A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (78 -I &6G \3\2L CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Con,; oturKis Date Due ^^-i 0> 2>

'i.i^^» ..»j;v!j E .1 (Jl- & lo 4fz/<^^j COPYRIGHT, 1898, 1899, 1904, igio, 1911, BY Charles Scribner's Sons Y vli'HriVllUl I. H. G. PREFACE The function of both the writer and the teacher of his- tory is to explain the meaning of human Hfe as revealed in the records of the past. In the case of both the historian and the teacher much depends upon a nice discrimination in choosing typical facts, for their nature rather than their number should be the guiding principle. This is especially true in the teaching of history in grammar grades, where the purpose is not so much to acquire a considerable body of knowledge as to develop in the pupil an interest in history and a taste fot historical reading. In this book care has been taken not only to select typical events but so to group them that their full value may be appreciated as causes or as results. The reader is invited to examine briefly the plan of the book. After a short chapter on early discoveries follows an account of the struggle, on the part of the Spaniards, the English, the Dutch, and the French, for control in the New World. In accordance with the general purpose of select- ing significant events, many romantic and interesting adven- tures have been omitted from the body of the text, in order to give more space to topics of greater importance. But enough has been told to explain the nature of the explora- tions, their objects, and methods, and the reasons for failure or success in planting colonies. In the treatment of the English colonies, only typical VlH PREFACE ones are chosen and they are divided in three groups. Vir- ginia and Maryland represent the Southern group; Massa- chusetts and Connecticut, the New England group; and New York and Pennsylvania, the Middle group. A few things should be noted in connection with the treatment of the colonies. In the first place, the history of each group is brought down to 1689, a turning-point in American history. The pupil can thus study separately the three parallel streams of colonial history, without the inevi- table and almost inextricable confusion which must attend a strictly chronological treatment of the thirteen colonies, whether taken up singly or all together. In the second place, emphasis is laid upon what is important; the selec- tion of typical colonies and of typical events in the life of these colonies must, of course, give more space for intelli- gent and interesting treatment of illustrative facts. In the third place, certain definite characteristics of the people in any one of the groups can, by comparison and contrast, be distinctly brought out by this method of study. Of course there is an elimination of some matter gener- ally used in text-books. At the ends of chapters, however, may be found, in the " Notes," reference to the colonies not treated fully in the body of the text. The subject-matter of these " Notes " has been carefully selected and will, it is believed, supply nearly all that is needed in schools where the conditions require a special handling of the colony question. Up to 1689 there was little of the spirit of union among the colonies. To a great extent each went its own way. But after 1689, three sets of influences — Indian wars, troub- les with the French, and difficulties with the royal and the proprietary governors — gradually brought the colonies into closer sympathy and prepared them for union. To make clear the working of these three sets of historic forces, the PREFACE ix topics introducing them are given in the following order: " Life among the Indians " and " Indian Wars "; " French Explorations" and the "Last French War"; and "Life among the Colonies " and " Growth toward Union." Special attention is called to the facts selected to explain the real meaning of the intercolonial struggle between the English and the French. Of the four Intercolonial Wars, the only one worthy of study in grammar schools is the Last French War. By omitting the other three, space is gained for a more complete discussion of the one that had altogether the most important bearing upon American history. If the pupil thoroughly studies this war he will know the meaning of the struggle between England and France for control in America. In the Revolution, as in all other wars, causes and results are emphasized rather than campaigns and battles ; military details are avoided, only a few significant battles being given to enable the pupil to understand the character of the fighting. The pertinent question here as elsewhere is: Does the fact serve to give the pupil clear ideas of the past as an interpreter of the present? In applying this test in the study of history, we soon find ourselves passing lightly over or omitting altogether much that has found a con- spicuous place in class-room work. In the Constitutional period, the traditional grouping of topics according to Presidential administrations has been abandoned in the belief that the sequence of events can be more clearly understood by a logical grouping. But those who prefer to use the traditional method can easily adapt it to this book. Numerous references are made, in the notes " To the Pupil," to the Presidents and their terms of office, and a carefully prepared table containing a list of the Presi- dents and important facts about them may be found in the X PREFACE Appendix. Moreover, portraits of all the Presidents and sketches of their lives have been given an appropriate place. Inasmuch as the colonization of the West has played so large a part in our history, no apology need be made for the prominence given to Western settlement, Western life, the difficult problems of connectu:g the East and the West, the effect of Western expansion upon the slavery controversy and immigration, the influence of the prairies and the Pacific railroads, and so on. In discussing the development of the West, the intimate relation existing between man and the physical conditions that surround him is made evident. Indeed, throughout the book the marked influence of geography upon history has been distinctly recognized. But, however important physical conditions may be, history concerns itself more largely with moral than with material life. Accordingly, the personal actor has been given emphasis. In portraits, autographs, biographical sketches, and in the conspicuous mention made of represen- tative men, the moral element has been kept uppermost. For man dominating his physical and social surroundings is the central fact of history. The very cordial reception given to the previous editions of this book has been most gratifying. In this new edition the history has been brought down to date. Although many changes in the text have not been found necessary, yet, whenever in the interests of a more useful book such changes have seemed advisable they have been unhesitat- ingly made. The excellence of the maps and pictures in the editions already published has won hearty commenda- tion for their helpfulness in illuminating and supplementing the text. In closing, the author wishes to express his deep obliga- PREFACE xi tion to Dr. Thomas M. Balliet, Dean of the New York University of Pedagogy, and to Professor WiUiam E. Mead, of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., for their many invaluable suggestions; also to Miss Elizabeth M. Worth- ington, of Hartford, Conn., for her great care in reading the proof. Wilbur F. Gordy. Springfield, Mass., 1911. TO THE TEACHER The teach- er's limi- tatlons. A "bird's- eye " view necessary. The nature and use of the " Ref- erences." '• Outside Readings" for bright pupils. Useful books for teachers. There is no hard and fast method of teaching history which can be successfully applied without modification. Certain limitations and conditions surround every teacher. Among these are the age and capacity of the class, the time devoted to the study, the num- ber of other studies pursued at the same time, the books of refer- ence accessible, and, most of all, the teacher's equipment for the work. Whatever the conditions may be, however, experienced teachers will have their own ways and means ; but for the benefit of beginners it may not be amiss to offer a few suggestions, this text-book serving as a basis. Before taking up any chapter or period the teacher should get a "bird's-eye" view of the whole. An intelligent conception will thus be secured of the relation of cause and effect, to which special thought has been given by the author in the grouping. In making this preparation the "References" will be helpful. The books therein mentioned are not numerous, but they include those which have been thoroughly tested. A short but well-selected list is of greater service than a long and indiscriminate one. The " Refer- ences" are made to books which the pupil may be expected to con- sult in preparing the lesson. As a rule, each pupil should read one "Reference " book in addition to his text-book. The " Outside Readings " will prove a great help to the teacher in cultivating a taste for history. In every class may be found some bright pupils who can do much more work than is demanded of the others. To such pupils the " Outside Readings " will make a special appeal. The " References" and " Outside Readings " fur- nish teacher and pupil alike with additional subject-matter which, used with freedom and intelligence, must result in vitalizing history and in stimulating and invigorating thought. The teacher should have at hand for constant use at least one of the books containing extended bibliographies for class-room work. Hinsdale's "How to Teach History," Adams's "Manual of Historic Literature," Hall's " Methods of Teaching History," Channing and Hart's "Guide to American History," and Gordy and Twitchell's xiii TO THE TEACHER Poetry and fiction aid In making liistory a thing of life. Tlie teacli- er an in- terpreter of life. The impor- tance of training pupils to form right habits of study- Discretion In the use of a text- book. The notes "To the Pupil." "Pathfinder in American History" have such bibliographies. The last of the books named contains numerous page references. Wh«n nothing but a single book — and that a text-book — is read, the reci- tation will generally prove to be mechanical and lifeless. To make history attractive collateral reading must be called into requisition. Poetry and fiction, therefore, find a fitting place in this list because they appeal to the feelings and the imagination, and do much to recall the movement, the color, and the life of the past. As the historical fiction is selected with especial reference to grammar grades, the number of books is small. Here, as in the other bibli- ographical suggestions, the quality rather than the quantity has been considered. In the notes "To the Pupil " will be found, in al- most every chapter, a special reference to some book or selection of high literary or historic merit, a feature which may be made of great value to pupils. Important as the teacher's preparation is, however, the recitation is his opportunity. It is the measure of his success in reaching the lives of his pupils, for the teacher's personality is much more than text-books, references, outside readings, methods, devices, and count- less appliances. History is an expression of life ; the teacher is the interpreter of that life. The pupil is fortunate whose life-inter- preter is wise and true. The assignment of the lesson is one of the most important parts of the recitation. Here the judicious teacher will do some of. his best work by aiding the pupils to discriminate between what is of less and what is of greater value. Time thus given in training the pupils how to study will be well spent. Not so much depends upon the number of facts the pupil may learn as upon the proper apprecia- tion he may have of their relative importance and upon the habits he may form in learning them. Nearly all the facts will soon be forgotten, but the habits will remain as a permanent factor in the mental and moral equipment for the work of life. The length of the lesson, which it is assumed will be assigned by topics rather than pages, should be duly considered. The young teacher sometimes falls into the pernicious habit of assigning les- sons of uniform length. The pages of this book are of unequal value. Some of them should be merely read ; some should be thoroughly studied ; and some, under certain conditions which de- pend partly upon the age and capacity of the class and the time devoted to history, may well be altogether omitted. In a word, the book should be adapted to the class and the school in which it may be used. The notes " To the Pupil " may be used in lessons on advance work or in reviews. The questions do not cover all the facts found in the text, but rather call attention to the more important ones and xiv TO THE TEACHER suggest other questions ; for, after all, the most stimulating ques- tions are often those called forth by the pupils themselves in the recitation period. The purposes of the recitation should include more than a test of memory; they should include a comparison and discussion of facts acquired in the preparation of the lesson. At the beginning of the recitation a topic should be named and the pupil required to recite upon it without question or comment from the teacher. Such a method, if persisted in, will inevitably develop fluency and readiness of expression. Teachers ask too many questions— questions that seri- ously interfere with the flow of thought and with its free expres- sion. Such interference is without doubt the most serious defect of the average recitation. The best work lies in helping the pupil to get definite ideas and then to give these ideas clear expression in well-connected sentences. He will thus acquire more available knowledge and better mental training through the acquisition of this knowledge. In other words, the language faculty and the logical faculty will each receive good training. History, when well taught, appeals not merely to memory ; it appeals to the understanding and the reason. Hence the pupils should be required to prepare a written question on every lesson. The value of this simple device in leading them to note the wrork- ing of cause and effect cannot easily be measured. If pupils have not been trained to ask such questions they may at first be diffident about it. They will also ask questions that call for yes or no or for single-word answers. With a little judicious help, how- ever, they will soon begin to ask searching questions that will stimulate the interest of the entire class. Furthermore, it is a good plan to require pupils, on finishing the review of a chapter or period, to make out a set of test questiona for the class to answer. These questions will themselves prove to be a pretty good measure of the kind of thought-work done by the pupils. After trying this plan for years the author heartily recom- mends it. The pupils' questions used in recitations — and sometimes, espe- cially on review, the entire recitation period may be devoted to their discussion — will call forth many differences of opinion. At such times the teacher will do well to encourage freedom in the expression of these differences and will by all means refrain from making known his own views until he has given the members of the class an opportunity to reach a conclusion. There need be no haste about settling the question. It can well afford to wait — sometimes for weeks. Of course this work is with children whose minds are immature. They will often reach crude and even errone- ous conclusions ; but in so doing they receive wholesome discipline TO THE TEACHER Debates and their value. Five- minute written exercises. Sugges. tlons on formal written work. Close connection between geography and history. Every event to be located on the map. The value of the pictures. and make some growth in the habit of weighing and comparing facts. The questions and discussions during the recitation period -will furnish good preparation for the debates suggested here and there in the notes " To the Pupil." A comparatively small number are mem- tioned, but many others are suggested, not only in the notes but in the facts of the text. A comparison of men and measures should always call forth, in a well-trained class, different points of view and, therefore, differences of opinion. Formal debates, with chosen leaders, test the extent and accuracy of the pupil's knowledge, train him to look at all sides of a question before making up his mind, and help him to give clear expression to his views. For accuracy and definiteness of thought, frequent five-minute written exercises on some topic of the lesson should be given. Such exercises will test the teacher's work quite as much as the pupil's. Out of the abundance of material for language-work only a little can here be mentioned. The notes " To the Pupil " suggest much more. Biographical sketches of eminent men, in which the per- sonal characteristics receive emphasis, will promote a better in- sight into the working of moral forces. The sketches may often take the form of impersonations and thus be made a decided stimu- lus to the imagination. A more formal kind of written work may consist of compositions written on subjects for special investigation. Such work will best be done, of course, in connection with a period or chapter that has been carefully studied. In the Preface mention has been made of the attempt to connect closely geography and history. In all probability too much empha- sis will not be laid upon such connection. To aid the pupil in see- ing this connection, every event should be located on the map, not only in preparing the lesson, but also in reciting it. Wall maps or blackboard maps are, of course, necessary ; but, in addition to these, pupils should have progressive outline maps, such as are now pre- pared by many publishers. If for any reason these outline maps cannot be secured, the pupils can draw their own and fill in the places and events referred to in the text. No lesson should be prepared without a constant reference to maps. The maps in this book contain no useless matter. The aim has been to put into them only that which will help the pupil to understand the text. The liberal use of beautiful illustrations throughout the book has the same purpose in view. It would be well to aid the pupils to examine these illustrations with care. In the notes " To the Pupil " special reference is made again and again to dates indicating great landmarks. These dates should be learned with strict accuracy and should be repeatedly reviewed as a sort of "multiplication table of history." Around these sig- TO THE TEACHER Dates Indicating great iand- marlcs to be accu- rately learned. Prepara- tory woric for tile study of a period. The pupil to malce out lilson n review- outlines. Impor- tance of freshness and va- riety in re- view work. The best review leads to a clearer knowledge of historic develop- ment. nificant dates should be grouped the less important ones. Believing this to be a matter of serious import, the author has made in the notes "To the Pupil" many suggestions about dates. Rightly used, they are of the first importance, because they lead to a knowl- edge of the meaning of history. From one point of view events are causes ; from another, effects. But, however regarded, they occur in time, and a clear understanding of their logical relations demands an acquaintance with their chronological relations. Bui only the great landmarks need be known with absolute accuracy. Perhaps the best way to use dates in the class-room is to make them serve in giving perspective in review work. Before taking up the serious study of a chapter or period it is a good plan either to read it over with the class or at any rate to pass over it rapidly, with the purpose of getting a general view of it. The pupils are then prepared to study with intelligence, because they can better see causal connections. As the following paragraphs indicate, the author believes in a variety of review work ; but whatever may be the character of the review, the preparatory work for it ia extremely valuable. In the notes " To the Pupil " are found suggestions on mak- ing topical analyses which are useful in reviews. Topical anal- yses. Judiciously used, are excellent, but they are of most value when made out by the pupil himself. He can easily prepare a topical analysis for any chapter — by arranging in order the headings and sub-topics of paragraphs. By making the review-outline for him- self, he will derive much more benefit than he would from a printed outline arranged for him. For a similar reason the pupil should make out his own charts. In the notes may be found suggestions on chart- making also. To give the review freshness and variety, however, something more than charts and topical analyses is required. If the purpose is to fix in mind important dates, the review may be chronological. Certain dates may be assigned and the class required to connect with each an important event. The review may be biographical. In this case noteworthy events may be associated with the names of men. It may be geographical, when the association of events is to be with places. But these kinds of reviews are, as a rule, somewhat fragmentary. The best review should lead to a clearer knowledge of historic de- velopment. With this purpose in mind such large subjects as slavery, growth toward Union, the Indian question, and progress in means of transportation may be selected. By studying each one of these larger subjects by itself, the learner can give his entire atten- tion to a single group of topics without the distraction and confu- aion which result from studying parts of several groups at the same xrii TO THE TEACHER A geo- graphical grouping; sometimes better in reviews. The ethical value of studying represen= tative men. time, as must be done when the events of a period are taken up in strictly chronological order. Such reviews are repeatedly suggested in the notes " To the Pupil." It is hardly necessary to remind the teacher that, in reviewing, the index can be made very service- able. Children should be trained to use the index, even in their everyday work ; but if in addition they are trained to use it in re- viewing they will get valuable suggestions on the intelligent hand- ling of books. Sometimes it is difficult for the teacher to decide on what basis to group topics in a period or chapter. For instance, in teaching the Civil War shall the grouping be chronological or geographical ? In either case there are advantages and disadvantages. For the ad- vance the grouping may be made on the basis of chronology, but for the review a geographical grouping is much clearer. For example, after the Union plan is matured (1862) all the battles for the open- ing of the Mississippi should be taught in a single group. The same should be done for the capture of Richmond, and so on. As suggested in the preface, the moral element is of surpassing importance in history. Therefore emphasis should be given to per- sonal force. Certain men are leaders because they represent in themselves the best characteristics of the people they lead. The boy has no special interest in these characteristics as they find ex- pression in a whole people, but he has deep interest in them as they find expression in a distinguished man. By studying these distinguished men, by finding out what they felt and thought an4 believed, the pupil will get at the true meaning of history, for the motives and ideals of great leaders reveal the motives and ideals that inspired the people. CONTENTS DISCOVERY OF AMERICA CHAPTER PAGE I. Discovery of America, i EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION II. Spain in the New World, 13 III. . England in the New World, 20 IV. The English in Virginia and Maryland (1607-1689), . 28 V. The Pilgrims and Puritans in Massachusetts ?iND Con- necticut (1620-1689), 42 VI. The Dutch in New York and the Quakers in Penn- sylvania (1609-1689), -63 VII. LiEE Among the Indians, 75 VIII. Early Indian Wars, 84 IX. French Explorations, 87 X. The Last French War, 93 XI. Life in the Colonies at the Close of the French and Indian Wars, 105 XII. Growth toward Union in the Colonies, . . . .118 THE REVOLUTION, THE CONFEDERATION, AND THE FEDERAL UNION XIII. The Revolution, 125 XIV. The Breakdown of the Confederation and the Forma- tion OF THE Constitution (1781-1789), .... 185 XV. The New Struggle for Political Independence and THE Growth of National Feeling (i 789-1829), . 194 XX CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XVI. Jacksonian Democracy and the West (1829-1841), . 250 XVII. The Slavery Question (1841-1859) 267 XVIII. Secession and the Civil War (1860-1865), . . 298 RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW UNION XIX. Reconstruction Days (1865-1871) 356 XX. The New South (1877- ) 365 XXI. The New West (1865- ) 372 XXII. The New Union (1865) 382 XXIII. The Spanish-American War and Recent Events (1898- ), 410 XXIV. Some Industrial, Economic, Social, and Political Conditions and Problems of the Present, . 431 APPENDICES A. The Declaration of Independence, 451 B. A Chart on the Constitution, 455 Constitution of the United States, . . . .456 C. Table of States and Territories, 470 D. Presidents of the United States, 472 INDEX, 473 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS George Washington, A Ship of the Norsemen, .... Christopher Columbus, . . . „ The Nina, ....... The Pinta, . , .... The Santa Maria, . • . . . Sebastian Cabot, ..... Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella New World, ..... Americas Vespucius, ..... Cortez, ....... Old Spanish Mission, New Mexico, Built 1604, Spanish Gateway, St. Augustine, Florida, . Balboa, ....... Fernando de Soto, .... Queen Elizabeth, .... Sir Walter Raleigh and Autograph, . The Destruction of the Spanish Armada, Philippe II., King of Spain, 1527-1598, An Indian Village at Roanoke, . English Explorers Bartering with Indians for Land, Queen Elizabeth's Signature, Signattire of James I., Ruins of Old Church at Jamestown, Captain John Smith, , Tobacco-plant, . . A Wild Dash for Life, George Calvert (Lord Baltimore), A Maryland Shilling, . . A Puritan, .... Oliver Cromwell, The Mayflower, . . . A Chest which came over in the Myles Standish, . . Pilgrim Types, . , Myles Standish's Bill of Expenses after his Visit to the Indians, xzi Mayflmuer, after his Eaturn from the facing page PAGB FronHspiect 2 xxu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Hooker's Emigration to Connecticut, . . . „ . facing page 50 Gov. John Winthrop, ... 5' First Church at Salem, .....■...• 54 Facsimile of Opening Lines of the Massachusetts Charter, . . . 56^57 Sir Edmund Andros, . • 5^ The Charter Oak, ........... 60 A Dutch Officer of the Seventeenth Century, .64 A Group of Seventeenth Century Dutchmen, ...... 65 The Earliest Picture of New Amsterdam, ....... 66 Henry Hudson's Half Moon on the Hudson, ...... 67 An Early Dutch Man of War, . . 69 William Penn, 70 Penn's Treaty with the Indians, facing page 70 An Indian Camp, ........... 76 Wampum received by Penn from the Indians, . . . . . .77 Indian Whip (Quirt), War-Club, and Hunting- Arrow, ..... 7^ Indian Snow-shoes and Pappoose-case, ....... 79 Totem of the Five Nations, ......... 80 Totem of the Illinois, .......... .80 Totem of the Sioux, ...........81 Totem of the Hurons, .......... 81 Carved Pipes from an Indian Mound, ........ 82 Big Elephant Mound, 83 Indians Carrying Canoes over a Portage, ....... 85 French Soldiers of the Time of the French Exploration, .... 88 Samuel Champlain, ........... 89 La Salle Claiming for France all the Territory through which the Missis- sippi and its Tributaries Flowed, .... facing page 90 Robert Cavalier De La Salle, ......... 91 French Soldiers and Officers of the Time of the French War, ... 95 Quebec in 1730, ............ 97 General Braddock's Troops in an Indian Ambuscade, . . facing page 98 Maj.-Gen. James Wolfe, loi Marquis de Montcalm, .......... 102 Puritans Going to Church, .......... 108 A Wanton Gospeller, . . . . . „ . . . , .110 The Pillory, 112 Colonial Relics, . . . ........ .113 Early New Amsterdam, Showing Costumes, Amusements, and Architec- ture I14-115 Old Spinning-wheel, . . . . , . . . . . • ixl Title-page of " Poor Richard's Almanac, " . . . . „ . , . 120 John Hancock House, Boston, Mass., .126 James Otis -•••., 127 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii « T. . n PAGE A Royal Stamp, , , . . 128 Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass., ,2q Old State House, Boston, Mass., l^o Patrick Henry, ! .' .' 131 The " Boston Massacre," ' • . . 122 Old South Church, Boston j,. St. John's Church, Richmond, Va 157 The Fight on Lexington Common, April 19, 1775, . . facing page 138 Old North Church, Boston, Mass., i -o The Retreat from Concord, facing page 140 The Battle of Bunker Hill facing page 142 The Washington Elm at Cambridge, . . '. 144 The Craigie House, Washington's Headquarters at Cambridge (afterward the residence of Longfellow), . . 1.5 Samuel Adams j .q Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. Chestnut Street Front, . . .150 Signing the Declaration of Independence, . . . . facing page 150 The Jumel Mansion, New York City, Washington's Headquarters, . . 153 John Burgoyne, Ijg Lafayette, jgo Benjamin Franklin, . . . t 162 The Attack on the Chew House, Germantown, . . . facing page 164 A Revolutionary Gun, . . . , . . , , . .168 A Revolutionary Flint-lock Pistol, 158 Clark on the way to Kaskaskia, 170 John Paul Jones, . . . . . . . . . , .172 T^i Bonhomme Richard xcA Him Serapis, . . . . . . .173 The Escape of Benedict Arnold, . . . . , . . . .178 Nathaniel Greene, . < I go Washington- Firing the First Gun at the Siege of Yorktown, facing page 180 Nelson House, Yorktown, Va . 182 Three Shilling Massachusetts Bill of 1 741, 186 Celebrating in New York the Adoption of the Constitution, .... 189 Washington's Mansion — South and West Fronts — Mt. Vernon, Va., . . ig6 Washington's Bedroom, Mt. Vernon, Va., 197 Servants' Quarters, Mt. Vernon, Va., 198 A Mail Carrier, • 199 A Fast Mail— 1876, . i . . . 199 A Twentieth Century Flyer, . . . . , • • . '199 John Jay, 200 How Washington Signed his Name at Various Ages, . .... 201 Alexander Hamilton, ........... 20Z A Primitive Cotton-gin, 204 Whitney's First Cotton-gjn, 805 xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE John Adams z°9 School -house where Thomas Jefferson Received his Early Education, . .214 Monticello, the Home of Jefferson, -215 Thomas Jefferson, 216 A Pack-horse, 217 A Hand Corn-mill, 217 A Sweep-mill 218 Breaking Flax, 218 An Ohio River Flatboat, 219 Early Settlers Crossing the Plains . . • . . . facing page 220 Lewis's First Glimpse of the Rockies, facing page 222 James Madison, 228 American Seamen Boarding the Frolic, .... facing page 232 Old State House, where the Hartford Convention Met 237 James Monroe, ........•••■ 241 Henry Clay, " The Great Peacemaker, " 244 John Quincy Adams, the Anti-slavery Statesman, 246 Andrew Jackson, . . . . . . • • • • -251 John C. Calhoun, the Defender of Slavery and State Rights, . . .253 Daniel Webster 255 The Boston & Worcester Railroad in 1835, 257 The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35 258 A Mohawk & Hudson Car of 1831, 2C0 A Railway Coach of 1830, 261 Martin Van Buren, 262 William Henry Harrison, ......•.■• 268 John Tyler 269 Facsimile of the Heading of Garrison's Paper, 272 James K. Polk, 275 The Storming of Chapultepec, ......... 276 Sutter's Mill, where Gold was first found in California, . . . 279 Zachary Taylor, ............ 2S0 Modes of travel in the West. An Old Stage Coach and Prairie Schooner, . 282 Millard Fillmore, 283 Fugitive Slave Advertisements, ......... 284 Harriet Beecher Stowe, .......... 285 Franklin Pierce . . 286 Charles Sumner, ........... 289 Old Plantation Days . 292 James Buchanan, ........... 294 Last Moments of John Brown, ......... 296 Abraham Lincoln, ........... 300 Lincoln's Birthplace, ........... 301 Jefferson Davis, ............ 303 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxv PAGE Interior of Fort Sumter after the Bombardment in 1863 306 Long Bridge Across the Potomac at Washington, D. C 308 George B. McClellan, 309 Deck oi the Moniior, 312 The BaXtle between the Monitor 2ind the Merrimac, . . facing page 314 Parapet at Fortress Monroe, ......... 316 Grant's "Unconditional Surrender" Letter, ...... 317 A Mortar Battery in front of Yorlctown, 321 A Federal Battery in the Field, 323 Robert E. Lee 324 Fugitive Negroes Fording the Rappahannock, 326 Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson, 327 George G. Meade, 329 The First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation, .... 331 A Federal Cavalry Camp — Winter Quarters ...... 332 George H. Thomas, ' ' the Rock of Chickamauga, " 333 General Grant and Staff on Point Lookout, 1863, 334 General U. S. Grant 337 Building a Pontoon Bridge 33^ Philip H. Sheridan 339 Destroying a Railroad at Atlanta, Ga., ....... 34" William T. Sherman 34i David Glasgow Farragut, .......... 343 Farragut in Mobile Bay facing page 344 A Council of War at Massaponax Church 347 The Surrender of Lee to Grant at Appomattox, . • . facing page 348 A Sanitary Commission Lodge near Alexandria, Va., ..... 351 Andrew Johnson, . . . . . • . . • ■ -357 A Ku-klux " Warning " in Mississippi, 362 Rutherford B. Hayes, 366 Eads Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, 3^7 A Cotton Press Yard, New Orleans 3^8 A Sugar Plantation 3^9 State Buildings, Atlanta, Ga., ' • • ■ 37° A Cripple Creek Mine, 374 A Reaper, 375 A Steam-Driven Gang-Plow 37^ A Thresher, • ■ 377 Indian Warfare in the West facing page 378 Artesian Well System, Riverside, Cal. An Aerator in foreground, . . 379 An Irrigated Orange Grove, Riverside, Cal 380 A Midship View of the Great Eastern, showing one of the Paddle Wheels and the Launching Gear, 3^3 Samuel F. B. Morse's Original Model of the Telegraph Instrument, . . 384 XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE R. F. T. Allen's Original Model of the Typewriter, . . . ? 7''. 385 Alexander Graham Bell's Original Model of the Telephone Receiver and ; ' Transmitter . ' . 386' Elias Howe's Original Model of the Sewing Machine, . . . . . i^i Opening Day at the Philadelphia Centennial, 1876, . " . . . . ' 388 Samuel J. Tilden 389 James A. Garfield, , . . . . . . . . . , 390 Supreme Court Room, Capitol, Washington, D. C, . . .. '. " . 391 Chester A. Arthur, .- . . . . . ' . . ^' ' '.' '■'". 392 Grover Cleveland, . . . . . , . . > .' . 393 Brooklyn Bridge. One of the largest suspension bridges in the world, . . 394 The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, . . . . . • . 396 Senate Chamber, -Washington, D. C. , . . , . , . . . 398 Hall of the House of Representatives, Washington, D. C, . . . . 399 James G. Blaine, ........... 400 The New Battleship Maine, . . . . . . . . . 401 Benjamin Harrison, ........... 402 At the World's Fair . facing page 402' William McKinley, . 404 The Inauguration of William McKinley, ....... 406 The Wreck of Cervera's Flagship Colon, ....... 410 W. S. Schley 411 George Dewey, ............ 412 Shipping and Docks, Pasig River, Manila, ....... 413 United States Troops Landing at Baiquiri, Cuba, . . ; . .415 The Palace at Santiago on which the American Flag was raised when the American troops took possession, ....... 416 Theodore Roosevelt, ..... . . .... 417 William T. Sampson, 418. Nelson A. Miles, 420 Native Tagalo Children, Malabon, . . 421 Wireless Telegraph Station at Wellfleet, Cape Cod, 424 The Atlantic Fleet Starting on its Voyage Around the World, Dec, 1907, . 426 Peace Palace, The Hague ^28 William H. Taft,. 429 The Round-Up, . 4,1- A Textile Mill, 4^2 Anthracite Coal Mine, .-,. Goods Awaiting Exportation, 4,- Transportalaon in a Large City, showing Elevated Road, Surface Line and Subway, - - 439 A Crowded Street in a Tenement District, 440 New Steel Tower Bridge Across the East River, New York, . . . 441 Washington Irving, 442 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxvii PAGE James Fenimore Cooper, 442 W. C. Bryant, 443 Nathaniel Hawthorne 443 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 444 John Greenleaf Whittier 444 The Louisjana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. One of the Bridges and Lagoons, with the Palace of Education, 445 The Capitol, Washington, D. C 446 LIST OF MAPS PAGB The World as Known in the Time of Columbus, ...... 7 English and Spanish Explorers in America, .....> 10 Routes of Narvaez, De Soto, and Ponce de Leon, . . . . .17 The United States as it was in 1650, .... between pages 28 and 29 Plymouth and London Grants, 1606, .... . . 29 England and Holland, 45 New England 53 Province Ruled over by Sir Edmund Andros, 1688, 59 Colonies between Potomac and Hudson Rivers, 71 Routes of Champlain, Marquette, and La Salle — also English Possessions, French and Spanish Claims, .... between pages 88 and 89 Quebec and Vicinity, . . ," . . lOO Results of the French and Indian War, • . . ... 107 Boston and Vicinity, ........... I43 New York and Vicinity 151 Washington's Retreat across New Jersey, 15S Burgoyne's Invasion and Howe's Capture of Philadelphia, . . . . 161 War in the South and the Northwest Territory, 171 Scene of Arnold's Treason, 177 North America at the Close of the Revolution, . between pages l%2 &nA 1%^ Louisiana Purchase and Lewis and Clark Route, 221 War of 1812, between pages 2^^ a.i\A 2$$ Oregon Country, . 270 Area in Dispute at Time of Mexican War, .... facing page 274 The Mexican Cession, Gadsden Purchase, etc facing page 280 Acquisition of Territory facing page 294 The First and Second Secession Areas, . . between pages 304 and 305 Campaigns in the West, 1862-63, 318 Virginia Campaigns and McClellan's Route, .... . 320 The Battle of Gettysburg, 328 Vicksburg and Vicinity, 530 Chattanooga and Vicinity, ,, 335 Sherman's March to the Sea, 342 Cuba, 414 Porto Rico, jl(j The United States in 1 910, between pages \2Q a.nA ^21 Philippine Islands 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 2)iscoveti5 of amerlca CHAPTER I DISCOVERY OF AMERICA REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, I.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Our Country; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Eggleston's Household History; Bancroft's United States, I.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Irving's Columbus; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isa- bella; Winsor's Columbus; Fiske's Discovery of America; Towle's Heroes of History (Marco Polo ; also Vasco Da Gama) ; Brooks's The Story of Marco Polo. 1, European Trade with Asia in the Fifteenth Cen- tury. — For many hundred years there had been more or less trade between the people of Europe and Asia. Silks, spices, and precious stones had been brought by ships and caravans from India, China, and Japan, enriching the cities of southern Europe. Genoa and Venice, especially, had been made rich by this eastern trade, which continued to grow until i453, when the Turks conquered Constantinople. This was thirty-nine years before Columbus discovered America. At this time European vessels on the Mediter ranean Sea were no longer safe from the attack of these fierce and warlike people. Therefore Europe began to look for another and safer route to the Indies. 2. Aids to Discovery. — Three inventions which had re- cently come into practical use had made discovery less difficult than it had ever been before, (i) Gunpowder made easier the conquest of uncivilized peoples; (2) the I HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A SHIP OF THE NORSEMEN. jRemains of a viking ship and a sketch showing steering board. mariner's compass encouraged the sailor to venture far oul into the sea; (3) and the printing-press spread abroad the knowledge of new-found lands. Men were full of curiosity, and the more they learned the more they wished to know. With this burning desire for knowledge went hand in hand the spirit of adventure. There was a longing to go into distant lands, to perform great deeds, and to bring home gold and jewels. In these far-away lands men thought they should find honor, wealth, and fame. 3. Portugal Leads in Discovering an Eastern Route. — Portugal is to-day a very unimportant country. At the time when men were trying to find a safe water route to the Indies, she was one of the great powers of the world. She was the leader in many adventures and discoveries reaching thro.ugh a period of two centuries. Early in the fifteenth century, Portuguese vessels and seamen were slowly and cautiously skirting the coast of Africa, and alter seventy years of brave struggle they found the Cape of Good Hope.", Portugal had at this time many vessels and • Diaz reached the southern point of Africa in 1487 and called it the Cape of Storms. I It was afterward sigiliificantly named the Cape of Good Hope, DISCOVERY OF AMERICA CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. From a portrait by A ntonto Van Moor painted in 1542. By permission of Charles F. Gunilur< seamen, and was the first country to find a new route to the Indies. 4. Plans of Columbus. — In the meantime Christopher Columbus, in common with some learned men of his time, had decided that the eastern coast of Asia could be reached by sailing westward across the Atlantic. Columbus thought, also, that Asia was no farther from Europe on the west than we now know America to be. He thought the East Indies were directly west from the Canary Islands. This being so, the easiest way of reaching China, India, and Japan would be to sail down to the Canaries, and from them straight across the Atlantic in a westerly direction. To us, with our knowledge, all this seems simple and nat- ural enough, but it was not so then. Men knew little of the world outside of their own country. Sailors were afraid to venture upon the trackless ocean, or Sea of Darkness, as HISTORY OP THE tfNlTED STATES they called the Atlantic, where death seemed likely to meet them. Moreover, practical difficulties stood in the way. Difficulties of Such an enterprise would require the equip- coiumbus. ment of vessels at much expense. Money and influence were essential. Columbus had neither, but he was eager to fit out an expedition. He went with his plans to his native city, Genoa, and then to Portugal and Spain. He sent his brother to Eng- land and to France. Then he' went to Spain again. He was nowhere successful. Some thought he was an idle dream- er, and others that he was a madman. But he never de- spaired, because he had faith in himself and believed also that his work was under the special direction of God. 5. First Voyage of Co- lumbus (1492). — Finally, after seven years of anxious wait- ing, the brave Columbus found success. Isabella, Queen of Spain, agreed to aid him in carrying out his plans. Still there were difficulties. Sail- ors were unwilling to go on the dangerous voyage, but were compelled to yield to the mandate of the king. Three small vessels, only one of which had a deck, were fitted out. The largest of these, the Santa Maria, was com- manded by Columbus. The others were the Nina and the Pinta. Before sunrise, August 3, 1492, this little fleet, with one hundred and twenty men and provisions for a year, sailed out of the port of Palos. It was a sad hour for the poor sailors. Columbus steered for the Canaries, where he stopped over three weeks to make a rudder for one of his Columbus sets vessels. He then set sail again. As soon as *^''- they could no longer see land, the sailors were overcome with fear and cried like children. At the end ot a week the compass needle did not point to the North tih; pinta. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Star. Failing to understand the reason for this, the sailors were struck with terror. Three days later the vessels en- tered wide stretches of sea-weed. It was then feared that the vessels might strike upon hidden rocks and be dashed to pieces. But they passed on in safety. Soon afterward the sailors were gladdened by the sight of birds, which they thought indicated that land was near. It was an idle hope, for no land appeared. Again and again the cry " Land " was shouted, but in every case the cry was called forth by the sight of distant clouds. The sailors in The poor sailors were in despair. They were despair, now in the belt of the trade- winds, which were steadily. and certainly blowing them farther and farther from home and friends. " We can never re- turn to Spain," they said. "What shall we do?" They begged Columbus to turn back. He refused. They be- came angry and talked of throwing him overboard. He knew he was in danger and tried hard to quiet their fears and to give them hope. It was then that his great influ- ence over men was shown. His tall and manly figure gave him a commanding pres- ence, but his greatest strength in these trying da3's lay in his noble soul and his lofty purpose. His courage never failed him. Sometimes he heartened the sailors with promises of wealth and fame, and again, as occasion demanded, he threatened them with punishment from the Spanish king. At last, after a voyage of ten weeks, land was discovered October 12,^ 1492. In a full suit of armor and bearing the ' October 21 by the present method of reckoning time. THE SAXTA MARIA. 6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES flag of Spain, Columbus landed. With tears of joy he knelt upon the ground and offered thanks to God. Then, planting: the royal banner, he took possession Land discovered. , , , , . , r . i i • i of the land in the name of the king and queen of Spain. He had discovered one of the Bahama Islands which he called San Salvador (Holy Saviour). He coasted along the shores of Cuba and Hayti, touched the coast here and there, and sent reconnoitring parties inland to exam- ine the land. He did not find the cities of Asia as he had expected, but he had no doubt that he viras in the East In- dies, and therefore called the natives Indians. 6. Other Voyages of Columbus. — When Columbus re- turned to Spain with the news of his discovery, the people were enthusiastic with delight. The idle dreamer became suddenly great and famous, and honors were heaped upon him from every side. It was easy enough to find sailors and vessels for a second voyage, which was made in the following year, 1493. Men were now eager to go where they expected to get all kinds of wealth. Four voyages were made in all, but when the adventurers reached the land of their hopes, and found no silks, no spices, no pre- cious stones, no gold, they reproached Columbus. The Court of Spain, also, finding no return for the great ex- pense of fitting out these expeditions, censured him. His Last days of enemies increased, and his last days were spent Columbus. in disappointment and neglect. Heart-broken, he died ignorant of the greatness of his own discovery. 7. John Cabot Discovers the Mainland of North Amer- ica (1497). — In consequence of the discoveries by Colum- The " Line of De- '^"^ ^" ^^^ West and of thosc by Portuguese marcation " di- captaius in the East, it was feared there might ;"::.rn,''oT'""be trouble between Spain and Portugal over Spain and Portu- the ncw-found lands. To keep the peace '■'• therefore, between these two great Catholic countries, a treaty was signed in 1494, dividing between them the heathen lands that had been, or should be, discov- ered. " The Line of Demarcation," extending north and south three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape \ff 7^ ^ n 'lit ill- iMiiliiii-g \'A 1- 3 -S S" S fdoi"! 1+1 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Verde Islands, ran between Spain's possessions on the West and those of Portugal on the East. The powerful navies of these two countries were sufficient to make good their claims against England or any other nation. But Eng- land was determined to have some share in the discoveries that were stirring the hearts of men. Hence, in 1497, Henry VII. sent out John Cabot, accompanied possibly by his son Sebastian, to find a short northwest passage to Asia. By sailing across the northern part of the Atlantic, England avoided difficulties likely to arise from coming in contact with Spanish or Portuguese discoverers far- ther south. John Cabot landed Voyages of the somcwhere On the cabots. eastern coast of North America, possibly on the coast of Labrador. He was therefore the first to discover the mainland of the Continent of North America, and he claimed it in the name of Eng- land. The next year Sebastian Cabot sailed from England and explored the coast of North America from Nova Scotia down as far as North Carolina or farther. Upon these discoveries England based her claim to North America. 8. Americas Vespucius and the Naming of America (1499-1503). — Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence and a navigator, was first employed by Spain and later by Portugal, to make explorations. In 1499 he skirted the coast of Venezuela and northeastern South America. During the next four years he made several voyages to Brazil, and explored its coast as far south as the mouth of the La Plata River. On returning to Europe he wrote a good description of what he had seen. This was pub- lished in 1504, and constituted the first printed account of the mainland of the New World. Up to that time Europe, Asia and Africa were known as the three parts of the M ^ ^^m Ww' ^ ^T SEBASTIAN CABOT. a •< p 3 o u DISCOVERY OF AMERICA world, and one distinguished geographer believed there was an unknown southern continent which constituted the fourth part. It now seemed clear that Americus Vespu- cius had proved the existence of the fourth part. In con- sequence of this belief a German professor, New WorW who printed a little treatise on geography a ""*"' America. few years later, suggested that the fourth part should be called America, after Americus Vespucius. According to this suggestion the name Amer- ica was at first applied to Brazil, later to South America, and later still to the whole of the New World. 9. Magellan Proves America to be a Continent (1519-1521). — What America and the New World meant was as yet by no means clear. By some, America was supposed to be an immense island, like Australia; by others, a peninsula extending in a south- easterly direction from Asia. In 1519 Magellan, a Portuguese captain in command of a Spanish fleet, started on a voyage whose object was to reach Asia by way of a passage through America. After coasting down much of the eastern shore of South America, he discovered and sailed through the strait now bearing his wondertui voy- name. Mutiny, starvation, and other hard- age of nageiian. ships that would have driven back a less heroic man were bravely endured. He sailed for some distance up the west- ern side of South America, and then steered his way across the Pacific. He was killed by the natives in the Philippine Islands, but a part of his men succeeded in finding their way back to Spain. This was the most wonderful voyage that had ever been made, because it proved that the earth was a globe, and that America was a distinct continent. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. Fror,z statue by G. Grazzini in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence^ Italy. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA II TO THE PUPIL. 1. Trace on the map the Eastern trade routes in the fifteenth century. In what way did printing aid discovery ? What advantage did the control of the water route to India give to Portugal ? 2. Imagine yourself to be Columbus and write an account, in the first person, of your plans, your difficulties, and your first voyage. Trace this voyage on the map. What do you admire in the character of Columbus ? 3. How did America receive its name ? Was this fair to Columbus ? Give reasons for your answer. 4. What was the distinctive work of Columbus f Of Americus Ves- pucius ? Of Magellan ? 5. Read in Fiske's Discovery of America the account of Magellan's wonderful voyage. NOTES Lt'e/ Ericsson and the Northmen. — The old inhabitants of Norway were called Northmen or Norsemen. These people were bold and hardy sail- ors, and in the ninth and tenth centuries were famous sea-robbers. In order to find new fields for plunder and adventure they sought strange coasts. On one of these expeditions they reached Iceland and on another Greenland. In each of these islands they made settlements. The brave deeds of these old warriors are preserved in the so-called " Sagas," which were written in Icelandic prose. For a long time these Sagas were trans- mitted orally, but finally they were committed to writing. Three of the Sagas tell us of the daring adventures of Lief Ericsson in his wanderings in the year 1000 a.d. along the eastern coast of North America. As the story goes, Lief Ericsson, with a crew of thirty-five men, started out in search of a land which had been visited by another Northman. Sailing west. Lief touched upon the coast of Labrador and thence, proceeding south, he landed, built huts, and spent the winter near the coast. Finding vines hung with grapes, he called the country Vinland. Some historians have supposed that Lief Ericsson's Vinland was somewhere on the coast of Massachusetts, but the weight of authority is in favor of Cape Breton Island or Nova Scotia. Other Northmen visited Vinland but they made no per- manent settlements. Nothing reliable can be found out about these early expeditions, and nothing of importance ever came of them. 12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHRONOLOGY 870 ICELAND DISCOVERED BY NADDOD, THE NORTHMAN. 1000. LEIF, SON OF ERIC THE RED, DISCOVERS AMERICA. 1450. INVENTION OF PRINTING, ABOUT THIS DATE. 1453. THE TURKS CAPTURE CONSTANTINOPLE. 1492. FIRST VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS; DISCOVERY OF WEST INDIES. 1497. JOHN CABOT DISCOVERS NORTH AMERICA. 1498. THIRD VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS ; HE DISCOVERS THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. VOYAGE OF SEBASTIAN CABOT. 1499. FIRST VOYAGE OF AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. 1504. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS'S NARRATIVE PUBLISHED. 1507. AMERICA NAMED. I513. DISCOVERY OF FLORIDA BY JUAN PONCE DE LEON. PACIFIC OCEAN DISCOVERED BY VASCO NUNEZ DE BALBOA. 1519-21. CORTEZ CONQUERS MEXICO. 1519-21. A SHIP OF MAGELLAN'S EXPEDITION SAILS AROUND THE WORLD. jBypIoration anb Colonisation CHAPTER II SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, I.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Our Country; Bancroft's United States, I.; Higginson's American Explorers; Morris's Half Hours with American History, I.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Prescott's Conquest of Mexico; Prescott's Con- quest of Peru; Fiske's Discovery of America; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, II.; Higginson's American Explorers; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World (Huguenots). FICTION: Henty's By Right of Conquest; Wallace's The Fair God; Munroe's Flamingo Feather; Munroe's The White Conqueror. An early Spanish explorer. 10. Precious Metals the Main Object of Spaniards. — Spain is to-day a third-rate power, but i~n the early part of the sixteenth century she .was the greatest power in Eu- rope. She had a mighty navy, manned by daring and patriotic seamen, and she was ambitious to extend her sway over much of the heathen world. The marvellous stones of the treasures to be found in the New World dazzled the imagination of the Span- iards. Believing that gold and silver made the only true wealth, they were willing to undergo almost any suffering to secure them. 11. De Leon Discovers Florida (1513). — Among these fortune-hunters was an old 13 . 14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OLD SPANISH MISSION, NEW MEXICO, BUILT 1604. man, Ponce de Leon, who had been governor of the island of Porto Rico. He had heard the natives tell stories of rich gold mines, and of a wonderful fountain in the land of the North, the drinking of whose waters would restore youth and vigor to old age. De Leon conducted an expedition northward by which he hoped to secure for him- self wealth and young manhood. The gold and the fountain he did not find, but he discovered something of much greater value to Spain, a beautiful land covered with flowers. This he named Florida (1513). A few years later De Leon returned to Flor- ida with the purpose of planting a colony, but he was killed by an un- friendly Indian. 12. De Soto Explores Florida and Discovers the Mississippi (i539-i54i)-— The failure of De Leon and Narvaez did not prevent other Spaniards from making sim- 3PANISH GATEWAY, ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA. SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD IS ilar attempts. In 1 539 De Soto, with about six hundred men, two hundred horses, and bloodhounds to hunt the Indians, landed on the west coast of Florida in search of the new kingdom of gold. The Indians did not fear the bloodhounds more than they hated the Span- iards, whom they fiercely op- posed. Northward and west- ward the Spaniards wandered in their fruitless search for gold mines. They found, instead, " fig'hting, fever, and famine." One great, unlooked-for discov- ery it was their fortune to make. That was the discovery of the Mississippi River. They jour- neyed many miles beyond it but soon returned, and at last, after two years of hopeless wan- dering, De Soto, worn out and sick at heart, died and was bur- ied in the great river which he had discovered (1541). His sur- viving companions sailed down the Mississippi and found shel- ter in the Spanish settlement of Mexico.* De Soto, like De Leon, failed ; nor were any Spanish explorations in the country north of Mexico successful. 13, The Spaniards Drive the Huguenots out of Florida. (1562-1565).^ — For more than twenty years after De Soto's failure the Spaniards made no further efforts in Florida. In the meantime a bitter religious war broke out in France between the Catholics and the Huguenots. ^ Coligny, the distinguished leader of the Huguenots, desired to establish ' Cortei had conquered Mexico and established Spanish colonies there (15 19- 1521). Pizarro had conquered Peru (1531-1533). •French Protestants. BALBOA. An early Spanish exptorer. i6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES a commonwealth of his own religious sect in America. Accordingly he sent over in 1562 a small number of settlers Huguenot set- who tried to plant a colony where Port Royal, tiements. South Carolina, now stands. The colony having failed, another expedition under good leadership was sent out in 1564. This time the French planted a fort not far from the mouth of the St. John's River, Florida. But for several reasons Spain laid claim to Florida: (i) By right of discovery through Colum- bus; (2) by the explorations of De Why Spain laid Leon and De Soto; and claim to Florida. (2) by the Pope's de- cree, which assigned that part of the heathen world to Spain. The king of Spain, therefore, was indignant that the French should make any settlement there, and at once decided to send out a force to destroy the insolent intruders. This Spanish force was under the command of Menendez, who in 1565 landed in Florida and built a stronghold which later became St. Augustine. Then he marched across the country, and by surprise and treachery succeeded in destroying all but a miserable remnant of the The Spaniards de- unfortunate Frenchmen who had established nTsettTemeTrn the Settlement. It was a cruel work, thor- Fiorida. oughly douc.' The French learned a lesson from their unpleasant experience with the Spaniards at this time, and made no further attempt to plant colonies in the southern part of what is now the United States. 14. Advantages of Spain in the New 'World.— The ad- vantages of Spain in the New World were many, two of which we will notice. In the tropical regions of Mexico, ' Although at this time France and Spain were at peace, the French did nothing to resent this wrong. A French captain, Dominic de Gourgues, however, deter- mined upon revenge in the name of his country. Having a private grudge against the Spaniards, who had imprisoned him and made him work in the galleys, he fitted FERNANDO DE SOTO. SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 17 South America, and the West Indies, the Indians lived in a warm climate, supported themselves by a rude tillage of the soil, and could be easily enslaved. In this respect Spain had a decided advantage over the nations colonizing in the North, where the Indians had been made hardy and brave by exposure to rougher climate and almost continu- ous inter-tribal warfare. These Indians were dangerous enemies to the white settlers. And surpassing all other advantages was the possession of the Gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Mississippi River. 15. Reasons for Spanish Failure.— But in spite of these advantages the Spaniards failed, and they failed because out at his own expense an expedition to Florida. Until the proper time he con- cealed his real purpose. ' Then he sailed straight to Florida, and with the aid of the Indians surprised the Spanish forts on the St. John's River and put to the sword nearly all the Spanish soldiers. As his force was too small to attack St. Augustine he returned to France, leaving Spain in control of Florida. i8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES their conceptions and aims were wrong. Their greatest desire was for gold and silver, conquest, and adventure. They did not understand that the soil must first be con- quered, and that in order to develop agriculture, trade, and commerce, a life of patient toil was necessary. As they wished to get rich without work, the gold and silver which they found made them poor because it took away habits of industry. In North America Spanish colonization was a total failure. TO THE PUPIL X. There are some dates which you should know as well as the alphabet. One of these is 1492. Just about fifty years later De Soto, the last Spanish explorer of note, discovered the Mississippi River. 2. 1492-1541. Memorize these dates and remember that Balboa, De Leon, Cortez, Pizarro, and the other Spanish explorers did their work at some time within these fifty years. Just when, it is not im- portant to know. 3. Why did Spain lay claim to Florida ? What advantages did Spain have ? Why did Spanish colonization fail in North America ? You may well notice the fact that in the struggle among European coun- tries for colonizing North America, Spain practically dropped out of the race after establishing St. Augustine. 4. To develop accuracy, frequently write for five minutes on such topics as the following: De Soto's expedition, the Huguenots in Florida. Use your map constantly. 5. Read Milhroe's Flamingo Feather. NOTES Balboa Discovers the Pacific (1513).— Balboa, a Spaniard in command of a company of men at Darien, made his way across the Isthmus of Pan- ama (then known as the Isthmus of Darien) and discovered the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of the sea in the name of his king. Cortez Conquers Mexico (1519-1521).— In 1519 Hernando Cortez began the conquest of Mexico. Although -his army numbered less than five hundred Spaniards, he burned his fleet behind him at Vera Cruz and boldly set forth against the powerful Mexican ruler, Montezuma. Under an ordi- nary leader the Spaniards must have been destroyed, but Cortez, with rare courage and foresight, led them on to victory. Before the close of 1521 Mexico had become a Spanish province. SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 19 Narvaez Explores Florida (1528). — As the greedy Spaniards now had fresh hopes of finding gold and silver in the new country, Narvaez fitted out an expedition that landed on the western coast of Florida (1528.) After passing through the severest hardships, he and many of his men were drowned. His secretary, Cabeza de Vaca, and three companions fell into the hands of the Tndians. Passing through many thrilling experiences, they wandered during eight years over two thousand miles of territory and finally joined, on the Gulf of California, a body of Spaniards from Mexico. Pizarro Conquers Peru (1531-1533). — In 1531 Pizarro sailed from Panama, with the purpose of conquering Peru for Spain. By bravery, cruelty, and treachery, he succeeded in carrying out his plan (1533). Peru, like Mexico, yielded to Spain vast quantities of gold and silver, which greatly aided her in carrying on her Europeap wars. CHAPTER III ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, II.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Out Country; Morris's Half Hours with American History, I.; Eggleston's House- hold History; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, III.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Towle's Heroes of History (Drake and Raleigh); Higginson's United States; Montgomery's English History; Camden's His- tory of Queen Elizabeth ; Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles. FICTION: Scott's Kenilworth; Kingsley's Westward Ho!; Henty's Under Drake's Flag. i6. Relations Between Spain and England — England's claim to North America was based upon the discoveries of the Cabots, who reached the mainland shortly after Colum- bus made his first landing on the West Indies. But Spain was the leading naval power in Europe. She controlled the Netherlands, and her mighty fleets sailed far and wide over the seas. England was not then the power she is now, and she was not strong enough to pre- vent Spain from carrying out her plans in America. So Eng- lish explorers did not venture into that part of America to which Spain laid claim, Their QUEEN ELIZABETH. cfforts wcrc dlrccted chiefly to |20 ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 21 discovering a northwest passage to Asia, since they re- garded America as only a barrier between Europe and Asia, During the latter part of the sixteenth century, however, conditions changed. In 1567 the Netherlands revolted against the rule of Spain, and for forty years carried on war with that country. In this war, which was' partly re- ligious, England was on the side of the Netherlands. Thus Spain had to contend with two countries at once, and found the great struggle a constant drain upon her strength. During these forty years of warring Spain re- ceived blows from which she never recovered. The " Invincible Ar- mada," her mighty Defeat of the fleet of war vessels,* Spanish Armada. met with crushing defeat at the hands of English seamen (1588). From that date England's naval power was on the in- crease. /^ 17. English Sea- ^ rovers and Explorers. — After 1570 the English did not confine them- selves to the northern ocean but explored in waters that Spain claimed as hers alone. English ships, manned by fearless sea-captains ready to do and dare anything tor old England and their queen, began to sail in every direction. As soon as it became clear that for carrying on her wars Spain depended largely on the gold and silver^ coming from the mines of Mexico and Peru, there was a fresh 'The Invincible Armada consisted of 130 warships carrying 2,500 cannon and about 30,000 men. Philip II., the Spanish king, expected to humble England with this fleet. ' It has been estimated that the gold and silver Spain got from America would be now valued at i^ve thousand million dollars. SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND AUTOGRAPH. 22 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. motive for English voyages to the New World. To cut ofl the supply of these metals bold sea-captains like Drake and Hawkins scoured the s.ea in search of Spanish vessels. They cruised about the coasts, burning and plundering Spanish fleets and settlements, and thus did very great injury to Spain and her colonies in South America and Mexico. i8. Sir Walter Raleigh's i Attempt to Colonize Amer- ica (1584-1587). — In 1578, ten years before the Invincible Ar- ' Sir Walter Raleigh, born in 1562, was in his own time rightly called the "Great Englishman," for he ranked high as historian, navigator, soldier, and statesman. In 1579, when only seventeen years old, he fought on the side of the Huguenots in the religious wars in France. He is said to have won the admiration of Queen Elizabeth by a simple act of gallantry. Meeting her one day as she was walking across a muddy street, he spread his cloak in her pathway for her to walk upon. From that time the queen took him into her court as a favorite. So en- tirely did he win her favor that she made him a knight. In 1588 Raleigh commanded one of the vessels in the English fleet that de- feated the " Spanish Armada." Later he was thrown into the Tower of London on an unproved charge of treason. After remaining twelve years in the Tower he was beheaded (1618). Just as he was about to lay his head upon the block he felt the keen edge of the axe and said, "This is a sharp medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 23 mada sailed for England, a scheme was laid to plant on the coast of America an English settlement, or military post, from which attacks might be made upon sir Humphrey Spanish fleets. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the o'lbert's scheme, author of the scheme, failed, but the idea of making a settle- ment in America had found a lodging-place in the English mind. A little later Sir Walter Raleigh determined upon an- other effort. He saw that America's greatest wealth did not consist in gold and silver, but in the opportunities it offered for the growth of a great people. He earnestly desired to plant an English commonwealth in Amer- ica, and he had the honor of making the first English settlement. After obtaining a patent from the queen, he ^^.^^^^ ^^^^^ ^„ sent out in 1584 two vessels exploring party to make explorations. The *» Virginia, explorers returned with glowing ac- counts of the new land and its people, and Queen Elizabeth was so delighted with the reports of the new country that she called it Virginia in honor of herself, the " Virgin Queen." In 1585 Raleigh sent out one hundred colonists, who landed on Roanoke Island, bright with hope. As soon as the ships sailed back to England the unfitness of the colonists for their new trials became apparent. Like all who had come before them they failed because of their thirst for gold. Instead of building homes Raieigh-s first coi- and trying to cultivate the soil, they gave ony fails. themselves up to searching for gold and silver. Moreover, they showed so little wisdom in dealing with the Indians that the latter became bitter enemies, eager to destroy the white strangers. The natural result of the experiment was failure. Fortunately for them Drake, who was returning from one of his cruising expeditions, happened along and PHILIPPE II., KING OF SPAII I527-I598. 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES carried the colonists back to England. The expedition was not wholly fruitless, however, for they took back to England on their return two products which were evidence AN INDIAN VILLAGE AT ROANOKE. From an old print. of the real wealth and promise of the new country. These products were tobacco and the common potato. Raleigh did not lose hope. Two years later he made a second attempt. He sent out a much larger number of settlers, among whom were women and children. The new ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 25 ENGLISH EXPLORERS BARTERING WITH INDIANS FOR LAND. settlement was made at Roanoke under the leadership of Governor White. He was soon compelled to return to England for supplies, where he found all the Raleigh's second people astir in preparation for the attack «>iony fails, about to be made by the Spanish Armada. As every man was needed to fight the coming enemy, three years passed before Governor White sailed again for Roanoke. Not one of the colonists was ever found. Raleighsent out several expeditions in search of the lost colony, but finally gave up hope of finding it or of plant- ing another. He had spent what was equiv- Raleigh's lost alent to more than a million dollars of our colony, present money. Although nothing remained to be seen in return for this vast expenditure of money, Raleigh's work was not a failure, for his efforts had suggested to England that the real wealth of America lay in the opportunity it afforded for planting colonies which in time would become the foundation of a new EngHsh nation. 19. England's Need of America. — There was special need at this time for such an opportunity to relieve the crowded industrial conditions at home. The great demand for wool by Flemish weavers made wool-growing very 2t) HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES profitable in England. Therefore, English landowners en- gaged largely in raising sheep instead of cultivating the Large numbers o« ^°^^* ^^^ result was that but One man was men thrown out of now required to watch sheep where formerly work in England. ^^^^ j^^j ^^^^ needed to raisc wheat and barley. Large numbers of men were thrown out of work, and there was great distress among the laboring classes. The closing of the monasteries by Henry VIII., a few decades earlier, had had a similar effect, and the return of soldiers from European wars increased the difficulty. What to do with this large body of the unemployed was a trying problem. America seemed to furnish a solution, and to America men eagerly turned for help in the hour of Eng- land's need. TO THE PUPIL 1. As the defeat of the " Invincible Armada " by England is a great landmark iii history, 1588 is another date you should know with certainty. You will notice that this defeat, -which had a large influ- ence upon colonization in America, occurred about one hundred years after 1492. You will notice, also, that Raleigh's attempts to plant colonies took place only a short time before 1588. 2. If you will learn important dates like 1492 and 1588 and group about them others of less importance, you will remember your history much better. 3. Why can you say that Raleigh's work in America was not a failure ? Make a chart outline of the most important events for the first hun- dred years after the discovery of America by Columbus. 4. You can easily make a review outline from the topics in the three chapters now studied. Do it. It would be well for you to read the life of Sir Walter Raleigh and also Scott's Kenilworth, NOTES Sir Francis Drake (1577). — Sir Francis Drake was one of England's famous navigators and admirals. In 1577 he set sail from England with five vessels ; in 1 580 he returned with but one. In the meantime he had doubled the Cape of Good Hope, as Magellan's men had done sixty years before, and sailed entirely around the world. He was the first English sea- captain to accomplish this great undertalcing. Bartholomew Gosnold (1602). — In 1602, the same year in which Ra- leigh sent out his final exnedition in search of the lost colony at Roanoke. ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 27 Bartholomew Gosnold set sail from England. He had with him twenty- three men, eleven of whom were to remain in America to make a settle- ment. Reaching the coast of Massachusetts, he sailed around Cape Cod, which he so named on account of the abundance of cod fish near its coast. Then steering his course southward, he entered Buzzard's Bay and landed on an island which he called Elizabeth, in honor of the Queen of England. On his return homeward the eleven men, who were expected to remain and make a settlement, insisted upon returning with him. But Gosnold's inter- est in America bore fruit, for it kept alive the interests of other Englishmen in colonizing the New World, SUHEN ELIZABETH S SIGNATURE. CHAPTER IV THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND (1607-1689) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, III.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Drake's Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies ; Richardson's History of Our Country ; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fisice's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Fisher's Colonial Era ; Eggleston's Pocahontas and Powhatan ; Bancroft's United States, I.; Eggleston's The Beginners of a Nation; Doyle's English Colonies; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Thwaites's The Colonies; Coolce's Virginia ; Browne's Maryland; Wilson's A History of the American People, I. FICTION: Johnston's Prisoners of Hope; Johnston's To Have and to Hold. 20. London and Plymouth Companies. — Raleigh as- signed his interests to a number of merchants and capital- ists, who received a charter from King James in 1606 and formed two companies for the purpose of colonizing Amer- -■> y» ica. One of these companies was ^ ^*\/ located in London, and was called / f/Cl/YnJi^^^ the London Company. The other f I was located in Plymouth, and was '— ^ called the Plymouth Companv.* SIGNATURE OF TAMES I. ™, j. ^ , , "^ , 1 he former was to occupy the land between 34 degrees and 38 degrees north latitude, extending from Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River; the latter, between 41 degrees and 45 degrees, extending from the mouth of the Hudson River to New Brunswick. By a ' The Plymouth Company sent out to the Kennebec the following year a settle- ment which proved a failure. No further attempt was made by this company. 28 THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 29 charter granted in 1609, the Pacific Ocean was made the western boundary of Virginia. The area lying between these two belts, 38 degrees to 41 degrees, might be occu- pied by either company provided it came no nearer than one hundred miles to a settlement made by the other. The most notable provision of the charter was that the colonists, as citizens in America, should have the same rights and privileges as belonged to citizens of England. It will be well to bear this great principle of the charter in mind when we study later the causes of the American Revolution. T^^^^^^t^^^j In addition to the common store- the charter, '""•^*- the emigrants received from King James and the London Company strict or- ders about what should be done in Virginia. One of these orders was very un- wise and almost ruined the colony. It was as follows : for five years after settle- ment no one was to have any land of his own ; all were to work together and put the products of their labor into a common store- house, out of which pro- vision was" to be made for clothing and feeding the colonists. 21. Settlement of Jamestown (1607.) — On New Year's day, 1607, the first colony, consisting of one hundred and five men, set sail from London. About half of these men were gentlemen, whose aim, like that of previous settlers, was to make their fortunes in the New World and then re- turn home. The other half consisted mostly of mechanics and tradesmen. There were no farmers and no women in the new colony, for the colonists did not come to make homes 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and settle down to earning their living by patient labor. Their aim was to find gold as the Spaniards had done in Peru and Mexico. Such men were not the right material to make a successful colony, as soon appeared after they had reached Virginia. In May they sailed up the James River and made a settlement. This they called Jamestown, in honor of King James, from whom they received their charter. Being for the most part a lazy, shiftless set, they did very little to prepare for the future. They were so slow that by the time they were settled it was too late for the The settlers and Spring planting, their sufferings. Soon their provi- sions began to fail, and famine, along with the fever which seized them in the warm climate, rapidly thinned their ranks. Sometimes there were hardly enough well persons to bury the dead. In about four months half their num- ber had died, and the rest were discouraged. During these weary months of suffering some of the settlers lived in miserable dwell- ings made of boughs of trees or old sails, and some dug holes in the ground for shelter. 22. The Services of Smith. — But for one courageous man, /ohn Smith, they would probably have perished. He so managed the Indians as to secure food enoQgh to pre- serve the lives of the wretched colonists. Two years later more colonists joined them, but the new-comers were as un- fit as those who came first. During this time John Smith not only kept the colony from ruin but found opportunity to do some valuable exploring. While on one of these ex- peditions he sailed, in search of the Pacific, up the Chick- ahominy River,' where he was captured by the Indians and ' North America at this time was supposed to be a narrow strip of land. RUINS OF OLD CHURCH AT JAMESTOWN. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 31 taken before their chief, Powhatan. Smith tells a thrilling story 1 of the saving of his life by Powhatan's young daugh- ter, Pocahontas. However much ti-uth there may be in the romantic incident, Pocahontas herself is an attractive character, and her relation to the colonists is full of in- terest." 23. Smith Returns to England ; the Suflfering Colo- nists (1609-1610). — After two more years of famine and hardships, five hundred additional colonists came over. It was the old story over again. Paupers, crim- inals, and otherwise worthless men made up the greater part of this wretched company. About this time the colonists suffered a severe loss, also, for Smith, having been woiinded by the accidental dis- charge of a gun, was obliged to re- turn to England. The colony was thus left without a leader. At once the Indians, whom Smith had man- aged with great skill, began to rob captain john smith. ^ As Smith in his efforts to prevent capture had killed two Indian warriors, Powhatan decided that he must be put to death. In the meantime Smith had won the warm friendship of Pocahontas, a kind-hearted girl about ten years old. This little friend saved his life. For the Indians, having bound Smith hand and foot and laid his head upon some stones, were gathered about their captive to see him put to death. Then a warrior raised his club, but before it could fall upon Smith's head, Pocahontas threw her arms about the prisoner's neck and begged her father not to kill him. Powhatan's heart being touched. Smith was released and allowed to return to Jamestown. Although this story has been discredited by some his- torians, there is pretty good evidence for its truth. Later, Pocahontas carried food to the starving settlers at Jamestown, and gave Smith warning of an Indian plot to kill him. A young Englishman, John Rolfe, fell in love with Pocahontas and married her. He took her to England, where she was treated with great kindness. Just as she was on the point of returning to America she died, leaving a son who became a man of influence in Virginia. John Randolph, of Roanoke (Va.), was one of her descendants. ' According to his own romantic account, John Smith had many thrilling advent- ures before he went to Virginia. Running away from his home in England, while 32 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and plunder the settlers, and famine and disease aided the work of destruction. The famine became so severe that "The^urvins the colonists ate the bodies of their own dead, time." Every day the numbers were thinned by death, and at the close of that dreadful winter (1609-1610), long known as " the starving time," barely sixty of the iive hundred were left alive. Lord Delaware, the newly ap- pointed governor, came in June, 1610, just in time to pre- vent the miserable remnant from sailing away to England. On account of ill-health he could not remain long in the colony, and left Sir Thomas Dale in charge of affairs. 24. Dale's Great Reform : He Establishes Individual Ownership of L#and and Goods (1611-1616). — Dale was, like Smith, a vigorous and able ruler. He quickly saw that he must be extremely severe in governing the lawless men in the colony. He not only flogged the unruly but in- flicted the severest kind of punishment upon those who Dale's severe Said anything against his mode of governing, measures. f^c cvcn Went SO far as to burn some of the most rebellious, and in one case he sentenced to death by starvation a man who had stolen food. Of course these oppressive measures made Dale unpopular, but a stern ruler was just what was needed to put the colony on a firm footing. Its future soon began to look hopeful. Perhaps Dale's wisest act was the abolition of the sys- tem of a common storehouse. This had been one of the Dale abolishes greatest cvils of the colony. The settler had corn'mCsTol*'" "^ l^nd of his own and had to put the prod- house. ucts of his labor into a common stock which all shared alike. It was a foolish system. The idlers, yet a boy, he went to Holland and became a soldier. From Holland he wandered to other parts of Europe, and in course of time fought against the Turks, three of whom he slew in single combat. After being captured and enslaved by the Turks he made his escape, and in 1604. returned to England, at the age of twenty-five, in time to join the movement for planting a settlement in Virginia. On his return to England in 1609 he sailed to New England and made a map of much of its coast. In addition to an account of his own life, he wrote several books on America. He was a man of immense courage and energy, and doubtless saved the Jamestown colony from ruin. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 33 knowing they would be fed and clothed whether they worked or not, willingly let the industrious ones support them. As a result, thirty or forty energetic men had been supporting four or five times as many lazy, good-for-noth- ing men. Dale's great reform consisted in giving every man his own plot of ground. After the owner had turned into the common stock two and one-half barrels of corn, the remainder of his crop was his own. Under the new law the idle were compelled to work, and the thrifty were en- couraged to produce all they could by their labor. 25. Tobacco the Main Source of Wealth. — About the time that this working spirit began to direct the colonists, they found that raising tobacco was immensely profitable. The soil and climate of Virginia specially fitting it for grow- ing tobacco, after 1616 this product was the principal source of wealth. Now that the colonists could have their own land and could make money by raising tobacco, they were ready to work with a will. Farmers in England were glad to come to Virginia, and the success of the colony was no longer doubtful. 26. The Second Great Reform: Self-government (1619). — Up to 1619 the people had little or no voice in their government. This state of things they did not like, for they had been accustomed in England to sending represent- atives to their governing body. Parliament. In 1619, there- fore, they were granted a new charter, which provided for a representative assembly consisting of two delegates from each of the eleven settlements. As these settlements were called boroughs, the assembly was known as the House of Burgesses. The new government The new gov- consisted of a governor, council, and assem- ernment. bly. This threefold government was modelled after the English form ' and furnished later a basis for our own State and national governments. The private ownership of land and the culture of tobacco were two great inducements to ' The English Government consists of the King, House of Lords, and House of Commons. The Cabinet, and not the King, is the real executive in England. The two Houses constitute what is known as Parliament. 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES emigration. Now that the people had a voice in making their own laws and levying their own taxes, Englishmen flocked to Virginia. Within a year after the people began to govern themselves, the population increased from 600 to 4,000. With the coming of women about that time family life found a place in Virginia, and the people became pros- perous and contented. 27, Great Need of Labor ; Labor Supply. — A very different class of men now came to Vir. ginia. Men with families and capital were ready to plant homes where returns for labor were so promising. The great need was for laborers, and to supply this need indented servants in large numbers were brought over. At first these were poor boys and girls who were bound to service until they became of age. Then adult servants, required to serve a term of years to pay for their passage, were sent. White servants There wcre also kidnappers in England sent to Virginia, whosc Special duty it was to procure men for service in Virginia. But all these sources of labor did not supply Virginia's demand; for it frequently happened that the indented ser- The first cargo vant, when free, himself became a landowner of negro slaves, and required laborers. Naturally, then, the slave-trader sought this inviting market, and in 1619 landed the first cargo of negro slaves in Virginia. At that TOBACCO-PLANT. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 35 time able-bodied negroes could be bought on the coast of Guinea for a few shillings apiece. These negroes were packed so closely for sailing that a vessel would bring hundreds of them over in a single voyage. Reaching Vir- ginia they could be sold for about the price of a good horse. The profits were immense both to the slave-trader and the slave-owner. What the tobacco grower needed was an abundance of cheap labor, a need which negro slavery supplied. Tobacco, therefore, was large- ly responsible for the introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. 28. Tobacco Es- tablishes Rural Life. — It was found that tobacco quickly ex- hausted the soil. This led to taking up much new land as soon as the old was worn out. Large plantations were the result. Each planter tried to secure a planta- tion on one of the many rivers. He could then have his own wharf, where he could ship his tobacco and receive in exchange manu- factured goods from England. Under such a system, where each planter held thousands of acres of land, no large town could grow up, and life was wholly rural. A WILD DASH FOR LIFE. An incident of the early slave trader 36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 29. Berkeley and the People. — In 1660 after the over- throw of the commonwealth (see par. 35), Charles II. as- cended the throne of England, and Sir William Berkeley for a second time^ became governor in Virginia. Governor Berkeley cared very little for the rights and wishes of the people. He was trying to rule in America as his despotic king was ruling in England. Hence in 1660 there began, between the people on the one side and the king's party headed by Berkeley on the other, a struggle that grew more and more bitter until it ended in Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. As this rebellion is an event of some importance, we may well notice how it came about. We shall see in the chain of events some of the causes of the American Revolution which occurred one hundred years later. 30. Bacon Leads an Uprising of the People (1676). — Charles II., early in his reign, decided to enforce the Naviga- The Navigation tion Laws as a means of increasing his revenue. '-°^'- These laws wer. very severe upon the tobacco trade of Virginia. They required that the planters should send their tobacco in English vessels and to none but Eng- lish ports. They required also that the planters should buy in England all the European goods they might need, and that these goods should be brought over in English vessels. In other words, the planter had to sell his tobacco and buy his manufactured goods at prices set by English merchants. This nearly ruined the leading industry of the planters, and they became discouraged and exasperated. In 1670 they received almost nothing for their tobacco, and paid high prices for goods manufactured in England. At the same time the Virginia Assembly no longer rep- resented the wishes of the people, but the tyrannical ideas Tyranny of of Berkeley. Having found in 1660 a set of Berkeley. ^en ^ that Suited his views, Berkeley for six- teen years kept these men in office, without an election by ' Berkeley was governor from 1642-1651. '' Between 1650 and 1660, when the Puritans were in control in England,hundreds of the Stuart followers, called cavaliers, came to Virginia (see par. 103). Many of these cavaliers became planters of large influence and naturally supported Berkeley. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 37 the people, by adjourning the assembly from year to year. Popular rights were thus despised. Moreover, suffrage was taken from all except land-owners and " housekeepers." All these things were bad enough, but in 1673 the king did something far worse. He actually gave away Virginia to two of his favorites for thirty-one years. This action made the colonists uncertain about the titles to their land and aroused them to a high pitch of indignation. When a little later the lives of the settlers were threatened by attacks from the Indians and Berkeley refused to send troops against them, the people were ready , '^ 1 11- -vT 1 • 1 n Bacon's Rebellion. for open rebellion. Nathaniel hiacon, a young man of wealth and influence and a leader among the peo- ple, sought a commission from the governor to march against the Indians, but the governor, fearing a revolt, refused to give it. Without the commission, therefore. Bacon led his troops against the Indians and routed them. The governor declared him a rebel and traitor. Civil war followed. Governor Berkeley was driven out of Jamestown, and the town was burned by owners of property in order to prevent his coming back. But Bacon suddenly died of fever, and Berkeley returned to take revenge by putting to death more than twenty of Bacon's leading followers. Not pleased with Berkeley's management of affairs, the king summoned him to England where, dis- appointed and heart-broken at the king's rebuke, he soon afterward died. Bacon's Rebellion showed that the 40,000 people in Virginia loved liberty well enough to shed their blood in its defence. We have shortly to study settlers of a very different type, — the New England Pilgrims and Puritans, — but before doing so we must glance at the fortunes of the Catholics in Maryland. 31. Lord Baltimore and the Catholics Settle Maryland (1634). — At the time the Puritans^ were coming over to America on account of religious persecution in England, the Catholics also were being badly treated because they ' See par. 40. 38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES were unwilling to conform to the English church. Lord Baltimore, a prominent Catholic, wishing to secure freedom of worship for English Catholics, obtained from Charles I., who was his personal friend, a charter granting him the land lying north and east of the Potomac River and on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. Lord Baltimore died before the charter was issued, and it was transferred to his son. The latter made a settlement in 1634 near the mouth of the Potomac River, at St. Mary's, and named his colony Maryland in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. Before proceed- ing to build houses for themselves the colonists bought the land of the Indians, and paid for it with axes, hoes, and cloth. Their re- lations with the Indians were, with rare exceptions, most friendly. 32. Lord Baltimore's Proprie- tary Rights.* — The charter granted The liberal char- to Lord Baltimore *"• was extremely lib- eral. The king made him propri- etor, requiring, as a token of his allegiance to the crown, two Indian arrows yearly and one- fifth of all the gold and silver. Lord Baltimore had almost the powers of a king in the new colony. He could call together an assembly of the people's representatives, whose laws were in force as soon as he signed them, the king's assent not being required. The proprietor could coin money, establish at his will courts of law and pardon crim- inals ; and these proprietary rights were to remain with Lord Baltimore's descendants. Thus we see that he had almost as much power in Maryland as King Charles had in England. . Besides, the Maryland charter contained a remarkable ' Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were the only Proprietary colonies at the time of the Revolution. See par. iii. GEORGE CALVERT (LORD BAL- TIMORE). THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 39 provision denyi'ng the right of the English government to tax the colonists within the province. The colonists were to enjoy all the rights of freeborn Englishmen in the mother country, and no taxes could be levied without being voted by the people's representatives in their colonial legislature. 33. Disputes About Boundaries and Religion. — The Virginia colonists were greatly dissatisfied on account of the king's grant of land to Lord Baltimore, because the same land, they claimed, had already been granted to them. This dispute led to fighting and blood- shed, but the king finally decided the question in favor of Lord .Baltimore. Much later, after the set- , r r, 1 • A MARYLAND SHILLING. tlement of rennsylvania, there was a dispute also about the boundary between that colony and Maryland. After a long time two nason and Dix- surveyors. Mason and Dixon, established the *>"'» ""*• boundary since known as Mason and Dixon's line (1763- 1767). In the early days of the colony every settler was allowed to worship as he pleased — provided he worshipped in a Chris- tian church ; all were equally protected under the laws. But later, during Cromwell's rule in England, the Protestants,* getting control of the government, began to persecute the Catholics, and serious trouble followed. 34. Prosperity of the People. — But in spite of many disputes about boundaries and religion the colony pros- pered. The land was fertile, the climate delightful, and the colonists could make their own laws. As in Virginia, life was almost wholly rural during the seven- Rural life of the , teenth century. The numerous rivers, creeks, pe»P'e- and inlets made communication so easy that towns, or cen- tres for collecting and distributing articles of trade, were un- necessary. Ships could bring whatever the planter needed • Protestants were always more numerous in the colony than Catholics.l 40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to his door, and carry away in exchange the products of the plantation, — tobacco and Indian corn. Like Virginia, Mary- land derived much wealth from growing tobacco, which was for a long time the staple product of the two colonies. TO THE PUPIL 1. What was the most notable provision of the charter granted by James I. to the London Company? What bad results followed the estab- lishment of the common storehouse ? What did John Smith do for the Virginia colony ? Tell all you can about his character. 2. Imagine yourself in Virginia during these early years, and give an account of your life there. Impersonating Pocahontas, speak in the first person of your relations to the whites. Compare the work of Smith and Dale. 3. Do not be satisfied until you understand clearly the two great reforms. 4. Study the relation of soil and climate to tobacco, and of tobacco to plantation life and to negro slavery. 5. What was Berkeley's attitude toward the plain people ? How did the Navigation Laws bear heavily upon the Virginia planters ? In what way was Berkeley tyrannical ? Write a simple outline of the events which led to an uprising of the people under Bacon in 1676. What were the results of this uprising ? Contrast Bacon and Berke- ley, and show why you like or dislike either of them. 6. Subject for debate : Resolved that Virginia owed a greater debt to John Smith than to Governor Dale. 7. Why did Lord Baltimore wish to plant a colony in the New World ? What singular powers did the king confer upon Lord Baltimore as proprietor of Maryland ? Be sure that you know what a proprietor was. 8. What remarkable provision did the Maryland charter contain ? Note the important clause in the Maryland charter about " no taxation without representation." What was Mason and Dixon's Line ? In what respect was the life of the Maryland colonists like that of the settlers of Virginia? If you can see the relation of cause and effect between events, history at once becomes full of meaning and life. In looking for such relation, you will find it a great help to bring to your recitation at least one written question on every lesson. 9. The account of Bacon's Rebellion, as told in Cooke's Virginia, is well worth reading. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 41 NOTES North and South Carolina (1663-1729).— In 1663-65 Charles II., desir- ing to reward eight of his favorite noblemen, gave them a grant of all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific and extending from Virginia to •a point some distance below St. Augustine. Thus we see that this land, called Carolina, had eight proprietors, just as Maryland and Pennsylvania each had one . The form of government for Carolina was aristocratic. It was called the Grand Model, and is said to have been outlined by a great English philosopher, John Locke. A few noblemen were to own all the land, make the laws, and have all the powers of government in their hands. The people were, like the old Russian serfs, to be bought and sold with the land. Of course this absurd scheme was a failure. The people made so much trouble for the proprietors that the latter were glad to sell in 1729. all their rights to the king of England. The king then divided Carolina into North and South Carolina, appointing a governor for each colony and allowing the people in each to choose their own assembly. The population of the two colonies was composed of Englishmen. Huguenots, Germans, Scotch-Irish, and Scotch Highlanders. When the Revolution began, North Carolina was the fourth colony in population. The staple products of South Carolina were rice and indigo, and of North Carolina were tar, pitch, turpentine, and lumber. Georgia (1733). — James Oglethorpe, a brave soldier and wealthy mem- ber of Parliament, knowing how eager the Spaniards were to destroy the weak English settlements in South Carolina, wished to plant a colony that should serve as a military outpost to ward off the Spanish attacks. But this was not his only motive. Being a man of warm sympathies, he de- sired to find relief for imprisoned debtors suffering in English prisons. He therefore secured from the king a grant of the land lying between the Savannah and the Altamaha Rivers and extending westward to the Pacific. In 1733 he planted at Savannah a colony in which freedom of worship was allowed to all but Catholics. For many years neither rum nor slaves could be imported. But, believing that these restrictions interfered with the prosperity of the colony, the people finally secured their removal. At the end of twenty years the trustees, to whom the king had granted the original charter, gave it up. Georgia then became a royal colony and re- mained so until the Revolution. CHAPTER V THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS IN MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT (162O-1689) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, Land II. j Drake's Making of New England; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, III.; Eggleston's Household History; Andrews's United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fislier's Colonial Era; Doyle's English Colonies; Dodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Tliwaites's The Colonies ; Hawtliorne's Grandfather's Chair ; Haie's Story of Massachusetts ; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Abbott's Captain Myles Standish ; Earle's Child Life in Colonial Days; Earle's Home Life in Colonial Days; Drake's On Plymouth Rock; Drake's Making of New England. FICTION : Stowe's Mayflower ; Austin's Standish of Standish, Betty Alden, A Nameless Nobleman, Dr. Le Baron and His Daughters ; Cogswell's Regicides. POETRY: Longfellow's Courtship of Myles Standish. A PURITAN. 35. England Under the Stuarts (1603-1649 and 1660- 1688). — We cannot understand who the Pilgrims and Puri- tans were, why they left their homes in England, and what they did after they came to America, unless we know something of English history from 1603 to 1689. With the exception of eleven years (1649-1660) the Stuart kings' reigned in England during 'James I. (1603-1625), Charles I. (1625-1649), Charles II. (1660-1685), James II. (1685-1688). 4a THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 43 this period. These men were oppressive rulers and aroused the opposition of many of the best people in England. When James I. ascended the throne he seemed The tyrannical to think that all England and its people were stuarts. his personal property. He claimed that he ruled by divine right, which was another way of saying that his will was law and that the people had no rights which he was bound to respect. Accordingly, there at once began a struggle be- tween the throne and the people, who were repre- sented by Parliament. The great majority of the peo- ple claimed that the}' could not lawfully be taxed with- out their consent ; in other words, that no n„ taxation with- taxes could be out representa- levied unless """• voted by the people's rep- resentatives in Parliament. The Stuarts tried to plan various ways of raising money without asking Parliament to vote it. But this was very difficult. For eleven years (1629-1640) Charles I. ruled England without Parliament, and he was so arbitrary that he brought on the war which ended in the loss not only of his crown but of his life (1649). The Commonwealth followed (1649- 1660), England being ruled by Oliver Cromwell and later by his son Richard. Oliver Cromwell became even more autocratic than Charles I. had been. After the Restoration Charles II., son of Charles I., reigned till 1685, when he was succeeded by his brother, James II. The latter was so despotic that the people rose OLIVER CROMWELL. 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES against him in the revolution of 1688 and drove him out of England. It will greatly help us to understand Berkeley James II. driven in Virginia and Andros in New England, if from England. ^ve remember that these men were trying to rule in America as their royal masters were ruling in England. James I. was determined to make every one conform to the Established Church in England. But there were many The Church of people who did not like its forms and cere- Engiand and the monies and wished to modify them. They Puritans. were called Puritans because, it was said, they wished to purify the Church. The Puritans wished to re- main in the Church and reform it. Another party wished to leave the Established Church, or separate themselves from it, and were therefore known as Separatists or Independents. They not only disliked the forms and ceremonies of the English Church, but they also disapproved of church-government by bishops. They wished to have a church in which the people only should rule. Such a self governing church, where each congrega- tion could elect its minister and manage its own affairs with- out interference from king or bishop, afterward became known as Congregational. 36. Pilgrims Migrate to America (1620). — In the early part of the reign of James I. a number of people in the village of Scrooby, a small village in Nottinghamshire, under- took to form such a church. But they were regarded as The Pilgrims es- rcbcls and wcre hunted down, and some of cape to Holland, them werc thrown into prison. At last, in 1608, they escaped to Holland, where they were allowed to remain in peace and to worship as they pleased. But they were not satisfied to settle permanently in Hol- land, because they did not wish their children when grown up to intermarry with the Dutch. They wished to make homes in a new land and there establish a free government and their own religion. After remaining in Holland twelve years, therefore, they decided to go to America, in order to establish a self-governing community and bring up their THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 45 children to be liberty-loving and God-fearing men and women. By reason of their wanderings these people were called Pilgrims. The Pilgrims were poor, Their aims and but they were men of strong will and noble character, purpose. They tried to get a charter from the king, but he refused to give it. He led them to believe, however, EITGIAin) AKD HOLLAND. THE M.-N.CO. that he would not interfere with their project if they did not make themselves troublesome to him. 37. Voyage and First \Vinter. — After getting money on hard terms they started' over from Plymouth, England, in the Mayflower and the Speedwell. On account of a leak the Speedwell was obliged to return, and the Mayflower, with about one hundred people on board, sailed for America. ' The Pilgrims sailed in July, 1620, from Delftshaven, the Port of Leyden, Holland, in the Speedwell for Southampton, England, where the ^fl_jyfira/^r awaited them. 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE MAYFLOWER, Frotn a Tttodel in the Smithsonian Institution. After a stormy voyage they anchored about the end of November, 1620, on the northern shore of Cape Cod. As this place was not suitable for a settlement, they sailed across the bay to a good harbor and made their fi- nal landing at Plymouth December 21, 1620. The suffering during the first winter was severe, and before spring half their number were dead. But when spring came they had no disposition to re- turn to England. Weak as they were in numbers and possessions, they were strong in manly purpose and brave enough to face any danger that threatened their little settlement. 38. The Covenant, Democracy, and the Church. — Before landing they signed, in the cabin of the Mayflower, a cove- nant in which they agreed to make and support such laws as should seem forthe best interests of all. Jdhn Carver was chosen governor. The laws were made in town-meetings, in which every man could vote. The Pilgrims at Plymouth believed that the people should rule; they planted democ- racy in their church and state. Some years later,* after population had increased, this pure democracy was obliged to give place to representative government. Governor Carver died during the first winter, and William Bradford was chosen to succeed him. Elder Brewster was the minister, and Captain Myles Stan- dish was chosen military leader. These stout-hearted lead- ers well represented the character of the Plymouth settlers. 39. Relations with the Indians. — For a better defence against the Indians the Pilgrims organized their able-bodied 'In 1630 there were only 300 settlers. By 1639 representative government became necessary, and in 1643 the population numbered 3,000. This increase was due to surrounding settlements which began to spring' up about 1630, Pilgrim leaders. A CHEST WHICH CAME OVER IN THE THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 47 men into small companies who took turns in guarding the settlement against surprises by the Indians. Fortunately for the Plymouth settlers, so many of the Indians of that region had recently died from a pestilence that the remaining natives were not troublesome. Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, visited Plymouth in the spring of 162 1, and Governor Bradford made a treaty of peace with him that lasted fifty years.^ mayfloiver. '■* 40. The Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628-1630). — Encouraged by the successes of the Pilgrims, many Puritans began to follow their example. In 1628 some of the leaders of the Puritan party in England, men of wealth and influence, formed a trading company. They bought of the Plymouth Company a tract of land along the Massachusetts coast, extending between the Charles and Merrimac Rivers and to within three miles beyond each, and sent out men to occupy it. Endicott was their leader, and they settled at Salem. The following year the same trading company, with in- creased numbers, obtained a charter from the king, incor- porating it as the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. Very likely Charles I. was quite willing to be rid of these liberty-loving, unruly subjects. At any rate he granted them a charter which was very liberal in its terms. It allowed the freemen of the company to choose their own governor, his deputy, and a council of eighteen ^^^ v»r\x^n^ ^ assistants, and to manage in every way their cure a liberal own affairs. It did not restrict its holders in '••"*"• the place of meeting. Of course this was a distinct advan- tage to the promoters of the new enterprise. Accordingly, * Later the Narragansett chief, Canonicus, sent to Plymouth a rattlesnake skin containing a bundle of arrows ; Governor Bradford removed the arrows and, filling the skin with powder and shot, returned it to the Indians. This hint was sufficient. 48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in 1629, when the king was ruling with a high hand and setting at naught the will of Parliament by levying taxes himself and by throwing into prison those who refused to pay such illegal taxes, these Puritans decided upon the bold step of removing with their chartered rights to New England, where they might find a refuge from the tyranny of the king and build up a government accord- ing to their own ideas. In 1630, under the leadership of John Winthrop, about 1,000 persons, with horses, cattle, and stores of The Puritan set- various kinds. Sailed for tiements in 1630. M assach usetts . This new colony, called the Massachusetts Bay Colony, made settlements at Charlestown, Boston, Roxbury, and Watertown. John Win- throp was made the first gov- ernor. Like the Plymouth colony they established a gov- ernment democratic in form, but unlike the Plymouth col- ony they were men of wealth and culture. Some of them were relatives of the greatest men of the day. They were men of wisdom and energy also, and might have made great names ^ for themselves in England. It must have been a strong motive that led them to sacrifice so much. We shall see how tenaciously they held to the rights which those sacrifices had bought. 41. The New England To^wnship. — Unlike ordinary colonists, the Puritans came in large communities with their plans of government fully matured. They were not Sepa- ratists in England as the Pilgrims had been, but the. church they established in Massachusetts was independent and Con- gregational. Each congregatidn formed a settlement, and ^ Stoughton, lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts (1692-1701), said, "God sifted a whole nation that He might send choice grain over into this wilderness," M S/aiuLs MYLES STANDISH. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 49 PILGRIM TYPES. each settlement consti- tuted a township and parish whose boundaries were one and the same, and usually included an area of from forty to sixty square miles. Each parish had one church or meeting-house, where all business, The meeting-house church or and the village. civil, was transacted.^ Later the people erected a separate building for their town meetings and ^"^ called it a town-house or town-hall. The meet- ing house and the town- house were the centres about which clustered the villages. In order to meet the more easily for worship, the settlers built their houses close together. Perhaps another reason was to secure a better defence against the Indians. 42. Church and State. — The charter permitted all free- men to vote, but the Puritans came to New England to establish and preserve what was most dear to them, their own religious and political freedom — in no sense religious toleration. When the first elections were held, puritans aiiow therefore, it was enacted that no one should none but church be admitted a freeman and so have a right to •"^'"•'ers to vote, vote who was not a member of one of the churches of the colony. The union of church and state was thus complete. At first the freemen met with the governor, his deputy, and council of assistants to make such laws as pertained to the general welfare of the several towns. But after a time, when the towns and freemen had so multiplied that it be- ' As early as 1631 it was decided that none but church members should be admitted as freemen. so HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES came inconvenient for them all to meet, each town begaa to send representatives, or deputies, to the legislature, or General Court (1634), just as each settlement or borough in Virginia sent representatives to the House of Burgesses. MYLES STANDISH's BILL OF EXPENSES AFTER HIS VISIT TO THE INDIANS. 43. Massachusetts Gets Control of the Connecticut Valley (1633-1636). — Some time before the Massachusetts Bay Company had made settlements on the New England coast the Dutch had become established in New York (then New Amsterdam) on the Hudson, where they were engaged in the fur trade with the Indians. Claiming the land as far east as the Connecticut River, they built a small fort at THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 51 Hartford in the interest of the fur trade. In 1633 Massa- chusetts sent up the Connecticut a vessel, which in spite of Dutch protests sailed to Windsor, six miles The Dutch at above Hartford. There the Massachusetts Hartford, men built a house for trading with the Indians. Two years later John Winthrop, by building a fort called Saybrook at the mouth of the river, cut off the Dutch fort at Hartford from the support of New Amsterdam. The way was now open for Mas- sachusetts to send settlers into the valley of the Connecticut. 44. Massachusetts Settles the Connecticut Valley (1635-1636). — In 1635 3,000 more settlers came from England to Massachusetts, where, some of them maintained, there was not enough good land for the many people now in that colony. The complaint of the lack of land came mainly from three of the eight Massachusetts towns. On hearing of the fertile soil of the Connecticut val- ley a great part of the people of these three towns decided to make settlements there to Connecticut they settled the three towns of Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor. The principal settlement at settlement was made at Hartford in June, Hartford. 1636. Under the leadership of their minister, Thomas Hooker, one hundred men, women, and children came overland from Cambridge (then Newtown), driving their cattle before them. It took them two weeks to make the toilsome journey through the woods to their new home. 45. Thomas Hooker and Democracy. — There is not much doubt that the principal reason why these three towns "^ pj GOV. JOHN WINTHROP. When they migrated 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES wished to move to Connecticut was political. Many peo- ple did not approve of the Puritan idea held in Massachusetts of allowing only church members to vote. Nor did they like to have the clergy take a controlling part in political life. Thomas Hooker, the minister at Cambridge, was the leader of this movement in favor of a more democratic sys- tem. John Winthrop and other Puritan leaders believed in government by only a part of the people. They did not believe that all the people were wise enough to govern well. But Thomas Hooker, like Abraham Lincoln, believed in government " of the people, by the people, and for the people." 46. The Connecticut Constitution (1639). — In 1659 the three towns of Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor united under one government. The constitution which they adopted was the first written constitution in all history upon which a government was built up. Another interest- ing fact about this constitution is that in it no mention was made either of the king or of the English company' hold- aovernment by ing a patent of the land. This constitution the people. i^as made by the people, in the interests of the people, and showed that Thomas Hooker and his followers had faith in the ability of the people to manage their own affairs.^ In the Connecticut colony all freemen, whether church members or not, could vote. The New Haven colony was founded in 1638 by a small body of men under the leadership of John Daven- New Haven col- port and Theophilus Eaton. They based ""y- their laws strictly upon the Bible, and like the Massachusetts Bay colonists allowed none but church members to vote. After the Restoration Connecticut, in order to confirm ' In 1630 the Council for New England granted the patent to the Earl of War- wick. In 1 63 1 he assigned it to Lord Say-and-Sele and others. ^ Alexander Johnston says : " It is on the banks of the Connecticut, under the mighty preaching of Thomas Hooker, and in the constitution to which he gave life if not form, that we draw the first breath of that atmosphere which is now so famil- iar to us. The birthplace of American democracy is Hartford." 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES her rights, thought it best to secure, if possible, a charter from the king. Governor Winthrop was sent to England, and by his tact and pleasing address succeeded in obtain- The Connecticut ing a charter (1662) for the territory which charter. included Hartford, New Haven, and all the other settlements^ that had been made in what is now Con- necticut. This charter was so liberal and satisfied the peo- ple so well that it afterward became the State Constitution and remained in force till 1 81 8. 47. Religious Intoler- ance in Massachusetts Leads to the Settlement of Rhode Island (1636). — We must remember that the Puritans did not come to New England to establish religious free- dom, but to form a state where they should have freedom for their own religion. They thought their own safety, cer- tainly their own welfare, depended upon having none but members of the church taiie any part in government. But while none but church members could vote, all were obliged to pay taxes for the support of the church and were corn- Roger Williams pclled to attcufl its services. Roger Will- and his views. iams, a young man of pure spirit and strong conviction, who had become pastor of a church at Salem (1633), declared this system to be wrong. He asserted that no man should be obliged to pay taxes to support any church, nor should he be punished by the magistrates for not attending church services. His belief was that ' Saybrook was purchased by the Connecticut colony in 1644. FIRST CHURCH AT SALEM. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 55 every man should settle all such matters with his con- science and his God. Williams stirred up the Puritans by declaring, also, that they had no just claim to the land they lived on. The land was theirs because the king had granted it to the Massachusetts Bay Company. But the land, Williams said, had never become the king's property; it belonged to the Indians; and the king, therefore, could not grant to anybody what was not his own. This strange way of looking at the authority of tlie magistrates and at property rights alarmed the Puritans, especially as the English government was already none too friendly. They very much feared that the English king, hearing of the disturbance which these new teachings had caused in the colony, would hasten to take away the charter. Hence they looked upon Roger Williams as a dangerous person and drove him out of the colony.^ He went to Rhode Island and made a settlement „ „,,,,, . Roger Williams at Providence (1636). Rhode Island became driven out of a refuge for all who were seeking for a place nassachusetts. to worship freely in accordance with their chosen faith. Another disturber of the public peace was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, an able woman who had recently come from England. She gave religious lectures which were opposed in their doctrines to those of the regular clergy, and caused great excitement. Although some of the leading men were included among her followers she was banished from the colony. 48. The New England Confederacy (1643). — The Dutch, angry at the loss of their fur trade in the Connecti- cut valley, had twice tried to drive the English away. The French in Canada were trying to push their claims to the ' As soon as Roger Wilirams learned that the Puritan magistrates had decided to send him back to England, he made his escape in midwinter to the wilderness. Here he wandered about for fourteen weeks, through deep snows, sometimes sleep- ing in hollow trees at night and sometimes getting food from the Indians. Early in the following summer, with five friends from Salem, he crossed the Narragansett Bay in search of a new home. Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, gave him a tract of land where he made a settlement, calling it Providence, in token of God's care for him during his time of trouble. 56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FACSIMILE OF OPENING LINES south, and the Indians, either as allies of the French or the Dutch or on their own account, threatened on all sides. Enemies of the Connecticut, therefore, proposed to Massa- New England col- chusctts a union of the New England colonies ""'"• for mutual defence. In 1643 articles were agreed upon at Boston by representatives from Massachu- setts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, uniting the colonies in a confederation for " mutual safety and welfare." This confederacy was important because it taught the colonies how to unite and made stronger their feeling of independence. It prepared the way for the Albany Con- gress, the Continental Congress, and the union of the States in 1789. 49. The Quakers in Nev^r England. — In 1656 the Massa- chusetts colonists were greatly alarmed to learn of the arrival of two Quakers. These persons were at once thrown into prison until the ship in which they had come should sail, and boards were nailed on their prison windows Punishment of the to prevent them from communicating with Quakers. people outsidc. But in spite of this harsh treatment the Quakers continued to come. Fined, im- prisoned, whipped without mercy, mutilated, and driven from the colony on penalty of death, they still persevered. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 57 tar 6tqLcwVDcdc at UJtJWinP« tfig^lc^ bay ofTJovemfwctntgc liwlfitiaiMfi yiit\t toartc ^' 'Maxctvca^'ytwa gafetocind; in ^icflrtlttflin forty 8tyrttA of riofifittfv fatiti Itfv Catita&t imCufiatb) anfcmltwi^tft of aa6 TOUeiw att 15< fattttft aftTtfati ttitottftfiout IfiT £>toi«a,C?uaCTtta.awl>"atlwJi ^iaBaf«t ot^r.Loiwofciaf tati^ iii ^poa tfte IRBiiae.owtatfi ujuQimQc t )^ow6«» a»t fecaft i cttfc tnltt\6«ft ttnft tntaat wtx fltouwtco wtvt .not ttjtft attualti AliC vonq(t» ox ifttlaGitlJl By a*^ onicr ^ BtUa oftfw £jo>itfietat Cd It is only fair to say that Andros was personally a far more honorable man than Berkeley. 62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 4. State the leading provisions of the charter which the Puritans ob- tained from the king. What was the township ? Why would the Puritans allow none Tjut church members to vote ? What form oi government did they have ? 5. Name points "ol difference between the Pilgrims and the Puritans, Which do you like the better, the Pilgrims or the Puritans ? Give your reasons. 6. How did the Massachusetts people get control of the Connecticut valley ? How did Thomas Hooker and John Winthrop differ in their ideas of government ? Tell all you can about the Connecticut Con- stitution. 7. Why did the Puritans send Roger Williams out of their colony ? Subject for debate : Resolved, that the Puritans were right in their treatment of Roger Williams. 8. What were the causes and results of the New England Confeder- acy ? Do you think that if you had been a Puritan you would have joined in persecuting the Quakers ? Give your reasons. 9. What enemies did Massachusetts make ? What complaints did they raise against the colony ? Compare the rule of Andros in Massa- chusetts with that of Berkeley in Virginia. In what respects were these governors like the Stuart kings ? 10. How did the life and occupations of the people in Virginia differ from those of the people in Massachusetts ? 11. Read Austin's Standish of Standish and Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish. NOTES New Hampshire (1023), — Two years after the Pilgrims landed, the Council of Plymouth granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason the territory between the Merrimac and the Kennebec Rivers. In 1623 fishing stations were begun at Dover and Portsmouth. Later, Mason and Gorges divided the territory between them. Mason took the part west of the Piscataqua, which he named New Hampshire after his own county of Hampshire in England ; Gorges took the part east of the same river, naming it Maine. The proprietors left the early settlers to do pretty much as they liked. Massachusetts claimed all the territory, but to make certain her claim bought out the heirs of Gorges (1677) for $6,000. Maine continued as a part of Massachusetts till 1820. New Hampshire re- mained for a long time under the protection of Massachusetts. After sever- ing connection with Massachusetts three times. New Hampshire became a separate royal colony in 1741, and so continued until the Revolution. CHAPTER VI THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK AND THE QUAKERS IN PENN SYLVANIA (1609-1689) REFERENCES : Scribner's Popular History of the United States, II. and III.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History ; Drake's Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies; Richardson's History of Our Country; Morris's Half Hours with American History ; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fisher's Colonial Era; Doyle's English Colpnies; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America ; Thwaites's The Col- onies; Bancroft's United States, I.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, III4 Fislce's The Dutch and Quaker Colonies m America ; Buell's William Penn. FICTION : Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York. 53. Henry Hudson Seeks the Northwest Passage (1609). — In 1609 Henry Hudson, an English navigator, was emgloyedjby the Dutch East India Company to sail in search of a short nortlrwesl~passage to India. Holland wasA then one of the greatest, commercial countries in the world, / and, like the other great European powers, desired to find a shorter route for the trade tha^was making Iierj)eo2]fi-cich,J Hudson crossed the ^Stlantic,\aiid, wiili_aj[£rew_^f_twenty_. menj^ in the Half-moon, sailed up the river which now bears ""ETsname. He held the familiar belief of his time, that the East Indies could be reached by a short water-route through North America, which was supposed to be a narrow conti- nent. But after sailing as far as the present site of Albany he could go no farther, and gave up his plan of finding the East Indies by that route. Although he did not find a short passage" to~the Pacific, he discovered the Hudson River which was a great water-way for the Dutch fur traders I coming later. He also won the good-will of the Indians.^ "■ — - -53 .. — __ — 64 History of the uKITed states It was worth much to the Dutch that Hudson came to the Indians as a friend. | The same year Champlain, a French •"exptOrer and trader, made deadly enemies of Kood-wiiT of the these Same Indians, the Iroquois, who gave Indians for the hjjn great trouble and hindered the French in their work of exploration and colonization. 54. Dutch Claims to New Netherland. — During the next few years Dutch traders continued to visit the region of the Hudson, and in 161 5 the Dutch States-General gave a char- ter to a company -of merchants. In this charter the new country was named New Netherland. A small trading-house was erected on the present site of Albany, and a sim- ilar one was built on Manhattan Island at the mouth of the river. Real colonizing did not begin until 1623, when the West India Company, which had been char- tered two years before for pur- poses of settlement and trade, be- gan to send out colonists. Some of these settled on the Delaware, or South River, some on the Hudson, or North River, some on Long Island, and a few remained on Manhattan Island. The Dutch built Fort Orange, where Albany now stands. In 1626 Peter Minuit, governor of New Netherland, founded Dutch settlements Ncw Amsterdam (now New York City) on and forts. Manhattan Island, which he bought from the Indians for trinkets worth twenty-four dollars. These early colonies opened a successful trade with the Indians, with whom they kept on good terms, but they did not cultivate the soil and, therefore, their settlements did not thrive. 55. The Patroons. — To encourage emigration the States-General of Holland granted to the company a new charter by which the patroon system was established. This system permitted any member of the Dutch West India A DUTCH OFFICER OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 6S ~7 7 ^; v~^~^^ A GROUP OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY DUTCHMEN. Company who would, within four years, bring into the col- ony fifty settlers, to own a landed estate with a water front of sixteen miles if on but one side of the Hudson, or of eight miles if on both sides. This great land-owner or patroon might extend his estate inland as far Power and duties as he thought desirable. In all cases the land <»« the patroons. was to be fairly bought of the Indians. These patroons exercised almost absolute power over their tenants. In fact the patroons resembled feudal lords, and the tenants resem- bled the vassals of feudal times. It should be noted that the patroons were each required to suppc-t a minister and a school teacher, in order that religious education should not suffer. This wise provision indicated the sturdy, whole- some character of the Dutch people. 56. The Dutch Win the Friendship of the Iroquois Indians and thus Secure an Extensive Fur Trade. — By treating the Iroquois justly the Dutch won the warm friendship of these powerful Indians, who engaged in an extensive fur trade with them. By honest dealing the Dutch fur-traders avoided costly Indian wars, and easily secured all the furs coming through the hands of the Iro- quois from numerous tribes around the Great Lakes and between the Ohio and the Mississippi. The results of this 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES triendship were important : (i) Dutch commerce was en-^ riched ; (2) the Iroquois received for their furs the fire- Resuits of the arms which enabled them all the more sue- Ir^"uo1sVr'th: cessfuUy to prevent the French from getting Dutch. possession of New York ; (3) unwittingly the Dutch were doing the English a great favor, for after New Netherland passed into the hands of England, the Dutch remained along the Hudson as before, and helped -^*-.3^»llf*«^MW i^-mfhrTda^nn' 6«-ZffMftniuttans . Os.>'>^-''c)T=0g giiigiDiiBgonDi 0' tttgitwDt c ttiDcgimitt iditiigciigMiiDiiiHC c ,Hitietiaci!it gDig»oig(imgwgi ( cgiigioooti i iifggiittiw (, i HoiKDiiGiccititDien' i t'W«S i ' ' ( Mogggnoitcgctg DcigDooDDB i cEicgggiir gwititccigratitmc d coiVilwDimii itiigiggoigiiBBOOiioooiiEBgfMMogggMtDcggioieg I - g tiiHtittiitiidgiHDC d otDuVofgigitdtii g g («eoocog(owg(ggiog«Mwoiio(iiOBiwiigtggDgt«oiiii6gimt g.iitgiiigtcutiiuictto t ,MM5«S[!''Sf',ii I Oi'logoooEODtOBgMMgoiiiiicBisoocnoEDDggiinDDgDGDngnDgigieg i. i tKKitiiceucuKtgci.o cuUDcmictDDrni WAMPUM RECEIVED BY PENN FROM THE INDIANS. hunting and fishing, and to assist him in these occupations he made the canoe and the snow-shoe. 69. The Canoe and the Snow-shoe. — In the fishing sea- son he sought the side of lake or stream, and he was always eager to go where game was thickest and where the scalps of his enemies could be taken in greatest numbers. The canoe was therefore a necessity. Before the whites came it was to him horse, steamboat, and railroad, all in one. In travelling on land he followed the trail of The canoes and the deer or the buffalo. But water-ways were the water-ways, so much easier that he travelled ten miles on water to one on land. Between the water-ways there were " carrying which he had to carry the places," or portages, over 78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES canoe and all its load of fur and other goods. In other words, sometimes the canoe carried its owner and some. times the owner carried his ca- noe. It was therefore necessary that it should be both light and strong. Such was the birch- bark canoe, which was made by stripping off the bark of the birch in one piece and carefully fitting it over a light wooden frame. Another Indian inven- tion of great use was the snow- shoe, which was three or four feet in length, curved and taper, ing, and enabled the wearer to go along easily on the surface of the snow at the rate of forty miles a day. •JO, Wampum — Wampum consisted of small shells, or beads made from shells, perfor- ated and strung together, and often wrought into belts. The Indians used wampum for per- sonal adornment and also for more serious purposes, such as summoning the tribes to war, and recording treaties, laws, and speeches. Ten thousand beads have been known to be worked into a single war-belt four inches wide. The colors and the pat- terns of the belt varied with its purpose, peculiar signs and fig- ures enabling the Indian to remember certain parts of a INDIAN WHIP (QUIET). WAR-CLUB. ^P^^^^ °^^ treaty. This was AND HUNTING-ARROW. Hcccssary bccause the Indian LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 79 could not write. Apart from other uses it was valued also as money. 71. Religion. — The Indian believed that all Indians, good and bad, would after this life go to the Happy Hunt- ing Grounds. This was his name for Heaven. The Happy Hunt- Life there would be the same as life in this 'ng Grounds, world, but without pain or trouble of any kind. It is INDIAN SNOW-SHOES AND PAPPOOSE-CASE. thought that the practice of scalping enemies killed in bat- tle was associated with the belief that the loss of the scalp prevented the spirit from entering the Happy Hunting Grounds. The Indian would therefore risk almost any- thing to save the dead body of his chief or his friend from being scalped by the enemy. As in the Happy Hunting Grounds he would need arms to defend himself, these and 8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES other things of use in this lite were buried with him lor use in the other life. 72. The Clan and the Tribe According to language and locality the Indians were separated into families, such as the Maskoki, Algonquin, and Iroquois. According to government the family was separated into distinct tribes, and again, by relationship more or less remote, the tribe was separated into clans. Each clan had its name, usually TOTEM OF THE FIVE NATIONS. TOTEM OF THE ILLINOIS. The totem. that of some bird, beast, or reptile, and the picture of this animal became the peculiar emblem or "to- tem " of the clan. The animal represented in the totem of each clan was supposed to favor and protect that clan and was sometimes tattooed on the breast. Every clan selected a sachem, or civil ruler, and at least one war-chief. The sachems exercised but little authority. Indian govern- They acted as advisers and, when assembled ment democratic, together in tribal councils, freely discussed important questions. The Indian government was there- fore democratic, each warrior being to a large degree his own master. 73. Communal Living. — The Indians knew but little of real estate. The tribes occupied the land but did not own it in the sense in which white men own land now. They had LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 8i very little personal property except such objects as weap- ons, trinkets, and clothing, and held all other property in common. Their architecture was adapted to their com- munal life. Interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the " Long Houses "of the Iroquois. These ^^j. .. ^^n houses, made of wood and bark, were in some Houses- of the cases one hundred feet long, and would ac- '"■"«"<»'«• commodate as many as twenty families. As a rule, each house was occupied by families of which the mothers were members of the same clan. Whatever these families obtained TOTEM OF THE SIOUX. TOTEM OF THE HURONS. by hunting or by the rude culture of the soil they owned in common, and all their food they kept in a common store- house. 74. The Mound Builders.— Many thousands of mounds have been found in Ohio and in other parts of the United States. Some have the shape of birds, fishes, and reptiles ; some of the square, circle, and other mathematical figures. The Big Elephant Mound, a few miles below the mouth of the Wisconsin River, is 135 feet long; the Serpent Mound, in Ohio, is 1,000 feet long, with a gracefully curving body. These mounds have gateways, outlooks, and parallel lines, showing that they were probably used as for- tifications. Of late years very careful explorers have been at work among these mounds, opening many of them and taking out relics. These relics include kettles. The mounds. 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES pipes, axes, arrowheads, tools for weaving and spinning, and other things. They have been examined with the great. Relics found In cst carc, becausc they help us to understand the mounds. what kind of people made and used them. At one time it was thought that the Mound Builders were a people of a very superior civilization, because of the artistic skill they showed in their sculptured relics. Accordingly, the Mound Builders were spoken of as a " lost race " that numbered many millions and constituted a mighty empire. The character of the mounds and of the relics found in them leaves no Mound Builders doubt that probably Amerl- they Were can Indians. the WOrk of various tribes, differing from each other quite as much as Indian tribes differ now. The Chero- kees, who are known to have built mounds some time after the whites came to America, prob- ably built those found In the western part of North Carolina and the eastern part of Tennessee. It seems altogether probable that the Mound Builders were nothing more than American Indians, like those found by the English and the French colonists. 75. Number of Indians. — There are at present about 250,000 Indians in the United States. Very likely the num. ber is quite as large now as it was when the English and the French began to plant settlements. It has been thought CARVED PIPES FROM AN INDIAN MOUND. LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 83 that the coming of the whites prevented the destruction of large numbers of Indians by war and famine. 76. Influence of the Indians Upon the Whites. — The influence of the Indians upon the whites, especially from the time of the early settlements' to the Revolution, was considerable. They often saved struggling settlers from starvation by furnishing them food, and they taught the whites how to cultivate Indian corn. But, as we shall see in later chapters of this book, the principal Indian wars influence of the Indians upon the w^hites was n^st^^hlwivanl through the numerous Indian wars, which tage of union, helped the colonists to know one another better, and taught them what they most needed to learn — the advantage of union. In fighting against a' common danger the colonies were brought into closer sympathy with one another. Let us briefly refer to two of those wars, the Pequot War and King Philip's War, both of which were fought before the beginning of the Intercolonial Wars. BIG ELEPHANT MOUND. CHAPTER VIII EARLY INDIAN WARS 77. The Pequot War (1637) — The leading cause of each of the Indian wars in New England was the same — the feeling on the part of the Indians that the whites were Leading cause of getting possession of the lands, and would early Indian wars, in time drive the Red Men away from their hunting grounds. The Indians did not at first understand that sales of land meant their giving it up entirely. But even when they understood the nature of land sales, they thought the whites had taken advantage of them. When the people from Massachusetts settled in Con- necticut in 1636 they found themselves neighbors to a strong, ferocious tribe of Indians, called Pequots, living in the east- ern part of the State. These Indians attacked the little settlement of Wethersfield, where they killed a number of persons. Captain John Mason, with ninety men from the Captain Mason's tOWnS of Hartford, Wethersficld, and Wind- expedition against sor, started in pursuit. The party came to the Pequots. anchor in Narragansett Bay about three weeks after leaving Hartford. Mason marched westward across Rhode Island, and at the end of two days halted the expe- dition just north of the present town of Stonington. Before daybreak next morning he and his men surprised the Ind- ian fort, and destroyed nearly all the Indians in it, con- sisting of from 400 to 600 men, women, and children. The war resulted in the destruction of the Pequot tribe, and so awed the Indians in that part of the country that there was no more trouble with them for about forty years. Then came King Philip's War, which lasted two years and was much more extensive than the Pequot War. 84 EARLY INDIAN WARS 85 78. King Philip's War (1675-1676). — King Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, a Rhode Island tribe, was a leader of much ability. He united the New England King Phiiip'» Indians from Maine to the Hudson River in purpose, a league whose aim was to destroy all the whites in New England. The war broke out in Swansea, Massachusetts, INDIANS CARRYING CANOES OVER A PORTAGE. and spread through the towns in the southern and western parts of the State. Deerfield and Hadley were among the places pillaged and burned. The war was stubbornly fouo-ht, and finally ended with the death of King Philip, who was shot while trying to escape capture at Mount Hope (Bristol), Rhode Island, which was his home. Results of King The remnant of his tribe were either killed or Phiup-s war. sold into slavery, and the power of the New England Ind- ians was completely broken. The war was a severe strain upon the New England colonists. Six hundred of them were killed, and thirteen of their towns were destroyed. It 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cost the colonists a large sum of money and imposed heavy burdens upon them in the way of taxation. But the Indians having the greatest influence upon co- lonial development were the Iroquois. These we have already mentioned in their relation to the Dutch, and we shall now speak of their immediate influence upon the French and the English colonies. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why were the canoe and the snow-shoe of great value to the Indian? What was his religious belief? Tell what you can about communal living ; about the Mound Builders. 2. Why did the absence of such animals as horses and oxen retard the progress of the Indians t Discuss the influence of the Indians upon the whites. 3. What were the causes and results of the Pequot War ? of King Philip's War ? Impersonating King Philip, write an account of the wrongs you suffered at the hands of the whites. 4. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the Indians have been unjustly treated by the white people. 5. If you rightly study the facts about the Indians, you will be prepared to understand the Indian problem which the American people are now trying to solve. As in the case of all other problems of to-day, we study the past that we may learn how to interpret the present. Even the Indian question has two sides. Read the first chapter of Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac ; also Longfellow's Hiawatha. CHAPTER IX FRENCH EXPLORATIONS REFERENCES: Scrlbner's Popular History of the United States, I. and II.; Wright's Cliildren's Stories in American History ; Drake's Making of the Great West; Drake's Making of New England; Morris's Half- Hours with American History; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Parkman's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, IV.; Winsor's The Westward Movement; Bancroft's United States, 11.; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Hlldreth's United States, II.; Thwaites's Father Marquette ; Wilson's A History of the American People, II. ; Dix's Champlain. FICTION: Catherwood's Romance of Dollard; Catherwood's Story of Tonty. 79. The French Discover and Explore the St. Law- rence -By reason of the discoveries of Verrazano (1524) France laid claim to the Atlantic coast between Cape Fear, North Carolina, and Newfoundland. Ten _ ., ., ' Cartler discovers years later Jacques Cartier discovered the St. the st. Lawrence Lawrence and sailed up the river as far as an ^'^^*^- Indian village on the present site of Montreal. He returned in 1540 and in the name of King Francis I. took possession of Canada, as the Indians called the country. Immediately attempts were made to colonize, but they were unsuccess- ful. In 1603 the French again attempted settlement in the region extending from New York harbor to Cape Breton, called Acadia,* and again they failed. But these failures only shed the greater lustre about the name of Samuel de Champlain, the " Father of New France." When he first penetrated the St. Lawrence val- ' Acadia was afterward restricted in meaning to its present boundaries. 87 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FRENCH SOLDIERS OF THE TIME OF THE FRENCH EXPLORATION. ley he was impressed with its great beauty and its valu- able resources, for it was rich in forests and furs. Next Champiaia makes to the gold and Silver, the fur trade furnished nent*French™tI ^he bcst means of securing the coveted wealth tiement in Canada, which the Ncw World offered. Champlain was a man of culture and refinement, earnest, patriotic, and religious. He wished to extend the glory of France and the Catholic Church. Moreover, he saw that the St. Law- rence valley, and not Acadia, was the promising field for France in the New World. In 1608 he made the first per- manent French settlement in Canada, at Quebec. The fol- lowing year he discovered the lake which bears his name. 80. Champlain and the Iroquois. — It was a curious coin- cidence that two years after the settlement of Jamestown Hudson should have sailed up the Hudson River and Champlain and Champlain should have explored Lake Cham- Henry Hudson. plain (1609). Thcsc two cvcuts had a large influence on American history. The Dutch on the Hudson and the Iroquois in the Mohawk River valley stood in the way of French success in America. The story containing the reasons for French failure is full of interest, and we will now begin to read it. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 89 When Champlain settled at Quebec in 1608, he found that the neighboring tribes of Algonquin Indians were bit- ter enemies of the Mohawks, one of the Five Nations, or Iroquois, in New York. It was hard for him to keep out of their deadly feud, and he decided to take the side of the Algonquins because their lands were nearer to him. Ac- cordingly he joined them in a battle with the Mohawks near Ticonderoga, on Lake Cham- plain, and shot some of the latter with his gun. As the Mo- hawks had never before heard the report of a gun champlai- makes they were overcome the iroquois ene- with superstitious «"««»' ">eFrench. terror and defeated. The French- man enabled the Algonquins to triumph over the Mohawks, but that shot was fatal to the future success of the French in America. The Iroquois were from that day the unrelenting enemies of the French colonists, and did all they could to prevent them from carrying out their plans of exploration and trade. 81. The French Reach the, Mississippi Valley It is important to remember that this battle of Ticonderoga took place in 1609, when only a handful of Englishmen were at Jamestown. The French had control of the St. Law- rence, one of the three great water-ways to the interior of North America. If they could get control of The three great the Mississippi valley and the Hudson-Mo- water-ways, hawk River route they would hold the other two, and North America would be in their grasp. The distance from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi was not great. One route lay through Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, by portage into French Creek, through the Alleghany and Ohio Rivers into the Mississippi. Another lay through the same lakes into the Maumee, by portage into the Wabash, SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. go HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and through the Ohio into the Mississippi. But the ever- watchful Iroquois, whose territory stretched along the The Iroquois force shore of Lake Erie, blocked the way and XTand'diffl^utt baffled the French here. The latter were route. obliged to seek a route farther north, which was much longer and more difficult. Slowly and patiently they worked their way up the Ottawa River into Georgian Bay, through Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, across into the Illinois River, and from there into the Mississippi. The Jesuit missionaries bore a large part in this toil- some work of exploration. These brave men were eager to Christianize the Indians. They built mission stations and in their zeal braved many dangers. Not only did they gain converts to their faith, but with rare intelligence they made important explorations and discoveries. It was one , . of their number, Marquette, who succeeded Important work of . ,-..... . i i i the Jesuit mis- in rcachmg the Mississippi. Attended by sionaries. JoHct, he Sailed, in 1673, as far down the Mis- sissippi as the mouth of the Arkansas. This was two years before King Philip's War and three years before Bacon's Rebellion. 82. La Salle Plants the Arms of France at the Mouth of the Mississippi. — But the most valuable explorations were made by the daring and tireless La Salle. He was ah earnest Catholic, and was full of plans for his own success and am'bitious for the success of France. In 1666, at the age of twenty-three, he came out to Canada, filled with the passion of his age, the desire to discover a water route to India. Not much is known of his early explorations, but it is supposed that he discovered the Ohio River and partially explored it. In 1679 he set out on an expedition to explore the Mississippi. By this time he had given up the idea of a water route to India. His great ambition was to reach La Salle sets out ^^^ mouth of the Mississippi and secure the to explore the valley for France. Having built the Griffin, Mississippi. ^ gi^^jj jjQ^^^ Q^ ^j^g Niagara River, he sailed in it through Lakes Erie and Huron and landed on the shore of Lake Michigan. He then sent back his boat for lA SALLE CLAIMING FOR FRANCE ALL THE TERRITORY THROUGH WHICH THE MISSISSIPPI AND ITS TRIBUTARIES FLOWED, FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 91 supplies, but he never heard from it again. This was only one of the many trials and disappointments in his troubled life. A little later he reached the Illinois LaSaiier River, and sailing about half way down, built a the mouth of the fort afterward fitly named Crevecoeur (Heart- ™»«'*»'pp'- break). In 1682 he found the Mississippi and explored it to its mouth. There, according to French custom, he planted the French arms and claimed all the country through which the river and its tributaries flowed. He called the country Louisiana in honor of the French King, Louis XIV. This was the year in which Penn was laying the foundations of Philadelphia. 83. Attempt to Plant a Colony at the Mouth of the Mississippi. — La Salle's aims were two-fold : (i) To establish military and trade centres at various LaSaiie'stwo points and (2) to ■'"•*• plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. In this way he hoped to get control of the fur trade for France. He had built many forts. He now returned to France to get people for his colony. He succeeded in getting men for this new scheme, but in sailing for the mouth of the Mississippi he missed it and landed several hundred miles to the west at Matagorda Bay. Trials and difficulties grew thick about him until, at the end of two years, he started overland to get assistance from Canada. While he and his wretched followers were wandering through the dense forests, he was waylaid and shot dead by some of the men of his own company (1687). He had not accom- whatLaSaiie plished his full purpose, but in exploring '"''• the Ohio and the Mississippi and in building forts in the unoccupied territory he had done a great work for his country. ROBERT CAVALIER DE LA SALLE. 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 84. On Account of La Salle's Exploration the Missis- sippi Valley Becomes a Part of New France. — The plant- ing of French arms at the mouth of the Mississippi was a very significant event in American history. It was the declaration to the world that France laid claim to the whole Mississippi valley from the Rocky to the Alleghany Mountains. Spain had failed to follow up her discovery of the Mississippi by making the country known to the world or by colonizing it. It had been the dream of La Salle to unite this immense and valuable territory Salle s dream. ^jj.j^ ^j^g g(._ Lawrcuce vallc}', making a vast empire which would crowd out the English. The English had planted their colonies on the Atlantic sea-coast, and he wished to keep them shut in behind the Alleghanies for- ever. The Mississippi and St. Lawrence valleys would form the New France of America, with the seat of govern- ment removed to the Mississippi. TO THE PUPIL 1. You have been studying colonial history from the earliest settlements to 1689. Before that date, each colony largely went its own way, with but little interest in any other. After that date, the colonies were gradually dra'wn nearer together by the necessity of uniting fcr a better defence against common enemies. One of these common enemies was the French and the Indians, and another the royal and proprietary governors. 2. What was done for France by Verrazano i" by Cartier ? by Cham- plain ? You cannot too carefully note the results of Champlain's mistake (1609) in making enemies of the Iroquois. 3. Trace carefully on the map the various water-ways by which the French could reach the Mississippi valley. What part did the Jesuit missionaries bear in the toilsome work of exploration ? 4. Describe the work of La Salle. What were his aims ? Notice what he did in 1682, only seven years before the great landmark 1689. What were the results of his work ? Write an essay on his explora- tions. 5. Learn all you can about the Iroquois Indians, as their influence upon colonial history was remarkable. You will find a good account of them in the first chapter of Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac. CHAPTER X THE LAST FRENCH WAR REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, III.j Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Sloane's French War and the Revolution ; Cook's Stories in the Old Dominion ; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies ; Fiske's War of Independence; Ricliardson's History of Our Country ; Hart's Formation of the Union. OUTSIDE READINGS : Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, V. and VI. ; Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe; Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiacj Park- man's Old Regime in Canada ; Bancroft's United States, V. ; Morris's Half Hours with American History, I. ; Hinsdale's Old Northwest ; Wilson's A His- tory of the American People, 11. ; Frotliingliani's Rise of the RepubHc; Rossiter Johnson's Old French War ; Scudder's George Washington ; Franklin's Au- tobiography ; Wilson's George Washington ; Ford's The True George Wash- ington. FICTION: Cooper's Last of the Mohicans; Thackeray's Virginians; Henty's With Wolfe in Canada ; Munroe's At War with Pontiac. POETRY : Longfellow's Evangeline (the Acadians). 85. England and France Struggle for Control in America (1689-1763). — These events in the Mississippi val- ley occurred just before 1689. In 1688 James wars between Eng- II., one of the Stuart kings, was driven out of land and France England and found refuge in the court of ('<'*''-"7")- France. There France took up his cause, and England and France began a series of wars which did not end until 1763. While these wars were going on in Europe there was fight- ing between the French and English colonies in America. The Iroquois stood in the way of French The iroquois and success, for the French sought the fur trade, the fur trade. and the Iroquois largely controlled it in the region of the Great Lakes. But since the day that Champlain had joined 93 94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the Algonquins and helped them defeat the Iroquois, the French had been persistently hindered and harassed by these powerful tribes in the Mohawk valley. It will be re- membered that the English, when they conquered New Netherland-, inherited from the Dutch the good-will and friendly alliance of these Indians. Both the French and the English encouraged their Ind- ian allies to make attacks upon frontier settlements during the years that France and England were at war. The vari. The Intercolonial ous wars in the colonics were called Inter. Wars. colonial Wars.' The last one is the most in- teresting one to us. It is known as the Last French War* in America and the Seven Years' War in Europe (1756-1763). 86. Causes of the Last French War. — Both England and France claimed the territory between the AUeghanies Reasons why and the Mississippi. England claimed it by f/nT^'tr the discovery of the Cabots and by Indian nississippi valley, treaty, and France by reason of exploration. France had done much more than England to make this region known, but had not occupied the country. When, therefore, the English colonies, which had been taking root on the Atlantic coast, had spread as far west as the eastern base of the AUeghanies, a struggle for possession was inevi- table. By 1750 the French had built a line of sixty forts by ' The first three of the Intercolonial Wars, named after the English sovereign reigning at the time, were as follows: King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748). During the last one the New England colonists, led by Colonel Pepperrell, captured Louisburg, a great fortress on Cape Breton Island. The French had thought that this strong- hold could withstand any attack, and were therefore amazed at the success of the New England farmers and fishermen. At the end of the war, however, England gave up Louisburg to France. 2 To develop union among the English colonies, there were needed such com- mon interests as the Intercolonial Wars furnished. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York united in King William's War ; South Carolina, New England, New York, and New Jersey organized separate expeditions against the French and Ind- ians in Queen Aune's War; the northern colonies engaged in King George's War; and in the Last French War all the colonies stood side by side in a solid array against the French and Indians. This war was national, and led the provincial to begin to think of himself as an American. THE LAST FRENCH WAR 95 FRENCH SOLDIERS AND OFFICERS OF THE TIME OF THE FRENCH WAR. way of the Great Lakes, from the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi. Great skill was shown in lo- cating them at points of military importance. In many cases they afterward became great business French forts and and trade centres. Detroit, Chicago, Nat- colonies, chez, and St. Louis mark the sites of some of these forts. The French had planted colonies also at Mobile and New Orleans early in the eighteenth century. Thus far they had outgeneraled the English in establishing a claim to such a vast extent of territory, for the English colonists had been so busy with their own aflairs that they had thought very little of the land lying west of the mountains. But at last they had waked up and were ready to make a stubborn fight if necessary. French and English traders had come into collision in the disputed territory, and both the French and the English appreciated the need of immediate action. About the same time that the French governor was once more trying to make friends with the Iroquois' Indians, and urging the ' The Iroquois were the great barrier between the French and the disputed terri. tory. During this war the Iroquois were neutral. 96 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES home government to send colonists to the Ohio valley, the Ohio Company was formed by some gentlemen in Virginia. This company received from the king, on condition of set- The Ohio Com- tlement, a grant of 600,000 acres of land be- P^ny- tween the Great Kanawha and Mononga- hela Rivers. Lawrence Washington had a large interest in the Ohio Company, and his younger brother George was employed as surveyor. The Ohio Company at once began to send explorers into the disputed region, and at the same time the French were taking formal possession by sinking lead plates with inscriptions at th^ mouths of the streams. To get ahead of the English the French built a line of forts on the direct route to the Ohio.* Governor Dinwid- Washington's ^^^ ^^^^ George Washington, then adjutant- lourneytothe general of the Virginia militia, to inform the French forts. French commander 2 that he was building on English territory and would do well to depart peace- ably. Washington at this time was twenty-one years old and over six feet tall. Cool-headed and fearless, with seven companions, all on pack-horses, he started from Williams- burg, Va., on his perilous journey late in October, I7S3- About the middle of January, 1754, he returned with the refusal of the French commander to withdraw. As the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers was the " Gateway of the West," a fort here would control the entrance to the Ohio valley. Both nations had their eyes upon this important site. The English reached ' These forts included Presque Isle, Le Boeuf, and Venango on the Alleghany. ' To reach Fort Le Bceuf, situated only fifteen miles from Lake Erie, Washing- ton had to travel five hundred miles through the wilderness. By the time he was ready to start back from Fort Venango, it was Christmas. The pack-horses were so weak that Washington and a single companion pressed forward on foot. They had many narrow escapes from death. A treacherous Indian guide, who was not three rods in advance, turned suddenly and shot at Washington, but missed him. Washington took the Indian's gun away and let him go. On reaching the Alle- ghany River Washington and his companion found it full of floating ice. With nothing but a hatchet, they made a raft and began crossing the river. Shortly after- ward Washington was struck by a piece of floating ice and knocked into the water. Darkness falling upon them before they could reach the opposite side of the river, they spent the night on an island, where tliey nearly froze to death. THE LAST FRENCH WAR 97 it first, but were driven off by a larger force of French, who put up a fort and called it Fort Du Quesne. Washington, who was on his way from Virginia to occupy the new fort, was met by the unsuccessful party of English. He pushed on to Great Meadows (Pennsylvania), and there learned that the French were marching toward him. Advancing with the aid of an Indian guide and forty men, Thefightinebe. he met a French party in a dark glen near by, gins at oreat and exchanged shots with them. The French "««<'<>''»• leader and most of his men were killed. This encounter began the war, Washington returned to Great Meadows QUEBEC IN 1730. and threw up intrenchments which he called Fort Neces- sity. Here he was defeated by the French and obliged to retire (July, 1754). This handful of men with their youth- ful leader had fired the shot which set in motion European armies. The war which followed was but little less im- portant in its issues than the Revolution. Let us now fol- low it in some of its most important engagements, 87, Plan of the War. — The plan of the English in 1755 and their general plan for the war was four-fold. An ex- pedition was to be sent against Acadia ; a second against Crown Point, a French fort on Lake Champlain, which gH HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES controlled the route to Canada from the south ; a third was to move through the Mohawk valley and capture Fort Niagara, the key to the Great Lakes ; and a fourth, the most important, under the leadership of General Braddock, had for its object the capture of Fort Du Quesne, the " Gate- way of the West." 88. Braddock's Defeat (1755.)— I" I755 General Brad- dock was sent over to take command of the English forces in America. He was a brave soldier with much expe- rience, but he knew nothing of fighting the Indians in woodland warfare. Self-confident and headstrong, he was quite unwilling to take advice from Wash- Qeneral Braddock. . t^ i i • t i i ^i j i • ington or rrankhn," who both warned him against Indian ambuscades. He trusted all things to his English regulars. The colonial troops were to his mind very inferior, the colonial officers inexperienced, and he regarded them with contempt. With 2,000 men Braddock started from Alexandria, Virginia, toward Fort Du Quesne.' His purpose was to capture this fort and then to march north along the Alleghany River, capture the line of forts upon its banks, and join the other forces at Niagara. In marching his troops he insisted upon the same order and precision as in the open fields of Europe, and would listen to no suggestions of avoiding risks from ambush. Finally, when within eight miles of the fort, the fears of the de- spised American militia were realized. Braddock's army The ambush and marched into an ambush. The attack came the battle. from an unseen foe, who shot down by scores the surprised English soldiers. The regulars tried to fight in ranks, but in doing so were the more easily struck down ' Benjamin Franklin was at this time forty-nine years old. He had been for many years a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly and was now Postmaster-gen- eral for America. ' Braddock was in great need of horses and wagons, which for a long time he was not able to secure. At Frederick, Maryland, he was met by Benjamin Frank- lin, who used his powerful influence to procure from Pennsylvania farmers one hun- dred and fifty wagons, six hundred draft-horses, and fifteen hundred pack-horses. Franklin promised to see that the farmers were paid for theii horses and wagons, and he kept his word. GENERAL BRADDOCK'S TROOPS IN AN INDIAN AMBUSCADE, THE LAST FRENCH WAR 99 by the Indians firing from behind trees. Braddock made a brave effort to bear up against the foe. Four horses were ■killed under him, and he was on the fifth when he received a mortal wound. Washington, one of Braddock's staff, had three horses shot under him, and four bullets passed through his clothes. Finally, after suffering severely, the regulars fled in shameful rout. The brave Virginians, led by Washington, fought behind trees in true Indian fashion, and saved the army from utter ruin. Out of Braddock's Dismal failure oi army of 2,000, 700 men and three-fourths of Braddock's expe- the officers were killed. Such was the dismal '"*'°"" failure of Braddock's expedition. The miserable remnant of his army retreated, and the Indians laid waste the settle- ments in western Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. 89. Removal of the Acadians (1755). — During the same summer that Braddock was defeated the people of Acadia were removed from their homes. Acadia was included in what is now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. It was settled by the French early in the seventeenth century, and about one hundred years later (17 10) was captured by the English. For forty-five years it had been un- The Acadians take der English rule. But the simple-minded, sides with the ignorant peasantry continued to speak the ^'■*"'=''' French language and to take sides with the French in every struggle with the English. In this way they did much in- jury to the English cause. Accordingly, in 1755, some troops from New England landed in Acadia and told the inhabitants they must promise to support the English king or they would be sent out of the country. More than 5,000 of them refused, and they were torn from their jheir removal homes and scattered among the colonies from necessary. Massachusetts to Georgia. A large number of them found their way to Louisiana, where many of their descendants may be found to-day. This removal caused much hardship, but it seemed to be a military necessity. go. Montcalm and French Successes. — There had been fighting in the colonies for about two years before war was lOO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES declared between England and France in 17561 The first two years of fighting in the colonies found the French suc- cessful almost everywhere. The English government sent Weak English to America very weak and inefficient generals. generals. These men, like Braddock, were unwilling to take any advice from colonial officers and looked down upon colonial troops. Moreover, they so managed the various armies that there was not united and harmo- nious action. The French, on the contrary, were ably handled by Montcalm, who so massed his forces at im- portant points that, during these two years, he kept the English out of the disputed territory, and hemmed them in behind the AUe- ghanies. At the close of 1757 the outlook for Eng- land was gloomy. 91. William Pitt and English Successes. — At this critical time William Pitt became the head of affairs in England. Clear- headed and great-hearted, he was a true hero. He loved England as fondly as his own life and was willing to rise or fall with her. He said, " I can save England," and he did save England. His faith in himself and his country filled the people with hope and confidence. He appointed strong and able officers for the troops in America. He put the colonial officers and troops on an equal footing with the English and pushed forward the various armies in energetic, united action. The spirit of Pitt was everywhere. In quick succession Louisburg, Fort Frontenac, Fort Du Quesne, Fort Niagara, and other French strongholds fell into the hands of the English. THE LAST FRENCH WAR lOl General Wolfe, 92. Wolfe and the Capture of Quebec (September j8, 1759) — Pitt showed great wisdom in appointing General Wolfe to take command of an expedition against Quebec, the most important place now remaining in possession of the French.' General Wolfe, then in his thirty-third year, had a feeble body but a fear- less soul. As brigadier-general at Louisburg he had gained high praise for energy and boldness. Pitt believed in this brave young general, and therefore placed him at the head of an army of 10,000 men for the capture of Quebec. The men so idolized Wolfe that they would gladly follow him to victory or death. Quebec was situated on steep and lofty cliffs overlooking the St. Law- rence, and was pro- tected by a strong for- tress. This fortress was the strongest in America, and the key to Canada. Wolfe and his army tried in vain for three months to find a weak spot where they might make a successful attack, but failure met them on every hand. The English troops were dis- couraged, and even the brave Wolfe began to lose hope, but in spite of sickness and intense bodily suffering he resolved to make one more attempt to take Quebec. At last his searching eyes caught sight of a pathway up the rugged sides of the cliffs along the river bank, some distance above the city. Here was an opportunity not to be neglected. One dark night Wolfe's army floated quietly down the river in boats and landed at the foot The English ciimb of the rocky heights. The brave soldiers, the rocky heights, with immense difficulty, pulled themselves and their cannon up the steep ascent. Reaching the top, they quickly over- ' Crown Point and Ticonderoga were captured by the English under Amherst in the summer of 1 759 (the last of July). MAJ.-GEN. JAMES WOLFE. I02 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES powered the guard, which was too much astonished to make resistance. In the morning, Wolfe's men were drawn up in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham, less than a mile from the walls of Quebec. Montcalm, astonished at what the English had done, would not wait for an attack, but at once led his army out on the open plain. The fighting was terrible, and the French could not stand up against the withering fire of the English. Wolfe led in a furious charge and, although twice pierced with bullets, refused to give up until he received a mortal wound. It was Wolfe's victory hard for him to die as and death. long as the issue was in doubt, but when, in his last moments, he heard the shout of victory, he said, " Now, God be praised, I will die in peace." Montcalm was also mortally wounded, and in the hour of death was equally heroic. When told that he could not live more than ten or twelve hours, he exclaimed, MARQUIS DE MONTCALM. .. ^^^^^ q^^^ j ^j^^^j ^^^ Jj^^ ^^ ^^^ Quebec surrendered." A few days later Quebec passed from French into English hands (September i8, 17S9). 93. The Treaty of Peace (1763).— With the fall of Quebec the last stronghold of the French in America passed into the hands of the English. The following year Montreal surrendered, and the colony of New France ceased to exist. Although the war was over in America, it still continued for three years in Europe, and Spain, joined France against England. It was finally closed by the treaty of Paris, signed in 1763. By this treaty France ceded to Spain all the territory lying between the Missis- sippi and the Rocky Mountains ; also the town of New Orleans, which controlled the navigation of the Mississippi. To England she gave Canada and all her territory east of the Mississippi." Spain gave Florida to England in ex- ' France retained for fishing stations two small islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. THE LAST FRENCH WAR 103 change for Havana, which the English had captured during the war. The English had driven out of North America successively the Dutch (1664) and the French (1763). Eng- land and Spain alone remained. Thenceforward these two had control in North America. 94. Other Results of the ^Var.— But there were other far-reaching results of the Last French War which largely affected the future of the English colonies: (i) Up to this time there had been little of common interest among them. But all were engaged in this struggle, and they fought side by side. Thus the war taught them to know and respect each other, gave them a mutual interest, and prepared them for union. (2) They were made to realize their own strength and to see that their military ability was quite equal to that of the English soldiers. (3) The war was a preparatory school for the Revolution. Such officers as Marion, Stark, Putnam, and Washington received a mil- itary training of great value. (4) Although in fighting the French in America, England felt that she had been pro- tecting the colonies, the colonies felt that they had been helping England in establishing English against French authority. This attitude explains their growing sense of power and independence which led, after the removal of the French, to their resistance against British interference and their final separation from the British crown. NOTE The Conspiracy of Pontiac. — When, at the close of the Last French War, England tried to take possession of the territory west of the Alleghanies and north of the Ohio, trouble with the Indians in that region at once arose. The French, embittered by their loss of this territory, stirred up the Indians against the English, and the conspiracy of Pontiac was the outcome. This able and daring chief of the Ottawas organized a widespread movement for the purpose of destroying all the English settlers west of the Alleghanies. Having won over to his scheme many tribes, he succeeded in capturing eight out of twelve forts, whose garrisons he put to death. This fierce and bloody war lasted two years and ended in the complete failure of Pontiac. I04 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL 1. What vras the leading^ cause of the Last French War ? What did the Ohio Company set out to do ? What journey did Washington make and with what results ? Write an account of this journey. 2. How did the war begin ? In outlining the plan of the war use the map freely. 3. What do you think of Braddock and of the causes of his defeat ? Was the removal of the Acadians just ? Give reasons for your ansv7er. 4. Account for French successes in the early years of the war. What had William Pitt to do with English successes later ? 5. What do you admire in the character of General Wolfe i" For many interesting facts about the personality of this heroic man, see Park- man's Montcalm and Wolfe. 6. Imagine yourself to have been one of Wolfe's soldiers and write an account in the first person of scaling the Heights of Abraham and of the battle on the following day. 7. What were the results of the war ? Make two brief outlines, one containing the advantages the French had in America and the other containing the advantages the English had. 8. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the French had a just claim to the Ohio valley. 9. Subject for essay: Cooper's Last of the Mohicans. 10. To aid you in an intelligent review from the beginning of the book, you can supplement the chronological chart suggested at the end of Chapter VI. by adding a fourth parallel line for the principal events connected with French exploration and colonization. Such a review will help you to understand clearly the nature of the struggle, mainly on the part of four European countries, to get control of North America. By 1763 England had come out ahead in this struggle. 11. As you may know, Francis Parkman is the standard historian on the relations between the English and the French colonies in America. Read his Montcalm and Wolfe and Longfellow's Evangeline. CHAPTER XI LIFE IN THE COLONIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS REFERENCES : Drake's Making of New England ; Richardson's History of Our Country ; Barnes's Popular History of the United States ; Sanford's History of Connecticut; Thwaites's Colonies ; Scudder's Men and Manners in America One Hundred Years Ago ; Eggleston's Household History. OUTSIDE READINGS: Earle's Customs and Fashions in Old New England; Earle's Sabbath in Puritan New England; Earle's Costume of Colonial Times; Weeden's Economic and Social History of New England; Earle's Margaret Winthrop; Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York; Irving's Sketch Book ; Hart's Colonial Children. 95. The Colonies in General. — At the close of the French and Indian Wars in 1763, the colonies mainly occu- pied a strip of land lying along the Atlantic coast and stretching all the way from Maine to Florida. There were thirteen of these original colonies, which, by reason of dif- ference in soil, climate, and other natural as well as social and economic conditions, may be divided into three groups : the New England group, or New Hampshire, The three groups Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connect!- of colonies, cut ; the Middle group, or New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, and Delaware ; and the Southern group, or Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The population was about two million souls,* one-fourth of whom were slaves. The people lived mainly along the sea- coast and large rivers, although a few settle- Population and ments stretched back into the forests. As large towns, many of the people were engaged in farming there were few large towns. Philadelphia, with a population of about iThe population of New York City in 1900 was 3,437,202. 105 lo6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 25,000, was the largest town ; Boston was not far behind ; and New York contained 10,000 or 12,000 people. Money being scarce, trade was mainly by barter. There were much comfort and prosperity and some wealth, but there was great need of labor to develop the resources of the West, which was now under the control of the English and open to settlement. THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 96. Occupations of the People. — By reason of the poor, rocky soil of New England, agriculture yielded a meagre re- turn for a great deal of hard labor. Farming on a small scale was extensive, but much more important sources of wealth The fisheries and were the cod and whalc fisheries. Byi763New !he Wert India England had built up a flourishing trade with Islands. the Wcst India Islands. Cargoes of dried fish from New England were exchanged in these islands for sugar, molasses, and slaves. Large forests furnished excel- lent material for shipbuilding. Boston alone had six hun- dred vessels engaged in foreign commerce and a thousand in the fisheries and trade along the coast. All this fishing and trading developed a hardy and expert class of sailors that later furnished excellent material for our navy. 97. Religion and Church Worship.— Religion came first with the Puritan. The minister was usually the leading man in the community, and he did much to form public opinion in political as well as religious matters. The churches were plain within and without. They were not heated, even in the coldest weather. But for all this, Church attend- everybody was expected to attend, absence ""=«• without good excuse being punishable by a fine. The minister sometimes preached in overcoat and mittens. Women carried heated stones in their muffs, and later handstoves took the place of the stones. When going to church the men sometimes carried their muskets and left sentinels outside to watch against sudden attack from the Indians. People were carefully seated according to their io8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES social position, tiie men sitting on one side of the church and the women on the other. As the minister often preached two or three hours, the congregation at times naturally grew tired and sleepy. But the tithing man was always present with his long rod of author- ity. This rod had a piece of brass on one end and a hare's foot on the other. If a woman went to sleep she was gently touched with the hare's foot, but if an unfortunate boy The tithing man. PURITANS GOING TO CHURCH. nodded or otherwise failed in reverent attention, he was less gently rapped on the head with the hard end of the rod. 98. The Salem Witchcraft (1692).— It has often been said that the gloomy religious life of the Puritans led to that strange delusion known as the Salem Witchcraft. As a matter of fact, the belief in witchcraft in 1692 was not con- fined to the Puritans, for such a belief was almost universal. The witchcraft craze in Massachusetts started from Salem Village (now Danvers) a short distance from Salem. A half dozen girls and young women, from ten to twenty years old, became almost insane over the subject of witch- craft. They mewed like cats, barked like dogs, and went into fits, declaring that certain persons, in league with the devil, bit them, pinched them, or in some way tortured them. On the testimony of these silly girls hundreds of innocent people were thrown into prison on the charge of witchcraft. Before the frenzy had spent itself, nineteen LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 109 people were hanged, including a clergyman, and one old man eighty years of age was pressed to death with heavy weights. But when, after six months, some of the magis- trates and even the governor's wife were accused, the people realized their folly and stopped punishing for witch- craft. 99. Education. — Education stood next to religion and, from the Puritan standpoint, was almost a part of religion. The Puritans therefore established a system of public edu- cation soon after reaching New England. Every town was required to have a school, and before 1650 each New England colony, except Rhode Island, had passed laws en- forcing some degree of education. Everywhere there was training in reading and writing. As a consequence, public education was so general that there were few people who could not read and write. As early as 1636 Harvard Col- lege was established at Cambridge, Mass., and in 1701 Yale College at New Haven, Conn. 100. Crimes and Punishments — Laws were severe, and few crimes were committed. Many offences were punish- able by death, and all kinds of punishments were inflicted in the most public way. Stocks, pillories, ducking-stools, and whipping-posts could usually be found in every village of any size. The pillory was a wooden frame, so constructed as to hold fast the head and hands of the offender. The stocks held fast the offender's feet only. In The stocks and some cases he was confined in a cage and ex- thepuiory. posed to the public gaze ; in others, he was branded with the initial letter of his crimes or compelled to wear, in a conspicuous place, a big initial letter indicating his crime. lOi. Life and Manners. — The New England diet was simple. Cider and rum were favorite drinks, used often as we use tea and coffee now. The best room and the kitchen were the principal rooms in the house. The most noticeable thing in the kitchen was the fireplace. It would accommodate a Theoid-time backlog fiye or six feet long and two or three fireplace, feet in diameter, and was large enough for roasting an en- no HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Amusements. tire sheep. As there were no stoves all cooking was done here. By such firesides the mothers and daughters would sit during the long winter evenings with their knitting, spinning, or quilting, while the father read his Bible or smoked his pipe. Sometimes as the fire blazed, cider-drink- ing, nut-cracking, and story-telling helped to while away the evening hours. In general, however, life was neither bright nor cheer- ful, as the Puritans were shy of most kinds of enjoyment. But the young people were not with- out simple amusements, like house -raisings, dancing, and corn-husking parties, and social gatherings for spinning, quilting, and apple- paring. On these occasions there was much genuine fun. Christmas was not observed because the Puritans did not like the Church of England, which made much of the observance of Christmas. Their chief holiday was Thanksgiving Day, which they celebrated, as now, in the autumn. This was made the occasion for family reunions. At the Thanks- The Thanksgiving giving dinner the table was loaded with reunion. chicken, turkey, nuts, plum-puddings, mince- pies, pumpkin-pies, and many other toothsome varieties of food. Weddings were festive occasions. The friends and Weddingb and neighbors were generally entertained at the funerals. bride's home, the wedding feast often lasting several days. Funerals were very expensive. Gifts such as scarfs, gloves, and rings were generously distributed to A WANTON GOSPELLER, LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES III the guests, and an elaborate ieast of meats and drinks was regarded as an essential feature of the occasion. TO THE PUPIL 1. Prepare yourself to write five minutes on any one of the following topics : Occupations of the people, church worship, education, crimes and punishments, the old-time fireplace, and amusements. 2. Imagine yourself to be a Nevtr England boy or girl in colonial days and write a story of your experiences. Such work will greatly aid you in reviving the past. 3. What do you like in the manners and customs of Early New England ? Read Earle's Customs and Fashions in Old New England. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 102. Occupations of the People. — In the Southern col- onies, a rich soil was general, rivers made excellent high- ways, and the climate was well suited to agriculture. The plantations were scattered along the rivers. The plantation and sometimes many miles apart, with thickly *''*P'""te''' wooded stretches of land between. Each planter in Vir- ginia had his own wharf, from which his produce was car- ried to England, and to which manufactured goods of every sort were brought in exchange. The planter needed but little that he did not obtain on his plantation or at his wharf. His slaves were not only cultivators of the soil, but they in- cluded skilled workmen, such as millers, tailors, carpenters, and shoemakers. Under such an independent system of life, towns were not needed, and before the Revolution there were only a few towns of any size in Virginia. 103. Education. — The facilities for common school edu- cation were poor. Governor Berkeley said (1670), " I thank God there are no free schools, nor printing, Berkeley opposes and I hope we shall not have them these hun- *«e schools, dred years." The scattered condition of the population did not favor the establishment of good common schools. The rich planters had tutors at home for their children and often sent their sons to Europe to be educated, but the schools for the masses were so few that the poorer people 112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES generally grew up in ignorance. The wealthy planters could live without work and formed a leisure class. Many of them owned fine libraries. Although Virginia had been settled as early as 1607, the most important additions were made to her population in the time of the Commonwealth (1649-1660.) During this _. ,. J time hundreds of the king's followers, or The cavaliers and _ => ' political leaders in cavaliers, Came to Virginia. These men were rgitua. usually from the higher ranks of English soci- ety, and had been prominent in public life in England. Their descendants in Virginia naturally inherited their political tendencies and included the ancestors of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, Patrick Henry, the Lees, and the Randolphs. We need not be surprised, then, that Virginia furnished more leaders in the Revolution than any other colony and after- ward became the " Mother of Presidents." 104. Life and Manners. — The mansion of the planter, built of wood or brick, was two stories high, with a spa- cious veranda and a wide hall- way. Close by the mansion The mansion and Were the slavC the slave quarters, quarters. Consist- ing of wooden cabins sur- rounded by gardens and poultry yards. These negro quarters, on a large plantation, made a small village, and all about them could be seen swarms of negro children. Planters on the large plantations lived in wasteful Manner of life of extravagaucc, with the planters. choice dogs, fine horses, and a coach-and-six for great occasions. They were fond of such sports as horse- racing and fox-hunting, and THE PILLORY. wcrc SO gcHcrous and hospi- LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES "3 COLONIAL RELICS. table that the doors of their mansions were always open to respectable travellers. Though, as we have seen, Thanks- giving was the feast-day of the year in New Christmas a fes. England, Christmas was celebrated in a fes- tive occasion, tive manner in the South, when everything was gay and bright in the planter's house. A great dinner was followed in the evening by dancing to the music of the harpsichord and the violin. TO THE PUPIL 1. Find points ol difference between the people in New England and in the South in respect to occupations, education, and life and man- ners. 2. Write an essay on life in Virginia just before the Revolution. Read Scudder's George Washington, THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 105. The People and Their Occupation. — The people in the New England and Southern groups of colonies were largely English, but this was by no means ^„,jgj „ „,j true of New York, Pennsylvania, and the tion in New Yori« other Middle colonies. Here the population """Pennsylvania, represented many of the countries of Europe. Trade and agriculture were of about equal importance in New York. The fur trade claimed most attention in New York and 114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES '^ck'^^ v-^ h/y ^^■ c'l^y^,.'!- EARLY NEW AMSTERDAM, SHOWING Trade, asrlcult- ure, and manu- facturing. of Europe. Pennsylvania. Besides furs, the principal exports were grain and flour. The principal port for foreign trade was then, as now, New York, whose merchants were busy and prosperous, employing many ships in their extensive com- merce with England, the West Indies, and other parts of the world. Most manufactured goods came from England and the continent As in New England, the spinning-wheel and loom took their place in the domestic economy. The ship- building industry and the saw-mill were of necessity early developed, and the Dutch wind-mill became a striking feat- ure of the landscape. Outside of New York agriculture was the most extensive industry. io6. Education. — While the Dutch were in control, common schools were well supported in New York, but under the English they were not in a flourishing condition. The Episcopalians founded King's College, now Columbia University, New York, in 1754. Although in New Jersey and Pennsylvania but little was done to provide for general education, outside of a few larger towns, the Presbyte- LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES "5 COSTUMES, AMUSEMENTS, AND ARCHITECTURE. rians founded Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1746; and Benjamin Franklin founded the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia in 1749. 107. Crimes and Punishments. — Crime was not widely prevalent in the Middle colonies, although piracy had a most demoralizing influence. Hanging, whipping, and the pillory were forms of punishment frequently practised under the public gaze, as was the case in New England. 108. Life and Manners Among the Dutch. — The Dutch house had a pointed gable roof with a weather-vane on top and a porch in front of the house, where the family sat during: summer evenings to enjoy the air. T-i i. -J c 1 vu i The Dutch house. There were great wide nrepiaces with seats for reading or sewing. The walls were without paper, but many pictures in small frames hung upon them. The Dutch women were noted for their neatness and for their excellent housekeeping. They scrubbed the Neat housekeep- fioors and sprinkled them with sand every '"e- day. The men were slow and easy-going, but they were honest, thrifty, and industrious. They were fond of smok- Il6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ing and liked story-telling and good eating, the Dutch housekeepers being noted for their skill in making dough- nuts, crullers, and various kinds of cakes. The Dutch intro- duced " Santa Claus " and " St. Nicholas " at Christmas time, and New Year's visiting. Among them a funeral was a most expensive affair. Not only did they distribute to the guests gloves, scarfs, and rings, as was the custom in New England, but to each friend a bottle of wine. In Albany the funeral expenses in one instance were $20,000. The towns were situated mostly about the mouth of the Hudson, and from there the settlements extended through the Hudson valley to Albany and then followed the Mo- . hawk valley. The patroons lived on their vast estates in Lifeamongthe grand and richly furnished houses facing the patroons. Hudson. They had about them many ser- vants and rented to numerous tenants the farms into which their estates .were divided. These great estates, lying on the rivers, where goods could be easily landed and cargoes sent off, did away with the necessity of trade centres or towns. The people were more social and fond of merry-making than the New Englanders. Their most noted holidays were Christmas, New Year's, St. Valentine's Day, Easter, and May Da)^. In the country, spinning-bees, house-rais- sociai life of the i^igs, corn-huskings, and dancing parties were peop'«- favorite amusements ; in towns, horse-racing, cock-fighting, balls, and picnics. There was little luxury, but much quiet contentment with the simple ways of living. TO THE PUPIL 1. What points of difference do you find between the people of the Middle colonies and those of New England 7 Those of the South ? 2. Write a short account of life and manners among the Dutch, adding as many facts as- you can to those given in the text. 3. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, in Irving's Sketch Book, is delightful reading. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 117 MODES OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION 109. Modes of Travel. — It was difficult for the colonies to know and understand each other because their means of communication were so restricted. The usual mode of travel on land was on foot or horseback ; and not only were the roads poor, but very few of the rivers had bridges. People living near the rivers journeyed much by row-boats, and those along the coast made great use of sloops. The trip by water from New York to Philadelphia, with a fair wind, required three days. A wagon ran twice a week from New York to Philadelphia, and, in 1766, a stage-coach was put on which made the trip in two days. This stage, greatly shortening the time, was called a "flying machine." It could make the journey from Boston to New York in four days. When the coach was ready the driver The old stage- gave notice by sounding a horn, and then, with coach, a crack of the whip, away it went on its slow and toilsome journey, during which it was no uncommon thing for the travellers to be compelled to alight and help pry the coach- wheels out of the mire. Mails were carried mostly on horseback, and people depended mainly on letters for news. Newspapers did not at this time tell much about local or colonial news. They were full of advertisements and news from Europe. The first newspaper was the Boston News Letter {ijo^). At the close of the Last French War there were from thirty to forty newspapers in the whole country. OLD SPINNING-WHEEL. CHAPTER XII GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States; Fisher's Civil Government in the United States ; Thwaites's Colonies ; Fiske's Colonial Era ; Bancroft's United States, II. OUTSIDE READINGS : Frothingham's Rise of the Republic ; Eggleston's Household History ; iWacy's Our Government ; Franklin's Plan of Union (Old South Leaflets) ; Fiske's Civil Government in the United States ; Woodburn's The American Republic. no. Colonial Government. — The various colonial gov- ernments were modelled after the English and were there- .. fore much alike in form. Each colony had The governor, the _ -' _ council, and the its governor and a law-making body consist- assembiy. ^^^ ^^ ^j^g Council,' and the Assembly. The Council was the governor's body of advisers. They aided the governor in executing his duties, and generally took part in making laws. The Assembly was elected by the people and was therefore the stronghold of their rights. It alone could levy taxes, and in this way it controlled the public money. But the manner of choosing the governor made all the difference in the amount of freedom which each colony The three kinds enjo3'ed. In 1763 there were three political of colonies. groups^ of colonics. The first, containing Rhode Island and Connecticut, may rightly be called the republican, or self-governing, group, because the people elected the governor ; the second, containing Pennsylvania, ' The members of the council were chosen in various ways : by the king, as in Virginia; by the proprietary governor, as in Pennsylvania; by the legislature, as in Massachusetts ; or by the people, as in Connecticut. '^ These political groups should not be confused with the groups named in par. 94. 118 GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES II9 Delaware, and Maryland, may be called the proprietary group, because the proprietors appointed the governor; and the third, containing the remaining eight colonies, may be called the royal group, because the king of England appointed the governor. III. Republican, Proprietary, and Royal Colonies. — ■ Connecticut and Rhode Island had very liberal charters and governed themselves without any interference from the mother-country. They were, even at this early period, little republics. In the royal and proprietary struggle between colonies there was an almost continual strug- *•>« royal and pro- 1 • 1. i ii. J iU pr'etary governors gle going on between the governors and the and the assem- colonial assemblies. The points at issue were ••"**• sometimes petty, sometimes serious, and the discussions were often bitter. In New York, for instance, the burn- ing question was whether the governor should receive a fixed salary (1745-1755). The members of the assembly ob- jected, for they feared that the governor might thus become independent of the people. They believed a fixed salary would be in the nature of a tax by the crown, and, true to the instincts of their forefathers, they declared that no taxes should be levied without the consent of the people. In all the proprietary and royal colonies, long and ^^^^^Mm^wk- bitter conflicts were waged over raising money out representa- for public defence, especially during the Inter- *'°°* colonial Wars (1689-1763). As the real source of power in any government is the authority that lays the taxes, the assemblies usually came out ahead. The results were twofold : (i) The people received valu- able political training, and (2) they learned that they had a common interest in contending against the personal rule of the king of England. The attempt to enforce personal rule, or royal prerogative, as it was called, is Two results ot most familiar in the case of Berkeley in Vir- fe struggle, ginia and Andros in Massachusetts, who did much to arouse the spirit of opposition in the two leading colonies. These colonies were afterward the first to break out in open re= bellion against English authority. 120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Poor Richard, 17^^. A N Almanack FoithcYoarofChrift I 7^3 Being the Firftafrer I EAP YEAR: And matti Jtnrt ifte Creaticat Yean B>the Accounrof the E flrrn Gw*A« 7241 By the Latin Church, whrn O cm y ■ tSpil By the Cbmputaiion of U^ i/'- 5742 By the Rcmon Chronology f 682, By the Jaaip Kibhicc J4j4 Wherein is contatnei The Lanuions, Erliprcs, judgmenr of the Weather, Spring Ti.1c«, Planets Maiions& mutual Arpefli, Sun and Moon's RiCng and Set- ring, Length of Days. Time of High Water, l^alrt, CturT% and obfervable Day* Fitted tothcLarirutlcol Fonv Degrees, and I Meridian of Fi»e Hours VVeft fmn- Itnim, but may without fenfihie Error ferve ah ihr ad- jaccnt Places, even from HewfnimUai >o Stmh- Cevol'ma. By RICHARD SAUNDERS^Phii:^. PHILADKLPHIA: Pimted and fold by B FRjINKLlN. at the Nev Priming Office neai the Marlcci com- /; as- 112. Need of Union Among the Colonies. — The great need of the thirteen colonies was union. We have seen how the feeling of common danger from Indian Wars, and later from the various wars with the French, drew the col- onists together. The mon grievances of the semblies against their royal and proprietary governors united the people still more closely, when the latter real- ized that their liberties were endangered by the British crown. The royal governors ap- preciated the need of union, and they naturally sought the advantage of the crown. They urged union as a means of checking the people's power. As representatives of the king they wished (i) to get control of colonial trade, and (2) to take the right of taxation out of the hands of the Why the royal governors wished colouial aSSCTO' union. TITLE PAGE OF " POOR RICHARD's ALMANAC." blies. For the people, under the various colonial governments, had acquired much more power than the king wished them to have. For instance, the dif- ferent assemblies, in their narrow, provincial spirit, would not act together, and were slow to enlist soldiers, build forts, or send armies into the field, where their own territory was in no danger of attack. As a result, there was little united effort to ward off a great danger such as threatened the colonies in the Last French War and in Pontiac's conspiracy. This lack of union ex- Weakness from lack of union. GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES 121 plains the purpose of James 11. in appointing Andros gov- ernor of New England, New York, and New Jersey. He supposed he would strengthen the Northern colonies by uniting them under one government that could act with energy and promptness, but, as we have seen, he failed. The colonies sought union, in so far as they sought it at all, for an entirely different purpose — to ward why the colonies off the offensive restrictions and impositions of sought union. England and to extend and increase the rights of the people. From the beginning of the English settlements in Amer- ica, a democratic spirit was developed by the situation and life of the colonists. But Benjamin Franklin^ saw that something more than a spirit of democracy or self-govern- ment was needed to make a strong people. He saw that they needed a central authority to lay taxes for their mutual defence. Clearly understanding this need, Franklin pro- posed his famous Plan of Union at the Albany Convention' (1754). According to this plan each colony prankiin's Plan was to elect representatives to a Grand Coun- <>* union. cil, similar to our present National Congress. This Grand Council was to have the power of levying taxes upon the people for raising and maintaining armies and otherwise providing for the defence of the colonies. Moreover, like our present Congress, this Council was to exercise supreme • Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706 and died in 1790. His father, a soap-boiler and tallow-chandler, had seventeen children, of whom Benjamin was the youngest son. At ten years of age the lad was set to work in his father's shop, , but was dissatisfied with the business. Then he tried printing with his brother, but suffered from harsh treatment. Finally, at the age of seventeen he ran away from home to seek his fortune. One Sunday morning he landed in Philadelphia, cold and friendless, and with only a single dollar in his pocket. In 1732 he began to publish Peer Richard's Almanac, which he continued to publish for twenty years. Full of witty maxims which people could apply with profit to every-day living, it became extremely popular and had an immense sale. Franklin became rich and devoted himself to science. By simple experimenting with a kite, he discovered that lightning is nothing more than discharges of electric- ity. He invented a kind of open stove which is in use at the present time. At the close of the Revolution he was associated with John Adams and John Jay in securing a treaty of peace with England. ■ Only seven colonies were represented. This Convention was called to form a closer alliance with the Six Nations. 123 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES authority in questions affecting all the colonies alike. This was known as the Albany Plan of Union. The king of England did not like it, because he feared it might encourage the colonies to form a union in which the people would exercise too much power. The colonists did not like it' because they were unwilling to give up Reasons for its the right of taxation by their colonial assem- faiiure. blics. Franklin's Plan of Union failed, but it was of great value because it led the people to think seri- ously about the advantages of union. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did the Council differ from the Assembly ? 2. What were the three political groups of colonies ? What was the distinguishing feature of each group ? 3. Discuss the nature of the struggle between the various assemblies on the one side and the loyal and proprietary governors on the other. What were the results ? In this connection, revievy the struggle be- tvreen Governor Berkeley and the people of Virginia and that be- tween Governor Andros and the people of New England. If you get dear ideas about these struggles, you will better understand the causes of the Revolution. 4. Why was there need of union among the colonies ? What attempts at union had been made ? Why did the royal governors wish union among the colonies ? On vrhat grounds did the colonies seek union ? What was Franklin's Plan of Union? Why did it fail and what were its results ? CHRONOLOGY 1524. FRENCH EXPEDITION TO AMERICA UNDER VERRAZANO. 1528. PAMPHILO DE NARVAEZ LANDS IN FLORIDA. 1531-33. PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU. 1534. CARTIER SAILS TO THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE. 1539. DE SOTO LANDS IN FLORIDA. 1540. CORONADO'S EXPEDITION IN SEARCH OF CIBOLA. 1541. DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI MVER. 1562. COLIGNY'S FIRST COLONY SENT TO FLORIDA UNDER RIBAULT. 1565. FOUNDING OF ST. AUGUSTINE. 1576. MARTIN FROBISHER DISCOVERS THE STRAIT SINCE CALLED BY HIS NAME. 1579. DRAKE ON THE CALIFORNIA COAST. 1 The plan was presented to the several legislatures, and they all rejected it be cause they did not strongly feel the need of union. GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES 123 1584. SIR WALTER RALEIGH'S FIRST EXPEDITION. 1585. RALEIGH'S FIRST COLONY. 1587. RALEIGH'S SECOND COLONY. 1603. FIRST VOYAGE OF SAMUEL DB CHAMPLAIN TO AMERICA. 1606. PATENT GRANTED TO THE VIRGINIA COMPANIES. 1607. FIRST PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA AT JAMESTOWN. 1608. FOUNDING OF QUEBEC BY SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. 1609. THE DISCOVERY OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. HENRY HUDSON DISCOVERS THE HUDSON RIVER. 161 1. SIR THOMAS DALE, GOVERNOR OF VIRGINIA. 1619. FIRST CARGO OF SLAVES BROUGHT TO JAMESTOWN. FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF VIRGINIA MEETS IN JAMESTOWN. 1620. THE PILGRIMS LAND AT PLYMOUTH. 1623. SETTLEMENT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE AT PORTSMOUTH AND DOVER. 1630. SETTLEMENT OF BOSTON AND NEIGHBORING TOWNS. 1634. SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. 1635. PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT BY EMIGRANTS FROM MASSACHU- SETTS BAY. 1636. PROVIDENCE FOUNDED BY ROGER WILLIAMS. 1637. THE PEQUOT WAR. 1643. THE CONFEDERATION OF NEW ENGLAND COLONIES FORMED. 1663. CHARTER OF RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS GRANTED BY CHARLES U. FIRST GRANT OF CAROLINA. 1664. GRANT OF NEW NETHERLAND TO THE DUKE OF YORK, AND ITS SURRENDER TO THE ENGLISH. NAMED NEW YORK. GOVERNMENT OF NORTH CAROLINA ESTABLISHED. GRANT OF NEW JERSEY TO BERKELEY AND CARTERET. 1665. SECOND GRANT OF CAROLINA. ARRIVAL OF PHILIP CARTERET AS GOVERNOR OF NEW JERSEY. ELIZABETH FOUNDED. 1673. MARQUETTE EXPLORES THE MISSISSIPPI. 1675. OUTBREAK OF KING PHILIP'S WAR IN NEW ENGLAND. 1676. bacon's REBELLION IN VIRGINIA. 1679. NEW HAMPSHIRE MADE AN INDEPENDENT ROYAL PROVINCE. 1680. HENNEPIN'S VOYAGE ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 1681. THE GRANT OF PENNSYLVANIA SIGNED. EMIGRATION BEGUN. 1682. THE FRIENDS BUY EAST JERSEY. PENN SAILS FOR AMERICA. PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. PENN'S INDIAN TREATY. LA SALLE'S VOYAGE ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 1685. LA SALLE'S COLONY FOUNDED IN TEXAS. 1686. ANDROS GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ENGLAND. 1687. ANDROS ATTEMPTS TO SEIZE THE CONNECTICUT CHARTER. 1689. ARREST OF ANDROS AT BOSTON. 1692. OUTBREAK OF THE WITCHCRAFT PANIC AT SALEM, MASS. 1700. IBERVILLE ESTABLISHES A SETTLEMENT AT POVERTY POINT, LA. 1702. BEGINNING OF QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. 1715. FIVE NATIONS BECOME SIX BY ADDITION OF THE lUSCARORA?. 1733. OGELTHORPE'S COLONY SETTLES IN GEORGIA. SUGAR AND MOLASSES ACT. 1744. BEGINNING OF KING GEORGE'S WAR. 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1745. CAPTXmE or LomSBXTRG. 1748. OHIO COMPANY TOEMED. LOinSBURG RESTORED TO FRANCE. , 1754. colonial congress at albany, and franklin's plan of union. 1755. braddock's defeat, banishment of the acadians. 1756. fort oswego surrendered to the french, beginning of the last french war. 1757. massacre of fort william henry. 1758. defeat of abercrombie at'fort ticonderoga. recapture of louisburg. 1759. fort ticonderoga taken by amherst, capture of fort niagara by the english, wolfe captures quebec. i761. attempt to enforce writs of assistance in uassachuseits. 1763. pontiac's war. iseaty of paeis. Zbc IRevolutlon, tbe (Tonfebcratlon, anb tbe Jfe&eral IDinlon CHAPTER XIII THE REVOLUTION REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, III. and IV.; Andrews's United States, I.; Fiske's War of Independence; Sloane's French War and tlie Revolution; Hart's Formation of the Union; Chan° ning's United States ; Richardson's History of Our Country; Coffin's Boys of '76; Barnes's Popular History of the United States; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion ; Hale's Stories of Massachusetts. OUTSIDE READINGS: Trevelyan's The American Revolution; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, VI. and VII.; Bancroft's United States, III.; Fiske's American Revolution; Hildretli's Upited States, II. and III.; Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution ; Lecky's Englajid in the Eighteenth Century, III. ; Wilson's History of the American People, II. ; Frotliingham's Rise of the Re- public; Qoldwin Smitli's United States; Morris's Half Hours with American History, II.; Hale's Franklin in France; Hart's Camps and Firesides of the Revo- lution: Roosevelt's Winning the West, I. and II.; Greene's Historical View of the American Revolution ; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Green's History of the English People, IV.; Drake's Burgoyne's Invasion; Abbot's Blue Jackets of '76; Brown's Mercy Warren ; Wharton's Martha Washington ; Hosmer's Samuel Adams ; Henry's Patrick Henry ; Morse's John Adams ; Scudder's George Washington ; Hale's George Washington ; Abbot's Paul Jones ; Spark's Life of Arnold ; Arnold's Life of Arnold; Lossing's Two Spies; Spear's The History of Our Navy; Ford's The True Benjamin Franklin; Thwaites's Daniel Boone; Greene's General Greene; Brady's Commodore Paul Jones; Wilson's George Washington ; Ford's The True George Washington. FICTION: Cooper's Lionel Lincoln; Henty's True to the Old Flag; Cooper's Spy; Harte's Thankful Blossom ; Cooper's Pilot; Simms's Partisan; nitchell's Hugh Wynne; Brady's For Love of Country; Churchill's Richard Carvel ; Thompson's Alice of Old Vincennes; Comfort's Arnold's Tempter. POETRY: Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle; Independ- ence Bell; Bryant's Seventy-six; Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. 125 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Causes of the Revolution 113. England Tries to Control American Commerce. — In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries European countries planted colonies as a means of increasing their own trade. In accordance with this theory, England valued her American colonies according to the wealth she gained from them. To secure control of colonial trade, therefore, Parliament began in 165 1, thirty-one years after the landing of the Pilgrims, to pass the famous Navigation The Navigation ^aWS and Laws and Acts A C t S O f oiTrade. Trade. These laws required (i) that all trade between the colonies should be carried on in ships built in England or in the colonies ; (2) that the colonies should not ex- port such colonial prod- ucts as sugar, tobacco, iron, furs and lumber to any part of the world except England, or some English colony ; (3) that all European goods should be bought in England and brought over to the colonies on English vessels ; (4) that the colonies should not manufac- ture any article that could be manufactured in England. The carrying out of these laws would injure the colo- These laws Injure "^^ts in the following ways : (i) A profitable the colonies In trade with the Dutch would be cut off at a four ways. single Stroke ; (2) whatever colonial products the English manufacturer needed he could buy of the colo- nies at his own price; (3) as the colonists were compelled to JOHN HANCOCK HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS. THE REVOLUTION 127 buy European goods in England, they had to pay whatever English merchants charged, or not buy at all ; (4) while the law providing that all European goods should be imported in English ships would put money into the pockets of the English ship-owner, it would almost ruin the ship-building industry in the colonies and throw thousands of sailors out of employ- ment. 114. The Sugar Act and Smug- gling. — In 1733 the famous Sugar Act was passed to protect the English West India sugar islands. By this act a prohibitory duty was laid upon the sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from the French islands in the West Indies. The principal exports of New England were lum- ber and fish. The inferior qualities of fish were carried to the French islands and exchanged with profit for sugar and molasses. There was thus a double advantage to New England in this trade : (i) The French would buy fish which were not salable elsewhere ; (2) they were willing to sell at a low price their sugar and molasses. On the other hand, Advantages of the New Englanders made the sugar and mo- ihe'prenrhWest lasses into rum, part of which they consumed indies, at home, and the remainder they took to Africa, where they exchanged it for slaves to be sold to the Southern colonies. All this trade was extremely profitable for New England, and was one of the principal sources of wealth. New Eng- land merchants saw that if the Sugar Act should be en- forced the profits of their West India trade smuggling or must be greatly diminished. Financial ruin financial ruin. threatened them. They had to choose between that and smuggling. They chose smuggling, because they believed the law was an unjust interference with the natural rights of free-born Englishmen. JAMES OTIS. 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 115. James Otis Defends New England Merchants against Writs of Assistance. — As long as England allowed this smuggling to go on, all went well with the colonies. But after the Last French War the English Government decided to put a stop to this contraband trade. England was greatly in debt. Money had to be raised, and it was thought that by enforcing the Navigation and Trade Laws the profits of colonial trade would be turned over to English merchants. Legal papers called Writs of Assistance were issued (1761). They were general „ , ., search-warrants, which em- Bngiand issues ' Writs of Assist- powered officers to go into """■ any warehouse or private dwelling in search of contraband goods. With these odious papers in hand, cus- tom-house officers could at any time en- ter a warehouse or a private dwelling, and ransack it from garret to cellar. In A ROYAL STAMP. thls way many thousand dollars' worth of goods were seized and confiscated. The people were furious. James Otis, of Massachusetts, defended the colonial merchants in a test case. He made a Otis declares tiiat great spccch, in which he earnestly contended '< TaMtion with- ^j^^^ ^j^g colonists wcrc not bound to obey any out representa- J ^ ■> tion Is tyranny." law not made by their own representatives. The keynote of his speech was "Taxation without rep- resentation is tyranny," and it sounded from Massachusetts to Georgia. 116. Parliament Passes the Stamp Act. — We have just seen how England, in protecting her merchants, ship- owners, and manufacturers, had indirectly' taxed the colo- nies. In thus taxing them England regarded the colonies as trading companies whose main purpose, from her standpoint, ' A tax levied directly on a person or property is a direct tax. One levied on trade is an indirect tax. When a man pays a tax on his house, his horse and car- riage, or any other form of property, he pays a direct tax. When a merchant im- ports goods upon which a duty has been laid by the government, he pays this duty to the government through the custom-house. Such a duty is called an indirect tax. The taxes for the support of our national government are usually indirect. THE REVOLUTION 129 was to enrich the mother-country. The colonies had sub- mitted to such indirect taxation of their trade The colonies sub- and industries because (i) it was usual, the ™" '» '"direct 1 J r 1-1 , . taxation for three world over, for colonies to have their trade reasons, thus taxed by their mother-country ; (2) the English navy protected the commerce of the colo- nies ; and (3) the Trade Laws were not strictly enforced. But in 1764 the English Govern- ment decided to levy a direct tax upon them. As we have seen, England, by reason of the expensive Intercolonial Wars (1689-1763), was greatly in debt. The king's representative in the min- istry, Lord Grenville, main- tained that this debt was - incurred in the defence of the colonies. He said that it was now time that the colonies should pay their share of their defence. Grenville seemed to forget that the colonies had paid their share and were them- selves heavily in debt. He seemed to forget, also, that all these wars were fought quite as much to protect the English trade as to defend the colonies. Now that the French were driven out, a standing army of from 10,000 to 20,000 men was to be kept up in America for the The colonies to be purpose, among: other things, of protecting: the required to help ^ ■ t a, T J- A : J- to maintain a colonies from the Indians. A standing army, standing army it was argued, would prevent a repetition of an '" America. Indian uprising such as Pontiac's conspiracy. Moreover, if such a permanent standing army was to be maintained in 'Faneuil Hall was built in 1742 by a Boston merchant named Peter Faneuil and presented by him to the town of Boston. The first floor was to be used as a ?^.v>?^^;^ mmmmf FANEUIL HALL, BOSTON, MASS.* I30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the colonies for their defence, it seemed fair to Grenville and to the king that the colonies should share in the expense. During the Intercolonial Wars the various colonies paid Colonies slow in their share of expense by raising money in rngthfiX'oloI response to requisition made by the king's niaiwars. agcnts. But they were very slow about it. It was difficult to get any legislature to vote money for soldiers and supplies unless the danger threatened its own colony. Such a sys- tem was weak and lame, and it prevented prompt and united action. Some more effective plan of taxa- tion seemed not only desirable but impera- tive. The Stamp Act offered such a scheme, and it became a law in March,' 1765. 117. How the Stamp Act Was Re- ceived in America. — This act required the colonies to use stamped paper for newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, advertisements, and all kinds of The stamp Act. f i i rr^i i, , legal documents. 1 hese stamps cost all the way from six cents to thirty dollars each. Grenville market house ; the second as a town hall. Just before ths Revolution, so many public meetings were held in Faneuil Hall that it was called " The Cradle of Liberty." In "The Cradle of Liberty" the people met, day after day, in 1773 (see par. 127) to decide upon some plan of action about the tea in Boston Harbor. The last of these meetings was so large that it had to be held in the Old South Church. •It is certain that up to this time, as later during the Revolution (1775-1783), and the critical period (1783-1789), the American people suffered greatly for lack of some central taxing power. England's purpose was to supply this lack by a system of direct taxation furnished in the Stamp Act. OLD STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS. THE REVOLUTION 131 thought this tax would be fair because it would fall upon all alike. But he found that the Stamp Act aroused a storm of angry opposition throughout the colonies.* Organizations called " Sons of Liberty " were formed. Merchants banded together to import no more goods from Eng- ,t, effects upon land until the Stamp Act should be repealed. the colonists. They urged the necessity of manufacturing in the colonies. They decided to stop eating mutton, that they might have more wool for making cloth. The day the Stamp Act went into effect was made a day of mourning.' Bells tolled, flags were lowered, and business houses were closed to indicate that liberty was dead. 118. Patrick Henry Intro- duces the Virginia Resolutions. — In May the Virginia Legisla- ture met at Williamsburg. It in- cluded the most eminent men of Virginia, and they were anxious to act wisely. In the midst of the general doubt and perplexity, Patrick Henry ^ arose and introduced his famous resolu- tions. In these he declared that the " General Assembly PATRICK HENRY. ' At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the people bore to an open grave a coffin with this inscription: "Liberty, aged CXLV years." The solemn procession marched to the beating of muffled drums. On reaching the grave the people listened to a funeral oration over Liberty, which was supposed to be lying dead, but just as they were lowering the coffin some one cried, " There are signs of life!" The coffin was eagerly raised, and " Liberty Revived" was inscribed upon it. At once the people shouted themselves hoarse because Liberty was once more alive. ' The brave women did their share, also. They formed organizations called " Daughters of Liberty, " and agreed to buy no more goods imported from England. They formed " Spinning Societies," and wove cloth for the men to wear. ' He was at this time just twenty-nine, tall in figure, but stooping, with a grim expression, small, blue eyes which had a peculiar twinkle, and wore a brown wig without powder, a "peach-blossom coat," leather knee-breeches, and yarn stock- ings. He had ridden to Williamsburg on " a lean horse," and carried his papers in 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of the colony had the sole right and power of laying taxes in the colony." An exciting debate followed. George Patrick Henr '» Washington was present, and Thomas Jeffer- famoua regoiu- son stood at the door earnestly listening. *'""* . He tells us later that the discussion was " most bloody." The opposition only fired the passion of Henry, and in a burst of wrathful eloquence he ended his speech in words never to be forgotten : speec . ,, Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third" — "Treason! Treason 1 " wildly shouted some of the members. The orator paused a moment and then calmly added, " may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." The excitement caused by this speech travelled like wildfire through the colonies. Massachusetts and Virginia had declared themselves and were ready to join hands in open resistance. 119. The Stamp Act Congress (1765).— The English Government made a great mistake in passing the Stamp c . ^. . * 1, Act. The enforcement of the Sugar Act Bngland'8 mistake ^ _ o _ in passing the affcctcd the Middle and Southern colonies so stamp Act. jj^^j^ ^^^^ ^^yey doubtless would not have joined New England in i;esistance to Parliament on this issue alone. But in the Stamp Act a grievance was presented which affected all the colonies alike. It furnished them a common ground for resistance and a common purpose for united action. Accordingly, the passing of the Stamp Act had a most important and significant result in strengthening the union of the colonies. In June Massachusetts sent out a call for a general congress to discuss the situation and agree upon some plan of action. Representatives from nine of the colonies met at New York in October and passed reso- lutions similar to those of Virginia. They sent a memorial to the king acknowledging his sovereignty, and a remon- strance to Parliament declaring it had no right to tax a pair of saddle-bags. . . . As Henry came out of the Capitol a man of the crowd slapped him on the shoulder and cried : " Stick to us, old fellow, or we are gone." — Cooke's Virginia. THE REVOLUTION 133 them- This congress should have been a warning to George III. 120. Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766).— But the most effective action of the colonists was their non-importation agreements. One-third of England's trade Effect of „on. Was with the colonies. In 1772 it amounted '"poftationupon to $30,000,000. Non-importation, therefore, chfit*!""" caused a serious loss to English merchants, and they eagerly begged Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. The debate THE " BOSTON MASSACRE." After an engraving hy Paul Revere. in Parliament over the repeal showed that many English statesmen stoutly defended the colonies in their opposition to the direct taxation without representation. Said Will- iam Pitt in a stirring speech in the House of Commons : " Sir, I rejoice that America has resisted ! „„,.. „.„ .,,. r 11 William Pitt op. Three millions of people so dead to all the poses the stamp feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to ^"' be slaves would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest." Parliament voted to repeal the act, but de- 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES clared its right to bind the colonies in all cases. It was this very right to tax an unrepresented people that the colonies called in question. 121. Taxation Without Representation in America.— The colonists claimed that as freeborn Englishmen in Amer- ica they had, granted to them in their charters, the same rights and privileges as freeborn Englishmen in the mother- country. The only difference between the man of Kent (England) and the man of Massachusetts was in the author- ity that taxed him. The government in Kent consisted of the king and Parliament ; the government in Massachusetts of the king and the colonial assembly. The king could exer- cise no more power in Massachusetts than in Kent, while the taxing power in Kent was Parliament and in Massachusetts was the colonial assembly. This was the position taken by the Whig* party in America, not by all the colonists. 122. Taxation Without Representation in England. — We cannot understand the real meaning of the Revolution in America without looking into a similar struggle that was at the same time going on in England. Some Americans did not oppose England and some Englishmen did not join hands against America. It was in each country the same kind of struggle — a struggle between hostile principles. There was taxation without representation in England as well as in America, and many Englishmen, like William Pitt, were as much opposed to it there as men like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry were opposed to it in America. William Pitt and his followers represented the true feeling of the English people toward America. At this time Parliament did not fairly represent the peo- ple of England. Great towns like Manchester, Liverpool, The English peo- Birmingham, and Leeds were not represented rlsen^ldTpIr-"" ^^ ^''' ^""^ members werc returned for boroughs iiament. that had no existence except in name. Such boroughs were called rotten boroughs, or pocket boroughs, ' The Whigs were those who opposed the king's schemes of taxing the Ameri- cans without their consent. The supporters of the king, who at this time included a large part of the American people, were called Loyalists, or Tories, THE REVOLUTION 135 which were owned by the great families. Long after Old Sarum, a noted rotten borough, had no population, a mem- ber, representing its owner, was returned to the House of Commons. In a population of 8,000,000 only about 160,- 000, or one-tenth of the men of voting age in England, could vote.i A few great fam- ilies controlled the House of Commons. Certainly the mass of Englishmen could justly complain of taxation without representation. Among them was the great William Pitt, who urged upon the people the justice of par- liamentary reform, with a fair and full representation of the English people in the House of Commons. 123. George III. and Personal Government. — " George, be King," said George the Third's mother when he was crowned. That advice pleased the young ruler, who was then only twenty-two years old. His controlling purpose was to establish personal government in England. His desire for arbitrary power, together with his narrowness and bigotry, had much influence in bringing on the Rev- The views of olution. He cared little for the rights of Qeorgeiii. the people. The more power they had the less he would enjoy. By the corrupt use of money he succeeded in con- ' In our own country the people are fairly and equally represented in the na- tional House of Representatives. The unit of representation, or the number of people entitled to one representative since the last census of 1900, has been 194, 182. This means that the number of representatives in Congress from any State may be found by dividing its population by 194,182. For example, Pennsylvania has 32 OLD SOUTH CHURCH, BOSTON. 136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trolling the elections. His desire was to make Parliament represent him and a few great families that were in the political ring with him. He maintained his influence large- ly through boss-like methods, keeping his followers under control by the use of an immense corruption fund. As long as a large number of small boroughs remained under the control of his friends, the king could maintain his tyrannical hold upon the government. But if the Americans should succeed in their struggle for " No taxation without representation," there was little doubt that in time Englishmen would succeed in a similar Why the kine Struggle f or parliamentary reform, or " No wished to tax the taxation without representation " in England. mercans. j£ ^.j^^ Americans were not repressed, their success would make certain the failure of the king's pet scheme of personal government. King George, therefore, was deeply chagrined when the Stamp.. Act was repealed. He could not let the matter rest here, however, but the next year (1767) he again tried to force new taxes upon America. We shall see how well he succeeded. 124. The New Taxes of 1767. — In 1767 Townshend, acting as the king's tool, induced Parliament to levy new port duties on a few articles, including glass, lead, paper, and tea. The colonies had objected to a stamp tax because it was a direct tax. As these new taxes were indirect, Townshend and King George thoughtthe Americans might not refuse to pay them. But in this they wholly misunder- stood the temper and feeling of the American people. The new taxes were opposed quite as violently as the Stamp Act had been. We can easily understand the feelings of the colonists when we see the purpose of the taxes. The Sugar Act Purpose of the (scc par. 1 14) was to be strictly enforced by newtaxes. Commissioners who were to use the hated Writs of Assistance in searching for smuggled goods. The money raised by these taxes was to be used not only to pay representatives and Delaware but one. But every State, large or small, has two members in the Senate. THE REVOLUTION 137 ST. JOHN S CHUKCH, RICHMOND, VA. Where the fatnous orator Patrick Henry Tnade his great speech. the colonial governors, judges, and crown attorneys, and thus make all these officials independent of the people, but also to maintain a small English army in the colonies. The remainder, if there should be any, was to be used in pen- sioning men of influence. This last was in reality a cor- ruption fund to bribe men to become the king's tools. Thus we see that the colonists themselves were to pay the taxes which should keep their governors and judges inde- pendent of them. When we recall the bitter struggle between the people and the royal governors over this question of allowing a fixed salary, we can easily realize why this Bitter opposition measure was so unpopular. Then, too, in pay- to the new taxes, ing this tax the people were supporting a standing army whose presence was plainly intended to enforce the per- sonal rule of the king. In a word, the people were to pay taxes whose real purpose was to deprive them of the rights of freeborn citizens. 138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Massachusetts led in the opposition. She sent a circu- lar letter to the other colonies for the purpose of securing some united plan of action against the Townshend Acts. The result was that the colonies again agreed to import no more goods from England, and they thus greatly injured English ship-owners and mer- chants. In the next two years English imports to New England fell off one-half, and to New York five-sixths. 125. The Redcoats ' and the " Boston Massacre '* (1770). — King George at length decided to send troops to America to enforce the revenue laws. In the autumn of 1768 they arrived in Boston. Their presence was regarded as a menace and was a constant source of annoyance. Quarrels between them and the people were of frequent occurrence ; and finally one evening in March, 1770, the crisis came in a disturbance which took place in State Street in front of what was then the Custom House but is now the old State House. The soldiers fired upon the people, killing three and wounding many others. This was called the " Boston Massacre." The next day an. immense town meeting was held, and the people, through Samuel Adams as spokesman, demanded that the troops should be removed. They were withdrawn to an island in the harbor. 126. Committees of Correspondence (1772-1773). — The need of united action among the towns of Massachusetts was now pressing. It was hard to tell what new danger might at any hour fall upon the people. So Samuel Adams proposed, in town meeting, that committees of correspond- ence should be appointed in the towns. His plan was car- ried out (1772). In the following year Dabney Carr of Virginia suggested committees of correspondence for the various colonies. When these committees were organ- ized the colonies rapidly drew closer and closer together in their sympathies. This was a bold step, which led later, as we shall see, to the Continental Congress and open war. ' The English soldiers wore red uniforms. They were therefore called Redcoats. THE REVOLUTION 139 127. Samuel Adams' and the. "Boston Tea Party" (1773)-— The new duties were no more successful than the Stamp Acl had been, for again colonial merchants refused to import English goods. Again English merchants begged for a repeal. But the stupid king could not understand the Americans. Thus far he had failed. He now resorted to a trick by which he hoped to induce the colonists to pay a small tax levied by Parliament. He took off all the new taxes except the one on tea. "There must oeorge Third's be one tax to keep the right to tax," he said, trick in levyine The tax on tea was to be only threepence the tax on tea. a pound in America, instead of sixpence, as in England. This not only enabled the colonists to buy tea cheaper than it could be bought by the people in England, but also cheaper than it could be bought when the colonists smuggled it from Holland. But still they refused to im- port the taxed tea. The East India Company decided to ship cargoes to such important ports as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. When the tea arrived the people ' Ta«d tea sent to in New York and Philadelphia refused to let it America. land, and the people in Charleston stored it in damp cellars where it spoiled. In Boston the people were determined to send it back, but Governor Hutchinson refused to let this be done. For nineteen days the struggle continued. On the nineteenth day the excitement in Boston was intense. If the cargo of tea should remain in the harbor till the twen- tieth day the law permitted it to be landed. All day long the town meeting continued in Boston. Seven thousand men crowded the Old South Church ^ and the streets outside. * Samuel Adams has been' called the ' ' Father of the Revolution. " He was dis- tinguished for his courage and perseverance and for his ability as a leader of men. Like Jefferson, he was full of sympathy for the toiling masses and easily won their confidence. In 1774 General Gage offered him money and official advancement if he would give his influence and services to the king. Although Samuel Adams was poor, yet true to himself and to his countrymen, he scorned the offer. He was the first American to advocate independence of England, and was one of the fore- most leaders that prepared the people to adopt the Declaration of Independence. ' The Old South Church is still standing on Washington Street, at the corner of Milk Street. I40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES At nightfall a messenger brought word from the gov- ernor that he would not permit the tea to be returned to The "Boston Tea England. At once Samuel Adams, moderator Party." of the meeting, arose and said : " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." As if this were the signal, a warwhoop was heard, and forty or fifty men, disguised as Indians, proceeded down the street toward Griffin's Wharf.^ Boarding the tea-ships they ripped open every chest and spilled the tea into the harbor. A large party of people stood by while the " Indians " were emptying the chests, but every- one was quiet and orderly. This was the famous " Boston Tea Party," at which some of the best people of Bos- ton were present (1773). 128. Boston Punished for its Tea Party. — King George was very angry at these high-handed proceedings. In order to punish the Boston people for what they had done. Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill, which closed the port of Boston to all trade until the town should pay for the tea that had been destroyed. Another law, known as the Massachusetts Act, annulled the charter and took away free government from the people. A military governor, General Gage, like the Stuart governor, Andros, was appointed to stand for the tyranny of an arbitrary king. Surely George III. and his followers little realized the love of self-government in these stubborn, unruly colonists ! 129. The Colonies Unite in Support of Massachu- setts. — The English Government determined to make an example of Boston, and hoped in this way to frighten the 1 A tablet on Atlantic Avenue now marks the spot where the Tea Party reached the wharf. OLD NORTH CHURCH, BOSTON, MASS. THE REVOLUTION 141 other colonies into submission. Contrary to the expecta- tion of the Government, the effect of the oppressive meas- ures was to unite the colonies in sympathetic support of the Massachusetts people. Through the committees of cor- respondence the colonies could now act together more promptly than ever before. Provisions were sent from every direction to the suffering people in Boston. Help came from even the far-away Carolinas. Patrick Henry ^ angrily cried : " We must fight. I repeat it, sir ; we must tight. 1 know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death." The excitement was everywhere intense. United action was a necessity. The Continental Congress, meeting in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, was the out- jf,^ continental come (September 5, 1774). All the colonies Congress, except Georgia' were represented. This Congress declared the colonies had a right to govern themselves and levy their own taxes. It further declared that, should England attempt to force Massachusetts to submission, the other colonies would join Massachusetts in forcible resistance. TO THE PUPIL 1. Name four requirements of the Navigation Laws and the Acts of Trade. In what four ways did these laws injure the colonists ? 2. What advantages did New England merchants have in trading with the French islands in the West Indies ? Do you think these merchants were right in smuggling? Give reasons for your answer. How were the Writs of Assistance connected with smuggling ? 3. What is the difference between a direct and an indirect tax ? Why had the colonies submitted to indirect taxation ? 4. What was the object of the English Government in levying the stamp tax i" From the English stand-point, give reasons why it was just that such a tax should be imposed upon the Americans. ' This great speech by the famous orator of the Revolution was made in " Old St. John's Church," Richmond, Va. This church is still standing. ' Georgia people were in sympathy with the Congress, but her royal governor prevented the appointment of delegates. 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 5. Subject for debate : Resolved that England had the right to levy the stamp tax upon the colonies. 6. What colonies did the Sugar Act of 1733 affect most seriously? What colonies did the Stamp Act affect ? Hov7, then, did the Eng- lish Government make a great mistake in passing the Stamp Act ? 7. Why did England repeal the Stamp Act ? 8. What did James Otis mean by saying that " taxation vyithout repre- sentation is tyranny " ? In vvhat way did Otis and those agreeing with him think that direct taxes should be levied in America? Was Otis right in his views of taxation ? Give reasons for your answer. 9. Why werfe William Pitt and his followers in England opposed to the Stamp Act ? Do you see clearly what -was meant by taxation with- out representation in England ? 10. What were King George's ideas of government for both England and America ? If a man like William Pitt had been king of England, do you think there would have been any American Revolution ? Give reasons for your answ^er. 11. What was the purpose of the new taxes of 1767? Why virere com- mittees of correspondence organized and iwith what result ? Find out all you can about the influence of Samuel Adams in these trying times. 12. What events led to the Boston Tea Party ? You can easily trace the connection between the destruction of the tea and the Conti- nental Congress. 13. Make an outline of the topics discussed under the " Causes of the Revolution " and try to discover a causal connection between the events. 14. 1763 and 177s, between which most of these events took place, are well worth remembering. 15. In studying the Revolution, do not fail to read Fiske's War of Inde- pendence. THE WAR BEGINS 130. Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775). — General Gage, as military governor of Massachusetts, re- mained at Boston with 3,000 British troops. But the peo- ple outside of Boston refused to recognize his authority, and through their Provincial Congress governed them- selves as well as they could. This Congress was a provis- ional government, organized by the people to take the place of the Colonial Assembly which General Gage had -t t- ..V *-r THE REVOLUTION 143 dissolved. John Hancock was its president, and Samuel Adams was its leading spirit. It prepared for war. Twenty thousand men were ordered to be ready, at „,. „ ... , . •' ' The Provincial a minutes notice, to march to any point of congress and the danger. They were called " minute-men." " minute-men." In April General Gage received orders from England to arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams and send them to England to be tried for treason. About the same time the governor heard that the minute-men had collected some mil- itary stores at Con- cord, twenty miles from Boston. As Hancock and Adams were staying with a friend in Lexington, ^age gnjjijgh troops decid- sent to Lexington „ J A and Concord. send out troops for the purpose of ar- resting them and at the same time destroying the military stores at Concord. About midnight eight hundred English soldiers started from Boston. But the minute-men were on the watch. Dr. Joseph Warren' sent Paul Revere and William Dawes' to warn his two friends and to spread the alarm, " The regulars are coming ! " ^ Dr. Joseph Warren was a prominent patriot leader and a warm friend of Sam- uel Adams. Referring to the British soldiers he said: "Those fellows say we won't fight. By heavens, I hope I shall die up to my knees in blood." He was killed at Bunker Hill. ' William Dawes rode on horseback by way of Roxbury. Paul Revere went over from Boston to Charlestown in a boat and there awaited a signal which was given by a lantern hung in the belfry of the Old North Church. At eleven o'clock on that beautiful moonlight night he mounted his horse. Speeding his way through Medford he barely escaped capture by some British officers. From Lexington, where his warning saved Hancock and Adams from capture, he pressed on toward Concord, in company with Dr. Samuel Prescott and William Dawes. Between 144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Early next morning (April 19, 1775), when the English troops reached Lexington, Hancock and Adams had made their escape, and a party of minute-men were drawn up on Lexington Common. Soon the English fired upon them, killing seven of their number, and then passed on to Con- cord. Here they destroyed the small part of the military THE WASHINGTON ELM AT CAMBRIDGE. stores which the Americans had not had time to conceal. Again they found minute-men, in ever-increasing numbers. The fight at angrily facing them. At the old Concord Concord Bridge. Bridge the fight began in earnest, and men fell on each side. From every direction the minute-men came flocking in, and the English were forced to retreat, loading and firing as they marched. Lexington and Concord some British officers captured Dawes and Revere, took them back to Lexington, and there released them. Paul Revere's ride is graphi- cally described in Longfellow's famous poem, but some of the details are not his- torically accurate. ' ■ ..,11'' '\ ' i ll II. 1 1 II !i' I ll o S o o z o e- o z 2 O H W O THE REVOLUTION 145 From behind rocks and trees, fences and barns, the min- ute-men shot the tired soldiers. On the English soldiers pushed, but they had to leave the dead and dying scattered along the road. At Lexington they met reinforcements sent from Boston. But for these fresh troops all of the eight hundred men sent out to Concord would Retreat of the have been captured. As it was, the whole English to Boston, force of about 2,000 men fled in confusion from Lexington to Boston, barely saving themselves from capture. The British lost about three hundred men ; the Americans about one hundred. The British were glad to find shelter in Boston, around which in a few days were gathered 16,000 Americans. It was a good beginning for the patriot army. 131. The Colonies Unite for Resistance. — On May 10 (1775) there was a second meeting of the Continental Con- gress at Philadelphia. John Hancock, of Massachusetts, was chosen president. The colonies voted to *_.. . . _ , , , , The second meet- unite in resisting England, and for that pur- ing of the conti- pose to raise an army of 20,000 men, whose "«"*"' Congress, expenses were to be paid by the united colonies. George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Con- tinental army. While Congress was passing these war measures New England was actually engaged in pushing the war. Sixteen thousand yeoman troops were already besieging Boston, and, on the day that Congress met, Ethan Allen from Ver- mont and Benedict Arnold from Connecticut led a force which surprised and captured Ticonderoga, Americans capture thus securing an important fort. Two days Ticonderoga and later Crown Point was taken. With these '^"''" '*'""*• forts they secured two hundred and twenty cannon and other military supplies. The Americans now had control of the line of communication between New York and Can- ada. They vainly hoped Canada would join them in their struggle. In November, 1775, they captured St. John's and Montreal. On December 30th Montgomery and Arnold made a gallant attack upon Quebec but were driven back. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. It was 146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES plain that the colonies meant to fight and that the war had already begun. 132. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775).— In the meantime the English troops had been increased to 10,000, and Howe had been sent over to take the place of Gage as their commander. The English general saw the impor- tance of occupying the heights in Charlestown known as THE CRAIGIE HOUSE, WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT CAMBRIDGE (AFTER- WARD THE RESIDENCE OF LONGFELLOW). Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill. If the Americans should secure them it would be very difficult for the British troops The Americans ^° remain in Boston. But the English were fortify Breed's not quick enough. About the middle of the "'"■ night preceding June 17th, 1,500 Americans, led by Colonel Prescott and aided later by General Putnam and General Warren, began throwing up breastworks on Breed's Hill. All night they toiled, and in the morning the British were surprised to find that the Americans had got ahead of them in occupying this important position. THE REVOLUTION I47 Later in the day Howe, at the head of about 2,500 men, tried to drive the Americans out of their intrenchments. The British supposed the Americans would not stand an attack, but in this they were mistaken. As the English troops marched up the hill the Americans bravely waited until the regulars were within fifty yards. Prescott's orders were "Aim low! wait till you see the whites of their eyes." They did wait, and then they poured forth ^^^ ^^1 ^^ such a deadly fire that the English retreated attacks the down the hill, leaving the ground covered Americans. with their dead and wounded. Before making a second attack the English set fire to Charlestown, and then a second time were driven by American bullets down the hill. By this time the ammunition of the Americans had given out, and slowly and stubbornly they retired, fighting with clubbed muskets as they went. Among their dead was the brave General Warren. The British lost over one thousand, or more than one- third of their attacking force, while the Americans lost about four hundred and fifty. Although the Results of the bat- Americans had to give up their position they *'**>* Bunker hmi. gained a moral victory because their brave fighting inspired the people with courage and hope. When Washington heard that the raw American troops stood fire he said : " The liberties of the country are safe." It was a glad day for the American colonies. 133, Washington Drives the British out of Boston. — About two weeks after the battle of Bunker Hill Washing- ton arrived at Cambridge and formally took command of the American army (July 3), under the famous elm still standing near Harvard University. His army Washington's was in no condition for fighting. The men """y- were in every way without proper equipment. Only a limited number had muskets, and very few had bayonets. Besides, there was a great scarcity of cannon and powder. Of course, under such conditions, Washington could not attack the enemy. But with patience and faith he awaited the hour when he could strike a telling blow. 148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Early in March, 1776, having received cannon* and am- munition, he seized Dorchester Heights, on the south The Americans °^ BostoH, and threw up intrenchments there seize Dorchester as the Americans had done on Bunker Hill Heights. jj^ ^j^g previous June. Howe saw that he must drive Washington off the heights or leave Boston. He proposed to storm the works, but bad weather delayed him until the position had been made too strong to be suc- cessfully attacked. The British therefore evacuated Bos- ton and went to Halifax. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why were English troops sent to Lexington and Concord ? What results followed this expedition? 2. Impersonating Paul Revere, write an account of his famous ride. What did the Continental Congress do at its second meeting 7- 3. As an aid to the intelligent study of the Battle of Bunker Hill, draw a map of Boston and its surroundings. Why was this battle fought ? What effect did it have upon the Americans ? 4. Describe the difficulties Washington had to face after taking com- mand of the American army. 5. Do not fail to read, over and over again, Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1776 134. The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) — When the first gun of the Revolution was fired, Samuel Adams stood almost alone in his wish for the political separation of America from England. One year later, „ . , , , however, the desire for independence grew Desire for Indepen- n^, i. ri i dence grows rapidly. The king had refused to hear the rapidly. petition sent to him by the Continental Con- gress ; he had called the colonists rebels ; he had sent his ships of war to burn their towns ; and, worst of all, had ' These cannon, numbering fifty, came from Ticonderoga, which had been captured the previous year. Along with other supplies, they were brought down on sledges drawn by oxen. THE REVOLUTION 149 hired Hessian • soldiers to make war upon them. About this time Thomas Paine published Common Sense — a pamphlet which urged many reasons why America should separate from England. The fact that war already existed had weakened the bond of union, and Paine's arguments led many to look with favor upon the idea of independence. Virginia took a leading part by instructing her dele- gates in Congress to vote for independence. This action on the part of Virginia had its due influence upon the other colonies. The Stamp Act, the Boston Port Bill, and the other unpopular meas- ures of the King and Parliament had drawn the colonies much closer together. They were beginning not only to realize the value of united action but to have a feeling of self-confidence leading to a de- sire for independence. On June 7 Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced a resolution " that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states."^ This resolution was sec- onded by John Adams of Massa- chusetts. Thus did the leading colonies, Massachusetts and Virginia, join hands in this most important step toward es- tablishing the nation. Before July all the colonies except New York had de- ' The Hessians were so called because they came from Hesse-Cassel in Ger- many. Thirty thousand Hessians were hired during the war, 18,000 of whom were engaged the first year. Twelve thousand lost their lives during the war. The cost to the king was $22,000,000. The English government was driven to hire Hessian troops because (at this time) the war was so unpopular in England that it was not easy to secure English volunteers to fight in America. ' The colonies, with the approval of Congress, began to form State govern- ments in 1775. The change from a colonial to a State form of government was slight. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, where the people had been governing themselves by electing their own representatives, the only' change necessary was to withdraw allegiance from the king. SAMUEL ADAMS. 15° HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES clared themselves in favor of independence. In the mean time, the committee' which had been appointed to prepare Adoption of the the Declaration of Independence, made its re. Pndi^rnde'nc:! Port. This famous paper, written by Thomas July 4, 1776. Jefferson, was formally adopted in Indepen- dence Hall,^ Philadelphia, July 4, 1776. Realizing how se- rious the occasion was, John Hancock said: "We must be INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. CHESTNUT STREET FRONT. unanimous ; we must hang together." " Yes," said Franklin, with his ready wit, " we must all hang together, or else we shall all hang separate!}'." 135. The British Direct their Attention to the Middle States and the Hudson River. — The British^ had failed in ^ The committee consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. ' This building is still standing on Chestnut Street. ' On June 28th the British fleet .itt.icked Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Colonel Moultrie commanded the fort. His men returned the British fire with a. precision which was surprising in untried gunners. The fleet retired, and South Carolina and Georgia were safe for three years. THE REVOLUTION 151 their attempts to crush the Revolution in New England. They had found the opposition there so stubborn that they had been driven out of Boston. Their next move was to try to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States. There were several reasons why this movement attracted the British. In this region, on account of the mixed char- Reason, why the aCter of the English wished to , . , secure the Hudson population, the River and the people were "i^die states, not so united and earnest in their desire for independence as in New England. A large part of the inhabitants were Tories,' whose influence, it was thought, would be of much service to the British. The Hudson River was of great military importance, because, along with Lakes George and Champlain, it made a natural highway^ be- tween New York and Can- ada. If the British could secure this river, they could cut ofE New England from the other States. British forces concentrated in New England would soon conquer it, and they would then make short work of the rest of America. In a word, British control of the Hudson meant certain defeat for the Americans. 136. Washington's Plan of Defending New York : Bat- tle of Long Island (August 27). — When the British evacu- ated Boston, Washington supposed that their next point of attack would be New York. He therefore proceeded to A ^t M.-N. CO. ' Everywhere in America Tory sentiment vi'as strongest among the non- English elements of the people. ' Water routes were especially valuable then, because there were no railroads for the transportation of armies and military supplies. IS2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES make ready its defences. Not knowing at what point the attack would be made, he found it necessary to prepare for the defence of a Hne of twenty miles. Just above New York he built Forts Lee and Washington, on opposite sides of the Hudson. He also fortified Brooklyn Heights and sent Putnam with half the army to occupy them. In the summer General Howe arrived at Staten Island with a powerful fleet and an army of about 30,000 men. Washington had only about 18,000. On August 27 Howe landed on Long Island and attacked a detachment of the Americans under Sullivan, whose forces were outnumbered four or five to one. The battle was brief and one-sided. The Americans were defeated and driven back behind their washinirton intrenchmcnts on Brooklyn Heights. If Howe escapes from had followed up his victory he might have Long Island. captured the American army and brought the war to a speedy end, but as usual he was too slow. Two days later Washington, perceiving that the British fleet was moving to cut him off from New York, secured all the boats he could find, and with the aid of a heavy fog es- caped during the night with all his force.' 137. Washington's Retreat from New York and Across New Jersey. — Brooklyn Heights overlooked New York just as Bunker Hill or Dorchester Heights over- looked Boston. As soon, therefore, as the British got pos- session of Brooklyn Heights, Washington saw that his army could not long remain in New York.^ A little later * It is surprising that Washington could, in a single night, succeed in getting an army of 10,000 men across a river, at this point nearly a mile wide, without be- ing discovered. It was a brilliant piece of work, which none' but an able general could have achieved. Here, as at Dorchester Heights, the slow-witted Howe was outgeneralled. ' During the interval of about two weeks between the retreat from Long Island and the evacuation of New York, the sad episode of Nathan Hale's capture and execution occurred. Captain Nathan Hale, who was only twenty-one years of age, was quite willing to risk his life by going as a spy into Howe's camp on Long Island. Hale succeeded in getting much valuable information about the enemy's fortifications, and was on his way back to the American army when he was captured and taken before General Howe. The latter promptly ordered him to be hanged on the next (Sunday) morning. During the night Hale asked for a clergyman and THE REVOLUTION 153 THE JUMEL MANSION, NEW YORK CITY, WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS. Howe, with the aid of his fleet, tried to prevent Washing- ton's escape by cutting off his retreat, but Washington was too alert for him. After more or less fighting near the Hudson River, north of New York, Washing-- ^, „ . , . I fi /^ , _, , T • , , , r T^"** British capt- ton left (jeneral Charles Lee with one-half ure Forts Lee and the army at North Castle while he crossed Washingrton. over to New Jersey. The British captured Forts Lee and Washington and 3,000 men. This was a terrible loss at a time when everything seemed to be going against the American cause. But even worse things were to follow. In order to pre- vent the British from carrying out their plan of taking Philadelphia, Washington put his troops between that city and the British army. Needing every avail- Lee's disobedience able soldier, he sent Lee orders to join him., and jealousy. Lee did not move. Again and again Washington urged upon Lee the importance of joining their forces, but he re- a Bible. Both were denied him. He wrote to his mother and to his betrothed, but the letters were torn in pieces before his eyes by the hard-hearted jailer. The last words of the martyr-spy bore witness to his brave spirit : " I only regret that 1 have but one life to lose for my country. " 1 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES mained at North Castle. He was jealous of Washington, and, being second in command, he wished Washington to fail in order that he himself, by promotion, might become commander-in-chief. This disobedience and jealousy put Washington in a critical position. To save his army from capture he was again forced to retreat — this time across New Jersey. On his line of march he broke down bridges and destroyed supplies which the British hoped to secure for their army. Often the rear- guard was just leaving a burning bridge when the advance of the British could be seen approaching. Washington's retreat was so skilful that the British spent nineteen days (November 19 to December 8) in marching a little Washinrton's ovcr sixty miles. But his losses by desertion army meitine wcrc great and his army seemed to be melting '^^y- away. When he reached the Delaware River he had only about 3,000 soldiers. Having previously sent on men to secure the boats for nearly one hundred miles along the river, he got his little army across just in time to escape the British, who arrived on the evening of the same day. 138. Battle of Trenton. — These were indeed " dark and dismal " days. In the retreat across New Jersey the Amer- Dark outlook of icans Suffered greatly. Many were without the American shoes and they could be tracked by crimson ""*'■ foot-prints upon the snow. The friends of the patriot cause, both in England and in America, thought the Americans hopelessly beaten. There was doubt and gloom everywhere. The British generals thought the war was near its close, and Cornwallis was packing up to re- turn to England ; for as soon as the Delaware should be- come frozen over the British intended to march across and seize Philadelphia, the " rebel " capital. It would then be useless for him to remain longer in America. But Washington was not without hope. He noted with satisfaction the mistake the British were making in care- Washinjton'a Icssly Separating their army into several di- p'""'- visions and scattering them at various points in New Jersey. In the meantime Charles Lee had been THE REVOLUTION 155 WASHINGTON'S BEIREAJ i.CROSS Sxn JSJRSEX. captured. His troops, now under Sullivan, had joined Washington, so that the entire army numbered 6,000. Washington at once planned to attack the body of Hessians stationed at Trenton. The attack was made on Christmas night with 2,400 picked men. They began crossing the river early in the evening. Great blocks of ice, float- ing down the swift current, made the crossing slow and difficult. Massa- chusetts fishermen skilfully directed the boats, but it was four o'clock in the morning before the soldiers were ready to take up their line of march. A furious storm of snow and sleet beat in their faces as they plodded on toward Trenton, nine miles away. By daybreak they had completely surprised the Hessians and, after a brief struggle, had captured the whole force a glorious victory of more than 1,000 men. By one bold stroke at Trenton. Washington had changed defeat into victory and had in- spired the patriot Americans with new hope. Cornwallis, filled with amazement, decided to remain a little longer in America. Leaving a rear-guard at Prince- ton to protect his supplies, he speedily advanced with a superior force against Washington. At nightfall January 2, 1777, only a small creek separated the two armies, just south of Trenton. " At last," said Cornwallis, " we have run down the old fox and we will bag him in the morning." But IS6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Washington outgeneralled him. During the night he not only escaped, but marched around Cornwallis, defeated his Battle of Prince- rear-guard at Princeton, captured five hun- to"- dred prisoners, and then withdrew in safety to the heights about Morristown, where he went into winter quarters. 139. Robert Morris Furnishes Money for the Army. — After the battle of Trenton Washington was in sore straits Great need of with his army. Many of the soldiers' terms of money for the scrvice wcrc about to expire, and these men soldiers. werc eager to get to their homes. Washing- ton knew that good money would hold them over for a few weeks. He wrote in haste therefore to his friend Robert Morris, a rich merchant and banker of Philadelphia, for $50,000 in hard cash. Morris promptly responded. Before light on New Year's morning he went knocking from door to door to secure the money from among his friends. Tiie noble task of By noon the sum was made up and on its way Robert norris. ^q Washington. The army was saved, and Washington was able to bring to an end a brilliantly ex- ecuted campaign. Again during Greene's campaign in the Carolinas (1780) and during Washington's about Yorktown (1781), Morris came to the rescue of the arm3^ His ample fortune was a silent power which none the less truly than the military genius of Washington made American inde- pendence possible. TO THE PUPIL Review the New England Confederacy, Franklin's Plan of Union, the Stamp Act Congress, and the Continental Congress. How do you account for the rapid growth of a desire on the part of the colonists for Independence J In this connection, find out all you can about the Hessians. Explain the leading part taken by Virginia and Massachusetts in se- curing the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Review Berkeley in Virginia and Andros in Massachusetts. What were the Americans fighting for before the adoption of the Dec- laration of Independence ? What, after it ? THE REVOLUTION I57 4. Why did the British wish to secure control of the Hudson River and the Middle States? Can you give any reason vrhy the Tories vrere more numerous in this part of the country than in New England ? 5. What plans did Washing^ton make for the defence of New York ? 6. Are you constantly using a map to aid you in forming vivid pictures ? 7. What had Charles Lee to do with Washington's retreat across New Jersey ? After chasing Washington across New Jersey, what mis- take did the British make ? How did Washington take advantage of this ? You may well closely follow Washington at this time. What service did Robert Morris render the American cause ? 8. Read the account of the battle of Trenton in Coffin's Boys of '76. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1777 140. The British Plan to get Control of the Hudson in 1777. — By the capture of New York the British held the lower part of the Hudson. Their plan for 1777, like that for 1776, was to get entire control of this river. The plan was three-fold : (i) Burgoyne was to come down from Can- ada by way of Lake Champlain ;> (2) St. Leger was to sail up the St. Lawrence into Lake Ontario and, landing at Os- wego, was to come down the Mohawk Valley; (3) and Howe, with the main army, was to go up the Hudson from New York. All three of these divisions were to meet at Albany. The plan looks simple. It will be interesting to see how the blundering of the British led to failure. 141. Burgoyne's Brilliant Beginning.— Burgoyne, with an army of 10,000 men, including Canadians and Indians, captured Crown Point (June 26). Ten days later he forced the Americans to evacuate Fort Ticonderoga and hastily to retreat southward, Burgoyne was now confident of easy victory. King George clapped his hands and shouted, "I have beat them! I have beat all the Americans!" The English people thought the war would soon be over. > In 1776 Carleton had led a similar expedition. With 12,000 troops he started from Canada to secure control of the water route to the mouth of the Hudson. Al- though stubbornly opposed by Arnold on Lake Champlain, he captured Crown Point, but finding Ticonderoga strongly fortified he withdrew without attackine that fort. 158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Americans were everywhere disheartened. Four days more (July lo) found Burgoyne's army at Skenesboro (now Whitehall), about twenty miles distant in a direct line from Fort Edward. 142. Some of Burgoyne's Difficulties.— But in crossing the carrying-place between Lake Champlain and the Hud- . son serious difficulties stood in his way. The country was swampy and heavily wooded. General Schuyler, who was in command of the Americans, felled trees across the roads and destroyed over forty bridges. These obstructions greatly delayed Burgoyne. The British advanced only about a mile a day until they reached Fort Edward (July 30). As Burgoyne's supplies had to be sent to him from Canada, the farther he advanced the more difficult it was to feed his army. To keep his line of communication guarded it was necessary to leave troops in his rear. Every mile of advance thus compelled him to weaken his attacking force. 143. Burgoyne's Indian Allies. — Burgoyne's Indian allies were a source of more weakness than strength to his army. They murdered and scalped peaceful inhab- itants every day.' These barbarous cruelties aroused the hottest indignation among the people, hundreds of whom eagerly offered their services to the American commander. 144. Bennington and Supplies. — While encamped at Fort Edward in August, Burgoyne's army stood greatly in need of horses and supplies. News came that at Benning- ^ Near Fort Edward they killed Jane McCrea, a fascinating young woman who was engaged to be married to David Jones, an American loyalist serving as lieutenant in Burgoyne's army. Jones, having prevailed upon Miss McCrea to come within the British lines and man ' him, sent a party of Indians under the half-breed Duluth to act as her guard. She was staying at the house of Mrs. McNeil, ' only a few hundred yards from Fort Edward. Before Duluth's party could reach Mrs, McNeil's house, however, another party of Indians under the Wyandotte Panther arrived and carried off Miss McCrea. Both parties of Indians met at a spring between Fort Edward and Glens Falls, and Duluth declared his right to take charge of the young lady. In the heated dispute which followed the Panther shot dead the unfortunate Miss McCrea. This is the version of the McCrea story as told by W. L. Stone in the " Cyclopaedia of American Biography." THE REVOLUTION IS9 ton, a little village in Vermont at the foot of the Green Mountains, the Americans had collected several hundred horses, as well as food supplies and ammunition. Burgoyne was as much in need of horses to draw his can- Burgoyne's need non as of food to feed his troops. Besides, he "* supplies. was told that there were many Tories in the Green Moun- tains who would, with a little encouragement, flock to the British army. To win over the people to the British cause was no small part of the purpose of the expedition to Bennington. Accordingly, about i,ooo Hes- sians were sent to Bennington, where nearly all of them were killed or captured by a body of militia under Colonel John Stark. Burgoyne's army was badly crip- pled by this disaster. Instead of bringing recruits to the British the expe- dition to Bennington only served to make the feeling of the Green Mountain farmers more bitter against the English Government. Great numbers of them speedily hastened to join the American army. 145. Failure of St. Leger. — Fortune seemed to be against Burgoyne. St. Leger, it was hoped, would gather about his standard many of the Iroquois, or Six Nations, and large numbers of Tories in western and central New York. In due time he made his way to Oswego, and from there to Fort Stanwix. St. Leger laid siege to the fort. Arnold, with a body of troops, pressed forward to its st. uger-s relief. He sent a messenger ahead to report humed retreat, that a large force would soon attack the British. Panic- stricken, the Indians at once hurried away and were soon followed by St. Leger himself (August 22). Burgoyne could no longer look for aid in this direction. His only re- maining hope was in receiving reinforcements from Howe. Results of the British defeat at Bennington. JOHN BURGOYNE. i6o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Where Howe was and what his army was doing we will now consider. 146. Why Howe Failed to Unite with Burgoyne — If Howe had gone up the Hudson and joined Burgoyne at the time planned, the latter's invasion would no doubt have been successful. Why Howe did not do the part assigned him was a question that until eighty years afterward had no satisfactory answer. An explanation was then found in a document in Charles Lee's hand- writing that proved him beyond a doubt to be a trai- The traitor Lee. , • 111 tor. Lee had been captured in the autumn of 1776. While yet uncertain of his fate, he told Howe that he had given up the American cause and of- fered his advice for the summer campaign. Lee believed it was more important to capture Phila- delphia than to get control of the Lee's advice to HudsOH. HcnCe he ""**• advised sending a force to take that city, which the British general called the " rebel capital." Howe might thus speedily bring Pennsylvania under subjection to England, while Burgoyne and St. Leger would easily subdue New York. To his own confusion and to the confusion of the British cause Howe followed Lee's advice. 147. Howe's Advance Toward Philadelphia. — Howe opened the campaign (June 12) by an effort to draw Wash- , , ^ ington from his strong position among the Howe's vain at- o i iv /r • • i tempt to brinjf on luIls around Momstown into a general en- abattie. gagement. But Washington was too wary to allow himself to be caught napping. After spending two or three weeks in vain attempts to provoke Washington to come out from his strongholds and fight in the open field Howe withdrew, tired out with his fruitless manoeuvres. LAFAYETTE. l62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES He salli to Elkton. Even though Howe's army numbered 18,000 men he dared not risk a march across New Jersey with Washing- ton and an army of 8,000 in his rear. So on the last day of June he gave up his plan of marching across New Jersey to Philadelphia and withdrew his army to Staten Island. He then sailed southward in order to reach Philadelphia by way of the Chesapeake. When lie reached Elkton, the head of the Chesapeake (August 25), he had been two months on the way. It was a precious two months to the American cause, as we shall now see. 148. Battle of the Brandywine.* — Howe had no sooner landed, than he found his watchful foe ready to dispute his advance upon Philadel- phia. Washington decided to make a stand at Brandywine Creek, where he met Howe in battle (September 1 1). The British greatly outnum- bered the Americans and defeated Washington's them,'' But Washing- skilful retreat, ton withdrew in good order and handled his troops with such skill .as to keep Howe two weeks in marching to Philadelphia, only twenty-six miles from the battle-field. ^ When La Fayette heard that the Americans had declared their independence of England he was eager to cross the Atlantic and aid them. He was not yet twenty years of age and had just married a beautiful young woman of rank and fortune. But he was willing to leave behind him wife, family, and friends to fight in a noble cause. Accordingly, he sailed in his own vessel for this country and reached the coast of South Carolina in April, 1777. Congress made him major-general in the Continental army, where he rendered excellent service. He fought his first battle at Brandywine, and here was wounded in the leg. He freely spent his own money for clothing and equipping the soldiers under his command. From their first meeting a warm friendship sprang up be- tween La Fayette and Washington. After the war was over La Fayette twice visited the United States. The first visit he made in 1784 on Washington's invi- tation ; the second, in 1824, when he laid the corner stone of Bunker Hill monu- ment on the spot where the brave Warren had fallen in 1775. ' Washington had weakened his army by sending picked troops to aid the Army of the North. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. THE REVOLUTION 163 It was on September 26 when the British general marched into this city, a week after the first battle of Saratoga, and al'together too late to send troops to co-operate with the unfortunate Burgoyne three hundred miles away. In de- laying Howe Washington had made Burgoyne's capture certain. People did not understand the meaning of Wash- ington's masterful strategy, but his policy of delaying Howe had been fatal to the success of the British plan to secure control of the Hudson. 149. Burgoyne's Surrender. — While Howe was on his way to Philadelphia Burgoyne was passing through a try- ing experience in the North. On sailing away from New York Howe left Clinton in command there. In vain Bur- goyne sent messenger after messenger to Clinton, asking for reinforcements. Without Clinton's aid success was very doubtful, for the Americans were increasing daily and were threatening to cut off Burgoyne's line of com- munication with Canada. The American army, now com- manded by Gates,* occupied a strong position at Bemis Heights. The situation was desperate. Bur- Burgoyne's situa- goyne must force an advance. With great tion desperate, courage he fought a battle (September 19), in which his advance was stubbornly contested. Still there was no news from Clinton. In the meantime, Lincoln had suc- ceeded in cutting off the British supplies from Canada. Three weeks later Burgoyne, whose army was suffering from want of food, again attacked the Americans (Oc- tober 7) with the hope of cutting his way through their lines, and again suffered defeat. He tried in vain to find a way of escape but could not, for he was surrounded and cut off from supplies. After ten days, therefore, he ' Schuyler was a noble man and a good general, but he had political enemies who succeeded in having him removed. Gates was vain and weak, and his subse- quent history proved him to be lacking even in personal bravery. The success of his army at Saratoga was due to the gallant leadership of Arnold and Morgan. Gates deserved no credit. His easy manner and fluent tongue enabled him for a time to influence people who did not understand his real character. In time, how- ever, his selfishness, trickery, and cowardice brought down upon him the contempt of honest men. l64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES surrendered his entire army of 6,000 regular troops' (Oc- tober 17). 150. Burgoyne's Surrender Leads to Aid from France. — The surrender of Burgoyne was the turning-point in the Franklin's infiu- war. Its immediate result was a treaty of cretatrfrom *'" alliance between France and our country. Prance. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence was signed Congress sent over three commissioners^ to se- cure aid from France. The principal one of these was Benjamin Franklin, then seventy years old. His simplicity and directness charmed the French people and won him a warm place in their hearts. Before Burgoyne's invasion France had secretly sent to the Americans much aid in the form of money and ship-loads of ammunition and clothing. But after Burgoyne's surrender it was evident that the Americans were fighting England with success. France, Resuits'of the England's traditional enemy, was then ready American treaty to aid them opculy. She therefore entered w ranee. j^^^ ^ treaty of alliance with the United States, agreeing to send over a fleet and an army of 4,000 men. England promptly declared war against France. She also changed her policy toward the Americans. She repealed the tea duty, the Boston Port Bill, and all the other hated measures that had driven the colonies to take up arms against the king. She promised that there should be no more taxation without representation. But it was too late. The Americans would now agree to nothing short of independence. 151. The Suffering at Valley Forge.— Even after losing Philadelphia, Washington had the courage to attack the British at Germantown. Although he made a well-planned attack, on account of a fog he suffered defeat. He then 'The Americans when marching the English soldiers off the field of sur- render proudly unfurled their new flag. In January, 1776, Washington began to use an American flag. This was like the British flag, except that the thirteen stripes in the American flag took the place of the solid red of the British. Con- gress adopted the " Stars and Stripes " on June 14, 1777. John Paul Jones is be- lieved to have been the first to hoist the flag at sea. ' These commissioners were Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane. fife THE REVOLUTION i6S withdrew his army and went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. This was a strong position among the hills, about twenty miles northwest of Philadelphia, on the Schuylkill River. But the winter was a terrible one for the army.' Most of the soldiers were in rags, few had any bedding, and many had not even straw to lie upon at night. Nearly 3,000 were barefoot, and could be tracked by their bloody loot- prints upon the frozen ground. Owing to mismanage- ment by Congress and the commissary department, there was often, for days at a time, no bread. The army, though weakened by suffering and loss of food, was greatly strengthened by the systematic military drill which they received from Steuben,'^ a Prussian veteran who had joined the American cause. He was made in- spector-general, and he transformed the ragged regiments into a well-disciplined army. 152. The Conway Cabal. — Petty politics and personal jealousy in Congress did much at this time and at other times to prevent the successful handling of washineton's the troops by Washington. Weak and vain enemies and their men, such as Gates and Charles Lee, did all P«"y '^heming. they could to destroy Washington's influence and drive him from his position as commander-in-chief. As Gates had succeeded, by his political scheming, in getting Congress to appoint him, in place of Schuyler, as head of the Northern army in 1/77, so now he was busily scheming for the down- fall of Washington that he might himself become the head of all the American armies. As one of the leaders in this ' A beautiful story is told of Washington at Valley Forge. When " Friend Potts " was near the camp one day he heard an earnest voice. On approaching he saw Washington on his knees, his cheeks wet with tears, praying to God for help and guidance. When the farmer returned to his home he said to his wife ; " George Washington will succeed ! George Washington will succeed ! The Americans will secure their independence ! " "What makes thee think so, Isaac?" inquired his wife. ' ' I have heard him pray, Hannah, out in the woods to-day, and the Lord will surely hear his prayer. He will, Hannah ; thee may rest assured He will. " ' There were five eminent foreign gentlemen who fought in the American army. Two of these, I.a Fayette and John Kalb, were Frenchmen ; two others, Kosciusko and Pulaski, were Poles ; and the fifth was Baron Steuben, a German. These brave officers won the lasting gratitude of patriot Americans. iCift HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES shameful plot was Conway, it was called the Conway Cabal. The taunt was openly made that while Gates had captured Burgoyne at Saratoga, Washington had been defeated by Howe on the Brandywine. But when people understood the meanness of all this plotting they were indignant. Washington appeared all the more noble in contrast with these selfish men, and his popularity was even greater than before. 153. The British Evacuate Philadelphia (June 18, 1778). When the British learned that a French fleet was coming over to aid the Americans, they feared it might go up the Delaware and, co-operating with Washington, capture their troops in Philadelphia. So Clinton, who had suc- ceeded Howe in the chief command, was at once ordered to hasten away from Philadelphia and reinforce the army in Battle (rfMon- Ncw York. With 17,000 men, the British mouth. general began his march across New Jersey. Washington started in pursuit of Clinton, overtook him at Monmouth, and attacked him there (June 28). But, ow- ing to the treachery of Charles Lee,' Washington failed to win a decisive victory. During the night the British hur- ried from the battle-field on toward New York. TO THE PUPIL 1. First review the reasons why the British wished to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States. What was the British plan for 1777 ? 2. Describe Burgoyne's brilliant beginning and his later difficulties. In V7hat way did his Indian allies affect the invasion ? 3. What were the purposes and the results of the expedition against Bennington ? Explain the failure of St. Leger. 4. Why did not Howe sail up the Hudson to join Burgoyne ? In what way did Charles Lee shovy himself to be a traitor to the American cause ? What was his advice to Howe ? 5. Why did not Howe march across New Jersey in his attempt to capture Philadelphia ? Trace his route by vs-ater to Elkton. In what way did Howe -waste valuable time ? ' For his shameful retreat and disobedience of orders Lee was tried by court- martial. He was suspended from his command for one year. Later he was ex- pelled from the array. THE REVOLUTION 167 6. How did Washington aid the Northern army to capture Burgoyne ? 7. Give reasons for Burgoyne's failure. 8. What were the most important results of his surrender ? How had France aided us before this surrender? After France entered into a treaty of alliance with the Americans what change did England make in her policy toward them i 9. Be prepared to write five minutes on any of the following topics : The suffering at Valley Forge, the Conway cabal, the British evacuate Philadelphia. Contrast Washington with such men as Lee and Gates. 10. Imagine yourself to have been with Washington's army at Valley Forge in that trying winter and write an account of your personal experiences. IX. Read Scudder's George Washington. WARFARE ON THE BORDER AND ON THE SEA 154. England's Numerous Wars. — England's war with Franfce made it necessary for tier to protect her colonies in various parts of the world. This prevented her from con- centrating her forces in America. Within the next two years she also became implicated in war with Spain and Holland ; hence we need not be surprised that the English did but little fighting in America during 1778 and 1779. 155. Weakness and Difificulties of the Americans. — The United States was equally unable to engage in exten- sive military operations. The country was very weak in point of wealth and population. The principal industries were farming, fishing, ship-building, and commerce, and these, especially the last three, had naturally been much interfered with by the war. The Continental Congress had but little authority, and steadily lost influ- The continental ence until it commanded but little respect. It congress has could not enlist a soldier or build a fort, be- ep<"fer. cause it had no power to levy taxes. In course of time the States paid little heed to the requisitions for money which Congress made upon them. Under such circumstances Congress had great difficulty in raising money enough to carry on the war. Although Congress had no money and no means of get i68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A RKVOLUTIONARY GUN. ting any, it could issue paper promises, and this it did in immense quantities. These paper promises were called Con- Continentai tinental currency, and, like all such promises, currency. they werc valuable only in so far as people had confidence in the ability of the government to redeem them. As people lost respect for Congress, this paper cur- rency fell in value, ^efore the close of 1779 the coin value of this Continental currency was only two cents on the dol- lar, and in the early part of the following year its coin value was nothing at all. " Not worth a Continental " recalls the money trials of the Revolution. 156. Use of Indians by the English. — The difficulties of the situation were enhanced by the hostility of the orig- inal owners of the soil. We have seen how Burgoyne em- ployed Indians to help him. It was a part of the plan of the English to get all the aid they could from the Iroquois in New York and from the Indians west of the AUeghanies. These powerful tribes, furnished with arms, ammunition, provisions, and sometimes with British leaders, were a seri- ous annoyance to the people on the frontier. The struggle between the backwoodsmen and the red men was Importance of the . struggle between Ot great im- backwoodsmen portance. The and tbe Indians, £-> i • i ^^ English (jrov- ernment wished to coop up the Americans between the AUeghanies and the Atlan- tic. For, as long as the western country remained un- settled, English merchants could continue to grow rich on the immensely profitable fur trade with the Indians. The A REVOLUTIONARY FLINT-LOCK PISTOL. THE REVOLUTION 169 Americans were eager to make settlements west of the Alleghanies, but before they could occupy the land they had to conquer the Indians. Daniel BoOne, George Rogers Clark, John Sevier, and James Robertson were prominent leaders in this western movement for conquest. The strug- gle east of the Alleghanies was for independence in terri- tory already acquired; the struggle west of the Alleghanies was for the conquest of new territory. 157. George Rogers Clark Marches Against the British Posts North of the Ohio. — When the war began the British had possession of all the territory north of the Ohio between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. Colonel Hamilton, the English governor of that re- . , 1 , , . . 11.1 A • Hamilton's plans. gion, wished to drive out all the American settlers. He encouraged the Indians to roam oyer the country, burning, murdering, and scalping without mercy. Colonel George Rogers Clark, a backwoodsman of Ken- tucky, which was then a part of Virginia, decided to put a check upon Hamilton's plans. Clark got together a small body of volunteers, who numbered less than two hundred, and with these he boldly set out to capture the British posts north of the Ohio. In May, 1778, Clark's men made rude flat boats and rafts and floated "''* down the Ohio to a point south of the Tennessee River. Here they met a party 6i hunters who consented to act as guides overland to Kaskaskia in the southwestern part of Illinois. Having surprised and captured this post, Clark sent a small force to seize Cahokia (Illinois), from thirty to forty miles northwest of Kaskaskia. This expedition was successful, and a message was received about the same time that Vincennes had taken the oath of allegiance to America and that the American flag floated over the fort there. 158. Clark Secures Control of the Northwest. — Hear- ing of Clark's success, Hamilton, who was at Detroit, at once prepared to march against him. As Hamilton marches soon as possible the expedition started from "ea'nst ciark. Detroit toward Vincennes. In four or five weeks Hamilton captured Vincennes and threatened to advance upon Clark. lyo HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES When the news reached the Illinois towns there was great alarm. Clark's situation was now critical. With scarcely more than one hundred men he was too far away to secure reinforcements from Virginia. Hamilton had five hundred men, including Indians, and could easily get reinforcements from his red friends. In the midst of the excitement Clark got news that Hamilton had postponed further operations for the winter, and was holding Vincennes with only eighty men in the Clark's expedition garrison. Al- to Vincennes. though it waS midwinter, Clark promptly decided to march across the country and attack Hamil- ton at Vincennes, two hun- dred and forty miles away. He started from Kaskaskia (February 7, 1779). It was a fearful march of sixteen days, five of them spent in wading over the drowned lands of the Wabash. The water was often three or four feet deep and sometimes reached the men's chins. The weather was bitterly cold. During the last six days of the march the men, drenched and half-frozen, had no regular meals, ciarii's heroic and wcre wholly without food for two days. '*""■''• But Clark pressed steadily forward. On reaching Vincennes he attacked the fort with such vigor that he forced Hamilton to surrender (February 24, 1779). He had done a heroic piece of work. In capturing Vin- cennes Clark and his brave backwoodsmen finished the conquest of the territory in the Northwest and opened all this vast region to American settlers. The importance of this conquest will be appreciated when we see its ef- CLARK ON THE WAY TO KASKASKIA. K\ SI j\ fahokia » Vinceni ( sT"? S=& rf "^ N ra^Mcah N JO R T H E I; Orleans ^Z/'^rsH t MAP SKOWIKG THB w TVAE IN THE SOUTH ^ AND THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 3^ Washingtoa'a Koute to Ybrktown- — — — —— — —— — Clark's Expedition «.h><->-o- Qre«ne's Retieftt ^ ^V 4- + Scale of Miles. p 5p IpQ t» il ^ 172 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES fects upon the treaty of peace at the close of the Rev- olution. 159. The American Navy. — Up to this time all the fight- ing, so far as we have seen, had been on land, but there was serious trouble on the sea also. When the war began the Americans were without war vessels, because up to this time they had been under the protection of England. Be- fore the close of 1775, however, Congress had ordered a small navy of thirteen vessels to be built, nearly all of which were cap- tured during the war or burned to avoid capture. As a consequence we were much crippled for means of transporting troops by water. After recognizing our independence France aids us (i778), France made with her fleets. several attempts to aid us with her strong fleets, but owing to the supremacy of the English navy these efforts were of little ser- vice before the siege of Yorktown. Indirectly, however, they were of great assistance, because they kept England busy on various parts of the sea and in this way withdrew her strength from America. 160. Americian Privateering. — While England had little to fear from our navy, she suffered much from American privateers. Even as early as 1776 they captured three hundred and fifty l^nglish vessels, a few of which were loaded with powder and supplies for the British army. So much damage did they inflict upon England's commerce that her ship-owners and merchants became bitter in their opposition to the war. Governor Hutchinson of Massachu- setts said there were 70,000' New England sailors at one time on privateers. The estimate was too high, but with- • There were two reasons why it was easier to get men to engage in privateering than tP enlist in the army : (i) Most of the men on these privateers were fishermen JOHN PAUL JONES. THE REVOLUTION 173 out doubt many more than this number of Americans en- gaged in privateering during the war. 161. Paul Jones and the American Navy. — John Paul Jones, the naval hero of the Revolution, w^as a Scotchman by birth. At an early age he emigrated to America, and had been engaged in commerce many years before the outbreak of the war. Being placed by Congress in command of a small ship, he cap- tured many vessels in the English Chan- nel and thoroughly frightened the people as he sailed along the coasts of England and Scot- land threatening the towns. At length, through the help of Franklin and the French king, he was THE BONHOMME RICHARD AND THE SERAPtS. placed in command of a small squadron. His flag-ship was called the Bonhomme Richard. Sailing along the eastern coast of England he saw several English merchantmen convoyed by two men- of-war. At seven o'clock in the evening (Sep- oesperata fight tember 23, 1779), his ship attacked the larger between the of the two, the Serapis. A desperate fight Richard " and the followed. During the action the firing on " serapis.- the Richard slacked. The English commander shouted to Jones, "Have you struck?" Jones promptly answered, " I have not begun to fight." The two vessels coming in touch, he lashed them together with his own hands and for two hours longer continued the deadly struggle. At last some of Jones's men, from the main-yard of the Richard, dropped hand-grenades among the English sailors. One of and sailors who, as we have already found, were thrown out of employment by English cruisers ; (2) privateering was far more profitable than service in an ill- paid army. 174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES these caused an explosion of a powder chest. This de= moralized the English crew, and their commander struck his colors. Jones had lost in killed and wounded one hun- dred and sixteen men, and the Richard was sinking. It was a tremendous struggle and a great victory, and it caused the name of John Paul Jones to be spoken of with gratitude throughout America. TO THE PUPIL 1. In what part of the country was most of the fighting in 1775 ? In 1776 and 1777 ? Review the leading events of these three years. 2. Why was there little fighting in 1778 and 1779 ? Notice with care the weakness of the Continental Congress and the disastrous effects of the Continental currency. 3. How did the English make use of the Indians ? Give reasons for the importance of the struggle between the backwoodsmen and the Ind- ians in the region west of the AUeghanies. 4. What was the purpose of George Rogers Clark's expedition ? Trace it on the map. What did Clark accomplish in the Northwest ? 5. Imagine as vividly as you can his heroic expedition against Vincennes and write an account of it. 6. Why were the Americans without war vessels at the beginning of the war ? How were they crippled for lack of a suitable navy during the Revolution ? In what v7ay did France aid them with her fleets ? 7. Who viras Paul Jones ? What service did he render the Americans ? 8. Read Roosevelt's Winning of the West for a good account of what the Westerners did during the Revolution. WAR IN THE SOUTH AND THE SURRENDER OF CORNWAL- LIS (1780-1781) 162. Reasons Why the British Tried to Conquer the South. — After failing in New England and the Middle States, the British directed their energies to the South. Their plan was to conquer Georgia and then get control of the Carolinas and Virginia. They knew that Georgia, be- ing weak, could not offer much resistance, and that the Tories, who were numerous in the Carolinas, would join them. Moreover, should England fail in overthrowing American independence, the control of the South would THE REVOLUTION I7S hcip her, at the close of the war, in confining the Ameri- cans within a smaller territory than would be otherwise possible. 163. First Successes of the British. — As we have seen, there was little fighting anywhere in America in 1778 and 1779. The British had captured Savannah in 1778, but it was not until the spring of 1780 that they began the serious work of conquering the South. General Lincoln was in command of the American army in the South and was stationed at Charleston. Clinton, coming down from New York with a large force, succeeded in penning Ljngo,„ g„„en- him in this place and forcing his surrender ders to cunton at (May 12), with about 3,000 Continental troops. 'Charleston. Well satisfied with this beginning, Clinton returned to New York and left Cornwallis in command of the British forces in the South. After Lincoln's surrender at Charleston, Congress sent General Gates down to take command of the American troops. Gates, whose head had been turned by his capture of Burgoyne at Saratoga, went South confident of success. He reached the army on July 19 and at once planned to make an advance upon Camden. This was Defeat of oates at the most important place in South Carolina, camden. because all the principal roads, leading from the North and from the coast, centred here. He was met by Corn- wallis (August 16) and badly defeated. This was the sec- ond American army destroyed in the South within three months. Gates rode off the battle-field in such confusion of mind that he did not stop until he was more than sixty miles from Camden. In utter disgrace he retired , . , >. u 1 J x J • Gates in disgrace. irom the army, to be heard of no more during the war. As Gates was leaving his Virginia plantation to take command of the army in South Carolina, his friend Charles Lee had said to him, " Take care that your Northern laurels do not change to Southern willows." But Gates was bound to fail. He was too self-satisfied to listen to any advice, even that of his officers. fjb HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 164. Battle of King's Mountain. — Cornwallis now ad- vanced into North Carolina. At the same time he sent 1,200 men, mostly American Tories under the dashing Fer- guson, to enlist Tories in the mountainous regions of South Carolina. Hearing of this movement, a body of American backwoodsmen hastily gathered and attacked Ferguson at King's Mountain (October 7) before he could receive rein- forcements. His position was a strong one, but the back- woodsmen assailed him with great fury on three sides at once and killed or captured his entire force. Ferguson himself was killed. This brilliant victory so severely crippled Cornwallis that it has sometimes been called the Bennington of the South. Cornwallis was compelled to return to South Carolina in order to maintain control of the territory in that State. 165. Partisan Warfare in the South. — Before returning to New York after the capture of Charleston, Clinton sent Clinton's unwise Small forccs into the interior of South Caro- prociamation. ijna^ and in a proclamation offered pardon to all who would return to allegiance to England. Those who would not actively aid in restoring the royal government were to be treated as rebels and traitors. This unwise proclamation compelled all citizens to range themselves on one side or the other. A bitter, bloody, and cruel partisan warfare resulted. Neighbor fought against neighbor, sometimes brother against brother, in this semi-civil war. The most noted par- tisan leaders on the American side were Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee. Marion's men were without uniforms, ■ „ without tents, and without pay. They lived The Swamp Fox, . , , ^ r. , -^ . in the swamps, and were so switt and cunning in their attacks that their leader was known as the Swamp Fox. With a very small force, often less than fifty men, he annoyed beyond measure the British by rescuing prisoners and capturing supply-trains, foraging parties, and outposts. When the American cause looked most gloomy in the South, these brave men, aided by noble women, kept hope alive in patriot hearts. THE REVOLUTION 177 166. Arnold in Philadelphia.— Before we follow Greene and Cornwallis in their final struggle for control in the South, let us turn to an alarming event on the banks of the Hudson. This was Arnold's treason, which offered the British an opportunity to make a third attempt to get con- trol of the Hudson. After the British left Philadelphia (1778) Arnold, who had not fully recovered from his wounds received at Sara- toga, was placed in com- mand there. He was pop- ular in social circles, which included many Tories, and became engaged to a Tory's daughter. Extravagant liv- ing followed, and Arnold was soon heavily in debt. The State government accusing him of dishonesty, Congress ordered his trial by court-mar- Arnold tried by tial. By its court-martial. verdict he was found guilty of indiscretions and mildly sentenced to receive a rep- rimand from the command- er-in-chief. As Arnold had served his country with dis- tinguished bravery, Wash- ington held him in high esteem and therefore gave the reproof as gently as possible. But Arnold was indignant. He felt that he had been un- justly treated, and he secretly planned revenge. 167. Arnold Becomes a Traitor. — Arnold pretended that on account of his wound he was not able to engage in active service, and requested that he might be placed in command of the important position of West Point. Wash- 178 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ington, suspecting nothing, granted Arnold's request. The latter, no doubt, thought the American cause was hopeless. At any rate he was as eager for money as he was for re- venge and soon opened a treasonable correspondence with General Clinton, commanding the British troops in New York. The scheme was that Arnold should so dispose of his forces at West Point that this strong fort might easily ; fall into the British hands at a time agreed upon for an attack. i68. Arnold Fails, and Andr6 is Hanged as a Spy.— For weeks the correspondence between Arnold and the THE ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. British commander was carried on. Arnold looked for- ward to a successful execution of his plot ; but a few details were yet to be agreed upon. So, in September (1780), Major Andre was sent by Clinton up the Hudson to make final arrangements with Arnold. Andr6 sailed up the river in the ship Vulture and met Arnold on shore near Stony Point. An all-night interview followed, and morning found the transaction still unfin- The all-night ished. Before Andr6 could return to the F«/A interview. j^j-e it was fired upon and withdrew down the river. Andr6 then attempted to make his way to the Brit- ish lines by land. In disguise, therefore, and with Arnold's THE REVOLUTION 1 79 plans ot the fort between his stockings and the soles of his feet, the next morning he was galloping rapidly down the east side of the Hudson on his way to New York. His safe arrival would secure him honor and fame. Little did he know what fate awaited him. As he reached Tarrytown he was stopped by three militiamen lying in wait for any suspicious persons who might ap- pear. They searched him and, finding the tell-tale papers, retained him as a prisoner. Arnold got the . , ,, . . AT/ Andre's capture. news of the capture in time to escape. Andre was tried by a fair-minded court-martial and was con- demned to be hanged as a spy. Arnold received for his treason a brigadiership and about $30,000, but he spent the remainder of his life in dis- grace, justly despised by Americans and Englishmen alike. He had carefully kept in his possession the AmoWs aisgnce old uniform in which he made his escape from and death. West Point. Just before his death he called for this and put it on once more. " Let me die," said he, " in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever putting on any other." 169. Greene and Cornwarllis. — In the meantime the struggle between Greene and Cornwallis in the South was going on. When Gates retired from the command of the armies of the South, General Greene was appointed by Con- gress to succeed him. On reaching the Carolinas (Decem- ber 2, 1780) Greene had many difficulties to areene's face. The British, now in control of Georgia difficulties, and South Carolina, were about to overrun North Carolina also. Their army was in good condition and was led by such able officers as Cornwallis, Tarleton, and Rawdon. Greene's small forces were poorly armed, without pay and clothing, and sometimes even without food. The troops were broken in spirit and discouraged, but Greene soon inspired the confidence of officers and soldiers. He sent the brave General Morgan against Tarleton. They met at Cowpens (January 17, 1781), where Morgan, with only nine hundred men, routed the British force of iBo HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 1,100 picked men. The British loss was two hundred and thirty killed and wounded and six hundred prisoners. This Morgan's briiiiaot brilliant victory destroyed nearly one- third of victory at Cow- Cornwallis's army and, like the victory at ''*'"• King's Mountain, seriously interfered with his plans. At King's Mountain Cornwallis lost his best corps of scouts ; at Cowpens he lost his light infantry. Both would have been of untold benefit to him when chas- ing Greene into Virginia immedi- ately after this battle. 170. Greene's Retreat into Vir- ginia. — After his victory at Cow- pens Morgan joined Greene. Corn- wallis then chased them for two hundred miles northward across the Carolinas. In this famous retreat the Americans forded three rivers whose waters, swollen by rain- storms soon after the Americans had crossed, checked the British in their pursuit. Greene crossed the last of these, the Dan, just in time to escape the British, who were pressing closely upon his rear. Knowing that Greene would be reinforced in Virginia, Cornwallis dared not follow. On receiving reinforcements Greene returned and fought his enemy at Guilford Court House, North Carolina (March 15, 1781). Here he was defeated, but withdrew his forces Battle of Quiiford in good Order. This battle was fatal to the Court House. plans of Comwallis, for it so severely crip- pled his army — which lost about one-fourth of its whole number — that he would not follow Greene in his retreat. The remainder of the British army were tired out and Cornwallis retires almost famished. With his men in this condi- to Wilmington. ^ion Comwallis could not return to Charles- ton, his base of supplies, but decided to go to Wilming- ton, where communication with the English fleet would NATHANIEL GREENE. THE REVOLUTION l8l be easy. Greene's Fabian policy had been very successful. He had worn out the enemy and forced him to seek the coast for supplies. Greene at once greatly disturbed Cornwallis's peace of mind by marching back to South Carolina. Again and again Greene was defeated, but he skilfully handled his troops and inflicted severe losses upon the Greene's swii m enemy. Before the close of 1781 the British » general. held, in the States south of Virginia, only the two seaports of Charleston and Savannah. Greene was bold, cautious, active, and persevering. He had outgeneraled Cornwallis, the ablest English commander, and shown himself second only to Washington in military genius. 171. Cornwallis Goes to Virginia. — Cornwallis, disap- pointed in the South, and regarding Virginia as the great storehouse of the Southern armies, now marched north- ward to get control of that State. Here he found a con- siderable force of British sent there to keep the inhabitants from aiding the more southern States. Arnold had set fire to Richmond and had destroyed much property in other parts of Virginia. La Fayette was there with cornwaiiis tries a body of troops to look after the interests of to entrap the Americans. When Cornwallis reached '"^ Fayette. Virginia he tried to entrap La Fayette, but the wily young Frenchman was not to be caught. Cornwallis then withdrew to Yorktown, where he could easily communicate with the English fleet. Clinton had ordered him to be in readiness to send reinforcements to New York in case the expected French fleet should co-operate with Washington in trying to capture that place. 172. Cornwallis, Entrapped at Yorktown, Surrenders. — Up to this time the French army had not been of any real service to the American cause, nor had the French fleet given much direct aid. Now, however. Direct awfrom both their land forces and their fleet were to thePrencii. help Washington in carrying out a bold plan. The latter, whose army was lying on the Hudson, had been joined the l82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES NELSON HOUSE, YORKTOWN, VA. Which was occupied as headquarters hy General Comwallis, year before Cornwallis went to Yorktown by 6,000 fresh troops from France in command of Rochambeaii. Clinton, who was at the head of the English forces in New York, hearing that a powerful French ffeet was on its way with more land forces to America, feared that on its arrival there would be a combined attack by land and sea. This had been the original plan, but when Washington learned that the fleet was on its way to the Chesapeake he withdrew from New York and began the execution of a Washington's brilliant movement. Leaving a small force brilliant On the Hudson, he marched the rest of his movement. army four hundred miles to reinforce La Fay- ette in Virginia and co-operate with the fleet in capturing Cornwallis. So secretly and skilfully did Washington make his plans that he had almost reached Maryland be- fore Clinton found out what was going on. Clinton at once sent a fleet to drive the French fleet away. He also sent Arnold to burn New London, Con- necticut, hoping thus to draw Washington back. But the English fleet failed in its attack on the French, and Washing- ton was not to be turned aside from his purpose. Rapidly marching to the Chesapeake, he embarked his troops at THE REVOLUTION 183 Baltimore and Elkton, and united with La Fayette, who had already been reinforced by a French land force from the fleet. Cornwallis, entirely surrounded, cornwaiii. saw but one chance of escape. That was by surrenders crossing the York River and making a rapid retreat north- ward. A violent storm upset his plans. As his army of 8,000 was matched against an army of 16,000, to say nothing of the fleet, a successful resistance was hopeless. Therefore, after a siege of about three weeks he surrendered his army (October 19, 1781). 173. The End of the War and the Treaty of Peace (1783). — The Americans everywhere rejoiced. Congress, adjourning in a body, attended church to offer thanksgiving for the great victory. It was plain to Americans and Eng- lishmen that Cornwallis's surrender miist end the war. Peace commissioners from both countries were therefore appointed to agree upon a treaty of peace. The French Government tried hard to confine the Amer- icans to the region east of the Alleghanies. But the work of George Rogers Clark and other Westerners who had bravely conquered and settled the vast regions q^^^ north and south of the Ohio, aided our com- ciark and the missioners in securing for American indepen- ^**** dence the territory lying between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, and between the Great Lakes and Florida. Florida was ceded back to Spain. George the Third's plan of personal government in America had failed. The Revolution secured independence in America; it overthrew the personal rule oeorge the Third of George the Third in England. In 1784 fan* to carry out young William Pitt had become the real head *"' "'""*• of the English Government, and Parliamentary reform was only a question of time. I84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL 1. Review the attempt on the part of the British, first, to subdue Massa- chusetts in 1775, and second, to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States in 1776 and 1777. You virill remember that there V7as but little fighting in 1778 and 1779. 2. Why did the British in 1780 turn their attention to conquering the South ? Take note of their first successes there. 3. Explain why the Battle of King's Mountain was important. 4. What was the character of partisan warfare in the South ? Look up facts about the Swamp Fox and his men. Subject for essay : Parti- san warfare in the South. 5. What were the results of Arnold's trial by court-martial ? What reason did he assign for requesting that he might be placed in com- mand of the troops at West Point 7 6. How was his treasonable scheme to be carried out ? What part did Andr€ take in this scheme ? Discuss Arnold's disgrace and death. Subject for essay : Arnold the traitor. 7. What were the difficulties of Greene when he succeeded Gates in the South ? How did Morgan's brilliant victory at Cowpens play havoc with the plans of Cornwallis ? 8. What was the condition of the English army after the Battle of Guil- ford Court House ? What had been Greene's main purpose and how had he carried it out 7 9. Why did Cornwallis go to Yorktown? What direct aid did the Americans now receive from the French fleet ? Before its arrival what plans of attack upon the British had Washington made? What changes did he make in his plans after the arrival of the fleet ? 10. Outline the events leading to the surrender of Cornwallis. What were its results i 11. Study carefully these topics: George Rogers Clark and the West; George the Third fails to carry out his plans. 12. Subject for debate : Resolved, that Greene was a better general than Cornwallis. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the capture of Bur- goyne was a greater achievement than the capture of Cornwallis. 13. Read Simms's Partisan and the chapter on Arnold's treason in Coffin's Boys of '76. Memorize Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. CHAPTER XIV THE BREAKDOWN OF THE CONFEDERATION AND THE FOR- MATION OF THE CONSTITUTION (1781-1789) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV.; Fiske's Critical Period of American History; Fiske's War of Independence; Channing's United States ; Hart's Formation of ttie Union ; Fiske's Civil Government. OUTSIDE READINGS: Frothingham's Rise of the Republic; Hale's Story of Massachusetts; Johnston's American Politics; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Losslng's Field Book of the Revolution ; Roosevelt's Winning of the West, HI. ; Wilson's A History of the American People, HI. 174. Congress During the Revolution. — When the col- onies threw off the yoke of Great Britain it was necessary that they should have some central authority to guide them in establishing their independence. To meet this need they formed the Continental Congress, which assumed many of the duties of such a government. But Congress, as we have seen, labored with great difficulties because it had no power to compel obedience. Early in the Revolution the people had formed State governments. They felt more closely in touch with these and were extremely jealous of any authority interfering with local control. This feeling found marked expression in the Articles of Confederation — a plan of government outlined by a committee which Con- gress appointed in June, 1776, 175. Weakness of Congress Under the Confederation. — Under the Articles of Confederation, which did not go into effect until 1781 (see par. 180), Congress had but little power. It could declare war, but it could not raise or sup- port an army. It could find out the amount of revenue needed for the expenses of carrying on the government, but it could not raise a dollar by taxation. In our own 1 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES WSEfflsBifloi^LeeiiSiS^J due fc yf^ tljei'dlcficu. thej.eoEfi.nm ti^EixJVimS^ fey I til- MAs.s^carsETTs''*3j^i I^Coiiijt-i Retail aPc J tntaiv 15»<*'i-' 'v: f-I:f time the tariff supplies a large part of the government revenue, but as Congress could not at that time regulate commerce, it could not levy any duties on imported goods. Commerce with foreign countries and between the States was under the control of the States. Congress could do nothing but request the States to pay certain sums of money needed by the central. government, and the States could, and usually did, re- fuse to notice such requests. The states control In fact, the commerce. main busincss of Congress was to recom- mend and advise. It could not compel a State, or a citizen of a State, to do anything. 176. England and Amer- ican Commerce. — A gov- ernment so weak at home could not command respect abroad. Soon after the Revolution, Parliament be- gan to enforce the restric- tions upon American trade which had threatened to ruin the colonial commerce. Of course these acts of Parliament embittered the Americans against England, and they sought in vain for some way of retaliating. Thirteen independent States could not, or would not, agree upon a united plan of action, and as Congress could not regulate commerce nothing was done. 177. Commercial War Between the States. — Each State, managing its own commerce, tried to gain advantages over the other States in its trade relations. In order to in- crease its foreign trade, a State would sometimes make its duties on imported goods lower than those of a neighboring f.ii^a. -t.i^ja'-i I m^ THREE SHILLING MASSACHUSETTS BILL OF 174I. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 187 State. Duties were levied on goods carried from one State into another. For example, New York laid a duty on chick- ens, vegetables, and dairy products from New Jersey, and on firewood from Connecticut. New Jersey retaliated by laying a tax of $1,800 a year upon a lighthouse which New York had erected on the New Jersey shore, and the mer- chants in Connecticut began to hold meetings for the pur- pose of stopping all trade with New York. All such bickerings over inter-State trade made the States more jealous and unfriendly toward one another. And it is worthy of notice that all this increase congress without of selfishness, the continuation of which could power to regulate only result in civil war and the political ruin """"*'''=^' of the Confederation, was brought about by the inability of Congress to regulate commerce. But there were other commercial difficulties of a serious nature. 178. Financial Difificulties of the Confederation. — After the Revolution our imports, which had to be paid for in specie, were so much more than our exports that the coun- try was soon drained of nearly all its gold and silver. Con- gress was in great need of money, and there was financial distress throughout the country. 179. Shays's Rebellion. — Business depression steadily continued to grow worse. People were in debt, their taxes were heavy, and they could not get money for what they had to sell. The consequence was that nearly all the States began to issue paper promises, which they called money. Distress was especially great among the farmers in western Massachusetts. Their cattle and their farms Distress of farm- were sold by the sheriff, and they themselves ers in western were sometimes thrown into prison for debt. When their State Legislature refused to issue paper promises in order that they might pay their debts, two thousand angry farmers in the region about Springfield and Worcester, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, sur- rounded the court-houses in those cities and put a stop for the time to all lawsuits against debtors. For a while (in the latter part of 1786 and early part of 1787) they had things 1 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES their own way. They not only burned barns and carried off movable goods, but they tried to seize the arsenal at Springfield for the purpose of securing muskets and cannon. After about seven months the rebellion was put down by the State militia. iSo. Conflicting Claims to the Northwest Territory. — Thus we see that, by reason of the inability of Congress to regulate commerce and to raise money by taxation, difficul- ties were growing day by day. There was still another vexing question. That was the conflicting claims to the territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, known as the Northwest Territory. Four States claimed each a part or all of it. Massachusetts and Connecticut based their claims to the northern part upon their chartered rights. New York insisted that about all of it belonged to her by an agreement with the Iroquois Indians. Virginia claimed the whole of it not only by chartered right but by the con- quest qi George Rogers Clark during the Revolution. Of course these conflicting claims led to bitter disputing, in which Maryland took a leading part. She objected to the naryiand objects Ownership of the Northwest Territory by a to these claims. part of the Statcs. She said that inasmuch as all the States had fought France and England to secure this territory, all ought to have a share in the ownership of it. Maryland therefore refused to agree to the Articles of Confederation until it was clear that these claims would be abandoned. The four States having yielded their claims, she signed the articles in 178 1. In taking this position Maryland was doing a great ser- vice to the whole country. The common possession of the Results of com- Northwcst Territory by the thirteen States mon ownership, helped to hold the States together. They all had an equal interest in this extensive region, whose land sales would enable the Confederation to get money enough to pay all its debts. 181. The Ordinance of 1787. — The outcome of the dis- pute concerning this common ownership was the ordinance of 1787, which was the most important measure passed by THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 189 the Confederation. This ordinance provided for the gov- ernment of the Northwest Territory, and for dividing it into five States. Education was to be encouraged, and there was to be religious freedom. Although runaway slaves were to be returned to their masters, slavery was to be forever prohibited. This ordinance was passed by Con- CELEBRATING IN NEW YORK THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. gress in 1787, the year of the formation of the Consti- tution. 182. Events Leading to the Constitutional Convention. — The many commercial and financial difficulties, ending in Shays's Rebellion, showed that the Confeder- The confederation ation was breaking down. Shays's Rebellion breaking down, in Massachusetts might soon be followed by similar upris- igo HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ings in other States. In the face of such dangers the Con- federation was almost powerless. A better form of govern, ment had therefore become a necessity, and this the Con- stitutional Convention devised. The question of the regulation of commerce led to the calling of the Constitutional Convention. Western settle- ment showed the need of connecting the East and the West by a system of canals. As the navigation of the Potomac River was concerned, commissioners from Maryland and Virginia met to adopt some regulations for the use of this river by the two States (1785). When the Virginia Legislat- ure adopted the commissioners' report, they also voted to invite all the States to send delegates to a convention the following year. This convention was to consider com- mercial regulations for the whole country. As delegates The conference at from Only fivc States met at this conference, Annapolis. ^gld at Aunapolis in 1786, it did not seem worth while to discuss the business for which they were called together. But before adjourning, they recommended that delegates from all the States should meet to consider the Articles of Confederation and make them adequate to the needs of the country. All the States except Rhode Island appointed some of their ablest men as delegates to the convention, which met in Philadelphia (May 25, 1787) and remained in secret session almost four months. Washington was presiding officer of The Constitution this Convention, which framed the Constitu- ratifled tion ' for the New Federal Union. The adop- tion of the Constitution required its ratification by nine States. When the ninth State ratified it on June 21, 1788, ' Slavery Compromises in the Constitution. —In appointing representatives to Congress from each State, some of the Southern States wished all the slaves to be counted. The Northern States opposed the counting of any of the slaves. Finally, it was agreed that in deciding the number of representatives from any slave State three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. The North, or commercial part of the country, wished the national government to have power to regulate commerce, but the South feared this power might be used to prohibit the slave trade. At last it was voted that Congress should have full control of commerce, but that importation of slaves should not be stopped before i8oS. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 191 preparations were immediately made for the organization of the new government. 183. Supporters and Opponents of the Constitution. — There was much opposition to the Constitution from men who honestly believed that too much power was ^^^ Federalists given to the national government. These men and the Anti- believed that the States should have most of p^''«""»*«- the power, as under the Confederation. Because they opposed the Federal Constitution they were called Anti- Federalists. The brilliant orator, Patrick Henry, belonged to this political party. Among the Federalists, or sup- porters "of the Constitution, were Washington, Hamilton, and Franklin, who firmly believed in a strong central gov- ernment to control all matters of national interest. After a long struggle between these political parties throughout the country, the Constitution was ratified by the various States, and thus the New Federal Union was established. TO THE PUPIL 1. The period from the close of the Revolution to the adoption of the Constitution has rightly been called the Critical Period. Ascertain the reason. 2. Why was there a delay in the adoption of the Articles of Confedera- tion ? What is meant by saying that Congress was merely an ad- visory body ? 3. What was the relation between Congress and the various States ? 4. Be sure that you get clear ideas about the following topics: Com- mercial war between the States ; Congress without power to regu- late commerce. 5. What financial difficulties did the Confederation have after the close of the Revolution ? What caused Shays's Rebellion ? 6. What claims were made by various States to the Northwest Terri- tory ? Why did Maryland object to these claims ? Name the lead- ing provisions in the Ordinance of 1787. 7. Can you now tell why the Confederation broke down ? Outline the events leading to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. What was the position taken by those who opposed the Constitu- tion.7 By those who supported it f 192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHRONOLOGY 1765. PASSAGE OP THE STAMP ACT. 1765. MEETING or STAMP ACT CONGRESS. 1767. NEW TAXES ON GLASS, LEAD, PAPER, AND TEA. 1768. BRITISH TROOPS QUARTERED IN BOSTON. 1770. BOSTON MASSACRE. 1773. DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON AND ELSEWHERE. 1774. BOSTON PORT BILL PASSED. THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS MEETS AT PHILADELPHIA. 1775- y^pril 19, FIGHT AT LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. May 10, CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA AND CROWN POINT. SECOND MEETING OI THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 1775. yune 15, WASHINGTON APPOINTED COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. yune 17, BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. November 12, MONTREAL TAKEN BY MONTGOMERY — ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC. December 30, DANIEL BOONE settles in KENTUCKY. 1776. January I, UNION FLAG RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. February 27, BATTLE OF MOORE'S CREEK BRIDGE. June, ARRIVAL OF BRITISH FLEET IN NEW YORK BAY. June 28, ATTACK ON FORT SULLIVAN, CHARLESTON, S. C. July 4, DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY CONGRESS. August 27, BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. September 15, AMERICANS ABANDON NEW YORK. October 28, BATTLE OF WHITE PLAINS. November 16, surrender of fort Washington. December 26, BATTLE OF TRENTON. 1777. January 3, BATTLE OF Princeton. June 14, FLAG OF STARS AND STRIPES ADOPTED BY CONGRESS. July 6, BURGOYNE CAPTURES TICONDEROGA. August 6, BATTLE OF ORISKANY. August 16, BATTLE OF BENNINGTON. September 11, BATTLE OF brand YWINE. October 4, BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN. October 17, SURRENDER OF BURGOYNI. HOWE OCCUPIES PHILADELPHIA. 1778. CONWAY CABAL. ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE. May, CLARK'S EXPEDITION TO ILLINOIS. June, ATTACK ON WYOMING. June 18, BMTISH LEAVE PHILADELPHIA. June 28, BATTLE OF MONMOUTH. July, ARRIVAL OF FRENCH FLEET UNDER d'eSTATNG. December 29, savannah taken by the British. 1779. September 22, fight between the bonhomme richard and the serapis. SULLIVAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST THE IROQUOIS. 1780. May, CAPTURE OF CHARLESTON BY THE BRITISH. August 16, BATTLE OF CAMDEN. September, Arnold's treason. 1781. January 17, BATTLE OF COWPENS. March 15, BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURTHOUSE. September 8, battle OF EUTAW SPRINGS. October 19, cornwallis's surrender at yorktown. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 193 178a. November 30, preliminary treaty of peace signed. 1783. September 3, FINAL TREATY OF PEACE WITH Grj;AI BRITAIN SIGNED. November 25, EVACUATION OF new York. December 4, Washington takes leave of his officers. 1784. JEFFERSON'S NORTHWEST ORDINANCE PROPOSED. 1786. SHAYS'S REBELLION. 1787. NORTHWEST TERRITORY ORGANIZED, AND ORDINANCE ADOPTED. May 25, CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION MET AT PHILADELPHIA. September 17, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES SIGNED BY THE DEL- EGATES. 1788. June 21, CONSTITUTION RATIFIED BY NEW HAMPSHIRE, SECURING ITS ADOPTION. CHAPTER XV THE NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL FEELING (1789-1829) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV.; An- drews's United States,,!. ; Walker's Making of the Nation ; Richardson's His- tory of Our Country ; Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress; Hale's Stories of Invention ; Coffin's Building the Nation ; Hart's Formation of the Union ; Channing's United States ; Eggleston's Household History ; Drake's Making the Great West; Drake's Making the Ohio Valley States ; Barnes's Popular History of the United States-; Burgess's Middle Period. OUTSIDE READINGS: McMaster's United States, I.-IV.; Hildreth's United States, IV.-VI.; Schouler's United States, I. ; Henry Adams's United States, I.-IX.; Brooks's First Across the Continent; Lossing's Field-book of the War of 1812; Roosevelt's Winning of the West, IV.; Roosevelt's Naval War of 181 2; Spears's History of Our Navy ; Wilson's A History of the American People, III. ; Thwaites's Rocky Mountain Exploration ; Hosmer's A History of the Mis- sissippi Valley; Hart's How Our Grandfathers Lived; Qordy's Political History of the United States, I.-IL ; Parton's General Jackson ; Johnston's American Politics ; Lodge's George Washington; Lodge's Alexander Hamilton ; Morse's Thomas Jefferson ; Wharton's Martha Washington ; Bolton's Famous Americans ; Qil- man's James Monroe; Magruder's John Marshall; Qay's James Madison; Schurz's Henry Clay ; Morse's John Quincy Adams. FICTION : Martlneau's Peasant and Prince ; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities ; Henty's In the Reign of Terror; Hale's Philip Nolan's Friends ; Hale's Man Without a Country ; Elggeston's Signal B6ys ; Eggleston's Captain Sam ; Eggleston's Big Brother ; Bynner's Zachary Phips ; Seawell's Little Jarvis ; Seawell's Midshipman Paulding. POETRY : Holmes's Ode for Washington's Birthday ; Key's Star Spangled Banner; Drake's American Flag; Holmes's God Save the Flag ; Holmes's Old Ironsides. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 184. Washington the First President, — It was natural that the people should wish George Washington to be 194 NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 195 the first President.' He stood for no party but was the choice of all the people, and he received the unanimous vote of the Presidential electors.* John Adams, of Massa- chusetts, was elected Vice-President. The inauguration had been planned for the first Wednesday in March, but travelling was so slow in those days that it was impossible for Congress to meet and count the electoral votes in time to have the inauguration before April 30. New York City was the capital of the country. The inauguration at Federal Hall was very impressive. The oath of office was solemnly taken, and the chancellor of New York, who had given it, then turned to the people and cried, " Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" The cry was taken up by the throng, who, amid their joyous shouts, had escorted Washington from his house in New York to Federal Hall on his way to deliver his first inaugural. 185. The Number and Distribution of the People. — According to the census of 1790 the population of the 'George Washington, first President of the United States (1789-1797), was born in Westmoreland County, Va., February 22, 1732, and died at Mount Vernon December 14, 1799. When he was eleven years old his father died, leaving the youth in care of a faithful and devoted mother. While at school George was pains- taking and careful with his work and excelled in such athletic sports as running, leaping, and wrestling. He was so true to himself and to others that he often acted as a judge in deciding disputes between his young friends. In 1759 he married a rich young widow, Mrs. Martha Custis, whose property, added to his own large estates at Mount Vernon, made him a man of much wealth. His bravery, patriot- ism, and military skill, as shown in the Last French War, led to his being chosen by the Continental Congress as Communder-in Chief of the American troops during the Revolution. By reason of his modesty he shrank from this service, for which he was admirably fitted. He refused to receive any pay during the entire Revolution. It may indeed be truly said that he proved himself indispensable to the success of the Americans in that war. He was a man of commanding presence and dignified man- ner. His success lay not in intellectual brilliancy, but in a well-balanced judgment, in a belief that right made might, and in a rare power of winning men's confidence. 2 Under Section I., Article II., of the Constitution, may be found the following : ' ' Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of jS'feforj' equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress." The people in the various States vote for these Presidential electors. The latter, called when taken to- gether the Electoral College, vote directly for President and Vice-President. 196 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES United States was nearly 4,ooo,CX)0 souls, about one-fifth of whom were negroes. Most of the people resided in the thirteen original States, not more than five per cent, being found west of the Alleghanies. The belt of settlement ex- tended from Maine to Florida, with an average width of two Well-settled hundred and fifty-five miles. The most densely regions. peopled regions were on the coast of Massa- chusetts, of southern New England, and of New York. Other well-settled regions included the Hudson River val- Washington's mansion — south and west fronts — mt. vernon, va. ley as far as Albany, the Mohawk valley, the route now fol- lowed by the Pennsylvania Railroad from New York across New Jersey to Philadelphia, and the river valleys of eastern Virginia. Virginia ranked first in population, having 532,000 in- habitants. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, with about . I 1 ai 330,000 each, stood next. There were no large commercial citics. The principal commercial centres centres. wcrc Philadelphia, with about 31,000; New York, with 23,000; Boston, with 15,000; Baltimore, with NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 197 Washington's bedroom, mt. vernon, va. 13,000, and Charleston, with nearly 11,000. All these five cities contained fewer people than Albany or Denver alone contains to-day. 186. Modes of Travel. — The people lived mainly along rivers or on the coast, because one of the easiest and most convenient methods of travel was by boat or simple conditions sailing packet. It is not easy for us to realize "* '"«• how simple the conditions of life were in those days. Imag- ine our being without steamboats, railroads, electric cars, telegraphs, and telephones, arid you will have an idea how slowly life moved in 1789. The best method of conveying passengers and goods by land was the clumsy old stage-coach. In Washington's first adminis- tration two stage-coaches and twelve horses were sufficient to accommodate all the people and carry all the goods passing between Boston and New York, two of the chief commercial cen- The old tres in the country. It took about as long to stage-coach, make the trip as it does now to travel from Boston to San Francisco, or from New York to Liverpool. In summer the stage could cover forty miles a day. In winter, when the snow lay upon the ground or the roads were heavy with mud, the distance was cut down to twenty-five miles a day. About ten o'clock at night the traveller reached the wayside inn, where he put up for the night. He was called at three o'clock the next morning in time to renew his journey for another eighteen hours. 187. Ferries. — There were no bridges spanning large rivers as there are now. In going by stage from Boston to Philadelphia the passenger had to be ferried across eight or ten rivers. In a high wind these crossings were very dangerous, owing to great blocks of floating ice. Not un- commonly the ferryboat was upset by a sudden gust of 198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES wind. The passage in winter from New York to Jersey City (then Paulus Hook) involved more risk than a trip from New York to Japan does now. 188. The Mails. — To-day a number of express trains daily carry mail in less than six hours from New York to Boston, but in Washington's time a postman carried the mail on horseback from New York to Boston three times a week in summer and twice in winter. It required six days to make the trip in sum- mer and nine in winter. A pair of saddle-bags suf- ficed to carry all the mail between these two com- mercial centres. Post- men carried mail from New York to Philadel- phia five times a week, and were two days in making the journey. In regions remote from business The post-rider centres an old man was often made post-rider. While his horse jogged leisurely along he would while away the lonely hours in knitting socks and mittens or in opening and reading the letters in the mail-bag. These clumsy methods of travel and communication kept the people ignorant of tl)Ose parts of the country which were not near them. The Massachusetts citizen knew very little about the citizen of South Carolina, and neither un- Lack of national derstood the Other. Under such conditions patriotism. there was much foolish prejudice in each State against people in other States, and but little attachment to the Union. We see, therefore, that the patriotism of those days was a State patriotism rather than a national patriotism. 189. Washington's Formality. — The Federalists in- cluded much the larger part of the wealthy and commer- SERVANTS' QUARTERS, MT. VERNON, VA. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 199 A MAIL CARRIER. cial classes, and were especially strong in the cities. They were aristocratic in their feelings and were inclined to imi- tate English social and official customs. Believing in a strong centra] gov- ernment, they wished the rres- Aristocratic feel- idential ings of the Fed- office to """»""• be one of great dig- ;; nity, Washington had seen something of the pomp and state of the royal govern- or's court in Virginia, and it seems to have appealed to his sense of fitness. He there- f ore surrounded himself with much ceremony. On state occasions he rode in a coach drawn by six horses, and on ordi- nary occasions in a coach drawn by four horses. When walk- ing on the street he was followed at a re- spectful distance by a body servant in liv- ery. Every Tuesday afternoon, from three to four o'clock, he held at the executive mansion a public reception, when he appeared in court dress, with powdered hair, a dress-sword at his side, and a cocked Washington at hat under his arm. Standing with his right public receptions, hand behind him, he bowed formally as his guests were pre- sented. Moreover, he allowed his birthday to be celebrated. A FAST MAIL — 1 876. A TWENTIETH CENTURY FLYER. 200 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES These things greatly displeased many people, who charged Washington with the desire to become king. They wished the President to dress plainly and to live as simply as an ordinary citizen. 190. The New Government. — Washington's first duty was to organize the new government. John Jay was ap- pointed first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The cabinet is most important, because its members are the heads of various executive depart- ments and aid the President in doing his official work. Washington chose for his cabinet four eminent citizens who represented both political par- ties. Thomas Jefferson became Sec- retary of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; General Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney-Gen- eral. 191. Hamilton and Jefferson the Two Great Political Leaders. — Hamilton was a stanch Federalist, but Jefferson was a bitter opponent of the Federalists. They became the respective leaders of the two political parties, and were soon engaged in a long and bitter struggle to carry out their views of government. The struggle was not personal. It was a struggle of prin- Shall the Federal ciplcs and did not end when Hamilton and or the state Gov- jgfferson passed out of public life. It con- zrnment be »u- r r preme? tinned until it brought on the great Civil War. Shall the Federal Government be supreme over the State ? Shall there be a liberal construction of the Consti- tution, so as to grant large powers to Congress and the President? Hamilton said "Yes;" Jefferson said "No." Jefferson feared that the Federal Government might be- come so strong as to rob the States of their powers and at last to drift into a monarchy. He believed that the general government had only such powers as were definitely JOHN JAY. AgtU, vi/AinqLX^rh 7e^m/nc77^> Age n. %t^t^^^^^t7i^^e^/7Aa ——' ^Si^ ,AgehU. .y^^^?.^^^^^^ exjfej^ X^ 2^ . ^y;zf^^^o-i^/7y^.. Four days before his death. Age 67, HOW WASHINGTON SIGNED HIS NAME AT VARIOUS AGES. 202 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES granted in the Constitution. In other words, he believed in a " strict construction " of the Constitution. 192. Hamilton's Plan for Establishing Credit. — The new government had many difficulties to face. The most Hamilton's finaa> serious and pressing of these were its debts, ciai policy. Xhe old Confederation had little credit at home or abroad. If the United States was to lift its head among the nations it must first find its footing in a firm financial policy. Alexander Ham- ilton had a wonderful insight and clear understanding in money mat- ters, and he brought his sound judgment to the support of the new government. He knew that the only way of gaining credit is by paying one's debts. He there- fore recommended that the United States assume in full all the debts of the Confederation, both foreign and domestic. In regard to thei foreign debt, Congress readily as- sented. After some discussion, it voted to pay also the domestic debt, or that owed to American citizens. But Hamilton was a very conservative man. He clung to old principles of government. He wished to establish a government of whose strength the nation need not be ashamed. In his plan for building up the nation's credit, therefore, he proposed that, besides its own debts, or the debts which had been handed down from the Confederation, the United States should assume the debts of the separate He recommendg States. The Union would thus establish a the payment of suprcmacv ovcr the separate States. As the tlie state debts r~. 1 ■ f 1 r 11 by tlie United State debts were mostly loans from wealthy states. Americans, these influential citizens would be attached as creditors to the Union. They would become directly interested in building up its financial credit. They ALEXANDER HAMILTON. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 203 would work to make the central government strong by giv- ing it a large taxing power with which to obtain a revenue to pay its debts. This part of the plan was novel and unexpected, and greatly alarmed the followers of Jefferson. They believed that the States should do a large part of the Jefferson's foi- governing. They dreaded more than all else IhrpaymTnTof a strong central government, because they the state debts, feared it might lead to a monarchy. They accused Hamil- ton of trying to rob the people of their rights by placing them under the rule of a king. Accordingl}', the followers of Jefferson opposed the payment of the State debts by the United States, and after a bitter struggle defeated Hamil- ton's scheme by a narrow majority. Later, however, in return for an agreement to locate the new capital, Washington, upon the banks of Washington the Potomac, the Jeffersonians conceded the made the capital. assumption of the State debts to the followers of Hamilton. The measure proved one of the wisest policies ever adopt- ed. It was a brilliant example of Hamilton's far-seeing statesmanship. 193. A Tariff Laid on Foreign Trade. — How to raise the money to pay all these debts was a serious question. At its first session, Congress laid an indirect tax upon ves- sels and certain kinds of goods coming into this country from foreign ports. This tax, or tariff, was not only for the purpose of raising a revenue, but also for protecting the young manufactories springing up at various points in the United States. As this tariff did not yield rev- Tax on spirituous enue enough for the country's need, a direct ''quo"- tax was laid later on spirituous liquors (1794). Direct taxes are not generally popular, and this one was no exception. It was an unpleasant reminder of the Stamp Act. We need not be surprised, therefore, that resistance was offered to this direct tax imposed by the new government. 194, The Whiskey Rebellion (1794). — The people of western Pennsylvania lived so far from business centres, which they could reach only by poor roads, that it was 204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES very expensive for them to transport their grain to market. There was more profit in making the grain into whiskey, which was much less bulky than the grain from which it was made. As the tax levied upon the whiskey lessened the profit of the farmers, they regarded this tax as unjust. They therefore refused to pay it, and severely handled offi- cers sent by the Government to see that it was enforced. The people rose in arms to resist the law, but Washington promptly sent a body of troops, which easily put down the insurrection. 195. The Invention of the Cotton-gin (1793). — The Whiskey Rebellion had merely a passing interest. Whit- ney's cotton-gin had a permanent influence upon our history. Let us now consider that re- markable invention. In 1793 Eli Whit- ney, a Massachu- setts man then liv- ing as a tutor at the home of General Greene's widow in Georgia, invented the cotton-gin. The influence of this in- vention upon cotton-growing, slavery, and the future his- tory of the country cannot be measured. Before that time cotton was not raised to any great extent in the South. Without the cotton-gin a slave could separate, in a day, the seeds from only a single pound of cotton fibre, but now, with the aid of the cotton-gin, he could in the same time separate the seeds from a thousand pounds. The value of slave labor was thus greatly increased, and the planter could afford to sell his cotton much cheaper than before. At once there was a great and increasing demand for cotton in English as well as Northern cotton-mills, and its A PRIMITIVE COTTON-GIN. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 205 culture became highly profitable. The general belief had been that slavery would gradually die out all over the country. It did not pay in the North, where there were no large plantations, and it was Results of the Invention of the cotton^-gln. in that re already disappear- ing. But now the cotton-growers in the South and the owners of cotton-mills in the North had a sel- fish interest in the insti- tution. For the owners of cotton-mills, like the planters, made money on the ever-increasing demand for cotton, the price of which had been greatly lessened by the cotton-gin. They all thought that cotton- raising could not be carried on successfully without slave- labor. Hence the demand from this time forward for more and more slaves in the cotton States. WHITNEY S FIRST COTTON-GIN. TO THE PUPIL 1. Note the fact that Washington was President for two terms, 1789-1797. 2. With your map before you, study carefully the distribution of the peo- ple in 1790. Why did the people live mainly along rivers or on the coast 7 3. Try to form vivid mental pictures of travel by the old stage-coach. How was the mail carried in 1790 ? How did the clumsy methods of travel and communication affect the attitude of the people in one State toward the people of another State ? On all these topics McMaster's History, L, will repay careful reading. 4. What classes of people were included in the Federalists ? Discuss Washington's formality. 5. What is meant by the Cabinet ? 6. " Shall the Federal Government be supreme over the States ? " What answer did Hamilton give ? Jefferson ? You may well keep this g^eat question in mind, for it will come up again and again in ao6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the subsequent periods of our history. As you will find later, dis< agreement about the answer led at last to Civil War. What is meant by " strict construction " of the Constitution f 7. What was Hamilton's financial policy? Why did he urge that the United States should assume the debts of the separate States ? Why did Jefferson's followers oppose this part of Hamilton's plan ? 8. Which do you think was right in his attitude toward the State debts, Hamilton or Jefferson ? Give reasons for your answer. 9. Review the difference between a direct and an indirect tax. What indirect tax was levied ? What was its purpose ? What direct tax was levied ? Why was it unpopular ? 10. What influence did the invention of the cotton-gin have upon the pro- duction of cotton by slave-labor ? Explainwhy the. Southern planters and the Northern cotton-mill owners had, from the time the cotton- gin was invented, a selfish interest in slavery. 11. For social life in New England and in other States read Coffin's Building the Nation. FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 196. A Period of Trial and Uncertainty for the Young Republic (1789-1815). — When in 1789 Washington became President, many intelligent people, both in Europe and America, doubted whether the Federal Union would live long. This was a reasonable doubt, for the young repub- Littie national ^^'^ ^^^ J^*- '^^^^ ^"""'«• treaty. But it did revive the confidence of the American people in the military ability of their soldiery when under competent leadership. 233. The Hartford Convention (December, 1814-Janu- ary, 1815). — From the outset New England Federalists had New England's been much opposed to the war. As it pro- dissatisfaction. gressed, their opposition became bitter. At first the government had not only appointed weak command- ers, but all along it had poorly managed the finances. It had oot protected the New England coasts from British attack, NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 237 and to New England merchants it had seemed indifferent about furnishing such protection. Commerce was practi- cally ruined, and there was much business distress. New England had bravely done its part in carrying on the war, Massachusetts having furnished much more than its share of men and money, but the Federalists in New England had no confidence in President Madison and his OLD STATE HOUSE, WHERE THE HARTFORD CONVENTION MET. government. At length they called together the Hartford Convention, which met at Hartford, in December, 1814. All the meetings were secret, and the peo- The people greatly pie throughout the country were greatly ex- excited, cited about the possible outcome. Democratic-Republi- cans openly charged the members with plotting to break up the Union and to form a separate government. As the proceedings were not published, nobody knows all that the Convention did. It did, however, take a bold and dangerous step toward the dissolution of what the Hartford the Union, by recommending that the pro- *^»"^*"*'»" '"<'• ceeds of the national taxes, collected in each New England State, should be reserved by it to pay troops for its own defence. This recommendation was extremely unwise. It 238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sounded much like the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799. The Hartford Convention was a great political blunder. It killed the Federalist party. 234. Treaty of Peace and Results of the War (Decem- ber 24, 1814). — The treaty of peace was agreed upon De- cember 24, 1814. No mention was made of impressment of seamen and the unjust interference with our commerce by the English navy. But the war put a stop to both evils, and had, in addition, three results: (i) It showed the supe- riority of American seamanship ; (2) it gave the United States a position of respect and honor among the nations of the world; (3) it led the Americans, who had been for so many years cut off from the manufactured goods of Europe, to build mills and factories for themselves and thus become more independent of European manufactures than ever be- fore. Well may this war be called the Second War of Inde- pendence. In the Revolution Americans fought for inde- pendence of England; in the War of 1812 they fought for independence of Europe. TO THE PUPIL 1. What complaints did we make against England about searching American vessels and impressing American seamen ? What com- plaints did England enter against us ? 2. How did England and France injure American commerce ? What^was Jefferson's purpose in securing the passage of the Embargo Act i" What was the Embargo ? How did it affect American commerce ? 3. Why was there more commerce carried on in New England than in the South ? Why was the Embargo Act repealed ? 4. James Madison, our fourth President, was inaugurated March 4, 1809, and served two terms, 1809-1817. Name in order the three Presi- dents who preceded him. 5. What led to Tecumseh's conspiracy ? What V7ere the results of the battle of Tippecanoe ? What had Tecumseh's conspiracy to do with our trouble with England ? 6. What was Napoleon's trick, and how did its success lead to increasing trouble with England ? Why did the Federalists oppose a war with England ? Why did the Democratic-Republicans favor such a virar ? 7. Subject for debate : Resolved that in 1812 we should have gone to war with France rather than with England. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 239 8. Why had we so small a navy in 1812 ? Compare it with the English navy at that time. 9. Give an account of the fight between the " Constitution " and the "Guerrifere." How great was the success of the American navy in the first six months of the war 7 Hovr do you account for this success ? 10. What disasters fell upon our armies in the Northvrest in 1812-13 ? What led to the battle of Lake Erie? Imagine yourself with Perry during the battle, and write to a friend, giving an account of your experiences. What were the results of Perry's victory ? 11. What was the threefold plan of attack made by the British in 1814 ? Give the results of McDonough's victory on Lake Champlain. 12. What was the object of the British in trying to capture New Orleans ? Give the results of the battle. In what ways were the Americans superior to the English in this and in other battles of the war ? 13. Why were New England Federalists bitterly opposed to the Em- bargo 7 How was their dissatisfaction increased during the war f What recommendation did the Hartford Convention make P Com- pare this recommendation with the Kentucky and Virginia resolu- tions of 1798 and 1799. You observe that even in 1814 true national feeling was not strong and deep in the United States. Name three results of the war. 14. Learn well the story of The Star-Spangled Banner's origin and then memorize the poem. Read again and again Drake's American Flaer and Holmes's Old Ironsides. DEVELOPMENT WEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES 235. Purchase of Florida. — At the close of the Revolu- tion Florida had passed into the hands of Spain. During the War of 1812 the Spaniards were in sympathy with the English, and allowed them to build forts in Florida and to arm the Seminole Indians living there. This xheSeminoie unfriendly attitude of the Spaniards embit- Indians protect tered the Southern States. Moreover, many """^^^y «'«ves. slaves, escaping from Georgia and Alabama, fled into the swamps and morasses of Florida, and there found protec- tion among the Seminole Indians, with whom they married and lived. The slave-owners often followed in search of their slaves, and for years carried on a kind of border warfare. As Spain did not set matters right. General Andrew Jackson was 240 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sent down (1817) with a body of troops. Jackson acted with his usual decision and energy. He hanged two Ind- ian chiefs, and two Englishmen whom he ac- Jackson In Florida, ir--x- ^lo -i tt i j cused of incitmg the Semmoles. He captured Pensacola and established a garrison there. These acts were open war against Spain, but trouble was avoided by our buying Florida. The purchase was made in 1819, for $5,000,000. The territory was more than twelve times the size of Connecticut.* 236. The Monroe' Doctrine (1823). — Having watched the United States win independence from England and then become strong and prosperous, Mexico and the other Spanish colonies in America rose in revolt against Spain. One after another they declared their independence and set up republics of their own. Spain was unable of herself Spain and the to cnforce authority, and looked for aid to the "Holy Alliance." «' Holy Alliance." This alliance had been formed in 1815, after the downfall of Napoleon, by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Its purpose was to prevent the peo- ,ple of any European monarchy from overthrowing the gov- ernment, as the French people had done during the French Revolution. From the American standpoint, if the great European powers should begin to interfere with the coun- tries of America, they might, by obtaining a foothold here, endanger the welfare of the United States. The experiment of twenty-five years of struggle between the United States on the one hand and England and France ' The area of Connecticut, being 4,990 or approximately 5,000 square miles, makes a very convenient unit of measurement. It will hereafter be so used in many cases. 'James Monroe, fifth President of the United States (1817-1825), was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1758, and died in 183 1. Soon after his student life began at the College of William and Mary, he was called away to active service in the Revolution. He fought bravely at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He filled many high stations in his country's ser- vice, not only at home, where he was a member of the Continental Congress, and later of the Senate under the Constitution, but abroad, where he was minister to France, England, and Spain. After being Secretary of State Uiider Madison, he was elected President. In all his public service he proved himself a patriotic and upright citizen. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 241 The "Monroe Doctrine." on the other had culminated in the War of 181 2. We had thus learned the wisdom of keeping out of European entanglements. We had learned, also, the wisdom of man- aging our own affairs without the intervention of England, France, or any other European country. President Mon- roe, therefore, in a message to Congress at this time, declared (i) that we would take no part in European wars; (2) that we would not interfere with any European colonies already established in America; (3) but that any attempt on the part of a European nation to interfere with the independence of an Ameri- can state would be regarded as an unfriendly act.^ This statement of our position gave expression to the general American sentiment which has since become known as the " Monroe Doctrine." It was a strong position to take, but the valor of Perry on Lake Erie, of McDonough on Lake R^,„,t, „, ^he Champlain, of Jackson "Monroe at New Orleans, and of D'-^f'"*-" the American sailors on the sea, had won the respect and admiration of Europe. The Holy Alliance wisely refrained from med- dling with American affairs ; a precedent was established ; and the Monroe Doctrine has ever since been the settled policy of the United States. 237. The National Road. — The Monroe Doctrine prac- tically settled the foreign policy of the United States ; but there remained a question at home which appeared almost to defy solution. From early colonial times two obstacles JAMES MONROE. * We find a similar sentiment expressed in Washington's Farewell Address, from which the following is quoted : " The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. . . . It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world." 242 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES had stood in the way of westward migration. These were the Indians and the natural barriers to travel and transporta- Two obstacles to ^ion. By the overthrow of Tecumseh's con- westward migra- spiracy in the Northwest and of the Creeks in """■ the Southwest, the power of the Indians in the eastern part of the Mississippi River had been broken. This vast, fertile area was now open to migration. People from New England and the Northern States be- gan to move westward in large and increasing numbers. The steamboat greatly aided this westward movement, but The steamboat ^^^ stcamboat was of use only on the rivers and the pack- and lakes. It was necessary for men and all ''°''*'" kinds of movable property to pass over wide stretches of country through which navigable rivers did not flow. The pack-horse of early days needed only a path through the woods, but the emigrant called for a roadway to connect the East and the West. Hence the "National Road," beginning on the banks of the Potomac, at Cumber- land, Maryland, was undertaken at national expense. The first contract was let in 1811. By 1820 the road was extended over the mountains to Wheeling, where it connected with the steamboats on the Ohio. The original purpose was to build this road to the Mississippi. But by the time it reached Illinois (1838) the coming of the rail- road made its farther extension unnecessary. It helped much in furthering emigration and westward growth. For the construction and repair of this road Congress spent nearly seven million dollars. 238. The Natural Boundary Line Between Freedom and Slavery.— Nature had decreed that the large plantation should have no place in the North. Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio River formed the convenient and natural boundary line between the free and the slave States as far west as the Mississippi River. North of that line slaves were of use mainly as house- hold servants. It was thought that other kinds of work could be done with greater profit by white labor. In all this northern area, therefore, there were comparatively few NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 243 slaves. But south of that line the soil and climate were favorable to the growth of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco. The successful cultivation of these great giaver in the staples called for an abundance of cheap North and in the labor always at hand when needed. Slavery south. fulfilled these conditions. Moreover, it was assumed that the negroes, if set free, would not work, and hence slavery seemed to the Southern planter necessary for his highest prosperity. Since the freeing of the slaves, this assumption has been shown to be incorrect, but it was none the less believed in the South before the Civil War. 239. The Question of the Extension of Slavery into the Louisiana Territory. — Before the Louisiana Purchase, then, soil and climate seem to have largely decided what should be the line separating freedom from slavery. Seven of the thirteen original States were free and six were slave, but the admission of new ones had been so planned that in 1819 there were eleven standing for freedom and the same number for slavery. In this way each section had an equal vote in the Senate. In the House of Repre- The south eager sentatives the North, having grown in popu- *q^Ht"ytn"the lation much faster than the South, had by senate. 1819 a much larger vote.* If, however, the South could maintain an equality in the Senate, legislation unfriendly ' REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS IN 182O. No. Free States. Ad- mitted. Sen- ate. House of Rep. No. Slave States. Ad- mitted. Sen- 1 House ate. of Rep. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 Pennsylvania. . . New Jersey Connecticut Massachusetts. . New Hampshire New York Rhode Island.. Vermont Ohio 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788' 1790 1791 1803 1816 1818 1820 2 ■2. 2 . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 23 6 7 13 6 27 2 6 6 I I 7 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Delaware Georgia Maryland South Carolina Virginia North Carolina Kentucky Tennessee Louisiana . . . Mississippi . . . Alabama Missouri 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788- 1789 1792 1796 l8l2 1817 1818 182I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 9 9 23 13 ID 6 I Indiana Illinois Maine. ... I I I 12 Free 24 105 12 Slave 24 82 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to slavery could be prevented, and to this end the slave- holders were ready to put forth all their energy. 240. The Missouri Compromise (1820).— In 1818 Mis- souri, a part of the Louisiana Purchase, applied for admission into the Union. The first State admitted from this purchase, Louisiana, had come in as a slave State in 1812, but it was far south of the line dividing freedom and slavery as al- ready established. Missouri, however, lay partly north of this dividing line and partly south. The Northern people claimed that as Attitude of the Congress had control North and the ^f jhc Territories it South toward , . ... slavery in Mis- had a Constitutional SO"'*- right to decide whether they should be free or slave. The Southern people, on the other hand, insisted that each State had a consti- tutional right to decide this question for itself. When applying for admission the people of Missouri had requested that they might have slavery. It happened that about the same time Maine wished to be admitted as a free State. The slaveholders, there- fore, refused to allow Maine to enter the Union unless Missouri should be admitted as a slave State. The strug- gle was long and bitter. At last, largely through the in- fluence of Henry Clay, an act known as the " Missouri Compromise" was passed, which, for the time, settled the difficulty. This compromise had two provisions : (i) Missouri was to come into the Union as a slave State ; (2) all the remain- The two provis- ing territory in the Louisiana Purchase, north Irri^c^prT" of the parallel of 36° 30', or the southern raise. boundary of Missouri, was to be forever free. Maine was admitted as a free State in 1820, and Missouri as a slave State in 182 1, making twelve free and twelve slave HENRV CLAY, "THE GREAT PEACEMAKER." NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 245 States. It was supposed that the slavery difficulty was for- ever settled. "Forever" in this case meant only about twenty-five years. 241. The Erie Canal (1817-1825).* — Transportation over- land, from east to west, by means of wagons and draught animals was slow and expensive. Some better means of travel and communication between the Altantic coast and the Mississippi valley had therefore become a necessity. This necessity suggested to the thoughtful mind of DeWitt Clinton the building of a canal to connect the Great Lakes with the eastern seaboard. So in 18 17, through his untir- ing energy, a large body of laborers began the task of dig- ging the Erie Canal. It extended from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to Albany, on the Hudson, a distance of three hundred and sixty-three miles. As Lake Erie is nearly six hundred feet higher than the level of the Hudson, and as the canal had Difficulties in to pass through forests and over rivers, many building tiie canai. people looked upon the scheme as a foolish venture. By way of ridicule they called the canal " Clinton's Ditch." But Clinton's perseverance overcame all opposition, and the Erie Canal was ready for use in 1825. It was built at the expense of the State of New York, and was easily paid for by tolls levied on boats and goods passing through it. 242. Results of the Construction of the Erie Canal. — The results of constructing the Erie Canal surpassed the • The Erie Canal was opened in the autumn of 1825, the first year of John Quincy Adams's adrninistration. John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams and the sixth President of the United States (1825-1829), was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1767, and died in 1848. After graduating from Harvard he began the study of law. His public service was long and distinguished. He was not only American minister to Holland, Portugal, England, Prussia, and Russia, but was one of the American peace commissioners at the close of the War of 1 8 1 2. After serving with signal ability as Monroe's Secretary of State, he was elected to the presidency. As President he was unpopular and made many enemies. But the greatest part of his career began when he entered the national House of Representatives in 1831. Here he became the anti-slavery statesman of his time. His fearlessness won the admira- tion of friend and foe alike. He remained a member of the House until 1848, when he fell dead in the Capitol. He was well called the " Old Man Eloquent." 246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES highest expectations, even of Clinton, (i) Cost of transpor- tation was reduced. Before the canal was in use $10 was paid for carrying a barrel of flour from Buffalo to Albany by wagon. By canal-boat the expense was reduced to thirty cents per barrel. (2) Since the canal made travel easier and less expensive, it increased migration westward. Before the building of the New York Central Railroad it carried thousands of emigrants. (3) All along the canal towns and cities rapidly grew up, so that New York soon became the most populous State in the Union. (4) It greatly stimulated the devel- opment of New York city, which shortly became, as it has since re- mained, the chief commercial city in the country. (5) By largely reduc- ing the freight charges for transpor- tation of goods it made the food produced on Western farms much cheaper in the East, and for the same reason it caused manufactured goods from the East and imported goods from Europe to sell for lower prices in the West. It therefore increased the wealth of both the East and the West. 243. Internal Improvements. — The National Road and the Erie Canal were a part of an extensive system of inter- nal improvements which were of great service in develop- ing the West and connecting it with the East. This system included not only the building of roads and canals, but the improvement of rivers and harbors. Some of these roads and canals were built by private enterprise and some by Two ways of ^^^ Separate States. The cost of building making internal and keeping them in repair was met by toll Improvements. charges. Many people believed that Con- gress had a right to make internal improvements at the ex- pense of the whole people. Many others insisted that such improvements should be made by private companies or- by JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, THE ANTI-SLAVERY STATES- MAN. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 247 the separate State governments. These last urged that the " general welfare " ' of the people was not served by build- ing roads and canals and by improving rivers and harbors, which directly benefited limited areas only. They there- fore argued that such works should not be undertaken by the general government at national expense. This was the view of those who gave a strict construc- tion to all parts of the Constitution. Madison, Monroe, and Jackson were of this party. Those who gave a broad construction to the Constitution said that this power was implied in the following clause : " The Congress shall have power to rnake all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States" (Article I., Section 8, Clause 18). This has rightly been called the " Elastic Clause." The ■■ Elastic The " River and Harbor Bill," passed every ciause." year for the improvement of rivers and harbors in all parts of the country, shows that Congress to-day gives a liberal construction to the Constitution. 244. New Problems and a New Political Party. — The best way of making internal improvements was a new problem for the people to solve, but there were other prob- lems equally difficult. The Alien and Sedition laws had seriously injured the Federalist party; the The era of good Hartford Convention had killed it, leaving feeling, the Democratic-Republicans as the only political party in the country. From 1817 to 1825, during Monroe's adminis- tration, this singular condition of affairs prevailed, and this period has ever since been known as the " Era of Good Feeling." But the new problems that soon presented themselves led to the rise of a new political party and involved three pressing and vital questions: (i) Shall inter- Three pressing nal improvements be made by Congress at questions, national expense ? (2) Is the United States Bank constitu- tional? (3) Is the true policy of the country a tariff for ' See preamble of the Constitution, 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES revenue only or a high tariff for the protection of home industries? The Democrats, as the Democratic-Repub- licans now began to call themselves, believed in leaving internal improvements to private enterprise or to State governments. They regarded the Bank of the United States as unconstitutional. They favored a low tariff. The new party wished internal improvements to be made at national expense, approved the United States The National Re-' Bank, and urged that a high protective tariff publican party. ^as for the best interests of the people. Be- cause this new party favored the strengthening of the na- tional government in these three ways it was called the National Republican Party. TO THE PUPIL 1. Jaraes^Monroe was now President, serving two terms, l8i7-l82S' 2. What difficulties led to the purchase of Florida ? 3. What vras the Holy Alliance, and what was its connection with the Monroe Doctrine t Name the three main provisions of this Doctrine. Try to understand clearly the meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. It will come up again later. 4. Before the purchase of Louisiana, what was the natural boundary line between free and slave territory? Explain how soil and climate favored slavery south of Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio River. 5. Why was the South eager to maintain in the Senate an equality with the North? What difficulty was settled by the Missouri Com- promise ? What was this Compromise ? 6. Review what has been said about the pack-horse, the flat boat, the steamboat, and the National Road. In what way did the Erie Canal supplement these ? Do not be satisfied until you know well the re- sults of constructing this canal, especially the last one named in the text. 7. John Quincy Adams, who served for one term, 1825-1829, was now President. 8. What was meant by internal improvements ? Why were they greatly needed at this time ? What two views were held as to the best way of making internal improvements ? 9. You see you are again face to face with the two opposite views of the true meaning of the Constitution. What were these views ? What is the ■< Elastic Clause " ? NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 249 10. What were the new political problems, and what the pressing ques- tions they involved ? What was the new political party, and how did it answer each of these questions ? How did the Democratic party answer them ? 11. In this connection you might well review what you have already studied about political parties. You will recall two great mistakes made by the Federalist party. Make frequent use of the index. 12. Read Washington's Farewell Address and the message containing the Monroe Doctrine. CHAPTER XVI JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST (1829-1841) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV.; An- drews's United States, I.; Burgess's Middle Period; Wright's Children's S'ories of American Progress; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Coffin's Build- ing the Nation ; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS : Schouler's United States, III. and IV. ; Rhodes's The United States, I.; Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Sumner's Andrew Jaclcson; Lodge's Daniel Webster; Von Hoist's John C. Calhoun; Schurz's Henry Clay ; Morse's John Quincy Adams ; Johnston's American Orations (Webster and Hayne); Bolton's Famous American Statesmen; Teft's Webster and His Masterpieces. FICTION : Eggleston's Hoosier Schoolmaster ; Eggleston's Graysons. 245. Character of Andrew Jackson.* — The six Presi- dents that preceded Jackson came from Virginia or Massa- chusetts. They were all men of culture and stood for what was best in the social life of New England and the South. Andrew Jackson was of a different type. He represented the frontier life of the West. His education had been meagre, but he was a man of much ability and of strong and forceful character. He was a natural leader of men and had occupied many positions of trust in the community in which he lived. His unbounded ' Andrew Jackson, seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), was born in Union County, North Carolina, in 1767, and died at his home, "The Her- mitage," near Nashville, in 1845. When only fourteen years old he joined the American force under Sumter. After the Revolution he began to study law. At the age of twenty-nine he removed to Nashville and soon became prominent in pub- lic life. He was elected to the national House of Representatives, and later to the Senate. In 1814 he was appointed major-general in the United States army and in this position won the brilliant victory at the battle of New Orleans. On account of his obstinate will his friends called him ' ' Old Hickory, " Z50 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 251 faith in his own convictions caused him to commit some errors as President. But he was always sincere and in- tensely patriotic. He was loyal to his friends, but severe upon his enemies. His personal prejudices and his jealousy for the nation were so intense that he regarded those dis- agreeing with him as not only enemies to himself but to his country. His genuine interest in the welfare of the people cannot be questioned. During- the eight years of his Presidency (i 829-1 837) his influence upon the course of events was a a man of the personal one. He was people, in a true sense a man of the people, who cheerfully followed wherever he led. 246. The Spoils System. — When Jackson became President he desired to reward those political friends who had worked faithfully for his elec- tion. Moreover, he believed in the rights of the people, and did not deem it democratic to allow any set of men to remain long in office to the exclusion of others just as worthy. He therefore decided to adopt the more democratic principle of "rotation in office." "To the victors belong the spoils," was his motto. He accordingly turned out of office two thousand postmasters* and other officials, „ ^ . , , , . . Rotation in office. although their work was rn no way con- nected with politics. Jackson appointed his own follow- ers to positions which he had made vacant by removal. He appointed them because they were his followers and not because they had a special fitness for the official work they were to do. This was the introduction into national ' During the forty years from 1789 to 1829, there had been only 74 removals, or, on an average, less than two a year. Of these, Washington had made 9 ; John Adams, 10 ; Jefferson, 39 ; Madison, 5 ; Monroe, 9 ; John Quincy Adams, 2. ANDREW JACKSON. T/ie Union! It must and sJtall be preserved 1" 252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES politics of the " Spoils System." The system, until 1883, had full sway in the country, and has had a most demoral- izing influence on the political life of the nation. 247. "A Tariff for Revenue with Incidental Protec- tion." — It will be remembered that during the time of the Embargo and the War of 1812 the country, being cut off from foreign trade, was obliged to build its own mills and factories to produce whatever manufactured goods were needed for home use. As the streams flowing down New England hillsides furnished excellent water-power, the busi- ness men of that region gradually invested their capital in manufacturing instead of commerce; Until 1816 duties had been levied on goods from foreign countries mainly for revenue to pay the expenses of the national government. These duties furnished only incidental protection to Ameri- can manufacturers. Such a system of duties is called "a tariff for revenue with incidental protection." 248. A Protective Tariff. — After the war closed, how- ever, and trade was resumed with foreign countries, our iih odsin markets became flooded with foreign goods, American mar- especially from England. Labor was so much ''***■ cheaper in England than in this country that her merchants could sell goods to the United States at a lower price than American manufacturers could afford to sell them. Our manufacturers naturally called for a higher tariff on the goods that could be made to advantage in American mills and factories. These imported goods would then cost so much in the United States that the American manu- facturer could afford to undersell the foreigner and still make a profit. Such a tariff is said to encourage home in- dustries, or to protect American manufacturers from for- eign competition. It is therefore called a protective tariff. 249. South Carolina Objects to a High Protective Tariff. — The first protective tariff was laid in 18 16. It was too moderate. The duties were so low that foreign mer- chants could pay them and still fill our markets with their goods. The New England manufacturers could not thrive JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 253 under such conditions and urged Congress to raise the duties. These were therefore gradually in- The high tariHoi creased until the high tariff of 1828 was passed, '^as. The industrial conditions of the South were so different from those of the North that manufacturing had no place there. The people of the South were almost „ , . , , , , . . Slavery and the exclusively employed in raising on their plan- four great staple* tations the four great staples: rice, sugar, cot- ••* t*"* ^o"*''- ton, and tobacco. The slaves were not intelligent enough to be employed in manufacturing. They were adapted only to agricultural labor. Such a difference in industrial conditions between the North and the South was decidedly unfortunate. The conflicting business interests of the two sections brought about a seri- ous disagreement in regard to the tariff system. The Southern people had to buy all the manufactured goods they used, and naturally wished to buy them at as low prices as possible. They claimed the right The south desires to import foreign ^ ;&^^bs3 ^ , 1.-, -,v.,-, -vi M ^ tX>i? # -# 1 V -V r V 1 .. ILJ---i "~i r 260. Speculation in Western Lands. — Extensive areas of Western public lands, offered at low prices, filled men with the fever of speculation. Plans were laid to buy up large tracts and connect them with the East by roads, canals, and railroads. It required a great amount of money to establish all these great lines of communication started up by the railroads, but the demand was easily met after the " removal of de- posits," for then the public money was dis- tributed among many State banks, and was more accessible to bor- rowers. Loans could now be obtained, and here and there cities were laid out in the West. Then by the sale of these lands, at an enormous advance in price, the speculators became suddenly wealthy. For- tune-making seemed so easy that men took great risks with borrowed money. 261. Wild-cat Banking. — The increasing demand for money led to " wild-cat" banking. A few men with little or no capital to make good the notes they issued, would start a bank by issuing cheaply printed bills (notes) which they circulated under the name of money. After buying public lands from the government at high prices and paying for them with these notes, they would sell their lands for gold and silver. When, however, their own notes returned to be redeemed in gold and silver, these dishonest bankers would fail, and, in some cases, go elsewhere and repeat their swindling operations. 262. The United States Free from Debt.— Of course this speculation in government lands made it easy for the United States to pay the public debt. Whereas, in 1830, the sum received for these lands was $2,300,000, six years A MOHAWK & HUDSON CAR OF I83I. JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 261 A RAILWAY COACH OF 183O. later it reached nearly $25,000,000. We need not be sur- prised, then, that by the end of 1835 the public debt was paid. The apparent prosperity made foreigners eager to emigrate from Europe to this country, and they came in large numbers (see table, page 274). 263. State Speculation in Internal Improvements.— After the public debt was paid there was a large surplus, $28,000,000 of which was distributed among the vari- ous States. It was now very easy for State govern- ments, especially where the "pet banks" were located, to get money for carrying out their extensive plans, and these governments in- vested large sums in in- ternal improvements. Not satisfied with what their States supplied, they began to borrow largely from foreign countries. By 1837 these foreign debts amounted to nearly two hundred million dollars. Of course the loans from foreign countries made money all the more plentiful, and the fever of speculation raged more fiercely than ever. 264. The Specie Circular. — Such reckless speculation could not fail to bring disaster. The wild-cat banks h^d issued so many paper promises, based upon nothing more solid than the people's willingness to receive them, that, like the Continental currency, they became worthless. Jackson was alarmed at the amount of this worthless paper coming into the United States Treasury. He therefore issued the famous Specie Circular, which declared that in the future nothing but specie, or gold and silver, should be received in payment for these lands. Wild-cat bank-notes were no longer of any use in buying and selling public lands. These notes went streaming back to the Eastern banks that had issued them, for redemption in gold and silver. Since the banks were without the gold 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and silver to make good these printed promises, the prom- ises were worth nothing and could not be redeemed. 265. The Financial Panic of 1837.'— Of course there at once arose a great cry for money. Men tried to sell stocks, houses, lands— in fact every kind of property— to raise money to pay their debts. AH wanted to sell. None cared to buy. As always happens under such conditions, prices went down with astonishing rapidity. There were exten- sive business failures, and rich men became poor. Mills and fac- tories shut down because they could not sell their goods. La- boring men were thereby thrown out of work, and their families suffered for lack of food. Soon there were bread riots in the streets of New York, ft was a terrible time and has always been known as the " Panic of 1837. ' 266. The Independent Treas- ury. — As mentioned above, many of the States had made extensive foreign loans for the purpose of building roads, canals, and rail- roads. When caught by the great some States refused to pay the interest on these loans, and some went so far as to refuse Repudiation of to pay either principal or interest. Such a state debts. refusal On the part of a State to pay its debts is called repudiation. In the midst of this financial distress MAKTIN VAN BUREN. financial panic of 1837, ■ Martin Van Buren, eighth President of the United States, was born at Kin- derhook, New York, in 1782, and died in 1862. After he had received his train- ing as a lawyer he began, at only eighteen years of age, his long political career He represented New York in the Senate and afterward served his State as Gov- ernor. ^Vhen Jackson was elected President he made Van Buren his Secretary of State. During Jackson's second term Van Buren was Vice-President. In 1837 the latter became President, but owing to the unpopularity of his administration he failed to be re-elected. He was eminent not only as a lawyer but also as a political leader. JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 263 the " pet banks " were unable to pay the Federal Govern- ment the public money which it had deposited in them. The government being greatly embarrassed, President Van Buren, Jackson's successor, was obliged to call a spe- cial session of Congress to adopt some plan for getting money to pay the running expenses of the government.- Congress authorized the Treasury Department to issue $10,000,000 in notes. The wisdom of having an independ- ent treasury instead of a number of State Banks for the safe-keeping of all the public money, was now evident. By 1846 it had become the settled policy of the United States to have a national treasur}' which should take care of all the money paid to the government. This independent treasury is at Washington, while there are nine branches known as subtreasuries distributed in various commercial centres.' 267. The Public School System and the Newspaper As life began to move at a quicker pace people began to think more actively, and to take a larger interest in things outside of their immediate surroundings. In the newer States there was such a democratic feeling Manhood suf. that every man was made a voter.' Manhood ' *"k*- suffrage, adopted in all the West, soon spread to the older communities of the East. All the people, coming into full control of public affairs, began to feel a deep interest in po- litical life. It thus became a necessity to educate men to an intelli- gent conception of their duties toward the State and so- ciety. This led to a great improvement in the public school systems, especially in the newer States. If the people were to be rulers they must have intelligence and virtue enough to rule wisely. In this period the modern news- paper may be said to have been born. The New York Sun (1833) and the New York Herald (1835) became more ener- ' These are located in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Bos- ton, St. Louis, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Baltimore. ' In the earlier years the suffrage was in many ways restricted in the older States. 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES getic than before in collecting news, were printed in a more convenient form, and were sold at lower prices. From that time the daily newspaper has had a great influence in mould- ing public opinion. 268. Other Aids to Progress. — Other aids to progress were furnished in the establishment of trartsatlantic steam- ship lines and in the invention of the McCormick reaping- machine. The Savannah, sailing from Savannah, Georgia, in 1 8 19, was the first ocean steamship to cross the Atlantic. In 1838 two English steamships, the Sirius and the Great West- ern, sailed from England to New York. Two years later the first regular transatlantic steamship line, between New York and Liverpool, was established. This was the begin- ning of the well-known Cunard Line. Ocean steamship traffic greatly stimulated European immigration to this country. The McCormick reaping machine, which came into use in 1834, was destined to have a large influence upon the development of the West. By making farm-work easier and more profitable, it stimulated emigration to the fertile Western lands.' 269. The Temperance Movement.— There was so much pauperism and general demoralization during the years fol- lowing the War of 1812 that people became alarmed and began to inquire the cause. Investigating committees re- ported that drinking was the most fruitful source of the evil. Everybody drank — ministers, doctors, merchants, la- borers, and even women and children. An occasion was never wanting ; at funerals, weddings, dinners, and when- ever friends met, the social glass flowed. In 1824 there began in Boston a great national move- ment which swept through the Union. Its principle was abstinence from strong drink. By 1830 a thousand temper- ance societies had been formed and hundreds of merchants had given up the sale of liquor. Temperance societies in- creased in number and influence, saving hundreds of thou- ' In 1838, matches, adding much to the comfort and convenience of household life, came into successful use. JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 265 sands of men from the curse of the drinking habit. From that time the cause of temperance has steadily gained ground. TO THE PUPIL 1. You have now reached an important chapter in your nation's history. Study it carefully. Since 1829 the influence of the West has been very great. You will therefore add 1829 to the following land- marks : 1789, 1803, 1812-1814, 1820. Review the meaning of these dates. 2. Are you still grouping less important events about the more impor- tant ? 3. Andrew Jackson was President for two terms, 1829-1837. Name in order the Presidents who preceded him. What ■was the secret of Jackson's large influence over the people ? Name his most striking characteristics. 4. What was the " Spoils System " ? What did Jackson mean by saying that it was democratic ? How did he apply this system to the na- tional civil service ? What is the civil service ? Do you think Jackson was wise, or unwise, in introducing the "Spoils System " into national politics ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. Review the tariff measure enacted when Washington was President. What was its double purpose ? What is meant by " a tariff for revenue, with incidental protection"? 6. Recall the effect which the Embargo and the War of 1812 had upon the growth of manufacturing in New England. Why could English goods be sold at a lower price than American ? What is a protective tariff? 7. Why did South Carolina object to a high protective tariff? What difference was there in the industrial conditions of the North and the South ? 8 On what ground did Calhoun declare that the protective tariff was unconstitutional ? What was his idea of the Union ? Define nulli- fication and State rights. 9. What arguments did Northern manufacturers advance in favor of a protective tariff ? What was Webster's idea of the Union ? Find out all you can about the personality of these noted statesmen. 10. What was Jackson's feeling toward nullification ? How did he ex. press this feeling in a toast and in a message he sent to friends in South Carolina ? 11. What action was taken by the State Convention in South Carolina ? What did Jackson do when he heard of South Carolina's bold step ? 12. Subject for debate: Resolved, that a protective tariff was for the best interests of the country as a whole. 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 13. What was the purpose of the United States Bank ? What three charges did Jackson bring against it ? What is meant by his " re- moval of deposits " and by " pet banks " ? 14. What results followed the building of railroads ? Discuss the rapid growth of the West. Why was there extensive speculation in Western lands, and how did the "removal of deposits " make such speculation easier? 15. What was wild-cat banking ? How did speculation affect the pay- ment of the public debt ? What effect did the payment of the public debt have upon foreign immigration ? Can you now explain the re- lation of the railroad to Western development and to speculation in Western lands ? 16. What led Jackson to issue the specie circular ? How did it help to bring on the financial panic of 1837 ■* 17. What is the independent treasury ? 18. Prepare yourself to write from three to five minutes on any of the fol- lowing topics : The public schools, the newspaper, and the temper- ance movement. 19. Read Webster's famous " Reply to Hayne " and memorize some of the most eloquent passages. CHAPTER XVII THE SLAVERY QUESTION {184I '-l8S9)» REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV. ; An- drews's United States, II. ; Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress Burgess's Middle Period; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Ricliardson's History of Our Country ; Coffin's Building the Nation. OUTSIDE READINGS: Rliodes's United States, I. and II.; Schouler's United States, IV. and V.; Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Draper's Civil War, I.; Ropes's Story of the Civil War; Hart's Romance of the Civil War; Brigham's Geographic Influence in American History; Goldwin Smith's United States; Johnston's American Orations, II. and III.; Bolton's Famous American Statesmen ; Trent's William Gilmore Simms; Grant's Personal Memoirs; Olmstead's Seaboard Slave States; Olmstead's Texas Journey; Olmstead's Journey in the Back Country; Page's Old South. FICTION: Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin; Stowe's Minister's Wooing JVIunroe's Golden Days of '49; Harris's Uncle Remus ; Brooks's Boy Settlers. Brooks's Boy Emigrants. POETRY: Whittier's Slave Ships; Whlttier's Our Countrymen in Chains; Longfellow's Slave's Dreams. THE RISE OF THE ABOLITION MOVEMENT 270. Morse and the Electric Telegraph (1844). — Be. fore we consider the slavery question, let us briefly refer ' William Henry Harrison, ninth President of the United States, was born in Charles City County, Virginia, in 1773, and died in Washington, District of Colum- bia, in 1841. After attending Hampden Sidney College, Virginia, he began to study medicine, but being drawn toward military life he soon entered the army at nineteen years of age. In the War of 1 8 12 he served as major-general with dis- tinguished success. Later he represented his State in both Houses of Congress He was the Whig candidate for the Presidency in 1840, and after an exciting can. vass in what has been called the " log-cabin and hard-cider campaign " was elected. He died just one month after his inauguration. • John Tyler, tenth President of the United States (1841-1845), was bom in Charles City County, Virginia, in 1790, and died in 1862. After he was graduated 167 268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to a few other events. After twelve years of patient effort, Samuel F. B. Morse succeeded in bringing the electric tele- graph into practical use (1844). Being poor, he had tried for four years to get an appropriation from Congress for testing his invention. At length Congress reluctantly voted him $30,000 for constructing a line from Baltimore to Washington, a distance of forty miles-. • Morse himself sent the first message from the Supreme Court room, in Washington, to Baltimore. " What hath God wrought!" was the message. Fitting words were these, since the What the teie= telegraph has brought graph has done great changcs into the tor the world. ^Qrld. By mcans of it trade and commerce have been much increased. Business men can keep themselves acquainted with the quotations of the world's great markets every hour in the day. They can transact more business in five or six hours now than could have been transacted in as many months a hundred years ago. Another wonderful discovery of untold value to mankind was made in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut. He tried an ex- Horace Weiis and periment upon himself. He caused one of his anesthetics. teeth to be extracted after he had inhaled nitrous oxide, or " laughing-gas," and found that while un- der the influence of the " laughing-gas " he was insensible to pain. About two years later William T. G. Morton and Charles T. Jackson, both of Boston, made a similar appli- from the College of William and Mary he studied law and entered upon his long political career. He served his State as governor and represented it in both Houses of Congress. He was elected Vice-President by the Whigs in 1840, and on the death of Harrison became President. He was soon engaged in a bitter struggle with the Whig leaders, with whom he became extremely unpopular. As a warm advocate of State sovereignty, he gave his cordial support to the secession movement in 1861, when he was elected a member of the Confederate Congress. ^^^'% ^^■^ \ M^WJ^^^N H^k ,/.f!'^^^% &. v^m. W^'^ WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 269 cation of sulphuric ether to render surgical operations painless. When sulphuric ether and " laughing-gas " are thus used they are called aneesthetics. 271. "Fifty-four Forty or Fight" (1844).— In the same year that Morse's electric telegraph came into successful use, there was much excitement in the United ^ ,,, ., , . Conilictlng claims States over the dispute between our country to the Oregon and England about the Northwest Boundary, '^""""■y- Our government claimed the country west of the Rockies from the northern boundary of Cal- ifornia, then a part of Mexico, to the southern boundary of Alaska, or the parallel of 54° 40'. Great Britain claimed the region as far south as the Columbia River in latitude 46°. By 1818 the dispute over these con- flicting claims had grown serious, but the two countries agreed to a joint occupation of the Oregon Country for ten years, and at the end of that period they renewed their agreement for an indefinite time. Why the United States at length laid vigorous claim to it and became so eager for it that the Democratic party in the presidential campaign of 1844 was shouting "Fifty-four forty or fight," can be told in a few words. 272. American Settlers Strengthen Our Claims to Oregon. — We had several reasons for claiming Oregon. In 1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, discovered the Columbia River, which he named in honor of his ship; in 180S Lewis and Clark explored this river, and in 181 1 an American company established at its mouth the trading Reasonsforour post, Astoria. But we made a yet stronger claims to Oregon. claim by reason of the actual settlements which Americans planted there before 1845. These settlements began in a small way as early as 1832, missionaries being among the first Americans to find their way to the Oregon Country. JOHN TYLER. 270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Now in this matter of planting settlements we had the ad- vantage of England, because we were nearer the disputed territory. For a long time, to be sure, the English Hudson Bay Company had been out there making money in fur- trading, but this company had planted no settlements. The Americans, too, were for many years little inclined to seek homes in Oregon. Although small parties of Amer- \ ' rm- / '^ / ^1 <-* / J^l. / £ir. / ^ ^I'l^ 20" 1 SK,»x.l| ^^^^~A^!^--^^ ~iS7?^^^^fc^ -*^/ -^AXjiii -\r^ 7-^ \ t— tiriap^ Trcatyl Line . Rj>> ° tp 1 Walla ij OREGON COUNTRY Bbowlng the United States' Claim to the 64" 40' ParaUel ScaUofMilcB. 60 11)0 290 390 1 ISaUm) „ 1 Line 4 \ -iJ -^ Si / * As (\ of 1819. byV^ lJo° THf H'.-N. CO. 1! ican settlers started for the Columbia River after 1832, no large settlements were made until 1843. In that year one American emi- thousand emigrants made the journey of gration in i843 morc than two thousaud miles, braving many and 1844. dangers and enduring much hardship. The next year two thousand more went out, and by 1845 about seven thousand American settlers had made their homes in Oregon. The English Hudson Bay Company held only a small number of military posts and trading stations. The United States could therefore claim the country by right of actual possession. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 271 By a treaty agreed upon in 1846 both England and the United States gave up a part of their claims. The boun- dary determined upon was neither 54° 40' as ^^^ ^^^ ^^ desired by the United States, nor 46° as de- boundary dispute sired by England, but 49°, as at present. The »««'«'"'y treaty, whole Oregon Country included what is now the States of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington, or an area equal to more then fifty States like Connecticut. 273. The Anti-Slavery Movement. — Hitherto we have not had occasion to refer to a movement which was des- tined to overthrow the most cherished institution of the South. In order to understand this movement we must notice for a moment the new spirit which was gaining ground among the plain people of the country. It has been rightly said that when Andrew Jackson went to Washington as President he took the people with him. It is The rights of the certainly true that at that time the common common people, people began to feel a sense of their power such as they had not felt before. Jackson supported them in this feeling by standing up for their rights and by encouraging them to have faith in themselves as controlling the affairs of the na- tion. There had been various limitations on suffrage in the Eastern States, but now manhood suffrage spread from the West to the East. Government by the people and for the people had become a reality. The anti-slavery movement, led by the abolitionists, was partly the product of this democratic spirit, but was mainly due to the gradual recognition of the dignity and worth of man as man, regardless of race or color. It was felt that slavery was out of place in a country where the people are the rulers. This sentiment, at first limited to a despised few who were called fanatics, rapidly spread through all classes of society. 274. William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator. — In 1 83 1 William Lloyd Garrison, a young man of slender means and little education, began to publish a paper called T/ie Liberator. In it he urged that all the slaves in the United States should be immediately set free. He went so 272 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES far as to declare that it would be better to have no Union at all than to have a Union with slavery in one section of it. He boldly asserted that slavery was a " sin against God and a crime against man," and that the Consti- tution, by giving it support, " was a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." 275. Southern Opposition. — The Southern people, how- ever, believed that the immediate abolition of slavery would FAC-SIMILE OF THE HEADING OF GARRISON S PAPER. bring about their financial ruin. Inasmuch as the whole industrial system of the South rested on slavery, they re- garded the advocates of immediate abolition as nothing less than public enemies of that section. Therefore gov- ernors and State legislators in the South were so eager to punish the abolitionists that large rewards were of- , fered for their capture. But the abolitionists were in earnest, and by means of lectures, pamphlets, books, and newspapers scattered their anti-slavery ideas among the people. 276. Northern Opposition. — Very few people, even in the North, had any sympathy at that time with Garrison's extreme views about immediate abolition. Northern people thought that such agitation could only result in stirring up sectional feeling and might end in breaking up the Union. To them a Union with slavery seemed better than no Union at all. So the abolitionists were for a time disliked in the North quite as much as in the South, and in various parts THE SLAVERY QUESTION 273 of the North anti-slavery mobs and riots were common for some years. The opposition to Garrison's teachings became so intense that he was mobbed in the streets of Boston (1835). The mob in its fury had almost torn the clothing q^„j^„„ ^^^^^^ from his body and was dragging him through J" the streets oi the streets with a rope around his waist, when ^"**°"- he was saved from death by the police. Elijah P. Lovejoy was mobbed and murdered in Illinois for printing an aboli- tion newspaper (1837), ^"d abolition speakers became accus- tomed to showers of eggs and stones at public meetings. 277. Growth of the Abolition Movement. — But in spite of all the scorn and contempt heaped upon them, in the North and in the South, the heroic William Lloyd Garrison and his brave followers would not be silenced. They were, like most reformers, extreme in their views and unwise in their methods, butthey were right in their leading idea that slavery was wrong. Their sincerity of purpose had its in- fluence, and won the sympathy of man}' who joined them in forming abolition societies, which by 1837 included probably 150,000 members. Among them were two of the ablest de- fenders of the anti-slavery crusade, Wendell Phillips, the anti-slavery orator, and John Quincy Adams, the anti-slav- ery statesman. 278. John Quincy Adanis Defends the Right of Petition. — John Quincy Adams was the champion of the sacred right of petition. For many years he stood almost alone in the na- tional House of Representatives in his opposition to slavery. He presented on the floor of the House hundreds of peti- tions that slavery be abolished in the District of Columbia, and that the slave-trade between the States be stopped. As these petitions were very displeasing to Southern members, Congress unwisely voted not to receive them. This was not fair play and aroused much sym- .. aag.,a^., j„ pathy in the North for the abolition movement, the House of Rep- The "gag-law," by which the House refused "^'-f^'ves. to receive these petitions, continued in effect for many years (1836-1844), but the heroic efforts of the " old man eloquent," 274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES as Adams was rightly called, at last gained for these anti- slavery petitions a respectful consideration (1844). TO THE PUPIL 1. What has the telegraph done for the world ? 2. Upon what did we base our claim to Oregon ? 3. What reason is assigned in the text for the origin of the anti-slavery movement ? What position did William Lloyd Garrison take upon the slavery question ? 4. How did Southern opposition to the abolitionists express itself ? How did Northern opposition? What do you admire in William Lloyd Garrison and his anti-slavery friends ? What connection did John Quincy Adams have with the abolition movement ? 5. Read the account of his untiring efforts as described in Morse's "John Quincy Adams," TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 279. The Annexation of Texas. — About 1820 Southern people began to migrate to Texas, which was then a part of Mexico. By the year 1835 several colonies had been planted by these settlers from the Southern States. Being dissatisfied with Mexican rule the Texans revolted (1835), defeated the Mexicans, and drove them out of Texas. They then declared their independence and sought annexation to the United States. The South was eager for this annexation, because Texas lay south of the slavery line established by the Missouri whythesouth Compromise in i820. If Texas, which was as favored the large as fifty States like Connecticut, could be annexation ot Texas, ^^j^j ^^ ^j^^ ^j^^^ territory of the South, the cause of slavery would be materially strengthened. In time, four or five slave States would be made out of this vast area, and the South would thereby have a larger number of sena- tors. This increase of voting power in the Senate would enable her to maintain, for some years at least, the balance between the slave States and the free States. The North entered a vigorous protest against annexation, but the South won, and Texas entered the Union as a slave State in 1845. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 275 280. Attitude of the North and the South Toward the Mexican War. — One of the reasons urged by the North against annexation was, that it would cause trouble with the Mexicans, who refused to acknowledge the independence of Texas. But this objection had no weight with the South- ern slaveholders. A war with Mexico might result in the acquisition of more slave territory, and hence such a war was not, from their stand-point, un- desirable. The North, however, ear- nestly opposed the acquisition of any more slave territory, and just as ear. nestly opposed a war with Mexico. 281. The Causes of the Mexican War. — Mexico wished to avoid seri- ous trouble with the United States about the annexation of Texas. But before the question could be settled there arose a dispute about the boundary line between Texas and Mexico. Texas claimed the territory to the Rio Grande; Mexico claimed it to the Nueces River. The terri- tory in dispute was large and there- fore desirable both to the South and to Mexico. While the difficulty was still under discussion, however, our government took steps that were almost certain to bring on war. General Taylor had been sent down in command of American troops to support the cause of Texas, and was ordered to advance into the disputed terri- General Taylor tory. He did so, taking a position on the Rio ^'heTs^uteTter- Grande at Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras.^ ritory. The Mexicans justly considered this an invasion of their territory and therefore an act of war. It certainly looked JAMES K. POLK. ' Before this time President Polk had sent an envoy to Mexico, whose govern- ment refused to receive him. This action of Mexico aroused the resentment of our government. James K. Polk, eleventh President of the United States (1845-1849), vifas born 276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC. A n incident in one of the important battles 0/ the Mexican War^ like an attempt to provoke them to make an attack on the American troops. At all events, this was the result of General Taylor's movement. A Mexican force crossed the Rio Grande and killed some American dragoons belonging to a reconnoitring party. At once President Polk sent to Congress a message in in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, in 1795, and died in 1849. In 1806 he removed to Tennessee. After being graduated with distinguished honors from the University of North Carolina he entered upon the study of law. He served the State of Tennessee not only as governor but as member of the national House of Representatives. His manners were simple, and his private life sincere and blameless. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 277 which he declared, " War exists notwithstanding all our ef- forts to avoid it — exists by the act of Mexico herself. Mex- ico has invaded our territory and shed Amer- congress declares ican blood upon American soil." Congress """• therefore declared that war existed " by the act of Mexico," and at once sent troops and supplies to invade Mexican ter- ritory (1846). 282. The Character of the Struggle.— The American plan of campaign was comprehensive. It indicated that the purpose of the war was the conquest of new territory. Al- though the Americans met with stout opposition from Mexico, the American commanders easily carried out their plans. The war was one-sided. The battles were all won . by the Americans, even in cases where the Mexicans great- ly outnumbered our troops. There were many reasons for the defeat of the Mexicans. Their government was weak and poor ; their generals were inefficient ; and their troops were without discipline and proper equipment. Although the Mexicans were spirited and brave, they were greatly inferior to the Americans in intelligence, dash, and endurance. 283. Results of the War. — In less than two years Mexico was conquered, and her entire territory was at the mercy of the United States. But however unfair our gov- ernment may have been in bringing on the war with this weak country, it was willing to pay for any territory it might secure. Mexico received more than eighteen million dollars ' for the cession it made to the United States. Nev- ertheless, we cannot but regret that our people, distinguished for their keen sense of justice, should have consented to wage this war in the interests of slavery. But the results of the war seemed decidedly favorable to the slavehold- ers, who thought they had gained a vast region adapted to the use of slave labor. If we include in the territory acquired by the Mexican war the State of Texas and the parts of Arizona and New 'The sum paid to Mexico was $15,000,000. The United States also satisfied claims of American citizens against Mexico to the amount of about $3,500,000. 278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Mexico secured by the Gadsden Purchase' a little later, the whole area is equal to more than one hundred and ninety States like Connecticut. 284. The W^ilmot Proviso. — But there was another re- sult which made the war a costly one to the United States, and that was the increased bitterness between the two sec- tions over the slavery question. The South insisted that slavery should go into the new territory, and the North in- sisted that it should not. In fact, this quarrel over the question of slavery in the new territory began even before the war was over. For when in 1846 it seemed pretty evident what the result of the fighting would be, David Wilmot, a representative in Congress from Pennsylvania, proposed that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the territory which should be acquired from Mexico. This was called the Wilmot Proviso. It failed of enactment by Congress, but it expressed a policy which was soon to be made a guiding principle by a great political party. Two years later this principle became the political watchword of the Free Soil Party and later of the Republican Party. The Wilmot Proviso marked the swift approach of the downfall of slavery in the United States. TO THE PUPIL X. Why did the South favor the annexation of Texas ? What was the attitude of the North and the South toward the Mexican War? 2. What were the causes of this war ? How did it begin ? Give three reasons why the Mexicans were defeated in every battle. 3. What were the principal results of the war ? Including Texas and the Gadsden Purchase, how many States like your own would the whole territory acquired by the Mexican War equal ? What was the Wil- mot Proviso ? 4. Read Thomas Nelson Page's " Old South." 'In 1853 a treaty was negotiated through James Gadsden which settled the dis- puted boundary with Mexico. The United States paid $io,oco,ooo and gained the Mesilla Valley, an area of about twenty million acres. It formed the southern part of what is now New Mexico and Arizona, and became known as the Gadsden Purchase. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 279 THE MEXICAN CESSION AND THE COMPROMISE OF 185O 285. Discovery of Gold in California and Its Results (1848). — California had been valued for its fertile soil and its delightful climate. It had also the fine harbor of San Fran- cisco. These attractions drew a few settlers, who in 1848 made a great discovery. Some workmen, in digging a mill- ''^^^ SUTTER S MILL, WHERE GOLD WAS FIRST FOUND IN CALIFORNIA. race for Captain Sutter, a Swiss immigrant, discovered shining particles of gold in a stream flowing into the Sacra- mento River, about 100 miles northeast of San Francisco. Upon examination of the surrounding country, the soil, the river-beds, and the rocks were found to be rich with gold. It was a wonderful discovery. Before the close of 1861 these mines had yielded more than $500,000,000. As soon as the news spread abroad people were almost beside themselves with excitement, and at once rushed for the gold region from all the settled parts of excitement of the the United States. Farmers, carpenters, store- people, keepers, and professional men were seized with a desire for sudden wealth, and left their work to seek the golden treasure. Vessels coming into the harbors of San Fran- 28o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cisco were deserted by their crews, who, with the rest, wild- ly rushed with pickaxe and shovel to the mines. There were three routes to California from the Eastern States : the first and longest was by vessel around Cape Horn, the trip from New York to San Francisco in 1848 taking about one hundred and thirty days ; the second was down to the Isthmus of Panama, across it, and up along the western coast to San Francisco ; the third was by slowly moving trains of wagons The three routes and ox-carts Overland to California. across the country. By this last route it took one hun- dred days to travel to the valleys of California after reaching the plains west of the Mississippi. The difficulties and dangers in crossing the plains and the desert region on the journey were many. The Indians often attacked the em- igrants, and in one instance they were encouraged to do so by a few white settlers of southern Utah, who pleaded in palliation that these emigrants had exasperated them beyond endurance. Thousands died on the way, and the bones of human beings, horses, and oxen were strewn along ZACHARY TAYLOR. The dangers of the overland route. the route, The gold-seekers found the Mor- mon settlements near the Great Salt Lake of much convenience, as they could there rest in safety and secure fresh supplies to enable them to reach their journey's end. Large numbers of men flocked to the gold regions. In less than eighteen months after the discovery, California Results of the dis= ^^^ ^ population of Dot less than 100,000. In eovery of gold in the meantime, San Francisco increased from California. 2,000 to 20,ooo people, and Sacramento from a little cluster of houses to a place of 10,000 inhabitants. ' The discovery of gold in California had important results : THE SLAVERY QUESTION 281 (i) By greatly increasing the gold in circulation, it stimu- lated trade and commerce; (2) by developing the Pacific coast it led about twenty years later to the building of the first Pacific railroad ; (3) it had, as we shall now see, an important bearing upon the slavery question. 286. California Seeks Admission into the Union as a Free State (1849).' — In about a year after the discovery oi gold there were people enough in. California for a State. But Congress had been so busy discussing the slavery ques- tion that it had not established any government at all there. This was most unfortunate, for among the gold-diggers there were many thieves and ruffians, who were very dis- orderly and lawless. Hence the better class of citizens were forced to act without waiting for Congress. They organized a government of their own, established order, and applied for admission into the Union in 1849. As a large majority of the people were from the North, they wished California to be made a free State. 287. Difficult Slavery Questions in 1850. — It will be re- membered that the Missouri compromise was called forth 'Zachary Taylor, twelfth President of the United States (1849-1850), was born in Orange County, Virginia, in 1784, and died in 1850. While he was yet an infant his parents removed to Kentucky, which continued to be his adopted State until 1841, when he made his family home in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Al- though his opportunities for education were very limited, his keen desire for knowledge led him to study with care ancient and modern history. He became a daring and skilful soldier, serving his country with great distinction as brigadier- general in the Mexican War. " Old Rough and Ready," as he was fondly called by his many admirers, indicates that he was a popular hero. He died in the sec- ond year of his Presidency. Millard Fillmore, thirteenth President of the United States (1850-1853), was born in Cayuga County, New York, in 1800, and died in 1874. In early youth he learned the meaning of a life of struggle. Like Lincoln and Garfield, he was a poor boy, and like them he overcame, by invincible determination, almost insur- mountable difficulties. Until fourteen years of age he worked on a farm nine months of the year, and attended the primitive schools of those times the remain- ing three. At fourteen he was apprenticed to a trade, but managed to find some time for hard study. Later he studied law, and won for himself an enviable posi- tion at the bar. Having been elected Vice-President in 184S, he btcame President on the death of Zachary Taylor in 1850. His kindly manner and never-failing courtesy made him very popular. 282 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES by the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. The whole question was opened afresh by the Mexican cession. Should the territory acquired from Mexico be slave, or free? The North argued that inasmuch as this territory had always been free, it should continue to be so. The South was divided in opinion. Some of the Southerners wished to extend the line of the Missouri Compromise, 36° 30', as a boundary to the Pacihc. Others claimed, as in MODES OF TRAVEL IN THE WEST. AN OLD STAGE-COACH AND PRAIRIE SCHOONER. 1820, that Congress had no constitutional right to interfere with slavery ; and that the people in the territories ought to be allowed to decide for themselves whether they should come into the Union as free or slave States. The settlement of the dispute was one of extreme im- portance. It involved several points of issue : (i) California wished to come in as a free State, but in that case the bal- ance of power in the Senate would be disturbed. Hence there were strong objections from the South. (2) The anti- slavery men continued to urge upon Congress legislation that would abolish slavery, or, at least, the slave-trade in THE SLAVERY QUESTION 283 the District of Columbia. Whether or not Congress had a right to meddle with slavery in the territories, it clearly- had a right to enact a measure against slavery g,^^^^ inCaiifor- in the District of Columbia, which was under ma and the dis- the direct control of Congress. We have *"« «« coiumwa. already seen how John Quincy Adams bravely struggled for years in behalf of legislative action against slavery in this district. (3) The South bitterly complained that the North was violating the Fugitive Slave Law, by aiding the escape of slaves from their masters to Canada. All these difficult slavery ques- tions were pressing for satisfactory answers, and many people began to fear a dissolution of the Union. Threats of secession Threats of seces- were freely made by *'""• some of the more hot-headed pro- slavery men. It was evident that prompt and wise measures must be taken to quiet the violent feelings among people in both sections. 288. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay had already fairly gained the title of " Peace-maker " by taking a leading part in securing the Missouri Compromise in Henry cuy the 1820, and the compromise in 1833 settling the "Peace-maker.- difficulties brought about by the tariff and nullification in South Carolina. In his old age he was again called upon to help meet these new difficulties in 1850. He therefore prepared what was called the Omnibus Bill, because it made provision for settling many questions. This famous Omnibus Bill, or Compromise of 1850, con- tained four essential clauses, two of which favored the North and two the South. They were as follows: The four essential (i) California was to be admitted as a free clauses of the State (for the North) ; (2) but in the rest of the omnibus bih. Mexican cession, divided into the two territories of Utah MILLARD FILLMORE. 284 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and New Mexico, the people were to decide for themselves whether or not they would have slaves (for the South); (3) the slave-^ra^^, not slavery, was to be abolished in the Dis- trict of Columbia (for the North) ; (4) but a vigorous and exacting fugitive slave law was to be passed (for the South). Many people thought that this compromise would bring peace and good-will throughout the country. 289. The Fugitive Slave Law and Its Results in the North. — Congress had directed that the Fugitive Slave Law enacted in 1793 should be car- ried out by the various State governments. As the South charged that the Northern States were neglecting to en- force this law in a proper manner, the fugitive slave FUGITIVE SLAVE ADVERTISEMENTS, clause was inscrtcd in the Compromise of 1850, as has just been stated. In accordance with this clause Congress passed a rigid Fugitive Slave Law, which was to be en- forced not by State but by Federal officers. By the provisions of this law fugitive slaves, or negroes claimed as fugitive slaves, were to have no trial by jury and were not to be permitted to testify in their own defence. All citizens, if called upon, were required to aid the United States marshal in capturing runaway slaves. Many cases of cruelty, injustice, and violence followed. The indignation of the North rose to fever heat, and soon the " higher law " of right and justice was openly pro- indignation In claimed. Some people in the North were the North. ready to defy a law that was in their view cruel and inhuman. 290. Personal Liberty Bills and Their Results in the South. — The outcome of this intense opposition to the Fugi- tive Slave Law was the passage, by many Northern States, of the Personal Liberty Bills. These laws granted trial by jury to runaway slaves and in other ways protected them from the severity of the Fugitive Slave Law. Naturally THE SLAVERY QUESTION (285 these Personal Liberty Laws embittered the Southern slaveholders, who accused the North of a desire to break up slavery. They further asserted that in passing these Personal Liberty Bills the Northern States were nullifying an act of Congress and violating the Constitution. 291. The Underground Railroad. — Some people in the North secretly aided the runaway slaves in escaping to Canada. The fugitives made their way to freedom by means of the so-called " Under- ground Railroad." The " stations " were the houses of persons who received the poor negroes at any hour, night or day, giving them food and shelter and keeping them in a safe hiding-place until they could be sent on to the next " station." In this way they were fed and cared for until they reached Canada, the northern end of this strange railroad. It is estimated that over 30,000 fugi- tive slaves escaped to Canada be- tween 1830 and i860. 292. Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). — In the midst of the stirring discussion about slavery "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Harriet Beecher Stowe, appeared. During the first year after its publication more than 200,000 copies were sold. It was read in all parts of Europe as well as in the United States. It not only appealed to the imagination, but it also touched the heart and conscience. It rapidly caused people to feel that slavery was more than a political ques- tion. Through its influence hundreds of thousands of men and women now joined the abolitionists in the conviction that slavery was a great moral evil. 293. Commodore Perry Secures a Treaty with Japan (1854). — Two years after the publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" Commodore Perry sailed into the ports of Japan with a fleet of steamers. Previous to that time the Japanese had been suspicious of all foreign nations and had refused to HARRIET BEECHER STOWE. 286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trade with them. Commodore Perry won the good-will of these people, and they entered into a treaty of commerce with our country. From that time Japan has been on a most friendly footing with the United States. Through her trade relations with this country and Europe she has come into touch with Western civilization, and has sur- prised the world by the eagerness with which she has adopted it. 294. Filibustering Expeditions (1851-1860) ; The Os- tend Manifesto (1854). — By the admission of California as a free State in 1850 the balance be- tween the free and the slave States was destroyed, for now there were sixteen free to fifteen slave States. The outlook for slavery was so gloomy that the Southerners turned their eyes toward Cuba, as they had turned them, a few years before, The slaveholders toward Tcxas. Slavery eager for Cuba. already existed in Cuba, and if the island could be secured to the Union it would furnish two more slave States. Our government was on friendly terms with Spain, and no pretext for war existed when, in 1851, the first filibustering expedition started out from New Or- leans. The scheme ended in disaster, but there were still many greedy eyes turned toward Cuba. Some people thought that Spain might be induced by treaty to give it up, and even advocated seizure if it could not be got by cession. In 1854, therefore, the United States ministers to England, France, and Spain, acting under in- struction from President Pierce,' met at Ostend, Belgium, ' Franklin Pierce, fourteenth President of the United States (1853-1857), was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, in 1804, and died in 1869. In his class at Bowdoin College, from which he was graduated, were Henry W. Longfellow and Nathaniel Hawthorne, the latter being a life-long friend. Entering the army at the outbreak of the IVTexican War, he was so brave that he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. After serving in both Houses of Congress he was elected FRANKLIN PIERCE. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 287 to discuss the situation. They declared, in the Ostend Man- ifesto, that Cuba ought to belong to the United States, and that if Spain should refuse to sell it we should secure it by force. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that the United States did not adopt any such policy. TO THE PUPIL 1. Trace on your map the three routes to California from the Eastern States. What vreie the results of the discovery of gold ? 2. Explain 'vvhy California sought admission into the Union as a free State. What were the three difficult slavery questions in 1850 ? 3. In V7hat way was the Missouri Compromise called forth by the Louisiana Purchase ? What question was asked about the Mexican cession ? How did the North answer the question ? How did the South ? 4. What two clauses in the Compromise of 1850 favored the North ? What two the South ? 5. What was the Fugitive Slave Law, and what were its results ? Ex- plain the Personal Liberty Bills and the Underground Railroad. What effect had " Uncle Tom's Cabin " upon the slavery question? 6. What was the purpose of the filibustering expedition ? What do you think of the Ostend Manifesto ? 7. Read the chapters on slavery in Coffin's " Building the Nation." THE FIGHT FOR SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES 295. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854,) — By the Com- promise of 1850 the people in all the territory acquired from Mexico, except California, were to de- The south desires cide for themselves whether or not they would li"^^",^yeulTi. have slavery. But this act was not enough, tory. The need of the South for a still further extension of slave territory to offset the rapidly growing power of the free North became more pressing every year. By the Missouri Compromise of 1820 slavery was for- ever prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase north and west to the Presidency in 1852. Although he believed in " State Rights " and opposed all anti-slavery movements, he urged the people of New Hampshire, in the stormy days following the attack upon Fort Sumter in 1861, to stand by the Union. 288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of Missouri, or north of the parallel of 36° 30'. In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic Senator from Illinois, claimed that the Compromise of 1850 had repealed the Mis- souri Compromise ; moreover, that Congress had no Consti- tutional right in 1820 to shut out slavery from the Louisiana Purchase. He therefore proposed the erection of the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska, in wrhich the settlers should decide w^hether they would have slavery or not. This measure, known as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, became a law in 1854. It had many important results: (i) It took from Con- gress all authority over slavery in the territories, and gave Results of the ^^^^ authority to the people; (2) it opened to Kansas-Nebraska slavery all the territories belonging to the ^"'' United States ; (3) it led to a bitter struggle over Kansas ; (4) and it reopened with renewed bitterness the slavery controversy, which could never again be set- tled by peaceable means. 296. The Struggle for the Control of Kansas. — Since the people now had authority to decide the question of free- dom or slavery in Kansas, both the North and the South made a desperate effort to gain control of the territory. Emigration was no longer a matter of private or personal Emigrant aid interests. There were now urgent political secieties In the rcasons why emigration to Kansas should be '^'"'"'" encouraged from both sections. Meetings were therefore held in many leading Northern cities, and money was raised for the support of emigrant aid societies to send settlers to Kansas. Soon long trains of emigrant wagons were winding their way across the prairies. As the Missouri people refused to let them pass across that State, they were obliged to go north through Iowa. Missouri also made hasty preparations to get control of Kansas. But in this struggle the South was at a disadvan- tage, because slave-holders were afraid to risk taking their slaves into a territory that might, by vote of the people, be- come free. The South, therefore, did not make such an organized effort to settle Kansas as was made in the North. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 289 The Missouri pro-slaverj men, however, made hasty prep- arations to do all they could. Arming them- Bloodshed in selves, they crossed the border and began to Kansas- plant colonies. Both sides were aroused, and both took part in the plundering, burning, and murdering. 297. Triumph for the Free-State Men.— On election days the men from Missouri, who soon became known as " border ruffians," went over to Kansas in large numbers and cast fraudulent votes in the in- terests of slavery. By false voting and false counting of ballots the pro-slavery party was for some time ahead. Two rival govern- ments were estab- _ , , Two rival gov- lished. Although the emments In anti-slavery men Kansas. were clearly in the majority. Pres- ident Pierce supported the pro- slavery faction and used the influ- ence of the administration to secure the admission of Kansas into the charles sumner. Union as a slave State. But in spite of all that could be done by President Pierce and the pro-slavery leaders, the cause of freedom triumphed. After three years (1855-1858) of this civil war, in what was truly called " Bleeding Kansas," the free-State men won a victory, and Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861 with an antislavery constitution. 298. Assault on Charles Sumner (1856). — During the fiery debating in Congress over the difficulties in Kansas, the distinguished anti-slavery leader, Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, made in the Senate a vigorous speech on the " Crime against Kansas." In this speech he severely attacked Senator Butler, from South Carolina. Sumner's Southern enemies became more intense in their hatred of him than ever before. In the midst of the exciting days which fol- lowed. Senator Butler's nephew, Preston S. Brooks, who was a representative in Congress from South Carolina, came 290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Whigs. suddenly upon Mr. Sumner while writing at his desk in the Senate Chamber and assaulted him. Again and again Brooks struck Sumner over the head with a cane until he Results of the reeled and fell senseless to the floor. Sumner assault. did not recovcr from the shock for over three years. This assault increased the bitterness of feeling and made both sections more determined in their actions. 299. New Political Parties (1854). — Slavery had brought about in political parties great changes, which we will now briefly consider. In 1833 the National Repub- lican Party (see par. 244) was succeeded by the Whig Party, of which Henry Clay became the leader. This party opposed the Mexican War. At the close of this war many Northern Whigs and Democrats believed in the principle of the Wilmot Proviso — that slavery should be prohibited in all the Mexican cession. They became anti- slavery men and, joining the Abolitionists, formed the Free Soil Party. But while many Northern Whigs became anti- slavery men, many pro-slavery Whigs in the South joined the Democrats. The result was the breaking into frag- ments of the Whig Party after 1852. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854) caused still another split in parties. By reason of this measure all The Republican voters in the North who opposed the further Party. extension of slavery, whether they had been previously known as Democrats or Free Soilers, called them- selves Anti-Nebraska Men. In the following year the " Anti-Nebraska Men " began to be called the Republican Party, which has ever since been known by that name. The corner-stone of the Republican Party was the principle con- tained in the Wilmot Proviso. Table of Immigration from Europe for the Years 1845-1856. Number of Year. Immigrants. 1845 114,371 1846 154,416 1847 234,968 1848 226, 527 1849 297,024 1850 310,004 Number of Year. Immigrants. 1851 379.466 1852 371.603 1853 368,645 1854 427,833 1855 200,877 1856 : 200,436 THE SLAVERY QUESTION 291 300. Immigration from Europe.— Before 1840 the total number of foreign immigrants into the United States during any one year never exceeded 100,000. A reference to the immigration table given above will show that from 1845 onward, especially after 1848, the increase was surprisingly great. During almost the whole decade from 1840 to 1850 there was in Europe much unrest, and this led The reasons for to political disturbances extending through JJ|'mmf*rltioT°* many European countries. In 1846 and 1847 fromEurops. a terrible famine in Ireland caused thousands to seek homes in the United States. The discovery of gold in California, also, had a great influence in stimulating the desire to seek a land where the working man could have prosperity, political freedom, and happiness. As can be seen by noting the rapid increase of population in many of our Western States and Territories, a large number of these immigrants joined the westward movement. Table of Population in Western States and Territories in 1840, 1850, AND i860. States. Population. Illinois Indiana . . Iowa . Michigan . Wisconsin California. Minnesota Utah Colorado . . Kansas . . . Nebraska . Oregon . . . 1840. 472,254 478,698 42,924 211, =60 30.749 1850. 846,034 977.154 191,881 395.071 304. 756 91.636 6,038 11.354 1.704.323 1.339.000 673.844 742,314 774.710 361.353 171,864 40,214 34.231 106,579 28,759 52.337 It is significant that nearly all of them sought the North. They avoided making their homes in the vvhy immigrant. South, because there labor was servile and wouw not settle degrading. In fact, the slave-holders did not '"*"« south, encourage European immigrants to come South because 2g£ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES they thought the presence of free white laborers might dissatisfy the slaves with their condition and lead them to rise in insurrection. The slave-holders even guarded against the spread of intelligence among their slaves, on account of the discontent intelligence was sure to bring about among the blacks. 301. Economic and Social Conditions in the South. — We see, then, that slavery in the South prevented the in- crease of population there by immigration, and thus hin- OLD PLA^fTATION DAYS. dered the most rapid development of its resources. There were reasons, also, within the South's own boundaries, which explain why it did not keep pace with the North in indus- Three reasons trial prosperity : (i) The negroes were so lazy r^^ *I"x?°"k,'' 'fi' and careless that on the average two or three behind the North . , r-. 1 1 i 1 t in prosperity. slaves in the South would do only as much work as one free laborer in the North. (2) Since slavery degraded labor, the large class of people in the South known as " poor whites " would work but little. (3) The planters themselves spent most of their time in leisure, leaving their business in charge of overseers. When we bear in mind that of the three great classes of people in the South — the planters, the poor whites, and the slaves — the planters did nothing, the poor whites as little as they could, and the slaves not more than half as much as the THE SLAVERY QUESTION 293 same number of intelligent tree laborers would have done, we cannot be surprised that the South was so rapidly out- stripped by the North in productive power and therefore in wealth and prosperity. 302. Economic and Social Conditions in the North. — While there were three great classes in the South, there was in the North, so far as production was concerned, but one. In this section nearly all belonged to the working, producing class. In the North, there was the busy hum of industry. A spirit of enterprise, manifesting itself in agri- culture, manufacture, trade, and commerce, was everywhere present. All labor was honorable and idlers were few. Such being the industrial conditions, the North was soon far ahead of the South in population, in productive power, and in political influence. 303. Influence of the West in Favor of Nationalism. — Again glancing over the tables of population in some of the Western States and territories from 1840 to 1850 and from 1850 to i860, we shall see that the increase was very great. Nor was it all due to foreign immigration. Much of it was the result of the large movement of population from the Eastern States. The prairie lands, so fertile and so easily brought under cultivation, invited The prairies and the laborer to begin life anew where indus- the railroad, trial conditions highly favored prosperity. The railroad encouraged the movement by making the transportation of emigrants and goods rapid, easy, and inexpensive. It is worth while to notice that only a small part of this westward emigration was from the South. prig„<,|y relations The West was being rapidly occupied by men between the North who were not in sympathy with the slave- «"" the West. holding planter. Moreover, when these people in the West began to find a market for their corn, wheat, and other produce, they traded with the North because the North had what they needed. The North and the West found mutual profit in trade. With common interests they soon found themselves having common sympathies and common political aims and purposes. 294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Year by year the West became more and more like the North. Her loyalty to the Union was unquestioned. Hav- ing received statehood from the national government, the Western States had very little of that State Rights feeling National feeling SO common in the South. They were first of in the West. ^11 Americans, ready to stand up for the pres- ervation of the Union whenever it should be in danger. When the inevitable clash of arms between the North and the South came in 1861, the West- erner was on the side of the North, and shouldered 'his musket in behalf of a Union which he had unwittingly helped to weld into a solid, indivisible nation. 304. The Financial Panic of 1857. — The great financial panics of the last century occurred at intervals of about twenty years. You will recall that the panic of 1837 ^^^s preceded by unusual business prosperity. The same condition existed before the panic of 1857. It was easy to get money, and men were seized with the desire to make fortunes by speculat- Railroads were built faster than they could get business support. The discovery of gold in Cali- fornia and Australia had increased the money in circulation Causes of the and thus Contributed to the general feeling of •'""'''■ prosperity. Extravagance in living followed. Trade was greatly stimulated, and soon there was an over-production of goods. There had been too much credit, and that brought on the panic. In August, 1857, the crash came and everywhere there was great business distress. 305. The Dred Scott Decision (1857).!— The Kansas- Nebraska Bill (1854) deprived Congress of all authority over • This noted decision was made public in the first year of Buchanar's adminis- tration. James Buchanan, fifteenth President of the United States (1857- 861), was JAMES BUCHANAN. ing in Western lands. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 295 the question of slavery in the Territories and left it wholly in the hands of the people. Then began the The principle of struggle between the two sections for control, ppp"'" sov"- = => eignty applied to It was soon evident that the North, with aii the territories. greatly superior resources, must win the other Territories just as it had won in Kansas. The South was dismayed at the prospect and looked about for some means of escaping from the apparently hopeless situation. The means was found in the Dred Scott Decision (1857). Dred Scott was a slave belonging to an army surgeon; In 1834 this surgeon went with his slave from Missouri to Illinois, and some years afterward to Minnesota Territory. On the return of master and slave to Missouri, Dred Scott claimed that, inasmuch as he had been taken by his owner into free territory, he himself was a free man. The case was finally tried in the Supreme Court of the United States. The decision supported the extreme position the pro-slavery men had taken. It declared, in effect, (i) that a slave, according to the Constitution, was not a person but a chattel or mere piece of property ; (2) that the Missouri Compromise, forbidding slavery in a part of the Louisiana Purchase, was unconstitu- tional, since Congress had no right to interfere with slavery in the Territories; (3) and that a master had as much right to take his slave with him into a free State as he had to take his horse, his cow, or any other kind of personal property. This decision was far-reaching. It meant nothing less than the extension of slavery all over the Union. It inten- sified the anti-slavery feeling in the North, where many threatened that they would not obey the decision. The slave-holders became reckless. They even went so far as to reopen the slave-trade with Africa, for the importation born near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, in 1 791, and died in 1868. After his gradu- ation from Dickinson College he studied law. He filled many public positions of great responsibility. Besides serving in both Houses of Congress, he became Sec- retary of State under President Polk and minister to England in Pierce's adminis- tration. As President of the United States during the trying years just preceding the Civil War, he was severely blamed by the Unionists because he did not take a firm stand in opposition to the secession movement. 296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES LAST MOMENTS OF JOHN BROWN. From a painiing by Thojnas Hovenden. Copyright, iSSj, by Thomas Hovenden. of islaves was carried on from 1857 to the outbreak of the siave-trade with Civil War. This high-handed proceeding — a Africa re-opened, direct violation of the lavir prohibiting the importation of slaves after 1808 — indicated that all hope for further compromise was useless. 306. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry (1859), — John Brown was a thorough-going abolitionist, who had taken a prominent part in the struggle for Kansas. He had a strong joiin Brown and will, a rugged, intense nature, and was deeply ills plan. religious. He believed that slavery was a curse to the nation, and that he himself was an instrument in God's hands to put an end to it in this country. The only way to carry out his purpose was, as he thought, to make slave-property insecure. His plan was to aid the slaves in rising and then escaping to the mountains of Vir- ginia, which would become a rallying-place for the negroes. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 297 Having this aim in view, in the autumn of 1859, with about twenty followers, he seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. His plan met with disastrous failure. He was captured, brought to a speedy trial, and hanged. Throughout his trial he was calm and dignified, and he died bravely. The South was alarmed and angered by this delib- Results of the erate plan to stir up a general uprising of "'''• slaves. A large majority of the Northern people also bit- terly condemned it. John Brown's raid increased the mis- understanding and widened the breach between the two sections. The irrepressible conflict was now at hand. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did the Kansas-Nebraska bill differ from the Missouri Compro- mise ? What important results did it have ? What struggle did the North and the South make to get control of Kansas ? 2. You can easily see how such a struggle Tnrould stir up bitter feelings in the people of the North and of the South. The assault on Charles Sumner illustrates well the intensity and depth of this feeling. 3. You will do well to note that the "Anti-Nebraska Men " banded to- gether on the one issue, — that there should be no further extension of slavery. The members of the Republican Party did the same. The fight all along, except in the case of the Abolitionists, was about the extension of slavery into new States. 4. Why did European immigrants refuse to settle in the South ? Give three reasons why the South fell behind the North in prosperity. 5. Account for the friendly relations between the North and the West, and for the national feeling in the West. 6. Before taking up the Dred Scott decision review the following topics : Natural boundary between the free and the slave States before the purchase of Louisiana; the Missouri Compromise (1820); the Com- promise of 1850 ; the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854). 7. What extreme ground was taken by the slave-holders in the Dred Scott Decision ? What were the far-reaching results of this deci- sion ? 8. What was John Brown's plan ? What were the results of his raid ? 9. Subject for debate : Resolved, that slavery was a social, industrial, moral, and political evil to the South. 10. By all means read Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," CHAPTER XVIII SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR ( 1 860-186$) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV. ; An- drew's United States, II. ; Burgess's Civil War and Reconstruction ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Coffin's Building the Nation ; Richardson's History of Our Country; Champlin's Young Folks' History of the War for the Union; Barnes's Popular History of the United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Comte de Paris's Civil War ; Draper's Civil War ; Rhodes's United States, III. and IV. ; Ropes's Story of the Civil War, I. and II. ; Greeley's American Conflict; Alexander H. Stephens's War Between the States; Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Qoldwin Smith's United States ; Pollard's Lost Cause ; Spear's The History of Our Navy, IV. ; Morris's Half Hours with American History, II.; Ropes's Army Under Pope; Doubleday's Chancellorsville and Gettysburg ; Piske's The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War; Cox's March to the Sea; Pond's Shenandoah Valley; Coffin's Drum-Beat of the Nation; Coffin's Freedom Triumphant; Coffin's Marching to Victory; Soley's Sailor Boys of '61 ; Soley's Blockade and Cruisers ; Parker's Recollections of a Naval Officer ; Hague's Blockaded Family; Maury's Recollections of a Virginian; Dodge's Bird's-Eye View of the Civil War ; Johnson's Short History of the War ; Nicolay and Hay's Abraham Lincoln ; Horse's Abraham Lincoln ; Brooks's Abraham Lincoln ; Pratt's Lincoln in Story; Tarbell's Abraham Lincoln ; Grant's Personal Mem- oirs; Adams's Charles Francis Adams; Lothrop's William H.Seward; Davles's General Sheridan ; Mahan's Admiral Farragut ; Lee's General Lee ; Sher- man's Memoirs ; Sheridan's Memoirs; Home's General Thomas; McClel- lan's Own Story; Cooke's Robert E. Lee; Cooke's "Stonewall" Jackson; Hughes's Joseph E. Johnston ; Church's Ericsson ; Qoss's Recollections of a Private; Trumbull's War Memories of an Army Chaplain; Gordon's Rem- iniscences of the Civil War; Hart's Romance of the Civil War; Alcott's Hos- pital Sketches; Livermore's My Story of the War. FICTION: Page's In Ole Virginia; Page's Among the Camps; Page's Two Little Confederates ; Henty's With Lee in Virginia; Trowbridge's Cud- joe's Cave; Trowbridge's Three Scouts; Trowbridge's Drummer Boy; But- terworth's In the Boyhood of Lincoln; Goss's Tom Clifton; Stoddard's Bat- tle of New York; Churchill's The Crisis. 2g8 SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 299 POETRY: Holmes's View of the Loyal North; Holmes's Our Country; Whittier's Barbara Frietchie; Harte's John Burns of Gettysburg-; Read's Sheridan's Ride ; Work's Marching through Georgia ; Tenting on the Old Camp Ground; Stoddard's Burial of Lincoln ; Longfellow's Decoration Day. THE WAR BEGINS 307. Slavery Splits the Democratic Party (i860). — By i860 the question of slavery caused a split in the Demo- cratic Party. The Northern Democrats believed in the principle oi popular sovereignty, which allowed the people in the territories to decide for themselves whether or not they would have slaves. The Southern Democrats declared that the Constitution imposed upon Congress the duty of pro- tecting slavery in the territories, and thej^ supported their view by the Dred Scott Decision. The Republican Party declared that the Constitution imposed upon slavery inthe Congress the duty oi forbidding slavery in the territories. territories and repudiated the Dred Scott Decision. This party did not at that time favor the abolition of slavery. The great political issue, therefore, in the campaign of i860 was the extension of slavery into the territories. The Northern Democrats nominated for President Stephen A. Douglas; the Southern Democrats, John C. Breckin- ridge ; and the Republicans, Abraham Lincoln. As the Democratic vote was divided the Republicans elected their candidate. 308. Abraham Lincoln.' — The new President was one of the most remarkable men that the country has produced. While Lincoln was still young, his parents, who were of very humble origin, moved to Indiana. His home sur- roundings were such as a log hut in the backwoods could ' Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth President of the United States (1861-1865), was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, February 12, 1809, and died at the hands of an assassin in 1865. His father, who could neither read nor write, removed to In- diana when his son was only seven years of age, and later to Illinois. After serving as captain in the war with the Black Hawk Indians Lincoln was elected as a mem- ber of the Illinois State Legislature. In 1837 he began to practise law and soon became distinguished for his ability as a lawyer. In 1847-1849 he served as Rep- 300 HISTORY. OF THE UNITED STATES furnish, and his advantages were few. He had less than a year's training in the rude schools of the region ; yet de- spite his rough exterior he developed into a youth of manly character. He became known as " Honest Abe." His clear head and good judgment caused him to be selected as a judge to settle disputes among his friends and neigh- bors. He was six feet four inches in height and a giant in strength. His opportunities for reading were so limited that it was hard work for him to make much headway with even the few books he could get. But he was patient and persevering in the Patient and per- faCC of difficulties, and severing. gradually won a great reputation as a debater and public speaker. He had a keen sense of humor, was a good story-teller, and possessed a rare power in winning men over to his views. His mag- netic influence, joined to his clear judgment and sincerity of purpose, thus made him a great leader in the affairs of the nation. 309. The Southern Point of View. — Soon after Lincoln's elec- tior. South Carolina, the leader in the attempt to dissolve the Union, passed the Ordinance of Secession (December 20, i860). The Southern leaders did not closely discriminate between Abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown, and Republicans like Seward and Lincoln. Therefore, when the Republican candidate was elected, these leaders naturally thought that resentative in Congress. He first attracted special attention, however, by his able speech in reply to Stephen A. Douglas on the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. This speech and his great reputation led to his nomination by the Republicans in 1858 for the United States senatorship. Douglas was nominated by the Demo- crats. The contest was a memorable one. Although Douglas secured the election, Lincoln's brilliant debating with Douglas led to his nomination for the Presidency in i860. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 301 slavery would thrive better out of the Union than in it. Like Calhoun, Southern leaders in general were more at- tached to their States than to the Union. The state first And, since they believed that the separate in the south. States were possessed of sovereign power, they also be- lieved that any State could withdraw, or secede, from the Union whenever it pleased. 310. The Northern Point of View.— The North believed, as Webster had declared (1830), that the Constitution was Lincoln's birthplace. not a compact between sovereign States but the fundamental law of the nation ; that the Union was " now and forever, one and inseparable." With the South the The Union first State was first and the Union second : with '" t^e North, the North the Union stood first, and no State had a right to secede from the Union against the consent of the other States. According to the latter view, peaceable secession, as Webster said (1850), was impossible. When, therefore. South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Secession, she gave the signal for a terrible struggle in which the life of the nation was threatened. 311. Slavery the Real Cause of the War. — The follow- ing were the principal steps in the disagreement * resulting in Civil War between the North and the South. By reason of an unfavorable soil and climate, slavery did not pay in ' Of course the two sections had long disagreed on the tariff question also. But we have already seen how slavery led to this disagreement. 302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the North, while it seemed to pay in the South. As the moral sentiment against slavery increased in the North, steps toward the the South saw that the interests of the slave- civiiwar. holder demanded an extension of slavery into new States. The North objected. This disagreement ar- rayed the sections against each other. Finally the Southern slave-holders declared that, since the States were nations with sovereign power, they had a perfect right to secede from the Union and erect a Con- federacy with slavery as the corner-stone. When eleven of the fifteen slave States tried to break up the Union by secession, the free States were determined to preserve the Union, and the result was the Civil War. Slavery, there- fore, was the real cause of the war, although secession was the occasion of the outbreak. 312. Secession of the Remaining Cotton States and Organization of the Confederacy. — Within six weeks after the secession of South Carolina, the six other cotton States, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, had likewise seceded. The cotton States naturally seceded first, because there slave labor was more profitable than in other parts of the South. On February 4, 1861, delegates from all these' States except Texas met at Mont- gomery, Alabama, and proceeded to the organization of the "Confederate States of America."^ Jefferson Davis,^ of ' The South was disappointed because some of the slave States did not secede and because the Northern people were so united. The Secessionists did not expect the cause to meet with such firm opposition throughout the North. ' The Confederate capital was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Rich- mond, Virginia, on May 20, 1861. ' Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808, and died in 1889. After graduating from West Point (1828) he served in the army for some years and then became a cotton-planter in Mississippi. He took his seat in Congress in 1845, but again entered the army on the outbreak of the Mexican War. He distinguished himself for bravery in this war, receiving a severe wound at the battle of Buena Vista. He represented his State (Mississippi) in the United States Senate in 1847-51, and was Secretary of War under President Pierce. He again entered the Senate in 1857 and there remained until the beginning of the Civil War, when he resigned. He was elected President of the Southern Confederacy and remained in that office until the end of the war. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 303 Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. Ste- phens,' of Georgia, Vice-President. 313. Advantages of the North.— In this great struggle the North and the South Avere more evenly matched than is sometimes supposed. The North had many advantages: (i) She had a population of twenty-three millions, while the seceding States had but nine millions, three and a half mil- lions of whom were slaves. (2) She had many factories, by means of which the necessary mili- tary supplies could be furnished to her armies. The South had to get her supplies from abroad.^ (3) The North had a navy that gave her command of the sea, while the South, having put nearly all her energies into the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, and tobacco, had few sailors and no navy. Her extensive sea- coast and large rivers were therefore open to attack from Northern vessels. (4) The North had also a greater number of able business men and far more wealth than the South. The industrial system of the North had developed men of the highest business ability. 314. Advantages of the South. — The South had the fol- lowing advantages: (i) Fighting on the defensive, on her 'Alexander H. Stephens was born near Crawfordsville, Georgia, in 1812, and died in 1883. After graduating from the State University at the head of his class, he studied law and soon began his long political career by securing an election to the State Legislature. As a representative in Congress for sixteen years, 1843-59, he proved himself to be a statesman of conspicuous ability. In i860 he vigorously opposed secession, but when Georgia seceded "he went with his State." He was elected Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy and continued in that position throughout the Civil War. The year before his death he was elected governor of Georgia. He was a man of very slight, frail body, and toward the end of his life had to be wheeled about in a chair. '^ Not until the war was half over did the Confederates succeed in building and equipping the factories necessary for supplying their troops with guns and ammuni- tion. JEFFEKSON DAVIS. 304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES own soil, she needed fewer soldiers. Generally she could select her own positions behind breastworks and could fight near her base of supplies. On the other hand, many Northern troops were required to garrison strategic points that had been captured in the South. Before the war had closed a large proportion of the Union soldiers were guard- ing conquered territory. (2) At the beginning of the war the South had most of the experienced generals. (3) More- over, the Southern people, almost exclusively devoted to the out-door life of agricultural pursuits, were well pre- pared to endure the severe physical strain demanded of a soldier in time of war. (4) The Southern troops, accus- tomed to the woods of the South, had a great advantage also in tha-t considerable part of the fighting took place in the woods and wild regions. 315. The South Seizes National Property; the Star of the West. — Throughout the area of secession the South at once began to seize custom-houses, forts, arsenals, and all other property belonging to the United States. Some of President Buchanan's Cabinet were Southern men in full sympathy with the secession movement, and they took ac- tive measures to aid the South by sending arms and military supplies to Southern forts. Buchanan did not believe in the right of secession, but neither did he believe that the National government Buchanan's inde- had a right to usc cocrciou. As he was in disMte''/!ipln sympathy with the Southerners on the slav- the Union. ery question, he was unwilling to oppose them by preventing secession. The seceding States were there- fore allowed to do much in preparation for war before Lin- coln came into office. If the iron-willed Andrew Jackson had been President, in place of Buchanan, secession would probably have been put down before gaining much head- way. Buchanan, with unfortunate indecision, let things drift, and by this let-alone policy brought disaster upon the Union. Before Lincoln's inauguration the South was ready for a terrible struggle. Early in January (1861) President Bu- SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 305 chanan sent the merchant steamer Star of the West with men and supplies for Major Anderson of the United States army, who had command at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, but the South Carolina army in Charleston fired upon the steamer and prevented her reaching the fort. 316. Lincoln's Inaugural Address. — The time for de- cisive action had at last come. In the midst of intense ex- citement all over the Union Lincoln started from his home in Illinois for Washington. Before reaching Baltimore he was informed that a plan had been laid to assassinate him as he passed through that city. He therefore changed his plans and went to Washington at night on a special train. In his inaugural address (March 4, 1861) he said he had no intention of interfering with slavery, because he thought the Constitution had given him no such authority. But he declared that he would do everything in his povi^er to pre- serve, protect, and defend the Union. President Lincoln's address was free from bitterness, but left no doubt of the firmness of his purpose to uphold the Constitution. 317. The Confederates Capture Fort Sumter. — Neither the North nor the South wished to strike the first blow, but the South was eager to get possession of Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was in command here with a small force of about eighty fighting men. The Confederates had an op- posing army of between 5,000 and 6,000 men. Moreover, Major Anderson had only a small supply of provisions on hand. About one month after the inauguration of Lincoln the latter decided to send supplies to the garrison. Two days after this decision reached South Carolina General Beauregard, who commanded the Confederate troops in Charleston, demanded the surrender of -the fort. When Major Anderson refused, Beauregard opened fire at 4.30 on the morning of April 12, 1861. For thirty-four hours the brave garrison, with little to eat, held out the brave nttie against the overwhelming forces of the enemy, garrison makes a On the morning of the second day the Con- ''*'"''"'™ ''"^"'"• federates, firing hot shot, set on fire the barracks and other wood-work in the fort. The flames were dangerously near 3o6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the powder magazine, and the smoke almost suffocated the soldiers. Falling flat upon the ground, they covered their faces with wet cloths for protection, but would not give up. At last, seeing that there was no hope of supplies reaching the garrison. Major Anderson was compelled to surrender. On Sunday afternoon, the 14th, the Union sol- diers saluted the Stars and Stripes with fifty guns, and, with drums beating " Yankee Doodle," marched out of the INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT IN 1 863. Results of the attack on Fort Sumter. fort to embark for New York. In this bombardment no one was killed on either side. The North was ablaze with indignation at the attack on Fort Sumter. Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 7S,ooo volunteers (April 15), and declared Southern ports to be in a state of blockade (April 19). Troops flocked to Washington. The North thrilled with martial enthusiasm. The South was surprised. The secessionists had looked for compro- mise, but war had begun. In the North and in the South alike armies were promptly organized. 318. Secession of Four More States When Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas were called upon to furnish their quota of troops to the National army, they SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 307 refused. Although these States had not wished to secede, they believed in the right of secession, and therefore when it became certain that the government meant to coerce their sister States to remain in the Uniofi, they voted to secede. The secession area was thus extended over eleven States.^ 319. Battle of Bull Run — When, early in July, the Northern army had driven the Confederate forces out of West Virginia, the people in the North became impatient for an advance upon Richmond. General McDowell was in command, in Washington, of a Union army (of about 30,000 men). General Patterson (with about 18,000) was in the Shenandoah Valley watching General The opposing Joseph E. Johnston-^ (with 9,000), and the Con- forces, federate army, commanded by General Beauregard, with 22,000, was posted at Manassas Junction, about thirty-five miles from Washington, on a little stream called Bull Run. This position was selected by the Confederates because it could be easily reached by rail with men and supplies, and because an advance upon Washington from this point would be easy. Here, on July 21, McDowell made an attack upon the Confederates, in which he seemed at first to be winning a ' The remaining slave States, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, did not secede. The mountainous parts of western Virginia, not being adapted to the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, or tobacco, had no large plantations, and there was not a large ownership of slaves in that part of the State. The people, therefore, did not sympathize with secession, and early in 1861 withdrew from Virginia and organ- ized a separate State government under the name of West Virginia, In June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted to the Union. The attitude of this State toward the war is an interesting illustration of the intimate connection between soil and climate and slavery, and between slavery and secession. In the mountainous regions still farther south many of the people were loyal to the Union. It is estimated that 100,000 of these mountain whites fought in the Northern armies. " Joseph E. Johnston was born in Longwood, Virginia, in 1807, and died in 1891. He was graduated from West Point in the same class with Robert E. Lee, who was ever after his warm, personal friend. Like Lee, he did not favor seces- sion, but ' ' went with his State ' ' when it seceded. Next to Lee he was probably the ablest Confederate general. After his success at the battle of Bull Run he fell into a serious disagreement with Jefferson Davis, the effect of wUch was to injure the Southern cause. Johnston's defensive campaign in Georgia in 1864, when Sher- man was advancing upon Atlanta, showed military ability .of a high order. 3o8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES victory by forcing back a part of the Confederates a dis- tance of a mile and a half. At the critical moment, how- The Northern ever, the Confederates were reinforced by army, at first - fj-ggj^ trooDS from the Shenandoah, where John- successiul, re- ^ , treats in a panic, ston had eluded Patterson with his entire army, most of which had joined Beauregard on July 20th. The Federal army fled in a panic toward Washington, but LONG BRIDGE ACROSS THE POTOMAC AT WASHINGTON, D. C. the Southern army, by reason of its crippled condition, made no attempt at pursuit. 320. Results of the Battle of Bull Run. — This battle probably benefited the North more than it did the South. The Confederates seemed to think the war was over and began to seek their homes. But the defeat caused the North to appreciate the need of putting forth all her ener- gies in preparation for the great struggle which, it was now evident, could not be avoided. General McClellan, who had been very successful in driving the Confederates out of West Virginia, was called from his victories there to or- ganize and drill the army. During the autumn and winter the warring forces were busy fortifying their respective SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 309 capitals, Washington and Richmond, and gathering all pos- sible strength for the campaigns of 1862. 321. The Trent Affair. — To secure aid for the South- ern cause Mason and Slidell had been selected by the Con- federate government as commissioners to England and France. In November, 1861, they escaped the blockade at Charleston and took passage at Havana on the British mail steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the United States war- vessel San Jacinto, stopped the Trent not far from the Bahama Islands, took off Mason and Slidell, and confined them in Fort Warren, in Boston Harbor. 322. England Resents the Cap- ture of Mason and Slidell, — For this act Captain Wilkes viras greatly applauded by Northern people, but England vi'as highly indignant and at once began to make preparations for vi^ar. She sent troops and war- vessels to Canada and was unnec- essarily harsh in her demands that the prisoners be given up. President Lincoln, knowing that the War of 1812 was brought about mainly because England claimed the right to stop and search neutral American vessels at sea, wisely refused to approve the course taken by Captain Wilkes. Accordingly he at once gave up the prisoners p^sident Lincoln to England, with the statement that Captain gives up Mason Wilkes had acted without any authority from ""•«"'""■ the United States Government. But the North could not help thinking that England was not only insolent in her de- mands, but over-hasty in her preparations to make war upon us. Ill-feeling between the two countries was thus aroused and was a source of more or less irritation throughout the war. GEORGE B. MCCLELLAN. 3IO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL 1. You are now ready to study the Civil War. Only a few of the great battles are described in this history, but these will enable you to understand the character of the terrible conflict. You do not need to know the details of military movements, but you do need to know what kind of men your country sent to the camp and battle field. Were they brave men ? Were they manly, vigorous, and true ? Find out as you study the war. 2. How did slavery split the Democratic Party ? What did the Repub- licans think of slavery ? Learn all you can about the life and char- acter of Abraham Lincoln. 3. What was the Southern point of view of the Constitution ? The Northern point of view ? Recall the liberal construction and the strict construction theories of the Constitution in the time of Ham- ilton and Jefferson. Explain how slavery was the real cause of the war. 4. Why were the cotton States the first to secede ? Name the advan- tages of the North and of the South in the war. 5. What was President Buchanan's attitude toward the secession move- ment ? Contrast this attitude with that of Andrew Jackson toward nullification. What was the result of Buchanan's attitude ? 6. Why did the Confederates attack Fort Sumter? Imagine yourself to have been in the fort with the brave little garrison and describe your experience there. What were the results of the attack on Fort Sumter ? 7. Why did Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas secede ? Account for the refusal of the people in the western part of Virginia to join their State in the secession movement. 8. Locate on your map the position of the opposing forces just before the Battle of Bull Run. What were the results of this battle? 9. What was the " Trent affair " ? Do you think President Lincoln acted wisely in giving up Mason and Slidell ? Give reasons for your answer. 10. By reading the opening chapter of Ropes's " Story of the Civil War " you will get a clear idea of the difference between the Northern and the Southern point of view of the Union. THE NATION IN PERIL 323. Union Plan of the War. — Not until the opening of 1862 was a plan of operations matured by the North. This plan, at the outset, was threefold : (i) To blockade SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 311 Southern ports ; (2) to open the Mississippi ; (3) to capture Richmond. The successful carrying out of this plan led also to Sherman's campaign in Georgia in 1864. 324. England and King Cotton. — At the outbreak of the war people at the North supposed they had only the South to deal with. They soon found, however, that they had to contend with an insidious influence from abroad. When Jefferson Davis said, " Cotton is king,"* he doubtless thought that England's money and friendship could be se- cured by her need of cotton. In i860 the cotton ekports, most of which went to English factories, amounted to more than $202,000,000. Many English manufacturers and mer- chants and 4,000,000 English working people were depend- ent upon Southern cotton for their means of support. The Southern leaders naturally thought that these English manufacturers and working people would never submit to any action on the part of the North which would cripple their industries. It was therefore expected by the Con- federates that the need of cotton in England would win for them the sympathy of the English people. 325. The Blockade. — But from the beginning of the struggle the North was determined to blockade the South so effectually that the latter could neither send cotton to England nor receive in return the much-needed supplies for her soldiers and homes. In the end, as the world knows, the South was forced to give up the struggle be- cause of a lack of the very supplies which cotton alone could procure ; in other words, the Confederacy was starved into submission by the blockade. Although, as stated above, the cotton exports in i860 had amounted to $202,000,000, in 1861 the exports fell in value to $42,000,000, and in 1862 to $4,000,000. In the remaining years of the war the blockade was so effectual that the value of the cot- ton exports was not worth consideration. 326. The Merrimac and the Monitor. — It was to break the blockade that the Merrimac was set afloat. When the ' At the beginning of the war the cotton States in the South furnished nearly two thirds of all the cotton used in the world. 312 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Norfolk navy-yard was abandoned by the United States Government at the outbreak of the war, among the ships The Confederates bumed and sunk was the frigate Merrimac. "the^Mirrr'"" ^his had been one of the largest and finest mac. ships in the navy. The Confederates raised her and converted her into an iron-clad. Up to this time very few iron-clad frigates had been built, and none had been tested in war. The Confederate naval officers DECK OF THE MONITOR. thought, however, that one iron-clad would be much more effective in reducing the Union navy and raising the blockade than a whole fleet of wooden craft to match those generally in use. The history of the naval duel between the Merrimac and the Monitor shows how wisely the Con- federates planned. The hull of the Merrimac was razed to the water's level. The vessel was rebuilt with sloping sides, plated with iron four inches thick, and was furnished with a cast-iron beak and a formidable battery. The Merri- mac had been many months in construction, and when, about noon of March 8, 1862, she steamed into Hampton Roads, where the United States had a fleet of five powerful war-vessels, she was not wholly unexpected. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 313 In advancing to meet her, three of the blockading squad- ron ran aground on account of low water. But the Con- gress and the Cumberland, supported by the batteries on the shore, made ready for the attack. They poured broad- side after broadside into the Merrimac as she TheMerrimac approached. The balls rebounded from her Ji^biockadJ"" iron sides with no effect. The Merrimac aquadron. steered straight for the Cumberland, discharging a broad- side into the Congress in passing. Continuing her fire she rammed her iron beak into the Cumberland' s side, making a great hole, into which the water rushed. The crew of the Cumberland continued firing until they reached the water's edge, and when they went down their colors were still fly- ing. The Merrimac then turned to the Congress, poured hot shot into her, set her afire, and forced her to surrender. At nightfall the Merrimac steamed back to her landing, expect- ing to complete her work of destruction the following day. Great was the joy in the South that night, and great was the consternation in the North. Statesmen were grave, the people terrified. The blockade was broken consternation in at Norfolk. Soon' it might be broken at other the North, ports, and Northern commerce might be ruined by the ravages of this invulnerable sea-monster. But in history, as in fiction, it is the unexpected that of- ten happens. That night a strange-looking craft came into the harbor. It was Ericsson's Monitor, which had been completed in New York two daj's before. The ^,,^ Monitor Monitor was an experiment, and her construe- arrives just in tion had been pushed with desperate energy, """" that she might be ready as soon as the Merrimac. She was built with an iron-plated deck almost level with the water, and had a revolving iron turret with two powerful guns. The purpose of this peculiar construction was to present as little resisting surface as possible to the enemy's guns. The Confederates well described her appearance when they said she looked like a Yankee cheese-box on a raft. She had arrived just in time. The following morning the Merrimac steamed out of 314 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Norfolk confident of a victory over the other three frigates. She steered for the Minnesota, by the side of which the Monitor was lying, and soon found that she had a new ad- versary to deal with. The Monitor steered straight fqr the Merrimac, and one of the strangest naval battles ever fought The sturdy little began. The duel continued ovcr three hours. Monitor saves At points the Merrimac's armor was crushed the Union. ^^^ ^^^ picrccd. Captain Worden of the Monitor received a wound which delayed the action for a little, and the Merrimac withdrew. Neither side cared to continue the struggle. The Merrimac had met her match and made no further attempt to break the blockade. The sturdy little Monitor had saved the Union. This fight revolutionized naval warfare, for it showed that the days of wooden war-vessels were at an end. Against such iron-clads as the Monitor and the Merrimac wooden vessels of the finest type were useless.^ 327. The Importance of the Mississippi. — In order to cut off the South from communication with the rest of the Why the North world, it was ncceSsary not only to maintain »nirMo?th^e ^"^^ blockadc but to gain possession of the Mississippi. Mississippi River. For by way of Mexico trade was kept up with European countries to some extent. Other advantages would be secured to the North by getting control of this river: (i) Such control would cut the Con- federacy in two, making Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana of little use to the Southern cause ; (2) it would prevent the South from getting supplies of any sort from the region. west of the Mississippi ; (3) it would enable the North to use her navy to great advantage in concentrating troops in the rear of the Confederacy and in getting supplies to her armies in that region ; (4) it would open the Mississippi to the trade of the West and the Northwest. ' Neither of these famous iron-clads ever again took part in a battle. When, two months later, McClellan forced the Confederates to evacuate Norfolk, they destroyed the Merrimac, which drew so much water that she could not steam up the James River to Richmond. In December of the same year the Monitor went down, with most of her crew, in a storm off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. ' ' X H a z < ei o o s Id X H z M & n a i-i !^ H <: SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 315 328. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — It was one thing to cut off the South from the rest of the world ; it was quite another to get possession of her vast territory. But this last was necessary also. Early in the war the Con- federates had been driven from West Virginia and from Missouri. In the winter and spring of 1862 the Federal generals began a series of movements whose twofold pur- pose was to open the Mississippi to the North and gain possession of Tennessee. To defend Tennessee, the Confederates had built Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cum- berland. Their line of defence, as will be seen xhe confederate by consulting the map, extended from Colum- "ne of defence, bus through Forts Henry and Donelson, Bowling Green, and Mill Springs, to Cumberland Gap. To break this line of defence, it was necessary for the North to capture Forts Henry and Donelson. By capturing the two forts the two important rivers would be under the control of Northern vessels, and Nashville would have to be abandoned by the Confederates. Columbus, when cut off from support, would also have to be given up without a struggle. With all these things in view, General Grant, with the aid of Commodore Foote, moved upon the two forts. Com- modore Foote soon captured Fort Henry (February 6); and General Grant,' after a hard fight, received the surrender of Fort Donelson with nearly 15,000 prisoners (February 16). By this important victory the first Southern line of defence in the West was thus broken, and Columbus and Nashville fell into the hands of the Federals. 329. The Battle of Pittsburg Landing (or Shiloh). — The Confederates now fell back upon another line of de- fence, extending from Memphis, through Cor- General Qrant at inth, an important railroad centre, to Chatta- Pittsburg Landing TT 1 r- 1 A1U <. o-j T u waits for General nooga. Under General Albert Sidney John- Bueii. ston, the Confederate army, 40,000 strong, took position at ' When General Buckner sent to Grant for terms of surrender the following an- swer was sent : " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." 3i6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Corinth. General Grant, with 33,000 men, advanced as far as Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River, about twenty- four miles from Corinth. Here he waited for Buell, who was hastening from Nashville to join him with an army of 27,000 men. On Buell's arrival the Federal army was to attack Johnston's forces at Corinth. Before Buell could reach Pittsburg Landing, however, Johnston attacked Grant early on Sunday morning, April 6. Q^ *i F^^^"'^''''-'— »>—??««» — — +4f— - ___-' — 9?^rnmL=JsSM ^^m^^lr'^KIl ^ ^^ ^^ ^r ^5 PARAPET AT FORTRESS MONROE. It was a terrible day. By nightfall the Confederates had driven Grant's troops back a mile and a half toward the Grantwinsa rivcr. But before moming Buell's frcsh troops victory. Jiad come up, and they assisted Grant in driv- ing the Confederates from the field. In this battle about 20,000 men were killed or wounded. Among the killed was General Albert Sidney Johnston, whose death was a serious loss to the South. 330. Capture of New Orleans. — New Orleans was im- portant to the South because it controlled the lower Missis- sippi. Thirty miles from the mouth of the river were two forts nearly opposite each other. Between them were Confederate Stretched across the river immense chains defences. fastened to the hulks of old vessels. A little farther up the river was a strong fleet, which included a formidable iron-clad ram like the Merrimac and a floating battery covered with railroad iron. There were also fire- rafts ready to be turned loose upon the Federal vessels. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 317 Commodore Farragut, who was in command of a fleet of nearly fifty wooden vessels that was to attack Farragut runs by these forts, advanced up the river to New Or- theforts. leans. There General Butler, with an army of 15,000 men. tt«^r»*. «fjC*»-' ^urary^^. grant's " UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER" LETTER, ^j/ J)erviissioJi of General James Grant IVilson. was to aid in getting possession of the city. After bom- barding the forts for six days without making much im- pression, Farragut determined to run by them at night. It was a desperate undertaking, but it succeeded, and easily SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 3^9 brought New Orleans into the possession of the Union forces (April 25). With the aid of the river gunboats the Federals had, before the close of 1862, opened the river as far down as Vicksburg. This city and Port Hudson alone remained in possession of the Confederacy. ^ 331. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). — These brilliant victories were in marked contrast with the failure of the army under General McClellan. As we have Mccieiian creates already seen, he was placed in command of a splendid army. the Army of the Potomac, which was intended for the de- fence of Washington and the capture of Richmond. Be- fore the opening of the spring campaign in 1862, he had, by thorough organization and drill, created a splendid army. His original plan was to approach' Richmond by the James River. Lincoln opposed this because he thought that Washington would thus be exposed to attack. He therefore urged the wisdom of approaching Richmond over- land from the north, in order to keep the Federal army between the Confederates and Washington, iwccieiian objects McClellan objected because there were so to uncoin-s plan. many rivers to be crossed, every one of which could, for defensive purposes, be made a Confederate stronghold. The swampy forests of this region were also in the same way of great value to the South. It is no exaggeration to say that these natural advantages were worth many thou- sand troops to the Confederate army, and it is -unfair to McClellan and Grant not to take them into account. McClellan adopted neither Lincoln's plan nor his own, but compromised by approaching Richmond by way of the peninsula between the James and the York Rivers, making his base of supplies on the latter. McDowell was stationed near Fredericksburg, between the main Confederate army and Washington. In this posi- tion he could protect Washington or unite McDoweii with McClellan, as occasion required. To stationed at prevent an attack upon the capital by way of F™''e'-!*sburg. the Shenandoah, well known during the war as the " back ■"■ ,^-Y^ 1 /'«" ' ^ ^ y t' \ i ^_^-^^^~;^;;;;3^^niri:l»biirg- ^ P E N n/ s Y B^^^^TA ^^_^ A ^^ // / V^ ^P=^i „» i-> ?°" /-/ V ^— "-^ YorkT * V XX ) cit tnfcersfcuM//'^ — ^Si /' , <^ yj i _ //^ Getiyaburg ^^ ^k / / ^^ - f— ^w"^" " J^ J ^i ^j , // \ V),SliaTf,\mri)iFrederl6k vj SSt'i y 7 w/a^ //^'5 ?er\As=^,^5>' « my,,/ » oH.oj-^ ^1 ^./"; ^1 \ .^H^. y / (f Wincheater "% H^^^ y 1 virgIiniV ; <^ 1 Jk ^^ Ik / Ceiat/Creeka ^^ , w **f^3 r- ^^fj~^) ySfraiburg^^s^ ^ \/\ y \ * % M*'^^ \ /~T J Ftslier/Hmp'^^ 5X 5i\W 1 } i B/*' ( . ) / 1 1 /> »y^ ii*N. ^ A ^ J 1 / Jl 1 °r% ) i / 1 « ^'^ / •' H X ^A* I/I « k \*ir^ / 1 i V "^^-^'^^^^^ Cedar Mount Sf ^^ "rji cHi vCuf '\fC^ J^ S ■J>^ ^-*— V'tf' "■■f^^ "^^ s/W 'A\ p/^ } 1 -y^ iV. R p^ 'V V V/ pr~j^n;i-^ ^ si £ "n JS[^_V -4««o»»o«or c.iyr ^ 5^1 is i —I ■^^^^-^^oim.^mnj' ^ ->^*»TOvJ^-sjfH SalS'"''!' 1 IH \ J ^^^-^f^^ y ^'0tcr8burg''^^^W''A\ ri --L/V V _/G;:3^ |\„„,^'!.Jlfi impton goe Roads /f ^ -_^ r\\. Jjf^V^Norfol f^ — x/ X>^ "hi \ A MAP inlDSTnATING VmaiNIA CAMPAIGNS ^i^ X^r^ -A c^ ^ A i^s^ — } — \"X AND 'S:^ t-KS°>'- C / J \ *>» ^ MC CLELLAK>S RODTE. olinV H\ T)-?, NOKTHNCAR P . . . . ?5 60 JX 1 v3^ Scale of Miles. THE M.-N. CO. ^^ I'e" % SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 321 door to Washington," Union forces were stationed there under Banks and Fr6mont. 332. McClellan Advances up the Peninsula. — Starting at Fortress Monroe on April 4, 1862, McClellan, with 120,- 000 troops, advanced along the York River Mccuiian stops to Yorktown. Here, instead of storming the town, he laid siege to it. When he was ready for an assault, the Confederates, having held him in check for a month, withdrew, and thus gained time to strengthen for a month at Yorktown. A MORTAR BATTERY IN FRONT OF YORKTOWN. their defences about Richmond. McClellan hurried after them and fought an indecisive battle at Williamsburg, from which the Confederates retired toward their capital. McClellan then advanced slowly, and by the end of May found himself within ten miles of Richmond. By that time the Confederates defending Richmond numbered 70,000. Dividing his army, McClellan encamped upon both sides of the Chickahominy. He made this arrangement so as to establish easy connection between his north wing and Mc- Dowell, who (with 45,000 men) was near Fredericksburg with 322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES orders to be in readiness to unite with McClellan. Heavy rains caused the Chickahominy to swell, thus separating the two wings. General Johnston took advantage of the Battle of situation to attack the division south of the Fair Oaks. river at Fair Oaks (Seven Pines), and threat- ened to overwhelm it, but McGlellan got reinforcements across and stayed the retreat. 333. " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley; McClellan Changes his Base of Supplies. — In order to prevent McDowell from joining McClellan, General Rob- ert E. Lee, who was now in command of the Confederates,* sent " Stonewall " Jackson down the Shenandoah Valley to threaten Washington. Jackson defeated Banks and Fre- mont, and so thoroughly alarmed Lincoln that the latter ordered McDowell to return to the defence of Washington. After playing havoc with the Union forces in the Shenan- doah Jackson hastily joined Lee. Now that McDowell was prevented from joining the at- tack upon Richmond, McClellan changed his base of sup- plies to the James River. During the week that he was The " Seven Days' transferring the army to the new base of sup- Batties." plies the terrible "Seven Days' Battles," in which McClellan lost 15,000 men, were fought. At Malvern Hill, the field of the last of these engagements, Lee repeat- ' Lee had succeeded General Joseph E. Johnston, who was wounded in the bat- tle of Fair Oaks (May 31). Robert E. Lee, son of Henry Lee, or "Light-Horse Harry," of Revolutionary fame, was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1807, and died in 1870. He was graduated from West Point in 1829, ranking second in a class of forty-six. He distinguished himself for bravery in the Mexican War and rose to the rank of colonel. After Virginia seceded in 1861 Lee decided "to go with his State." He therefore resigned his commission in the army of the United States, and a little later took command of the Virginia State troops. When, at the battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks (1862), General Joseph E. Johnston received a serious wound that temporarily unfitted him for active service, Lee was put at the head of the Confederate army. From that time to the end of the war he was the leading Confederate general and handled his troops with consummate ability. Military critics rank him and Grant as two of the foremost commanders of this century. Lee won the confidence of the Southern people,'who regarded him with unbounded admiration and affection. At the close of the war he became president of what is now Washington and Lee Uni- versity, where he spent the remaining years of his life. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 323 edly charged but was driven back with fearful slaughter. The Army of the Potomac fought here with magnificent heroism. Had McClellan taken immediate advantage of this victory he might, by a vigorous attack, have captured Richmond. As a whole, the Peninsular Campaign failed and caused bitter disappointment in the North. 334. Lee's First Invasion of the North (1862). — Mc- Clellan made no further attempt upon Richmond. In the A FEDERAL BATTERY IN THE FIELD. meantime Halleck had been put in chief command of the Union armies. Pope was appointed to take command of the forces in northern Virginia and McClellan was ordered to join him. Before McClellan could reach Pope, however, Lee pushed north. He united his forces with " Stonewall " Jackson's, which had been sent to surprise Pope's rear. After defeating Pope in the second battle of second Battle o« Bull Run he marched across the Potomac buiiruh. into Maryland, where he thought he would receive large recruits. In this he was disappointed. The great major- ity of the Maryland people were loyal to the Union, and 324 HISTORY OF THi; UNITED STATES plainly showed this in their attitude toward the invasion, When Lee's men marched into the State singing " My Maryland people Maryland" there was not a word of welcome loyal to the Union, from the peoplc. On reaching Frederick, Lee was surprised to find not only places of business shut, but even the doors closed and the blinds drawn. The North, however, fearing an attack upon Baltimore, Washington, or Philadelphia, was greatly alarmed. 335. Battle of Antietam (Sep- tember 17, 1862). — After Pope's de- feat in the second battle of Bull Run, McClelian, having united Pope's army with the Army of the Potomac, started in pursuit of Lee. On September 17, with an army of 70,000, he attacked Lee, who, with about 40,000, had taken his position at Sharpsburg, behind Antietam Creek. This battle was one of the bloodiest of the war. Although Lee Lee retreats succcssf uUy defended Into Virginia. himself against the at- tack of the Union army, he had to retreat into Virginia without hav- ing gained anything by his first invasion of the North. Some people thought McClelian ought to have routed or captured Lee's army. As he did not follow the Con- Burnside.whosu- federates he was severely criticised for being TaTudlfcatedat slow and ovcrcautious, and was superseded Predericksburg. by Burnsidc. Burnsidc was as rash as Mc- Clelian was cautious, and later in the autumn met a crush- ing defeat when he attacked Lee, who was intrenched in a strong position at Fredericksburg. The year's operations had been successful for the Union cause in the West, but unsuccessful in the East.' ROBERT E. LEE. * One of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought at the end of this year at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. Beginning December 51 {1862), it lasted three days, and resulted in the retreat of the Confederates after the most stubborn fighting. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 325 TO THE PUPIL Z. What vras the Union plan of the war? In what way did Jefferson Davis think that the cotton trade would secure the friendship of England for the Southern cause i" Why was it extremely important for the North to blockade the South i* 2. What did the Merrimac accomplish on the first day she attacked the blockading squadron ? What were the results of the fight be- tween the Merrimac and the Monitor ? 3. Name four or five advantages to the North in securing control of the Mississippi. What purpose had the Confederates in building Forts Henry and Donelson ? What effect did the capture of these forts by the Federals have upon the Confederate line of defence ? 4. What was the second Confederate line of defence ? What were the causes and results of the Battle of Shiloh ? Why was New Orleans of importance to the South ? 5. Are you making constant use of your map ? 6. What was McClellan's plan of approaching Richmond ? What was Lincoln's? Which do you think was the better plan ? Give reasons for your answer. For defensive purposes, what natural advantages had the Confederates in Virginia ? Why was General McDowell left at Fredericksburg ? 7. Point out on the map Yorktown and Williamsburg, and show their connection with McClellan's advance upon Richmond. What was the purpose of " Stonewall " Jackson's movements in the Shenandoah ? What was the result ? 8. After reading as much as you can on the Peninsular Campaign, give reasons for McClellan's failure to capture Richmond. 9. Why did Lee decide to invade the North ? How was he disap- pointed ? What were the results of the Battle of Antietam ? THE TIDE TURNS 336. Lee's Second Invasion of the North ; Battle of Gettysburg (1863). — After Burnside's repulse at Fredericks- burg in December, 1862, he retired to winter uooker-s defeat quarters. Before the campaign of 1863 opened at chancellors- Hooker was put in command. In April he ^"'** advanced to Chancellorsville with 113,000 men, and attacked Lee, who had 62,000.' Lee again badly defeated the Army ' In this battle the Confederates met with a grievous loss in the death of " Stone- wall " Jackson. Through a mistake he was fired upon by some of his own men. Thomas J. Jackson, often called " Stonewall " Jackson, was born in 1824, inHar- 326 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of the Potomac. These two victories made the South jubi- lant, but depressed the North. With an exultant and confident army Lee planned to invade the North a second time. Early in June he marched dovi^n the Shenandoah, crossed the Potomac, and advanced into Pennsylvania. The whole country was wild with ex- ■ . . ■ .„. citement. Lee hoped to win a decisive vic- Lee 8 reasons for ^ Invading the tory, Capture Baltimore or some other great North ini863. Northern city, and dictate terms of peace. He had reason to believe that a victory on Northern soil ^•^ -jams; FUGITIVE NEGROES FORDING THE RAPPAHANNOCK. would lead England and France to recognize the indepen- dence of the South. These two countries were only wait- ing until some pronounced success on the part of the South should afford them a reasonable excuse for giving such recognition. rison County, Virginia (now West Virginia), and was graduated from West Point in 1846. He took part in the Mexican War, where he was promoted for good con- duct. He resigned from the army in 1851, on receiving an appointment as profess- or in the Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, Virginia. He was so eccentric that he became unpopular with the students, who did not regard him as a man of ability. Although he was opposed to secession he thoroughly believed in State rights, and therefore "went with his State" when it seceded. As soon as he took command of troops on the battle field he showed himself to be a splendid soldier. By his stubborn bravery at Bull Run he won the name of " Stonewall " Jackson, and rose at once to the rank of major-general. He was Lee's ablest subordinate, and, next to Lee, was probably the most popular Confederate general. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 327 The two armies meet at Gettys- burg. Lee advanced his army toward Chambersburg and en- camped in that vicinity. Hooker crossed the Potomac east of the mountains, marched north to Frederick, and sent a detachment west through the mountains to menace Lee's line of supplies. In order to draw off the Union forces from his rear, Lee marched eastward to . ,^1 Lee s advance. threaten Washington. Un the very same morning Meade, who had superseded Hooker, started north from Frederick, keeping east of the mountains to protect Washington. The two ar- mies were thus marching toward each other, and each was ignorant of the other's movements. They unexpectedly met at Gettys- burg and fought a three-days' battle (July I, 2, and 3). On the first day the advance forces of the Union army, being greatly out- numbered, were driven through Gettysburg with a loss of 5,000 prisoners. The Confederates also suffered heavy loss in killed and wounded. That night the Union army took a strong position on Cemetery Ridge, just south of the town. This ridge, three miles in length, is in the shape of a fish- hook, with Culp's Hill for the barb and Round Top at the extreme southern end. Just north of Round Top was Little Round Top. Lee's army took position on Seminary Ridge, lying about a mile west of Cemetery Ridge and nearly parallel with it. On the second day of the battle the Confederates made two vigorous assaults, one at Culp's Hill on ^^ , . '', . r , ' . . ^ , , The second day. the right wmg of the Union army and the other in front of Little Round Top on the left wing. Al- though the Confederates gained some slight advantage, there was no definite result on either side. Having failed to break the Union flanks and having re- The first day. THOMAS J. (" stonewall") JACKSON. 328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ceived Pickett's fresh division, Lee spent the next morning in preparation for a grand assault on the Union centre, where he hoped to be more successful. By one o'clock in the afternoon he had placed in position on Seminary Ridge The furious can- -more than a hundred guns. The Federals nonade. could find room for only eighty on Cemetery Ridge. At one o'clock the Confederate guns opened fire, and until three the furious cannonade continued. At that time the fire slackened on Cemetery Ridge in order to let the guns cool in time for the expected attack. The Confederates thought they had silenced the Union batteries, and that the mo- ment for the South to make one mighty effort had come. General Pickett, who was to lead this assault at the head of some of the best Virginia troops, was ordered to Pickett's charge. . , advance. in three magnificent lines, with a front a mile long, 15,000 Confederates charged across the field. The sight was thrilling, but soon the murderous fire from the Northern guns began to cut them down by hundreds. The fearful slaughter thinned the advancing lines. Still they pressed on. As they neared the first line of Northern troops. Lieutenant Cushing, a Union officer, although mortally wounded, pushed the only remaining gun of his battery to the fence and shouted to his commander, " Webb, I will give them one more shot." As he fired he fell, saying " Good-by." Pickett's men broke through the first line. Armistead, one of Pickett's gener- als, leaped over the fence, raised aloft his sword, upon the SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 329 point of which he swung his hat, and shouted, " Give them the cold steel, boys ! " Just as he laid his hand upon a Union gun to capture it, he was shot down. From every side the Union men came rushing headlong upon the enemy. The struggle that followed was terrific. Men and officers were mingled together intone seething mass, each man fighting for himself. Pickett's men were soon repulsed, and with their lines broken into fragments they were driven back with disas- trous loss. The failure of Pickett's charge insured Lee's defeat at Gettysburg, and with Defeat of that defeat the tide Pickett's men. turned. Next day, while Grant was receiving the surrender of Vicksburg, Lee began his retreat toward the Potomac. After this failure the South was unable to secure a foothold in the North.* 337. Capture of Vicksburg; Opening of the Mississippi River. — At the close of 1862 Vicksburg and Port Hudson were the only Confederate strongholds left on the Mississippi. After months of unsuccessful effort to take Vicksburg from the north, Gen- eral Grant moved his army down on the west bank of the river and, crossing over to the east bank, orant attacks made an attack from the south. Pemberton, vicksburg from v.'ho was in command of the Confederates in the south. Vicksburg, marched out to meet Grant, hoping to unite with Johnston, who was hastening to join him. Before the union of the two Confederate armies could be effected. Grant drove Pemberton into Vicksburg and compelled Johnston to retreat. Grant's bold plan was brilliantly executed. ' In this battle Meade's army (infantry and artillery) numbered about 82,000; Lee's about 74,000. Each army had m addition about 11,000 cavalry. Meade lost in all about 23,000 ; Lee 30,000, or more than one-third of his entire force. GEOKGE G. MEADE. 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES UXT OF VICKSBUBG jlND ■VICINITY. SekleofMtlei. The Confederates starved into surrender. He then laid siege to the city (May 19), cutting it off from supplies of all kinds. Flour, sold for $1,000 a barrel (Confederate money). Provisions became so scarce that even rats and mule-flesh were used as food. So many thou- sand shells were thrown into the city daily that many people abandoned their homes. They lived in caves which they dug in banks where the streets had been cut through the hills. In about seven weeks the Confeder- ates were starved into surrender. On July 4, 1863, the day after Lee's defeat at Gettys- burg, Pemberton sur- rendered Vicksburg with 32,000 men. When, four days later. Port Hudson was cap- tured, the Mississippi River, to its mouth, was under the control of the North. 338. Slavery and the Emancipation Proclamation (Janu- ary I, 1863). — In his inaugural address President Lincoln had declared that he would not interfere with slavery where it already existed because he had no constitutional right to do so. But as The slaves aid ^^^ "^^^ proceeded it became evident that the blacks in the South were a great source of strength to the Confederate cause ; for while masters enlisted in the army, slaves by their labor supplied food not only for Southern families but for the the cause of the South. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 331 support of the Southern army. In this way they were aiding the cause of the South about as much as if they had been able to bear arms. Moreover, the sentiment in regard to slavery was changing in the North. People had come to look upon it as the cause of the war, and many de- sired the government to attack it as a war measure. As commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, President Lincoln had authority to set free all slaves THE FIRST READING OF THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. in territory conquered by the Union armies. Just after the Battle of Antietam, therefore, he warned the seceded States (September 22, 1862) that unless they returned to the Union before January i, 1863, he would set their slaves free. As none of these States returned, the emancipation procla- mation was issued on January i, 1863. From that time the North fought not only for the Union but for the abolition of slavery.! 339. Employment of Emancipated Blacks in Northern Army Stops Exchange of Prisoners, — It was but one step further to arm the blacks and make them soldiers. If the ■ General Butler, early in the war, confiscated the negroes whom he found em- ployed in throwing up earthworks for the Confederates near Fortress Monroe. He fed and protected them, regarding them as contraband of war. 33* HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Emancipation Proclamation was issued as a military neces. sity in order to weaken the South and to make the issue of the war perfectly plain to the world, the same military necessity would call for the arming oi these emancipated slaves. Before the end of the war there were enlisted in the Union armies 180,000 blacks, who made good soldiers. The Confederates bitterly resented theemployment of their former slaves in the Union armies and refused to recognize A FEDERAL CAVALRY CAMP — WINTER QUARTERS. the negro soldiers or their officers in exchanging prisoners. This led to mutual misunderstanding and ended in stopping all exchange of prisoners. As a result, thousands of sol- diers languished in prisons and suffered much from disease and famine.' 340. Conscription in the North; Draft Riots In 1863 the North found it advisable to resort to a conscription or draft. All able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were enrolled, and from the enrollment a cer- tain proportion was chosen by lot. The draft was very unpopular, and in New York City, on July 13, 1863, a serious riot took place, lasting four days and resulting in the de- ' Some of the noted Southern pisons were Libby Prison and Belle Isle in Rich- mond, Virginia, and Andersonville, in Georgia. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 333 struction of much property. The mobs showed especial hatred toward colored people, brutally killing many. The riot was finally put down by the aid of troops sent from Gettysburg. 341. Conscription in the South.— In April, 1862, by an act of the Confederate Congress, all able-bodied white men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five were required to enter the Confederate army. In the autumn of the same year all white men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were in- cluded in the conscription law, and before the close of the war even boys of sixteen and seventeen and old men were included. So hard pressed for men were the Confederates that just before the war came to an end their Congress had decided to enlist some of the slaves in the Confederate army. When all exchange of prisoners was stopped, the South, by reason of the scarcity of fighting men, was much more seriously crippled than the North. The whole number of men captured from the armies of the North and the South in the entire war amounted to a half-million. 342. Battle of Chickamauga (1863).— After the loss of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, the strongest and most im- portant position held by the Confederates in jhe importance the West was Chattanooga,* which was not of Chattanooga, only a great railroad centre, but the key to eastern Tennes- see and the gateway to Georgia. General Rosecrans, in GEORGE H. THOMAS, THE ROCK OF CHICKAMAUGA." ' From the outbreak of the war the Confederates had made a strenuous effort to get control of Kentucky and Tennessee. The outcome was the remarkable middle Tennessee campaign in 1862. On the last day of the year the battle of Stone's River, or Murfreesboro, was fought, Rosecrans being the commander of the Northern army and Bragg of the Southern. The result was the retreat of Bragg with his army greatly weakened. This battle kept the South from capturing Nashville, and made easier the movement of the Northern army against Chatta- □ooga in 1863. 334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES saves the Union army from ruin- ous defeat. command of the Union army in Tennessee, advanced with 55,000 troops upon Chattanooga, which was occupied by Bragg. By moving to the south of this place, Rosecrans threatened Bragg's line of supplies and compelled him to withdraw from Chattanooga and take position at Lafayette (September 19-20), twenty-six miles to the south. Here Bragg received a strong body of reinforcements and vigorously attacked the Union army, now outnumbered. He overwhelmed and routed the right wing, General Thomas and WOuld have put to rout the entire army but for the unflinching courage of General Thomas, the " Rock of Chicka- mauga," who coolly held his position on the left until the rest of the army could make a safe retreat to Rossviile on Missionary Ridge. 343. Siege of Chat- tanooga. — Although Bragg defeated the Union army in the bat- tle of Chickamauga, he did not secure what he greatly desired — Chattanooga itself. He therefore strongly fortified himself on Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, overlooking Chattanooga, and tried to cut off the Union army from its supplies. The situation became serious. For weeks all the Union supplies had to be brought over a single mountain road for a distance of sixty miles. When Grant, who had superseded Rosecrans, reached Chattanooga about the middle of November, the number of horses and mules had been so reduced by starvation that GENERAL GRANT AND STAFF ON POINT LOOKOUT, 1863. Critical situation of the Union army. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 335 Map of CHATTANOOGA ud Vldnlt^. CoUMcCook* • DariaDlr. ^■'»' the artillery could not be moved.' The soldiers were liv- ing on half-rations, and had not enough ammunition left for a single day's battle. But in five days after reaching Chattanooga Grant' got control of the river line of sup- plies. From that time the army, which had been cooped up in Chattanooga for months, had an abundance of food. 344. Battle of Chatta- nooga. — Having received reinforcements. Grant now decided to attack Bragg, who occupied Bragg-g strong a very strong position. position, with his right flank resting on the northern end of Missionary Ridge, his left flank on the northern end of Lookout Mountain, and his centre stretching across Chattanooga Valley. His line was twelve miles long and on the flanks ap- peared to be almost im- pregnable. On November 24 Grant sent the gallant Hooker and his men to charge up the rocky heights of Lookout Mountain. This charge resulted in desperate fighting " above the clouds," and in driving Bragg's left flank from its mountain strong- ' Ten thousand horses and mules had starved to death. 'When seventeen years of age (see par. 37t) Ulysses S. Grant received an ap- pointment to a cadetship in the Military Academy at West Point. Although he did not take high rank in scholarship, he became the finest horseman in his class, and showed a marked aptitude for mathematical studies. Entering the army after graduation, he distinguished himself for bravery in many important battles of the Mexican War. He remained in the army until 1854, when he resigned his com- mission, and continued in private life until the beginning of the Civil War. Dur- ing these years he tried farming, store-keeping, and selling real estate, but did not have much success. In 1861 he received a commission as colonel of an Illinois regiment, and, by his extraordinary military skill and ability, rose to the rank of 336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES hold. Early next morning Sherman vigorously assaulted the north end of Missionary Ridge. Until three o'clock in Two heroic ^^^ aftcrnoon he struggled to drive the enemy charges by the from the heights, but in vain. Then Thomas's Union troops. ^^^ ^^^.^ Ordered to join the attack. Like a mighty whirlwind they swept away all opposition in their grand charge up the hill. Bragg's army, overwhelmed and defeated, fled from the battle-field in confusion. TO THE PUPIL 1. Observe that after Lee's retreat from Antietam he defeated the Army of the Potomac ia two battles, the first at Fredericksburg (December, 1862), and the second at Chancellorsville (April, 1863). What reasons had Lee for a second invasion of the North in 1863 ? 2. Trace with care upon your map the location of the two armies on the second day of the battle of Gettysburg. As this is one of the world's great battles you will do well to understand it. Describe Pickett's charge. What were the most striking results of the battle ? 3. Before studying the capture of Vicksburg review the following battles fought to open the Mississippi in 1862: Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, the battle of Shiloh, and the capture of New Orleans. Now you are ready to describe the capture of Vicksburg. Read General Grant's excellent account of it in his " Personal Memoirs." 4. How did the slaves aid the Confederate cause ? What was the source of President Lincoln's authority to set free any of the slaves in the South ? What was the Emancipation Proclamation ? After its issue what was the North fighting for ? 5. Why was it natural for the North, after emancipating the blacks, to employ them as soldiers ? What effect did such employment have upon the exchange of prisoners ? 6. Why was Chattanooga an important military position ? What led to the battle of Chickamauga, and how did General Thomas save the Union army from rout ? Describe the critical situation of the Union army when Grant reached Chattanooga. What were the results of the battle of Chattanooga ? 7. You will find Coifin's books on the Civil War very interesting. lieutenant-general (1864) in command of the Union armies. His brilliant strategy at Vicksburg and Chattanooga in 1863, and his advance upon Richmond in 1864- 65, proved him to be one of the greatest military leaders of all time. His iron will, resolute purpose, cool judgment, and unflinching courage never failed him in the hour of trial and danger. He was also a man of singularly pure and gentle spirit, with a high sense of public duty. SECESSION And the civil war 337 THE HAMMERING CAMPAIGN 345. The Union Plan of 1864.— In March, 1864, Grant, who had won the confidence of the people by his campaigns in the West, was raised to a military rank sec- General orant ond only to that of the President, with the title mlndof^The of lieutenant-general.^ In reality he was placed union armies, in command of all the Northern armies. By the close of 1863 the Confederacy had been cut down to Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The Union armies had now to get control of these four States. Grant was to attempt th^ capture of Richmond, which was defended by Lee ; Sherman was to get control of Georgia by defeating Johnston, who had command of the Confederates there. The watchword in the East was "On to Richmond;" in the West, "On to Atlanta." These two movements were planned to begin at the same time, early in May, so that, if possible, the Confederate armies might be pre- vented from aiding each other. 346. "On to Richmond." — Grant's advance upon Rich- mond began (May 4) by crossing the Rapidan and entering the Wilderness. He had 120,000^ men against Lee's 62,000. For two days in the thick, gloomy woods, where the enemy could not be seen twenty feet away, a terrible struggle ensued. Grant's loss was se- vere, but he pressed on, writing to Lincoln, " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." As Grant moved forward, terrible battles were fought at Spott- sylvania Court House (May 8-18) and at Cold Harbor ' Before that time only Washington and Scott had been made lieutenant-generals. ' Grant's army, arranged in ranks of four, the ranks being five feet apart, would extend a distance of more than twenty-eight miles. GENERAL U. S. GRANT. In tile Wilderness. 338 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (June 3). Before the close of June he had lost more than 60,000 men, and Lee, 40,000. Realizing aftef this great loss of life that he could not capture Richmond by attacking it from the north. Grant Grant transfers transferred his army across the James in order his army across to attack the city from the south. Here an theJanjes. attempt was made to capture Petersburg (July 30) by exploding a mine under the outer Confederate defences. The explosion was followed by a vigorous as- sault, but the plan failed. 347. Early's Raid in the Shenandoah. — It will be re- membered that in 1862, when McClellan was near Richmond, BUILDING A PONTOON BRIDGE. " Stonewall " Jackson was sent into the Shenandoah to threaten Washington and prevent McDowell from reinforc- ing McClellan. In 1864 Lee tried in the same way to weaken the attack upon Richmond. Toward the last of June he sent Early with 20,000 men to threaten Washington Early threatens by way of the Shcuandoah. Early swept on Washington and ^^jj ^ ^ General Lew Wallace with a burns Chambers- burg, much smaller force on the Monocacy River, not far from Washington. Here Wallace fought a losing battle in order to detain Early long enough for Grant to get a part of his army into Washington. These troops reached the city just in time to prevent its capture. A lit- tle later Early again pushed down the Shenandoah across SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 339 the Potomac into Pennsylvania, where he burned Chambers- burg. 348. Sheridan in the Shenandoah. — To put an end to such raids in the North, General Sheridan' was sent with 30,000 men to watch General Early and to lay waste the fruitful Shenandoah Valley. After defeating Early and chasing him up the valley, Sheridan destroyed 2,000 barns filled with grain and farming implements and seventy mills filled with flour and wheat, besides driving off thousands of sheep and cattle. A few days later, while Sheridan^ was away, Early surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, and drove it back seven miles. This was the occasion of " Sheridan's Ride " <■ sheridan-s from Winchester, Ride." about fourteen (not " twenty ") miles away. On Sheridan's arrival he found that the Union forces had been formed in battle array. Early's army was totally defeated (October 19) and driven in confusion from the field. 1 Philip H. Sheridan was born in Ohio in 1831, and died in 1888. He was graduated from West Point in 1853. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he was made chief quartermaster of the army in the southwestern part of Missouri. He handled his troops so ably at the battle of Murfreesboro that he was promoted to the rank of major-general. He gave further striking evidence of military skill and dar- ing at Chickamauga and Chattanooga. In 1864 Grant had Sheridan put in com- mand of all the cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. His campaign in the Shenan- doah was one of the great military achievements of the war. He was so popular that he was called by his men " Little Phil." Some years before his death he became lieutenant-general, and on his death -bed was promoted to the rank of general-in-chief. ^ In the early morning of the battle, General Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, was informed of the firing in the direction of Cedar Creek. Mounting his handsome coal-black horse, he rode at full speed toward the scene of battle. When he met the retreating soldiers he shouted, " Turn back, men — turn back ! Face the other way ! " His inspiring presence heartened the soldiers. With waving hats they cried, "Sheridan! Sheridan! " and cheerfully followed their leader as he dashed forward. Sheridan's ride changed defeat into overwhelming victory. PHILIP H. SHERIDAN. 34° HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 349. " On to Atlanta." — Early in May, 1864, Sherman,' with 100,000 men, was at Chattanooga, facing Johnston, with Importance of ^4,000, at Dalton. It was desirable to get Atlanta and posscssion of Georgia because it was the Qeorgia. worlcshop, the arsenal, and the storehouse of the Confederacy. Sherman's plan was to capture Atlanta, an important railroad and manufacturing centre, and then to pass on to the sea and destroy the sup- plies necessary to sus- tain the Confederate armies.' Sherman had great difficulties to face. In Sherman's the first difficulties. placc, an able general, Joseph E. Johnston, opposed him ; in the second place, every mile of advance took him far- ther away from his base of supplies at Nashville. He soon had to protect a long line of com- munication which the enemy was constantly trying to 'William T. Sherman was born in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1820, and died in 1891. Having graduated from West Point in 1840, he remained in the army until 1853 and then resigned his commission to engage in business. At the outbreak of the Civil War he became a colonel and took part in the battle of Bull Run. Soon after that battle he was raised to the rank of brigadier-general and transferred to Halleck'l command in the Department of the West. His great military skill was shown at Shiloh and in the memorable Vicksburg campaign. When, therefore, Grant was placed in command of all the Union armies in 1864, he secured the appointment of Sherman as commander of the armies of the West. The " March to the Sea," one of the notable military achievements of modern history, followed. Sherman was among the ablest generals of the Civil War. When Grant became general-in- chief of the army in 1866, Sherman was made lieutenant-general, and when Grant was elected President, Sherman was promoted to the rank of geueral-in-chief. ' Such a course may seem cruel, but it is just as good generalship to starve an army into submission as to kill with firearms. Its effect is to shorten war and save life. DESTROYING A RAILROAD AT ATLANTA, GA. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 341 destroy. Johnston's plan was to draw him as far as pos- sible from Nashville, always avoiding a pitched battle. Sherman's plan was to flank Johnston and threaten his line of communication with Atlanta. By a series of flank move- ments Sherman compelled Johnston to retreat. Battles were fought at Resaca, New Hope Church, and Kenesaw Mountain. Both generals were skilful, but Johnston, by his cautious movements, failed to satisfy the Confederate authorities. He was superseded by Hood, who was as rash and impetuous as John- ston was careful and capture of cautious. Hood at once Atlanta, made desperate attacks upon Sher- man and was soon defeated. By cutting the railroad connections on the south Sherman captured Atlanta (September 2, 1864). 350. Sherman's " March to the Sea." — A little later Sherman, cut- ting loose from all communication with the North, started through Georgia on his famous march to the sea, which was some two hundred miles away. Hood, by moving northward, tried to draw Sherman after him, but Sherman sent Thomas to look after Hood, while he himself moved southward from Atlanta. After destroying three hundred miles of railroad and laying waste the country over a belt sixty miles wide, " from Atlanta to the sea," Sherman, with the loss of less than a thousand men, reached Savannah just before Christmas. He presented Savannah as a "Christmas gift" to the government.' In the mean- WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. ' The following was Sherman's message to the President : Savannah, Georgia, December zs, 1864. To Hh Excellency, President Lincoln, Washington, D. C: I beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hun- dred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition ; also about twenty-five thou- sand bales of cotton. W. T. Sherman, Major-General. 342 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES time Thomas so thoroughly routed Hood's army at Nash- ville that it could not be brought together again. 351. Capture of Mobile. — As we have seen, one of the leading purposes of the North was to prevent, by blockade, the export of Southern cotton. By the middle of 1864 Union war-vessels had closed to foreign trade nearly all the Southern ports. One of the niost important of these was Mobile, which Admiral Farragut, in co-operation with a land force of S,ooo men, was sent to capture. Realizing the great value of Mobile, the Confederates had prepared The defences for a vigorous defence. Two strong forts of Mobile. Stood on oppositc sides of the entrance of the bay, the channel of which was obstructed by torpedoes. Within the bay were three gun-boats and the powerful iron- clad ram, Tennessee. At six o'clock on the morning of August 5, 1864, the Union fleet, consisting of fourteen wooden vessels and four monitors, was under way. In order that he might see over the smoke, Admiral Farragut,' then sixty-three years old, ' David Glasgow Farragut was born near Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1801, and died in 1870. The night before the terrible struggle in Mobile Bay he wrote to his SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 343 took his position in the rigging of the flagship Hartford. One of the monitors was sunk by a torpedo, but the remain- der of the fleet passed into the bay and engaged the Ten- nessee, the strongest of the Confederate iron-clads. By ten o'clock the fight was over and the capture of Mobile as- sured. In a few days the forts surrendered to the land force. This signal victory was due to the unflinching cour- age of Admiral Farragut. 352. Sympathy of English Workingmen with the North. — We may now leave the armies for a while and consider how England and France were look- ing upon the war. Jefferson Davis and the South greatly erred when they counted upon the sympathy of the working classes in England, for when English workingmen under- stood that the war was a struggle between freedom and slavery, their sympathies were with the North. Although the cotton famine in Eng- land, produced by the blockade of the South, forced hundreds of thou- sands out of employment, these starving laborers prayed for the success of the North. On the other hand, the aristocracy, with a few exceptions, and the Eng- lish Government, being more in S3'mpathy with the aristo- cratic Southern planter and .perhaps jealous of American commerce, favored the South. 353. England and the Confederate Navy. — The South was in great need of a navy, and had no facilities for build- ing one. English shipbuilders, therefore, with the knowl- edge of the English Government, responded to the need of the South, and built formidable Confederate cruisers in British dock-yards. TJiese__£niis£ra_dxQV-e_jQur_m£xcharit- riiaiiiejrgin_th.e._sea. wife : "I am going into Mobile Bay in the morning, if God is my leader, as I hope He is, and in Him I place my trust. God bless and preserve you, my darling, and my dear boy, if anything should happen to me," DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT. 344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The most famous cruiser was the Alabama,^ comriiatided by Captain Semmes. This ■ vessel was built with English money in an English port, was manned by an TheAIabama. i_ ,/, • T t7 i- u J -English crew, carried Enghsh gunners, and vhoisted an English flag. In a word, with the exception of her officers, she was an English vessel built for the special purpose of destroying Northern commerce. Charles Fran- cis Adams, our able minister to England at that time, pro- tested, but in vain. The United States, in the midst of a civil war, no longer commanded the respect of the English Government. Our country was not in a position to demand justice and satisfaction. But it resented England's attitude none the less keenly, and the time came when England was wise enough to listen. The Alabama (1862-64) captured over sixty Northern vessels, amounting in value, with their cargoes, to over $7,- TheKearsaree 000,000. The duel between the Alabama zxiA sinks the the Kearsarge, which had gone out in search of Alabama. j^gj.^ ^^g fought off the coast of France (June 19, 1864). The Alabama, in about one hour, was shattered and sunk. The sinking of the Alabama put an end to the destructive work of Confederate cruisers. After the war England paid more than $15,000,000 for damages done by TheAIabama Confederate cruisers. As the first of these Claims. claims made by our government for redress grew out of acts committed by the Alabama, all the claims growing out of the acts of all the vessels became known as the " Alabama Claims." 354. Napoleon III. and the Confederate Navy. — But the English Government did not stand alone in its un- friendly attitude. The French Government was equally ' " A score of other Confederate cruisers roamed the seas to prey upon United States commerce, but none of them became quite so famous as the Sumter and the Alabama. They included the Shenandoah, which made thirty-eight captures; the Florida, which made thirty-six ; the Tallahassee, which made twenty-seven ; the Tacony, which made fifteen ; and the Georgia, which made ten. Most of these cruisers were built in British ship-yards." — R. Johnson. The attitude of the English government toward the Confederate navy was most unfortunate, naturally causing in the North much bitter feeling toward England. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 345 hostile to the North. Napoleon III., for personal reasons, was eager for the success of the Confederate cause, and urged England to acknowledge the independence of the South. He wished to see the Union dissolved, ^ , , ^ . ' iNapoleon s desire because it was his desire to establish an em- to establish an pire upon the ruins of the republic of Mexico, *""''" '"Mexico, and he knew that so long as the Union remained unbroken he would not be permitted to carry out his plans. He also, during the later years of the war, with contemptible du- plicity equal to that of Napoleon I. just before the War of 1812, allowed formidable iron-clads for the Southern navy to be built in France. One of these was finally launched, but the war was at an end before it could reach our coast. Napoleon sent a French army to invade Mexico in 1861. By 1863 it had established an empire there, and Napoleon offered the throne to Maximilian, Archduke Maximilian in of Austria. The United States protested, but Mexico, in vain. After the close of the war, however, in response to the threatening attitude of this country. Napoleon with- drew the French troops. Maximilian was then taken pris- oner by the Mexican authorities, tried by court-martial, and shot. TO THE PUPIL 1. What part of the Confederacy remained unconquered at the close of 1863 ? Describe the Union plan of campaign in 1864. Outline the "On to Richmond " movement. 2. Compare Early's raid in the Shenandoah in 1864 with Jackson's move- ment in that valley in 1862. What did Jackson accomplish p What did Early accomplish ? Why was Sheridan sent into the Shenan- doah ? What did he accomplish there ? Why was the Shenandoah of importance to the Confederates ? 3. Why was it desirable for the North to get possession of Atlanta? What difficulties did Sherman meet in his advance upon Atlanta i What was Johnston's plan of defence ? 4. Outline Sherman's " March to the Sea." Which do you think was the abler general, Sherman or Johnston ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. What did Jefferson Davis mean by speaking of cotton as "king"? At this point review the " Trent Affair," the importance of the block- ade, the attempt on the part of the South to break the blockade by 346 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES means of the " Merrimac," and the effect the blockade had upon cot- ton export. 6. Why did English workingmen sympathize with the North ? Why did the English aristocracy and the English Government favor the South ? In what way did English shipbuilders aid the South ? 7. What was the "Alabama," and what was the attitude of the English Government toward Southern cruisers built in English dockyards ? What became of the " Alabama " ? What were the "Alabama Claims " ? 8. How did Napoleon III. show his sympathy with the South ? What was his scheme in sending Maximilian to Mexico ? In this connec- tion review the Monroe Doctrine, and find out whether or not Napo- leon III. violated this doctrine by supporting Maximilian with a French army. Why were the French troops withdrawn from Mex- ico after the Civil War ? 9. Subject for debate : Resolved, that Grant was a better general than Lee. APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE 355. Fall of Richmond. — By the various disasters which we have recounted the Southern cause was brought into Lee fails to break desperate straits. Careful observers could see through Grant's that the end was near.' Sherman, after re- army, maining about a month in Savannah, started through the Carolinas northward (February i). Lee, with 40,000 men, still held Richmond, which Grant, with 100,000 men, was trying to capture. In order to join Johnston's force in North Carolina, Lee made one last effort to break through the Union army lying south of Petersburg. This plan was defeated by Sheridan in the battle of Five Forks, where 5,000 Confederates were captured. The next day (April 2) Lee evacuated Richmond and started on a retreat westward. The pursuit was hot. Hun- dreds of the Confederates, havine: little to eat Lcc ret refits and believing that their cause was hopeless, deserted, and thousands threw away their arms. Their condition was pitiable. For five or six days they lived on ' In the spring of this year General Wilson, in a brilliant cavalry movement, captured the five fortified cities of Selma, Montgomery, West Point, Columbus, and Macon. These places had important railroad connections, contained valuable supplies for the Confederate army, and manufactured for it war material. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 347 A COUNCIL OF WAR AT MASSAPONAX CHURCH. parched corn and the shoots of trees. One week after leav- ing Richmond (April 9), Lee, finding that every avenue of escape was cut off, agreed to hold a conference with Grant at Appomattox Court House, about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, to consider terms of surrender. 356. Lee's Surrender. — It was a notable meeting. The result of the interview was the surrender of Lee with 26,000 men, only 8,000 of whom had arms. The Grant's delicacy terms of surrender were very generous to the o'feeiing. Confederates, who were to lay down their arms and were not, unless properly exchanged, to take them up again. With rare delicacy of feeling Grant ordered that all the Confederates owning horses or mules should be allowed to 348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES take them home. " They will need them for the spring ploughing," he said. But consideration for the Confeder- ate soldiers did not stop here, for when they marched in front of the Union soldiers to stack arms in token of sur- render the Union soldiers saluted them. The Confederates promptly returned the salute. Grant's attitude toward the Confederates, which won the hearts of the Southern people, was like that of the »,..„„ . United States Government as a whole. Only 1 he generous -> attitude of the One Confederate — the keeper of Anderson- Qovernment. ^jjjg Prison— was put to death at the close of the war. The death-penalty in this case was inflicted, not at all for connection with the Confederate movement, but because of inhuman cruelty. No government ever showed so great mercy to those who had tried to break it in pieces. The great struggle ended when Johnston surren- dered to Sherman near Raleigh, North Carolina (April 26, 1865). 357. Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis. — On Sun- day morning, April 2, Jefferson Davis was attending service at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond when an offi- cer walked quietly up the aisle with a telegram from Lee announcing the retreat of the latter from Petersburg. Da- vis at once left the church and prepared to leave the city. In a vain endeavor to escape capture he fled through the Carolinas into Georgia. While encamped :n the woods near Irwinsville, Georgia, in the early morning he was sur- prised and captured (May 10). He was taken to Fortress Monroe and confined there for two years. At the end of that time many well-known men — among whom was Horace Greeley, a Republican leader of great prominence — used their influence to secure his release. Davis was never brought to trial. 358. The Assassination of Lincoln. — The rejoicing of the people over the return of peace soon gave place to mourning for the loss of the one who had safely piloted the nation through the storm of war. On the evening of April 14, 1865, while President Lincoln was at Ford's Thea- THE SURRENDER OF LEE TO GRANT AT APPOMATTOX. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 349 tre in Washington, an obscure actor, half-crazed over what he believed to be the wrongs of the South, entered the Pres- ident's box from the rear and shot him through the head. He then leaped upon the stage, and shouting ^'' Sic semper tyrannis ! " (So be it always to tyrants), rushed out of the stage-door amid the wildest excitement of the people and escaped. In a few days he was hunted to his hiding-place in Virginia and shot dead while resisting capture. Lincoln's assassin was at the head of a conspiracy whose aim was to bring confusion to the government by killing some of the leading men and thus creating a Theaimof the panic. On the same evening one of these con- conspirators, spirators forced his way to the bedside of Secretary Sew- ard, who was lying ill in his home, and vainly tried to stab him to death. Four of these conspirators were hanged and three imprisoned for life. Lincoln, who was, shot a little after ten o'clock in the evening, lingered, unconscious, until early next morning. When Lincoln's spirit passed away. Secretary The grief of the Stanton was the first to break the silence by people, saying, " Now he belongs to the ages." The grief of the people for the nation's hero was well-nigh universal. On Friday, April 21, the train that was to take his body to Springfield, Illinois, moved slowly out of Washington on its mournful journey. In order that the people might have opportunity to express their love and grief for the departed leader, it stopped at many large cities along the route. The unbroken silence amid which the vast throngs filed past the oper^ coffin as the body lay in state indicated a feel- ing too deep for words. The spirit of his noble service is well illustrated in the closing words of his second inaugural address, March 4, 1865:' "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firniness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the ' It seems fitting to introduce here the memorable Gettysburg speech, made at Gettysburg, November 19, 1863, on the occasion of the dedication of the National 35° HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." 359. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. — Early in the war the Sanitary Commission was organized by good men and women to supplement the work of the government in aiding needy and distressed soldiers. Rec- ognized by the government and supported by all classes of the people, its career was one of extraordinary useful- ness. It had its own physicians, nurses, and attendants, its own transports and methods of work. It ministered to the wounded on the battle-field and carried the wounded sol- diers by easy methods of conveyance to the hospital. Fur- thermore, it gave special relief to men on sick-leave, col- lected and distributed supplies, and in every possible way cared for the suffering and needy soldiers. The Christian Commission cared for the souls as well as the bodies of the soldiers. It distributed tracts, held prayer^ meetings in improvised chapels, comforted the dying, and, where possible, gave Christian burial. This commission Cemetery there. The speech well exemplifies, in its brevity, simplicity, and ten- derness of feeling, the character of President Lincoln : LINCOLN'S GETTYSBURG SPEECH Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that na- tion, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We are come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here ; but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be ded- icated here to the unfinished work which they, who fought here, have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before l ; ; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 351 also received the recognition and support of the govern- ment. Thousands of noble women at home, in hospitals, and near the scenes of battles expressed in The work of their service through these commissions not noblewomen. only a tender love and sympathy, but a patriotism as faithful and true as that of the brave soldiers whom they attended. 360. The Results of the War. — The Civil War was one of gigantic proportions. At its close the South was pros- A SANITARY COMMISSION LODGE NEAR ALliXANDRIA, VA. trated, the North was under severe strain. About 600,000 men had been killed, and several hundred thousand more permanently injured. The loss of wealth can never be told, but, including the expenditure of the government and the States, the destruction of property by both armies, and the value of slaves to the South, the war cost not far from eight thousand millions of dollars. The most important result of the Civil War was that slavery was forever abolished throughout the Union.* The Emancipation Proclamation had set free only the slaves in * See Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 352 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES those States and parts of States conquered by Union armies ; but now slavery was entirely swept away, and with it the attendant evils of State rights, nullification, and secession. The supremacy of the Union was established, and the United States, " one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all," turned her energies to the new struggle of building up what had been torn down by four years of frightful havoc — the industries and wealth of her people. TO THE PUPIL 1. Before studying the fall of Richmond review the various attempts made by the Army of the Potomac to capture that city. Your review will include Bull Run, the Peninsular Campaign, and the " On to Rich- mond " movement in 1864. 2. Describe Lee's retreat and his memorable surrender. 3. Read Lincoln's second inaugural, and memorize his Gettysburg speech. 4. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the army did more effective work than the navy in the Civil War. 5. What were the Sanitary and Christian Commissions? What were the most important results of the war? Are you sure you know its causes ? 6. If you will read Alcott's Hospital Sketches you will get a sad picture of suffering in the hospitals during the war. CHRONOLOGY 1789. March 4, FIRST CONGRESS ASSEMBLED IN NEW YORK. April 30, WASHINGTON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1790. THE FIRST CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 3,929,214. 1791. VERMONT ADMITTED TO THE UNION — FIRST NATIONAL BANK ESTABLISHED. 1792. KENTUCKY ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1793. WAYNE'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE INDIANS. COTTON-GIN INVENTED BY ELI WHITNEY. 1794. THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION. 1795. JAY'S TREATY RATIFIED. 1796. TENNESSEE ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1797. March 4, JOHN ADAMS INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1798. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY CREATED BY ACT OF CONGRESS. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS ENACTED BY CONGRESS. 1800. THE SECOND CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 5,308,483. 1801. JOHN MARSHALL MADE CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COUKT. March 4, JEFFERSON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1802. OHIO ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1803. LOUISIANA PURCHASED FROM FRANCE. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 3S3 1804. LEWIS AND CLARK STARTED ON THEIR EXPEDITION 1805. TREATY OF PEACE WITH TRIPOLI. 1806. AARON burr's EXPEDITION TO THE SOUTHWEST. Niruember 20, THE BERLIN decree issued. 1807. TRIAL TRIP OF FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT. November, THE orders IN COUNCIL. December, THE embargo ACT PASSED BY CONGRESS, 1809. March 4, MADISON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1810. THE THIRD CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 7,239,881. 1811. THE FIRST STEAMBOAT STARTS DOWN THE OHIO FROM PITTSBURG FOR NEW ORLEANS. November 7, BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE. 1812. LOUISIANA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. June 18, WAR DECLARED AGAINST ENGLAND. August 16; HULL'S SURRENDER OF DETROIT. August 19, NAVAL FIGHT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES VESSEL CONSTITU- TION AND THE BRITISH FRIGATE GUERRIERE. 1813. March 4, MADISON'S SECOND INAUGURATION. September 10, perry's VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. October 5, battle of the Thames. JACKSON'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 1814. CAMPAIGN ON THE NIAGARA; BATTLES OF CHIPPEWA AND LUNDY'S LANE. August 25, CAPTURE OF WASHINGTON BY THE BRITISH. September 11, battle OF plattsburg. December 15, HARTFORD convention met. December 24, treaty of peace signed at ghent. 1815. January 8, BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 1816. THE SECOND UNITED STATES BANK CHARTERED. INDIANA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1817. March 4, MONROE INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. July 4, CONSTRUCTION OF THE ERIE CANAL BEGUN. MISSISSIPPI ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1818. STEAM NAVIGATION BEGUN ON THE GREAT LAKES. ILLINOIS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1819. ALABAMA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. THE STEAMSHIP SAVANNAH MADE THE FIRST TRIP ACROSS THE AT'.ANIIC FROM SAVANNAH TO LIVERPOOL. 1820. MAINE ADMITTED TO THE UNION. THE FOURTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 9,633,822. 1821. RATIFICATION OF TREATY OF 1819, CEDING FLORIDA TO THE UNITED STATES. MISSOURI COMPROMISE ADOPTED BY CONGRESS. MISSOURI ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1825. March 4, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. CORNER-STONE OF BUNKER HILL MONUMENT LAID IN BOSTON BY LAFAYETTE. ERIE CANAL OPENED. 1826. FIRST RAILROAD BUILT IN THE UNITED STATES (AT QUINCY, MASS.). 1828. FIRST PASSENGER RAILROAD IN THE UNITED STATES BEGUN (AT BALTIMORE, UD.), 1829. March H, JACKSON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1830. THE FIFTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 12,866,020, 1831. GARRISON ESTABLISHED " THE LIBERATOR." 1832. NULLIFICATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 1833. REMOVAL OF DEPOSITS FROM THE UNITED STATES BANK. 1835. TEXAS DECLARED HER INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO. 354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1836. Juni 15, ARKANSAS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1837. January 26, MICHIGAN ADMITTED TO THE UNION. March 4, VAN buren inaugtjhated president. 1840. THE first CUNARD STEAMER SAILS FROM LIVERPOOL TO NEW YORK. THE SIXTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 17,069,453. 1841. March 4, HARRISON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1842. THE DORR REBELLION IN RHODE ISLAND. THE ASHBURTON TREATY CONCLUDED. 1844. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN BALTIMORE AND WASHING- TON. 1845. TEXAS ANNEXED BY JOINT RESOLUTION. March 3, FLORIDA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. March 4, POLK INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. December 29, TEXAS admitted TO the union. 1846. May 8, battle of palo alto, beginning of the Mexican war, August 8, DAVID WILMOT INTRODUCED HIS PROVISO IN CONGRESS. December 28, IOWA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1847. February 22, 23, BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA. March 27, SURRENDER OF VERA CRUZ. September 14, CITY OF MEXICO occupied by the American forces. 1848. February, TREATY OF peace WITH MEXICO concluded. GOLD DISCOVERED IN CALIFORNIA. May 29, WISCONSIN ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1849. March 4, TAYLOR inaugurated president. 1850. the clay compromise passed. THE seventh census, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 23,I9I,87& September g, CALIFORNIA admitted to the UNION. 1853. March 4, pierce inaugurated president. 1854. May 30, the kansas-nebraska bill passed. 1857. March 4, BUCHANAN inaugurated president. March 6, THE DRED SCOTT DECISION. 1858. May II, MINNESOTA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1859. February 14, OREGON admitted to the union. October, JOHN brown's raid on harper's ferry. i860, the eighth CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 31,443,321. December 20, SOUTH CAROLINA seceded. 1 86 1. January, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded. January 29, KANSAS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. February, TEXAS SECEDED; PROVISIONAL CONFEDERATE GOVERNMENT ORGAN- IZED. March 4, LINCOLN INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. April 12, 13, BOMBARDMENT OF FORT SUMTER. April 17, VIRGINIA SECEDED. April 19, FIRST BLOOD SHED, IN BALTIMORE. May, ARKANSAS AND NORTH CAROLINA SECEDED. July 21, FIRST BATTLE OF BULL RUN. November 8, MASON AND SLIDELL TAKEN FROM THE TRENT. 1862. February 16, SURRENDER or fort donelson. March g, fight between the merrimac and the monitor, April 6, 7, BATTLE OF PITTSBURG LANDING (SHILOH). April 25, CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS BY FARRAGUT. June as, the seven days' battles before Richmond begun. August ig, 30, SECOND battles of bull kun. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 355 1862. September 17, battle op antietam. December 13, battle of peedeeicksburg. 1863. January l, EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION ISSUED. May 2, 3, BATTLE OF CHANCELLORSVILLE. June 20, WEST VIRGINIA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. July 1-3, BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 'July 4, SURRENDER OP VICKSBURG. July 8, SURRENDER OP PORT HUDSON. September 19, 20, BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA. November 24, 25, BATTLE OP CHATTANOOGA. May 4, SHERMAN'S ATLANTA CAMPAIGN BEGUN. 1864. May 5, 6, GRANT'S advance ON LEE, BATTLE OF THE WILDERNESS. June 14, GRANT CROSSES THE JAMES ; SIEGE OP PETERSBURG BEGUN. June 19, THE ALABAMA SUNK BY THE KEAESAKGE. August S, BATTLE OP MOBILE BAY. September 2, FALL OF ATLANTA. Septemter and October, SHERIDAN'S CAMPAIGN IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY. October 19, BATTLE OP CEDAR CREEK. October 31, NEVADA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. November 15, SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA BEGUN. December 15, 16, BATTLE OP NASHVILLE. December 21, Sherman enters savannah. 1865. January 15, PORT PISHER CAPTURED BY GENERAL TERRY. March 4, ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURATION. April 1, BATTLE OF FIVE PORKS. April 2, RICHMOND EVACUATED. April 9, SURRENDER OF LEE'S ARMY. April 14, PRESIDENT LINCOLN ASSASSINATED. April 26, SURRENDER OP JOHNSTON'S ARMY. May 10, CAPTURE of Jefferson davis. May 23, 24, review OP THE army AI WASHINGTON. IRcconetructlon anb tbe IRew lanlon CHAPTER XIX RECONSTRUCTION DAYS (1865-1871) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V.; An- drews's United States, II.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, I.; Burgess's Civil War and Reconstruction ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People ; Gold- win Smith's United States ; Alexander H. Stephens's War between the States; Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Blaine's Twenty Years in Congress ; McPherson's Political History of Recon- struction ; McCulloch's Men and Measures of Half a Century. 361. Condition of the South when Johnson became President. — If all the wisdom and tact of Lincoln had been required during the war, much more were they needed in the trying days of reconstruction. The public debt was enormous, and the whole country was suffering from the strain of war. Fortunes had been lost, family circles broken, and thousands of brave fathers, husbands, and brothers slain in battle. Conditions were hardest in the South, where wasted plantations and ruined homes bore evidence of the terrible havoc of war. Bodies of Union cavalry were scour- ing the country in search of Confederate leaders who, when captured, were sent to forts and imprisoned until the nation should decide their fate. "What shall be done with the leading Confederates?" "How shall the millions of Southern negroes be cared for?" Perpiexine " In what way shall the seceded States be questions. treated?" These were a few of the perplex- ing questions of those trying times. It was hard to know 356 RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 357 what was best to do — so hard that men soon realized that Lee's surrender presented new troubles as difficult to settle as the problems that brought on the war itself. 362. Andrew Johnson.' — Andrew Johnson, who suc- ceeded Lincoln, was rash, hot-tempered, and self-willed, ut- terly without the delicate tact and persuasive power that gave Lincoln such a remarkable influence over men. In politics he was a strict constructionist, but was devoted to the Union. At the beginning of the war he was the only senator from the secession States who refused to resign his office. At this time he was an ardent believer in the doctrine of State rights, but he had no sympathy with the secession move- ment. This was accounted for by the fact that he was brought up among the " poor whites " and was therefore prejudiced alike against the rich men of the South and the negroes. We need not be surprised, then, to find him ready to put to death Jefferson Davis and other distinguished Confederates, and to show no special concern about the protection of the freed men. 363. President Johnson's Plan of Restoring the Se- ceded States. — By the middle of July, 1865, President John- son took steps to restore the eleven Confederate States to their places in the Union. Congress would not meet until ANDREW JOHNSON. 'Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of the United States (1865-1869) was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1808, and died in 1875. His parents be- longed to the class of people known as the ' ' poor whites, " and therefore his early advantages were extremely limited ; but he was fearless, honest, energetic, and ambitious. He taught himself to read while apprenticed to a tailor, and after his marriage his wife taught him to write and cipher. While a young man he re- moved to Tennessee with his mother and sister, who were dependent upon him. There he gained the confidence of the people, and occupied one public office after another until his election to the Senate of the United States. He was governor of Tennessee when he was elected Vice-President, and after Lincoln's assassiI^ation he became President. 358 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES December, and up to that time he could carry out his own ideas in regard to the South. He appointed provisional governors, w^ho were to call upon the white voters in their respective States to elect delegates to State conventions. These conventions were to pass three votes : (i) To declare the Ordinances of Secession to be null and void ; (2) to repu- diate the Confederate war-debt ; (3) and to ratify the Thir- teenth Amendment, which forever abolished slavery in the United States.^ The votes having been passed by all the seceded States, the President recognized the State govern- ments^ and declared them ready to be represented in Con- gress (December, 1865). 364. The Freedmen and Southern Legislation. — It was believed in the South that the freedmen, having so long been accustomed as slaves to the direction of masters and overseers, would not work unless compelled by law, and that the safety of the South was threatened by the pres- ence of several million ignorant and shiftless beings. Southern Legislatures, therefore, began to enact laws whose results would have been to reduce the negroes to a condi- tion little short of actual slavery. These laws aroused in- dignation in the North and had great influence in shaping the work of reconstruction. 365. The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction in the Seceded States (1867). — When Congress met in December, 1865, the Republicans refused to admit the representatives and senators from the seceded States until something President John- should be donc to protect the freedmen in fnTtolard'Jrn." their civil rights. This action made Presi- gress. dent Johnson furious against Congress. He declared that it had no more right to keep a State out of the Union than the States had to secede from the Union. His bitterness increased until it led him to lose all sense of dignity and propriety as he gave expression to his violent * This amendment did for the whole United States what the Emancipation Proc- lamation did for the seceded States. 'Johnson's plan of restoring the seceded States was similar to that outlined by Lincoln in his "Presidential Theory " of reconstruction. RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 359 feelings. In a short time he turned his party in Congress against him. As they numbered two-thirds of both the Senate and the House they could enact any laws they pleased, in spite of the President's veto. Johnson soon ac- cused them of keeping out the Southern representation for this specific purpose. But the more he accused, the more solid became the ranks of the Republicans opposed to him. By 1867 Congress had worked out a simple and thorough plan of reconstruction which it boldly proceeded to execute. By this plan, (i) the Confederate leaders were Two essential excluded from voting or holding oflBce until cTn"ress"onar pardoned by Congress, and (2) the freedmen plan. were given the ballot. In other words, those who a few years before had been slaves were given large influence in public affairs, while many of their former masters were left without any political power whatever. No seceded State could be represented in Congress until it should submit to these two conditions. To indicate its submission each State was to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment' 366. The Work of Reconstruction Complete. — It is needless to say that the Southern people indignantly op- posed these laws. They thought Congress unjust to deny the right of suffrage to the most intelligent and influential whites, and at the same time to give it to the ignorant blacks. But in June, 1868, seven' of the States had submit- ted, and their representatives were admitted again to Con- gress. By January 30, 1871, the work of reconstruction had been completed, and all the States were again represented in Congress. 367. Bitter Struggle Between President Johnson and Congress (1867-1868). — The President, as we have seen, had 'This made the freedman a citizen, declared that the Confederate leaders should not fill any public office until pardoned by Congress, and that while the debt of the Union should be paid, the debt of the Confederacy should not be paid. Tennessee was the first of the Confederate States to accept the Thirteenth and Fourte»nth Amendments, and Congress voted, July 24, 1866, that she was entitled to repre- sentation. ' These States were Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Ala- bama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. 36o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES not agreed with Congress about the plan of reconstruction. The quarrel between them grew more bitter. Congress continued to pass measures over his veto, and he con- tinued fiercely to attack that body in his speeches. This most unfortunate and undignified contest was brought to The Tenure of a climax by the Tenure ot Office Act. Up to OMiceAct. that time it had been held that, while the President could appoint no high officials without the Senate's approval, he could remove them at his pleasure. But in March, 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, pro- viding that the President should not, without the consent of the Senate, remove any office-holder whose appointment required the consent of the Senate. In August, during the Congressional recess, Johnson removed from his Cabinet Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, and appointed General Grant to fill the position. When the Senate again met, it refused to sanction Stanton's removal, and General Grant withdrew. 368. The Impeachment of President Johnson. — The President, believing that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional, refused to obey it, and again removed Secretary Stanton, putting General Thomas in his place. The House then impeached the President ; that is, it accused him of failing to do his duty as the executive head of the nation. He was tried before the Senate, Chief-Justice Chase presiding. As in all cases of impeachment, the Sen- ate acted as a high court, a two-thirds vote being necessary to secure conviction. More than two-thirds of the Senators were Republicans, but seven of them voted for acquittal, making the vote stand thirty-five for conviction and nine- teen for acquittal. The President had won by a single vote. 369. Negro Suffrage and Carpet-bag Rule (1868-1871). — Before the work of reconstruction was completed, the The negro a freed- Fifteenth Amendment had become a part of man, a citizen, the Constitution. The Thirteenth Amend- andavoter. ment (1865) made the negro a freedman, the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) made him a citizen, and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) made him a voter. With the RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 361 right of suffrage in his grasp, his friends hoped that he might protect himself against oppression. But he was too ignorant to become a voter or lawmaker. As a slave he had not only been kept in ignorance, but, by his master's care for his wants, had been deprived of all sense of respon- sibility. One could hardly expect that all at once he would become an intelligent voter. The whites tried by bribes and other means to keep the negroes away from the polls. When mild means failed, vio- lence was used. As a natural result there was great disor- der. The negroes were joined by a small number of white men, some of whom were adventurers from the North, called " carpet-baggers " because they were Qreat disorder, said to have brought all their possessions in heavy taxes, and their carpet-bags, and others were Southern ''^'""*'®- men, called "scalawags" and despised as traitors by the South. Doubtless many of these white men were honest in their convictions, but some of them used the blacks as tools fortheir own political advancement. The Legislatures made bad laws and levied heavy taxes upon property owned mostly by the whites, who could not vote. Vast sums of money were wasted or stolen, and State debts were enor- mously increased. 370. The Ku-Klux Klan (1868-1871).— Naturally, men of property and intelligence resented these unjust prac- tices and determined to put a stop to them. At first the whites used peaceable means, and soon got control in some of the States. But in others, especially where the blacks were in a majority, the whites were not so successful. In those States attempts were made to terrify the freedmen. Much of this terrorizing was done under the name of a secret society called the Ku-Klux Klan, which existed throughout the South. It was at first a sort of police organized by the young men of Tennessee as a pleasurable means of keeping the negroes under control by working upon their superstitions. Its members wore hideous masks and disguises, and did much of their work at night. As disorder increased 362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES "dens," or Ku-Klux societies, multiplied, especially in those States where the blacks were in a majority. Usually the Brutal method* knowledge that a "den" was organized in of the Ku=Kiux the Vicinity was enough to terrify the negroes '^'°"* into submission. When that was not sufficient the Ku-Klux Klan, or men who pretended to belong to the society, began to whip, maim, and even murder the freedmen and their white Republican friends. Finally, law-abiding The Horrible Sepitkltrt and Bloody HooA liaa at' lufe ortfnA, Some hve to-day to-moiTow "/ttj." We the andenigned nndeiataod through our' Otaad ej/dopt that yon have recommendeil a big Bbick Kigger for Vale agent on enr DO rode ; wel, air, Jeat yon nnderataad in time if he gcto on the rode yon cod make up yonr mind to pnll roape. If von ho»e. any thing to aay iu'regaid to the 7^,\'^^ *^ '^""'^ Cyclopa and Conclave at Den Wo. 4 at IS o'-olodi midnight,. Vcl, 1st, Ibvi, ■' Wlicn. you are in Caleia we wan yon to hold yoor tounge and not apeak an much autb yonr muuth or otherwiao yon will be taken on euppriae and led oat by the Klan, and leant to atrotoh hemp. Beiraie. Uvm. Beitoio. Beware, 929>2i4 1800 5,308,483 1810 7,239,881 1820 9,633,822 1830 12,866,020 1840 17,069,433 1850 23,191,876 > POPULATION, 1790-1910 i860 1870 1880. 1890. 1900. I9IO. 31.443.321 38,558,371 50.155.783 62,622,250 75.568,686 *9i,972,266 IMMIGRATION, 1820-I9IO 1820-1840 750,949 1841-1850 1,713.251 1851-1860 2,598,214 1861-1870 2,466,752 1871-1880 2.944.695 1881-1890.. 1891-1900. . I90I-I910. . 5,238.728 3,687,564 8,796,308 17,722,600 Total, 1820-1910. . 28,196,461 10,473,861 *Total population of the U. S. and possessions i§ estimated to be about 101,100,000. 372 THE NEW WEST 373 1910 more than 28,000,000 foreign immigrants came to the United States. In the decade preceding the last census (1901-1910) the number reached over eight immigration and a half millions, and during the years 1881- «'"" '**"• 1910 immigrants swarmed into the United States at an aver- age rate of nearly 600,000 a year; that is, nearly two-thirds of all the foreign immigration since 1820 came into this country during the last three census decades. It is estimated that the better classes of immigrants brought with them an average of at least $80 apiece, mak- ing a very large sum in the aggregate. If we add to this sum their power to produce wealth by their vaiueofimmi- work, their contribution to the nation's wealth grants to tiie will be found to be enormous. Without for- ^""^'' ^'^'"■ eign immigrants, a large part of whom were skilled labor- ers when they came and have made valuable citizens, it would have been impossible to develop the resources and increase the wealth of the country so rapidly. But within the past thirty years the general char- acter of the immigrants has not been so good as formerly, the average of intelligence and morals being much lower than it was before that time. The worst elements among them, including paupers and criminals, become a burden upon society and seriously tax the strength of our republi- can institutions. 379. Influence of the Public Lands on our National Growth.— The foundation for our extraordinary national growth and increase in population has been the vast area of the pubhc lands. These have been sold for very small sums in order to get them into the hands of the people, who have speedily brought them under cultivation. At first it was the pohcy of the government to sell these lands in order to increase the public revenue, but it was afterward thought wiser to use them for the purpose of developing the wealth and increasing the population of the country. In 1841, by what is called the pre-emption' ' Pre-emption gives the settler the first right of purchase as against the investor or speculator. 374 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES system, Congress began to Sell farms on the public lands The pre-emption at the low pHce of $1.25 an acrc. This was system. upon Condition that the purchaser would oc- cupy and cultivate the land. Easy as these terms were, more liberal ones were de- sired. The growing sentiment in the West was that the The Homestead land belonged to the people and that the Bi'i- United States should grant free homes on the public domain. Finally, after much debate , Congress passed in 1862 the Homestead Bill, which is still in operation. A CRIPPLE CREEK MINE. This enables settlers to secure farms of one hundred and sixty acres free of payment, except a small fee for legal ex- penses, on condition of settlement. This method has proved very successful in establishing homes and communities, thus increasing the value of the lands and the strength of the nation. 380. Westward Expansion.— American history has been largely the history of westward movement from the Atlan- tic to the Pacific. At the close of the Revolution (1783) the area of settlement was confined, for the most part, between the AUeghanies and the Atlantic. By 1825 it had reached the Mississippi, by 1850 the Missouri,' and by 1890 the ' The gold-mining region of California is not here taken into account. THE NEW WEST 375 Pacific coast.* We thus see that the westward movement was at first slow, requiring about one hundred and fifty years to reach the Alleghanies. But after 1825 it was wonderfully rapid. This marvel- lous expansion was in a large measure due to the opening of the prairies, which were easily brought under The opening of cultivation because they were almost free from *''^ prairies, trees. In the forest-covered regions farther east, from forty to fifty days' labor was required to clear an acre of land for A REAPER. tillage, but only three or four days per acre were required in the prairie region. Moreover, the soil was rich and fer- tile and needed little cultivation. Another reason why people flocked to the West was be- cause of the great improvement in farm machinery. The McCormick Reaper (p. 264), which came into use about i860, had a large influence. Drawn by two Reaping and horses", it could do as much as twenty men threshing using the " cradle." Yet it was but a beginning. machines. The reaper was followed by the self-binder, which not only cut the grain but bound it into sheaves. The self-binder gave place to the steam-driven thresher, and that in turn to the combined reaper and thresher. This complex machine, which is in general use on the vast wheat farms ^ of the Northwest, is either drawn by horses to the number of thirty or more, or propelled by steam. It cuts, threshes, cleans, ' In 1889 North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington were ad- mitted to the Union, in 1890 Idaho and Wyoming, in 1896 Utah, and in 1907 Okla- homa, making the number of States in the Union forty-six. ^ The wheat farms in the Red River Valley vary in size from 4,000 to 12,000 acres, but in recent years the tendency has been to cut up these large farms into smaller ones. 376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and measures the grain, and puts it into bags. Tended by four men, it will cut 3,000 bushels in a day. Almost equally noteworthy was the change of method in breaking up the soil before planting or sowing the grain. The cast-iron plow, which could be drawn by a single horse, The steam- was an advancc upon the wooden mold-board driven gang-plow. Qf colonial days. But the pressing need for something better on the large farms of the West led to the invention of the steam-driven gang-plow. The one com- monly used will turn twelve furrows at one time and will plow in a ten-hour day from thirty-five to forty-five acres. A STEAM-DRIVEN GANG-PLOW. These various causes explain the great waves of migra- tion westward, which in turn produced two important re- sults: (i) They made labor scarce, and therefore wages Results of west- high, in the East; (2) they led to an enormous ward migration. increasB in food products, and therefore low- ered the cost of food. Both of these conditions were of im- mense advantage to the workingmen, and they help us to realize how much the general welfare of the people has been increased by the settlement and cultivation of the western part of the country. 381. The Mormons.— Among the many settlers of the West was a religious people who wished to enjoy their forms of worship and social customs without hindrance. THE NEW WEST 377 In 1839 the main body of these people, under the leader- ship of Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, settled at Com- merce, lUinois, and built up the city of Nauvoo. Smith claimed to receive revela- tions from God, and to have discovered the Book of Mormon, which, according to his teaching, is a religious record of prehistoric America, containing the pure Gospel of Christ. He was the founder of the Church of the Latter- day Saints, otherwise known as Mormons. They prospered at Nauvoo, but had trouble with some of the other people of Illinois, and their leader fell a victim to mob violence. Owing to these troubles with their neighbors, the Mormons A THRESHER. went into the wilderness to find a place where they could live in peace and safety and in accordance with their own beliefs. Under their new prophet, Brigham Young, they soon after emigrated to the desert region of Salt Lake valley. There the Mormons prospered. With com- Thrift of the Mor- mendable industry and thrift they transformed ™°"'' '" ^'*''- the desert, by irrigation, into fertile land, and soon built Salt Lake City. Much credit is due to them for the rich culti- vation under which they brought the surrounding land. 382. The Pacific Coast and Chinese Immigration. — A less desirable increase of population came from the far East, at first in comparatively small numbers, but at length 378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in such large bodies as to cause a general demana for re- pressive measures. These people were the Chinese. In 1888 the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to prevent the further immigration into the United States of Chinese laborers. Although at that time not more than 100,000 Chi- nese were in the United States, 75,000 of whom were in California, the American people, especially those on the Pacific coast, were bitterly opposed to any further Chinese Three reasons for immigration. For this opposition there were chiresfimmi. Several reasons, (i) The Chinese brought no gration. families with them, because they did not intend to remain and become citizens; they showed little interest in American affairs and almost no inclination to adopt our customs. (2) As they lived more meanly than the whites, eating little but rice, they could work for lower wages, and in this way they greatly injured our laboring men. (3) It was feared that in time they might come over in such vast hordes as seriously to endanger our institutions. 383. The Pacific Railroads Furnish the Short North- west Passage to China, Japan, and the Indies. — It is well to remember that the westward growth of population has depended much on easy, cheap, and rapid transporta- tion, in which the railroad has played a most important part. The first trans-continental railroad, the Union and Central Pacific, was completed in 1869. It extended from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco, California. Work had been progressing upon this road for six years, one party working east from San Francisco, the other west from Omaha. The parties met at Ogden, Utah. Since that time four other Pacific railroads have been built, so that there are The five Pacific now fivc great trunk lines connecting the At- west'efns^ewe. lantic with the Pacific coast. The value of ment. thesc Pacific railroads to the United States can hardly be estimated, for they have brought into service immense areas of land otherwise of trifling value. Without these roads and their network of branches running in all directions through the agricultural and mining regions of " J 5 I < I g I THE NEW WEST 379 the West, the rapid settlements made in the last fifty years would have, been impossible. At the'elose of the Revolution, Frederick of Prussia da clared that no single republic could be held together in a territory so vast as that stretching from Maine to Georgia. He believed it would break into sections or give place to a monarchy. A like argument was made by a United States senator when the Oregon country came under discussion in 1843. This senator urged that such a far-off land could never become an integral part of the United States: that it would require ten months out of every twelve for the representatives in Congress from a State so remote to go to and from Washington. But we can now go the railroad and from Oregon to Washington in less time than '^^tZHLn John Adams could go from Boston to Phila- the union, adelphia in the days of the Continental Congress. Steam and electricity, applied to the transportation of men and ARTESIAN WELL SYSTEM, RIVERSIDE, CAL. AN .BRATOR IN THE FOREGROUND. goods and the transmission of thought, enable us to main- tain a republic over an area of vast extent. It is difficult to see how the North, the South, the East, and the West, with their widely differing interests, could be held together in one great Union without the railroad and the telegraph. But the effects of the Pacific railroads on international 38o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trade, also, have been striking. Americans in the nineteenth century have found what Europeans so eagerly sought in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries — a short A short route to noithwest passage to China, Japan, and the China and Japan. ]7a,st Indies. Formerly, vessels with tea from China and spices from the East Indies sailed around Cape Horn and reached our eastern coast after a five or six months' voyage. Now cargoes of these products are brought to San Francisco and reshipped by rail to New York, the whole distance being covered in five or six weeks. The Pacific railroads have thus not only shortened the journey between Asia and the United States, Taut have deduced the cost of goods by diminishing freight charges. 384. The Arid Region and the Problem of Irrigation. — With the extension of facihties for transportation the AN IRRIGATED ORANGE GROVE, ETVERSIDE, CAL. rapidly increasing population of the country began to turn to the districts that yet remained unoccupied. Under the Homestead Law nearly all the fertile land of the West, in regions of sufficient rainfall for agriculture, has been THE NEW WEST 381 taken up by settlers.* But there is a great district which is barren until it is improved by irrigation. This arid and semi-arid region extends from the looth meridian west- ward to a belt of country lying within about two hundred miles from the Pacific coast. It includes the whole of Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, and parts of Washington, Oregon, Califor- nia, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, and Texas. This vast region contains at least 1,000,000 square miles, or an area equal to more than two hundred States like Connecticut. The soil is of great depth, and is exceedingly fertile when watered by irrigating canals and ditches.^ Professor Shaler estimates that the area of this im- mense arid region which may be won to tillage by irrigation is probably not less than ten States like Connecticut. 385. Forest Reservations. — Under authority from Con- gress President Harrison withdrew from pubHc sale 18,- 000,000 acres of forest-covered public lands. The move- ment in the direction of forest preservation is exceedingly important, because forests hold water in the ground and let it drain off gradually. They thus influence the volume of water in rivers, and therefore greatly aid irrigation. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why did our government, from the first, sell the public lands at very low prices .' What was the Homestead Bill ? 2. Trace on your map the advance of Western settlement and note the marvellous expansion due to the opening of the prairies. 3. What objections have been urged against Chinese immigration ? What do you think of these objections ? What influence has the building of the Pacific railroads had upon trade with China, Japan, and the Indies ? Upon Western settlement ? In this connection re- view the pack-horse, the fiat-boat, the steamboat, the national road, and the Erie Canal. 4. Trace on your map the arid region and show what connection irriga- tion has with it. How many States like your own could be included in this region ? ' Areas of fertile land still open to settlement are found in the forest regions of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, and in those west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and Washington. ^ Irrigation has been successfully introduced into many of the States of this region. CHAPTER XXII THE NEW UNION (1865) REFERENCES : Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V. ; An* drews's United States, II.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, I. and II.: Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People, V.; Appleton's Annual Cyclopzedia; Cyclopasdic Review of Current History; Field's Story of the Atlantic Telegraph; Elliott'3 Our Arctic Province; McCuI- locli's Men and Measures of Half a Century ; Bourke's On the Border with Crook; Wallter's Indian Question; Blaine's Twenty Years in Congress; Stan- wood's History of Presidential Elections ; Woodburn's Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States; various magazine articles; the World and the Tribune almanacs, each issued annually. 386. The Atlantic Cable (1866). — We have considered in some detail the development of the South and of the West. We have now to glance rapidly at some matters that concern the nation as a whole. One of the most im- portant facts in the history of the country since the close of the Civil War is the invention that has made possible the instant transmission of thought to the most distant parts of the world. In 1858, after several unsuccessful efforts, the two continents were connected by a wire cable extending from Newfoundland to Ireland. Two ships, each contain- ing a section of the cable, met in mid-ocean, and, having The wire cable of spHccd the scctions, returned, the one toward 1858 Is not sue- Newfoundland and the other toward Ireland, '"*'"'■ laying the cable as they went. The two ships reached land on the same day, and very soon afterward (August 16) the Queen of England sent to the President of the United States this message : " Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth, and good-will to men." But within 382 THE NEW UNION 383 A MIDSHIP VIEW OF THE GREAT EASTERN. SHOWING ONE OF THE PADDl.E WHEELS AND THE LAUNCHING GEAR. Redrawn by permission Jro3n a copyrighted picture in Cassieys Magazine. a month the cable failed to work, and not until 1866 did ocean cabling become permanently successful. Since that time communication between Europe and America has not been interrupted, and now ten lines cross the Northern Atlantic. The cable has largely Results of the affected commerce, because the market prices Atlantic cable, in the great trade centres of America and Europe are re- ported every day, and large business transactions can easily be made in a few hours between American and European business houses. It has also brought the vari- ous parts of the civilized world into closer and more sympathetic relations, because the news of what is going on is so readily sent across the ocean. Our daily papers easily report Eurooean events a few hours after they have occurred. 3^4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 387. The Purchase of Alaska (1867). — In 1867 our gov- ernment gave to Russia $7,200,000 for Alaska, an immense territory equal in area to about one hundred and twenty States like Connecticut. The purchase was then thought by many to be an extravagant waste of the public money, because Alaska ap- peared to be almost worthless. But the investment has proved to be a good one, the seal-fur trade alone being $2,500,000 a Alaska fur- beautiful marble, and Along MUEL F. B. MORSE S ORIGINAL . TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT. From the model in the Patent Office^ Washington. has many worth year, nishes white iron, and gold of great value. mines of coal, ^ of the streams are found rich forests, consisting Natural re- mainly of pine and cedar. The fisheries, sources of which include salmon in the rivers and cod Alaska. ^^^ halibut On the coast, are extensive. Be- sides all these natural resources Alaska has a coast well supplied with good harbors. By consulting the table below it will be seen that the entire area of the United States, exclusive of our island possessions, is now about 3,600,000 square miles, or nearly the size of all Europe.' 388. Grant's Indian Peace Policy (1869). — The Indians had always been more or less troublesome on the frontier, and during the Civil War the Sioux had committed shock- Square Miles. ' United States, in 1783 827,844 Louisiana, 1803 1,171,931 Florida, 1819 59,268 Texas, 1845 37.6.133 Mexican cession, 1848 545,783 Gadsden purchase, 1853 45,535 Alaska, 1867 577,39° Total 3,603,884 THE NEW UNION 3^5 ing outrages in Minnesota. Half of the expenses of our War Department, exclusive of those incurred by the (Civil War, had been occasioned by Indian wars, and yet Failure of the the Indians were not subdued. The war policy warpoiicy. had failed, and therefore President Grant wisely adopted a peace policy. He had observed that the Cherokees* had developed by themselves a good degree of civilization, and he believed that by kind treatment and education the more barbarous tribes might be trained into good citizenship. He therefore entrusted the management of a few reservations to the Society of Friends, with whom the Indians had always held peaceful re- lations.^ No Indian agent was to be appointed for these reservations with- out the approval of both the President and the Society. The system gradually extended to other reser- vations and to other religious denominations, with some success. The Indian could not immediately appreciate this new policy, however, and within a few years the Modocs (1872) and the Sioux (1876) both made outbreaks. There is no doubt that the Indian had grievances. He Grievances of could not understand why the Great Father the Indians. in Washington should allow the white man to invade his reservations, as the white man did when he saw in them fertile soil and unworked gold mines. But a more crying evil was the dishonesty of Indian contractors, who were making money by cheating both the government and the ' The five civilized tribes were the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. They all lived on reservations in the Indian Territory. R. F. T. ALLEN'S ORIGINAL MODEL OF THE TYPEWRITER. Frovt a model in the Patent Office, Washington, 386 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Indians, and were ready to oppose any plan likely to inter- fere with their schemes. The government method of reservation was by treaty with the various tribes, the government agreeing to give yearly, for land yielded by the Indians, a quantity of The Indian reser- food, ammunition, and other supplies. The vation. food-supplics Were to compensate for the loss of hunting-grounds, because hunting was the Indian's only means of support. Ammunition was to help them in secur- ing such game as their reservations supplied. The govern- ment made liberal promises for the comfort, education, and civilization of these Indians. The reservation system was, however, not successful, because under it the Indians were placed by themselves, out of contact with "■^ Why the reserva- the civil- tion system failed, jzjnp- in- fluence of the whites. Moreover, it was im- possible for them to develop a spirit of manly independence when so much was done for them. The reservation plan made the Indian a pauper. The " Dawes Act," passed in 1887, provided for indi- vidual ownership of land by the Indians. In the course of time it is hoped that the individual Indian, like the white man, will have his own farm and reap the fruits of his own toil. Individual ownership, along with industrial training and general education, will aid in making him a useful citizen. 389. The Financial Panic of 1873.— The Indian prob- lem, serious as it was, affected a comparatively small part of the population. Far different was the trouble that attended the financial crash of the year 1873. This panic was much like the panics of 1837 and 1857. It was preceded by a ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL S ORIGINAL MODEL OF THE TELEPHONE RECEIVER AND TRANS- MITTER. Fro7tt the tnodel in the Patent Ojfficet Washington. The Dawes Act. THE NEW UNION 387 railroad-building and Western lands. period of general prosperity, and was brought on by rash speculations in Western railroads. For five years railroad building had been going on to such an extent speculation in that the railroad mileage in the United States had increased one-half.' This excessive rail- road building, virhich was in the West, increased more rap- idly than it could receive support from the population. Fortunes were made by some and lost by others in buying up tracts of lands in unsettled regions and increasing the value of that land by extending railroads through them. The speculative fever be- came so high that rail- roads were built much faster than they were needed. As in 1857, the failure of a single great banking- house suddenly brought this panic upon the coun- try. Financial ruin fell upon business firms and individuals, and want and suffering came into thousands of homes, before the country fully recovered. 390. Railroad Strikes (1877).— During the years of finan- cial distress following the panic of 1873, the earnings of the railroads were much reduced. In 1877 some of the railroads in the Middle and Western States lowered the wages of their men. Brakemen and other trainmen on the Baltimore ^& Ohio Railroad and on the Pennsylvania Railroad refused ' In 1861 only 651 miles of railroad were built ; in 1871 7>779 miles were built. The Northern Pacific, extending from Duluth to Puget Sound, was the most impor- tant of these roads. During the five years preceding the panic, about $1,700,000,- 000 were spent in railroad building. ELIAS HOWE S ORIGINAL MODEL OK THE SEWING MACHINE. From the model in the Patent Office^ WashingiOTU It was six years 388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OPENING DAY AT THE PHILADELPHIA CENTENNIAL, 1876. to work. Then men on other roads followed their example. Soon there were bloody riots at Baltimore and Pittsburg, and large mobs in Chicago, St. Louis, and other cities. In Pittsburg a mob of 20,000 men had control of the city for two days, one hundred lives being lost. The State mi- litia and the United States troops united to stop violence, but it continued about two weeks. During that time 100,000 men took part in the strike, which resulted in the destruc- tion of ten million dollars' worth of property. 391. The Centennial Exhibition (1876). — But during these years of financial depression and industrial discontent the country gave striking evidence of its vast resources by holding the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 in honor of the hundredth anniversary of the founding of the nation. The place chosen was Philadelphia, the city in which the Dec- laration of Independence was given to the world. This ex- hibition taught the people many things. It showed them the vironderful results that had been brought about by THE NEW UNION 359 machinery and invention in all countries. It quickened their sympathies and turned their attention toward art. But education, especially, received such an what the cen- impetus that the good results have steadily tenniai taueht increased. The Centennial Exhibition also re- ">e people, vealed to America, as well as to the rest of the world, the richness and the variety of our natural productions and the superiority of this country over all others in useful inven- tions. Two of the most wonderful of these were the telephone * and the application of elec- tricity to lighting purposes. 392. The Electoral Commission and the Presidency (1877). — In the Presi- dential election of 1876 there were dis- putes about the election returns made in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisi- ana.' Hayes, the Republican candidate, needed all the electoral , , _ A close election. votes trom these btates to secure his election, while Tilden, the Democratic candidate, needed only one. Florida and Louisiana had given Dem- ocratic majorities, but the " returning boards," who received the election returns as they came in from various parts of the State, were Republican, and threw out enough votes, on the charge of intimidation, to make a Republican majority. The people were much disturbed, and feared there might be serious results. The excitement increased as the time drew near for the new President to be inaugurated. The Senate being Repub- lican and the House Democratic, they could not unite upon any plan of seating either of the rival candidates. Finally a bill passed both Houses providing that a " Joint High Commission " should be appointed, whose decision should SAMUEL J. TILDEN. ' The inventor of the telephone, which came at once into practical use, was Alexander Graham Bell, of Massachusetts. The American Bell Telephone Com- pany was soon incorporated, and lines rapidly multiplied. ' There was some dispute about the election in Oregon also. 39° HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES be final. The commission included five senators, five rep- resentatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The The"jointHigh fifth justicc was appointed by the other four Commission." named in the bill. Before the fifth justice was appointed, seven of the commission were Republicans and seven were Democrats. It was expected that the fifth justice would be an independent, but circumstances caused a Republican to be selected, thus giving the Republicans a majority of one on the commission. On March 2, just two days before the time set by the Constitution for Decision in favor inauguration, the deci- of Hayes. gion in favor of Hayes was published. Opinions were di- vided as to the correctness of the returns, but whichever candidate was elected, the decision of the uncer- tain question was final. The people throughout the land, Democrats and Republicans alike, had shown re- markable wisdom and self-control during all the months of the trying situation.* 393. Resumption of Specie Payment (1879). — The finan- cial disturbance of 1873 and subsequent years was partly caused by the instability of the currency and the undue en- couragement thereby given to speculation. Nobody knew exactly how much a dollar was worth or how much it was likely to be worth. This condition was unavoidable during the Civil War, but it was intolerable in a time of peace. During the Civil War so much money was needed to carry on the extensive military operations that the gov- ernment and the banks could not furnish gold and silver enough for the unusual demands. Congress, therefore, like ' To provide for possible contested elections in the future the Electoral Count Bill was passed in 1887. This measure threw the responsibility of Presidential elections upon the States, and provided that electoral certificates sent to the national capital by the various States should be opened by the president of the Senate in the presence of both Houses, and that four tellers, two from each House, should read aloud and make record of the votes. JAMES A. GARFIELD. THE NEW UNION 391 the Continental Congress of the Revolution, issued millions of dollars of paper currency, which the people used instead of gold and silver. These paper notes were a„enbacks dur- called greenbacks. As they were "legal ingthecivii tender" — that is, the law declared that they ^"' might be used in paying debts — everybody was willing to make free use of them. Gold, however, remained the stand- ard of value, and the value of the greenbacks depended SUPREME COURT ROOM, CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C upon the defeats and victories on the battle-field. When the Northern armies won a great victory, the greenbacks rose in value ; when they met with a severe defeat, the green- backs fell in value. While the war was most threatening they were worth, in gold, little more than one-third of their face value, because the prospect of Northern success was very gloomy. Alter the war, when the government began to pay the national debt rapidly, people began to have more and more 392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES confidence in these paper promises issued by Congress, and the greenbacks steadily rose in value. In 1879 ^^^ Secre- Qreenbacks be. ^^U °^ '^^ Treasury announced that he would come as good as givc gold for paper currency if it were pre- *^°"*- sented at the Treasury. This action of the Secretary of the Treasury meant the resumption of specie payment by the government, and from that time on a paper dollar was worth as much as a gold dollar. 394. Assassination of President Garfield* (1881) ; Civil Service Re- form (1883-1886).— When this impor- tant question of the currency was set- tled, the new administration of Gar- field, who was elected in 1880, seemed to be opening a new era of prosperity. But only a few months after his inaug- uration the country was shocked by the announcement of his assassination (July 2, 1881). The assassin being a disappointed office-seeker, the tragedy brought forcibly to the minds of the people the great need of civil service reform. President Jackson had intro- duced the spoils system into the civil service in order to reward his political friends. Appointments were not made CHESTER A. ARTHUR.' • James A. Garfield, twentieth President of the United States, was born at Orange, Ohio in 1831, and died September 19, 1 881, from a wound inflicted by a disappointed office-seeker. In early childhood Garfield's path was beset with difficulties. He was but two years of age when his father died, and his home, in a lonely log-cabin of the backwoods, was one of poverty and hardship. But the boy cheerfully helped his mother in supporting the family. After being griduated from Williams College he was for a time a college professor, and afterward studied law. Owing to his gallantry and daring on the battle-field in the Civil War he was pro- moted to the rank of major-general. His term of service in Congress (1863— (880) was so successful that he was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1880. Before taking his seat, however, he was nominated by the Republicans for the Presidency. He was the second President who was assassinated and the fourth who died in office. » Chester A. Arthur, twenty-first President of the United States (1881-1885), was born in Fairfield, Vermont, in 1830, and died in 1886. After being graduated from THE NEW UNION 393 by reason of fitness for the work, but were distributed as rewards for political services. In 1883 an act was passed by Congress authorizing the President to appoint civil service examiners, who should test by fair examinations, without regard to Reform in the party, the fitness of applicants for office. ''"U service. From the list of those passing the civil service examinations appointments and promotions were to be made. In accord- ance with this act, during the next twenty years about 110,000 office- holders were put under Rapid growth of civil service rules. As the reform. a result all Federal officers are now under civil service reform rules, except two classes: (i) The higher officers, including the heads of de- partments, and (2) postmasters in fourth-class offices.^ These 110,000 positions are now filled by those who have successfully passed the civil service examinations without any reference to changes in Presidential administrations. The spoils system in the Federal civil service has become largely a thing of the past. Experience, training, ability- — in a GROVER CLEVELAND.'^ Union College he studied law and became a successful lawyer. In 1871 President Grant appointed him Collector of the Port of New York. Having been elected Vice-President by the Republicans in 1880, he succeeded to the Presidency on the death of Garfield. He was the fourth Vice-President who thus became the execu- tive head of the nation. ' Of those not yet classified, over 72,000 are postmasters of the fourth class. These include postmasters receiving salaries of $1,000 or less a year. ' Grover Cleveland, twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the United States (1885-1889 and 1893-1897), was born in Caldwell, New Jersey, in 1837. In his early childhood the family removed to New York State. Later, he became a lawyer and took high rank in his profession. After filling the offices of assistant district attorney and sheriff of the county he was elected Mayor of Buffalo. In this position he so fearlessly used his veto power that he was called the "veto mayor." His success as mayor led to his nomination by the Democrats, in 1882, for gov- 394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES word, personal fitness to perform the duties of the office- are now demanded in our civil service. 395. The Brooklyn Bridge (1883).— In the same year that Congress passed the act for civil service reform, another great work affecting the public good was accomplished. This was the completion of the Suspension Bridge spanning East River and connecting Brooklyn with New York. The bridge was sixteen years in building, and co3t $16,000,000. It is 85 feet wide, and is more than a mile long, its centre being supported by four main cables made of steel wire nearly 16 inches in diameter. There are five passage- ways — two for cable- cars, two for drive- ways, and a middle one for foot-passen- gers. In design and construction it is a most stupendous work of engineering. 396. Presidential Succession Act (1886). — A great nation like this should not be left for a single day without a Pres- ident. Congress had already passed a law that in case of the death or disability of both President and Vice-Presi- dent, the temporary president of the Senate and, following him, the Speaker of the House, should become President. But in case either of the last named should be of the oppo- ernor of the State of New York, to which office he was elected by an overwhelming majority. Owing to his popularity in New York the Democrats nominated him for the Presidency in 1884. James G. Blaine >vas nominated by the Republicans. The political campaign was exciting and resulted in Cleveland's election. At the close of his first term he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, but in 1892 he in turn defeated President Harrison and became President for a second term. BROOKLYN BRIDGE. ONE OF THE LARGEST SUSPENSION BRIDGES IN THE WORLD. Copyright^ iQoi^ by Undenvood after four weeks of investigation, reported that the Maine was blown up by the explosion of a subma- rine mine. The American people, holding Spanish officials responsible for the destruction of the Maine, were more than ever inclined to insist that Spain should end the war. President McKinley did all in his power to bring about a settlement of the trouble, but without success. 416. War Declared (April, 1898). — In the meantime af- fairs in Cuba were becoming worse every day. The Presi- dent, urged by an impatient Congress to decisive action, W. S. SCHLEY. 412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES declared, in a message sent to that body : " In the name oi humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of endan- gered American interests which give us the right and the duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop." Congress responded by passing a joint resolution to the following effect: (i) The Cubans are free and indepen- spain must give dent*, (2) Spain must give up all authority up Cuba. jjj Cuba and withdraw her troops; (3) The United States will exercise control over Cuba long enough to restore peace and good order, and will then leave the island under the control of the Cu- bans. A little later Congress de- clared that war had existed since April 2ist, and in due time the President called for 200,000 vol- unteers from the various States and Territories. Congress voted that the regular army also should be increased to 62,000. 417. Dewey's Brilliant Victory at Manila. — Commodore Dewey, GEORGE DEWEY. thc commaudcr of the American fleet in Asiatic waters, was ordered to sail at once for the Philippine Islands and capture or destroy the Spanish fleet. He hastened to Manila, where he found (May ist) the Spanish fleet lying under the pro- tection of strong shore batteries. With a daring unsur- passed he headed his ships for the enemy. While his flag, ship was steaming boldly into action, two submarine mines exploded just in front of her, but Commodore Dewey did not falter. The skilful seamanship of the Americans and the rapid and accurate handling of their guns made the The Spanish fleet battle short and dccisivc. The entire Spanish destroyed. fleet of ten war-vcsscls was destroyed, and 1,200 Spaniards were killed or wounded. Not one Amer- ican was killed and only eight were wounded, and not one American vessel received serious injury. It was one of the most brilliant naval victories in history. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 413 SHIPPING AND DOCKS, PASIG RIVER, MANILA. Admiral Dewey' could have captured Manila, but, not having men enough to hold it, he had to wait for reinforce- ments. As soon as possible over 15,000 soldiers were sent under General Merritt to co-operate with the American fleet. After a combined attack was made upon Manila hy the army and the fleet, the city surrendered (August 13th). 418. The Coming of Cervera's Fleet. — Until the Span- ish fleet at Manila had been destroyed, there was fear of an attack upon our Pacific coast. And there was still grave fear that an attack might be made upon the great Atlantic seaports by the Spanish fleet under the command of Ad- miral Cervera. At the outbreak of the war this fleet was at the Cape Verde Islands, whence it soon steamed away toward Cuban waters. What were Cervera's plans? Would he try to reach Havana by attacking the American fleet which, under the ' On the news of the victory the President appointed Dewey as acting admiral. 414 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Cervera's plans. command of Admiral Sampson, was blockading the north- ern coast of Cuba? Would he steer directly for some great city on the Atlantic coast? Or would he try to intercept the Oregon^ on her way up the eastern coast of South America? Events soon an- swered these questions. Cervera arrived at Martinique and then sailed for the Dutch island Curagao off the coast of Venezuela, where he CUBA. got much-needed coal. He was then ordered to Santiago, which, on account of the highlands and the narrow mouth of its protected harbor, was thought to be a good hiding- cervera " bottled place while taking on coal and other supplies. up " at Santiago. Soou after his arrival the fleet under Commo- dore Schley discovered and blockaded the harbor. The Spanish fleet was now " bottled up." Still there was fear that Cervera might on some dark, stormy night succeed in getting away. To prevent this, a ' This great battle-ship had, on March 19, begun her remarkable journey of some 15,000 miles from San Francisco around Cape Horn. On May 24th the Oregon arrived safely and soon joined the blockading squadron. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 41$ UNITED STATES TROOPS LANDING AT BAIQUIRI, CUBA. daring plan was laid to sink the collier Merrimac directly across the very narrow entrance to the harbor. Lieuten- ant Hobson and seven other heroic men tried ,, . ^„ . Lieutenant Hob= to carry out this plan; but a Spanish shot son's daring ex= having carried away the rudder of the Mer- '''°'*' rimac before she could be blown up, Hobson did not suc- ceed in sinking her directly across but only along the chan- nel, and thus but partly obstructed it. 419. On to Santiago. — A plan of campaign in Cuba was quickly organized, and an army of 15,000 men was soon on its way to unite with Admiral Sampson's squadron for the capture of Santiago and Cervera's fleet. A little later the troops were on Cuban soil, pressing on toward Santiago. The advance had hardly begun when a battle R„„,eveit Rough took place at Las Guasimas^ between about RWersatLas 1,000 Americans, among whom were the *^"**''"««- famous Roosevelt Rough Riders, and a force of Spaniards considerably larger. This battle was fought in a tropical forest, where the dense undergrowth often made it impos- sible to see the enemy a few yards away. The Americans ' The first engagement was at Guantanamo, where 600 American marines gallantly held their ground against an attack of greatly superior numbers. 4lC> HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES advanced in a series of short, desperate rushes, by which they steadily drove the Spaniards before them and won a signal victory. 420. The Battle of Santiago. — Yet in spite of this vic- tory it was evident that the Spaniards would make a stout resistance. Moreover, the Americans had to face unusual difficulties. The so-called roads were rough paths fre- quently crossed by rushing torrents without bridges. THE PALACE AT SANTIAGO ON WHICH THE AMERICAN FLAG WAS RAISED WHEN THE AMERICAN TROOPS TOOK POSSESSION. Under such conditions heavy siege-guns could not be moved forward promptly. But delay meant something worse than Spanish bullets. The intense heat and the ex- treme dampness threatened the American ranks with deadly disease. General Shatter therefore decided to move on without delay, and on Jul}' ist made a vigorous attack upon the outworks of Santiago at El Caney on the Spanish left A glorious Ameri- and the Strong position of San Juan, com- can victory. manding the city. Both these places were stoutly defended. The battle was hotly contested, but ended m glorious victory for the Americans, who by bril« THE SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 417 liant charges swept the enemy before them and captured the two strongholds. 421. Cervera's Fleet Destroyed.— On the morning of July 3d the Spanish fleet dashed boldly out of the harbor in a desperate attempt to escape. When (about half past nine) it was seen coming out, every American sailor eagerly leaped to his post of duty. The battle was on. As at Manila, the Americans showed themselves superior to the Spaniards in gunnery, and won a vic- tory as brilliant as that of Admiral Dewey. The entire Spanish fleet of six vsrar-vessels was destroyed, 600 Spaniards were killed and 1,300 cap- tured. Only one American was killed and one severely wounded, and not one of our ships was seriously harmed. About two weeks afterward Santiago and the eastern end of Cuba, with 22,000 Spanish soldiers, surrendered. 422. Results of the War. — A large American force under General Miles theodore roosevelt. was then sent to Porto Rico, and ^z.-s>^''°"'^iy°A^[kirHlZllt''°'' rapidly getting control of the island, when Spain expressed a desire for peace. President McKin- ley, therefore, appointed a special commission to arrange a treaty. The terms of the treaty were as follows: (i) Spain gave up Cuba and ceded to the United States Porto Rico and the island of Guam in the Ladrones. (2) She also ceded to the United States the Philippines, the United States agreeing to pay her $20,000,000. But there was marked difference of opinion in regard to the clause re- lating to the Philippine Islands. Some people objected to their annexation to the United States. Others declared that such annexation would aid us in securing trade in China and other parts of the Far East. In the Senate, where a two-thirds vote is necessary before a treaty can become effective, there was prolonged discussion. But the treaty was ratified February 6, 1899. 4i8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES There was another important result of the struggle besides those set forth in the treaty. The war helped to bring all parts of the country into closer and deeper sympathy. The various sections were united as they had never been before. 423. Porto Rico under the Control of the United States (1900). — The people of Porto Rico were glad to come under the control of the United States. But they did not get rid of all their troubles v/hen they got rid of Spanish rule. They were in great financial distress. The war had par- alyzed their trade, and a fierce hur- ricane had swept over the island in Americans relieve 1^99, destroying prop- linancial distress erty WOrth $22,000,000. in Porto Rico. jj^g Americans gener- ously came to their aid by distrib- uting immense quantities of food. But to relieve the distress some- thing more was necessary. In the spring of 1900, therefore, Congress returned to Porto Rico more than $2,000,000 that had come into our treasury in the form of duties laid upon imports from the island. Later, all tariff rates between Porto w. T. SAMPSON. Rico and the United States were removed. In April, 1900, Congress passed a law providing for a territorial government. Under this law the President of the United States appoints a governor and the people of the island elect a legislature. 424. The Re-election and Assassination of President McKinley (1900-1901). — Scarcely had the question of civil government in Porto Rico been settled when the country was astir with the excitement of another Presidential cam- pain. The Republicans again nominated William McKinley for President, and the Democrats William J. Bryan. As in 1896, the leading issue before the country was whether there should be a free and unlimited coinage of silver at THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 419 the rate of i6 to i or a gold standard. The people voted in favor of William McKinley and the gold standard. Six months after his inauguration, during a visit to the Pan-American Exposition' at Buffalo, President McKinley was assassinated. While receiving in line a great number of people in the Temple of Music on the afternoon of Sep- tember 6th, he was shot by an anarchist who concealed a pistol under a handkerchief wrapped about his hand. This Longitude Greenwich O C E dastardly act sent a thrill of horror through the land. Dur- ing eight days the nation was held in anxious suspense. Then the President died, deeply mourned by the people. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt,^ at once took the oath of office as President of the United States. 'This was called the Pan-American Exposition because all the countries of North America, Central America, and South America were represented there. ''Theodore Roosevelt, twenty-sixth President of the United States (1901), was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. He was graduated from Harvard , College in 1882, and two years afterwards was elected a member of the New York legislature. In later years he rendered valuable service as a member of the National Civil Service Commission, as president of the New York Police Board, and as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War he resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in order to help organize the First United States Cavalry Volunteers (popularly known as the "Roosevelt Rough Riders"), a regiment that distinguished itself in the Cuban campaign. By reason of his gallantry on the battle-field Roosevelt was promoted from the rank of lieutenant-colonel to that of colonel. The year after the war he was elected Governor of New York, and in 1901 Vice-President ol the United 420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 425. Military and Civil Government in the Philippine Islands (1899-1901).— Before the treaty of peace at the end of the Spanish-American War could be ratified, some of the Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, rebelled against the authority of the United States (February, 1899). After hard fighting, Aguinaldo the Aguinaldo's forccs were driven from their leader of are- position near Manila and then out of Malolos, '"'"''"• the rebel leader's capital. But the rebels con- tinued their desperate struggle against a large American army' until Aguinaldo was captured in April, 190O0 From that time the rebellion offered no seri- ous resistance. The islands remained under mili- tary rule until July i, 1901, when civil government was established, a special Civil govern. ^ffort being made to give mentintiie the people as large a Philippine Islands, gj^^j.^ ^^ ^j^^j^ govern- ment as they had capacity to exercise. William H. Taft was appointed gov- ernor. For ten months he had worked zealously as chairman of the civil com- mission appointed for the purpose of organizing the best attainable govern- ment for the Filipinos. Governor Taft's administration was successful in securing good order and popular content. 426. China and the "Open Door" (1900). — Our presence in the Philippine Islands and our rapidly increasing foreign commerce brought us into close touch with affairs in the Far East. After the war between Japan and China in The scramble for 1894-95, some of the European powers began Chinese territory, jq vic with cach Other in Seizing large areas of Chinese territory — known as " spheres of influence " — in order to bring them under their own control. In 1899 NELSON A. MILES. States. In the midst of his busy public life he has also written many books, most of them in the field of history or biography. In all his work he has labored with earnestness, vigor, and sincerity of purpose. 'In October, 1900, the army there contained 71,000 men. Greenwluli. "p' ■■Tx^li^ A' Mnp of tlie UNITED STATES Showing PopulnlEon, Cn|>Unl nnd largest of pnrli Slato, Census of 1010 * pnrii Slato, Criiiiii^ or 1010 vlUi COMPAKATITE AKEAS. 100 20O 300 400 ^/^ V Scale of Miles /^ N X NOTE i-Whcre tbecapUaLQf a State 13 also the ^ u\ c.,.,-,^' => K largest town iu tUe atat«, DO other place Is sill JlZ Foils """WTSCOKSIN .1/ "^^ •\T'J''*'"% II OlW j1- fop. 2\S24J71 oiMnoiS'l^ "q' AnaiNG'S. ^ \ i5 1 \Detroii CMcogv n^ 1.. M01>EsJ 1 ^ 'i ^*>\i JBFFEBSON CIT . MISSOURI Pop. 3,233,335 uo»r "*■ /M/ ^--r^l^ ft a^'C^'fS^^ 'SoioejSl — : \/lLl/lNOIS|^ ^ ~2{po^^sJiSML-sJ, — ^ ■^Sf.Lo""* ^^TOO"?"^" pop- •'' ' « V ^"-?^ >• .^^ ME^ ^ ^ CO., BUFFALO N.Y. &f\^ '\ \ BaU*V^* ■^Svaoi^ Kai'"'3< c r eI.I" THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 421 Secretary Hay urged these powers to unite in guaranteeing to all nations equal rights of trade in China. The powers agreed to carry out his wishes, and thus established the policy of the " open door." By securing an agreement to this policy Secretary Hay did much to prevent the break- up or "partition" of the Chinese Empire for the benefit of those European powers that coveted her territory for their own enrichment. The unseemly scramble for her territory developed in China a bitter anti-foreign sentiment, which culminated in NATIVE TAGALO CHILDREN, MALABON. 1900 in a serious outbreak. Some foreigners were killed, and even the lives of foreign ministers in Peking were in danger. In order to put down the uprising- _. _. . c= 1 r £> The Chinese up- and rescue the legations, the European pow- rising against ers, Japan, and the United States found it '°™'e""«- necessary to send troops to Peking. In the settlement of the difficulties in China our government exercised a pre- dominating influence in favor of fair treatment of the Chinese. This was an incident in the persistent policy of the United States to preserve the territorial integrity of China. 427. The Republic of Cuba (1902). — While these events were taking place in the Far East, others of deep concern to 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES us were taking place at our very doors. When Spain gave us Cuba, the island came under the military authority of the United States. According to a joint resolution passed by Congress before the outbreak of the war, this military control was to continue until order should be restored and the Cubans should organize a govern- The Cubans organ> ment ize a government, satis- factory to Con- gress. Early in November, 1900, a convention of Cu- bans met at Ha- vana, and before the middle of Feb- ruary, 1901, com- pleted a constitu- tion modelled after that of the United States. On Janu- ary I, 1902, a presi- dent and members of congress were appointed in ac- cordance with the provisions of the Cuban Constitu- tion, and on May 20, 1902, the new Cuban govern- ment was formally inaugurated. True to its pledges, the United States handed over the control of affairs to the recognized official, and the people of the young republic entered upon their full independence. In Cuba, as in Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, the United States greatly improved sanitary conditions PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 423 and rapidly organized an effective system of public schools. In December, 1903, the Cuban Reciprocity Act was passed. This provided for a reduction of twenty per cent, of the Dingley Tariff rates on Cuban imports into the United States, and thus greatly increased Cuban trade. 428. The Isthmian Canal (1901-1904). — For some time our growing commercial interests had led many people to be- lieve that we should be benefited by the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama or some narrow part of Central America. But public opinion in the United States demanded that such a canal should be owned and controlled by our government. In accordance with this The Hay-Paunce- sentiment, therefore, the Hay-Pauncefote «ote Treaty, treaty between England and the United States was signed in November, 1901. By the terms of this treaty the United States was to have sole power to construct, control, and defend an Isthmian Canal for the benefit of the commerce of the world. The next step toward the construction of such a canal was the passage by Congress in June, 1902, of the Isthmian Canal Act. This act empowered the Presi- The isthmian dejit to secure the unfinished Panama Canal canaiAct. at a cost not to exceed $40,000,000, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia a strip of land, at least six miles wide, extending across the Isthmus of Panama. Within this strip of land the United States was to construct, oper- ate, and protect a canal with control of its terminal ports. If, however, the unfinished Panama Canal and the land from Colombia could not be secured in a reasonable time and on reasonable terms, the President was empowered to secure a canal route from Costa Rica and Nicaragua. When the Colombian government rejected the treaty containing the conditions expressed in the Isthmian Canal Act, the people of the State of Panama, feel- The revolution ing that their interests had been disregarded, '» Panama. planned a revolution, which broke out on November 3, 1903. They quickly organized a provisional government 424 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and proclaimed their political independence as the Republic of Panama. The new republic was recognized by the United States, November 6th. On November i8th a new canal treaty was signed by Secretary Hay and the representatives of Panama. By the The treaty with tcrms of this treaty Panama granted to the Panama. United States " in perpetuity the use, occu- pation, and control " of a zone of land ten miles wide on the margins of the canal. In return the United States guaran- teed the independence of Panama, the payment of $10,000,000 WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION AT WELLFLEET, CAPE COD. when the treaty should become active, and at the end of nine years an annual payment of $250,000. The Senate of the United States adopted this treaty on February 23, 1904. 429. The Pacific Cable and Wireless Telegraphy (1903). — Another link in the chain of communication which is drawing the nations of the earth more closely together is the Pacific Cable. This was completed in 1903 and extends from San Francisco to Hong Kong by way of Hawaii and Manila. On July 4, 1903, President Roosevelt sent the first message, which flashed around the world in four minutes. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 425 Of less importance to commerce, but of unmeasured value in other ways, is the wonderful invention of the Marconi wireless telegraph, by which messages are sent through the air. On January 18, 1903, from the station at Wellfieet on Cape Cod, President Roosevelt sent to King Edward of England the first wireless message to cross the Atlantic. 430. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904).— Long before these events took place the people of the United States had been intent upon carrying out a- great enterprise. This was the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, planned to commemorate the centennial of the purchase of the Louisiana territory in 1803. It opened April 30, 1904, and closed December ist. Like other international expositions on a large scale, it had a great educational influence. Its architecture, its sculpture, and its landscape-gardening were of a high order of excellence, and so were its exhibits of industry and commerce. The latest scientific discoveries were among the remarkable features of this exposition. It is especially worthy of note, however, that for the first time in the history of international expositions, the educational exhibit had a building exclusively for itself. 431. Theodore Roosevelt Elected President (1904). — While interest in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was still at its height, the public mind was earnestly engaged in considering the Presidential nominations that were to be made in the summer of 1904. When the national conven- tions of the two great parties met, the Republicans nomi- nated Theodore Roosevelt, and the Democrats Alton B. Parker. The principal point of difference between the two party platforms related to tariff reform, but the issue was largely one of the personal popularity of the candidates. As the sentiment of the people was with Mr. Roosevelt, he was elected by a very large popular majority. 432. President Roosevelt as Peacemaker (1905).— From these questions of national interest and importance we turn to one which involved the welfare of the whole civilized world. 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES On February 6, 1904, nine months before the election of President Roosevelt, a terrible war broke out between Rus- sia and Japan. All the Western nations, shocked by the War between frightful loss of life, watched the struggle with Russia and great conccm. Finally, when the progress of Japan. ^j^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ condition of the opposing forces seemed to warrant it. President Roosevelt addressed a note to the Governments of Russia and Japan (June 8, 1905). In this note he urged the warring nations, not only in their own interests, but in the interests of the civilized world, to try to agree upon terms of peace. The outcome was a conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, between commissioners from each of the two THE ATLANTIC FLEET STARTING ON ITS VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD, DEC, I907, Front a photograph, copyright^ ^Qoy, by U/tderwood &^ [/ndenvood, New York. countries. The people in this and in other lands looked on with anxious suspense as the commissioners continued, -week after week, to discuss the question of peace or war. At last, when it seemed likely that the conference had come to a point of deadlock and was about to break up in failure. President Roosevelt, with w^ll-timed decision and tact. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 427 brought about a delay until he could communicate with the Czar of Russia and the Emperor of Japan. The result was the sending by the home Governments of such immense instructions to the commissioners at Portsmouth lountrTin lo"-d as enabled them^speedily to agree to a treaty affairs, of peace. The successful outcome of President Roosevelt's efforts showed the immense influence of the United States in the affairs of the world. 433. The Atlantic Fleet Sails Around the World (1907- 1909). — In December, 1907, the battle fleet of the United States Navy, including sixteen battleships, started from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on a voyage around the world. The route was by way of South America and the Pacific coast to San Francisco, then westward to Australia, the Philippine Islands, Japa.n, and China, passing through the Indian Ocean, the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Straits of Gibraltar. The voyage was completed on Washington's Birthday, 1909, at Hampton Roads, where the fleet arrived after having travelled more than 30,000 miles. Everywhere it was received with great enthusiasm. This cruise was a noteworthy event in naval history. It not only tested and proved the expert seamanship of our navy, but it called into expression the friendly feeling of foreign powers. 434. The Second Peace Conference (1907). — In marked contrast with this cruise of warships was the second Peace Conference' held in the same year at The Hague. The first Peace Conference had met there in 1899. These meetings, which included distinguished men from the various civilized nations of the world, were held in the interests of interna- tional peace and goodwill. In both conferences our country took a leading part in advancing the peaceful settlement of disagreements between nations. The old method of barbarous warfare, with its cost of maintaining vast armies and navies, is a great strain upon the people. But even this burden is not to be compared ' At the first, 26 of the powers of the world were represented; at the second, 44, 428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with the frightful suffering and loss of life which is caused by war. Although the United States is a peaceful nation, its War and wars havB cost an enormous sum. More than arbitration. two-thifds of the national revenue is paid out in pensions, in interest on war debts, and in the support of the army and navy. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when national disagreements will be settled by arbi- PEACE PALACE, THE HAGUE. Front a photograph by Ujiderwood i5^ Underwood, New York. tration, just as differences between individual men are now settled by courts of law. 435. The Conservation of Our Natural Resources.— Quite as important to the welfare of the nation as the Peace Conference was a meeting held in the White House at Washington in May, 1908. It was composed of national and State leaders whom President Roosevelt had called to- gether to consider the conservation of our natural resources; that is, the best ways and means of preserving our water, forests, soil, fuel, and minerals. As a people we have been extremely wasteful of these natural sources of wealth, but with a rapidly expanding population the time has come when we must use them with with care our natural resources. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR AND RECENT EVENTS 429 care. This is especially true in the case of forests, which have a large influence upon the flow of water we must use in rivers and streams. A strong sentiment has been developing in favor of this movement, and much has already been done. Connected with it is the work of improving our waterways, and a plan to establish a ship route from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico finds much favor in some quarters. 436. Taft' as President (1908- 1909). — In the Presidential campaign of 1908, the Republicans were success- ful in the election of their candidates, William H. Taft as President, and James S. Sherman as Vice-President. Shortly after his inauguration (March 4, 1909) President Taft called a special session of Congress for the revision of the tariff. There was a sharp differ- ence of opinion as to how this revision should be made, but after several months of heated discussion, The revision Congress passed the Payne- Aldrich tariff bill °* ""^ '"'"■ which became a law August 5, 1909. This new tariff law, like the Dingley Tariff (p. 408), was highly protective. It was therefore regarded with disfavor by those who believed that there should be a substantial reduction of duties. ' William Howard Taft, twenty-seventh President of the United States (1909- ), was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, September 15, 1857. He was graduated from Yale University in 1878, and two years later began the practice of law in his native State. In 1892 he was made Judge of the United States District Court. In 1900 he was appointed president of the United States Philippine Commission, and in 1901 became the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands. He filled this important position with great credit to himself and to his country. He be- came Secretary of War in President Roosevelt's Cabinet in 1904, and continued in this oflSce until igo8. In the autumn of that year he was elected President of the United States. For this position of responsibility his long experience in the public service seemed especially to have fitted him. WILLIAM H. TATT. 430 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL 1 . What was the policy of concentration ? 2. Do you think the United States was justified in going to war with Spain at this time? Give reasons for your answer. 3. Be sure that you are perfectly clear as to the location of Manila, Havana, and Santiago. Why did Dewey go to Manila? Imper- sonating him, give an account of your experiences. 4. Give a brief account of the fighting near Santiago. 5. Imagine yourself on an American ship as Cervera's fleet came out of the harbor of Santiago, and describe the battle. 6. What were the striking results of the war? 7. In what way did the United States relieve the suffering in Porto Rico? 8. Tell about the assassination of President McKinley, g. What kind of government did the Americans establish in the Philip- pine Islands after the Spanish-American War? How are these islands governed now? 10. Kxplain the policy of the " Open Door." What is meant by the ter- ritorial integrity of China? 11. Give a brief account of the government of Cuba since the Spanish- American War. 12. Explain the following: The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, the Isthmian Canal Act, the Revolution in Panama, and the treaty with Panama. 13. In what way is the Pacific Cable of use to the world? 14. What good results would follow if disagreements between nations were settled by peaceful methods? 15. Explain what is meant by conservation of our natural resources. 16. Name in order the Presidents of the United States. CHAPTER XXIV SOME INDUSTRIAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CON- DITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, II.; Bogart's Economic History of tlie United States ; Wright's Industrial Evolution of the United States ; Coman's Industrial History of the United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Boone's Education in the United States; Tyler's History of American Literature ; Richardson's American Literature ; Sted- man's Poets of America; Hudson's History of Journalism in America; vari- ous magazine articles. 437. The Natural Advantages of the United States. — As the United States in its vast extent has many vari- eties of soil and cHmate, its productions also are varied. / ^ THE ROUND-UP. Our coasts offer valuable fisheries, and the prairies and the Great Plains furnish excellent pasturage for millions of sheep and cattle. Extensive areas of forest lands supply 431 432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the best timber, a large region in the South affords suitable land for the growing of cotton, and rich mineral deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal lie imbedded in the mountain regions. Our coal supply is many times greater than that of all Europe, including England. From all these sources we get abundant raw material' with which to supply our factories, and still have many things to spare for trade in foreign markets. 438. The Textile Industry. — But these natural sources of wealth would be of little value without the power to bring them under control and put them to proper uses. This The industrial powcr the American people possess in their in- revoiution. vcntivc gcnius, their mechanical skill, and their untiring energy. They have, therefore, become leaders in the industrial revolution which began with the invention of -v TEXTILE MILL. steam-driven machinery over a century ago and is still going on. This revolution has brought about such great changes that we may well consider some of its more striking phases. The textile industry, a leading one in the United States, well illustrates the growth of all. Up to the time of the ' In the output of iron, copper, coal, wheat, and cotton — the products which with wool are of greatest use in modern industry — our country leads the world. It produces wool also in large quantities. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 433 American Revolution, and even later, the coarser cloths for ordinary use were made by hand in the household and in small shops, while the finer grades were im- ^^^ spinning ported from England. It was not until the machine and close of the eighteenth century that the spin- ">e power loom, ning wheel and the hand loom gave place to the spinning machine and the power loom. These new inventions, im- ported from England, completely changed the making of woolen and cotton cloth. The first spinning mill with machinery made after the •English models was built by Samuel Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790. This was the beginning of the factory system in the United States. But the The first first factory, in the modern sense, that is, a modem factory, building where all processes from the raw material to the finished product are carried on under one roof, was erected at Waltham in 1814. Since then the extension of cotton manufactures has been steady and rapid. New inventions and processes a,nd increased demand for cotton goods have given the textile industry a wonderful development.^ Just as the improved machinery in spinning and weaving transferred the making of cloth from the household to the factory, so the invention of the sewing machine (1846) changed the making of men's clothing from a The sewing domestic to a factory industry, and the man- machine, ufacture of boots and shoes from a hand-made to a machine- made product. This transfer of industries from the home and shop to the factory greatly lowered the cost of labor, and cheapened production. The price of ready-made clothing and shoes was thus brought so low as to come within the reach of even the very poor. 439. Iron and Steel. — Another industry which has had a remarkable growth is that of iron and steel. Like the making of cloth, it had an early beginning but did not in- crease much during the colonial period. Common farm ' Textiles include clothing and fabrics of every description for household and other uses ; textile materials include cotton, wool, flax, silk, and coarser fibres. 434 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES implements, tools, and household utensils were made in most of the colonies, but the finer grades of cutlery and edged tools were brought from England. It was not until the beginning of the last century that the iron and coal fields of western Pennsylvania began to be worked, and Pittsburg, now the most important centre of The use of the irou industry, had its first foundry (1803). anthracite coal. During the years that followed, furnaces, forges, iron mills, and steel works sprang up in all quarters. But the impulse which revolutionized the making of iron ANTHRACITE COAL MINE. was brought about by the use of anthracite (hard) coal instead of charcoal in the process of smelting (1840). It cheapened production and increased the output. The Bessemer process (1859) wrought a second revo- lution. This invention, with the use of bituminous (soft) coal instead of anthracite, gave a wonderful stimulus to the CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 435 iron industry. By greatly cheapening the manufacture of steel rails it also played a large part in the rapid extension of the railroad system. For steel rails, being gteei rails stronger than iron, made possible the use of cheapen larger locomotives and heavier trains, and transportation, permitted a, much higher rate of speed. They are, there- fore, the foundation of cheap and rapid transportation, which is a great factor in our industrial life. Steel is also used extensively in the structure of bridges, of large buildings, and of war vessels, as well as in the in- ventions and conveniences of every-day Ufe. Our natural products of iron and coal have been the greatest forces in the development of manufacturing in this country. 440, Railroad Rate Regulation. — The astonishing growth of manufactures and business in this country since the outbreak of the Civil War would have been impossible without the aid of the railroad. After the close of that Railroad rates war railroad lines were rapidly extended so as not fair to aii to connect the mining and farming regions with shippers, cities and factories. In the course of time most of the im- portant railroads in the country were combined into a few systems, and the lines of each system passed through several States. The great railroad companies owning these systems, in their eagerness to secure business, made certain rates which were not fair to all shippers. Some shippers and places were secretly charged less than the regular freight rates. The business companies who enjoyed the advantage of the lower rates were thus enabled, in some instances, to drive rival companies out of business. To stop this injustice, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act (1887). Its purpose was to regulate trade between the States.' This law declares that freight and passenger rates on railroads running from one Tiie interstate State into another shall be just and reasonable, commerce Act. and shall be uniform, for like service, for' all. The Inter- state Commerce Commission (first consisting of five members ' Congress can regulate trade between the States. But only the State legislature can regulate trade carried on entirely within any State. 436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and later of seven) was appointed to see that the law was carried out. As the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission under this law were not large enough, another rate law was passed (1906). It forbids the granting of free passes and The ra»e laws deckrcs that if any shipper complains of a of 1906 and rate as unjust and unreasonable, the Intcr- °* ""'■ state Commerce Commission shall have the power to fix a new rate. Still another law was passed (19 10), which created a Commerce Court to enforce the orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission. It gives the Com- mission power to suspend (for as long as ten months if necessary) a, new rate, or any rate, in order to find out by investigation whether or not such rate is just and reasonable.^ 441. Trusts and the Regulation of Trusts. — The rail- road, improved machinery, and the opening up of the West caused manufacturing to increase with wonderful rapidity. Business was extended and competition became intense. As an outcome, rival companies decided that union was better than strife, and large companies or corporations were organized. A corporation formed by the union of several companies was called a Trust. ^ The main purposes of the trust were, first, to cheapen the cost of production, and second, to lessen and, so far as pos- sible, to prevent, competition. But the people felt that the TheAnti" prices of trust-made goods, which often in- Trust Law. eluded the necessaries of life, were too high. As the trust controlled the market in its given line of goods, it could fix the prices on the raw materials it bought and on the finished goods it sold. Accordingly the Sherman Anti- Trust Law was passed (1890). This declares, in effect, that all combinations and agreements made for the purpose of ' The rate law of 1910 applies not only to railroads but to telegraph, telephone, and cable companies, and also to express companies and sleeping-car companies. ' Examples of trusts are The Standard Oil Company, The United States Steel Company, the Sugar Trust, etc. The Standard Oil Company controls the output of petroleum, in the production and export of which the United States leads the world. The first oil-well was bored in Pennsylvania in 1859. Since then oil has been produced in large quantities in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Texas, and in other States. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 437 controlling the output and sale of goods and of fixing prices are unlawful and are liable to punishment by fine or im- prisonment. 442. The Growth of Our Foreign Trade. — Quite apart from attempted regulation of railroads and trusts, the volume of our trade has steadily increased. Our agricultural and manufactured products have more than kept The united pace with the needs of our growing population, fhf worw* and the surplus has found a ready market in exports, among the nations of the world. The foreign trade of the United States is a fair measure of its economic progress. GOODS AWAITING EXPORTATION. During our first century as a nation we were largely agri- cultural and had to depend on foreign markets for many of our manufactured goods. By the close of that century the products of our factories more than equalled in value the products of our farms, and to-day we are the leading man- ufacturing nation in the world. Moreover, during the period 438 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of development, our exports did not pay for our imports. But since 1876 our exports have exceeded our imports, and the United States has advanced to the position of the first exporting nation in the world. ^ Along with the growth of exports has been an increase of imports, consisting mainly of raw materials used in manu- factures and of luxuries, that is, of those things which could The immense not bc produced at home. The value of our expanding"" total exports for 1909 was over 1660 million commerce. doUars; of our total imports, over 1300 mil- lions, making an excess of exports of over 360 millions. This volume of foreign trade is a measure not only of the expanding commerce but of the growing wealth of the nation. And when we learn that our domestic commerce is thirteen times as large as our foreign, we get a faint idea of the mag- nitude of the country and of its business operations. 443. Electricity in Modern Life. — As we have seen, steam has come to be of immense service to the world by its use as a motive power in driving machinery. But no less The many uses remarkable, perhaps, is the work which elec- of electricity. tricity has been made to do in many ways. The telegraph, the telephone, the marine cable, and wireless telegraphy have already been discussed as useful agents in the transmission of thought. About 1880, by the invention of the arc and the incandescent lights, electricity was applied to the lighting of streets and of houses. Soon after, it came into use as a motive power. Trolley cars, electric automobiles, elec- tric engines, and electric motors for fixed machinery followed. But two of the most striking uses of electricity are transmitting of power from falling water to distant cities^ ' Only three times during that period— in 1888, 1889, and 1893— did our im- ports exceed our exports. ^ Important examples of companies engaged in such transmission of power are the Central Colorado Power Company, the power companies of Niagara Falls, and the Southern Power Company. The first transmits power from Shoshone Falls to Denver, a distance of 180 miles; one of the second group, from Niagara Falls to Syracuse, a distance of about 150 miles; and the third to various points, some of which are 150 miles from the place where the power is generated. In all these cases the transmitted power may be used for driving fixed machinery, for propel- ling trolley cars, and for lighting purposes. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 439 TRANSPORTATION IS A LARGE CITY, SHOWING ELEVATED ROAD, SURFACE LINE AND SUBWAY. and producing the X-ray, which enables physicians to photo- graph the bones, and to observe the action of the heart and other organs, in the living body. By 1900 the uses of electricity had multiplied twenty-fold, and yet to-day they are believed to be in their infancy. 444. Inventions as Aids to Human Progress. — From all that has been said about the uses of electricity and steam and the various forms of invention, we see clearly how science has aided man in bringing the forces of nature under his control. Improved machinery as well as improved methods of travel, transportation, and communication have 440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES SO cheapened the cost of food, clothing, and other things needed in every-day Hfe that the day laborer can now have comforts and conveniences which even the rich did not enjoy fifty years ago. Moreover, .as inventive genius is constantly making new discoveries we may confidently look forward to changes as wonderful as any that have yet been made. Two of the The automobile Hiost receut invcntions are the automobile and and the flying the flying machine. Before the close of 19 lo machine. ^j^^ automobilc had come into extensive use not only as a means-of pleasure and recreation, but also for practical purposes in the city and on the farm. In the same year successful experiments with the flying machine, in- vented by the Wright brothers, led people to believe that the days of aerial navi- gation might be near at hand. 445. City Popu- lations and Munici- pal Reform. — Our huge industries must be carried on by large bodies of work- men. The result has been an amazing growth of modem cities ; and this mass- ing of people in great centres has brought new problems to the front. When the Constitution went into effect in 1789 only about three per cent, of the people of the United States lived in cities; in 1900 over thirty-one per cent, were in cities of 8,000 inhabitants and upward. The immense growth of A CROWDED STREET IN A TENEMENT DISTRICT. Copyrighii igo2, by Uiiderivood £^ Utiderwood, New York. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 441 manufactures and commerce largely caused this change. The massing of large numbers of people in commercial and manufacturing centres furnishes a difficult political problem. Many of, the most ignorant foreign-born voters are found in such centres, and, being without intelligent ideas about our government, they can the more readily be induced to sell their votes. As the strength of republican institutions depends upon the mo- rality and intelligence of the people, the practice of buying and selling votes presents a grave danger. But a wide- spread movement in the interests of better city government is making itself felt more and more every year. 446. Education. — All our material advantages would be worth little without a moral and intelligent people to make a proper use of them. For this reason the United States has been among the foremost countries of the world in educating its citizens. From the earliest colonial times Americans have shown a great interest in the Liberal provision education of their children. The famous Ordi- made for public nance of 1787 set aside one section of every ^^^oois. township for the support of public schools, and all the newer States use the proceeds of two sections in every township as a public-school fund. Every State and organ- ized territory in the Union now has its system of public schools. As a natural result of such a system the progress of education in the United States has been wonderful. The people have shown much interest in higher educa- NEW STEEL TOWER BRIDGE ACROSS THE EAST RIVER, NEW YORK. Copyright, IQ04, by Underwood <5h UnderTnood, New York. 442 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tion also. The number of colleges and universities in the United States is now nearly five hundred,' and their Interest !n grounds, bulldlngs, and productive funds are higher education, yalued at hundreds of millions of dollars. Besides colleges and universities, there are many profes- sional and scientific schools. WASHINGTON IRVING. JAMES FENIMORE COOPER. In recent years, under the direction of the United States Bureau of Agriculture, much attention has been given to special training for life on the farm. There are now more Special training than sixty agricultural colleges in this country, for modern" *" ^^^ also model farms and experiment stations industry. jn agriculture in every State in the Union. By means of these opportunities, the farmer is learning to make the soil yield much larger returns than was possible before science came to his aid. Another movement of much prom- ise is that in favor of vocational schools, that is, schools which give special training for modern industry. It is felt that our public schools should not only furnish a general knowledge of life but should also aid in developing that mechanical power and skill which are so much needed in our complex factory system. ' Many of these, however, are colleges only in name. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 443 Quite as noteworthy is the advance in the education of women during the past twenty-five years. Women now have educational advantages equal to those of men, and have entered many fields of labor which fifty ' The education years ago were closed to them. Woman suf- of women, frage also has been making progress. Women now vote on an equal footing with men in five States — Wyoming, Colo- rado, Utah, Idaho, and Washington. Many of the higher institutions of learning have been established by gifts and bequests of rich men and women, who have given of their abundance not only Education of the for the development of good and strong minds, weak and heip- but also for the training and support of the '"*' weak and helpless classes of society. There are in the United States many institutions for those classes of the W. C. BRYANT. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. community that require help. No other people has done so much to educate the masses and to make better the condi- tion of the weak and the suffering. 447. Newspapers and Periodicals.— The high average of intelligence in the United States has created a great de- 444 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES mand for newspapers and magazines. They have become an immense educational force, giving the people a keener, ^^ ,. , more intelligent interest in public affairs. But The linotype o a ... and the complex it IS Well to remember that without the aid oi printing press. rcccnt, invcntions the modern daily newspaper would not be possible. The telegraph, the telephone, and the marine cable all aid in gathering the news, while the linotype and the complex printing press supply the lightning processes of printing. The hnotype enables the printer very rapidly to put the news into type by striking the keys of a keyboard as in operating a typewriter. The most advanced printing press will print, fold, and count 300,000 eight-page papers in an hour, or more than 80 every second. 448. Literature.— For a long time after the settlement of the English colonies the people were too busy with the RALPH WALDO EMERSON. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. work of clearing the land and building suitable homes to produce any literature. Washington Irving, born the same year that the Revolution was brought to a close, first attracted public attention by his Knickerbocker History of New York. He has rightly been called the "Father of CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 445 American Literature." J. Fenimore Cooper, his contem- porary, was the first American novelist. He irving, cooper, wrote tl^ first sea-story that attracted the and Bryant, attention of the world, and was author of the famous Leather- stocking Tales, describing the life of the American Indian. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, I904. ONE OF THE BRIDGES AND LAGOONS, WITH THE PALACE OF EDUCATION. Copyright, iqo4, by Louisiana Purchase Exposition Co, These stories were written with such freshness and origi- nality that they were eagerly read in many countries. Our first poet to be recognized in England, William Cullen Bryant, belonged to the same period. He came into fame by his well-known poem, Thanatopsis, written when he was nineteen. Among the familiar names of later American literature are the following: poets, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes. Edgar 446 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and James Russell Lowell; essayists, Emerson and Lowell; novelists, Nathan- other familiar i^l Hawthorne, W. D. Howells, Henry James, names in Amer- Harriet Beecher Stowe ; historians, George ican literature. gancroft, John Lothrop Motley, William H. Prescott, and Francis Parkman. Much excellent work has been done by living writers, especially in the department of American History, and this work is coming from all parts of the country. 449. Problems of the Hour. — The great educational in- fluences coming from the public schools, from higher in- THE CAPITOL, WASHnSTGTON, D. C. stitutions of learning, from the newspapers and periodicals, and from the reading and study of good literature, are pre- paring the people rightly to solve the problems of the hour. These problems include the Indian question, the race problem in the South, temperance reform, ballot re- form, immigration, the tariff, trusts, railroad rates, the money question, civil service reform, woman suffrage, and CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 447 the strife between labor and capital. The right solution of these difficult problems demands intelligence, patience, and conscientious effort. We must take time to study them, and we must try to look at them from more than one point of view. If we approach them with a broad and generous spirit, with an earnest desire to find out the truth, we shall be more likely to understand them and to take the proper steps to a satisfactory solution. 450. Relation of the Individual Citizen to the State. — But no matter what, problems present themselves for solution, the character of the State is determined by the character of its citizens. We should never forget that a vast ter- ritory like ours, with all its wealth, is not necessarily great. The greatness of a country is not measured by what it has in land, productions, trades, and educational institutions, but by what its people are. If they are intelligent and patriotic, ready at all times to do their duty in the interest of the public good, their future is assured. You, my young reader, owe much to your country for what it has done for you. It has been said America means that America means opportunity. It does. opportunity. It means opportunity to get wealth, power, influence, and honor. It means opportunity to make the most of your powers of body and mind. But, more than all else, it means opportunity to make the institutions of your country better by honest, faithful service, and sincere efforts to know the truth. Charles Sumner said of our national flag: "The stripes of alternate red and white proclaim the original union of thirteen States to maintain the Declaration of Independence. Its stars, white on a field of blue, proclaim the our national union of States constituting our national con- "*8- stellation, which receives a new star with every new State. These two signify union, past and present. The very colors have a language which was officially recognized by our fathers. White is for purity, red for valor, blue for justice." 448 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES " I pledge allegiance to my flag and the republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." TO THE PUPIL 1. Name the natural advantages of the U. S. 2. What is meant by the industrial revolution? Name two inventions that had a large influence on the making of textiles. How did the sewing machine cheapen the cost of clothing ? 3. What effect did the use of hard and soft coal have upon the production of iron and steel? How did steel rails cheapen transportation ? 4. What was the purpose of the Interstate Commerce Act? What powers were given to the Interstate Commerce Commission by the various rate laws? Why was the Anti-Trust Law passed? 5. Tell what you can of the immense increase of our foreign trade. 6. What is meant by the transmission of power by the use of electricity? Give examples of such transmission. 7. What is meant by municipal reform, and why is it needed? 8. What liberal provision has been made for public schools in this coun- try? What advance has been made in education in recent years? 9. Name four inventions which make the modern daily newspaper possible. 10. What are some of the familiar names in American literature? Name some of the problems of the hour. 11. What is the relation of the individual citizen to the state? 12. Before laying aside the study of this history learn the symbolism, as given by Charles Sumner, of the colors of the " Stars and Stripes," and memorize the " pledge." CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 449 CHRONOLOGY 1867. March 1, Nebraska admitted to the union. 1868. July 28, fourteenth amendment adopted. 1869. March 4, ulysses s. grant inaugurated president. May 10, FIRST PACIFIC RAILROAD COMPLETED. 1870. March 30, fifteenth amendment ratified. THE NINTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 38,558,371. 1871. January, all states again represented in congress. 1873. February, law passed demonetizing silver. March 4, ulysses s. grant inaugurated president, financial panic. 1876. centennial exposition at PHILADELPHIA. FIRST telephone PATENTED. August 1, COLORADO admitted TO THE UNION. 1877. March 4, rutherford b. hayes inaugurated president. July, GREAT RAILROAD STRIKE IN PITTSBURG. 1878. February, bland-allison silver bill passed. ELECTRIC LIGHT INVENTED. 1879. January i, resumption of specie payments. 1880. the tenth census, showing a population of 50,155,783. 1881. March 4, james a. Garfield inaugurated president. September ■21, Chester a. Arthur formally inaugurated. 1883. LETTER postage REDUCED TO TWO CENTS. 1884. December, new Orleans exposition opened. 1885. March 4, grover Cleveland inaugurated president. 1887. THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT. 1889. March 4, benjamin Harrison inaugurated president. April 22, OKLAHOMA OPENED TO SETTLERS. PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS MET IN WASHINGTON. November 2, NORTH DAKOTA admitted to the union. November 2, south Dakota admitted to the union. November 8, Montana admitted to the union. November 11, Washington admitted to the union. 1890. dependent pensions act became a law. July 3, IDAHO admitted to the union. July 10, WYOMING admitted TO THE UNION. MCKINLEY TARIFF BILL BECAME A LAW. SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE LAW PASSED. THE ELEVENTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 62,622,250. SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST LAW. 1893. January 14, revolution in Hawaii. March 4, grover Cleveland inaugurated president. May I, COLUMBIAN world's fair opened at CHICAGO. 45° HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1894. June 4, PULLMAN BOYCOTT. August 27, THE WILSON BILL BECAME A LAW. 1895. December 17, president Cleveland's Venezuela message. 1897. March 4, William mckinley inaugurated president. July 24, DINGLEY tariff BILL BECAME A LAW. 1898. April 25, congress declares war to exist with spain. May I, dewey's victory at Manila. July I, BATTLE of SANTIAGO. July 3, cervera's fleet destroyed. 1899. February 6, treaty of peace with Spain ratified. 1900. THE twelfth census, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 75,568,686. 1901. March 4, William mckinley inaugurated president. July I, civil government established in the PHILIPPINE islands. September 14, theodore Roosevelt inaugurated president, hay-pauncefote treaty signed. 1902. May 20, new cuban government formally inaugurated. THE isthmian CANAL ACT. 1903. January 18, first wireless message sent across the Atlantic July 4, FIRST MESSAOE SENT BY THE PACIFIC CABLE. November 3, THE revolution in pan.\ma. November 18, the canal treaty with Panama signed. 1907. the second peace conference held at the HAGUE. November 16, Oklahoma admitted to the union. 1908. may, meeting at washington on the conservation of our natural resources. 1909. March 4, WILLIAM H. taft inaugurated president. August 5, PAYNE-ALDRICH TARIFF BILL BECOMES A LAW. 1910. THE THIRTEENTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 91,972,266. APPENDIX A THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776 The following preamble and specifications, known as the Declaration of Inde- pendence, accompanied the resolution of Richard Henry Lee, which was adopted by Congress on the zd day of July, 1776. This declaration was agreed to on the 4th, and the transaction is thus recorded in the Journal for that day : " Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, to take into their further consideration the Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and Mr. Harrison reported that the committee had agreed to a Declaration, which, they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was agreed to as follows : " A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to as- sume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, gov- ernments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a 4SI 452 APPENDIX A long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so. suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, ex- posed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. 7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appro- priations of lands. 8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure on their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people and eat out their substance. 11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the con- sent of our Legislatures. 12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation ; 14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 453 16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial by jury ; 19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses ; 20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and alter- ing, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 24.. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- stroyed the lives of our people. 25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- worthy the head of a civilized nation. 26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an un- warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan- guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind— enemies in war ; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved 454 APPENDIX A from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a iirm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members : JOHN HANCOCK. NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOSIAH BARTLETT, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, J.\MES Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. CyE.SAR Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Chari.es Carroll of CarroUton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jun., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jun., Thomas Lynch, Jun., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. APPENDIX B A CHART ON THE CONSTITUTION Some Steps toward the Constitution.. . . ■* f New England Confederation (1643). ( Franklin's Plan of Union (1754). Stamp Act Congress (1765). Committees of Correspondence (1772). First Meeting of the Continental Congress (1774 Declaration of Independence (1776). Adoption of Articles of Confederation (1781). Annapolis Convention (1786). Constitutional Convention (1787). 'House of Represent- atives Legislative Depart- ment.. ^Senate . Manner of election. Term of office. Qualifications. Represents the people. Census. Apportionment. Speaker the Presiding Officer, Number. Manner of election. Term of office. Represents the States. Qualifications. Sole power to try impeachments, Vice-President the Presiding Office: Executive Depart- ment President. .Cabinet . (Term of office. Manner of election. Qualifications, Oath of office. Impeachment, {Manner of appointment Number. Duties. {r Manner of appointment. Judges. \ Number. I Term of office. ■ Courts (IS!:" l District. 455 456 APPENDIX B Congress. Vresident's Powers..' (Timu of meeting. Quorum. Adjournment. Journal. How a Bill becomes a Law. Congress has power- To lay taxes. To borrow money. To regulate commerce. To naturalize foreigners. To coin money. To fix standard of weights and measures. To establish post-offices. To declare war. To raise and support armies. To provide and maintain a navy. To maintain light-houses. To make new States. Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy. With the advice and consent of the Sen- ate makes treaties (Ambassadors. and appoints J Mmisters. I Consuls. [ Judges. President's Duties. . - Messages to Con- gress. Special sessions of Con- gress. Receives Ambassadors. Attends to ex- ecution of laws. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, pro- mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. — Legislative Department. SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Represent- atives. SECTION II. Clause i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Clause z. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 457 numbers,' which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num- ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III.— Clause i. The Senate of the United States shall be com- posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legis- lature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president /m Umport, in the "absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When thi President of the United States is tried, the Chief- Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be > Under the census of 1900 one representative is tppottioned to every 199,102 people 458 APPENDIX B liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. — Clause i. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, ' except as to the places of choosing senators. Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. — Clause i. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Clause 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Clause 4. — Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. — Clause i. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses- sion of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. SECTION VII.— Clause i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 459 his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such re- consideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- sidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord- ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII.— Clause i. The Congress shall have power to lay and col- lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and ex- cises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; Clause ii. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy; Clause 14. To make rules for the governmpnt and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 46o APPENDIX B Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of ttie Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- gress ; Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature o' ihe State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — And Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. — Clause 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or rev- enue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what- ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X. — Clause i. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 461 Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for exe- cuting its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Con- gress. Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II.— Executive Department. SECTION I. — Clause i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during a term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and repre- sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. Clause 3.' Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same through- out the United States. Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age or thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. Clause 6. — In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- President, declaring what ofiicer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- * This clause is no longer in force. Amendment XII. has superseded it. 462 APPENDIX B lowing oath or affirmation: — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithinlly execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my abil- ity, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION II. — Clause i. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer m each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall ap- point, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of department. Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. • SECTION HI.- — He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, con- vene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV.— The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the •United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. SECTION I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 463 SECTION II. — Clause i.' The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and citizens of another State ; — between citizens of different States ; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have orig- inal jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall , have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. — Clause i. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except dur. ing the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV.— General Provisions. SECTION I. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State ; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II.— Clause i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, .but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. This clause has been modified by Amendment XI. 464 APPENDIX B SECTION III. — Clause i. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to preju- dice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV. — The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Leg- islature can not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE v.— Power of Amendment. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legis- latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI.— Miscellaneous Provisions. Clause 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop. tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation, Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a quali. fication to any office or public trust under the United States. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 46s ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the estab- lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. CONSENT OF THE STATES PRESENT. 1 NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, RuFus King. CONNECTICUT. William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersol, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Attest: VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. * Rhode Island was not represented in the Federal Convention. 466 APPENDIX B AMENDMENTS* To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. ARTICLE I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously . ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE Vlli. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im« posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. I Amendments 1. to X. were declared in force December 15, i79Xa CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 467 ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI.' — The judicial povcer of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICLE XII.' — The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and indistinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- ment of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII.' — Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex- cept as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 1 Declared in force January 8, 1798. 2 Declared in force September 25, 1804. 3 Declared in force December 18, 1865. 468 APPENDIX B Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV.' — Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, repre- sentatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of represen- tation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legisla- tion, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV.' — Section i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall, have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. / ' Declared m force July 28, i8i8. ' Declared in force March 30, 1870. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 469 TO THE PUPIL 1. What colonies united to form the New England Confederation, and 'vrhat vrere its purposes and results ? What was Franklin's plan of Union, and why was it not adopted ? What did the Stamp Act Con- gress do ? What was the leading object of the Committees of Cor- respondence ? 2. Under what circumstances was the first meeting of the Continental Congress held ? What led the colonies to adopt the Declaration of Independence? 3. When did the States adopt the Articles of Confederation? Explain the weakness of the central governing power. Congress, under the Articles of Confederation. Tell what you can about the Annapolis Convention ; the Constitutional Convention. 4. Under the Constitution, what are the three departments of our gov- ernment ? Which of them makes the laws ? Which sees that they are carried out ? Which interprets them and tries cases arising under them ? 5. Of what does the legislative department consist ? How are members of the House of Representatives elected ? For how long ? What are their qualifications? 6. How many people does each member of the House represent ? What is the unit of representation ? How can you find the number of rep- resentatives in any State ? How many in your own ? Why ? 7. What do the Senators represent ? How are they elected and for what term of office ? What are their qualifications ? 8. What exclusive functions has the House ? the Senate ? 9. What are the qualifications of the President ? How is he elected ? For what term of office is he elected ? What is meant by the im- peachment of the President? 10. What is the President's Cabinet ? How many members had Wash- ington's Cabinet ? How many in the Cabinet now ? What are the duties of the Cabinet officers ? 11. Name the three kinds of national courts. How many judges are there in the Supreme Court ? How are they appointed and what is their term of office ? Why should we have national courts ? 12. Explain the three courses which a bill must take in order to become a law. Name the powers of Congress enumerated in the chart. 13. What military power has the President ? How are treaties and im- portant appointments made ? What duties of the President Are named in the chart ? APPENDIX C TABLE! OF STATES AND TERRITORIES No. lO II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Name. Delaware' Pennsylvania . . . New Jersey . . . . Georgia Connecticut . . . . Massachusetts . . Maryland South Carolina. . New Hampshire Virginia New York North Carolina . Rhode Island . . . Vermont Kentucky Tennessee Ohio Louisiana Indiana Mississippi Illinois Alabama Maine Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida Texas Date of Admission. Area in Square Miles. Represent- atives in Congress, igoS Electoral Votes,s 1908 1787 2,050 I 3 1787 45.215 32 34 1787 7,815 10 12 1788 59.475 II 13 1788 4,990 5 7 1788 8.3IS 14 16 1788 12,210 6 8 1788 30.570 7 9 1788 9.305 2 4 1788 42,450 10 12 1788 49.170 37 39 1789 52,250 10 12 1790 1,250 2 4 1791 9.565 2 4 1792 40,400 II 13 1796 42,050 10 12 1802 41,060 21 23 1812 48,720 7 9 1816 36,350 13 15 1817 46,810 8 10 1818 56,650 25 27 1819 52,250 9 II 1820 33.040 4 6 1821 69.415 16 18 1836 53.850 7 9 1837 58.915 12 14 1845 58,680 3 5 1845 265,780 16 18 * The population, the capital, and the largest city of each State may be found on the map be- tween pages 420 and 421. 2 In 1908 the total number of representatives in Congress was 391. Add to this number 92 for the number of senators in the Senate, and the result is 483 Electoral votes. 3 The dates opposite the first thirteen — the "Original Thirteen" — indicate the year when the States ratified the Constitution. 470 TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES 471 No. 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 3» 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Name. Iowa Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia Nevada Nebraska Colorado North Dakota .. South Dakota Montana Washington Idaho Wyoming Utah Oklahoma New Mexico Arizona Alaska District of Columbia Hawaii Date of Admission. 1846 1848 1850 1858 1859 i86i 1863 1864 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890- 1890. 1896 1907'' Area in Square Miles. 56,025 56,040 I 58,360 83.365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 77.510 103,925 70,795 77,650 146,080 69,180 84,800 97,890 84,970 70-430 122,580 113,020 577.390 70 6,740 Represent- atives in Congress, igo8 II II 8 9 2 8 5 I 6 3 2 2 I 3 Electoral Votes,' 13 13 10 II 4 10 7 3 8 S 4 4 3 5 3 3 3 ^ See note 2 on opposite page, 'Representatives in Congress when admitted, 5. Electoral votes when admitted, 7. APPENDIX D PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES President. State. By Whom Elected. Term of Office. George Washington Virginia ■ Massachusetts... Virginia Virginia Virginia Massachusetts... Tennessee New York Ohio. Whole people. Federalists. Dem.-Rep. Dem.-Rep. Dem.-Rep. Rep Dem Dem Whigs Whigs Dem Whigs .... Whigs .... Dem Dem Rep Rep Rep Rep Rep Rep Dem Rep Dem R»p Rep Rep Two terms ; 1789-1797. One term ; 1797-1801. Two terms ; 1S01-1809. lames Madison Two terms ; 1809-1817. ' ames Monroe Two terms ; 1817-1825. ] ohn Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson One term ; 1825-1829. Two terms ; 1829-1837. William Henry Harrison. . . . John Tyler Virginia Tennessee Louisiana New York New Hampshire. Pennsylvania . . . Illinois 3 yrs. 11 mos.; 1841- 1845- One term ; 1845-1849. Zachary Taylor 1 yr. 4 mos. ; 1849, 1850. Millard Fillmore 2 yrs. 8 mos. ; 1850- ^ Franklin Pierce 1853- One term ; 1853-1857. One term ; 1857-1S61. Abraham Lincoln One term and 6 wks. ; Andrew Johnson Tennessee Illinois 1861-1865. 3 yrs. 10 mos. ; 1865- Ulysses Simpson Grant Rutherford Burchard Hayes. James Abraham Garfield Chester Alan Arthur 1869. Two terms ; 1869-1877. Ohio One term ; 1877-1881. Ohio 6 mos. 15 days ; 1881. New York New York Indiana 3 yrs. s mos., 15 days ; 1881-1885. One term ; 1885-1889. Benjamin Harrison One term ; 1889-1893. Grover Cleveland New York Ohio One term ; 1893-1897. One term and 6)^ mos. ; 1897-1901. 3 .Mb. s% mos,; 1905- 1909. 1909- Theodore Roosevelt William Howard Taft .... New York Ohio INDEX Abolitionists, 271-273 Acadians, removal of, 99 Adams, John, 149; presidency of, 209- 212; sketch and portrait, 209 Adams, J. Q., sketch, 245; portrait, 246; presidency of, 245-248; defends the right of petition, 273 Adams, Samuel, 138-140; 142, 148; portrait, 149 Aguinaldo's rebellion, 420 Alabama Claims, 344 Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 344 Alabama, secedes, 302; 355, 368 Alaska, purchase of, 384 Albany (Fort Orange), 64 Alien and Sedition Laws, 211 Allen, Ethan, 145 Amsterdam, New, 64 Anderson, Major, 305, 306 Andr^ (an'dra), John, 178, 179 Andros, Sir Edmund, 59-61; 68 Antietam, battle of, 324 Anti-Federalist Party, 191, 209 Appomattox Court House, Lee surren- ders at, 347 Arbitration, 400, 406, 407 Arid region, 379 Arkansas, 354 Armistead (ar'mis-ted). General, 228 Army, Continental, 145, 147 Arnold, Benedict, 145, 157, 159, 163; his treason, 177-179 Arthur, Chester A., sketch, 392 Articles of Confederation, 185-188 Ashburton Treaty, 354 Asia, European trade with, i Atlanta Exposition, 369 Atlantic Cable, 382 Atlantic Fleet, 427 Automobile, 440 Australian Ballot System, 400 Bacon's rebellion, 37 Balboa discovers the Pacific, 18 Baltimore, Lord, 37, 38 Baltimore attacked by the British, 234 Bancroft, George, 446 Bank, United States, 256, 257 Barbary States, war with, 222 Barclay, Captain, defeated by Perry on Lake Erie, 233 Beauregard (bo're-gaard). General, 305 Bell, A. G., 389 Bennington, battle of, 158 Bering Sea trouble, 400 Berkeley, Sir William, 36 Blacklists, 395 Blaine, James G., 400 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION.* a as in fat. e as in mete. as in note. u as in mute. a " *' fate. e " " her. " " move. u German u, French u. a " " far. i " " pin. 6 *' " nor. oi as in oil. 5 " " fare. i " " pine. u " " tub. ou " " pound. e " *' met. " '' not. A double dot under any vowel indicates the short w-sound, as in but. • According to Century Dictionary. 473 474 INDEX Blanco, Captain-General, 411 Bland Silver Bill, 403 Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom're-shar'), 173 Boone, Daniel, 169 Border ruffians, 288 "Boston Massacre," 138 Boston settled, 48; evacuated by the British, 148 Boycott, 395 Braddock, General, his defeat, 98 Bradford, Governor, 46 Bragg, General, 334 Brandywine, battle of the, 162 Breckenridge, John C, 299 Brewster, Elder, 46 Brooklyn Bridge, 394 Brooks, Preston S., assaults Charles Sumner, 289 Brown, John, at Harper's Ferry, 296 Bryan, William J., 407, 418 Bryant, William CuUen, 445 Buchanan (bu-kan'an), James, sketch, 294; portrait, 294; presidency of, 294-304 Buell, General, 316 Buffalo, 419 Buena Vista, battle of, 354 Bull Run, first battle of, 307; second battle of, 323 Bunker Hill, battle of, 146, 147 Burgoyne (ber-goin'), General, his in- vasion, 157-164; his surrender, 163 Burnside, General, 324 Burr, Aaron, 213; his conspiracy, 223 Butler, General, 316, 331 Cabinet, the President's, 200, 395 Cabot, John, seeks the northwest pas- sage, 6 Cabot, Sebastian, explores the coast of North America, 8 Calhoun, John C, and nullification, 253; portrait, 253 California seeks admission to the Union, 281; admitted to the Union, 354 Cambridge, 51 Camden, battle of, 175 Canada, 58, 87, 102, 145 Canal, Isthmian, 423 Canonicus, 47, 55 Cape Cod, 46 Carpet-bag rule, 360 Carteret, 73, 123 Cartier (kar-tya'), 87 Carver, John, 46 Catholics, 37 Cedar Creek, battle of, 339 Centennial Exhibition, 388 Cervera, Admiral, 413 Chambersburg, 339 Champlain (sham-plan'), 87-89, 123 Champlain, Lake, 88, 123 Chancellorsville, battle of, 325 Charles I., 42, 43-58 Charles II., 42. 43. 5^> S9. 7° Charleston, 305 Charter Oak, 60 Charters, 28, 38, 45, 54, 60, 64, 70 Chattanooga, battle of, 335 Chesapeake, Leopard fires upon, 225 Chicago, 259 Chickamauga, battle of, 333 Chili, trouble with, 398 China, 420 Chinese immigration, 376 Chippewa (chip'e-wa), battle of, 233 353 Christian Commission, 350 Church of England, 44 Civil service reform, 392, 393 Civil War, causes of, 301; principal events of , 305-348 ; results of, 351 Clark, George Rogers, in the North- west, 169, 170; 183 Clay, Henry, portrait, 244, 256 Clermont, 223 Cleveland, Grover, sketch, 393; por- trait, 393; 402, 404 Clinton, DeWitt, and Erie Canal, 245 Clinton, General, 163, 166, 175, 176, 178, 183 INDEX 475 Cold Harbor, battle of, 337 Coligny (ko-len'ye), 15, 122 Colonies, life in the, at the close of the French and Indian Wars, 105-117; groups of, 105, 118, iig Colorado, 374 Colored troops in the Civil War, 332 Columbia River, 269 Columbia University, 114 Columbus, Christopher, his plans, 3; portrait, 3; his difficulties, 4; first voyage of, 4; trials on his first voy- age, 5; discovers America, 6; other voyages, 6; last days, 6. Commerce, American, after the Revolu- tion, 186 Committees of Correspondence, 138 Compromise with Missouri, 244; with South Carolina, 256; of 1850, 283 Concentration, 411 Concord, battle of, 142-145 Confederate States of America, organi- zation of, 302 Congress, Continental, first meeting of, 141; second meeting of, 145; has lit- tle power, 167, 185, 187, 418 Connecticut, early history of, 50-54; and the Northwest Territory, 188 Conscription, North, 332; South, 333 Conservation of Natural Resources, 428 Constitution of the United States, events leading to, 189; ratified, 190; slavery compromises in, 190; strict and lib- eral construction of, 200 Constitution captures the Guerriere, 231 Continental currency, 168 Conway Cabal, 165 Cooper, James Fenimore, 445 Cornwallis, General, 154, 176, 179, 181 COiOnado, 122 Cortez conquers Mexico, 18 Cotton export, 311, 367, 368 Cotton-gin, invention of, 204 Cowpens, battle of, 179 Creek Indians, war with, 235 Creve-Coeur (krev-ker'), 91 Cromwell, Oliver, 43 Crown Point, Fort, loi; Americans capture, 145; Burgoyne captures, 157 Cuba, Island of, 286, 410 Cuba, Republic of, 421 Cuban Reciprocity Act, 423 Cubans rise against Spain, 410 Cumberland destroyed by the Merrimac, 313 Cunard Steamship Line, 354 Cushing, Lieutenant, 328 Dakota, North, 375 Dakota, South, 375 Dale, Sir Thomas, 32 Daughters of Liberty, 131 Davenport, John, 52 Davis, Jefferson, sketch, 302; elected President of the Confederacy, 303; flight and capture of, 348 Dawes, William, 143 Dawes Act, 386 Declaration of Independence, 148-150 "Decrees," 226 De Kalb (de kalb). Baron, 165 Delaware, early history of, 74 Delaware, Lord, 32 Democratic Party, 209, 248, 299, 404, 407, 418 Democratic-Republican Party, 209, 211, 230 Deposits, removal of, 257 De Soto (so'-to), lands in Florida, 14; discovers the Mississippi, 15; por- trait, 16 Detroit, 232 Dewey, Admiral George, 412 Dingley Tariff, 408 Dinwiddle, Governor, 96 Discovery, aids to, i District of Columbia, slavery in, 283 Dorchester Heights, 148 Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island, 354 Douglas, Stephen A., 288, 299 Draft riots, 332 Drake, Sir Francis, 22, 26 476 INDEX Dred Scott decision, 294 Du Quesne (dii-kan') Fort, 97 Dutch, in New Netherland, 63-68; rea- sons for their failure, 68 Eads, Captain, and the Mississippi jet- ties, 366 Early, General, his raid in the Shenan- doah, 338 Eaton, Theophilus, 52 Education, 100, 109, in, 114, 441 Edward, Fort, 158 EI Caney, 416 Electoral Commission, 389 Electoral Count Bill, 390 Electricity, 438 Elizabeth, Queen, 20, 23, 27 Emancipation Proclamation, 330 Embargo, 226, 227 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 446 Endicott, John, 47 England, her need of America, 25; im- presses American seamen, 225; in- jures American commerce, 226; and the Civil War, 309-311 and 343-345; and Venezuela, 405-407; friendship of, 417 Era of good feeling, 247 Ericsson, John, and the Monitor, 313 Ericsson, Leif, 11 Erie Canal, 245 Eutaw Springs, battle of, 192 Fair Oaks (Seven Pines), battle of, 322 Faneuil Hall, 129 Far East, 420 Farragut, Admiral David G., at New Orleans, 317; sketch, 342; at Mobile Bay, 342 Federalist Party, 191, 198, 209, 211, 230 Fifteenth Amendment, 360 Filibustering Expeditions, 286 Filipinos, rebellion of, 420 Fillmore, Millard, sketch and portrait, 281, 283 Five Forks, battle of, 346 Five Nations (see Six Nations), 76 Flag, American, 164 Katboat, 216 Flying machine, 440 Florida, purchase of, 239; admitted to the Union, 354 Foote, Commodore, 315 Forest reservations, 380 Foreign_trade, growth of, 437 Fort Donelson, 315 Fort Henry, 315 Fort Orange (Albany), 64 Fort William Henry, massacre at, 124 Fourteenth Amendment, 360 France, her struggle with England for control of America, 93; American treaty with, 164; aids the Americans with her fleets, 172; at war with England, 206; regains Louisiana, 219; injures American commerce, 226 Franklin, Benjamin, 98; his plan of union, 121; sketch, 121; 150, 164; portrait, 162 Fredericksburg, battle of, 324 Freedmen, and Southern legislation, 358; and education, 370 French forts, 95 French Revolution, 207 French War, Last, 94-103; causes of, 94; principal events of, 96-102; treaty of peace, 102 ; other results of, 103 Fugitive Slave Law, 284 Fulton, Robert, 222 Gadsden Puechase, 278 Gage, General, 140, 142, 143 Gang-plow, 376 Garfield, James A., sketch and portrait. 390> 392 Garrison, William Lloyd, 271 Gates, General, 163, 175 Genet (zhe-na'). Citizen, defies Washing ton, 208 George III., 135-140, 183 INDEX 477 Georgia, early history, 41; secedes, 302, 354 Germantown, battle of, 192 Gettysburg, battle of, 325-329 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23 Gold, discovery of, in California, 2 79-280 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 62 Gosnold, Batholomew, 26 Gourges (gorg), Dominique de, in Flor- ida, 16 Government, colonial, 118-121 Grant, Ulysses S., at Fort Donelson, 315; at Shiloh, 315; at Vicksburg, 329; at Chattanooga, 334; sketch, S3S; in campaigns about Richmond, 337-348; captures Lee's army, 347; made President, 362; his Indian policy, 384 Great Meadows, 97 Greeley, Horace, 348 Greenbacks, 392 Greene, General, 179-181 Grenville, Lord, 129 Griffin, 90 Griffin's Wharf, 140 Guantanamo, 415 Cuerriere (gar-ryar) captured, 231 Guilford Court House, battle of, 180 "Hail Columbia," 210 Hale, Nathan, 152 Half Moon, 63 Hamilton, Alexander, favors a strong Union, 200; financial policy of, 202; portrait, 202; killed by Burr, 223 Hamilton, Colonel, 169, 170 Hancock, John, 143, 145, 150 Harrison, Benjamin, 380, 396; sketch, 402 ; portrait, 402 ; elected President, 404 Harrison, William Henry, 228; sketch, 267; portrait, 268 Hartford, 51, 54, 60 Hartford, at Mobile Bay, 343 Hartford Convention, 236 Harvard College, 109 Havana, 411 Hawaii (ha-wi'e), revolution in, 401 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 446 Hay, Secretary, 421 Hayes, Rutherford B., sketch, 365; withdraws troops from the South, 365; portrait, 366; election of, 389 Hennepin, 123 Henry, Patrick, 131, 141, 191 Hessians, 149, 155 Hobson, Lieutenant, 415 Holland at war with England, 167 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 445 Holy Alliance, 240 Hood, General, 341 Hooker, Joseph, 325, 335 Hooker, Thomas, 51-52 Howe, General, 146, 152, 160-163, ^^^ Hudson, Henry, discovers the Hudson River, 63 Hudson River, 63, 64, 67, 150, 157 Huguenots (hu'ge-nots) in France, 15; their settlements, 16; Spanish de- stroy settlements of, 16 Hull, Captain Isaac, 231 Hull, General William, 232 Hutchinson, Anne, 55 Iberville (e-ber-vel'), 123 Idaho, 375 Illinois, 353 Immigration, foreign, table of, 259; 290, 291. 372-373 Impeachment, President Johnson's, 360 Impressment of American seamen, 208, 225 Income Tax, 405 Independence of the United States, 183 Independent Treasury, 262 Indiana, 353 Indians, division of, 75; character of, 76; occupations of, 77; their canoes and snow-shoes, 77; wampum, 78; religion, 79; clan and tribe, 80; com- munal living, 80; number of, 82; in- 478 INDEX fluence of, upon the whites, 83 ; early wars with, 84-86; aid Burgoyne, 158; use of, by the English, 168; reserva- tion system, 386 Intercolonial Wars, 94 Internal improvements, 246, 247, 261 Interstate Commerce Act, 435 Iron, 433-435 "Ironsides, Old," 231 Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi') Indians (see Five Nations and Six Nations), 64, 65; and Champlain, 88; enemies of French, 8g ; and fur trade, 93 ; and St. Leger, Irrigation, 379 Irving, Washington, 444 Isthmian Canal Act, 423 Italy, trouble with, 398 Jackson, Andrew, at Battle of New Orleans, 235-236; in Florida, 239; presidency of, 250-262; sketch, 250; portrait, 251 Jackson, C. T., 268 Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), in the Shenandoah, 323; sketch, 325; and portrait, 327 James I., 30, 42-44 James II., 42, 43, 59 Jamestown, settlement of, 29 Japan, treaty with, 285 Jay, his treaty with England, 208 Jefferson, Thomas, 132; writes Decla- ration of Independence, 150; opposes a strong union, 200; presidency of, 213-227; sketch, 213; portrait, 216 Jesuit missionaries, 90 Johnson, Andrew, presidency of, 356- 363; sketch and portrait, 357; his plan of reconstruction, 357; im- peached, 360 Johnston, Albert Sydney, 315 Johnston, Joseph E., 307, 322, 329, 337, 340, 348 Joliet (zho-lya'), 90 Jones, John Paul, 164, 173 Kalb, Baron de, 165 Kansas, struggle for, 287-289; admitted to the Union, 354 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 287 Kaskasia, 169 Kearsarge, sinks the Alabama, 344 Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 341 Kentucky, Resolutions presented by, 211; life in, 216, 352 King George's War, 94 King Philip's War, 85 King William's War, 94 King's Mountain, battie of, 176 Knights of Labor, 395 Knox, Henry, 200 Kosciusko (kos-i-us'ko) , 165 Ku-Klux Klan, 361, 362 La Fayette (la-fa-yet'), portrait, 160; sketch, 162; in Virginia, 181 La Salle (la-sal'), explores the Missis- sippi, 90; his aims and work, 91 Lake Erie, Perry's victory on, 232 Lands, Public, 373 Las Guasimas, 415 Lawrence, Perry's flagship, 232 Lee, Charles, 153, 154, 160, 165 Lee, Fort, 152, 153 Lee, Richard Henry, 149 Lee, Robert E., sketch, 322; in Pen- insular campaign, 323; portrait, 324; at Antietam, 324; at Fredericksburg, 324; at Chancellorsville, 325; at Gettysburg, 327; in. campaigns of 1864 and 1865, 337-347; his surren- der, 347 Leisler (lls'ler), Jacob, leads an uprising against Andros, 70 Lewis and Clarke's Expedition, 221-222 Lexington, battle of, 142-145 Liberator, William Lloyd Garrison's, 271 Lincoln, Abraham, sketch, 299; por- trait, 300; presidency of, 305-348; assassinated, 348 Lincoln, General, 175 " Line of Demarcation," 6 INDEX 479 Linotype, 444 Literature, 444 London Company, 28, 29 Long Island, battle of, 151, 152 Longfellow, Henry W., 44S Lookout Mountain, battle of, 335 Louisburg, 94 Louisiana, 353 Louisiana Purchase, 220-221, 425 Lovejoy, Elijah P., 273 Lowell, James Russell, 446 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 353 McClellan, George B., in the Penin- sula Campaign, 319-324 McCormick reaping-machine, 264 McCrea, Jane, 158 McDonough (mak-don'6), Thomas, on Lake Champlain, 234 McDowell, General, 307, 321 McKinley, William, author of McKinley BUI, 404; sketch and portrait, 404, 408; conduct of Spanish War, 411, 418 Madison, James, portrait, 228; sketch, 228; presidency of, 228-238 Magellan (ma-jel'an), wonderful voyage of, 9 Mails, 198 Maine, 353 Maine (The), 411 Malolos, 420 Malvern Hill, battle of, 322 Manassas (ma-nas'as), battle of (see Bull Run) Manhattan Island, 64 Manila, 412-420 Manufactures, in New England, 61, 227; in the South, 368 Marion, Francis, 176 Marquette (mar-kef), Father, 90, 123 Marshall, Chief Justice, 212, 352 Maryland, early history of, 37-39; and the Northwest Territory, 188 Mason, John, 84 Mason and Dixon's Line, 39 Mason and Slidell seized on the Trent, 309 Massachusetts, early history of, 45-59 Massachusetts Bay Company, 47, 48 Massasoit (mas-a-soif), 47 Maximilian, Archduke, in Mexico, 345 Meade, George G., portrait, 329; at Gettysburg, 325-329 Melendez in Florida, 16 Merrimac, Confederate ironclad, 311- 314 Merrimac, United States collier, 415 Merritt, General, 413 Mexican War, 274-277 Mexico, City of, occupied by American troops, 354 Michigan, 354 Middle Colonies, 113-116; mixed pop- ulation of, 113; occupations of people in, 113; education in, 114; crimes and punishments in, 115; life and man- ners of the Dutch in, 115 Miles, General, 420 Mills Bill, 404 Mimms, Fort, massacre at, 235 Minnesota, 354 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 336 Mississippi, 353 Mississippi River, importance of, in the Civil War, 314 Missouri, 353 Missouri Compromise, 244, 245 Mobile Bay, battle of, 342-343 Mohawk River, 89, 157 Monitor, Union ironclad, 311-314 Monmouth, battle of, 166 Monroe, James, presidency of , 239-245; sketch, 240; portrait, 241 Monroe Doctrine, 241-242, 405 Montana, 375 Montcalm, General, 99, 102 Montgomery, 145 Montreal, 145 Moore's Creek Bridge, battle of, 192 Morgan, Daniel, at battle of Cowpens, 180 48o INDEX Mormons, 376 Morris, Robert, 156 Morristown, 156, 160 Morse, Samuel F. B., and the telegraph, 267 Morton, W. T. G., 268 Moultrie (mol'tri), Fort, 150 Mound Builders, 81-83 Mount Vernon, home of Washington, ig6 Municipal reform, 440 Napoleon I., 218-220, 229 Napoleon III., and the Confederate navy, 344; and Mexico, 345 Narragansett Indians, 47, 55 Narvaez (nar-va-ath') ■ explores Florida, Nashville, battle of, 355 National Republican Party, 248 National road, 241, 242 Navigation Lavifs, 36, 59, 126 Navy, United States, in the Revolution, 172; in War of 1812, 230; our new, 399 Nebraska, 360 Negro suffrage, 360 Nevada, 355 New Amsterdam, 64 New England, industries and trade of, 61; occupations of the people in, 113; religion and church worship in, 113; education in, 114; crimes and punish- ments in, 115; life and manners in, 115; and Protection, 254 New England Confederacy, 55 New Hampshire, early history of, 62 New Haven, 52 New Jersey, early history of, 73 New Netherland, early history of, 64- 67; becomes New York, 67 New Orleans, battle of, 235-236; capt- ure of, 316; Cotton Centennial, 368 New York, under English governors, 68; and the Northwest Territory, New York City, 246 Newspapers, 117, 263, 443 Non-Importation agreements, 133, 139 Norfolk, 311 North, economic conditions in, 293; ad- vantages of, 303 North Carolina, early history of, 41; secedes, 306, 354 North Dakota, 375 Northern point of view, 301 Northmen, 11 Northwest Boundary, 269 Northwest Passage, 8 Northwest Territory, conflicting claims to, 188 Nullification, 2ir, 253, 255, 256 Ocean Steamships, 264 Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorp), James, 41 Ohio, 352 Ohio Company, 96 Oklahoma (ok-la-ho'ma), territory opened to settlement, 396 Old North Church, 143 Old South Church, 130, 139 Olney, Richard, 407 "Open Door," 420 "Orders in Council," 226 Ordinance of 1787, 188 Oregon, 354 Oregon (The), 414 Oregon Country, 221, 269-271 Ostend (os-tend'), Manifesto, 286 Oswego, 159 Otis, James, 128 Pacific Cable, 424 Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 18 Pacific Railroads, 377 Pack-horse, 217 Paine, Thos., writes Common Sense, 149 Pakenham(pak'en-am), Sir Edward, 236 Palo Alto (pa'lo al'to), battle of, 354 Panama, revolution, 423; treaty, 424 Pan-American Congress, 397 Pan-American Exposition, 419 INDEX 481 Panic, Financial, of '37, 262; of '57, 294; of '73, 386; of '93, 403 Paper money, 168, 187, 390 Parkman, Francis, 446 Partisan warfare in tlie South, 176 Patroons in New Netlierland, 63 Payne-Aldrich Bill, 429 Peace Conference, fir^t, 427; second, 427 Peking, 421 Pemberton, General, 329, 330 Penn, William, proprietor of Pennsyl- vania, 70-72 ; portrait, 70 Pennsylvania, early history of, 70-72 Pennsylvania, University of, 115 Pension Bill, 397 Pepperell, Colonel, 94 Pequot Indians, 84 Perry, Commodore, in Japan, 285 Perry, Oliver H., his victory on Lake Erie, 232 Personal Liberty Bills, 284 "Pet banks," 257 Petersburg, explosion of mine at, 338 Petition, right of, 273 Philadelphia, 71 Philippine Islands, 417, 420 Pickett, General, 328 Pierce, Franklin, portrait, 286; sketch, 286; presidency of, 287-294 Pilgrims, go to Holland, 44; aims and character of, 45; voyage to America, 45; settle at Plymouth, 46; cove- nant and democracy, 46; relations with the Indians, 46, 47 Pinckney, Charles C, 210 Pitt, William, 100, 133 Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 315 Pizarro (pi-za'r5), conquers Peru, 19 Plymouth Company, 28 Pocahontas, 31 Polk, James K., sketch and portrait, 275; presidency of, 275-281 Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-6n'), dis- covers Florida, 13 Pontiac, his conspiracy, 103, 120, 124 Pope, General, 323 Port Bill, Boston, 140 Port Hudson, surrender of, 330 Porto Rico, 417, 418 Portugal leads in discovering an eastern route, 2 Potomac, Army of, 319 Power loom, 433 Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'), 31 Prescott, Colonel, 146 Prescott, William H., 446 Presidential succession, 394 Princeton, battle of, 156 Princeton College, 115 Printing press, 444 Prisoners, ditEculties about exchange of, in Civil War, 331-333 Privateering, in Revolution, 172; in War of 1812, 232 Problems of the hour, 437 Protective Tariff, 203, 252-254, 404-405, 407 Providence, R. I., 55, 123 Provincial Congress, 142 Public Schools, 263 Pullman boycott, 405 Puritans, 44-59; obtain a charter, 47; settlements, 48; government, 49; re- ligious intolerance, 54-58; persecute the Quakers, 56; have trouble with England, 58 Putnam, Israel, 103, 146, 152 Quakers, 56, 57, 69 Quebec, 89; capture of, by Wolfe, loi Queen Anne's War, 94 Railroads, 257-258, 377 Railroad rate regulation, 435, 436 Raleigh, Sir Walter, sketch, 22; por- trait, 21; colonies, 22-25 Reaper, McCormick, 264, 375 Reconstruction, Johnson's plan of, 357; congressional plan of, 358; work of, complete, 359; difficulties and results of, 362 482 INDEX Religious intolerance among the Massa- chusetts Puritans, 54-59 Republican Party, 290, 299, 404, 407, 418 Reservations, Indian, 386 Resumption of specie payments, 390 Revere, Paul, 143 Review of the army at Washington, 355 Revolution, American, causes of, 126- 142; principal events of, 142-183; results of, 183 Rhode Island, settled, 54; religious toleration in, 55 Richmond, Virginia, Confederate capi- tal, 302 ; evacuated by Lee, 346 Right of Search claimed by England, 225 Rivers, twofold use of, 217 Rochambeau, 182 Rolfe, John, marries Pocahontas, 31 Roosevelt, Theodore, 419, 424, 425, 426, 429 Rosecrans (roze-cranz). General, 334 Ross, General, 234 "Rotten boroughs," 134 Rough Riders, 415 Roxbury, settled, 48 Sampson, Admiral, 415 St. Augustine, 16, 122 St. Lawrence River, 87-89 St. Leger (sant lej'er) in Western New York, 159 St. Mary's, setflement at, 38 Salem Witchcraft, 108 San Francisco, 280 San Salvador, 6 Sanitary Commission, 350 Santiago, 416 Savannah, Sherman captures, 341 Savannah, 264 Say-and-Sele, Lord, 52 Saybrook, 54 "Scalawags," 361 Schuyler, General, 158, 163 Scrooby, England, 44 Seal fisheries, 400 Secession, 254, 302; of the remaining Cotton States, 302; of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Ar- kansas, 306 Seminole Indians, 239 Semmes (semz). Captain, 344 Serapis, 178 Seven Days' Battles, 322 Seven Pines, battle of (see Fair Oaks) Sewing machine, 433 Schley, 411 Shafter, 416 Shay's Rebellion, 187, 188 Shenandoah Valley, Jackson in, 322; Early in, 338; Sheridan in, 339 Sheridan, Philip H., in the Shenan- doah, 339; portrait, 339; at Cedar Creek, 339; sketch, 339; at Five Forks, 346 Sherman, Roger, 150 Sherman, William T., sketch, 340; por- trait, 341; captures Atlanta, 341; his "March to the Sea," 341; capt- ures Johnston's army, 348 Sherman Act, 403 Sherman, James S., 429 Shiloh, battle of, 315 Six Nations, 71 (see Iroquois) Slavery, in Virginia, 34; cotton-gin and, 204; in the North and the South, 243; real cause of the Civil War, 301 Slidell, seized on the Trent, 309 Smith, Captain John, his services to the Virginia colonists, 30; sketch, 31; portrait, 3 1 ; returns to England, 3 1 Smith, Joseph, 376 Solid South, 365 Sons of Liberty, 131 South, economic conditions in, 292-293 ; advantages of, 303; seizes national property, 304; condition at the close of the Civil War, 356; the new, 365- 37r; troops withdrawn from, 365 South Carolina, 41; objects to Protec- tion, 252, 253; and State Rights, 255, 256; secedes, 300 INDEX 483 South Dakota, 375 Southern Colonies, 111-113; occupa- tions of the people of, iii; education in, hi; life and manners in, 112 Southern point of view, 300 Spain claims Florida, 16; advantages of, in the New World, 16; reasons for failure, 17; relations with Eng- land, 20; rise of Cubans against, 410 Spaniards, precious metals main object of, 13; and the Indians, 14; destroy Huguenot settlements, 16 Spanish-American War, 410-417 Spanish fleet destroyed, 412 Specie Circular, 261 Speedwell, 45 Spinning machine, 433 Spoils system, 251 Spottsylvania Court House, battle of, 337 Stamp Act, 128-13 1; Stamp Act Con- gress, 132; repeal of, 133 Standish, Myles, portrait, 48 Stanwix, Fort, 159 Star of the West, 305 Star-Spangled Banner, 234 Stark, John, 159 State Rights, 255, 256, 300 Statue of Liberty, 396 Steamboat, Fulton's first, 222; launched on the Ohio River, 223 Steel, 433-435 Stephens, Alexander H., sketch, 303 Steuben, Baron, 165 "Stonewall" Jackson (see Jackson, Thomas J.) Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 285 Street railways, 439 Strike, railroad, 387, 405 Stuyvesant (sti've-sant). Governor, 68 Sugar and Molasses Act, 127 Sullivan, General, 152 Sumner, Charles, assault on, 289 Sumter, Fort, Confederates capture, 306 Surplus, 404 Sutter, Captain, 279 Swedes, settlement made by, 74 Tariff, 203, 252-254, 404-405, 407, 408, 418 Taft, William H., 420, 429 Taxation, 39, 43, 130; without repre- sentation in America, 134; without representation in England, 134 Taylor, Zachary, 276; portrait, 280; sketch, 281 Tea, tax on, 139-140 Tecumseh (te-kum'se), 228 Telegraph, 267, 378, 424 Telephone, 389 Temperance movement, 264, 265 Tennessee, life in, 216; 352 Tennessee, Confederate ironclad, 342 Territories, slavery in, 287, 294, 299 Texas, annexation of, 274; admitted to the Union, 354 Textile industry, 432 Thames River, battle of, 353 Thirteenth Amendment, 358,. 360 Thomas, General, 333, 336 Ticonderoga, Fort, loi, 129; Amer- icans capture, 145; Burgoyne capt- ures, 157 Tilden, Samuel J., 389 Tippecanoe, battle of, 228 Tobacco, 33, 35, 39 Tories, 134, 151 Township, New England, 48 Trade, Colonial, 127, 128 Travel, modes of, 117, 197, 215 Treaty at close of last French War, 102 ; at close of Revolution, 183; Jay's, 208; at close of War of 1812, 238; with Mexico, 278; between Vene- zuela and England, 405-407; Hay- Pauncefote, 423 Trent Affair, 309 Trenton, battle of, 154, 155 Trusts, 436 Tuscaroras (tus-ka-rb'ras), 76 Tyler, John, sketch, 267; portrait, 269 484 INDEX "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 285 Underground Railroad, 285 United States, natural advantages of, 431 United States Bank, 256, 257 Utah, 375 Valley Forge, suffering at, 164, 165 Van Buren, Martin, sketch and portrait, 262; presidency of, 262, 263 Venezuela (ven-e-zwe-la') and England, ^.05-407 Vera Cruz (ve'ra kroz), surrender of, 354 Vermont, 352 Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no), 87 Vespucius, Americus, 8 Vicksburg, capture of, 329 Vincennes, 169 Virginia, early history of, 29-37; ^'^^ the Northwest territory, 188 Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 211 Vulture, 178 Wallace, Lew, 33S War of 1812, causes of, 229; principal events of, 231-236; results of, 238 Warren, Joseph, 143, 146, 147 Washington, D. C, made the national capital, 203; captured by the British, 234 Washington, Fort, 152 Washington, George, his journey to the French forts, 96; at Great Meadows, 97; with Braddock, 99; takes com- mand of the American army, 147; in the Revolution, 147-183; presidency of, 194-209; sketch, 195; inaugu- rated, 195; formality of, 198-200; his cabinet, 200 Washington, Lawrence, 96 Washington Elm, 144 Webster, Daniel, and the "Union, 254; portrait, 255 Wells, Horace, 268 West, rapid growth of, 258; influence of, in favor of nationality, 293; ex- pansion of, 374 West Virginia, 355 Western lands, speculation in, 260 Wethersfield settled, 51 Weyler, General, 411 Whig Party, 290 Whiskey Rebellion, 203 White Plains, battle of, 192 Whitney, Eli, invents cotton-gin, 204 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 446 Wild-cat banking, 260 Wilderness, battles of, 337 Williams, Roger, 54, 55 Williamsburg, 131 Williamsburg, battle of, 322 Wilmot, David, 284 Wilmot Proviso, 284 Wilson Bill, 405 Windsor settled, 51 Winthrop, John, 51 Wireless Telegraphy, 424 Wisconsin, 354 Witchcraft, Salem, 108 Wolfe, General, captures Quebec, loi . 102 Woman Suffrage, 443 World's Columbian Exposition, 403 Writs of Assistance, 128 Wyoming, attack on, 192 Wyoming, 375 X-Ray, 439 X. Y. Z. Papers, 209 Yale College, 109 Yorktown, McClellan at, 321 Young, Brigham, 376