 
 
THE THIGH. 115 
 
 experiments, but more delicately executed, show that 
 this pressure plays • comparatively the same part in 
 the other articulations in maintaining their articular 
 surfaces in contact. 
 
 To return to the study of the region of the hip, 
 and especially to the great trochanter, we must see what 
 are the transverse dimensions of this region, and what 
 are the external forms in the figure directly resulting, 
 from the presence of the great trochanter. 
 
 The transverse distance which separates one great 
 trochanter from the other should be compared with 
 that which separates the heads of the humeri ; in other 
 words, we must now compare the diameter of the hips 
 with that of the shoulders. 
 
 What strikes us ■ most in this comparison, at the 
 first glance at a series of skeletons, is the great pro- 
 jection which the hips form in the female. In order to 
 express this, various formulse have been proposed : they 
 consist in considering the trunk as a figure more or less 
 regularly oval, of which one extremity corresponds to 
 the shoulders, the other to the hips, and to see accord- 
 ing to the sex which diameter exceeds the other. 
 The ancients did not hesitate to express this formula 
 in the following manner : — In the male and in the 
 female the trunk represents an ovoid — that is to say, 
 an oval similar to that of a figure of an egg having 
 a greater and a lesser extremity ; but in the male this 
 has its greater extremity superior, while in the female 
 the greater is inferior. Therefore, in the female the 
 diameter of the hips exceeds that of the shoulders, 
 while in the male it is the diameter of the shoulders 
 I 3 
 
Il6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 which exceeds that, of the hips. This formula as 
 regards the female is evidently exaggerated, as we see 
 in a moment by comparing the actual figures. It 
 seems, in fact, to Salvage and Malgaigne, to be exag- 
 gerated, and in their works on anatomy, they pro- 
 pose substituting the following formula :' Allowing that 
 the trunk of the male is an ovoid, with the greater 
 extremity superior, the trunk of the female forms an 
 ellipse — that is to say, a figure in which both ex- 
 tremities are of the same dimensions ; therefore, in 
 the male the diameter of the shoulders exceeds that 
 of the hips, and that in the female the diameter of the 
 hips does not exceed that of the shoulders, but is 
 only just equal to it. 
 
 Now this last formula also exaggerates, the reaK 
 proportions of the hips in the female. The correct 
 formula is as follows : — In the male, as well as in the 
 female, the trunk represents an ovoid with the greater 
 extremity superior ; but while in man the difference 
 between the greater extremity and the lesser is very 
 considerable, in the female this difference is very 
 slight. We shall see by figures that in the female the 
 diameter of the hips, though always less, differs very 
 little from that of the shoulders. In the male the 
 distance from the head of one humerus to the corre- 
 sponding part on the opposite side [inter-humeral 
 diameter) is on the average 15J inches, and the mea- 
 sure taken from one great trochanter to the other 
 (inter-trockanteric diameter) is 12\ inches; therefore 
 there is between the two diameters a difference of about 
 one-fifth. In the female the inter-humeral diameter 
 
THE THIGH. 117 
 
 is on the average 1 3f inches ; the inter-trochanteric 
 diameter is 12 £ inches ; therefore there is between 
 the two diameters a difference of about one-twelfth. 
 These figures also serve to demonstrate that the 
 diameter of the shoulders is greater in the male 
 than in the female (15 to 14), and that inversely 
 the diameter of the hips is greater in the female 
 than in the male (12 J to 12 J) ; so that, accordingly, 
 if a man and a woman of average stature are supposed 
 to throw their shadow on the same portion of a screen, 
 the shadow of the shoulders of the male would cover 
 a much larger surface than the shadow of the shoulders 
 of the female ; and on the contrary, the shadow of the 
 hips of the woman would exceed the shadow of the 
 hips of the man, but only to a very small extent. 
 
 By the diameter of the hips we have, in the pre- 
 ceding considerations, understood the inter-trochanteric 
 diameter. There is, however, a method of considering 
 the subject which justifies to a certain extent the 
 formulae adopted by the authors previously mentioned ; 
 it consists in comparing on the skeleton in both sexes 
 the diameter of the pelvis (the femurs being removed) 
 with the diameter of the shoulders (the humeri being 
 removed). Then the shoulders are represented by the 
 inter-acromial diameter, and the hips by the inter-iliac 
 (from one iliac crest to the other). Under these cir- 
 cumstances the exact 'measurements show that in the 
 male the inter-acromial diameter is I2f inches, and 
 the inter-iliac 1 1 inches ; therefore, as in the preceding, 
 the trunk, deprived of its members, still represents an 
 ovoid, with its greater extremity superior.; but we see 
 
Il8 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 that in the female, the inter-acromial diameter being 
 ii \ inches, the inter-iliac increases to 12 inches; and 
 therefore that here the trunk, deprived of its members, 
 represents an ellipse or an ovoid, with its greater ex- 
 tremity inferior, the superior extremity differing very 
 little in size from the inferior. But this mode of men- 
 suration does not express the subject as it exists, for 
 the artist does not consider the trunk as otherwise than 
 complete — that is to say, provided with its superior 
 and inferior members — and it is necessary to take into 
 account the part which they take in the diameters of 
 the two extremities of the trunk by the presence of 
 their extremities (the head of the humerus and the 
 great trochanter). We have thought fit, however, to 
 show here this mode of mensuration, for it explains 
 clearly the greater diameter of the pelvis in the 
 female, compared with that of the male, as we have 
 previously seen. 
 
 If we arrange in a table the figures given in the 
 preceding for the inter-humeral, inter-trochanteric, 
 inter-acromial, and inter-iliac diameters in the male 
 and in the female, or if, better still, we represent those 
 figures by proportionate lines intended to express, on 
 the profile of a man and that of-a woman, the propor- 
 tionate value of the diameters of the region of the 
 shoulders compared with the diameters of the pelvis and 
 the hips, and if we cause vertical lines to pass through 
 the extremities of the inter-iliac and inter-trochanteric 
 diameters, we. obtain two figures which express in a 
 striking manner all that has been pointed out (Figs. 
 29 and 30). 
 
THE THIGH. 
 
 119 
 
 We see, in fact, that in the male subject (Fig 29) the 
 vertical lines (;j/andj/) passing through the extremities 
 of the inter- trochanteric (dd) and the inter-iliac (cc) 
 diameters, both fall within the extremity of the inter- 
 
 
 |1 
 ell 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Diagram comparing the diameters 
 of the hips with the diameters of the 
 shoulders in the male. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Diagram comparing the diameters 
 of the hips with the diameters of the 
 shoulders in the female. 
 
 humeral diameter (b b), and also the inter-acromial 
 {a a) ; on the contrary, in the female (Fig. 30) we 
 find that these same vertical lines both fall within 
 the extremeties of the inter-humeral diameter, but 
 on the outer side of the inter-acromial. 
 
 After this study of the proportions of the hips we 
 will say a word concerning the influence of the great 
 trochanter on the external form. In looking at the 
 skeleton the great trochanter stands out so clearly, and 
 
I20 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 forms on the outer side a projection so considerable 
 that we should expect to see in the external model a 
 prominence corresponding to the shape of the great 
 trochanter. However, it is not so. . The muscles which 
 proceed from the pelvis to be attached to the great 
 trochanter are numerous, overlapping each other, and 
 thick, and the fleshy bodies of the more superficial 
 are sufficiently strong to form a projection which is 
 slightly raised above that of the trochanter ; over this 
 surface their fleshy bodies are replaced by a tendon, 
 more or less flattened, so that the trochanter is marked 
 on the external figure by a depressjpjT_bounded in 
 front by a muscle — the tensor vaginae femoris — above 
 and behind by the gluteus medius and maximus ; 
 below, the flat concave space corresponding to the 
 great trochanter is continuous with the broad, flat sur- 
 face which occupies the external surface of the thigh, 
 and corresponds to the aponeurosis of the fascia lata. 
 There are many analogous cases where osseous pro- 
 jections are frequently marked on the external figure 
 by a depression, and the reason is always the same as 
 that just explained, that these osseous projections give 
 insertion to muscles, the fleshy bodies of which give 
 place to tendinous expansions at a little distance from 
 them, and form by their thickness a raised surface 
 round the prominence ; in a general way, then, we 
 may say that, with a few exceptions (such as the mal- 
 leoli of the ankle joints), wherever an osseous surface 
 is covered over only by the skin, the muscles which 
 surround this surface arise above its level, and in con- 
 sequence the bone is marked by a depression, more 
 
THE Tl-IJgJSy 1 2.1 
 
 or less pronounced as the subject is more or less mus- 
 cular. Thus the middle portion of the sternum is 
 marked externally by a depression limited on each 
 side by the swelling of the great pectoral muscles, 
 and the internal surface of the tibia forms a long and 
 broad groove when the anterior and posterior muscles 
 of the leg are well developed. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE THIGH AND KNEE. 
 
 The bony structure of the thigh and knee. — Body of femur : its curva- 
 ture ; oblique direction j linea aspera. — Inferior extremity of femur : 
 condyles ; inter-condyloid space : anterior trochlea. — Patella : 
 ligament of the patella. — Inferior part of the bones of the leg. 
 — Tibia: its surfaces; its anterior tuberosity. — Head of fibula. — 
 Articulation of the knee ; relation of the bones in flexion and 
 extension. — Ligamentous apparatus : capsule : its laxity and extent 
 in front, whence the facility and extent of movement in flexion : 
 its strength and shortness behind, whence the limit of movement 
 in extension. — Lateral ligaments of the knee, their special mechan- 
 ism deduced from their eccentric insertion superiorly. — Lateral 
 movements of the knee : crucial ligaments. — Form of the region of 
 the knee : flat surface beneath the patella ; projections of patella : 
 tendon of patella and adipose mass which project beyond it. — 
 Osseous projections of the external surface and the tendons in- 
 serted. — Simplicity of the form of internal surface of the knee. 
 
 HAVING studied the upper extremity of the femur 
 with regard to the articulation, proportions, and con- 
 tour of the region of the hips, we shall continue the 
 study of this bone by examining its shaft and inferior 
 extremity, and this latter part brings us to the articu- 
 lation of the knee. 
 
 The shaft of the femur is not straight but slightly 
 curved with its convexity forward. On the living 
 model this convexity may still be recognised in the 
 form of the anterior surface of the thigh which is 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 1 23 
 
 distinctly convex forwards from above downwards 
 (bulged in front), the muscles which cover the femur 
 in front being disposed in such a manner as to increase 
 this appearance still more, as their fleshy bodies are 
 grouped together in the middle line of the anterior 
 region of the thigh. Again, the femur, in the model 
 when standing upright, is not directed vertically but 
 rather obliquely from above downwards, and from 
 without inwards (Fig. 31), so that the superior ex- 
 tremities of the femur are placed at some distance, 
 comparatively speaking, from each other, while the 
 lower extremities come very near each other at the 
 level of the knees. In the female this obliquity is 
 more clearly marked than in the male, for the upper 
 extremities of the two bones are in the former placed 
 more widely apart, as we have already seen when 
 demonstrating the relative diameter of the hips 
 (inter-trochanteric diameter) in the female. 
 
 The form of the shaft of the femur is that of a tri- 
 angular prism presenting three surfaces — one anterior, 
 one postero-external, and one postero-internal ; and 
 three borders, two lateral and one posterior. The 
 two lateral borders are very rounded, not sharp ; the 
 posterior, on the contrary, is very pnyninent, and 
 forms a rough line, called the linea aspera (1, Fig. 31), 
 which gives insertion to a number of muscles. This 
 linea aspera divides above into two bifurcations 
 slightly diverging, of which the external (2, 2, Fig. 31) 
 proceeds towards the great trochanter and the internal 
 towards the lesser. Below, this linea aspera bifurcates 
 in the same manner, one of its branches going to the 
 
ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 internal, the other to the externa, 
 tuberosity of the femur (4, 4, Fig. 31). 
 The inferior extremity of the femur 
 is widely expanded, both in the 
 transverse and in the antero-posterior 
 diameter. When we examine the 
 posterior aspect of this extremity (Fig. 
 31) we see that it is formed by two 
 large prominences directed backwards, 
 which are termed the condyles of the 
 femur, and are known as the external 
 and internal condyles. The inferior 
 and posterior surfaces of these con- 
 dyles are smooth and covered with 
 articular cartilage; between them is 
 a deep hollow called the inter- 
 condyloid space (13, Fig. 31). 
 When, on the contrary, we 
 examine the anterior surface of 
 the lower end of the femur we 
 ; see that the condyles are. 
 united, and their surface be- 
 comes smooth and continu- 
 ous in front in an articular 
 surface shaped like a pulley; 
 this is called the trochlea of 
 the femur. This trochlea 
 presents a depression in 
 the middle line and two. 
 lips, of which the external, 
 continuous with the external condyle.is more prominent 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 Left Femur (posterior view). — 
 i. 1, Hnea aspera ; — 2, 2, its external 
 superior bifurcation 5—3, its internal 
 superior bifurcation ; — 4, 4, its inferior 
 bifurcations ;— 5, head of femur ; — 6, 
 depression in the head giving insertion 
 to ligamentum teres (see p. no); — 
 7, neck of femur ;— 8, great trochanter ; 
 — 9, internal surface of great tro- 
 chanter; — 10, lesser trochanter; — it, 
 external condyle ;— ri2, internal con- 
 dyle ; — 13, inter-condyloid notch ; — 14, 
 15, tuberosities surmounting each of 
 these condyles. 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 1 25 
 
 and rises higher than the internal, which is continuous 
 with the condyle' of the same side. These details are 
 very important, for, as we shall see, the lips of the 
 femoral pulley show prominently beneath the skin 
 when the knee is strongly flexed, and we can notice 
 their differences in prominence and height. In 
 forming the articulation of the knee, the inferior 
 extremity of the femur comes in direct contact with 
 the patella and the superior extremity of the tibia, 
 and is indirectly connected with the upper extremity 
 of the fibula. We will now consider the patella and 
 the upper extremities of the two bones of the leg. 
 
 The patella, which has been compared to a 
 disc (whence its name), is, speaking more correctly, 
 triangular in shape, presenting an anterior surface 
 smooth and slightly convex, and a posterior moulded 
 on the trochlea of the femur, and is formed by a 
 prominence in the middle line corresponding to 
 the groove of the pulley, and two lateral depressions, 
 each corresponding to one of the lips. The circum- 
 ference of the patella is formed by two lateral oblique 
 borders, with a base directed upwards, giving attach- 
 ment to the tendon of the triceps, and the summit 
 directed downwards, giving attachment to a strong 
 ligament which is inserted into the anterior tuberosity 
 of the tibia, and is termed the ligament of the patella. 
 Properly speaking, this ligament is a continuation of 
 the triceps tendon. The patella should be considered 
 as a sesamoid bone, which is an osseous nodule 
 developed in the thickness of a tendon (in the thick- 
 ness of the tendon of the triceps of the thigh). 
 
126 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The leg, like the fore-arm, is com- 
 posed of two bones, one, the larger of 
 the two, placed on the inner side(i, 
 Fig. 32)— the tibia; the other, much 
 slighter, situated on the outer, and a 
 little behind-M:he fibula (9, Fig. 32). 
 As in the case of the two' bones of 
 the fore-arm, the. two bones of the 
 leg end at different levels above and 
 below. Above, the tibia rises higher 
 than the fibula, and it is for this 
 reason that it alone takes a direct 
 part in the articulation of the knee ; 
 below, the fibula extends lower than 
 the tibia — so that the external 
 malleolus descends lower than the 
 internal. We will now for a mo- 
 ment examine the superior extremi- 
 ties of the two bones. 
 
 The superior extremity of the 
 tibia is enlarged transversely, and 
 presents on its upper surface two flat 
 surfaces slightly hollowed out, called 
 the glenoid, cavities, the external (3, 
 Fig. 32) and the internal (2, Fig. 32), 
 each articulating with the femoral 
 condyle of the same name. The 
 space which, in the form of an 
 antero-posterior groove, separates 
 these two spaces, presents in its 
 centre a projection shaped like a blunt cone, which 
 
 KlG. 32. 
 
 The two Bones of 
 Left Leg (anterior 
 view). — i, body of 
 tibia ; — 2, 3,- -its; in- 
 ternal and external tu- 
 berosities ;— 4, spine of 
 tibia ;— 5, anterior tu- 
 berosity of tibia ; — 6, 
 crest of tibia; — 7, in- 
 ferior extremity of tibia 
 with internal malleolus 
 (8j ; 9, body of fibula ; 
 — 10, its superior ex- 
 tremity ; — ir, its in- 
 ferior extremity or ex- 
 ternal malleolus. 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 1 27 
 
 corresponds to the inter-condyloid space of the 
 femur. 
 
 With regard to the circumference of the superior 
 extremity of the tibia, all the details of interest which 
 it presents are grouped together on its antero-external 
 surface. First, in front, at the line of junction of the 
 upper extremity with the body of the bone, is situated 
 -a large rounded eminence, called the' anterior tube- 
 rosity of the tibia, which gives insertion to the liga- 
 ment of the patella^ previously mentioned ; secondly, 
 on the outer side,, and a little backwards, is a rounded 
 surface, smooth and covered with cartilage, for articu- 
 lation with the head of the fibula (10, Fig. 32). In 
 the central portion of a line slightly curved, with its 
 convexity upwards, proceeding from the anterior 
 tuberosity of the tibia to the articular surface of the 
 fibula, is placed a bony prominence more or less 
 marked, according to the subject, called the tuberosity 
 of the anterior tibial, from the name of the muscle to 
 which it gives attachment. If in this enumeration we 
 substitute the head of the fibula itself for its arti- 
 cular surface, we have the three principal osseous pro- 
 minences which are seen to the outer side of this line — 
 namely, the anterior tuberosity of the tibia, the tube- 
 rosity for the anterior tibial, and the head of the fibula. 
 
 The superior extremity of the head of the fibula 
 (10, Fig. 32), irregularly rounded, is placed on the 
 outer side, and a little backwards, upon the superior 
 extremity of 'the tibia, but does not reach the level of 
 the upper surface of the latter. It presents behind 
 a projection directed vertically upwards, called the 
 
128 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 styloid process, but this, being surrounded by the ex- 
 ternal lateral ligament of the knee to which it gives 
 attachment, is not perceived in the external form. 
 
 Such are the bony structures which take a direct 
 (femur, tibia, patella) and indirect part (fibula) in the 
 knee-joint. In the living model, in the erect posture, 
 the condyles of the femur rest by their inferior surface 
 on the upper surface of the tibia, and the apposition of 
 the articular surfaces is rendered more exact by a fact 
 which is of little importance as regards the external form. 
 — that the border of the surface of the upper extremity 
 of the tibia is provided with a fibrous disc, called the 
 semi-lunar fibro-cartilage, which increases the depth 
 of this border (5, 5, Fig. 34), so that the corresponding 
 condyle of the femur is received into a true articular 
 cavity ; at the same time, the patella is applied to the 
 trochlea. When, on the other hand, the model is 
 kneeling, or, more generally, when the leg is flexed 
 (carried backwards), the patella, which is firmly fixed 
 to the tibia by its ligament, glides from above down- 
 wards on the trochlea, and comes in contact with the 
 anterior surface of the condyles at the same time that 
 they are in contact with the upper surfaces of the 
 tibia by their entire posterior part. After this rapid 
 sketch of the articulation of. the knee, we shall have 
 to study in detail its ligamentous apparatus, and then 
 consider its peculiarities of structure. 
 
 The ligamentous apparatus of the knee is com- 
 posed essentially of a capsule or fibrous band— 
 which, as we have already seen in the articula- 
 tions previously studied, is attached to the borders of 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 
 
 129 
 
 the articular surfaces. In the femur it is inserted at 
 the borders of the trochlea and cartilaginous surfaces 
 of the condyles ; in the tibia, at the margins of the 
 upper surfaces ; and finally, on 
 the edges of the patella. But 
 though these insertions are 
 easy to understand, we must 
 dwell upon the arrangements 
 of this capsule, its length, and 
 laxity, contrasted in its an- 
 terior, posterior, and lateral re- 
 gions ; and then consider how 
 it renders certain movements 
 easy and very extensive, 
 while it limits others or ren- 
 ders them almost impossible. 
 In front (a a, Fig. 33) the 
 capsule is very loose and ex- 
 panded ; and the part which 
 extends from the anterior limit 
 of the trochlea to the upper 
 border of the patella forms a 
 large pouch— a cul-de-sac— 
 which ascends beneath the 
 tendon of the triceps muscle 
 (5, Fig. 33), and is known by the name of the cul-de-sac 
 beneath the triceps. This arrangement accounts for the 
 ease and extent of the movement of flexion. In this 
 movement, the tibia being carried backwards, and 
 drawing with it the patella, as we have previously 
 mentioned, that portion of the capsule situated beneath 
 J 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 The Articular Parts op 
 THE Knee (anteroposterior sec- 
 tion). — 1, femur ; — 2, tibia ; — 3, 
 fibula; — 4, patella; — 5, triceps 
 tendon ; — 6, ligament of patella or 
 tendon ; — 7, one of the crucial 
 inter-articular ligaments ; — 8, 8. 
 one of the muscles of the calf; — 
 a, a, anterior part, and b, posterior 
 part of the articular capsule ; — C $ 
 adipose mass beneath patella. 
 
.130 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the patella would be put on the stretch and curtail 
 this movement if it had been short and compact ; but 
 the capsule at this point is so expanded and lax that 
 no increase of movement on the part of the leg can 
 cause any tension. Thus the flexion of the knee may 
 be prolonged until the soft parts of the leg (calf) come 
 in contact with those of the posterior surface of the 
 thigh. 
 
 Behind, the capsule is short and thick, forming on 
 each condyle a species of fibrous capsule {b, Fig. 33), 
 to which are attached the muscles of the calf. When 
 the leg is flexed on the thigh, this posterior portion of 
 the articular capsule is relaxed ; but as the leg passes 
 from flexion to extension it becomes tense, and when 
 extension has arrived at that point which brings the 
 leg in direct continuation with the thigh this tension 
 of the capsule has attained a degree which prevents 
 any further movement, and therefore fixes the limb in 
 this position. There is, moreover, another important 
 arrangement which acts, and more forcibly, in the same 
 manner ; this is that of the lateral portions, internal and 
 external, of the capsule, which are each strengthened 
 by a distinct ligament (the lateral ligaments). 
 
 The internal lateral ligament is shaped like a broad 
 band, so that it seems united more or less with the 
 corresponding portion of the capsule. 
 
 The external lateral ligament, on the contrary, is in 
 the form of a rounded cord, very strong and quite 
 distinct from the capsule, especially as its inferior 
 extremity is not inserted into the tibia, but into the 
 head of the fibula (to the styloid process, p. 128), close 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 
 
 131 
 
 beside the insertion of the biceps muscle (Fig. 60, 
 page 258). But what is more remarkable in r.egard 
 to those ligaments is that their superior extremities, 
 attached to the lateral surfaces of the condyles, are 
 not inserted at the centre of the curve of the condyles, 
 but at a point situated behind (a, Figs. 34 and 35). 
 
 Fig. 34, 
 
 The Knee : state of the 
 lateral ligaments (a, 6) 
 during flexion. — i; femtfr; 
 —7, condyle of femur ;-"3, 
 tibia ; — 4, fibula 5—5, 5, sec- 
 tion of disc or semi-lunar 
 fibro cartilage (p. 128). 
 
 Fig. 35- 
 
 The Knee : lateral liga- 
 ments tense during exten- 
 sion of the leg on the thigh 
 (the distance, a 6, is greater 
 here than in preceding 
 figure); for the lettering, 
 see preceding figure. 
 
 Therefore during flexion these ligaments are relaxed, 
 but according as extension is produced, or as the tibia 
 is carried forward on the curved surface of the condyles 
 of the femur, these ligaments' gradually become tense, 
 their points of insertion becoming further and further 
 apart, owing to the eccentric insertion (behind) of their 
 superior extremities. When the leg reaches that posi- 
 tion of extension in which it is found on the same plane 
 with the femur, the tension of the lateral ligaments 
 J 2 
 
132 ARTISTIC ANATOMY, 
 
 is such as to arrest its movement and completely fix 
 the leg on the thigh. This may be seen by com- 
 paring Figs. 34 and 35. We see, then, that owing 
 to the position of the anterior, posterior, and lateral 
 parts of the ligamentous apparatus of the knee, the 
 movement of flexion in this joint is very extensive, 
 while that of extension is limited, as it cannot be pro- 
 longed further than the position which brings the leg 
 in direct continuation with the thigh. 
 
 These same arrangements account for the amount 
 of lateral movement possible in the knee-joint. This, 
 articulation being formed by. two condyles, it is very 
 evident that lateral flexion cannot be produced, for 
 then it would be necessary for one of the condyles to 
 leave the corresponding space on the tibia. Here we 
 may mention the slight gliding movements which 
 take place between the condyle of the femur and the 
 tibia, a movement produced. by a rotatory movement, 
 of which the other condyle forms the centre. These 
 slight movements of rotation, which contribute to the 
 motion by which we direct the point of the foot out- 
 wards or inwards are impossible during complete 
 extension ; and it is easy to understand that when, 
 in extension, the tibia is fixed on the femur by the 
 tension of the lateral ligaments, and the posterior part 
 of the capsule, all unilateral gliding movement is im- 
 possible ; for it would stretch in a further degree, at 
 the side of the joint, the parts which have already 
 arrived at their maximum of tension. But when 
 flexion is produced, and especially when it arrives at 
 a right angle, as in the subject when seated, slight 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 133 
 
 movements of rotation of the leg become possible ; 
 they are of small extent, it is true, especially inwards ; 
 since it is easier for the knee to take part in the move- 
 ment which turns the foot outwards than that which 
 turns it inwards. This difference between rotation in- 
 wards and outwards is due to the presence within the 
 joint of two ligaments called the crucial ligaments, of 
 which we will only mention that they arise from the 
 spine of the tibia between the two flat surfaces (page 
 126), and ascend, crossing in the inter-condyloid 
 space, to the corresponding surface of each of 
 the condyles. This crossing of the two ligaments 
 is increased by the rotation of the tibia inwards, 
 as this movement tends to twist them one on the 
 other when they contract, and fix the tibia, so as 
 to prevent rotation' inwards. On the other hand, 
 rotation outwards unwinds these ligaments, and 
 renders them more parallel, and, therefore, more 
 relaxed ; so that this movement could be very 
 extensive, if the lateral ligaments did not prevent 
 too great displacement between the condyle of 
 the femur- and the corresponding surface of the 
 tibia. 
 
 There are still in the knee-joint several anatomical 
 particulars which we will examine when studying this 
 region with regard to the external forms of the living 
 model. The posterior surface of the knee is covered 
 by numerous muscles and tendons which form what 
 has been termed the popliteal space; therefore the study 
 of this region will be taken when we come, to the 
 description of the muscles of the leg and thigh ; but, 
 
134 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 on the external and internal lateral surfaces, and 
 on the anterior surface of the knee all the details 
 observed in the outward form are caused solely by 
 the osseous and ligamentous parts, some of which we 
 have already spoken of, and we will now point out 
 the remainder. 
 
 The anterior surface of the knee should be ex- 
 amined in two different positions — in that of extension 
 or slight flexion, and in forcible flexion. 1st, In forcible 
 flexion we observe principally the form of the femoral 
 trochlea (see above, page 1 24) ; 2nd, in extension we find 
 on the anterior surface of the knee, in succession from 
 above downwards, a.Jlat triangular space beneath the 
 patella, corresponding to the tendon of the tricepsmuscle 
 of the thigh ; next, the prominence of the patella, showing 
 clearly beneath the skin its triangular shape, with the 
 base above and apex below. The two superior angles 
 of the patella are frequently very distinct in the 
 form of two small rounded projections ; below, the 
 tendon of the patella forms a longitudinal eminence 
 in the middle. line, reaching almost to the tuber- 
 osity of the tibia, which is seen as a large projection. 
 But, again, we frequently perceive on each side of 
 the ligament, immediately below the patella, a slight 
 eminence, easily depressed, which corresponds to 
 parts which we have not yet described ; we speak of 
 the portion of the capsule situated beneath the liga- 
 ment of the patella, which extends from the lower liga- 
 ment of the patella to the anterior border of the flat 
 surface of the tibia. This portion of the capsule [c, 
 Fig. 33) is thick and formed almost entirely by a large 
 
THE THIGH AND KNEE. 135 
 
 mass of adipose tissue, which is prolonged almost into 
 the interior of the joint (where it forms the fatty liga- 
 ment of some authors), and which forms outside the 
 articulation in front of the knee, a prominence 
 divided into two lateral parts by the ligament of 
 the patella (6, Fig. 33), which depresses it in its 
 centre. When the triceps muscle draws forcibly on 
 the patella and its ligament, these compress this 
 adipose mass to a much greater degree, so as to 
 form a kind of hernia on each side, and then the 
 bilateral prominence in question is much more clearly 
 marked. 
 
 On the external lateral surface of the knee we note 
 three osseous prominences. These are : — in front, the 
 anterior tuberosity of the tibia (seen here in profile) ; be- 
 hind, the head of the fibula ; between these two, the 
 tuberosity of the anterior tibial. To each of these are 
 attached the tendons coming from the thigh, which are 
 marked on the external surface of the knee by three 
 strong vertical bands ; viz. : — in front, the tendon 
 of the patella (seen here in profile) ; behind, the tendon 
 of the biceps femoris, proceeding to be inserted into 
 the head of the fibula ; and in the middle, the inferior 
 part of the aponeurosis of the fascia lata (see as follows) 
 which becomes narrow and thickened, and forms a true 
 tendon, which is attached to the tuberosity of the an- 
 terior tibial. 
 
 In proportion as the anterior and external surfaces 
 of the knee are complex so is the form of the internal 
 surface simple. Here the internal condyle of the 
 femur and the corresponding tuberosity of the tibia, 
 
136 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 form together a large hemisphere, perfectly regular ; 
 for it is not marked by any ligament or tendon, the 
 internal lateral ligament forming a broad band (page 
 130), which does not exhibit any prominence, the 
 tendons of this region winding round the internal 
 tuberosity of the tibia, behind and below, to become 
 inserted into the upper portion of its outer surface in 
 the form of a broad and thin tendinous expansion, 
 called the pes anserinus (page 246 and Fig. 61.) 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE LEG. 
 
 The bony structure of the leg. — Tibia and fibula : tibiofibular articu- 
 lation : absence of mobility in the fibula (differences between the 
 leg and fore-arm : between the foot and hand, also in the quadru- 
 manous monkeys. Inferior extremities of these bones : tibiofibular 
 articulation : malleoli or ankle-bones which limit it : comparison 
 of the internal malleolus and the external with regard to length, 
 situation, and form. — The whole of the skeleton of the foot : tarsus, 
 metatarsus, and toes. — Importance of the bony structure of the 
 tarsus and influence on the form of the foot : construction and 
 arrangement of tarsus, posterior half (two bones placed one on 
 the other : the astragalus, above, calcaneum, below) : anterior half 
 single on the outer side (the cuboid), double on the. inner (the 
 scaphoid and three cuneiform). — Articulation of the leg with the 
 foot, movements which it permits. 
 
 The two bones of the leg are placed, as we have pre- 
 viously seen (page. 126), parallel to each other, the 
 tibia on the inner side, "Cat fibula on the outer side and 
 somewhat behind (Fig. 32, page 126). The shaft 
 of the tibia is triangular in shape, and therefore pre- 
 sents three surfaces and three margins (1, Fig. 32) : an 
 internal surface covered only by the skin and ap- 
 pearing externally as a long flat surface, broader above 
 where it looks a little forward, and inclining directly 
 inwards at its inferior part, where it becomes con- 
 tinuous with the prominence of the ankle or internal 
 malleolus (Fig. 61, page 261). The external surface 
 
138 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 is slightly concave in order to lodge the antero- 
 external muscles of the leg, of which the principal is 
 the tibialis anticus ; below, this surface inclines for- 
 wards, following the course of the tibialis muscle, 
 which, from the antero-external region "of the leg, is 
 directed towards the base of the great toe, on the 
 internal border of the foot (Fig. 59, page 257). The 
 posterior surface of the tibia is entirely covered by the 
 strong and numerous muscles of the posterior region 
 of the leg. Finally, of the three margins of the shaft 
 of the tibia the anterior is particularly prominent, and 
 is known by the name of the crest of the tibia (6, Fig. 
 32, page 126). 
 
 The. fibula (9, Fig. 32) consists of a body long and 
 slender, triangular and prismatic in form, in which it 
 is difficult at first sight to recognise the three surfaces 
 and three margins, because this bone appears twisted 
 on itself from front to back, and from within out- 
 wards; but we may do so easily if we consider the real 
 meaning of the surfaces which change their - direc- 
 tion, and note the fact that the lateral peroneal 
 muscles, which cover its external- surface, wind round 
 it below and behind to arrive at the foot by passing 
 behind the malleolus of the external ankle (Fig. 
 60, page 258), so that the external surface of the bone 
 becomes posterior inferiorly, and the other two sur- 
 faces follow the same course, the internal becoming 
 anterior below, and the posterior internal. 
 
 These two bones are separated throughout their 
 entire length by an interval called the interosseous 
 space (Fig. 32, page 126), broader above than below, 
 
THE LEG. 139 
 
 which is filled up by a fibrous membrane (interosseous 
 membrane) passing from one bone to the other, and 
 serving as an insertion for the anterior and deep 
 posterior muscles of the leg. Above, the fibula articu- 
 lates with the postero-internal surface of the superior 
 extremity of the tibia, and this superior tibio-fibular 
 articulation possesses a very slight gliding move- 
 ment. Below, the fibula articulates with the corres- 
 ponding part of the tibia by a species of symphysis-; 
 and this inferior tibio-fibular articulation has hardly 
 any mobility : it only gives a certain amount of 
 elasticity to the tibio-fibular joint, into which the foot 
 is received. We see, therefore, that there is, with 
 regard to mobility, a great difference between the two 
 bones of the leg and those of the fore-arm ; in the 
 fore-arm, one of the bones, the radius, is moveable on 
 the other, the ulna, and can turn in such a manner as 
 to cross the latter and produce thus the movements 
 of pronation and supination of the hand. Between 
 the fibula and the tibia there is nothing of the kind ; 
 the foot is not capable of any movement which may 
 be compared to that which takes place in the hand 
 during pronation and supination. We may say that 
 it is the same with monkeys, in the class called quad- 
 rumana ; they have not the power of pronation 
 and supination of the foot, which, from this point of 
 view, and also in every other respect, is -properly 
 speaking a foot and not a posterior hand, as their 
 ancient name of quadrumana would lead us to sup- 
 pose. 
 
 By their junction the inferior extremities of the 
 
140 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 tibia and fibula form an articular cavity in which por- 
 tion of the foot is received, namely, the superior bone of 
 the tarsus, the astragalus. This cavity, which has re- 
 ceived the name of the tibio-fibular mortise, comprises 
 three walls, of which two, the superior and internal, 
 are formed by the tibia, and one only, the external, by 
 the fibula; the two lateral walls correspond to the 
 two osseous parts- which form the ankle-bones and 
 which, known in anatomy by the name of malleoli 
 {from malleus, a hammer), are distinguished as the 
 internal or tibial and external or fibular malleoli 
 (Fig. 32, page 126). As the internal ankle-bone' or 
 malleolus (8) is of a form and situation very different 
 to that of the external (11), it is important to note 
 here the configuration of the osseous parts of which 
 the subcutaneous prominences are explained by the 
 presence of one or the other of the ankle-bones. 
 
 The malleoli differ in their level with regard to a 
 horizontal plane, in their situation with regard to a 
 transverse plane, and finally in their form. First, 
 with regard to their horizontal plane, we see at the 
 first glance that the external or fibular malleolus (11) 
 descends much lower than the internal (8) ; this will 
 be found to agree with the fact previously stated 
 (page 126) — that, if the superior extremity of the 
 fibula does not rise to the level of the superior surface 
 of the tibia, on the other hand, this bone descends 
 much lower than the inferior extremity of the tibia. 
 Second, with regard to the transverse plane of the two 
 malleoli, if we remember that the fibula is situated 
 behind and to the outer side of the tibia, and that the 
 
THE LEG. 141 
 
 same position is maintained by the inferior extremities 
 of the two bones, we can easily understand that the 
 external malleolus should be on a plane posterior to 
 the internal ; thus the first appears to be moved back- 
 wards and the second forwards. A transverse line 
 which passes through the centre of the internal 
 malleolus, on the other side of the fibio-tibular ar- 
 ticular space, passes in front of the anterior border of 
 the external malleolus ; and, on the other hand, a 
 transverse line, passing through the centre of the ex- 
 ternal malleolus, passes on the inner side of the pos- 
 terior border of the internal malleolus. Thirdly, with 
 regard to the differences of form, these are the direct 
 result of the shape of the osseous parts. The malleolar 
 portion of the tibia, or internal malleolus, is square, 
 presenting a horizontal inferior border, and two ver- 
 tical— one anterior, the other posterior. On the con- 
 trary, the malleolar portion, or inferior extremity, of 
 the fibula is triangular in shape, or rather like the 
 blade of a spear or the head of a serpent, separated 
 from the shaft of the bone by a slight neck ; it ter- 
 minates below in a pointed extremity, formed by the 
 convergence of the two oblique borders — one anterior, 
 the other posterior. 
 
 Before entering on the study of the articulation of 
 the leg with the foot, or tibio-tarsal joint, we must 
 glance at the whole of the bony structure of the foot, 
 so as to understand the signification and relation of 
 one of the bones {astragalus), which is received into 
 the tibio-fibular joint. 
 
 As the hand is composed of three segments, 
 
142 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 counting from the base to the free extremity — the 
 carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, so also the foot is 
 composed of segments similar to the preceding, count- 
 ing from behind forwards — the tarsus, metatarsus, and 
 toes ; but while in the hand, where the function is 
 principally that of prehension, the fingers are long 
 and the carpus very short, in the foot, which serves as 
 a base of support, the fingers (toes) are comparatively 
 short, while the tarsus, which corresponds to the 
 carpus, possesses considerable development ; it forms, 
 in fact, the half of the length of the foot. In order to 
 understand the form of the foot and its mechanism 
 it is necessary especially to study the bones which 
 compose the tarsus. 
 
 As the carpus in the hand is formed by two rows 
 of bones, so also the tarsus is composed of two 
 groups or two halves — one-half posterior and one 
 anterior. The posterior half comprises only two bones, 
 which are placed one on the other ; therefore one is 
 placed below, resting on the sole by a more or less 
 considerable portion of its inferior surface ; this is the 
 calcaneum (3, Fig. 36 ; 1 to 6, Fig. 38), which is pro- 
 longed backwards to form the projection of the heel ; 
 ' the other is placed above the preceding, and is called 
 the astragalus (1,2, Fig. 36 ; 7, 8, Fig. 38), and 
 alone articulates with the leg by the tibio-fibular joint. 
 The anterior half is divided into two parts — one ex- 
 ternal, composed of only one bone,the cuboid (8,Fig. 36; 
 13, Fig. 38); and an internal, formed by one bone pos- 
 teriorly, the scaphoid (4., Fig. 36), and three small bones 
 anteriorly — the three cuneiform bones (5, 6, 7, Fig. 36). 
 
THE LEG. 
 
 H3 
 
 After this brief sketch of the tarsus, and before en- 
 tering into the details of the configuration of its parts 
 and the whole taken together, 
 having seen the particular place 
 occupied by the astragalus we 
 must study its articulation with 
 the bones of the leg — with the 
 tibia and fibula. With regard to 
 the part of the astragalus which 
 is received into this cavity, it is 
 formed by the posterior three- 
 fourths (1, Fig. 36) of the superior 
 part of the bone, separated from 
 the anterior fourth by a narrow 
 portion called the neck (2, Fig. 36). 
 This articular part is in the form 
 of a pulley, with the antero- 
 posterior groove hardly percep- 
 tible, but the lips are prolonged 
 on the sides of the bone, and 
 come in contact with the corre- 
 sponding parts of the internal and 
 external malleoli. A similar con- 
 figuration of articular surfaces en- 
 ables us to conclude, a priori, that 
 the tibio-astragaloid articulation 
 permits movement only in the 
 antero- posterior plane, . namely, 
 movement forward (flexion of the 
 foot) and backwards (extension). The astragalus 
 is received into the cavity as into a vice, and such an 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 The Bones' of the 
 Foot, seen from the dorsal 
 surface. — i, astragalus (with 
 its head and nec£, 2) ; — 3, 
 calcaneum ; — 4, scaphoid ; 
 — 5, first cuneiform ;' — 6, 
 second cuneiform ; — 7, third 
 cuneiform;— 8, cuboid; — 9, 
 the metatarsus ; — 10, n, the 
 two phlanges of the great 
 toe; — T2, 13, 14; the first, 
 second, and third phlanges 
 of the other toes. 
 
144 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 arrangement prevents any lateral movement, allow- 
 ing only oscillation forwards and backwards in the 
 plane, corresponding to the opening of a vice (the 
 opening limited by the two malleoli). It is true 
 that each one may see in his own foot lateral 
 movements, and especially that by which we raise 
 the internal border of the foot and depress the 
 external, or the reverse, but on a dissected subject 
 we see that the latter movements do not take place 
 between the astragalus and the leg, but between 
 the astragalus and the rest of the foot, as we shall see 
 later on, and that the tibio-astragaloid articulation 
 permits only the movements of flexion and extensioti. 
 Of these two movements that of extension is the most 
 extensive, as it may be continued until the axis of the 
 foot becomes continuous with that of the leg, and here 
 it is arrested by the meeting of the posterior border of 
 the joint with the projections on the posterior border 
 of the astragalus ; but the movement of flexion by 
 which the dorsal surface of the foot is brought near 
 the anterior surface of the leg is very limited, for 
 it is impossible to cause the foot to make with the leg 
 an angle less than forty-five degrees, opening upwards 
 and forwards. The form of the pulley of the astra- 
 galus accounts for this fact, for this pulley is larger 
 in its anterior part than in the posterior (i, Fig. 36) 
 so that it is in the form of a wedge with its base 
 anteriorly. Now, in proportion as flexion is produced, 
 this base, this large part of the wedge, is placed in 
 the joint, and the astralagus is found to be in the 
 same condition as a wedge with a base too large to 
 
THE LEG. 145 
 
 penetrate into a given cavity ; thus the movement 
 is arrested, and tibio-astragaloid articulation is fixed. 
 We cannot carry flexion further- without bursting 
 asunder the tibio-fibular joint, just as we should split 
 a piece of wood by driving violently into it a wedge 
 larger than the cavity to be filled. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 
 Bony structure of the foot. — Union of bones of tarsus ; astragalus and 
 calcaneum (canalis tarsi, or tunnel of the tarsus) ; sub-astragalar • 
 articulations as a whole ; special functions of astragalus in the 
 mechanism of the foot. — The other articulations of tarsus, allowing 
 of only slight gliding movements. — Metatarsus and Metatarsal 
 bones ; importance of fifth metatarsal with regard to form. — The 
 toes and their phalanges. — Skeleton of the foot as a whole, or 
 forms of foot. — Plantar arch. — Proportions of foot : the foot as a 
 common measure of the lower limb and the height. 
 
 We will now examine briefly the bones of the tarsus, 
 especially with regard to the details which mark their 
 articulations. The inferior surface of the astragalus 
 presents two articular facets, separated by a grooye 
 transversely oblique. These two facets correspond 
 with two, similarly situated on the superior surface of 
 the calcaneum, but placed to the inner side of the 
 superior surface, because the astragalus is not placed 
 directly on the calcaneum, but overlaps it a little on 
 the inner side, so that it projects beyond on this side, 
 while the other projects on the external side (Fig. 
 36, page 143). The two facets of the calcaneum are 
 also separated by a groove transversely oblique. It 
 follows, therefore, that when the astragalus is in its 
 place, the groove of the astragalus and the calcaneum 
 meet as a concavity, forming a species of tunnel, which 
 
THE FOOT. 147 
 
 may be seen opening outwards upon the skeleton of 
 the foot (9, Fig. 38), and which is called the cavity of 
 the tarsus, or canalis tarsi. In this cavity are situated 
 the principal ligamentous bands which attach the 
 astragalus to the calcaneum ; therefore these liga- 
 ments, placed between the two calcaneo-astragaloid 
 articulations, of which one is placed before, the other 
 behind, form a sort of pivot, around which the move- 
 ments between the astragalus and the calcaneum take 
 place, and since, as we shall see, the rest of the tarsus 
 and the whole of the foot forms one with the calcaneum ; 
 it is round the calcaneo-astragaloid ligaments as a 
 centre that the movements take place by which, apart 
 from the mobility derived from the articulation of the 
 knee, the point of the foot is turned inwards or out- 
 wards, and also those movements by which the external 
 or internal borders of the foot are elevated. 
 
 The two articulations by which the posterior half 
 of the tarsus is united to the anterior half (Fig. 36, 
 page 143), the calcaneo-cuboid on the outer side, and 
 the calcaneo-scaphoid on the inner, are formed on 
 types entirely different to each other, and such that 
 all the rest of the foot forms one with the calcaneum 
 and moves easily with it upon the astragalus. The 
 articulation on the anterior extremity of the calcaneum 
 with the posterior surface of the cuboid presents an 
 interlocked arrangement little marked, but surrounded 
 by thick and solid ligaments, especially at its inferior 
 part (the inferior calcaneo-cuboid ligament, or great 
 ligament of the sole), so that between the calcaneum 
 and the cuboid only an insensible gliding movement 
 K 2 
 
148 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 takes place, and these two bones form in reality, from 
 a mechanical point of view, one elastic piece. 
 
 On the contrary, the astragalo-scaphoid articulation 
 is formed by the anterior extremity of the astragalus, 
 by the part which is situated in front of the neck 
 (page 143), and has therefore received the name of 
 head (9, Fig. 37), a name it well deserves from its 
 prominent rounded shape. This head of the astra- 
 galus is continuous below by its cartilaginous sur- 
 face with the anterior surface of the anterior articu- 
 lation of the calcaneum with the astragalus. vThere- 
 fore the astragalus forms an intermediate" piece 
 between the leg and the rest of the skeleton of the 
 foot ; and by the calaneo-astragaloid articulations and 
 the astragalo-scaphoid forming a complete articulation 
 which may for shortness be called a sub-astragaloid 
 articulation, the foot possesses the lateral movements 
 by which the point is carried inwards or outwards, 
 and its external border elevated on one edge, and the 
 internal depressed on the reverse. On the other hand, 
 the movements of flexion and extension take place 
 only in the super-astragaloid articulation, the articula- 
 tion, previously explained, of the astragalus with the 
 tibia and fibula. 
 
 The bones of the anterior half of the tarsus, 
 namely, the cuboid on the outer side, the scaphoid with 
 the three cuneiform on the inner side, articulate with 
 each other by facets which are flat, but present rough 
 surfaces towards their inferior or plantar portions in- 
 tended for the interosseous ligaments. It is sufficient 
 to say that in all these articulations a slight gliding 
 
THE FOOT. 149 
 
 movement takes place, not sufficient to give true mo- 
 bility to these bones, but only a certain elasticity to 
 the plantar arch which they form by their arrange- 
 ment. We will point out the peculiarities that are to 
 be noted in each of these bones : in the scaphoid its 
 form is flattened before and behind, and lengthened 
 from within outwards ; in the cuboid is an oblique 
 groove (14, Fig. 38) which it presents on its inferior or 
 plantar surface, which is intended for the tendon of 
 the long peroneal muscle (see below) ; finally, of the 
 three cuneiform which are distinguished, counting from 
 within outwards, as the first, second, and third cunei- 
 form (Fig. 36, page 143), the second (6) is smaller 
 than the rest, therefore it does not descend as far 
 forward as the first (5), and third (7, Fig. 36), between 
 which it is placed so that at its level, the tarso-meta- 
 tarsal line forms a notch opening into the tarsus, 
 into which' the posterior extremity of the second 
 metatarsal is received. 
 
 In front of the tarsus is found the metatarsus cor- 
 responding to the metacarpus, while the toes corres- 
 pond to the fingers of the hand. We have only a 
 few words to say about those portions of" the skele- 
 ton which resemble the corresponding parts of the 
 hand. 
 
 The metatarsal bones, five in number, are long 
 bones composed of a prismatic body and two extremi- 
 ties, one posterior or tarsal shaped exactly like the 
 cuneiform bones, so that they resemble the arrange- 
 ment of the stones of an arch ; the other anterior or 
 digital formed by a head which articulates with the 
 
I50 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 base of the first phalanges. These bones are placed 
 parallel side by side, but that of the great toe is not 
 shorter than its fellows like the metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb.; the great toe does not possess anything like 
 the same amount of .mobility as the thumb in the 
 hand. Finally, with regard to particular details, it is 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Right Foot (internal border). — 1, 2, 3, 4, calcaneum ; — Si G» 7, astragalus ; — 8, 
 posterior calcaneo-astragaloid articulation ; — 9, head and neck of the astragalus ;r— 
 10, 11, scaphoid ; — 12, astragalo-scaphoid articulation ;— 13, 14, first cuneiform ; — 
 15, articulation of the first cuneiform with the scaphoid ; — 16, the articulation of the 
 first cuneiform with the metatarsal bone of the left toe ; — 17, the second cuneiform ; — 
 iS, its articulation with the scaphoid ; — 19, the first metatarsal bone ; — 20, the second 
 metatarsal bone ;— 21, the articulation of the second metatarsal bone with the cunei- 
 form bones ;— 22, sesamoid bone ; — 23, 24, the phalanges of the great toe ; 25, 25, 
 phalanges of the other toes. 
 
 necessary to note in the first metatarsal (19, Fig. 37) its 
 large size, in the second (22, Fig. 38), its greater length, 
 for it passes behind the others (in entering into the 
 notch which corresponds to the second cuneiform), 
 and it also exceeds them in length, so that the second 
 toe is longer than the rest. 
 
 In the fifth we must note the form of its tarsal 
 extremity, which is prolonged behind into a pro- 
 cess (19, Fig. 38) which constitutes the external part 
 of the prominence of the foot; this process of the 
 
THE FOOT. 151 
 
 fifth metatarsal bone give insertion to the short 
 peroneal muscle. 
 
 The phalanges of the toes (Fig. 37 and 38) re- 
 semble in number and arrangement the corresponding 
 bones of the hand, only they are much shorter, 
 especially those of the little toe> the two last of which 
 
 Fig. 38 
 
 Right Foot (external border).— i to6, the calcaneum ; — j, the pulley-like surface 
 of the astragalus ;— 8, the lateral facet of the astragalus for the external malleolus ; 
 — g, the tunnel of the tarsus (canalis tarsi) ; — to, the posterior calcaneo-astragaloid 
 articulations ; — ii, head and neck of the astragalus ;— 12, the scaphoid ; — 13, cuboid ; 
 14, commencement of the groove on the inferior surface of the cuboid (for the tendon, 
 of the long peroneus muscle) ; — 16, third cuneiform ;— 17, second cuneiform ; — 18, 
 the five metatarsal bones with their posterior processes (19) ; 20, 21, 22, 23; fourth, 
 third, second, and first metatarsal bones ; — 24, to 25, phalanges of the toes. . 
 
 are reduced to small osseous nodules, therefore the 
 fifth toe is always much shorter than the rest. The 
 names of the phalanges are the same as in the hand 
 (page 81). 
 
 The whole of the skeleton of the foot forms a true 
 arch which presents two curves or concavities, one 
 antero-posterior, the other transverse. The sole of the 
 foot forms a hollow which extends from the posterior 
 extremity of the calcaneum to the anterior extremity 
 of the metatarsal bones ; but this plantar hollow is 
 much more elevated on the inner side (Fig. 37), while 
 
152 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 it is elliptically arched in the outer (Fig. 38). It is 
 necessary then, in order to understand the general 
 form of the foot, to consider that its back looks 
 upwards and outwards, and the sole downwards and 
 inwards, the external border is thin, and comes almost 
 in contact with the ground, its internal border is thick 
 and so is much elevated from the ground. 
 
 The skeleton of a foot well articulated placed on 
 a hoiizontal surface comes in contact with this plane 
 only by the posterior extremity of the calcaneum 
 (heel), and by the heads of the metatarsal bones 
 (the toes). When the foot is covered with its soft 
 parts these points of contact are scarcely changed ; 
 for, besides the heel and the anterior extremity 
 of the foot, we see that the greater part of the 
 external border (especially in the part which corre^ 
 sponds to the fifth metatarsal) touches the ground but 
 lightly, unless the subject is carrying a heavy load, 
 which, pressing upon the palmar arch, brings its elas- 
 ticity into play and slightly flattens it. We shall see 
 later on that it is the muscles (especially the long 
 peroneal) which act as the cord which bends the bow 
 and maintains the plantar arch. 
 
 As we have already inquired into the relation of 
 the hand and upper limb, we shall now see if the foot 
 can furnish anything relative to the proportions of the 
 body. Here no more than in the hand can we make 
 the foot a common measure for the body in general 
 and for the inferior limb in- particular. It is necessary 
 to confine ourselves to such indications as are exact 
 only in the average subject. Thus it is easy to perceive 
 
THE FOOT. 153 
 
 upon the skeleton that the distance from the superior 
 extremity of the head of the femur to the inferior border 
 of the internal condyle is equal to two feet ; but this 
 has no practical value — it cannot be used on the living 
 body, as it is difficult to recognise the level of the su- 
 perior part of the head of the femur. If, instead of the 
 head of this bone, we take the superior border of the 
 great trochanter (a part easily felt beneath the skin), 
 we find that the length from the superior border of the 
 great trochanter to the inferior border of the external 
 condyle scarcely ever measures two feet ; in fact, the 
 great trochanter is upon a considerably lower level 
 than the head of the femur. 
 
 The leg, including the thickness of the foot, does 
 not contain the length of the foot an even number of 
 times ; in fact the distance from the inferior border of 
 the internal condyle of the femur to the ground (or 
 the sole of the foot) is not equal to twice the length of 
 the foot ; "but it is interesting to observe in general 
 that the length of the leg, plus the thickness of the 
 foot, is equal to the distance from the great trochanter 
 to the inferior border of the external condyle ; therefore 
 the middle of the lower limb (starting from the great 
 trochanter) corresponds exactly to the line of the 
 knee. 
 
 When we compare the length of the foot with the 
 leg, beginning from below upwards, we find a regular 
 proportion, and one of practical interest — viz., that 
 from the ground to the middle of the patella usually 
 measures twice the length of the foot. 
 
 As a common measure of the height of the body, 
 
154 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the foot does not give us a result that can be expressed 
 by an even number. From the numerous researches- 
 of Leger on this question, the length of the foot is 
 generally contained 6J times in the height. However, 
 this number presents an interesting fact when we 
 express this proportion by taking the third part of the 
 foot for a unit ; 6£ feet forming nineteen thirds of 
 the foot, we see that the height of the body contains 
 nineteen thirds of the foot. Now the number 19 is 
 precisely the same that, in the Egyptian canon, 
 according to Charles Blanc, expresses the proportion 
 that the middle finger bears to the height. 
 
 With regard to the foot itself, we will only say 
 that the tarso-metatarsal line offers, on the skeleton, 
 a simple means of dividing the foot. This line is 
 oblique from before front to back and from within 
 outwards ; therefore its internal extremity at the base 
 of the first metatarsal bone divides the foot into an 
 anterior and posterior half, while its external ex- 
 tremity, at the base of the fifth metatarsal (process) 
 divides it into a posterior and two anterior thirds 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 The bony structure of the head; division into skull and face. Study 
 of the vault, or skull-cap. Occipital bone : its surface. — Parietal 
 bone (parietal eminence and curved temporal line). — Frontal bone 
 (frontal prominences, superciliary arches : orbital arches and 
 processes). — Temporal bone : mastoid process of temporal ; its 
 surface ; its zygomatic process. — Sutures of the bones of the vault, 
 of skull: their articulation ; its characteristic aspect; sagittal suture; 
 lambdoid suture ; sphenoidal sutures. — General form of skull : 
 long heads ; square heads. — Cephalic indices : dolichocephalic, 
 brachycephalic, and mesaticephalic skulls. 
 
 The skeleton of the head is formed of two parts 
 intimately united to each other : one superior and 
 posterior, formed of flat bones, simple in form, and 
 called the cranium or skull, containing the encephalon 
 (the cerebrum and cerebellum), the organs of intelli- 
 gence and volition ; and an anterior and inferior part, 
 formed of numerous bones, very complex in shape, 
 called the bony structure of the face, surrounding 
 numerous cavities which lodge the principal organs of 
 sense and the apparatus of mastication. 
 
 The skull. — The cranium is ovoid in form with 
 its greater diameter antero-posterior ; the walls which 
 form it can be distinguished as a base, which we need 
 not study here, and skull-cap (lateral and .superior 
 walls) which we will now examine. The bones which 
 
1 5 6 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 enter into the structure of this skull-cap, or vault of 
 the skull, are the occipital behind, the frontal in- front, 
 the two parietal above, and the temporal on the sides. 
 The occipital (3, Fig. 39) forms the whole posterior 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 The Skull (lateral surface). — i, frontal bone ; — 2, parietal ; — 3, occipital ; — 4, 
 temporal ; — 5, the great wing of the sphenoid (see page 162) ; — 6, coronal suture ; — 
 7, lambdoid suture ; — 8, 9, parieto-temporal suture ; — 10, spheno-parietal suture ; — 
 n, spheno-temporal suture ; — 12, fronto-sphenoidal suture ; — 13, curved line limiting 
 the. temporal fossa; — 14, 15, 16, malar bone; — 17, 18, the superior maxillary bone, 
 with the infra-orbital foramen (19) ;— 20, 21, 22, the bones proper of the nose ;— 23, 
 the lachrymal groove ;— 24, the nasal eminence ; — 25, the inferior maxillary bone ;— 
 26, the mental foramen ; — 27, the angle of the jaw ; — 29, 31, temporal ; — 32, styloid 
 process : — 33, mastoid process. 
 
 part of the base and vault of th^ skull. We distin- 
 guish in it two portions : ist, an inferior part, which 
 is horizontal, pierced by a large foramen {occipital 
 foramen), through which the cavity of the cranium 
 communicates with that of the vertebral canal. In 
 
THE HEAD. 
 
 157 
 
 front of this foramen is the basilar process of the 
 occipital ; upon each side are the condyles by which 
 the head articulates with the vertebral column — 
 namely, with the lateral masses of ihe atlas (page 23). 
 
 Frontal Bone (anterior surface).— i, the frontal prominences ;— 2, 2, super. 
 ciliary ridges ; — 3, nasal eminences ; — 4, 4, supra orbital notches ;— 5, 5 6, 6, internal 
 and external orbital processes ; — 7, 7, nasal notches ;— 8, nasal spine ;— 9, 9, fossa or 
 arches of the orbits ;— n, the superior border^ — 12, the lateral parts of the border. 
 
 2nd, a posterior part (3, Fig. 39) called the sheli- 
 shaped portion of the occipital, triangular in form, with 
 the apex directed upwards. The borders of this shell 
 are hollowed out into numerous and irregular denticu- 
 lations, which work in with similar denticulations on 
 the posterior border of the parietal bones (7, Fig. 39) ; 
 
158 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the external or posterior surface of this shell is crossed 
 towards its central part by a semicircular crest, which 
 gives insertion to the superficial muscles of the neck 
 (see trapezius and sterno-mastoid), arid of which the 
 centre forms a prominence called the external occipital 
 protuberance. The parietal bones (2 and 1 3, Fig. 39) 
 are placed in front of the shell of the occipital, one on 
 each side of the middle line. Quadrilateral in shape, 
 each parietal presents four denticulated borders, of 
 which the superior articulates with the parietal of the 
 opposite side, the posterior with the occipital (7, Fig. 
 39), the anterior with the frontal (6), the inferior, which 
 is concave (8, Fig. 39), with the temporal. The parietal 
 presents on its external surface — 1st, at its centre a 
 projection called the parietal eminence, better marked 
 in young subjects than in the adult, representing the 
 place where' the ossification of the bone commences in 
 the young child ; 2nd, below this prominence a curved 
 line, slightly rough (13, Fig. 39), which limits the tem- 
 poral fossa by indicating the insertions of the temporal 
 muscle — whence its name, the curved temporal line. 
 
 The frontal (1, Fig. 39), like the occipital, presents 
 a part which belongs to the base of the skull and 
 to the face (9, 9, Fig. 40), for it forms the vault of the 
 orbit (see below), and a part called the shell, which 
 forms the anterior and superior wall of the cranium. 
 This shell has a rounded superior border (n, Fig. 40) 
 which articulates by its denticulation with the parietal 
 bones (6, Fig. 39) ; beginning from this border and 
 descending towards the face we find parts important 
 with regard to form, and which are : — I, the frontal 
 
THE HEAD. 159 
 
 prominences (i, I, Fig. 40) better marked in young 
 subjects and in females than in the adult male ; 2, the 
 superciliary prominences or arches (2, 2, Fig. 40) which 
 are directed obliquely upwards and outwards, these 
 prominences being, on the other hand, better marked 
 in the adult, and owing their prominence to the fact that 
 the thickness of the frontal is hollowed out at their 
 level into cavities called the frontal sinuses, which 
 become more developed as the subject advances in 
 a g e > 3> finally, the orbital arches (4, 4, Fig. 40) which 
 form the superior border of the orbit. Curved with 
 the concavity downwards, each of these orbital arches 
 forms on the outer side an external orbital process (6, 6, 
 Fig. 40), which articulates with the malar or cheek- 
 bone (15, Fig. 39), and on the inner side an internal 
 orbital process (5, 5, Fig. 40) which, with its fellow of 
 the opposite side, bounds a median part called the 
 nasal notch (7, Fig. 40) into which are received the 
 bones of the nose (22, Fig. 39), and the ascending 
 process of the maxillary bone (see page 166). Again, 
 each arch presents, towards its internal part, a small 
 notch called the supra orbital notch (Fig. 40). 
 
 The temporal bones, one on each side of the skull 
 (11,4, and 31, Fig. 39), are very complex in shape, but 
 we shall study here only one portion. Each temporal 
 is composed of two parts, one belonging to the base, 
 and another belonging to the lateral wall of the skull ; 
 the part belonging to the base forming a pyramidal 
 mass of bony substance very hard, called the petrous 
 bone, which contains the delicate organs of the internal 
 ear, while the part belonging to the lateral wall of the 
 
l6o ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 skull (4, Fig. 39), forms an irregular osseous disc resting 
 upon the base of the petrous portion of the bone. An 
 orifice, the auditory canal which leads into the petrous 
 portion, is found towards its centre (31, Fig. 39). 
 Taking this orifice of the auditory canal as a centre, 
 we find on the external surface of the temporal — 1, 
 behind the auditory canal the mastoid portion of the 
 temporal (33, Fig. 39), which is prolonged downwards 
 in a cone in the shape of a nipple (/«ictto?, a nipple) 
 called the mastoid process ; 2, above the auditory canal 
 the shell of the temporal (4, Fig, 39), a broad portion, 
 with rounded borders articulating with the inferior 
 border of the parietal (8, Fig. 39). In front is a process 
 (20, Fig. 41) which is given off and directed horizon- 
 tally towards the face and joins the malar bone (16, 
 Fig. 39), this process, 'connecting the skull with the 
 face, is called the zygomatic process (tyyos, a yoke 
 which joins), and forms with the corresponding part 
 of the malar bone the zygomatic arch. The zygomatic 
 process rises from the temporal by two roots (Fig. 
 39), one longitudinal, antero-posteriorly passing above 
 the orifice bf the external auditory canal, the other 
 transverse, situated at the base of the skull, and 
 limiting in front of the auditory canal, a cavity into 
 which is received the condyle of . the lower jaw. 
 Finally, below the auditory canal, the temporal gives 
 origin to a styloid process (32, Fig. 39), long and 
 slender with the summit very sharp, giving insertion 
 to some small muscles of the neck (see supra-hyoid 
 muscle.) 
 
 The' whole of the bones that we have taken in 
 
THE HEAD. l6l 
 
 review articulate by denticulated borders, and the 
 name .of sutures is' given to these lines of union. As 
 the skull must be studied by the artist, not only with 
 regard to its external forms, but also as an object which 
 figures frequently as an accessory in still life composi- 
 tions, and as the representation of these sutures con- 
 tributes to give to the skull its exact physiognomy, 
 we must not leave the subject without carefully 
 pointing them out. It is necessary for this purpose 
 to consider the skull from its upper and its lateral 
 surface. 
 
 Examined as to its upper surface, the skull pre- 
 sents a suture in the middle line, antero-posterior and 
 inter-parietal, called the sagittal suture. Behind, on 
 a level with the superior angle of the shell of the 
 occipital (7, Fig. 39), this median suture bifurcates 
 and becomes continuous with the two occipito-parietal 
 sutures, and we give to the whole the name of the 
 lambdoid suture, because it resembles the form of a 
 Greek lambda (more exactly that of V reversed, y\). 
 In front, the inter-parietal suture (or sagittal) is met 
 by the two parieto-frontal sutures (6, Fig. 39) which 
 form a transverse line, to which has been given the 
 name of the coronal suture. 
 
 On examining the skull on one of its lateral 
 surfaces, we see that the sutures form here a 
 more complex design, because, besides the bones 
 already described, there is a new osseous plate placed 
 at the level of the temporal fossa (5, 10, 11, 12, Fig. 39) 
 which takes part in the construction of the lateral 
 wall of the skull. This quadrilateral plate belongs to 
 L 
 
1 62 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the sphenoid, a very complex bone situated at the base 
 of the skull, into which it is fitted like a wedge {o-fyqv, 
 a wedge) extending laterally in the form of a wing ; 
 it is the great wing of the sphenoid which is placed in 
 the lateral surface of the skull, in front of the shell of 
 the temporal, and below that of the frontal. We see 
 then, following from above downwards, the coronal 
 suture (6, Fig. 39) ; this suture bifurcates below into an 
 anterior suture called the spheno-frontal {12), arid a pos- 
 terior (10) called the spheno-parietal. This last, which is 
 very short, divides also at its inferior extremity into 
 an inferior suture vertical, called the spheno-temporal 
 (11), and a superior, curved, called the temporo-parietal 
 (8), which bounds the shell of the temporal and pro- 
 ceeds backwards to the level of the mastoid portion 
 of this bone, to join the inferior extremity of the 
 lambdoid or occipito-parietal suture. 
 
 We have said that the general form of the skull is 
 that of an ovoid with its greater extremity posterior, 
 but it is a common observation that this ovoid may 
 present, in different subjects, very different propor- 
 tions — e.g., certain skulls show a great predominance 
 of length in the antero-posterior diameter over that 
 of the transverse, and it is then commonly said that 
 the skull is long ; it is said, on the -contrary, that 
 the skull is square when the transverse diameter 
 almost equals the antero-posterior. Anthropologists 
 have endeavoured to measure exactly the propor- 
 tion between the transverse and antero-posterior 
 diameters of the skull, and they have described it by 
 the name 01 the cephalic index. As we have previously 
 
THE HEAD. 163 
 
 explained respecting the proportion of the arm and 
 fore-arm {brachial index, page 89), we understand 
 by the name of index the number which indicates the 
 proportion between a short and a greater length, the 
 latter being considered as equal to 100 — that is to say, 
 the figures obtained by direct measurement being 
 reduced to a centesimal proportion. We find that in 
 certain skulls -the transverse diameter is relatively 
 very short, seeing that it is represented by 75 ; the 
 antero-posterior being 100, we say that the cephalic 
 index of these skulls is 75, and we give to them the 
 name of dolichocephalic (SoXt^o?, lengthened ; Ke$a\ri, 
 head). Others present a transverse diameter which 
 approaches the antero-posterior, since it is represented 
 by 83 or 84, the antero-posterior being 100. This 
 cephalic index of 83 is that of heads called brachy- 
 cephalic (jS/ja^v?, short). Between these two types are 
 the heads of average^ or intermediate form called 
 mesaticephalic, and of which the cephalic index is from 
 yj to 80. The . importance of dolichocephalic and 
 brachycephalic types with regard to race has been 
 exaggerated, a Swedish anatomist, Retzens, having 
 advanced the theory that the aboriginal races of 
 Europe are brachycephalic, while the races coming 
 . afterwards are dolichocephalic ; but the fact re- 
 cently shown that the Basques are dolichoce- 
 phalic, and that dolichocephalic skulls have been 
 found among the fossil skulls of ancient Europe has 
 destroyed the value of this theory. We can only say 
 with regard to the cephalic index, considered as re- 
 lating to the different races, that the dolichocephalic 
 L 2 
 
1 64 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 type is best marked in the Australians, Hottentots, 
 Caffres, Negroes, and Nubians ; the brachycephalic 
 in the Indo-Chinese, Lapps, and people of Auvergnc ; 
 and that the Norman and, in general, the Parisian 
 skulls (from the twelfth to the nineteenth century) 
 present principally the mesaticephalic type. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE FACE. 
 
 The bony structure of the ace. — Orbital cavities : their margins ; 
 their depth. — Nasal fossae (anterior orifice). — Prominence of the 
 cheek (malar bone and its branches). — Superior maxillary. — Infe- 
 rior maxillary body, vertical branch (sigmoid notch, coronoid pro- 
 cess, and condyle) : lower jaw at various ages. — The teeth : their 
 parts ; their names (incisors, canines, molars) ; their number ; 
 relative dimensions of incisors. — Articulation of the lower jaw. — 
 The face and skull as a whole with regard to form. — Facial angle 
 of Camper : its measure ; its proper value according to race ; its 
 exaggeration in the antique heads. — The head as a common mea- 
 sure : law of eight heads ; variations according to the height of the 
 individual; point which corresponds to the middle of the body. 
 
 THE Face. — Instead of describing the. bones of the 
 face separately we will group them together around 
 the cavities which they circumscribe and the promi- 
 nences which they form ; therefore we will study 
 successively the cavity of the orbit, the orifice of the 
 nasal fossa, the prominence of the cheek-bone, and, 
 lastly, the region of the mouth, along with which we 
 will describe the teeth, the lower jaw, and its articu- 
 lation with the base of the skull. 
 
 The orbits. — The orbits are two cavities situated 
 symmetrically one on each side of the upper portion 
 of the-face below the forehead. Each of these cavities 
 is formed like a pyramid with four faces, of which the 
 
i66 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 summit penetrates from before backwards towards the 
 cranial cavity, and of which the base, turned forwards, 
 forms the orbital opening. This opening, or orbital 
 
 brim, is quadrilateral 
 (Fig. 41), limited by an 
 internal border (7) and 
 an external border, both 
 almost vertical, by a 
 superior border (3) and 
 an inferior border, both 
 oblique, from above 
 downwards and from 
 within outwards. 
 
 The superior border 
 is formed by the orbital 
 arch of the frontal bone 
 (3, Fig. 41) previously 
 described ; the inferior 
 border is formed by the 
 superior maxillary bone, 
 and a little below its 
 centre a hole, called the 
 infra-orbital foramen, is 
 perceived (9, Fig. 41), 
 which is placed almost 
 in the same vertical 
 line as the supra-orbital 
 notch previously de- 
 scribed (page 159). The internal border is formed 
 by the junction of the internal orbital process of the 
 frontal with the ascending process of the superior 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 The bony structure of the Face. — 
 i, the frontal bone ; — 2,' the nasal eminence ; 
 — 3, supra-orbital notch; — 4, the optic fora- 
 men ; — 5, the sphenoidal fissure ; — 6, the 
 spheno-maxillarynssure ; — j, the lachrymal 
 groove ; — 8, the partition and opening of the 
 nasal fossse ; — 9, the infra-orbital foramen ; 
 —10, the malar bone ; — 11, the symphysis 
 of the chin ; — 12, the mental foramen ; — 13, 
 the ascending ramus of the lower jaw ; — 14, 
 — the parietal bone ; — 15, the coronal su- 
 ture ; — 16, the temporal bone ; — 17, the tem- 
 poroparietal sature ; — 18, the great wing of 
 the sphenoid ; — 19, the origin of the line 
 which bounds the temporal fossa ; — 20, the 
 zygomatic arch; — 21, the mastoid process. 
 
THE FACE. 167 
 
 maxillary (Figs. 39 and 41). At its inferior part this 
 border presents a depression called the lachrymal 
 groove (7, Fig. 41), which is the commencement of a 
 canal connecting the orbjt with the corresponding 
 nasal fossa. Finally, the external border is formed 
 by the junction of the external orbital process of 
 the frontal with the superior process of the malar 
 bone, or bone of the cheek (10, Fig. 41; 14 and 15, 
 
 Fig. 39)- 
 
 The cavity of the orbit has for its walls the osseous 
 plates belonging to the frontal (superior wall) and to 
 the several bones of the face we have previously men- 
 tioned when describing the orbital opening. We need 
 not enter here into the description of these surfaces 
 and of the several special bones which compose them. 
 We shall only say that the internal wall is directed 
 from before backwards, while the external is oblique, 
 from behind forwards and from without inwards. We 
 note, lastly, at the deepest part (towards the sum- 
 mit) of the cavity, several apertures, by which the 
 orbit communicates with the deep cavities, which 
 appear as dark spots ; first, a circular orifice called the 
 optic foramen (4, Fig. 41) ; then, on the outer side of 
 these, two fissures directed outwards, one obliquely 
 upwards (sphenoidal fissttre, 5, Fig. 41), and the other 
 obliquely downwards (spheno - maxillary fissure, 6, 
 Fig. 41). 
 
 The orifice of the nasal fossce (8, Fig. 41) is situated 
 in the middle of the face below the level of the orbits. 
 It is in the form- of a heart inverted (with its base 
 turned downwards); it is bounded below by the two 
 
1 68 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 superior maxillary bones which unite in the middle 
 line, upon the sides by the same bones, and above by 
 two small bones placed on each side . of the median 
 line the nasal bones (Fig. 39, page 156) which articu- 
 late above with the frontal and on each side with the 
 ascending process of the corresponding maxillary. 
 
 Below, and to the outer side of the orbit, is the 
 prominence of the cheek formed by the malar bone 
 (10, Fig 41). This bone is formed like a star with 
 four branches — the superior branch (15, Fig. 39) joins 
 the external orbital process ofthe frontal ; the anterior 
 branch (17, Fig. 39), or internal, forms with the superior 
 maxillary, the inferior boundary of the orbit; the 
 external branch (16, Fig. 39) or posterior, joins the 
 zygomatic process of the temporal to form the zygo- 
 matic arch ; the inferior branch is reduced to a pro- 
 minent margin which joins with the body of the bone 
 to form the prominence of the cheek. 
 
 There remain now only two bones to examine on 
 the skeleton of the face, namely, the two bones which 
 bound the cavity of the mouth and' support the teeth : 
 these are the superior and inferior maxillary or jaw- 
 bones. The superior maxillary (18, Fig. 39) has been 
 in a great measure described since we have noted 
 its principal borders and its ascending process with 
 respect to the orbital and nasal openings. All that 
 remain to be noticed are: 1, the slightly hollowed 
 form of its anterior surface (Fig. 41) ; 2, its inferior or 
 alveolar border, so named because it presents a series 
 of cavities intended to lodge the roots of the upper 
 teeth. The presence of these cavities is marked on 
 
THE FACE. 
 
 169 
 
 the anterior surface of the alveolar border by a series 
 of corresponding prominences separated by depres- 
 sions corresponding to the intervals of the alveoli. 
 
 The inferior maxillary or jaw-bone (Fig. 42) de- 
 serves a longer consideration than the other bones of 
 the face, for it takes so direct a part in the external 
 form that we may 
 say that all the de- 
 tails of its shape are 
 marked in the con- 
 figuration of the chin 
 and the lower parts 
 of the cheeks. It is 
 originally composed 
 of two distinct halves, 
 one right and one 
 left, which are joined 
 together in early life 
 in the median line 
 forming the sym- 
 physis of the chin 
 (11, Fig. 41). It is sufficient to describe one of these 
 halves, such as we see it when looking at a skull in 
 profile (Fig. 39). 
 
 We see that this half is formed of two strong 
 osseous plates called the branches of the jaw-bone, 
 one horizontal called the body (1, Fig. 42), the other 
 vertical, both joined together at an angle more or less 
 approaching a right angle, of which the prominence 
 directed downwards and backwards is called the angle 
 of the jaw (27, Fig. 39, and 8, Fig. 42). 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 The Inferior Maxillary Bone (side view). — 
 i, the body of the inferior maxillary bone and its 
 external oblique line ; — 2, the ascending ramus ; 
 — 3, the symphysis of the chin ; —4, the mental 
 foramen ; — 8, the angle of the jaw,; — 10, coronoid 
 process ; — 11, the condyle ; — 12, sigmoid notch. 
 c t canine tooth ; — 5, bicuspid ; — m y molar. 
 
170 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The vertical branch consists of a flat external sur- 
 face (2, Fig. 42), a. thick posterior border and a thin 
 anterior border which is continuous below with the 
 external surface of the horizontal branch or body in 
 the form of a slightly prominent line called the ex- 
 ternal oblique line (i, Fig. 42), and finally, a superior 
 border which is divided by a deep notch {sigmoid 
 notch 12, Fig. 42) into two very prominent parts. The 
 posterior prominence is thick and terminates by an 
 articular head or condyle of the jaw (11, Fig. 42), form- 
 ing the temporo-maxillary articulation, the anterior 
 border is thinner in the form of a triangular plate, it 
 bears the name of the coronoid process (10, Fig. 42), 
 and gives insertion to the temporal muscle. 
 
 The horizontal branch or body of the jaw extends 
 from the angle of the jaw to the symphysis of the chin 
 (3, Fig. 42) ; it has an external surface on which we 
 remark an orifice (12, Fig. 41, and 4, Fig. 42) called 
 the mental foramen, which is placed in the same 
 vertical line as the supra-orbital notch and the infra- 
 orbital foramen. Its inferior border is sometimes 
 slightly undulated, its superior border is alveolar — 
 presenting the prominences and depressions corres- 
 ponding to the alveoli of the teeth and their in- 
 terstices. 
 
 The lower jaw changes its characters according to 
 age : in the infant, the angle is very obtuse and but 
 slightly prominent ; in the adult it becomes almost 
 a right angle ; in the aged, the form of the jaw is 
 changed by the loss of the teeth and by the absorp- 
 tion of the alveolar border, and consequently a loss 
 
THE FACE. 171 
 
 of height in the horizontal branch. Therefore, in order 
 to bring the lower jaw in contact with the upper 
 the lower jaw has to move strongly forwards and 
 upwards, whence a characteristic prominence of the 
 symphysis of the chin which seems to project up- 
 wards and forwards to meet the prominence of the 
 nose in the aged. 
 
 The teeth which furnish each of the maxillary 
 bones are thirty-two in number in the adult — eight in 
 each lateral half of each maxillary. We divide the 
 teeth into a part fixed in the alveolar cavity, and 
 called the root, and a free part called the crown. The 
 form of the crown permits the division of the teeth 
 into four distinct classes, which in each half of the 
 jaw are arranged in the following manner, beginning 
 from the median line : — Two incisors (I, Fig. 42), one 
 canine (c, Fig. 42), two bicuspids (b, Fig. 42), and three 
 molars (m, Fig. 42) — total, eight. Situated at the most 
 external and posterior portion of the dental arch, the 
 molars and bicuspids are hidden by the cheeks, and 
 we will only mention that they are characterised by 
 a crown formed of numerous tubercles (four for the 
 molars, two for the bicuspids) . On the other hand, the 
 canines and the incisors are easily seen when the lips 
 are separated. The canines are characterised by a 
 conical crown with a sharp extremity, which presents 
 great development in the carnivora — e.g., in the dog 
 (whence the name of canines). The incisors present a 
 crown flattened from before backwards, rectangular in 
 form (square), with a free border cut off like a chisel. 
 Their relative volume is subject to a law so constant 
 
172 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 that it should be here stated. The. two largest incisors 
 are the median superior, next in order of decrease the 
 lateral superior, then the lateral inferior, and finally 
 the median inferior, which are the smallest. 
 
 The articulation of the jaw-bone with the skull, or 
 temporo*maxillary articulation^ formed by the condyle 
 of the jaw (1 1, Fig. 42, and 2Q,Fig. 39), which is secured 
 in the cavity which the temporal presents in front 
 of the auditory canal and behind the transverse root 
 of the zygomatic process (page 160). This glenoid 
 cavity of the temporal is lined with cartilage, together 
 with the transverse root in question, which in certain 
 moments is in contact with the condyle of the jaw. 
 This is the fibrous capsule which surrounds the articu- 
 lation, and it is strengthened on the outer side by an 
 external lateral ligament, which proceeds- obliquely 
 from the point of junction of the two roots of the 
 zygomatic process downwards and backwards to be- 
 come attached to the neck of the condyle of the jaw. 
 Therefore, when the jaw is depressed by a movement 
 of rotation of the maxillary condyle upon its axis, 
 this external lateral ligament is made tense, and draws 
 the condyle forward, causing it to leave. the glenoid 
 cavity and come in contact with the transverse root 
 of the zygomatic process. There is, then) when the 
 mouth is widely opened (the lower jaw being greatly 
 depressed), a displacement of the condyle of the jaw 
 forwards, which is easily seen in very thin subjects, 
 and which should be noted here with its own particular 
 mechanism. 
 
 The face, as a whole, presents a special interest 
 
THE FACE. 
 
 173 
 
 when we take various individuals and races and com- 
 pare its development with that of the skull. In 
 general, the more prominent the skeleton of the face 
 the less the skull (the forehead) is developed. This 
 is the idea of Camper, a Dutch artist about the middle 
 of the eighteenth century. 
 
 , Fie. 43. 
 
 The Measurement of the Facial Angle (goniometer applied to a skull) — 
 i, the inferior horizontal plane of the goniometer ;— 2, movable piece with a pin 
 introduced into the auditoiy meatus 5-4, graduated circle; — 5, the oblique plane 
 attached below by a hinge to the horizontal ;— 6, the rack for placing the bar (7) 
 on the prominent part of the forehead. 
 
 Camper proposed to measure the relative develop- 
 ment of the skull and face by the angle which the 
 geometrical plane of the profile of the face makes with 
 that of the anterior part of the skull. This facial angle 
 has always been the subject of much study on the 
 part of anatomists and anthropologists, who have 
 modified and perfected the process of measurement. 
 It will be sufficient here to show the idea that Camper 
 had, and that he made it a study, as he said, to furnish 
 
174 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 artists with a means of giving character to the different 
 physiognomies of men and animals. This angle is 
 determined by two planes (upon a head seen in profile, 
 by two lines) : one, which we may call horizontal, pro- 
 ceeds from the external auditory canal to the nasal 
 spine, and is situated at the inferior border of the 
 orifice of the nasal fossa (i, Fig. 43, and a, b, Fig. 44) ; 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 The Facial Angle of a skull of the Caucasian race (after Camper). — a b 
 and c d, the lines which mark this angle (see the text) ;— i, the anditory foramen ; 
 — 2, nasal spine ; — 3, the most prominent part of the forehead. 
 
 the other, more or less oblique from below upwards 
 and backwards, is at a tangent below to the promi- 
 nence of the incisor teeth, and above to the most 
 prominent part of the forehead (c, d, Fig. 44). 
 Figure 43 gives an idea of the apparatus with which 
 we measure the facial angle at the present day. It 
 represents the facial goniometer of Jacquart. The 
 mode of measurement here differs from that employed 
 by Camper, in that the inferior or horizontal plane 
 
THE FACE. 
 
 175 
 
 passes forward not by the nasal spine, but by the 
 prominence of the incisors. 
 
 Figures 44 and 45, which are reproduced from 
 those of Camper, show on the one hand that the 
 facial angle is never equal to a right-angle, but that 
 it approaches it in the best types of the white race. 
 The ancients sought by an exaggeration to idealise 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 -The Facial' Angle of a Negro (after Camper). The figures are the, same as in 
 the preceding. 
 
 the profile of the human face, and by increasing 
 the fulness of the forehead they have given to 
 heads of gods and heroes a facial angle larger than 
 ninety degrees _ (Fig. 46). These figures show, also, 
 the decrease of the facial angle in proportion as we 
 pass from the white to the yellow and black races : — ■ 
 " The angle which the facial line or characteristic line 
 of the visage makes," said Camper, "varies from seventy 
 to eighty degrees in the human species. All who raise 
 it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation of 
 the antique) ; all who bring it lower fall into the like- 
 
176 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 ness of the monkeys. If I cause the facial line to fall 
 in front I have an antique head ; if I incline it back- 
 wards I have the head of a negro ; if I cause it to 
 incline still further I have the head of a monkey; 
 inclined still more >I have that of a dog, and, lastly, 
 that of a goose." * The figures which explain these 
 
 ..J> 
 
 Fig. 46 
 The Facial Angle of an Antique Head (Apollo Belvedere)— (Cam pel). 
 
 ideas are as follows : — The facial angle of Camper 
 averages 80 degrees in the Caucasian race ; 75 degrees 
 in the yellow, or Mongol ; 60 to 70 degrees in the 
 Negro ; 3 1 degrees in the great monkeys (gorilla) ; 
 lastly, 25 degrees in the head of a Newfoundland dog. 
 According as we have studied the various seg- 
 ments of the limbs, we have seen that some of them 
 
 * Pierre Camper. "Dissertations sur les differences rulles que 
 presentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de differents pays et de 
 different ages." (CEuvres posthumes. Paris, 1786.) 
 
THE FACE. 
 
 177 
 
 have been chosen, according to the various systems, 
 to serve as a common measure for these limbs, and for 
 the entire body. Thus we have spoken of the canons 
 having for a unit the hand (contained about ten times 
 in the height of the body), the foot (contained a little 
 more than six times in the total height), the middle 
 finger (contained nineteen times), &c, &c. It is true, 
 also, that the head — i.e., the vertical distance from its 
 summit to the base of the 
 chin — should have been 
 taken also as a common 
 measure ; and this has been 
 done long ago, since Vitru- 
 vius, speaking of the pro- 
 portions of the human body ; 
 states this fact — that the 
 height of the head should 
 be the eighth part of the 
 whole body. Leonardo da Vinci, Diirer, and J. 
 Cousin, have followed the rule of the Latin author ; 
 and the law which makes the head the eighth of the 
 total height, has for a long time past become classic 
 in all the schools. The choice of the head as a unit 
 seems sufficiently justified by the two facts that on 
 the one hand, in every representation of the human 
 body, the head is always visible, and forms a part 
 distinct from the rest of the body, and that, admitting 
 that it makes the eighth part of the height, this 
 number is particularly convenient, not being too high ; 
 and, moreover, even that is to say divisible by two 
 (and by four). In thig respect it offers, for example, 
 M 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 The Facial Angle of a Monkey. 
 (Camper). 
 
178 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 a great advantage over that of nineteen, which repre- 
 sents the proportion of the middle finger to the height. 
 
 Gerdy, who has adopted the law of eight heads, 
 distributes them thus in the height of the body : the 
 first division comprises the head itself; the second 
 extends from the chin to the level of the nipples ; the 
 third from the nipples to the umbilicus ; the fourth 
 from the umbilicus to the os pubis ; the fifth from the 
 last point to the middle of the thigh ; the sixth from the 
 thigh to below the knee ; the seventh from below the 
 knee to the middle of the leg ; and, lastly, the eighth, 
 from the middle of the leg to the sole of the foot. 
 
 Before we examine the value of this law, we must 
 remember that the head itself has been divided into 
 four parts, each equal to the length of the nose : the 
 first part proceeds from the top of the head to the 
 beginning of the hair ; the second from the beginning 
 of the hair almost to the root of the nose ; the third 
 from the root almost to the base of the nose ; and the 
 fourth from the base of the nose to the chin. 
 
 Now, if we submit to experiment the system of the 
 law of eight heads, we see that it is accurate only in 
 subjects of great height, for those who attain seventy- 
 four inches and over ; below seventy-two inches the 
 subjects do not measure more than seven and a half, 
 or only seven times the height of their head. In fact, 
 the height of the head is a quantity which varies very 
 little according to the 'subject ; it is on the average, 
 as an absolute value, from 8§ to 9 inches, and the 
 variations which this value may present do not vary 
 lower than 8£ inches, nor rise above 9 inches. A 
 
THE FACE. 179 
 
 subject who measures eight heads is very tall (9x8 = 72, 
 equal, or superior, to 72 inches) ; and a subject who 
 only measures seven heads is of short stature(8f xy = 6i, 
 equal, or more frequently exceeding, 61 inches). 
 
 This difference in the number of heads that the 
 body measures in relation to the absolute height of 
 subjects seems more interesting than the narrow 
 theory which would assign strictly the length of 
 eight heads to each human figure. This absolute 
 system does not agree with that which observation 
 proves correct." Besides, it would be an error to 
 suppose that the ancient sculptors would be slaves to 
 such a system of proportions, since we find in their 
 works precisely the same variations that we do in 
 nature. The Gladiator, it is true, measures eight 
 heads ; but at the first glance at this chef d'ceuvre, we 
 have the impression of a subject of great stature — of a 
 man tall and spare. The Apollo measures only 7§ 
 heads, the Laocoon the same, and the Antinous only 7 J. 
 
 These several variations are owing almost solely 
 to the greater or lesser length of the lower limbs. 
 Whether the subject be tall or short, the trunk (with 
 the head and neck) varies comparatively little ; but 
 the thighs and legs make the differences of length. 
 Regarding the diversity that we meet with in this 
 question, we see that Gerdy himself has not been 
 exact in indicating the points where the lengths of the 
 head begin and terminate which divide the lower 
 limb, the middle of the thigh, and the lower part of 
 the knee ; those points are badly defined, especially as 
 he does not indicate precisely the superior extremity 
 M 2 
 
180 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of the thigh. But the looseness and contradiction 
 becomes still more evident when we come to seek, 
 according to the various authors, the intersection 
 between the fourth and fifth head ; that is to say, 
 the middle of the body. Without speaking of the 
 singular inconsistency of Vitruvius, who places the 
 middle of the body at the level of the navel, we will 
 note only this fact, that for the passage from the 
 fourth head to the fifth some take the pubis, others 
 some other point. This centre of the height falls 
 lower as the stature of the subject is increased. 
 
 Professor Sappey hajs proved that in subjects of 
 small stature the centre of height corresponds to the 
 symphysis of the pubis ; for those of middle height, 
 and over it falls about half an inch before the pubis. 
 But it may be situated at a still lower level, and the 
 artists of antiquity have frequently placed it much 
 lower. In fact, as Professor Sappey says, the taller 
 the stature is, the more the centre of the body tends 
 to fall below the symphysis, and the figures of heroes 
 and gods are of tall stature. 
 
 We will say, then, in conclusion : i, that the head, 
 compared with the height, is shorter as the height 
 increases ; 2, that to produce a human figure, the 
 absolute dimensions of which would give the impres- 
 sion of a subject of short stature, it would be necessary 
 to give it about ^\ heads, and to cause the centre of 
 the body to fall on the symphysis pubis, while to 
 produce a figure to give the impression of tall sta- 
 ture it would be necessary to give it 8 heads, and to 
 place the centre of the body more or less below the 
 symphysis pubis. 
 
£>erontr part* 
 
 MUSCLES AND MOVEMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 
 
 Of muscles in general. — Muscular contraction : changes of form which 
 result ; movements produced. Composition of muscles ; fleshy 
 body and tendon ; aponeurosis. Nomenclature of muscles, their 
 classification into long, broad, and short muscles; their distri- 
 bution into superficial and deep. Muscles of the trunk, anterior 
 region. — Great pectoral, its relation with the armpit, its action, it is 
 doubled by the lesser pectoral. — The external ob'ique muscle of the 
 the abdomen, its fleshy part, its abdominal aponeurosis, linea alba 
 of abdomen. — Groove and inferior space bounded by the promi- 
 nence of the external oblique and rectus. — Internal oblique and 
 transversalis muscles — Rectus abdominis muscle, its aponeurotic 
 sheath, its aponeurotic intersections. 
 
 THE form of the body is produced by the muscles 
 disposed upon the skeleton, their function being to 
 move its several parts upon each other. The mus- 
 cles are formed by peculiar tissue called muscular 
 (issue or muscular fibre, which has the property of 
 changing its form, namely, of contracting under the 
 influence of nervous action in most cases controlled 
 by the will. In contracting the biceps muscle situated 
 on the anterior surface of the arm, we see that this 
 musde which, in a state of repose, is fusiform and long 
 
1 82 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 becomes in action (in contraction) short, thick, and 
 rounded, and as it is attached below to one of the 
 bones of the fore-arm it draws the anterior surface of 
 the fore-arm towards the anterior surface -of the upper 
 arm and produces flexion in the elbow-joint. This 
 simple experiment, which is easy to repeat at any 
 moment, gives a clear idea of the part which muscles 
 play in the animal economy, and of the part that they 
 take in producing the external forms of man, for it 
 shows that they are the active agents of movements in 
 which the bones are the passive levers, and at the same 
 time that a muscle in action presents a very different 
 shape to that which it has in a state of repose, a 
 change which may be stated in a more general manner 
 by saying that in action a muscle becomes shorter and 
 more prominent. 
 
 In general, besides their fleshy body, the only part 
 which contracts and changes its form, the muscles 
 have extremities more or less slender called tendons, 
 formed of a white tissue, which are, as it were, actual 
 cords by which the muscle is attached to the bones ; 
 during the contraction of muscle these tendons do 
 not change in form but, as with all tight cords when 
 in a state of tension, only become more visible and 
 clearly marked beneath the skin, which they raise up. 
 
 The muscles are enveloped by a fibrous membrane 
 called the aponeurosis, which keeps their fleshy bodies 
 in place, but frequently the tendons instead of being 
 rounded in the form of a cord are flattened and thin 
 in the form of a membrane, and the term aponeurosis 
 is also applied to these membraniform tendons. 
 
PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 1 83 
 
 The muscles have been variously named according 
 to various orders of ideas ; sometimes from the region 
 they occupy {pectoral, gluteal, anterior brachial mus- 
 cles, &c.) or from their direction {oblique of tke abdo- 
 men), or from their dimensions {ghiteus maximus, gluteus 
 medius, and peroneus- longus, &c), or again from their 
 form (trapezius, rhomboid, serratus), or from their struc- 
 ture (semi-membranosus, semi-tendinosus). Another 
 mode of nomenclature which Chaussier attempted to 
 make, general, forms the name of a muscle by the 
 association of the names of the bones to which it is 
 attached ; in this way we get the stemo-cleido-viastoid 
 muscle, and most of the muscles of the neck ; this 
 nomenclature cannot be easily applied to all muscles, 
 for it would make some names of an inconvenient 
 length, owing to the complexity of the bony inser- 
 tions. 
 
 Before we terminate this rapid sketch, it may be 
 useful, with regard to plastic anatomy,' to point out 
 how the muscles are classed, according to their form 
 and situation. 1st. With regard to their form we dis- 
 tinguish the muscles as long, broad, and short, the long 
 muscles consisting in general of a fleshy body fusiform 
 in shape, with cord-like tendons, are principally dis- 
 tributed among the great segments of the limbs (arm, 
 fore-arm, thigh, leg) ; the broad muscles, constructed 
 of a fleshy body, broad and thin, with tendons mem- 
 branous and aponeurotic, are almost exclusively 
 placed on the trunk (pectorals, trapezius, latissimus 
 dorsi, &c). Lastly, the short muscles, frequently 
 wanting tendons, formed by a body that is very . 
 
I §4 ARTISTIC ANATOMY.. 
 
 slightly expanded, and inserted directly into the bone, 
 are found principally in the extremities of the limbs 
 (hand and foot) and in the face. 
 
 2nd. With regard to their situation we distinguish 
 the muscles as superficial and deep. The superficial 
 muscles (Fig. 48), are those which are entirely visible 
 when the subject is stripped of its skin, and of which, 
 accordingly, the fleshy body and tendons are marked 
 in their principal details on the external form. These 
 superficial muscles should be carefully studied here 
 with regard to their insertions, forms, and actions. The 
 deep muscles, situated below the preceding, form fleshy 
 masses, which are shown externally by the manner 
 in which they fill up the external depressions of the 
 skeleton, and raise up the superficial muscles. The 
 general indications of these muscular masses are 
 sufficient for the artist without studying the insertions 
 and forms of each of the muscles composing any 
 given mass. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 Under this title we will study the anterior muscles 
 of the trunk (^pectoral and abdominal) the muscles of 
 the back and posterior surface of the neck {trapezius 
 and latissimus dorsi). With regard to the muscle 
 which covers the lateral wall of the trunk {serratus 
 magnus) its study will be considered after that of the 
 muscles of the shoulder and arm-pit. 
 
 Great pectoral muscle. — The great pectoral muscle 
 forms a large fleshy mass (1, Fig. 49) which covers 
 the anterior surface of the thorax, on each side 
 
PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 185 
 
 of the middle line of the sternum, and extends out- 
 wards as far as the superior part of the arm. This 
 muscle is attached (1st) to the internal half of the 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 General Vjew of the Superficial Muscle (the Gladiator of Agasias with the 
 skin removed. Compare with Figure 2, page 18). 
 
 anterior border of the clavicle (2, Fig. 49) ; (2nd), to 
 the whole extent of the anterior surface of the 
 sternum (3, Fig. 49) ; and (3rd), to the aponeurosis 
 
1 36 -ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of the rectus muscle of the abdomen. It presents, 
 also, a deep fascia arising from the seven first ribs 
 (9> 9) 9. Fig- 49)- From these thoracic insertions the 
 muscular fibres are directed towards the arm ; the 
 superior fibres pass obliquely from above downwards, 
 and from within, outwards ; the. middle transversely 
 outwards, and the inferior obliquity from below up- 
 wards. Therefore, towards the external part of the 
 muscle, these different parts cross each other, the. 
 superior being placed in front of the inferior, so as to 
 form a fleshy mass, narrower, but thicker (7, Fig. 49), 
 which corresponds to the anterior margin of the arm- 
 pit, to which succeeds a short aponeurotic tendon to 
 be attached to the outer lip of the bicipital groove of 
 the humerus (page 56, and Fig^ 12). 
 
 When the- arm- is hanging beside the trunk the 
 great pectoral presents a polygonal surface, on which 
 we can distinguish four sides, or borders, one supero- 
 external or deltoid (in contact with the anterior 
 border of the deltoid, 12, Fig. 49), another superior 
 or clavicular ; the third, internal or sterno-abdominal, 
 curved with its convexity inwards ; and the fourth, 
 infero-external or axillary (forming the inferior border 
 of the anterior wall of the arm-pit). But when the arm 
 'is horizontal, and especially when it is raised abpve 
 the horizontal (Fig. 50), the clavicular border and 
 the deltoid are found in the same line continuous with 
 each other, so that the figure of the muscle is then 
 represented by a triangle with the base inwards 
 (sterno-abdominal border). 
 
 Essentially the action of the great pectoral is to 
 
PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 1 87 
 
 bring the arm near to the trunk • its shape becomes 
 prominent when we carry the arms forwards and 
 bring them near each other, as in the attitude of 
 
 Flu. 49. 
 
 The Muscles of the Anterior Surface of the Thorax (to the right the 
 superficial muscles ; to the left the deep muscles). — 1, the great pectoral muscle; — 
 2, its clavicular fibres ;— 3, its costo-sternal fibres ; — 4,5, 0, its origin from the apo- 
 neurosis of the abdomen ;— 7, its external portion formed by the superposition of the 
 preceding fibres (9, bundles of fibres arising from the cartilages of the ribs ; 10, the 
 pectoral minor) ;— xi, the sub-clavius; — 12, the deltoid; — 14, the digitation of the 
 serratus magnus ;— 15, the digitations of the external oblique of the abdomen ; — 16, 
 anterior border of the latissimus dorsi, and (17) tendon of the same ; — 18, teres major 
 muscle j — 19, the sub-scapularis ;— So, the long head of the triceps brachialis ; — 21, 
 the humeral extremity of the deltoid ;— 22, 22, the sterno-cleido-mastoid ;— 23, the 
 sterno-hyoid 5—24, the trapezius muscle. 
 
 prayer. It also becomes well marked in climbing, for 
 then the muscle takes its fixed point at the humerus 
 and draws the trunk towards it. Acting in a similar 
 
1 88 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 manner upon the thorax, with the humerus as a fixed 
 point, this muscle elevates the ribs, and consequently 
 expands the thorax (respiration). Thus we see that 
 it contracts when, the subject brings into action 
 all the inspiratory muscular powers (struggling, 
 anguish, agony). 
 
 In its middle part the great pectoral is doubled 
 by a muscle beneath, the lesser pectoral (10, Fig. 49), 
 which, arising from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, 
 is directed upwards and outwards, to be attached 
 to the internal border of the coracoid process of 
 the scapula. This muscle serves to move the 
 scapula by drawing its superior part downwards 
 and forwards. 
 
 The external oblique muscle of the abdomen. — The 
 external oblique muscle of the abdomen (Figs. 
 49 and 50) forms a large sheet half fleshy, half 
 aponeurotic, which covers the lateral and anterior 
 surfaces of the abdomen. The fleshy portion, which 
 forms the external half of the muscle, is attached 
 to the external surface of the seven last ribs, into 
 which it is inserted by triangular slips or digita- 
 tions, interlacing with those of the latissimus dorsi 
 and serratus magnus (15, Fig. 49 and Fig. 53). 
 From these costal insertions the fibres are carried 
 downwards, the posterior vertically, to be attached 
 to the iliac crest (Fig. 53), the others obliquely 
 downwards and forwards, to give origin to a broad 
 membraniform tendon (9, Fig. 50) called the apo- 
 neurosis of the external oblique muscle. The fibres of 
 this aponeurosis, continuing in the original direction 
 
PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 1 89 
 
 of the muscular fibres, pass in front of the rectus 
 muscle of the abdomen (12 and 15, Fig. 50) almost 
 to the median line, where, interlacing with the 
 aponeurotic fibres of its fellow on the opposite side, it 
 forms a long median raphe, called the linea alba of the 
 abdomen, proceeding from the xiphoid appendix to 
 the symphysis pubis (10, Fig. 50). *~ 
 
 It is important, with regard to the external form, 
 to define the direction of the line at which the apo- 
 neurotic fibres of the external oblique succeed to the 
 fleshy (Fig. 50). This line descends vertically from 
 its origin at the inferior angle of the great pectoral, 
 but at its lower part inclines abruptly outwards 
 (4, Fig. 50) to join the anterior superior iliac spine, 
 describing a curve with its convexity downwards and 
 inwards. This line marks the prominence of the 
 anterior or internal border of the muscle ; and as, on 
 the other hand, the rectus forms, by its external border 
 raising the aponeurosis of the external oblique, a 
 similar prominence, describing a line at first vertical 
 but inclining inwards below (15, Fig. 50), it follows 
 that this, the region of the anterior surface of the 
 abdomen, is traversed by a narrow vertical groove 
 which opens out below into a large triangular space. 
 This triangular space, bounded above and on the 
 outer side by the external oblique, and on the inner 
 side by the rectus, is limited below by the fold of the 
 groin, the line at which the aponeurosis of the external 
 oblique becomes attached to the crural arch (page 
 100). In the male this part of the aponeurosis of the 
 external oblique is perforated exactly over the inner 
 
190 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 third of' the crural arch (13, Fig. 5°) in order to 
 give passage to certain vessels — an anatomical detail 
 which is shown when the subject is stripped of the 
 skin, but which is not of any importance with regard 
 to form. 
 
 The external oblique muscle draws the ribs down- 
 wards and forwards. If the two muscles of that name 
 (that of the right and that of the left side) contract at 
 the same time they bend the body forward ; but when 
 one muscle only — e.g., that pf the right side— contracts 
 it imparts to the trunk a movement of rotation to the 
 left or opposite side. Generally speaking, whenever 
 we make any effort the oblique muscles of the ab- 
 domen contract, and their prominence, especially that 
 of their costal indigitations and their anterior borders, 
 become clearly marked. 
 
 The external oblique muscle is lined by two mus- 
 cular layers placed beneath it, and which are, passing 
 from superficial' to deep, the internal oblique (15, Fig. 
 51) and transversalis muscles. The internal oblique is 
 formed by fibres which arise from the lumbar vertebra 
 and the crest of the ilium, and radiate forwards 
 (Fig. 51) to become attached, the superior set to the 
 three last ribs, while the middle and inferior mass of 
 fibres are continued in front by an aponeurosis, or 
 broad flat tendon. This aponeurosis soon becomes 
 united, partly with that of the external oblique and 
 that of the transversalis beneath. The transversalis 
 muscle is formed by fibres directed horizontally, and 
 terminates in front by an aponeurosis which passes 
 behind the rectus abdominis, 
 
Fig. so. 
 
 The Musclbs of the Anterior Wall of the Trunk.— i, 2, 3, the great pec- 
 toral ;— 4, 4, the external oblique of the abdomen ; — 5, s, the serratus magnusV— 6, 6, 
 the anterior border of the latissiriius dorsi 5—7, 8 (> the inferior portion of the sternW ;— 
 9, the aponeurosis of the external oblique ; — 10, liriea alba ; — n, umbilicus ;— 12, 12, 12, 
 the tendinous intersections of the rectus abdominis; — 13, the inguinal ring — 14, the 
 pyramidalis of the abdomen ; — 15, the external border of the rectus abdominis ;— t6, 
 the sterno-hyoid ; — 171 the omo-hyoid ;— 18, stern o-cleSdo- mastoid 1—19, the trapezius; 
 —20, the deltoid; — 21, the biceps brachialis;— 22, the pectineus; — 23, the sartorius ; 
 —24, the rectus femoris ; — 25, the tensor 6f the/ascia lata ; — 26, the adductors. 
 
192 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The rectus abdominis (i 1, 1 1, Fig. 5 1). — This muscle 
 forms a long, broad, fleshy band on each side of the 
 middle line of the abdomen — the linea alba. Extend- 
 ing from the epigastric, pit to the pubis, this muscle is 
 attached above by its base, which is its widest part, 
 to the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, 
 below at its apex, its narrowest part, by a glisten- 
 ing tendon to the interval between the symphysis 
 and spine of the pubis. This muscle presents, 
 with regard to form, several remarkable peculiari- 
 ties : — 1st. It is placed in a species of furrow, or 
 fibrous sheath,- formed in front- by the aponeurosis 
 of the external oblique (16, Fig. 51), and behind 
 by that of the transversalis ; so that in the subject 
 stripped of its skin its shape is half Concealed by 
 the aponeurotic lamina which passes in front of it 
 (Fig. 50 and the right half of Fig. 51). 2nd. It is 
 not formed of fleshy fibres proceeding without inter- 
 ruption from the costal cartilages to the pubis, but it 
 is crossed by aponeurotic intersections (Figs. 50, 51), 
 or transverse 'lines, at the level of which the fleshy 
 fibres are replaced by short tendinous fibres. These 
 aponeurotic intersections are usually three in number, 
 the most inferior being placed at the level of the 
 umbilicus (4, Fig. 51), the other two higher up — one 
 at the level of the ninth rib, the other at the level of 
 the seventh. These intersections adhere to the an- 
 terior wall of the sheath of the muscle, and as the 
 muscle is thinner at their level each of them is marked 
 by a transverse groove more or less regular. 3rd. That 
 portion of the muscle below the umbilicus does not 
 
PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES. 1 93 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 The Muscles' of the Abdomen (the superficial on the right side, the deep on 
 the left).— i, the external oblique ;— 2, 2, the serratus magnus ;— 3, 3, the aponeurosis 
 of the external oblique j— 4, the 1 umbilicus ;*-s, 6, the linea alba ;— 7, the crural arch 
 or Poupart's ligament ; — 8, the inguinal ring ; — 9, pectorals major ; — 10, latissimus 
 dorsi ; — 11, n, the rectus abdominis; — 13, the anterior portion of its sheath; — 14, 
 the pyramidalis ; — 15, 15, the internal oblique of the abdomen ; — 16, the inferior 
 portion of the aponeurosis of the external oblique turned downwards ; — 28, the upper 
 part of the thigh covered by its aponeurotic envelope ;— ig, a section of the externa 
 oblique of the abdomen. 
 
 present any aponeurotic intersection, but it rapidly 
 diminishes in breadth from the umbilicus to the pubis, 
 so that the external border of the muscle is oblique 
 
 N 
 
194 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 from above downwards, and from without inwards. 
 It is to this arrangement that the fact is due, which 
 we have already dwelt on (page 189), that the narrow 
 groove bounded by the external oblique and the 
 rectus spreads out at the level of the umbilicus into a 
 broad, triangular surface, bounded inferiorily by the 
 fold of the groin. 
 
 This muscle flexes the trunk.; that is, it depresses 
 the thorax in bringing it near the pubis — a movement 
 which it accomplishes by the flexion of the vertebral 
 column. 
 
 The lower part of the rectus muscle of the abdo- 
 men is covered by a small muscle, the pyramidalis (14, 
 Fig. 51), of which the contour does not show beneath 
 the skin in the supra-pubic region, this skin being 
 always lined by a cushion of fat. This pyramidalis ' 
 muscle, which is just pointed out here so as to be 
 remembered, forms on each side of the middle line a 
 small fleshy triangle, of which the base is attached to 
 the pubis, and the apex forms a short tendon which is 
 continuous with the linea alba, the median fibrous 
 raphe resulting from the interlacing of the aponeurosis 
 of the external oblique and transversalis muscles of 
 the abdomen. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
 
 Trapezius, its insertions, its aponeurotic parts ; figure of a hood formed 
 by the whole of the lower parts of both muscles. — Latissimus 
 dorsi — Deep muscles partly visible in the spaces of the trapezius 
 and latissimus dorsi — I, lateral region of neck (splenius and great 
 complexus muscles) ; 2, region of the scapula (rhomboid, infra- 
 spinatus, teres major and teres minor muscles). 
 
 Trapezius muscle.— -This muscle forms, with the 
 latissimus dorsi, two broad muscular sheets which 
 cover over all the region of the back and the posterior 
 part of the neck, and extend to the shoulder and 
 arm. 
 
 The trapezius muscle is inserted as follows : — i. On 
 the one hand to the inner third of the curved line of 
 the occipital (13, Fig. 52) to a fibrous plane which pro- 
 ceeds from the occipital protuberance to the spinous 
 process of the seventh cervical vertebra (posterior 
 cervical ligament, page 26) ; then to the spinous 
 process of the seventh cervical vertebra, and lastly, to 
 the spinous processes of the twelve dorsal. 2. From 
 these insertions which all correspond to the middle 
 line of the back, the muscular fibres are carried out- 
 ward towards the shoulder, the middle transversely, 
 the superior obliquely downwards (9. Fig. 53), the 
 N 2 
 
196 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 inferior ascending obliquely, and become attached to 
 the osseous girdle of the shoulder, to the superior 
 border of the spine of the scapula (Fig. 52), and the 
 external third of the posterior border of the clavicle 
 (19, Fig. 50). 
 
 With regard to the external shape, this muscle 
 presents this remarkable fact, that in certain regions 
 the muscular fibres are replaced by aponeurotic, so 
 that in these regions the muscle is thinner and shows 
 slightly depressed surfaces. These regions are three 
 in number: 1. At the inferior part of the neck and 
 the superior part of the back (10, Fig. 52), at which level 
 the fibres of origin of the muscle are aponeurotic, and 
 form with those of the opposite side an elliptical 
 surface with its greater diameter vertical, towards the 
 centre of which the spinous processes of the sixth 
 and seventh cervical vertebrae form a well-marked 
 projection (pertebra prominens, page 24). 2. At the 
 lower part of the back, at the level of the last dorsal 
 vertebrae, the ■ fibres of origin of the trapezius are also 
 aponeurotic, in a small triangular space, very short ; 
 but in the living model, when the trapezius is strongly 
 contracted, its inferior extremity seems hollowed out, 
 because at that level the muscular fibres are wanting, 
 and in consequence do not swell up when the muscle 
 is in action. 3. At the level of the root of the spine 
 of the scapula, the inferior fibres of the trapezius form 
 a small triangular aponeurosis which glides on the 
 corresponding bony part ; then is seen the com- 
 mencement of the series of insertions of the muscle 
 into the posterior border of the scapular spine. 
 
Fig. 52. 
 
 The Superficial Muscles of the Back.— i, the lumbo-sacral aponeurosis;— 2, 
 the latissimus dorsi ; — 3, its iliac fasciculus ; — 4, the space which separates itTrom the 
 external oblique ;— 5, the upper portion 1 of the la'tissimu's dorsi ;— 6, 6, the teres major 
 muscle ; — 7, the lower .portion of the trapezius, with its aponeurotic portion (8) on a 
 level with the spine of the scapula ; — 9, the central portion of the trapezius, with its 
 aponeurosis (ro) ; — 11, 12, 13, the upper portion of the trapezius ;— ^5^ the occipito- 
 frontalis muscle ; — t6, the sterno-cleido-mastoid ; — 17, the spleriius capitis ; — 18, the 
 deltoid ; — 19, the infra-spihatus ; — 20, the teres-minor ;— 21, 21, the external head, 
 and 22, 22, internal head of the triceps brachialis 5—23, the posterior portion of the 
 external oblique of the abdomen ,—24, 24, the gluteus maximus. 
 
IQS ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The whole of the trapezius contracts when the 
 shoulder is strongly drawn backwards, and in this case 
 it is the middle portion, of which the fibres are directed 
 horizontally, which shows most prominently beneath 
 the skin ; but more frequently its different orders of 
 fibres contract separately ; thus the superior act either 
 by taking the shoulder as a fixed point, to bend the 
 head to the corresponding side (as when the face is 
 slightly turned to the opposite side) ; or by taking their 
 fixed point at the occipital and the cervical ligament, 
 and thus raising and supporting the scapula, as when 
 a burden is carried on the shoulder. Under those cir- 
 cumstances the cervical border of the .trapezius, that 
 which proceeds from the occipital to the clavicle (Fig. 
 5 3), becomes strongly prominent in a line parallel to 
 that of the external border of the sterno-cleido- 
 mastoid (26, Fig. 5 3) ; between these two prominent 
 parts is a groove to which we will return to glance 
 at the deep muscles of this region. On the other 
 hand, if the inferior fibres of the trapezius contract 
 alone, they draw the shoulder downwards, and thus 
 we see them become prominent whenever the model 
 causes a dragging with his upper limbs from above 
 downward, e.g., in the case of a bell-ringer who pulls 
 violently and with all his weight on a rope. 
 
 The whole of the two trapezius- muscles (right 
 and left), form on the back (Fig. 52) a triangular 
 figure with its apex below, which resembles the con- 
 tour of a monk's hood. Hence the trapezius has been 
 called the cucullary muscle (cucullus, a hood); and 
 artists commonly, call it the hood of the back. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE BACK.- LO.O. 
 
 Latissimus dorsi muscle (1, 2, 3, 5, Fig. 52). — This 
 forms a vast muscular sheet extending from the region 
 of the loins to the upper part of the arm. It arises 
 from the centre of a broad triangular aponeurosis 
 (lumbo-sacral aponeurosis, I, Fig. 52), from the 
 spinous processes of the six or seven last, dorsal 
 vertebrae, from the spinous processes of the lumbar and 
 sacral vertebrae and the posterior third of the crest of 
 the ilium (3, Fig. 52); the muscular fibres succeed to 
 this aponeurosis along an oblique line proceeding 
 from the iliac crest towards the last dorsal spinous 
 processes, and at the same time three or four new 
 fleshy bands join the muscle arising from the external 
 surfaces of the three or four last ribs by slips which 
 indigitate with the most inferior of the external 
 oblique muscle of the abdomen (4, 4, Fig. 53). From 
 these insertions the muscular fibres are directed ; the 
 inferior almost vertically upwards, the superior almost 
 horizontally outwards, and all converge so as to form 
 a large fleshy band (5, Fig. 52) which covers the in- 
 ferior angle of the scapula, passes along its axillary 
 border,— beside the teres major muscle (see later), to 
 mount up into the posterior wall of the arm-pit and 
 to reach the upper part of the shaft of the humerus, 
 into which it is inserted by a broad tendon, in the 
 external or posterior lip of the bicipital groove 
 (page 56). 
 
 This muscle acts in a manner similar to the 
 lower part of the trapezius, but with more energy, 
 since it depresses not only the scapula but also the 
 humerus. It is the contraction of the latissimus 
 
200 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 dorsi which enables us to bring the arm with force to 
 the side, carrying the upper limb slightly backwards, 
 so that if the contraction is carried very far the arms 
 become crossed behind the back. But the prominence 
 formed by the external border of the latissimus 
 dorsi during contraction (Fig. S3) is principally 
 shown when the muscle accomplishes a powerful 
 effort, that of violent dragging, or pulling from above 
 downwards, as in pulling on a rope hanging ver- 
 tically (ringing a bell), or in hanging by the arms 
 from a horizontal bar. If in this situation — the 
 exercise of the trapeze, for example — the model 
 raises himself, and brings the trunk near the bar, 
 the latissimi dorsi muscles become very prominent, 
 for then they take their fixed points in the arms, 
 and act on the trunk by carrying it upwards and 
 forwards. 
 
 The trapezius and latissimus dorsi form by 
 themselves the superficial layer of the back (Fig. 52). 
 Among the numerous deep muscles of the dorsal 
 region there are not any which are visible throughout 
 their entire extent on the external model, but there 
 are many which partly appear in the spaces which 
 limit the borders of the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and 
 superficial muscles of the shoulder and neck. These 
 spaces are two in number, one in the side of the neck, 
 the other at the level of the lower half of the scapula. 
 
 The space on the lateral surface of the neck is 
 bounded (Figs. 52 and 53) behind by the supero- 
 anterior border of the trapezius ; in front by the 
 postero-external border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 201 
 
 This space, which represents a groove, long and 
 very superficial, extending from the occipital region 
 to the middle of the clavicle, has an inferior part 
 (25, Fig. 53) covered over by the platysma muscle 
 of the neck (to which we will return when con- 
 sidering the anterior region of the neck), and -a 
 superior part, in which we perceive a small part of 
 two powerful muscles of the neck. 1st. The muscular 
 fibres which we see (17, Fig. 52) directed obliquely 
 from below upwards, and from within outwards 
 towards the mastoid process, belong to the splenitis 
 muscle, which arises from the spinous processes of the 
 last cervical, and four or five first dorsal, and ascends 
 obliquely outwards to be attached partly to the trans- 
 verse processes of the atlas and axis (splenius of the 
 neck), and partly (splenius of the head) to the mastoid 
 process of the temporal bone passing beneath the 
 sterno-cleidft-mastoid (16, Fig. 52). 2nd. The small 
 fleshy triangle, which appears beneath the splenius, 
 between that muscle and the superior part of the 
 trapezius, belongs to a powerful muscle of the neck, 
 called the great complexus, on account of the com- 
 plicated arrangement of its fibres, a muscle concerning 
 which we will only mention that it arises from the 
 occipital, and descends obliquely outwards, to be 
 attached by a series of digitations to the transverse 
 processes of the five or six first dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 The space situated at the level of the lower part 
 of the scapula is triangular in form (Figs. 52 and 53). 
 When the arm is hanging beside the trunk of the three 
 sides which bound it, the superior and internal border 
 
202 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 is formed by the trapezius, the superior and external 
 by the deltoid ; lastly, the inferior is formed by the 
 superior border of the latissimus dorsi. The spinal 
 border of the scapula appears towards the inner part 
 of the triangular space, and divides it into two un- 
 equal parts, one internal, smaller, where a small part 
 of the rhomboid muscle is seen ; the other external, 
 more extended, where the prominence of the muscles 
 of the infra-spinous fossa are marked, the infraspinatus, 
 teres minor, and teres major muscles. We will only - 
 devote a few lines to the description of these muscles. 
 
 The rhomboid muscle arises from the spinous 
 processes of the two last cervical, and four or five 
 upper dorsal vertebrae ; the fibres are directed 
 obliquely downwards and outwards, to be inserted 
 into the spinal border of the scapula. It is only 
 the lower fibres which appear -on the model, at the 
 internal part of the triangular space. 
 
 The infraspinatus muscle (19, Fig. 52) rises 
 from the whole of the infra-spinous fossa of the 
 scapula, except the thick part of its axillary border. 
 From this origin its fibres ascend arid, converging, 
 pass beneath the deltoid (Fig. 53), and are inserted 
 by a short tendon into the great tuberosity of the 
 humerus (the middle facet of this tuberosity). 
 
 The teres minor muscle (20, Fig. 52) rises from 
 the upper part of the thick border of the infra-spinous 
 fossa towards the axillary border of the scapula, then 
 ascends parallel to the fibres of the infra-spinatus, 
 passing with that muscle beneath the deltoid, to be 
 inserted also into the great tuberosity of the humerus 
 
MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 203 
 
 (to the most inferior of the three facets on this 
 tuberosity). 
 
 The teres major (6, Fig. 52 and 8, Fig. 53) arises 
 from the lower part of the thick border of the infra- 
 spinous fossa ; it ascends upwards and outwards like 
 the preceding muscles ; but it soon leaves the teres 
 minor (5, Fig. 54). Instead of remaining at the 
 posterior part of the skeleton of the shoulder by- 
 passing beneath the deltoid, it joins the latissimus 
 dorsi (Figs. 17, 18, Fig. 49), and passes with it in front 
 of the long portion of the triceps, finally blending 
 with the latissimus dorsi, it is inserted into the 
 internal lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus. 
 The long portion of the triceps brachial is found, 
 therefore, to pass between the teres minor, behind, 
 and the superior part of the teres major, in front (Fig. 
 52, between 20 and 6). 
 
 The different muscles which we have seen, either 
 entirely or in part, in the triangular space bounded by 
 the trapezius, latissimus dorsi and deltoid, when the 
 arm is hanging beside the trunk, become more visible 
 when the arm is raised and arrives at the horizontal 
 position (see the right side of the Fig. 52). The space 
 in question becomes much lengthened from within 
 outwards, and the deltoid leaves uncovered a greater 
 extent of the infra-spinatus, teres major and minor ; 
 at the same time the scapula, by the elevation of 
 the arm (page 51) being moved so that its inferior 
 angle is drawn away from the vertebral column, the 
 rhomboid muscle allows us to perceive a greater 
 extent of its fibres, between the external border of the 
 
204 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 trapezius and the superior border of the latissimus 
 dorsi. 
 
 Although the other deep muscles of the back are 
 not visible on the subject stripped of its skin, we 
 must not leave the dorsal region without giving a few 
 of the names of the powerful fleshy masses which 
 occupy the lumbar region, on each side of the spinous 
 processes, and which form two powerful muscular 
 columns, causing a prominence beneath the aponeu- 
 rosis of the latissimus dorsi (Fig. 52). This mass is 
 formed by two muscles which are closely blended to- 
 gether at their inferior part (at the level of the loins), 
 but become distinct at the last rib; they form an exter- 
 nal muscle called the sacro-lumbalis, which is attached 
 by a series of tendons to the angles of the ribs, and 
 an internal muscle called the longissimus dorsi which, 
 by a triple series of tendons, is attached to the sides, 
 and to the transverse and spinous processes of the dor- 
 sal vertebrae. The action of the sacro-lumbalis and 
 longissimus dorsi is to straighten the trunk, and main- 
 tain it when a burden is borne on the shoulders or 
 . back. It is for this reason that their common mass 
 in the lower part of the back is so developed in men 
 who usually carry heavy loads on the shoulders, and 
 forms that powerful muscular mass of the loins, of 
 which the prominence is visible beneath the skin and 
 the aponeurosis of the latissimus dorsi (1, Fig. 52). 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM-PIT. 
 
 The deltoid: its form, thickness, different actions according to the fibres 
 which contract ; this muscle has not any momentum. — Muscular 
 forms of the shoulder as a whole. — The muscles beneath (supra- 
 spinatus and sub-scapularis). — Serratus magnus muscle: its relation 
 with the arm-pit, its nine costal digitations, three only visible on 
 the model ; its action, it becomes very visible with each effort 
 of the arm. — Forms of the region of the arm-pit, prominence of 
 the coraco-brachialis muscle, peculiarities presented by the skin 
 relations of the biceps and triceps with the arm-pit. 
 
 The superior and external surface of the prominent 
 part of the shoulder is formed by a single and power- 
 ful muscle, the deltoid. Beneath this are several deep 
 muscles which fill up the corresponding fossae of the 
 scapula (siipra-spinous and sub-scapularis). But, 
 when the arm is raised and maintained in the hori- 
 zontal position, the surface dips, at the inner part of 
 the root of the arm, into a cavity, which is the pit 
 corresponding to the external prominence of the 
 shoulder ; this cavity, called the arm-pit or axillaiy 
 space, has for a roof the skeleton of the shoulder 
 covered by the deltoid, and for its walls — in front, 
 the great pectoral of which the plane joins the ante- 
 rior border of the deltoid, and behind, the latissimus 
 dorsi, of which the plane partly joins the posterior 
 
206 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 border of the deltoid ; lastly, on the inner side, a 
 muscle applied to the wall of the thorax, the serratus 
 magnus. Of the muscles which we have named, some 
 have already been studied with regard to the muscular 
 structure of the trunk (great pectoral and latissimus 
 dorsi) ; the others, the deltoid and serratus magnus, 
 we will study with the region of the shoulder and 
 axillary space. 
 
 Deltoid muscle. — So called because it resembles a 
 Greek delta in form, which is that of a triangle (of 
 which the base is above and the apex below) ; this 
 muscle is short, broad, thick, and shaped like half a 
 cone to embrace the shoulder joint. It arises above 
 from the external third of the anterior border of the 
 clavicle (12, Fig. 49), from the acromio-clavicular 
 articulation, from the convex border of the acromion, 
 and from the entire extent of the posterior border of 
 the spine of the scapula (18, Fig. 52). From this 
 origin its fibres are directed downwards; the middle 
 vertically, the anterior or clavicular downwards, and 
 a little backwards, and the posterior a little obliquely 
 forwards to be inserted by a short tendon into the 
 external surface of the humerus on a rough V-shaped 
 groove, called the deltoid impression (page 56). 
 
 This muscle is very thick and forms coarse 
 fibrous bands, which may be seen to contract sepa- 
 rately beneath the skin, like distinct muscles, ac- 
 cording as the movement effected requires specially 
 the contraction of this or that portion of the muscle. 
 The action of the deltoid is the elevation of the arm, 
 separating it from the trunk and supporting it in the 
 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM NT. 2C7 
 
 The Superficial Muscles of" the Shoulder and the Lateral Portion 
 of the. Trunk. — i, the latissimus dorsi;— 2, the lumbo-sacral aponeurosis ;— 3, 4, 4, 
 the iliac and costal origins of the latissimus dorsi ;— 5,. 6, 7, the upper portion 01 
 the latissimus dorsi;— 8, the teres major;— g, 10, 11, the. trapezius ;— 12, the infra- 
 spinatus ;— 13, the teres minor ;— 14, 15, 16, the external oblique of the abdomen ; 
 — 17, 18, the anterior and interior border of the same muscle,;— 19, its inferior 
 internal angle rounded (see page 191) ;— 20, 20, serratus magnus ;— 21, the pectoralis 
 major; — 22, the gluteus maximus ;— 23, the tensor of the fascia lata;— 24, the 
 deltoid ; — 25, the platysma myqides ; — 26 the sterno-cleido-mastoid. 
 
208 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 horizontal direction ; but while the middle fibres raise 
 the arm directly outwards, the anterior fibres elevate 
 it and carry it forwards, and the posterior fibres carry it 
 backwards. It is necessary to remark that this muscle 
 is never, at any period of action, directed perpendicu- 
 larly on the lever which it moves — namely, the humerus 
 on which it acts obliquely. Hence, although very 
 thick, the deltoid cannot act with great power ; there- 
 fore the attitude which consists in maintaining the 
 arms raised horizontally, is one which requires great 
 effort and quickly produces fatigue. In order to 
 understand the unfavourable arrangement of the 
 deltoid with relation to its humeral lever, it is suffi- 
 cient to compare it with that which the biceps presents 
 relative to the fore-arm, and to see that the biceps, 
 which acts obliquely on the radius, becomes perpen- 
 dicular to that bone in proportion as flexion is carried 
 on in the arm ; and when the elbow forms a right- 
 angle the biceps muscle is found in the most favourable 
 condition to act with all possible force. We term the 
 momentum of a muscle the situation in which it is 
 perpendicular to its lever ; we may say, then, that 
 the deltoid has not any momentum. 
 
 In pointing out the relations which the three 
 borders of the deltoid present, we will sum up the 
 various details of the muscular contour of the shoul- 
 der : — ist. The superior border of the deltoid, by its 
 origin from the anterior border of the clavicle and the 
 posterior border of the spine of the scapula, repeats 
 the insertions of the trapezius which is attached to 
 the other lip and border of the same bony parts (Fig 
 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM-PIT. 209 
 
 S3). The clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula 
 form a species of bony intersection between the tra- 
 pezius and deltoid ;' and in animals which have no 
 clavicle, and in which the spine of the scapula is not 
 well developed, the fibres of the deltoid and trapezius 
 are directly continuous. We observe an arrangement 
 of this nature in the horse. 2nd. The anterior border 
 of the deltoid is separated from the corresponding 
 border of the great pectoral by a linear interval, very 
 narrow below, but a little broader above, where it 
 forms a small triangle, of which the base corresponds 
 to the middle of the clavicle (Fig. 50). This interval, 
 which becomes visible during the contraction of the 
 two muscles when we endeavour to raise the arm 
 upwards and forwards while it is held behind, as in 
 the act of drawing a load, gives passage to a vein 
 called the cephalic, which under those circumstances 
 becomes prominent and swollen. 3rd. The posterior, 
 border of the deltoid forms one of the sides of the 
 triangular space which we have studied in the region 
 of the back, at the level of the infra-spinous fossa 
 (Figs. 52 and 53) ; therefore, under the posterior 
 border, pass successively on the one hand the infra- 
 spinatus and teres minor, which pass directly beneath 
 the deltoid, and on the other the teres major and 
 latissimus dorsi, which pass more deeply, separated 
 from the deltoid by the long portion of, the biceps 
 
 (Fig. 54)- 
 
 Two muscles of the shoulder remain to be men- 
 tioned which are not visible on the model, but we 
 must at least name them in order to explain how 
 O 
 
210 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the fossae of the skeleton of the shoulder are filled up. 
 These are:— 1st. The supra-spinatus muscle (n, Fig. 
 54),- which occupies the supraspinal fossa of the 
 scapula, passes beneath the coraco-acromial arch, and 
 is. inserted into the great tuberosity of the humerus 
 (to the upper facet on this great tuberosity). 2nd. 
 The subscapularis muscle (19, Fig. 49), which occupies 
 the subscapular fossa and is inserted into the lesser 
 tuberosity of the humerus. 
 
 The serratus magnus muscle (14, Fig. 49; 5> Fig. 
 50; 2, Fig. 51 ; 20, Fig. 53). — This muscle, applied to 
 the lateral part of the thorax, is hidden throughout 
 the greater part of its extent by the scapula and 
 muscular structures of the shoulder ; but it becomes 
 superficial at its lower part, in prominent indigitations 
 — ra series of details very characteristic in the contour 
 of the lateral region of the thorax — and as, at the 
 same time, it constitutes the internal wall of the arm- 
 pit, we must describe it here in detail. 
 
 The serratus magnus arises from the whole of the 
 spinal border of the scapula. From this origin its 
 fibres radiate upwards, forwards, and downwards, and 
 divide into nine intefdigitations, which are inserted 
 into the external surfaces of the nine first ribs. The 
 body of the muscle, with the five or six upper digita- 
 tions, is hidden by the great pectoral muscle (21,- Fig. 
 53), and only its three or four last digitations (the 
 most inferior) are visible on the inferior lateral part of 
 the thorax between the borders of the great pectoral 
 and the latissimus dorsi ; they interlace with the 
 superior digitations of the external oblique muscle of. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM-PIT. 211 
 
 the abdomen (20 and 16, Fig. 53). When the arm is 
 hanging loosely, or slightly raised, we see at this level 
 only three digitations of the serratus magnus ; but 
 when the arm is strongly elevated the great pectoral 
 frequently leaves another uncovered. 
 
 The action of this muscle is to fix the scapula, 
 drawing this bone downwards and forwards,- while 
 the rhomboid, on the other hand; draws it upwards 
 and backwards. The fixing of the scapula being 
 necessary to afford a fixed point to the muscles of 
 the arm (particularly the biceps) whenever the upper 
 limb accomplishes a powerful effort, explains why the 
 •inferior digitations of the serratus magnus become so 
 clearly visible in the living' model while contracting 
 the muscles of the arm, as in wrestling, or lifting from 
 "the ground a heavy body, or in pushing back an 
 adversary, &c. 
 
 The serratus magnus muscle forms the inner wall 
 of the arm-pit,; a cavity of which the anterior wall is 
 represented by the great pectoral, and the posterior 
 by the latissimus dorsi. This cavity forms a tri- 
 angular pyramid ; its summit, directed upwards, cor- 
 responds to the cbracoid process of the scapula. On 
 a dissectdd subject this cavity is open inferiorly, but 
 in . the living model it is closed by the skin which 
 forms the base of the pyramid, and which, in passing 
 from the inferior border of the great pectoral to the 
 corresponding border of the latissimus dorsi, is 
 depressed so as to ascend in the axillary space, into 
 which it is drawn by the fibrous band forming what 
 Gerdy has termed the suspensory ligament, of the skin 
 
 O 2 
 
212 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of the arm-pit, and which is attached to the coracoid 
 process, being continuous with the aponeurosis of the 
 lesser pectoral. 
 
 In order to finish the description of this cavity we 
 must say a few words concerning its borders, the folds 
 which correspond to the lines of junction of its three 
 walls ; there is not anything particular to point out 
 with regard to its anterior border (connecting the 
 great pectoral with the external surface of the ser- 
 ratus magnus), nor to its posterior border (the attach- 
 ment of the serratus magnus to the spinal border 
 of the shoulder-blade) ; we need only speak of the 
 external border which corresponds to the root of 
 the arm. This border is comparatively thick, and 
 corresponds to the upper part of the shaft of the 
 humerus. It is formed by two muscles which descend 
 from the scapula towards the anterior surface of the 
 arm, the biceps and coraco-brachialis, which we will 
 notice briefly. We will say, first of all, that the 
 form of the coraco-brachialis is clearly visible beneath 
 the skin of the base of the arm-pit, when the arm is 
 strongly raised, as for example in a subject crucified, 
 when it is the only muscle which raises the depressed 
 skin in the arm-pit. We see that this skin is covered 
 with hair more or less abundant, according to the 
 individual, and it is a classic habit to omit this part of 
 the hairy system in every representation of an elevated 
 character ; but the artist should be convinced by the 
 , study of anatomy that he should never conform to 
 the habit of tracing on the skin of the hollow of the 
 arm-pit a fanciful contour, since this skin is smooth 
 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM-PIT. 21 3 
 
 and regularly depressed, and that on its external part 
 only is a fusiform muscular prominence, that of the 
 coraco-brachialis, forming the origin of the plane of 
 the anterior surface of the arm. 
 
 The triceps brachialis muscle, which, by its long 
 portion, ascends to take its origin from the scapula, 
 does not pass, like the biceps and coraco-brachialis, 
 through the arm-pit, but proceeds through the middle 
 of the posterior wall, since, as we have already said, it 
 passes between the teres minor on the one hand, and 
 the teres minor and latissimus dorsi on the other 
 (Figs. 52 and 54). 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 
 
 ist.- Anterior muscles : Biceps, its two heads ; its fusiform body, its 
 bifurcation below (aponeurotic expansion and tendon); its action 
 (supinator and flexor of fore-arm)'; influence of its aponeurotic 
 expansion on the contour of the fore-arm. — Coraco-brachialis, 
 brachialis anticus. 2nd. Posterior muscle : Triceps brachialis, its 
 three portions, flat surface formed by its inferior tendon ; general 
 contour of the posterior surface of the arm, action ot triceps. — 
 External forms of the arm, external and internal intermuscular 
 grooves. 
 
 The muscles of the arm form two distinct fleshy 
 masses* one anterior formed by the biceps, which 
 occupies the entire length of the arm, by the coraco- 
 brachialis which occupies only the superior part ; and 
 lastly, by the . brachialis anticus, which occupies the 
 inferior part ; and one posterior, formed by one muscle 
 only, the triceps brachialis. 
 
 The biceps (12, Fig. 54, and 21, Fig. 50) is so 
 called because it is double at its upper part, formed 
 by two portions, which are known by the names of 
 the long and short heads. The long head of the 
 biceps presents the form of a long tendon, which 
 ascending in the bicipital groove of the humerus 
 (page 56) arrives in the scapulo-humeral joint, and is 
 inserted into the raised border of the glenoid cavity 
 
MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 
 
 of the scapula. 
 The short head 
 of the biceps has 
 a less complex 
 course, and pro- 
 ceeds to the sum- 
 mit of the cora- 
 coid process, 
 where it is inserted beside 
 the coraco-brachialis. 
 
 These two tendons (long 
 and short head) descend in 
 the external angle of the 
 arm - pit, covered by the 
 great pectoral (Fig. 50, page 
 191) ; a little above the 
 lower border of this muscle 
 the fleshy fibres succeed the 
 tendinous and form two 
 cylindrical bodies which 
 descend and soon become 
 united, at the level of the 
 middle of the anterior sur- 
 face of the arm, in one large 
 muscular body, very marked 
 in muscular subjects (12, 
 Fig. '54). To this fleshy 
 bo'dy succeeds, a little above 
 the elbow joint, a flat ten- 
 don, at first- broad, which 
 
 chialis anticus ;— 14, the supinator longus ;— : 
 
 Fig. 54- 
 The Muscles of the Shoulder 
 and Arm (seen from the external 
 side).—!, the triceps brachialis ; — 2, its 
 long head ; — 3, its external head ; — 4, 
 its attachment to the olecranon ; — 5, 
 the teres major ; — 5', the teres minor ; — 
 6, the infra-spinatus ; — 7, 8, 9, io f the 
 deltoid; — it, the supra-spinatus ; — 12, 
 the biceps brachialis ; — 13, the bra- 
 15, extensor carpi radialis longior. 
 
2l6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 divides into two parts, one aponeurotic, called 
 the aponeurotic expansion of the biceps ; the other 
 tendinous, called the inferior proper tendon of the 
 biceps. The aponeurotic expansion (2, Fig. 55) is 
 directed downwards and inwards, passes over the 
 common mass of the flexor muscles of the fore-arm, 
 and soon becomes blended with the aponeurosis of 
 these muscles ; the tendon proper (3, Fig. 53) dips 
 down between the anterior and external muscles of 
 the fore-arm, and is fixed to the bicipital tuberosity 
 of the radius (page 65, and Fig. 13), upon which it 
 turns to be inserted into the posterior part. 
 
 The biceps muscle is essentially the flexor of the 
 fore-arm on the arm, this action is evident, known to 
 all, and it is useless to dwell on it, except -to recall 
 the fact, as we have already said with regard to the 
 deltoid, that the biceps, in acting on the fore-arm is 
 found inserted perpendicularly on the lever which it 
 moves, and that it is then in the most favourable 
 position for the development of all its strength. But 
 the contraction of the biceps produces at the same 
 time, with the flexion of the elbow, two effects to 
 which it is important to direct attention — 1st. If 
 the fore-arm is in pronation the tendon of the biceps 
 is clearly twisted round the upper part of the radius, 
 since it is inserted into the posterior part of this 
 tuberosity ; therefore, the first effect produced by its 
 contraction is a rotation of the radius outwards; a 
 movement of supination ; the biceps is, therefore, a 
 supinator, and one of the most powerful. 2nd. During 
 the contraction of the biceps, its aponeurotic expan- 
 
% % 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 217 
 
 sion is tense, and strongly binds down the mass of 
 the flexor muscles of the fore-arm ; hence it marks 
 on the inner fleshy part of this portion of the limb, 
 two fingers' breadth below the internal condyloid 
 ridge, a distinct furrow ; the contraction of the biceps 
 produces, therefore, in the fore-arm, some very re- ' 
 markable changes of form. 
 
 The changes of form, which at the level of the 
 arm, accompany the contraction of the biceps, are 
 well known, and it is sufficient to recall the fact, that 
 the fleshy body of this fusiform muscle is lengthened 
 in the state of repose, becoming short and globular 
 during the contraction. • Nothing is more striking, 
 nor gives a better idea of the change of form in a 
 muscle during contraction, than to examine the biceps 
 in a model, who brings it gradually into action flexing 
 the fore-arm on the arm. We see, then, on the an- 
 terior surface of the arm a species of fleshy ball 
 becoming more and more clearly marked, which 
 swells up and contracts at the same time, so that it 
 seems to mount up towards the upper part of the 
 arm, towards the inferior border of the great pectoral. 
 
 The coraco-brachialis muscle forms a small fusiform 
 fleshy mass, occupying the upper part of the inner sur- 
 face of the arm. It arises on the one hand from the 
 coracoid process of the scapula (beside the short head 
 of the biceps), and is inserted into the middle of the 
 internal border of the humerus. When the arm is 
 hanging loosely the lower half only of this muscle is 
 visible on the subject, and its prominence is blended 
 with that of the biceps, while its superior half is 
 
2l8 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 hidden within the axillary space, covered by the great 
 pectoral, but becomes visible beneath the skin of the 
 arm-pit when the arms are raised, as in the position 
 on the cross, and we have already dwelt upon tha 
 contour which the fusiform muscular body of this 
 muscle presents at the external part of axillary space. 
 When the coraco-brachialis contracts, its form becomes 
 more prominent, like that of every muscle in contrac- 
 tion ; but it is not more visible on this account, for this 
 muscle, which draws the arm to the thorax against 
 which it is applied, conceals by this movement the 
 -region in which its prominence is marked. 
 
 T-he brachialis anticus muscle (13, Fig. 54, and 4, 
 4, Fig. 55). — Situated beneath the lower half of the 
 biceps, which overlaps it on each side,, this muscle 
 covers the corresponding part of the anterior surface 
 of the humerus, to which it is attached. Arising at 
 the level of the deltoid impression, the fleshy fibres 
 descend almost to the level of the elbow where they 
 are replaced by a flat tendon, which is ' inserted into 
 the base of the coronoid process of the ulna. As the 
 ulna does not present any of the . lateral movements 
 which constitute supination and pronation, the bra- 
 chialis anticus is simply a flexor of the fore-arm, and 
 we see it, when this movement, is forcibly accom- 
 plished, swell up on each side of the lower part of the 
 biceps. 
 
 Triceps brachialis. — This muscle (21, 22, Fig. 52, 
 1, 2, 3, Fig. 54), which forms' alone the entire muscular 
 structure of the posterior surface of the arm, has been 
 called the triceps, because it is composed of three- 
 
MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 2IO. 
 
 portions, separated above, united below ; one central 
 or median called the long portion or head, and two 
 lateral distinguished as the' external and internal por- 
 tions or heads. The long /tead (2, Fig. 54) forming a 
 fleshy body thick and fusiform, arises by a short 
 tendon from the upper part of axillary border of the 
 scapula immediately below the glenoid cavity," and 
 passes between the teres major and minor muscles 
 (page 213). At the level of the junction of the 
 middle with the lower third of the arm, this fleshy 
 body terminates at its upper part in a flat tendon 
 (1, Figs. 54 and 56) broad and triangular, which re- 
 ceives the other two portions of the muscle on each 
 of its borders. The external head (3, Fig. 54) arises 
 from the upper part of the posterior surface of the 
 humerus (above and to the outer side of the groove 
 of torsion), and is directed obliquely downwards and 
 ' inwards to be attached to the external border of the 
 flat tendon, accompanying this muscle almost to the 
 elbow. Lastly, the internal head (22, Fig 52) arises 
 from the lower part of the posterior surface of the 
 humerus (below and to the inner side of the groove 
 of torsion), arid is attached to the internal border of 
 the inferior common tendon. This tendon is inserted 
 (4, Fig. 54) into the posterior surface of the olecranon 
 (of the ulna). 
 
 The form of the triceps, or posterior surface of the 
 arm, is caused by the presence of the inferior common 
 tendon which, forming a large flat surface below, be- 
 comes narrow and pointed towards its upper part. This 
 tendon or the flat surface which it forms is overlapped 
 
220 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 on each side by the prominence of the inner and outer 
 heads. Above, on the upper two-thirds of the posterior 
 surface of the arm, two fleshy bodies are seen side 
 by side, the external formed by the outer head, the 
 internal by the long portion (the inner head not 
 ascending upwards except by a few fibres, which at 
 this level unite their forms with that of the long 
 portion). These various details, viz., the tendinous 
 flat surface above the olecranon, the muscular promi- 
 nences which bound it on each side, and the two 
 fleshy bodies which ascend above it — become visible 
 in a marked degree when the subject forcibly extends 
 the fore-arm on the arm, as in struggling against any 
 resistance which causes the position of flexion to be 
 maintained. It is hardly necessary to say that the 
 triceps is essentially the extensor muscle of the fore- 
 arm on the arm. It is not only for the purpose of 
 a regular enumeration, but also with regard to the- 
 anatomical interpretation of their external forms, that 
 we have classed the muscles of the arm as anterior 
 and posterior, as on each side of the arm, both its 
 internal and external borders, a groove runs which 
 separates the anterior from the posterior muscles. In 
 each of these grooves is a fibrous partition called the 
 internal and external intermuscular aponeurosis, which 
 is inserted by the corresponding borders to the humerus, 
 and on the other side to. the general aponeurotic cover- 
 ing of the limb ; . therefore this aponeurosis is slightly 
 drawn towards the humerus, along two vertical lines 
 corresponding to the intermuscular partition, and on 
 the external form two grooves clearly exist, each 
 
MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 221 
 
 corresponding to one of the intervals between the 
 anterior and posterior muscles. 
 
 The internal groove commences at the inferior 
 extremity of the coraco-brachialis, and descends al- 
 most to the inner condyle. Above it is faintly 
 marked, because the numerous nerves and vessels 
 surrounded by cellular tissue fill up the intermuscular 
 space at this level ; below it spreads out, and tends to 
 be confounded with the form of the internal part of 
 the brachialis anticus. 
 
 The external groove (Fig. 54) is short. It begins 
 at the level of 'the lower extremity of the deltoid and 
 does not descend to the external condyle, because the 
 first muscles of the external region of the fore-arm 
 arise (the supinator longus, 14, Fig. 54) from the 
 lower part of the external border of the humerus, so 
 that this groove is filled up by these muscles where 
 they curve forwards towards the bend of the elbow. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 
 
 Division into four groups: — 1st. The superficial anterior muscles, or 
 those arising from the inner condyle: pronator teres, flexor carp 
 radialis, palmaris longus, and flexor carpi ulnaris. 2nd. The an- 
 terior deep . muscles (flexors of the fingers and pronator quadratus). 
 3rd. External muscles: supinator longus (importance with regard 
 to the forms of the external region of elbow) ; the extensor carpi 
 radialis, longior, and brevipr ; the supinator brevis. 4th. The 
 posterior superficial muscles : the extensor communis, extensor 
 minimi digiti, extensor carpi ulnaris, and the anconeus. 
 
 Muscles of the fore-arm. — The two bones of the 
 fore-arm are covered by a series of muscles with fleshy 
 bodies, generally fusiform, terminating inferiorly in 
 tendons frequently very long, which become promir 
 nent in the region of the wrist. Some of these muscles 
 move the fore-arm on the arm, or the radius on the 
 ulna, but the action of the greater number is to move 
 the hand on the fore-arm and the different segments 
 of the fingers on each other. These muscles are 
 divided into five regions, each composed of four 
 muscles, making the total number of muscles in - 
 the arm twenty. But we must dwell upon "the super- 
 ficial muscles, a short mention being sufficient for the 
 deeper ones. We distinguish : — ist. An anterior su- 
 perficial layer, of which each muscle will be studied ; 
 2nd. An anterior deep layer, which we will rapidly 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 223 
 
 glance at ; 3rd. An external layer ; 4th. A superficial 
 posterior layer, which we must view in detail ; and 
 5 th. A posterior deep layer, respecting which we shall 
 only say sufficient to enable the reader to understand 
 the shape of the wrist formed by the corresponding 
 tendons. 
 
 I. The anterior superficial muscles. — All these 
 muscles arise by a common muscular mass from the 
 internal condyle, into which they are inserted without 
 exceeding the level, so that at the inner side of 
 the elbow, contrary to what takes place on the 
 outer side, the muscular structure of the fore-arm 
 does not ascend on the corresponding side of the 
 arm. Tf from the inner condyle we draw four lines, 
 of which the first goes towards the middle of the 
 radius, the second towards the outer side of the 
 hand, the third towards the middle, and the fourth 
 towards the, inner border of the hand ; these four lines, 
 of which the first is very oblique and the others 
 gradually approach the vertical, will give us the direc- 
 tion of each of these four anterior superficial muscles 
 of the fore-arm, which are, in the order of the lines, 
 from the most external to the internal, the pronator 
 teres, the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longus, and 
 the flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 The pronator teres (6, Fig. 55) is fleshy through- 
 out the entire extent in which it is visible on the 
 model ; arising from the internal condyle, jt is 
 directed obliquely downwards and outwards, and 
 disappears beneath the external muscles of the fore- 
 arm (beneath the supinator longus) and arrives on 
 
224 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Fin. 55. 
 
 the radius around which it 
 is slightly twisted, to be in- 
 serted into the middle of its 
 external surface (impression 
 for the pronator teres (page 65). 
 Its contraction turns the radius 
 forward and inwards, producing 
 pronation. This muscle forms 
 the external side,. very oblique, 
 of a triangular pit, of which the 
 outer side is. formed by the 
 supinator longus (12, Fig. 55). 
 In this pit (pit of the elbow) 
 the biceps dips down (3, Fig. 55) 
 with the brachialis anticus (4, 4, 
 Fig. 55) to be inserted into the 
 bones of the fore-arm. The 
 upper part of the pronator teres 
 is crossed by the aponeurotic 
 expansion of the biceps (2, 
 Fig. 55), and we have already 
 
 Fig., 55. — The Anterior Muscles of 'the 
 Left Fore-Arm. — 1, the biceps brachialis ; — 2, 
 its aponeurotic expansion ; — 3, its tendon ;— 4, 4, 
 brachialis anticus ; — 5, the internal head of the 
 triceps ; — 6, pronator radii teres ;— 7, flexor carpi 
 radialis ; — 8, 9, palmaris longus ; — io f flexor carpi 
 ulnaris ; — 11, its attachment to the pisiform bone; 
 —12, 13, supinator longus ;— 14 and 15, the ex- 
 tensor carpi radialis, longior, and brevior; — 16, 
 the abductor longus pollicis ; — 17,' its tendon ; — 
 18, tendon of extensor longus pollicis ; — 19, 20, 
 21, the superficial flexor of the fingers and its 
 tendons ; — 22, tendons of the deep flexors ; — 23, 
 23, the lumbricales ; — 24, abductor brevis pollicis ; 
 25, adductor pollicis ; — 26, flexor longus pollicis ; 
 — 27, flexor brevis. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE- ARM. 225 
 
 dwelt on the particulars of the form which is the 
 result of this arrangement. 
 
 The flexor carpi radialis (7, Fig. 55) arises, from 
 the inner condyle, forms a fusiform fleshy body, des- 
 cending obliquely, which at the level of. the middle 
 of the fore-arm is replaced by a tendon which gradu- 
 ally becomes narrower, gains the external part of the 
 wrist (on a level with the base of the eminence at the 
 base of the thumb), and then disappears beneath the 
 annular ligament of the carpus, lying in a groove 
 on the anterior surface of the trapezium, to be in- 
 serted into the base of the metacarpal bone of the 
 index finger. This muscle flexes the hand on the 
 fore-arm ; when it contracts, its tendon becomes very 
 prominent and raises the skin at the lower part of the 
 anterior- surface of the fore-arm ; it forms the first 
 tendinous prominence that we meet in this level in 
 passing from the radial to the ulnar border. 
 
 The palmatis longus (8, 9, Fig. 55) is a miniature 
 reproduction of the preceding muscle ; arising from 
 the internal condyle, it presents at first a short fusi- 
 form fleshy body (8) to which soon succeeds a long 
 slender tendon descending almost vertically towards 
 the middle of the wrist, where it terminates by being 
 inserted into the annular ligament of the carpus (9, 
 Fig. 55) ; it flexes the hand on the fore-arm, and, like 
 the preceding, its tendon forms below a well-marked 
 prominence situated in the middle line on the inner 
 side of the tendon of the preceding muscle. In some 
 subjects this muscle is absent, and it is frequently 
 subject to important variations of form. 
 P 
 
226 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The flexor ulnaris (10, II, Fig. 55) arises not only 
 from the inner condyle like the three preceding 
 muscles, but also (18, Fig. 56) from the corresponding 
 border of the olecranon and the internal border of the 
 ulna ; it descends vertically beside the ulna, and pre- 
 sents this remarkable peculiarity that the fleshy fibres 
 accompany the tendon to its point of insertion, which 
 is the pisiform bone of the carpus (1 1, Fig. 55). Hence 
 its form is not marked by a prominence such as those 
 produced by the tendons of the preceding muscles, 
 and this muscle helps to give a rounded form to the 
 whole extent of the internal border of the fore-arm. 
 It is a flexor of the hand, which it at the same time 
 inclines towards the internal border of the fore- 
 arm. 
 
 II. Anterior deep muscles. — With regard to form 
 these muscles constitute a fleshy mass lying beneath 
 the preceding, and terminate below in numerous ten- 
 dons, which the muscular fibres accompany low down ; 
 the tendons and lower part of the muscular fibres 
 appear on the model in the bottom of the grooves 
 between the tendon of the flexor radialis and that 
 of the palmaris longus, and between the tendons of 
 the palmaris and the flexor ulnaris (19, 19, Fig. 55). 
 Lower down in the hand the tendons of these muscles 
 lie in the anterior groove of the carpus,, formed into a 
 canal by the corresponding annular ligament, and are 
 inserted into the phalanges of the . fingers, presenting 
 peculiar features which we will rapidly point out in 
 enumerating these muscles. 
 
 These are, 1st, the flexor digitorum sublimis(ig, Fig. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 227' 
 
 55), which divides below into four tendons, one for each 
 finger (except the thumb) ; 2nd, the flexor digitorum 
 profundus, which also divides into four tendons, one 
 for each finger (except the thumb) ; therefore, at the 
 base of the anterior surface of each finger we see two 
 tendons— one superficial (23, Fig. 55), and the other 
 deep. The first presents at the level of the first 
 phalanx (20, Fig. 55) a slit or button-hole, through 
 which the second passes ; owing to this arrange- 
 ment the. tendon of the deep flexor is inserted into 
 base of the third phalanx (22, Fig. 55); while the 
 superficial flexor is inserted into the base of the 
 second (21, Fig. 55). There is a flexor muscle for 
 each of these phalanges (the first phalanges of the 
 fingers have special flexors, the small lumbricales 
 muscles of the palm of the hand). 
 
 3rd. The flexor longus pollicis (26, Fig. 55), the 
 tendon of which is inserted into the base of the 
 second or -last phalanx of the thumb ; and 4th, 
 the pronator quadratics muscle, a deep -fleshy mass, 
 disposed in a different manner to the preceding 
 muscles, which must be raised in order to see it. 
 This muscle is formed by transverse fibres placed in 
 the whole of the lower part of the fore-arm, and 
 passing from the external border of the radius to 
 the internal border of the ulna ; its contraction brings 
 these two bones closer to each other, and consequently 
 produces pronation, since the radius cannot be brought 
 near the ulna without turning round it, from the 
 position of supination to that of pronation. 
 
 III. External muscles. — These form a fleshy mass 
 P 2 
 
228 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 which ascends on the inferior third of the external 
 border of the humerus (Fig. 54, page 215) and descends 
 along the external border of the radius. 
 
 Of these four muscles, one only is visible on the 
 model throughout its entire extent — viz., 1st, the supi- 
 nator longus (14, Fig. 54 ; 12, 13, Fig. 55), which arises 
 from the external border of the humerus, between the 
 brachialis anticus and the outer head of the triceps, so 
 that on this side the muscular structures of the fore- 
 arm ascend on the arm almost midway to the insertion 
 of the deltoid. The supinator longus enlarges as it 
 descends, so that it presents its greatest size at the 
 level of the external condyle, the prominence of 
 which it completely conceals. It forms the external 
 vertical boundary (page 224) of the triangular pit 
 of the bend of the elbow ; then, a little below the 
 point where it passes the pronator teres, the fleshy 
 fibres are replaced by a long tendon which lies on the 
 radius, and (13,- Fig. 55) is inserted into the base of 
 the styloid process of that bone. Notwithstanding its 
 name, this muscle is not essentially a supinator ; it 
 acts thus only when the fore-arm is in a position of 
 forced pronation, and it- keeps it in a position between 
 supination and pronation. Its principal action is the 
 flexion of the fore-arm on the arm, and in this move- 
 ment its form is clearly shown externally in the form 
 of a prominent band, which rises from the arm, and 
 forms, on the antero-external part of the elbow, a 
 strong fleshy mass, filling up on this side the hollow 
 of the angle- produced by the flexion of the fore- 
 arm on the arm. The supinator longus is the most 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 229 
 
 important of the muscles of the fore-arm with regard 
 to the part it takes in the form of this region. 
 
 The two next muscles (14 and 15, Fig. 55) are 
 partly hidden by the preceding ; they are the 
 radialis muscles (2 and 3), distinguished as the ex- 
 tensor carpi radialis longior and brevior (15, Fig. 54), 
 which arise from the internal condyle and the lower 
 part of the external border of the humerus, and pre- 
 sent a thick fleshy body (3 and 5, Fig. 56), which 
 increases the prominence of the supinator longus, and 
 helps to conceal the inner condyle. At about the same 
 level as in the supinator longus, a tendon succeeds 
 the fleshy body of each of these muscles, inclines a 
 little backward (Fig. 56), and, having been crossed 
 by the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and the extensor 
 primi internodii pollicis muscles (7 and 8, Fig. 56, 
 and the posterior deep muscles of the fore-arm), 
 arrives at the dorsal surface of the wrist, and is in- 
 serted, in the case of the radialis longior, into the 
 base of the metacarpal bone of the index finger 
 (dorsal surface), and in that of the radialis brevior into 
 the base of the metacarpal bone of the middle finger 
 (6, Fig. 56). 
 
 4th. On the upper part of the radius is a small 
 deep muscle, which does not show on the model, and 
 which we mention here only to point out that its 
 presence increases the prominence of the muscular 
 mass on the outer side of the elbow; this is the 
 supinator brevis, formed by fibres which are rolled 
 round the radius, so as to turn this bone from without 
 inwards, thus producing supination. 
 
230 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 IV. The posterior superficial 
 muscles (Fig. 56). — These four 
 muscles arise from the external 
 condyle, to which they, are at- 
 tached by a common tendon; 
 from this origin they are directed 
 downwards, the first almost ver- 
 tically, the last {anconeus) very 
 obliquely backwards and in- 
 wards. They are the extensor 
 communis digitorum, the exten- 
 sor minimi digiti, the extensor, 
 carpi ulnaris, and the anconeus. 
 
 1st. The extensor communis 
 digitorum (11, Fig 56), arising 
 from the external condyle, forms 
 a long fusiform fleshy body, to 
 which succeeds, at the inferior 
 third of the posterior surface of 
 the fore-arm, a tendon which 
 soon sub-divides into four ten- 
 
 Fic. 56. — The Posterior Muscles of the 
 Left Fore-arm. — i, the tendon of triceps brachi- 
 alis ; — 2, supinator longus ; — 3 and 4, extensor carpi 
 radialis Iongior ;— 5. and '6, extensor carpi radialis 
 brevior ; — 7 and 8, abductor longus pollicis and 
 extensor brevis pollicis ; — 9, 9, the extensor longus 
 , pollicis ; — 10, io, the angular ligament of the wrist 
 dorsal aspect ; — n, 12, the extensor communis 
 digitorum and its tendons ;— 13, the tendon of the 
 extensor in dicis ; — 14, the tendon of the extensor 
 minimi digiti ;— 15, 16, extensor carpi ulnaris ; — 17, 
 anconeus ;— ,18, the flexor carpi ulnaris; — 19, the 
 posterior border of the ulna ; — 20, olecranon ;— 21, 
 the inner condyle. 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 23 1 
 
 dinous cords, which remain together until they have 
 passed a groove situated in the centre of the inferior 
 extremity of the radius, but which separate when 
 they reach the dorsal surface of the wrist, diverging 
 so as to be attached to each of the four fingers. 
 On the dorsal surface of the first phalanx of each 
 finger (12, Fig. 56) the extensor tendon divides 
 into three slips, the central one inserted into the 
 base of the second phalanx, while the two lateral 
 join again to be inserted into the base of the third 
 phalanx. 
 
 2nd. The extensor minimi digiti is merely a small 
 bundle of fleshy fibres from the preceding muscle, 
 more or less distinctly detached from its inner border, 
 but continued by a distinct tendon, which passes 
 through a fibrous groove in the posterior part of the 
 radio-Ulnar articulation, and from the wrist is directed 
 towards the posterior surface of the little finger (14, 
 Fig. 56), at which point, becoming united with the 
 tendinous fasciculi from the common tendon furnished 
 to the same finger, it presents the arrangement in three 
 slips (12) already described. 
 
 3rd. The extensor carpi ulnaris (15, Fig. 56).— Its 
 fusiform fleshy body arises from the external condyle' 
 and is directed obliquely downwards and inwards, 
 reaching the posterior surface of the ulna, into which 
 it is inserted, and is replaced by a tendon at the 
 inferior fourth of that bone (15, Fig. 56). This tendon 
 passes in a groove on the posterior surface of the 
 ulna (16, Fig. 56) and at the inner part of the dorsal, 
 surface of the carpus, it terminates almost immediately 
 
232 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 by being inserted into the base of the metacarpal 
 bone of the little finger (16, Fig. 56). 
 
 These three muscles are extensors of the fingers 
 and hand. If we examine a living model which has 
 the arm folded on the trunk, the dorsal surface of the 
 fore-arm being turned forwards, and which quickly 
 moves the fingers and hand, we see clearly the move- 
 ments of the fingers marked by muscular movements 
 in the upper two-thirds of the posterior surface of the 
 fore-arm. We can, by following the prominences of 
 these muscles in contraction, clearly recognise their 
 fusiform bodies. 
 
 4th. The anconeus occupies the superior part of 
 the posterior surface of the fore-arm, as its name 
 indicates (arfKcav, olecranon, elbow), it is a muscle of 
 the region of the elbow; it forms (17, Fig. 56) a 
 triangular fleshy mass, of which the apex is attached 
 to the external condyle, and the base is inserted into 
 the external surface of the olecranon, and correspond- 
 ing part of the ulna (19, Fig. 56). As the ulna does 
 not possess the movements of rotation, or from side 
 to side, but only flexion and extension of the humerus, 
 the anconeus, situated behind the elbow joint has no 
 other action than that of extending the fore-arm on 
 the arm. When this movement, is forcibly produced, 
 we see the anconeus clearly marked by a triangular 
 prominence, of which the upper border, the shortest, is 
 united with the prominence of the outer head of the 
 triceps ; and we have already mentioned the anato- 
 mical fact that the inferior portion of the triceps is 
 directly continuous in the fore-arm with the anconeus. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE FORE- ARM. 
 
 The posterior deep muscles of the fore-arm, their tendons at the level 
 of the wrist (anatomical snuff-box). — Muscles of the hand : — 1st. 
 Muscles of the thumb, or thenar eminence (abductor brevis of 
 thumb). 2nd. Muscles of the little finger, or hypothenar eminence 
 (palmaris brevis, abductor minimi digiti). 3rd. Muscles of the 
 middle palmar region (lumbricales and interossei). 
 
 The deep posterior muscles of the fore-arm are im- 
 portant only, with regard to external forms, in the 
 arrangement ■ of their tendons in the wrist and hand ; 
 for this reason we will describe them with the 
 muscular structures of the hand and fingers. 
 
 As in the other regions of the fore-arm, we find in the 
 deep posterior layer, four muscles. The fleshy bodies 
 of these small muscles are almost completely hidden 
 beneath the posterior superficial muscles; but their ten- 
 dons, at least those of the first three, emerge beneath the 
 external border of the common extensor of the fingers, 
 and "their form is shown (7 and 8, Fig. 56) by details 
 of great importance on the outer side of the dorsal 
 aspect of the wrist. These four muscles, proceeding 
 from the most external to the internal are — the extensor 
 ossis metacarpi pollicis, the extensor primi intemodii 
 pollicis, the extensor secundi internodii pollicis, and the 
 extensor indicts. 
 
234 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The two first (7 and 8, Fig. 56), the extensor ossis 
 metacarpi (7), and the extensor primi internodii 
 pollicis (8), must be described together, as their fleshy 
 bodies and tendons are placed together and are almost 
 united throughout the greater extent of their course. 
 These two muscles emerge at about the commence- 
 ment of the inferior third of the outer border of the 
 common extensor of the fingers ; and their fleshy- 
 bodies form at this point (namely, the junction of 
 the posterior surface with the external border of 
 the fore-arm) an oblong prominence,, which is soon 
 succeeded by a double tendon, crossing the radial 
 tendons to be directed towards the external surface 
 of the styloid process of the radius, where it passes 
 through a groove which the dorsal annular ligament 
 of the carpus (10) forms into a canal. At the external 
 border of the carpus these two tendons form a 
 prominence, well marked beneath the skin which 
 they elevate when we strongly separate the thumb 
 from the other fingers. Finally, at the base of the 
 metacarpal bone of the thumb these tendons 
 separate, one-^that of the extensor ossis metacarpi 
 pollicis to be inserted into the base of the metacarpal 
 bone, while the other — that of the extensor primi 
 internodii pollicis, is inserted into the base of the' first 
 phalanx of the thumb (8, at the level of the thumb, 
 Fig. S 6). 
 
 . The extensor primi internodii pollicis (9, Fig. 56), 
 emerges like the preceding on the outer side of the 
 common extensor, but lower down ; its tendon only 
 appears at this point, and is directed almost vertically 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 235 
 
 downwards to pass, on the posterior surface of the 
 inferior extremity of the radius, into a small groove. 
 From the dorsal surface of the wrist it is directed 
 obliquely outwards, crossing only the tendons of 
 the radial muscles, and reaches the base of the 
 metacarpal bone of the thumb, where it is placed 
 beside the tendon of the extensor primi internodii, 
 and, descending lower than this tendon, is inserted 
 into the second or last phalanx of the thumb (9, 
 
 Fig- 56). 
 
 The two tendons of the extensor ossis metacarpis 
 and the primi internodii pollicis on the one side, and 
 the extensor secundi internodii on the other, form on . 
 the outer part of the dorsal region of the wrist a 
 triangular figure, of which the apex corresponds to 
 the superior extremity of the thumb, and the base 
 to the inferior extremity of the radius. When we 
 separate the thumb strongly from the index finger, 
 that is to say, when we contract the three small 
 muscles which we have been studying, the correspond- 
 ing tendons mark the borders of this triangle in the 
 form of prominent cords, between which is a deep tri- 
 angular depression ; to this depression we give the 
 name of the anatomical snuff-box (4, Fig. 56). 
 
 The extensor indicis is not visible on the model ; it is 
 deeply situated beneath the common extensor of the 
 fingers, and terminates in a tendon (13, Fig. 56) which 
 unites with the tendinous fibres from the common 
 extensor to the index finger. It is to this muscle 
 that the second finger of the hand owes its power of 
 extension independent of the other fingers, and of 
 
236 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 performing the functions which have given it the name 
 of the index or indicating finger. 
 
 Muscles of the hand. — The numerous muscles be- 
 longing to the hand form an interesting study with 
 regard to the mechanism of the multiple and delicate 
 movements of the fingers, but as the various details of 
 their complex arrangement do not show very plainly on 
 the external form of the model we will confine our study 
 of them to an enumeration of their principal points. 
 
 The dorsal region of the hand (Fig. 5.6) does not 
 possess any muscular fleshy bodies, but only presents 
 the tendons belonging to the muscles of the fore-arm. 
 On the other hand, the anterior or palmar region of 
 the- hand possesses, beside the tendons which transmit 
 the action of the muscular bodies of the fore-arm, 
 numerous small muscles, which are divided into three 
 groups : — 1st, an external group, belonging to the 
 thumb, forming at the level of the first metacarpal 
 bone, the fleshy prominence known as the thenar 
 eminence; 2nd, an internal group, belonging to the little 
 finger, forming the hypothenar eminence ; 3rd, a middle 
 group or palmar proper, formed by small muscles 
 belonging to the other fingers. 
 
 1st. The thenar eminence (24, 25, Fig. 55) is in the 
 form of a long ovoid, with the large superior extremity 
 corresponding to the bones of the carpus, and the 
 smaller inferior extremity corresponding to the base 
 of the first phalanx of the thumb. It is formed by 
 four muscles, namely, the abductor pollicis (24, Fig. 
 55), which proceeds from the scaphoid to the outer 
 side of the first phalanx of the thumb ; the opponens 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 237 
 
 pollicis, which arises from the trapezium, and is in- 
 serted into the entire length of the outer border of the 
 metacarpal bone, so that its contraction draws all 
 the thumb (phalanges and- metacarpal bone) towards 
 the palm of the hand, and thus opposes it to the 
 other fingers ; Has flexor brevis pollicis, which proceeds 
 from the trapezium to the base of the first phalanx ; 
 and finally, the adductor pollicis (25, Fig. 55), a 
 muscle remarkable for its arrangement, for it arises 
 from the middle of the palm of the hand, from the 
 anterior surface of the third metacarpal bone, and 
 forming a comparatively broad fleshy body, which 
 fills up the space between the first and second meta- 
 carpal bones, is inserted into the inner side of the 
 base of the first phalanx of the thumb. 
 
 2nd. The hypothenar eminence is long and elliptical 
 in form ; it is at first covered by a small muscle which 
 is not shown by any external prominence but only by 
 the folds which it marks in the skin during its con- 
 traction ; this is the palmaris brevis, and is formed 
 of transverse fibres, which, arising from the anterior 
 ligament of the carpus, are inserted into the deep 
 surface of the skin on the internal border of the 
 hand ; the contraction of these fibres draws the skin 
 of this part inwards, so that it forms an irregular 
 vertical furrow, while the prominence of the skin 
 of the upper part of the hypothenar eminence 
 becomes more clearly marked. The hypothenar 
 eminence itself is formed by three small muscles 
 vertically arranged beside the fifth metacarpal bone, 
 and which are, 1, the abductor minimi digiti (28, 
 
238 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Fig. 55), passing from the pisiform bone to the outer 
 side of the first phalanx of the little finger ; 2, the 
 flexor brevis (27, Fig. 55) of the little finger, passing 
 from the prominence of the unciform bone to the 
 inner side of the same phalanx ; and lastly, 3, the 
 opponens minimi digiti, arising from the unciform 
 bone and inserted into the entire length of the fifth 
 metacarpal bone, so that its contraction slightly 
 draws on the whole of the little finger, and opposes it 
 to a certain degree to the thumb. 
 
 3rd. The muscles of the middle region of the palm 
 of the hand are of two sorts. Some are arranged 
 between the tendons of the flexor muscles (see anterior 
 deep muscles of the fore-arm, page 227) and form 
 small fleshy bodies, which have been compared to the 
 form of a worm — hence their name of lumbricales. 
 The others are arranged in the spaces between the 
 metacarpal bones — hence their name of interosseous 
 muscles. 
 
 The lumbricales muscles, as the Figure' 55 shows 
 (23, 23), are four in number — one for each of the 
 four fingers. Their superior extremity is attached 
 to the corresponding deep flexor tendon ; from this 
 origin they descend obliquely to reach the external 
 border of the first phalanx of each finger ; at this 
 level the tendon of the muscle is inserted, conse- 
 quently it is a flexor, so that we find a flexor muscle 
 for each of the three phalanxes (page 227). The 
 tendon of the lumbricalis is prolonged on the back of 
 the finger, where it unites with one of the lateral slips 
 of the corresponding extensor tendon, with which it 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM. 239 
 
 proceeds to the dorsal surface of the third phalanx, to 
 the extension of which it contributes. 
 
 The interosseous muscles' are two in number in 
 each metacarpal space ; one, the stronger of the two, 
 occupies principally the dorsal part of the space — 
 hence its name of the dorsal interosseous ; the other, 
 smaller, called the palmar interosseous, because it oc- 
 cupies only the palmar part of the metacarpal space. 
 These muscles are attached to the sides of the first 
 phalanxes of the fingers by their inferior extremities. 
 Their arrangement, into the details of which we will 
 not enter here, is such that the dorsal interossei serve 
 to separate the fingers from each other, while the 
 palmar serve to bring them together. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 
 
 Gluteus maximus, its thickness, its form (four borders, of which the 
 inferior is thick and free), its relations with the great trochanter. 
 — Ghiteus medius. — The subjacent muscles as a whole (gluteus 
 minimus, pyriformis, &c). — Muscles of the thigh : 1st, External 
 region, tensor fascia, lata [vagina femoris), its importance with 
 regard to external forms, aponeurosis of fascia lata ; 2nd, Anterior 
 region, sartorius, peculiarities of this muscle during contraction, 
 triceps cruralis (rectus, vastus internus, vastus externus) ; 3rd, 
 Internal region, mass of the adductors ; 4th, Posterior region 
 (biceps, semi-tendinosus, and semi-membranosus). 
 
 Muscles of the pelvis. — The muscles of the pelvis 
 visible on the model are all situated on the posterior 
 surface of that part of the skeleton, and form the 
 gluteal region. In front the anterior wall of the ab- 
 domen, descending to the crural arch and pubis 
 (Fig. 50, page 191), conceals the muscles which pro- 
 ceed from the interior of the pelvis towards the thigh 
 — muscles of which a short sketch will be given, with 
 the fleshy masses of the anterior crural region. 
 
 Of the muscles of the gluteal region two only are 
 superficial and well marked on the model — viz., the 
 gluteus maximus and gluteus medius. 
 
 The gluteus maximus muscle (Fig. 52, page 197) is 
 the largest and thickest of all the muscles of the body. 
 It is composed of large fleshy fibres obliquely directed 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 241 
 
 from the sacro-iliac region towards the upper part of 
 the femur. Its fibres arise from the posterior ex- 
 tremity of the crest of the ilium (4, Fig. 23, page 96), 
 and, by an aponeurosis from the crest of the sacrum ; 
 thence the fleshy fibres which arise from the sacro- 
 sciatic ligament are directed downwards and out- 
 wards (Fig. 48). At the level of the great trochanter 
 these fibres are replaced by a broad, thick, tendinous 
 lamina, which is continuous superficially with the 
 outer aponeurosis of the thigh {fascia lata, see later), 
 and which is inserted deeply into the external branch 
 of the bifurcation of the linea aspera of the femur 
 (page 123). This muscle presents four borders, which 
 are parallel in the shape of a diamond ; (1) an internal 
 border, presenting a slight convexity on the inner side, 
 and (2) an external border, slightly convex. This border 
 corresponds to the line along which the fleshy fibres 
 are replaced by tendinous ones ; it forms a promi- 
 nence, which encircles the region of the great tro- 
 chanter behind. When we have enumerated the muscles 
 lying beneath the gluteus maximus it will be easy to 
 understand that this muscular structure as a whole 
 is so prominent that we find the great trochanter, 
 forming pn the model a slightly depressed region 
 bounded behind and above by the prominence of the 
 glutei, and in front by the tensor muscle of the fascia 
 lata (see Muscles of the thigh). (3) The inferior border 
 of the gluteus maximus is thick, and forms an oblique 
 prominence, beneath which emerge the posterior 
 muscles- of the thigh ; it is this which forms the in- 
 ferior prominence of the region of the buttock. (4) The 
 Q 
 
242 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 superior border, on the contrary, is thin (Fig. 53, page 
 207), and is continuous with an aponeurosis which 
 covers the gluteus medius, so that at this level its 
 prominence is little marked on the model, being 
 lost more or less in the plane corresponding to the 
 gluteus medius. 
 
 The gluteus maximus is an extensor of the thigh 
 on the pelvis. In the upright position it supports the 
 pelvis behind and prevents it from inclining forwards. 
 It is by its action that the trunk is raised so as to be 
 in the same line as the upright lower limb. The 
 gluteus maximus is therefore the muscle of the up- 
 right position, and we observe the large size which it 
 presents in the human species compared with its 
 small proportions in the animals which have not the 
 biped attitude. 
 
 The gluteus medius muscle is situated both beneath 
 and above that of the gluteus maximus, that is to say, 
 the postero-inferior part is covered by the preceding 
 muscle, but its antero-superior part is uncovered on 
 the model. This latter part (Fig. 53, between 22 and 
 23) is, however, covered by a thick aponeurosis, which 
 conceals the prominence of the fibres of the muscle, not 
 allowing the whole of their mass to appear. . Arising 
 from the anterior three-fourths of the crest of the ilium 
 (as far as the level of the anterior superior spine), the 
 fibres of the gluteus medius descend, converging to- 
 wards the great -trochanter, into the external surface 
 of which they are inserted by a thick aponeurotic ten- 
 don. The fleshy fibres cease a little above the great 
 trochanter so as to form a prominence along a curved. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 243 
 
 line with its concavity downwards,' which forms the 
 superior boundary of the depression corresponding to 
 the region of the great trochanter, as we have stated 
 above. The gluteus medius, by its posterior fibres, 
 acts like the gluteus maximus which covers them ; by 
 its anterior fibres it draws the thigh outwards, causing 
 it to turn on its axis from without inwards. 
 
 These muscles (gluteus maximus and medius) are 
 lined by a series of deep muscles filling up the large 
 space which we observe on the skeleton between the 
 great trochanter and the external iliac fossa. These 
 muscles, which we will only enumerate so as to under- 
 stand the importance of the prominence of the buttock, 
 are, taking them from above downwards and from 
 before backwards, as follows — the gluteus minimus, 
 which almost exactly lines the gluteus medius, -pro- 
 ceeding from the external iliac fossa to the anterior 
 border of the great trochanter ; the pyriformis, of 
 which the fleshy body is situated within the pelvis, on 
 the sides of the anterior surface of the sacrum, escapes 
 from the pelvis through the great sciatic notch, and 
 from this is directed almost horizontally towards the 
 great trochanter, into the upper border of which its 
 tendon is inserted ; the obturator internus, which pro- 
 . ceeds also from the interior surface of the pelvis, is 
 reflected on the lesser sciatic notch and inserted into 
 the internal surface of the great trochanter; and 
 finally, the quadratus femoris, formed by short hori- 
 zontal fibres, which proceed from the external part of 
 the tuberosity of the ischium to the posterior border 
 of the great trochanter. 
 9 2 
 
244 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Muscles of the thigh. — The muscles of the thigh 
 are arranged around the femur, and frequently in a 
 direction so oblique that they belong by one portion, 
 for example, to the anterior region, and by their other 
 portion to the internal. We can, however, class them 
 into Four regions — the external, comprising the tensor 
 vagina femoris {fascia lata) ; the anterior, comprising 
 the sartorius and triceps cruralis ; the internal, com- 
 prising the adductors; and finally, the posterior region, 
 comprising the biceps, the semi-membranosus, and the 
 semi-tendinosus. 
 
 The tensor vaginae femoris muscle (3, Fig. 57). — This - 
 is continuous in front with the plane of the gluteus 
 medius (23, Fig. 53, page 207), but forms a prominence 
 better marked and more distinct thari that muscle. It 
 arises from the anterior superior spine of the ilium, 
 and its fleshy body is directed downwards and back- 
 wards on the external surface of the thigh, to termi- 
 nate shortly by being inserted into the broad and 
 thick aponeurosis (the fascia lata) which covers 
 this region (4, Fig. 57). In this aponeurosis we 
 can distinguish the vertical fibres, which. proceed di- 
 rectly from the muscle and descend to the external 
 surface of the knee, where they form a distinct 
 prominent tendon, to be inserted into the tuberosity 
 of the anterior tibial (see page 127). This muscle 
 is a rotator inwards of the thigh and all the lower 
 limb, and contributes also to the flexion of the thigh 
 on the pelvis ; therefore, when the thigh is extended 
 and not turned inwards, the tensor muscle forms be- 
 neath the iliac spine a long muscular form, but when 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 
 
 it is in action, this form 
 becomes short, as broad as 
 it is long, and forms a cha- 
 racteristic globular mass. 
 This contrast in the form of 
 the tensor muscle in repose 
 and in action has been 
 beautifully shown on the 
 Gladiator, in which there is 
 contraction of the tensor of 
 the right thigh *ind relaxa- 
 tion of that of the left. 
 
 The .aponeurosis of the 
 fascia lata covers a large 
 fleshy mass, the vastus ex- 
 ternus of the triceps, which 
 belongs to the anterior 
 muscles. This muscle, thus 
 covered in, is shown through- 
 out its entire extent in the 
 external form, but the de- 
 tails of its configuration, at 
 least in its upper two-thirds, 
 are not revealed. 
 
 The sartorius muscle (5, 
 Figs. 57 ; and 23, Fig. 50, 
 page 191). — This .is the 
 longest muscle in the human 
 
 The Muscles of the Anterior 
 
 Surface of the Right Thigh.— 
 1, the iliacus ;— 2, the psoas ; — 3, the tensor vagina? femoris ; — 4, its tendon (fascia 
 lata) ; — 5, the sartorius ; — 6, the rectus (long head of triceps) ;— 7, vastus extern'us, 
 the external head) ; — 8, vastus interims, the internal head ; — o, the gracilis ;— 10, the 
 adductor longus ;— n, the pectineus. 
 
246 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 body ; it forms a thin fleshy band, which arises 
 from the anterior superior iliac spine, and is directed 
 obliquely downwards and inwards ; crossing the upper 
 part of the anterior surface of the thigh, it arrives 
 at the internal surface, then descending to the knee 
 passes behind the inner condyle of the femur 
 (Fig. 61), describing a curve with the concavity 
 forward, to terminate at the upper part of the internal 
 surface of the tibia in a flat tendon (19 and 20, Fig. 
 61) which is inserted into that bone, forming' the 
 superficial layer of the pes anseringis (a tendinous 
 expansion in which the gracilis and semi-tendinosus 
 also take part). 
 
 The sartorius flexes the thigh on the pelvis, 
 and the leg on the thigh ; so that it gives to the 
 lower limb a position similar to that of a tailor when 
 seated^ hence the name of this muscle (Lat, sartor, a 
 tailor). With regard to form this muscle is shown 
 externally in a peculiar manner. When it contracts, 
 its superior extremity only shows its swelling by 
 an external prominence ; throughout the rest of its 
 extent, this muscle, lying on • a thick compressible 
 fleshy bed (the adductors) depresses it, sinking a 
 little into it, as a cord must when twisted tightly 
 around a soft body, and therefore marks its presence 
 by a large shallow furrow, felt especially towards 
 the inner surface of the thigh, at the junction of the 
 upper two-thirds with the lower third. 
 
 Triceps cruralis (6, 7, 8, Fig. 57). — The triceps 
 crural belongs both to the external and internal 
 regions of the thigh as well as to the anterior: 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 247 
 
 but the portion of most importance with regard to 
 form — the rectus fenioris — is situated in front. The 
 triceps, as its name indicates, is composed, like its 
 fellow in the arm, of three portions : one, the 
 middle,, called the rectus, and two lateral, the vastus 
 internus, and the vastus externus. 
 
 The rectus (24, Fig. 50, and 6, Fig. 57) is long 
 and fusiform in shape, that is to say, larger in its 
 centre than at its extremities. Its superior extremity, 
 the more slender of the two, arises by a short tendon 
 from the anterior inferior iliac spine, passing between 
 the tensor vagina femoris and the sartorius. The 
 rectus emerges from the triangular space which 
 separates these two muscles (Fig. 57), descends 
 vertically on the "anterior surface of the thigh, and 
 about four inches above the patella forms a broad 
 triangular tendon (Figs. 57 and 59), the borders of 
 which give insertion to the vastus internus and 
 externus muscles, and whose base is inserted into the 
 patella. From the lower part of the patella arises 
 a broad ligament (page 135), which is inserted into 
 the tuberosity of the tibia ; therefore, we see that 
 by means of this ligament, or tendon of the patella, 
 the triceps is inserted into the tibia (Fig. 33, page 
 129). 
 
 The vastus internus muscle (8, Fig. 57) is a very 
 large fleshy mass, which quite surrounds the femur, 
 for, arising from the internal lip of the linea aspera of 
 the femur, it covers the internal surface, the anterior, 
 and also the external surface of the bone, forming a 
 fleshy body, which is carried vertically downwards 
 
248 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 to be inserted by its antero-external fibres into the 
 deep surface, and by the others into the internal 
 border of the triangular tendon above the patella. 
 These last fibres (the internal), easily seen on the 
 subject, are obliquely directed, and form a fleshy mass, 
 which descends to the level of the patella (8, Fig. 57, 
 and 17, Fig. 61). Again, the line along which they 
 are inserted into the tendon is vertical, continuous 
 almost at a right angle with the lower border of the 
 muscle, directed horizontally from the level of the 
 patella. The,se details are of great importance with 
 regard to the contour of the region above the patella, 
 and are all the more perceptible when they are con- 
 trasted, as we shall see, with the arrangement 
 presented at the same level by the lower part of 
 the vastus externus. 
 
 The vastus externus (7, Fig. 57), of which the name 
 is less justified than that of the preceding muscle, 
 covers the external part of the vastus internus, and 
 extends vertically from the base of the great trochanter 
 to the external border of the triangular tendon ; but 
 the line along which it is inserted into this tendon, 
 describes a curve of which the convexity looks 
 towards the supero-external angle of the patella, 
 from which it is separated by a considerable in- 
 terval (Figs. 57 and 60). Therefore, on the external 
 form the flat surface above the patella forms a 
 species of triangle, of which the borders are very 
 different, the internal being vertical, the external 
 oblique, curved, and situated high up ; the base of the 
 triangle corresponds to the patella, and the lateral 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 249 
 
 parts of the capsule of the knee ; its truncated 
 summit corresponds to the inferior extremity of the 
 fleshy body of the rectus ; the borders of this flat 
 surface, formed by the muscular parts of the triceps, 
 become very prominent when this muscle contracts, 
 when the leg is brought forcibly in extension on the 
 .thigh. It is hardly necessary to point out, since it is 
 clear from its anatomical arrangement that the triceps, 
 passing by the patella and its ligament to the anterior 
 tuberosity of the tibia, is essentially the extensor 
 muscle of the leg. 
 
 The mass of the adductor muscles. — We understand 
 by the name of the mass of the adductors the numerous 
 muscles that are arranged in the inner part of the thigh, 
 and which, passing from the pubis and ischium along 
 the entire length of the femur, fill up the triangular 
 space which the skeleton presents between the internal 
 surface of the femur and the corresponding half of 
 the pelvis. Some of the muscles of this mass take 
 especially the name of adductors. We will study in 
 succession three muscles clearly visible on the model, 
 viz., the pectineus, the adductor medius or longus, and 
 the gracilis ; then we will mention briefly the muscles 
 almost hidden by the preceding, namely, the adductor 
 brevis and the adductor magnus. 
 
 The pectineus muscle (22, Fig. 50, and 11, Fig. 57), 
 — the first and shortest of the muscles of this region is 
 in appearance a broad fleshy band which extends from 
 the horizontal ramus of the pubis to the upper part 
 of the shaft of the femur (a rough line passing from 
 the linea aspera to the lesser trochanter). The lower 
 
250 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 part of this muscle is hidden by the sartorius, and the 
 upper part itself does not show clearly beneath the skin, 
 which is always more or less loaded with fat in this 
 region. The pectineus and the upper part of the sar- 
 torius bound a triangular space with its apex below, 
 known in surgical anatomy as Scarpa's triangle, 
 in which terminates a large muscle, of which the 
 fleshy body is for the most part situated in the cavity 
 of the pelvis and abdomen. This is the psoas iliacus 
 muscle (i and 2, Fig. 57) which arises from the lateral 
 parts of the lumbar vertebrae (psoas) and from the 
 internal iliac fossa (iliacus), passes beneath the crural 
 arch (page 100) and arrives at the bottom of the tri- 
 angular space to be inserted into the lesser trochanter. 
 This muscle is not visible on the external form, as 
 the triangular space of which it forms the floor is 
 filled up by the blood vessels and lymphatic- glands 
 which give to this region an irregular contour, vary- 
 ing considerably in different individuals (Fig. 51). 
 
 The adductor longus is triangular in shape (10, 
 Fig. 57) ; its tendinous apex arises from the spine of 
 the pubis, and its base, hidden by the sartorius, is in- 
 serted into the middle portion of the linea aspera of 
 the femur. 
 
 The gracilis is visible throughout its entire length 
 on the inner surface of the thigh (9. Fig. 57); it forms 
 a long slender fleshy band, broad above and narrow 
 below ; it arises from the internal border of the 
 descending ramus of the pubis, from which origin it 
 descends vertically; a little above the inner condyle 
 of the femur it is replaced by narrow tendon (15, Fig. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 251 
 
 58), which passes behind the condyle, describing a 
 slight curve like the sartorius, and with the tendon of 
 this last muscle forms the pes anserinus (pages 246 
 and 253), being inserted into the upper part of the 
 internal surface of the tibia. 
 
 Covered by the preceding muscles and placed 
 more deeply, are the adductors brevis and magnus, 
 which fill up the space between the gracilis and the 
 femur. The adductor brevis extends from the pubis 
 to the upper part of the linea aspera ; the adductor 
 magnus is a large muscle which arises from the 
 tuberosity and ascending ramus of the ischium, and 
 is inserted into the entire length of the linea aspera of 
 the femur; so that it presents its superior fibres horir 
 .zontal and -its inferior almost vertical ; among these 
 last the most internal, called the long portion of the 
 adductor magnus, presents below a distinct tendon 
 which projects above the internal surface of the knee, 
 and is inserted into a tubercle which is placed above 
 the inner condyle of the femur. 
 
 The action of all these muscles which we have 
 just studied, except the pectineus, is to draw the thigh 
 inwards towards the axis of the body ; they also 
 bring the knees close to each other, hence they are 
 called the adductors of the thigh. 
 
 The posterior muscles of the' thigh. — These muscles, 
 three in number, arise from the. tuberosity of the 
 ischium, and thus their superior extremities are hid- 
 den beneath the gluteus maximus. They emerge 
 beneath the inferior border of that muscle and thence 
 descend vertically ; above the posterior surface of the 
 
252 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 knee they divide into two masses, one, the external, 
 formed by a single muscle, the biceps femoris, the other 
 internal, formed by two muscles placed one on the 
 other, the semi-membranosus and the semi-tendinosus. 
 
 The biceps femoris (12, Fig. 58) is so called because, 
 like the biceps in the arm, it is formed above by two 
 heads, a long head which arises' from the tuberosity 
 of the ischium, and a short head, more deeply placed, 
 which arises from the lower half of the linea aspera of 
 the femur. These two heads unite in a tendon (12, 
 Fig. 58) which the muscular fibres accompany for, the 
 greater part of its length, and which, inclining towards 
 the external lateral part of the knee, is inserted in the 
 form of a strong cord into the summit of the superior 
 extremity of the head of the fibula. This muscle 
 flexes the leg .on the thigh, and when it accomplishes 
 this action its tendon becomes very prominent, form- 
 ing the external boundary of the pit of the ham or 
 popliteal space. 
 
 The semi-tendinosus (13, Fig. 58), visible through- 
 out its entire extent (except that part that is hidden 
 beneath the gluteus maximus), has been so called 
 because in a great part of its length, almost equal to 
 its lower half, it is represented only by its tendon. 
 Its fleshy body arises above from the ischium, and 
 descends parallel to the long portion of the biceps, to 
 the inner side of which it is situated ; towards the 
 junction of the middle with the lower third of the 
 posterior surface of the thigh, this fleshy body becomes 
 narrower, and is immediately replaced by a tendon 
 (13, Fig. 58) which inclines inwards, passes behind 
 
MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH. 
 
 the internal condyle of the femur, 
 describing a slight curve with its 
 concavity forwards like the ten- 
 dons of the sartorius and gracilis, 
 with them (pages 246 and 250) 
 it forms the pes anserinus, and is 
 inserted into the upper part of 
 the internal surface of the tibia 
 (24, Fig. 61). This muscle flexes 
 the leg, and marks in this move- 
 ment the prominence of its ten- 
 don as the internal boundary of 
 the pit of the ham. 
 
 The semi-membranosus ; situ- 
 ated beneath the preceding, which 
 overlaps it below and on both 
 sides, is so called because its upper 
 half is formed by a broad mem- 
 branous tendon arising from the 
 tuberosity of the ischium. The 
 muscular fibres commence below 
 the middle of the thigh and form 
 a large fleshy body, thick, broad, 
 and short, which passes into a 
 strong tendon (14, Fig. 58) in- 
 serted into the posterior surface 
 of the internal tuberosity of the 
 tibia. 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 The Popliteai- Region 
 and Posterior Surface of 
 the Right Leg.— i, internal 
 gastrocnemius ; — 2, external gastrocnemius ; — 3, space between gastrocnemii ;— 4, 5, 
 tendon Achilles; — 6, 7, 7, plantaris muscle and its tendon; — 8, tendons of .deep 
 muscles (common flexor and posterior tibial); — 9, peroneus longus ; — 10, peroneus 
 brevis ; — n, soleus ; — 12, biceps femoris ; — 13, semi-tendinosus ; — 14, semi-membra- 
 nosus ;— 15, gracilis : — 16 sartorius. 
 
254 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The fleshy body of this muscle overlaps on each 
 side the tendon of the semi-tendinosus, and passing 
 to the median line of the posterior surface of the 
 thigh and knee, forms a large muscular prominence. 
 When the leg is flexed on the thigh, the tendons of 
 the biceps and semi-tendinosus become prominent, 
 bounding a deep pit (pit of the ham or popliteal space) 
 corresponding to the upper part of the posterior sur- 
 face of the knee, and the fleshy body of the semi- 
 membranosus remains hidden in the bottom of this 
 pit ; but when the leg is extended on the thigh there 
 is no longer a popliteal space, the posterior surface of 
 the knee presenting, on the contrary, a prominent 
 form, produced in the upper part by the fleshy mass 
 of the semi-membranosus, and in the lower part by 
 the median masses of the calf as we shall see in the 
 next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
 
 General arrangement of the muscles with regard to the skeleton. — 
 Anterior muscles of the leg (tibialis anticus and extensors). — 
 External or peroneal muscles ; relations of the long peroneal with 
 the sole of the foot, its influence on the form of the foot — Posterior 
 muscles ; gastrocnemii muscles (details of their composition and 
 form). Soleus muscle, plantaris, tendon Achilles. — Muscles of the 
 foot ; 1st, back of foot (extensor brevis muscle) ; 2nd, muscles of 
 the sole of the foot. 
 
 Muscles of the leg. — The arrangement of the 
 skeleton of the leg (tibia and fibula) is such that we 
 should expect a priori to find four muscular masses, 
 one on each of the surfaces of the skeleton, but the 
 internal surface of the tibia is subcutaneous (2, Fig. 
 59) not covered by any muscle, and, overlapped by the 
 anterior and posterior fleshy masses, it forms a long 
 flat surface, slightly hollowed, proceeding from the 
 internal surface of the knee to the internal malleolus. 
 The leg, therefore, presents for our study only three 
 groups of muscles, the anterior or antero-external, the 
 external or peroneal, and the posterior regions. 
 
 Anterior muscles (Fig. 59). — Arranged in the space 
 which separates the fibula from the tibia, they are 
 three in number, which are called, proceeding from the 
 tibia to the fibula, the tibialis anticus, the extensor pro- 
 prius pollicis, and the extensor longus digitorum. 
 
2$6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 The tibialis anticus (or anterior tibial, 3, Fig. 59) 
 arises from the external surface of the tibia, and 
 from the anterior tibial tuberosity (page 127), and 
 descends inclining obliquely inwards in the form 
 of a prismatic or fusiform fleshy body, of which 
 the inferior extremity , gradually becomes narrower, 
 to be replaced by a strong tendon at the com- 
 mencement of the lower third of the leg. This ten- 
 don, inclining more and more to the inner side (2, 
 Fig. 61), passes obliquely over the anterior surface of 
 the tibia, arrives in front of the internal malleolus, 
 where it glides beneath the anterior annular ligament 
 and reaches the inner part of the dorsum of the foot 
 (3, Fig. 61), where it is inserted into the first cuneiform 
 and, base of the first metatarsal bone. It is a flexor 
 of the foot, since it draws the dorsal surface of the 
 foot towards the anterior surface of the leg, at the 
 same time that it turns the point of the foot inwards, 
 and slightly raises its internal border. This muscle, 
 during contraction, shows externally all the details of 
 its shape, namely, at the level of the leg a fleshy body 
 which slightly overlaps the anterior crest of the tibia, 
 and in front of the ankle an oblique cord marking 
 clearly the direction of the tendon. 
 
 The extensor proprius pollicis (5, Fig. 59), as 
 regards its fleshy body, is hidden between the pre- 
 ceding muscle and the following one. Its tendon 
 only, accompanied still by some of the muscular 
 fibres, appears (2, Fig. 60) at the lower third of the 
 anterior surface of the leg, on the outer side of the 
 tendon of the tibialis anticus, and passes with it, but a 
 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
 
 little more obliquely, beneath the 
 annular ligament* of the ankle, 
 along the inner part of the dor- 
 sal surface of the foot (4, Fig. 61), 
 to be inserted into the base of 
 the second phalanx of the great 
 toe. When the great toe is 
 forcibly turned up during ex- 
 tension this tendon is clearly 
 shown throughout its entire 
 course. 
 
 The extensor longus digitorum 
 {common extensor of the toes, 
 4, Fig. 59,) arises from the ex- 
 ternal tuberosity of the tibia, to 
 the outer side of the tubercle of 
 the tibialis anticus, and from 
 the upper three-fourths of the 
 internal surface of the fibula; 
 it descends vertically, and pre- 
 sents below a tendon divided 
 into numerous slips, which re- 
 main together (3, Fig. 60) to 
 pass beneath the annular liga- 
 ment. Immediately after, these 
 slips spread out like a fan (4, 
 Fig. 60) in the form of five ten- 
 dons, of which the first four 
 reach the toes (from the second 
 to the fifth toe), into the last 
 phalanges of which they are 
 R 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Muscles of the Anterior 
 Region of the Lhg. — x, ten- 
 don of the rectus femoris ; — 2, 
 tibi ; — 3, the anterior tibial 
 muscle ; — 4, the common exten- 
 sor of the toes ; — 5, the proper 
 extensor of the great toe ; — 6, 
 the peroneus tertius ; — 7 and 8, 
 the peroneus longus and bre vis ; 
 — g, the external head of the 
 gastrocnemius; — 10, the internal 
 head of the gastrocnemius ; — 11, 
 extensor brevis digitorum ; — 12 
 the superior annular ligament 
 of the dorsum of the foot. 
 
ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 inserted, while the last. (6, Fig. 
 60), which is shorter, descend- 
 ing obliquely on the outer bor- 
 der of the foot, is inserted into 
 the base of the fifth metatarsal 
 bone. (This last tendon and 
 the muscular part which gives 
 origin to it (6, Fig. 59, and 5, 
 Fig. 6o) have been described 
 by some authors as the pero- 
 neus tertius. It is not always 
 present.) With the tibialis 
 anticus the common extensor 
 of the toes flexes the foot on 
 the leg, while at the same time 
 it extends the toes on the foot. 
 In this action it shows the 
 prominence of its fleshy body 
 especially at the middle of the 
 leg, and the prominences of 
 its tendons on the back of 
 the foot like diverging cords ; 
 the tendon which goes 
 to the fifth metatarsal 
 raises the outer border 
 of the foot, and it is 
 only at that time that 
 
 Muscles of the Leg (external surface). — i, t t the anterior tibial muscle ; — 2, si, 
 the tendon of the extensor proprius pollicis ; — 3, 3, the extensor longus digitorum 
 with its tendons (4, 5, and 6) ; — 7, the peroneus longus and its tendon (8) ;— 9, peroneus 
 breyis and its tendon (10) ;— 11, the external head of the gastrocnemius ;.i2, 12, the 
 soleus ; — 13, tendo Achillis ; — 14, extensor brevis digitorum ; — 15, abductor minimi 
 digiti ; — 16, the rectus femoris ; — 17, 18, vastus externus ; — 19, tendon of the biceps 
 femoris ; — 20, external lateral ligament of the knee. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE L£G. 259 
 
 its prominence shows beneath the skin. Usually it is 
 but little marked. 
 
 The external muscles (Fig; 60). — These are two in 
 number, placed on the external lateral surface of the 
 fibula, and are called the lateral peroneal muscles. They 
 are distinguished as the long and short peroneal. The 
 long peroneal is formed by a fleshy body which com- 
 mences at the head of the fibula, and which, relatively 
 broad and thick, descends almost to the middle of 
 the leg, where a tendon appears which the muscular 
 fibres accompany for some distance. At this level 
 exactly, that is, the middle third of the external 
 surface of the fibula (7, Fig. 60), the short peroneal 
 arises, which is thus placed beneath the tendon 
 of the preceding muscle, so that as regards form 
 these two muscles are united in a long fleshy .body 
 occupying the superior, three- fourths of the external 
 surface of the fibula. Their two tendons descend 
 also united in one single mass, and incline obliquely 
 from the external surface of the fibula on the posterior 
 (8, 9, Fig. 6o), so as to pass behind the external 
 malleolus (9, 10, Fig. 58), around which they are bent 
 as on a pulley and directed on to the outer border of 
 the foot. Then only the tendons separate from each 
 other, to be inserted into two points diametrically 
 opposite on the foot. One (that of the short peroneal) 
 is directed horizontally from behind forwards, on the 
 outer surface of the foot (10, Fig. 60), to be inserted 
 into the base or posterior extremity of the fifth 
 metatarsal bone ; while the other, that of the 
 long peroneus, is directed obliquely forwards and 
 
260 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 downwards so as to reach the sole of the foot, beneath 
 which it passes, lying in the groove of the cuboid bone ; 
 it then runs obliquely across the sole of the foot, from 
 the outer towards the inner border, deeply hidden by 
 the plantar muscles and ligaments, and arrives at the 
 posterior extremity of the first metatarsal bone, into 
 which it is inserted. 
 
 These two muscles, but especially the short 
 peroneal, extend the foot and carry its point to the 
 outer side, while at the same time they raise its 
 external border ; we see, therefore, that this action is 
 the reverse of that of the tibialis anticus. But the long 
 peroneal has another important function which ex- 
 plains why the . muscle becomes prominent whenever 
 a particular effort is demanded of the foot, as for 
 example, when it is carried forward in dancing, or in 
 the act of imparting motion to an object ; this muscle, 
 owing to the arrangement of its tendon, which passes 
 like the string of a bow across the hollow of the sole 
 of the footi acts by increasing this hollow, and there- 
 fore raises the plantar arch, and this is marked on 
 the dorsal surface by an increase of the curve of 
 the foot. 
 
 Posterior muscles (Fig. 58). — The posterior region 
 of the leg is very fleshy, and is formed by numerous 
 and powerful muscles which are divided into two 
 groups : — the superficial group, which we shall de- 
 scribe in detail, and the deep group, for which a few 
 words will be sufficient. The superficial group is 
 formed by the two gastrocnemii, the plantaris and 
 soleus muscles. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG, 
 
 The gastrocnemii (yaar^p, 
 belly ; kvij/jlt), leg) or twin 
 muscles, which form essentially 
 the prominence of the calf, are 
 two in number, one on each side 
 of the middle line of the calf, 
 and are distinguished (by their 
 relation to the axis of the body) 
 as the internal and external 
 gastrocnemius. The internal (i, 
 Fig. 58) arises from the upper 
 part of the internal condyle of 
 the femur; the external (2, 
 •Fig. 58) from the same point 
 on the external condyle. Both 
 descend together, each forming 
 a long ovoid fleshy body ; these 
 two bodies,, separated at first 
 by a small triangular space, 
 come almost immediately in 
 contact with each other, and 
 are then only separated by an 
 interval very narrow 
 and vertical (3, Fig. 
 58). Finally, they 
 terminate by a 
 rounded . inferior FlQ - 6l - 
 
 Muscles of the Leg (internal surface). — i,' 
 tibialis amicus ; — 2 and 3, its tendon ; — 4, tendon of the extensor proprius pollicis ; — 
 5 and 6, internal head of the gastrocnemius ; — 7, soleus ;— 8, tendo Achiltis ; — 9, its 
 attachment to the os calcis ; — 10, tendon of the plantaris muscle ; — n and 12, 'endon 
 of the tibialis posticus ; — 13 and 14, tendon of the flexor longus digitorum ; — 15, tendon 
 of the flexor longus pollicis ; — 16, x6, abductor pollicis ; — 17, vastus interims ; — 18, 19, 
 2o, sartorius ; — 21, 32, gracilis ; — 23, semi-membranosus ; — 24, semi-tendinosus- 
 
262 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 border with its convexity downwards, showing the 
 insertion of the muscle into the tendon Achilles, which 
 we will study when we speak of the soleus muscle, 
 which is also inserted into it. Except in some rare 
 exceptions the internal gastrocnemius descends a little 
 lower than the external (Fig. 58). 
 
 These two muscles extends the foot on the leg, there- 
 fore they act (by the tendon Achilles) on the calcaneum 
 or bone of the heel so as to raise the heel and cause 
 the living model, if erect, to rest on the point of the 
 foot (on the toes) and not on the sole of the foot. Now 
 the constitution of these muscles is such that their 
 external form is quite different when they are in re- 
 pose and when they are in contraction. Each muscle 
 presents at its upper part a tendon, which expands 
 over the outer half (relatively to the axis of the 
 limb), which it conceals, leaving the inner half quite 
 free (that which is placed on the inner side the middle 
 line of the popliteal space and the calf, page 50). In 
 a state of repose the two halves of the muscle unite in 
 the same rounded and prominent shape, so that we 
 cannot distinguish the part covered by the aponeu- 
 rotic expansion of tendon from the part formed by 
 free muscular fibres. But when the living model is 
 raised on the points of the feet or in any other move- 
 ment produced by a powerful contraction of these 
 muscles, we see in each of the muscles the free fleshy 
 part swell up much more, strongly than the part 
 covered and tied down by the aponeurosis. There- 
 fore, at that moment, the whole convex form of the 
 calf presents a slight ovoid flat surface on each side, 
 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 263 
 
 and a long vertical prominence in the middle line. 
 This prominence is produced by the free muscular 
 parts of the two muscles, which approach each other, 
 remaining together during contraction, and uniting 
 their double mass in a single median prominence. 
 The Fig. 58, by the differences in shading, enables 
 us to distinguish the aponeurotic from the muscular 
 parts, and to observe the important details of the 
 shape into the study of which we have entered. The 
 clear or aponeurotic parts correspond to the two flat 
 surfaces already mentioned, and the shaded or fleshy 
 parts correspond to the median prominence, with this 
 difference, that in the calf in contraction, this median 
 prominence is smoother • than in Fig. 58, the two 
 halves which compose it being merged into a single 
 mass, except at the triangular space in their superior 
 part. 
 
 We will now return to what we have already said 
 (see page 254) relative to the posterior region of the 
 knee examined on a living model when the leg 
 is extended. If the model raises himself on the points 
 of the feet it is no longer possible to speak of the . 
 popliteal space as a hollow in the posterior surface of 
 the knee. Under these conditions, the prominence 
 already studied of the semi-membranosus and that 
 of the median fleshy bodies of the gastrocnemii almost 
 join each other, and the plantaris muscle, of which 
 we will speak immediately, help to fill up the space; 
 the region of the popliteal space forms in reality a 
 prominent part, and the posterior surface of the 
 knee is marked in its central portion by a strong 
 
264 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. l 
 
 muscular form of which it is not possible to under- 
 stand the cause, except by an attentive study of the 
 gastrocnemii and semi-membranosus muscles. 
 
 The soleus muscle, so called because its form has 
 been compared to that of. a sole (Latin — soled), is 
 placed beneath the gastrocnemii, which overlap it 
 more on the internal (7, Fig. 61) than on the external 
 border (12, Fig. 60) of the calf. Arising from the 
 head of the fibula and from the tibia, it gives origin 
 below to a broad triangular tendon with its base 
 above, into the outer surface of which are inserted the 
 gastrocnemii muscles. This tendon, accompanied 
 still on its deep surface and on each of its borders by 
 the fibres of the soleus (Fig. 58), descends, becoming 
 narrower and thicker, and about two inches above the 
 calcaneum it becomes free, entirely wanting in mus- 
 cular fibres. This is the tendon Achilles, transmitting 
 the action of the gastrocnemii and soleus, which 
 arrives at the calcaneum, at which point it expands 
 slightly to be inserted into the inferior half of the 
 posterior surface of that bone (5, Fig. 58). 
 
 The soleus has the same action as the gastrocnemii, 
 therefore when the foot is strongly extended we see 
 the prominence of its fibres marked on each side of the 
 upper part, or triangular base of the tendon Achilles. 
 
 The plantaris is a small, insignificant muscle, of 
 which the fleshy body (6, Fig. 58), very short, arising 
 from the outer condyle of the femur, is united with 
 the external gastrocnemius. To this small fleshy 
 body succeeds -a long, thin tendon (7, Fig. 58), which 
 descends obliquely between the gastrocnemii and the 
 
MUSCLES Of THE LEG. 265 
 
 soleus to reach the inner border of the tendon Achilles, 
 which it follows in descending (10, Fig. 61). Some- 
 times it is united with this tendon early in its course, 
 and sometimes it reaches the calcaneum, or it may- 
 be lost in the fatty cellular tissue which surrounds 
 the tendon Achilles near the calcaneum. 
 
 The posterior deep muscles are not visible on the 
 model except at the lower part of the inner border of 
 the leg. At this point they present on the inner side 
 of the tendon Achilles (8, Fig. 58) a series of tendons 
 which resemble the tendons of the peroneal muscles, 
 arranged in the same manner on the other side at the 
 moment when they reach the posterior surface of the 
 fibula, and are reflected on the external malleolus 
 (9, 10, Fig. 58). These muscles are the tibialis 
 posticus, the flexor longus digitorum, and the flexor 
 proprius pollicis. The fleshy bodies of these muscles, 
 deeply hidden beneath the superficial muscles, arise 
 from the posterior surface of the tibia from the fibula 
 and interbsseus membrane. Their tendons descend 
 obliquely towards the posterior surface of the internal 
 malleolus, where those of the tibialis posticus and the 
 common flexor alone are visible (the tendon of the 
 flexor pollicis being almost entirely hidden beneath 
 the tendon Achilles). From this they are reflected 
 on the internal malleolus and pass into the sole of 
 the foot, following the internal groove of the calca- 
 neum. The tibialis posticus is almost immediately 
 inserted into the scaphoid bone (12, Fig. 61), and the 
 other two tendons reach the toes, where they are 
 arranged in the same manner as we have described 
 
266 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 in the hand for the tendons of flexor pollicis and deep 
 flexor of the fingers. 
 
 Muscles of the foot. — The foot presents not only 
 the muscles of the plantar region, like the hand in its 
 palmar part, but also possesses a fleshy body deve- 
 loped on its dorsal region and called the extensor 
 digitorum brevis muscle. 
 
 This muscle (i I, Fig. 59, and 14, Fig. 60) is formed 
 by a short, flat, fleshy body, arranged crosswise on 
 the back of the foot; so that it proceeds obliquely 
 from without inwards and from behind forwards. Its 
 postero-external extremity is rounded and attached 
 to the supero-external surface of the calcaneum in the 
 calcaneo-astragaloid or anfractuose cavity of the tarsus 
 (page 147). From this origin it is directed forwards 
 and inwards ; becoming broader, it passes beneath 
 the tendons of the common extensor and immediately 
 divides into four muscular slips, each of which soon 
 changes into a tendon. These tendons cross those of 
 the common extensor, so as to form with them a 
 figure with lozenge-shaped spaces, and proceed to the 
 first four toes to be inserted into the base of their first 
 phalanges uniting with the extensor tendons. This 
 muscle aids in the extension of the toes, and by its 
 obliquity counteracts the tendency of the long ex- 
 tensor in the other direction. When it contracts, the 
 portion of its fleshy body situated to the outer side 
 and behind the tendons of the long extensor become 
 very prominent, not being tied down by anything, 
 and this prominence is still clearer when behind it 
 is found a depression, more or less evident, corres- 
 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 267 
 
 ponding to the anfractuose or calcaneo-astragaloid 
 cavity of the tarsus. 
 
 We will not stay to describe the muscles of the 
 sole of the foot with regard to form. The foot owes 
 all the peculiarities of its form to its bony structure ; 
 the muscles of the sole round off by .their presence 
 the angle of the skeleton and fill up the cavities, but 
 do not modify essentially the bony forms. On the 
 
 ■ other hand, these numerous muscles are in general but 
 little developed. United into common masses, also, it 
 is frequently difficult, except, for the minute anatomist, 
 to isolate and recognise distinctly each fleshy body. 
 It is therefore useless for an artist to enter into a 
 
 . study in detail of these muscles, which reproduce in 
 their general arrangement the distribution of the 
 muscles of the hand. We will content ourselves, then, 
 by saying that the sole of the foot, like the palm of 
 the hand, possesses three muscular masses — 1st. One 
 internal (16, Fig. 61), belonging to the great toe, 
 formed by the abductor pollicis, which arises from the 
 calcaneum, and by the flexor brevis, the adductor 
 pollicis and transversus pedis, which arise from the 
 anterior bones of the tarsus and from the metatarsus ; 
 2nd. The other external (15, Fig. 60), belonging to 
 the fifth toe, formed by the abductor, which arises 
 from the calcaneum, and the flexor brevis from the 
 cuboid ; 3rd. Finally, a central mass, formed by the 
 flexor brevis digitorum, the lumbricales, and interossei — 
 which repeat what we have said regarding the muscles 
 of the same name, but less developed, and more easily 
 studied in the hand. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
 
 Lateral and anterior regions of the neck. — Sterno-mastoid muscles. 
 They bound, on the anterior surface of the neck, a triangle con- 
 taining the infra-hyoid and supra-hyoid regions. — Organs comprised 
 in the neck (vertebral column, oesophagus, and trachea). — Infra- 
 hyoid muscles, omo-hyoid, sterno-hyoid, sterno-thyroid, and thyro- 
 hyoid. — Supra-hyoid muscles, digastric, stylo-hyoid and mylo- 
 hyoid. 
 
 Muscles of the neck. — We have already, in treat- 
 ing of the trapezius, studied the muscular structure and 
 form of the posterior region of the neck, and various 
 details have been given relative to the upper part of 
 the lateral surfaces of the neck, or the oblique longi- 
 tudinal groove between the anterior border of the 
 trapezius and the external border of the sterno-cleido- 
 mastoid (pages 200 and 201). It now remains to 
 examine the inferior part of this groove and all the 
 anterior region of the neck. This study should begin 
 with that of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, which 
 form the most important forms of . these regions, and 
 which by their direction map out on the anterior 
 surface of the neck a muscular interval or space in 
 which it will be easy to study the deeply-placed 
 muscles. 
 
 The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles are two in num- 
 ber, one on each side of the neck, extending from 
 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
 
 2O9 
 
 the upper part of the thorax, obliquely upwards and 
 backwards, to the base of the head (19, Fig. 62). 
 Their inferior part is formed by two heads — one 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
 Muscles of the Neck and Face. — i, frontal ; — 2, occipital ; — 3, aponeurosis 
 of the occipital frontatis ;— 4, temporal ;— 6, orbicularis palpebrarum; — 7, levator 
 labii superioris et alae nasi ;— 8, dilator naris anterior and posterior ; — 9, compressor 
 naris ;— gV, pyramidalis nasi; — 10, zygomaticus minor;— 11, zygomaticus major; — 
 12, masseter ;— 13, levator anguli oris J— 14, levator labii superioris ;— 15, orbicularis 
 oris ;— 16, buccinator ; — 16', depressor anguli oris, or triangularis oris ;— 17, depressor 
 labii inferioris, or quadratus menti ; — 19, sternocleidomastoid ; — 20, trapezius ;— 
 21, digastric and stylo-hyoid ; — 22, anterior belly of the digastric ; — 23, os hyoides ; 
 — 24, omo-hyojd ;— 25, sternohyoid 5 — 26, thyro-hyoid ; — 27, mylo-hyoid ; — 28, ag, 
 splenitis. 
 
270 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 internal or sternal, which arises by a strong tendon 
 from the first piece of the sternum (18, Fig. 50, page 
 191), the other external or clavicular, which arises in 
 the form of a thin fleshy band from the internal fourth 
 of the posterior surface of the clavicle, beside the 
 origin of the clavicular portion of the great pectoral 
 muscle (page 185). These two heads are" directed 
 upwards and backwards; separated at first by a narrow 
 triangular space, of which the base corresponds to the 
 head of the clavicle (Fig. 49) ; they then unite into a 
 single muscular body, broad and thick, which ascends 
 obliquely towards the base of the head, passing behind 
 the vertical border of the lower jaw to be inserted into 
 the base of the mastoid process of the temporal bone 
 and the corresponding part of the curved line of the 
 occipital (16, Fig. 52). 
 
 This muscle, being inserted into the occipital at a 
 . part which is situated behind the axis of the move- 
 ments of flexion and extension of the head, acts by 
 extending the head on the neck, but to" this move- 
 ment, usually little marked, it adds the power of 
 flexing the neck on the trunk. When both these 
 muscles contract at the same time, they produce 
 extension of the head on the neck and flexion of the 
 neck on the thorax ; therefore we see both clearly 
 marked beneath the skin in a person lying down who 
 raises his head (by flexion of the neck). But more 
 frequently one muscle only contracts, and it acts by 
 turning the face to the opposite side ; therefore in the 
 living model who looks to the right the face turns to 
 this side by the contraction of the left sterno-cleido- 
 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 27 1 
 
 mastoid muscle, of which the prominence is well 
 shown beneath the skin as a broad cord, passing from 
 the sternum to the region of the ear (mastoid process 
 of the temporal). There are various attitudes in 
 which this prominence is particularly remarkable, as 
 when we carry the head quickly to one side to answer 
 a question or give an order ; or in the act of listening 
 intently, when we concentrate our attention to one 
 side and extend the head a little, turning the region 
 of the ear upwards and forwards, an attitude in which 
 the sterno-mastoid becomes particularly prominent 
 beneath the skin of the neck. 
 
 From their insertions and direction we see that 
 these two muscles are very close to each other below 
 and wide apart above. They thus form the borders of 
 a triangle, with its apex below corresponding to the 
 fourchette of the sternum and its base to the whole 
 breadth of the lower jaw. This triangle is the anterior 
 region of the neck, which is divided into two parts 
 by the' presence of the os hyoides — a small bone 
 without direct connection with the rest of the skeleton 
 and placed transversely above the prominence of the 
 larynx (23, Fig. 62). The inferior part forms a vertical 
 plane, oblique downwards and backwards, for it sinks 
 behind the sternum ; this is the infra-hyoid region, 
 containing the infra-hyoid muscles. The superior 
 part forms a plane approaching more or less the 
 horizontal, proceeding from the hyoid bone to the 
 chin and the circumference of the lower jaw ; this is 
 the supra-hyoid region, or that of the chin, containing 
 the supra-hyoid muscles. 
 
272 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Before entering into the description of these 
 regions we must point out the presence of organs 
 which, placed on the anterior surface of the cervical 
 vertebral column, fill up the space between it and the 
 muscles in question. These organs are represented 
 by two canals which descend from the posterior 
 region of the cavity of the mouth into the cavity of 
 the thorax. One of these canals is soft and fleshy 
 with a cavity effaced during repose ; this is the 
 oesophagus, or alimentary canal, applied in front of 
 the vertebral column. The other,, placed in front of 
 the preceding, forms the respiratory canal, or trachea, 
 which on account of its functions is always open. To 
 secure this" condition it is formed by cartilaginous 
 rings which give it an almost cylindrical form and 
 render it prominent below or in the middle space of 
 the infra-hyoid muscles. The upper rings of the 
 trachea form strong cartilaginous pieces, constituting 
 the cartilages of the larynx, placed below the hyoid 
 bone, of which the largest, called the thyroid cartilage, 
 forms by its anterior and superior part the prominence 
 commonly known as the pomum Adami (Fig. 62). 
 
 The infra-hyoid muscles arise from the superior 
 circumference of the thorax, and ascend towards the 
 inferior border of the hyoid bone. They are four in 
 number — two superficial (the omo-hyoid and sterno- 
 hyoid) and two deep (the sterno-thyroid and thyro- 
 hyoid). 
 
 The omo-hyoid (24, Fig. 62) is a small muscle, 
 long and slender, with a very remarkable course. It 
 arises from the upper border of the scapula (behind 
 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 273 
 
 the coracoid notch), and is directed at first hori- 
 zontally forwards and inwards along the posterior 
 border of the clavicle ; at the centre of this bone it 
 turns on itself and is directed upwards beneath the 
 sterno-mastoid to be inserted into the lateral part of 
 the lower border of the hyoid bone. This muscle, 
 covered at first by the trapezius and then by the 
 sterno-mastoid, is visible on the model in two parts 
 of its course only — at the point where it terminates 
 anteriorly, in front of the sterno-mastoid, and again 
 at its middle part, in the lower portion of the groove 
 which separates the trapezius from the sterno-mastoid. 
 Although deeply placed, this muscle becomes visible 
 beneath the skin, for- it raises itself sharply during 
 certain actions. Evidently, from its slender form, we 
 cannot expect to see in this muscle an elevator of the 
 scapula ; perhaps it serves to depress the hyoid bone. 
 But the most important fact is that when it contracts, 
 especially during spasmodic efforts in respiration, as 
 in the strong inspiration in sighing or sobbing, it acts 
 by preventing the skin and loose aponeurotic tissue 
 from being too strongly depressed in the supra-cla- 
 vicular fossa by atmospheric pressure (the Vacuum in 
 the thorax being caused by the inspiratory effort). 
 Therefore, if the neck is thin and the fossa well 
 marked, as in an aged female, we see clearly shown in 
 the supra-clavicular fossa, during the movements of 
 sobbing or abrupt respiration, the cord corresponding 
 to the central portion of the omo-hyoid muscle. 
 
 The sterno-hyoid (23, Fig. 49, and 25, Fig. 62) 
 forms a long, thin, fleshy band, extending from the 
 S 
 
2/4 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. . 
 
 posterior surface of the head of the clavicle to the 
 lower border of the hyoid bone. Both these muscles 
 are contiguous to each other by their internal, borders 
 above, but below, at the deep median fossa corres- 
 ponding to the fourchette of the sternum, they are 
 separated by a triangular space, in which appear the 
 trachea and the inner border of the following muscle. 
 
 The two deep muscles of this region form in reality 
 a single muscle, lining the sterno-hyoid beneath which 
 it is placed, but divided into two unequal parts. This 
 muscle arises from the posterior part of the first piece 
 of the sternum, and ascends vertically projecting be- 
 neath the sterno-hyoid (Fig. 49) ; arrived at the thyroid 
 cartilage it is , inserted into its external surface ; 
 ' this lower part, the longer of the two, is called the 
 sterno-thyroid ; but it is continuous with the second 
 portion, the shorter, which, arising from the thyroid 
 cartilage, ascends to be inserted into the hyoid bone 
 and has received the name of the thyro-hyoid. 
 
 The stipra-hyoid muscles proceed from the hyoid 
 bone to the base of the skull and jaw-bone, and by 
 their contraction elevate this bone, as can be easily 
 observed in those who bring into action the pharynx 
 or larynx, as in the act of singing or swallowing. The 
 type of these supra-hyoid muscles is afforded by the 
 digastric muscle composed of two fleshy bodies or 
 bellies, one anterior, the other posterior, connecting by 
 one of its bodies the hyoid bone with the base of the 
 skull, and by the other connecting that bone with the 
 chin region of the jaw. Next come two other muscles, 
 one posterior, placed beside the posterior belly of the 
 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 275 
 
 digastric and called the stylo-hyoid, and the other 
 beside the anterior belly, called the mylo-hyoid. 
 
 The digastric muscle arises from the internal sur- 
 face of the mastoid process of the temporal ; from 
 this origin it descends obliquely downwards and for- 
 wards (posterior belly, 21, Fig. 62) forming a fusiform 
 fleshy body, which near the hyoid bone is replaced by a 
 round tendon. This tendon is attached by a fibrous 
 expansion to the hyoid bone, and taking a fixed point 
 ,at this expansion it turns abruptly, so that from a 
 direction oblique downwards and forwards it is di- 
 rected obliquely upwards towards the chin ; at the 
 same time this tendon is soon replaced by a new 
 fusiform fleshy body (anterior belly, 22, Fig. 62) 
 which is inserted, on the posterior surface of the 
 symphysis of the chin,, into a small depression called 
 the digastric fossa. We see that this muscle, with its 
 two bodies, is admirably arranged to raise the hyoid 
 bone, and consequently the whole of the larynx, for 
 one of its bodies carries the hyoid bone upwards and 
 forwards, the other upwards and backwards, and if 
 the two bodies contract at the same time they raise 
 the hyoid bone directly upwards. 
 
 The stylo-hyoid is a small muscular fasciculus 
 which lines the posterior belly of the digastric beneath 
 which it is situated (21, Fig. 62). Arising from the 
 styloid process of the temporal, this muscle descends 
 downwards and forwards forming a species of groove 
 which receives the posterior belly of the digastric, with 
 which it is closely connected,, as at the level of the hyoid 
 bone the tendon of the digastric pierces the stylo- 
 S 2 
 
276 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 hyoid; the latter terminates by an aponeurotic slip 
 which is inserted into the lateral parts of the hyoid 
 bone. On the model the stylo-hyoid and digastric 
 are united in one cylindrical form (Fig. 62). 
 
 The mylo-hyoid muscle (27, Fig. 62) forms the floor 
 of the cavity of the mouth. It constitutes a quadri- 
 lateral fleshy plane, of which the superior border is 
 attached to the internal surface of the horizontal 
 branch of the lower jaw in a prominent oblique line, 
 and of which the inferior border is inserted into the 
 hyoid bone. The anterior border of this plane is con- 
 tinuous with the corresponding border of the muscle 
 of the opposite side, so that the two muscles, that of 
 the right and left side, form in reality a single fleshy 
 layer constituting the inferior or mental wall of the 
 mouth. This muscle is lined on its deep surface by 
 the fleshy fibres of muscles which are not visible ex- 
 ternally, and which, arising from the small tubercles 
 developed on the posterior surface of the symphysis 
 of the chin, are inserted either into the hyoid bone 
 (genio-hyoid, genial tubercles) or into the tongue 
 {genio-glossus). 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 
 
 I si. Muscles of mastication; masseter, its form, its part in the physiog- 
 nomy (character of firmness, of violence) ; temporal. 2nd. Muscles 
 of expression ; nature and special mechanism of the muscles of 
 the skin ; object of their study (expression of an actual passion, 
 momentary and not characteristic of the subject). — History of the 
 question. — Leonardo da Vinci, Le Brun, Camper, Charles Bell, 
 Lavater, Sue, Humbert de Superville. — Particular interest of the 
 drawings given by Humbert de Superville (Unknown Signs of Art). 
 — Duchenne of Boulogne and the experimental method applied to 
 the study of the physiognomy. — Darwin (the physiognomy from 
 the philosophical point of view of transformation and evolution). 
 
 THE muscles of the head are with few exceptions 
 placed in the anterior region, on the plane of the face, 
 and are divided into two very distinct classes — ist, 
 the muscles which - serve for mastication and move 
 the lower jaw ; and 2nd, the muscles which, under 
 the influence of the emotions, modify the traits of the 
 countenance and serve for the expression of the pas- 
 sions. We call these the muscles of expression. 
 
 The muscles of mastication reproduce the general 
 arrangement that we have already met with in the 
 various muscles of the trunk and limbs. They are 
 attached to the bones, and they have a fleshy body 
 more or less thick, which swells up when beginning 
 to contract, and is marked by its prominence, as the 
 
278 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 biceps shows its contraction by becoming prominent 
 on the anterior region of the arm. The muscles of 
 expression, on the contrary, present a new type. 
 These are the muscles of the skin, which move the 
 skin and not the parts of the skeleton ; therefore their 
 fleshy bodies are in general very slender, and their 
 contraction is not marked by any local swelling 
 corresponding to the fleshy body, but only by 'change 
 in place and form of the folds and membranous 
 structures of the face (eyelids, lips, &c). We will first 
 study the muscles of mastication. 
 
 Muscles of mastication, masseter. — The muscles 
 which move the lower jaw are inserted into the 
 vertical branch ; those on the inner side are the 
 pterygoid (so called because they arise from the 
 pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone). We need 
 not dwell on those here for they are deeply hidden 
 in the lateral fossa of the head and face and are not 
 visible in any part in the external form ; the others 
 on the outer side are inserted either into the angle of 
 the jaw (masseter muscle) or into the coronoid process 
 (temporal muscle). 
 
 The masseter muscle is a quadrilateral fleshy mass 
 (12, Fig. 62) of which the superior border arises from 
 the zygomatic arch (Fig. 39), and the inferior border 
 is inserted into the angle of the jaw. The anterior 
 border of this muscle is thick, and in thin subjects 
 forms a prominence in front of which the cheeks form 
 a depression more or less marked. In contraction the 
 masseter raises the lower jaw and brings it into con- 
 tact with the upper, against which it presses strongly. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 279 
 
 It would be superfluous to dwell here on the part this 
 muscle plays in mastication. It is more important to 
 remark that during viole'nt emotions, or even when 
 we accomplish a powerful effort, we involuntarily- 
 close the jaws.- Contracting the masseter, therefore, 
 in anger, menace, and in the strong expression which 
 we characterise commonly by saying that the subject 
 grinds his teeth, we see the masseter shown in the 
 form of a quadrilateral prominence on the side of the 
 face. Therefore the accentuation of the form of the 
 masseter contributes to give to the physiognomy an 
 energetic expression, but generally that of brute 
 force. 
 
 The temporal musae (4, Fig. 62) occupies the entire 
 extent of the temporal fossa of the skull (Fig. 39) ; 
 it arises from the bones that form that fossa and 
 from an aponeurosis which, arising from the borders of 
 that fossa, is attached to the other part of the zygo- 
 matic arch, so as to form a species of cover (temporal 
 aponeurosis) to the fossa in question. From these 
 multiple points of origin the fleshy fibres converge 
 below and form a strong tendon which embraces the 
 coronoid proqess of the inferior maxillary (25, Fig. 
 39), into which it is inserted. This muscle raises the 
 lower jaw, but as it is shut up, so to speak, in a close 
 space (temporal fossa and aponeurotic cover) it does 
 not show during its contraction a remarkable pro- 
 minence in the temporal region ; nevertheless, in a 
 subject who accomplishes the movements of mastica- 
 tion we see the skin of the temple, in front of the 
 zygomatic arch, slightly raised in a series of rythmical 
 
28o ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 movements ; these movements alone show exter- 
 nally the contractions of this muscle during masti- 
 cation. 
 
 Muscles of expression. — From what we have already 
 said respecting the peculiar arrangement of these 
 muscles of the skin, it is easy to understand that their 
 study must be made in a totally different manner to 
 that of the muscles of the skeleton. Therefore we 
 must not seek to define the form of the fleshy 
 body, but rather trace the direction it takes, along 
 which the muscle exercises traction on the skin ; 
 then, given the bony and cutaneous insertions of the 
 muscle, we must know the direction in which it acts, 
 and we can define the form of the folds it causes to 
 appear on the skin, and ascertain what expression 
 the physiognomy acquires by these changes. Be- 
 fore we enter into these details, it is necessary to 
 glance rapidly at the history of this special question 
 of human physiognomy, then to note in what spirit 
 and by what method this study should be undertaken. 
 
 First we must remark that we study here, with 
 regard to the muscles of the face, physiognomy in an 
 active state, namely, the characters that affect the 
 features at a given moment, under the influence of 
 a passionate movement which causes the involun- 
 tary contraction of one of the numerous muscles 
 of the skin, thus we see that the muscles deserve 
 the name of those of attention, pain, menace, laughter, 
 sorrow, contempt, disgust, &c. But we do not pre- 
 tend to study the physiognomy in a state of re- 
 pose, nor to learn by the normal and permanent 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 28 1 
 
 accentuation of certain of these traits, the character 
 of the subject and the passions that most frequently 
 disturb him. Doubtless, these two studies have 
 numerous points in common ; it is easy to admit that, 
 in a subject who frequently abandons himself to trans- 
 ports or anger and menace, the contraction frequently 
 repeated of the muscles which correspond to these 
 passions, can at length modify the character of the 
 face, so as to leave imprinted thereon the violent senti- 
 ments that have frequently agitated him. 
 
 But this analysis of the character of a subject is 
 a very delicate study, always very uncertain and 
 admitting of philosophical developments which would 
 carry us far from the domain of anatomy. On the 
 other hand, the determination of expressive cha- 
 racter that impresses on the face the contraction of 
 this or that muscle has become, from the researches 
 of Duchenrie (of Boulogne), a study which presents 
 all the precision and certainty that we can claim from 
 considerations strictly deduced from anatomy. 
 
 Before the researches of Duchenne, the majority 
 of books written on expression dwelt almost entirely 
 on the physiognomy, or the means of recognising the 
 character by the study of the habitual state of the 
 traits of the countenance. We must specially note 
 the works of Le Brun, Camper, Lavater, C. Bell, 
 Humbert de Superville, Gratiolet, and then we will 
 dwell on the labours of Duchenne and Darwin. 
 
 Already, in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, we 
 find some valuable indications of the state of the 
 countenance and neck in the expression of the 
 
282 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 passions, and this great master has, for example, 
 clearly perceived the part that the platysma muscle 
 of the neck takes in the expression of violent pas- 
 sions, and the transverse folds which then mark it 
 beneath the chin. But we must pause at the name 
 of Le Brun in order to find the studies of this 
 nature arranged in a species of doctrinal whole ; 
 the publications, in which the teaching of Le Brun 
 on this subject has been preserved, are numerous* 
 The artist will find there a number of interesting 
 observations, curious comparisons, and ingenious ex- 
 planations ; Le Brun occupied himself principally 
 with the resemblance of certain types of human 
 physiognomies to the heads of animals, he studied 
 particularly physiognomy which deals with the re- 
 lations of the countenance to the character. 
 
 Camper, whose works we have already quoted 
 respecting the facial angle (page 173) entered princi- 
 pally into the study of anatomy and physiology. He 
 analysed the action of muscles, and it was he who 
 first laid down this general rule, viz., that the con- 
 traction of each muscle of the face produced in the 
 skin one or more folds, of which the direction is 
 always perpendicular to that of the muscle, a precept 
 that we shall find to be true with regard to almost 
 every muscle of the face, and especially for the frontal, 
 the great zygomatic, &c. Besides the exact observa- 
 tions that the artist will meet in the works of Camper, 
 
 * See especially. Conferences sur Texpression des different* cha- 
 ratteres des passions, Paris, 1667.. (These conferences have been 
 reprinted in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau. Vol. ix., 1820.) 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 283 
 
 he will find in addition an interesting historical 
 account of the question. 
 
 An English physiologist, Sir Charles Bell, celebrated 
 for his studies of the nervous system, has also analysed 
 the expressions of the face.* But though his work 
 affords picturesque descriptions and admirable illus- 
 trations, it is, excepting these, more interesting to the 
 physiologist than the artist, for the author applies 
 himself principally to investigating the nature of the 
 nerves that give motion to the muscles, and the 
 intimate relations that exist between the movements 
 of expression and those of respiration, questions 
 which have not a direct interest for the plastic arts. 
 
 The title of the work of Lavater ( The Art of Know- 
 ing the Man by his Countenance)^ indicates the object 
 sought by the author. We find in this work good 
 illustrations, and curious observations, especially 
 applicable to the study of physiognomy, but fre- 
 quently without order, without method, and accom- 
 panied by dissertations on whimsical subjects, such 
 as the chapters devoted to imaginations and envies, 
 to warts and beards, and to lines of animality, &c. 
 
 In order to have an idea of the manner in which, 
 at this . epoch, authors attempted the study of the 
 physiognomy, making this delicate analysis a pure 
 affair of sentiment, it is sufficient to mention the work 
 
 * The Anatomy and Physiology of Expression. 1844. (3rd edition, 
 published after the death of Sir Charles Bell, and containing his last 
 corrections.) 
 
 t The edition to consult is that issued in 1820, in ten volumes by 
 Moreau. 
 
284 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of Sue (Physiognomie des Corps Vivants, Considere 
 depuis F Homme jusqii a la Plante. Paris, 1797.) In the 
 middle of a long affected treatise on the physiognomy 
 and its relation to the passions, this is, for example, 
 how he expresses himself concerning the mouth : — 
 " A mouth delicate and pure is perhaps one of the 
 best recommendations. The beauty of the portal 
 proclaims the dignity of that which passes through. 
 Here also is the voice, the interpreter of the heart and 
 mind, the expression of truth, friendship, and the 
 most tender sentiments." With regard to the in- 
 cessant comparison of human physiognomy with that 
 of animals, the author stops at nothing in this sin- 
 gular course, and speaks dogmatically on the physiog- 
 nomy of fishes, serpents, grasshoppers, and intestinal 
 worms (!), as well as that of man. " Many fishes," 
 said he, " are wanting in that which gives a character 
 of amenity, kindness, and tenderness." " The .intes- 
 tinal worms have a very decided physiognomy .... 
 the character of their physiognomy inspires in man 
 sorrow and awe." 
 
 Amidst the works of a more serious, though still 
 empirical character, we must mention in particular 
 one which, although speaking of the countenance in a 
 secondary degree, yet presents on this subject several 
 valuable observations, we have endeavoured to utilise 
 in the representation by diagram of the action of 
 the muscles of the skin in the face. We speak of 
 the treatise of Humbert de Superville {Des Signes 
 Inconscients del' Art, 1827). The author gives three 
 drawings of the human face, in which the lines repre- 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 285 
 
 sent the eyes, the lower boundary of the nose, and 
 the lips. In one of these drawings (Fig. 63) the lines 
 are all horizontal, in the other (Fig. 64) they are all 
 inclined downwards and outwards (from the median 
 line), and in the third (Fig. 65) they are all inclined 
 upwards and outwards. The author remarks that the 
 first figure (with the lines horizontal) produces an im- 
 pression of calmness, greatness, and constancy ; and 
 
 Fig. 63. Fie. 64. Fig. 65. 
 
 The Three Figures of Humbert de Superville— (Fig 63, calmness : Fig. 64, 
 sadness ; Fig. 65, gaiety). 
 
 he adds that likewise in nature and architecture hori- 
 zontal lines give rise to the idea of calmness, stability, 
 and grandeur : the cedar, with its horizontal branches, 
 is of all the trees the one that realises this impression 
 in the highest degree. On the contrary, the second 
 figure (with the lines oblique downwards) gives an 
 impression of sadness, pain, and grief; and the author 
 does not fail to compare the direction of the features 
 of such a countenance with the direction of the archi- 
 tectural lines in tombs and funeral monuments, and 
 that of the branches of the trees which everywhere 
 are planted in preference to others in cemeteries, and 
 
286 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 whose branches always hang obliquely. Lastly, the 
 third figure (with the lines obliquely upwards) gives 
 rise to the impression of gaiety, laughter, levity, 
 inconstancy ; and, to continue the preceding com- 
 parison, everyone must acknowledge that Chinese 
 architecture, with its lines oblique and diverging up- 
 wards and outwards, can never — at least, in the eyes 
 of a European — produce an impression of greatness 
 and majesty. 
 
 These figures, and the remarks that de Superville 
 makes afterwards, but which we have not examined 
 here, are strikingly exact, when we consider the 
 features in the state of movement, or in the momen- 
 tary expression of a passion. All the muscles which 
 take part in the expression of pain, sadness, and con- 
 tempt help to incline the features obliquely downwards 
 and outwards, some by acting on the line of the eyes, 
 others on that of the mouth, &c. On the contrary, 
 the muscle of laughter, raising the angles of the 
 mouth, renders that feature oblique upwards and out- 
 wards, and — for certain reasons that we will analyse 
 further on — seems to give a similar direction to the 
 line of the eyes. In a word, features, starting from 
 the state of repose, represented by the first figure of 
 Humbert de Superville (Fig. 63), oscillate in two 
 opposite directions, either ascending, to express the 
 scale of gaiety and laughter (features oblique upwards 
 and outwards, Fig. 65), or descending, sadnessj pain, 
 and tears (features oblique downwards and outwards, 
 Fig. 64). The exactness of the drawings furnished 
 by Humbert de Superville for the general expression 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 287 
 
 of the physiognomy induces us to try, by similar 
 drawings, to represent the action of each muscle 
 separately. Knowing the action of a muscle, and 
 knowing from, the photographs of Duchenne the 
 direction that it imparts to a certain feature of the 
 face, either to the line of the eyebrows, the opening of 
 the eyelids, or that of the nostrils, or to that of the 
 lips, we have indicated by a simple stroke or line these 
 changes, either in direction or in the form of one of 
 those lines, and have obtained theoretical figures 
 sufficiently expfessive to characterise the passion geo- 
 metrically, so to speak, in the manifestation of which 
 this or that muscle is affected. Such are the figures 
 67, 69, 7i» 73. 74, 75. 77 (page 296 and following), by 
 which we will explain the study of each muscle of 
 expression. We may say that these drawings, without 
 any pretension, are, so to speak, the primer of the 
 language of physiognomy. 
 
 We now arrive at the history of the work of 
 Duchenne, to which we owe all that follows. While 
 all his predecessors had been taken up with obser- 
 vation, Duchenne introduced the experimental method 
 into the study of physiognomy. His process, simple 
 in conception, was very delicate in application. He 
 proceeded by causing the contraction of each muscle 
 singly^ and that the expression that resulted might be 
 appreciated not only at the moment of the experi- 
 ment, but again at any time, and submitted to the 
 judgment of all, he photographed the subject at the 
 moment when the muscle was contracted. This last 
 operation was easily accomplished, but the excitation 
 
288 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 of a single muscle was a more delicate operation. 
 Every one knows that by electricity, in placing the 
 two electric excitors (the two poles of the current) on 
 the course of a muscle, we can cause the contraction 
 of the muscle beneath the skin. But no subject would 
 lend himself to this experiment. At first he tried on 
 the dead body of a criminal executed, a short time 
 after death ; for the muscles of the face lose their 
 excitability two hours after death, and then it is 
 only by laying it open (raising the skin) that we can 
 obtain contraction by the application of electricity. 
 On the other hand, if we attempt it on any living 
 subject, we can, it is true, cause a muscle to contract 
 by applying electricity over its site ; but the electric 
 current, traversing the skin to reach the muscle, at 
 the same time that it excites the motor nerves of the 
 muscle, excites also the sensory nerves of the skin 
 and produces acute pain. From this fact we see that 
 we produce on the face of the subject, not a simple 
 and characteristic expression, but a true grimace, or 
 an irregular contraction of all the muscles under the 
 influence of the pain. 
 
 Duchenne had. the good fortune to be able to ex- 
 periment on a subject in whom a particular infirmity 
 rendered impossible the last inconvenience we have 
 noted. This was an old pensioner of the hospital who 
 had anesthesia of the face (a (v), absence of; aio-Oqa-K;, 
 sensibility), or in whom the skin of the countenance 
 was insensible to the most painful excitation ; 
 electricity could be applied to the skin of this un- 
 fortunate man and traverse it without producing 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 289 
 
 painful reaction, and then excite the muscles beneath, 
 which had perfectly preserved their contractility and 
 performed their functions as in a normal subject. 
 He could, therefore, cause this or that muscle alone 
 to contract, and excite, for example, the action of 
 the great zygomatic, giving to the face the expression 
 of laughter, without the subject having any idea of 
 what his physiognomy reflected ; his face, by the action 
 of the electricity, was .laughing, while his thoughts 
 might be indifferent or fixed on sad recollections ; on 
 the other hand, for example, by. the contraction of the 
 superciliary muscle, his countenance might express 
 the most acute pain, while his thoughts might be 
 quite indifferent or borne away by gay and pleasant 
 ideas. In a word, Duchenne was able to realise, 
 under the most precise conditions of experiment, an 
 experimental study of the physiology of the muscles 
 of expression. 
 
 The work in which Duchenne has given the result 
 of his labours is remarkable, particularly for the 
 magnificent atlas of photographs that accompany it, 
 and which have been obtained by the above process. 
 From these photographs have been reproduced as 
 exactly as possible the several figures that accompany 
 the descriptions which follow (Figs. 66, 68, 70, 72, 
 page 296 and following). We cannot enter here into 
 a complete statement of. the results obtained by 
 Duchenne, but we will seek at least to show the 
 serious and scientific value of these studies, and to 
 inspire the wish to refer to the original work. 
 
 These studies have for the artist this important 
 T 
 
29O ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 result, namely, to prove to him that frequently the 
 contraction of a single muscle is sufficient to express 
 a passion, and that it is not necessary to change all 
 the features in order to give to the face the stamp of 
 pain, attention, menace, contempt, disgust, &c, each of 
 these sentiments being expressed by a slight modifica- 
 tion, either of the eye alone, or of the lip alone. Each 
 expression has, so to speak, its own exact, precise and 
 single mark, produced by a single local modification, 
 but this local modification seems to be reflected 
 throughout the physiognomy, and therefore, from 
 unaided observation, artists had for a long time 
 believed that, for example, attention and pain were 
 shown by the combined action of a number of facial 
 muscles. Now experiment proves that pain is ex- 
 pressed solely by a muscle which raises and wrinkles 
 the brows, and on a face (Fig. 70) where this muscle 
 alone is contracted {superciliary muscle, page 302) the 
 expression of pain is complete. We naturally believe 
 that the mouth also takes part in it, but if we cover, 
 the upper part of the countenance, we perceive that 
 the lower part of the face is in a state of complete 
 repose. 
 
 To bring to a close this history, which is not the 
 least interesting part of the subject, we must say 
 that the labours of Duchenne were not at first 
 received with great favour in France. Physiologists 
 as well as artists showed a certain distrust of a 
 work which pretended to give precise rules and 
 scientific laws to a subject about which it had 
 been, the custom to imagine fanciful and sentimental 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 20,1 
 
 comparisons. Few persons understood the nature ot 
 the physiological exigency which forced Duchenne to 
 choose as a subject for these experiments, a poor 
 man with a physiognomy almost imbecile in repose, 
 and they did not consider that if this face was old, 
 wrinkled, thin, and vulgar, there was the greater 
 reason to be struck with the precision with which 
 the electric excitation enabled the most opposite and 
 characteristic expressions to be taken. 
 
 As has been too often the fate of scientific dis- 
 coveries, the work of Duchenne was neglected in 
 France, and was not appreciated until it had been 
 adopted by a foreign country, and the Englishman 
 Darwin had made the results of the French physiolo- 
 gist the basis of his interesting studies. 
 
 Is it necessary to call to mind the extent and 
 immense repute of the works of Darwin on the origin 
 of species, on the evolution of animals and plants, 
 and on the descent of man ? What this great natu- 
 ralist has done for the general morphology of plants 
 and animals he wished to do for the physiology of 
 the human face. Seeking in the logical chain of 
 natural facts the cause of all biological phenomena, 
 he endeavoured to discover in the attentive study of 
 the movements of expression, and in the pursuit of 
 their mode of origin and development, a series of new 
 arguments in favour of the theory of evolution. In a 
 word, Darwin, by invoking the association of certain 
 useful movements and comparing the functions with 
 the expressions with which they are associated, sought 
 to explain why one muscle in particular rather than 
 T 2 
 
292 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 another is affected by the expression of this or that 
 passion. We cannot here enter further, into the 
 analysis of this philosophical work. It is sufficient to 
 remark (having commended the perusal of it as most 
 interesting to the artist*) that before we explain 
 anything • it is necessary that it should be firmly 
 established. Therefore the explanation of the part 
 that each muscle takes in the expression must be 
 impossible until the fact of the action and the expres- 
 sion of muscle has been scientifically demonstrated. 
 The philosophical work of Darwin could not have 
 been undertaken if it had not been preceded by the 
 experimental work of Duchenne. 
 
 The figures which illustrate the work of Danvin 
 are in a great" measure only reproductions of the 
 photographs published by Duchenne about ten years 
 previous. However, as we have already mentioned, 
 attention has been recalled in France to the works 
 of Duchenne, a more favourable judgment has been 
 passed, and justice rendered to him who had opened 
 the way to the experimental study of physiognomy. 
 In 1874 the French began to devote, in the course of 
 anatomy in the School of Fine Arts, several lectures to 
 the account of what we must call the primer or grammar 
 . of the expression of physiognomy, Happy in seeing 
 his works included in this classical course of instruc- 
 tion, Duchenne, whom death carried off a few years 
 later, gave to the School of Fine Arts the complete 
 series of large original photographs from which these 
 
 * Charles Darwin. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and in 
 Animals. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD: 293 
 
 publications are reduced, and this beautiful collect-ion 
 is to-day one of the most valuable in the French 
 museum of anatomy (Museum Hugnier). 
 
 Although this history must appear long it is 
 nevertheless very incomplete, being given only with 
 a particular object — that of comparing the works 
 of Duchenne with those preceding him. Those of 
 Duchenne will be made the basis of the studies which 
 follow. We will finish by noting, as agreeable and 
 instructive for the purpose, the works that _ treat in 
 a more general manner of the expression and the 
 physiognomy, such as those of Lemoine, Gratiolet, 
 and Piderit* 
 
 * Albert Lemoine : De la Physionomie et de la Parole. Paris, 1865. 
 Pierre Gratiolet : De la Physionomie et des Mouvements a" Expression. 
 Paris, " 1865. Piderit : Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik tmd 
 PhysiognQtnik, 1S67. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 
 
 Muscles of the upper part' of the face : Frontal (attention) ; orbicular 
 of the eyelids, superior orbital portion (reflection) ; pyramidalis 
 (menace) ; superciliary (pain). —Muscles of the middle region of 
 the face : Great zygomatic (laughter) ; lesser zygomatic and external 
 common elevator (tenderness, sorrow) ; internal common elevator 
 (weeping bitterly); transverse of nose (lewdness). — Muscles of the 
 lower region of the face : Orbicular of lips ; buccinator ; triangular 
 of lips (contempt) ; square muscle of the lip (disgust) ; platysma. 
 muscle of the neck. — Classification into muscles completely expres- 
 sive and expressive by complement. — Of associations possible and 
 impossible with regard to mechanism and with regard to the 
 nature of the passions. — Conclusion. 
 
 The platysma muscles of the face which are attached 
 by one extremity to the skeleton and by the other to 
 the skin, move and change the folds and the membran- 
 ous curtains formed by the latter. These different 
 cutaneous parts are very complex, but at the same 
 time known to persons who are the greatest strangers 
 to anatomy. For them it is useless to describe here 
 the eyebrows, the eyelids, the palpebral fissure, the 
 wing of the nose and the lips. We will only point 
 out, with regard to these parts, the signification of 
 their various anatomical terms, the employment of 
 which will be useful in abridging the descriptions 
 that follow. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. v 295 
 
 On the eyebrow we distinguish a broad internal 
 part (towards the median axis of the face) called 
 the head of the eyebrow, and an external part called 
 the tail of the eyebrow which becomes thinner as it 
 is removed from the middle line. 
 
 Each of the two extremities of a palpebral fissure 
 bears the name of the commissure or angle. We dis-. 
 tinguish, therefore, on the eyelids an external com- 
 missure or angle characterised by its pointed form, and 
 an internal characterised by its rounded form, bound- 
 ing a small oval space called the lachrymal lake, at 
 the bottom of which a rose-coloured fleshy tubercle 
 projects (the caruncula lachrymalis). We also give 
 the name of commissure (or angle) to each extremity 
 of the buccal aperture {commissure of the lips). 
 
 Lastly, we must note a normal fold which exists 
 more or less marked in every subject, and the changes 
 of which take a great part in the expression produced 
 by the various muscles of the cheeks. This is the 
 naso-labial fold, so named because, arising from the 
 region bounded by the cheek and the side of the nose, 
 it is directed obliquely downwards and outwards, 
 passes at a short distance from the posterior border 
 of the wing of the nose, and terminates towards the 
 commissure of the lips. In the subject who served for 
 the experiments of Duchenne (Fig. 70, page 302) this 
 fold was strongly marked, as it is also in all old people. 
 
 The muscles of expression are arranged, some 
 around the eyes and eyebrows, occupying the upper 
 region of the face ; the others grouped about the 
 wings of the nose and the mouth, so that they occupy 
 
296 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the middle and especially the lower region of the 
 face. The first are the occipilo-frontalis, the pyra- 
 midalis nasi, the corrugator supercilii, and the orbicu- 
 laris palpebrarum; the second are the zygomaticus 
 major and' minor, the levator anguli oris, the levator 
 
 labii et dice nasi, the 
 _ 1 ■ ~~ ] compressor nasi, the 
 orbicularis oris (to 
 which we may add the 
 buccinator), the tri- 
 angularis and quad- 
 ratics menti ; finally, 
 in the neck and ex- 
 tending to the lower 
 lip is the platysma 
 myoides, which takes 
 a considerable part in 
 certain powerful ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 In the study of 
 each of these muscles 
 we will enter but little 
 into anatomical de- 
 tails : to point out the situation of the muscle, its fixed 
 insertion into the bones of the face, its direction, 
 and, lastly, the point of the skin where it takes its 
 movable insertion will be sufficient. On the other 
 hand, we will carefully inquire 7 into its mechanism and 
 the manner in which its contraction changes the skin 
 of the face, and the nature and the direction of the 
 folds which it marks thereon. On a figure realising 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Contraction of the Frontal Muscles 
 (expressions of attention and astonishment.) 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 
 
 297 
 
 these changes we should ask ourselves what expres- 
 sion results. And lastly, we will endeavour to give a 
 drawing of this expression after a mode of represen- 
 tation copied from that employed by Humbert de 
 Superville (page 285) 
 
 A. — Muscles of the upper part of the face 
 (forehead, eyebrows, eyelids, and. root 
 
 OF NOSE). 
 
 1st. Occipito -frontalis muscle (muscle of atten- 
 tion). — This muscle (1, Fig. 62, 
 page 269) extends as a fleshy sheet, 
 quadrilateral in form, on each lateral 
 half of the forehead. Its lower 
 border is attached to the skin of 
 the eyebrow. From this origin its 
 fibres ascend vertically and parallel 
 to each other towards the region 
 of the roots of the hair, and be- 
 come continuous, at this level, 
 with the tendinous fibres of the 
 epicranial aponeurosis. This apo- 
 neurosis, which lines the hairy scalp 
 and is adherent to it, is prolonged 
 to the occipital region where it terminates in a fleshy 
 layer, the occipital muscle, which is attached to the 
 superior curved line of the occipital bone. 
 
 In order to understand the mechanism of the 
 frontal muscle it is necessary to consider it as taking 
 its fixed insertion at the posterior part of the skull, 
 through the medium of the epicranial aponeurosis and 
 
 Fig. 6;. 
 
 Diagram of the frontal 
 muscles (attention). 
 
298 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 the occipital muscle ; its free insertion is that which it 
 takes in the deep surface of the skin of the eyebrow. 
 The frontal, therefore, in contracting draws this skin 
 from below upwards, and consequently raises the 
 eyebrow, and causes the transverse folds to appear in 
 the skin of the forehead. 
 
 In examining (Fig. 66) a face in which this muscle 
 is contracted we perceive that it expresses attention ; 
 if the contraction of the muscle is very great this 
 expression of attention changes to that of astonish- 
 ment. In entering into the detail of the changes that 
 the face then presents we see that the eyebrow is 
 raised and its superior convexity is very marked, that 
 the eye is widely opened, clear and brilliant, and 
 that the forehead is furrowed on each lateral half by 
 curved folds concentric with the curve of the eyebrow 
 folds, which are continued more or less from one side 
 to the other, and describing curves in the middle line 
 with the concavity upwards. In a child or young 
 woman, in whom the skin is supple and elastic, it 
 does not give rise to the formation of folds, and the 
 skin of the forehead remains quite smooth during the 
 contraction of the frontal muscle, and then the eleva- 
 tion of the eyebrow, the exaggeration of its curve and 
 the state of the eyes, open and bright, are sufficient to 
 give the expression of attention. 
 
 Figure 6j is the representation of attention, charac- 
 terised here. solely by the form of the eyebrows and 
 the frontal folds. 
 
 2nd. The orbicular muscles of the eyelids (6, Fig. 
 62).— The orbicular muscle of the eyes is a veiy 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 299 
 
 extensive muscle which encircles the palpebral orifice. 
 It is composed of numerous portions whidi can act 
 more or less independently, and which have not all 
 an equal importance in the expression of the face. 
 
 a. One part of this orbicular muscle, called the 
 palpebral part {orbicularis palpebraruni), is contained 
 in the thickness of the eyelids and produces by its 
 contraction the closing of the eyes. If this contrac- 
 tion is moderate it produces only a certain drawing 
 together of the eyelids and reduces the opening of the 
 eyes to the form of a linear slit. This state of the 
 palpebral opening does not constitute by itself an 
 expression, properly speaking, but it may be comple- 
 mentary to various expressions — thus, associated with 
 a slight contraction of the triangular muscle of the 
 lips, which is the muscle of disgust and discontent 
 (page 312), it gives to the countenance the expression 
 of disdain and contempt. 
 
 b. A second part of the orbicular muscle is 
 arranged in a circular manner on the outer side of 
 the eyelids and corresponds exactly to the contour of 
 the orbital orifice of the skeleton (Fig. 41, page 166, 
 and Fig. 62, page 269). This portion, which we may 
 call the orbital orbicular, is divided itself into two 
 parts : one, the inferior orbital orbicular, the contrac- 
 tion of which moves the lower eyelid slightly upwards 
 and causes a furrow at its junction with the cheek, 
 and without being expressive by itself, completes the 
 expression of laughter by giving to it a character of 
 frankness and truth ; and a superior orbital orbicular, 
 which merits a study in detail, for it produces by 
 
30o. 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 itself a characteristic expression, that of reflection 
 meditation, and contemplation. 
 
 This superior orbital orbicular (muscle of reflection) 
 is placed beneath the skin of the eyebrow, and its 
 fibres, like it, describe an arc with the concavity 
 
 downwards, of which 
 each extremity is ad- 
 herent to the corre- 
 sponding part (in- 
 ternal or external 
 border) of the orbital 
 opening. The me- 
 chanism therefore of 
 this muscle is easily 
 foreseen, for like all 
 .curved muscles, more 
 or less fixed at their 
 extremities, it must 
 in contraction 
 straighten its curve. 
 It accordingly 
 changes in the same 
 manner the eyebrow 
 to the skin of which it is adherent, and effaces its 
 curve, rendering it straight transversely ; it depresses, 
 and consequently makes tense, the skin of the fore- 
 head, causing its wrinkles to disappear. 
 
 In examining (Fig. 68) a face in which this muscle 
 is contracted we perceive that it expresses reflection. 
 In Figure 68, owing to the great development of 
 the eyebrow, which is greatly lowered, its hairs 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 The Upper Part of the Orbicularis 
 Palpebrarum ire/lection). 
 
MUSCLES OF The face. 
 
 301 
 
 descend into the eyes, and the expression is rather 
 that of painful reflection of intense application of the 
 mind pre-occupied with sadness ; but we see in every 
 case that this expression is obtained essentially -by 
 the lowering and straight direction of the eyebrow, 
 which veils the eye and effaces all wrinkles on the 
 forehead. This change of the features is precisely 
 the reverse of that produced by the 
 frontal muscle, as is shown by 
 the comparison of Figures 66 and 
 68, and in fact the two states of the 
 mind corresponding to the expres- 
 sion given by each of the muscles 
 are precisely the reverse of each 
 other. We cannot be at the same 
 time attentive to an external object 
 and meditating in reflection. Usu- 
 ally the succession of these states of 
 the mind and of the physiognomy Dia f ai ". re P«*«f'>°» of 
 
 1 J ° J reflection meditation. 
 
 is as follows : — We are attentive to 
 that on which we are looking, the eye open, brilliant, 
 the eyebrow raised, and the forehead wrinkled (con- 
 traction of the frontal muscle) ; afterwards we reflect 
 on what we have seen and are, so to speak, away from 
 the external world — the eyebrow lowered, the forehead 
 smooth, and the eye veiled (contraction of the superior 
 orbital orbicular), or the eyes may be closed (contrac- 
 tion of the whole of the orbicular of the eyelids). 
 
 Figure 69 is the representation of reflection, cha- 
 racterised by the absence of the frontal folds, the 
 depression of the eyebrows and the presence' of two 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
302 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 small vertical folds in the space between the eyebrows, 
 to which the depression of the eyelid gives rise (Fig. 
 68). This representation of reflection (Fig. 69) does 
 not acquire its full demonstrative signification until we 
 
 compare it with that 
 of attention (Fig, 67). 
 3rd. Pyramiddlis 
 muscle (or muscle of 
 menace). — This small 
 muscle, situated in 
 the space between 
 the eyebrows on a 
 Us? WiUkx. jjai " level with the root 
 
 of the nose (9, Fig. 
 62, page 269), is 
 formed by short 
 vertical fibres, of 
 which the inferior 
 extremity is attached 
 to the nasal bones 
 (Fig. 41, page 166) 
 and the superior to 
 the deep surface of the skin of the space between 
 the eyebrows. 
 
 The mechanism of this muscle therefore produces 
 this essential result : — Taking its fixed insertion at 
 the nasal bones, it draws downward the skin of the 
 space between the eyebrows, forming there short 
 transverse folds, and depresses slightly the head of 
 the eyebrow. 
 
 In a face where this muscle is contracted (see 
 
 "Superciliary Muscle (sorrow). 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 
 
 ,303 
 
 the atlas of Duchenne, page 289) the expression 
 is that of harshness, menace, and aggression. With 
 regard to the physiognomies which Duchenne 
 produced with this contraction, we can readily 
 believe that if the subject was represented in 
 full its attitude should be that of menace; that, for 
 example, it would shake its fist or 
 brandish a weapon. Moreover, 
 anything which throws a shadow 
 or a dark look between the eye- 
 brows gives to the physiognomy a 
 character of harshness, as when 
 the contraction of the pyramidalis 
 produces the transverse folds in 
 this region. Therefore, in Ihose 
 persons in whom the eyebrows seem 
 to meet, owing to an exaggerated 
 development of hair in the space 
 between, the physiognomy always 
 presents at first sight the stamp of 
 severity and harshness, which may not agree in the 
 least with the true moral character of the subject 
 The expression of the pyramidalis is too delicate, and 
 due to a change of the features too local and slight 
 for us to express it by a drawing, as we have done in 
 the case of the preceding muscles. 
 
 4th. Superciliary muscle (or muscle of pain). — 
 This short muscle is deeply hidden beneath the skin 
 of the region of the head of the eyebrow. Its fixed 
 insertion is into the frontal bone, above the super- 
 ciliary arch; from this origin its fibres are directed 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 Diagram representation of 
 sorrow. 
 
3°4 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 outwards and slightly downwards to be inserted into 
 the deep surface of the skin at the middle of the eye- 
 brow (page 295). 
 
 Its mechanism consists therefore in drawing the 
 
 eyebrow inwards and 
 slightly upwards, and 
 as it is attached to 
 the middle of the eye- 
 brow it draws it to- 
 gether at this point, 
 namely, towards its 
 inner part. The eye- 
 brow is therefore, so 
 to speak, abruptly 
 hooked upwards and 
 inwards, like a curtain 
 that has been tucked 
 up and attached to a 
 fixed point. It there- 
 fore produces on the 
 skin of the forehead 
 folds concentric to 
 this gathering together of the eyebrow and situated 
 in the middle of the forehead. 
 
 Figure 70 represents, after a photograph of Du- 
 chenne, the state of the physiognomy caused by the 
 contraction of the superciliary muscle. This phy- 
 siognomy has an expression characteristic of suffering, 
 and with a greater accentuation of the action of the 
 muscle shows in the highest degree the expression of 
 -physical or mental agony. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Great Zygomatic Muscle (expression of 
 gaiety and laughter). 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 305 
 
 We see that the only parts changed in this 
 physiognomy (compare Fig. 66, page 296) are the 
 head of the eyebrow and the region between the 
 eyebrows on the forehead, therefore pain is expressed 
 by the raising of the head of the eyebrow and its 
 gathering together abruptly at the middle, and by the 
 presence of the short folds immediately above this 
 and the more extended folds occupying the middle 
 region of the forehead. 
 
 Figure 71 is the representation of pain, expressed 
 by the changes only of the region of the head of the 
 eyebrow (compare for contrast with Fig. 73 following). 
 
 B. — Muscles of the middle region of the 
 
 FACE. 
 
 5th. The great zygomatic muscle (or muscle of 
 laughter). — This muscle (11, Fig. 62), called also the 
 external oblique elevator of the commissure of the lips, 
 has its fixed attachment on the cheek-bone ; from 
 this origin it is directed obliquely downwards and 
 inwards (in front) to be inserted into the deep surface 
 of the skin of the commissure of the lips. 
 
 Its mechanism consists in drawing this commissure 
 upwards and outwards, and from this action there 
 follow in the expression of the countenance some 
 complex changes easy to foresee a priori; at first the 
 orifice of the mouth is enlarged transversely; its 
 direction ceases to be straight since its external 
 extremity is raised, so that each lateral half of the 
 mouth is directed obliquely upwards and outwards, 
 u 
 
3o6 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 As the naso-labial line (Fig. 66) ends, by its inferior 
 extremity, near the commissure of the lips, this inferior 
 extremity of . the naso-labial line is also carried up- 
 wards, describing a slight curve concentric to the 
 commissure of the lips, at the same time that the rest 
 (the whole) of the naso-labial line ceases to be straight 
 and describes a curve with its conyexity downwards. 
 The skin of the cheek gathered up 
 towards the cheek-bone becomes 
 more prominent, and forms, to- 
 wards the external angle of the 
 eye, several radiated folds (com- 
 monly called crows'-feet) which 
 throw a slight shadow beneath the 
 external angle of the eye ; this 
 causes us to imagine that the line 
 of the eyelids is a little raised on 
 the outer side (becomes slightly 
 oblique upwards). 
 
 Figure 72, representing the con- 
 traction of the great zygomatic 
 muscle, affords us the frank expression of gaiety and 
 laughter, and we see that the changes of the physiog- 
 nomy take place only, as we have already said, in 
 the line of the lips, the naso-labial line,. and the ex- 
 ternal angle of the eyes. 
 
 Figure 73, giving the representation of laughter, 
 according to the preceding description of the great 
 zygomatic muscle, is very similar to the corresponding 
 figure of Humbert de Superville (Fig. 65, page 285), 
 only, in order to express the reality without having 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Diagram representation 
 of laughter. 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 
 
 307 
 
 regard here to appearances, we have drawn the lines of 
 the eyes horizontal ; and again, the naso-labial furrow 
 has been represented with its form convex downwards 
 and inwards for the upper two-thirds, and with the 
 slight hook which its inferior extremity describes. 
 This naso-labial furrow is of the utmost importance as 
 regards the expressions produced by all the muscles 
 of the region of the lips, as we 
 shall see in all the following 
 muscles. 
 
 6th. The lesser zygomatic and 
 common external elevator (muscle 
 of grief \ — On the inner side of 
 the great zygomatic there exists 
 frequently (10, Fig. 62, page 269), 
 but not constantly, a small muscular 
 fasciculus which arises from the 
 anterior part of the cheek-bone 
 and descends to be inserted into 
 the thickness of the upper lip. 
 This muscle, called the lesser zygo- 
 matic, does not take part in the expression of laugh- 
 ter ; in fact it changes the naso-labial furrow in the 
 same manner as the following muscle (the external 
 common elevator), and so expresses, as we shall see, 
 emotion, sadness, arid grief. 
 
 The common external elevator (of the lip and the 
 wing of the nose) arises (14, Fig. 62, page 269) from 
 the inferior border of the orbit and descends to the 
 upper lip, giving off sometimes, but not constantly, 
 a small fasciculus to the wing of the nose, 
 U 2 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Diagram representation 
 of the external common 
 elevator (muscle of gylej '). 
 
3o8 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Its contraction raises the upper lip itself, but not 
 the labial commissure, so that each half of the line of 
 the lips, raised within and remaining depressed at its 
 outer extremity, becomes slightly oblique from above 
 downwards and from within outwards (the reverse 
 of the obliquity produced by the great zygomatic 
 muscle), at the same time the centre of the naso- 
 labial furrow is raised and the fur- 
 row becomes curved with its con- 
 cavity downwards and inwards (the 
 reverse of the curve produced by 
 the great zygomatic). v 
 
 By means of these changes the 
 physiognomy takes the expression 
 of discontent, emotion, and grief 
 (see the atlas of Duchenne). 
 
 We give here only one drawing 
 (Fig. 74) in which are shown the 
 two essential changes produced by 
 this muscle (obliquity of the line 
 of the lips and curve of the naso- 
 labial furrow), which seems to us 
 to show in a satisfactory manner the expression of 
 grief in tears. We comprehend the value of this 
 drawing better by comparing it with the Figure 73. 
 We see that the changes produced by the muscle of 
 grief (lip and naso-labial furrow) are precisely the re- 
 verse of those produced by the muscle of laughter, as 
 the two corresponding emotions are the reverse of each 
 other. We remark also how slight is the distance 
 which separates these two muscles, and how delicate 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Diagram representation 
 of the internal common 
 elevator (muscle of grief 
 with tears). 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 309 
 
 in anatomical arrangement are the shades which 
 separate them, so delicate that authors do not agree 
 as to whether the muscle found between them, the 
 lesser zygomatic muscle, when it exists, should be 
 considered as associated with the great zygomatic 
 or, as we think, with the common external elevator. 
 Beyond doubt their anatomical relations should re- 
 mind us, in the nature of the passions and their 
 expression, how small a distance exists between 
 laughter and tears. 
 
 7th. The common internal elevator (muscle of 
 sobbing, of weeping bitterly). — This muscle (7, Fig. 62) 
 arises above from the internal border of the orbit ; it 
 descends almost vertically to be inserted by some of 
 its fibres into the wing of the nose, and by the ma- 
 jority into the upper lip, not far from its central portion. 
 
 It therefore raises the middle of the lip, the labial 
 commissure remaining fixed, and gives accordingly to 
 each half of the line of the lips an oblique direction 
 downwards and outwards (like the preceding muscle, 
 but in a more characteristic manner) ; at the same 
 time it dilates the nostril by raising the wing of the 
 nose ; lastly, by the pulling that it exercises vertically 
 on the skin of the naso-labial furrow, it raises en 
 masse the inner and upper part of this furrow and 
 renders it straight, causing it to form a species of 
 groove wherein the tears flow when they pour abun- 
 dantly from the inner angle of the eyelids. These 
 changes (see the atlas of Duchenne) give to the 
 physiognomy the expression of grief with abundant 
 tears, or of weeping bitterly. 
 
310 ARTISTIC ANATOMY 
 
 The drawing of Figure 75 renders this expression 
 to a certain degree, but it is difficult to realise with 
 the simple elements we use in these formulae. We 
 see that all the folds of the face converge towards the 
 inner angle of the eye, or towards the point of 
 attachment of this muscle. 
 
 8th. Transverse muscle of the nose (muscle of lewd- 
 ness). — This muscle (9, Fig. 62) is attached to the 
 skin of the cheek on a level with the lateral parts of 
 the nose, from this origin it is directed transversely 
 on the lateral surface of the nose to reach the back of 
 that organ, where a thin aponeurosis establishes the 
 continuity between that of one side and that of the 
 other. 
 
 This aponeurosis, which embraces the back of the 
 nose, forms the fixed point towards which these 
 muscles draw the skin of the cheek and nose so as to 
 mark on the lateral surface of the nose a series of 
 vertical folds (perpendicular to the direction of the 
 muscle). 
 
 Duchenne considered the change produced by 
 these muscles to be characteristic of the expression of 
 lewdness. Perhaps this muscle by itself is not suffi- 
 ciently expressive,- but when its contraction accom- 
 panies that of certain other muscles, we find very 
 clearly in the physiognomy the element of lewdness 
 pointed out by Duchenne. In his atlas this author, 
 gives the photograph of a countenance in which he 
 had produced contraction of the frontal, the great 
 zygomatic, and the transverse; a countenance of 
 which the expression may be directly interpreted as 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 311 
 
 that of an old man in whom the attention (frontal) 
 is agreeably excited (great zygomatic), by a spectacle 
 arousing lewd ideas (transverse) ; the face produced 
 by Duchenne would be, for example, a study of the 
 physiognomy for a head of the old man in the classic 
 subject of Susanna in the bath. 
 
 We have not attempted to represent by a drawing 
 an unsatisfactory and perhaps doubtful idea of the 
 expression of this muscle. 
 
 C. — Muscles of the lower part of the face. 
 
 9th. Orbicularis muscle of the lips. — In the thickness 
 of the lips as in that of the eyelids, is arranged a 
 muscle, the fibres of which surround the orifice of the 
 mouth, this orbicular of the lips (15, Fig. 62) possessing 
 principally functions not pertaining to expression but 
 to the duties devolved on the lips (prehension of food, 
 mastication, suction, &c.) ; if it takes any part in the 
 play of the physiognomy, it is only by imparting to 
 it those changes which constitute a slight grimace 
 rather than a real expression. As in the orbicular of 
 the eyes we distinguish in it the internal fibres cor- 
 responding to the free border of the lips and the 
 external more eccentrically placed. If the first alone 
 contract (internal orbicular) they tightly close the 
 orifice of the mouth, pressing against the teeth the 
 free border of the lips, from which they cause the 
 rosy and fleshy aspect to disappear. We have 
 then the movement commonly known as biting the 
 lips. If the second (external orbicular) contract 
 
312 
 
 AkTISTiC ANATOMY. 
 
 solely, they project the lips forwards and render 
 their orifice prominent and rounded, this is the action 
 
 called pouting. . 
 
 We will not dwell at length on the muscle which 
 constitutes the fleshy layer of the cheeks and forms 
 
 the lateral walls of 
 the cavity of the 
 mouth. This muscle 
 called the buccinator 
 {buccinare, to play 
 the trumpet) takes 
 part only in those 
 functions, of which 
 the opening and the 
 cavity of the mouth 
 are the seat ; it plays 
 an important part in 
 mastication by bring- 
 ingbeneaththecrown 
 of the teeth the food 
 which falls outside 
 the alveolar arches. 
 Lastly, it aids in the 
 articulation of sounds 
 and the flaying of wind instruments (whence its 
 name of buccinator), for it is the contraction of this 
 muscle that ■ expels from the mouth the air which 
 inflates the cheeks. 
 
 ioth. The triangular muscle of the lips (muscle of 
 contempt). — This muscle belongs to the lower lip. It 
 forms (16, Fig. 62) a small fleshy triangle of which 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Triangular Muscle of the Lips (expression 
 of discontent, of contempt). 
 
muscles of the Face. 
 
 313 
 
 the base is attached to the lower jaw, to the outer side 
 of the symphysis of the chin, and from this origin its 
 fibres converge towards the commissure of the lips 
 where, by the apex of the triangle, it is inserted into 
 the deep surface of the skin. 
 
 This muscle depresses the labial commissure and 
 therefore renders the line of the lips oblique down- 
 wards and outwards ; again, it 
 draws downwards the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the naso-labial furrow 
 so as to render this furrow almost 
 straight, except at its inferior ex- 
 tremity which describes a slight 
 curve embracing the labial com- 
 missure. 
 
 The expression produced by 
 this change, if they are slightly 
 marked, is that of sadness; if they 
 are very, much so, that of con- 
 tempt. We have already seen 
 (page 299) that the partial closing 
 of the eyelids usually helps to complete the expression 
 of contempt. 
 
 Figure j6, copied from Duchenne, renders well, by 
 the contraction only of the two triangular Wnuscles of 
 the lips, the expression of discontent and scorn. The 
 depression of the commissure of the lips is character- 
 istic, and the naso-labial furrow, very marked in the 
 subject under experiment, is greatly changed in its 
 direction and in the form of its inferior extremity, 
 according to the mechanism that we have explained. 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Diagram representation 
 of the expression of dis- 
 content, of contempt. 
 
314 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 Lastly, the drawing of Figure JJ gives, so to 
 speak, the graphic formula of contempt in marking,, 
 after the preceding figure, the inferior part of the 
 naso-labial furrow, and the concentric folds which it 
 forms below this extremity. 
 
 nth. The square muscle of the lower lip (muscle 
 of disgust). — This muscle (17, Fig. 62), partly hidden 
 by the base of the preceding, arises like it from the 
 anterior part of the horizontal branch of the inferior 
 maxillary, from this origin the fibres ascend obliquely 
 upwards and inwards to be inserted into the whole 
 length of the lower lip. 
 
 It depresses the lower lip, turning it outwards 
 more or less strongly, so as to produce the grimace 
 characteristic of a person who, having introduced into 
 the cavity of the mouth a morsel of food which he 
 does not find to his taste, rejects it forcibly, forming 
 a species of groove with the lower lip turned out- 
 wards ; if the contraction is less energetic the 
 physiognomy expresses disgust. 
 
 We must refer to the atlas of Duchenne for 
 the reproduction of this expression, always more 
 or less rude, and have not attempted a drawing 
 with a simple line as the indication of the labial 
 fissure. 
 
 1 2th. Platysma muscle of the neck. — On each lateral 
 half of the anterior surface of the neck is extended 
 a thin muscular sheet lining the skin (25, Fig. 53, 
 page 207). This platysma muscle, is attached below 
 to the upper parts of the chest, from which origin 
 its fibres are directed obliquely upwards and forwards 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 315 
 
 towards the lower jaw, to be inserted into the skin of 
 the chin, of the lower lip, of the commissure of the 
 lips and of the cheek ; the more superior fibres are 
 almost horizontal extending from the skin of the 
 region of the ear towards that of the labial commis- 
 sure ; to these superior fibres we sometimes give the 
 name, but little justified, of the risorius of Santorini. 
 
 The platysma, which is not expressive by itself, 
 adds its contraction to that of various muscles of the 
 face, so as to give to the corresponding expression a 
 character of terrible energy ; the risorius of Santorini 
 does not therefore produce the expression of laughter 
 (of gaiety), but only that of grinning, of forced 
 laughter, threatening, or sneering. The platysma in 
 all these cases acts by depressing the lower jaw, 
 slightly opening the mouth, and drawing the labial 
 commissure downwards; it marks at the same time a 
 series of transverse folds on the skin of the neck. 
 These elements are capable of giving to the physiog- 
 nomy a terrible character, which Leonardo da Vinci 
 has so well observed when, in his chapter on the 
 mode of representing a person in a state of violent 
 anger, he says, " make the sides of the mouth in a 
 bow, the neck thick and swollen, and marked with 
 wrinkles in front." 
 
 If the characteristic changes of the contraction of 
 the platysma of the neck accompany those produced 
 by the frontal muscle, the physiognomy, as the series 
 of photographs of Duchenne shows, takes the ex- 
 pression of attention and astonishment produced by 
 a terrible spectacle. Associated with that of the 
 
3 1 6 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 superciliary, the expression becomes that of acute 
 pain, as, for example, in a wretch under torture, or a 
 victim torn by a beast of prey. If the contraction 
 of the pyramidalis is accompanied by that of the 
 platysma we have the expression of a savage and 
 barbarous threat, &c. 
 
 General considerations. — Associations and combina- 
 tions. — From the enumeration we have made of the 
 facial muscles from the forehead to the neck, we must 
 perceive that, among these muscles, there are some 
 which are by themselves completely expressive {e.g., 
 the frontal, superciliary and great zygomatic) and 
 others which are expressive only in a complementary 
 sense, or intended only to complete or change an 
 expression produced by another muscle (such are the 
 palpebral portion of the orbicular of the eyelids, the 
 transversalis of the nose and the platysma of the 
 neck), and lastly, others which are almost non-expres- 
 sive, but yet associated with the true muscles of the 
 expression {e.g. the buccinator). But we have not 
 space here to dwell on these classifications: 
 
 A more important question is that of the associa- 
 tion of the action of various muscles, and especially 
 of the muscles which are completely expressive by 
 themselves. The expression peculiar to each of these 
 muscles is, so to speak, one of the syllables or words 
 of the language of physiognomy, but like every other 
 language physiognomy associates these syllables and 
 words to arrive at its expressions. Now experience 
 shows that usually these associations and combina- 
 tions are composed of few elements, usually two 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 317 
 
 suffice, three muscles are sometimes in play simul- 
 taneously, hardly ever four. 
 
 Again, if we endeavour to realise these combina- 
 tions theoretically, by supposing the contractions of 
 two muscles associated at random, we soon perceive 
 that among the combinations some are easy and 
 ordinary, and this is on account of the nature of the 
 passions which we suppose associated and the me- 
 chanism of the corresponding muscles, while others 
 are impossible for the same, reason. 
 
 The following is an example of easy combination 
 concordant both to the passions and also to the 
 muscular mechanism, viz., the combination of the 
 contraction of the frontal and of the great zygomatic, 
 or of attention and laughter. On the one hand atten- 
 tion (frontal) might be excited by a spectacle which 
 provokes laughter (zygomatic) ; on the other hand 
 the frontal muscle and the great zygomatic being 
 situated, the one in the forehead and the other in the 
 cheek, acting, one on the eyebrow, the other on the 
 lips, the mechanism of one is independent of that of 
 the other ; this however, from an anatomical point of 
 view, does not prevent the two contracting simul- 
 taneously, exactly as the biceps might contract in 
 order to flex the fore-arm, at the same time that the 
 common extensor of the fingers extends the digital 
 phalanges. 
 
 .On the other hand, as impossible combinations 
 discordant both to the sentiments and muscular 
 mechanism, we may, for example, consider the simul- 
 taneous contraction of the frontal and the superior 
 
318 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 orbital portion of the orbicular of the eyelids. The 
 first muscle expresses attention, the second reflection, 
 or two states of the mind opposed to each other, 
 which cannot be at the same time open to external 
 phenomena and meditating in internal analysis. 
 Again, the first muscle raises, the second depresses 
 the eyebrow, which cannot be at the same time drawn 
 in two opposite directions ; just as, to take an example 
 from the muscles of the limbs, the fore-arm cannot be 
 at the same time flexed by the action of the biceps 
 and extended by that of the triceps. 
 
 By submitting them to the same analysis we see 
 that nothing. is easier or more Concordant to their 
 mechanism and to the passions than the simultaneous 
 contraction of the frontal and the triangular of the 
 lips (attention and contempt), of the superciliary and 
 the square muscle of the lips (pain and disgust), the 
 pyramidalis and the internal common elevator (menace 
 and sorrow), &c. On the contrary, for the same 
 double series of reasons we find impossible and dis- 
 cordant associations, such as those of the great 
 zygomatic, and the square muscle of the chin (gaiety 
 and disgust), the pyramidalis and the superciliary 
 (menace and pain), and of the internal common 
 elevator and the great zygomatic (sorrow and 
 laughter). 
 
 There are, however, combinations which at first 
 sight appear discordant to the nature of the passions, 
 but which are found notwithstanding not to have any 
 obstacle to their realisation in the mechanism of the 
 countenance. We take, for example, the superciliary 
 
MUSCLES OF THE FACE. 319 
 
 and the great zygomatic : one expresses pain, the 
 other laughter — two expressions of an opposite na- 
 ture ; however, as these muscles correspond, one be- 
 longing to the head of the eyebrow, the other to the 
 labial commissure, they can act without one counter- 
 acting the other, and we may well understand their 
 simultaneous contraction. . Now on reflection we find 
 that this association, anatomically possible, is often 
 realised, notwithstanding the apparent incompati- 
 bility of the corresponding passions. In the midst of 
 violent physical' pain, which causes the involuntary 
 and irresistible contraction of the superciliary, a 
 serene and powerful will finds still the energy to 
 smile. In order to find the realisation in a work of 
 art it is sufficient to study the expression of the 
 countenance of Seneca in the painting by Giordano. 
 A similar example is offered by that of a young 
 woman who has become a mother, and who, though 
 still quivering with the pain of childbirth (superciliary 
 muscle), is divided betwixt the physical pain and the 
 mental joy of seeing the infant to whom she has 
 given birth and at whom she smiles (great zygomatic 
 muscle). 
 
 These latter examples show that the anatomical 
 conditions take the lead up to a certain point of 
 those which result from the nature of the passions, 
 and that a combination of expressions is possible 
 only when it can be realised with regard to the facial 
 muscles. 
 
 We will finish here these short instructions on 
 the physiology of the face, happy if we have been 
 
320 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 successful in showing the artist that in the play of the 
 face there is neither fancy, caprice, nor inspiration, 
 but that all is subject to exact and precise rules 
 which are the orthography of the language of physi- 
 ognomy, and that the possible combinations are both 
 large and varied, so that the artist can preserve his 
 liberty of action while conforming to these rules, as 
 the poet observes those of grammar without being 
 on that account embarrassed in the scope of his 
 genius. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abdomen, Forms of . 
 Abdomen, Muscles of . 
 Abduction and Adduction 
 Achilles, Tendon of 
 Acromion .... 
 Adductors of the Thigh 
 
 Muscles . . . , 
 Adipose, Ligament . , 
 Alveoli, Dental . . , 
 Anatomy, Definition and His 
 
 tory 
 
 Anatomical Neck . , 
 Anatomical Snuff-box . 
 Anconeus Muscle . . 
 Anterior Tibial Muscle 
 
 Arm 
 
 Armpit, Hollow of . . 
 Arthrology . . . . 
 Association of Expressions 
 Astragalus Bone . . . 
 
 Athletes 
 
 Atlas, Vertebras . . . 
 Attention. Expression of 
 Auditory Canal . . . 
 Axis, Vertebra . . . 
 
 Back, Muscles of . . 
 Biceps Brachialis . . 
 Biceps Femoris . . . 
 Bicipital Groove . . 
 Bicipital Tuberosity 
 Brachialis Anticus Muscle 
 Brachycephalics ..... 
 Buccinator, Muscle ■ 
 
 Calcaneum 
 Camper . 
 
 ■PAGE 
 I89 
 188 
 I09 
 264 
 46 
 
 249 
 
 I3S 
 168 
 
 I 
 
 48 
 
 23S 
 232 
 
 256 
 
 55 
 205 
 
 13 
 
 316 
 
 146. 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 298 
 160 
 
 23 
 
 '95 
 214 
 
 252 
 
 56 
 
 6 5 
 218 
 
 163 
 312 
 
 146 
 
 »73 
 
 TAGS 
 
 Canine Teeth 171 
 
 Canons 87 
 
 Caruncula Lachrymalis . . 295 
 
 Carpo-Metacarpal Articulation 86, 
 
 Carpus 74 
 
 Cartilages ..-.■, . . 17 
 
 Caucasian Race . 176 
 
 Cervical Ligament .... 26 
 
 Cheek, Prominence of . . . 168 
 
 Chin 169 
 
 Chondro-costal Articulation . 41 
 
 Chondro-stemal Articulation 41 
 
 Clavicle . / 43 
 
 Coccyx 92 
 
 Combination of Expressions . 316 
 
 Commissure of Lips . . . 295 
 
 Commissure of Eyelids . . 295 
 
 Complexus Muscle . . . ; 201 
 
 Condyle 57 
 
 Condyles of Femur .... 1 24 
 
 Contempt, Expression of . . 312 
 
 Coraco-Brachialis Muscle . . 217 
 
 Coracoid Process .... 47 
 
 Coronal Suture 162 
 
 Coronoid Process .... 58 
 
 Cotyloid Cavity ..... 94 
 
 Coxo- Femoral Articulation . 106 
 
 Cranium 155 
 
 Crucial Ligaments .... 133 
 
 Crural Arch ...... 99 
 
 Cuboid Bone ..... 148 
 
 Cuneiform Bone 75 
 
 Deltoid Muscle 206 
 
 Deltoid Impression .... 54 
 
 Diaphyses 16 
 
 Digastric Muscle .... 1275 
 
322 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Discs, Intervertebral . 
 Disgust, Expression of 
 Dissections .... 
 Dolichocephalics . . 
 Duchenne of Boulogne 
 
 Egyptian Canon . . 
 Elbow, Articulation of 
 Elevators of Lips, Muscles 
 Epigastric Pit . . . 
 
 Epiphyses 
 
 Extensor brevis digitorum 
 Extensors of Fingers, Muscles 
 Extensors of Toes, Muscles 
 
 Eyebrow • . 
 
 Eyelids 
 
 Face, Skeleton of the 
 Facial Angle . . . 
 Fascia Lata . . 
 Femur Bone . . . 
 Fibula Bone . . . 
 Flexor carpi radialis 
 Flexors of Fingers, Muscles 
 Flexors of Toes, Muscles 
 
 Foot 
 
 Fore-arm . . 
 Fourchette of Sternum 
 Frontal Bone . . 
 Frontal Muscle . . 
 
 Gastrocnemii, Muscles, 
 
 Gerdy 
 
 Gladiator .... 
 Glenoid, Cavity . . 
 Gluteal, Muscles 
 Gracilis .... 
 Gratiolet . . _ « . 
 Groove, Bicipital 
 Gymnasium . . . 
 
 Hand 
 
 Head, as a Canon . 
 "Head, Bones of . . 
 Head, Movements of 
 Head, Muscles of . 
 Hips 
 
 PAGE 
 
 25 
 
 314 
 
 4 
 163 
 292 
 
 87 
 
 S7 
 
 296 
 
 42 
 
 16 
 
 266 
 
 230 
 
 257 
 
 295 
 
 165 
 173 
 244 
 104 
 
 138 
 225 
 226 
 265 
 143 
 64 
 
 32 
 158 
 
 297 
 
 261 
 
 178 
 
 i/9 
 
 47 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 293 
 
 49. 56 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 178 
 
 155 
 
 270 
 
 277 
 
 9i 
 
 Humerus .... 
 Hypothenar Eminence 
 
 Iliac Bones . , . 
 Iliofemoral Ligament 
 Incisors, Teeth . . 
 Index Finger . . . 
 Index, Brachial . . 
 Index, Cephalic . . 
 Infra-spinatus Muscle 
 Infra-hyoid Muscles 
 Interosseous Space . 
 Interosseous Muscles 
 Ischium .... 
 
 Jaw, Articulation of the 
 
 Knee, Articulation of . 
 Knee, Form of . . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 48,55 
 ■ 237 
 
 93 
 108 
 
 171 
 
 78, 233 
 
 89 
 
 163 
 
 202 
 
 272, 
 
 66 
 
 239 
 
 95 
 
 172 
 
 128 
 133 
 
 Lambdoid, Suture .... 161 
 Latissimus Dorsi Muscle . . rg9 
 
 Laughter 306 
 
 LeBrun, Studies of Expression 281 
 
 Leg 126, 137, 255 
 
 Linea Alba 189 
 
 295 
 238 
 
 Lips 
 
 Lumbricales Muscles 
 
 Malar Bone .... 
 
 Malleoli , 
 
 Masseter Muscle . . 
 Mastoid Process. . . 
 Maxillary Bone, Inferior 
 Maxillary Bone, Superior 
 Medio-carpal Articulation 
 Menace, Expression of 
 Mesaticephalics . . 
 Metacarpus . . . . 
 Metatarsus .... 
 Michael Angelo . . . 
 Middle Finger . . . 
 Molar Teeth • . . . 
 
 Monkeys 
 
 Mortise, Tibio-fibular . 
 Movement of Muscles , 
 Muscles in general- . . 
 Muscular Contraction . 
 
 78, 
 
 i68» 
 
 140 
 
 278 
 
 160 
 
 169 
 
 168 
 
 76 
 302 
 163 
 
 77 
 149 
 8 
 177 
 171 
 176 
 140 
 181 
 181 
 181 
 
INDEX. 
 
 323 
 
 Nasal Fossa . . , 
 Naso-Labial Fold . 
 Neck, Movements of 
 Neck, Muscles of . 
 Neck, Region of . 
 Negro, Facial Angle of 
 
 Oblique Muscles of the Abdo 
 
 men . , . 
 Obturator Foramen 
 Obturator Muscle 
 Occipital Bone . 
 OccipitaLMuscle 
 Odontoid Process 
 GLsophagus . . 
 Olecranon . . 
 Omo-hyoid Muscle 
 Opponens Muscles 
 Opposition, Movement: 
 Orbicular Muscle of Eyelids 
 Orbicular Muscle of Lips 
 Orbicularis Palpebrarum 
 Orbital Processes 
 Orbits .... 
 Osteology . . . 
 
 of 
 
 Palpebral Muscle 
 Parietal Bones . 
 Patella. - . . 
 Patella, Ligament of 
 Pectineus Muscle 
 Pectoral Muscles 
 Pelvis .... 
 Peroneal Muscles 
 Pes Anserinus . 
 Phalanges of Fingers 
 Phalanges of Toes 
 Physiology . . 
 Pisiform Bone . 
 Plantaris Muscle 
 Platysma Muscles 
 Platysma of Neck 
 Pomum Adami . 
 Popliteal Space . 
 Poupart's Ligament 
 Pronation . . . 
 Pronator Quadratus 
 Pronator Teres . 
 
 2 37, 
 
 PAGE 
 I67 
 
 295 
 270 
 268 
 268 
 176 
 
 188 
 94 
 243 
 156 
 207 
 
 23 
 272 
 
 59 
 272 
 238 
 
 79 
 298 
 
 3" 
 299 
 159 
 165 
 «3 
 
 . 299 
 
 . 158 
 
 . 125 
 
 . 125 
 
 • 249 
 
 . 184 
 
 ■ 9i 
 
 H9. 259 
 
 . 246 
 
 151 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 264 
 
 294 
 3i4 
 272 
 
 '33 
 
 99 
 
 68 
 
 227 
 
 223 
 
 Proportion of Arm .... 
 
 „ Clavicle . . . 
 
 ,. Foot . . . . 
 
 .. Leg . . . . 
 
 „ Lower Limb . . 
 
 ,, Pelvis .... 
 
 ,, Sternum . . . 
 
 ,, Upper Limb. . 
 
 ,, Vertebral Column 
 
 Psoas Muscle 
 
 Pterygoid Muscle .... 
 
 Pubis 
 
 PyramidalisAbdominis Muscle 
 Pyramidahs Muscle of Face . 
 Pyriformis Muscle .... 
 
 Quadratus Femoris . 
 Quadratus Menti . 
 
 Radial Muscles . . . 
 Radio-carpal-Articulation 
 Radio-ulnar Articulation 
 
 Radius 
 
 Rectus Abdominis . . 
 Rectus Femoris . . . 
 Reflection, Expression of 
 Rhomboid Muscles . . 
 
 Sacro-lumbalis Muscle . . . 204 
 
 Sacro-sciatic Ligaments . . 98 
 
 Sacrum 91 
 
 Sartorius Muscle .... 245 
 Scaphoid Bone .... 75, 148 
 
 Scapulo-humeral Articulation 49 
 
 Sciatic Notch 96 
 
 Semi-lunar Bone .... 75 
 
 Semi-lunar Ligaments . . . 128 
 
 Semi-membranosus Muscle . 253 
 
 Semi-tendinosus Muscle . . 252 
 
 Serratus Magnus Muscle . . 210 
 
 Shoulder j . 43 
 
 Shoulder Blade 44 
 
 Sigmoid Cavities .... 68 
 
 Soleus Muscle 264 
 
 Sorrow, Expression of. . . 313 
 
 Sphenoid Bone 162 
 
 Splenitis Muscle 201 
 
 Sterno-cleido-mastoid Muscle 268 
 
 PAGE 
 85 
 
 35 
 152 
 
 '53 
 152 
 116 
 
 35 
 
 84 
 
 28 
 
 250 
 
 278 
 
 93 
 194 
 
 302 
 
 243 
 
 243 
 
 296 
 
 229 
 
 65 
 68 
 
 57 
 192 
 
 247 
 300 
 202 
 
324 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sterno-thyroid Muscle . 
 
 Sternum 
 
 Stylo-hyoid Muscle . . 
 Styloid Process . . . 
 Subastragaloid Articulation- 
 Sue on Physiognomy . 
 Superciliary Muscle 
 Superville, Humbert de 
 Supination .... 
 Supinator Muscles . . 
 Supra-hyoid Muscles . 
 Supra-Spinous Muscle . 
 Sutures of Skull . . . 
 Symphysis of Pubis . . 
 Symphysis, Sacro-iliac . 
 
 Tarsus 
 
 Temporal Bone . . . 
 Temporal Muscle . . 
 Temporo-maxillary Articula 
 tion ..... 
 
 Teeth 
 
 Tendo Achillis . . . 
 Tendon in general . . 
 Tensor of Fascia Lata . 
 Teres Major Muscle . 
 Thenar Eminence . . 
 
 Thigh 
 
 Thorax 
 
 Thyro-hyoid Muscle 
 Thyroid Cartilage . . 
 
 Thumb 
 
 Tibia 
 
 Tibialis Anticus . . . 
 Tibio-fibular Articulation 
 
 PAGE 
 
 274 
 30 
 
 275 
 66 
 
 148 
 
 284 
 
 3°3 
 
 284 
 
 68 
 
 , 229 
 
 274 
 
 210 
 
 161 
 
 98 
 
 97 
 
 .147 
 
 279 
 
 172 
 171 
 264 
 182 
 244 
 203 
 236 
 244 
 
 30 
 .274 
 272 
 
 78 
 137 
 256 
 
 139 
 
 Tibio-tarsal Articulation 
 Titian and Andre Vesale 
 Toes .... 
 Trachea . . 
 Transversalis . . 
 Transversalis Nasi 
 Trapezium . . 
 Trapezius, Muscle 
 Trapezoid Bone . 
 Triangular Muscle of Lips 
 Triceps Brachialis 
 Triceps Femoris 
 Trochanters . . 
 Trochlea . . 
 Trochlea Humeral 
 Trochlea Femoral 
 Trunk, Muscles of 
 
 Ulna .... 
 Unciform Bone . 
 
 Vertebra . . . 
 Vertebra Prominens 
 Vertebral Column 
 Vinci, Leonardo de 
 
 Weeping, Muscle of 
 Wrist 
 
 Xiphoid Appendage 
 
 Yellow Ligaments . 
 
 Zygomatic Muscles . 
 Zygomatic Process , 
 
 PACT! 
 
 141 
 
 9 
 
 151 
 
 272 
 190 
 310 
 
 75 
 195 
 
 75 
 312 
 218 
 246 
 106 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 124 
 
 184 
 
 65 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 309 
 
 74 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 3°5 
 160 
 
 Printed by Cassell and Company, Limited, La Belle Sal-vase, London,. E.C 
 
 10.390