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INDICATION 
 IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 A Natural Method of Studying Architectural Design 
 with the Help of Indication as a Means of Analysis. 
 
 By D. VARON 
 
 Architect, Diplome Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. For- 
 merly Professor of Architectural Design at Syracuse 
 University and at the University of Illinois. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 THE WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK COMPANY 
 
A^ M 1 E 
 
 Copyright 1916 by 
 THE WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK COMPANY 
 
 
 
 
 PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHED BY 
 
 ROBERT A. WELCKE 
 178 William St., New York 
 
 press work by vail-ballou company 
 binghamton and new york 
 
To the Memory of my late Professors 
 JULIEN GUADET 
 
 and 
 EDMOND PAULIN 
 
 to my 
 
 Fellow Students 
 
 Of the Atelier Guadet-Paulin 
 
 This book is dedicated 
 
PREFACE 
 
 HAVING encountered, as a student of architecture, and in more recent 
 years as a teacher of this art, the many hardships that beset the road of 
 both pupil and instructor, I have made it the main purpose of this 
 work to remove many stumbling blocks from the student's path, and indirectly 
 help the instructor. 
 
 But even without any obstacle, the road to a thorough understanding of 
 architecture remains an arduous one. The student should feel a real calling 
 for his chosen profession, and not be moved only by the material end of it. 
 The late Professor Julien Guadet, whenever a youth sought advice about enter- 
 ing the career, would put various questions to him, about his academic prepar- 
 ation for the studies of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and end up by telling his 
 visitor that if financial considerations were his principal motive he might as 
 well get a job at once in the first grocery store and begin to make money right 
 away. 
 
 It is assumed that the student who makes use of this essay is kindled with 
 the sacred fire, and is willing to omit not a single opportunity of using his 
 eyes and his mind. 
 
 I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Manoel F. Behar for his help- 
 ful suggestions in correcting the manuscript and proofreading. 
 
 D. Varon. 
 March ist, 1916. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 DURAND, in 1809, a generation before the famous "Pompier" period, 
 to which we now appear to be reverting, said that architecture is both 
 a science and an art. As a science it requires a knowledge of things 
 but as an art it requires talent. Talent is the wise and happy application of a 
 knowledge of things. 
 
 The author of this excellent work aims to assist the student in the art of using 
 knowledge of architecture by broadening his perception, by training his powers 
 of visualization, and by making him see as the artist sees. 
 
 To draw well, one must see well, to design well, one must do both, and see- 
 ing with Mr. Varon's vision clears up many problems which baffle the stu- 
 dent. 
 
 Since all architects are students, this book will also interest older practitioners 
 by setting forth logically and clearly many things they have discovered after 
 years of experiment and observation. 
 
 Because of Mr. Varon's experience as a designer of buildings and as a teacher 
 
 in schools of architecture in America, he has been able to contribute this material 
 
 aid to the course of education. 
 
 William A. Boring. 
 Columbia University — 1916. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Generalities ii 
 
 Chapter 
 
 I Analysis of Simple Elements — Training the Eye and Hand 19 
 
 II Analysis BY Sketching: Doors, Ceilings, Etc 21 
 
 III Silhouettes 22 
 
 IV Indicating 23 
 
 V The Application of Indicating to Research Work and Analysis 25 
 
 VI Elementary Elevation Design — ^A Simple Facade — Applica- 
 
 * 
 
 tion of Indicating 27 
 
 VII Design of Elevations Involving Salient Features .... 29 
 
 VIII Planning 34 
 
 IX Solving A Problem 41 
 
 Conclusion : The True — The Good — The Beautiful 45 
 
GENERALITIES 
 
 PRELIMINARY TRAINING AND SIMULTANEOUS STUDIES 
 
 SCHOOLS of architecture in this country leave nothing to be desired in 
 the way of equipment. And yet in one respect they are sometimes in- 
 complete, for a school of art needs the artistic atmosphere, which it is not 
 always possible to find or produce in certain parts of the country. That they are 
 achieving so much is nothing short of a wonder, and proves the efficacy of the 
 methods used. It is easier abroad where after hearing the professor explain a 
 theoretical principle, the student may go out and observe for himself many a 
 concrete example close at hand. This is possible in the United States only in a 
 few art centers, while in most cases we must resort to photographs. But whether 
 actual examples or pictorial reproductions, the student should make it a point to 
 devote to their study as much time and attention as he can, since this means 
 training his eyes to see ; and this he should do and form the habit of doing even 
 before entering the architectural school. 
 
 While so doing, the student should familiarize himself with a great many 
 architectural productions, of all periods and styles. Architecture is, like 
 a spoken language, a mode of expression. Now, as a rule, a child hears the 
 sound of the human voice for many months before it is able to utter a sylla- 
 ble. So it is with architecture. One must contemplate many examples, each 
 many times and from diiferent points of view, under different lights, indoors 
 and out, till at last one feels the desire to reproduce what he sees — to sketch, to 
 draw to scale, to reproduce from memory — even as a child tries to repeat a frag- 
 ment of speech. In either case the result of the attempt is imperfect. The in- 
 fant, even after having reached its fifth year, mispronounces most words and not 
 until spelling has been learnt in school is correctness achieved. In like manner 
 the beginner in architecture, before he enters the atelier or school, will find it of 
 great advantage to reproduce in his sketch book the buildings which impress 
 him most and spur most his ambition, so that on entering the drafting room he 
 
 11 
 
12 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 will not have to get his eyes opened for the first time by the instructor. The lat- 
 ter will serve him best as an intelligent guide, like the gardener who cultivates 
 his plants. And just as the gardener cannot cause a weed to blossom in beauti- 
 ful roses, so the instructor, however much he may strive, will never succeed in 
 making an artist out of a person who has not in him the germ of art. 
 
 Granting, then, that the beginner has in himself all that is required to become 
 an artist after a fair amount of work,^ what is the first thing for him to realize 
 and understand thoroughly? 
 
 It is to know why he studies what he is told to. In too many cases the program 
 of study is not always thoroughly understood in the relation of the various sub- 
 jects to the ultimate goal, architectural design. It is generally admitted by the 
 student that the curriculum is arranged with that in view, and he fully trusts 
 those in charge, but few are those who actually see the connections. All 
 students understand the necessity of learning resistance of materials, mechanical 
 drawing, heating, ventilating, carpentry, masonry, and all such technical 
 branches immediately connected with the main subject, but when it comes to the 
 study of the classic authors, of poetry, drama, life drawing or modeling, the 
 majority of students are at a loss. They fulfil the requisites in blind compli- 
 ance, because otherwise they could not get a degree; but the result of such a 
 state of mind is that no sooner are the examinations over than the misunder- 
 stood subjects are allowed to fade from the memory. 
 
 Some persons believe that the shape of every work of man should be dictated 
 by pure reason. This would make architecture altogether mechanical. While 
 there are material needs first to be met, one must not disregard those other re- 
 quirements which Guadet called "moral" or, as usually termed, aesthetic. It is 
 to satisfy aestheticism that, special schools of architecture have evolved. 
 
 A tradesman without any artistic training whatsoever may build comfortable 
 houses "with all the latest improvements," which meet all the requirements of 
 a shelter for the human animal. But when it comes to expressing on a struc- 
 ture the ideals and aspirations of the owner, his taste for the beautiful, and pre- 
 serve harmony with the surroundings and with the spirit of the time, then the 
 architect, the man of special training must be called in. And it is towards this 
 
 ^ Abroad it takes from three to ten years to get the degree, according to previous preparation. 
 
GENERALITIES 13 
 
 accomplishment by the man of art that the various courses of a school of archi- 
 tecture have been designed, embracing the study of classic authors, languages 
 and of other cultural subjects. 
 
 It is largely through analysis that we improve, and this is greatly helped by 
 comparison. Nothing is more stimulating than the comparative study of two 
 different languages, and of two different architectures. One may know the 
 grammar of a foreign language and possess a rich vocabulary. But that does 
 not constitute a knowledge of that language, for there are idiomatic expressions 
 defying set rules, consecrated by usage. So it is with our art. English domestic 
 architecture, for instance, has a charm which cannot be taught like grammar. 
 With regard to the beautiful one must never go by rule but must make use of 
 the "sixth sense," or the aesthetic sense. The instructor may well help the stu- 
 dent compute accurately a truss, a beam or any other element of construction de- 
 pendent upon mathematics; but when it comes to designing a public building or 
 a private one of a certain character, there will be no absolute rules, but princi- 
 ples which are very elastic, and it is for the artist to use them properly. 
 
 The sense of the beautiful is developed by the surroundings in which we live, 
 by the general atmosphere of culture, almost from birth. The study of nature 
 does much to cultivate taste, for the same principles that underlie the achieve- 
 ments of man are found to govern all her works. 
 
 It is with this idea in view that the student may profitably learn such a subject 
 as literature. Analysis of a classic reveals, besides adherence to grammatical 
 principles, lofty thought clothed in beautiful expressions, in a "pure style." 
 Thought is essential, but it is not enough, it is also necessary that the exposition 
 of it be attractive and thus be made more eagerly sought and more easily compre- 
 hensible. 
 
 Each period in history has brought forth works characteristically its own by 
 availing itself of the agencies at its disposal. We are doing the same in our 
 time. Our age, architecturally speaking, is one of metal framing and its exi- 
 gencies and requirements may call forth expressions unknown to the past. To 
 create new styles without rubbing against the grain of his contemporaries, the 
 architect must act cautiously, using about the same principles as those resorted 
 to in literature. Hence also the importance of studying les Belles Lettres. 
 
 The principles of rhythm in poetry, of harmony and counterpoint in music, are 
 
14 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 paralleled in architecture, the main difference being that instead of the element 
 of time, we have space, while sound is replaced by visibility. 
 
 The analogy holds good as regards treatment of subject. An essay on patriot- 
 ism must be written in a dignified and formal manner, while the style of the de- 
 scription of a pleasure trip should be lighter : 
 
 The sound must seem an echo of the sense. 
 Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows 
 And smooth the stream in smoother numbers flows ; 
 But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
 The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar 
 When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
 The line too labors and the words move slow.^ 
 
 So, in architecture, forms must differ in a rural structure from those of an urban 
 one, in the case of the whole as well as of the details. 
 
 The history of architecture and famous architects is of paramount importance 
 inasmuch as it shows under what conditions the works given as examples were 
 executed, that is to say, the relation between the architect and the general 
 culture of his time. This consideration is an important one, as it will keep the 
 youthful architect from falling into error as he might if he were to apply his 
 knowledge without any regard for the human element. Schooling develops 
 ability, but it takes a great deal of practice to learn the tactful handling of men. 
 
 Those interested in the history of famous buildings will read with interest the 
 text book of Letarouilly accompanying his splendid work on "The Modern Ro- 
 man Edifices." It will help them to understand how the principle of variety 
 was observed in different ways by different architects and why there is more va- 
 riety in one building than in another. 
 
 The lives of architects present more than one example of a man entirely de- 
 voted tt/his profession, putting art and honesty above everything, and tell of 
 the struggles of many a promising genius, like Brunelleschi or Michaelangelo. 
 The biographies of such men show also that they were not only familiar with 
 architecture but proficient in many other arts. Their reading tends to develop 
 
 ^ Alexander Pope — Essay on Criticism. 
 
GENERALITIES 15 
 
 patience, perseverance, audacity of imagination and other qualities. Such 
 reading inspires and uplifts. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to show the close relation between the study of Latin 
 and architecture. We study Latin for several reasons, the most important 
 being that it has supplied modern languages with a number of roots, as did 
 Greek. How those ancient languages have been transformed or become our 
 vernaculars is a study that architects will be greatly interested in. We cannot 
 build any structure of importance without having to resort more or less to forms 
 borrowed from ancient Rome and Athens. Of course we also use, consciously 
 or unconsciously, forms originating elsewhere and in other periods of history. 
 To make a proper use of our language we have to understand the full sense of 
 a word. Likewise, in architecture the origin of a form or of an ornament must 
 be fully understood. 
 
 As to the significance of life-drawing in the program of a college of architec- 
 ture, those who best seem to appreciate it regard it as a means of training the 
 eye in beautiful forms. In depicting a well chosen model, the draftsman may 
 develop his sense of harmonious lines. But to the architect there is more than 
 this. Man has been given as the perfect creature. He represents the best illus- 
 tration of the theory that nature derives beauty from sheer satisfaction of a need. 
 The organ responds to its function. Skeleton and muscles are in perfect accord 
 with man's needs, moral and material. Here more than in any other example is 
 aestheticism illustrated. Though all mankind be built alike so far as the general 
 needs of the race are concerned, there are various types, some handsome, others 
 common, others yet having no aesthetic beauty but much expression, such as 
 strength, alertness. There is expression of some sort even in men that are least 
 capable of thought and volition. 
 
 It is these principles, of fitting the organ to its function, and of expressive- 
 ness, that the study of life drawing is expected to inspire, besides making the 
 student familiar with beautiful forms. The human face has been perfectly de- 
 vised by nature as man's expressive organ. The frowning of the eye-brows, the 
 contracting of the cheeks for a smile; the lowering of the jaw-bone while the eyes 
 open wide in other moods, all show very clearly the wisdom with which man was 
 created. Indeed here is the great lesson to be derived from nature : first build 
 
i6 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 solidly and usefully, sestheticism will follow. Beauty will be the fragrance of 
 the perfect creation. 
 
 Not only are these somewhat abstract conclusions to be drawn from such a 
 study, but also and more concretely, the simplicity with which the body of the 
 lord of creation has been designed. The delicate instrument of thinking is 
 located where it is so well protected. What has made man so superior to 
 animals? It is said to be the hand. See how simple a design and how much 
 beauty is derived from the proper combination of its simple parts. 
 
 When life drawing is thus conducted, there must naturally follow the general- 
 ization of those principles which the instructor has helped discover, and, better 
 still, those which the student, through his perspicacity and sagacity, has discov- 
 ered for himself. To make his observations more fruitful, the student will 
 recollect all he has learned about the physiology of man. Now that he is partic- 
 ularly concerned with proportions, will he not the better admire the beautiful 
 way in which the different parts of this complex organism are balanced? He 
 must reflect that man is the king of creation not only because he possesses intel- 
 ligence, but because the whole machinery which makes his thinking possible, 
 while elaborate, is nevertheless compact in form, simple in appearance, and 
 beautiful. It is also a structure the frame of which was carefully devised: 
 nature had a problem to solve, and the conditions of the program were many. 
 The problem was solved in a way that is an eternal source of inspiration. The 
 wonderful strides achieved by the Greeks in aesthetics were due to their starting 
 with a reverential study of Nature's solution of that problem. 
 
 Taking then the Greek architecture as the ideal initiator to our profession, we 
 must, in order to understand it, look upon it and upon the human organism, to 
 which it is so closely related, from the same point of view as that of the Greeks 
 themselves. When we have understood this relation, we are ready when a new 
 problem is put to us for solution. We will not think first of applying rules and 
 formulas, but will know how to find inspiration from Nature's inexhaustible 
 store. Casting a glance about us at our surroundings will be enough to start the 
 train of ideas leading to the solution. For Creation offers an infinite variety, 
 from the huge mountain to the tiniest flower. 
 
 Any organism has a vital center and subservient parts. Man's own concep- 
 tions, to be harmonious, must conform to this plan. In his works, the center of 
 
 ..C.-" 
 
GENERALITIES 17 
 
 importance will occupy different positions, according to the purpose of the 
 whole, with which its proportions must harmonize. In no two problems will 
 this center be of the same importance. In nature, the proportions of the lion are 
 unlike those of the ant. In architecture, the proportions of the aldermanic 
 chamber in a town hall will differ from those of the senate chamber in a capitol. 
 To conclude these remarks : life drawing ought to develop the sense of obser- 
 vation and its practice should not be limited to exercises of pure imitation, 
 merely to training the hand to draw beautiful curves. A little observation will 
 show that the varying expressions of man are quite independent of the cut of his 
 clothes. Character or expression can likewise be imparted to any structure 
 without change in the material used. A peasant may be serious or he may be 
 cheerful, just as may a refined metropolitan. Likewise a country estate can be 
 given either a dignified or a welcoming gay aspect, just as can a city mansion. 
 How ? This cannot be answered in one sentence, but the underlying idea can : 
 the artists most fortunate in imparting just the appropriate expression to works 
 of various natures and purposes are those who have drawn most inspiration from 
 man and from the works of nature in general. 
 
%*.^ 
 
INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE ELEMENTS TRAINING THE EYE AND HAND 
 
 ARCHITECTURE being in important respects similar to sculpture, 
 the ideal way of studying it would be through models, which is 
 actually done in some cases, in daily practice, when the contract so 
 provides. When modeling is out of the question on account of its cost, limited 
 time, etc., the least the architect can do is to draw several views in perspective, 
 detailed as much as possible, and absolutely correct only as regards the main 
 proportions, so as to make it expedient to judge whether the various parts har- 
 monize, and just where changes are needed. Plans, elevations, and other 
 straight drawings will not be sufficient. 
 
 To be able to conceive any work with the assurance of success, the architect 
 must have trained himself to visualize the whole and every part of his creation 
 as they would appear in perspective — as they would be seen in the actuality. 
 This ability, like every form of skilfulness, proficiency or talent, is acquired 
 through practice begun humbly and earnestly kept up. 
 
 The student is therefore urged to draw all the elements of the orders, and 
 various elements of minor importance, from original examples or from care- 
 fully selected casts. At first he will draw these elements in a northern light, and 
 when he has grown fairly familiar with these forms and with the technique of 
 whatever medium he uses, he will sketch them outdoors, exposed to sunlight. It 
 will be profitable to draw each object from various positions. The beginner will 
 soon discover that he can now understand details that puzzled him when study- 
 ing sections, plans and elevations on regular graphic plates, and that he can the 
 quicker and better understand problems of shadows and shades. 
 
 Plate I indicates how the student should draw side by side on the same sheet 
 the elevation of an order and its perspective appearance. This should be done 
 
 19 
 
20 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 free-hand, so that from the outset the student will train himself in the proper 
 way for an architect to jot down his conceptions and to take notes without 
 instruments. 
 
 On Plate II are grouped three orders, analyzed under the same light, for 
 comparison. What is done here with regard to classic orders, can be done with 
 regard to other orders and elements of different styles. Comparative study, 
 which is established in different branches of science, is also of paramount 
 importance in our art. Nothing can be more attractive to the student than a 
 museum of comparative architecture. Comparison is essential inasmuch as it 
 shows convincingly that the differences do not necessarily lie only in details or 
 in any set of mouldings, but also in the general outline and in the main propor- 
 tions. Thus the Doric order, which expresses strength, differs from the rich 
 and elegant Corinthian not only in the details of the cap and base, but in the 
 general outline of these elements, and in the proportions of the column as a 
 whole. The student should practice drawing free-hand these various pro- 
 portions until he is able to do it correctly without measurement. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ANALYSIS BY SKETCHING: DOORS, CEILINGS, ETC. 
 
 THE method applied to the analysis of the orders may be used to 
 advantage in the study of other elements of architecture such as doors 
 or windows, with regard to the exterior; and of flat and vaulted 
 ceilings and other interior details. 
 
 Plates III to XV deal with such elements. In Plate III doors are analyzed. 
 The three examples will be sufficient to show the process of analysis and partic- 
 ularly help to illustrate that in most cases architecture consists in making 
 construction beautiful. The elements involved in these doors are essential in 
 good building. To a certain extent, the architect may, according to the 
 exigencies of the case, vary the proportions and even the combinations of these 
 elements without seriously altering their structural characteristics. 
 
 These elements are viewed in perspective, the necessity for which mode of 
 expression for the student to practice one cannot too much insist upon, for here 
 more than in any other branch of knowledge, personal observation is essential 
 and theory a supplementary help. 
 
 Plates IV to XV represent diverse classes of flat and vaulted ceilings, a variety 
 of which features it is possible for all students to observe even in small towns — 
 in banks, hotel lobbies, courthouses, etc., in which premises good examples of flat 
 ceilings with coffers are not infrequently to be met with. These plates are not 
 to be copied, but are a means of suggesting how to go about making a study from 
 the actual example or from photographs. They simply suggest how to use 
 one's sketch book to best advantage, by giving prominence to the perspective 
 drawing, and setting down around it such straight drawings as plans and 
 sections and other desirable details. They were drawn free-hand, as the 
 student would have to do in a reference library. It will require a good deal of 
 practice to sketch interior details, as it does outside views. At the same time, 
 it is the best way of applying the knowledge of technique gained in the free- 
 hand class. 
 
 21 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 SILHOUETTES 
 
 WHILE most engravings and paintings can be enjoyed only at close 
 range, in special settings or under certain conditions, a structure must 
 be conceived with the idea of satisfying the distant onlooker as well 
 as the close beholder, whether in the glare of noon, or at dusk when it cuts a dark 
 outline against the sky. In this respect it is like a piece of sculpture. The 
 Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor was designed to be and is as impressive 
 when discerned through a mist as when clearly seen in the purest atmosphere. 
 
 Therefore the beginner must study outlines or silhouettes, beginning with 
 those of the simplest elements in our art. One need not begin with the Cologne 
 Cathedral. A retaining wall with a balustrade and a strong buttress, seen in 
 the twilight, is in many cases very picturesque. Even a simple column can be 
 very interesting in mere outline, as we can verify by several examples in pub- 
 lic parks, where a Doric column crowned by a tripod is often erected as a land- 
 scape feature. 
 
 Accordingly, Plates XLVI, XLVII and XLVIII suggest to the student vari- 
 ous exercises for practicing silhouettes, beginning with the simple Doric column 
 and culminating in a whole building be it the Soldiers' Monument, or the 
 Capitol at Washington, etc. Here better than anywhere else may be realized 
 the importance of proportions, the contrasts between horizontal and vertical 
 masses, which serve as a means of introducing variety and contrast in composi- 
 tion, also the treatment of a prominent feature, as in the New York City Hall 
 (Figures 4, 5, 6, Plate XLVII) ; the writing, so to speak, of dignity and majesty 
 into a skyline, as that of the Columbia University Library, (Figure 1, Plate 
 XLVIII) etc. 
 
 22 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 INDICATING 
 
 SINCE a building should be designed with a view to offering beauty 
 even in the skyline, what can be done to please the distant beholder 
 during the daytime? Here the problem has two cases. The first 
 case is that of a location where the atmosphere is hazy, the problem then being 
 practically like that of the twilight silhouette. Where on the other hand the 
 atmosphere is clear, the architect must endeavor so to design his exterior as to en- 
 dow it with expression, in spite of the f ict that details vanish with distance. In 
 other words, he must be able to conceive an elevation the attractiveness of 
 which consists of masses of ornament that can be indicated by a few strokes of 
 the pen or pencil. And the best training for this, naturally, is to master the 
 science of indicating. 
 
 Let it be borne in mind from the outset that indicating is by no means a knack, 
 as is generally believed. This erroneous idea has kept many students from mak- 
 ing the efforts necessary for the attainment of very good results. I can say 
 this from my own experience. I used to look with awe upon my upper classmen 
 doing a sketch in no time. It seemed to me then that there was something of 
 magic in their work which not every one could possess ; but after filling about a 
 score of sketch books, I realized that application and observation were the 
 requisites. 
 
 This science is very beautiful to the student eager to attain a high degree of 
 proficiency in composition, as it offers the means of making several studies in 
 one day, with excellent chances of expressing good ideas in each one, whereas 
 without it he can barely make one study a day, with more than the possibility of 
 failure. 
 
 Plates XX to XXV are devoted to this particular study of indicating. The 
 object here is not alone to practise the rapid sketching of beautiful conceptions, 
 from actuality or from photographs, which is of paramount necessity in school 
 as well as in the office, but also to pave the way to the conception, with no 
 wasted mental efforts, of large and complex compositions. 
 
 23 
 
24 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 Plate XX shows almost mathematically how different orders, and several 
 features in connection with which they are represented, are simply indicated. A 
 vertical line to indicate the shaft of a column, two dashes, one for the cap and 
 the other for the base, and that is all. And how can we tell one order from the 
 other? By the proportions. The height of the Corinthian cap, for instance, is 
 comparatively much greater than the Ionic or the Doric. Of course when 
 sketching very rapidly and on a small scale one must not try to do more than 
 suggest the main forms. It will be necessary to resort to a larger scale when 
 details are required. So it is with literature. When asked to sketch Alex- 
 ander in one brief sentence you could not say more than that "he was ancient 
 Greece's greatest ruler." 
 
 It has been said of pen and ink drawing that it might be called the shorthand 
 of drawing. This is especially true of indicating. There is very little left to 
 be a so-called knack. On the contrary, every touch of the pencil or pen has a 
 meaning, and it is because of this expression to be found in every dot and dash, 
 and also because of the numerous elements expressed by omission, that sketch- 
 ing or indicating is so rapid, and not because the artist is gifted with a peculiar 
 power. 
 
 Consider a column, for instance, which has one side exposed to the sun. The 
 high light will not be represented on the sketch, but will be suggested by 
 omission, while the shady side will be suggested by a line. This is particu- 
 larly feasible on small scale, where a line may represent a very thick shadow. 
 
 The most elaborate vase when seen on the top of a lofty tower will appear as 
 a mere speck, but even this dot may have a peculiar grace if it be in harmony 
 with the general feeling. When vases or other such ornaments are well dis- 
 tributed, from a distance we will enjoy their mere order, their rhythm, their 
 graceful crowning of a series of columns, or of buttresses, etc. (See Plate 
 XLIV-D.) 
 
 To attain the degree where he can rapidly represent any given classical 
 feature will require on the part of the student the development, through earnest 
 practice, of a very fine sense of touch. He will have to do with his pencil what 
 the pianist does now with the sustaining pedal and now with the soft, or w'hat 
 the organist does with the stops. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE APPLICATION OF INDICATING TO RESEARCH "WORK AND ANALYSIS 
 
 ONCE the student has had enough practice in indicating to feel that he 
 can make use of it, he should begin to do so. The first application he 
 will have the opportunity to make of it will be in the reference library, 
 which offers him inspiration, precedents, ideas of proportions, of character, etc. 
 
 Now it is with our art as with anything that requires thought. Analysis is the 
 only means of thorough study. Let us illustrate by imagining that a student 
 wishes to study the famous Palazzo Farnesi in Rome. This would be the way 
 to go about it. Naturally the start must be made with the plan. In order the 
 better to understand the grouping of the masses, and their relation, the student 
 must disregard small details^ and, no matter how elaborate the plans he consults 
 may be, his first sketch will be like Figure i, Plate XXIV, which shows what is 
 called the block plan, where only the courts and circulations are indicated in 
 white, while the rest is hatched. He will observe that the front and rear parts 
 are thicker than the sides; and that the circulations and vestibules are likewise 
 more generous in the former than in the latter. He can easily read the plan at 
 least in so far as concerns the relationship of the parts to one another and to 
 the whole. He remarks at a glance the thickness of the front wing, which with 
 its monumental access constitutes the most important part of the structure, 
 involving the reception halls and galleries, while the sides are assigned to func- 
 tions of comparatively lesser importance. He also notes that the circulations 
 on either side are proportionate to the thickness of the structure. 
 
 The next step for our analytical student is to consider the same plan more in 
 detail. The first story being the most important, he sketches it, (Figure 2) 
 still on a rather small scale, where he can not do more than indicate the com- 
 ponent parts, yet, thanks to the delicate sense of touch which he has developed, 
 he can present a fair idea of this plan in spite of the simplification and the small- 
 ness of the scale. For instance, the piers of the court are merely indicated by 
 
 25 
 
26 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 dots which, however, are heavier than those representing the columns of the 
 front vestibule. The student, being struck by these interesting piers, sketches 
 the plan of one in detail, as in Figure G. The same process of detailing is 
 used in the case of all parts offering a peculiar interest. 
 
 The student has now analyzed in the best way possible the main features of 
 this first story plan. 
 
 The advantage of this process over that of tracing from the reference book is 
 manifest, and should not have to be insisted upon. It is the best means of dis- 
 covering the principal qualities of a plan, and also of acquiring in a measure 
 through one's own efforts the science of composition. For though there be 
 general principles of design, these can not be grasped thoroughly unless their 
 actual exemplifications have been studied. 
 
 Next in order for our student to consider is the elevation, and then the 
 section of the palace, and his studies will be like Plates XXV and XXVI which 
 pages of his sketch book he has filled according to the instructions in Chapter I 
 — at the center the whole; at the sides the details. Among the interesting 
 things he is struck with is the way the idea of proportion is observed in every 
 case. For instance the band course of the third floor is decorated in an interesting 
 manner, yet without distracting attention from more essential details. This 
 feature, by the way, is of such a character that it could hardly be seen at a dis- 
 tance, and consequently our student disregards it on the small scale, but his 
 detail (Figure F) , shows it distinctly as seen very close. 
 
 Stress is also laid upon making perspective views of various elements. There 
 is, for instance, (Plate XXV) a rather interesting cornice, composed, it is said, 
 by Michaelangelo, Our student therefore represents it both in section and in 
 perspective. 
 
 The student who reads this will do well to continue sketching in the same way 
 other parts of this same building which has inspired generations of archi- 
 tects — the second floor for instance, and also some interior details, the perspec- 
 tive of a hall or reception room or' a staircase hall. His instructors will tell 
 him which other edifices he will find it of advantage to analyze in like manner. 
 Once he gets used to doing this research work, it will prove a most instructive 
 and entertaining way of occupying leisure time. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 ELEMENTARY ELEVATION DESIGN A SIMPLE FACADE 
 
 9 
 
 APPLICATION OF INDICATING 
 
 ONCE the student has mastered the science of indicating, he will be able 
 to design with greater assurance, for, next to the ability to visualize 
 instantly and with little effort, which comes only with years of striving, 
 the ability to jot down ideas quickly and accurately is the most useful possession. 
 
 Before giving an example of design by means of indicating, two points are 
 again emphasized: first, that indicating is not a knack but a science, the short- 
 hand of drawing; second, that the subject must be considered from a distance, 
 where smaller details vanish, but not the expression of the whole. If the 
 student bears these points in mind when he begins to design, he will avoid 
 forming the bad habit of drawing too many lines, or meaningless lines, or at- 
 tempting to represent too much. 
 
 As illustration, an exercise is given which, though simple, offers possibilities 
 of treatment limited only by the resources of architecture and the exigencies of 
 taste. The exercise consists of designing fagades for a building, the height, 
 width and number of stories and of windows remaining constant. The charac- 
 ter or purpose of the building may be varied ad libitum, as well as the treat- 
 ment; and the student may think of a use and suit the treatment to it, or 
 conversely, venture a new treatment and observe the character suggested. No 
 salient feature, such as a tower, projection, or emphasized part, is to be intro- 
 duced. On the other hand, various roofs may be experimented with. 
 
 Nine sketches for such fagades, leaving out the sloping roofs, are shown on 
 Plate XXVIII. These nine elevations are plainly indicated and yet convey to 
 the mind a fair idea of the character desired. The laws of unity and variety 
 are observed, without, however, adorning the building with a particularly 
 prominent feature — ^just as in the case of the Palazzo Farnesi, where the law 
 of variety is obeyed by the slight changes between one floor and the other, alter- 
 
 27 
 
28 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 nating a plain trimmed window with one crowned with a pediment, which treat- 
 ment, though a little monotonous, lends an air of grandeur to the building. 
 
 The first sketch conveys the idea of seriousness and strength. This treat- 
 ment would suit a police headquarters building. In Figure 2 this expression 
 is allayed by the white surface on the upper stories and the strong horizontal 
 line forming a demarcation between the first and the two upper stories. 
 
 The other figures introduce columns or pilasters, now on the first stories, now 
 on the upper ones, and again these pilasters are transformed into quoins. In 
 several of these figures we see two dominant horizontals, the band accentu- 
 ating the first floor and the top cornice crowning the whole structure. In the last, 
 however, we see three horizontal lines, which emphasizes the character of stabil- 
 ity. We had seen already the application of these horizontals in the Palazzo 
 Farnesi, where the two lower bands cast comparatively narrow shadows, lead- 
 ing up, as it were, to the dominant top cornice. The principle of stability is 
 well emphasized by these dominant, unbroken horizontal lines. 
 
 In such structures the regularity of the spacing of the different elements is in 
 itself significant, contrasting with the many buildings where irregularity is 
 not unfrequent. Indeed, it sometimes takes a great deal of work properly to 
 distribute the plan in order to suit both the actual need of the program and 
 regularity in the exterior appearance. It goes without saying that in such 
 structures the execution has much to do with the general impression, as the units 
 are repeated and it is absolutely necessary that like features be identical in 
 execution. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that one cannot reverse the proportions, as is seen in 
 Figures 2 and 3 (in Figure 2 the upper part is dominant, while in Figure 3 it is 
 the lower one) , without taking particular care in the study of the reversed pro- 
 portions. The same applies to Figures 5 and 6 : we could not reverse altogether, 
 that is, put a rusticated story on top and two blank stories below, for the reason 
 that the rustication suggests more strength, and this feeling is needed more at 
 the base than at the top ; but the proportions of Figure 6 are quite often met 
 with. We find their origin in the Roman triumphal arch. 
 
 In Figure 8 we have supposed a sort of loggia, which is not quite according to 
 the program of the exercise, but suggests the multiplicity of possibilities in the 
 quest of variety, even without the addition of various roofs. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 DESIGN OF ELEVATIONS INVOLVING SALIENT FEATURES 
 
 HAVING become acquainted with many of the countless modes of sim- 
 ple fagade treatment, and familiar with most of the classic ones, the 
 Student is ready to pass on to the study and design of f agades involv- 
 ing one or more salient features. 
 
 As was pointed out above, simplicity, regularity and symmetry may of them- 
 selves constitute characteristics of elevations, and they are usually desirable 
 qualities — simplicity always is. A very simple, sjnnmetrical and uniform 
 fagade, well executed, invariably possesses charm and nobility of expression. 
 
 Such austerity in a large or long structure, however, may be too severe or 
 monotonous, precluding beauty and detracting from the grandeur sought in a 
 big building. 
 
 Severity and uniformity may be allayed, and proper expression obtained, by 
 accentuating one or more important parts of the plan, resulting in as many 
 salient features in the elevation. 
 
 This may be done not only in the case of large or long structures, to relieve 
 the monotony or avoid severity, but in smaller buildings, too; and sometimes 
 the program not only allows it but makes it necessary, according to the character 
 of the plan. 
 
 A part may be accentuated by having it project upwards, outwards, or in both 
 these directions. The conspicuousness of a feature will depend upon ( i ) its 
 location, (2) the extent and direction of its projection, (3) the difference 
 between its surface or treatment and that of the rest of the fagade, (4) the 
 number of other features, and (5) its relative importance with respect to other 
 features. 
 
 There are no absolute rules governing these factors. Great latitude is per- 
 missible, and here if anywhere it may be asserted that absolutism stifles art. 
 
 One rule, however, though it may not at once be deemed essential, must be 
 
 29 
 
30 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 rigidly adhered to: Always consider the plan when designing the elevation. 
 The successful creation will frequently be a compromise between the material 
 requirements of the plan and the aesthetic needs of the elevation. 
 
 Indeed, there must be a raison d'etre for every emphasis, and the resulting 
 feature must be the outward expression of a function. Such are the church 
 steeple, the mosque minaret, the town hall, belfry or clock tower, and even the 
 porte-cochere in the case of the residence. 
 
 Therefore, the fewer the features, the better — the more they will be noticed, 
 and the general effect be reposeful and dignified ; while the opposite impression 
 will prevail with a multiplicity of accents. The effect may then be fatiguing, 
 unless the treatment be of such character as to suggest animation and merri- 
 ment, as is the case in amusement parks. But even there sobriety in motives is 
 a safe rule. 
 
 The treatment of a feature need not always be radically different from that 
 of the rest of the fagade. Contrast is necessary and is usually obtained, in 
 classic examples, by the dissimilarity in the depths of shadows and shades. The 
 feature may have isolated columns, standing out vividly against deep shadows, 
 while the wings have engaged columns or flat surfaces — and vice versa. 
 
 « ^ at*, 3|£ sSl ^i. ^£. alt 
 
 tP TJC TfT Tjff ^ TfE Tfff 
 
 Only five types of elevations with salient features will be discussed, and 
 each case illustrated by a very few examples. The object here is not to have 
 the student burden his memory with many combinations of features, but to 
 induce him to study some of the best existing elevations until he thoroughly 
 understands their underlying principles. 
 
 On Plate XXX elevations are shown involving one feature, accentuated in 
 various ways. In Figure i it projects upward a little, as well as forward, and 
 affects a massive form contrasting with the length of the sides — a dignified and 
 severe treatment. In Figure 2 the lines of the feature are more graceful. A 
 feeling of nobility, richness and gracefulness is conveyed. Quite a different 
 effect is produced in Figure 3, where of necessity the feature springs upward. 
 So it is in Figure 4, the Trinity Church in Paris. In Figure 5, a courthouse in 
 Havre, we have an elevation similar in certain ways to Figure l, except that the 
 proportion between the accent and the side wings is quite different. In the 
 former case the wings are dominant, which emphasizes the idea of length of 
 
DESIGN OF ELEVATIONS 31 
 
 the composition, while in the latter it is the center, which, considering the plan, 
 constitutes a perfect architectonic feature. Figure 6, the rear of the White 
 House, shows a salient feature formed only by a projection in plan. The 
 charm of this fagade illustrates the effectiveness of simplicity. 
 
 In Plate XXXI the two-feature elevation is shown. These terminal accents 
 have not the same expression as the central feature, on account of the sculptural 
 character of the architecture expressed by deep shadows. The mere difference 
 between these and the light shadows of the features is enough to create a strong 
 contrast, even though the details do not materially differ. This is well illus- 
 trated in the various examples given. Figure 1, the Ministry of War in Paris, 
 has a gallery in the center, with a great effect of shade, while the sides, being 
 more massive and flatter, contrast sharply. 
 
 The massiveness of the sides varies according to the building. For instance, 
 in Figure 2, the end features are more slender than in the preceding example. 
 In Figure 3, the proportions between center and features are altogether dif- 
 ferent from those in any of the other examples. The great arches in Figure 5, 
 a recent railroad station in Paris, constitute the most attractive part of the 
 whole. There is always grandeur and dignity in such arches, and the side 
 features, composed of smaller elements, serve only as contrasts. 
 
 In Figure 6 we have an altogether different type of two-feature elevation, 
 where center and sides are both very interesting, and the little towers, with 
 their balconies, add much charm to the composition, seeming like graceful arms 
 inviting the beholder. (An apt metaphor in this case, the Casino at Monte 
 Carlo.) 
 
 These are just a few examples among hundreds which the student will do 
 well to study for himself, and to analyze in the same way, by sketching eleva- 
 tion and perspective, laying particular stress on the proportions of the masses, 
 on the way the features are brought out, whether by projecting upw'ards, out- 
 wards, or in both ways ; then always notice what is the purpose of each structure, 
 to see whether the general impression produced by the composition is in keeping 
 with the program. 
 
 We may speak in the same way of the three-feature elevation, and also refer to 
 the great variety that such compositions allow. On Plate XXXII from Figure 1 
 to Figure 6 this law of variety is well observed. In the case of such monuments 
 
32 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 as the Louvre, of great length, a central feature and two end ones come in very 
 naturally. In this case the monarch's entrance is obviously the center, and 
 two monumental staircases the terminal accents. This arrangement was se- 
 lected both for emphasizing the main point of the plan and also for avoiding 
 monotony, for though a colonnade like that of the Louvre is elegant and impres- 
 sive on account of its deep shadows, this impressiveness is enhanced by the con- 
 trast afforded by the more subdued ends and center. 
 
 In other examples, the proportions between features and wings are all unlike 
 one another. This is instructive in showing that we are not bound to follow 
 one single formula, but are to be guided by principles. The only thing we must 
 pursue is expression, clearly written. Structures are similar to some extent to 
 natural organisms. Some have very delicate proportions, others are imposing. 
 To the infinite variety of expressions in beings may correspond a like variety of 
 proportions in architecture. Figure i represents something royal. The pro- 
 portions are wide. Figure 3 is more unassuming, though very interesting. 
 Figure 5 is richer in effect ; there is more grace and nobility. Figure 6 reminds 
 us somewhat of Figure 6 of the previous plate. There is animation in both. 
 
 Passing on to the next Plate, XXXIII, we have examples of compound fea- 
 tures. In the first four illustrations it almost seems as if we had taken a whole 
 building and used it as a feature. Splendid as these examples are, the Louvre, 
 Figure 4, is yet superior to the Hotel de Ville for the reason that while the 
 central compound of the latter might exist independently, that of the Louvre 
 could not. 
 
 *iiim*!it*0* 
 
 It is no more possible to lay down rigid rules for designing an elevation than 
 it is for sculpture. General culture, taste, and above all, understanding of 
 natural laws will always guide the hand. A well-designed structure may be 
 compared to an organism, especially to man. According to his moods man 
 assumes all sorts of attitudes, now that of aggressiveness, now that of indolence. 
 And just as there are degrees in human emotions, so there are in architecture. 
 There are gradations between a sniile and laughter, and correspondingly the 
 proportions in architecture may vary from gay to light, from serious, through 
 stern, to impressive. 
 
 Most of the qualities attributable to man may be met with in architectural 
 
DESIGN OF ELEVATIONS 33 
 
 compositions, being written by differentiations of proportions. Is there not a 
 thorough harmony between the warrior of the Middle Ages and the castle? 
 between the cultured Italian lady of the Renaissance and the Italian villa? 
 
 We cannot insist too much upon the necessity of observing the human form, 
 both from life and in its interpretation and idealization in sculpture. By the 
 time the student reaches this chapter, he doubtless has begun to appreciate the 
 value of life drawing and to discover its relationship to his main study. Here, 
 for instance, is a huddled up old man trying to keep warm. Does not the stu- 
 dent feel that the well built winter house, or one erected on the summit of a 
 mountain, possesses in its general outline something of the sarnie character? It 
 is natural, since the same reasons that dictate the man's attitude are likely to 
 affect the house's general appearance. Again, here is a person enjoying outdoor 
 life in shirt sleeves; then the summer home breathes the same longings: 
 porticoes and galleries joyously spring forth in several directions, with the free- 
 dom felt by some one sprawled out on the grass. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PLANNING 
 
 BEFORE composing plans according to given problems one must be cap- 
 able of judging the qualities of a masterpiece from both the practical 
 and theoretical standpoints. 
 
 Plate XXXVIII shows the analysis of Caracalla's baths in Rome — a beauti- 
 ful, compact plan. The program, while no doubt it had many items specified, 
 might be expressed in this way : baths for the two sexes, each having adequate 
 steam rooms, pools, rest chambers, other necessary accommodations, and the spa- 
 cious court with gardens in the center which was one of the delights of those 
 times. Between the two baths was to be the common part for men and women, 
 where festivities, athletic competitions and other events were held. The artist 
 solved it in a wonderfully simple manner. The plan is both compact and airy. 
 There is no lost space. See how simply the various components are grouped 
 around the courts (Figures 5 and 6). In those times congestion was hardly 
 possible and the usual scheme was a court for a light centre and also as a natural 
 result of a common-sense time-saving grouping of the parts. The centre 
 in Figure 6 is the most decorative part of the whole and it is shown at once in 
 the plan by the difference in the thickness of the walls which tells of its loftiness 
 in comparison with the rest. Guadet advocates very strongly the careful study 
 of the central lobby of this bath as it is the nucleus of many a great modern 
 composition. It has in fact been used in many churches and other public and 
 . private buildings. 
 
 Such a study, of merely copying a plan, would be of little avail but for the 
 other parallel research work on the restored elevations and other drawings by 
 authoritative masters. See for instance the perspectives of main halls by E. 
 Paulin in the D'Espouy reproductions of the Envois de Rome. It is a fas- 
 cinating study. I have known students to become so enthusiastic over these 
 restorations that they would sit for hours feasting their eyes on their beauties — 
 
 34 
 
PLANNING 35 
 
 vanished forever in the concrete but conjured out of the dim past by the magic 
 of reconstructive minds — even in preference to sports or other extra-curricular 
 attractions. Learn to enjoy such works, then set to work to analyze them in 
 whatever medium you choose and in whatever order you wish, provided you 
 have the order in the ideas. Canina, Palladio and several other authors have 
 given the plans of Caracalla's Baths in their works. It is worth while studying 
 them under the light of both history of Rome and theory of architecture. Com- 
 pare the Roman baths of different periods. Learn to discern at a glance, from 
 the mere proportions, the simple grandeur of the one as distinguished from the 
 elaborate richness of the other. One should devote to this study of antiquity at 
 least as much time as he does to that of Latin roots in studying advanced Eng- 
 lish. It has a corresponding importance. 
 
 Plate XXXIX takes up in the same way another important plan : The Paris 
 Opera House. As in the previous example one must have a fair idea of 
 its elaborate program, which in this case is accessible to the student. One item, 
 dictated by experience, dominated all others: the necessity of separating the 
 stage from the auditorium in such a way as to avert the danger of fire. Then 
 again the stage was made high enough to accommodate in its upper part the entire 
 scenery of a quick change. The daring of such a solution as that offered by 
 Garnier is rarely seen, and it is worth devoting a great deal of study to by com- 
 paring it to other important theaters (there are several important treatises on the 
 modern theatre) . The plate is self explanatory. If one were to compare the 
 foyer with that of any theater at home, he would wonder why so much space was 
 given to mere promenading during the intermission. To appreciate this one 
 must carry one's self back to the time when it was planned, when France had a 
 court. The foyer at the Opera often served as a great reception hall. To-day 
 it offers to the French Government the possibility of tendering a royal reception 
 to an honored guest. The sight of the famous staircase on a gala evening leaves 
 as much impression in the foreign visitor's memory as would the best perform- 
 ance. 
 
 Observe the simplicity of distribution of the various parts of the plan. Fig- 
 ures 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 show how' plainly the administration, the stage, the audi- 
 torium and the foyer have been distributed, yet to some degree observing sym- 
 metry. Notice the emphatic accent of the imperial entrance at A in the plan. 
 
36 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 While it looks simple, it necessitated arduous study to locate it so centrally on 
 
 the outside, yet leading straight to the imperial loge. 
 
 One of the most novel problems the architect had to solve— and he did it in a 
 masterly way— was to raise the stage to satisfy the new theatrical exigencies. 
 It is in itself something well worth the student's careful attention. And what 
 simplicity of general outline in spite of the elaborate program! But what 
 pleases most the investigating eye is the simplicity of the ratios in the general 
 proportions (see Figures 3 and 4) . These ratios are not given here as formulas 
 to follow blindly but as evidence of the architect's determination not to leave the 
 mind in doubt about these proportions : The ratios of 1 : 2, 1 : 3, 1 : 5 and others 
 occur often in this composition. 
 
 Compare the different story plans. Though they differ greatly from one 
 another, one could with a little perception almost make out the upper and lower 
 stories from any one plan, thanks to the superimposition of the main elements 
 of construction, which is a characteristic of perfect planning. 
 
 We have called the student's special attention to the plan. It furnishes an 
 excellent illustration of how the mere thickness of walls, the width of windows 
 and piers, etc., may proclaim the character of each part of a composition. 
 
 Attention is now called to what in architecture is termed "scale," and which 
 is so well marked in this plan as well as on the previous one. To illustrate : the 
 administration, for instance, uses smaller elements, this department of the struc- 
 ture being a comparatively secondary one. The stories have less height, the walls 
 are thinner, the windows smaller, the piers separating them narrower, etc. The 
 more the conception rises in grandeur the more the elements are given scale : 
 The piers are set farther apart and are stronger, and greater height is given to 
 the stories to impart more majesty and richness, according to the case. Thus the 
 foyer is about as high as three stories of the administration department. The 
 reason is simply that in the latter the heights were figured to satisfy the material 
 need, while here it is to provide the possibility of displaying art and to give the 
 eye pleasures of the highest type, through mural paintings and sculpture which 
 carry the mind far beyond the confines of the hall. Here the decorations are 
 gorgeous, while in the secondary parts, even in the main public vestibule, there 
 is more simplicity, this in order to give the foyer the greatest artistic attractive- 
 ness and make it the climax in the general artistic treatment of the whole struc- 
 
PLANNING 37 
 
 ture. Scale is thus shown here to be essential in establishing harmony between 
 the parts and the whole from any particular standpoint. 
 
 One of the difficulties of architectural design is precisely, to unite elements of 
 different scale. The axial arrangement is used in this example and in the 
 previous one, where the eye is carried gradually from the monumental central 
 hall to the less important porticoes of the side courts. 
 
 The qualities of plan are set off by contrast. Compare this structure to others 
 of different destination and of an equal artistic merit and you will see still more 
 distinctly what character and harmony mean. For instance, there is dignity 
 here, but there is also dignity in a well designed Courthouse ; the difference lies 
 in this, that the dignity of the Opera is attractive while in the Courthouse it is 
 stern and majestic. 
 
 Fulfilment of the program broad-mindedly, simplicity in the distribution, 
 proper accentuation — or distribution of features — taste in the decoration of the 
 interior as well as of the exterior, these are a few, of the numerous qualities of 
 the Opera House. The reading of the history^ of this structure will prove most 
 instructive to the ambitious artist. 
 
 j|i«#tK<l>lK)K<K 
 
 Importance has been attached to studying famous structures in all their aspects 
 before beginning to compose, for it is in this way that the means of expression 
 may be acquired. One could not express grandeur on a plan without having 
 become familiar with this quality in well known examples. Nor could one have 
 an idea of scale without studying this somewhat abstract subject in existing 
 works of art or in famous compositions. All this being acquired, the student 
 may start composing plans. 
 
 Planning consists of two things : the material satisfaction of the program in a 
 mechanical way, and then the introduction of the artistic or expressive element. 
 Mechanical here means common-sense. The building may offer treasures of 
 exterior decoration ; but if it does not answer the material requirements in every 
 component part, in the easy access to them; if serviceability is not allied with 
 sestheticism, the composition will be a failure. 
 
 In Plates XXXIV, XXXV and XXXVI simple rational arrangements 
 of elements are reviewed, culminating in a monumental application of the T 
 
 ^ L'Opera de Paris, by Ch. Garnler. 
 
38 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 shape. The diagrams besides each example suggest the conception by assorted 
 groups of elements, in a systematic way, which process is of inestimable value in 
 reasoning out plan schemes. 
 
 The beginner often lets himself be carried away by minor considerations, to 
 the detriment of order and harmony. It is sometimes amusing to see him mar a 
 whole front on account of too much earnestness in his desire fully to satisfy the 
 conditions of the program, this desire often resulting in the production of offen- 
 sive warts. "Thinking in blocks," in an analytic and systematic way, one will 
 naturally collocate elements which belong to the same class though having differ- 
 ent names. Groups may either match one another on the same floor if they are of 
 equal importance and of similar nature, or be superposed. In the H plan, for 
 instance, the right branch may be composed of two distinct groups, on either side 
 of the vinculum, while on the left there may be only one group. 
 
 The same applies to any other symmetrical shape, the T for instance. The 
 essential is to avoid confusion. Thus in many art museums the entire first story 
 is given up to sculpture while the other stories are devoted respectively to paint- 
 ing and to minor arts. 
 
 Classification of elements and distribution may be carried out in the planning 
 of a residence as well as in a public building. Reception, sleeping quarters, 
 kitchen, etc., are distinct parts which may either balance one another to some 
 extent, as in the symmetrical plan, or — as is most often the case in city houses 
 built on narrow lots — be superposed, beginning with the service in the basement, 
 then reception, living, sleeping, servants' quarters, etc. This is self-evident to 
 those familiar with well built houses, and no stress need be laid on it except for 
 the necessity of impressing the student with the idea that the fundamental prin- 
 ciples must be observed, however small the program may be : proportions, order 
 and clearness, easy access, and good connections between the various elements 
 ought to prevail. 
 
 Thus the process of planning follows that of small scale sketching from any 
 good composition. We begin by satisfying the main qualities : order and har- 
 monious proportions, while details may be indicated vaguely or even hardly 
 touched; the general scheme must on the contrary be very clear. 
 
 This does not mean that one must necessarily adopt a typical shape, such as an 
 H or a T or any of the combined forms of plans. The student at first is likely 
 
PLANNING 39 
 
 to memorize such schemes and to apply them on the first occasion offered to him. 
 It is natural for a beginner to do so, as it provides him with an opportunity the 
 better to analyze the advantages of such a type of plan — and then it is sup- 
 posed that the program to some extent favors such a selection. But in the 
 more advanced stages the student will combine different shapes for himself, to 
 suit both the program and his own ideal. This combination will have to be very 
 distinct even in a sketch. It is in this little block plan that the budding architect 
 will show some of his creative potentialities. A well conceived program always 
 offers possibilities of injecting individuality, be it the result of differing from 
 the others in certain basic ideas, or because of temperamental distinction. For 
 instance, consider the competition^ for the Petit Palais. The various concep- 
 tions differ from one another mainly by the shape of the plan. Here it is well 
 to note that the winning design was chosen because it answered thoroughly both 
 the material requirements and the aesthetic needs. It is most instructive to 
 compare the winning to the competitive designs. 
 
 In good composition, the plan — ^particularly if it is situated on an isolated 
 plot — will assume a special outline. This should not definitely be decided upon 
 in the scheme before the silhouette of the perspective or of the elevation has been 
 tried. It will be advisable for the student to practice drawing such silhouettes, 
 as in Plate XLIX, first from actual examples or from good photographs, and 
 then from memory, to develop the sense of proportion. It is only after many 
 such exercises that the student will be able to apply the process in the quest of 
 the plan outline best fitting both the program and his own ideal. 
 
 Plate XLIX shows several elements serving in these silhouettes. Their 
 possibilities are unlimited. One thing is prevalent in this variety of forms and 
 that is clearness, or order. Abundance of air and light is also conspicuous. This 
 should always be possible, regardless of the great advantages of artificial light 
 and artificial ventilation. There are exceptions in the order of things, but the 
 architect should be the first to oppose any excess of artificiality. It is in his power 
 to make the city a paradise or its opposite, by favoring natural conditions 
 or hindering them. The idea is spread that an economical plan must be com- 
 pact. This is right and there should therefore be economy in the distribution 
 
 ^Concours Publiques, Exposition Internationale, Paris, 1900; and various architectural periodicals, 
 1894 ^^^ iS95- 
 
40 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 of circulations and vestibules. However, the satisfaction of economy does not 
 require the suppression of natural light and ventilation. 
 
 If for nothing else but the sake of returning to more natural living conditions 
 and to learn the architect's part in this respect, it is well to study the Buildings 
 of Modern Rome.^ It is evident from the first inspection of a few of these plans 
 that the architects sought to give the inhabitants of these premises the greatest 
 amount of conveniences possible in that period — and of aesthetic pleasure. Air 
 and light enter there abundantly. Wherever possible the architect manages a 
 nice perspective, a vista : a niche with a fountain, etc. We are not living in the 
 Fifteenth Century and economic conditions have greatly changed ; but air, light 
 and a fair amount of beauty are always in demand even in the most utilitarian 
 buildings. 
 
 In Figures 13 and 14 on Plate XLIX, which are Grand Prix de Rome composi- 
 tions, 1894, 1895, all the above mentioned principles and qualities to be met 
 with in the Modern Roman Edifices are made patent, and to the end that these 
 compositions should not be doomed to be mere theory, the same plate presents a 
 block plan of the Sorbonne (the University of Paris), where theory was put in 
 practice. In spite of disconcerting limitations, space, air and light were made 
 to abound everywhere, so that scholars reared in such an atmosphere could not 
 but spread abroad the influence of such healthy environments. The appreciation 
 of this plan requires knowledge of the conditions imposed upon its author, and of 
 the ideas prevailing in France at that time with regard to education. (Sports 
 had little place, if any place at all, in the curriculum.) 
 
 The application of the principles of design is still more interesting when one 
 has to deal with an odd-shaped lot or when the lot is between party walls. 
 
 It is always easier to achieve success when conditions are favorable, but when 
 obstacles arise the architect has to overcome them. The Concours Publics, a 
 publication of public competitions, offers a great many elegant solutions of such 
 problems on odd-shaped lots. They are interesting from artistic considera- 
 tions, skill and ability, and from the point of view of the standard of education. 
 For instance, the tenement is given much attention in the attempt of providing 
 for the wage earner as many artistic satisfactions at home as is possible under 
 the circumstances. In such plans even the light court is made attractive. 
 
 ^ Edifices de Rome Moderne by Letarouilly. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SOLVING A PROBLEM 
 
 HERE we reach the student's ultimate goal. He is given a program and 
 is to study it on a given lot. At this point he is supposed not only to 
 be familiar with the words, the grammar of his art, but to be capable of 
 expressing an idea, of interpreting a principle in various w'ays to suit the case. 
 
 Now, no matter how much theoretical knowledge one may have acquired, he is 
 bound to make mistakes at the beginning. Nevertheless a few suggestions will 
 keep the beginner from making too big mistakes. 
 
 To begin with the student must bear two things in mind : First, that he will 
 not be given far-fetched problems, but programs similar to those he has already 
 seen either executed or in composition, and second, that his instructor is entitled 
 to expect a great deal of self-development on his part. Indeed it should be 
 incentive enough if the instructor suggests an idea, for the student to go at it 
 with enthusiasm. 
 
 The student who is anxious to develop his ability to design and plan is strongly 
 urged to classify buildings into a certain number of special classes, such as edu- 
 cational, religious, judiciary, administrative, funeral, festival, purely decora- 
 tive, purely utilitarian, commercial, transportation, amusement, charitable, etc. 
 
 Taking up the hospital class, for instance, the student will see hundreds 
 of them in different parts of the world, no two of them being alike, yet all hav- 
 ing certain things in common : conditions dictated by the scrupulous observance 
 of thorough hygiene; by true humanity and consideration for all patients; air, 
 light and spaciousness, and a fair rate of beauty. Now, in cities where land is 
 very high, gardens and spacious private rooms may not always be possible. And 
 yet, the building must be so designed as to cure patients not only by medical and 
 surgical attention, but by comfortable, restful, even homelike surroundings. 
 To what extent this is achieved either in existing examples or in the best compo- 
 sitions, that is what the student will study with interest. He should not always 
 
 41 
 
42 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 rely upon executed examples; each one of these may be considered but a step in 
 the direction of the ideal. 
 
 Once this process of study has been applied by the student to various classes of 
 structures, he will never be taken unawares or unprepared when confronted by 
 any program which he must solve without outside help. 
 
 While studying each class of buildings he has also paid attention not only to 
 the practical side but also to the way the respective decorative schemes were 
 carried out in harmony with the character of each class. He has noticed the 
 profusion of features in one class, their absence in another, and the intermediate 
 degrees. In old types of buildings he has not neglected appreciating the adher- 
 ence to traditions. The history of architecture tells that many a detail of the 
 Parthenon was a stone interpretation of traditional forms traceable to the 
 wooden shrines. The architects had to follow tradition to meet with success 
 before the public. This example is a striking and an instructive one inasmuch 
 as it suggests never to solve a new problem in an altogether unusual manner but 
 in one to some extent familiar. It is only by degrees that new expressions 
 will be accepted. The public must be prepared. 
 
 This peculiar consideration of traditional styles and features is well illustrated 
 in modern town halls. The student will notice in his researches that in 
 the North as well as in the South of Europe, in spite of the many and varied 
 styles of these buildings, they have one thing in common, and that is the peculiar 
 and pleasing expression which makes each truly represent the People's House 
 which it is. Then there are bell towers or belfries, or campaniles — or corner 
 towers reminiscent of the time when fortifications were a necessary feature. Not 
 unfrequently one of the characteristics is a wide portico surrounding the building 
 and serving in rough weather as a shelter for the public market tradesfolk. 
 (Public markets and town halls were always closely related, particularly in 
 Northern Europe.) 
 
 Since reference has been made to town halls, let us suppose that the program 
 of a problem put to a student is such an edifice on a well defined lot; (Plate 
 L) , the location to be, say, a New England State, so that conditions will differ 
 materially from abroad. It would be a great mistake on his part to search his 
 memory for any town hall, whether at home or abroad, and try to adapt 
 it. Practical considerations would immediately knock down this plagiarism in 
 
SOLVING A PROBLEM 43 
 
 spite of the artistic aspiration. More than one failure is due to this process of 
 slavishly adapting one solution to different problems. Instead, the student will 
 make use of his imagination, guided by his taste and experience. First of all he 
 will group the items, as advised in the preceding chapter, and then try different 
 arrangements suiting the nature of the ground and the program. In his various 
 attempts he will not disregard tradition, be it satisfied in the form of a belfry or 
 of a campanile. Then he will make silh )uettes in perspective or at least in eleva- 
 tion of the various arrangements, and these will make it possible for him to 
 choose the one best scheme without indecision. Easy access to the public to all 
 parts will be the first consideration affecting his selection. Then, coming to the 
 question of features, there will be considerations for keeping or rejecting this or 
 that attempt. Sobriety in tone, suited to the town's population ; taste in the 
 decoration, according to the degree and nature of their culture ; compliance with 
 the laws of nature, with the dictates of the climate, etc. The tendencies of 
 youth will be towards achieving such magnificent effects as in the Hotels de 
 Ville of Brussels, of Ypres, of Bruges, Arras, or Antwerp. They should be 
 curbed unless the requirements of harmony allow their free sway. 
 
 Details will have to be left aside for awhile until the masses are fully decided 
 upon, then worked up little by little not too fast — so as not to choke the imagina- 
 tion by trying to create all in a trice. The next day may bring an idea which 
 may lend the whole structure a stronger character than that hastily decided upon. 
 The process of composing as one analyzes is just the reverse of sketching from 
 executed works. 
 
 At school as well as at the office a scheme should be elastic enough not to bind 
 one too strictly. This freedom is important at school to allow the play of the 
 parts the better to study the definite proportions and the thorough adjustment of 
 the parts. Sketches for a scheme that are too sharp and definite and with too 
 many details frequently involve the student in a tangle of difficulties. This 
 may be good in a sense, but is by no means necessary. Geniuses and men of great 
 experience may allow themselves to set their conceptions on paper rapidly and 
 yet with the certitude of ultimate success. It requires, however, a great deal of 
 ability and of practice. 
 
 It will not be sufficient to be prepared in the grammar of architecture, 
 in different expressions of character, in the knowledge of the requirements of 
 
44 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 different classes of buildings, it will be necessary for the student's mind to work 
 perfectly when the test comes. Men of talent sometimes fail on that account, 
 while some others find inspiration. In other words, to be ready for the esquisse 
 of a problem, the mind must be in perfect condition. All cares should be cast 
 aside, for the throes of creation require absolute concentration. The student 
 must feel self-possessed. Doubt and lack of confidence will prevent excellence 
 of conception. Conviction and enthusiasm are constant companions of the crea- 
 tive thinker. This does not preclude reflection; on the contrary he will 
 constantly be held within the bounds of reason by it. 
 
 It should be also borne in mind that human beings, to whatever class of society 
 they belong, ought to be considered as human beings. This applies especially 
 to public buildings, where mechanical devices must be introduced with care. It 
 is this thoughtfulness for the human element that will be particularly noticed in 
 a good composition. This, we have seen, is to be developed by the study of an- 
 cient and modern masterpieces all over the world. While conditions in this 
 country at the present time are different from those in Rome in the Fifteenth 
 Century, the principles best followed at that time may yet guide us in our quest 
 of beauty. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 IN the preceding chapters we have followed the student of architecture step 
 by step from the analysis of architectural elements to the search for the best 
 solution of a problem. We have endeavored to demonstrate that no rigid 
 rules could be laid down, except they be the direct derivatives of principles in 
 turn based upon the eternal laws of nature. We wish to conclude with a few 
 words of which the text is the classic statement of the three immutable principles 
 underlying art : the true, the good, the beautiful. 
 
 THE TRUE 
 
 Plato declared that "Beauty in art is the splendor of Truth." The late Pro- 
 fessor Guadet, who was wont to quote this definition, said about the dome of the 
 Pantheon in Rome and the gradients surrounding its base: "This must be so 
 because it could not be not so." This is an emphatic assertion of the principle of 
 Truth, or sincerity. Indeed these steps were not put there out of fancy, but 
 through absolute necessity arising from the construction of the period, when it 
 was not possible to resist the thrust of the dome with a steel girdle, and the walls 
 had to be designed thick enough to counteract it. To protect these walls from 
 the effects of weather, their top thickness was divided into several parts, prevent- 
 ing water from stagnating on wide surfaces. In like manner all classic forms 
 and elements were resultant of needs, and Guadet admonishes the student 
 never to imitate them through mere caprice. So much was he convinced of the 
 importance of the principle of Truth that we find this word in almost every 
 chapter of his treatise. 
 
 Sham architecture is not new. It has cropped up in all civilized countries since 
 the emancipation of the mass of society in each. The triumphs of democracy 
 have unfortunately been accompanied by the appearance of mushroom squir- 
 archies. The craving of vulgar parvenus for magnificent structures has led 
 architects to resort to imitations, false materials, and the indiscriminate intro- 
 duction of extravagant elements, uncalled for by actual need or by the character 
 
 45 
 
46 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 of the structure. Thus there may be seen still standing to-day wooden churches 
 with counterfeits of stone buttresses, each an indefensible violation of Truth. 
 Traditional forms may of course be recalled, but through interpretations, not 
 obsequious imitations which are only degrading and contemptible. Here is where 
 Greek teaching is eloquent. See with what discretion and taste the architect of 
 the Parthenon suggested wooden forms in his stone structure. The Romans 
 built concrete walls faced with stucco or with marble — as is the case in the Pan- 
 theoni — ^but never tried to imitate stone by tracing false joints on the stucco. 
 The Pompeian architect covered his brickwork with a coat of plaster; but he too 
 was sincere enough not to try to deceive the beholder. The inside materials were 
 compared by him to flesh and bones while the outside was a sort of skin unit- 
 ing and beautifying the whole. We see in the Middle Ages and later on in the 
 Renaissance periods still more excellent examples of Truth in architecture when 
 brick and stone were harmoniously allied. There is no mean material but has its 
 place even in a conspicuous location when the artist knows how to use it. 
 
 THE GOOD 
 
 This hardly needs to be dwelt upon. Of course what we build must be useful 
 and yet, owing to some false ideas about art, many have indulged in useless heap- 
 ing of stone and marble, multiplying galleries and lobbies where no one ever 
 would think of passing, making secondary parts as conspicuous as the most 
 important, and so on. The function must create the organ. A dome which 
 forms a feature outside but which you would vainly hunt for inside is a blasphemy 
 against the True and especially against the Good. Such cases are only too 
 frequent, and therefore we wish to warn the student against the misleading 
 influence of some existing structures. 
 
 We have seen while analyzing the Paris opera house that the foyer was as high 
 as three floors of the administration part, and that there was a reason for this. 
 One would be shocked if such a secondary part as the dressing room section were 
 as high as the foyer. By the same token \ye should like that a porch in the resi- 
 dence be treated as a porch must be, that is, as a shelter from the sun or weather. 
 When a narrow porch, under the pretext of having a monumental feature, is 
 made so high that you must keep your umbrella open under it on a rainy day, 
 then it loses its character. It's useless as a porch. 
 
CONCLUSION 47 
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL 
 
 It does not always require more expense or time for the tailor to cut a suit of 
 clothes beautifully. The scissors might just as well be used in one direction as 
 in the other, were it not for the sake of aesthetics. So it is with architecture. This 
 is illustrated in Plate XLIII, the evolution of the modern pavilion from the 
 castle tower. It will be seen that in the mediaeval chateau, even such aggressive 
 elements as battlements, machicolations, oriels, etc., are effectively, almost beau- 
 tifully arranged, without ornamentation. Harmony and order have achieved 
 this with the help of proportion. Hercules inspires us with awe, while Apollo 
 charms us. It is nothing but a matter of proportions. In the one they are 
 powerful, in the other elegant. The proportions of even a plain room or of a 
 plain window may be made pleasant. The sense of architectural proportions 
 can be greatly developed by sketching good examples in one's immediate 
 surroundings, and by analysis. The space devoted to this text being far too 
 limited to go into details regarding the principle of proportions, suffice it to say 
 that here the study of life drawing is inestimable. The proportions of man 
 differ from those of woman and those of the child from both of them. A child 
 with the proportions of a man would be a dwarf. A man with the proportions of 
 a woman would be effeminate. A man with the proportions of a child would be 
 considered a monstrosity. Apply these remarks to architectural composition 
 and you will see that a structure should not be a reproduction of' another, no 
 matter how beautiful, if the latter is either much larger or much smaller. Should 
 a small city slavishly copy the Louvre on a reduced scale, the result would be 
 ridiculous to the cultivated beholder. "Plagiarism" and "dwarfishness" will 
 be the impressions. 
 
 Rhythm and harmony are factors in both music and architecture. The har- 
 monies of religious music are almost the voice of a beautiful cathedral. So, too, 
 colors of light-and-shade have almost as much to do with architectural beauty as 
 with the pictorial arts. We call such abstract subjects to the student's attention 
 to make him feel the more that architecture is a noble art, that while mathematics 
 is essential in connection with resistance of materials it will never furnish him 
 with equations solving aesthetic problems. Architecture evolves with man. 
 Should there have been a definite rule to build a house, the human habitation 
 
48 INDICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
 
 would have never changed. We see how great is the difference between the 
 modern house and that of ancient Egypt.^ With the evolution of science and 
 the advent of fairies such as electricity many dreams have become a reality. 
 We are taken without fatigue to the fiftieth floor and rapidly transported far 
 from the center of business. We shall soon be compelled to consider proper ac- 
 commodations for aeroplane garages. 
 
 Common sense and a keen sense of fitness and of proportions, of harmony and 
 rhythm, will guide the creator, who will have to study the purely material 
 or utilitarian temporary shelters and do for them what the Greek artist did with 
 the old shrine. 
 
 The natural conclusion of all this is that culture is essential to the student. 
 The architect must above all be a thinker if he wishes to leave "footprints on the 
 sands of time." He must be interested in whatever goes on around him, keep 
 alive to the progress of every human activity and register his upward aspirations 
 on his conceptions. If the Mediaeval artists wrought such noble works of relig- 
 ious architecture it is probably because they were themselves religious in 
 the spiritual sense, and saw the Greatness of Creation even in the minute blade 
 of grass. (See the variegated vegetation represented on the Gothic caps.) 
 Those architects were true, looked for the useful — fire proofing was the first 
 object of covering churches with stone vaults — and to this they added their sense 
 of the beautiful, particularly in their churches, echoing in their naves the impres- 
 sions received in the forest. 
 
 In those times instruction was not widespread, but man lived closer to nature 
 and the sense of poetry throve comparatively more than in our time, in spite of 
 our numerous schools and our system of compulsory instruction. Those crafts- 
 men thought and observed, and there lies the key of their success. The book of 
 nature is still open before us, the planet still offers the thrilling, bewildering 
 sceneries of each season. Let us open our hearts, become more fervent lovers of 
 nature, and, like past generations, we shall keep going towards the True- the 
 Useful and the Beautiful. 
 
 ^ History of Human Habitation by Charles Gamier, Paris. 
 
PLATES 
 
PERSPECTIVE ELEVATION AND SECTION 
 
 This suggests the way the student ought to draw side by 
 side the perspective as well as the elevation and section of an 
 order, with the simplification of the details and their indication 
 in the distance. 
 
PLATE I 
 
SUGGESTION FOR THE ANALYSIS OF ELEMENTS 
 OF ARCHITECTURE. LFS APPLICA- 
 TION TO THE ORDERS 
 
 While drawing the perspective of an order, care should be 
 taken to analyse the forms the better to grasp the importance 
 of each, both as expressing a function and also as a requirement 
 of iesthetics. This analysis should also be carried in the sim- 
 plification of forms as they appear far off. Groups A, B, C 
 are self-explanatory. Sketches D, E, F show the simplifica- 
 tion of the same orders in their applications. To note the dif- 
 ference in the general proportions as well as in the details, par- 
 ticular attention is called to group C, figures 18-23 carrying 
 simplification to its limits. 
 
i. 
 
 
 PLATE II 
 
ANALYSIS OF ELEMP:NTS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 APPLICATION TO THE STUDY OF DOORS 
 
 Tlie spirit of analysis applied to a current architectural ele- 
 ment: the door. Three doors, A, with simple trim, B, with an 
 entablature, and C with pediment, are indicated in elevation, 
 in section, and simplified at small scale for easy indication; 
 with elements taken apart, A\ 13', C\ and the whole shown 
 in perspective, A^ B^ C*. 
 
 A good practice would be to analyse in the same way other 
 doors and windows of different composition, such as with col- 
 umns, with circular openings, etc. . . . This process of analy- 
 sis help.s the student to see always in his imagination the ele- 
 ments of architecture in their three dimensions. 
 
 ■/ 
 
PLATE 111 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 CEILINGS FORMING COFFERS 
 
 The series of twelve plates beginning with this one is in- 
 tended to suggest to the student the method of studying de- 
 tails of interiors as he has studied exteriors, from the flat ceil- 
 ing with coffers to the most interesting annular vault. The 
 present plate shows a feature very much in use in nearly every 
 bank building in the country. The coffer is one of the most 
 architectonic features and most effective at the same time, for 
 it means, when properly applied, construction made beautiful. 
 It points the way to the ideal means of decorating architecture, 
 of lending to the whole an expressive appearance, through the 
 emphasis of good construction. 
 
^t^Mi^^ 
 
 '■"■''''■«l»*('-i%*«¥V' *^ >-* '^■'- »~^,96«?^'-'- '^''^ ""''"^^ 
 
 PLATE IV 
 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 DOME SUPPORTED BY A COLONNADE 
 
 WITH SIDE COFFERS 
 
 The colonnade is applied to a circular form supporting a 
 dome. The surrounding gallery is decorated with coffers. 
 Deep recesses such as the coffers afford are essential for ef- 
 fective decoration in interiors, depending only on light and 
 shade for expression. Notice the beautiful changes wrought 
 in the appearance of each cap by the perspective of the circular 
 plan. One draws projections of such elements much more 
 easily after having become thoroughly familiar with these 
 different appearances in perspective. 
 
PLATE V 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 BARREL VAULT V\^ITH RIBS 
 
 It is interesting to see liow the ribs, which originally were 
 only used as essential organs of construction, add beauty to this 
 simplest of all vaults. This architectonic effect is increased 
 when the ribs are of cut stone and the rest in smaller material : 
 brick or ashlar. Such a vault inspires a feeling of repose. 
 Much depends, of course, on the proportions. 
 

 PLATE VI 
 
SKEl CHIN<; INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 BARREL \ AUL'r WITH COMPARTMENTS, SUP- 
 PORTED BY CLOSELY SPACED COLUMNS 
 
 The vestibule of the Palaz/o Farnesi is one of the best ex- 
 amples. The perspective adds a ^reat deal to the charm of 
 sucli a comi)osition. It will prove very interesting to replace 
 ill other sketches the columns by piers, alone or accompanied 
 with columns. Such combinations are dependent upon the 
 scale of the structure and also upon its general character. Ob- 
 serve how simply the elements. Figures i, 2, and 3, may be in- 
 dicated. No attempt is made to do more than suggest the 
 cornice receiving the vault, or the bases and caps of the col- 
 umns. This is all that is necessary when the student is fa- 
 miliar with the elements thus suggested, provided the general 
 proportions are observed. 
 
 Keferences: Piilazzo Farnesi, Rome. ( l.rtamuilly — Editices de Rome Moderne) ; 
 Palais du Louvre, Paris; municipal office building. New York City. 
 
4 
 
 ■<3f 
 
 6 
 
 ••— f 
 
 
 r» I 
 
 ^ ,,.1 _±^ 1 1 L 
 
 PLATE VII 
 
 --"-"-«■ 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 BARREL VAULT WITH PENETRATIONS 
 
 This feature is met with very frequently in the Renaissance 
 structures, examples abounding in the churches particularly. 
 In modern buildings it is also very frequent in the simplest as 
 well as in the most elaborate structures. The curves of these 
 penetrations are always charming in perspective, introducing 
 variety by the changing of their appearance as they retreat 
 from the foreground. In a long nave, to the changing of form 
 we must add the vanishing of details due to the remoteness and 
 to veiling atmosphere ; this is one of the reasons why repetition 
 of the same feature does not fatigue the eye. 
 
 References : Letarouilly-^Edifices de Rome Moderne ; H. Strack — Rome in 
 Photographs. 
 
PLATE VIII 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 BARREL VAULT V^ITH RIBS AND 
 
 PENETRATIONS 
 
 The ribs supported by either piers or columns add much to 
 the monumental effect. Examples abound with ribs resting 
 on engaged or on isolated columns. Ribs and columns lend to 
 the composition a sculptural character. 
 
 References : Italian and French palaces and churches. 
 
PLATE IX 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 GROINED VAULTS 
 
 They were used a great deal by the Romans and also by the 
 Renaissance architects. Practically all the Roman edifices — 
 drawn by Letarouilly — have some parts vaulted in this way. 
 It allows more air and light. This system of vaulting reached 
 its climax of character under the Romans when they applied it 
 to their public baths. It ought to prove interesting to compare 
 the same element in its difFerent treatments in the same struc- 
 ture. Compare the ancient buildings to modern creations, the 
 better to understand the real merit of the type which serves us 
 as inspiration. Figure 9 shows the detail of a corner. The stu- 
 dent will undoubtedly take interest in drawing a detail, in 
 perspective, of the key stone at the meeting point of the two 
 crossing vaults. 
 
(2-; 
 
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 Iff 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 A^0^5^ 
 
 
 PLATE X 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 GROINED VAULTS WITH RIBS 
 
 All elements which can be added to the barrel vault may be 
 used also in the case of the groined, except that in the case of 
 the former we had one direction, while here there are two in 
 which to apply the combination adopted for the pier. This 
 requires a little more study. Observe the plan of a pier or 
 what is usually called the "Poche." The part that supports the 
 vault is very distinct from that added on each face to receive 
 the ribs. Figure 5 makes this detail still clearer. 
 
•-Sp— - 
 
 PLATE XI 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 CLOISTER VAULTS 
 
 These vaults have been made famous by the galleries or 
 "Loggias," painted by Raphael in the \^itican. It is to some 
 extent a sort of curved cofFer. The plan may be altogether dif- 
 ferent from the squares .shown here. The famous dome of 
 Brunelleschi in Santa Maria del Fiore in Milan is nothing hut 
 a most monumental cloister vault on an octagonal plan. In- 
 crease the number of the sides of your plan and you reach the 
 dome which is nothing but the evolution of the cU)ister vault. 
 
\ 1 T^ , (. 
 
 
 ll I f ! fl 
 
 t—iiii %L 
 
 tf^iarawawi*^:'; 
 
 1-|L 
 
 
 PLATE XII 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 FRENCH COVE 
 
 A cove with penetrations is often met with in museums 
 where a skylight is a necessity, and even in, halls abounding in 
 side light; but its application to the former case may be called 
 architectonic, as it answers a need so well. The inspection of 
 Figures i, 2, 3 dispenses with any further explanation regard- 
 ing this architectonic quality of this form of vault in the par- 
 ticular case of buildings needing light from the top. 
 
 References: Halls of exhibit, Palais du Louvre, Paris. 
 
C^i 
 
 
 ;^^i|;:;:r:; 
 
 r 
 
 
 i l|; 
 
 
 
 ..^„ . 
 
 i. ^ 
 
 .^v^r^^^ 
 
 ;^"i!irT fi«i« u.ii r-^-Ttri¥i 
 
 
 ■;-;«:*<scv.^. ■„-■-■ 
 
 ,sf^*SB5»*i#«i«'*«*«^«SP*»*^^-*^-«7;''w^ -r,. 
 
 PLATE Xin 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 DOME ON PENDENTIVES 
 
 The most famous example of this form of vault is to be seen 
 in Saint Sophia at Constantinople. Pictures of this wonder 
 abound. The Pantheon of Agrippa in Rome is also covered 
 with a dome; but the interest lies in that while the dome in 
 the Pantheon is supported by a round wall, the one in Saint 
 Sophia is supported by pendentives resting on square piers. 
 Nothing could have more grandeur than this conception of 
 vaulting. It has been applied in liiiferent combinations in 
 numberless buildings ever since the system was invented. 
 Architecturally . speakmg the pier supporting the pendentive 
 could be a mere square, yet a rib added to each side of the 
 square forms a very handsome transition between the spherical 
 surface of the dome and the usually cylindrical nave. 
 
 References: Italian and French palaces and churches. 
 

 f.:.4',./,,A. '\ -J >^•- 
 
 V- 
 
 ■--1^4 1 
 
 
 4J 
 
 >l ■' 
 
 *- 
 
 PLATE XIV 
 
SKETCHING INTERIORS IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 ANNULAR VAULT 
 
 It is particularly met with in chancels of churches, but a very 
 beautiful exannple of it is to be seen in the villa of Pope Julius 
 in Rome. It may find a fitting place in almost any composi- 
 tion of monumental character, such as a capitol building or 
 other great meeting halls. 
 
i 
 
 -■"^K-- "*"*■■ 
 
 /i w MP I 
 
 1 l^f^^f^^f 
 
 I I 111 lL_JiL!£.lL..ril 
 
 
 i *«cit.j*.tri*iiistf .^.-.-^■■-"'■•-'■*^^ 
 
 i(toKyaiKt«(w(^-yi^f;a'^; i^v^^^^ 'i: 
 
 T ^»vi»llMII«BMSH««»fcl*«Uli*«Wjail.Al&«V.- 
 
 
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 PLATE XV 
 
STUDY OF ELEMENIS OF ARCHFI ECTURE IN 
 ELEVATION AND IN PERSPEC IIVE CONSID- 
 ERED FROM DIFFERENT DISTANCES 
 
 Remoteness takes away the sharpness of details. It is on 
 this account that elements must be so composed as to afford 
 beauty even when their representation is reduced to the mini- 
 mum. In this case the console of a door serves to demonstrate 
 how this principle should be applied. While no details what- 
 soever can be seen in Figure i, yet the general appearance of 
 the console is attractive on account of the good distribution of 
 the accents, the alternation of lights and shades. In Figure 2 
 details are clearer and in Figure 3 you can see the details of 
 the acanthus leaf accentuating the lower end of the element. 
 This vanishing of details helps also in the indicating of such 
 elements in elevation (Figure 4) which enlarged might give 
 something like Figures 5 and 6. We shall see further that this 
 Figure 4 might have been interpreted in many other ways. 
 
 The student is advised to consider each element in connec- 
 tion with the whole. 
 
 Reference: Cesar Daly — Motifs Historiques. 
 
/ .'.. 
 
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 \\\ if 
 
 ii 
 
 I 6 
 
 r' 
 
 ?i i 
 
 jL/ii'*^ 
 
 y 
 
 v~ 
 
 PLATE XVI 
 
STUDY OF STATUARY FROM DIFFERENT 
 
 DISTANCES 
 
 The principle referred to in the preceding plate finds its place 
 in sculpture. What could be seen of the statue of Liberty 
 standing on an isolated island but for the simple and expressive 
 outline carefully designed by the artist? A mile off you can 
 detect hardly more than what Figure i shows. ^ Gradually the 
 haziness disappears as one comes nearer (Figures 2 and 3) and 
 upon very close approach to it the details of every part become 
 quite distinct and the interest goes on increasing. We can 
 compare these outlines to the titles of books. 
 
 References: Statuary of the Paris Opera-House ; Baron de Chirac — Museums 
 of Sculpture, several volumes. 
 
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 PLATE XVII 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 ALL SKETCHES TO BE DONE FREE-HAND 
 
 Two temples, one in Greek Doric order, Figure i. The 
 other. Figure 3, in the Roman ' Doric order. Figures 2 and 4, 
 respective caps. The interests of such a study in a sketch book 
 lies in that such qualities as robustness or elegance may be sug- 
 gested without resorting to elaborate details. It is the best 
 proof that general proportions have to do with first impressions. 
 The details in Figures 2 and 4 show also the perfect harmony 
 between the parts and the whole. 
 
 It is interesting and very important to do such comparative 
 studies between different orders in their application ; between 
 similar elements in different styles of architecture, or in struc- 
 tures of different destination and character. Compare differ- 
 ent applications of the Doric order, for instance on interiors 
 and exteriors, between rich examples and simple ones; the 
 fluted stone shaft and the smooth one of veined marble or gran- 
 ite, etc. It is not less important to practise drawing some ex- 
 amples from memory. This is the surest proof of the progress 
 made in the appreciation of expression in architecture and the 
 best means of developing the sense of proportions. 
 

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 IHATE XVIII 
 
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS SEEN 
 IN PROJECTION 
 
 It happens that elements or whole structures have to be drawn 
 in projection. In such cases the caps and bases will be seen in 
 positions similar to those in Figure 4 (plan). To properly in- 
 dicate such projections on small scale when simplification is a 
 necessity one must first study the character of such projections 
 on large scale, as in Figures 2 and 3. The perspective Figure 
 6 indicates distinctly what the projections of Figures 1 and 2 
 correspond to. Figure 9 is the plan and elevation of a colon- 
 nade seen at a 45° angle. The abacus is clearly indicated with 
 the point of the square forward. Such studies ought to be done 
 with other caps. The Ionic has been shown in Plate V. 
 

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THE BEGINNINGS OF INDICATION 
 
 The application of elementary sketching to architectural ele- 
 ments and to simple compositions. Figure i, the simple colon- 
 nade, Figures 2 and 3, its application to actual structures such 
 as churches, bank buildings, etc.. Figure 4, the double column 
 pier, and Figures 5 and 6, applications. Not a single line is 
 useless. Wherever possible lines are omitted. Figure 7 is 
 another form of complex pier suggesting a great deal more than 
 the others thp idea of power, and Figures 8 and 9 show applica- 
 tions. Figures 10, 11, and 12 show three more forms of piers 
 in their application. 
 
 Students ought to master indicating elements in ekvation 
 and in perspective previous to starting with big compositions. 
 (See Plate II.) 
 
 Architectural indication is based lipon observation. Details 
 vanish in the distance, and a mass of elaborate details such as 
 a cornice and frieze of the Corinthian order will vanish to a 
 mere shadow represented by a line the likeness of which will 
 depend upon the scale of the sketch. One line on the right 
 side will be sufficient to indicate the shaft of a column by its 
 shade. No line will be necessary for the left side where the 
 high light strikes. The width of the shaft will be suggested 
 by that of the shadow of the cap — another line more or less 
 round. 
 
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 platp: XX 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF INDICATION 
 (CONTINUED) 
 
 Applied to various piers supporting the arch, Figures i, 4, 7, 
 10, 13, and their applications to actual structures, as Figure 2, 
 a Florentine palace, or Figure 15, the Basilica of Vicenza, by 
 Palladio, or to imaginative buildings like Figures 8 and 9. 
 Each one of these examples has an expression of its own de- 
 pending not so much on the details as on the general lines. 
 Note in Figure 8 how a balustrade is suggested, or the elaborate 
 cornice in Figure 2. Elimination of the secondary is the law 
 and emphasizing the essential is the other extreme of the same 
 principle. 
 
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 PLATE XXI 
 
STAGES OF A SKETCH FROM THE ACTUAL STRUC- 
 1 URE OR FROM A PHOTOGRAPH 
 
 When one has come to master the indication of the elements 
 at small scale in elevation, and in perspective as well, he will be 
 tempted to take down whole composition in his sketch book. 
 This sheet shows the various stages of the sketch of an actual 
 architectural composition in perspective. When a mistake is 
 made in establishing the main lines, as in Figure i, then no 
 matter how delightful the details may be, the impression is 
 bound to be a failure on account of the deficiency in the main 
 proportions. The rest is self explanatory. Figure 3 shows 
 how to establish the perspective centre. Not a dot is useless in 
 Figure 6, in fact dots are used to suggest the shadow of the 
 statues on the attic wall. A short dash suggests the Cap, 
 another one suggests the base. Avoid making such indications 
 mechanical. To aid this purpose draw a large cap as in Plates 
 I and II and gradually reduce the scale until you reach the 
 limit, where a very small tapering dash will suggest the com- 
 plicated shadows of a base. 
 
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STAGES 0¥ THE INDICATION OF A FIGURE 
 
 To appreciate these constructions, one has to cast the eyes 
 on various positions of a skeleton so as to understand that the 
 hody at rest assumes a certain curve in its central line as shown 
 in Figure 2. 
 
 The important thing to note is that the head and the bearing 
 toot are on the same vertical and the extremes of the above 
 mentioned curve. Further it is important to note the opposite 
 inclinations of the shoulders and of the hip lines. The hip is 
 higher on the bearing foot side. The rest is self explanatory. 
 There is not much in Figure 8, yet enough to suggest the figure, 
 thanks to the observance of the law of proportions. The still 
 reduced Figure 10 is interesting on account of its great simplifi- 
 cations. It is not the figure, but a figure. 
 
PLATE XXIII 
 
APPLICATION OF INDICATION TO RESEARCH 
 WORK IN THE STUDY OF A PLAN 
 
 The studem: having acquired enough skill in indicating, he 
 has been asked to gather some information from a reference 
 book about a famous plan, for instance. This plate shows the 
 way in which he could do so to greater advantage than by trac- 
 ing, thus saving space and time and above all developing the 
 habit of analysis. What has been done here with the first floor 
 of the Palazzo Farnesi should be done with other floors. 
 Notice in the block plan. Figure i, where only circulations are 
 seen, halls and rooms are hatched. It is the commencement of 
 grouping ideas. See Chapter V for full explanation of this 
 plate. 
 
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 PLATE XXIV 
 
APPLICATION OF INDICATION TO RESEARCH 
 WORK IN ELEVATIONS 
 
 Here indication is applied to an elevation. The latter occnpies the 
 centre of the sheet, the details being scattered around it to avoid confu- 
 sion. Wherever opportune it is advised to resort to jierspective as in the 
 case of the top cornice, a famous one in this case, that of the Palazzo 
 Farnesi. The whole structure tiah been carefully measured and en- 
 graved by Letarouilly, in \'olunu' II of his work on the "Edifices de 
 Rome." It is interesting to see how one can grouj) on the same sheet de- 
 tails and subdetails without confusion and without crowding the sheet. 
 Figure J is intrrcsting in that it shows the .simplest way of getting the 
 right proportions of such an elevation at any scale. No one would think 
 of indicating the detail figure at such a small scale as Figure l, where in- 
 dication is pushed almost to its limits. Notice the variety in the win- 
 dows and freedom in the interpretation of the elements. Properly speak- 
 ing, detail Figure b is more correct than Figure r and Figure a even more 
 than Figure h, for the elements used in the windows arc; altogether in 
 scale, while Figure b and Figure c are a little free from this rule. 
 Structurally speaking, Figure b is more correct than Figure c, and Fig- 
 ure a even more than Figure b, for the elements used in the window Fig- 
 ure a are altogether in harmony with the requirements of its construc- 
 tion, while the columns used in Figure b and Figure c are more of a 
 decorative character. A column as a rule suggests the idea of support. 
 It is altogether architectonic in the case of a portico; but when used 
 around a door or a window it becomes an architectural decoration. To 
 appreciate this one must remember that in such palaces the lowest story 
 was always left to the serving staff, while the upper ones were used by 
 the masters. 
 
PLATE XXV 
 
APPLICATION OF INDICATION TO RESEARCH 
 WORK (SECTIONS) 
 
 A section through the court of the Palazzo Farnesi — the 
 court is one of the characteristics of the Italian plan, a very 
 ancient tradition. It was treated here with dignity. It is sug- 
 gested that a perspective of it should be drawn, to have the 
 right idea. Particular care has been given to the study of the 
 superimposed orders, the strongest one and the highest too be- 
 ing at the base. Nothing is more interesting than the study of 
 this section in Letarouilly. The second story order is smaller 
 than the basal one yet the second story is higher than the first 
 wherever required. It is a most instructive analysis and shows 
 by what subterfuge, and, as Guadet says in his "Theory of 
 Architecture," by what sacrifices, architectural problems can be 
 solved. See Strack "Rome in photographs" the better to ap- 
 preciate such details as Figures a and /. 
 
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 PLATE XXV] 
 
APPLICATION OF INDICATION TO COMPARATIVE 
 
 STUDY OF STYLES IN MASSES 
 
 AND THEIR DETAILS 
 
 For more than one reason we have to study the past and there- 
 fore the architecture of the different epochs. Such study will 
 prove most beneficial and easy after one has become familiar 
 with the modern architecture, for then comparison will play a 
 great part. This sheet suggests a comparative study of styles : 
 Romanesque, Gothic, and transition. It is because the style is 
 carried not only in the details but also in the masses that this 
 study is possible even through indication as in Figures 2, 5, and 
 8 supplemented' by the details on the right and left. Figure 7 
 details the lowest window of Figure 8, and Figure 9 the highest. 
 These details may be subdetailed at a much larger scale, in cases 
 where absolute accuracy is necessary. As it is, the difference of 
 treatment in the three arches, Romanesque, Gothic and Renais- 
 sance, can easily be seen. 
 
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 PLATE XXVn 
 
BEGINNINGS OF DESIGN AND OF RESEARCH. 
 CHARACTER IN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 The student can see here how without any detail whatsoever 
 character can be imparted to an elevation. The nine sketches 
 represent nine different studies of the same front with only one 
 change, Figure 8, where the windows of the third story are 
 changed to arches resting on double columns forming a loggia. 
 By as many sketches so many different characters are obtained 
 by very simple means: now it is due to the prevalence of the 
 horizontal line and then to the vertical, here we use columns 
 on top and there at the bottom, each time the study differs. 
 How many more ways of studying this elevation there are it 
 is useless to dwell upon, particularly if we take into account 
 the introduction of the change in the material. This plate 
 suffices to demonstrate the great advantage to be derived from 
 sketching in the drafting room as well as in the reference 
 library. 
 
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A FEW TYPES OF ELEVATIONS AND THEIR 
 DIAGRAMMATIC EXPRESSIONS 
 
 Regularity and symmetry in comparatively small buildings 
 are in themselves attractive in architecture, particularly when 
 the units, — colonnade, arcade, or equally spaced windows, etc, 
 — ^are chosen in keeping with the program of the structure. 
 In such cases there is hardly need for any accent or emphasis, 
 or feature. But there are cases where one, two or more features 
 are in keeping. This sheet shows examples of four cases ap- 
 plied to public buildings and to residences. In the left column 
 are indicated the various diagrams. 
 
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 PLATE XXIX 
 
ONE FEATURE ELEVATIONS. 
 
 DIAGRAM II OF PRECEDING PLATE APPLIED 
 
 TO VARIOUS STRUCTURES 
 
 The six examples of one feature elevations are enough to 
 let every one understand the possibilities when change in the 
 proportions is introduced. In each case there is a particular 
 reason to emphasize a certain point ; but as the program and ob- 
 jects of the structures are different from one another, so will 
 be the forms and proportions of the features used. 
 
 The examples selected in this plate are:- 
 
 (i) The "Monnaie" (or Mint) in Paris, by Gabriel. 
 
 (2) The Ecole Militaire,' Paris, by Gabriel. 
 
 (3) The Belfry, Bruges, Belgium. 
 
 (4) The Trinity Church, Paris. 
 
 (5) The Court House, Havre, France. 
 
 (6) The rear elevation of the White House, Washington, D. C. 
 
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 PLATE XXX 
 
TWO FEATURE ELEVATIONS. 
 
 DIAGRAM III OF PLATE XXIX APPLIED TO 
 
 STRUCTURES OF DIFFERENT 
 
 CHARACTERS 
 
 In this case the result of having two end features is to attract 
 the attention the more to the centre which ought to be in con- 
 sequence even more attractive than the features themselves. 
 Here, again, the program and the proportions foster variety in 
 the expressions. 
 
 Notice the deep shadows in every example as a proof of the 
 foregoing statement. In Figure i the centre is a loggia, in 
 Figure 2 a series of very wide windows. In Notre-Dame (Fig- 
 ure 3) the main entrance and the tracery accentuate the centre 
 enough to attract the eye in spite of the overpowering towers 
 so closely placed. 
 
 The examples selected on this plate are: 
 
 ( 1 ) The "Garde-meubles," Paris, by Gabriel. 
 
 (2) Museum of Natural History, Paris, by Andre. 
 
 (3) Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris. 
 
 (4) Court elevation (fragment) of the Villa Medici, Rome. 
 
 ( ly) "Gare d'Orsay," railroad station opposite the Louvre, Paris. 
 (6) Theatre of Monaco, by Ch. Gamier. 
 
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THREE FEATURE ELEVATIONS. 
 DIAGRAM IV OF PLATE XXIX APPLIED TO 
 STRUCTURES OF DIFFERENT CON- 
 TOURS AND CHARACTER 
 
 In this case, while the centre is the most important part and 
 is given proper emphasis, the end features enhance it by some 
 contrast. For instance in the elevation of the Louvre, Paris, 
 (Figure i) the central feature is crowned with a pediment, 
 while the sides are flat. The number of features increases the 
 impression of richness in public buildings, and it also adds in- 
 terest to private structures without additional cost if the plan 
 is properly designed. Expression does not always need an 
 elaborate display. Rusticity is in itself often a very attractive 
 expression (see some parts of Fontainebleau palace) . 
 
 The examples represented on this plate are: 
 
 (i) The Louvre, main facade, Paris. 
 
 (2) The New York Public Library. 
 
 (3) The City Hall, New York. 
 
 (4) The "Chateau de Maisons," near Paris, by Mansart. 
 
 (5) The "Institut" or "Academie Franqaise," Paris. 
 
 (6) The cathedral of Nancy, France, 
 
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 -4- 
 
COMPOUND FEATURES 
 
 These occur in general in architectural compositions con- 
 ceived on a large scale such as the palace of the Louvre and 
 other royal residences. The solution is ideal when the feature 
 could not exist as a unit by itself, which might be the case with 
 Figures i and 2, but like 3 and 4 which are decidedly features 
 and nothing else. Compare other large compositions in the 
 same light, and draw them — at least their general masses — 
 from memory. See also compositions with more than three 
 features. 
 
 The examples selected in this plate are : 
 
 (1) The "Hotel de Ville" (city hall) of Paris. 
 
 (2) One of the main gates of the Palais du Louvre, Paris. 
 
 (3) A competition for the Prix de Rome, by Duquesne. 
 
 (4) An interior compound feature of the Palais du Louvre, Paris. 
 
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 PLATE XXXIII 
 
PLANNING PRINCIPLES FROM THE MERE EN- 
 CLOSED SPACE, OR ROOM, TO THE COURT 
 SURROUNDED WITH A DOUBLE 
 ROW OF ROOMS 
 
 This is a mechanical arrangement. See in the classic plans 
 applications of this plain scheme to monumental compositions. 
 The importance of exercises suggested by this plate is to get 
 used to the simplicity of the diagrammatic indication of each 
 sort of composition, taking different items of a plan in a group, 
 which is the only way of composing with art. 
 
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 PLATE XXXIV 
 
T-SHAPED PLANS IN DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS 
 
 Figures i, 2 and 3 are more or less mechanical. Figures 4 
 and 5 are more architectural, rather more monumental. Ob- 
 serve the simplicity of the diagrams which could be further sim- 
 plified when using a still smaller scale. 
 
 This shape of plan is often used, when space allows it, for the 
 composition of a plan requiring three distinct parts to which 
 access must be had from a central lobby or vestibule. 
 
 Its applications in executed works and in school composi- 
 tions are numerous. It is interesting to study these different 
 applications in their variety. 
 
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 PLATE XXXV 
 
T-SHAPED PLANS (CONTINUED) 
 
 Continuing the T-shaped plans we see the application of the 
 T to various monumental compositions. It should fit the pro- 
 gram and one should not try to force it on the program for 
 then the composition loses all its character. In Figure 4 the 
 branches of the T are constituted by courts coming together in 
 a central court. This type of plan is quite often met with. In 
 each case it requires a special study. The two branches of 
 Figure 3 are semicircular just to show other possibilities in sUch 
 a type of plan. In this figure every thing differs from the rest ; 
 elements and expression. Only the diagram, a T, remains the 
 same. 
 
 In some large hotels such courts are transformed into conser- 
 vatories by covering them with a skylight. In large public 
 buildings the same courts are made available as working space 
 on the ground floor through the same device (Post Office, 
 Buffalo, and several well planned department stores, the Cus- 
 tom House, New York, etc.). 
 
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 PLATE XXXVI 
 
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STUDY OF PLAN UNITS 
 
 Architectural effects are obtained frequently through the use 
 of different units in the composition. These units are at most 
 times dictated by necessity. A mere gallery, Figure 2, will be 
 composed of square elements, Figure 1, while a vast loggia. 
 Figure 5, will be composed of oblong elements like Figure 4, 
 which implies two measure units. Figure 8 shows the first com- 
 bination of both and, Figure 9, the character obtained in section 
 where the small element enhances the effect of the big one. 
 The turning points in circulations are always important. 
 Figure 1 1 shows one of the simplest solutions. Study Palazzo 
 Farnesi and different inspirations from it on various classic 
 plans the better to learn how to derive inspiration without 
 servilely copying a feature, and to see how to adapt a principle 
 to a different case. Turning points may affect different forms. 
 Easy circulation is the first aim. This is taken advantage of to 
 make it a feature. 
 
 References : M. P. Gautier — Edifices de Genes ; Letarouilly — Edifices de Rome 
 Moderne; Blondel — Cours d' Architecture. 
 

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 PLATE XXXVII 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLASSIC PLANS OF ANTIQUITY 
 
 This teaches analysis of a comparatively elaborate plan. 
 The Thermae of Caracalla — Roman public baths — are here 
 shown in the different stages of development. 
 
 The two squares correspond to the two sexes, the plan being 
 thus conceived in a very compact way. Figure 5 shows the 
 different items grouped in such a way that access is easy to every 
 part. Space and light abound. Figure 6 shows the part of the 
 plan in which a monumental display occurs more particularly, 
 the part common to all bathers, where special performances took 
 place and therefore architectural setting was in keeping. Ob- 
 serve the scale. Compare the central feature to other parts of 
 the plan. Refer to Canina the Italian author, Palladio and 
 other authors, and read text the better to appreciate the quali- 
 ties of this plan. Compare with other thermae of different em-' 
 perors. See the application of such a central feature in modern 
 structures abroad and at home (Pennsylvania R. R. Station, 
 N. Y. C). 
 
 References : Gaillabaud — Traite d'Architecture ; Leonce Reynaud — Traite d'Archi- 
 tecture ; Palladio^ — ^Plan Compositions ; Canina — Old Edifices of Rome ; D'Espouy — 
 Envois de Rome ; Guadet — Volume I. 
 
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 PLATE XXXVIII 
 
PLAN ANALYSIS OF MODERN STRUCTURES. 
 THE PARIS OPERA HOUSE 
 
 The process of analysis followed in the preceding plate was 
 applied here to a modern building: the Opera House of Paris. 
 What makes its merit is the simplicity and the grandeur of its 
 conception. It is also sketched with the intention of showing 
 the student how to group together items of the same nature, 
 or belonging to one class; this for the purpose of clearness. 
 Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the different steps of the sketch 
 and Figure 7 the way of expressing variety in the architectural 
 development of the different parts through the thicknesses of 
 the walls which requires, as stated in the text, a delicate touch 
 of the hand when using either the pen or the pencil. 
 
 References: Gamier — L'Opera de Paris; Guadet — Volume II. 
 
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 PLATE XXXIX 
 
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ANALYSIS OF MODERN STRUCTURES. 
 THE PARIS OPERA HOUSE (CONTINUED) 
 
 One cannot say he knows anything thoroughly until he has thoroughly 
 analyzed it. To the architect the sketch is the best means of analysis. 
 If there is in modern times a structure worth time and painstaking to be 
 analyzed it is the Opera-House of Paris. To understand its merits one 
 must not only admire the beautiful proportions, the infinite variety in 
 the unity of its sculpture, but make a comparative study of theatres. It 
 is only when the student realizes the problem confronting the architect 
 that he will comprehend what architecture is. Only then will he appre- 
 ciate the struggle between art and the material need. Here the height 
 of the stage was the architect's problem on account of scenery require- 
 ments. He had to submit to this condition. Not only did Garnier do 
 so but he turned the difficulty into an advantage. This high pediment 
 of the stage roof against which the dome crowning the auditorium stands 
 in relief, useless in a measure, but required by ssthetics (see sketched 
 section Figure 7), forms from the distance the most imposing feature of 
 this splendid composition. It imparts so much dignity to the whole that 
 it constitutes an object lesson in composition. 
 
 For many generations yet to come this structure will serve as a guid- 
 ance to the architect who may have the honor to be taxed with the solv- 
 ing of a novel problem. Not only will the student look at it with pro- 
 found admiration, but the mature man will always look at it as a source 
 of inspiration. In fact it is particularly the experienced artist who can 
 best appreciate the qualities of this masterpiece. Every requisite of the 
 program was provided for, the foyer allowed generous space, and safety 
 was secured by thoroughly cutting the communications between the stage 
 and the auditorium. See what simplicity there is in the proportions 
 of the main front (Figures 3 and 4). The ratios of %, Vs, and % are to 
 be met in this classic piece. It does not follow that one always has to 
 apply these ratios, but it suggests that the nearer we come to simple ratios 
 the better the effect, the more striking. Of course the law of variety re- 
 quires that those proportions, even as man's, should vary somewhat. 
 
 It is well to notice how the first story or base looks like one solid 
 horizontal mass in spite of the doors opened into it, and how much more 
 architectonic and elegant the columns look standing on such a firm mass. 
 
 One might say that one of the best proofs of the good qualities of the 
 composition of this masterpiece lies in the fact that it can be sketched in 
 a few lines. 
 

 FLATE XI 
 
FROM HUT TO MANSION 
 
 The idea of shelter prevailing. When this idea is carried 
 into a residential composition the result will always be an im- 
 pression of rest, most fitting to a house. The winter and the 
 summer resorts may be compared to the attitude of man in those 
 seasons. All shrivelled up in winter, hardly putting his nose 
 out of his hood, and on the contrary all life and freedom in 
 summer, lightly dressed and bare armed, with a broad straw hat 
 casting a protecting shadow over his eyes. The well designed 
 home is the image of life in the season for which it is built. 
 

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 PLATE XLT 
 
STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN 
 
 PAVILION 
 
 Before architecture developed its modern attainments it 
 passed through different stages and many an attractive feature 
 may be traced to the days when it was intended for aggression 
 or for defensive purposes. Such is the case with the round 
 tower for insfance. Figure i shows it with aggressive galleries 
 right under the room. Figure 2 shows the evolution from the 
 previous form. The tower is still round but no longer battle- 
 mented nor loop-holed. Only the sculptural Or rather archi- 
 tectural character of the tower has been preserved. See the 
 various effects in the distant silhouettes. 
 
 Reference; Sauvageot — Chateaux- de France. 
 
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 PLATE XLII 
 
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 STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN 
 PAVILION (CONTINUED) 
 
 The tower continues to evolve. From round it became 
 square, this shape being more habitable. Its massiveness and 
 the comparatively rare windows still impart to it an air of 
 distrust. Finally the tower becomes a mere pavilion, nothing 
 more than a reminiscence of a tower, a feature (Figure i ) . But 
 the round tower or the square and dominating one as in Figure 
 1, or the mere pavilion as in Figure 2, have in their mass a spe- 
 cial character. Their study is infinite and the tower can impart 
 various expressions to the structure with which it is associated. 
 It is a most architectural feature. The study of its evolution is 
 very instructive, particularly when made in a comparative 
 manner. 
 
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 PLATE XLIII 
 
INDICATION. 
 SUPPLEMENT TO PLATES XX AND XXI. 
 
 Showing the development of forms from the speck appear- 
 ance, as in the vases crowning the top cornice of the round 
 pavilion, to distinct schemes as in Figures i, 4, 7 of sections 
 A, B, C. The plate shows distinctly the different stages and 
 demonstrates the importance of a simple and attractive outline 
 to satisfy the eye in any situation. The forms of vases must 
 vary not alone according to the fanciful need but also accord- 
 ing to their destination and the material and the particular 
 lighting of the place. These considerations add greatly to 
 novelty in art. Diffused lighting requires different architect- 
 ural and decorative solutions from direct lighting. 
 
PLATE XI.IV 
 
INVENTING FORMS 
 
 This plate is aimed to direct the first steps of the student in 
 his creative efforts in analysing the possibilities of variety in 
 the treatment of a simple console of a door, resorting either to 
 vegetation for inspiration or allying natural and geometrical 
 forms, accentuating the various parts of the curves according 
 to the -case, etc. This great variety and many more may all 
 be indicated by a simple touch, a stroke of the' pencil, an accent 
 almost. With such variety in the development of a small in- 
 dication it is readily seen what advantage can be gained from 
 this principle when sketching from a given structure, what 
 changes can be brought in without altering the beauty of the 
 feature, yet bringing in some individual qualities. 
 
 Sections D, E, F, are only variations of the previous sections 
 as applied to balconies and to cornices. 
 
PLATE XLV 
 
ARCHITECTURAL SILHOUETTES 
 
 Architecture differs from painting and engraving in more 
 than one way, as in its possibilities for silhouettes at dusk or 
 in hazy weather. Design is much concerned with this part and 
 its study begins with the importance of the silhouette of a mere 
 Doric column (Figure i) and culminates in the outline of a 
 complex composition. Purely decorative features such as 
 fountains (Figure 8, Fountain of the Innocents, Paris, and 
 Figure 14, a typical Italian fountain) , are particularly studied 
 with the silhouette in view, the more so as the material may 
 be bronze and from the distance the play of shadows and liglits 
 is little to be seen. A mere column with a tripod on its top 
 (Figure 6) has proved a very effective ornament in our mod- 
 ern squa:res, the more so when the composition detaches itself 
 on a sunset sky. Such silhouettes with the light appearing 
 through their elements, as in Figure 6, are very effective par- 
 ticularly in cases like the spires in the cathedral of Burgos, 
 Spain, and other famous examples of the same nature. 
 
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 PLATE XLVI 
 
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ARCHITECTURAL SILHOUETTES 
 (CONTINUED) 
 
 A continuation of the study of silhouettes as applied to mon- 
 umental compositions of every character from the castle to an 
 exhibition palace (Figure 8) — the plate is self explanatory. 
 The variety in study is carried not only in the minute details 
 of a cap or of a door but in the general outline. Majesty in 
 Figure 2, welcome in Figure 5 and grandeur in Figure 8 are 
 conveyed through their respective skvlines. Beginners are 
 urged to apply this manner of analysis to various examples of 
 the same class of buildings and also to the study of the differ- 
 ent classes, as it may lead later on to an easy way of finding the 
 proper scheme fitting a given program. Here the study of pro- 
 portion will be important, for no. detail may be expected to 
 remedy a defect in the effect of the silhouette, which is all grey 
 or almost black. 
 
 The examples selected in this plate are : 
 U. S. Capitol, Washington, D. C Memory sketch. 
 City Hall, New York City. Memory sketch. 
 Grand Palais, Paris. Memory sketch. 
 
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 PLATK XLVII 
 
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ARCHITECTURAL SILHOUETTES. 
 APPLICATION TO VARIOUS TYPES OF ISOLATED 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 It is well to point out that outline is particularly possible in 
 isolated structures such as most public buildings and sometimes 
 private ones. Figure i is an imposing outline fitting the pro- 
 gramme (main library Columbia University). It has some- 
 thing in common with the silhouette of a temple which is very 
 befitting to a library. Other libraries may have similar out- 
 line without necessarily being actual replicas as we have seen 
 in how many ways an accent may be interpreted. The outline 
 bespeaks of the general character of the whole structure. 
 
 The examples selected in this plate are : 
 
 Columbia University Library. Memory sketch. 
 
 Saint Paul, London. Memory sketch. 
 
 Saint Martin's in the Field, London. Memory sketch. 
 
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 PLATE XLVIII 
 
ARCHITECTURAL SILHOUETTES. 
 APPLICATION TO VARIOUS TYPES OF ISOLATED 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 It is well to point out that outline is particularly possible in 
 isolated structures such as most public buildings and sometimes 
 private ones. Figure i is an imposing outline fitting the pro- 
 gramme (main library Columbia University) . It has some- 
 thing in common with the silhouette of a temple which is very 
 befitting to a library. Other libraries may have similar out- 
 line without necessarily being actual replicas as we have seen 
 in how many ways an accent may be interpreted. The outline 
 bespeaks of the general character of the whole structure. 
 
 ERRATUM 
 
 The examples shown on this plate are : 
 
 Columbia University Library. Memory Sketch. 
 
 Typical Roman Temple. 
 
 Typical Mausoleum Composition. 
 
 Chateau Azey-Le-Rideau. Memory Sketch. 
 
 Silhouette of Tours Cathedral. Memory Sketch. 
 These replace the examples originally cited. 
 
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 PLATE XLVIII 
 
INDICATION APPLIED TO THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 PLANNING 
 
 A most important item which may be applied daily to the solution of 
 problems of more than ordinary size. Section A shows the elements of 
 covered space. Assuming the program read and the amount of space 
 required put into a concrete form it may assume either of the forms in- 
 dicated from Figure i to 5". No special rule will be fixed for the solu- 
 tion of a given program but principles are to be followed. Section B 
 shows combinations of court units using some of the typical forms in- 
 dicated in the previous section. Section C to the left shows the regular 
 plan element used, plus the extraordinary element, such as a large hall. 
 From Figures 9 to 1 1 we see various ways of harmoniously locating this 
 element, always letting it become a feature. The student may try some 
 more combinations. Section D shows the combination of three im- 
 portant items, a court on either side and a hall in the centre. Propor- 
 tions of such combinations may vary to the infinite (See Figures 12' 
 and 12"). Section E likewise shows diagrams of plan combinations. 
 Here the problem is: from one main lobby to get to the different parts 
 of the composition in an easy way. (Students desirous of seeing more 
 closely the original of this composition are referred to the photograph 
 of the Grand Prix de Rome of 1895 by Chaussemiche.) The court — 
 a complex element by itself — serves her.e as a unit and is grouped around 
 the main feature containing the large assembly hall. Section F shows 
 a complex problem and a diagram of its circulations. The program is 
 composed of two well defined items: a technical school comprising the 
 study Figure G and the shops Figure H. The whole scheme may be 
 summed up as in Figure h. It simply shows that the shops need to be re- 
 mote from the study and that they need more space for wagons for load- 
 ing and unloading goods, etc. Particular care is taken that the noise 
 should not interfere with the calm required by the section for studies. 
 
 While all the previous items are mere theoretical elements affording 
 convenient possibilities both practical and monumental. Section K shows 
 the application of those elements to a most interesting actual building; 
 the University of Paris. A compact plan embraces several blocks, yet' 
 there is much air and space answering the necessities of the program. 
 It is interesting to note the way the preexisting church has been incor- 
 porated into the whole structure, making the side access a central feature 
 to the main court. (See arrows.) 
 
 References : Guadet — Volume II ; Prix de Rome ; Medailles d'Architecture ; Con- 
 cours Publics ; Handbuch der Architektur. 
 
PLATE XLIX 
 
LOOKING FOR A "PARTI" (SCHEME) 
 
 Having learned to analyze plans in verifying the solution with the 
 program, such as the "Grand Prix de Rome, Medailles de I'Ecole des 
 Beaux Arts" — as far as theoretical teaching is concerned — as well as 
 some practical compositions such as public competitions from here and 
 abroad, the student has his mind matured by degrees for the solution of 
 small architectural problems. This plate shows first of all the possibil- 
 ity of suggesting the most promising elevation by a few strokes of the 
 pencil or pen. Figures i to 4 are various suggestions, such as a little 
 pavilion, a summer house, the Pantheon of Rome and the City Hall of 
 Paris. The very outlines differ from one another. Taking now various 
 city halls, we see them rapidly suggested by their skylines from Figures 
 4 to 10. The student having practiced in this way not only for the 
 plan but also for the elevation, will have kept some of the principles 
 when coming to solve by himself a problem consisting of a little town 
 hall (Section B). The lot is indicated in Figure 15. Having read the 
 program and seen how the various items may be harmoniously grouped 
 together, the student tries in Figure 14 a simple assemblage of the various 
 groups, having also in mind some idea about his desire for the eleva- 
 tion ( Figure 11). Perhaps he will prefer the combination. Figures 1 7 or 
 19 or 20, with possibilites of elevation as in Figures 12, 16, 18 and 21, 
 with sections suggested like Figures 13 and 18. It is interesting to find 
 out that one of the traditional features for such a public building is the 
 little campanile, which is only a remembrance of the belfry. It imme- 
 diately lends to the structure an air of distinction from the private build- 
 ing and also from other piiblic buildings. This campanile or belfry — ac- 
 cording to the size — serves as a feature. Quite often it suffices in itself. 
 At other times it is accompanied by other features to make the whole 
 more conspicuous, like that of Paris, which is so much larger than the 
 regular town hall and which represents the whole Parisian population. 
 
PLATE L 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 Paul Letarouilly : Edifices de Rome Moderne 
 H. Strack: Rome in Photographs 
 Leonce Reynaud: Traite d' Architecture 
 Andrea Palladio: Plan Compositions 
 Cesar Daly; Motifs Historiques 
 M. P. Gautier : Edifices de Genes 
 Baron de Clarac: Museums of Sculpture 
 Guadet: Elements et Theorie de 1' Architecture 
 L. Canina: Old Edifices of Rome 
 D'Espouy: Envois de Rome 
 F. Blondel : Cours d' Architecture 
 J. Gailhabaud : Traite d' Architecture 
 C. Sauvageot : Chateaux de France 
 Schutz : Die Renaissance in Italien 
 Baldus: Louvre 
 
 Gotch & Brown: Architecture of the Renaissance in England 
 Belcher & McCartney: Later Renaissance in England 
 Reinhardt: Photographs of Italian Palaces, Genoa 
 Tuckerman : Renaissance in Italy 
 L. Durand: Precis d' Architecture 
 
 J. Biihlmann: Architecture of Classic Antiquity and of the 
 Renaissance 
 
 Prix de Rome 
 
 Medailles d' Architecture 
 
 Concours Publics 
 
 Handbuch der Architektur 
 
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